VX-; SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS AND OTHER ANIMALS OF IMPORTANCE CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY FROM AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW T. BA1NBRIGGE FLETCHER, r.n., F.L.S., I'.K.S., F.Z.S., Imperial Entomologist to the Government of India (late Government Entomologist, Madras). M A D R A S : PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, GOVERNMENT PR] SS 1 'l 1 I [9 shillings. [Copyright by the Government of Madras, by whom all Rights of Translation and Reproduction are reserved. There is, however, no objection to the reproduction of short extracts or figures in bona fide agricultural, economic or technical publications, provided that their sources are duly acknowledged.] PR I- FACE. H/l;. are assured on excellent authority that "ol the making ' ' of books there is no end," whilst to authors may be commended the equally excellent Arab proverb which says that " hurry is of the devil." It is to be hoped that readers of this book may see the connection between these two saws and duly ascribe to the proper quarter any noticeable short- comings. This volume has, indeed, no pretensions to the assumption o\~ any status as a text-book and does not pretend to do much more than provide a narrow and tortuous entrance into the vast and almost untrodden field of Insect Life in Southern India. In the closing years of the eighteenth century, thanks to the collections made mainly by the Tranquebar missionaries, the insects of Southern India were perhaps better known than those of any other part of Eastern or Southern Asia, but it is remarkable how little work was done in the succeed- - ntury in Madras in comparison with that done in Ceylon, in Northern India, in China, Japan and Malaysia. It is difficult to say why this should be so, but the tact remains that the Insect Fauna of Southern India is now probably less well known than that of the Himalayan Region. Entomology has hitherto been an entirely exotic science in India and collections and observations of Indian Insects have, as a rule, been made only by those ( '.o\ eminent Officials whose tastes lay in that direction and who have looked Oil Entomology as a hobby. During the first half of the nine- teenth century an extensive collection of Lepidoptera was made in the Coimbatore district by Walhouse and towards the end of the century collections (chiefly of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera) were made in the Nilgiris by Sir George Hampson and Messrs. Andrewes, whilst Bolivar described an extensive collection of Orthoptera formed by St. Joseph's iv PREFACE. re at Trichinopoly. It remained for the twentieth century to place the study of entomology on broader and mure si ientific lines by the appointment of official Entomo- ts firstly in Mysore and subsequently in .Madras. In Madras Entomology has been studied, especially from the standpoint of Economic Agricultural Entomology, since 1906, when an Entomological Assistant was appointed to work under Dr. Barber, then Government Botanist, and the number ol Assistant- was subsequently increased to three. at which it remained when I took over the newly-created oi Government Entomologist in April 1 9 1 2. Under ordinal}- circumstances the issue of a book on South Indian Insects would have been deferred for some years pending a more thorough investigation into the lifehistories of those insects ol greater economic importance, but orders for my transfer from Madras led me to overhaul the collections and records formed before and during my tenure of office primarily with the idea of leaving them in order for my successor. The information gathered together proved (un- expectedly) so large as to appear to merit publication, not as a definitive text-book, but as a basis for further work. Hinc Me liber! In the "Indian Crow. His Book," we are told that Prefaces arc cither apologetic or defiant. Well, of course — "There an- some might In- found entertaining .1 notion That such an entire ami exclusive devotion To that part of Si 'logy Really demanded some sort of apol although even such folk might change their views if trans- port* d to India and exposed to the ordinary insect-plagues of everyday life. And no apology is needed for the study of in a country in which thousands arc swept away every yeai by insect-borne diseases and in which seven-tenths of the population are entirely dependent upon their crops whose produce is always lessened ami sometimes wholly destroyed In the ravages of insects. Any apology, therefore, shall not 'Hied with the subject-matter of this book except as PREFACE. V regards the incomplete state in which it is presented and the reason for this has already been explained. Any merits it m.L\ possess consist in its efficacy as a stop-gap until a more complete account can be prepared. The preliminary chapters, giving some general account of the structure, habits, etc., "1 insects and of insect-pests are necessarily brief and incomplete and indeed anj one of th might readily be expanded into a whole volume by itself, whilst the various aspects of Entomology that have been omitted would form a companion series of tomes. In the succeeding and main portion ol the hook some of the more important insects are briefly considered, each being treated under the head of (1) References, (2) Distribu- tion in Southern India, (3) Lifehistory, (4) Foodplants, (5) Status from an economic view-point, and (6) Control. Under the first heading, the synonyms and references, which will generally only appeal to entomologists, are necessarily limited to the original description and the more important or acces- sible references. Under the last heading, only such control- methods are usually given as are generally efficacious, special methods being often applicable to local conditions : in some eases in which no effective method has yet been found, the information under this head is left blank or represented by a " ? . The list of Crop Pests is not complete and it must be clearly understood that it cannot be complete for ver) many years, if ever. Every month new pests come to light, many of them altogether unknown even by name, and our knowledge of old pests is augmented. Many of the commoner species maw it is hoped, be identified !>\ the figures here given and specimens of an) others found as pests should be sent to the Government Entomologist, Coimbatore, for idem if ■, ation and advice. 'Idle w riting of a 1 're face to a book of this nature provides a welcome opportunity for acknowledgment of assistance freely rendered by various helpers. The whole ol the Insect l'ests enumerated in the latter half of this volume were discussed in collaboration with M.R.Ry. T. V. Ramakrishna vi PREFACE. Ayyar, b.a., and M.R.Ry. Y. Ramachandra Rao, m.a., the two Senior Assistants on the staff of the Government Ento- mologist, Madras, and in several cases I have availed myseli iif notes on lifehistories made by them, such notes being distinguished by their initials. Mr. R. D. Anstead, the Planting Expert, kindly sent me a list of the principal pests found in the Planting Districts and several of these have been included on his authority, as I have not seen them myselfin Southern India. Captain W. S. Patton, I. M.S., read over the manuscript of the Chapter on " Insects and 1 )iseasc " and gave the benefit of his criticism on several points, as did Mr. II. C. Sampson with regard to the section on "Agricultural Methods" in the discussion of the control of Insect Pests of Crops. The illustration on the cover was executed by the facile pencil of Mr. R. C. Wood after a rough idea furnished by me. Finally, the book owes its comple- tion and production to the kind encouragement afforded by the Director of Agriculture, the Board of Revenue, and the Government of Madras. A few words arc required with regard to the illustrations. The whole of the coloured plates have been reproduced from original drawings made at the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa ; most of these had been published previously, having been used in Indian Insect Life, Fasaler Poka, the Agricultural Journal of India or in other departmental pub- lications, and it is solely owing to their previous publication that so many coloured plates have been able to be included without unduly increasing the cost of the book. A tew text- figures have been copied from standard publications, their sources being duly acknowledged. All the other illustrations arc original and have been newly prepared under my super- vision from actual specimens of the various insects concerned, many of which have never been figured before. That these original illustrations are not entirely uniform in quality is to be ascribed to the fact that they have been prepared by artists who had no previous experience in making drawings of insects for purposes of reproduction and who have had to be trained in this during the progress o\ the work. PREFACE. vii in any in search of a distraction or a hobby, cither to till an idle hour or to provide a welcome change of thought and occupation, the study of Entomology may well be commended. Insectsare always with us, by day and by night, in the bunga- low, at the office or in camp, and the field for observation ot lifehistories and habits, even ot" the commonest species, is absolutely boundless. If this book lends aid to any whose tastes lie in this direction, its aim will have been achieved. Gratus certe labor, quo scientice nitor magnopere augetur. T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER. CONT E N T S Chapter Preface ... ... List of I'i.ai i.s List oi li kt-I igures ... I. Definition and Structure of Insects II. Classifk ition am' Nomenclature ... III. Metamorphosis... IV. Means oi Defence in Insects V. Communication amongst Insects VI. ["ropisms ... VII. Insects and Plants VIII. Symbiosis and Parasitism IX. The Balance oj Lifi X. Insect Pests XI. The Control oj Insect Pests of Crops : — Agricultural Methods ... Mechanical Methods [nsecticidal Methods Stomach Poisons i ontact Poisons Repellents Spraying Machinery I'm Sei i ct ion oj Sprayers The I Spra\ i rs ... I I M Ml. I HODS ... Appendix oi Weights vnd Measures XII. The Classification of Pests ... MIL Caterpillar Pests oj Crops ... XIV. Grasshoppj rs, Crii kets and Termites XV. Bug Pj XVI. Beetle Pests of Crops . . XVII. Fly Pesi XVIII. Pesi d ] cts \ l \. Hoi si hoi d Pj XX. In-i.< i - and l Disease ... ... XXI. Bj mi iciai Insects ... ... XXII. Useful Insects ... Will. Some other Animals Ii-i oi I rops with iiik Insects which attack EACH ... 17 27 35 47 53 59 65 71 7 I 81 82 88 95 "7 101 i°5 106 1 if. 1 I.S 119 126 128 '3° 1.57 '45 I IM ■57 160 169 177 "M 205 -•' I 240 COME N 1 > - page List ok Allied Foodplants ok Insect Pests 264 somi Soi hi Indian Insects :- 1 tl IEN IP! ERA 274 COLEOPTERA ... 281 DlPTERA 346 SlPHON'AI'TERA 3r>5 Lepidoptera 367 Neuroptera 469 Rhvnchota ... 469 Anoplura ... 521 Orthoptera 524 Dermaptera 539 ISOPTERA 539 Thysanopiera 542 Tkysanura ... 543 Arachnida ... 544 Index 547 LIST OF PLATES. OPPOSITE PAGE I. Household and Granary Pests ... ... ... 160 II. l'ests of Crueifera; ... ... ... ... ... 243 III. Oryctes rhinoceros ... ... ... ... ... 285 IV. Anomala varians ... ... ... ... ... 287 V. Coccinella septempunctata ... ... ... ... 291 VI. Epilachna Beetles ... ... ... ... ... 292 VII. Lasioderma serrkome ... ... ... ... ... 295 VIII. Sphenoptera gossypii ... ... ... ... ... 298 IX. Phidodonta modesta ... ... ... ... . . 315 X. Hispa armigera (oenescens) ... ... ... ... 315 XI. Apomecyna pertigera ... ... ... ... ... 327 XII. Cylas formicarius ... ... ... ... ... 335 Mil. Calandra ot 34i XIV. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus ... ... ... ... 343 XV. Syiphid Fly 35S XVI. Dacus cucurbiia ... ... ... ... ... 354 XVII. Amsacta albistriga ... ... ... ... ... 369 XVIII. Cirphis unipuncta ... ... ... ... ... 376 XIX. Prodenia litura ... ... ... ... ... ... 377 XX. Spodopkra mauritia ... ... ... ... ... 378 XXI. Sesamia inferens ... ... ... ... ... ;;., XXII. Earias msulana... ... ... ... ... ... 3.S4 XXIII. Eariasfabia 3S5 XXIV. Acherontia styx ... ... ... ... ... ... 402 XXV. Papilio demoleus ... ... ... ... ... 412 XXVI. Catochrysops cnejus ... ... ... ... ... 414 XXVII. Parnara mathias ... ... ... ... ... \\~ \\\ 1 1 1 Gallerla me Hone II* 121 XXIX. Schanobius bipiinetifer ... ... ... ... ... 426 XXX. Pests of Brinjal ... ... ... ... ... ... 42S XXXI. Phycita injusella 42S XXXII. Nymphula depunctalis ... ... ... ... ... 430 XXXIII. Marasmia irapezalis ... ... ... ... ... 432 XXXIV. Dichoerocis pit nc/i/er alt's ... ... ... ... 135 XXXV. Sylepla derogata ... ... ... ... ... 434 XXXVI. Maruca testulalis ... ... ... ... ... 440 XXXVII. Anligaslra catalattnalis ... ... ... ... 441 XXXVIII. Exelastis alomosa ... ... ... ... ... 444 XXXIX. Ettce/is erilica ... ... ... ... ... ... 450 XL. Laspeyresia tricentra ... ... ... ... ... 451 XI.I. Arbela tetraonis ... ... ... ... ... 453 \1.1I. Geleehia gossypiella ... ... ... ... ... 454 LIST OK PLATES. OPPOSITE PACiE X I.I 11. Gnorimoschema heliopa... 454 XLIV. Phthorimaa operculella 455 \I.Y. Chrpopa... 469 \l.\ 1. Dysdercus cingulalus 484 \1.\ 11. J'syll.i is it is J98 CL\ III. Colemania spkenarioides 5^7 XLIX. Chrotogonus 528 L. Rice (Hieroglyphus) ... S3' LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. '3- 14. 16. 17- 18. 19. 23- 24. 25- 26. 27- 28. 29. JO. 3'- 32- 33- 34- 35- $6. 37- 3?. 39- 40. 41. Batocera rubus, Simple Anatomy Principal anatomical features of an adult Insect Mouthparts of an Orthopterous Insect Do. a Hymenopterous Insect Do. a Lepidopterous Insect Antenna; of Insects Eyi s of Insects Legs of Insects Stenodktya lobata, a Carboniferous Insect ... Young Termite with prothoracic wings Diagram of a generalized type of wing Wings of Orneodes niicr<>sa>p:ca Wing of Brodia priscotincta, a fossil Xeuropteroid Diagram illustrating supposed Phylogeny of Hexapods A lepidopterous pupa (Orneodes) A hymenopterous pupa (Eumenes) Cantao ocellatus brooding over her eggs Saihrophyllia rugosa ... Perispharia Mimetic resemblance of Ceria to Eumenes Virachola isocrates in resting attitude Larvae of Taragama siva on tree-trunk Section of Head of Reduviid Bug Sting of Honey-Bee ... Cassid larva (Aspidomorpha sancta-crucis) Hindwing of male of Njetipao hkrogljphica Diagram showing Tropic; Reactions ... Herse convolvuli feeding at Bower Section of fly-attracting Aristolochla flower Head of Hawkmoth with l'ollinia attached Ant-attracting gland of Acacia sundra Fungus growing from Termite Comb pa with Mites in abdominal cavity Graphic Curves showing increase and decrease of H"st an Parasite Bad Cultivation Hand-Net Hand- Net in use Bag-Net Bag-Net in use Light-Trap Applying powdered insecticides with cloth bags 18 19 3° 32 34 35 36 37 40 43 44 44 45 48 54 61 62 62 63 64 67 69 83 89 90 90 9' 93 106 LIST OF TEXT-FIGrRES. Spraying Syringe 1 1". uon I pump ... I»«>. in use Gould's Knapsack Sprayer I •". in use Barrel Pump ... I lo. in action •• Autospray " in parts I in. in use ... "Holder" Pressure Sprayers ... I lo. Sprayer in use .. " Universal" Ant Exterminator 1 >o. do. in use •• Squire " do. Hainan Trees stripped by caterpillars of Hypsa funs Ailanthus excelsa do. Eligma Caterpillar of Acherontia Injection Syringe for wood-borers " Rumbli-puchis '" ( Amsacta albittriga) Chrotogonus * of a Termite ... Odontotermes obesus, soldier ... Mud easing deposited on tree by Termites [lice-bug Gogu Plants attacked l>y beetles Nilgiri Cockchafers Oryctes rhinoceros boring into sugarcane Palm beetles ... Mylabris indica Protective device against toddy-Hies ... Ephestia kuchniella Common Indian House-Cockroach (Periplanetaanu Damage by Fish-insects A < !ai pet B ■• tie i/a Resting-attitude of Anopheline Mosquito Do. Culicini do. Life-cycle of Malaria-parasite Dragonflies Enmenes conica \i« mid larva stored by Enmenes Asilid fly Larval Cases of Eublemma SCllula of Diatrtea ... Do. Aproarema nerteria Xanthopimpla pedator ( 'hali id Parasite (Eretmocen s) ol Castor Aleurodid LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. XV 90. Proctotrypid parasite of Tettigoniella ... ... ... 203 91. Mulberry Silkworm ... ... ... ... ... ... 206 1)2. Eri do. ... ... ... ... ... ... 207 93. Tasar do. ... ... ... ... ... ... 208 94. Where Apis dorsata builds its comb ... ... ... 209 95. Beehive ... ... ... ... ... ... ... -mi 96. Gerbille (Tatera indica) 215 97. Coconut palms protected against rats ... ... ... 217 98. Sugarcane gnawed b) jackals ... ... ... ... 220 99. Drongo or King-Crow (Dicrunis ater) ... ... ... 223 00. Mynah (Acridotheres fristis) ... ... ... ... ... 224 01. Golden Woodpecker (Brachyplemus aurantius) ... ... 225 02. Little Owlet (Athene drama) ... ... ... ... ... .'-''1 03. Grey-necked Crow (Corvus splendlhs) ... ... ... 227 04. Crows following harrow ... ... ... ... ... 22S 05. Parroquet (Palaornis torquatus) 06. Key to Poisonous Snakes ... ... ... ... ... 231 07. Russell's Viper (Viptta russellii) ... ... ... ... 234 08. Cacopus sy stoma ... ... ... ... ... ... 235 09. A mosquito-eating Fish (Haplochilus lineatus) ... ... 236 10. Eel worms ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 238 11. Dory/us oriental Is ... ... ... ... ... ... 274 12. Solenopsis gemhiata ... ... ... ... ... ... 274 13. Monomorium gracillimum ... ... ... ... ... 275 14. CEcophylla smaragdina ... ... ... ••• ... 276 15. Silk Webbing spun by CEcophylla larvae ... ... ... 276 16. Catnponotus comprcssus... ... ... ... ... ... 277 17. Apis dorsata ... ... ... ■•■ ••• 278 18. Apis indica ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 27S 19. Apis florea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 279 20. Oxy belli s squamosa s ... ... ... ■•• •-• ■■• 2 So ix. Heliocopris bucephalus ... ... ... ... ... ... 281 22. Anatona stillata ... ... ... ... ... ... 282 23. Oxycetonia versicolor ... ... ... ••■ ••■ ••• 2S ; 24. Chiloloba acuta... ... ... ... ... ... ... 184 J5. Adoretus langalorensis... ... ... ... ... ... 186 26. Do. caliginosus bi color ... 27. Do. ovalis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2S7 28. Carpophtlus dimidiatus ... ... ... ... ... 288 29. Tenebroides mauritanicus 30. Silvanus surinamensis ... ... ... ... ■■• •■• 200 31. Fatua longicornis, male ... ... ■■• ••• ■•• 290 32. Do. female ... ... ... ... • 200 53. Calophora sp. ... ... ... ... ••■ ••• 191 34. Dermestes vulpinus 35. Do. sp 293 36. Sinoxylon sudanicum ... 37. Rhizopertha dominica ... ... •■• ••• •■• ■•• 294 D xvi LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. PAGE 13K. Sitodrepa panicea ... ... ... ... ... ... 295 139. Necrobia rufipcs ... ... ... ... ... ... 296 140. Psilopiera fastuosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 297 141. Sphenoptera arachidis, larva and pupa ... ... ... 298 142. />(>. do. adult ... ... ... ... ... 298 1 i;. Gonocephalum hoftmannseggi ... ... ... ... ... 299 1 1 (. Tribolium castaneum ... ... ... ... ... ... 300 145. Cossyphus depressus ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 146. Rhytinota impolita ... ... ... ... ... ... 301 147. Gnathospastoides rouxi... ... ... ... ... ... 302 14.S. Lytta tenuicollis ... ... ... ... ... ... 303 149. Zonabrls puitulata ... ... ... ... ... ... 303 150. Zonabris sp., larva ... ... ... ... ... ... 304 151. Do. coarctate larva ... ... ... ... ... 304 152. Do. adult ... ... ... ... ... ... 304 153. Cantharis ruficollis ... ... ... ... ... ... 305 154. Epicauta sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 306 155. Pachymerus chinensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 306 15^. Bruchus theobroma ... ... ... ... ... ... 308 157. Caryoborus gonagra ... ... ... ... ... ... 30N 158. Scelodonla strigicollis ... ... ... ... ... ... 309 159. Monolepta signata ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 160. Nisotra madurensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 161. Aulacophora abdominalis ... ... ... ... ... 311 162. Do. atripennis ... ... ... ... ... 312 163. On. stevensi ... ... ... ... ... ... 312 164. Oides iilfiiiis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 313 165. Leptispa pygmaa ... ... ... ... ... ... 314 166. Hispella ramosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 315 167. Platypria hystrix ... ... ... ... ... ... 316 168. Aspidotnorpha miliaris . , . ... ... ... ... ... 317 169. Coptocycla sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... 317 170. Afetriona sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 318 171. Dorysthenes rostratus ... ... ... ... ... ... 3i«s 17.'. Priotyrannus mordax ... ... ... ... ... ... 319 173. Acanthophorus serraticornis ... ... ... ... ... 320 1 7 4. Xystrocera globosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 17;. Stromatium barbatum ... ... ... ... ... ... 321 i;(,. Veocerambyx part's ... ... ... ... ... ... 322 177. Chloridolum alcmene ... ... ... ... ... ... 323 175. Xylotrechus quadripes ... ... ... ... ... ... 323 179. Batocera rubus ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 180. Ccelostema spina lor ... ... ... ... ... ... 325 181. Ccelostema scabrator ... ... ... ... ... ... 326 182. Sthenias grisator ... ... ... ... ... ... 32^' 183. Stibara sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... 327 184. Episomus laeerta ... ... ... ... ... ... 327 1S5. Ceuthorrhynchus asperulus ... ... ... ... ... 32^ LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. 186. Eugnamptus marginatum ... ... ... ... ... 329 187. Do. do. ovipositing in Mango-leaf ... 330 188. Jute Apion ... ... 331 189. Lixus brack? rh in its ... ... ... ... ... ... 331 1 90. Paramecops farinosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 332 Tiii. I tactogaster fin it in: us ... [92. Mango Leaf-boring Weevil ... ... ... ... ... 334 193. Apoderus tranquebaritus ... ... ... ... ... 335 rreen ( Irani Weevil 11)5. Aleides collaris ... 196. Do. bubo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 337 197. Do. leopardus ... ... ... ... ... ... 338 [98. Pempheres affinis ... ... ... ... ... ... 339 199. Cotton plant attacked by Stem-Weevil 340 200. Cryptorhynchus mangifera ... ... ... ... ... 341 201. Cosmopolites sordidus ... ... ... ... ... ... 342 202. Orychodes indus ... ... ... ... ... ... 344 203. Cardamom Scolytid ... ... ... ... ... ... 344 204. Xylcborus fornicatus ... ... ... ... ... ... 345 205. Hippobosca maculata ... ... ... ... ... ... 346 206. Do. capensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 347 207. CEstrus ovis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 548 208. Pycnosotna ftaviceps ... ... ... ... ... ... 349 209. Musca nebulo ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 350 210. Do. paltoni ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 351 2H. Philamatomyia ins ... ... ... ... ... 352 212. Stomoxys calci trans ... ... ... ... ... ... 353 213. Ca/obatasp. ... ... 355 214. Siphonella funicola ... ... ... ... ... ... 355 215. Cholam Fly ... ... ... 356 216. Red Gram Agromyza ... ... ... ... ... ... 357 217. Cow-pea do. ... 358 21S. Tab anus stria tus ... ... ... ... ... ... 359 219. Do. do. egg mass ... ... 359 220. Pangonia sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 360 221. Culex fatigans ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 361 222. Phlebotomus minutus ... ... ... ... ... ... 362 223. Contarinia sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 363 224. Gingelly Gall-fly 364 225. Gingelly capsules damaged bj Gall-fly ... ... ... 364 226. Echidnophaga gallinaceus ... ... ... ... ... 3r'S 227. Xenopsylla cheopis ... ... ... ... ... ... 366 228. Ctenocephalus felis ... ... ... ... ... ... 367 229. Asura confer ta ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^7 230. Estigmene lactinea ... ... ... ... ... ... 3*^ 231. Creatonotus gangis ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^9 232. Pericallia ricini ... ... ... ... ... ... 37° 233. Utetheisa pulchella ... ... ... ... ... ... 371 LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. PAGE Egocera venulia ... ... ... ... ... ... 372 235. Chloridea obsoleta ... ... ... ... ... ... 373 236. Do. assulta 374 237. Euxoasegetis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 575 238. Polytela gloriosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 375 239. Perigea capensis ... ... ... ... ... ... \~~ 2.)o. Laphygma exigua ... ... ... ... ... ... 379 241. Eublemma olivacea ... ... ... ... ... ... ,vs° 242. Do. scittila ... ... ... ... ... ... VSl 243. Tarache nitidula ... ... ... ... ... ... 3s 2 244. Do. opalinoides ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^2 245. Bomboielia jocosatrix ... ... ... ... ... ... .vs^ 246. Brinjal Sarrothripine ... ... ... ... ... ... 383 247. Eligma narcissus ... ... ... ... ... ... 384 248. Do. do. larva ... ... ... ... ... (84 249. Acontia grallsl ... ... ... ... ... ... 3XS 250. Achcta melicerta ... ... ... ... ... ... 386 251. Grammodes stolida ... ... ... ... ... ... 3^7 252. Rtmigia undata (arehesia) ... ... ... ... ... 388 253. Do. frugal is ... ... ... ... ... ... 388 254. Azazia rubricans ... ... ... ... ... ... 389 255. Hotnoptera glaucinans ... .. ... ... ... ... 39° 256. Costnophila sabuli/era ... ... ... ... ... ... .V)° 257. Do. erosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 391 25S. ffybleea puera ... ... ... ... ... ... 392 259. /'///sin signata ... ... ... ... ... ... 593 260. Do. orickalcea ... ... ... ... ... ... 593 261. Do. peponis (agramma) ... ... ... ... ... 394 2(12. Simplicia robustalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 395 263. Orgyia postica ... ... ... ... ... ... 3(>5 264. Olene mendosa ... ... ... ... ... ... 396 265. Psalis securis ... ... ... ... ... ... 397 266. Euproctis fratertia, larva ... ... ... ... ... 398 267. Do. do. moth ... ... ... ... ... 398 268. Do. scintillans 599 269. Hypsaficus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°° 270. Argina cribraria ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°l 271. Do. syringa ... ... ... ... ... -t01 272. Herse convolvtih ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°2 273. Deilephila ncrii. larva and pupa ... ... ... ... 103 274. Do. do. moth ... ... ... ... ... 4°4 275. Eupterott mollijera ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°4 276. Actios selene ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°5 277. Cricttla trifenestrata ... ... ... ... ... ... 406 278. Ocinara varians ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°7 279. Stauropus allerttus, larva ... ... ... ... ... 408 2.S0. Do. do. moth 4°8 281. Biston siippresstiria ... ... ... ... ... ... 4°9 LIST OK TEXT-FIGURES. XIX PAGE 282. Metanastria hyrtaca ... ... ... ... ... ... 4to 283. Parasa lepida, larva ... ... ... ... ... ... 4" 284. Do. do. moth 41 1 285. Altha nt'vea ... ... ... ... 41* 286. Catopsilia pyranthe 413 287. Terias hecabe ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 414 288. Polyommatus botticus ... ... ... ... ... ... 4'S 289. Virachola isocrates ... ... ... ... ... ... 4*6 290. Gangara thyrsis, larva ... ... ... ... ... 1 J 7 291. Do. butterfly ... ... ... ... ... 1 1 7 292. Parnara colaca ... .. ... ... ... ... 41° 293. Suastus gremius ... ... ... ... ... ... P'i 294. Telicota augias ... ... ... ... ... ... 4'9 295. Udaspes folus ... 420 296. Stenachroia elongella ... ... ... ... ... ... 421 297. Galleria mellonella, larval webbing over bees' comb ... 421 298. Diatrcea sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4-- 299. Chilo simplex, larva ... ... ... ... ... ... 423 ^oo. Do. eggs, pupa and moth ... ... ... ... I.23 301. Ancylolomia chrysographella ... ... ... ... ... 424 ',02. Scirpophaga auriflua ... ... ... ... ... ... 1-5 ;o'v Do. monostigma ... ... ... ... ... 426 304. Saluria inficita ... ... ... ... ... ... t-'7 305. Etui la zincki tit- 1 lit ... ... ... ... ... ... \-'i 7,o'u Macalla moncusaUs ... ... ... ... ... ... 43° 307. Hymenia fascialis ... ... ... ... ... ... 431 308. Cnaphalocrocis medinalis ... ... ... ... ... 43 2 309. Nacoleia indkata ... ... ... ... ... ... 434 310. Do. ... 434 311. Glyphodes casalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 435 312. Do. in dun 313. Crocidolomia bino talis ... ... ... ... ... -\\~ 314. Hellula undalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 4.vs 315. Terastia meticulosalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 439 316. Omphisa anastomosalis ... ... ... ... ... 439 317. Pachyzancla agrota/is ... ... ... ... ... ... 440 318. Noorda bhteahs ... ... ... ... ... ... 441 319. Pyrausta macharalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 442 320. Sphenarches caffer ... ... ... ... ... ... 443 321. Platyptilia pusillidactyla ... ... ... ... ... in 322. Pterophorus lienigianus ... ... ... ... ... 445 323. Zeuzera coffea ... ... ... ... ... ... ... j.46 \2.\. Azygophleps scalar is ... ... ... ... ... ... 447 325. Clania crameri ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 448 \2<<. Heterusia rirescens ... ... ... ... ... ... 449 327. Argyroploce illepida ... ... ... ... ... ... 449 328. Laspeyresia koenigana ... ... ... ... ... ... 450 329. Do. torodelta ... ... ... ... ... ... 451 xx LIST OF TEXT-FIGURES. PACE ; ;o. Hotnona coffearia ... ... ... ... ... ... 452 ;;i. Sitotroga cerealella ... ... ... ... ... ... 456 ;-,2. Dichomeris ianthes ... ... ... ... ... ... 45^ J33. Aproarema nerteria ... ... ... ... ... ... 457 134. Pyroderces coriacella ... ... ... ... ... ... 458 535. Tunica zizyphi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15'1 ;;i,. Nephantis serinopa ... ... ... ... ... ... 46° 537. Eretmocera impactella ... ... ... ... ... ... 461 riil?,. Atteva fabriciella ... ... ... ... ... ... t'1-" 139 Phy codes radiata ... ... ... ... ... ... i''i VTO. Plutella maculipennis ... ... ... ... ... ... 4^4 J41. Phyllocnistis ctirella ... ... ... ... ... ... 465 542. Tinea pachyspila ... ... ... ... ... ... 466 343. Trichophaga tapetzella ... ... ... ... ... \h7 144. Phassus malabar'uus ... ... ... ... ... ... l''^ 345 . Coplosoma crlbraria ... ... ... ... ... • • ■ 469 346. Capptea taprobanensis ... ... ... ... ... ... 47° • 47. Dolycoris indicus ... ... ... ... ... ... 47° 348. Eusarcocoris gutiiger 47' 34<). Do. ventralis ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 r 350. Antestia cruciata ... ... ... ... ... ... 472 ^51. Agonoscelis nubila ... ... ... ... ... ... 472 352. Nezara viridula ... ... ... ... ... ... 473 353. Piezodorus rubrofastiatus ... ... ... ... ... 474 ',54. Menida lii-■ Oregma bambusa ... ... ... ... ... ... 504 393. Coconut Aphis ... ... ... ... ... ... 506 ;n(. Aleurodes bergi ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 507 395. Cerotoccus hibisci ... ... ... ... ... ... 508 396. Dactylopius ciin ... ... ... ... ... ... 509 397. Do. niptisif> 534 428. Gryllotalpa africana ... 535 429. (Ecanthus indicus 535 4 ^o. Braehytrypes portentosus 536 431. Liogryllus bimaculaius ... 537 (.32. Periplaneia australasia. 537 433. Blattella gtrmanica 53* t ;, |. .\W- 542 4^8. Ctenolepisma sp. 543 j ;.i. Tetranyckus bioculalus . . . 544 440. Phytopttu carinaius 545 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS AND OTHER ANIMALS OF IMPORTANCE CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY FROM AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW. Chapter I. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF INSECTS ■■ And what "i insects, present everywhere, I hrough sea and land, and iliuing in ihe ait ■ Why, half the matter charged with life on land little creatures, countless, must command. Sec how in orders, legions filled, the) rise. Living alone, and in communities; II as scarce t" meet ihe eye, To ant. ami Ijcc. and gorgeous butterfly." KNIPE — Nebula to Man. IN its original meaning the word "animal" signified a breathing being, but a more modern and exact definition would state that an animal is an organism which is able to move and which can assimi- late food which must contain proteids. This definition is nut exact because then- are some plants winch can do both of these things ; a familiar example is to be found commonly in marshy places in the Hills (as at Ootacamund) in the shape of the Sundew (Drosera), a true plant which captures insects, moves its tentacles into contact with them and assimilates the proteids contained in their bodies. There is in fact no rigid demarcation between animals and plants, and very lowly organisms occur which may be referred with equal propriety to either class ; but the point need not be laboured here, because in popular language the ideas of animals and plants are sufficiently distinct. Animals are divided into many races, or Phyla. The Protozoa, or animals consisting of only a single cell, form the least special- ized "I these phyla and are usually microscopic in si/.e ; the organism which causes malaria may be quoted as an exampli Ml other animals constitute the Metazoa, which consists of many phyla, the more important of which are the Porifera (or Sponges), the Coelenterata (Jelly-fish. Coral-polyp-, etc.). the Platy helminthes (Flukes and Tape-worms) the Nemertinea, Nematoda and Annelida (all popularly called " worm- "), the Arthropoda (Crabs, Scorpions, Spiders, Insects', the Mollusca 'Snail- and Shell-fish' the Brachio- poda (Lamp-shells), the Poly/.oa. the Echinodermata Star-fish. Sea-urchin-, etc.' and the Vertebrata (Fishes, Frogs, Snake-. Birds, Mammals SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I 11 W. I Of these phyla by far the raosl numerous at the present daj is that of the Arthropoda, ;i name derived from two Greek words meaning "jointed feet " and applied to these animals because the appendages of the body arc composed of segments jointed to one another. More than half a million different kinds of animals, of which accurate descriptions have been published, belong to this single phylum. The Arthropoda are sub-divided into tin' Crustacea 'Crabs. Lobsters, Shrimps, Water-lit. is. etc.), the Arachnida (Scorpions, Spiders and Mites), and the Hexapoda or [nsecta (Insects), and it is to the study of this last group that we apply the term Entomo- logy, a word derived from two (Ireek words meaning "insect discourse." The word "insect" itself, both in its Creek and Latin forms. signifies "something cut into" and is applied to these animals, because the body as a whole is divided by two constrictions into the three separate divisions of head, thorax and abdomen. The name Hexapoda (" six-footed ") is applied to this group, because tin- true insects are provided with not more than three pairs of legs. Spiders, Scorpions, Ticks and Mites, which are often popularly called " insects," differ from true insects by having' the head and thorax fused together to form a cephalothorax and by possessing it than three pairs of legs in the adult state. In a typical insect the head is provided with paired mouth- parts, com- pound eyes each composed nt a large num- ber of facets, and antennae each composed of several or many joints, and simple eves (ocelli) which are often both paired and unpaired. The thorax, which is itself composed of three segments (pro-, meso-, and metathorax, reckoning from the head tailwards) bears three pairs I [G. I . — Simple external anatomy ol an insect i era tubus <. k Iriginal.) CHAP. 1. 1 DEFINITION AND STI OF INSECTS. I i '. Principal anatomical fi (Aftei Berli \ \. I in. ol .li\i>i.>n bel H ind Thorax and (BB) between Thorax and Abdomen ; Na, Antennary Nerve; Nl, Labral Nerve; Nv, Nerve-ganglia; 1". Pharynx; Gs, Supra cesophageal Nerve-ganglion; Gst, Sub il Nerve- ganglion; Mx. Maxilla: Lb, Labium; Es, CEsopha Aorta; Mes, Mid ^nt or Stomach; tl.tJ. i.'>. N^rve-ganglia of thoi ii ts; al, Nei vi in. nt-; Mp, Malpighian Tubules ; [n, Intestim : Rt, Rectum; Gn, Genital System : < >r, Genital Opening ; Vs. Dorsal Pulsat- ing Vessel. may be treat- ed under the heads of Nervous System, Respiratory S Circulatory System. Alimentary System, and Reproductive - I -A of jointed ' me af- fixed to .1 e n t , and the two posterior seg- ments each bear in addi- tion a pair "I wings, there may al- so be one or more pairs ol spiracle- or 1) r e a t h i n g pores. The abdomen, consisting of about eleven s e g IU e I! t s . bears only the spiracles and genitalia as a rule, although in some forms there are t-xi e r n a 1 a ppendages -j such as cerci, setae, forceps of earu igs and Japygids, etc. t .in adult In The inter- nal anatomy, so far need be consi- dered here, is sufficiently simple and SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS. ETC. [CH VP. I. The appendages of the Head. Figures I and 2 show the main facts of the simpler anatomy of The mouth-parts arc of such various forms in the different groups that no general account can be attempted here and we can only state that the mouth-parts are usually adapted either for biting the t 1 or for sucking or lapping juices, but sometimes, as in bees, the mouth-parts may partake of both characters and occasionally they may be quite atrophied. (See figures 3. 4 and 5.) Fig. 5. Head and Mouth-parts of a Lepidopterous Insect, showing typical sucking mouth-parts. (Aftei i '■< 1 ■ I., it. 1 - as in Fig. .'<■ CHAP. 1. 1 DEFINITION WD STRUCTURE OF INSEt lS. 5 The antennae, .1 pair ol organs situated on the top or front of the head, are movable at the will of the insei 1 and arc usual 1 threadlike appendages composed ol .1 variable number of joints. The shape and relative proportions ol these joints arc very various and in many families are ol great importance as a means of distin- guishing between different groups of insects. The antennae con- tain delicate olfactory bulbs and arc apparentl) also connected with thefacultj of High t. The various shapes exhibited by the antennal joints have caused the bestowal oi differenl names to indicate the various structural types, and ol these the commonest are : setaceous, when the size ol the joints gradually decreases to a point at the apex or tip, as is the case in Crickets. filiform, or threadlike, when the joints arc cylindrical and of the same thickness throughout, as in many Carabidae and Termites, moniliform, or headlike, when the joints are globose, like head- strung on a string. i 2. 3 1 mm. hi types i il Anti in. lie I. Setaceous; Periplaneta amcricana (Blattidaef : J. Filiform; Cyrtacan- thacris ranacea (Acrididael : .'.. Moniliform • Trachelizus politus (Brenthid«e) ; t. Senate: Dorysthenes rostratus (Cerambycids) : 5, Pectinate; Gongy lus gongylodes, male (Mantida ' : 6, Pluiw se ; Oixyi.i postica, male (Lymantri- tdse): 7. Clavate; Episoiutts montanus (Curculionida : 8, < 1pi1.1t. : Rapala jarbas (Lycaenidas) : ". Lamellate; Heliocopris bucephalus (Si serrate, or sawlike, when the joints arc triangular with a sharp projecting anterior angle, liki the teeth ot a saw. SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [( ll \I\ I. pec Una te, or comb-like, when the jointN have long processes jutting out sideways, like the teeth of a comb. These processes may I on iinc side only, when the antenna is called unipectiriate, or on both sides, when it is called bipectinate. When these branches are themselves fringed with hair the antennae are said to be plumose, clavate, or clublike, when the joints become gradually broader towards the tip. mi that the whole antenna assumes the form of a club, capitate, or knobbed, when the terminal joint or joints form a ting club, as in most Butterflies, lamellate, when the terminal knob is composed of expansile broad, flat leaves <>r plates, as in Cockchafers. The antenna; are often different in form in the two sexes, those of the male (many moths, Gongy I us) being often extensively branched whilst the same organs in the female are simple. The object ol the branching in these cases is to secure a maximum area of sensitive surface t>>r the reception of sexual odours diffused by the female, and this end is attained in more generalized insects [eg., Adelidae) by simple repetition of joints so that the antenna is many times the length of the whole body of the male insect. 7 \>7~ 8 rious forms ol Eyes in Insects. (Original.) 1, Xylocopa iridipemiis (Hymenopl mpound Eye, oc. Ocelli: 2, Pantala flavescens (Odonata) ; 3, Tabanus striatus (Diptera), male, and t. female of the same ; 5. Teleopsis sykesit (Diopsida:) ; 6, Orectochilus semi- vestitus (Gyrinida?) ; 7, 8, Trisopsis olea (Cecidomyiadae), frontal and lateral iicw >. I Alter Ki< fl CHAP. 1. 1 DEFINITION K.ND STRUCTURE OF INSECTS- / The eyes oi insects arc of two kinds, simple eyes (called ocelli I and compound eyes, but either compound eyes <>r ocelli maj be totally absent, as in most Termites. The ocelli vary in number from one to twenty or more; when few in number they are generally situated on the top of the head, but when numerous they are usually grouped on either side of the head. They are fre- quently obsolete and often, even when present, are covered with scales and apparently functionless in the adult insect. The compound eyes, which are peculiarly characteristic of insects and are practically only found in adult insects, are composed of numerous separate and self-contained eyes whose exposed suit. form numerous facets of which the whole eye is composed. The compound eyes, each of which may contain thousands of I are usually paired and placed on either side of the head, buttheir shape and position is often much modified in accordance with the habits of the insect concerned. In the predaceous Dragonflies the eyes may occupy practically the whole surface of the head and this is also the case in the males of Tabanid flies, whose females have large but normal eyes. In the Diopsidae the eyes are placed at the extremities of long hornlike stalks which project on either side of the head and it has been suggested that this arrangemenl provides increased accuracy of vision on the principle of a range-finder; these fbes are supposed to be predaceous, but very little is known of their habits. In the Gyrinidas, which are the well-known " Whirligig Beetles " so commonly seen on the surfaces of ponds and streams, the compound eyes are each divided into two portions, so that the beetle is able to see both above and beneath the water whilst it is swimming on the surface. In a curious little fly lately- described from South Africa the compound eyes are three in num- ber, one on each side and one on top of the head ; the object of this triple distribution is not apparent. It may be added that the lenses of the compound eyes are often unequal in size and shape in different portions of the eye and that this fact is sometimes useful for the discrimination of species. The appendages of the Thorax. The legs are affixed in pairs to the lower surfaces ol the three thoracic segments and are hence six in number. They are almost always present both in the larval and perfect stages, although there are many totally legless larvae, especially amongst the Diptera and Hymenoptera, whilst in the adult insect some of the legs maj be specially modified, obsolescent or obsolete- In the • The number "I fai I is ven variabli : in some ants there ure ..nh about 50. in dragonflies there ma> be as many as 12,000 and in ■."inc beetles (Morticlla) more than 25,000. 1 11 INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. 1. I ig. 8. Various forms ol Legs in Orthopterous Insects. (Original.) [.Typical I I walking Ins divis into joints ; 2, Jumping i ■ Cyrtacanthacris ranacea) ; !, Running Leg I Hind) of Periplancta americana; Predaceous Forelej oi (4) a Mantid .mil (5) Gongylus gongy lodes; Di| ring Foreleg oi (6) Gryllotalpa africana and (7) Schizodactyl us monstrosus noti thickened tibia oi lattti : B, Hindleg "I S. monstrosits with accessory tarsal lobes : 9, Swimming Hindleg ol Scelimena note lateral expanded nai in tl a\ Foreli ol (10) Mecopoda elongata and 111) Sathrophyllia arrying aural cavities (marked a in each). It should be noted th il ill thi i arious types ol Legs occur within the limits "I ilu single Ordci ol iti ra adult insect they are ordinarily composed of five distinct portions which (reckoning from the bod} outwards) aTe called the coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus, these parts being jointed to one another and the coxa to the body, and the tarsus being divided as a rule into a variable (up to five) number of joints and terminating in a pair of claws. The coxa and trochanter arc generally small and inconspicuous, bul the former is large in the case of cock- roaches. All the paits, but especially the tibia and tarsus, may be provided with hairs, spines, spurs or other appendages which are used for particular purposes, or the whole leg ma) be modified to fulfil a special purpose ; as instances ol this maj be specified the CHAP. 1. 1 DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF [NSE( rS 9 jumping legs of grasshoppers, the modification of the structure of legs to accord with swimming, burrowing or raptorial habits, and the peculiar legs of bees which arc used tor the collection and transport of pollen. The legs, though primarily used tor the purpose oi walking. occasionally assume other functions, such as tactile organs. The manner in which Mosquitos hold up their hindlegs to detect the approach ot .m\ danger is well known to everybody, whilst other insects (Chironomidae, Micropezidae) use their forelegs in somewhat the same manner. The legs may also be used tor stridulatory purposes, as in many grasshoppers, or may contain auditory- organs, as in the Phasgonuridae. Stenodictya lobata,s ( arboniferous Insect, showing prothoracic lob< s. I hi left i ai il. that on thi i) 1 [andlirsch. i After Berlese.l The wings are placed as a rule on the upper surface of the two posterio ts of the thorax, but either or both pairs are not infrequentlj obsolescent or quite absent- In the earliest ins is probable thai three pairs of wings were originally present, traces of a pair of prothoracic wings being seen in some of the earliest known fossil insects such as Stenodictya lobtita, which lived millions ot years ago in the Carboniferous Epoch. But even at the present FlG. 10. — An immature Sinhalese I'enniti Arrhinotermes flavus), 2*5 nun. Inn;,', bearing rudimentary prothoracic wine-. c-\ftor Bugnion.) [0 SOI 111 INDIAN tNSECTS, ET< - |< HAP. i. da) occasional traces are found of this primitive tendency, as maj be seen in figure to, which shows an immature nymph of a Sinhalese Termite. The fact that all known adult modern insects have concurred in the nondevelopment of the prothoracic wings seems to lend some support to the idea of a monophyletic desi enl of the 1 lexapods. The wings are composed of two layers, each a thin membrane oi chitinous material, between which there may be trachea;. Each layer is traversed by horny ribs or nervures, often loosely but incorrectly called veins, which serve as a framework for the support of the wing. The size, shape, number and interconnections of these nervures are extremelj various although usually fairly con- stant in general pattern in each group of insects and they are thus ol great importance for purposes of classification for which they have been used especially in the case of the Lepidoptera and i Diagram of a enci dized Insect- wing. I Mtei Snodgrass, U.S.A. Techn. Bull. No. 18.) i.i. Sc, Sub-costa, typically dividing into two branches ^> 1 and Sc2. K.Radius dividing dichotomously into five branches Rl RS, the anterior fork of the In i branch remaining single. M. Media, dividing into four branches, Ml — M4. Cu, Cubitus, which i- again two-branched, Cul, C'u_'. The remain- ing single free veins al base of wing are Anals, IA, 2A, etc. ["he cro I and Sc, neai base, i i1 • Humeral Cross- vein ; that between R and i Radi dial I ross-vein : that between M Medio-cubital Cross-vein; that between M2 and M3 is the Median Cross vein, rhe ireas enclosed b; cro veins are called cells. Diptera. As the wings in all inse< ts are presumably modifications ol one original pattern, manj attempts have been made to prepare and name one general type of neuration applicable to all modern insects, but no system of thi> kind has hitherto met with general acceptance. An example of a generalized type of insect neuration is shown in figure ii but in practice it is often extremelj difficult to I II \l\ I. DEFINITION AND STRUCT! RE OF 1NSK( rS. I I compare the patterns of neuration exhibited by wings of belonging to widely-separated Orders- The wings themselves are usually more or less triangular but the shape is extremely various and often greatlj modified. The wings may. for example, be deeplj cleft (as in the Pterophoridae Fig. 12. Wings ol Oriieodes-microscopica, showing deep clefts. lAuthi original sketch from Spolia Zeylanica.) and Orneodidae), extremely elongated (as in the hindwings of sonic Nemoptera), or modified to form stridulating organs (see figure 26). They may be naked or covered with hairs or scales or both. The portion which is articulated to the thorax is called the base of the wing, the anterior margin which is nearest to the head is called the eost.i. the margin opposite the base is tailed the termen or outer-margin, whilst the posterior edge is called the dorsum or inner-margin. The tip ol the wing .11 the junction of costa and termen is called the apex and that at the junction of the termen and dorsum is called the tornus or inner angle. The Abdomen cinJ its appendages. rhe abdomen, or body proper, consists oi about eleven more or less similar segments, although many of these are often greatlj modified and are difficult to trace, so that not more than seven or eight may actually be visible. The abdomen is often remarkably extensile, this mobility being permitted by the arrangement of the nents which are arranged below one another during contraction see figure 2) but which can be widely separated l>\ the extension of the membrane which connects them. Along the sides of the abdomen are found the spiracles (see Respirator) System) and the extremity of the body may be provided with cerci or other 12 SOME SOI Nl INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. I. appendages. In some insects the cerci may be long, many-jointed us. not unlike antennae, as in some Mantidae; in others (most Ten may be quite short and comprise only a very small number of joints; whilst in the majority of insects they are quite absent. In the Earwigs and Japygidae .1 pair of horny, hooked pS is present at the end of the body. In many female insects special organs for the deposition of eggs maj be presenl and these may normally be concealed within the body, being extensile .it will, or ma) be placed permanently outside the body, in which latter case more especially the instrument is called an ovipositor I. at. egg-placer). In some insects (eg., Ichneumonidas) the oviposi- tor may be a narrow threadlike appendage longer than the whole insect, or it may be broad and sword-shaped (e.g., Mecopoda elongata) or provided with special digging appendages (e.g., Cicindelidae) or other apparatus for the successful deposition of the eggs. The tip of the body may also carry tufts of hair which are detached by the female as .1 covering for the eg^s. The Nervous System. The Nervous System in insects is fairly simple in general structure and consists of three divisions, (I) the cephalic system or brain, (2) the ventral ganglionic cord with its branches, and (3) ili- uervous system of the alimentary tract. The cephalic system consists of two main masses, a larger and very complex one placed above the oesophagus and hence called the supra-iesophageal ganglion (Figure 2, Gs) and a smaller one, placed below the oeso- phagus and therefore known .1- the snb-cesophageal ganglion (Figure 2, Gst), these two ganglia being connected to one anothei by a strip oi nerve-material passing on either side of the gullet. I li. supra-cesophageal ganglion is connected with the nerves running from the eyes, antennae, and other sense-organs of the head, whilst the sub-cesophageal ganglion connects directlj with the nerves of the mouth-parts. These two great ganglia, or bunches of nerves, are intimately connected with the ventral ganglionic cord which runs along the ventral side of the thorax and abdomen (Figure 2.1, h, t. a 1. throwing out from the main masses smaller nerves which run into the limbs and body. In the more highly developed insects these ventral ganglia are reduced in number and increased in size, being sometimes massed in the thorax to form what may be called a thoracic brain ; but in the more generalized types, the ganglia are smaller and more numerous. It is usuall] the case that larvae show .1 more generalized type of nervous system in this respect in comparison with the perfect insects into which thev subsequent!} develop. The third division CHAP. 1. 1 DEFINITION VND STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 13 of tin- Nervous System, that of the alimentary tract, consists ol ^ma 11 and obscure nerves in connection with the posterior j >. i rt oi the digestive sj stem. Respiratory System. [nsects are .is .1 rule air-breathers and take in air through special holes (spiracles or stigmata) placed along th ' the abdomen and thorax, thus differing widely from the higher animals which breathe through the head. The thoracic spiracles are usually reduced to a single pair situated in the prothorax but sometimes (as in Pulicidae) all three pairs may be present. 1 spiracles, which can generally be opened and closed at the will ol the insect, are defended against the entrance of foreign bodies b> various devices, of which we may mention here the hairs found on the body of many Lepidoptera and Diptera and the waxy excretion produced by many Scale-insects. The spiracles com- municate with .1 chamber opening into a system of tubes 'tracheae) which lead the air into contact with the chyle. In some insects. especiallj those living in a wel or moist environment, there are often peculiar structural modifications to enable air to be obtained ; the larva of the dipterous fly Eristalis, which is commonly found in small accumulations of water in tree-trunks, etc., has a long extensile tube which can be thrust up to the surface of the water. Many aquatic insects, however, obtain their air supply direct 1\ from the water by means of pseudo-branchiae, which are usually flat plate-like out-growths, often fringed with hairs, occurring along the sides of the body ; the Ephemerids (Mayflies) are familiar examples and almost any paddy-field will yield specimen Nymphula depunctalis (see Plate XXXII) in which the pseudo- branchiae are seen as a series of delicate filaments all down the body. It is because this caterpillar breathes in this way that it i-. controlled by draining the water off the rice fields. ( 'irculatory System. Insects do not possess a closed Circulatory System as found in the higher animals in which the blood is circulated in special ves- sels (veins and arteries), but insects have a single vessel, pulsating in parts, through which the circulating liquid flows and runs through the spai lae) of all the organs, being regulated in its course by special diaphragms which, in the shape of movable connective membranes, divide these lacunas into chambers vari- ously disposed. So that the circulation is partly vascular and partly lacunar. The dorsal pulsating vessel (Figure 2. I'.O. also 14 SOME Sol ill INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. I. called the propulsory apparatus or commonly (but incorrectly) the heart, may often be seen, especially in internal-feeding larvae. beneath the skin in the central part ol the back. By the pulsatory action of this tube, the circulatorj fluid is drawn into the small openings (osteoli) occurring along that portion (ventriculus) which lies within the abdomen and driven forward through the thoracic and cephalic portions (aorta Figure 2, Ao) into the head, whence it flows back outside the tube and into the various organs of the body, rhe fluid itself is often improperly called blood but more correctly chyle; it is usual lj colourless, or slightly tinted green 01 yellow and consists of two parts, a fluid part (serum or haamol) mph) in which swim active amoeboid bodies (amcebocites ; also called leucocytes, phagocytes, etc.). . Uimentary System* The Alimentary System lies along the middle portion of an insect throughout the whole length oi the latter. The food is received through the mouth into the oesophagus or pharynx (Figure 2, F) whence it passes into the crop and theme (through the pro- ventriculus when this is present) into the stomach or midgut (Figure 2, Mes), and from thence into the small intestine (In) and on into the large intestine or rectum (Rt). At the junction of the stomach and small intestine are found the Malpighian tubules (Mp), which are almost always present, though variable in number and hence sometimes used for classificatory purposes; they are believed to function, much like kidneys in the higher vertebrates, for the excretion of urates from the system. Fat Glands timl Slink Glands. Of the internal organs connected with the Alimentary System it is only necessary to mention here the Fat Bodies, which are often immensely developed, and the Stink Glands which sometimes open into the rectal aperture, as in many Coleoptera. Reprodtu 1 1 VC System. In its main features, the type of the reproductive s\siem is COmparativelj simple. In tin- male the internal organs imimsi ,,| testes ami accessory glands (both usually paired hut sometimes multiple, though always symmetrical) and paired seminal vesicles leading into a common ejaculatory duct which in turn leads into * In this and similar accounts the reader must rememl general descriptions an possible in a 1 1, if this natur and thai more advanced treatises tnusl be consulted lor the elncidation of details. The Alimentary System in particular is variable in structure and the rehtiw' proportions "flirts in different insects. CHAP. 1.1 DEFINITION \M> STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 15 the protrusible penis. In the female there are generally paired o\aries from which tin- eggs arc discharged through the oviducts into .1 common tube (tin- vagina) into which also runs the open end of the spermatheca or receptacle in which the male spermatozoa are received and stored. The ovipositor, which as its name implies, is the instrument In winch tin- eggs are placed in position, assumes very different forms in different groups, and is often externally, as in in. m\ grasshoppers, Ichneumon-flies, etc.; when internal it is capable 0! protrusion often to a considerable extent. Besides the actual sexual organs there are also in both sexes various accessory structures; in the male, for example, there is frequently a complex armature of chitinous hooks and claspers which often differ in character in species otherwise hardly distin- guishable and which are thus of great assistance in systematic work ; and in the female there may he sebific glands, such a in various grasshoppers, which pour out a gummy fluid which cements the eggs into a mass and at the same time gives them .1 protective covering. A great deal of work has been dune on the spermatogenesis and oogenesis of insects but this subject cannol be entered into here. Fertile reproduction is gcnei.dk attained in insects, as in the higher animals, by the union of the two sexes but occasionally aberrant forms of reproduction are met with. Of these the com- monest is Agamcgenesis (a name derived from Greek words mean- ing " birth without marriage"), commonly called Parthenogenesis (Greek, " virgin-birth ") ; in this case the female lays fertile eggs without the intervention of the male and this phenomenon is the normal mode of reproduction in the case of many Aphids and is also commonly met with in some other groups (scale-insects, bees, and moths). The case of the honey-bee is well known but is of considerable interest. The queen-bee has the power of withholding the passage oi spermatozoa from the spermatheca in which these are stored. When eggs descend from the ovary, it the queen-bee allows sper- matozoa to issue, the eggs are fertilized and become females, workers or queens according to the food on which the young larvae are fed. If, however, exit of spermatozoa is prevented by the queen-bee (or if she is old and the spermatozoa exhausted) tin- unfertilized eggs only develop into males (drones). The name Pedogenesis is given to cases in which agamogenetic reproduction occurs in the larval stage and this is known to occur in a few Diptera and Coleoptera (Miastor, Chironomus, Micromalthidc minute wingless flj (Termitoxenia), commonly found in Termites' mounds in India, is reputed to be hermaphroditic, combining both 16 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSl ■:< rS ETC [CHAP. I. male and female reproductive organs in the same individual, but this point has been disputed and must be considered for the present as subjudice. In the rase oi a few Braconid parasites, there occurs the phenomenon of Polyembryony, in which a single egg divides to give rise to several embryos. Finally, we may make a brief reference to the phenomenon of Hypergamesis, found in some iptera (e.g., the Bed-Bug, Clinocoris lectularius) in which the greal mass of spermatozoa take no part in the actual work of reproduction, which is accomplished bj relatively few ol the male cells, but are stored up in the body of the female and serve as a source of nutriment for the development of the eggs. But it maj be added that the actual facts regarding most of these abnormal methods of reproduction are still open to doubt. CHAP. II.] CLASS ION AND NOMENCLATURE. 17 Chapter II. ( CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. ■• 1 iur little systems have- their day ; They have their day, and cease t Tennyson— in .)/. moriam. m distincte tradere convenit Nomina si pereunt, perit et ; -'i rerum ; nomina si confundantur, confundantur omnia THE correct classification of insects is a problem which has exercised the minds of entomologists for at least three centuries and that various systems and schools of thought are in existence at the present clay affords perhaps the best proof that the problem is not so simple of solution as may at first appear. The casual observer who walks through a field and sees grasshoppers jumping away before his advance may think that grasshoppers are easily defined as insects that jump. Hut such a definition would also include many other inserts, such as fleas and some bugs and beetles, which no one would call grasshoppers. A fly, it may be said, is easily distinguished by having only one p of wings; but other insects, such as the males of some scale- insects, share this similarity yet differ from flies in many other respects. Bees and wasps may be defined as stinging insects, but many caterpillars can sting just as badly, whilst the males of the bees and wasps have no sting at all. Caterpillars of butterflies and moths may be said to feed on leaves, but so do those of sawflies, beetle-, etc. Such definitions — or, it would be better to say. such popular generalisations — have very little value, but they may serve at the same time to give some idea of the difficulty of classifying such an enormous assemblage as the world of insects by characters either natural or easily observed. The systems of classification generally used have been based as a rule on the structural characters of the adult insect, especially on those of the wings and mouth-parts, or on the type of metamor- phosis or series of changes which insects undergo before attaining the adult condition. Each system has its good points and its bad and neither by itself can be accepted as satisfactory, -tern based solely on the type of wings, for example, might unite grasshoppers and bugs and also flies and scale-ins whilst the wingless crickets, wasps, moths, fleas, lice, etc., could not be separated at all. The »n of sucking or biting mouth-parts seems at first sight to idler a reliable distinctive character and the nectar-sucking butterflies and moths ma quoted as examples until we find that some of the moths have biting mouth-parts, and that some insects, such as bees and Thrips, 18 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. II. have mouth-parts which combine the biting and sucking types. Nor is it always easj to draw any strict line between insects having "complete" and "incomplete" metamorphosis, thai is to say, between those insects having a larva differing greatly from the adult and separated in time from the adult by a resting (pupal) stage and those in which the larval stage is mainly sepal appearance and time from the adult by the absence of wings and lack of any pupal period. Termites, for example, cannot be said to undergo any complete metamorp#hosis, in the ordinary accepta- tion of the term, yet, in some species at least, there is a period or periods of "nymphosis" scarcely distinguishable from a true pupal period as regards quiescence and structural change. Aleurodidae also are closely allied in all respects to the Rhynchota, yet they possess a quiescent pupal stage, whilst in their near relatives, the Coccidae, a definite pupal stage occurs in the case of niaks, but not in females, of the same spcries. In other cas in the females of some glow-worms, even when the metamorphosis is nominally "complete," there is scarcely any notable difference between the larval and the final form of the insect. As a matter of fact, it is generally easier to divide insects more or less arbitrarily into groups than it is to divide them into Orders by any one system of classification. Such a remark is an oi>\ ious truism, but yet even at the present day one still sees attempts to apply some particular rule-of-thumb method to the classification of insects. The truth is, of course, that insects have gradually evolved during a period of millions of years, from one common ancestor or perhaps from several different types, and that in some cases groups of modern insects originally of the same stem have become extremely different in structure, metamorphosis or other conditions, whilst in other cases groups originalh distinct may by convergence have assumed details of structure, metamorphosis, etc., which at first sight are deceptively similar. Xo fossil insects appear to have been found in India, but Geology tells lis that insects existed in almost the earliest times (Low- er Silurian) of which any fossil records have come down to us. The very earliest insects known are perhaps hardly referable to any of the orders now extant 1 odia />n.-.a>/_ but the three modem Orders 'tcta, of Orthoptera, Neuroptera and '•Measures. Hemiptera were already repre- sented in the Devonian pi nod by tonus which, though not strictly comparable with the modern CHAP. II. | CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. tg representatives of those ' >rders, alread) possessed facies which may fairly be called orthopteroid, neuropteroid, am roid. In the Carboniferous period these < >rders, and especially the I were dominant whilst the Coleoptera began to make their appear- ance towards its close. Hie 1 .epidoptera, Dipt era and Hymenoptera only appeared later, although all of these are known from ro ill. Secondarj period. In the succeeding epoch. howe\ Fig. 14. — Diagram illustrating supposed Phytogeny of Il< xapods. II iriginal.) Marks point of origin. The dotted lines indicate doubtful lim 2 -A SOME SCH'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. II. [nsects seem to have flourished exceedingly and many of the fossils found in these rocks are referable to genera still in 'ICC. The scheme ot ol the modern groups of Insects is in- dicated roughly in figure 14, but the limitations of an area containing wo dimensions oi length and breadth render it impossible to give a true idea, which will be grasped bettet bj imagining the different stems to be branches emitting twigs and growing at different angles and at various heights from the paper, in some ing together and in others separating widely. It must, ot course, be remembered also, in speaking of more recent or more ancient forms, that all existing groups of [nsects are equally far removed in point of time from the archaic members of tin- Class, and that all that is meant is that some groups have adapted them- selves better than others to special conditions. A glance at figure 14 will show the impossibility of exhibiting the natural relationships of the various groups in any linear method of arrangement. There are, roughly speaking, two commonly accepted methods 01 the classification ol insects, one system making use of about nine principal Orders, the other of about thirty. Roth systems have their good points and their bad. but a system admitting many Ord ■ to exhibit in truei perspective the real relationships of its components. The following list exhibits the various group.-, adopted in this book, arranged in order, commencing with the more specialized ami concluding with the mote generalized Orders: - I 'r.k-rs in which the groups in column I would b( placed Remarks. Groups adopted in this in the Nin 1. Hymenoptera 2. O 3. Strepsiptera 1. I 'i 5. Siphonaptera 6 . I i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 p 7. I 1 S. N ... Pa 10. Psm 11. Mallophaga 1 2. Bphemerida 1 ',. Plecoptera 14. Odonata 1 1 5 menoptera Coleopfi 1 a Diptera Lepii I' iptera Ni uroptera (pari 1 Insects with distinct i imorphosis an. I with quiescent pupa structurally distinct from the lai 1 a. with little meta- morphosis and no definite pupal - J f>l in Aleurodidse and Coccidce, two families of Rhyochota, in which a quiescent pupal 1 CHAP. II.] CLASSIFICATION AND \o.MK.V I. \ J i adopted in this 15. Rhynchota 1 6. Anoplura 17. < Irthoptera 18. Dermaptera hi. Blal ...J 20. Isoptera ... , 21. Embiadas ... 1 22. Thj sanopt ra 23. Collembola 24. Thysanura ... | 25. Japj ... j 26. Protura hi which iliL- ■_■ in the Nim-.i Irder system. kh\ nchota I ;- ( (rthoptera Neuropti ra tnoptera ra ... with little metamoiphi no definite pupa! Of these groups, however, only those marked are oi sui economic importani idered here and the adult inse< 1- o1 these groups maj be separated by the following artificial key : — r Mouth-parts sucking ... •■• 2 bititu . 1 Flies). Lepidoptera (Butterflies). I lugs). Onlj one pair of wings 2 «{ Two pairs „ 1 No ■'• 'Wint;s covered with scales „ without scales f Metamorphosis complete; hind- ) legs usually formed for jumping; ^ Siphonaptera (Fl I not clinging to hairs of host. Metamorphosis incomplete; hindo legs not formed for jumping; '^Anoplura (Lice). legs modified to cling to hairs ' ( of host. I Two pairs of wings of approxi- 6 mately equal sue. Two pairs of wings of unequ size. Antennae longer than length of 7 head. Antennae shorter than length of Odonata (Dragon — flies). tin Ueuro hynchota, inwhicha 1 pupal stage occurs. ( Hale 1 1 non-entomological n< ( Irthoptera (Grasshoppers). SOME SOI 111 INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [l HAT. II. Wings permanent, with strong Neuroptera (Lace- wing ins in central area. Wings soon shed, without cross Isoptera (Termites). veins in central ["he two pairs of wings differing 9 I in thickness of material. two pairs of wings similar in 10 thickness of mat I iist pair of wings narrow, mem- 1 than body, sometimes used as true wings in ]' flight; metamorphosis incom- plete. ; first pair ol wings usuall) bro horny, projecting little if at all i beyond body, kept erect during ,, , ,„ x, . 1 ( oleopti ra 1 Beetles). flight which is accomplished 1 solely by the second pair of | wings ; metamorphosis complete. Minute insects, forewings narrow | I rhysanoptera (Thrips). and oar-shaped ; metamorphosis impleti ; no sting. I Minute to large insects, fon wings usuall) 5S triangular • | 1 1\ menoptera ( >\ asps etcA. a sting often present ; metam phosis ' on. I hi re are numerous exceptions even to an artificial kej of this sort, as. for example, all the wingless tonus (such as ants, beetles. termites, etc.) ol the Orders which normallj possess wings. It is. therefore, hardly necessary to repeat here that it is easier to place insects into groups arranged around typical forms than it is to separate them exactly by any hard-and-fast rules. 1 ivei loin hundred thousand different kinds of insects have been described from all parts of tile world and of these probably about fifteen thousand are known from Southern India, where at least an equally large number remain to be discovered and described. 1 '■ examination and comparison we can place an insect in its appropriate Order. Family and often its Cicnus and Species, that is, we can say that it resembles other examples so closel) that it may be considered identical. But, having done this, we arc no nearer knowing whether any information has already been pub- lished regarding this particular insect. Perhaps we find it damag- v and wish to ascertain whether it has been noted before as .1 pest and what remedies have been found efficacious. This 10 , CHAP. II. | CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. 2j want is met by an artificial System of nomenclature which givi name to everj Order, Family, Genus and Species of animal, i different kind of animal being known by two names, those res] ively of the genus and species to which it belongs. A knowlei of these names gives us a key to all that has been recorded about the animals concerned. In olden times insects, which were then little studied, known by long descriptive phrases, such as " the brown butterfly which Hies in fields m the Summer," and it will readily be under- stood that such phrases were not only cumbrous but often very vague. In the middle ol the eighteenth century, however, Carl von Linne. better known by his latinized name of Linnaeus, introduced the binomial system of nomenclature under which every animal and plant known at that time was given two names, a generic na common to each group and a specific name peculiar to each organism. This system was first fully elaborated in the Tenth Edition of Linne's " System of Nature" (" Systema Naturae"), published m [758, and this book and date are taken as the starting- points of our modern nomenclature. All names are in Latin or. if derived from other than a Latin word, they are required to be latinized, although of late years it musl ssed that this rule is very loosely interpreted. When binomial nomenclature was introduced, a knowledge of Latin was an essential equipment of every educated man in Europe and books and descriptions written in Latin were therefore intelligible to the educated of all civilized .Nations, liven nowadays short descrip- tions of new insects are often written in Latin and this language remains (nominally at least) the universal vehicle of zoological nomenclature. It is true that the commoner and more conspicuous insects of almost every country have acquired popular names but such names have usually only a very local and limited application, the same insect being known under different names in each country speaking a different language or different insects being known under the same name in different countries, whereby confusion is worse confounded. The "Cotton Bollworm " of America, for instance, is quite a different insect from that to which the same name has been applied in India. And as I write there is before me a popular book on injurious insects, issued in America in 1912, in which one and the same insect is called in different places the "Potato- fuller Worm," the "Tobacco Leafminer," and the "Splitworm;" this insect has been called in India the "Potato Moth," and it would be merely a wa to hunt up and quote here the various and yet different names under which this same insect is known popularly in England, Germany, France, Italy. 24 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INS] [CHAP. II. Russia, . ti . But it will readily be seen how little useful would be a knowledge of only one or a few of such names to an inquirer desirous of ascertaining the distribution, lifehistory, or control of such an insert. So-called "popular" names are generally merely sops to ignorance and their use often serves to conceal a want of exact knowledge. Whilst of very limited and inexact application, thej are no easier to learn or remember than the proper scientific names, which should always be employed, when known, in refer- ring to any one particular insect. Not infrequently it happens that a previous description is overlooked, with the result that an insect, which has already been described and named, is regarded as a novelty and described and renamed as such- Such eases are dealt with by tin- Law of Priority which provides that the name which was pub- lished first in point of time, if valid, shall be used and that the later-published names shall be sunk as sj nonyms- As an example of this rule we may quote the i ase oi the common Indian Bedbug which was first described in 1803 under the name of hemipterus and redescribed in 1852 and again in 1861 respectively under the names rotundatus and macrocephalus ; the name liemipterus, having irity, must be used, the other names becoming synonyms. A generic name may not be used more than once in Zoology and a specific name may not be used more than once within the genus. If names are given contrary to this rule, the later- given names are invalid. Thus, the name Arbela was given to a genus of Rhynchota in 1865 and was again used for a genus of ninths in 1879; the latter Use was invalid, the name being preoccupied. • Tin: follow ii mes in California is so apropos that I have ii" hesitation in transcribing it here : — " At first glance they may appear rather formidable to a ur readers, but in at once, will oln pular term, and 1 learning the scientific term for many of the intri I species : it will also avoid confu- . i example, when the South African hymen- ■, was first presented to the growers of thi> State a immediately, suggesting that this species simp!) lie called "scutes." This, . met with considerable objections from entomological sources, and the use of I'aitea, became general, and now the State [nsectary is in inds ol letur^ 1 rs over the Sla /. The same rule also applies to the names average layman to embrace the lely, as it is sol which actually means nothing I later \cars." hi be adopted so easily in tin I lurry." where English iinon language, it should be still easier to introduce their use into India where 11 " name is as much an alien as the Latin one. chap.il] classification and nomenclature. 25 A generic name is always written with a capital initial U-t u-r. A specific name is always commenced with a small letter even when it is derived from a proper name. A name, to be accepted as valid, must be (1) published and (2) defined. By publication it is meant that the public can purchase copies ni the description in a form other than manuscript and the earliest date on which such matter is accessible is tin- date of publi- cation. Definition must convey, b) description or illustration or both, information sufficient to enable the author's conception to be recognised. A name published without description is therefore invalid ; example, Plotheia nephelotis was published as a name by Lefroy in "Indian Insect Life" but no description has ever been given and this name must therefore be disregarded as a no me n nudum (" bare name " 1. \ valid name, once published, is inviolable and may not be changed even by the author except in the case of a printer's error, for which there is evidence. An exception is made in the case ot adjectival specific names, whose terminations may be (hanged to e with the gender of the name of the genus in which the species is placed. The same name may be used for a species .is is applied to the genus in which such species is contained. Example: Cossus cosshs . All confusion is avoided by the use of different initial letters in each grade. In writing names of animals we usually add the name (often contracted) of the author of the specific name. Example: Phycita infusella, Meyr. Names of families are indicated by the suffix -da and of sub- families by -nee. Such names are usually formed from the name of the oldest (i.e. Inst published) genus included in them. It is impossible to enter here into the question of "types," sub- specific nomenclature and various other details, which are better suited for discussion in technical publications. The desirability of having a universally accepted and permanently stable system of nomenclature is unanimously agreed upon by systematic and eco- nomic workers alike and this result is only likely to be achieved by the acceptance by economic entomologists of the results attained by a rigid application of the rules of nomenclature. In this connec- tion the words written by Spence in 1 8 3 4 are no less applicable todaj : "Knowledge as to the structure, habits and economj ol insects ought to be the grand and ultimate aim of entomologists; but this knowledge can be neither acquired nor diffused without matic classification, which is the dictionary that must enable us duly to read the great book of Nature, and to which therefore, 20 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. II. s.i long as that dictionary still remains so incomplete, even the largest portion of the entomologist's labours may be justly given. while at the same time no fact, however trifling, relating to the habits and economj of the objects of his study is suffered to be lust, the two great branches <>l the science, system and the natural historj ot insects (taken in its largest sense) being made to go hand in hand, and mutually to support each other." i II \r. in. | METAMORPHi »S 27 Chapter III. METAMORPHOSIS. ■• Fhere is a tlirTerencj betweea a grub and a butt 1 >ui was a grub.'' Shakespeare. [NSECTS, like most other animals, commence their existence in the egg stage and before attaining the adult state undergo a series of changes which art- more exactly expressed by the term metamor- phosis. In the more primitive and generalized forms, ot which the Fish Insect may be taken as a type, the amount of metamorphosis undergone is comparatively slight, the newly-hatched insect differing in little except size from the adult. In the case of a grasshopper, the metamorphosis undergone is also slight, but the adult differs from the young in possessing wings, although some grasshoppers are wingless even in the adult stage. In the more specialized groups of insects, however, the changes between the newly-hatched young and the adult insect are not only consider- able but they are abruptly separated b\ a third Stage, different from that which precedes and follows it, in which the insect undergoes a period of quiescent inactivity during which it is known as a " pupa." ( )f this last group we niaj cite a butterfly as an example. It may be rioted as a genera] rule that insects with slight metamor- phosis usually grow very slowly, whilst those with a pupal stage often complete a generation in a very short period of time, and that (spi aking very generally and bearing in mind that all existing insects are equally far removed in point of time from any common ancestor, although, as pointed out above, the more specialized insects may be so remo\ ed bj a greater number of generations than the unspecialized) insects with little metamorphosis are less special- ized and approach closet on the whole to the more primitive types of insects than do those with considerable metamorphosis. The various orders of insects with much or little metamorphosis shown in the table on pages 2021, but it may be useful to compare here the lifehistory of a Butterfly and a Grasshopper, as a t \ pe "i each class. 28 SOME Sdl III INDIAN [NSE< fS, ETC. [CHAP. in. Butterfly imetabolic.) ( Irasshopper tabolic). . Egg sta in to botl II 1 1. Larva, wingless, a< : on different food from adult, ing and moulting, when fullgrown transforming to — ,i oung insi cl -, act- i ii adult, growing and moulting, when lull led transforming, (without qui I.. feeding on same food as stage II, not growing or moulting but reproducing and (in ease of laying eggs. III. Pupa, quiescent, not feeding or growing or moulting, from which emerges — IV. Imago or adult butterfly, winged, HI. Adult insect, winged, active, ire, (usuall) on different fond from lar\a, not ling but repro- ducing and (in the cas female) laying eggs from which the next generation commeni Summary.- Four stages, each distinct Summary, rhree stages of which from others. the second is compara- tively little distinct from the third. Speaking generally — and only general Statements can be made when speaking of all the Orders of Insects as a whole — the presence or absence of a quiescent pupal stage is a (actor by which all insects can be divided into two categoric-, sharply separated from one another, and this division appears to be one of funda- mental importance. It is. indeed, largely on this account that we rejei I the " Nine-< >rder " system which mutes such diversely meta- morphosic insects under the heading of " Xeuroptera " and inter- polates tin' more spe< ialized Orders between the less specialized. [he ovum or egg caries very greatly in size, shape, ornamenta- tion, .mi I method ol deposition in the different groups of insects. In its simplest and probably must primitive form it may be considered as a spherical, colourless, transparent object < onsisting of a smooth chitinous outer shell enclosing protoplasm which is at first homo- geneous. At .hi. point mi tin' shell there is. as a rule, a micros, opic depression, called the micropyle or micropylar area, in which occur minute canals leading into the interior of the egg b) which the spermatozoa obtain access to the interior in order to unite with the female element for the purpose ol fertilization. The micropylar CHAP. III. | METAMORPHOSIS. 20 aiea is usually considered as the apex of the egg, the opposite side being the base, and the intervening portions being called the walls or sides. It follows from this that, in the case of an egg attached to a surface, the attached portion is not necessarily the base. As regards shape, eggs are rarely perfectly spherical but are usually more or less flattened or produced in one or more directions. The outer surface of the shell is sometimes most elaborately sculptured or ornamented, sometimes merely covered with rough pittings or elevations which may be arranged in roughly polygonal reticula- tions, or may be quite smooth- The method of deposition is equal!) variable; in some groups the eggs are laid singly, either scattered at random or carefully deposited in, on or near suitable food for the future hatchlings, in other groups the eggs ma\ be laid in a mass sometimes covered with clown from the body of the parent or with waterproof varnish or enclosed in a common shell or covering which may exhibit most elaborate structure. Amongst the most familiar ot types of egg-masses found in India are those of various Mantids which are so commonly seen attached to twigs, walls, etc. The number of eggs deposited varies very greatly in different insects from a dozen or less (some wasps, probably Hippoboscids) to several hundred or, in some social insects (Honey Bees, Term- ites), many thousands perhaps over a million. The embryological development of Insects cannot be discussed here and it must suffice to say that the hatchling insect, when it has attained its full embryonic growth, escapes from the egg, often by gnawing a passage through the shell with its mandibles in the case of eggs deposited singly, but some larvae have special organs for opening the shell and others merely rupture it by their contortions. The term " larva," though often applied to all insects in an active ante-imaginal condition, is better restricted to denote the second stage of those insects which possess a true pupa, the word " nymph " being used for the immature, active stages of those insects in which metamorphosis is slight (grasshoppers, bugs, etc). In popular language, in the case of butterflies and moths the larva is often called a " caterpillar," in Hies a " maggot," and in beetles and wasps, etc., a "grub." but the term "larva " is more properly Used to denote a stage which is strictly homologous in all these four Orders. emi "embryonic" is hen individual in the inactive egg-stale only but the embryonic condition i< oiupleted until the insert has assumed adull characters, Vnte-nat some of the lower moths (I'yralidte, Tortricina and i which the egg-shell is • >ftcn so transparent .i^ to facilitate 30 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [("HAP. HI A typical larva may be considered as long and cylindrical, somewhat flattened along the ventral surface, and composed of about fifteen segments or rings between each of which the body is more or less constricted transversely. The first segment is the head. itself composed of four or more sub-segments fused together and not distinguishable after hatching, and this is a more or les- chitinous (horny) oval case carrying the mouth with its appendages and (in free-living forms) a small number of ocelli arranged in lunular form on each cheek. The second, third and fourth segments (corre- sponding to the pro-, meso-, and meta-thoracic segments of the adult insect) each carry a pair of more or less hornj legs which terminate' each in a single claw. The fifth to fifteenth segments (of which, however, two or more are usually fused together) corre- spond to the abdomen or body of the adult insect and in free-living forms may carry a variable number of pro-legs which are generally present in the Lepidoptera (not more than five pairs), rarely present in thi' Hymenoptera (Saw-flies, more than five pairs) and absent in the other Orders. Breathing is provided for by a tracheal system communicating with the open air by means of spiracles which are small round openings found on each side of the second and fifth to twelfth segments in lepidopterous larvae but in some larvae (especially some of the dipterous larvae) the breathing system is very greath modified. Larvae living a concealed existence are usually whitish in colour, occasionally reddish, those living an active exposed existence are often highly procrypticall y coloured or show vivid warning coloration. The larva, when full-fed, casts its skin for the last time and changes into a pupa in which stage it is inactive and motionless except for wriggling or occasional jumping mot ements). In the more generalized groups ot the Lepido] and generallj in the Coleoptera ami Hymenop- tera the limbs of the future perfect insect are more or le^s separate, each encased in its own pupal sheath, but in the more specialized groups of the Lepidoptera and in the Diptera the ap- pendage sheaths a; to speak) soldered into the rigid, smooth, uniform pupal -.hell. In all the holometabolic insects the cocoon-making instinct is I n,. 15. Pupa "i Orneodes hexadactyla, :i Lepidopti '. showing ventral, lateral, and d ipman.) CHAP. HI.] METAMORPHOSIS. 31 highly developed, the full-fed larva usually spinning a cocoon of silk or of fragments of vegetable matter spun together with silk, in the shelter of which it pupates and passes its pupal existence; when the larva lives within a ease or within a burrow, however, a true cocoon is not formed as a rule and those larvae which pupate in the soil generally dispense with a silken covering. In tin' more highly-specialized groups of Lepidoptera the cocoon is sometimes dispensed with, the pupa being left exposed and trusting to its procryptic coloration to elude discovery by ene- mies; most of the butterflies, tor example, have naked pupae which are suspended by the tad by peculiar cremastral hooks (Nymphalida) or attached at the tail and girt by a loop around the middle (Papilionidee, Pieridce); in such cases there is often a marked degree of individual colour adjustment to agree with environment, and this power is also seen even in the case ol some cocoons. Turning now to the heterometabolic groups, in which meta- morphosis is slight, we find that the immature insect, on emergence from the egg, leads .inactive existence and is (broadly speaking) similar to the adult except as regards the absence of wings, and these may be permanently absent or imperfect in some forms. In these groups the immature insect generally consumes the same food as the adult, whereas in holometabolic insects the food of the larva generally differs from that of the adult insect. In all cases, whether larva or nymph, the function of the immature active stage is to assimilate nourishment and to grow, and this is often done at an astonishing rate. The immature insect being encased in a more or less hornj outer covering which is only capable ot expansion within limits, growth is usually accomplished by throwing off this outer skin, such process being termed a moult or ecdysis and the periods between moults being called stadia (singular, stadium) or instars. The frequency of moulting differs in different groups of insects and sometimes varies (as in some grasshoppers) in the two sexes. Usually there are about five moults but the number may be decreased in insects undergoing rapid metamorphosis (e.g., House-fly. with about three moults) or increased in the case of insects whose immature condition is greatly prolonged (e.g., some Cicadida, with 25 — 30 moults * spread over a period of fifteen years or longer). The process of moulting, which i> not iervations on the number of moults in long-lived Cicadas have been made in America and it has recently been staled that this number is nut so large as hail hecn supposed. Riley's observations, however, were usually accurate ami may provi in this case of individuals "r races and I therefore leave the above paragraph a. originally written. T.B.l . 32 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. HI. always accompanied by a subsequent increase in size, is also necessitated in order to get rid of the waste products of metabolism induced by feeding and growth. The appearance of the immatun liters very considerably at each or any particular moult, especially in the case Of caterpillars, in which the changes of colour and more particularly in the arrangement of the tubercles and primary hairs have often. ,'„-. 16 —Pupa of Eumenes conica (1) newly tun, '■ old, and (21 the same a week Later, showing developmi i I wasps, the development of the individual thus epitomizing that of the i mal.) in the earlier stadia at least, a phylogenetic significance which is of great importance in any natural system of classification. In a few cases, especially amongst parasitic insects (Cantharid beetles, Strepsiptera, etc.), we find more than three immature stages, due to the development of more than one larval form ; this phenomenon is called Hvpermetamorphosis. The time occupied by the metamorphosis of any particular insect, that is to say, practically speaking, the life of a single genera- tion is very variable and may extend from a couple ot week- to twenty years. An average period in Southern India is probabh lDOut two months though manj pests pass through a generation in a month or less. Some insects may delay metamorphosic changes until the advent of suitable climatic conditions and this may occur in either of the passive (oval or pupal) stages. 1 tms the eggs may retain their vitality until stimulated by an influence such a- moisture, as in the ca nosquitos of the genus Stegomyia in which the eggs retain vitality for months in ad dition (such as normally occurs duringthe dry weather precedinj monsoon in the localities hollow, in tree-trunk-, etc.-in winch thej ire deposited), batching out when exposed to humidity. 1 his is perhaps the case also with some grasshoppers. < >r the eggs may not hatch out all at once, but a few individuals ol each batch may emerge at intervals .luring a period of several months (as m the case of Orgyia antiqua) thus ensuring thai some at least may meet CHAP. III.] METAMORPHOSIS. 33 with congenial conditions. Observations on abnormally extended pupal periods have chiefly been made in the case of Lepidoptera in which Order pupa; from one batch of eggs, in the case of some species at any rate, are known to eclose moths, some in the first year after pupation and some in the second and subsequent years up to the seventh or later. Such an irregular eclosion will give the species concerned a better chance of survival by spreading the descendants of one generation over several seasons, some of which are likely to be favourable as regards climatic conditions or scarcity of parasites, and will also tend to secure cross-fertilization between different stocks. Although, as already noted, insects are usually developed from eggs deposited by the parent female, yet in most groups (e.g., Coleoptera, Lepidoptera. Diptera, Rhynchota) we meet with cases of viviparity, that is to say, the female extrudes, not passive eggs, but active living larvae. In the Pupiparous Diptera, of which the common Dog-fly is a familiar example, the larva is retained and nourished within the body of the female until it is full-grown, when it is deposited and pupates immediately afterwards. Instead, therefore, of the nutriment requisite to the growth and reproduction of the individual fly being absorbed by the larva directly, it is the adult fly only which feeds actively. In the great majority of cases the eggs are simply laid by the female which takes no further care of them, and as a rule she dies shortly after having deposited them. Sometimes the dead body of the mother remains by the eggs and forms the first meal eaten by the newly-hatched larvae. Even in cases where special provision is made for the young, as in the examples offered by the solitary wasps which collect and lay up a store of spiders or caterpillars on which or near which the eggs are laid, instinct rathei than intelli- gent solicitude seems to be involved, for the cell is sealed and left to its fate. In some cases, however, true instances of maternal tude are known to occur and it is not uncommon, for example, to find a mother-earwig watching (one might almost say brooding) over her eggs; on one occasion at Yercaud, on turning over a log, I found a pair of earwigs with a pile of eggs which, when they were disturbed, the female carried away in her mouth into a safer place, whilst the male sought safety in flight. In the Hills also old rotten logs are commonh found to contain Passalid beetles which occur in little colonies, larva.-, pupae and adults often being found together, and it has been shown that the adult beetles masticate the wood with their jaws to render it fit for the food of the larvae which are unable to feed by themselves on the unchewed wood. ("are for the young l>\ the mother-insect is also well known to occur 3 34 SOME SOI III tNDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. III. amongst the Rhynchota, in which group the females of several species of Pcntatomidae, Reduviidae and even of the Membracidae have been noted to watch overtheir eggs and young. Amongst the Orthoptera the Mole-crickets (Gryllotalpa) are known to exercise maternal solicitude, taking particular care of their eggs anil acting as unceasing sentinels around the nest. No special care of the ■ i young seems to he displayed by the Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera) or the Flies (Diptera), although in the latter group we meet with cases in which the eggs are hate lied within the body of the parent and the larva- nourished there until fully grown; but amongst a few Hymenoptera and Social Insects generally great care of the young is often taken. Maternal solicitude in Cantao ocellatus, a Pentatomid Bug whose Je broods over her eggs, which are generally laid "n a leaf. It is inter- esting to note that, in batche md under natural conditions, the ' t i rior eggs are almost always parasitized whilst those protected by the body • if the mother escape parasitic attack. (I ti tginal.) A Tasmanian Sawfly * has been recorded as watching over the spot where she has laid her eggs, which are deposited in an incision between the two surfaces ot .1 leal ol luicalyptits. until the exclusion of the young, " upon which, when hatched, she sits with outstretch- ed legs, preserving them from the heat of the sun and protecting them from the attacks of enemies, with admirable perseverance . . . . until death terminates her mvn existence." Amongst social insects (Bees, Wasps, Ants, Termites, etc.), the young are usually i^d by the adults, at first by the female parent and later on, when the colony attains large dimensions, by members of a "worker" caste. But these cases, except at the very commence- ment of the foundation of a new colony, scarcely answer to the term of maternal solicitude. • Perga lewisii Westwd.; Sec Trans. Eut. Sac., I. p. 234 and Arcana Entomologica, Vol, 1, p. 2 . CHAP. IV.J MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 53 Chapter IV. MEANS OF DEFENCE IX INSECTS. t animal est tres mechant, Quand on 1' attaque il se defend.'' THE means of defence adopted by insects against the attacks of their tin-mil- are very numerous and can only be touched on here very lightly but, broadly speaking, they may be divided into (i) passive and (2) active defence. In the first group we find pro- tective resemblance and mimicry, etc., whilst warning coloration is perhaps intermediate between the two groups, active means of defence including the use of more or less poisonous bites or stings, urticating hairs, the discharge of [acrid, volatile or nauseous liquids, etc. ~ Fig. 18. — Sathrophyllia rugosa, a long-horned grasshopper common on tree trunks in Southern India. (Original.) Protective resemblance is probably the most primitive and also in modern times the most usual (and hence, we may add, the most successful) method of defence practised by insects, and under this term are included all cases in which insects resemble their surround- ings or any object commonly found in those situations in which they occur normally. Millions of years ago, when the Coal Measures were being deposited in the Palaeozoic Epoch, the cock- roaches of those ancient times had acquired a type of neuration strikingly similar to that found on the fronds of a fern (Neuropteris odontopteroides) which was one of the plants from which the coal was derived. In modern days the prevalence of protective resem- blance is best (and perhaps only) appreciated by the eye trained by field observation. On pointing out some protectively-coloured animal in its natural surroundings, nothing is commoner than the observation, "However can you see such things? I never see them ;" 3-a 36 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV. when it is not the individual that is at fault but merely the want of training in observation. Protective resemblance may be (usually) general, in which case the insect or other animal may exhibit in its shape or coloration or in both the general pattern-effect produced by its normal surround- ings, or it may be (more rarely) special, in which case the insect or animal bears a close resemblance to some different object (living or inanimate) found in its normal habitat. It would be tedious to attempt to give any general list (even of insects) of examples in each group. Those who are interested in the subject will find it an easy matter to make observations of their own in their particular field. There is no strict line of demarcation between the two groups and some animals may belong to both ; thus, the common Green Whipsnake (Dryophis mycterizans) may blend generally into the general appearance of the green bush in which it is stretched out or, if noticed in more detail, it may readily pass for a branch of the square-stemmed jungle vine (Vitis quadrangular is). In passing it may be noted that, to be successful, protective resemblance does not necessarily connote inconspicuousness. 1 ''• ■■ 19. Perisphceria, a Cockroach which rolls itself up into a ball when thi i at ened with danger. (After British Museum Guide to the Insect Gallery.) Some insects, when threatened by danger, simply roll them- selves up into a ball, at the same time generally dropping to the ground if not already on it. Such are many caterpillars, especially some of the hairy ones in which the hairs radiate out " like quills upon the fretful porcupine," serving the purpose of directly offens- ive weapons and also readily slipping through the grasp of any attempting to pick up the caterpillar. Some cockroaches of the K'lnis Perisphceria have also the power of rolling themselves into a ball, when they greatly resemble a small Fill-millipede, the two extremities of the body fitting closely together so that the head and legs are completely hidden inside and protected. From such examples it is but a step to cases in which insects, on finding themselves discovered by enemies, simply drop to the CHAP. IV. | MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 37 ground and lie motionless, thus escaping detection. Instances might be quoted in almost all Orders but are most commonly seen amongst Moths and Beetles. The Weevils especially arc noted for exhibiting the " death-feint," a namegiven toa special manner in which the limbs arc held rigidly contracted ; this is accomplished by a voluntary stiffening of the muscles, as is shown by inducing the " death-feint " repeatedly in one individual, when the periods become shorter as the muscles become tired. An observer will soon discover that many insects, in an appa- rently deep state of quiescent rest on tree-trunks, etc., are yet acutely conscious of discovery and will often escape, even when they have not been disturbed, if observation is removed from them for an instant. Other insects, on the contrary, are so sluggish that they will permit themselves to he transfixed with a pin without even moving. Fig. 20. — Tin- figure on the left is of Eumenes flavopicta, a long-waisted wasp armed with a powerful sting, that en the right i- Syrphid Fly (Ceria sp.) which mimics the wasp. Beth insects occur eenti-mporaneously in the same localities in Southern India. (Original.) The term "mimicry " is properly restricted to cases in which an animal externally resembles another and biologically distinct kind of animal. The resemblance may be extremely close and detailed or it may be very rough and general ; it may occur in any stage ot the lifehistory and may be produced by similar coloration, si or action, or a combination of any or all of these, but the internal and non-visible portions of the animal are never affected. The animal whose external appearance is thus copied is called the "model "and is generally distasteful to enemies in some way. as by the possession of a sting or poisonous lute or nauseous taste or smell. The animal which copies the external appearance of tin- possessor of such noxious qualities is called the "mimic." When the mimic is palatable or defenceless the mimicry is called " I sian " mimicry ; but, in some cases, the mimic is equally distasteful as its model, and such cases form what is called "Mullerian" mimicry, both these cases (or theories) being called after the names of the men who first clearly enunciated them. 38 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV. Both these forms of mimicry are founded on the fact that the normal enemies (especially birds, lizards, and amphibians) learn by actual experience which of their insect-prey are palatable or the reverse. A young bird, which first commences to forage for itself and catches (let us say) a white moth or a yellow-and-black wasp and finds that it has a nauseous mouthful or that it has been badly stung, will quickly learn to avoid insects which are pure-white or black-and-yellow in colour. Armchair critics may deny this, but no one who has lived for any time in the tropics and experimented on the gastronomic educability of insectivorous animals is likely to agree with them, and we may safely affirm that insectivorous animals do leain by experience to avoid insects of certain (generally conspicuous) types of coloration. Such common types are bold mixtures of red and black, black and yellow, red and white, white and (less commonly) other mixtures, of blue and yellow, etc. Generally speaking, we may say that an insect which is conspicuous in its normal environment is nauseous in taste and that such insects fall into a very small number of types of " warning " coloration. The result of this state of things is of equal benefit to the insec- tivorous animal and the nauseous insect, the former having only to learn a few common colour-combinations in order to know which to avoid as food, the latter having only to sacrifice a small proportion of its individual numbers in order to secure immunity after a shoii period of sampling on the part of each individual enemy. For example, if all wasps were coloured differently (some red and black, some white and black, some green, some yellow, some green and yellow, some blue and yellow, etc.), every insectivorous bird would have to sample at least one individual of each differently coloured kind of wasp and would have to remember which forms were palatable and which were not; whilst actually, most wasps being coloured black and yellow, a very tew tests on individuals so coloured teaches the bird to avoid insects exhibiting those colours, with equal benefit to the bird and the insects, as the former incurs fewer unpleasant experiences and the latter avoid considerable loss in individuals, collectively at least. For it must be remembered, as a general rule, that an insect attacked usually connotes an insert destroyed ; an unpalatable insect may be rejected after capture, hut often it is then in such an injured condition as to be practically moribund. From this it will be seen that tin- individuals of species forming a Mullerian mimetic group are practically members of a mutual- benefit association. If one individual each of species A and B suffice to teach a young bird that their common type of coloration is of a " warning " character, then other individuals of species, CHAP. IV. | MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 39 C, D, E, etc., belonging to the same group, share in the benefit con- ferred by future immunity from attack by that individual bird. In the case of such a " Mullerian " association, therefore, there is no "' model," strictly speaking; all the associates are "models," but, on an average, the commonest (/.<•., most numerous in individuals) member of the group will pay the heaviest toll. In the case of "Batesian " associations it is obvious that, for the mimicry to be effective, (l) the model must outnumber the mimic in individuals, and (2) both model and mimic must occur contemporaneously in the same area ; if the mimic were not less numerous any enemies would discover by experience (by the law of average) that insects of that particular fades were palatable and such colours — which, we have already stated, are ex hypothesi conspicuous — would invite attack (ami, incidentally, speedy extermination of the insect attacked) instead of avoidance, Insects which are distasteful are, we have just seen, often brightly coloured, but not all the gaily-hued gems of a collection of insects are necessarily distasteful. Many are indeed surprisingl) inconspicuous when seen in their natural surroundings, with which their colours blend in complete harmony, and others secure safety from enemies by their wariness, activity, or speed on the wing. Many butterflies, which exhibit most beautiful markings on the upper surface of the wings, are sombrely coloured beneath and extremely inconspicuous when at rest with their wings closed together over the back. Numerous insects, in almost all the larger Orders at least, combine a conspicuous type of marking when on the wing with a very inconspicuous appearance when at rest, such insects usually making short sudden flights on disturbance, and the sudden apparent vanishing of its prey in this way must often secure such insects from successful attack by an enemy. Really nauseously distasteful insects, on the other hand, are often conspi- cuous and slow-moving as if to advertise their security from attack ; the term "warning colours " is therefore well applied to such combinations of colour-markings. Some insects exhibit markings which tend to draw the attack of an enemy to some non-vital portion, usually of the wings, the insect itself thus escaping with slight damage. Amongst such "directive" markings we may specify particularly the tails, eye- spots, etc., on the hind-margin of the hindwings of many butter- flies. In some of the Lyczenidas (e.g., Apliiurus and Virachola) the inner corner of the hindwing is not only provided with tails and eye- spots but is turned downwards at right angles to the rest of the wing so that, in the resting position when the wings are appressed together over the back, these little flaps of the wing simulate the anterior 40 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. ICHAP. IV. extremity of the butterfly, the flaps themselves looking like a head and the spots and long slender tails simulating eyes and antenna;; the anterior extremity (head, antennre, etc.) is incon- spicuously coloured and the apex of the abdomen does not extend as far as the false head, so that an enemy such as a lizard, seeing the butterfly at rest, in attacking the supposedly vital anterior extremity, would obtain only a mouthful of hindwing, the butterfly escaping without vital injury. A collection of butterflies made at random, without regard to the " cabinet condition " of the speci- mens caught, will soon convince any impartial observer that such directive markings do actually exhibit signs of attack by enemies (chiefly birds and lizards). Fig. 21. — Viracholct isocrates, a Lyceenid Butterfly, in its resting attitude showing simulation of the head by the tails and eye-spots, which | well clear of the body. The right-h i ws .1 view of tin butterfly at rest as seen from behind, showing the anal lobes and tin in. mini in which the tails are projected on opposite sides. (Original.) Insects which exhibit "warning" coloration may acquire a nauseous taste from feeding on plants which are poisonous to vertebrate animals or from other causes. The rich colours of the scales of some butterflies are known to he due to the deposition of waste materials (of the nature of urates) of the excretorj SJ Stem ami it seems possible that in other cases, in which the insects f< non-poisonous plants, their nauseous qualities maj he derived from the retention and use in this way of waste products of the processes of metabolism. From warning colours and innate nauseous qualities it is but a step to cases in which insects actually excrete substances which CHAP. IV. | MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 4 1 are disagreeable to their enemies. Many insects, in almost all Orders, possess special glands from which they are able to discharge a liquid which may be offensive tothe taste, smell, sight, or touch of an aggressor. The stink-glands of many bugs arc well known to most residents in India, whether by the characteristic odour of the common Bed-bug or by the disgusting taste in oi soup caused by a " gundy " which has been attracted by the lights on the dinner-table. In such cases the glands are usually situated on the lower surface of the thorax and some of the larger bugs are able to project a thin stream of liquid with great accuracy for a considerable distance. In Beetles the stink-glands are generally situated in the anal extremity of the abdomen and are particularly developed in some groups such as the Carabidas, Gyrinidze, and Staphylinidae. Some members of the former group, common in India under stones, etc., have earned the name of "Bombardier Beetles" because they discharge a stream of liquid which volati- lizes instantly in the air as a brownish mist and with quite an audible report; this liquid causes a momentary severe burning sensation on the human skin and would doubtless disconcert an enemy sufficiently for the beetle to make its escape. Many of the minute insects which cause such discomfort when they fly into the human eye are Staphylinid beetles, the smarting sensation being due to the acrid liquid discharged by the beetle when it finds itself in danger. Some Paussid and Carabid beetles discharge a liquid which has a strong smell of Iodine. Many Ants discharge a strong solution of Formic Acid, which of course derives its name from the Latin word formic, 1, an am. The common Red Tree Ant (CEcophylla smaragdina), contran. to popular belief, does not Sting but grips with its jaws and throws out a fine jet of liquid from the tip of its abdomen. The caterpillar of Cerura vinula has glands from which it can direct a fine stream of Formic Acid solution, and this seems to be used chiefly to drive off parasites which endeavour to oviposit in the larva. The curi- ously swollen thoracic segments of the larva of Carea subtilis also contain a gland which is perhaps used in a similar way. The caterpillars of the Swallow-tail Butterflies possess a curious Y-shaped organ, called an osmateriutn, situated on the anterior margin of the prothoracic segment, in which it is ordinarily concealed; when annoyed or attacked the caterpillar can evert this organ which diffuses a strong, disagreeable odour, differing in various species. In the case of Termites the soldiers are usually provided with glands in the head (sometimes extending into the abdomen), from which they can pour out a thin liquid which hardens rapidly in the 42 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV. air into a sticky substance which appears to be highly obnoxious to the true Ants which are the Termites' most relentless enemies. In Eutermes, the head of the soldier Termite is provided with a long tube from which can be projected for a distance of two or three inches a very fine jet of liquid which hardens into a thin viscous thread immediately it touches the air. In some cases the nauseous liquid oozes out from the glands in such a way as to produce small bubbles, which probably secure a larger surface for the evaporation and rapid diffusion of the smell. Autarches amongst grasshoppers and Heterusia amongst moths are conspicuous examples of this mode of defence. Occasionally the liquid discharged is so acrid as to blister the external skin of a vertebrate enemy and the consequences of eating an insect of this kind would doubtless be very serious. The best- known insects of this class arc the Blister-beetles, many of which arc extremely common in India and are conspicuously coloured red- and-black, blue, green, yellow, etc. In these beetles the glands are situated in the legs, the beetle when touched exuding a yellowish oily liquid which is capable of raising a large blister on contact with the tender human skin. Some of these beetles contain quite a considerable percentage of Cantharidin. The shape or structure of an insect may be such as to render it distasteful and secure it from hostile attack. The thickly-chitinized, almost armour-plated, integuments of some beetles and the possession of sharp spines in many beetles, bugs, grass-hoppers, etc., may be quoted as familiar examples. The two cases differ somewhat as exhibiting defence against different classes of enemy, since mere hardness (as of some weevils) would not avail against an enemy, such as a bird, large enough to swallow the weevil whole and grind it down in the gizzard or slowly dissolve its interior by digestive fluids gaining access by the joints and other apertures, whilst, on the other hand, such defences as sharp spines would help to protect an insect against large enemies but not necessarily against smaller ones. Hairy caterpillars, in which the hairs possess more or less irritant qualities, arc sufficiently familiar in Southern India, where the general terms "Kumbli-hula " or " Kumbli-puchi " are freely and loosely applied to many very different kinds. In many of such caterpillars the whole body is covered with long hairs which are often rather loosely attached and barbed at the tip, so that they readily pierce the skin and become detached or break off, leaving the barbed tips which act as a mechanical irritant in the skin. Such hairs may also enable the caterpillar to escape by slipping out of the grasp of a captor or by keeping smaller insects (e.g., ants) CHAP. IV.] MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 43 at a safe distance from the vulnerable parts of the body. In other cases special groups of hairs may be modified into defensive weapons — tussocks, spines, stinging hairs, etc. A brown caterpillar (Taragama siva) found commonly on babul (Acacia arabica) is clothed With short hairs and bears just behind the head two large patches of short black hairs which, when annoyed, it brings into contacl Taragama si tnink. ; an original photograph l>y C. Narayana Ayyar.) with the disturber by lashing about with the lore part of it-- body, the short hairs readily penetrating and becoming detached in the human skin. This is a common method of defence in this family (Lasiocampidce) and the larval hairs are often woven into the cocoon from which they project on end to form a veritable "cheveux-de- frise." Sometimes, particularly in the slug-like caterpillars of the Limacodidae, the hairs may be modified to form stinging organs which can inflict very severe punishment on an aggressor. The production of sound is another mode of defence in insects, many of which stridulate when picked up. Some Cicadas, when caught, will utter a piercing shriek very different in tone from 44 SOME SOUTH INDIAN IXSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV. their ordinary song. The caterpillar of the Death's-head Moth makes a clicking sound, as do some other caterpillars, while the moth itself squeaks shrilly, at the same time depressing its wings .iml exposing thej ellow-barred abdomen. The female of Xylotnipes, a large Dynastine beetle, when caught, emits a sudden, unexpected, loud hiss very disconcerting to its captor. The angry chidings of bees when their nest is approached too closely warn the intruder in tones very differ- ent from their P^^g ^\_ ordinary busy hum, and at least one species of Termite (Termes con vulsionarius) makes a con- certed rhythmic pattering when its Fig. 23.— Section of Head of a Reduviid Bug iHat-p- nest is opened. actor sp.) showing Poison-gland. (After Berlese.) Some of the larger insects are able to defend themselves by the use of their mouth-parts against the aggressor or by means of the sharp spines with which their fore or hind legs are armed, and some of the predaceous bugs, especially the larger water-bugs and Reduviids, are able to inflict a painful poisoned bite by means of the rostrum. It is, however, only in the Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees, Wasps, etc.) that a true sting is found in the posterior extremity of the abdomen of the perfect insect. In some of these insects the sting is used as an offensive weapon in the capture of prey, either as food for the insect -•1 PU: •Stin 1 4 H i )riginal.) itself or for its pro- genj . but as a rule the sting is only used as a means of defence. It may be noted that the sting, when pre- sent, is confined to individuals of the female sex, the males even of wasps and bees being destitute of a ■-ting. CHAP. IV.] MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS. 4? Some insects secure themselves from attack by constructing shelters or little houses which they drag about with them, this being probably a highly developed form of a primitive concealed mode of living for defensive purposes. The Rice Case-worm (Nymphula depunctalis) and the common Bagworm (Clania crameri) are familiar instances. The larvae of many of the Cassid beetles are provided ul larva f Aspidomorpha sanctce-crucis), commonly found on Sweet-potato, carrying its excrement over its back. Three times the natural si/c. (( Iriginal.) with a long forked "tail " which they hold over the back and carry on it their cast skins and excrement, so that the true nature of the larva is often concealed. Several predaceous larva; (Chrysopa, Eublemma, etc.) place the empty skins of their victims on their backs and thus achieve concealment at once from enemies and prej . For it must be remembered that a structure, marking, etc., may plaj more than one pari in the economy of an animal, whether insect or not, and that a predaceous animal which is protected from its enemies by its procryptic coloration is equally equipped for approaching its prey. Colours which are bright and "warning" to foes may be alluring to prey and also attractive to the opposite sex. Luminosity in insects may be briefly considered here as it is at times a means of defence although probably more often of use for sexual attraction. The best known examples of luminous insects in India are the numerous species of glow-worms, usually errone- ously called " Fireflies " although the true Fireflies, belonging to the family Elateridce, do not occur in India. In glow-worms the lumi- nous organs are usually placed beneath the posterior segments of the body. In many species only the male is winged, the female being wingless and grub-like, both this sex and the larva having luminous organs. The luminosity is entirely voluntary and is often rhythmic, large numbers of individuals emitting a momentary flash with one accord. The efficiency of the light emitted by these little 46 SOME SOl'TII INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. IV. beetles is remarkably high, being estimated at practically ioo per cent, of the energy used, there being almost no heat-rays or actinic rays, whilst the light-value of the electric arc is only about ten per cent, of the energy used and that of the sun only about thirty-five per cent. Several other beetles besides the Lampyrida are known to be luminous, at least occasionally, and undoubtedly many more Indian insects will be found to be capable of emitting light. Amongst those insects in which this phenomenon has hitherto been noted, mostly outside of India, are various beetles {Carabidtz, Paussidee, Staphylinidee, Tembrionida, Elaterida, Cerambycidae, Bup- restidce, etc.), Ephemeridae, larvae of Lepidoptera and Diptera, and Collembola, but some of these are perhaps luminous as the result of disease, the luminosit) being due to the activity of bacteria and not to the presence of true photogenic organs. The intermittent flash of a flying glow-worm is perhaps a means of defence by puzzling an enemy as to its whereabouts. There is also some evi- dence that Lampyrid beetles are distasteful to nocturnal insectivo- rous birds and bats, so that the light is perhaps a "warning" signal. CHAP. V.] COMMUNICATION AMONGST INSECTS. 47 Chapter V. COMMUNICATION AMONGST INSECTS. " Hast thou heard the butterflies, " Elappy the Cicadas' lives, What the) saj betwixt their wings ? " Kor they all ha wives." Tennyson Adeline. Xenarchus. THE simplest form of communication amongst insects is by the production of sounds which may or may not be audible to human ears but, except in the case of social insects, communication is usually restricted to methods by which the sexes are brought together or rendered attractive to one another. The hum caused by the vibration of the wings or otherwise during flight, as in the case of a Hawkmoth hovering before a flower, can scarcely be considered as communication, similar sounds being produced by other rapidly-vibrating bodies such as a spinning top or wheel. The shrill piping of Mosquitos and Midges and the chirping song of male Crickets and Cicadas are familiar instances of sounds produced by one sex in order to attract or charm the other. The song of Cicadas, though often distressingly discordant to our senses, is doubtless sufficiently pleasing to their voiceless females and is astonishingly different from the shrill shriek of alarm emitted by the insect when captured. Several of the long-horned green grasshoppers, commonly found on plants and often attracted to light in the evenings, utter a very shrill chirping and are further remarkable as possessing well- developed auditory organs which may readily be seen on examina- tion of their fore-legs. A similarly situated auditory organ is found in many crickets and mole-crickets. In other insects the auditory organs may occur on the antennae, abdomen or elsewhere. The note of the hum of the female mosquito, for instance, causes certain of the hairs of the antenna of the male to vibrate sympatheti- cally so that, by turning his head until both antennas arc affected equally, it is probable that the flight of the male is directed to the female with considerable accuracy. It is impossible to enter here into the mechanism of the stridula- tory organs of insects, i.e., of the organs which produce "song," as these vary so greatly in different species. Usually the sounds are made by the vibration of a membrane or the scraping of one part over another, the latter generally being ridged. Stridulation is not confined to grasshoppers or even to large insects ; some 48 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. V. small water-bugs (Microvelia), scarcely visible to the naked eye as they run along the surface of the water-film, are able to stridulate so loudh as to be audible from a distance of several yards. The caterpillar of the Death's-head Moth makes a clicking sound when annoyed and the moth itself produces a shrill squeak not unlike that of a bat : but these are defensive sounds rather than communicative. I ig. 26.— Hind wing ol male Nyctipao hieroglyphica, showing gland opened ; /. is the frenulum. Several moths and a few butterflies are known to stridulate on the winy and such stridulation is doubtless sexual as a rule. As an instance we may quote the case of Nyctipao hieroglyphica, Drury, a large black Noctuid moth which is well known, especially in some ol the Hill-districts of Southern India, from its habit of flying along paths at dusk and producing a loud clicking sound which is often especially disconcerting to horses because the moths seem to be attracted by moving objects and therefore often fly around the heads of horses which may be frightened by the clicking of the moths. The fact that this moth stridulates has been noted before but I am not aware that the mechanism of its stridulatory organs has been examined. In the first place we may note that it is only the male moth which makes a noise and that this is a distinct, loud, sharp click, such as might be produced by running a stout pin or quill slowly but firmly across the teeth of a comb. On examining the moth, a glandular patch covered with long flocculent hair is to n on the upperside of the tore-margin of the hindwing, near the base of the wing, and this appears to be part of the stridulating organ ; it is hollowed and convex on the lower surface of the wing and opens like a purse (being hinged along the fore edge of the wing) and perhaps serves as a sort of sounding-board to increase the noise, which is apparently produced by the tip of the frenulum (the long homy bristle at the base of the foremargin of the hind- wing which locks the wings together in flight): this tip passes through the retinaculum (the loop on underside which holds it in position) and either rubs over the outer surface of the pocket or, more probablj . catches i'^ hinder edge and pulls it open with each CHAP. V.| COMMUNICATION AMONGST INSECTS. 49 Hap oi the wing, thus at once making the noise and exposing the flocculent yellow androconial hairs which line the interior ol the pocket and which doubtless emit a smell attractive to the female. It will he seen from figure 26 that the neurationa! structure of the uini; is extraordinarily distorted, hut in the female, in which sex the glandular pocket is absent, the neuration (system of wing-veins) is normal. In the foregoing case the female maj he attracted to the male by SOUnd or by smell and this instance therefore leads us to cases in which oni 1 attracted by scents emitted by the other. Numerous instances of this attraction might be quoted especially in the case of moths in which the males may he attracted from dis- tances of several miles in search of a female; in such cases the female is usually sluggish (often wingless (and the males have highly pectinated (comb-like) antennae by which they perceive- the scenl emitted by the female; this principle is taken advantage of by entomologists who expose a virgin female in a small cage and capture the males as thej "assemble." In manj butterflies, especially the Pierids (" Whites ") and their allies, the males have on their wings specially modified scales, called " androconia, " from which they emit a pleasant perfume which is quite perceptible in living or fresh specimens and which is undoubtedly attractive to the female. Attraction of the sexes bj sight is very commonly met with and has produced the evolution of many of the strikingly handsome colours exhibited by the males of sexually-dimorphic insects, spiders, lizards, birds, etc., already rendered familiar in innumer- able publications. A very striking case amongst insects is. however, afforded by certain glow-worms in which the wingless female alone is luminous and gives out a beam of light by which the non-luminous wingeilm.de is attracted to her. whereupon the light is obscured. As may be expected, it is amongst social insects that we find that means of communication have attained their maximum effici- ency and in such cases tin- methods empl perhaps n truly communicative than merely sexuallj attractive as in tin- foregoing instances. There are lew t fill \ social beetles but the Passalids may fairly be included in this category. These arc- lai black beetles found commonly in the hills in rotting wood in which they occur in small family parties usually consisting of immature and adult forms ; the larvae have the first pair of legs modified into stridulating organs and the beetles themselves also are able to stridulate. When such a famil) part) is dislodged from a rotten 50 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAI\ V. I<>u and it>- members scattered, they stridulate and collect together again by means of the communication thus established. No one who has ever watched Termites or opened a termitarium can have tailed to observe the curious vibratory movements of their bodies which evidently serve as a means of communication. By placing living specimens on a sheet ol paper or table the sounds produced bj these vibrations become readily audible. One large Termite found fairly commonly in the red-earth Plains of Southern India is especially noteworthy in this respect and has earned its name of Tames convulsionarius from this habit ; when a nest is opened up, the noise produced by hundreds of these Termites vibrating in unison is clearly audible from some little distance as a rhythmic pattering or rustling and probably serves at once to intimidate the disturber and to sound a warning throughout the nest. There is no doubt whatever but that these vibratory move- ments have different and well-understood meanings and serve the purpose of speech. It is, however, amongst the Ants, well named as the most highly developed of all insects, that communication is best established. The way in which foraging ant-scouts communicate knowledge of the presence of food may be seen daily in every bungalow in India. Belt, in his "Naturalist in Nicaragua," gives several instances of what may even be called intelligent communication amongst ants, from which the following may be quoted : " One day when watch- ing a small column of these ants [Eciton hamata], I placed a little stone on one of the ants to secure it. The next that approached, as soon as it discovered the situation of the prisoner, ran back- wards in an agitated manner, and communicated the intelligent e to the others. They rushed to the rescue, some bit at the stone and tried to move it, others seized the captive by the legs, and tugged w ith such force that 1 thought the legs would be pulled off, but they persevered until they freed it. 1 next covered one up with a piece of clay, leaving only the ends of its antenna' projecting. It was soon discovered by its fellows, which set to work immediate ly, ami by biting off pieces of the clay, soon liberated it. Another time I found a very few of them passing along at intervals. I confined one of these under a piece of clay, at a little distant e from the line, with his head projecting. Several ants passed it, but at last one discovered it and tried to pull it out, but could not. It immediately set off at a great rate, and 1 thought it had deserted its comrade, but it had only gone for assistance, for in a short time about a do/en ants name hurrying up. evidentlj fully informed of the circumstances oi tin- ease, for they made directly for their imprisoned comrade and soon se1 him free. I do "ol see how this action could In i HAP. V.] COMMUNICATION AMONGS1 INSECTS. 51 instinctive. It was sympathetic help, such as man only among the higher mammalia shows. The excitement anil ardour with which they carried on their unflagging exertions for the rescue of their comrade could not have been greater if they had been human beings, and this to meet a danger that can only be of the rarest occurrence." . . . " I shall relate two more instances of the use of a reasoning faculty in these ants. I once saw a wide column trying to pass along a crumbling, nearly perpendicular, slope. They would have got very slowlj over it. and man) of them would have fallen, but a number having secured their hold, and reaching to each other, remained stationary, and over them the main column passed. Another time they were passing a water-course along a small branch, not thicker than a goose-quill. They widened this natural bridge to three times its width by a number of ants cling- ing to it and to each other on each side, over which the column passed three or four deep. Except for this expedient they would have had to pass over in single file, and treble the time woidd have been consumed. Can it not be contended that such insects are able to determine by reasoning powers which is the best way of doing a thing, and that their actions are guided by thought and reflection ? This view is much strengthened by the fad that the cerebral ganglia in ants are more developed than in any other insect, and that in all the Hymenoptera, at the head of which they stand, they are many times larger than in the less intelligent orders, such as beetles." And on another occasion Belt states that he found a colony of these ants shifting from an old to a new nest to which they were carrying their stores of food. "Between the old burrows and the new one was a steep slope. Instead of descend- ing this with their burdens, they cast them down on the top of the slope, whence they rolled down to the bottom, where another relaj of labourers picked them up and carried them to the new burrow. It was amusing to watch the ants hurrying out with bundles of food, dropping them over the slope, and rushing back immediately for more." And again. " I shall conclude this long account ol the leaf-cutting ants with an instance of their reasoning powers. A nest was made near one of our tramways, and to get to the trees the ants had to cross the rails, over which the waggons were continual 1) passing and repassing. Every time they came along a number of ants were crushed to death. They persevered in cro ing for several days, but at last set to work and tunnelled under- neath each rail. One day. when the waggons were not running, I si,,pped up the tunnels with stones ; but although great numbers carrying leaves were thus cut off from the nest, they would nol 1 ross the rails, but set to work making fresh tunnels underneath 4-* 52 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. V. them. Apparently an order had gone forth, <>r a general under- standing been ( ome in. that the rails were not to be crossed." h is difficult to resist conceding a certain degree of reasoning faculties to animals displaying such intelligent methods of dealing with quite extraordinary circumstances, and such cases maj perhaps be taken as bridging to some extent anj gap existing between reason and instinct. The subject cannot be discussed more fullj lute but is certain that the majority ot even the most complex of the actions of insects are regulated by instinct and that cases of reasoning an- very rare and confined solely to the most highly-organized of the Social Insects. CHAP. VI. | TROPISMS. 53 Chapter VI. T ROPI SMS. "The word tropism means the tendenc) to react in a definite manner I external stimuli." ,,, „ _ , . Willev — Convergence m Evolution. IX the last chapter it was seen that the actions of insects are onlj controlled by intelligent reasoning in very rare cases, if at all. In practically all cases their actions under any given conditions are rigidly guided by what are known as tropisms. Here it may be useful to give a few definitions. A habit may be defined as the behaviour of an organism under natural conditions, a reaction as its behaviour in the laboratory or under more or less natural condi- tions of observation in the open. A tropism is its reaction or res- ponse to a definite external stimulus. For example, an organism may be attracted by light, in which case it is said to be positive^ phototropic (/.<.. turning towards light) ; or it may be repelled by light, in which case it is said to be negatively phototropic ; or light may not affect it at all. in which case it is said to be passively phototropic. All these tropisms are to be observed in eveij organism, either positively or negatively or passively, and often, at different times, both positively and negatively in the same individual. Tropic responses have been divided into the following classes: — (i) Phototropism or response to stimulus of Light. (2) Heliotropism .. „ Sunlight. (3) Chemotropism ., .. Chemicals. (4) Thermotropism ., .. Temperature. (3) Thigmotropism .. .. Contact with solids. (6) Geotropism ,, ,. Gravity. (7) Rheotropism ., ., Water currents. (8) 1 1\ drotropism ., ,, Water and moisture. (9) Anemotropism „ ., Air currents. These are shown grapically in figure 27, but it may be remarked that the territories of the stimuli may sometimes overlap, and that a different grouping of these tropisms may be expected as our knowledge increases. Phototropism, sometimes known also as phototaxis, covers all responses due to the stimulus of Light, but it is perhaps better to restrict the term to cases in which direct sunlight is not employed Si (ME SOI 111 I\DIA\ INSEC rS, |( HAP. VI. HiLIOTHjHSM - .( cw. • • ■ - ANEMOTR.-'TISM .. A„ Cv... ts ) - ■I "1 THIGMoTROFH f Cenf.cT Ml> S,US ) RM £OTRoPlSM ■ •■ w«r„ . c>. ...• Diagram ihowing fropic Reactions as heliotropic reactions are not necessarily the same as phototropii and the two may indeed be opposed to one another. A moth which hides away from daylight (negatively heliotropic) is strongly at- tracted by artificial light at night, and that this positive phototro- pism is not entirely due to the fact that it only occurs during the insect's normal hours of activity is shown by the fad thai this reai tion is exhibited must strongly on dark nights. It is a fact of common observation that very few insects fly in to light on bright moonlight nights. The use of light-traps to capture insects and control crop-pests is a practical application of this reaction, as is also the capture of fish at night by the aid of torches. The Bedbug may be cited as an example of an insect exhibiting strong negative phototropic tendencies. Heliotropism has been studied especially in the case oi many butterflies which may be observed to settle and then carefully to orienl themselves to the sun's rays so that they may obtain in some- cases a maximum of heat-rays on their wings or in other cases so that a minimum amount of shadow may be thrown by the wings. Animals which are positively heliotropic have been called phane- I and those which avoid the light of day ervptozoic. Ch( motropism, it must be admitted, is a vague and elastic term covering responses to such stimuli as those of smell equally with i HAP. vi. | TROPISMS. 55 those induced, for example, by the solution of chemicals in the environment of aquatic organisms. The much-lauded " wonderful instinct " which impels a female insect to lay her eggs on the particular plant or substance suitable for the food of the larvae is as a rule merely a mechanical response to definite chemical stimuli rted bj tin- appropriate larval food. It has been shown, foi example, that a blowfly will readily lay its eggs or maggots on meat, on which the larvae normally feed, but that it will not lay its eggs on fat, upon which the larvae could not feed. This is not a case of instinct or intelligence but is simply due to the fact that c ertain chemical stimuli from men cause the blowfly to lay its eggs. In I. it these stimuli are lacking but can be produced artilicialh .when tin' fly will lay its eggs although tin1 larva' cannot \Wi\ on the fat. Chemotropism will undoubtedly in the future be put to practical use in economic entomology to a very large extent. Its practical applications .u present include the attraction of moths by assem- bling and by the use of baits such as sugar either painted on trees, etc.. or used in combination with a special trap, and the attraction of some fruit-flies by the use of oils. In these latter cases, tins lining water with a little oil (kerosine, citronella, etc..) are ised in localities in which fruit-tlies occur and the male flies are attracted by the smell of the oil (which doubtless exercises the same tropic reaction as the odour emitted from the scent-glands oi the female of that particular fly) and are drowned in the tins. I li< rmotropism. or response to tin- Stimulus oi temperature, is perhaps in some cases scarcely distinct from Chemotropism. Hibernation and /Estivation (the passing oi the cold and hot seasons in an inactive condition) are probably controlled directly b\ thermotropic responses. Thigmotropism, or response to the stimulus of contact with solids. isgencralh not a very evident phenomenon. Its positive aspects are strongly exhibited by many spermatozoa, such as those ,,t the cockroach ; if these be examined in a cavity-slip under the micro- scope, they will be found to be adherent onlj to tin- sides of the cavity or the coverglasS and not free in the cavity ; when brought into contact with an egg, they adhere strongly to its surface over which they wander until one reaches and enters the micropyle, thus securing fertilisation. Some insects which are found beneath bark are positively thigmotropic. Geotropism, or response to the stimulus of gravity, is exhibited by many caterpillars both positively and negatively at different times. Whilst feeding they are usually negatively geotropii , crawling upwards on anj vertical object should they fall off the food-plant, but when full-fed and about to pupate in many 56 v, iME S( 'i i li INDIAN INS] I1 H VP. VI. caterpillars the geotropic reaction becomes positive and they crawl down from the tree or plant to enter the soil. Ladybirds offer a familiar example of a negatively geotropic tendencj as the) always tend to crawl upwards and in a natural State this is of practical use to them because the) crawl up to the tips of the twigs of plants and, if Aphids are present, they stop to feed but, if there are no Aphids. they fly off to search another twig. Rheotropism, or response to the stimulus of water-currents, is exhibited by many aquatic inserts and other animals such as fish. On streams in the hills various Gerrids ma) usually be seen maintaining their position against the current and on the look-out for any small insects which may have fallen into the water. Hydrotropism is exhibited strongly by many aquatic insects; if these are caught and liberated, even many yards awaj from the edge oi a pond, they make straight for the water without any hesitation. The preference tor a dry or a damp habitat is very distinctl) shown by many insects and other animals and may sometimes be turned to practical account, as by the Hooding of fields to dislodge crickets, etc. A.nemotropism, or the response to the stimulus of air current--, is closel) akin to rheotropism and in both cases it is usually found that insects tend to orient themselves against the prevalent current. llie large migration-flights of butterflies just before the break of the monsoon are familiar sights in many localities, the air being sometimes thick with thousands of butterflies all hurrying impetu- ously in one direction. The fact that these migration-flights generally take place in India about May and November seems to point to the possibility of their being due to anemotropic tendem ies on the part of the butterflies concerned. According to my own observations these flights are almost always against the wind. Having considered these various tropic reactions it may be well to add a few words regarding their practical important < ■ In the first place it must be clearly understood that these tropisms are purel) mechanical reactions to physical or chemical stimuli and that these reactions are set up and must necessarily and involuntarily be carried out by the organism concerned regardless "I its own benefll or injury thereby. A moth immolates itself in a lighted lamp, not because it likes the light nor on account of curiosity; the light probably has a definite chemical reaction on its muscles so that its head is perforce drawn (by the contraction of the muscles) until it is oriented towards the light aftei which its movements in Hying can only lead it to the source of light. Thus the rapidly-moving insect gets into the flame before the heat has time to check it in its (light. If one eye is covered with an Opaque CHAP. VI. | I R( »PISMS. 57 paint, the insect flies or creeps in circles, with the unaffected eye always turned towards the centre. It cannot be too stronglj emphasized that, given the requisite conditions, these tropic reactions arc hound to take place ; they are absolutely independent ol volition and many ol them can be reproduced with purelj mineral or unorganized material, being brought about by ordinary chemical ami physical forces. It follows, therefore, thai the fuller investigation of these tropisms forms a verj promising Held for research work in connection with the control ol insect-pests ; for, it we can find methods by which any particular insect may be attracted in obedience to a tropic reaction, we shall be in possession of a very powerful weapon for its control. Such attraction is usually strongly specific and often confined onlj to one sex of a particular species, both these conditions being instanced in the attraction of fruit flies to essential oils; here it is only tin males which are attracted and. generally speaking, each species is attracted by a different oil. In this case the attraction is of little practical use as only the males are caught and these have generallj fertilised the females before capture so that little actual control is achieved. But in other cases, notably in that of Agrotis ypsilon, greater success has been attained and that on a practical field- scale whereby thousands of acres of crops have been saved which in previous years had been damaged by the caterpillars of this moth. It has been found, in this case, that the female moths require to feed in order to develop their eggs successfullj b< these are laid and that during this period, which lasts a week or ten days, the females may be attracted by exposing a mixture of: Water ... ... ... 200 parts ii\ weight. Sugar or jaggerj ... ... 400 Al< ohol ... ... ... 3 Ethyl aci tate ... ; Trials of this mixture with the closely-allied Euxoa segetis in Southern India, however, have been unsuccessful, so that this mixture also appears to be strongly specific. The use of light-traps for the capture of crop-pests has already been mentioned as an obvious instance of the practical application ol a tropii reaction. But here again we require more exact experi- ments to ascertain what species of insects are attracted and in what proportions, both of the total number of individuals in a given area and of the relative proportions of the sexes, and (for each insect) the optimum meteorological conditions under which light- traps may be used, and the relative efficiency ot different values oi light both as regards strength and colour. SOME SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. VI. Ii will, therefore, be seen that, however, theoretical such a subject .is [Yopisms may scorn at first, it is one that is likely to prove ol great practical importance in Economic Entomology in the future when extended and patient experiments shall have yielded methods applicable to the control of insect-pests on a large scale. CHAP. VII.] INSECTS VND PLANTS. 5g Chapter VII. INSECTS AND PLANTS. \ other animals sustain such intimate and complex relations to plants as insects do. 'I''" re luxuriant and varie.l the flora, the more abundant and .li ompan; iin; insect Entomology INSECTS, in common will) ;ill oilier animals, derive their living ultimatelj from plants, either by feeding directly on green [eaves, living or dead wood, etc., or by devouring other animals which so teed or which in their turn have derived their nourishment directlj or indirectly from plant-eating organisms. But besides this more obvious relationship between insects and plants, there are other associations between the two groups which may lie considered In!.- briefly; such are insectivorous plants, the fertilisation of (lowers by insects, and symbiotic relations between plant- and insects. Although most insects live at the ultimate expense of plant-, yel on the contrary some plants capture insects, usually by means of a sticky excretion, and actually digest them. An example commonly found in the hills of Southern India is the little red sundew (Drosera) which grows commonly in marshy places and whose gum-tipped tentacles situated on the upper surface of the leavesglisten in the sun and give the plant its appropriate popular name; examination of these plants will usually reveal small Hies, ants and Ja-sids adhering to the gummy tentacles which bend over and absorb their juices. In die Plains also -mall insects are often found attached to the sticky fruits of a Boerhavia common in sandy places and it is probable that this sticky exudation also exercises digestive properties. The well-known Pitcher-plant {Nepenthes) also attracts insects which are drowned in the water contained in it and their soft parts dissol- ved and digested. It is noteworthy, however, that the tables are often turned and that even insect-eating plants are not exempt from attack or use by insects ; one little caterpillar lives solely on sundew 60 SOME SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP. VII. seeming to prefer the drops ol gum exuded by the tentacles, another allied caterpillar attacks the Boerhavia, feeding especially on the droplet ol gum, and the receptacle of the Pitcher-plant supports quit a small fauna of aquatic insects. rhe successful fertilisation oi flowers is secured in very various ways, but as a rule plants have developed contrivances by which fertilisation ol the ovaries is accomplished by means "I pollen deri- \ ed from another plain of the same species or, in other words, cross- fertilisation is secured as far as possible. In some cases this end is attained by means ol the wind which carries innumerable grains of pollen of which some few are blown indiscriminately onto the female organs of the same or another plant. But, in the case ol practically all our more fa mi la r flowers, cross-fertilisation is se< an d by utilizing the services of insects and it is supposed, generally -peaking, that the shapes, colours and perfumes of llowers have been elaborated to their present perfection larg"ly as a result of the com- petition between them to attract the \ i-it- of insect-. A- i- usually the case, competition and specialisation have proceeded hand in hand and, whilst some llowers have elaborated gaudy colours to attrai I insects In sight, others have specialized in the development of perfume to tempt the sense of smell of their welcome visitor- ; and it is for this reason that we tind so many handsome flowers without perfume and so many llowers which smell sweetlj but are otherwise' inconspicuous. And specialisation has proceeded further than in the mere development of general attractiveness by parti- cular methods, for many flowers have specialized in the attraction ol certain particular classes ol insects; of such cases that of the Humble-bee and Clover is a familiar instance. And most observers will have noticed that those flowers which exude their perfume towards nightfall usually have white petals which are conspicuous at dusk, at which time such llowers are visited In Haw k-moths and similar insects which only tl> alter sunset. On the other hand many insects are highly specialized bj possessing habits or structural modifications which enable them to obtain the nectar offered by the llowers which at the same tun. the} pollinate unconsciously but in the most effective manner. The development of an especially long tongue, such as is found in the Honey-bees and Hawk-moths, may be cited as an example of this, main crepusculai Hawk-moths having a tongue which is much longer than their whole bodies. In normal eases the insect, whilst taking the nectar from a Sower, touches the anthers and carries away pollen-grains which it brings into contact with the stigma ol the next llower visited, I HAP. VII.] [NSE< l- \M> PLANTS. 61 Fig. 28. — Hawk-moth //ii.s. convolvuli) feeding at flower, showing length uc when extended (natural size'. The side view ofthi ?hows the tongue as rolled up when not in use. (Original.) thus securing i ross-pollination, the structural arrangement ol the flower being such that pollen from the last-visited flower is brought to the stigma in each cast-, therein ensuring cross-fertilisation. 62 SOME SOUTH !\DI.\\ INSEl fS I D [CHAP. VII. It is impossible t<> attempt to narrate here the various adapta- tions in both insects and plants by which cross-fertilisation is secured but we may note in passing the curious fly-trap formed by ' -Section of Aristolochia, a flower which attracts flies. These are able to entei '"it not t" escape owing t" the inwardly directed hairs of the perianth tube. Alt. i tin anthers have dehisced, these hairs shrivel and ipe. ' After Knuth.) Aristolochia, into which small flies are attracted and imprisoned until the pollen is ripe when they are again released, and the methods by which the pollinia of Asclepiads and Orchids are Head ol Sphingid Moth with two Pollinia to the lefteye. 1 ii iginal.) attached to the legs or heads of insect visitors thereby ensuring a dispersal of pollen to the plants visited afterwards. There is a nd almost untrodden field in India tor anyone who will take up the Study of the pollination of flowers by different animals (insects, birds, bats, etc.). In various tropical regions, notably in South America, there are found plants which are inhabited by ants to whose use thej are perhaps specially modified. These plants have usually hollow thorns or internodes, admirabl) adapted as nesting-places lor ants which bore into them, sometimes through i spi , tally thin portion of the outer surface, and live in the spaces thus provided. In some cases the plants provide not only shelter lor the ants but also secrete from special glands a sugary fluid CHAP. VII. INSECTS AND PLANTS. 63 which serves the ants as food. I he ants, which arc usually small but provided with a virulent sting, swarm out and attack any animal which handles the tree roughly and also the leaf-cutting ants which attempt to strip the leaves. The relation between the ants and these plants seems truly symbiotic although this has been denied. The Oriental plants Mynnecodia, Hydnophytum and Dischidia are well-known examples of plants which provide special accommodation foi ants winch rush out and attack any disturber. The thorns of the large-t horned Babul (Acacia latronum), common in many parts of Madras, often contain nests of small ants (Tapinoma indicum and Cremastogaster sp./. but no observations seem to have been made regarding their exact relations with the plant. Very possibly it will be found to be a case of symbiosis. I i' ■■ '■ I • Portii F leaf of Acacia simdra, showing anl attr; i til on base el leaf stalk. (< >riginal.) sundra, another tree common in Madras, has large gland.-. which attract ants and which are situated on the basal parts of the leaf-stalks. A few insects even cultivate plants for their own use and amongst such insects in India we may specify the [pidas (Scoly- tidse), or Shot-ho'e Borers, and some of the Termites. The sponge- like comb made b\ these latter insects is well-known, being frequently revealed during excavations or when a Termites' mound is opened up. It is composed of vegetable matter which has turn passed through the bod it's of the Termites several times until ever) particle of nutritive value has been extracted, when it is built up into combs whose size and structure are often characteristic "I the particular species of builder and which provide a large surface in a small bulk. I f examination be made of one of t he-, combs extracted from a nest, its surface will be seen to be sprinkled ovei with minute snowy-white globules, which are really small fungi cultivated by the termites and eaten when they attain a proper size, not being allowed to develop beyond this; but if the comb be abandoned, this and several other fungi, normally kept within bounds by the termites, will j;row luxuriantly. Other fungi, of SOM1 SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. VII. which one is shown in figure 32, sometimes grow from the comb whilst this is still inhabited by its inmates and such fungi sometimes mark the position of a nest which is not revealed by the erection of a mound of any sort. I l I ollybia albiiminosn = Armillaria eurhi from <-< >n il > ill ( Idontotermes sp., Coimbaton 1912. in an original photo by VV. Mi I CHAP. VHI.] SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM. 65 Chapter VIII. SYMBIOSIS AND PARASITISM. SYMBIOSIS (Greek: syn, together; bios, life) is a term applied to the >tate of affairs which arises when two different organisms live in company, neither harming the other, but each on the con- trary obtaining benefil from its partner's activities. One of the most familiar examples of this interrelationship is afforded by the numerous tribe of lichens which occur so commonly on rocks and trees in all damp places. Until comparatively recently the lichens were considered to be a distinct class of plants but it is now known that a lichen is not one distinct organism but a compound of two plants, a fungus and an alga, utterly distinct in structure and in mode of life. Owing to the absence of chlorophyll a fungus can onlj obtain tin- carbon necessary to its growth by appropriating the tissues alreadj elaborated by a chlorophyll-containing (green) plant for its own use and it can therefore live only on dead or living Organic tissues. In tin case of a lichen, the fungus absorbs water and other material from the bark or rock on which the lichen is growing and can use as nutriment those substances which have formerly been part of living organisms but the non-organic mate- rials are passed on to the algal partner which is able to utilize them by means of its green cells. The alga and the fungus each make use of what the other cannot utilize and the waste, left over I) each as the result of its vital activity, is again assimilated bj the other partner. Thus the association is complete and mutually advantageous. There are many degrees of symbiosis and it is not always necessary that the partners should live permanently in company as in the case of lichens. The association may be intermittent although the benefit is mutual. A common example of this state ol things is seen in the case of cattle egrets and other birds which attend cattle and catch the flies and ticks which attack these animals. In this case the birds derive benefit by feeding on the flies whilst the cattle benefit at the same time by being rid of their parasites. The term commensalism (Latin; cum, together with, in com- panj with ; mensa, a table) is often used as a synonym of symbio- sis, but it is better to restrict this term to cases of symbiotic rela- tionships in which the common partners share tin' same food, as it seems obviously incorrect to apply the term commensalism to cases 5 66 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. VIII. such as those of Lichens and cattle-birds, in which the partners to the arrangement do not feed on even the same class of food. Some of the mites found so commonl) on the larger dung-beetles are probably commensals rather than true parasites, helping to keep their host clean by feeding on the particles of dung which get attached to the short hairs, etc., on the body of the beetle. The small winged Borborid Hies {Limosina equitans) found commonly clinging to the under-surface of the large dung-beetle i S arabceits gangetu us) probablj feed on the same substances as the beetle but are not symbiotic partners, as the beetle seems to derive no benefit from the arrangement and merely provides transport tor the flies, saving them the trouble of hunting for food for themseh es. This i- an example ol what is called Phoresie. Social insects, also, although they feed on the same food, can scarce! \ be called commensal-, because they do not belong to different species and are therefore excluded by the definition of symbiosis given above. Turning to a few examples of symbiotic relationships between insects we find th.it social insects, as partners of the one part, afford some of the best instances. Some caterpillars of the Lycaenid (blue) butterflies possess on the posterior part of the back a special gland from which they exude a sweet liquid greedily sought after by various ants, which on their part tend and protect the caterpillars; and these latter have become so dependent on the attentions of the ant- that it is found impossible to rear them un- less the ants are allowed access. Aphids (green-fly), Scale-insects, and other plant-sucking bugs are also tended and protected in a similar manner by ants who are repaid by the sweet honey-dew which is exuded on their solicitation ; but in these case-, if ants are not present or are in numbers insufficient to collect all the honey- dew, this is voided excrementitioush by the Aphids, etc., whereas the Lycaenid caterpillars do not seem able to get rid of their secretion unless this i- removed by the ants. In the nests, also, ol both ants and Termites are found many insects, belonging to almost all Orders, which are called myrmeco- philous (ant-loving) or termitophilous (termite-loving), as the case ma\ be, and which aw onlj found in these nests. Many of these insects are truly parasitic on their hosts but many of them are symbiotic partners. .Numerous small beetles, for example, found in these nests are ted by their hosts and in return exude from special glands a liquid which is eagerly sought after. In the case of some root-feeding Aphids and Scale-insects, also, ant- are known to cavate little chambers around roots on which they place these insect- which are guarded and tended by the ants in exchange for I II \l\ VII] SYMBIOSIS \M> PARAS 67 their sweet excretion. In countries with a cold Winter the ants nave even 1" is taking care of the eggs of Aphids through- out the winter, placing the young newly-hatched Aphids out on plants in Spring during fine weather but taking them back to their in bad weather or on cold nights. Fig. J.5. — Section of Xylocopa showing Mites in abdominal cavity. (After Berli We must not omit mention of the extraordinary case displayed l>\ the common large blue Carpenter Bees (Xylocopa), although this is perhaps rather to be described as an example of symbiosis than as one of pure parasitism. These bees have at the base of the abdomen a chamber in which live small mites of the genus Greenia. The mites are apparently of no use or inconvenience to the bee. although perhaps they may teed on other mites which are true parasites. Examples of true symbiotic relationships exist between many ants and Aphids, Scale-insects, Caterpillars, Fulgorids, etc., the ants tending and protecting the other insects which in return yield a sweet excretion which is eagerly licked up by the ants. These relationships may prove of great practical importance in the control of insect-pests, as the ants often deliberate] y carry scale-insects on to plants previously uninfested, and may also prevent predators or parasites from attacking their proteges. I have actually seen an ant standing guard over a scale-insect and warding off the attack of a parasitic fly which was trying to la\ its eggs in the scale. The -pillars of some of the Lycaenid butterflies, as noted above, are apparently absolutely dependent on the removal of their sweet excretions by ants and cannot survive unless the ants are allowed -s to them, and t -i i s. fact could doubtless be turned to practical The name Gieeuia, being preoccupied in Insecta, will have i" be changed. 68 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. VIII. account should such caterpillars require to be controlled as A parasite is an organism which lives al the expense and to the detriment of another organism, and this latter we call its host. Fleas, Itch-mites, Lice and Bed-bugs arc familiar examples and >onn- species of each class all have man as their common host. These are Ectoparasites or external parasites, living outside the > the host, but many forms are Endoparasites living inside the body of the host, and as examples of the latter class we maj cite the malarial parasite, the plague bacillus, and intestinal worms. Probably no ire exempt from the attacks of parasites, whether these be other insects or other animals (worms, protozoa, eti .) or plain- (fungi and bacteria). The parasite-, themselves are often attacked by other parasite's, which we call Hyperparasites, and these again may be parasitized bj yet others. Truly the poet wrought better than he knew in writing: — l)is< (leas have little fleas I 'pun theii bai em, And little fleas have lesser fleas And sii ad mfinitum. An original parasitic attack upon a hosl is called Primary Para- sitism, the term Secondary Parasitism being applied to all subse- quent attacks bj parasites. Hyperparasitism is the normal attack pecies oi p irasite upon another species of parasite and superparasitism occurs when a normally primary parasite attaeks a host already parasitized, the result generally being (in the case of insects and their usual endoparasites) that the tissues of the hosl prove insufficient to meet the needs of the latest comer so that it is forced to attack its predecessors. The foregoing paragraph technical, but it is none the less of the verj first importance to obtain a very clear idea of the final result ol parasitii attack. Insects which become pests of i rops frequently increase to destructive numbers because parasitic control is absent in insufficient and the artificial introduction of the ; irj parasites seems, to the minds of many, the final solution of the problem of control. A.nd doubtless this is so if it is clearly realised that parasites will onl\ control a species, that is to say, they will normallj keep down its numbers, but they will not exterminate it 'her. For in practice parasitism does not seem able to deal with more than about 75 per cent, of the total number of any destructive insect. It parasites are present in such large numbers that a very high percentage ol the host must be attacked to enable all the parasites to lay their eggs, they are compelled to CHAP. \ HI. SYMBIOSIS AND PARAS 69 oviposit in insects alread) parasitized, so that superpai occurs, with the result that verj few oi the parasites survive in the nexl generation to attack the possible hosts which have escaped being parasitized. The numbers both of host and parasite there- fore undergo a sudden drop (see fig. 34), the host becausi large proporl ion destroyed bj the vast numbers of parasites present. and these latter on account of internecine struggles caused by superparasitism. It is probable that in such cases the mo amongst the parasites is pro] much higher than in the the insect parasitized and this latter is therefore able to in. rease its numbers very rapidly, the parasites again increasing as their hosts provide more abundant food until the increase of the parasites once more overtakes that of their host, with the result that superparasitism again occurs and the wave of increase is again checked. 1 1 inal.) In economic work the study of the parasites of the various pests is oi the verj firsl important e and at the same time it is often a matter of greal difficult} and complexity, not onlj to find out which parasites attack any particular crop-pest, what are their lifehistories and what are their names, but to work out a] various relations between them and to decide therefrom which are beneficial and which are injurious. For it is not to be supposed (though too often taken for granted) that a parasite must be bene- ficial merely because it is a parasite. Main parasites are injurious, since the) attack insects which are beneficial. If we take I iterpillar, which is a crop-pest, and of a parasite which checks it, the I. ii' be looked on as beneficial; but this parasite maj itsell be attacked by a hyperparasite, which in its turn may be looked on as injurious in this particular case. Bui 1 ;o SOME SOI 111 INDIAN [NSE< 1 S, ETC. [CHAP. VIII. i- possible (and cases are known) that the hyperparasite is normally itself a parasite directly on another injurious insect, in which case it is beneficial. And so we have to know the lifehistory and occurrence of a parasite in great detail before we can say off- hand whether it is beneficial or injurious. This is work of the first importance which has remained hitherto practically untouched in India but which, it is hoped, will be taken up in the near future. CHAP. IX. | I HE BALANCE OF LIFE. 71 Chapter IX. THE BALANCE OF LIFE. reature lives beneath r Bui has some dangers ever) day to run," Knipe — Nebula to Man. tN preceding chapters we have already discussed Reproduction .iml Metamorphosis in insects. Lei us now take the case of an insect laying only two hundred eggs and passing through its life- cycle in one month and consider the possible number of its descendants if all attained maturity. Commencing for convenience sake on 1st January we have one fertilized female which lays 200 eggs, all of which hatch and mature by the end of the month ; on the average half of these will be females, each of which will lay 200 eggs on 1st February and by the end of February we have 100 X 200 = 20,000 mature insects, of which hall again will be females laying between them 10,000 X 200 = 2,000,000 eggs. It would be tedious to follow the increase month by month, but simple calcula- tion shows that by the end of the year the descendants would reach the prodigious total of two trillions (2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) of individuals. The human mind is quite incapable of grasping the significance of such a figure but a few comparisons may assist imagination. If one thousand of tin insects weighed only one ounce, their united weight would be 558,035, 7l8,57I,428'S ton--, and if one thousand measured one cubic inch they would cover an area of almost fifty thousand millions of square miles with a uniform layer one inch deep or would till a space of 7,862,931 cubic miles or a cube measuring 198 mil. n h side. Taking the dry sur- face of the whole earth to be fifty-one millions of square miles. they would cover the whole of this to a depth of over eighty-one 1, et. The case of the insect which we have considered above is by no means extraordinary as regards either the number of eggs deposited or the shortness of the life-cycle and it must also be remembered that we have only considered il of a single individual of one species amongst the thousands of different insects found in every square mile in India. But, alter reckoning the theoretically possible rate oi met. shown above, let us descend to facts and ask. what will be the actual number of descendants of our imaginary insect which we shall J2 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSE< in. ETC. [CHAP. IX expect on the average to iiml at the end of the year? The answer is very simple. As a rule, we shall find two individuals, only one of which will be a female, still capable of laying two hundred eggs which will hatch and complete their lite-cycle in a month, hut whose descendants will not on the average either increase or decrease in numbers. What is the explanation of the enormous difference between the potential and the actual rate of increase ? Briefly speaking, it may be summed up under the three heads of (i) adverse climatic condi- ' ) a limited food-supply and (3) the attacks of enemies, and these causes may be further summarized under the general title of i!i. Snuggle for Existence. On the one hand, then. Reproduction and Growth constantly tend to the increase both of each individual and of the number of individuals, and on the other hand the Struggle for Existence tends to neutralize these forces, which togeth stitute the Balance ol Lifeofthes] a -mule entity. On the whole, the balance remains fairly even and the numbers of any specie's in a given area remain on the average approximately con- stant in the absence of unusual environmental conditions, but the beam of the balance is never at rest but is always vibrating slightly on either side of its average position, and occasionally the be. mi swings violently in one direction or the other as dearth or disease or accident plays havoc with the numbers of the individuals or as these increase with increase of food-supply or more favourable en\ ironmental conditions. Every kind of insect or other living thing, therefore, is constantly faced throughout its whole lite with the struggle for existem has literally to succeed in the fight against competition and enemies to be able to live at all. All animals and plants are constantly engaged in this struggle and. whether their young or eggs or seeds in. 1 , be counted on the fingers of one hand or be reckoned in millions, on an average the number of any organism remains fairly constant under unchanged environmental conditions. Man himself is not exempt from the stress of competition, although his superior intellect, in the more civilized races at least, helps him to defy many of the natural checks on increase. In older and more uncivilized times it was no uncommon thing thai " \ plague upon the people fell A famine after laid them low, Then thorpe and byre arose in fire, 1 them brake the sudden foe." Even to-day in India it is not uncommon to hear of a village deci- mated by a man-eating tiger or leopard whiKt even more1 destructive are the minute organisms, such as the malarial parasite- and the ( HAP. IX. I 1 HI'- BALANCE OF I 73 bacilli of plague and cholera, which also take their toll of human life. \.s noted above, the three destructive factors which are probably most important in maintaining the balance of life arc climate. tood. and enemies. In a country such as India we Scarcely need to be reminded of the great importance of climatic influences. Print in the monsoon rainfall means loss of crops whilst undue excess may cause disastrous Hoods. So far as man himself is con- cerned loss of crops may mean famine, although here the human intellect comes to his assistance' by providing irrigation schemes to render him less dependent on the monsoon rainfall and rapid means of communication (railways, mad: ) bj which supplies may be brought in from other more favoured districts. Hut for ol animals the effects of climate in lessening the food-supply may be very serious. The subject ol enemies is so vast that it can only be stated here that it is the exception for any animal or plant to die of pure old age. At every stage of its existence it is subject to attack, within and without, by parasites which live at its expense and by preda- ceous animals or plants which kill it outright. In the fictitious insect whose rate of increase was considered at the commencement of this chapter, for every egg successfullj deposited it was seen that ninety-nine failed to reach a state of reproductive maturity, and such a stringent rate of selection is the rule in the case of insects under natural conditions of existence. ;4 SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. X. Chapter X. I N S I. C I P E SIS. re is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate that, if not destroyed, the eartb would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair.'' Darwin — Origin of species. THE word "pest" is so commonly used in connection with insects to denote injurious species thai its meaning is usually well understood, although it is difficult to give any definition of general application. Perhaps it may be said that an insect becomes a pest when by its large number of individuals it does noticeable damage directly or indirectly to man himself or to his livestock, growing crops, stored produce, or other possessions. Such damage may be of regular or of occasional occurrence and may vary from total loss to a very small fraction. Probably damage amounting to one anna in the rupee (i.e., one-sixteenth of the total produce) is the smallest amount that is usually noticeable in ordinary crops, and it is convenient to note the amount of damage in this notation, as one, two, three or more annas in the rupee. If we examine any crop under normal conditions it is very rarely indeed found altogether free from attack by insect-pests. Fre- quently half-a-dozen or more different kinds of insects will be found to he attacking it. some eating the roots, others the leaves, some boring in the stem, others sucking the juices, whilst still others eat the buds or flowers or damage the fruit. The damage clone by each inseel may he very small hut the aggregate becomes very large and it is probably a fair estimate to state that on an average ten per cent, of all crops are destroyed by insect-pests. In other words an ordinary normal crop is only nine-tenths of what would be obtained under conditions of total absence i>i damage by insects. It becomes therefore a matter of some interest to attempt to place a money value on this loss, but to do this it is necessary first of all to make a valuation of the annual output of crops. Figures are not available for the whole of Southern India hut the following table shows roughly the figures of area, outturn and value of crops in Madras only, and it must be clearly under- stood that the figures here given do not claim absolute exactitude, i that is impossible, hut they are believed t<> he approximately correct as a whole. Chap, x.l INSE< 1 PES 75 ! >0 O O O •£! .r- ^■r.fliflQ Q 4 = o o o o o o ^oooooooo oocooooo o o o o o o o O O O O O O^ ""• o o o c OOCOCOOOOOOC "O O O O O O O "■■ Q O ' - o o : o o 3 O O -fj O o o o o o _: o = — : : I I a g fiii . — ~ =' o S 5 f> - - - "o >i!-S ST..2 if ^ 2 " * « g « O -a , S.T3 = « g £ : = -a : - z ■ ■S.S51S-2 76 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS I [CHAP. \. i this table it will be seen that the average annual crop-outturn oi Madras is upwards oi eighteen hundred millions of rupees, and this fi nol include the produce of nearly thirteen million acres under forests. Applying the ten per cent, rule of insect dam e figures, we find that the destrui tion 01 i asioned by insect-pests every year maj be placed at not less than two hundred millions of rupees, of which roughly one-halt is accountable to t-pest of paddy. V el i \ en the above figures do not represent the total damage to the State wrought by insects, lor they take no account of the economic loss caused by insect-carriers of diseases to man and his domestic animals. These latter alone represent a money-value of at least six hundred millions of rupees and e\ en a small percentage on this figure runs into a very considerable amount, whilst diseases carried by the various ticks, lice, biting-flies and fleas that infest such animals are only too common. The ravages of Malaria and Plague maybe cited as those of only two hum. in diseases, both of which are solely spread by the agencj of insects, and the annual death-roll in Madras from insect-borne diseases may be placed at upwards of two hundred thousand. Nor do these details exhaust the catalogue of crime suffered by man at the hands (or. rather mouths) of his insect foes, for his various possessions — his stored food, his clothes, even his houses and all woodwork used for con- struction purposes are not exempt from attack. Totalling the damage to crops, domestic animals, stored products and other possessions and to man himself, we may therefore estimate the damage done by insects ever) year in Southern India at not less than three hundred millions of rupees (Rs. 30,00,00,000). It is sin- cerely to be hoped that, by the development and application of entomological knowledge, this enormous wastage of national wealth may be reduced in the future. Turning now to the causes which conduce to such vast losses, at least in the case of growing crops, we find that they are due as a nth' to one ol the' following conditions, (i) the placing of large areas under one class of crop, (2) deafforestisation and other alter- ations of natural features due to human agency, (3) the introduction of non-indigenous pests and crops, (4) the destruction of birds and Other i"' ; 11 eous or parasitic- enemies, although all these conditions are often mutually interdependent and sometimes inseparable. In the preceding chapter it was seen that, under the natural conditions of existence, the c-normous natural rate of increase of any species of insect is neutralized bj the destruction wrought amongst its individuals and then descendants, so that its numbers in any given ana remain approximately constant, enemies and lack CHAP. X.] [NSECT PESTS. 77 of food being the main checks on its increase; climate per se may be neglected, for it may be assumed that an insect living under natural conditions is adapted to the climate of the locality in which it lives. Taking as an example a moth which depends for its existence upon a wild jungle plant, its eggs may be parasitized before they hatch or may be discovered and eaten by sonic predaceous enemy, such as an ant; the caterpillars are also liable to be para- sitized or carried off by birds, wasps, ants or other predators before they have finished feeding and, if too many eggs have been laid on tin- one plant, they may starve or be exposed to special dangers whilst wandering in search of more food ; when full-fed, many caterpillars leave the fond-plant and descend to the ground to pupate and at sue!; times they are especially liable to attack by ants and predaceous birds and insects, whilst even after pupation they may be dug out and devoured by birds such as Hoopoi burrowing mammals or insects ; finally, when the insect has survived all these dangers and emerged as a moth, it has not only to feed but to search out scattered plants on which to lay its eggs and at this time especially a slow-flying egg-laden female is a special mark for attack by birds and other enemies. On the other hand an i' which feeds on a cultivated crop is spared many of these dangers. The crop is generally grown closely and therefore of itself provides a certain measure of shady security, so that pre ! I parasites are at an initial disadvantage, whilst the influence of dry, hot winds or other climatic factors is reduced to a minimum both as regards the direct effect on the insect and indirectly as reducing the avail- able moisture in the foodplants. There is no lack of food and this fact consequently eliminates all necessity for searching for another plant when one has been eaten up, whilst the adult female insect also is practically exempted from danger in searching for the requisite foodplants on which to lay ! The destruction of forests and other alterations of natural features at tin- hand lit man have far-reaching and often quite unforeseen influences on the flora and fauna of the areas affected. An imme- diate effect is often the washing away by rain of the soil which is the accumulation of the natural decay of vegetation during probably thousands of years and which has hitherto acted like a vast sponge tain a stable condition of moisture throughout the year, so that the climate of the disafforested area tends to become less equable. After some time a secondary jungle may spring up. or very often the land is placed under a crop, but the old condition of things has been irretrievably altered and many plants and animals which lived in the forest are unable to adapt themselves to the altered conditions and die out. The interrelations between various if animals 78 SOME SOUTH INDIAN tNSEt rS, ETC. [("HAP. X. and plants arc often so complex and the balance ol life is so deli- cately adjusted that the extinction of one tree or plant, for example, ad to the extinction of certain insects dependent on that particular tree or plant, and the extinction of such insects may have an important effe< t on other insects or plants which at first sight would not seem to be affected; but the chain of interrelationships long and complex so that the breakage of a single link gives rise to quite unexpected results. ( >ne effect of disafforesting an area which would seem obvious is that various insects, deprived of their food in the forest, would invade adjacent cultivated areas ; antl this may happen to some extent, hut probably far less often than is supposed. The fauna ^nd flora of a truly forest area and those of a disafforested area recentl} placed under cultivation are usually very sharply differentiated and this difference m ii in the Mill Districts of Southern India and still more dis- tinctly in other parts of the world, such as the larger islands of the Seychelles where there is a very strongly demarcated line between the insect-fauna of the primeval jungle and that of the cultivated area immediately adjacent. The real influence of destruction of forests on the incidence of insect pests in their vicinity is almost - indirect hut it is no less important for that, and the preserv- ation of forests, certainly in all Mill Districts, should he looked on as a national affair of the first importance. The introduction of non-indigenous pests from other countries is i vi i <. fertile source "l trouble and especially so because such pests are usually brought in by themselves without the enemies which have normally kept them in check and thus they are abb- to increase very rapidly, so that an insert, u huh in its native country Iocs little or no harm, when introduced into a new country or locality, may increase to such proportions as to become a pest. This tendency is not confined to insects but is exemplified by numerous animals and plants in all parts of the world and it is bei muing almost an axiom that the worst pests of any country are introduced ones. The rabbit and thistle in Australia, the mongoose in the West Indies, Lantana and the green scale (Lecanium viride) in Southern India, are all well-known instances of introduced organisms which have become serious pests in the new countries to whichi1 taken. The green scale is believed to have been from Brazil by waj of Ceylon. It is interesting to note th.it it was quite unknown in [86l to J. Xietner, an entomological Coffee-planter in Ceylon, who wrote a comprehensive series of " Observations on the Enemies of the Coffee Tree in Ceylon "; yet within twenty years it had gained such a footing as to lead to the ruin of the coffee plantations which had already been weakened CHAP. X.] INSECT PESTS. 79 1)> the attack of a fungoid leaf-disease. From Ceylon the s< was brought to India where it lias acquired the name oi the " Palni bug " 'in account of the damage it has done in the Palnis, but it lias occurred for many years on the Shevaroys and Nilgiris and was introduced more recently in the Anamalais and was first noticed in Coorg and Mysore in 1913 ; in the Xilgiris it lias proved a highly destructive pi and it seems likely to do consider- able damage to the coffee industry in Mysore and Coorg. The potato moth (Phthorimcea operculella) is another insect-pest which has been introduced into India during recent years ; it was originally brought into Bombay with seed potatoes imported from Italy and has rapidly spread to practically every potato-growing district in India, doing little damage to the plants growing in the field but destroying the stored tubers unless special precautions are taken, so that in some districts it has proved difficult or even impossible to keep seed-potatoes from one season to another and very heavy losses have resulted. The above are only two cases of imported insects which have become serious pests when introduced into a new country, but these examples are typical of many both in India and abroad, and it is therefore not surprising to find that almost everj civilized countrj in the world has now found it necessary to impose restrictions on the importation of plants and fruits which are liable to bring in such serious pests. It is sincerely to be hoped that India also will very shortly be in a position to debar the entry of such undesirable aliens. introduction of new crops and of more paying drains of crops already grown has not been without .1 very pronounced effeel on the incidence of insect-pests and of the damage dune by them. quite apart from the introduction of new pests from abroad. It is a matter of common observation that newly-introduced crops are more subject than indigenous ones to the attack ol indigenous insects and suffer as a rule considerably more damage. An area under the Cambodia cotton plant, for instance, which is attacked b\ Stem-weevil (Pempheres affinis), is usually much more badly attacked than an adjacent field of desi (native) cotton and a much larger percentage <>i the Cambodia plants are snapped off by a strong wind. Speaking generally, on the evidence available at present, then' seems to be a certain amounl of acquired immunity, or at least toleration, between plants and their pest> after both have inhabited the same area for a considerable period of time. Tin- process may perhaps be compared to the acquired tolerance of mosquito-bites exhibited by an old resident in the tn againsl that shown by a new-comer and in this case also there is an undoubted preference shown by the mosquitos for the blood of 80 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. X. the less tolerant person, possibly because this contains a smaller proportion oi antitoxins, perhaps merely because it is actually red i orpuscles. Be this as it may. we have some evidence to suggest thai one method foi the control of insect-pests of crops may lie in the direction of the breeding and utilizing of pest- resistant stocks ; this is a line of research on the border-line of Entomology and Botany, although the primarj investigation of resistant strains undoubtedly lies within the domain of the Entomologist, and work on these lines will undoubtedly yield valuable results in the future. ["he destruction oi birds and of other predaceous or parasitic animals which act as natural checks on the increase of insects is a subjeel oi peculiar importance in a country such as India, where so great a proportion of the population is entirely dependent on agri- culture, where mam hi i largely insectivorous as to form constant and very effectual checks on the increase oi insect-pests of crops, and yet where the feeding-habits of these birds and their importance are so little recognised bj the agricultural classes who are most com erned. It must be clearlj understood that no claim is made lure thai all birds, or even all insectivorous birds, are bene- ficial to the agriculturist. The value oi birds, and their relative values, will be discussed more fully in a subsequent chapter and it will suffice to note lure that districts in which the slaughter of insectivorous birds is permitted must expect to repay their debt to nature in the shape of an enhanced and perhaps ruinous toll levied on their crops bj insect-pests which would normally have been kept in check by the birds. CHAP. XL) THE CONTROL "I INSEt I PESTS OF CROPS. M Chapti R XI. THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. - ire i|uc les connaissa la c|iicslion parail se . i plus en plus : Its observateurs reconnaissent qu'il est impossible dc H ii ii remede general, indistinctement applicable & i ■ >ns les Insecles. Chaqut .int un mode ilc ml- utiles habitudes particulieres, il f.mdra aussi, poui ie preservation et de destru /.. s Insectes Enncmis mmon practice in cultivation is to leave crop remnants on the ground and this is a measure which is particularly dangerous in the case of cereals on account of the stem-boring insects which live on in the stubble and infect the next crop in the same or neigh- bouring fields. Cholam, ragi, paddy, wheat, and similar cereals are all affected by various stem-borers and it is a common sight to see a field in stubble from an old crop whilst alongside is a field growing a new crop oi the same kind ; needless to say, all the pests rallied ovej in t he stubble of the old crop simply move across and attack the new one. Leaving a field in stubble often also encourages the increase of Termites which are thereafter hard put to it for CHAP. XI. | THE CONTROL OF INSEI I PESTS OF CROPS. 83 food and consequently attack the next crop grown in the field especially it this is weakened by stem-borers which have also been carried over in the stubble. As a general agricultural practice, therefore, I would advocate the collection and burning of stubble nt all cereal crops immediately alter harvest, the manurial value of the stubble being more than counterbalanced by the danger of carrying over pests. But in this, as in all similar practices co-operation is essential ; for, as pointed out above, it is oi verj little use to practice clean cultivation in one field it" it is infected b\ adjacent or surrounding areas. Fig. 35.- Had cultivation from the point oi vie« of control oi Pests, old eluil. un stalks have been left in the field alter harvest, carrying over ind atti i' ting termites. (Author's original ; Leaving the crop itself too long in the ground is another form of the error noted above and is also a fertile source ot outbreaks ol insect pests. Cambodia cotton is an excellent example ol this in Madras where, tor the ^.tke ot a tew extra handfulls of inferior lint. mostlj spoiled and stained l>> insect-pests, a cultivator will often leave his crop standing in the ground until it is time to sow the next year's crop, which is naturally badly infected at the very start by the pests carried on by the old crop; the proper practice, of course, is to pull out and burn all the old crop at least three < >r loin months before the neu crop is due tor sowing in order that all the pests of the old crop may as tar as possible be starved out during the interval between the two crops. I, -A S4 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP. XI. [*he propei rotation of crops is a matter of the utmost import- ance from the purely agricultural point of view, quite apart from the question of the control of crop-pests, yet at the same time it is an obvious and practicable means to the latter end also. Not only i- it had agriculture as a general rule to grow the same crop continuously in the same soil hut. as pointed out above, such a practice is of direct assistance to the spread and increase of crop- ped. This again is a matter for co-operation between cultivators ol adjacent lands as it is obviously of little use for one cultivator to rotate his crops if his new crop follows a similar one of his neighbour's and attracts all the pests which have lived in the latter. So far as pests are concerned also it is the rule, not only that the same crop should not he grown continuously, hut that naturally allied crops should not he so grown. The potato and tobacco plants, lor example, are closely allied to one another, both belongir the same Natural Order so that pests which attack the one are ecially likely to find suitable food in the other; ginger and turmeric, cotton and gogu mav also he cited, all the known pests of the one readily attacking the other of each pair. For this on trap-crops have been recommended, the principle being that a small crop is grown before the main crop of tin- same or an allied plant in order to attract all the insect-pests into the advance or trap-crop which is then destroyed before the main crop is iilticiently grown to he attacked by insects. This is all very well in theory and in practice also on experimental farms and similar place- where the trap-crop can be grown under strict and in- telligent supervision and where it may be destroyed in due time absolutely without fail. Hut unfortunately this is not the case with the great generality of cultivators and great caution should therefore he shown in recommending the growing oi trap-crops on any general scale, for as a rule the simple-minded son ()( the -oil cannol see the necessity for destroying the trap-crop at the proper tune and does not do so; with the result that, instead of checking his pests, he simply provides them with food and helps them to thle oxer the period of normal scarcity before the main ( top l- ready lor attack by them. The growing of mixed crops is a common practice in many districts ; in the western taluqs of Bellary. for example, live or sj\ different Crops (cereals, pulses, etc.) may often be seen growing intersown in the same field. In such cases the cultivator seems to distrust placing all his eggs in one basket, hi- idea being that, if one or two crops fail, he will at least secure a harvest from the others. •A list of natura 11 \ allied plants is given on pag ( M \l\ XI. I ["HE CONTROL OF INSECT i'HSTS OF CROPS. 85 But the plan is sound from the agricultural view-point of the vary- ing requirements of different plants as regards the constituents oi plant-food available in the soil and the inter-relationships of the bacterial and protozoal fauna of the soil. There is no doubt also that, it suitable mixed crops are grown, the increase of pests in each one is reduced, such reduction, in th drill sown 1 at least, being probabh largelj mechanical and due directly to the fact that each area under one crop is separated from the next similar area bj a harm crops which are not suitable food-plants for the pests of the former; a mixed crop of groundnut and cumbu, tor example, generally shows a much lessened attack on the former by the sunil-puclii (Aproarrema nerteria) as compared with that suffered by an unmixed crop of groundnut. The extra exposure oi the moths when egg-laying and of the immature ;es when hunting for more food undoubtedly forms a direct cluck on their increase. Experiments on the growing of mixed mid bi carried out from .1 combined view-poinl of agri- cultural, chemical, entomological, mycological and bacteriological knowledge, and such experiments would doubtless proved great value in obtaining increased yields. Ploughing i^ <>i course an ordinary practice of agriculture hut it i- often no less effective in the control of insect-pests ; but for this end the ordinary country plough, which generally barely scratches the surface of the soil, is ol little use and we require an iron plo capable of turning up the soil to a depth of at least six inches. The egg-masses of grasshoppers are usually deposited a few inches under the soil and many caterpillars (e.g., Kumblipuchis) also enter the soil to pupate and these egg-masses and pupa; often lie under- ground for months throughout the dry weather until the rains awake them to new life ; if. therefore, the soil is thoroughly ploughed up at this time and large clods are broken as far as possible, most ol these egg-masses and pupa: will either be brought up to the surface and killed by the sun or devoured by insectivorous animals or they may be buried so deeply that they are unable to emei at the proper time, and perish. Here again agriculture and p control go hand in hand, tor ploughing during the dry season not only helps to check pests but, by providing a line surface mulch, moisture is conserved to the subsequent benefit of the crop. Changing the time of planting or of harvest when this can be done, either by sowing earlier or later, or by using early or late- maturing varieties ol crop, maj sometimes be used with mutism as a control-measure in certain kinds of attack by insect-pests. \ pest which appearsat a particular time of the year, for example, maj sometimes be defeated by delaying sowing until after its H6 SOME SOUTH INDI.W INSECTS. ETC. [( HAP. XI. appearance or b) sowing earlier so that the plants are sufficiently well-grown to withstand it-, attack. The various beetles (Cock- chafers, Rose-chafers {Cetoniada), and Blister-beetles) which often do serious damage to the (lowers of cereals, may be quoted .is instances ; their early stages are passed underground and are quite unconnected with the growth of the cereals and their appearance in the winged state is probably connected definitely with weather- conditions and always occurs at particular seasons of the year; if therefore the flowering of the cereals can be so adjusted as to take place before or after their emergence, damage may be prevented. The common domestic fowl and other domestic poultry, especially ducks, guinea-fowl and pea-fowl, are excellent and indefatigable insect-hunters and their assistance in cultivated areas is not to be despised by the cultivator who wishes to obtain a good outturn of crop. In areas such as cotton-fields especially fowls do excellent work in checking insects with mutual benefit to themselves and the cultivator. Very many kinds of wild birds also are largely or wholly insectivorous. Their actual food and importance are discussed in another chapter and it suffices here to note that birds such as mynahs and drongos or king-crows spend their whole lues in capturing insects and should therefore be looked on as amongst the farmer's best friends and be protected and encouraged in every way. A few perches made simply ol a cross piece of wood fastened to an upright thrust into the ground amongst young crops will provide resting-places on which birds such as drongos will be encouraged to sit, ready to swoop down on to any insect seen stirring amongst the surrounding crops. The stimulation of plant-growth by means ot manures or other methods is another agricultural practice which helps to minimize the incidence and effects of the attack of crop-pests. A plant which is thoroughly healthy will often escape attack or will at least suffer comparatively little, whereas a sickly plant will be attacked tar more readil] and its produce will be reduced to a far greater extent. It is possible plants may produce toxins as a defence against the insect-pests to which they are normally exposed and that such toxins air waste products of the metabolic changes induced by healthy growth but that, if the health of the plant is impaired by bad cultivation or uncongenial conditions of any sort, the whole ol its energies are required for growth and such toxins are not elaborated and consequently the plants are more subject to attack b> pests of all kinds ; but this idea is onlj put forward as a supposition. Irrigation, where this is possible, is sometimes a good method of control of crop-pests even when the soil is not deficient in moisture. CHAP, XL J iin: CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 87 (rickets, for example, often do a great deal of damage t'> crops in some districts. living in burrows in the ground andonly coming out at night to cut off tender shoots which they carry off to their burrows and devour during the day-time; in such cases irrigating tin affected area will drive them oul when they fall an easy prej to crows, kites, and various other enemies. The manner in which crows and kites will congn gate when fields are being Hooded is well known to everj agriculturist and verj little observation will show thai they are busj catching grasshoppers, crickets and other insects winch are driven oul ol cracks in the soil by the advancing water, e caterpillars, beetles, bugs and other crop-pests may also be mlled by irrigating the affected area, hut no general rules can be laid down. Tin- addition of a bag of CrudeOil Emulsion inthc irrigation channel sometimes helps to drive away certain pests, temporarily at any rate. The converse of irrigation. Draining, is used to control the Paddy Caseworm (Nymphula depunctalh) whose larva is aquatic in habit. The selection ol resistant varieties of crops is a subject which has hardly been touched in India but there is little doubt but that this line of work offers one of the most promising lines oi research for the future. It is ,1 inattei of common observation to any agricul- turist that particular plants or particular varieties of plants are less subject to attack b> pests than arc others grown under similar conditions and by selecting and breeding from such resistant strains we may hope to secure relative immunity from the ravages of pests. This is not a matter in which immediate results can be expected and it demands co-operation as regards the agricultural, botanical, entomological and mycological aspects of the question in the case ol each particular strain of each crop and perhaps the required qualities may vary in different districts. In the meantime agricul- turists should retain seed tor sowing from the most health) and pest-resistant plants which thej can select from their fields and should look on the selection ot the best seed obtainable as the vr\ foundation "t anj attempt t<> grow a good yield of crop. In some cases, especiall) in cereals where a large area is placed under one crop and irrigation 01 Othei control methods ate im- practicable, small patches ol a crop are sometimes found to be badly attacked In a pest. In such cases it is often possible to cut such patches and to U-a\ the affected plants to cattle as green fodder, thus ridding the remaining area of these centres of infection and at the same time making some use of the attacked plants. The use as fodder of cholam, etc., attacked bj stem-borer will not hurt the cattle but care must he taken not to teed hairy caterpillars (ktmblipuchis) mi blister-beetles to cattle, as the effects of SUCh a diet may be SOME SOI 1H INDIAN INSE< rS, ETC. CHAP. XI. serious; occasion maj also be taken to point oul the danger ■ it Hydrocyanic-acid poisoning consequent on a too liberal use oi young actively-growing cereals as fodder, but it is probable that this danger will be largely reduced it only plants suffering from attack by inserts are used. Mi advantages 01 sowing crops by means of a drill and ill planting out seedlings in regular lines lie. mne especially apparent in the control oi crop-pests bj means such as hand-picking. If a cotton-field, for instance, is planted in regular rows, it is compara- tive!} eas) to go ovei the field row by row and collect cotton-bug, or whatever the particulai pest is, and to be certain that no bushes have been left unexamined ; but it is far more difficult to make sure that no bushes have been missed out if they are planted irregularly. It is also far easier to notice the first stages of an attack in drill- sown crops and their intercultivation is more efficient ami makes it more difficult for pests to spread. Such crops, too. are more readily thinned out and the more vigorous plants which are left air bettei able to withstand the attack of pests. Mechanical mkthods. Under the heading of Mechanical Methods may be grouped those means of control which are intended to reduce the numbers of pests, either before or after they have attained destructive pro- portions, without making use of insecticidal liquids, powders or gases ; but it ma\ again be remarked that it is difficult to draw any definite line between mechanical ami insecticidal methods. Amongst mechanical means may be included hand-picking, collection b\ hand-nets or bag-nets, hopperdozers, light-traps, attraction to baits and traps, trenching, burning, banding of trees, screening, destruction of borers in trees, removal of dead tics and branches of trees, and cutting out of deadhearts. The collection of insect pests by hand is an extremely simple method which has also the merit of remarkable efficacy if carried out regularly and on the first appearance of a pest whilst its numbers are still small. If pests are allowed to increase, their numbers soon become so great that hand-picking is out of the question, but in the early stages of an attack a vigorous onslaught will often nip the outbreak in the bud. For example, in H)I2we had a small outbreak of kumblipuchi on the Central Farm at Coimbatore ; one chokra was set to colled the caterpillars and in lour days had collected several hundreds with the result that little damage was done by that brood and no subsequent broods Were even noticed ; ij thi lust brood ]\.^\ not been checked, at least two subsequent CHAP. XI.J THE CONTR01 OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. X., broods would have followed and considerable damage would have been done, as actually happened in the surrounding district under similar conditions except thai no action was taken. \ measure ol this sort is so simple and inexpensive as to be within the reach of all, and every cultivator should make a practice of killing evei pest on sight wherever met with and more especially when found On his crop in small numbers, for it is the prevention of increase that should be aimed at. It is of little use to start killing the puchis after they have attained such numbers that the crop is already spoilt. The method of hand-picking' must be adapted to the particular insect concerned, the insects being simply caught anil squashed in the hand (smooth caterpillars, large bugs, many beetles) or crushed underfoot (large caterpillars) or dropped into a pan Ol containing water with a film of oil on the top {kumblihulas, blister beetles). Or the insects may be shaken on to a sheet or cloth or into a vessel of oil and water. For the collection of cotton-bugs use is sometimes made of a tin funnel fitted into a bag in which the bugs tall ami are unable to escape. For collecting insects from moderately tall plants an ordinary umbrella, held upside down, makes an excellent tray if nothing else be available. 36. -Hand-net. « (riginal.) A small hand-net is particularly Useful for catching the more active insects which are difficult to capture with the un- hand. It is simply and cheaply made of a bag of light cloth secured around its mouth to a hoop of cane or bent wood which in its turn is fastened to the two arms of a Y-shaped branch of which the main stem forms the handle of the net. With the help of a net 90 SOME SOI IN INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CH VP. XI. oi this kind a cultivator may easily rid his fields oi flying pests such as Rice-bug, Blister Beetles and Rose-chafers, whilst it may 8 iA./.'..~:-;^ ■ ■■ .» :■■. r*** t in 1I-. . (Aul also be used fur grasshoppers. The insects caught in the net, by sweeping it unit the crop, may be killed simplj by crushing them by hand or under loot or with a flat Stone or the contents of the net may be emptied into a vessel containing water with a little oil oil top. I i,,. i net (From Madras Agricultural Calendar I'M; 14.) Foi grasshoppers a bag-net is used as this enables the whole surface ol an affected area to be worked over and practically all the grasshoppers to be swept up in the bag. The bag-net is simply a lartfe bag of cloth about four feet wide and two feet across at the mouth and live or six feet deep and tapering to a point behind. CHAP. XI. I ["HE CONTROL OF INSE( I PESTS OP CROPS. 91 The mouth of the bag is fitted at the sides (see figure 38) with two short bamboo poles each four or five feet long, to keep the mouth open an\ I R( >L I »F [NSE< 1 PES! S < >F CROPS. 93 the light, clash against the glass ol the lamp-frame and fall into the traj ol oil and water below this and arc suffocated by the oil. W-ry large numbers ol insects are sometimes caught in this way, especially on still, warm, dark, moonless nights. It i- usually nol worth while to put out a lamp-trap on bright moonlight or wind) nights. i Ol c;in.il. i Baits and traps for the attraction and capture of crop-pests are so numerous ami various that no complete account ran Ik- attempt- ed here. Many nocturnal caterpillars, crickets and other insects which hide away in the daytime are often difficult to track down and deal with but the) ma) sometimes be trapped by laying down sods of turf, planks, etc. in likely places and these may if required be baited tow .mis e\ ening with tender shoots (e.g. lucerne) and examined next morning lor the pi ; insects. Special or the attraction and destruction of certain noctuid moths by the dissemination of the smell of a liquid have been introduced of late years and have been found highly successful in No India in ial case; but such means are not within the reach ■ ordinary agriculturist. The trenching ol fields and smaller ana- such as seedb a simple and efficient method for assisting in tin- exclus creepinj such as caterpillars, which may otherwise invade A small furrow ol even a tew inches breadth and depth will often check the inroads "t sui I insei ts it the inside the trench is vertical and composed of fairl) loose -oil. ■ it SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. small steepsided pits dug at short intervals along the bottom of such .1 trench will serve .is further traps, .is the insects will gene- rally wandei some distance along the bottom ol the trench and arc therefore likelj to tumble into the pits. In the case of Kumblihulas, it sufficiently wide and deep trenches are available, a few fresh branches maj be strewn in them to provide a certain amount of l and sheltei and these may be examined and renewed dail\ and all the caterpillars found in hiding killed; but care must be taken that such branches do not provide a bridge up the sides of the trench. In cases when a ditch oi standing wat( I forms the boundary .>i a inld. a little oil spread over the surface of the water will form a barrier against invasion by caterpillar pots. Burning is sometimes a practicable method of dealing with I rop-pests, especially in tin- case of many of the hair} caterpillars which gather gregariously and often form large patches on tree- trunks. A bundle of straw soaked m oil and fastened to the end of .1 bamboo makes an efficient torch for such purposes. The burning of stubble has already been dealt with. Fires ma) also be used sometimes in the control "I Crop-pests which are attracted and killed by the flames at night and insect- may also in some cases be driven out of crops at critical times by the judicious use of smoke. Mango Hoppers, for example, may sometimes be driven temporarily out ol the trees by kindling smoky fires beneath the branches at the blossoming period when the flowers would otherwise be spoilt by the " honeydew " exuded by the Hoppers. In tin case ol trees the access ol pests may often be previ bj banding the trunk with a sticky or oily mixture either painted directlj on to the tree or applied on a band of cloth or paper fastened around the tree, A mixture of Tar and ("rude Oil Emul- sion, in equal parts, maj be recommended as efficacious and harmless to trees ; but no mixture ol this sort can be expected to last more than a short time in India- Wide bands of tin may be nailed on to the stems ol Coconut Palms to prevent the access of rats. The screening ol choice fruits and vegetables to guard them against the attack of fruit-llies and other pests is a simple and ob\ ions method ol protection. Many trees are subject to the attack ol large boring caterpillars. the larva- ol beetles and moths, which pierce galleries through the living wood and in bad cases may even kill the tree or bush so attacked. A simple remedy is to cut out the larvae with a knife and to paint the wound over with tar to prevent access of other CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OK CROPS. insects or of th fungi or bacteria. The use of the knife in such cases, though apparently drastic, is usually quite successful. Mango-trees especially are subject to attack by a common tree- boring beetle larva [Batocera rubus) anil Orange trees also are affected by the grub ol anothi i Sometimes I grub can be killed or pulled out with a piece of wire but usually it is b to cut down to it and clean out the gallery which is othei likely to give access to other diseases later on. Apiece of wire with a barbed point is used for destroying palm beetles (Oryctes rhinoceros) in their burrows in the tender shoots of palms, the beetles being transfixed on the barb and withdrawn and the burrow tarred A tree or portion of a tree which is dying or dead at Omes a suitable breeding-place for innumerable insects, mostly beetles, which teed upon dead or decaying wood, and some of these may be a source of danger to living trees if no more dead wood i- available tor them. All dead trees and branches should therefore be lemoved and used for fuel or other purposes and not Ik left standing or lying about the field-. This is especially the with rotting stumps of palms and aloes which are usually found to be swarming with the fat white grubs of Oryctes which will presently emerge as beetles to attack the palms in the vicinity. Cereals, such as sugarcane, cholam and paddy, generally exhibit signs of attack by stemborers by a withering of the central 1 which is frequently completely detached so that it comes away from the plant at the leas) pull. Such a withered central i1 is called a " deadheart " and its presence almost invariably -hows that a caterpillar is boring inside the stem of the plant. A watch should be kept for the first appearance of such dead- hearts, especially in a valuable crop such as sugarcane, and they should be rigorously cut out and the caterpillar killed to prevent the attack from spreading. Shoots so attacked are in any i quite useless ; whereas, if they are cut back as soon as noticed, new >ts will generally be thrown up and little loss result. But the importance of prompt cutting out of deadhearts lies in the preven- tion of further damage b) latei In Is of the insects concerned. riCIDAL METHi Insecticides, a- their name implies, are substances which are used to kill insects. A- a rule, they are only used when an ins ha- attained such numbers as to be a pest. Some insecticides, it is true, may be and are used a- deterrents or repellents, to drive insects away temporarily from particular areas, but as ,i rule it 96 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. only pays to use insecticides when damage is imminent or actually being done. The conditions of agricultural holdings in the Plains of India are so special thai insecticidal methods for the control of crop-pests are hardly within the means or reach of the ordinary cultivator, but even at present there is large scope for their employ- ment In Zamindars, Agricultural Stations and Associations, and by all owners of garden and orchard property, whilst in the Hill Districts the more permanent plantations of tea, coffee, etc.. have mostly found by experience the economic utility of insecticides. Insecticides are usually applied in the form of powders, liquids or gases, but only the first two of these will be considered here, as gaseous insecticides are not applicable to crops under ordinary conditions in India and will therefore be dealt with in the next under the heading of "Special Methods." Broadly speak- ing, insecticidal substances may be divided into Stomach Poisons mtacl Poisons, and it is with respect to their correct usage that some knowledge of the insects concerned is requisite. Stomach are applied to the plant which is attacked in order thai they may be eaten by the insect and kill it when taken into the system through the alimentary tract ; they can therefore only be used for insects which eat solid food, such as leaves or stalks of plants, or in other words insects which have biting mouthparts. Insects with sucking mouthparts obtain their food by thrusting their mouthparts into the plant and sucking its juices; therefore they cannot be poisoned by substances applied only to the outside surfaces of the plant and it is impracticable to inject poisons into the plant which will kill the insects without harming the plant. For sucking insects we therefore use Contact Poisons which kill them either by blocking their spiracles and so asphyxiating them or by direct poisonous action or by evolving poisonous gases; so far, however, as the cultivator is concerned, the insect is killed by Hon. Contact insecticides can of course be Used to kill insects with biting mouthparts, but it is more economical to use Stomach Poisons for these. To siun up, Stomach Poisons are applied to the plant in order that they maybe eaten by those insects which have biting mouthparts ; Contact Poisons are applied to the insects themselves, and only incidentally to the plant, in order to suffocate insects with sucking mouthparts. Before considering the insecticides themselves, a few general remarks on their application will not be out of place here. In the first place it must be noted that no exact scale of dosage can be laid down as universally applicable, although for ordinary practical work an approximately correct dosage may be used. Too large a quantitj ol an insecticide may kill the plant as well CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS Ol 97 as the insect, whilst too weak a dose may have no effect on either. What is required is a quantity strong enough to kill the insect but not strong enough to harm the plant, and this must vary according to the kind and age of both plant and insect. If a particular strength of insecticide is found to fulfil these conditions, there is no object in using a stronger dose; such will not kill the insect any " deader," whilst the extra quantity used will represent a waste of money and may harm the plant. But .1 super-lethal dose is usually preferable on the whole to a sub-lethal one, as the extra cost of labour in repeating the latter is generally greater than the difference between the two; in other words, it does not pay to apply an ineffective dosage, as both insecticide and labour are wasted without result. In the following pages are given general average quantities in which the various insecticides referred to should be used and the minimum quantity stated should be tried .it first on a small scale and only increased if found inefficacious. It must be remembered also that different makes of insecticides may varj considerably in purity. Secondly, an appropriate insecticide must be chosen with regard not only to the insect but to the plant also. It would, for example, be criminal folly to apply an arsenical poison to culinary vegetables or fodder cholam just before these were intended 1 cut for food of man or beast. Thirdly, due regard must be paid to weather conditions. It is useless, as a rule, to apply insecticides during periods of heavy rain, as they are rapidly washed off by showers before any good is accomplished. Nor is it usually a good thing to apply liquid insecticides to leaves under the hot noonday sun ; such aie best applied iii the earlj morning, which is also the besl time to apply powders, whilst the dew is still on the leaves. Poisons tor night- feeding inserts should be applied in the evening. Many insecti- cides are decomposed by the action of sunlight and weather and the use of some, such as sulphur, is based on this fact ; the applica- tion of an insecticide cannot, therefore, be expected to protect .1 plant for more' than a limited period probably two or three weeks at the most during dry weather and considerably less if rain occurs. Stomach Poisons. Of this class of insecticides the arsenical preparations known Paris Green" and "London Purple1' were first tried in India some twenty-five years ago, but their use has now been practically abandoned. I.e. id Arsenate was introduced ten and Lead Chromate of quite recent years and both are used extensively, 7 98 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP. XI. whilst Naphthaline Emulsion is also used for special crops such as vegetables, where only a temporary poison is required. Other insecticides of this class include Zinc Arsenite, Dry Paints, and I others which arc more rarely used. Lead Chromate is an insoluble yellow substance which is usually sold in the form of a paste containing about 33 per cent, or as a powdei .nut. lining about 50percent.nl Lead Chromate. Thepaste mixes better wit!) water ami is easier t<> use, three ounces of this being taken to represent two ounces of the powder, one-quarter to one-half of an ounce of powder, and half as much again of paste, being the standard dosage for one gallon of water. If Lead Chromate itself is not obtainable it may be prepared by dissolving separately in water one part by weight of Potassium Bichromate ami two parts by weight of Lead Acetate or Lead Nitrate and mixing the two solutions, when two parts bj weight of Lead Chromate will be precipitated, and this may be diluted with water to the required strength and used in the sprayer. Lead Chromate possesses these advantages, that its yellow colour makes it readily perceptible mi the plants to which it has been applied and that it is a comparatively weak poison to larger animals such as cattle. It is not, howe\ er, absolutely non-poisonous to cattle, as has been claimed, ami on the other hand, it has not always proved effective against insect-pests; on the whole it does not seem to be sufficiently poisonous to be really effective, but may for the present be recommended as a readily accessible and moderately efficient insecticide for use by those in whose hands it might be dangerous to place arsenicals. Lead Arsenate is usually sold in the form of a greyish paste but is also obtainable as a white powder ; in either case it should first be mixed with a little water to make a thin paste before dilution to the strength required for spraying. The advantages of Lead Arsenate are the facts that it does not burn foliage as a rule owing toils insolubility in water, that it remains in suspension in tin tyer with a moderate degree "l agitation, and that it sticks well to tin- surfaces ot plants. The powdered form can be dusted onto plants when the white colour shows up well, but this insecticide is usually applied more economically as a liquid spray. It is con- siderably cheaper than Lead Chromate and a much more violent poison, but does not kill insects so quicklj as Paris Green or the more soluble arsenicals. Lead Arsenate in the form of paste should not contain more than 50 per cent, of water, it should contain more arsenic than is equivalent to 121 2 per cent, of Arsenic Pentoxide and should not contain arsenic in water-soluble form CHAP. XI. THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 99 equivalent to more than 075 per cent, of Arsenic Pentoxide. The paste is generally used at a strength of 4 to 8 pounds to 100 gallons (roughlj one-half to one ounce per gallon), the powder at 2 to 6 pounds to 100 gallons of water. If not obtainable din it may be prepared from Lead Acetate (Sugar ol Lead) and Sodium Arsenate, 44 ounces of the former being dissolved in four gallons of water in a wooden or earthenware container, and sixteen ounces of Sodium Arsenate being dissolved separately in two gallons of water; these two solutions on mixing will provide Lead ate sufficient for dilution to 100 gallons. The Arsenates of Lead and other metals are about twii poisonous as the corresponding Arsenates, owing to their greater solubility in water and the gastric juices of insects and other animals. For spraying, therefore, as soluble a form of Arsenic is required as can be safely applied to plants without burning them. Sodium Arsenite cannot be so used as it injure ind hence is often applied as a weed-killer. Lead Arsenite may be prepared by dissolving separately in water six ounces of Sodium Arsenite (which is itself prepared by boiling together White Arsenic and Caustic Soda) and thirty-two ounces of L< ■ ; these solu- are mixed and made up to 62% gallons tor spraying. But, on account of the extra solubility of the Arsenite. it is better to use Lead Arsenate. Zinc Arsenite has been used to some extent in America to replace Lead Arsenate, and is claimed to be more toxic, or at least more rapidly poisonous to insects, one pound of Zinc Arsenite being taken as of equivalent toxicity to three pounds of Lead Arsenate. Zinc Arsenate has also been used as an insecticidal spray at the rate of about four pounds to 100 gallons of water. As the action of Zinc salts on animals usually induces vomiting it is probable that Zinc compounds may find a special use in preference to Lead salts in the particular circumstances found in India where it is especiallj desirable to avoid the poisoning of cattle which may accidentally feed on sprayed plants. Paris Green, usually soldasan emerald-green powder, is a double acetate and arsenite of copper and maybe called Copper Aceto- nite, although its actual 1 omposition is not fixed. It is a violent poison and may be applied dry but is betl a liquid spray ; t should be mixed with Lime in order to neutralize any soluble arsenii which may be present and which would burn the foliage. When applied dry. three to four times the same weight of air-slaked Lime is , id, led and the mixture dusted lightly over the plants in the early morning bj I a muslin 7 -A 100 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC [CHAP- XI. When used as a spray, eight to ten ounces of Paris Green are used in 100 gallons of water to which have been added two pounds of lump Lime to neutralize any soluble arsenic. The advantages of Paris Green are its cheapness and powerful poisonous action ; amongst disadvantages may be noted the fai t that it is not properly held in suspension in the sprayer without constant agitation and there is therefore risk of uneven application, that it sometimes burns the plants, and that it is liable to be washed off them very easily. If nut obtainable, it is readily made by dissolving sepa- rately 4 lb. of white arsenic in 5 gallons of water anil 5 lb. of Verdigris in 5 gallon-- of water and mixing the two liquids, which are then boiled for some time anil a little Acetic Acid added. Commercial Paris Green should contain not less than 55 per cent, of arsenic (As, O ), of which only about 5 per cent, should be soluble in water, and about 27 to 31 per cent, of Cupric Oxide. London Purple is simply Calcium Arsenite, and derives its name from the fact that the arsenite of lime formerly used was the residue from the manufacture of magenta and was therefore tinted with colouring matter, which, it is needless to add, is not necessary for it- efficacy. Calcium Arsenite is readily prepared by dissolving one pound of white arsenic in two gallons of water and mixing with a solution containing two pounds of lime. The mixture is then heated tor half-an-hour and diluted to make 100 gallons. Calcium Arsenite is insoluble in water and therefore will not burn foliage, but care should be taken to see that the lime is in excess. The original London Purple, however, was variable in composi- tion and this insecticide is not much used at the present day. When the foregoing insecticides an not available, ordinary metallic paints are usually obtainable locally in a finely powdered state and may be dusted on dry mixed with lime, Hour, or road- dust ; such paints as red lead, white le.nl. iron oxide, yellow ochre, red ochre, lemon chrome, burnt sienna, etc., may be used in this way, being simply dusted on to the crops whilst these are wet with dew by means of a cloth bag. In some eases it ,s necessary to spray vegetables or fruits which are required for consumption within a short period and under such conditions it would obviously In- extremely' dangerous to usearseni- cals or other poisons which might remain on the crop and poison the consumer. In such cases, a temporary insecticide, such as Naph- thaline Emulsion, maj be used, as this acts .is .1 stomach-poison to any caterpillars which may be doing damage and all evaporates away within about twenty-four hours so that the sprayed material may safely be eaten afterwards. It is prepared by dissolving six (HAP. XI. | THE CONTROL ( IF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. 101 ounces of concentrated size in half a gallon of hoi water and adding one pound oi sofl soap. \\\<> gallons "I kerosine are then warmed carefully in the open air over a small fire — it is scarcely necessary to remark that no attempt must be made to boil kerosine over a fire — or by placing the container in a vessel of boiling water and as much naphthaline is added as will dissolve in the kerosine (about eight pounds as ,1 rule). The two solutions are then mixed together whilst hot. half a gallon of water is added and the whole thoroughly stirred or churned up together. Lime-Sulphur, at a strength of 3 gallons of concentrated solution to 100 gallons of spray material, has A\>t) been found effei ti\ e as a stomach-poison for caterpillars although its action is very slow. Lead Arsenate may be mixed with it if required. Lime-Sulphur, however, is generally used as a Contact Insecticide, especially for Mites. (See page 103.) Contact Poisons. Contact Poisons, although actually effective against almost all insects, are practically only used in the case ol sucking insects as it is usually more economical to apply a stomach poison in the of insects with biting mouth-parts. The Contact Poisons include various Emulsions and Washes based on the use of Oils, Soaps, Rosin, Sulphur, Lime, Tobacco, Phenyle and various other sub- stances. Crude Oil Emulsion is a verj satisfactory insecticide which is largely used in India. It contains 20 pi ij soft (fish-oil) soap and 80 per cent, of crude kerosine-oil. When properly made, it forms a homogeneous mixture ami emulsifies well with water, but care should be taken to see that the oil has not separated out from the soap. If a thick black liquid is found floating freely on the surface of the contents of drums or packages, the emulsion should not hi- accepted or used for spraying plants. It is obtain- able ready-made and is usually put up in five-gallon drums which cost about seven rupees in Calcutta. It is used at a strength of about one part by volume to sixty-four ol water (half a pint to a kerosine tin). Care must be taken to see that it is properly strained before placing the mixture in a sprayer. If no strainer is available the emulsion may be placed in a bag or cloth and kneaded by hand until it has passed through and mixed with the water, which should then be churned up by means of the sprayer. Crude oil emulsion may be used against all sucking insects except those which are protected from wetting by hairs or scales; for such a rosin compound must be used. A bag of crude oil emulsion placed in the water-channel when fields are being irrigated will drive 102 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. awaj subterranean insects, such as termites, ants and root-feed- ing Aphids, temporarily at any rate, and this will sometimes give crops a chance "t recover) in cases where they would other- wise have been seriously affected. Linseed Oil Emulsion is sometimes useful, especially as it is easily prepared from materials readilj obtainable. One pound of hard snap is shaved up into fine sli< es and dissolved in one gallon of boiling soft water, which is then taken oft' the lire and two gallons of raw linseed oil added to the hot solution. I he mixture is then churned up violently by the aid of a bucket sprayer to form a smooth, yellowish, creamy emulsion, from which no free oil should separate out on cooling. Diluted with water to a strength of one part in ten, this emulsion is especially useful for scales and similar insects on the trunks of trees ; it is no1 adapt I for use on foliage. Kerosine Emulsion is made in a similar manner to Linseed Oil Emulsion, kerosine being used instead of linseed oil. In both these emulsions, whale-oil so.ip or fish-oil soap ma> he used instead of hard soap and more soap must he used if the water is hard. Rosin Compound is especially suitable foi Scalesand Mealy-bugs which are protected by their coverings against the action of non- wetting oily sprays. It is made bj powdering two pounds of common fir-tree rosin and boiling one pound of ordinarj washing soda with one gallon of water : the powdered rosin is added to the boiling solution which is continued to !>'■ boiled, adding small quantities of cold water at intervals, until the liquid (now. about three gallons) becomes clear and thin, like clear coffee. This is diluted to about one part of rosin compound in seven "I water for ordinary spraying, but may be used at a strength oi one in five if required. Rosin Wash is onlj useful against young Scales. Aphids and similar soft-bodied small insects. Ten pounds of rosin, and one- and-a-hall pounds oi fish oil are heated with one gallon of water m a 11 iron kettle until the rosin is softened ; three pounds ot Caustic Soda, dissolved in a little water, is then added and stirred tho- roughly, and the mixture diluted with water to make fifty gallons ol spra) ing material. olit Acid Emulsion is sometimes useful for Aphids, Soft [i 3 -mA loi use against ants. One pound of whale-oil soap or fish-oil soap is entirelj dissolved in about half a gallon of hot water and one pint of crude carbolic acid is added and the mixture boiled for twenty minutes adding another half-gallon of water in small quantities to prevent boiling over. The stock solution so prepared is diluted with twenty parts ol water for use as a spra ) . CHAP. XI. j THE CONTROL OF INSEC1 PESTS OF CROPS. 103 Various forms of crude carbolic and en monly sold for use as disinfectants are also useful as contact insecticides when used as a strength of about one in eighty of water. Tobacco Decoctions give excellent killing results against soft- bodied insects without harming foliage. One pound of Tobacco leaves or stems is steeped in four gallons of hot water and the mixture applied directly when cool. If soap is added, at the rate of one pound to twenty gallons, the mixture is made much n efficient. Tobacco stems and dusl applied at the roots of bushes ami to the surface of the soil aroui bles will often drive away and destroj grubs, worms and small pests. Sulphur, in the finely-divided form known as Flowers of Sulphur is valuable against Mites of all sorts. It may be used dry, being dusted onto the plants by itself or mixed with lime, flour or road- dust, or may be sprayed on at the rate of one pound in two to four gallons of water. As the inseetieidal action of sulphur is due to its oxidation under the influence of warm sunlight, it must be applied in the early morning. Lime-Sulphur, a chemical combination of lime and sulphur and which kills insects by its caustic properties, has lately come into extensive use in America as a spraj for use on dormant trees in the winter-time. It has not been used in India but may perhaps be found useful .it considerable dilution. It may be prepared by heat- ing three gallons of water in a barrel or vessel, which must not be made of copper, and adding four pounds of unslaked lime and immediately adding three pounds of flowers of sulphur previously made into a thick paste with water. After the lime has all slaked another three gallons of hot water is added and the heating continued for an hour after which another four gallons of water is added and the whole thoroughly stirred and strained. At this strength the mixture- will burn foliage and requires five or six times dilution before use; it may be used undiluted for painting bob trees to prevent the attacks of porcupines, rats. etc. Self-boiled Linn-Sulphur may also be prepared and used as a spray for foliage and is especially useful, if lead arsenate be added, as a combined insecticide and fungicide'. To make it, twenty pounds of quicklime are placed in a barrel or other suitable receptacle — copper vessels must not be used and three gallons ,,i cold waterare poured over it; as soon as the slaking is well started, sift in twenty pounds of flowers of sulphur, and stir the mixture well. The violent heat generated by the- slaking of the lime will bring about .1 chemical combination between the- lime and the sulphur. Mme cold watei is added until the n paste-like 104 fH INDIAN INSECTS, [CHAP. XI. istency. Immediately the boiling begins to subside, more cold water must be added at once to prevent further action taking place, ii the boiling is continued too long, the resultant liquid will burn foliage. Tins solution is diluted to form 100 gallons. Flour-Paste is a very simple and cheap spray-liquid which is effective against small insects without any injury to vegetation. It peels off after a day or two and leaves the growing surfaces of the plants free and healthy. It is made simply by making an ordinary flour-paste of one pound of flour in one gallon of water; for use as a spray this is diluted to .1 strength ol about eighl to ten parts in one hundred of spray-material. Mixed with Flowers of Sulphur at the rate of about a pound and a half to ten gallons, flour-paste is an excellent remedy against Mites but does not always kill the eggs so that a second application i> necessary after an interval of about a week. Flour-Paste is also very effective for use with Lead Arsenate, Lead Chromate, etc.. as a spreader, ensuring that the poison is applied evenly over the foliage. Potassium Cyanide is too poisonous a substance for direct appli- cation to plants as a spray, but is useful for checking ants, which may be nesting in fields and bunds and cherishing Aphids and Scales. Poured into their nests at a strength of one ounce to the gallon of water, it either kills off the nest or at least disables it for some time. Soap, simply dissolved in water, is sometimes valuable as a con- tact insecticide, especially against small and soft-bodied insects. Ordinary bar soap, obtainable in any bazaar, can be used if no more nauseous brand be available. At a strength of one pound to one gallon of water it acts as a contact poison, and at one pound to ten gallons it may be used for watering lawns or flower-beds to drive down grubs which are eating the roots of grass or plants ; but the amount of dilution must depend largely on the composition of the soap. Fish Oil Soap, or Whale Oil Soap is far preferable to ordinary hard soap for use against insects. It may be made by adding six pounds of caustic soda to one and one-fifth gallons of boiling water and, when the soda is dissolved, pouring in twenty-two pounds of fish-oil, stirring and boiling slowly, after which the mixture is allowed to cool, when the soap separates out. Fish Oil Soap and Tobacco Extract is excellent against Aphids and small soft-bodied insects. It is prepared by dissolving one pound of fish-oil soap in ten gallons oi wat< r and adding one pint of good tobacco extract. CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF IXSKt 1 PESTS OF < ROPS. 105 Repellents. Besides insecticides, which actually kill the insects against which thej arc used, it is often useful to employ substances which act as repellents; thai is to say, thej drive insects away and keep them from attacking the plants or areas so treated. Although the action of repellents is necessarily only temporary it is important to gh e plants, and particularly young plants, an opportu- i a critical period, such as transplantation, and it is under such circumstances that repellents may be used. Bordeaux Mixture, though more often used as a fungicide, makes the parts of plants sprayed with it temporarily distasteful to insects, it is made bj dissolving one pound oi Copper Sulphate (blue stone) and one pound of quicklime separately in water, mixing the two cold solutions graduallj in a third vessel and diluting to tin gallons for use. The mixture must be well strained. It should In tested lor any excess of copper bj dipping in a knife-blade ; if this acquires a brown deposit of copper, more lime must be added until the excess is all neutralized ; the final mixture should be as nearly neutral as possible, without excess of either lime or copper. The Copper Sulphate should not be dissolved in a tin or iron vessel, but vessels of wood, copper, glass or stoneware are all suitable. Dry Slaked J. inn-, dusted onto and around plants, especially vegetables, sometimes drives awa\ insect pests. It may be prepared by placing a little quicklime in a metal vessel and pour- ing on hot water ; the lime will slake and crumble to a verj tine powder. Flowers of Sulphur may be added to the lime when this is dusted onto plants. Calcium Carbide Residue, as removed from Acetylem generators, may also be used for protecting vegetables, mixed with earth or sand in the proportion of one in five, or one in ten in the i] j oung plants. Tobaa »tems or leaves chopped up fine, may also be dusted onto leaves as a repellent, but is more valuable when placed in a small ring around the stems of plants attacked by root-borers or subterranean Aphids oi : the top layer of soil being removed and afterwards replaced. Such insecticides as crude oil emulsion, soap, and phenyle, when added to the irrigation water at a strength insufficient to kill insect-pests, sometime- act a- repellents to drive them awaj temporarily. Copper Sulphate Solution i- used < specially for the clipping of cane sctt> before planting to keep away termites until the young 106 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSE< rs, ETC. CHAP. XI. canes have become established. A saturated solution in cold water ol harm the setts if these arc healthy ; but it they have been brought from a distance or are not quite freshly cut a solution at half the above strength should be used. Wliitewash by itself, when applied to the trunks and limbs of trees, has some valu< as a repellent and fungicide and also prevents sun-scorch. Quicklime is slaked with water, thoroughly mixed, and strained before use. In the case of permanent crops such as coffee and rubber, the scraping (if necessary) and white- washing of the bases of the stems helps to repel boring beetles, and an a dm i \turc o1 Lead Arsenate or similar stomach poison with the whitewash would probably check the attacks of porcupines on young rubber ti i Spraying Machinery. For the application of insecticides, use is generally made of some form of machine which delivers the insecticidal substance under pressure as a line mist or spray. Such machines are there- fore called "sprayers" in the case of those which are used with •ST V ■ «ZS ■■aw**-. W? , I. Applying powdered insei ticides by hand with the aid oi cloth \< ,ti li >ur oi the powdered leai paj ed with the unpowdered leaves on the right. I Vuthor' ori| in il pi liquid insecticides, and "blowers," " bellows " or " powder guns" in the cases of machines which are used for the distribution of dry insecticides in powder form. The latter type of machine is not much used in India, except in the case of a leu special permanent crops, such as tea, and for ordinary agricultural work powders can usually be distributed onto plants quite satisfactorily with the Chap. m. the c< >\ i rol < >i insei i pests i »f i m; help oi .1 cloth bag. Liquid insecticides may, at a pinch and in 'In- absence oi a sprayer, be sprinkled onto plants by the aid of .1 branch, palm-leal or brush, but this method is wasteful and unsatisfactorj and a proper sprayer should always be used if it is desired to do satisfactorj work. There arc many differenl types ol sprayers on the market, to meet different requirements and priced at various rates from about ten rupees to over one thousand rupees. ■ i inal.) The Spraying Syringe is the simplest and cheapest form of sprayer, but it is of course only suitable for verj small areas such as gardens. It is simply an ordinary garden syringe fitted with a spraying nozzle. Asa rule, an oi ozzle is also supplied so that the syringe is availabli ral work in a garden as well ~-^£ mm nge in action, showing comparative size and shape "I jet. (Author's i i van U pi as for special work as a sprayer. As it is often desirable to be able- to spraj the under surface of leaves, th should be so adapted that the jet of spray-liquid may be thrown out, when KiS L 111 INDIAN INSK< I >. KTC '('HAP. XI. desired, at right angles to the axis of the barrel of the syringe as well as in a straight line. This end is secured either by the provision of a bent collar which can be screwed on between the barrel and the nozzle or by a jointed nozzle which can in- fixed at any desired angle. In the case of the "Four <>aks" syringe the barrel is protected by a longitudinally- ribbed outer metal cover so that it is tolerably secure from inden- tation by rough usage. A Spraying Syringe of good quality costs from ten to twenty rupees and is suitable tor work in small gardens tor spraying a tew plants which may be attacked by pests. I ]• . i i. - Bucket Pump of old pattern without pr< ssure-chamber. i Author's in il photo.) The Bucket Sprayer, as its name implies, is suitable tor use in connection with a bucket or other receptacle lor the spray liquid. A kerosine tin makes a very convenient vessel and holds a known quantity of liquid (tour gallons) The Bu< kel Sprayer is simply a pump, usually of brass, titled with an adjustable footrest and a length of rubber tubing for delivery of the spray- material. In the best types there is an air-chamber, seen as a pear- shaped expansion at the Upper end of the barrel of the pump, which keeps up the pressure during the up-stroke, thus ensuring continuity in the spray. Bucket Sprayers are available in India at a cost of CHAP. XI. nil CONTROL OF [NSE< i PESTS OF CROPS. 109 about fifteen to twenty rupees each and are suitable lor small areas, such as gardens, small fruit-gardens or small anas ol crops. If a longer hose is fitted and the nozzle fastened to a bamboo it is possible to spra 3 small trees with one ol these pumps, but the waste of time and labour incurred in moving the bucket from one tree to another and the difficulty of working the pump and directing the spray at the same time renders this type unsuitable for work on anj large scale. For use around a house, r, the Bucket Sprayer is very suitable and it may ol .muse be used for such purposes as the application of whitewash 01 disinfectants. As these sprayers have no agitator care must be taken that the spray- material is kept properly mixed and this end may be achieved bj pumping it back on itself occasionally ; this applies to spraying syringes also. Fig. +5. — Bucket Pump in use. (Author's original phol Knapsack Sprayers are so called because thej are usually fitted with straps and are intended to be hung over the shoulders like a knapsack. In this type the spray-material is contained in the sprayer itself which is provided with a pump, delivery-tub noz/le. and also with an agitator in all efficient patterns. The tank contains a variable amount of liquid, usually from one to four gallons. The patterns usually imported from Europe or America . — It should lachines and formulae, thai the American gall five-sixlhs of th Ion. HO !•: SOUTH INDIAN" INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XI. generally hold lour gallons of liquid but, .is these when full weigh upwards ol t i M \ pounds, the} are too large and heavy tor the physique of the ordinary cooly, in Southern India at all events, where the weight of a fully-charged sprayer should not exceed forty pounds. Fig. 46. -Gould's Knapsack Sprayer. nected I ndle-lever and strainer fitting belou cap of fillei hole. (Author's original ] In K' sprayers the pump may be outside the reservoir or may be enclosed within it: the latter type is preferable, as the pump is less liable to injurj and is better protected from dust and ^rit. The straps should be wide so as not to cul into the carrier, and this is particularly necessary in India where these straps come into direct contact with the bare skin of a cooly. In the best types two handles are provided, our for use when the sprayer is carried on the back and the other, working up and down like a bucket sprayer, for use when the sprayer is used on the ground. For the latter purpose a footrest is necessary and is usually provided A good mechanical agitator is essential and is usualh provided in the form of a metal fi eet which moves with each motion of the pump, to winch it is attached. A strainer is an essential fitting and is usually provided in the form of a detachable metal sieve. CHAP. XI.] THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CROPS. Ill I i Knapsack Spi Knapsack Sprayers arc suitable for general work in gardens, fruit-gardens, and on crops in moderately small areas up to about five acres, ["he) arc also used extensively in the case oi permanent and valuable crops. Mich as tea and coffee, which arc grown on hillsides where it would be impracticable to use larger machines. . 112 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSE< rS, BT< . ((HAP. XI. For the ordinary cultivator, .1 Knapsack Sprayer or Pressure Sprayer u, page 113) will fulfil all ordinary requirements. It may be used for spraying all ordinary crops and. with a suitable nozzle or extension rod, for small trees up to twelve or fifteen feet high. Various patterns are obtainable in India at a cost of about thirty- five to fifty rupees each. Barrel Sprayers, so railed because they are usually mounted in a barrel which acts as the tank tor the spray-material, are larger pumps which are specially adapted for spraying on a moderately large scale. The barrel usually holds about fifty gallons and is mounted on a detachable frame supported on wheels so that it may be transported easily, the whole apparatus when full weighing some six hundred pounds; a larger tank is not practically useful under ordinary conditions in India. The pump should supply at least two nozzles at 80 to ioo pounds pressure with ordinary pumping, Pump in action. (Author's'original photo). and it should have a large air-chamber within the pump-barrel in order to maintain a constant pressure. The air-chamber should not projeel above the barrel, as such an arrangement makes the pump top-heavy and exposed parts are especially liable to break- age. For the same reason the handle and similar parts should be made of malleable or galvanized iron and not ol cast iron. A good mechanical agitator is an essential fitting and this should be of the paddle type («., a metal frame or sheet attached to and working with the pump). Some machines are fitted with agitators of the " jet " type in which a current of air is driven into the spray-liquid from the bottom of the pump-barrel ; this method is unsatisfactory in practice as it allows a loss of pressure without sufficiently agitating the liquid. The pump should be readily removable from the barrel CHAP. XI. | THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF CI 113 lor purposes of cleaning or repair, and the valves should removable and so made that they wear down evenly. Barrel Sprayers are suitable for field-work on the level and for special work such as is required for orchards or experimental crops. They eost about one hundred rupees each. On large holdings and experimental stations a Barrel Sprayer is very useful for coping with outbreaks of crop-pests but for the ordinary small holdings a smaller type of machine is generally sufficient. Forms of Barrel Sprayers (as also of Knapsack and Bucket Sprayers) have been placed on the market in India in which oil and water are contained in separate tanks. It is claimed that these may be mixed and sprayed in definite proportions as a mechanical mixture, but such machines have in practice been found unreliable in practical work and their use is now generally abandoned. l'n,. .so. " Autospray " in parts. On the left i> the pump barrel and in the foreground thi piston with ment fitting into the clips seen on top of the tanl Pressure Sprayers oi various types have been introduced of late ml it seems probable th.it these will oust the old patterns. especially of Knapsack Sprayers, from the markets of the future. In these sprayers the spray-liquid is placed in the tank and airis then pumped in until a considerable pressure is obtained and this compressed air is use. I for the expulsion of the spray-mat. rial No pumping is required therefore whilst the spraj is being applied s \ i.! .1 I 11 |\|)l w INSKi TS, ETC. h II V.P. XI. to the plants, so that the whole attention can be given to the application oi the spray and both hands an- free to direct it pro- perly. This is a verj important point, as thoroughness in spraying iv absolutely essential to success, and if most oi the energy and attention ol the operatoi is occupied with the physical labour of pumping, it is obvious that a really satisfactory application of the spray ran hardly be expected. For this reason alone. Pressure Sprayers have a verj considerable advantage over the old patterns of hand sprayers. The pump, by which the necessary pressure is attained, may be contained in the sprayer or may be separate. In the latter ease a saving in weight is claimed but against tins must be placed the greater risk of breakage or mislayalof the pump and the weight of this is very trifling in comparison with the weight of the tank and other necessary parts. For this reason, preference Fig. 51. " Vuti i pi aj " in use. ■ that onlj one hand i required to direct and control the spray. (Authoi ori| inal photo ma J be given to those patterns in which the pump is sell-contained. Some models are provided with pressure-gauges to indicate the correct amount ol pressure to which the air should be pumped; although such gauges are of course useful it is doubtful whether thej are worth paying much extra for in India where tin ordi- nary cooly is not likely to work up too great a pressure. In those types which arc not fitted with a gauge it is usually fairly easy to tell when the pressure is sufficient as the ini I difficulty in pumping in more air acts as a commonsense indi< ator. CHAP. XI. J THE CONTROL OF [NSE< l PESTS OF CROPS. J 15 In fillii « ravers n must be remembered thai space must be left for the air to be compressed and al least one-quarter of the capacity of the tank must therefore be left unfilled. Amongst the advantages of the useof Pressure S are the facts that the) are easily portable, do not leak (as is often the case with a Knapsack Sprayer) and only one hand is required to direct the hose, leaving the other free, so that a tree may be climb 1 II mi ami 1 -gallon types. (Author's original 1 spraying may be done from a step-ladder, under conditions in which the use of a knapsack hand-sprayer would be impracticable. For this last reason " Holder " Sprayers of the one-gallon 1 in fairly extensive use in Southern India for the spraying of palm- trees for control of fungus diseases, as the operator can climb the tree with the fully charged sprayer slung over his shoulder, either n a small canvas bag, mm\ can then carry on spraying with tin- aid of one hand only. Largei patterns of the "Holder" type are also available for use with ordinal and trees whilst a wheeled ten-gallon pattern is suitable for fruit- gardens and similar aieas. Pressun Sp the " Autos pattern, obtainable in Calcutta al from Rs. 30 to 35, contain three gallons of liquid, weigh 40 pounds when fully charged and have been used verj successfully in India. Such sprayers are suitable tying small areas of crops and for use around houses. We have also found them peculiarly suitable for the spraying of cattle for insect parasiti lelivered on simply turning a -\ [16 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSE< rS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. tap without any motion or noise to scare the animals, advantage of the smaller patterns of Pressure Sprayers lies in the m agitator, but, as there is no risk of spilling thi liquid, it is comparatively simple to give them ■< good shaking by hand before commencing to spray. Fig. 5 Holder " Pressure Spi ayei ol I Note that only one hand is required to control and direct the spray. Author's original photo.) Power Sprayers, in which there is a large tank mounted on a cart and eight or ten nozzles are worked at once at high pressure bj nuans of a petrol or oil motor, are in extensive use in America, but arc not likely to find much scope in India except in special cases, such as large fruit on hards or experimental stations where it ssary to spray large areas. Machines ol this type arc no1 available in India and would require to be ordered specially. They cost from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 2,000. 1'hc Selection of Sprayers, Before obtaining spraying machines it is as we'll to have a clear the work which will be required of them in order thai suit- able patterns may be obtained. It is useless to attempt to cover large areas with a small machine and it is equall) wasteful to buy a large machine to do work which could be performed as efficiently by a small one. It is poor economj to save a tew rupees in pur- chasing a spraj ing outfit and to spend a tar larger amount in extra time and labour in applying the sprays. Syringes and Bucket rs are quite suitable lor use in and around the house or in a small garden. Knapsack Sprayers are used in small areas of field Chap, xi.] the control of inse< i pests of crops. \\j crops 'it i tn 5 acres and for small orchards and gardens anil tor larger areas under permanent crops, such as tea and coffee, in districts which are impracticable tor larger machim ami of the unevenness of the ground. For the spraying of field crops over large areas it is more economical to use Barrel Sprayei Power Sprayers in all cases where the ground is sufficiently even to enable such machines to rover it properly. Alter deciding on the size of machine required it is necessary to seleet one of the various patterns obtainable on the market and in doing this attention should be paid to their relative merits in order ure the best value for money. It is impossible lure to adver- tise or recommend particular makers or patterns, but information on any points will alwaj to inquirers as far as possible. The material of the tank and of all working parts which come into contact with the spray-liquid should be of heavy brass or bronze or similar alloy. Many spray solutions (e.g. Bordeaux mixture) have a corrosive action on iron, and copper is attacked by Lime-sulphur. Xot only the tank, but the working parts of the pump itself (the valves and theii seatings, the piston, and interior of the pump- cylinder) must therefore be made of suitable material, as it does not pay to buy cheap machines of inferior metals whicl rapidly. fnciently large air-chamber should be insisted on, as its presence has a considerable effect on the efficiency "I the spray. If the chamber i- too small there will necessarily be considerable variation in pressure between successive strokes of the pump, parti- cularly in small machines, and the spraying will therefore tend to be uneven. This item is of course eliminated in the case of pressure sprayers. ssibility of the working parts of the pump is a matter to which due attention should be given. In some of the older patterns of machines the pump is enclosed in a tight case and i> practically inaccessible without great waste of time. As grit and dirt are to find their way into the pump and valves, these must occasionally be removed and cleaned and therefore their accessibility is a necessity. In this respect some of the pressure sprayers are very satisfactory as the whole pump is easily removed for inspection. The packing of the piston must on noaccountbe made of rubber but should be of some material which is readily replaceable, such as leather. Strainers are important parts of all self-contained maehin ssential to my that the spray-liquid is freed from all parti' ' which will otherwise soon wear down the valves and clO| nozzle. All spray-liquids therefore must be strained before they IIS SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. arc placed in the tank. If no strainer is provided with the machine, or if this becomes Inst or worn out, a metal funnel should be made. provided with brass wire-gauze ol twenty-five meshes to the inch ; or the liquid may be strained through a cloth. Nozzles "i manj scores ol differenl types have been introduced and used for special or general spraying and it is impossible to attempt to describe all the various patterns. Those principalis used in India are of the Bordeaux and the Vermorel patterns 01 modifications of these. Both of these are quite satisfactory foi general work and as a rule spraying machines as supplied are fitted with efficient nozzles. In the Bordeaux nozzle the spraj is produced b) the stream striking the edges of a metal lip which iks it up into a fan-shaped spray, the size of the outlet being regulated at will and governing the fineness ol the spray : by regu- lation of a tap in the nozzle the spray may be varied from a ver) fine mist to a solid stream. In the Vermorel nozzle the spray issues from a small chambei through a hole as a fine cone-shaped mist; the boh- is provided with .1 pin, ordinarily held back by a spring, which can be thrust forward through it to clear it if it becomes iped with sediment. I lose ol three-eighths of an inch diameter is generally supplied with Bucket and Knapsack Sprayers and of half-inch size for larger machines. The best quality i> the cheapest in the long run but in any case hoses will not last long in India and require renewal everj two or three years. For fastening the hose to the machine and nozzle clamps are more satisfactory than wire bands. Extension Rods of light metal tubing are very useful for the spraying of trees and tall crops. A disc of metal attached around the extension rod helps to protect the operator from drip. If. how- ever, extensive spraying of trees is contemplated, as in mango groves, it is bettei to build up a light tower on a rait for the operatoi to work from. The Upkeep of Sprayers- I 0 obtain the best results from a spraying out lit. it must be kept in good condition and working order. It is often the ease that sprayers are not required for months on end, generally in the dry hot season when no crops are on the ground, and if they are ii at this time they will be found to he nit ol order and useless just when th( . are wanted, the hoses cracked and the valves and nozzles clogged with dust and grit. To keep sprayers in good condition they must be overhauled and worked regularly, at least once a month, and water pumped through them. Barrels or other wooden tanks should be kept lull of clean water when not in use, CHAP. XI.] NIK CONTROL OF [NSEI I PESTS OF CROPS. ng care being taken to sec that mosquitos cannot breed in them. After use, the whole machine should always be thoroughly cleaned out .Hid washed through with clean water; this is especially necessary with regard to hose alter using kerosine washes, as kerosine attacks rubber and will quickly rot the hoses if these are not washed clean. When in use rubber hose should not be bent at a sharp angle nor should it be left lying about in the sun when the machine is not actually working. As noted above, all insecticides must be well strained before thej are placed in the machine-, to avoid unnei sary wear of valves and the clogging of nozzles. It is useless to keep a spraying equipment if it is not in efficient order when required for use. but by attention to the above points it should be found ready whenever wanted at short notice. Special Methods. Under the heading of special methods may be included various means for tin- control of crop-pests which are. as a rule, only appli- cable by entomological experts or at least under their direct control and which are therefore scarcely within the reach of the ordinary cultivator because they require specjal knowledge or precautions or apparatus. Of such methods reference is made here to the fumigation of living plants, the control of termites and burrowing- animals by poisonous gases pumped into their galleries by special machines, and the control of insect-pests by fungal and bacterial ases and by means of parasites. Legislative measures may also be included here. Fumigation of living plants and trees for the control of pests, such as Stales, which are very resistent to insecticidal sprays, is used extensively in other countries especially in the case of fruit- trees and has been applied in India with successful results. The only reason why this method has not been used more extensivelj in India appears to lie in the fact that Scale-insects do compara- tively little damage to fruit-trees in India. In some cases, however, it is a useful method for the treatment of a small number of affected plants or trees to prevent extension of attack. The fumigant commonly used is Hydrocyanic Acid j;as. produced by the action of Sulphuric Acid on Potassium Cyanide, and this is found very Onable precautions are taken. Plants should never be fumigated when the foliage is wet ; the best time to fumi- gate is in the early evening, so that the gas may act whilst the leaves are dry and during the night. In the case of small plants they may be covered with anj gas-tight shade, such as a light framework covered with paper tightly pasted over. For trees a tent of some sort is generally used and, if the work is being done on 1 21) SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XI. any large scale, it is more convenient to have proper tents which are clearly marked on the outside so that the cubic capacity may he seen exactly when they are erected, in order that the proper dosage of gas may be given. It tin capacity ol the tent is not known the following rough rule may be followed : Multiply the distance around by the distance over the top of the tented tree and divide by 133, the result being the number of ounces of Potassium Cyanide required for ordinary work. Thus, the distance around the tented tree being 35 feet and the distance over (from ground to ground) being 20 feet, the cyanide required will be 35 x 20 -s- 133= 5'26, or five and one-quarter ounces. For every ounce of Potassium Cyanide there are required one fluid ounce of Sulphuric Acid and three fluid ounces of water to liberate the gas. The acid is added to the water in a deep wide-mouthed earthenware vessel; the water must never be poured into the acid, as the acid and water combinJ \ iolentlj and in the latter case the acid will probably be spattered about and do damage. The tent or box being ready overthe plants to hi- fumigated, the water and acid, ready mixed in the earthen- ware vessel, are slipped inside and the weighed quantity of cyanide, loosely wrapped in clean paper, is dropped into the acid and the box or tent immediately closed down and earthed up around the bottom and left overnight. Next morning the tent is opened up. or the box lifted, and, after an interval to allow the escape of any gas remaining, may be removed. It must be clearly remembered that Hydrocyanic Acid gas is one of the most poisonous substances known and for this reason alone it should only be used under strict supervision. Potassium Cyanide is also a violent poison if taken into the system, although it is fairly safe to handle if there are no cuts or sores on the hands ; but it is always better to use gloves if any quantity is being dealt with. Sulphuric Acid will burn violently into the skin and flesh and the vessels containing it must be handled with great care. For these reasons fumigation ul trees and plants in the field should never be tarried out except under competent personal supervision. Besides its use for the control of insect-pests already attacking plants, fumigation with Hydrocyanic Acid gas has also an impor- tant use m checking the spread into hitherto unaffected localities i,i pests, especiallj Scale-insects, which would otherwise he brought in with growing plants. That there is actually great dan- ger of this may be realized from even a casual inspection oi most ol the plants, such as young mangoes, so commonly seen being carried • ,V,>,'. In calculations ol this sort, it is always assumed that the cyanide is of 1 1 rni. purity. Ordinarj commercial cyanide is often ol onl) aboul 45 per cent. j>uiity and tin i. i CHAP. XI. | THE CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS OF I ROPS. 121 In Rail from one district to another. The invasion of the Coffee Districts by the destructive Green Scale-bug should prove an objei t- lesson regarding the dangers of importation of insect-pests from one- district to another. In all cases, therefore, when living plants are obtained from a distance, the consignee should insist that the} are properly fumigated before despatch ; otherwise he may after- wards find to his regret, when it is too late that he has p more than he ordered. Fig. 54. — " Universal " Ant Exterminator. (Author's original photo.l " Ant Exterminators." Several machines have been plai i the market which are intended to pump hot poisonous gases into tin- subterranean burrows or galleries of insects such as termites ami ants. Whilst these are quite efficient in destroying the inmates of Termites' mounds ami of similar nests, they possess this initial disadvantage that, as a general rule, it is not the mound-building termites which do damage and such machines therefore are i paratively of little use in controlling the real culprits whose nests are extremely difficult to discover. It is true that an instrument is available combining a microphone and a pointed iron rod, the being that the rod is thrust into the ground so that, when it ap- proa< Iks a nest, the sound produced by its inmates becomes audible by means of the microphone. But in actual practice, in India at all events, such an instrument is found to be quite use1 As noted above, the species of termites which throw up mounds seem to be harmless as a general rule, those which attack hou woodwork and crops belonging to distinct species: but the mound builders often make their nests in the middle of roads, la gardens and similar places where their presence i- able, and in such cases the nests are readily destroyed by the u- a special machine. The "Universal" Ant Exterminator cons essentiall) of an air pump I to a small furnace from which 122 §i >ME S<3U i ll INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. leads a flexible metal pipe. For destroying a m st, a charcoal fire is kindled in the furnace and air pumped through until the fire is thoroughly hot and the metal tube is warmed through by the hot blast driven through the furnace by the pump. The tube is then thrust into one of the main galleries, previouslj opened up, of the I Destroying a Termites' Mound with the " Universal Exterminator. (Author's original photo.) Ant nest and a small quantity of a mixture of sulphur and white arsenic is dropped into the furnace, which is immediately closed and the pump worked vigorously. The sulphur and arsenic enter into chemical combination and are expelled from the metal tube as dense yellowish fumes which arc pumped into the nest, any aper- tures by which these an- seen to escape being promptly plugged with wet clay. The pump is worked for ten or fifteen minutes, more sulphur and arsenic being added to the furnace from time to time, and the pipe is then withdrawn and the nest left plugged up. If opened up after an inten a] Oi not less than three days the nest will be found to have been killed off if the fumes have penetrated pro- perly. [f opened up too soon, the effect of the fumes seems to p.iss off and the nest may recover, the main effect of the fumes being \ isible in the fungus-combs on whose culture the well-being of the colony apparently depends. Care must be taken not to breathe the fumes, as these are poisonous ; but their dense \ ellowish-white COlOUl and noxious odour renders them easily avoided. The exit pipe must be hot before the poison is added or the fumes will condense on its interior surface without penetrating into the nest. Another machine, in principle similar to the "Universal Exterminator, is one made in America bj the George L. Squire ( ompanj . In this, however, the current of air is produced by a fan « HAP. XL] THE C)\i koi. OF [NSEC1 PESTS OF (Roc-. 123 and the furnace is much larger and is placed directly over the top of the nest to be treated. Provision is also made I'm the application of the sulphur mixture through a door, closed with .1 screw-bolt, in the metal pipe joining the fan and the furnace. The possibility of introduction of the poison without opening the furnace and the use of a fan instead of a pump are decided advantages bul tl are rather outweighed by the excessive weight of the apparatus and particularly of the furnace. If the rotary fan could he fitted to a light steel pipe, provided with a sliding door for insertion of the sulphur, and this latter connected to a smaller furnace whose fu were led out by a flexible metal piping, a more useful and portable machine would he produced. I I I Lnt 1 •■ :. ..:. ' Fungal and Bacterial Diseases. The control of insect-pests art i- licialh by means of fungal or bacterial diseases which attack them and reduce their numbers under natural conditions is at first sight a very promising ami easy method. The idea of simply scattering amongst his crops a small quantity of some culture of such diseases iving this to do all the work of protecting his fields from damage is one that appeals intensely to tin- common run of cultivator who expects to obtain great results without any trouble or exertion on his own part. The success which has attended the use ol fungal enemies of some scale-insects in the West Indies is held 11 example of what may he done in India where the conditions are entirely different. Green Scale-hug (Lecanium viridej, for example, in Southern India is heavily attacked by several fungi which kill oft perhaps ninety percent, of the insects during the intensely wet weather experienced in the Coffee Districts. These fungi are well distributed, almost everj hush attacked by the stales showing them in large numbers. And yet the rate ot increase of th - LSI that it is not killed out hut merely checked temporarily 124 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XI. at the most. As soon as the dry weather sets in. when the condi- tions arc unfavourable for the growing of the fungi, the scales increase and spread and actually do most damage at this tin year probably largely because they drain the juices of the hushes just when moisture is most deficient. Endeavours to spread the fungus artificially during the wet season would seem a wast time, because it is able at that time to spread by itself prac- tically wherever the scale is, and during the dry season the conditions are unfavourable to the growth of the fungi unless perhaps these were actually placed artificially in contact with the scales, and in this latter case it would be less trouble to use .mi insecticide and kill the scales directly. One case only has been quoted, and this under as favourable conditions as are likely to be found in Southern India for the control of an insect pest by a lungus, and it may be seen that these conditions are not suitable or comparable with those in other countries in which no really dry season is experienced. And this is quite apart from the practical difficulties of manufacturing cultures of such diseases on a large scale, although this is a point of importance especially in the case (it bacterial diseases. Experiments with a Bacterial Disease of Locusts, caused by Coccobacillus acridiorum, have apparently been successful in South America, but in South Africa Lounsbury's experiments appear to show that this method is of comparativelj little use on a held scale (Agricultural Journal of South Africa. April I9I3)- Insect Parasites. — The use of insect parasites is, however, a method which is not only useful and practical but is to some extent within the reach of all cultivators. When eggmasses of pests, foi example, are found affixed to leaves of CTOpS, instead of destroying them forthwith, they may be removed and placed in receptacles surrounded by water or oil in such a way that any caterpillars which hatch out may be unable to escape, whilst any parasitic flies which emerge from the eggs may be free to tl\ away to continue their beneficial task of egg-destruction. Similarly, shoots or stems attacked by caterpillars, or pupae, maj be placed in chattit similar tight receptacles and covered over with a piece of mosquito netting or moderately fine wire-gauze, so that anj moths which emerge maj not escape whilst any small parasites may do so; but it must be remembered that not every parasite that emerges is beneficial, as some are hy perparasites or superparasites which do harm and not good. Some account oJ beneficial insects and parasites is given in a later chapter. Legislative Enactments for the control of Insect Pests aim as a rule at prevention of the importation of new pests rathei than al CHAP. XI. | THE CONTROL OF INSEI I PESTS OF CR> 125 control of those already present. The experience of .ill countries is that ii is the imported pests which do most damage once the) obtain a footing in a new country, as they increase at enormously rapid rates without the checks provided in their native land by their various parasites and enemies which usually fail to accompany them to their new settlement ; and modern rapid transit and the extension ol imports to include all kinds of living plants I greatly increased the danger of the introduction of living insects which may become very serious pests when thus introduced ii new locality. Legislation for the control of all such plant imp< into India is at present under consideration and it is to be hoped that we shall shortly be in a position to close our doors to such undesirable aliens from overseas. In many countries also laws have been enacted for the 1 ..I indigenous pests, usually by regulation of the crops which they attack oi 1>\ requiring the owner to destroy or treat infected plants or areas. Dead or dying coconuts attacked by boring beetl example, may be ordered to be cait and destroyed to present the pest from spreading and the owner of the trees may be punished if he neglects to do this, or the growing ot certain crops may he prohibited at a particular timeof the year to prevent its pests being carried over from one season to another. These art- practical propositions, actually in use in many countries, and the time is near at hand for consideration whether legislation on these lines would beneficial to the general body of cultivators in India also. [26 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XI. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER XI. The following list < > t Weightsand Measures maybe found useful for the application of Insecticides : i tola 6*58 drachms weight of one silver rupee. 16 drachms 1 ounce (oz.) = 25 tolas nearly. i'i ciinicvs 1 pound (lb.) = 8 chittaks. 28 lb. 1 quarter (qr.) = 14 seers. -112 11>.) 1 hundredweight (cwt.) = i maund, 14 seers. 20 cwt. = 1 ton 27*222 maunds. 10 tolas - 1 chittak. 8 chittaks = 1 seer. 40 seers = 1 maund = S2 lb. 1 Madras maund 40 seers of 24 tolas t\« li 5 fluid ounces of water = 1 gill. 4 skills = 1 pint = 10 chittaks. 2 pints = 1 quarl 1 seer, 4 chittaks. 4 quarts — 1 gallon = 5 seers. 1 fluid ounce weighs one ounce, nearly. 1 pint of water weighs 1*25 lb. 1 gallon of water weighs 10 lb. One American gallon is onl) five-sixths "fan English gallon. An ordinary kerosine tin contains four gallons of fluid, an ordinary whiskey bottle one-sixth of a gallon. 1 gramme = i5'432 grains — "032 ounces 1,000 grammes = 1 kilogramme 2-20 ll>. 1 ounce = 28"35 '^T'-Xu ■ 1 pound 4S3"58 granules ; '454 kilogrammes. 1 litre 35 1. oz. 1, pints = -22 gallons. 1 gallon 4-54 litres. i cubic metre of water = 220 gallons. 25 millimetres (mm.) one inch, approximate 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre (cm). 1,000 millimetres = 100 cm. — 1 metre = 39'37 inches = 1*093 yards. 1 yard = '914 metres. 1,000 metres 1 kilometre 1*609 English miles. 1 mile '621 kilometres. ire metre = 1 centiare = 10711 1 sq. i et, 100 sq. in tn s 1 acre = "024 acres. CHAP. XI. | Till- CONTROL OF INSEI 1 PESTS OF CROPS. 12/ 10,000 sq. metres 1 hectare 2*471 1 acre = -.105 hectares. 1 14 sq- inches = 1 sq. ft. 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yard, jo', sq. yds. 1 sq. | 40 sq. poles = 1 rood. ods = 1 acre = 4,^40 sq. yds. - i sq. mile. 128 SDMI-; SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XII. Chapter XII. I'll I CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS. •• I all nature swarms «iili life : one wond'rous m.i> i it animals." Thom i In dealing with the various tacts concerning [nsect Pests it is convenient to be able to arrange them in some definite method with the object of facilitating reference to the information available about any particular insect, its occurrence, life-history, relationships, control. Such information may be classified in various ways, the particular method adopted being adapted to the special requirements in view. We may. for example, divide insect-pests firstly into those that are noxious to man himself and his domestic animals cither by direct attack or indirectly by conveyance of disease or causing loss, and secondly into those which cause loss by attacking his growing or harvested crops or other inanimate possessions. Those insects included in the first category may again be subdivided according to — (a) the animals attacked. (/>) the diseases carried, or (c) whether the insect is an adaptive or a casual carrier. It is, however, chiefly with insects of the second category that we are more immediately concerned and these may be divided .11 cording to — (a) the object of damage, e.g., (i) Pests ot growing crops, (ii) Pests of stored crops, (iii) Household pests, etc- ; (/>) the extent of damage. i.e., whether a major pest regularly causing considerable loss of the crop or other object attacked, or a minor pest of regular occurrence but causing relatively inconsi- derable damage', whilst either of these may be sporadic or local or, in other words, may occur occasionally but not regularly or ma) only do damage in a limited area. rhe above headings ma j be still further subdivided, so that pests of growing crops maj be considered under the head of cereals pulses, tobacco, coffee, etc., and pests of cereals, for example, may be considered separately as pests of paddy, cholam, cumbu win', it, etc. Finally, all injurious insects, whether causing disease or damaging crops or stored products, may be classified according to CHAP. XII.] THE CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS. 129 their own natural affinities and the various Orders, Families, Genera and Species to which they belong. This method has the great merit of conciseness, because many of the commonest and most important crop-pests attack several different crops and it would entail a large amount of repetition if an account of each of these pests were to be given under the heading of each different crop. The list of crops (pages 240 — 263), however, shows the various insects which attack each and will serve as an index to the insects known to attack such crops and reference to these insects in the systematic list of crop-pests will, it is hoped, facilitate their recog- nition and assist in their control. In order to help still further in this, the succeeding chapters contain brief notes on the more common and important crop-pests classified simply as Caterpillars, Beetles, Grasshoppers, eti . Ho SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII. Chapter XIII. CATERPILLAR PESTS OF CROPS As caterpillars do the- tender leaves,'1 bereaves, Shakespeare— Sonnets. " Thus arc mj blossoms blasted in the I .u< i, And caterpillars eat my leaves away." Shakespeare. THE great Order of Lepidoptera, comprising the butterflies and moths of which upwards of ten thousand different species occur in Southern India, is the most important of all groups of insects from an economic point of view and includes about forty per cent, of all our insect pests of crops and stored produce. With rare exceptions it is only in the larval stage that these insects do damage, the adults feeding on the juicy excretions of plants, although a few groups especially amongst the butterflies have depraved tastes for animal Fig. 58. — Ailanthus excelsa defoliated by caterpill ! \nia narcissus, Di embei • Vuthoi 's original photo.) food and in some moths the mouth-parts art' rudimentary, the adult insect not feeding at all. A few moths (Ophideres) have the tip of the tongue provided with teeth b) means of which they are able to penetrate the outer skin of fruits whose juices they suck, and both the Indian Deatl ontia styx and A. lacliesis) are CHAP. XIII.] CATERPILLAR PESTS OF CROPS. 131 persistent robbers of honey and are often found inside bee-hives. But, with these few exceptions, it is only in the larval or caterpillar stages thai the Lepidoptera require consideration as crop-pests. A ■ aterpillar is easily recognizable as such by the presence of prolegs or false legs, stout fleshj legs situated in pairs on the seventh and succeeding segments of the body, the head being reckoned as the firsl segment. Except in the case of a few of the more generalized Microlepidoptera, of no economic importance, more than live pairs of prolegs are never present and the number is frequently smaller. This point immediately distinguishes cater- pillars from the larvae of beetles, wasps and flies, in which no prolegs are present, and from those of the leaf-eating sawfiies, lac. lillar of Death's-head Moth (Acherontia Lterpillar may do considi to Erythrina and other plants which are superficially verj like caterpillars but which possess more than five pairs of prolegs. In some cases the number of : may he reduced to two pairs when the caterpillar progress reaching forward and grasping an object with its thoracic (true) le^s and then, arching up it- intermediate segments, brings forward its hinder end and grasps the resting surface: the two extremities are therefore alternately approximated and separated by the whole length of the body. Such a structure and method of progn SS 9-A 132 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII. especially characteristic of the Geometrida (literally "earth-measu- rers "). commonly called " Loopers" or " Spanworms : " but in many Noctuid larvae (e.g., Plusiand, Catocalince) some of the anterior prolegs may be absent or little developed so that the caterpillar progresses partly by walking in the ordinary waj and partly by arching the segments on which the legs are ineffective, sue! pillars being called " Semi-loopers." In some cases the prolegs, though present, may be greatly modified; in the case of the lobster caterpillar {Stauropus alternus, see figure 270) the posterior legs, or anal claspers, art- modified into long slender filaments, and in many case-bearing caterpillars, e.g., Psychida and Eublemma scitula (see figure 242) the prolegs, not being used for purposes of progression, may he obsolescent or much modified. In the case of leaf-miners, (e.g., Phyllocnistis citrella) the legs and prolegs may be entirely absent, when the larva is said to be apodous (footless) ; but such larvaa are necessarily so minute that they are not likely to come under common observation. The structure and habits of caterpillars, sometimes even within the same families, are often so modified or specialized in accordance with food or habitat that it is difficult to classify them as a whole in any satisfactory manner. But, if attention is confined solely to those which do damage to growing crops, they may be placed in groups of which the most important are borers in the stem, shoots and roots, fruit-borers, leaf-eaters and leaf-miners. Fig. 60. — Injection Syringe foi wood-boring larvae. (Author's original pfa Boring caterpillars are found in almost every kind of crop and attack various parts of the plant, although as a rule each different Chap. Jan.] caterpillar pests oi Crops. 133 insect has it-- own peculiar method of attack and bores into similar parts of plants even when these belong to different 1 rops. A tunnel ma> be bored in the interior of the main stem, whether the plant attacked is .1 temporarj crop su< h .is paddy or a large tree such as terpillar may attack the roots or the growing shoots, bul ind method of injury are usually characteristic of each -1 iterpillar. Stem-borers, from the very nature of their attack, are often diffi- cult to control because it is usually impossible to reach them either with a contact or a stomach poison. In the case ol those tonus Arbela, Azygophleps and Zeuzera), which bore into the main stem of permanent crops (mango, agatlii, coffee, tea), the presence .iterpillar is usually marked bj an a< i umulation oi fragments gnawed wood below the burrow, whose entrance may then be Led and a mixture ol two parts of chloroform and one part of creosote injected into the gallery by mean-- of a syringe. Where temporary crops. such as cereals, are attacked by stem-borers, the only remedj is to pull out and burn the attacked plants, if these are only a few, to prevent extension oi the attack; but, as a rule and in the case of all our important pests of cereals, the damage is so wide-spread that a remedy of this nature is out of the question and moans of control must aim at prevention rather than cure. It lOSsible that the destruction of the adult female moths by means ol light-traps or similar methods may be found practicable in the oi paddy, cholam and ragi. In the case of mi-permanent crop such as sugarcane it certainly does pay to cut out promptly all dead-hearts which indicate the attack of stem- borers, as this practice, if thoroughly carried out. will help to (heck the attack and will at the same time increase the yield because new shoots will be thrown up to rep attacked which are very hi mi sugar-content. we may quote Phassus malabaricus as an example, but there are few true caterpillars which attack plants below ground- level in India. Pests "t this 1 I ticularly difficult to check and the uprooting and destruction 0 eems to be the only practical remedy. Main caterpillars bore into the growing shoots of plants. One oi the commonest in Southern India is Terastia meticulosalis which bores into the tender shoots of Erythrina ami seriously stunts the growth. The onl) remedy in such cases is to cut back the shoots beyond the larval burrow and to paint the cut end with Crude Oil Emulsion or other repellent to prevent the moths from ovi em-rally have a withered appearance which is characteristic ami are therefore easily re- cognizable. The Cotton Boll-worms (Earias spp.) often bore into 134 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII. the shoots oi young cotton fore any bolls are put forth and the collection and destruction of all such attacked shoots at this ■ I oi the year is a very important m< asure <>i control tor these moths in order to prevent their increase later on and consequent destruction of the bolls; the removal of these affected shoots not only controls the Boll-worms but often induces extra production of new shoots and (lowers on the pari of the plant, so that the subse- quent crop is not onlj saved from attack hut is actually larger than it would otherwise have been. Under the general heading oi " Fruit-borers" may he included all caterpillars which feed on the fruit or seeds of plants. ()l this class tin- Lycaenid butterflies pro- \ Lde se\ era) examples, the caterpillar ol I 'irachola isocrates feeding in Pomegranates and those ol Catochrysops cnejus and Polyommatus bceticus boring into the pods of leguminous crops and devouring tin seeds. The last-named butterfly may in this manner he a verj serious pest in localities where Crotalaria is being grown for seed. as much as thirty per cent, of the crop being destroyed sometimes. ( itching the female butterflies by means of hand- nets is practicable in the early stages of an outbreak, but little can be done if the attack is really serious. The caterpillar of Chloridea obsoleta (Heliothii armigera) is a well-known and destructive pest of Gram, the larva eating a hole through the pod into which it thrusts its head to devour the seeds ; in this case spraying with a Stomach Poison is practicable because the caterpillar does not remain on one pod hut cats its way into several. Cotton seed in Southern India is extensivelj attacked by the pink ■ aterpillar of Gelechia gossypiella ; this pest seems to be encouraged by the leaving of old bolls on the cotton-hushes and prompt and regular removal of all ripe bolls will probably keep it in check. Pyroderces coriacella, a minute red-brown moth which has also been reared from cotton-bolls, may feed mi the seeds also but is appa- rent!) an unimportant pest and perhaps onlj a scavenger. Several fruits are attacked b) various caterpillars. Litchis commonly contain larvae oi Argyroploce illepida, which bore in the stone, and peaches arc sometimes bored by the caterpillai of Dichocrocis punctiferalis, which is a very general feeder in fruits. Stems and I I Ol many plants. The destructive Codling Moth, i irpocapsa) pomonella, which has been re< orded I nun Kashmir, is not known to occur in Southern India, although it may very possiblj he found in the Nilgiris. rhe number oi leaf-eating caterpillars is so vast that only a very general ai count can be attempted here. Many Iced exposed on the leaves whilst Others Iced within the rolled or folded leaves. Owing to their feeding habits they can be controlled fairly readily by Knmbli-pu I tcta albistriga). (Madras Agricultural Department illustration.) CHAP. Xlll.\ i \ I ERPILL \K PES (PS. 1 35 means oi a - Poison when found feeding on crops, but, as in all pest-, foresighted prevention is the best remedy. The 1 .oopers and Semi-Ioopers already mentioned belong to this group .ind the latter include Achaa (Ophiusa) melicerta whose greyish caterpillar is a common pest of Castor; it is best controlled by hand-picking in tin- early stages <>t an attack. The Hairj Caterpillars 01 "Woolly Hears" are well known in Southern India under the names of " Kuniblihula " or " k'umbli- puchi," terms which are applied loosely and indiffen very different species, rhose ot th< gi ttest economic importance are the larva- of several of the Arctiada (Amsacta spp, Estigmene lactinea and Utetheisa pulchella), most of which feed rathei indiffer- entlj on almost any low-growing crop, although Utetheisa is a spe< ifi< pest of Sann-Hemp. In the case of the species of Amsacta, which are often very destructive to crops especially in North and South Arcot, the moths generally emerge from the pupa] state after the first heavy showers of rain received in July-August and there may be two or three 'ion-, before tin- end of the year, the pupae remaining in the soil from about December until the next July ; but the emergence of the moths is often irregular and maj be spread over a prolonged period. The brownish, hairy caterpillars feed normally on low- growing weeds but readily invade and attack crops of almost all kinds, causing great damage. When they are already in large numbers, little can be done except to keep them out of the cropped areas as far as possible by trenching; as usual, the best means of control is by prevention and this maj be don, bj a vigorous attack on the moths themselves when they first emerge and before they have time to lay eggs. The first emerj the moths is fairly 1 li Mel conspicuous, so that thi be 1 ollei ti d and destroyed in large numbers, thus directly checking subsequent increase. The eggs .\n- laid in batches and hand-picking ot the caterpillars, immediately thi en, should also be done. Cutworms is the term applied to the caterpillars of certain moths of which Euxoa Agrotis (segetum) is a common and destructive pest in the Hills. ["hese caterpillars hide during the day under stones or clods or in the soil itself and only issue forth at night to Iced. when they cut through the stems of young plants at ground-level and feed on the leaves, the destruction done by them being greatly increased by their habit of cutting through many more plants than they actually consume. These Cutworms are extremely difficult pests to « ontrol. As they hide by day. they are difficult to find and it is by no means easy to kill them with a Stomach Poison, as they 136 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIII. avoid the sprayed portions of plants and, rather than eat such, burrow down and feed on the roots. Swarming Caterpillars or Army Worms arc so railed because they sometimes appear in immense numbers and, having eaten all the food available in one locality, migrate en masse into crops which they ravage from their mere numbers. Paddy Seed-beds and Grass- lands are especially liable to attack by these caterpillars. The best remedy, as a rule, is to keep them out by trenching. In the case of Paddy Seed-beds these may be flooded if possible anil ducks pi. n n\ in them to eat up the caterpillars. Leaf-miners are of little economic importance in themselves. Iln\ live between the upper and lower surfaces of leaves, eating out the green matter and often leaving a tortuous track which shows .is .1 white "mine" on the leaf. The commonest lepidopterous leaf-miner is perhaps Phyllocnistis citrella, whose legless caterpillar mines in young leaves of Citrus. In the case of many Stem-borers, e.g., Chili> simplex in Cholam, the young larva,' may at first burrow into leaves, but these arc hardly leaf-miners in the strict sense. Many caterpillars confine themselves to one plant or at least to species of plants which are naturally allied to one another and in dealing with such we can therefore assist control by judicious rotation of crops. But some caterpillars feed on many different plants and are therefore called " polyphagous " (lit. many-eating). hi the control of caterpillar pests it is necessary to consider the conditions in which the pupal state will be passed. Many cater- pillars (Kumblipuchis, Cutworms, Army Worms) pupate in the soil and ploughing or suitable disturbance of the ground after they have pupated may sometimes be used in order to destroy the pupa?, cither by exposing them to the sun or to birds or by burying them so deeply that the moths will not be able to escape. Other cater- pillars pupate in rolled leaves, either on the plant or in old dead leaves which have dropped to the ground, ami the collection and destruction oi these will help in reducing the numbers of the sin reeding broods. Stem-borers usually pupate in the stem of the attacked plant, often low down at about ground-level, so that the pupa; are hit behind in the stubble when the crop is cut ; destruction i.l llu stubble is indicated as a remedial measure in such cases. CHAP. XIV.] GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. 137 Chapter XIV. GRASSHOPPERS, < RICKETS AND TERMITES. swarming in the shrubs and trees, i, earwig, hectic families. Ants, whiti ire busy in the soil, Their dwellings raising with ingenious toil. Locusts are feasting to their hearts' content, Anil with Cicadas' shrieks the air is rent. re chirruping amongst the plants, lilies thickly crowd in land anil water h May, dragon, caddis, snake and scorpion tlie- i I'er pools and marshes in their myriads rise. And, spite of foes without and civil strife, The insect world keeps pace with higher life : Spreading in countless hosts through wood and brake ho of insects shall a census take ?) hill and dale, by sea and lake and pond. I'p in the air. upon, and underground." Knipe — Nebula to Man. The idea of Grasshoppers as crop-pests usually calls up recol- lections of descriptions of hordes of locusts flying in vast swarms from one district to another, darkening the sky during their flight and instantly making a barren wilderness of the places where they alight. Such flights of locusts are well known in many parts of India and occasionally the Bombay locust ( ' Cyrtacanthacris succincta) migrates from its breeding-grounds in the Deccan into the districts of Bellary, Kurnul and Anantapur in large flights which would be very destructive were it not for tin- fat t that they usually take place m June when there are practically no crops on the ground in those parts. So far as Southern India is concerned, therefore, locusts are only occasional and rather minor pests, but the damage done Of various kinds is very large in the aggregate. because some species at ]. . 1 1 all times of the year, and their accumulated damage throughout the year all over the Presidency probably totals to considerably more than more striking loss caused by locusts in a more limited area. Ihe Bombay Locust itself occurs regularly throughout Madras, not. however, as a swarming locust but as solitary individuals. Another commoner and closely-allied form is Cyrtacanthacris ranacea which is the common large spotted grasshopper of cotton-fields. In Bellary and Kurnul a winglos grasshopper (Colemania sphena- rioides) has achieved notoriety of late years as a pest of cereals and n,S SOME soil II INDIAN INSECTS, ETC'. [CHAP. XlV. pulses in the period from Jul} to ( >ctober, in some places destroying practically the whole of the crops. A large greenish grasshopper (Hieroglyphus banian) is a special pest of paddy, particularly in Malabar and South Kanara, and often does considerable damage to this crop and more rarely to sugarcane and maize. A brown grasshopper (Epacromia tamulus) occurs commonly throughout the plains, feeding on a varii I >1 which we may specify ragi, cholam, cumbu and daincha, and is especially a pest of these crops in Madura and Tinnevelly. A small narrowly- built green species ( Atractomorpha crenulata) occurs commonly all over the low-country on various plants and is especially a pest of tobacco, brinjal and Amaranthus. A small, slender, greenish grasshopper (Oxya velox), often with reddish forewings, is found throughout the plains as a minor pest of paddy, cholam anil Fig. bl.—Chrotogonus. (Original.) ne. Finally, a stoutly-built, flattened, short-winged, earth- coloured grasshopper {Chrotogonus spp.) is found commonly on the ground everywhere and is a minor pest of almost all low-growing crops. Detailed descriptions and figures of these various grasshoppers will be found further on. For the ordinary cultivator it is not try to know more than that the insect doing damage is a grasshoppei a tact easily verified 1>> noting that the hindh | much larger than the others and formed for leaping as the habits are much the same m all. as are also the methods to be adopted. pt lor their quiescent period whilst in the egg-state, j hoppers do damage throughout their lives, for they eat vegetable matter throughout all their periods of growth and also during their adult condition. The eggs are always laid in masses in the ground and often remain there during definite seasons for months at a time ling, SO that agricultural methods such as ploughing iptei \li at sui h seasons n i a chance oi them before they emerge at all. If. however, the grasshoppers CHAP. MV.l GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. 130. have hatched out ind are found actually doing damage, the only practical method of control is to catch them in bag-nets or hopper- dozei pter XI). Spraying with a stomach-poison is only possible in very small are Under natural condition-, grasshoppers arc kept in check by various natural enemies of which the most obvious are birds. Mynahs, as tl \cridotheres) implies, are great huntei and each bird must destroy dozens of these insects every day. Kites and crows also are often ful by feeding on grasshoppers, especially if these latter are present in large numbers, when the birds often make a concerted attack and devour very large quantities of the insects. Birds of this use- ful character are obviouslj invaluable to the farmer. The Blister- beetles, which in their adult state are themselves crop-pests, during their larval stages seek out and attack the egg-masses of grass- hoppers in the soil and destroy them, and these beetles form a very important check on the increase ol grasshoppers in some districts. The endoparasitic enemies of grasshoppers have been little studied in India, but several flies ol various species are known to attack them and destroy them. Crickets are of little importance in Southern India except as quite local pests. Those species f Brachytrypes, Gryllotalpa) which do damage to crops differ from grasshoppers by their habit of living in burrows in the soil during the day and only coming out to feed at night. As their attack is often very localized, it is some- times practicable to spray the plants around their burrows with a stomach-poison, but as a rule the simplest plan is toflood them out, where thi> can be done, when they are perforce driven from their burrows to fall a prey to crows and other birds which quickly congregate during all irrigation operations. Termites, commonly but incorrectlj called " White Ants." are in nowise related to the true ants, nor are they always white. To the popular imagination there is onlj one kind of " White Ant," which throws up the well-known mounds and attacks indiscrimi- nate d dead w ood, but as a matter ol fact then are numerous different species whose habit- arc entirely distinct. different species occur in Southern India I have found a dozen distinct kinds within the limits of the \ cultural Farm at Coimbatore some of which attack growing crop- and tree.-, others bore into the solid wood of living tret's, others confine their attentions to dead wood and other vegetable matter. whilst yet others feed only on grasses or lichens and are hem little economic importance. It will then en that, when Termites are found to be doing damage, it is first of all necessary 14" SOME sol III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. Xl\'. to distinguish the guilty species in order to apply appropriate remedies; it is, for instance, ol no use to set to work and destroy all the mounds in the vicinity, if the guilty variety is not the mound-builder at all. Fig. 63. < a ti ol a rermite Odontotermes horni . 1. Worker; 1. Soldier; 3, Winged Adult. The smaller outline figures show the natural sizes. (After Bugnion.) To understand anything about Termites it is necessary to con- sider briefly the main tacts in their social economy. Apart from immature forms, we can distinguish in each colony three distinct social States or i astes workers, soldiers, and sexually adult indivi- duals. In the case of the workers and soldiers, of each of which castes there may be two or more sizes according to the species concerned, the individuals are distinguishable as males and females, but their sexual development is arrested at an immature stage. The workers are so called because thej are the labourers of the community, foraging foi food, tending and feeding the young, and excavating and building up the nest; they are readily recognizable by their vertically-carried heads with small broad jaws. The soldiers derive their name from the fact that tin \ act endersof the colony, accompanying the foraging parties of CHAP. XIV.] GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. I41 workers as guards and running out to repel any attack on the nest by grasping, or at least threatening, the intruder with their jaws, which arc large curved, pointed, and carried horizontally in front of the head ; in many species the soldiers also discharge a sticky liquid from a special gland in the head. The sexually mature I ermites are most familiar as the winged individuals which swarm out of the nests, usually during the onsel "I the monsoon; these are males and females and maj often be observed to pair off in couples, the male following the female in single file, both running rapidly over the ground in search of some convenient chink or hole in which to hide. As soon as a couple has paired off in this way. and sometimes sooner, the wings are thrown off by an apparently voluntary muscular action, breaking off transversely near the base across the line of a natural suture and leaving the stump of each as a small triangular scale attached to the thorax. Birds, frogs, lizards, ants and insects of all sorts, even cockroaches and muscid flies, devour the winged Termites as they issue from the nest and very few escape; but a few pairs do burrow into the ground or into trees according to the species, and excavate a small chamber in which they probably pair and certainly do lay a small batch of eggs which presently develop into workers and soldiers. The colony gradually ^rows until there are enough workers to go out foraging and sufficient soldiers to defend the nest and in the meantime the original foundress grows larger and larger until, in the case of some of the mound-building species, her body becomes as long and stout as a human finger, and at this stage she is nothing but a vast reservoir of eggs, which she extrudes at the rate of at least 30,000 a day, and this probably during a period of several years. The original male also remains in the nest but scarcely increases in size beyond that attained when the royal pair originally took to wing; he is generally found in the royal cell, in which the fcm.de or "queen" is enclosed, although he often escapes and is overlooked in opening up a nest. It is not correct to say, arguing from analogy with bees, that the queen Termite is only fertilized once, after which the male dies, for a male is ,ilv> found if the nest is opened up carefully ; occasionally there may he two, rarel) three or more, females, but I have never found more than one male. In the case <<\ some of the more primitive spei which live in wood, it is known that the ultimate caste assumed by an individual can he modified by special feeding whilst it is still young, so that an individual which would have become a soldier can be made to become a sexual female, and in this manner colonies of such Termites are able at will to replace their queen, if she should perish by any accident, by a substitute which is called 142 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIV. a " neoteinic " queen. In the case of the Indian species of Termites, however, there is no evidence that this can be done : in fact, there is a considerable balance of evidence against this and. in the case of some Termites at least (Eutermes), it has been shown that the caste of the young individual, i.e., whether it is to be a soldier or a worker, is already fixed before its emergence from the egg, although this does not necessarily prove that, by special feeding or other means, the ultimate form cannot be modified. Still, in the case of all ground-living species of Indian Termites, it is fairly sate to assume in practical work that the queen of a nest, once removed, cannot be replaced and that a colons deprived of its queen will dwindle and die out. In this connection it must be noted that nests, and especially mounds, often contain two or more species of Termites living in close contiguity and care must betaken to see that a queen which may be found and destroyed, belongs to the species which it is required to check. I ig. lit. -Soldier of Odontotermes obesus. (Micro photo bj W. II. Harrison from a specimen determined bj Professor N, Holm In the case of damage bj Termites, therefore, the first requisite is a definite knowledge of the species concerned. This known, endeavour must be made to locate its nest and to destroy this. In ,.,,. ,,i nests in beams or trees it maj be possible to inject poisonous gases with the help of a pumping machine and this may also be used in the case of mounds or nests in the ground where CHAP. XIV.] GRASSHOPPERS, CRICKETS AND TERMITES. 143 these can be located. In thi ds it is usually practi- cable to dig down and find and remove the queen, or one or two dynamite cartridges maj be exploded in the mound, all the openings into which have previously been well closed with wet claj . [f tin- nest cannol be located, the only thing is to endeavour to prevent attack by the use of some deterrent. For example, if the Termites are attacking the bark oi trees, these maj be painted or to prevent the access of the Termites; a mixture of Crude Oil Emulsion and Tar, half and half, has been found satisfactory, and various mixtures can be made from materials locallj available. In the case of sugarcane setts, which are often attacked when newlj planted out, it is useful to dip them before planting in a strong solution of Copper Sulphate, which usually wards off attack ; [*ermites iOdontotermes sp.) on Rain-tree [Pitliecolobiiiw Samaii I. Note tli.it the bai lead, is not attacked. (Author's original photo.) until thi stablished themselves. When growing crops are attacked and the-: ted 01 irrigable, the placing of a bag of Crude Oil Emulsion in the water channel will sometimes drive the Termites awaj temporarily. In tl garden plants, watering th a weak solution • >! Phenvlc will UMialh have a 144 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIV. similar effect ECainit is also said to act as a deterrent, although there seems to be little actual evidence on this point. If irrigation is not practicable, shallow trenches may be dug and filled with any dead vegetable matter {e.g., branches, dead leaves, old cholam stalks) to attract the Termites from the adjacent crops as far as possible and, when this object is effected, the contents of the trenches may be set on fire to destroy the Termites wholesale. But, as a rule, very little can be clone unless the nests can be located and destroyed, and this is very rarely possible, as they may be ten or twelve feet below ground and give no indication whatever of their presence. In the case of buildings, constructional limber which will be exposed to attack should be treated before it is placed in position, either with one of the various specifics advertised in the market or by soaking in a solution of Sodium Arsenite for a couple of days followed by a good coat of tar when quite dry. If Termites make their way into a house, as they often do when the bricks are of poor quality or badly laid, the only thing is to open Up their galleries and to endeavour to inject poisonous fumes with a special machine so as to reach and poison the queen if possible. It is of very little use, in all cases, to kill a small number of the foraging parties, workers and soldiers, and to expect a remission of attack thereafter; unless the nest can be readied and the queen killed, no permanent results will be achieved ; but by the use of deterrents, it is sometimes possible to get crops over a critical period after which they are less or not at all liable to attack. CHAP. XV. I BUG PESTS. 145 Chapter XV. BUG I' E s IS. "Why, shameless shepherd, pluck me . Ill forest lawns, I love them, Ami I love a lunel; i But tin one thing thai I h • Is a shepherd's ringer i our fruit-tree filchers, catch them, ht, ami kill them t.... But why my green leaf giiulge me, And mv tin; Bayley — Sabrinoe Corolla. 'ESTS arc characterized by the p ucking thrust into plants or other food and suck up the on which alone they live. This sucking tube is plainly long slender jointed rod \\ I is attached to the lower surface of the head and whose tip is generally carried along the lower surface of the body between the pairs of legs ; it may be noted that the tube, as seen, is only a sheath for the very slender closed therein and which are the true suctorial organs. No biting jaws and therefore they are not able to eat leaves and for this reason Hug Pests cannot be controlled by stomach poisons. For purpo inomic entomology, plant bugs ma, tlj be divided into three classes, (i) active bugs, which fly or run actively over foliage and from one plant \< , semi-active bugs, such as the Aphids, which are always small in died and gn iccurring in masses, the individuals active but nol in practice moving about to any extent, and (3) fixed bu^s. such as the Scale-insect-, which attach themselves rmanently to particular parts of the plants they attack and which are usually protected by a hard or filar wax} shield. Speakin nerally, this last class contains which are especially pests of permanent crops, such as tea, mango, rubber and coconut, whilst the first clas tains insects which are particularly pests ol (cereals, pulse-, oilseeds, cotton, etc.). I46 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XV. i the point of view of control-measures the above divisions, though artificial, possess a real importance, because different methods of control have to be practised in regard to each of these ] tive bugs, which are sometimes quite large insects and which are rarely minute in size, arc as a rule too large and active to render feasible the operation of spraying even with a contact insecticide but on the other hand their size and habits admil of the satisfactory use of mechanical measures such as catch- ing them by hand or in hand-nets or bag-net-. The second class, of semi-active bugs, contains insects such as Apliids. Psyllids and Aleurodids, which are minute in size, soft- bodied, and gregarious in habit. They are therefore best dealt with by means of contact sprays such as crude oil emulsion or tobacco wash. The third class, comprising the fixed bugs, includes practically only the Scale-insects, which are often found in large numbers within a small area and this is so, not because they are gregarious bj habit, but simply because their radius of spread is circum- cribed . and which are often protected by a filamentous or shield- like waxy covering which secures them from the wetting effects of rain and hence of ordinary aqueous solutions oi spray-material, On account ol this waxy covering, therefore., it is usually advisable to apply a spray which contains rosin, this substance having a peculiar wetting effect on the waxy covering of the Scale-insects. The insects themselves are described and figured further on in this book and we can only mention here a few of the more important of the Bug Pests of crops. Of the active bugs, the most injurious is probably Leptocorisa varicornis, a long slender greenish bug which attacks paddy, sucking out the milky juice of the grains just as these are formed; it is easilj caught bj means ol hand- Rio bug /Leptocorisa nets and is also attracted to light al """"""s' ' Ml,hl- night whilst its numbers should be ill Ii tidar, 1913-H , , .,,.,. checked as tar .is possible in the first b) due attention to the clean condition of the bunds sur- rounding paddy-fields, as this bug will breed on wild grasses and invade the paddy when this is ripening. Dysdercus cingulatus, a brick-red bug with a black spot on each forewing and peculiar whitish edges to the segments on the underside of the body, is a common and destructive pest of cotton, piercing the bolls with I. and sucking the contents'ol the young seed, staining thelint and spoiling the seed either for oil-extraction or for sowing ; CHAP. XV.] BUG PESTS. 147 it is often accompanied by Oxycarenus iattis, a very small brownish bug which is found chiefly in old bolls which have been left unplucked after they are ripe : both of these bugs are easily collected by hand and shaken into a pan of oil-and-water. irticularly attacked by Coptosoma cribraria, .1 small rounded brownish-green insect which looks at first sight like a beetle and which feeds particularly on beans and other iminosae; it is verj active on the wing and cannot be colli 1 by hand, but it is generally rather gregarious and can be caught in large numbers by means of hand-nets. Aspongopus janus, a large red-and-black insect, is sometimes a pest of vegetable plots ; it is easilj caught by hand. In the Hills the mosl important of the active bugs are (1) Antestia cruciata, an occasional serious pest of coffee which it damages by sucking the berries. (2) Helopeltis antonii, the well-known " Mosquito Blight" of tea, cacao and cinchona, (3) Cyclopelta siccifolia, a stoutly-built dull black bug which is sometimes a serious pest of Erythrina but is usually gregarious and easily collected by hand, and (4) Anoplocnemis phasiana, a very large dark bug with curiously-shaped hindlegs, which is sometimes a serious pest of young Erytfwina when these are planted out as shade-trees. One bug, which deserves mention here because of its curious habits, is Aphanus sordidus, an elongate dull dark-brownish insect which sometimes congregates in large numbers on threshing floors and similar places where oil-seeds or cereals, such as gingelly, groundnut or cumbu, are collected, the bugs, which may be present in very large numbers, running off with the seeds, which they suck, in such quantities as to constitute a serious loss unless they are nth swept back with the aid of a broom or branch. In the second class, of semi-active bugs, reference must be made to the various species of Psyllidae, Aphidae and Aleurodidae d cribed further on ; but it may lure be noted that some of the Aphids tnt-lice live on I I the plants they attack and special methods musl b< t tl fixed bugs, thi G : [Lecanium viride) is the most notorious, and incidentally it provides an excellent example of the danger of the introduction of insect pests from id. It is believed to have been originally a native of Brazil whence (whether dip Mrical it was carried to Ceylon and then into Southern India where it has now spread practically into all the coffee-growing districts in some of which it has absolutely destroyed the whole of tl In appearance it is a small, inconspicuous, light-green, oval, flattened scale, which is found as ., rule clustered along the veins and mid-rib on the underside of lea1 10 A [48 ! SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XV. ; young twigs. The only control method which can be advised at present is a vigorous attack on this scale immediately iticed, to endeavour to keep it at least within bounds; rosin compound is probably the best insecticide to apply. The shade- trees of coffee estates suffer from various scales, which may affei t the coffee as well as the shade-trees ; the only satisfactory control- is to eliminate all varieties of trees which are subject to such attacks. Cotton is attacked by three or four Scale-ii sometimes very heavily indeed, but the attack is usually quite localized, often confined to a single plant, and such plants arc best pulled out and burnt, their neighbours being examined at the same tunc to see whether they have been infected also. Except in i permanent crops, such as coffee, tea, rubber, fruit- trees and palms. Scale-insects are of comparatively little importance in Southern India, but in the case of such permanent crops they maj do great damage and every endeavour should be made to check outbreaks of Scale-insects at the very beginning, as soon as they are noticed, and before serious damage has occurred; for the rate ol increase of these little ins 0 rapid that, by sheer numbers, great damage ma> be done in spite of their minute size individually. In particular, great care should be taken that, when fruit-trees or garden plants are brought from a distance, the\ have not brought .my of these insects with them, and this end can only be achieved by insistence on proper fumigation of the plants by the sender before despatch. ( HAP. XVI.] BEETLE I'l • ' >PS. 14'' Chapter XVI. BEE I II. PESTS < >F CROPS. Itural communities through ignorance of entoi cal fuels is verj plant has its insect enemies, or, more correctly, its inset t i^his in its luxuriance, bat n fork, it may be of if fruit, ti has been estimated that evei a . is which habitually fce bj night and may do considerable damage by feeding on leaves of plants, (.'specially of ornamental plants in gardens, such as roses. In such cases they may either be collected by hand at night by shaking the plants over trays or sheets, or the plants attacked may be sprayi Lead Arsi nati r/eetened with a little treacle or jaggery. A light- trap, made by suspending a lantern over a tray of oil-and-water, will oil. n Jin ii t the beetles in large numbers and may be used as a control-measure supplementary to either of the above, but light- traps by themselves will not usually afford protection. It is not, however, only the beetles that are destructive, for the larva; live in the soil and do considerable damage by feeding on the roots of plants. They are white, fleshy grubs, with three pairs of thoracic legs and with the tip of the curved body usually swollen into a blunt 1) rounded extremity. These grubs usually live just at the roots of grass, coming closer to the surface in wet weather and re- ng further down during dry spells. Thej are very difficult to control, as ordinary Hooding will not drown them and the appli- cation of insecticides is impracticable on anj large scale, tho gardens, where flower-beds or grass-lawns are attacked, watering with soap-solution or phenyle or any similar deterrent will drive them away temporarily. Ploughing will often bring them up to the surface when tin iWS ami other birds, and as their life-history is usually very definitely limited In seasons, lasting at least a year as a rule, it is possible to arrange an operation such as ploughing to take place during a period when these insects are in the grub stage, with the express purpose of ing as many as possible al thai time. In the Nilgiris espe< i.dly these larvae an- well known under the name of " White- grub," and at certain times of the year the whole countryside, gardens, fields, plantations and grassy downs, is infested In these grubs, which live just below the ground and ica\ upon the roots of plants. The gardens at Ootacamund are much troubled by these pests, whose ravages commence in August and cease in the dry 1. Aiioniala olivieri. Slip.: 1. A. pallida : 3. A. rcgiua. N'wm. ; identi Melasma barberi, slip.: 6, Scrica iiilgircnsis, . Holotrichia rcpetita. Slip.: R. Aitorctus ovalis. Bl. : ". Hnlotrichia fcrta. Slip.: 10. Auomala ifinicollis : 11. Popillia chlorion . 12, Serica pilula. Slip. l( >riginaUphoto l>y Dr. ('. A. Barb CHAP. XVI. | BEETLE PESTS OF CROPS. I5i weather alter January, the beetles flying in the early evenings immediately after the first rains in April and May. As the flights of the various species concerned are apparently extremely local, the •i the beetles in April-June, by light-traps, by hand- catching, and by the use of poisoned sprays, will usually lessen . onsiderably the damage done by the grubs in the later months of ear. I .69.- Oryctes rhinoceros boring into sugarcane. (Original phot Murugesan from a specimen found at Coimbatorc, October 1913.) Closely allied to the cockchafers are the Rosechafers (Cetoniadce), differing by their more flattened shape, their brighter colours and their diurnal habits. They attack flowers rather than leaves and are often a serious pest of cereals, such as cholam and cumbu, devouring the flowers so that no grain is formed. Their 152 SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. |CHAI\ XVI. life-histories are practically unknown bin they arc believed not to do so much damage as cockchafers in their early stage> ; they are. however, of similar habits in appearing at definite seasons of the year. Collection by hand in hand-nets or by picking the beetles or shaking them into trays of oil-and-water is the best method of control. Fir,. 70.— Beetle Posts of Palms. 1. Oryctes rhinoceros, l.n- i; !, !, 0. rhinoceros, beetle; 4, Rhynchophorus ferruQineus, 1 . Rh. ferrugineus, I icnltural Depai tmenl Li iflet.) CHAP. XVI. | BEETLE PESTS OF CROPS. 153 Another ally of the cockchafers is the Palm Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) which bores into the tender shoots of palms, aloes, and sionally into In this case it is only the adult beetle which does damage, the larva living a harmless existence as a fat, white grub win. d commonly in decaying vegetable matter dead leaves, manure pit-, rotten wood, dead aloe or palm stems, etc. The beetle itself not only does considerable dan boring through the tender unexpanded leaves ol palms, bul its tunnel provides a suitable entrance forthestill more destructive Red Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus ferruginous) which is thus enabled to lay its eggs in the tender growing parts of the palm from which its larvae burrow downwards into the stem and, when in large numbers, may kill the tree, whose rotten stump presently becomes a suitable nidus for the larva- of the palm beetle. So that it will best-en that these two beetles are to some extent mutually interdependent and that the damage done by one is completed and amplified by the other. Manx beetles bore into the solid wood of growing trees or bushes in their larval Stage and do very serious damage to the plants so attacked. The longicorn beetles in particular have white wood- boring larva.1 which are usually long, stout, cylindrical, with distinct nents and well-developed jaws. In the case of the larger grubs which bore into trees, of which Batocera rubus in mango and rubber and the coffee borer (Xylotrechus quadripes) in coffee are well-known examples, the larva may be cut out and the wound painted over with tar, a drastic remedy which is usually quite successful. But the besl method of control is prevention by hand- collection of the beetles when these emerge before they have opportunitj oi laying their eggs; one coffee-borer killed at this time may save twentj hushes bored by grubs lati Soni- of the Buprestidse arc also wood-borers in the grub stage, their white larva being usually elongate and with a curiouslj dilated thoracic region. Sphenoptera gossypii is a local pest of cotton in Bellary whilst S. arachidis attacks groundnut ami Leguminosse practically throughoul the plains, being an his pest of groundnut in South Arcot. The only thing to be done in the case of these small borers is promptly to pull out and destroy all the plants attacked by them. Though a true longicorn ami wood-hour in it- carls stages, Sthenias grisator deserves special mention, as the beetle has the curious habit of girdling twigs of Erythrina, rose, etc., by seizing them in its jaws and ringing them completely by biting through the bark so as t" .f his renowned sire." VERY few Fly Pests of crops arc known in Southern India as yet. although it is probable that further research will bring to light many more cases of damage by these insects. In all cases it is only the larva or maggot of the fly which does damage, the adult insect itself being harmless. The Fruit Flies comprise the most numerous and important of the Fly Pests and, as their name implies, they attack various species of fruits, both wild and cultivated. The eggs are usually thrust into the fruits whilst these are still unripe and the maggots tunnel into the pulp and utterlj spoil the fruits which may be turned into nothing but a crawling mass of maggots. The fruits most subject to attack in this way are oranges, mangoes, peai guavas, and almost all cucurbit getables such as pumpkins, melons, etc. The prompt collection of all fruit seen to be attacked, as soon as the attack is noticed, and of all wind-fallen or rotting fruit lying on the ground, is an obvious course to take in case of attack by these flies, in order to prevent them from breeding as far as possible; such fruit should be boiled or thoroughly burnt or buried deeply underground with at least two feet of well-beaten earth over it. In the case of valuable fruits, Mich as those intended for Exhibitions, they may he protected by enclosure in muslin ba^s, but these must be applied whilst the fruit is still small. If it is known that fruit-trees are likely to be attacked thej maj be protected to some extent bj spraying them with a mixture of 3 lb. sugar, 3 oz. Lead Arsenate in 4 gallons of water. This spraying should be started when tin- earliest fruits are about two-thirds grown antl should be continued until all are ripe, being renewed at least once a week and promptly after every shower of rain. The object of this spraying is to attract and poison any female flies- which may be present and which would otherwise lay their eggs 158 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVII. in the fruit. Certain strong-smelling oils, such as Citronella and Kerosim. arc known to exercise a powerful attraction for the males of certain species of fruit-flies and exposure of pans of water or fly-papers baited with these oils will destroy the males in large numbers ; but in practice it is not found that the quantities so destroyed have much influence on the oviposition by the females. Young cholam plants are sometimes attacked by a fly-maggot which bores in the stem just about ground-level and which may do considerable damage. It is believed that this pest, whose exact identity is not known, attacks healthy plants, but it may possibly pro\ e to beonly a follower of an attack by stemborcr (Chilo simplex). No remedy can be recommended except increase of seed-rate and subsequent thinning out and burning of all young plants seen to be attacked, the attack being marked by a characteristic yellowness and drooping of the young plant. Sometimes more than one maggot may be found in the same stem; the brownish pupa is found in the larval burrow. The Red-gram Agromyza, whose exact name is not known, attacks red-gram, the female fly piercing the pods with its sharp ovipositor and laying eggs singly inside their skin. The maggot on hatching feeds on the seeds inside the pod. Sometimes more than one maggot is found in a single pod, the only outward sign of attack being the minute ami almost invisible hole through which g was thrust. When full-fed the maggot pupates inside the pod and after a few days emerges as a minute shining black fly. This pest is kept in check by parasites, and no remedial measures can be suggested at present. Another species of Agromyza attacks cowpea, lablab and green gram, the larva; boring into the stem and the plants so attacked withering. This fly is sometimes a serious pest of young plants. The Cecidomyiadae form a family of Hies comprising a large number of minute species, manj of which have earned notorious reputations in other countries as crop-pests, but few have been noted hitherto to do damage in India. Two species, however, have lately been discovered at Coimbatorc, one of which (a species of Contarinia apparently very near the West Indian C. gossypii, but distinct) attacks the buds of cotton-plants into which the larva bores so that the buds drop off and fail to mature; the other, which may be called the Gingelly Gall-fly in the absence of .m exact determination, attacks young gingelly capsules and prevents their proper formation in a similar way, a wrinkled twisted u.ill being produced instead of a fruit. It is probable that further work will bring to light many more destructive species of CHAP. XVII. J l-'LV PESTS I IF CROPS. 159 Cecidomyiadae whose minute size has hitherto allowed them to escape notice. A Blue-bottle fly (Pycnosoma flaviceps) has proved a local pest of toddy in South Kanara. the flies being naturally carrion feeders in tlu-ir early stages and bring bred in immense numbers from the fish offal and other refuse of the Fishing Industry on the West- Coast. The flit's hast' been found to fly inland as far as forty miles and to congregate around the spathes of toddy-palms in such numbers as to suck up all the juice .is fast as il exudes, besides fouling- the toddy-pots with their excrement. Fuller details will be found in Leaflet Xo. IV. of [913 issued by the Madras Agricultural Department. 1 72. — Protectivi linsl todd) flii . 'I rom Madras Agricultural tmenl Leafli t No. IV of 1913.) Flies are extremely important, both to man and animals, .is carriers of diseases (see Chapter XX). So far as crops are con- cerned, however, they are of comparatively little importance in India. 160 SOME SOL 111 INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. Will. Chapter XVIII. PESTS OF STORED PR< >DUCTS. "To the terrible utilitarian a bushel of peas preserved from the weevil is of more importance than a volume of observations bringing no immediate profit. Vet who has ii man of little faith, thai whal is useless to-day will nol be useful l i If we learn the customs "1 insects or animals we shall understand better how to protect It is by the accumulation iractical or other- wise, that humanity has done, and will continue to do, lietter today than yesterday, and than to-day. If we live upon peas and beans, which we dispute with the weevil, we live also by knowledge, that mighty kneading trough in which s is mixed and leavened." EVEN after the agriculturist lias grown and harvested Ins crops and paid his toll to the innumerable insect-pests which attack his produce in the field, he is by no means freed from the undesirable attentions ol yel another class ol insects winch now proceed to levy their dues upon his outturn, whether this be stored for food of manor beast or retained for the sowing of next season' Not only are cereals attacked but seeds of all sorts, and scarcely any manufactured products of vegetable or animal origin are free from destruction, for some oJ these pests of -lined products are not only voracious but also almost omnivorous, so that it has aptly been said of one of them that its food is "everything cast-iron." These insects have been very little investigated in India; most of them art bet ties, but there are also a few small moths which do damage of this nature. The following is an incomplete list of the destructive species so far as these are known : Coleoptera: Silvanns surinamensis 'see p. 2ox>), Lcemophlceus minutus, JEthriostoma undulata, Tenebroides mauritanicus(seep. 289), Lophocateres pusillus, Carpophilus dimidiatus (see p. 2SS). Rhizopertha dominica (see p. 21)4). Gibbium psylloides (scotias), Sitodrepa panicea (see p. 295). Lasioderma serricorne (see p. 205). Triboliiim castaneum (see p. 300), Liitheticusoryza.Calandragranaria, ( p. 341), Caryoborus gonagra (see p. 308), Pachymerus chinensis (see p. 306), and various other Bruchidae. Lepidoptera: Sitotroga cerealella (see p. 450). Ephestia cautella (cahiritella), E. ficulella (desuetella), Phtlwrimcea operculella (see P- 455)- Of the above-named insects the Rice Weevil (Calandra oryzae) is at once the commonest and the most destructive. It attacks cereals of all sorts in the held to ;i slight extent, feeding on the EXPLANA I K)X OF PLATE 1. HOUSEHOLD AND GRANARY PESTS. Fig. i. Pulse seed eaten by Bruchid Beetle, with eggs deposited on it. 2. Bruchid B< j. Lasioderma serricorne, larva. j. H .. beetle. 5. Anthrenus vorax, larva. 6. ,. ., ! 7. Sitotroga cerealella, larva. 8. .. •■ moth. „ 9. Calandra oryza, I 10. Silvanus surinamensis, beetle. „ 11. •• pupa- 12. „ n larva. 1 j. Tribolium caslaneum, beetle. 14. Caloclytus annularis, larva tunnelling in bamboo. 15. ., •• beetle. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) PLATE I. J J)*c II 12 / .3 . HOUSEHOLD & GRANARY PESTS. CHAP. Will.] PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS. l6l ripening grain, but it is an important pest of stored grain, especially of rice, but also of maize, whr.it, cholam, etc., and at a moderate estimate may be said to destroj 5 per 1 ent. of all stored grain which is kept for more than a couple of months after harvest. The whole lite-history is passed in a single grain in which the egg is I. ml, hui the adult beetles live tor a long time and wander aboul freely, biting into many grains, so that they probably do mure damage as adults than when immature. It has been found by experiment that ,1 certain minimum (about 8 per cent.) of moisture in their surroundings is necessary to the successful exist- ence and breeding of these weevils, so that, if grain can be well dried in the sun to reduce 1 1> moisture-content as much as possible and then stored in insect-proof receptacles in a dry place, it will be as secure from attack as is possible under practical conditions. In districts where paddy is stored in jars there should be little difficulty in having the grain sun-dried before storage and then fastening up the jars so as to exclude weevils ; for jars not in use an earthenware cap, luted on with claw might be used, and those in daily use could be covered simply with a fine cloth tied around the neck of the jar. Can' should of course be taken that the jars are thoroughly ( leaned out and free from weevil or old infected grain before filling them afresh and also that all fastenings are really sufficiently tight to be weevil-proof. If the grain is kept in baskets these should at least be plastered over with mud or cowdung to make them tight if possible. Triboliiim castaneum (ferrugineum) is a small elongate red-brown tie which attacks stored grains and oilseeds and more especially dried provisions, such as biscuit and Horn. It also feeds on dried animal matter and seems to have a special predilection for dried specimens of insects if these an- left exposed in ill-fitting boxes. Not only does this beetle do damage by actual consumption of provisions such as flour, but its presence communicates a peculiarly repulsive taste to the substances on which it feeds, so that whole 5 oi flout and biscuits often have to be condemned as unfit foi human consumption on this ground alone. Silvanus stirinamensis, so called because it was first described from Surinam, is a small elongate brown beetle with the sidi the thorax produced into sharp saw-like teeth. It is a common insect in stored products generally but a minor pest in comparison with the two preceding species. The Bruchidae, 01 Pul B , are short thick-bodied species of the characteristic shap. seen in figure 155. Hiey attack especially pulses such as the various grams, lablab, beans and peas, the larva burrowing inside the seed and destroying it and leavii 162 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII. iracteristic large round hole of exit. Owing to their com- paratively large size these beetles may do very considerable damage t (stored pulses. A few species attack growing plants in the field and may be found in ripening pods of grams and of some wild leguminous plants such as Crotalaria, but the species which attack living plants are apparently distinct from those which damage stored products. There are numerous species of these beetles, all very similar in general appearance and difficult to distinguish from one another, although differences of habit may prove that their discrimination is of practical importance. Sitodrepa panicea is an insect of truly catholic tastes, feeding indifferently on almost any substance of animal or vegetable origin and even having been recorded as biting holes through sheet lead. Even the most pungent substances, such as red pepper, do not come amiss to it and it is therefore scarcely a matter for surprise that this little beetle is often found as a serious enemy of dried products. especially of dried roots and similar dried vegetable substances commonly found in bazaars. It is also a very serious enemy of books, boring a long tunnel which may often run straight through several volumes in a row ; an annual painting with book solution (see Chapter XIX) will avert such damage. The Cheroot Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) needs no introduction as its ravages are sufficiently well-known in Southern India. To the ordinary smoker it is sufficiently annoying to find a cheroot reduced to a combination of holes and dust, but to the manufacturer this beetle may be a cause of heavy loss by riddling bales of tobacco leaves of good quality which are used for the making of outer wrappers of cigars. The only reliable method of control in these cases is by careful fumigation and subsequent storage of the bales in rooms or receptacles which are proof against the entrance of the beetles, though this is by no means easj on a large scale, and probablj frequenl and regular fumigation of all unmanufactured stock will prove the best safeguard as a rule. If the made cigars are fumigated wiih Hydrocyanic Acid gas or Carbon Bisulphide and boxed immediately afterwards, so that the beetles have no oppor- tunity til ovipositing in them, they should be and remain free from attack, as the beetles are unable to penetrate into the boxes it these are properlj sealed up with strips of paper. The present wholesale lo^-rs are quite preventable if the manufacturers will take reason- able precautions, and it may be added that the slight cost of treatment will be more than recouped In saving in damage. It stocks ot stored grain, such as paddy or maize, are examined and turned over, numbers of small greyish moths will generally be seen flying and running over the grains. These are the adult CHAP. XVIII.] PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS. 163 of Sitotroga cerealella, a small motli whose larva feeds inside grains oi cereals. The prei autions rei ommended under the heading of rice weevil arc applicable to this pest also thorough drying and exposure of the grain in the sun and subsequent storage in dry, tight receptacles being generally effective in controlling tin- damage. ^ -r'f^-i 1 kuehniella. (After Chittenden.) Several Pyralid moths of the genus Ephestia feed commonly in flour, grain and dried vegetable matter, the caterpillars livii silken gallery which is run throughout the food so that loose sub- 5, such as Hour, are often found to be webbed together in a continuous matted mass. Fumigation is the only remedy as .1 rule. Potatoes kept for seed are generally found to be attacked by the Potato Moth (Phtlwrimaea opercukUa), the larva of which burrows in the tubers and not only spoils them by its tunnels but causi to rot. This moth is found in practically all potato-growing districts up to about 6,000 feet ; it does not appear to be known as yet in Ootacamund (though found at Downham Farm a thousand feet lower down) but will doubtless obtain a footing there in the near future. In other countries it is known to attack growing plants of both potato and tobacco, the larva mining in the leaves. but in India it is only knowi t oi stored potatoes. If these are picked ovi II unsound ones being I, and the rest stored under layers of dry sand, so as to be U-A 164 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHAP. XVIII. out of reach of the moths which would otherwise lay eggs in them, a sufficiency of seed can generally be kept ; the potatoes should be picked over frequently, once or twice a month, and all rotten ones rejected. Those which are found to contain larva; of this moth should not of course he simply thrown away, thus enabling the moths to emerge, but should be boiled or buried deep underground under at least two feet of well-beaten earth. Bamboos and dry timber ol all sorts are frequently bored by 1m . lies of various kinds. Painting or varnishing is usually a sufficient preventive of attack but if the wood is already infected the beetles will bore their way out and continue to do damage. In such cases painting with Kerosine, which should be forced into the holes if possible, and subsequent painting with unboiled linseed oil. will generally cheek the damage. Small articles of furniture, such as chairs, may be fumigated in a large box. Bamboos are often soaked in water before use for building, and the water perhaps removes some of the sugary contents of the wood and thus makes them less attractive to insect pests of this description. Grains and stored products, such as are attacked by the insects mentioned above, arc usually intended either for food or for sowing. In the former case it is obviously impossible to treat them with any poisons which would be deleterious to the consumer and in tin1 latter any treatment must not impair the vitality of the seed. These limitations prevent US from making use of any method of treatment which would render these articles permanently secure from insect attack by the use of stomach-poisons and the only methods which we can adopt are (t) temporarj fumigations at such frequent intervals that any insects which may obtain access will be unable to increase sufficiently to cause serious loss, or (2) one temporary fumigation and subsequent storage in receptacles to which the insects cannot obtain access. On a small scale also it is possible to mix a deterrent substance, such as Naphthaline, with the grain in order to keep out insects, the naphthaline being subsequently sieved out and the residue evaporated in the open air; this does not affect either taste or vital ds if all the naphthaline is carefully evaporated, fin- naphthaline may be wrapped in pieces of thin cloth for subsequent convenience o1 r< moval. If, therefore, grain cannot be protected from access and renewed infection by insects, the only method ol protection is frequent fumigation to prevent the insects breeding and increasing to des- tructive numbers. On a small scale, .is in the ordinar} village and bazaar, grain may be i po • d to the sun instead of being fumigated. When it can be 5ton d in (rooms, special bins, or jars) where it will be safe from subsequent infection, one fumigation or CHAP. XVIII.] PESTS OF STORED PRODUI rs 165 •ugh drying should be sufficient to kill off .ill insect life and the subsequent storage to maintain it free ol pests. It must be remem- bered that, in drying grain in the sun, it must be spread out evenly and thinly so that every grain may be exposed to the sun's rays and heat ; it is of little use to pile grain up in heaps, as the individual grains at the bottom of the pile will posed to the sun, so that the insects in them will not be killed and will subsequently int'eet the rest. For the storage of grain in villages, the use of large glazed earthenware jars, which can be tightly closed with a stopper and this thickly and tightly luted with clay, will he found . > i n is thoroughly dried in the sun before placing it in the jars and scaling it up, which will normally be done in dry weather, not only should it remain free from insect attack, but danger of damage by mould should be eliminated to a large extent. Fumigation, which is only recommended in the case of godowns or stores on a fairly large scale, maj be accomplished by the aid either of Carbon Bisulphide or Hydrocyanic Acid gas. Both are dangerous and poisonous substances and should only be used under strict and competent supervision. The former is inflammable and violently explosive; the latter is inert in these respects. Carbon Bisulphide is a heavy, colourless, oily liquid, which rapidly evaporates into a colourless gas heavier than air, both liquid and gas exhaling an extremely unpleasant and characteristic smell, and being poisonous if inhaled. The liquid is inflammable and the gas is violently explosive when mixed with air in the present e of tire. The liquid must be kept in stoppered (not corked) bottles and should not be exposed to direct sunlight or stored in any place where it is liable to be heated or to leak or to be upset or spilt. Carbon Bisulphide must never be opened or taken near a light or fire of any sort, not even a lighted pipe, cheroot or cigarette, nor should it ever 1> used ma place to which unauthorized persons may h. For fumigation it is simply poured on to the grain to be treated at the rate of about one ounce for every fifteen cubic feet or, in the case oi large bins full of grain, about one-and-a-half pounds of fluid to each ton of grain. As the gas is heavier than air, if the liquid is poured ■ the grain, it will s,,ak down ami through it. After twenty-four hours, during which no light or tire must be allowed anywhere near the place where the treatment is being carried out. itaclc may be opened, again in the complete absence of lire in any shape, any gas which may be present allowed to escape, and the grain removed and at on< 1 red to permanent storage. It mi; clearly understood that treatment by fumigation in this way will 166 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. Will. only kill the insects already present in the grain and will not prevent insects from entering and attacking it subsequently if is open to them. For fumigating small articles or quantities of grain, etc., use may be made of a tight wooden box provided around the top of the sides with a metal gutter into which fits a flange attached to the lid of the box. The gutter being filled with water (allowing for displace- ment of water by the flange) the substances foi fumigation are plai nl m the box, the requisite quantity of Carbon Bisulphide poured in and the lid applied, when the flange of the lid, dipping into the gutter of water, makes a gas-tight fitting. A box of this pattern may also be used for fumigation with Formalin, etc., but is hardly suitable for Hydrocyanii Acid Gas, which is soluble in water, and for which a tightly fitting top, pasted down with strips of paper, is better. Hydrocyanic Aeid Gas, usually liberated by the action of Sulphuric Acid on Potassium Cyanide, is a colourless, highly volatile, and nearly odourless gas, which is one of the most powerful poisons known. For this reason it must be used with great care, although it is a most useful insecticide and absolutely safe in competent hands. It is generally Used .it a strength of one ounce of Potassium Cj anide (98 per cent, grade) to every one hundred cubic feet of space, the gas being evolved by the help of one ounce of Sulphuric Acid in three fluid ounces of water. It is especially useful for the fumigation of entire buildings, such as godowns or mills, which are infested with insect-pests, and may of course be used for the fumigation of living-houses also if these can be evacuated during treatment. For ordinary purposes on a large scale, one pint of Sulphuric Acid and three pints of water are used for every pound of cyanide ; it may be useful to note that commer- cial Potassium Cyanide is usually only of about 45 per cent, strength and the quantities to be taken must be based on the quantities given of 98 per cent, grade. For fumigations with Hydrocyanic Acid ( ras, .is with all fumiga- tions, the first requisite is to measure off accurately the cubic 1 apacitj of the building or vessel which is to be fumigated ; if this is of irregular shape it is often of great assistance to plot its shape to scale on squared paper and to count the number of squares, which will give an approximately correct idea of the capacity of any section, which can then be multiplied by the length to give cubic capacity. All outside doors, windows, or other openings, are then tightly closed and if necessary pasted over with paper. The requisite amount of cyanide, at the rate of one ounce to each 100 cubic feet, is then taken and put up in paper packets of suitable size CHAP. Will. | PES - RED PRODI of not more than two pounds weight each, and placed ready in each . the packets being allotted to different parts of the room if more than one is required tor each room. The water is then measured out and poured, tor each packet, into suitable gener; I which should be sufficiently deep and be made of earthenware and not of metal. The acid, also measured in each case, is then slowly and carefully poured into the water. The acid must always be added to the water and never the water poured into the acid, as in the latter case violent action takes place and the acid is almost in to spatter about with possibly dangerous result- to operator. For it must be remembered that sulphuric acid is a strong corrosive. The water and acid may be mixed in the rooms where they will be required finally if these have cement or stone rs ; Otherwise it is better to mix elsewhere to avoid damage to flooring should the acid spill or boil over on being added to the water. The acid and water and the packets of cyanide being all ready, and all doors except those actually required for access to the rooms being closed, and all persons except the operator being outside the building, the operator commences at the top of the building, drops the packets of i generators and immediately leaves that room, repeating the operation on the next tloor below and so working downwards, carefully and rapidly, to the groundfloor and out by the door which is then carefully closed and locked from the outside. If there are two or more rooms ich floor it is useful to have one or more intelligent assistants it all the rooms on each floor may be treated simultaneously. If the cyanide is made up in paper packets the acid will take a short time to get through the paper, thus giving a few seconds in- terval between the dropping of the packets into the generators and the ebullition of the gas. which will be enough to secure a retreat. Fumigation l>\ Hydrocyai >, if properly carried out, is a radical cure for all living animals (beetles, larva;, bugs, Hies, fish-insects, rats and mice) in the building treated, but it should only be carried out under strict supervision of a competent operator. The building should be left closed for twenty-four hours, after which doors and windows may be opened from the out- side a- far as possible and left open for at least an hour to permit the . pe. No attempt must be made to enter the building if any smell of gas is still perceptible; this smell is faint and some- thing like that of peach-kernels or of some metals when these are struck together. In colder countries successful results in the control of grain pests in flour mills, etc., have lately been attained by the US i"-ing laid down in the rooms and steam 168 SOME sol 111 INDIAN INSE< h. ETC. [CHAP. Will. turned on under pressure. A temperature of 118 to [25 degrees Fahrenheit is claimed to he sufficient to destroy all insect lite and this may be so in countries where, even though the kinds of insects concerned may be identical with Indian ones, the average tempe- ratures to which the individual insects have been exposed for gene- rations are considerably lower than the limits given above In India, where temperatures run much higher, it is probable that the insects would only be killed off by the temperatures considerably in excess of I20jc\cti it methods of heating were available. The treatment of stored products by cold so as to prevent insect pests from breeding and doing damage is not practicable in India in the case of grains which are attacked on a large scale, though perhaps possible in the case of cigar factories and similar industries where th. produi ts are of considerable value and small bulk. CHAP. XIX.] HOI SEHOLD PI I69 Chapter XIX. HOUSEHOLD PESTS. " ( >n every dish the hoomini; beetle falls, The cockroach plays, or caterpillar crawls : A thousand shapes of variegated hues ['arade the talde and inspect the stews. To living walls the swarming hundreds slick, rt, a dainty meal, the oily wick ; Heaps our heaps their slimy bodies drench, tlie lamps with suffocating stench. W hen hideous insects ever) plate delile, The laugh how empty, ami how forced the smile ! Calcutta - A Poem. mucin and the worm shall eat them like WOo|." Isaiah — li-.s. OF all the numerous insect pests- which afflict the dwellers in Indian bungalow- the housefly is an easj first both in numbers anil really noxious qualities. Its misdeeds have been noted else- where, but it cannot be emphasized loo stronglj that the so-called "poor harmless little fly," which buzzes so cheerfully over our food and drowns itself in our drink, was born and bred amongst filth. preferably night-soil, that it has probably just flown into the bungalow after enjoying itself on some indescribable nastiness outside and that it is generally swarming, inside and out. with pathogenic organisms which it distributes impartially as it walks along. Enteric fever, dysentery, cholera and intestinal worms are all carried commonly by flies, which are also capable of carrying tuberculosis, anthrax, yaws and various other diseases. Strict on to sanitary conditions around the bungalow, especially as regards disposal of stable manure, will usually bring about a great reduction in the fly population. A small quantity of fresh horse- dung, exposed in open boxes, will attract most of the female flies to lay their eggs and the larvae can then be destroyed by burning, boiling, or treating them with insecticides ; but it is of course important that the trails should be cleared regularly, daily or at least .-very other day. Milk with a few droits of formalin added 170 SOME SOUTH IM)IAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XIX. attracts flies in the dry weather, and is a simple moans of poisoning lb, in without danger to domestic animals. A small piece of wire gauze or leather fastened to a handle makes a very effective imple- ment to "swat that fly," as the Americans say, and a clwkra armed with a weapon of this kind should have little difficulty in dealing with any flies that find their way on to the premises. Cockroaches are insects which are not only disgusting in appearance and by reason of their powerful odour but they arc also animals which are liable to contaminate food where this is accessi- ble to them. The large brown cockroaches (Periplaneta australasicu and /'. americana) are common throughout Southern India and often \\\ about in bungalows just before rain, though at other times they keep out of sight. Several smaller species are also of common I'll,. 71. -Periplaneta americana, the common Hou i i ckroach ol India. (< original.) oci urrence and all have much the same habits. Besides attacking food, which the) contaminate with then- peculiarly nauseous smell they do considerable damage by gnawing the binding of books, corks, etc., and sometimes damage clothes by depositing their egg- capsules amongst such, the fluid extruded with the eggs having an acrid effect which rots the cloth with which it comes into contact. The larger cockroaches may also be very unpleasant housemates by gnawing the hair and toes and sipping liquid refreshment from the lips of sleepers unprotected by a net. Borax mixed with thin syrup, or made into a paste with chocolate, is a good remedy against cockroaches. CHAP. XIX. 1 HOUSEHOLD P] 1 7 1 Bedbugs and similar human parasites arc included in the chapteron " Insects and I ; nd need not be further referred to here as they are not usually inmates of any well conducted bungalow. Should they gain a footing in a building, however, it is often difficult to gel rid of them without fumigating the building or at least the affected portion. Ants are often a nuisance in houses. If the nest can he found it may sometimes hi- destroyed by pouring in kerosine or any similar liquid and the holes then stopped up with solid crude oil emulsion or tar. Small ants may often he trapped in large numbers by laying down old sponges soaked in syrup (sugar and water or jaggery) and dropping these at frequent intervals into hot water, then rebaiting and putting them down again. Small ants may also he killed off by attracting them to tins with pierced covers containing a sponge or similar absorbent soaked with a sweetened arsenical mixture prepared by dissolving one-quarter ounce of Sodium Arsenite in hot water and adding it to a syrup composed of 5 lb. sugar and l'2 lb. water previously heated for about three hours in a water-bath. The ants enter the tin through the holes and carry off the po rup to their nest, thereby soning the young brood, whilst the tin keeps domestic animals from eating the poisoned bait. Crude oil emulsion rubbed on to the legs of tables, etc., will keep ants from running up. The water- receptacles often applied around legs of meat safe-, etc.. to keep ants away should have a little oil added to the water periodically to prevent mosquitos from breeding there. Wasps and bees are often a source of annoyance in bungalows by filling up keyholes, etc., and by daubing mud-nests on to books, pictures, clothing or any suitable surface. A wasp or bee of this sort, which has once determined to make its nest in - ular place, is most persistent in returning e\ en when its nest is destroj ed and it is often difficult to dissuade it from its purpose without killing it. Social bees and wasps sometimes build inside houses and the smaller wasps (Polistes) which make hanging nests are generally quite inoffensive and very useful .1- itcr- pillars, but the larger wasps and the Rock Bee may make a house uninhabitable and require drastic repression by burning at night or by fumigation. The big blue Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa) some- times damage- buildings by boring holes in beams hut can generally be discouraged by the application of tar. crude oil emulsion, or similar substance to the entrance of its burrow. nites, commonly but inaccurately called "White Ants," often do considerable damage m bungalow- especially when t! 172 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XIX. are unoccupied lor a short period. Contrary to popular belief, there are several different species with entirely different habits, and those found in houses are not as a rule the same as those which throw up mounds Outside. Some termites make their nest in the walls or under the foundation and these often do damage by running out mud galleries and eating matting, carpets, books and furniture. Other species make their nest wholly inside dead wood such as roof-beams which they excavate leaving only a thin exterior, so that an apparently substantial beam proves to be nothing but a shell of mud and dust. Termites in a building are usually difficult to deal with and no exact rules can be laid down because the habits differ in the different species ; as a rule. howi ver, it is necessarj to destroj the nest and this is best done by pumping poisonous fumes into the galleries. Crude oil emul- sion. Copper Sulphate solution, or similar repellents may some- times prove of temporary assistance for protective purposes, but instruction in the first instance, and the creosoting or other protective soaking of all woodwork is the best guarantee injury to buildings by these insects. A thorough soaking in Sodium Arsenite and subsequent painting over with coal tar will be found effectual for most constructional timber. Crickets are often a nuisance by their shrill chirping and by their habit of biting holes in clothing. Thi ometimes lie trapped in tins or basins into which they jump during the night, but their omnivorous tastes make them difficult to destroy by poisons and it is not always easy to locate them exactlj 1>\ their chirruping. However, they may often be dislodged in the daytime by moving furniture and hunted down and killed by hand. Fish-insects do considerable damage to books, papers and pictures by gnawing holes in the paper. It is supposed that they extract nutriment from the size and in confinement they thrive mi paper covered with a thin layer of llour-paste. Hooks kept in open shelves should be painted over at least once a year with Book Solution made by dissolving half-an-ounce each of Corrosive Sublimate and Carbolic Acid in one pint of methylated spirit ; the liquid is a deadly poison and care should be taken not to get it on the hands; it should be painted with a long-handled brush over the outside and inside of the covers of the books and is an effectual preservative against all attacks of insects which would otherwise gnaw the binding. Books and papers kept in closed almirahs or boxes may be effectually preserved by keeping Hake Naphthaline with them ; Naphthaline evaporates fairly rapidly and requires renewal regularly, as it is of course merelj •> deterrent whose efficacy depends on the fait that it is volatilizing. To preserve pictures CHAP. XIX. ] HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 173 the best method is to paint over the back with Naphthaline Emul- sion or simply to strew on powdered Naphthaline and then close the back ul the frame tightly with tin to keep out the fish insects as far as possible. It must be remembered that the Naphthaline is volatile and will not last for ever. Book Solution painted carefully eaten by Fish Ii i • . I n an original pi around the blank edge of the picture before framing may give permanent results, hut care must he taken that the spirit does not run onto the painting itself or the colours may he altered. Cloth sveral different species occur in Southern India, hut the habits of all are very similar, the larvae making little il fragments of wool and cloth in which they live. If Hake Naphthaline is sprinkled liberally amongst the clothes befon thej are put away, all danger of clothes-moths will he avoided ; naphthaline halls should be broken up to give a larger suit. ire for evaporation. After airing the clothes in the sun for a few hours all trace of the Naphthaline will disappear. To those to whom the smell of Naphthaline is objectionable camphor may he mended, hut this is more expensive and no more efficient. Trophies. such as heads "t game, which are attacked by clothes-moths, may he painted over with a weak solution of Corrosive Sublimate in Alcohol, hut it must he remembered that this is a deadly poison and care taken that il is only used lor trophies which are hung up out of reach of domestic animals and children. 174 S, ,ME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XIX. 5 9 «f _ .5 - V - rt a = s -z e — , .I.*.* "v,k ;:■;;:::,, ,,!,. U-d ' I^^S slhS be^ecK-d „,„.,„, supplj ol »ak< Nap n.ba,,n carpets ma, Articles in daily use are not attacaeo CHAP. XIX. 1 HOUSEHOLD PESTS. 175 sometimes suffer. A liberal supply of Hake Naphthaline (5 to 10 11).) spread over them and left on for twenty-tour hours with the room totally closed up (jalousies and all holes pasted over with paper) will often effect a cure and the Naphthaline may afterwards be swept up again and kept lor future use ; or the carpet may be taken up and fumigated in a tight box or room. Beetles ol various kinds often bore holes in furniture especially when this is made of cane. Painting on kerosine or almost any oil, or even soaking the affected parts in oil, is a simple cure. If a fumigation chamber is available the furniture may be fumigated by hydrocyanic acid gas or carbon bisulphide. m sn^; JJr *s. — 77. Stegomyia fasciata, .1 coi in Household Mosquito. (After in Brumpt.) Eye-flies, Sand-flies and Mosquitos are not essentially house- hold pest- although they often cause great annoyance in houses. As the breeding-habits of Eye-flies are as yet unknown, we can only deal with the adult insects; these are in the habit of settling gregariously on some hanging support a cobweb, lamp-hook, piece of string, rope, or straw, etc. and may be marked down and slain wholesale after nightfall by burning them off with a torch. Sand- flies pas> their early stages in dark, damp (not wet) places contain- ing decaying organic matter, and it is very difficult as a rule to discover where thej arc coming from. To reduce the number of Sand-Hies in a house all rooms should be kept as tree as possible from any dark places for them to rest in during the daytim behind pictures, almirahs, writing-tables, hanging 1 lothes, etc.), and all dark corners should be Sprayed daily witli a weak (about one per cent.) solution of formalin. It is a good plan to paint the backs of almirahs, writing-tables and the under sides of tables, etc., with white paint, or simply to whitewash them, to reduce any dark corners in which Sand-Hies ,md Mosquitos rest during the daytime. 1 he US( -I a -mill hand-net is a simple and efficacious method lor reducing mosquitos in a house where this is not fated -as all Indian bungalow- should be with mosquito-proof screens. It is, however, as a rule much better to attack them in their breeding- places, which will always be found to be collections of water in or 176 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. MX. near the bungalow. All wells in the compound should be screened over and fitted with a pump, and the mail's water-tanks should be oiled at least weekly. All old tins, jars, bottles, coconut husks or similar articles which may hold water and breed mosquitos should be rigorously cleared away and all holes in trees, cut bamboo- stumps, etc., should be filled in with plaster or mud. Leaves of :\\c\ similar plants often hold water in wet weather and breed mosquitos ; a small drainage-hole cut in the leaf will usually suffice to prevent this. The saucers beneath flower-pots and water- coolers, the water-dishes beneath legs of tables and meat-safes, and the earthen water-jars on which ferns are often grown, will all be found to be frequent breeding places for mosquitos, which will breed freely in the smallest collection of water. Flower-vases which are not properly emptied and cleaned before refilling are often full of " wrigglers " which are the early stages of mosquitos. CHAP. XX. | INSECTS AND DISEASE. 1 77 Chapter XX. INSECTS AND DISEASE. " Rii /// Memoriam. " As when .1 swarme of gnats al eventide 1 )ut of ihe fennes of Allan doe arise. Their murmuring small trumpets sownden wide, Whiles in the air their clust'ring army Hies. That as a cloud doth seem t" dim the skies . Xe man nor beast may rest '.r take repasl heir sharp wounds and noyous injuries. Till the lierce northern wind with blust'ring blast blo« them (|uite away, and in the ocean Faery Queen. TWENTY or more years ago a man who seriously devoted his time to the study of insects such as mosquitos would have been regarded almost universally as a triflcr who was wasting his time with little benefit to himself and none at all to anyone else. At the present time no one with any pretensions to possession of medical or sanitary knowledge can afford to disregard the study of this group of apparently insignificant insects. The extension of their study in India alone may be gauged roughly by comparison of these two facts, that twenty years ago only four different species of mosquitos were known to occur in the Indian Region whereas to-day we know of upwards of two hundred different kinds and have at our disposal elaborate monograph> regarding their structure, lifehistories anil habits, whilst every year set •- the issue of more comprehensive and detailed publications on these insects and others of a similar im- portance. It is not because of their intrinsic beauty or commercial value that such a cult has suddenly arisen but solely on account of the recognition of the fact that certain mosquitos are responsible for the occurrence in man of various diseases, of which malaria is to-day probably the most important in India. A- its name implies, malaria was for long supposed to be due directly to the inhalation of poisonous exudations from marshy places, but it is now certain, as the result of prolonged and careful experiments, that the real connection of marshy places and malaria is that pools and other collections of water serve as breeding-grounds for certain kinds of mosquitos which carry the malarial parasite. It iv not too much to say that the discovery of the fact for it is no longer a men' theory of the trans by the \2 I78 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XX. agency of insects has thrown an entirely new light on the stud Tropical Medicine which bids fair to become to a very large extent merely one branch of Applied Entomology. The modern systems of treatment of Tropical Diseases tend more and more to resolve themselves into the control of the insects which act as transmitters of these diseases. In most cases {e.g., Malaria. Yellow Fever. Filar - tna, Surra, etc.) the problem becomes an entomo- logical one. In the first stages of the investigation of such a , in considering the species of insect which is likely to prove the transmitting agent, it is primarily the entomologist who. from his knowledge of the insects found under the necessary conditions, is likely to be best able to indicate the species to be suspected and investigated. Later on, when this investigation is being carried out, it is again the entomologist who knows where to look for such an insect and how to capture it and who has the best knowledge of methods of breeding it and what are its natural enemies and the conditions favourable or otherwise to it- occurrence. Finally, when the investigations have been crowned with success and a definite relationship established between a particular insect and a disease, the control of the disease is often attained most simply bv tin- control of the insect and this again falls primarily into the pro- vince of Entomology. To cite a specific instance, the case of Malaria may be con- sidered briefly. The term malaria is used to cover three distinct specific fevers, quartan, tertian and subtertian malaria, caused by invasion of the blood of man by three different protozoan parasites which are called respectively Plasmodium malaria, PI. vivax, and rania malaria, the attack of the (ir>t two causing a compara- tively mild type of malaria, that of the last-named usually giving rise to a severe form of infection. These parasites, which are not known to occur in any other vertebrate animal, are introduced into the blood of man by the bite of an infected Anopheline mosquito and may either (I) be killed off by the blood on entry into the bodj or (2) remain dormant in the spleen and develop later on when Opportunity is offered by any diminution of vitality on the part of the subject attacked, as by a chill, or (3) develop forthwith and give rise to an attack of malaria. In the last case, it generally take- about nine to twelve daj s for the parasites to increase suffi- iduce sufficient toxic (poisonous) substances to give rise to fevei. Plasmodium malaria (the parasite of quartan malaria) and P. vivax (the cause ol tertian malaria) go through their developmental stages in the circulating blood, whilst Laverania malaria (the parasite causing subtertian malaria) sporulates to a CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. 179 large extent in the interna] organs. The number ol days between attacks of " fever " depends, of course, upon the fact of whether the inf< one time or on successive days; in a imple infection by quartan malaria, tor example, tin- attacks recur after everj seventy-two hours (the period ol time which the parasite takes to complete its life-cycle in the human body), but if infection on two successive nights the patient develops ■ on two mii cessive days, because the parasites are of different - and each lot lakes seventj -two hours to complete its life-cycle, and remains fret- from lever on the third day of each period of three days Lertian malaria, characterized in simple cases by a recurrence of the attack ever} forty-eight hours, is the commonest and nio^t widely-distributed form ; the interval without feverish symptoms is about thirty-six hours. Subtertian malaria is usually very prolonged and severe ; the incubation period. /.<■„ the interval between first infection and first attack of fever, is 9 10 days; the duration of each attack is twenty-four hours or more, the inter- val between attacks twenty-four hours or K-sS according to the prolongation of the attack. Chronic malaria is usually caused by infection with the subtertian parasite ami is accompanied by repeated slight attacks of fever, enlargement of the spleen and liver and pigmentation of the skin and mucous membranes. treatment of malaria cannot be entered into here but. on the principle of prevention being better than cure, we may note briefly that the lessening of (I) the Anophelinc mosquitos and (2) their capacity to bite man in any locality must help to reduce the total number 'if cases mfected or reinfected. Draining and oiling "i 1 Is and the introduction of larvivorous fish into them, the ning of wells, the prevention of standing water near houses and various other methods, will all help to prevent the mosquitos from breeding, whilst the use of mosquito-proof houses or rooms and nets and the application ol repellents will considerably reduce the chance of being bitten and infected even when malaria-carry- ing mosquitos are prevalent. Tin- use of quinine as a preventive. to kill off any malarial parasites which may obtain access into the body in spite of other precautions, is also an obvious measun take as a matter of routine when in a " feverish " locality. umber of deaths due to malaria every year is officially estimated atom- mil lion for the whole of India. I have no infor- mation regarding the annual mortality from this cause in Southern India but it may be placed at 100,000 on a conservative estimate. The mere money loss to the State may be imagined rather than calculated when it is remembered that, in addition to the actual mortality, the productive capacity of millions of the populatioi 1 -• \ i8o SOME SOUTH INDIAN" INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX. very seriously impaired by this one disease which, it may be empha- sized, is entirely carried by insects. It is not every kind of mosquito that is able to carry the malarial parasites from one man to another. There is now a large mass of evidence on the subject and, so far as is known at present, only certain species of the Anopheline group of mosquitos are implicated in the transmission ; broadly speaking, they all belong to the genus Anopheles although this has been split up into numerous small groups (Myzomyia, Nyssorhynchus, etc.) on trivial characters which would rarely be recognised as of generic importance in any other group of insects. The early stages of all tin- species oi Anopheles, as in the case of other mosquitos, are passed in water in which the whole life-cycle is pas- id except in the adult stage. The eggs are usually deposited singly, whereas in ordinary mosquitos (Culicines) they are often cemented together to form little rafts which float on the surface of the water; the larvae are often found in slowly-running streams and are generally recognisable by their habit of resting just below and parallel with the surface-film of the water, whilst on the contrary ("ulicine larvae usually hang down at a considerable angle with the water-surface. I \< .. 78. Resting attitude oi im iph< iim Mosquito, it Original.) Fig, 79. Resting attitud Culicine Mosquito. (( triginal.) Both types are air-breathers and usually obtain their air-supply by thrusting their delicate breathing tubes through the water-film into the atmosphere; hence the applicability of oiling the surfaces of infected accumulations of water, as the oil spreads out over the surface as a thin film and clogs the breathing tubes of the larvae and so suffocates them, The adult Anopheline mosquitos are CHAP. XX. | INSECTS AND DISEAslv. 18] recognisable as a rule by theirspotted wings, long narrow abdomen, alpi, and especially by their characteristic attitude when at rest, when the head and bodj .ire held in an approximately straight line, the head held down towards the resting-surfa ody held well away at a considerable angle from the resting-surface. lh< Culicine mosquitos, on the contrary, may usually be distinguished by their unspotted wings, short thick abdomen, short palpi and resting attitude in which the head is bent down but the abdomen held parallel with tin- re>tmg surface, so that the head and body are not held in one plane. 1 he following list includes most of the Anopheline mosquitos known to occur in Southern India, those which have been incrimi- nated as malaria-carriers under natural conditions being marked with a, those capable ol infecting man with Filaria bancrofti being marked J : — Anopheles gigas, Giles Coonoor, Kodaikanal, i Ceylon. ., aitkeni, Th. Karwar. ,. immaculatits, Jan Ennur. „ rossi, ( liles * Throughout. „ Uston , 1 .iston ... Throughout. (christophersi, Th.) ,, Gulicifacies, Giles Plains. ., 1 '■ K arwar. „ culiciformis, J. & 1 Karwar. ii jeyporensis, James Jeyp „ barbirostris, v. d. W ulp . Throughout. ., sin 'throughout (7;iiuts, Wlk.) minutus, Th. .• rrimus, Oil stephensi, Liston Madras. ,, voillmori, Ja Throughout. ,. nigrans Karwar, ( loa. (karwari, James) theobaldi, G Jeypore. „ matulipalp Karwar, Travam (ind/ensis, Th.) ,, jamesii, Th. rhroughout. ii ■ Giles Throughout. ,. pulcherrima, Th, i ioa. ,, ludlowi, Th. Madras en held parallel with the resting surface. [82 SOME Sol 111 INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX. Here it maj be as well to point out that there is a definite rela- tionship between the malarial parasites and (a) the transmitting mosquito and (/») the human host and that in each of these the parasite passes through a distinct portion ol its development. !\ speaking, a malarial parasite in the human body occurs as a pale amoeboid organism in the red blood corpuscles, at whose expense it grows and which it destroys and then sporulates, or breaks up into many spores or little organisms (merozoites) which are liberated in the blood, where they maj be destroyed by the white corpuscles (leucocytes) or may invade other red corpuscles and ilex el op .is before, destroying the red corpuscles and producing the pallid (anaemic) condition seen in sufferers from malaria. Besi- des the asexual mero/.oites. sexual forms of the parasite are produced Vx\ ' I . ST* m^ ' ^ )) f \\ 'Stcmwh of tk ' .'Jlc^ui'Swken i t I : '< ■ I alter some time and may be sucked up with the blood into the stomach of a mosquito which now bites the malarial patient. After fertilisation, the female cell penetrates the wall ol the stomach "I isquito I '' ; ting i elj or cj si (001 s si > whii h ind dividi ultimately into pindli I iped motile organisms CHAP. XX. INSEX TS AND DISE 183 (sporozoites) which make their waj into the body-cavit) of the mosquito and thi i salivary glands whence they may be < arried with the sain ary fluid into the body of a human being bitten by the mosquito. Thi upied bj the development of the parasite in the mosquito is from eight to twelve days or more-, whence it follows that a mosquito which has become infected by biting a malarial patient is not itself infective and cannot transmit the parasite until after this interval of time, which is practically not before the tenth night after having ingested the par isiti But, after this, one infected mosquito may bite and infect more than one subject during i if its life. In comparison with the above method of infection maj be noted . of a House-fly which first settles and feeds on excrementi- tious matter contaminated with the " germs " of Typhoid Fever and then flies into a house and crawls over food which it infects with the germs carried on its feet and in its alimentary canal, with the result that those eating the food afterwards ingest the germs anil may develop Typhoid Fever. In this case the fly carries the infec- tion only more or less casually and the parasite does not undergo anj special cycle ol development on or in the carrier nor is the parasite entirely as a means of access into the human body, as it may also be carried by eating or drinking food which has been contaminated din It is convenient to differentiate between thes< • s, that es in which the parasite causing the disease in man or animals is intimately adapted to the insect-carrier in which it undergoes part of its life-cycle, and cases in which the parasite is merely carried more or less mechanically by the insect-carrier from one host to another. In the former cast- the insei t-carricr is a true or adapted carrier, in the latter case it is a more >>r less casual porter. It will readily be understood how easily a blood-living ; rried directly from one host to another by transfer on the mouthparts of a blood-sucking insect which is disturbed from one il at once proceeds to bite another of the same kind of animal. The term "M .reek miastor, a carrier of pollu- tion) has been proposed bj Alcock as a term applicable to which by mainly mechanical means spread abroad any kindol lis," under which term we ma) include not only bai teria but org.: testinal worms. '! and beast many insects and similar animals ma) cause direct annoyance or b\ their 5, poisonous hairs or spines or similar on of tin ■ the body. The irritation caused g insects, such as [84 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XX. mosquitos, fleas and bed-bugs, is perhaps hardly to be classed as a disease, but it is often a serious source of annoyance, and abrasion of the skin due to scratching or rubbing such bites may give entrance to germs and thus set up blood-poisoning. The irritation caused b\ such bites varies considerably in individuals and as regards the bites of different classes of insects. In the case of mosquito-bites the resultant irritation is usually most pronounced in the case of new-comers into the tropics, a partial tolerance being acquired as a rule alter a more or less brief period of residence, but the immunity acquired against the bites in one locality is not always effectual in another. Some people appear to be naturally or partially immune from the irritant effects of bites, while others never become so. The irritation is caused by a liquid injected, before the mosquito actually commences to suck blood, not from the salivary glands as would be expected, but from the oesophageal diverticula which Schaudinn has shown to contain bubbles of Carbon Dioxide and bacteria or moulds. Besides the irritation caused by single bites of insects and their individual attacks on man and animals it is often necessary to consider the serious effects wrought by the combined effects of these attacks. Such a combined effect is called " mass infection " and its results, by mere loss of blood and irritation, may cause very serious effects on the health of the host even in the absence of infection by pathogenic organisms. It is impossible within the limits of a single chapter to attempt anj adequate description of the organisms which are the true causes of many diseases or of the insects which carry them to man and animals, but a short account of a few of the more important of such insects will be found further on (see pages 346—367, 486-487, 521 — 5241. But before discussing the diseases, it may be as well to give here a short account of some of the non-hexapod carriers. Ticks are distinguished from Hexapods by possessing four pairs of legs in the adult state, although the newly-hatched immature tick has only three pairs of legs but subsequently develops the fourth (posterior) pair. Ticks belong to the group Acarina, which rii ludes Mites and these latter are probably important as disease-carriers also, although at present thej have been little studied and ver\ little is known about them indeed, practically nothing in India. The true Ticks form the superfamily bcodoidea, subdivided into th( families Argasidse and [xodida?. The feeding-habits, which are very important from a control view-point, are very varied in the different groups ; in ome the tick remains attached to the host, whilst in others it merely gorges itsell with blood and then drops oft and hide-, until it again requires to feed. In different groups of CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. Ticks the following distinct cycles of habits may occur: d/) all stages drop off the host to moult and the female also drops off to lay her eggs. (/») the larvae do not drop off but remain attached and moult on the host, the nymph dropping off and also the females for position, (> ) both larvae and nymphs remain attached to tin- host throughout all their stages, only dropping off ,i- replete females. A knowledge of the actual life-cycle of the parti< ular oncerned is of the first importance in devising measures tor the control of that species. Some ticks can live tor > without a meal. The Blister Beetles (Meloidae or Cantharidae) neither suck blood nor actually invade the tissues, hut in many places various spi are strongly attracted by lights at night and fly into houses. The liquid exuded from the joints of the legs can raise large and painful blisters if it touches the tender human skin ■. hich is well known to most residents in Southern India. of various kinds infest most domestic and w ild animals. Human lice are treated more fully further on but it may be useful to give here a list of the lice found most commonly in Southern India ; they are : On pig, Hcrmatopinus suis, I... var. advent ictus, Neumann. e -..it. ., stenopsis, Burm. ., calf. .. vituli, I.. ., buffalo, .. tuberculatus, Giebel. ,. monkey, Pedicinus curygaster, Gerv. 1'.. sides these, Hamatopinus spinulosus, Burm.. is found on rats (Mus decumanus, M. alexandrinus and M. sylvaticus) and acts as the trans- mitter of Trypanosoma kwisi from rat to rat. whilst //. stephensi, Christ, and Newst., is found on the Indian Jumping Rat or Gerbille (Tatera indica) and probably transmits a haemogregarine (Hamt garina gerbiUi) common 1 } found in the blood of this animal. All lice must be looked on with suspicion as possible or probable vectors oi disease from one animal host to another. The animals which actually invade the tissues belong as a rule to two groups, the mites and flies, the diseases which they ca being known respectively under the general trrniv of Acariasi > I/.. . Diseases due to Acari, or mites) and Myiases (Diseases due to flies, k iftyia, a fly). Of the true mites occurring in India very little is known, but a few attack man and domestic animals; sulphur ointment provides th< best treatment as a rule. S, abies or itch is .'. i. which burrows in the skin ; similar foi i on the horse in which t1 tau.-c a form of mange du I rubbing off of the hair by the 186 K SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC CHAP. XX. animal owing to the irritation caused. "Coolie itch." a disease commonly found in the feet of Indian coolies, is caused by Rhizosdyphus parasiticus, whilst Demodex folliculorum, a peculiar elongate eight-legged mite, is found commonly in the sebaceous glands of the human face ; this latter species, however, is of doubtful importance as a pathogenic agent. Pediculoides ventricosus occurs as a rule in cereals in India but sometimes (e.g.. when infested straw is used to stuff mattresses, etc.) it attacks man and causes severe urticaria ; much the same may be saitl of Tyroglyphus longior var. castellanii, which normally occurs in large numbers in copra and produces " copra itch " by invasion of the skin of those handling substance. Acariases usually cause more or less temporary annoyance but an attack of myiasis may produce very severe and even fatal results. The attack of the fly may be more or less casual, eggs being depo- sited on the raw surfaces of wounds or sores, or even taken into the intestine with food, or the fly may normally exist by feeding on living animal tissues during its immature stages. To the former category belon- h as those of the "cheese hopper." the larva of a fly (Piophila casei) whose immature stages may be in- gested with food and cause intestinal myiasis, and various " blue- bottle " and other flies which sometimes cause external myiasis in man by infesting ulcers and especially syphilitic erosions of the nose. Rhinal myiasis, or the invasion of the nasal cavities, etc., by the larvae of muscid flies, is indeed probably the most common form of myiasis affecting man in India. Many of the brilliantly- coloured green " blue-bottle " flies (Pycnosoma, Lucilia, etc.) seen commonly on excrement are attracted by any purulent disch from the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity and readily depo- sit egg> (or even living larvae) on such membrane whilst the subject is asleep in the daytime when the flies are active. Sarcophaga rufi- collis has also been recorded as causing human myiasis in India. The larvae bore into the soft parts and even into the bone and may cause very grave injurj or death. Such flie> may. anil commonly do. deposit eggs or larvae in neglected sores or wounds in cattle- Such wounds should therefore always be kept dressed with tai or »e to repel the flies. There are. however, some flies which belong to the second category noted above and of these the common- est in Southern India is probably CEstrus ovis, whose larva lives in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and these animals may often be seen huddled together or holding their noses in the dust in an endeavour to avoid the attack of a fl> which is trying to oviposit in their trils. The .finger or Chigoe ( Dermatophilus penetrans), a flea which usualh affects the feet in man. burrowing into the skin (HAP. XX. INSECTS AND DISEASE. 187 especially under the toe-nails) and in bad cases causing extensive sores or even permanent crippling, was probably originally ;i native >uth America, whence it was carried to West Africa and them e to Easl Africa, and was brought to India in (899 but lias appa- rently not spn-ad beyond Bombay ; however, it is quite likely to be brought in at any time by returned Indian emigrants and to get a footing in sandy plai Returning now to the diseases caused directly in man by pathogenic organisms carried by insects we have already seen how malaria is carried by Anopheline mosquitos and may now proceed itice brief!) some of the other diseases known to be insect- borne : — Relapsing Fever is caused by Spiroschaudimiia carteri, Manson, but it is possible that several distinct forms of disease may be con- fused under the one term. The Head-louse (Pediculus capitis) is probably one carrier, but bed-bugs and mosquitos are not wholly 1 rom suspicion. Indian Kala Asar, caused by Leishmania donovani, is endemic in Madras and is perhaps carried by bed-bugs, possibly by ( 'onorhinus rubrofasciatus. Pappataci Fever, Three days' Fever, or Sandfly Fever is an acute fever, lasting three days, whose actual cause is unknown but the infection is carried by sandflies {Phlebotomus spp), the blood of the patient being infective up to the end of the second day of the fever. Dengue, an acute fever whose cause is also unknown. is occa- illy epidemic and is supposed to be carried by Culex fatigans. Yellow Fever is not as yet known in India hut it is important to note that its carrier (Stegomyia fasciata) occurs commonly in India .\])t\ that the infection can be carried by the eggs of an infected mosquito. Plague, caused h> Bacillus pt'stis, is a disease of rats from which it spread- to man In the agency of fleas which desert the dr. id and bite man incidentally carrying the infection. In 1N06 it id from China to Bombay, whence it has extended almost all over India. It i- common]) spread by Xenopsyllu chcopis, because this is the commonest Ilea found on rats, hut may also he carried by other Ilea- Ceratophyllus fascial us and Pulex irrilans (the Human Ilea); it has also been transmitted experimental 1) from man to rat b) the Indian bed-bug (Clinocoris hemipterus) . Plague has unfortu- nate!) made itself too well known in Madras, the Fort St. George tte of 20th Ma) [913 giving the numbci ol Plague seizures in Madras onl) from August [898 to 17th M hil> t the deaths in tl l88 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. CHAR XX. Enteric Fever is a term generally used to include Typhoid Fever and two Paratyphoid Fevers. It is commonly carried by House-flies and sometimes also bj Drosophila, a small fly which is equally at home on excrement and on ripe fruit. Enteric fever may of course be carried by milk, water, ice, fish, etc., which easily become contaminated directly, but the agency of flies in carrying germs on their feet or in their intestines, from infected excrement on to food (especially milk) is usually much under-rated. In this connec- tion it is noteworthy that Europeans are most liable to enteric in the dry season when the infection is carried on to food by dust and flies, and Natives in the monsoon owing to the pollution of water- supplies by surface drainage. Filariasis, in its commonest form of Elephantiasis, is caused b) a minute Nemathelminth worm. Filaria bancrofti, which is carried by various mosquitos (e.g., Culex fatigans, Mansonia uniformis, and the Anophelines marked in the list on page l8l), and which when in numbers blocks the lymphatic vessels of the body. Leprosy is perhaps insect-borne although the exact means of transmission is as yet unknown. Yaws or Framboesia tropica, caused bj Treponema pertenue, is very common in Ceylon but apparently rarer in India. It is probably carried by flies sucking the open sores of patients and carrying the infective organisms to ordinary ulcers or sores which are thereby infected. Epidemic Dropsy has occurred in Southern India as an epi- demic, especially in [876 77 when there was a great famine. The exact cause is unknown but it is suspected to be an organism , I by bed-bugs. Cholera is usuallj carried by water, milk, fruit, etc., which maj be contaminated directly by flies which have previously visited the discharges oi 1 holera patients. Dysenteries, caused by various organisms, are also due to infection oi the intestinal tract with drinking-water, milk, green vegetables, etc., which have been contaminated either directly or by means of flies or similar insects. Guinea-Worm is the infection oi man with Dracunculus medi- nensis, a Nemathelminth worm which passes the first portion of its life-cycle in the body of Cyclops, a minute crustacean which is commonly called a "water-flea." It an infected Cyclops is swallowed with drinking-water it is killed in the stomach but the contained worm is liberated and makes its way into the tissues of its new host. The individuals "l Cyclops mostly live near the bottoms of wells and pools and are therefore most CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. l8Q likely to be dipped up during the dry season when the water-level is low. Oriental Sore, otherwise called " Delhi boil " and known under various other local names, is a disease found in North-western India, not South of Cambay nor East of Delhi. Aeeording to Patton's investigations.it is not communicable by species of Musca or bj blood-sucking flies, but is apparently carried only by immature bed-bugs and by them only when the temperature is below 250 C. It is thus only carried in the cold weather, developing two or three months later on. Cases of this disease seen in Madras are usually the result of infection further north but the disease has o< < asionally been introduced and spread in the (older climates ol 1 1 ill Stations in Southern India (e.g.. Bangalore). Tropical Ulcer is also carried similarly by insects and perhaps by leeches. Conjunctivitis of the eye, usually caused by a Bacillus, is un- doubtedlj spread toa large extent by means of Eye-flies (Siphonella funicola). rhe diseases of domestic animals carried by means of insects are 011 the whole very similar to those found in man and caused by pathogenic organisms which are carried by similar kinds ol insei ts. but usually both organism and carrier arc specifically distinct and peculiar to each particular host. I"r\ panosomiases, or diseases caused by infection by minute Protozoa tailed Trvpanosomes, have acquired notoriety by includ- ing the two African diseases. Sleeping Sickness and Nagana or Tsetse-fly disease, the former of which attacks man in West All n ... I ganda and Rhodesia, whilst the latter is fatal to the horse, ass and dog. In some parts of India and Burma " Surra." a disease caused by Trypanosoma evansi, attacks horses, mules, camels and cattle, and is carried by Tabanus and probably other biting flies; later researches, however, seem to show that this Trypanosome may be spread by haematophagous muscid flies which are unable to puncture the skin of an animal by themselves but which suck up the blood exuding from the bite inflicted bj flics such as Philamatotnyia. Trypanosoma theileri is only known to occur in cattle but is apparently non-pathogenic ; it oc< urs in South Africa, Transcaucasia and India and is spread by the bite of the cattle fly ( Hippobosca) . Rats in India and Ceylon arc commonly attacked In Trypanosoma lewisi, another non-pathogenic organism, which is probably carried from one host to another by the rat-lor.se and rat-flea. In Madras the striped palm squirrel (Funambulus palmarum, L.) harbours Trypanosoma indica, which is apparently very closely related to "/'. lewisi of therat. The bandicoot rat (Nesokiabandicotti) is the host of Trypanosoma bandicotti, IQO SOME SOUTH INDIAN [NSE( rS, ETC. CHAP. XX. which is pathogenic to guinea-pigs, but apparent!) little known, whilst T. vespertilionis is found in various bats. Even reptiles are not exempt from attack by these parasites, for Tryp. vittata is found in the pond tortoise (Emyda vittata), being carried from hosl h\ .1 leech, and the common pond snake (Tropidonotus piscator) is attacked by Tryp. primeti. At least two trypanosomes also are known to occui in common wall-lizards 01 Geckos. The import- ance of the parasites of this group warrants all necessarj precau- 11 keeping diseases such as Sleeping Sickness and Nagana , nit of India, although the particular biting Mies (Gtossina sfip.), which carry these diseases in Africa, arc not known to occur in India. B) no means an uncommon disease of dogs in the tropics is malignant jaundice, cause. i bj a minute protozoal organism (Babesia or Piroplasma canis) which is carried by the common Doj (Rhipicephalus sanguineus). Another similar parasite which has earned a certain notoriety in Madras by its effects on jackal-hounds is Piroplasma gibsoni, which causes intense anaemia and enlarge- ment of the spleen and liver. Slackness of the hound in cover and inability to keep her usual place in the field when the pack is run- ning are the first symptoms noticeable to the huntsman and these are soon followed by rapid loss of condition. This pal common in the blood of the jackal and is transmitted by tick-. It is also possible that rabies may occasionally be spread amongst dogs by the agency of biting Hies bm this is probably an unimportant method of dispersal. The various forms of Anthrax are sometimes spread amongst cattle, and occasionally carried to man. by the agency of biting flies and it seems obvious, especially in a country such as India, where the agriculture and hence the very livelihood of the whole people depends on cattle, that every effort should be made to inves- tigate the subject of the transmission of disease amongst cattle In biting flies and other blood-sucking insects. Yet verj little j to be on record either as regards the disc ises or the insects In which the) a re or ma) be transmitted. There are few if any countries in the world in which the subject of Veterinary Entomo- [0gj and Pi.it.. oolog) would better iepa\ research than in India. but hitherto investigators have confined their attention almost wholl) to the subject of human diseases and there is a vast field for exploration as regards the diseases ot domesticated animals in the tropics. It max be useful to give a summar) of the principal dis of man and animals which are known to be carried by insects in India. This list is exclusive of diseases (Scabies. Myiases, etc.). caused directly by insects. CHAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. 191 Host. Carried by Group to ... Kala a/ar ... Plague Enteric I Kilariasis phanti ... ... Epidemi ... Toberc .!. (Hiinea-worm Tropical ulcer ctivitis Surra Man ... Anophelin I ' ... Pediculu Do ... ? CUhocoi D ... Phlebotom ■ Man, rat, .'•. 1 squirrel it a'.. Man pp. Do ... Varioas mosquitos. Uo. D Do. Do. ... Mtisca s/p. •■ ■p. phila. J II..r^-, mole, camel, cat- tle. Exclusi by insects. Perhaps by bed- bugs ami mosrjui- Possibly by ■ hemip. Various insects and ? leeches. Siphonella /urn- ■.licking 7'abaii" perhaps hteniato- biting muscids. Bed-bug ... Sand-flies. Pleas. By pollution of ... Perhaps insect- borne. Perhaps partially insect- I louse-flies Bed-bugs. and drink, ance by II - ':■ 5 \ insects is a sub- I sidiary but con- 1 Water Ilea Infection . it n 1 ill us contained in the Cyclops which is swallowed with water from infect- ed wells. Bed-bug. 192 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHAP. XX. Disease. Host. Carried by ('■roup to which carrier belongs. Remarks. Equine Piroplas- mosis. Horse Tick. ,, Cattle . Margaropus ainiii- la/us. D Malignanl Jaun- dice. Dog . Rhipkepha, guineas. Do. Anthrax ... Cattle . Various Mood-suck- ing Hies. Spirochetosis Fowls . . trgas persicus Tick Tropicopolitan (Central India). li will be readilj seen by merely casual inspection of the fore- going list that many of the most serious dis< ases are carried bj insects, of which house-flies, mosquitos and bed-bugs arc probably the most noxious to man. It is not within the scope of this hook to enter into the treatment of the various insect-borne diseases but, on the principle that " prevention is better than cure." the following recommendations may be added : (i) Avoid the bites of all blood-sucking insects as fai as possible. Mosquito- and fly-proof rooms should be as necessar) adjuncts of an Indian bungalow as verandahs, but are rarely seen. The use of mosquito-boots in the evening and invariable use of mosquito-nets at night will, however, largely help to reduce risk of infe< tion. It is unfortunately often the ease that the new arrival in the tropics is looked down on with scorn simpl) because he is naturally at first intolerant of the many insect-plagues of every day life and that many dispense with mosquito-nets and such safeguards from an ignorance which passes for bravado. When travelling il may sometimes be impossible to sleep under a net and in such circumstances a supply of some repellent, such as mosquito-oil, should always be carried and used. (ii) A little systematic attention to the sanitary conditions of the bungalow, outbuildings and compound will usually bring about ,t vast reduction in disease-carrying insects. A Sunday morning round of inspection will often reveal a hitherto unsuspected accu- mulation of old tins and other receptacles for water lying about the compound, flower-pots, water-cans, hollow trees, cut bamboo-stumps, etc.. all merrily breeding mosquitos, whilst the hordes of Hies invad- ing the bungalow and kitchen may be traced to the manure thrown down outside the stable and perhaps also to a pile of kitchen-refuse. A very little regular attention lo such details will work wonders. i HAP. XX.] INSECTS AND DISEASE. 193 (iii) Avoid eating any uncooked vegetables and make sure that all milk and drinking-water is invariably boiled as a matter of routine and thereafter kept protected from flies. (iv) Ordinarily cleanly persons do not suffer from attack by bed-bugs, lice, et< .. as a rule, but it is not always possible to avoid such when travelling. When in camp and after returning from camp therefore, it is not a bad plan to have all bedding spread out for .1 few hours in the blazing sun on a bare patch of ground. It is simply not worth while to risk infection by insect-borne s when a very little care and common-sense will go a long way to avoid such risk 1 i 194 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHAP. XXI. Chapter XXI. BENEFICIAL INSECTS. '■ The hrsi - inquishing an enemy is to ascertain correctly Is habits; ihe next to he so certain ike one party h>r another : and a third and no less important objci i is to bi well acquainted with our allies and ft Curtis Farm Insects. AFTER bitter experience of the ravages oi insect-pests amongst his crops the cultivator is apt to come to the conclusion that his only safety lies in the prompt destruction of every form of insect- life wherever met with. But indiscriminate slaughter of this sort will do almost as much harm as good for it will result in the des- truction not only of pests but of the innumerable insects of all kinds which help to keep the pots in some control. For. as already pointed out (chapters VUJ X). the possible rate of increase of any insect, in the absence of enemies, is so enormous that in the short space of a few months its numbers would be so vast as to devour every scrap of its foodplant in any given district. The inset t enemies oi crop pots, which keep these latter within bounds, may be called the farmer's friends, and indeed they are more than this thc\ are indispensable allies. Insects of this class are gcncralh divided into predators and parasites, predators being animals which are predaceous on others, i.e., which devour other animals which thej capture, whilst parasites have already been defined as organisms which live at the expense and to the detriment oi Othei organisms. The distinction between these two groups is not always verj sharply defined but in practice it is convenient to keep the two classes distinct. Perhaps the difference may be brought out more clearly by the introduction of a time factor, in which case we may say that predators devour their prey forthwith whilst parasites devour it slowl) and gradually and may not always kill it. A beetle or bug which catches a caterpillai and feeds on it forthwith is a predator; a fly which lays its eggs m tin- caterpillar, in and on which the fly's grubs feed at leisure, is a parasite. Parasites may be considered under various headings (hyperparasites, superparasites, etc. I. as already- indicated in chapter YIII. Predaceous insects occuj in almost all groups, many insects feeding entirely on others and some which feed normally on dead animal or vegetable matter occasionally devouring living prey; CHAP. XXI.] - KCTS. [95 cockroaches, for example, have often been observed to catch and eat winged termites when these swarm out of the nest. Earwigs also .1 re generally rather mixed feeders of the scavenger type bul are often found to be predators and are sometimes important checks on the breeding of flies in rubbish-heaps. \nts again as a whole an- decidedly mixed feeders, usuall) eating '\c\<\ vej matter and subsisting largel) on the sugar) " honey-dew " excreted bj various sucking insei ts i Aphids, Membracids, Cot cids, eti observation ol a string of ants (e&, CEcophylla smaragdina, the Red Tree-ant) returning to the nest will reveal abundant spoil brought in by foragers in the shape of small flies, beetles and caterpillars. Dragorjflies ; 11) .-Eshninc and 12) Agrioninc. The Odonata. or Dragonflies, are exclusively insectviorous, hawking small insects on the wing, and also leading an entirely predaceous aquatic existence in their early stages. It is often very difficult to make out exactly what dragonflies are catching when their numbers and actions leave no doubt that they art actually capturing small insects, and as a rule these latter probably consist of minute midges, winged ants. etc. In ( ases where winged ants and termites ha\ e been flying in numbers out of a nest. I have often son a swarm of dragonflies hawking backwards and forwards overhead and capturing them, and it is interesting to note that on such occasions tin- dragonflies usually only bite off the bodies of their victims which continue to flj along apparently quite happily. The Mantidae are familiar to all studentsol insect life in India. Some are comparatively small whilst others are giants of the ■ tribe, but all are coloured procryptically in order to secure concealment at once from their enemies and their pri the' most curious and striking ol South Indian Mantids is Gongylus, whos. portrait appears on the' cover ol tins book in its natural 196 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [(HAP. XXI. attitude when at rest amongst foliage, head downwards and with its long sharp-spined front legs doubled together in readiness to strike at its prey, which are usually butterflies. The head, being separated from the body by an attenuated thorax which resembles an elongated neck, seems to be something apart and does not resemble an insect at all ; in some specimens the inner surfaces of the raptorial legs are coloured bright pink in life and the head then resembles a papilionaceous flower which may allure butterflies to approach within striking distance. The deceptive appearance is often accentuated by the adoption of a gentle sideways swaying motion of the whole insect, which not only gives an impression of a flower swaying in a gentle breeze hut at the same time brings into action yet another device in the reflection of light from the lower surfaces of the prothoracic lobes which Hash out like spots of sunshine finding their way through the foliage. Finally, the insect occurs in two different shades, green and brown, resembling living or dead leaves respectively, and exhibits strong sexual dimorphism, the male having pectinated antenna- and well-developed wings whilst in the female the antenna; are simple and the wings abbreviated. It may be added that males arc relatively scarce because the female sometimes eats the male prior to pairing and invariably does so afterwards. Raptorial legs, especially suited for the capture and retention of prey by the development of an armature of spines, as seen typically in the Mantids, are found in man) widely different groups of insects, such as the Mantida. the Mantispida and the Reduviidas, and the parallel development of such similar structures is an excellent example of convergence in evolution which may be commended to tin- student. The possession of a long slender rostrum, as seen in the plant-feeding bugs, may be compared with the short, stout beak found in predaceous groups, but the posses- sion of raptorial legs is often a surer mark of distinction ; in the Pentatomida, for example, the rostrum is always long and slender, whether the bug is a plant-feeder or a predator, but in cases of doubt as to feeding habits a good guess can usually be made after examination of the fore-tibia, which is always provided with Spines in predaceous species (e.g., Andrallus, see ligure 356). Many Wasps are predaceous on other insects and the various species which search out and destroy caterpillars are highly beneficial. Some wasps, such as the social species ot Polistes which commonly build small open hanging nests in bushes and buildings, either eat the caterpillars themselves or Iced them to their larva', but many of the solitary cell-building wasps collect i H.\l\ XXI. BENEFK I \l [MSB! rS i<>; and store up caterpillars as food for their young. Of this latter i lass the large long-waisted spe< ies ol Eumenes are common visi- tors to almost every bungalow, building neat mud-cells, provided with a regular neck and lip like a water-jar, in which caterpillars tored, the egg deposited, and the coll scaled and left. It is remarkable with what regularity and consistency the wasp hunts tor and succeeds in capturing caterpillars of the same species and size, and it seem-- probable in some cases that all the caterpillars brought and stored are members of one brood which have been systematically hunted down and destroyed ; so that the good accomplished bj these wasps is tar greater than is generally Fli in va extracted IV a mud-cell of Eumenes conica, (< original.) Eumenes conica, a i immon Cell-building Wasp. a Iriginal.) realized. The caterpillars are stung before they are placed in the cell and as a result they remain practically helpless, alive but incapable of co-ordinated motion. A great deal has been written regarding the " wonderful instinct which always impels the wasp to deliv er its sting in one and the same and most effective portion of the nervous system of the caterpillar," but this is largely an effort of the imagination, and ever) gradation can be found in stung larva; between complete paralysis anil ineffective and transient results; sometimes, indeed, the caterpillar may even pupate and as a moth. The wasp's egg is suspended from the top ol the cell by a slender filament, so that it ,s less exposed to danger bj any convulsive movements of the stored caterpillars; on hatching it devours these, still living, until they are all eaten, when it pupates in the cell and ultimately emerges. The number oi cater- pillars stored depends upon their size ; in the case of moderate- sized "ins {e.g., Pllisia) about seven are stored in each cell as a rule wasp may build and store eight or ten cells in one cluster and probably builds and stores several clusters. So it will be seen that every single one of these wasps may be c alculated as a poten- tial destroyer of at least one hundred Caterpillars, and SUCh wasps should, therefore, be protected and encouraged as much as possible. Wasps are peaceable creatures if they are left undisturbed and IDS SOI III INDIAN tNSJBCTS, ETC 'CHAP. XN|. even the social species, the smaller ones at any rate, arc usVally quite unobjectionable inmates of a bungalow. Amongst the flies, the Asilidae or Robber-flies are entirely predaceous, being provided with a stout horny beak which ran \ / ? X ! t . \-ilid Fly. On the lefl is a side-view >■!' the head, showing ilir stoutly-built beak : the outline figure on the right shows the natural size. (Original.) inflict a nasty poisoned wound in the case of the larger species. These flies are all extremely rapid flyers and capture their prey on the wing. Of the various other groups of predaceous Diptera the Syrphidae are of the greatest practical importance, although re only predaceous in the larval stage at which period of life they live entirely upon Aphid* : the flies themselves, many of which superficially resemble bees and wasps, frequent flowers and leaves and may often be seen hovering motionless in the air, whence they are sometimes called "Hover-flies." The eggs are laid on plants infested by Aphids, which the larva1 seize and devour, sometimes, as in the case of the Ragi Root Aphid, even following their prey below-ground. The Chrysopidae, or Lace-wing Flies, have habits somewhat similar to the Syrphidae, their eggs also being laid on plants and their larvae feeding on Aphid*. The eggs are very characteristic, being laid in groups, each egg deposited at the tip of a long slender stalk ; it i* possible that this arrangement preserves the remaining from the cannibal propensities of the first-hatched larvae. The Myrmeleonidae, or Ant-lions, are not commonly noticed a* adults, in which state they look like weak-winged dragonflies, a* their flight is apparently nocturnal, but they are sometimes attracted in light at night. The larval pits, however, are familiar objects in i II VP. \"\t . ' BENEFICIAL INSECTS. all dry sand) or dustj places as little circular funnel-shaped depres- sions in the ground, .it the bottom of which lurks the larva read) to seize and devour any small insect which may tumble into the pit or be brought down into it by the volleys ol sand flicked upw anls by the concealed 1 tff.&fe EiibUiuiiui scitulti massed on stem of Babul arabica) at Coimhatoi mgst the Lepidoptera, which seem to form so typically a ■ ian group, a few species arc predaceous in their larval ( )f these the commonest in Madras is probably Eublcmma scitula {see figure 242) whose curious larva, enclosed in a tough shell-like - on scale insect- and is commonly found on babul 1 Acacia arabica); frequentl) s are seen on the trunk- of trees, the larvae apparently reacting to a thigmotropic impulse at the time of puliation. Several other species ol Eublemma are known to be predaceous on si of this same genus are plant-feeders. In districts where lac is grown these larvae may do ver) serious damage b\ devouring the lac-ins The Coleoptera, or Beetles, contain numerous groups of pre- dators. The Cicindelidae, 01 ties, are predaceous I larvae, which tunnel in the ground and as adult- which swiftly run and fly in search of prey. 0 - {Cicindela sexpunctala) is known to attack the Rice-bug {Leptocorisa) in Northern India and hence i- a most useful ally of the farmer, but in Madras this - appears to be - ibsent, being known onl) from the Northern districts .um\ from ; Many ol the water-beetles 200 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. (HAP. XXI. [Dytiscidae, Gyrinidae, etc.) arc entirely predaceous, as indeed are most of the Bugs which live in the water or run along its surface. The Coccinellidce, or Lady-bird Beetles, are familiar and extremely beneficial insects, feeding on scale-insects, Aphids and various other pests both in their larval and adult stages. They are generally of very characteristic shape and colour (see plate V) and every cultivator should make himself familiar with their appearance. The adults have, as a rule, red wing-cases spotted with black but the markings are variable and may be wholly red or black, occasionally yellow or dark blue. A very large black- spotted red species is found in the Hills attacking the large Aphid found on pear-trees, and at least one lady-bird (see figure 133) is known to be an enemy of Green Scale-bugs. The mite so common on cholam is attacked by a minute species (Scymnus sp.) which does not apparently touch the mites themselves but devotes all its attention to devouring their eggs. I [G. 86.— Parasite "t Diatrcea sp. The small figure shows the natural size. (< Iriginal.) Parasites undoubtedly play a much more important part than predators in the reduction of the numbers of any species of insect, and this is largely because parasites as a rule only lay their eggs so that their larvae can feed on their victims, and they are there- lore able to destroy a large number of these latter. It must here be emphasized again that it is by no means every parasite that is beneficial. Probably every species of insect, without exception, is parasitized by one or more other insects and it is obvious therefore thai some parasites must be injurious by their destruction of beneficial insects. Even when an injurious insect is attacked it may be parasitized by two or more different parasites, only one of which is likely to survive, and it frequently happens that this survivor is destructive to a really beneficial parasite and its survival in \r. xxi. BENEFICl \I. INSI ■' i 5. I , I'm i 11, of Aproarema nerteria. The small figure shows the natural size, (< (riginal.) is tl Ivantageous to the injurious pest. On the whole, however, the activities of parasites are decidedly beneficial. Parasites arc found amongst the members ol most oi the Orders of Insects but the parasitic Hymenoptera and Diptera are the most important. Amongst the 1I> menoptera, several very exten- sive families (Ichneumonidae, Chalcididae, Proctotrypidae, etc. ) are entirely parasitic as are also the Tachinidae and Bombylidae amongst the Diptera. Animal parasites (Hippoboscidas, Nycteri- biadae, etc.) are not included here. \ / IK. Xanthopimpla pedator. , outline figure shows the natural inal. » • It must again be |><.inwil out thai ii is impossible to give more tl of facts in a book of this character. In the present chapter tl * |i families and groups nuisi necessarily be a 262 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. < HAP. NNI. 1 In Ichneumonidae, or [chneumon Flies, are large to moderate- sized slender, waspish Hymenoptera, their females armed with an exserted ovipositoi which maj be several times the length of the whole body, especially in the case of species which are parasitic on larvae living in dead wood, into which the ovipositor may be thrust to a great depth in order to oviposit in the concealed larvae. The members oi this group are often parasitic on lepidopterous larvae, which are hunted down and eggs deposited in, or occasion- ally on, them by means of tlie ovipositor. The eggs presently hatch into small white grubs which feed inside the stuns larva eating the fat and non-vital portions until they are full-grown, by which time the larva has generally ceased feeding and pupated, when the grubs consume the remainder and then themselves pupate in the pupal shell of their host, afterwards biting their way out and emerging as adult flies to continue their beneficial labours of destroying caterpillars. V\ the small figure within the Circle, (i Iriginal). ["he Chalcididae oi Chalcid Flies are small to minute Hymen- optera, often brilliantly shining or metallic in colour, which parasitize insects of almost all Orders, many being themselves 1 1 \ pel parasites on Ichneumon ids or other Chalcids. As an example of this group we figure an undescribed species, apparently belong- ing to the genus Erefmocerus, which parasitizes the Castor Aleurodid. Man} insects of this family, it may be noted, are highly important as checks on Scale-insects and some have been imported from one country to another expressly to check the attacks of Scale-insects, in which success has been attained in several cases. The Proctotrypidae, or Proctotrypid Flies, are the only other family oi parasitic Hymenoptera that can be noticed here. They are all minute insects, sometimes wingless and are mostly important (HAH. XXI. I BENEFICIAL INSECTS. 203 as being egg-parasites, that is to say, they hunt out ami oviposit in hatches of eggs laid by the insects which serve as their hosts- A few insects of this group, which has not hern studied at all in India as yet. arc known to be aquatic and to use their wings for propelling themselves along under water. The unnamed and undescribed species which we figure is parasitic on the Tettigoniella spectra, a small white Jassid hug which is sometimes very abundant in paddy-fields and which lays its eggs on paddy- leaves which often become submerged in the water, and in this case the parasite walks under-water in search of them. parasites of this kind may be encourged, when egg-masses ot pests are found, by placing these eggs in an open vessel surrounded with oil-and-water, so that any flies which emerge may be able to fly away whilst any caterpillars which hatch out will be unable to escape. I ig. 90. Proctotrypid Parasite ■>! Tettigoniella spectra, ["he smaller figure shows the natural si/r. (Original.l The Tachinidae, or Tachinid Flies, in general appearance much resemble rather hairy house-tlies or flesh-flies and are parasitic on caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc., on which the eggs are laid as a ride, the white maggots feeding inside their victim in much the same way as ichneumonid grubs, but gem-rally killing it off iiist .is it is full-grown, then emerging and changing on its collapsed remains into characteristic small brown puparia, from which the adtdt flies presently issue forth. The Bombylidse, which are usually hairy, bee-like two-winged flies, extremely swift on the wing and often hovering stationary in one place during flight, are parasitii on various insects, chiefly Hvmenoptera. and several spec ies of these flies, which parasitize 2<>4 SOME SOt IH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI. the solitary wasps, are commonly seen in bungalows. A few species, however, arc known to parasitize grasshoppers, their larvae feeding on the egg-masses, and are therefore beneficial. We have bred an undetermined species from the egg-masses of the Deccan Grasshopper (Colemania sphenar hides). Amongst other parasites of grasshoppers must be reckoned the Blister Beetles, whose larvae feed on and destroy the egg-masses of grasshoppers, and these beetles are therefore highly beneficial in their early stages, whatever damage they may do as adult insects. Besides doing good as predators and parasites, insects may be beneficial indirectly in other directions, as in checking the growth of weeds, breaking up of dead wood and acting as scavengers of dead animal matter. As regards the checking of weeds, there are few if any plants which arc not subject to attack by insects of some or many kinds and weeds are no exception to this rule. But, whilst insects may do a little good by checking the growth of weeds, this is hardly a factor to be relied on by the agriculturist to supersede the necessity of weeding, and on the other hand many insect pests breed freely on weeds and thereafter invade the adjacent crops and damage them. In forest regions especially, where there is always a quantity of dead wood present, this has a regular and characteristic fauna of its own which feeds upon it and rapidly reduces the dead wood to a state in which it can again form part of the soil, and in such cases the action of these insects is undoubtedly beneficial under natural conditions. Dead animal matter has also a special fauna of its own, various insects feeding On it and laving their eggs on it so that it is rapidly consumed. The Dung Beetles of numerous kinds are common and well-known examples, the beetles separating small pieces of dung which they form into a ball and roll along the ground to a suitable spot, where it is buried and either eaten by the beetle itself or an egg laid on it and the ball left for the food of the future larva. In the case of si line of the larger species, such as Heliocopris bucephalus (see figure 121), the ball may be very large and solid, as much as six inches in diameter, and may be buried at a depth of several feet. The dispersal and reduction of dead animal matter by insects in this way is obviously beneficial by ensuring its more rapid blending with the soil. CHAP. XXII. 1 USEFUL INSECTS. 205 Chapter XXI i. USEFUL I X s l . < is "The stud} ol entomology is one of (he most fascinating ..I pursuits. It lakes its votaries into the treasure-!- Na ire and explains some of the wonderfal series of links which fonii the greal chain ol creation 1 . fore us another world, of which we have been hitherto unconscious, and shows us thai the tiniest insect, so small perhaps thai the unaided eye can scarcely see it, has its work to do in the world and does it." j G, , UNDER the heading of Useful Insects we may consider the comparatively small number of species which are applied directlj to supply the requirements of man. either as food or drugs, or as ornaments, or on account of the products which they yield. Silk is the best-known and most valuable of such products and forms the staple industry of many whole districts in India and other countries, amongst which we may mention especially Japan, China, Italy and France. Most caterpillars, and various other insects, and course spiders, spin silk, and we have already seen that the cocoon-making instinct is widely found amongst insects, the basis ot all such cocoons being silk, but it is only in two families of moths that these coitions are suitable for practical use on account of the gth, qualitj and quantity of silk fibre contained in them. These two families, the Saturniadae (or Attacidae) and Bombycidae, 1 on, prise a number of species of wild silk-moths which occur more or less commonly in Indian jungles and which are constantly being exploited unsuccessfully by promoters of wild-cat schemes for their commercial utilisation, but the only three species which are of actual value in Southern India are the Mulberry, Eri and Tasar Silkworms. In all cases it is of course only the cocoon, or silken case spun by the larva for the protection of the insect during its resting pupal stage, that is of anj value. The Mulberry Silkworm (Bombyx mori) is only cultivated on any scale in Southern India in Mysore and in the Kollegal taluq of the Coimbatore district, this latter area being geographically, if not politically, part of Mysore. As its name implies, this silkworm is fed on the leaves of mulberry, which is generally grown from cut- tings as a field crop, the bushes being plucked ol leaves and regularly cut back when they grow too high. The caterpillars are reared in open basket-work trays made of split bamboo and when full-fed .ire placed to spin theii cocoons in chandrakhis or split- bamboo frames containing a spiral maze in which the caterpillars 2( « i SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXII. wander about and select a suitable corner lor spinning up. As the silk is spun in one single reelable thread, which is broken by the emergence of the moth, those cocoons which are intended for silk must be stilled (i.e., the enclosed insect must be killed) to prevent their being spoilt in this way. Stifling is done by exposure to the hot rays of the sun or by artificial heat. The cocoons which are intended for silk are placed in water which is nearly boiling, one end of the silk thread teased out and thrown on to a compound thread from four or live other cocoons and the whole reeled on to a Fig. 91. -The Mulberry Silkworm (Bombyx mori.) I, Larva; 2, 3, Cocoons ; t. Male Moth; 5. Female Moth. (After Indian Museum Notes.) spool, other cocoons being attached as one conies to an end. 1 hose COCOOns which are intended to be kept lor rearing purposes an retained and the moths allowed to emerge, pair and oviposit in due course. As the silkworms are very subject to numerous diseases which arc transmitted hereditarily, each female moth is confined over a sheet of paper under a tin funnel whilst laying her eggs; when oviposition is concluded, the body-juices of the parent arc examined microscopically to see whether disease is present and, if so, that batch of eggs is destroyed. Scrupulous cleanliness in the rearing-trays and proper disinfection of these trays and the chand- rakhis are essential for success in rearing these, as in all other, insects. The Eri Silkworm (Attacus ricini) feeds on the leaves of castor and is normally an inhabitant of Assam and Bengal but has been CHAP. XXII.] sECTS. 207 Attacus ricini). 1. Larva or Worm on cut open to show the structun and ei Pupa; 4. Female Moth. (Original.) introduced all over India in a domesticated condition. This insect requires a warm, damp climate and cannot therefore be expected to do well in the plains of Southern India except on the West Coast. In a wild state most of the cocoons are of a dark red-brown colour but. by constant inbreeding oi spei imens producing only white cocoons, the brown ones are eliminated in the domesticated races. These cocoons are not reelable and must be spun and there is consequently no necessity to kill the insect to obtain its silk. Not only, therefore, can all the cocoons reared be converted into thread. but all the moths can be allowed to emerge and be used for breed- ing, so th.it large broods can be built up rapidly without wasting - tor seed. The silk is spun by hand and woven like cotton. the cloth being extremely durable and improving after a little im. ling more lustrous and suit am! also stretching a little. If mill-spun, verj line and even thread can be made and excellent line cloth prepared from this. Either hand-spun or mill-spun thread, or cloth made from these, • an be dyed to any colour required. Further particulars regarding this silk will be found in Pusa Bulletin No. 20. " Dii the Cultivation of En Silk." 208 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXII. lln Tasar Silkworm (Anthercea paphia) is chiefly found in the North of the Presidency, the caterpillars occurring wild or semi- domesticated in jungle tracts on various trees of which the more common and important are Shorea robusta (Sal), Zizyphus jujtiba (Ber), TermincUia tomentosa and T. arjuna. The cocoons are collec- ted in the jungle, being the produce of wild caterpillars, or from particular trees on which eggs have been placed by rearers. The caterpillars cannot be reared in confinement on a commercial scale, nor will the moths pair readily, and the bred female moths are HP I iG. 93 I i" I i u Silkwi 'i in I. Larva : ..'. I n I, Femali Mi ith. { I and 1 after Lefroy.) ch \r. xxii.1 USEFUL INSECTS. 209 therefore paired with wild males which are attracted to them, the females being usually tied to a twig. Owing to the facts that there is thus no real control over pairing, so that it is impossible to be eertain of retaining any particular quality of silk, and that the caterpillars feed in the open exposed to the attacks of innumer- able enemies, tasar silk is not an industry which is capable of much development in face of the competition of well-organized sericultural industries in other countries. The cocoon is reelable and the moth must therefore be killed and not allowed to emerge as the thread is spoilt and unreelable alter the moth has eclosed. {pis dorsata builds its comb. The Kadiar Rocks in the own here and the hi Author's are found throughout Southern India in a wild state and produce a considerable quantity of honey and wax. the right of collecting these in the jungle being usually leased out by the Dep irtment to jungle tribes, many of whom make a regular -s of raiding b al particular times of the year. There are three kinds of true honey-bees, all of which occur commonly both in the plains and in the hills. They art (i) the large Rock Bee (Apis dorsata, - 1 1/"). (21 the Indian Bee (Apis indica, see figure llS), and (3) the Little Bee (Apis florea, see figure MQ). Of these Apis dorsata usually occurs in colonies composed of several or many nests each of which builds a large single comb '-I 210 [E SOUTH INDIAN IN'SECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXII. suspended from a cliff or from the horizontal branch of a tall jungle tree. Frequently the same tree or clump of trees or cliffs are used by these bees year after year and in most districts there seems to be a semi-annual migration of the colonies from the Hills to tin- Plains during the rainy months and vice versa. When disturbed these bees are apt to be irritable and very vicious, sometimes attacking all who approach their colonies and making roads impassable for traffic. They are not therefore adapted for domestication. The honey and wax are collected in a very crude manner by men of jungle tribes who climb the " bee-trees " or are lowered over cliffs to the nests, protected by a blanket and a torch with which they burn the bees off the comb and cut this away bodily. Enormous numbers of these bees are destroyed annually in this way in certain districts. The Indian Bee (Apia indict) is similar to, but smaller than, the European honey-bee (Apis mellifica) and, like the latter, builds several parallel combs. This bee varies very considerably in colour according to locality, specimens in the Plains being pale and those from the Hills dark. It builds its nest as a rule in hollow trees, more rarely on bushes in shady places, the nests being found singly and not gregariously as in Apis dorsata. They are commonly robbed when found, the entrance being chopped open as a rule and the combs cut out without any special precautions, although this bee can sting smartly. Apisindica can be, and often is, kept in a more or less domesticated state in hives, in which, however, it rarely remains more than a few months, thereafter swarming off to found a new nest, and this vagrant disposition is one difficulty in keeping these bees, as new colonies have to be obtained frequently or at least the old ones recaught and rehived. The honey of this bee is good but not plentiful, probably only about six pounds being obtainable from each hive annually , so that it is hardly a profitable kind to keep on a commercial scale for honey-production, though very valuable in gardens and orchards as a pollinator. The Little Bee (Apis florea) is especially a dweller in the Plains, hanging its small single comb in bushes and shady places. The honey is excellent but small in quantity. The nests ate commonly robbed when found, the comb being squeezed in the hand and the honey eaten forthwith, the skins of low caste natives being appa- rently impervious to the sting of this bee. Owing to the small size both of individual bees and of colonies this species is not adapted to domestication. Besides producing honey and wax, bees are extremely useful to man indirectly by pollinating plants and this is an aspect of (MAP. XXII.] USEFUL IXSECTS. 21 I their activities which must not be overlooked, especially in districts where large n nas of crops are required lo be fertilized by these insects for the attainment of successful crops later on. In places tates and all fruit gardens it will probably be found profitable to keep bees, not so much for the production of as for the successful pollination of crops; or at least to protect the bees whi re these occur in .1 wild state. only native Indian bee which offers any chance of domesti- cation is Apis indica which, as already noted, can be hived with latic -ketch inal.) uccess. Proper wooden hives should be used, with moveable ■l frames of standard size and provided with wax foundation to save the bee- as much as possibli from the nei essity of making For it must be remembered that the production of wax is a train on th nd that it takes about pounds weight of hones to repair the wear and tear caused by the tion of every pound weight of wax. If, therefore, bees are kepi for honey, this should always be extracted in a proper machine .tion of a simpl riltural /ourna ( Ictobei 1911. 14-A 212 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I.CHAP. XXII. and the empty combs returned to the bees to clean and refill. It is a most wasteful procedure to remove the wax with the honey. Lac, which is the resinous excretion of a Scale-insect, is an important industry in some parts of India, but is little grown in Madras where the climatic and other conditions appear unsuitable for its successful cultivation. It is used in India principally bj jewellers for filling gold ornaments, bangles and bracelets, and for making toys and ornamental ware, and outside of India in the manufacture of gramophone records, varnishes, furniture polishes and sealing wax. A full account of the cultivation anil preparation of lac is given in Pusa Bulletin No. 28, "The Cultivation of Lac in the Plains of India," to which the reader may be referred for fuller information. Analogous to lac is the white waxy substance produced by another Scale-insect, Cerococcus ceriferus, found commonly in Madras. It has been tried for making candles, but without much success. It is also said to be eaten. A few insects are of direct use to man as a source of food and of these we may mention especially Termites of various kinds, particularly the winged forms of some of the mound-builders. Not content with the capture of these insects at their normal time of emergence from the nest, in many parts of Madras members of certain castes anticipate their flight and build a small domed hut Of twigs and branches over the nest, the top of which is sliced off, and a chatty of water is sunk in this or a hole dug and filled with water. A lighted lamp is now placed in the hut and the emergence hastened by blowing into the nest a mixture of certain powdered roots and seeds, whereupon the termites fly out and fall into the water whence they are collected and sold in the bazaars for food amongst the lower castes. Locusts are well-known articles of food in most of the various countries which they ravage. 1 am not aware that they are regular- ly eaten in Madras bul this is probably the case as we read in Kirby and Sjience's " Introduction to Entomology" that when a "cloud of locusts . . . visited the Mahratta country, the common people salted and ate them." There is probably little reason except prejudice why many insects should not be eaten and, if this seems repugnant to any readers, they may be reminded that the majority, even the most fastidious, have probably devoured with relish many small insects such as cheese-hoppers, which are merely the maggots of a fly, and that Cochineal, a colouring matter derived from a small Plant-bug, is extensively used for colouring fancy sweets. Besides their use as food, many insects are utilized as drugs of various kinds. Probably the best known in this connection are the I HAP. XXII.] i SEF1 1. INSECTS. 213 Blister-beetles, many of the Indian species of which arc sufficiently plentiful to repaj collection and which contain a considerable of Cantharidin. For veterinary purposes especially - will probablj provi worth collecting and using. The supposedly stimulating properties of queen Termites are well known and need not be more than alluded to; when found by coolies during digging, etc., the) are usually swallowed alive- forthwith. Finally, insects must be added to the replete armoury of attrac- tions by which the fair sex endeavours to render itself still fairer and more attractive. The brilliantly-metallic wii t many Buprestid beetles in particular are often used tor the ornann ot fans and brooches and the embroidery of cloths and dresses, whilst glow-worms are sometimes enclosed in gauze and used as hair-ornaments. 214 SOMfi SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. LCHAP. Will. Chapter XXIII. SOME OTHER ANIMALS. "The art of seeing, so useful, so universal, and yet so uncommon, is one of the most valuable a man can possess." Kikisy and 3 INNUMERABLE animals other than insects, from elephants to minute organisms invisible to the naked eye. must be included amongst the farmer's friends and foes. Some destroy crops and hence are injurious, some feed on crop-pests and so are themselves beneficial, whilst others do neither harm nor good to man or his possessions and are therefore of neutral value. Elephants occur in most uncultivated tracts both in the Plains near and in the Hills, though commoner in the latter. In districts where they occur they frequently invade cultivated areas and do an immense amount of damage to crops merely by reason of their size and numbers, a single full-grown elephant consuming between 6oo and /00 lb. of green fodder daily. In the Hills cardamoms seem to be especially attractive, whilst a young tea nursery often seems in the elephantine mind to have been prepared expressly as a most desirable spot to wallow in, to the total destruction of the planters' hopes of young plants. Elephants usually avoid enclosed areas- apparently in fear of traps, and, as they are quite unable to jump. a comparatively narrow (7 feet) ditch forms an impassable barrier. The Gaur (Bos gaurus), commonly miscalled " Bison," occurs in most of the Hill tracts and occasionally does some damage in . states, whilst the Wild Buffalo (Bos bubalus) occurs in the Plains to the north of the Godavari and often does great damage to crops, a herd or solitary bull sometimes taking possession of a paddy-field and driving away the true owners. The Nilgai (Boselaphus trago- camelus) is also common in scrubby localities in the Plains as far south as Mysore and often does much damage to crops. Various species of deer also occur commonly and may at times invade cropped areas. Shooting the trespassers, where damage is done, is probably the only practical control-measure. No animal does more damage to crops than the Wild Pig (Sus cristatus) which o< 1 urs commonlj both in the Plains and Hills. Pigs often breed twice in the year, producing four to six young in each litter, so that their prolific rate of increase enables them to compete with most forms of destruction. Under these circumstances the best thing is to protect the crops b> fencing, where these are suffi- ciently valuable to repay such protection. A suitable permanent CHAP. XXIII.] SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 21 S fencing is described by Clouston in the Agricultural Journal of India nril IQI.V On the other hand the curious Pangolin, or Seal) A.nl (Manis crassicaudata), found sparingly throughout the Plains I rarely seen, is beneficial as I itirely on in icipally on termites whose mounds it with its powerful claws and then thrusts in its long toni Squirrels of man j species occur in Southern India, thi the common Striped Squirrel (Funambulus palmarumi, whose diurnal habits and partiality tor the neighbourhood of human dwellings render- it one "t tin mosl familiar of all Indian animals. The food of most squirrels consists ol buds, fruit, seeds and insects, and they an- usuall) of neutral or slightly beneficial value to the agriculturist. Occasionally, however, squirrels may attack fruit, such as mangoes, and do considerable damage. In such casi fficult to cheek unless they can hi- shot, as their powers ol climbing make it difficult to isolate the trees. In the rase of valu- able fruit, bagging or netting may be tried. ii rbille [Tatera ind Rats and mice of numerous kinds are sometin -t the most serious pests with which the agriculturist has to contend. In namalai and Travancore Hills, and perhaps in the Nilgiris, the Malabar Spiny Mouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus) is said by Blan- ford to damage pepper, breadfruit, and jakfruit The Indian Gerbille (Tatera indica) is common almost everywhere', burrowing in bund- and in the ground, and only venturing out by night. It is a gentle-mannered and pretty little animal, reddish-brown above and 2lt> SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII. pure-white below. Normally it probably does some good, because its favourite food is the root-- ol hariali grass [Cynodon dactylon) which is a most pestilential weed as a rule, but it also does consider- able damage by feeding on seeds and grain. Under certain conditions, whether of favourable weather or absence of enemies or both is not exactly known, this little rat increases enormously in numbers and it is probable that this is often the sp Kerned omplaints are made <>l damage to standing crops by rats. In 1878-79 this Gerbille was so plentiful in the Deci an .1- to ravage tin-crops ovei an area of several thousand miles. The Common Indian Rat (Epimys rufescens, or Mus nittus ol the " Fauna ol India " volume) is common everj where, burrowing in tin- ground and climbing well. It is common in houses, living especially in roofs where these are made of suitable materials and is practically omnivorous but I tly on grain and fruits. It often does considerable damage in coconut topes, destroying the young unripe nuts, and nesting in the crowns of the palms. The Brown Rat I Epimys norvegicus or Mus decumanus) is a typically human parasite which has been carried b) shipping all over the World and which is now commonly found in all large towns. It lives in burrows in and houses, in field-bunds, etc., and sometimes does damage to grain-crops although it is essentially a scavenger. The Indian House-Mouse (Mus manei) is a household pest as a rule, but is occa- sionally found doing damage near human habitations; in the fields it is replaced by the Southern Field-Mouse (Mus booduga). The Soft-furred Field-Rat ( Millar dia meltada) lives entirely in cultivated fields, in burrows or simply in cracks in the soil, and sometimes increases "so as to become a perfect plague and to destroy the crops" (Elliot). The Bandicoot (Bandicota malabarica, or Nesokia bandicota (part) of the " Fauna " volume) is common in many parts of Southern India, both in towns and in cultivated trai ts, being very destructive to grain and also eating fruits and said to kill chickens. It is of very large size for a rat, the head and hotly (without tail) measuring 12 1 5 inches long, blackish-brown ,1 box e. grey beneath ; it grunts like a pig, whence its name, which is derived from the Telugu "Pandi-koku" (pig-rat) of tank-diggers. The nearly allied Southern Mole-Rat (Gunomys kok) has similar habits, throwing up large piles oi earth at the entrances of its burrows, which are often in the bunds of paddy-lands, and storing up grain. The abovementioned are the commoner and more important of the rats and mice found in Southern India and they are enumerated here in order to emphasize the fact that very various and different species may do damage, a point which is usually overlooked by CHAP. Will. ] i '1 HER ANIMALS. 217 correspondents and others who report dai "rats" and ask for remedies. The habits of the vario in often nt and must be taken into account in devising or carrying out any measures for control. It is, for example, little use to attai k a rat, which is burrowing in field-bunds, in order to trj and check damage which is actually being d< different species which is living and nesting in the tops oi palm-trees. In selecting a suitahlc bait lor laying dow n poison or tor use in traps, due 1 must be paid to the habits and economy of the particular species concerned. In any case the control of damage to crops by by no means easy, fraps are usually out of the question on a I with tin bands to ] up. ibing 1 ale and control meth< onsequently limited to exclu- sion, fumigation and poisons. Inthei coconut palms it is sometimes possible to exclude the rats from access by nailing downwardly-sloping bands of tin around the trunk, care being taken that access is not 1 >ntiguous or adj. n cut trees, bushes or buildings. In tl •! burrowing n i- sometimes practicable to fumigate the rat poisons and in such cases it is as well to go over the ground pre- and mark and stop loosel) with earth all burrows tl (I. those which are subsequent!) reopened being presumably 218 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. [CHAP. XXIII. 01 i upied. In careful hands Carbon Bisulphide is an excellent fumigant but care must be taken to observe the precautions noted in Chapter Will ; a small quantity is poured into the entrance of the burrow, allowed to evaporate for a second or two and then exploded with a lighted rag on the end of a long pole and a spade- ful of earth immediately placed over the bole; the explosion, which drive- the gas into the burrow, is very violent and care must be taken to stand well clear of the burrow and to place the bottle of Carbon Bisulphide well out of range before applying a light. If a machine, such as one of the "Ant Exterminators" (see pages 121 1 23), is available the burrows may be fumigated with Sulphur or Sulphur and Arsenic and this is especially useful because the heavy fumes call attention to exit-holes which would otherwise be overlooked; if a regular machine is not at hand a temporary makeshift can be manufactured at small cost from a blacksmith's bellows, an earthenware chatty and a few lengths of bamboo, the bellows being arranged to blow fumes of a tire kindled in the chatty through a bamboo or metal pipe into the burrow. Powdered Sulphur freshly made into a paste with Kerosine and wrapped in a piece of paper may also be used, being lighted and pushed with a stick into the burrow which is then closed with earth and left. The indiscriminate use of poisons in cultivated areas may lead to unexpected results and poisoned baits should therefore be placed only in situations where other animals are not likely to reach them ; a piece of earthenware drain-pipe or similar covering may be suggested for use in fields. A bait of crushed maize poisoned with Zinc Phosphate has been found successful against Field-Rats in some places. Strychnine also gives good results sometimes, but must of course be used with caution ; it is generally given in plantains or sugarcane, the bait being split open, a little strychnine powdered on. and the fruit closed and laid clown as required. Several pathogenic organisms, fatal to rats but innocuous to other animals, form the basis of various special culti- vations (Danysz Rat Virus, Ratin, Trope Ratin, etc.) which are extensively used in Europe ; but these cultures are not readily obtainable in India and seem to deteriorate in the Tropics, so that at present they are hardly within the sphere of practical politics. Most rats, especially semi-domesticated species, it may be noted, are extremely suspicious of baits and traps if these retain any trace of the smell of the human fingers used to prepare them ; before setting or placing baits or traps, thru-lore, care should be taken to rub a little Aniseed ( )il over the hands. Porcupines are far commoner in most districts than is usually imagined as they are rarely seen owing to their nocturnal habits. ( II \l\ Will. I HER ANI.MAL.s. 219 remaining concealed during the daytime in their burrows, which are gem-rally made amongst rocks where these are available. They feed on vegetable' matter, chiefly on roots, and often do greal damage to garden crops and to voting trees. The latter might be protei led to some extent bj giving .1 good thi< k coal ol whitewash mixed with an insoluble arsenical such as Lead Arsenate. < >ther- wise the treatment foi porcupines is much the same as that gi rats. It may, however, be noted that these animals are often inclin- ed to be gregarious and 01 cupj more or less permanent burrows. II ires are generallj common in dry cultivated areas and times do a little damage to crops ; but they are unimportant to the agriculturist as a rule. Flying Foxes (Pteropus gigantens), large fruit-eating Hats, are verj common in some districts, feeding normally on wild figs but attacking all fruit and often doing serious damage in orchards. I'he\ also drink todd j on occasion and are sometimes found com- pletely " drunk and incapable " under the trees the next morning. I hej generally rest in the daytime in particular trees to which they resort year alter year, sallying out every evening at dusk and ranging over a circle of fifteen or twenty miles' radius. It is remarkable how a tree in fruit is discovered immediately the fruit to ripen, attracting the bats from miles around. It is difficult to protect fruit-trees or crops from the ravages of these animals but the following note by Mr. John Still, extracted from "Spolia Zeylanica" (Vol. VI, p. 54). seems to offer a hint method which might be adopted in districts where these bat- do damage : — "In the North-Western Province, near Ganewatta Station, I noticed in a paddy-field a most ingenious method of capturing flying foxes. Great strings of cane are hung across the narrow fields, and from them depend at intervals of 3 or 4 feet long streamers made by tying together several of the whip-like shoots of the common jungle cane. These whips are so thin a- to be almost invisible in the dusk, and their thorns are sufficiently .us to hold captive any imforUin fox who gets into heir grip." 1 Southern Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Cynopterus sphinx; margi- natus of the " Fauna " volume) is also common, roosting by day solitarily or in small parties on leaves of plantains and palms. It flies swiftly in the evening, feeding entirely on fruit anil being often extremely destructive to plantains, mangoes and guavas. One which I had in confinement for some time ate a whole plantain nightly but under natural conditions probably several fruits would have been partially eaten and spoilt. 220 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. XXIII. Mosl bats are ol course well known to be insectivorous and may ic be considered as beneficial, destroying vast quantities of insects, especially noctuid moths. A few species, however, are carnivorous, at least sometimes, and amongst such we may note especially the Indian Vampire ( Lyroderma lyra) which catches and devours small birds, other li.it-. and frogs, as well as insects. Various Shrews, often contused with field-rats but distinguishable by their long pointed snout and small eyes, occur commonly and frequently enter houses at night in search of insects which form their main food. They are useful little animals which deserve encouragement. I i.,. 98. Su lawed by Jackals. (From an original photo-) Bears live mostly on fruit- and insects, especially on termites whose mounds are clawed Open and the inmates sucked up. The only species found in Southern India is the Sloth-Bear (Melursus itrsittusj, which sometimes does damage to crops, such as cereals and pulses and especially sugarcane. Toddy-pots also are some- times robbed of their contents by this animal, which also plunders CHAP. XXIII.] SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 221 bees-nests when found. On the whole, however, bears importance to the agriculturist. The Jackal (Canis indicus ; aureus of authors) is commonly and widely distributed in all districts, usually occurring in small parties, They arc- essentially sca\ engers, t. eding on carrion and offa sorts, but they arc not averse to killing and eating an animals which thej can catch. Chick letimes taken and I have seen a jackal catch a pair of drongos which were squabbling on the ground, striking them down with alternate blows of its fore-paws. Sweet cereals, such as maize and especially sugarcane. are often attacked and considerable damage may lie done b animals in cane-fields. In the Wynaad, it is said by Jerdon that jackals devour considerable quantities of ripe coffee-berries, the seeds passing through, well pulped, and being collected by coolies, as it is asserted that seeds so found make the best coffee, a circumstance due, as explained by Sterndale, to the fact that the jackals select the best fruit. Besides damaging crops the jackal - a permanent reservoir of the virus of rabies, so that he cannot be considered either a respectable or desirable member of society. The use of carefully-stretched wire-mesh fencing, as advocated by Clouston (seep. 21 5) is said to keep jackals out of areas so protected to some extent. Direct control-methods are difficult, unless burrows can be located; but in the Plains of Southern India the jackal often lies up in bushes in the daytime. Poisons are often difficult to apply ; if Strychnine is used, an excessive quantity should not be given, as such often induces vomiting and defeats its object. Mungos mungo, the common Indian Mongoose, together with several othei 3 found throughout Southern India, frequently in the vicinity of houses. All the spei ies feed rather indifferently on any small animals or birds that they are able to catch, whilst their partiality for snakes is well known. Though useful in this : around houses they often do greal da nage t< 1 fowls or other domesticated birds if they can obtain access to these. As they prey on numerous insectivorous reptiles and birds it is doubtful whether these animals are really so beneficial nmonly supposed and perhaps their value may be . - neutral. The Indian Palm-civel {Paradoxurus niger) is commonly called the"toddj cat 'in many districts on account of its fondness for the contents of toddy-pots, and is often caught by the toddy-drawers asleep in the daytime in palm-trees. Its normal ton,! small animals of all sorts and fruit, so that it is sometimes destructive to poultry and ganl 222 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. 'CHAP. XXIII. Various small jungle rats, the leopard and tiger need not be more than mentioned here. All are often very destructive to domestic animals of various kinds and the ordinary methods of shikar are the only ones applicable to their control. Monkeys of various species are also sufficiently familiar and in many districts do considerable damage to crops and gardens, being Looked una-, sacred and not to be interfered with, although the cultivators, averse to killing the monkeys themselves, sometimes find their pilfering such a loss that they will beg foreigners to do this for them. Of all vertebrate animals, however. Birds are the most important from an agricultural point of view and it is probable that, if birds were wholly absent in Southern India, it would prove impossible to grow crops on account of the damage by insect pests. It is not generally realized what an enormous number of insects arc- destroyed in the course of a year by every individual of an insectivorous species of bird, such as a Mynah, which hunts systematically for its food during almost every moment of daylight. On the other hand some birds are distinctly injurious to crops. feeding entirely on fruit or grain, and others, which are beneficial by feeding on insects during part of the year, turn their attention to crops when these art' ripe. Not even all the purely insectivorous birds are necessarily useful, as their food may consist of useful or beneficial insects. So that every different kind of bird must be judged on its merits from the point of view of whether it is useful or noxious to the agriculturist, our opinions of the value of each species being based solely on actual records of its food and feeding-habits. A bird that eats injurious insects is itself beneficial and vice versa, and a bird which does good most of the year is not necessarily to be condemned as injurious because it occasionally does some harm. An occasional lapse from virtue need not be construed as a permanent divergence from the straight and narrow way ; the good and the harm have to be balanced together and a general average struck. So far as agriculture is concerned there are practically only two classes to be considered, birds that feed on insects and those which eat grain, and the beneficial birds in the first class far outweigh in numbers and importance the injurious birds in the second class. Practically nothing is on record of the actual food of birds in Southern India ; what scanty field-notes exist have been collected by Mr. Mason in his memoir on the "Food of Birds in India" (Agri. Dept., Entom. Series, Vol. Ill), but the original work in this relates solely to one small district in Bihar and the number of observations is too small to be satisfactory. Feeding-habits may CH IP. XXIII. SOME OTHER ANIMALS. 223 also vary to some extent indifferent districts in accordance with the relative abundance of particular kinds of food ; at Coimbatore, for example, the Common Mynah is much more of a grasshopper- hunter than in Bihar, because the countrj is more open and there are few fig-trees to provide the fruit on which this bird feeds larj in Bihar. Amongst the commoner and most beneficial birds we may in- clude the Drongo, Blur fay, Hoopoe, Babblers, Orioles, Mynahs, Tree Pie, Gre} Tit, Wagtails/Wood- peckers, Nightjars, Crow-pheasant, Spotted Owlet and most owls, Com- mon Pariah Kite, Cattle Egret, and perhaps Crows. Amongst the injurious birds we may mention especially Parroquets, Barbets. Bee- eaters, and the House-sparrow. The Drongo or King-crow (Dicrurus ater) occurs commonly throughout Madras and is exclu- sively insectivorous, the larger proportion of the insects eaten being of specious injurious to crop-. It is fond of resting on any con- venient perch from which it can swoop down on its prey and perches may therefore be placed in open fields to encourage and attract this bird. The Blue Jay or Indian Roller (Coracias indica) is commonly distributed throughout the Plains, preferring localities which are thickly wooded. It feeds mostly on insects, which are largely oppers ami caterpillars, occasionally on larger animals such ,1- mice "i frogs. This is a most useful bird which deserves every possible protection, especially in the vicinity of towns and ments where it is too often shot on account of its gaudy plumage. The Hoopoe '{'pupil indica) occurs throughout Madras but is not very common as a rule. It feeds almost exclusively on ins- which the greater part are destructive species. The Hoopoe is therefore extremely beneficial from an agricultural viewpoint and deserves protection throughout the year, but especially during the nesting-season, when the young are fed almost entirely on insect larvae. This bird is particularly useful because its long beak en- ables it to destroy numbers of in- distance underground where the> are out of reach of other enemies. 1 '. — The Kin (Dicrurus ater). (< Original.) 224 SOME SOUTH [NDIAN [NSECTS, ETC. fCHAP. XXIII. Babblers of several species occur in Southern India, the White- head Babbler (Crateropus griseus) being indeed confined to an area south of a line drawn from Ellore through SecunderabadtoBelgaum. The fungle Babblei fC. canorus), commonly called "Seven Sisters," is common throughout Southern India. The food of these birds consists for the most part of insects and these latter are all of species which are more or less injurious. A few frogs may be eaten occasionally, but on the whole these birds are distinctly beneficial. They rarely venture far into the open country, su cultivated fields, but usually remain under the shelter of bushes or trees, where they hunt about amongst di.nl leaves and undoubtedly do a great deal of good in thinning off noxious insects which would otherwise spread into cultivated areas. Orioles, of which the Indian Oriole (Oriolus kundoo) and the Black-headed Oriole (0. melanocephalus) are the commonest, feed partly on insects and partly on fruit, but the vegetable food seems to consist almost wholly of the fruits of wild figs. These birds are not known to damage orchard fruits, and must be considered as distinctly beneficial to agriculture. They therefore deserve en- couragement and protection, the more especially because their brilliant plumage has already attracted the undesirable attentions of the feather trade. Fig. len. The Common W nah i icridotheres tristis). (Original.) Mynahs of several kinds occur in Southern India and the Common Mynah (Acridotheres tristis) maj be selected as typical of the group, it is common throughoul Madras and feeds mostly on insects, of which grasshoppers form a large proportion. These birds may often be seen following cattle and catching insects CHAP. Will | SOME OTHER A MM \i>. 225 disturbed from the grass as the cattle move. Oo tsionally the Mvnah may eat a little oats, maize, cholani or paddy grain, but any damage done is insignificant in comparison with the good it d destroying insects. At Nilambur this bird is reported by the Forest Department as constituting an important check on the caterpillars oi Hyblcea and Pyrausta which defoliate the Teak plantations. The Tree Pie (Dendrocitta rufa) is common in some districts and occasionally does some harm by eating eggs and young birds, li/ards, etc., but the " general average " of its diet shows that the Tree Pie is distinctly beneficial by destroying noxious insects throughout the year. 1 ! Golden Woodpecker ( Brachypternus aurantiitsl. 1 Blanford.) I In Indian Grey lit (Pants atriceps) and various other ["its common in the Plains teed chiefly on injurious insects, occasionally on fruit; when fruit-buds are plucked, these generally contain injurious ins Wagtails, with the exception oi the I I Wagtail (\h>t,i- cilla maderaspatensis), areonly winter visitors to Madras, summering and breeding in Northern India and Central Asia. They are, 15 226 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. rCHAP. XXI11. however, none the less useful, feeding principally on small insects, i.illy on Hies, which thej often catch around cattle. Woodpeckers of various species occur in all wooded and forest regions. They teed entirely on insects, mostly on wood-boring species which the} dig out of the trees affected, thus being espe- cially beneficial in checking these pests of forest areas. Brachyp- (i runs aurantius is said to be very partial to toddy palms, probably attracted by the palm beetles and weevils which bore into the trees when cut by the toddy-tappers. Night-jars, being nocturnal or at least crepuscular in their habits, are not commonly recognized although they occur not infre- quently in most localities. Their food consists of insects which thej capture on the wing as a rule, occasionally on the ground. Thej must be classed as beneficial birds. Fig. 102. The Spotted Owlet (Athene brama). (After Dewar.) The Spotttd Owlet (Athene brama) is probably the most familiar nl the owls, because it is common and often ventures out early in the evening. It seems to have a special predilection for the neigh- bourhood of man and sometimes even ventures into houses in search ol prey, whilst .1 bungalow roof or an adjacent tree is a favourite perch, whence its shrill chattering constantly advertises its presence throughout the night. It feeds chiefly on insects, particular!) 1 rii kets, and also on anj small mice-, shrews, or lizards it can catch. On the whole this little owl is distinctly beneficial, and the same may be said of all owls as a class. rhe Crow-pheasant or Coucal (Centropus sinensis) does a great deal oi good by destroying insects and occasional harm as a poa- cher of small birds-eggs and nestlings. From an agricultural standpoint it is beneficial and deserves protection in districts where it is'killed for food. CHAP. Will.' I OTHER ANIMALS. 22; Common Pariah Kitr (Milvus govinda) feeds largely on particularly on grasshoppers and especially when these .ire presenl in large and destructive numbers. In the Bella ry dis- trict this bird has proved most useful in the control of the I I Grasshopper, and in towns and villages il tvenger, clearing up offal and g d thus helping to redui e fli< \ isional chicken taken now and again musl nol be regarded as a offset to its beneficial qualities. Much the same remarks applj to the Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus). The Cattle Egret (Bubulcus coromandus), as its name implies, n attending cattle and picking off leeches and other pests and also catching grasshoppers and other insects which -lurbed as the cattle walk along. In the stomachs of three hirds examined by Mason, out of [66 insects no less than 160 be- longed to injurious species : these figures speak for themselves. This bird also feeds to a small extent on fish, frogs and tadpoles, hut it is distinctly beneficial from an agricultural standpoint. - • n been regarded a- ol neutral or negative value, but these opinions are perhaps tinged by obser these birds in towns, where their morals have doubtless degenerated as a result 'lion with human society. Under such conditions the crow h. nger and parasite. But in the country, where the crow ha- to work for his own living, his habits :- TH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. 'CHAP. XXIII. arc necessarily rather different and. in common with the cultivator. he has to look to the fields for his livelihood. There are of course two common species of crows, the Grey- necked Crow fCorvus splendens) and the Jungle Crow (C. macror- hynchus). The scientific name of the latter refers to the large size of its beak ; that of the former was perhaps bestowed in irony and always reminds one of the Latin Grammar tag "splendide mendax." The habits and manners of both birds are similar, but the Grey- necked Crow is generally found more commonly around houses, the Jungle Crow in the fields. Crows probably do some good in towns and villages which are sufficiently insanitary to provide them with a livelihood on garbage, but in the mofussil crows have to eke out an existence otherwise and it is under such circumstances that they may do either good or harm to the farmer. When cereals, and especially cholam. are ripe, crows are always amongst the first to discover the fact and to congregate in dozens in such fields, so that .. .....V. ■ b* h*& & -«-'^ tf*HUM.y^'«'a*'*1 Harrow and devouring tin- insects rxposed. I Redrawn from Author's original photo.) in most districts it is customary to build a platform in the middle of the field and to station there a small boy armed with a whip or an old tin. which he cracks or beats to scare away the birds. At such times crows may certainly do considerable damage. But there is another side to the picture which is to be seen when ploughing or harrowing is taking place, the crows following the plough in numbers on these occasions and eagerly searching for any insects which may be turned up. Similarly, when fields are being irrigated, 'most always make it their business to be present, hunting assiduously along the edge of the advancing water and picking up insects such as crickets which have been flooded out of cracks in the soil. At times, also, when caterpillars have increased to THAI'. Will. : ' i IH KK ANIMALS. destructive numbers, crows discover them and devour them whole- sale, and nut > under these circumstances do inestimable good in checking pests. On the whole, therefore, the genera] avei the crow's diet shows that this bird is beneficial from an agricultural point of view, the Jungle Cmu being probably the more useful bird ot the two. It crops can lie protected lis1 watchmen when ripe, the . rows may lie looked on as the farmer's allies during the rest ot the sional damage to seedlings or grass lawns is usually mere apparent than real and merely incidental to a search for grubs which are attacking the roots. FlC. 105. The Rose ringed Parroquet (Paleeornis torqiiatusl* (After Cunningham.) < >t birds which are injurious to erops, the Parroquet (Palaornis torquatus) is the most pernicious. It feeds wholly on fruit and grain, usually associating in small tlocks. which ravage all cereal i iop- whenever these are ripe and destroy far more than they eat. It does no good whatever hut is. in fact, an unmitigated nuisani e, and a reduction of its numbers, whether at the hands of plumage- hunters or otherwise, cannot fail to benefit the cultivator. The common Indian Green Barbet (Thereiceryx seyloniem pest ot all fruit and often does considerable damage to loquatS, peaches, etc.. feeding in the early morning and evening as a rule. In the Coffee Districts Barbets sometimes do considerable damage by feeding on coffee-berries just as these are ripening, insects may be eaten occasionally, but these birds are normally ugivorous and must be regarded as injurious. 230 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHAP. XXIII. < )n the other hand the Bee-eaters are exclusively insectivorous ; yet they are destructive, especially where bees arc kept, by I on these insects, and are especially noxious when queen-bi being reared as they are almost invariably snapped up bj these birds "ii their marriage-flight. The commonest species of bee-eater i- Merops viridis, a small green bird with a long tail and slender Weak, which is often seen perched on telegraph-wires, whence it swoops down on insects and then returns to its perch. These birds : to be migrants to somi extent, though little seems to record regarding their movements. Besides honej -bees, these birds catch and cat various other species oi bees, w asps and dragon-tlies. and the bulk of their food is composed of beneficial insects, so that bee-eaters must certainly be tanked as injurious birds so far as agriculture is concerned. The House-Sparrow, which has been well named the "Avian rat," is essentially a human parasite and seems unable to establish itself except in towns or at least in the neighbourhood of large pucca buildings, where its incessant shrill cheeping makes it an intolerable nuisance all through the day. The young nestlings are fed at liisi on insects, chiefly caterpillars, but by the time tl three weeks old their food is composed exclusively of grain, and the adults bed almost whollj on grain, grass, and weed seeds and incidentally probably do some damage by distributing weed- So far as the farmer is i oncerned, the sparrow seems to be as injurious in India as in most other countries, and would undoubtedly do more damage if not cheeked outside oi townsbv hawks, kites, crows and other enemies. Allied to the birds aie the Reptiles and Amphibians, the former class including tortoises, lizards and snakes, tin lattei frogs .wu\ toads. Lizards an- largely insi i tivorous and therefore beneficial on the whole, though there is little exact information on record regarding their food, and it is probable thai thi insects taken are oi more or less neutral value on the whole. The common "bloodsucker" m aloti s versicolor) sometimes catches butterflies but probably feeds mostlj on ground-living beetles ol little importance, ["he geckos, or wall-lizards, which so commonly take Up their station alongside the bungalow-lamps in the evening, feed on almost any moving insei t not too large to tackle, whether it be beneficial or not ; 1 ha\ e seen a gecko catch and eat a large Mantis and conversel} I have seen the same individual catch and reject unharmed an injurious moth (Estigmene lactinea). Lizards undoubtedly do figun | nently amongst the enemies of insect pests ol crops and to that extent do some good, but they also do some harm b> feeding on I II \1\ XXIII. S()MK OTHER ANIMALS. 23' beneficial and useful insects also, and to thai extent must l"' reduced any benefit derived from them. Some of the smaller Snakes feed on insects and it is said that young cobras will catch and eat butterflies, but snakes are of no importanci t-eaters. The} have, however, some indirect importance, because all the larger snakes feed on other animals, such a- mire. rats, birds, lizards and frogs, which may themselves be insectivorous; and if their prey be useful the snakes which devour them must be injurious, and indard the fact appears that almost all tin- smaller colubrine snakes are harmful and that the useful species are the larger colubrines, vipers, and the python, all of which ic^A on small mammal>, and the kraits which feed on other snakes. We arrive then at the seeming paradox that, on the whole, the non-poisonous species not directly harmful to man are injurious indirectly and that the poisonous snakes are reallj useful. A Russell's Viper in the fields, apart from its potential danger to the farmer himself .end to his animals, passes an extremely useful existence, living wholly on rats and mice of which each individual snake must eat several dozens every year, as it is rare to open one of these vipers without finding tolerably recent remains of such a meal. itnmon Poisonous F utherti India (OriRinal.l 1. Portion of bod) "t Krait, -I: J,- below the mouth are the infra-labials . ■ 1- in '. but I carinata from above, showing sm mpare will I in 3 and 4. 232 SOME SOI ill INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHAP. XXIII. The mere fact tint some snakes arc venomous renders them of great direct importance to an agricultural population which walks about barefooted in the fields and the discrimination of the poisonous species is frequently necessary in rases of snake-bite. A few species, such as the Cobra and Russell's Viper, may be well-known, but to the ordinary man one snake is much the same as another and all are poisonous. Then- are, however, lew venomous snakes which are at all common in Southern India and their identification is comparatively easy. The only ones which need be noticed here are the Krait. Cobra, King Cobra or Hamadryad, Echis and Russell's Viper. The Pit-vipers, so called from the curious pit-like depression in the head between each nostril and eye, are common in the Hills, the green species being frequently found on coffee-bushes; they are all poisonous, but rarely or never fatal. The Krait (Bungarus candidus) is quite a common snake but seldom seen, as it lives a retired life in chinks and cracks of old walls and similar situations, only venturing abroad at night. It feeds solely on other snakes and is ol a sluggish, peaceful disposi- tion and loath to bite as a rule although the poison is twice or thrice as virulent as cobra venom and death has been known to occur in less than six hours after a bite from a specimen only 18 inches long. In colour it is of ;i glistening black, with paired white lines or narrow bands across the back, these white markings being less evident towards the head. The vertebrals, or row of scales along the middle of the back, are hexagonal (six sided) and greatly enlarged, at least twice as large as the other body- scales, and the subcaudals, or stales beneath the tail, are single (i.e., not divided along the middle line to form two rows). If attention is paid to these points, there should be no difficulty in identifying a specimen as a krait; but it may be observed that there is no snake in India for which the ordinary man is more liable to mistake a harmless species, such as Lycodon aulicus, merely because the general shape and colour-pattern are similar. It may be noted, however, that in Lycodon and other harmless snakes the white cross-bands arc more evident behind the head and fade awaj posteriorly, whilst the opposite is seen in the krait; in Lycodon and similar snakes also the vertebral scales are not enlarged. The Cobra (Naja naja; tripudians of the "Fauna" volume and authors generally) is usually easily recognisable in lift' by the characteristic "hood," on which the markings are usually binocellate (two-ej ed, spectacle-like), sometime- monocellate (single- eyed, O-shaped), rarely absent. In dead specimens, however, in which the hood is shrunk and the markings obliterated, this ( MAP. Will. SOME I >l HER A.NIM character is not available and several harmless snakes inflate their necks verj considerably. Scale characters are therefore ol importance ind the cobra carries .i uniquely characteristic identi- I'u ation-mark in the shape of a small wedge-shaped (cuneate) scale between the fourth and fifth infralabials (the row ol si bordering the lower lip, counted from the front backwards, remembering that the anterior, unpaired scale is the mental and not an infralabial). The scales bordering the front ol the eye on each side art' also in direct contact with the pair oi scales lying between those in which the nostrils are placed. It neither of these charai ters oc« ur, the snake cannot be a cobra. The King Cobra or Hamadryad ( Naja bungarus) occurs in all the Hdl Districts and may reach a length of over 1 5 feet. It has .1 small hood but is best recognised by the presence oi a pair of large iMtal shields in contact with one another and forming a sixth set ol large head-scales counting from the nose along the middle line. The anterior subcaudals are undivided, the posterioi ones divided into two rows, whilst the vertebrals are not enlarged. The Echis (Echis carinata) is common throughout the plains, often abundant in sandy places. The Trichinopoly District and the Guindy Race-Course are well-known localities and 1 have found it in Bella ry and seen it brought in at Bangalore. This small viper rarely exceeds a length of 2 feet, but it is extremely poisonous and fatalities from its bite are numerous in districts where it is common. When disturbed or discovered it has a curious habit of throwing itself rapidly from one side to another, whilst remaining in a loose coil, SO that the scales rub over one another and produce a loud hissing sound. This snake is easily recognised by the facts that (1) the top of the head is covered with small scales similar to those found on the body, and (2) the sub. audals, or scales beneath the tail, are entire ami form only a single row. The Russell's Viper (Vipera russellii), so named in hono Dr. Patrick Russell whose work on South Indian Snakes, published in i;<)<>, still remains a standard book on the subject, is unfortu- nately only too common throughout Madras. Its coloration, with a triple row of light-edged spots down the back, is distinctive, but it is bett.r identified 1» the facts that, as in Echis, the top of the head Overed with small scales, whilst unlike Echis, the subcaudals. ,„ scales beneath the tail, are divided down the middle to form a double row. The bite of this snake is fatal toman and don animals; otherwise the Russell's Viper is a most useful snake. ling entirely on rats and mice. It is a sluggish animal, as a rule, hissing loudly when disturbed but slow to wrath, but when it strike it darts like a Hash and often retains its grip. !34 SOME sol IM INDIAN [NSBCTS, ETC CHAP. XXIII. Fig. 107. The Russell's Viper ( Vipera russellii), useful on account of its val as .1 destroyer "I rats bul dangerously poisonous to man. > Author's original phi 'i' i. A great deal of rubbish has been written on the treatment of snake-bite, a subject which seems to appeal strongly to the credulity of the general public, and the most extraordinary methods ol cure are vaunted in blind faith ; unfortunately many of these are tried in cases where either the snake is non-venomous or a lethal dose of poison has not been injected and cures are consequently claimed in cases in which tin patient would have recovered in any case. Snake-stones, Tanjore pills, the use of ammonia or alcohol, may all be cited as examples of this. If poison has really been injected, the only effective cure is by injection of an appropriate anti-venene prepared by gradually inoculating an animal, usually a horse, to withstand increasing dosages ol the poison of that particular kind of snake. A bivalent anti-venene prepared to counteract the poisons of the Cobra and Russell's Viper is pre- pared and available, but for other snakes no such cure is at present possible as their venoms cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity for the preparation of anti-venenes. Once in the tissues the poison spreads with such extreme rapidity that ligaturing, incision with or without the application of oxydising agents such as potassium permanganate, or even amputation, are of little practical use unless applied with .i promptitude which is usually impracticable; deep incision, making several deep parallel cuts along the length of the THAI'. XXIII.] SOME i M HER WIM\L\ limb, and the application of permanganate i rystals may, however, help to neutralize sufficient venom to reduce a lethal dose into a sublethal one, tin- wound being carefully dn ptically. In i ases of cobra-bite, if the breathing ceases, artificial respiration should l)i- employed and continued for .is long as possible some hours at least; this may give time to procure anti-venene it" this is not already at hand. I i - 108. Cacnpus systoma. (Ori hibia include tl ■ ind Toads « rule are deposited in water, hatching ou1 into tadpoles which p legs, reduce their tails, and change into young froj se of the Chunam Frog (Rhacophorns maculatus), a ci rog with little toe-discs by means of which it enabled to cling to walls and lea\ es and even to | glass, the eg laid in a curious frothy mass which is suspended over water into which the young tadpoles drop when they hatch out; thes masses may often he seen attached to the edges of cement-lined tanks at the i ommeni emenl of the rainj season. The commonest pond-frog is probably Rana cyanophlyctis which is usually found along the edges of all small accumulations ot water; it seems to feed principally on such insects as fall into the water. The Hull- frog {Rana tigrina), a very large frog with a yellowish stripe down the back, is also found around ponds and often, in wet weather, in grass well away from water; it is capable ol giving prodigious leaps and is therefore by no means easy to catch. It is largely carnivorous in habit, fee-ding on other frogs, even otl ei individuals of its own - nd it is not uncommon to find one of these cannibals dead with another individual half his own si/c wedged firmly in his throat. Several frogs are burrowers, living under- ground as a rule and only coming up in wet weather ; of this Rana brevictps is a common example- in some localiti 236 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. [CHAP. Will. Cacopus systoma is prpbablj better known, bj sound at least. In many districts in the Plains, notably around Madras, this frog is common and its loud drumming note, so difficult of exact location, is frequently hoard at night during heavy rain at the commence- ment of the North-east Monsoon, although the extraordinarily bloated frog itself is seldom seen and quite unfamiliar to most people. The commonest Toad, both in the Plains and Hills, is Bufo melanost ictus, which often enters bungalows in search of insects attracted to the lights. The main food of frogs and toads is well known to be insects and consequently these animals are always regarded as beneficial, as no doubt they are as a class and on the whole. We have, however, tew exact records of their food and feeding habits and it is probable that these are so casual as to reduce their value very largely. A frog which snaps up every insect which falls into a pond, or a toad which will engulph any insect which moves, may- do actual harm by destroying useful species, whilst many of the real pests, being protected by nauseous odours or sharp spines, are avoided ; a hungry toad, for example, will snap up a specimen of Dysdercus cingulatus but immediately rejects it unharmed. Exact records of the actual food of frogs and toads under natural condi- tions in India are at present desiderata, whilst the field of inquiry \s large and ready at hand to any observer. I i.. 109, Haplochilus lineatus, .< mosquito-eating fish. (After Day.) The main utility of Fish in India is as a source of food, but it must not be overlooked that many fish, especially amongst the smaller specie's, are of the utmost utility in reducing the number of mosquitOS pit-sent as larvae in the ponds and other waters in which such fish live, and this fact is often of the greatest importance in determining the malarial factor in any locality. Several small fish, especially the species of the genus Haplochilus, feed greedily on mosquito-larva- and may easily be introduced into ponds and wells in order to prevent mosquitOS from breeding in such places; at Coimbatore we have also found that young individuals of Macrones vittatus are extremely useful in this respect, but larger individuals would probably require larger prey and do harm by eating smaller fish. For it must be remembered, in stocking water with small fish to reduce mosquitOS, that all large fish must be CHAP. XXIII. SOME OTHER WIMAI.v 237 J first "i all, for otherwise the large lisli will probably eal the smaller one- and be useless themselves .is mosquito-destroyers. Crabs are found in most streams both in the Plains and Hill- ami onally do a little harm by burrowing into bunds of paddy- fields, etc. It i- possible that they may also do some damage at times to young paddy, whilst crab-holesare often utilized as breed- ing place- by mosquitos, Ceratopogon, and other blood-sucking Hie-. t distrii ts, however, they are sought after and used a dead Calotes being a favourite bait. 'I'he Arachnida include the mite-, which are treated elsewhere, and the scorpions, spiders and ticks. Scorpion- of various kinds are common, and we maj mention here the large blackish-green Palamnaus found commonly under stones in the Hills, the large brown Butho which occurs in the Plains, and the little grey house- scorpion ; this last, which frequently shams death when discovered, forms a useful check on household pests. The " Jalamandalam ' or "Jerry Munglum " (Galeodes indicus), common in Bellary and other districts, also belongs to this group. Spider- are tremely varied in structure, appearance and habits that it i- impos- sible to attempt any account of the group here and the student may be referred to the " Fauna " volume which contain- some ai .>l th. larger torm-. Allusion may. however, be made to the social nests ol Stegodyphus which sometimes cover whole bushes and are inhabited by numerous individuals which live in common a very unusual habit amongst spiders, where it i- the general rule for the female to eat her own husband. In South .Africa, where a similar Stegodyphus occurs, the caterpillar- ol a little moth (Batrachedra bhobius), live in the ne-t with the spiders and feed on the I fragment- of the food of the latter; [have found empty pupa-c a-e- ol a -mall moth in these nests in Madia- and further ■ h will probabl} reveal a similar symbiotic arrangement. The Diplopoda include the Millipede-, animals with long, round, segmented bodies, with two pair- of short leg- on each segment. One species ha- been found under suspicious circumstances in a t damage to ground-nuts but it is probable that these animals may occasionally do a little damage by feeding on grow- ing plant-. Normally their food seems to consist ol <\v.\A vegetable matter and lichen-. The) are preyed on by some Reduviicl bug-, such as Physorhynchus, but seem rather exempt from attack by vertebrate enemies. The Chilopoda or Centipedes have a long, many-jointed, flatten- ed body, each segment bearing only one pair of leg-, ol which the first pair is u-ually modified t<>l (Bixa orellana) ; )orus fornicatus (borer) ... ... ... ... 345 Helopeltis antonii (sucking) f\rus rna'us) : — 1 tpinalor (twigs) ... $2*. ri lanigera (slicking roots and twigs) 500 1 .-tor. Arhar See Red Gram. 1 .','': ;) >sa (hour) ... 197 1 spinator (boi ... ■•■ 325 via crameri (leaves) ... Baoam : 5« < lountrj Almond. marmelos) :— /'apt/in demoleus (lra\i :s) 412 1 imbu. Bali 11 Lab lab. also 1 irassi - "ht Hum barbatum (borer) ... 32) 419 (su« king lea ... 504 I', w w\ :- See Plantain. • aves) 310 B Gram ( Cicer arietittum) Ch • tela (pods) ;? ", 16 242 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Betel (Piper betle) : Cyclopelta siccifo/ia (sucking) Disphinctus politus (sucking) Bhavunchi : — Sec Psoralea corylifolia BHINDI {Hibiscus esculent us) : — Sphenoplera gossypii (borer) Zonabris pustulata (flowers) Earias insulana (fruit) ... „ fabia (fruit) Cosmophila erosa (leaves) Oxycarenus hetus (sucking) Dysdercus cingulatus (sucking) ... BlLVA :— See Bael. Bitter-Gourd {Momordica sp.) : — Epilachna 12-stigma (leaves) 2%-punctata (leaves) ... Aulacophora abdominalis (foveicollis) (leaves) ,, atripennis (leaves) ... ., stevensi (leaves) Blai k-Ciuam (J'/hiseolus mungo radiatus): Azazia rubricans (leaves) Nacoleia indicata (leaves) R iptortus pedes fris (sucking) Botti.k Cmi kii (Lagenaria vulgaris) : — . Xulacophora abdominalis foveicollis (leaves > ,, atripennis (leaves) ... „ stevensi (leaves) Sphenarches differ ( leaves) Brinjal (Solanum melongena): — Solenopsis geminata (buds) Epilachna 12-stigma (leaves) „ 2%-punctata (leaves) ... Prodenia litura (leaves) ... Laphygma exigua (leaves) Eublemma olivacea (leaves) Brinjal Sarrothripine (leaves) Acherontia styx (leaves) ... Euzophera perticella (borer) Leucinodes orbonalis (borer) Pachyznncla cegrotalis (leaves) ... Pterophorus lienigianus (leaves) ... Aspongopus /anus (sucking) PAGE 476 489 298 303 384 38s 391 482 484 292 292 3U 312 312 389 434 4S0 3ii 312 312 443 274 292 292 377 379 380 383 402 428 436 440 445 476 PLATE I PESTS OF CABBAGE. RADISH, etc. EXPLAN YTION OF I'l. \ I I II PES rS 01 CABBAGE, RADISH, ! Fig. i. Plutill.i maculipennis, e_;gs. magnified. -• ». ,• larva ,. 3- M ,. "Oil t „ moth 5. Pieris brat sica. t eggs, maglified. 6. „ ., larva. Not found in Southern 7- „ ,. pupa. i India. 8. ,. b tterfly. 9. Aulacophora abdominalis(foveuoUis). 10. „ excavata. 11. Bagrada jicta, magnified. 12. Athalia proximat larva, aliout twice nitural lira. 13. „ „ adult LIST OK CROPS. 243 PAGE slocnemis phasiana (sue! 477 Urentius echinus (sucking) ... «8s Orthacris sp. (leaves) ... ... ... C27 Atractomorpha crenulata (leaves) ... r,.s Bukii :—See Mimusops. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea) : — At ha I ia proxima (leavi ... ... 2gj Monolepta signata (leaves) ... ... ... ^IO £a ' •■■ ... ... -27c Prodc n ia lit lira (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... -,77 Crocidolomia bino talis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 437 Hellula undalis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 4^8 Plu /(I la maculipennis (leaves) ... ... 464 Bagrada picia (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... ... 47^ Orthacris sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 537 . " ( Theobroma cacao Xyleboms Jomiatus (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ,4c Dichocrocis punctiferalis (boring pods) ... ... ,■>■, pel/is anionii (sucking) ... ... ... ... 488 ropis (Calotropii 1 Paramecops farinosa (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... '72 Pericallia ricini (leaves) ... ... ... ... 370 Tarache nitidula (leaves) ... ... ... ... 382 us pandurus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 481 Eurybrachys lomentosa (sucking) ... ... ... ... 4q2 ilocerus piclus (lea\ ... ... ... ... - 2 7 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Dichocrocis punctiferalis (stem ami capsules) 47 ^ Hilarographa caminodes (roots) ... ... ... 464 Stephanitis typicus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... jj, ( 'ashew [Anacardium occidentale) : - Cricula trifenestrata (leau-s) ... ... ... >#< 406 1 'ASSf. I spp. : — Sphenoptera arachidis (borer) ■ suppressaria (leaves) 409 '«//a pyranthe (leaves) ... ... ;i; Teriiis hecabe (!• . <# 4x4 roploce iilepi ... 44Q -Castilloa Kurber: — scale) ... ... ... ... 515 244 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. PAGE i (A'ici'ii/.i communis): - Xyleborus fornicatus (borer) ... 345 Amsacta albistriga (leaves) 3<>9 Pericallia ricini (leaves) 37° Prodenia litura (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 7 A ehica mrfkerta (leaves) 3^6 Orgyia postica (leaves) ... ... 395 Olcne mendosa (leaves) .. 396 Euprociis fraterna (leaves) 398 scintillans (leaves) 399 Parasa lepida (leaves) 4" Altha ttivea (leaves) 412 Diehocrocis punctiferalis (stems and capsules) 433 Clania crameri (leaves) 448 Nezara viridula (sucking) 473 Empoasca flavescens (sucking) 498 Aleurodes ricini (sucking) 5oS Cyrtacantkacris ranacea (leaves) ... ... ... ... 531 Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) :— Ccelosterna spinator (borer) 3*5 „ scabrator (borer) ... ... 326 Arbela tetraonis (borer) ... 453 Brachyirypes portentosus (seedlings) 536 Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea cauliftord) : — Athalia proximo (leaves) z8i Monolepta signata (leaves) 310 Parasa lepida (leaves) 4" Plutella maculipennis (leaves) 464 Bagrada pic/a (sucking) 473 Ci \i:\ Rubbi k {Manihot glaziovii) :— Lecanium nigrum (scale) 5'4 Cereals (5« also Paddy, Cholam, Ragi, Wheat, etc.) :— Anatona stillata (flowers) 282 Oxycetonia versicolor (flowers) 283 Chiloloba acuta (flowers) 284 Gnatkospastoides rouxi (flowers) 3°2 £ytf Homona coffearia (leaves) (Flush Worm) 45 2 stia eruciata (sucking berries) 47-' Dactylopius citri (scale) 5°9 Putoinaria psidii (scale) 511 Lecanium viride ( scale) 5 ' 3 hemisphancum (scale) ... ... ... ... 5X4 „ nigrum (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 5r4 „ olea (scale) ... ... ... ... ... • 5*5 LIST OF CROPS. 247 I'AGE Chionaspis bulavis (scale) ... ... c20 Autarches mtliaris (lei . ...... 526 COLOCASIA : — Monolepta slgnata (leaves) ... ,lo Pericallia ricini (leaves) ... ... ^o Prodenia litura (leaves) ... ,., Coral Tree : — .SVv Erythrina. v (Gossyplum 9pp.) : — Solenopsis gemma ta (buds) ... ... ,-, Sphenoptera gossypii (borer) ... 298 Zona fin's pustulata (flowers) ... ... i0, Cceloslema spinator ( bark ) ... .. 32- Atactogaster finitimus (leaves) ... ... ^33 Alcides leoparius (borer) ... ... ... 338 Pempheres affinis (borer) ... ... ... ... 339 Contarinia sp. (buds) ... ... ... ... . .. ... 363 Pericallia ricini (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 370 Tar ache nitidula (leaves)... ... ... ... ... ... 382 opalinoldes (leaves) ... ... ... ... 382 Earias insulana (bolls)... ... ... ... 384 ., fabia (bolls) ... ... ... ... 385 Acontia graellsi (leaves) ... ... ... ... 385 mophila erosa (leaves) ... ... ... ... 391 E uprocl 'is fraterna (leaves) ... ... ... ... 308 Phy c 1 'ta infusella (top-shoots) ... ... ... .. .. 428 Sylepta derogala (leaf-roller) ... ... ... ... 434 /.euzera cofte,r (borer) ... ... ... ... ... . 446 Gelechia gossypiella (seeds) ... ... ... ... ... 454 Pyroderces corlacella (seeds) ... ... ... ... 45S Clavigralla fiorrens (sucking) ... ... ... ... 479 ts pandurus (sucking) ... ... ... ... 481 Oxycarenus la/us (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 482 Dysdercus cingulatus (sucking) ... ... ... ... tx.j Eurybrachys tomentosa (sucking)... ... ... _ 492 Aphis gossypii (sucking) 499 Cerococcus hibisci (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 508 Dactylophts virgatus (scale) ... ... ... ... ... -i0 nip,.- (scale) ... ... 509 um nigrum (scale) .,. Chrotogonus sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... r2g Catantops sp. (leaves) ... . . ... c2„ Cyriacanthacris ranact 1 (lea ... -,i 248 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Country Almond {Terminalia catappa) :— page Apoderus tranquebaricus (leaves)... ... ... ... ... 335 Metanastria hyrtaea (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 410 ( Iowpea ( Vigna catiang) : — Sphenoptera arathidis (borer) ... ... ... ... ... 298 Zonabris pustulata (flowers) ... ... ... ... ... 303 Green-Gram Weevil (seed) ... 336 Cow-pea Agromyza (boring seed) ... ... ... ... 358 Laphygma exigua (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 379 Azazia rulricans (leaves) .. . ... ... ... ... ... 389 Plusia orickalcea (leaves)... ... ... ... ... ... 393 Riptortus pedestris (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 480 Colemania sphenarioides (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 527 Crotalaria spp. (See also Sann Hemp) Sphenoptera arachidis ( borer) ... ... ... ... ... 298 Zonabris pustulata {lowers) ... ... ... ... ... 303 Polyommatus bm/icus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 415 Laspeyresia tricentra (stem-borer) ... ... ... ... 451 Crucifer.e (See also Cabbage, Mustard, Radish, Cauliflower, et< . 1 Athalia proxima (leaves) 281 Plusia orichalcea (leaves) 393 Crocidolomia binotalis (leaves) 437 PluleUa maculipennis (leaves) ... 464 Bagrada picta (sucking) 473 CUCURBITACE/E : — Epilachna 12-stigma (leaves) ... 292 „ 28-punctata (leaves) ... ... 292 Zonabris pustulata (leaves) 303 Aulacophora abdominalis (foveicollis) (leaves) ... ... ... 311 „ atripennis (leaves) ... ... ... ... 312 „ stevensi (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 312 Apomccyna pcrtigera (borer) ... ... ... ... ... 327 Dacus cucurbita (fruit) ... 354 Plusia peponis (agramma) (leaves) ... ... 394 Glyphodes tndica (leaves) ... ... 431. Cu.mbu (Pennisetum typhoideum) : — Anatona s/il/ata (flowers) ... ... 2S2 Oxycetnnia Tersicolor (flowers) ... ... ... ... 283 Chilolol 'a acuta (flowers) ... ... 284 Gnathospastoides rouxi (flowers) ... ... ... ... 302 Lytta tenuicolln (flowers) ... ... ... ... ... yox Zonabris pustulata (flowers) ... ... ... ... ... 303 LIST OF CROPS. 249 Cantkaris ruficollis (flowers) Cholam fly (Stem-borer) ... Estigmene lactinea (leaves) Amsacta albistriga (leaves) Cliih) simplex (borer) Dolycoris indicus (sucking) rcocoris guttiger (sucking) Agonoscelis nubila (sucking) \ zara viridula (sucking) Aphanus sordidus (sucking seed) Epacromia famulus (leaves) Orthacris sp. (leaves) Colemania sphenarioides (leaves) Curry-Leai 1'iani {Murray a kattigi) : Papilio demoleus (lea\ es) I 'aim ha {Sesbania aculeata) Ale ides lubo (borer) Catopsilia pyranthe (leaves) Ttrias hecabe (leaves) ■phleps scalar is (borer) Epacromia famulus (leaves) Date-Palm (Phanix sylvesfris): Oryctes rhinoceros (borer) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (borer) DuAN -. — See Paddy. Drak^i ' 1 irape-Vine. Plant : — See Brinjal. Errukam -See Calotropis. Ervthrina (Erythrina indica): — Platypria hystrix (leaves) Sthenias grisator (girdles twigs - Xyleborus fornicatus (borer) la postica (leaves) ... fia meticulosalis (shoot-boref) pelta siceifolia (sucking) . Xnoplocnemis phasiana (sucking) Dactylopius citri i- Lecanium olea (scale) Autarches miliaris (leaves) ILYPTUS spp. : — Homona coffearia (leal 305 356 369 423 47° 47' 47- Vll l»3 412 337 M3 414 it; 5 -'5 -•\= 343 .. 326 345 395 439 47'' 4 77 509 5"5 •• 45* 250 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Ficus S])|>. : — Neocerambyx parit ; borer) Batocera rubtts (borer) Hypsa ficus (leaves) Ocinara variant (leaves) Parasa lepida (leaves) Phy codes radial a (leaves) . Dactylopius citri (scale) Pulvinaria ptidii (scale) Hemikcanium imbricans (scale) Pacilocerus pic hit (young plants) ... - See Fiats. Ganja ( Cannabis saliva) : — Chloridea obsoleta (leaves and capsules) Garden-Plants Generally : - Dory lus oritntalis (roots) Adoretus ovalis (leaves) ... Anomala variant (leaves) Gingelly (Sesamum indicum) : Gingelly Gall-fly (young capsules) Pericallia ricini (leaves) Laphygma exigua (leaves) Acheroniia styx (leaves) Antigastra catalaunalit (leaves, shoots, pods) Eusarcoeoris ventralis (sucking) A phanus tordidut (sucking seed) ( riNGER {Zingiber officinalis) : — Calobata sp. (rhizomes) ... Udaspes folus (leaves) Dichocrocis pnnctiferalis (stem and rhizone) (iocu (Hibiscus cannabinus) : — Zonabris putlulata (flowers) Visotra madurensis (leaves) Alcides leopardus (borer) Pempheres afflnis (borer) . Uontia graellsi ( leaves) I \mophila erosa (leu\ Euproctit scintillans (leaves) Phycita in/usella (topshoots) irenus latus (sucking) Goukiim (See also ('ucurbitaccaj, Pumpkin): — Epilachna 12-stigma (leaves) „ 2%-punclata (leaves) Aulacophora abdominalis (foveicollis) (leaves 1 page 322 324 400 407 411 463 5°9 511 517 527 373 -'74 287 287 364 37° 379 402 441 471 483 355 420 433 3°3 3'o 338 339 385 39i 399 482 2lj2 292 31' LIST OF CROPS. 251 Aulacophora atripennis (lea. stevensi (lea Dacus cucurbits (fruit > Glyphodes indica (leai Grape-Vine (/V//V sp.) :- Adoretus oralis (! Gonocephalum hojfmannstggi ( lea\ es I Scelodonta slrigicollis (leaves) Grasses : — Hispella ramosa (leaves) ... Prodenia litura (leaves) ... Spodoptera mauriiia (leaves) Remigia frugal is (leaves)... Psalis securis (leaves) Melanitis ismene (leavi Parnara mathias (leaves) Ancylolotnia chrysographella (leaves.) Leptocorisa varicornis (suckin Calocorh angustatus (sucking) Phenict masta (sucking) ... Tctiigoniella spectra (sucking) Nephotettix bipunctatus (sucking) Catantops sp. (leaves) Green-Gram [Phaseolus muni Green-Gram Weevil (seed) Alcides collaris (borer) Cow-Pea Agromyza (boring seeds) Azazia rubricans (leaves)... Plusia peponis (sig/tafa) (lea\ //■• rse convolvuli (leaves) ... Nacohia indicata (lea1. Maruca tcslulalis (seeds) Coptosoma cribraria (sucking) . Inoplocnemis phasiana (suctd Riptortus pedestris (sucking) C<>!tniariia sphenarioides (leavi GREVULEA : — Xyleborus fomteatus (borer) diotui camellia (scale) Cfiionaspis biclavis (scale) Groundnut {Arachis hypogtca) :— Dory bus orientalis (roots) Oxycetonia versicolor (Hovers) PAGE $12 3" 354 436 287 299 3°9 3'S $7/ 378 588 M- 4' 7 424 179 490 ' 13<5 337 35S 389 402 434 440 480 5>7 520 283 252 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Sphettoplera arachidis (borer) Zonabris puslulata i Bowi ra I . imsacta albistrij. m >/us o"-> • Chloridea obsolela (leaves) Plusia signala (leaves) ... . iprocerema ner/t ri,i ( lea* i-^l Aphanus sordidus (sucking seed) Orthacris sp. (leaves) Chrotogonus sp. (leaves) ... Cyrtacanthacris ranacea (leaves), Thrips sp. Guava (Psidium gti) Xyleborus fornicatus (borer) Fruit-fly (fruit) Virachola isocrates (fruit) Dichocrocis punctiferal'u (fruit) Pulvinaria fsiiiii (scale) Lecanium viride (scale) ... Gum i Eucalyptus. Mai. hi : See Turmeric. Hemp, I »i ccan : See (logu. I i ( ir. Indian : — See Ganja. Hevea Rubber -.—See lJara Rubber. HniM us (See also Gogu, Bhindi, Rozelle, etc.) Sphenoptera gossypii (borer) Zonabris ptistulata (flowers) Alcides leopardus (borer) ... Sylep/a derogata (leaf-roller) Dactylopius nipa (scale) ... n : us i si ale i : niiim nigrum (scale) ... Horse-Gram | Dolichos biflorus) : — Sphenoptera arachidis (borei > Estigmene lactinea (leaves) Etiella zinckenella (seeds) \ acoleia induata (leaves) Horsi Radish I'ki k -Set Moringai. h mi 111 -See Cardamom. India I • See Ganja Indigo (Indigo/era arrecta): — Alcides bubo (borer) Prodenia litura (leaves) ... 337 377 LIST OK CROPS. 253 Laphygma exigua (leaves) Remigia undata (a re /it- sin) (leaves) Plus id orichalcta (leaves)... Dichomeris ianthes (leaves) Psylla isitis (sucking) ItcM'KA (See also Sweet Potato): — Zonabris pustulata (flowers) Omphisa anastomosalis (stem-borer) Italian Millet :- -See Tenai. JAK :— Glypkodes eu-Siilis (buds and young fruits) Cosmoscaria retain (sucking shoots and young fruits) Jam : — See (luava. [OLA : — See Cholam. Juab : — See Cholam. Jute (Corchorus capsularis) ■. — Nisotra madurensh (leaves) Jute A pi on (borer) Perigea capettsis (leaves)... Prude nia lititra (leaves) Cosmophila sabulij 'era (leaves) Graptostethus serous (sucking capsules) K.AJU :— See Cashew. KANGUNI : '-See Tenai. Khokasam : — See Nigerseed. Kn.iHl : — See Horse dram. Kusumb : -See Safflower. Lab-lab (Doliclws lab-lab): Zonabris pustulata (flowers) Platypria hystrix (leaves) Cow-l'ea Agromyza (boring seed) Chloridea obsohta (pods) ... Acherontia rty 1 I leai es) ... Catochrysops cnejus (pods) Maruca testulalis (pods) ... Sphenarches caffer (pods) Exelastis atomosa (pods) ... Laspeyresia iorodelta (shoot-bur. r) Coptosoma cribraria (sucking) tgopus /anus (sucking) igralla gibbosa (sinking) Riptortus pedestris (sucking) Ladies' Fingers: — See Bhindi. PAG] 379 388 393 456 498 3°3 4 $9 135 495 310 331 377 377 39° 482 303 $16 $58 \;\ 402 4 1 4 440 143 444 »5' 469 47'' 478 480 254 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. LANTANA (Lantana aculeata) : — Xyhborus fornicatus (borer) (doubtful) Platyptilia pusillidactyla (Aoa Ptezodorus rubrofasciatus (sucking) ii.sos.i: {See also Pulses, Crotalaria, Lucerne, Indigo, etc.) \- Sphenoptera arachidis (borer) Dichomeris ianthes (leaves) Coptosoma cribraria (sucking) iN : — Papilio demoleus (lea\ Tonka zizyphi (leaves) 1 ,i! li. s : — Polytela , ives) Udaspes fohis (leaves) Linseed (Linum usitalissimum) ■ — Chloridea obsoleta (capsules') Grammodes stolida (leaves) Euproctis scintillans (leaves) Litchi {Nephellum litchi): — roploce illepida (seeds) Loquat (Eriolotrya japonica) : — Virachola isocrates (fruit) Pulvinaria psidii (scale) ... Lecanium viride (scale) ... hemispheericum (scale) ... Medicago sativa) : ( V, iton >tus gangis (lea nia litura (leaves) ... Laphygma exigua (lea Vacoieia indkata (leaves) Dichomeris ianthes (leaves) I ,ii i a vcutangula (Strainei Vine, Ribbed Gourd; Tarn Pirkan) : Riptorius pedeslris (sucking) M vdar : — See Calotropis. M UZE (Zea mays) : — Chloridea obsoleta (cob) ... Cirphis unipuncta (boring shoots) Prodenia litura (leaves) ... Sesamia inferens (borer) ... Chilo simplex (borer) Marasmia trapezalis (leaves) Leptocorisa variomis (sucking) ... PAGE 345 444 474 456 469 412 459 375 420 373 387 399 44<) 416 5ii 513 514 369 377 379 434 456 480 373 376 377 379 423 432 479 LIST OF CROPS. 255 Calocoris angustatus (sucking) Pyriila perpusilla (sucking) Pundaluoya simplicia (sucking) ... // roglyphm banian (leaves) Mango (Mangifera indica): — Adoretus ovalis (leaves) ... Batocera rubus (borer) Eugnamptiis marginalia (lea\ 3 Mango Leaf-boring Weevil (leaves) Apoderus tranquebaricus (leaves) Cryptorhynchus mangifera (seeds) Fiuit-fly (fruit) Bombolelia jocosatrix (leaves) Euproclis scintilltui* (leaves) Cricttla trifenestrata (leaves) Parasa lepida (leaves) Macal'.a moncusalis (leaves I Idiocerus niveosparsus (sucking) Pulvinaria psidii (scale) ... Aspidiotus destructor (scale) Odonloiermes sp. (bark) ... Max.iai. : — See Turmeric. Mii.i.i rs Cholam li\ (sti in borer) M ii 1 1 i. 1 1 \lian : — See Tenai. MIMUSOPS ELENG1 Metanaslria hyrtaca (leaves) Mirch -S r M< inke> I v i S Mimusops. M i >k i n ; m i \[.>ri>i£\ I'M 531 »87 3*4 329 $34 335 .Ui 354 382 399 406 in 43o 541 M<> 37° 404 4°5 in 281 437 438 464 47; 256 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Nigerseed (Guizotia abyssinica) : — page Perigea eapensis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ••• 377 Chrotogonus sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 528 Oli INDER (Nerium odorum) : — Pericallia ricini (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 370 Deilephila nerii (leaves) 403 ( INION {Allium cepa) : — Laphygma exigua ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 379 Thrips sp. ... ... 542 Orange : — Chloridolum alcmene (borer) ... ... ... ... ... 323 Fruit-fly (fruit) 354 Papilio demoleus (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 412 Virachola isocrates (fruit) ... ... ... ... ... 416 Tonka zizyphi (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 459 Phyllocnistis citrella (leaf-miner) 465 Cappaa taprobanensis (sucking) 470 Aleurodes citrl (sucking) 508 \'w\<\ (Oryza sativa) : — Epicauta sp. (leaves) 306 0 ides a finis (leaves; 313 Leptispa pygmaa (leaves) 313 ffispa armigera (leaves) 315 Calanira oryza (ripe grain) 341 Cirp/iis unipuncta (borer) 376 Spodoptera mauritia (seedlings) 378 Sesamia inferens (borer) 379 Remigia frugalis (leaves) 388 Psalis securis (leaves) 397 Melanitis ismene (leaves) ... ••■ ••• ■•• ••• ••• 412 Parnara mathias (leaves) ... ••■ ■•• •■• ••• 417 „ colaca (leaves) ... ••• ••• ••• •■• ••■ 4l8 Telicota augias (leaves) 4J9 Chilo simplex (borer) 423 Ancylolomia chrysographella (leaves) 424 Sehanoblus bipunctifer (borer) 426 Vymphttla depuncialis (leaves) 43° Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (leaves) 432 Afenida histrio (sucking) 474 Tetroda histeroides (sucking) 477 Leptocorisa var'uornis (sucking) 479 Tettigoniella spectra (sucking) ... ... 496 Nephotettix btpunc talus (sucking) ... 497 LIST OF CROPS. 257 Hieroglyphus banian (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 531 Own Velox (lea- ... ... ... ... ... ... 533 Thrips sp. (flowei ... ... ... ... ... ... 542 Palmyra {Borassus flabcllifer) : — Oryctes rhinoceros (borer) ... ... ... ... ... 285 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (borer) ... ... ... ... 343 Parasa lepida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411 Suastus grc mius (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 419 \ ihantis serinopa (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 460 Pan : S& Betel. Para Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) : — vera minis (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 324 Lecanium nigrum ( scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 514 Tea (Pisurn sativum) : — ProdenUi litura (leaves, etc.) ... ... ... ... ... 377 Plusiu orichahea (leaves, etc.) ... ... ... ... ... -^ Polyommatus bo- thus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 415 Pear (Pyrus cum munis) : — Lachnus pyri (sucking young twigs) ... ... ... ... 503 l'i ni 1; [Piper spp.) : — Parasa hpida (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 411 xnium marsupiale (scale) ... ... .... ... ... 516 Aspidiotus destructor (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 51S Mytilaspis piperis (scale) ... ... ... ... ... 519 Phanas See Jak. Pimaf \m : See Ailanthus. Pinnai (Tarn.) ; — Sec Country Almond. PlYAZ : -See Onion. Plantain (Musa sapientium) : — tidus (root-l 1 ... ... ... ... 342 Mia ricini (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 370 Prodenia lilura (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 377 Stephanitis typicus (sucking) Pomegranai 1 (Punka granalum) : Coelosterna spmalor (boi ... ... ... ... ... 32J Achcea meltcerta (leaves) ... 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... |i 1 Virachola isocrates (fruit) ... ... ... ... ... )i<> Potati ' Solatium tuberosum) : — Gotwcephalum hoftmannseggi (stems) Euxoa segetis (stems) ... ... ... ... ... ... 375 Plusia orichahea (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 393 ■ih(rti pi-rticdln (borer) '7 258 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. PAGE Phthorimaa operculella (stored tubers) ... ... ... 455 Dactylopius nipa: (stored tubers) ... ... ... ... 509 PSORA LEA CORYLIFOLIA :— Aproarema nerteria (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 457 Prickly Pear (Opitntia) : — Zonabris pustulate (flowers) 303 Pi 1. -1 ^ (S also Black-Gram, Cow-pea, Green-Gram, Horse-Gram, Ued- 11, ti .) : — Episomus laceria (ronh 1 ... ... ... ... ... 327 Alcides collaris (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337 Amsaeta alblstriga (leaves) ... ... ... ... ••• 369 Ch loridea obsoleta (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 373 Azazia rubricans (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 389 Herse convolvuli (leaves) . . . ... ... ... ... .. 4°2 4 Bagrada pieta (sucking) 473 Ragi (Ehusitu coracana): — Anatona 5/i7/a/«"(flowers) 282 Estigmene lactinea (leaves) •• •• 368 OF CROPS. 259 PAGE Amsacta albistriga (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 569 Sesamia inferens (borer)... ... ... ... ... ... 579 Psalis securis (leaves) Chilo simplex (borer) ... ... ... ... .. ... 423 Saluria inficita (root-borer) ... ... ... ... ... 427 Marastnia trapezalis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 132 Nezara viridula (sucking) ... ... . . ... ... 47- Ltptocorisa varicornis (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... t;,, Ragi Root Aphis (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... -Q2 Epacromia famulus (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... r2; Orlhacris sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... -2i Cyrtacanthacris ranacea (leaves) ... ... ... ... - Catochrysops cnejus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 414 Etiella zinckenella (seeds) ... ... ... ... 429 Maruca testulalis (seeds) .. . ... ... ... ... ... 440 /' 1 Jastis atom, ... ... ... 44 ( Eueelts crilica (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 450 •rema nerteria (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 457 Cyclopelta siccifolia (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... i;<> . Xnoplocnemis pkasiana (sucking) t ; 7 Clavigralla gibbosa (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... (.78 ,. horrens (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 1.79 u s pandurus (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... |Si Graptoslethus serous (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 482 Ceroplastodes cajani (scale) ... ... ... ... 512 •ruiitiii sphenarioides (leaves) ... ... ... ... 527 Ribbed Gourd (Sei Luffa acutangula). 17-A 260 SOME Sol Til INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. t Paddy). page ( Rosa spp.) : — Adorclus tangalorensis (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 286 caliginosus bieolor (leaves) ... ... ... ... 286 ,• es) ... ... ... ... ... ... 287 Zonabris pustulata (flowers) ... ... ... ... ... 303 Ccelosterna spinator (twigs) ... ... ... ... ... 325 Sthenias grisator (girdles twigs) ... ... ... ... ... 326 Rozelle {Hibiscus sabdarifta) (See also Hibiscus, Bhindi, Oogu, Cotton) : — Phycita infttsella (topshoots) ... ... ... ... ... 428 Safflower (Carthamus Unctorid): — Chloridea obsole ia (capsules) ... ... ... ... ... 373 Perigea capensis (capsules) ... ... ... ... ••■ $77 Dolycoris indicus (sucking) ... ... ... ... 470 Monanthia globulifera 1 Sandal (Santalum album) -. — Zeuzera coflea (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 446 Sann-hi mp (Crotalaria juncea) : — Utetheisa pulchella (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 371 Plusia signata (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 593 Euproctis scintillans (leaves) ... ... ... ... 399 Argina cribraria (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 401 ,, syringa (leaves)... ... ... ... ... ... 401 \mmatus bceticus (pods) ... ... ... ... ... 415 Eticlla sinckenella (seeds) ... ... ... ... ... 429 Laspcyrcsia truentra (stem-borer) ... ... ... ... 451 Ragtnus imporlunitas (sucking) ... ... ... ... ... 491 Sesbania spp {See also Agathi, Daincha, etc.) : — . I hides bubo (borer) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337 Hontoptera glaucinans (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... 390 psiha pyranlhe (leaves) ... ... ••• ... ... 413 Terias hcc<: ... ... ... ... ... ... 414 SESBANIA AIGYPTIACA : (See Chithagathi). Silk I Clania cramerl (leaves) 44*> Heterusia virescens (leaves) 449 Homona coparia {leaves) (Flush Worm) Phassus malabaricus (root-borer) t'lS Helopeltis antonii (sucking) 4SS Empoasea fiavescens (sucking) 1'>S Lecanium hemispharicum (scale) 5T4 „ nigrum (scale) ... ... ... ... ... ... 5*4 Aspidiotus camellia (scale) 51/ Chionaspis biclavis (scale) 52° Hemkh'wnaspis tkece (scale) S21 Tetranychus bioculatus (leaves) ... 544 Phytoptus carinalus (leaves) ... ... ... 545 Teak (Teelona grandis) : — Psiloptera fastuosa (borer) Slromatium barbatum (borer) 321 Hyblcea puera (leaf-roller) 392 Pyrausta macharalis (leaves) ... ... 442 1 (Setaria italica) {Set also Cereals):— Anatona stillata (flowers) 282 Gnathospastoides rouxi (flowers) 302 y.v/A; tenuicollis (flowers) 303 ZonabrU pustulata (flowers) 303 Cantharis ruficollis (flowers) 305 Dolycoris indicits (sucking) 47° 1 emania sphenarioides (leaves) 527 Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus (leaves) 532 Til: — 5« Gingelly. ["obacco 1 Nicotiana tabacum): — 1/ n (si ed capsules) 373 ,, assulta (leaves, etc.) 374 Prodenia litura (leaves, etc.) 377 /'/Wr; signata (leaves, etc.) 393 Gnorimoschema heliopa (stem-borer) 454 LIST OK CROPS. 263 PAGE Gallobelicus crassicornis (sucking) ... ... ... ... 491 Airactomorpha trenulata (leaves) ... ... ... ... 528 Chrotogonus sp. (leaves) ... ... ... ... ... ... 52pium ; Mexican poppy. Blai Swedish turnip. Indian mustard. u bite mustard. ige . Bn iccoli. Caulifli Rape. Radish. Garlic Pear. Portulacea. . rortiikn a i ili rai ea ... ... ... Pui Terns trcemiacea. Camellia theifera ... ... ... Tea. Sterculiacece. III. ol in 'ina cacao LIST OF ALLIED PI. .WIS. 265 Walvaceee. Abutilon indicum. 1 [ibiscus cannabinus ,, sabdariffa ... „ abelmoschus. „ esculentus ... ,, rosa-sinrnxalis spp. ... Impatiens spp. Pelargonium spp. Rutaceas. 1 lia aculeata ... Murr.r 1 Atlantia monophylla. Citrusa u ida ., medica limetta ,, medica aurantium „ decumana Feronia elephantum... ... Meliacea. azedarach Mi 1 azadirachta Cedrela t. iona Gogu. Rozelle. di ; Ladies I Hibiscus. 1 Portia Tro . Silk ( '< itton ; Siimil -ilk Cotton. Jute. I la\ ; I Bilimbi. ■ 1 lola. Oxalis. Balsam. ( reranium. root. Curry Leaf Plant. Sour lime. lime. Orange. Pomelo. ipple. Bael. Persian Nim. Nim ; Margosa. 266 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. SimarubecB. Ailanthus excelsa ... Ailant 1 „ nialabarica. Balanites roxburghii. Rhamnea. Zizyphus jujuba 1 ujube ; Ber. ,. glabrata. oenoplia. ,, rugosa Wild ber bush. Scutia indica. Ampelideee. Vitis \ inifera i rrape vine. ,, linnsei. ,, sctosa. „ carnosa. ., quadrangularis Square-stemmed Sapindacece. Allopbyllus cobbe Thangot. Sapindus trifoliatus Soapnut. Anacardiacece. Mangifera indica ... Mango. Anacardium occidentale ... Cashewnut. Buchanania latifolia Chironji oil tree ., angustifolia. ( )dina wodier Leguminosie, Arachis hypogoea Crotalaria mysorensis. ,, verrucosa. n juncea ... Trigonella fcenumgroecum Mi dii ago sativa ... Cyamopsis psoralioides ... Indigofera linifolia. enncaphylla. ., trita. n tinctoria Psoralea corylifolia. Tephrosia spinosa. ,, purpurea villosa. John Company trt'i . ( .t. iiindnut. Sann-hemp. Fenugreek. Lucerne. Cluster bean. Indigo. Kolinji LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS. 267 Sesbania segyptiaca ,, aculeata ... ., grandiflora arietinum Vicia sa Ervum lens Pisum sativum Glycine hispida. Erythrina indica ... Butea frondosa Canavalia ensiformis Phaseolus trilobus ,, aconitifolius. ,, nuingo ,, radiatus Vigna catiang Clitoria ternatea. I tohchos lab-lab ... „ l)iflorus ... Psophocarpus tetragono Cajanus indicus I lalbergia sissi 10 ... ., latifolia Pterocarpus marsupium ... Pongamia glabra. Derris scandens. Pti rolobium indicum. 1 fistula „ occidentalis. auriculata ... sia „ obovata angustifolia Caesalpinia pulcherrima ... Poinciana regia 1 Lardwickia binata I umarindus indica Bauhinia vari Adenanthera pavonina Acacia arabica „ leucophkea. ,, latronum. ,. concinna ... < Ihitagathi. I taincha. Agathi. Bengal Spring vetch. Lentil. I 'ea. Coral tree ; I >adap. Mliak tree. Sword bean. Field-gram. ( iiven-gran: ; Mung. ram. I \r,\ -pea. I'ield bean ; Lab-lab. I forse-gram. ( Joa bean. Dholl ; Red-gram ; Tur, Arhar. Sissu. 1 lod. Kind tree. Indian Laburnum. Tanner's Cassia. Country Senna. Tinm veil) - Flower Fence. Gold Mohur. Hardwickia. Tamarind. Mountain Ebony. Red-wood tree. (ium arabic ; Babul. Soapnut Acacia. 268 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Albizzia lebbek Pithecolobium dulce Mi sa pudii Rubus moluc< ensis. ., i llipticus. ., racemosus. Eriobotrya japonii a Pyrus malus i omniums ... l'ruiuis persii i Terminalia catappa belerica chebula „ arguna. I'sidium guya\ .1 1 „ arnothiana. „ alternifolia. jambolana Punii .i granatum ... km alyptus globulus Rosacea. ( 'ombretacea. Myrtacea. Cucurbitacea. Trichosanthes anguina Lagenaria vulgaris Luffa aegyptiaca ... „ acutangula ... Benincasa cerifera. Momordica charantia Cucumis trigonus. ,, nielo „ sativus ... Citrullus vulgaris ... Cephalandra indica Cucurbita maxima pepo ... ,. moschata Ctenolepis garcini. Passiflorea. Carica papaya siris ; \ agai 1 Tain.). Korkapilli. tive Plant. I .oquat. Apple. Pear. Peach. I n 'pii al Mini 'ii'i. Myrobalan. Black Myrobalan. Guava. Rose Jambolan plum ; Jami k in. mate. Blue 1 rum. ' iurd. Bottle gourd. Towel gourd. Strainer vine ; Ribbed gourd. Carilla fruit ; Balsam Bear. Melon. Cucumber. Water melon. Scarlet gourd. Common gourd. Pumpkin. Musk melon. Papaya ; Papaw. LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS. 269 C-;nn >s sulphureus Ba<y w eed. Chenopodia* 1 nopodium album Common Goosefoot. „ ambrosioides 1 ledge mustard ; Kal LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS. Polygonacets. 271 Rumea vesicarius Piper betle ., nigrum. Myristi< a fragrans Piper acta. Myristicaceo Laurinea. Cinnamomura ze) lanii um wightii Phoebe paniculata. Euphorbiacea. Euphorbia tirucalli ,, \ iatorum . „ pilulifera. Jatropha curcas Phyllanthus emblica. Ricinus communis Hevea brasiliensis Manihot glaziovii utilis! Urticacea, Cannabis sativa Artocarpus integrifolia ., incisa Morus indica... Kicus „ religiosa ,, glomerata irica ... CasuarinecB. uisetifolia Scitaminece. 1 lurcuma neilghem 11 longa „ angustifolia Bladder Dock. Betel. Nutmeg. Cinnamom Milk Hedge. ( u tn-; I uphorbia. Purging nut. Castor. Para rubber. Ceara rubber. Tapii ica. Indian Hemp. Jak. fruit. Mull 1. 11 ,. Banyan. Pipal. Country Kig. I Casuarina ; Chowkoo .Ml.). I'll II I Arrow-root. 272 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Zingiber officinale iria cardamomum Musa sapientum ... ,, paradisiaca ... Bromclia an americana ( 'rinum asiaticum rea spp. Allium cepa ,, sativum Bromeliacea. Amaryllidea. Dioscoreacea. Liliacea. Palmea. Ai-i i a i atechu Phoenix sylvestris Arenga wigbtii. ( '.u\ ota urens i loryphba umbraculifera Borassus flabellifer Coeos nucifera ( linger. • lardamom. Banana. Plantain. Pineapple American Aloe. Asiatic Crinum. Yams. ( >nion. Garlic. B ' nut. Date Palm. Malabar ^ago. Talipot Palm. Palmyra ; Toddy Palm. Coconut. . Xroidea. Typhonium trilobatum Colocasia antiquorum Amorphophallus campanulatus Acarus i alamus Elephant Vam. raro ; Kesu. Vam. Sweet flag. Graminect. miu scrobiculatura Panicum crus-galli. ., frumentaceum ... „ miliaceum „ miliare ... ,, maximum Setaria italica „ glauca Varagu (Tarn.). Kudirai vali (Tarn.). Pani varagu. -.nn. 11 ; Sawan ( I lind.). Guinea grass. Tenai ; Korr.i. Italian Millet. Korali (Tain.). LIST OF ALLIED PLANTS. 273 Pennisetum typhoideum sativa /.< a mays Saccharum officinarum Andropogon sorghum tie coracana Triticum vulgare urn vulgare Bambusa vulgaris ., arundi Dendrocalamus ^trictus Curnbu , Bajra. Rice ; Paddy. Maize. 5u arcane. Cholam ; Juar. Ragi. Wheat. Barley. Bamboos. [8 274 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. HYMENOPTERA. FORMODiE. DORYLUS ORIENTALIS, Westwd. Dorylus orientalis, Westwd., P.Z.S. (1835), 72; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym., II, 4-6, ff. 6, 7 ; Lefroy, End. Ins. Pests, p. 231. f. 276, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., [nd., I, 128. !'. 12. In.l. Ins. Life, p. 227, f. 130; Green, Perad. Circ. III. No. 22, p. 292. I ig. 111. — Dorylus orientalis, male and worker. (Original.) Distribution — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.—'No\ known. FoodplantS. Coconut seedlings, groundnut (roots). Status. Rather doubtful. Occasionally a pest, attacking grow- ing plants; has been noticed to attack young coco-palms in Southern India and in Ceylon to perforate the pods of groundnuts and consume the contents. Specimens in the Coimbatore collection also are labelled as " attacking roots of groundnut." Other speci- mens were found at roots of coffee but no damage seemed to have been done. Has also been found damaging sugarcane. Control. — ? Remarks. The workers are very similar in habits and appear- ance tO some termites, but the males (which often come in to light at night) are quite different. SOLENOPSIS GEM IN ATA, Kb. Atta geminata, Fabr., Syst. Piez., i>. 423 (1804). Solenopsis geminata, Bingham. Faun. bid. Hym., II, 158 --159. f. 04 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 229. Fig. 1 12. — Solenopsis geminata, worker. The smaller figure shows the nit in al -i/< . HYMENOPTERA. 275 Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India. (Nol noted from Bellary or Malabar.) Lifehistory. Nest in the ground. Food. Sometimes found attacking young cotton seedlings and buds of hollyhock, brinjal, crotons, ailanthus, eti St, ttus. May do damage, even to killing the plant, by biting the tender buds and shoots and growing the leaves. Control. (1) Killing the nest where found. (2) Ringing of plants with ashes or painting' crude oil emulsion on to the stem or branches attacked. MONOMORIUM GRACILLIMUM, Sin. Myrmica gracillima, Smith, J. Linn. Soc, VI, 34 (1861). Monomorium gracillimum, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym., II. 210- 211. 11.;. — Monomorium gracillimum , worker. The bows . Distribution. Coimbatore. Probably widely distributed in Southern India. Lifehistory. Nest in the ground, in cracks of walls, etc. Food. A scavenger oi dead insects, feeding also on provisions such a- sugar, bread, ghi, vegetable oils. St, tins. A common pest of store-rooms and house-. [) Di struct ion of the nest if it can be found. 121 Laying down baits (e.g., a sponge soaked in sugar and periodically dropping it in hot water), or permanent poisoned baits which the ants wdl carry off to their nests and leed to their young. Remarks. Bingham (I.e.) states that gracillimum is confined to ' presented in India by mayri, Forel, but Coimbatore specimens appear to be gracillimum 18-A 276 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC. CECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA, Fb. Formica smaragdina, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 828 (1775). \phylla smaragdina, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Ilym,, II, 311 ; Lefroy, hul. Ins. Life, p. 230, ff. 133—135 ; Dutt, Ent. Mem. Dept.,BAgri.,lInd., W, 254—260, ff. 21-22. Fig. lit. — (Ecophylla smarag- dina, worker. The smaller figure shows the natui (( (riginal.) Fig. 115. — Silken chamber spun ind branch by CE. smaragdina. Vftei Lefroy). Distribution. -Throughout Southern India up to about 5,000 feet, occurring most abundantly in regions of heavy rainfall. Lifehistory. Forms a nest in trees composed of leaves spun together by silken threads excreted by the larvae which are held in the jaws of the worker ants and applied to the situations in which the silk is required. Besides the main nest there are usually 111. 1 in subsidiary chambers of spun leaves containing plantsucking insects which are tended and defended by the ants. The males and females of this ant are green, the workers orange-red. Food. -Caterpillars, beetles. Hies, ants. etc. Stattts.- Beneficial to some extent as predators on small insects of various sorts but harmful ,1- protei tors ol noxious Scale-insects, etc.. which are not only tended but deliberately introduced on to new plants by the ants. In mango gardens also these ants may HYMENOPTERA. 277 i great anno overing the trees with their ne I attacking the mango-gatherers. Control- The nests are conspicuous and easil) opened and killed by spraying or burning. LMPONOTUS COMPRESSUS, Fb. Formica com pressa, Fabr., Mant. Ins.. 1, 307 (1787). Camponotus compressus, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hyni.. II, 351-352, i. 101); Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 21,1,. ff. 125 12s. ( amponotus compressus. worker. The small figure shows the natural size. K Iriginal.) Distribution. -Throughout the Plains of Southern India (not found in Malabar). Lifehistory. -Nest in the ground, often at the foot of a tree. Food. — A general scavenger, feeding in the field on honey-dew dead insects, etc., and attacking sugar in the house. Status. -Indirectly a pest as it tends and protects Scale-insects, Aphids, Membracids, etc., which may themselves do considerable damage by sucking the juice of plants. Control. — (i) The nests are fairly easily found and destroyed. (2) In the cases of trees badly attacked by Scales which were attended by these ants, it has been found that a band of tar and crude oil emulsion applied around the trunk of the tree keep- the ants from ascending, thus leaving the Scales open to attack by their natural enemies. Observation. -This ant has been noticed in active defem 1 Scale-insect against a small parasitic fly which was attempting to parasitize the Scale. AIMDiE. APIS DORSATA, Fb. Apis dorsata, Fabr., Ent. Syst, II. 328 (1793) ; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym., I, 557-558. t. 4. t. 11. 278 SOME SOL Til INDIA - ETC. I ig. 117. — Apis dorsata, worker, ["he >mall outline figure show I uatural size. " (riginal.) Distribution. Throughout the Hills and sub-montane districts, apparently migrating into the Plains. Lifehistory. -A large single comb is formed, usually about 3 feet wide and deep, but often much larger; it is suspended under the horizontal branch of 1 tree or under an overhanging rock or similar situation. The colonies are gregarious and many combs are usually found together, the same locality being resorted to year after year. Status. Very beneficial in pollination of flowers and useful as yielding hone) and wax. Remarks (i) This bee does not appear capable of domestication. (2) This is the Large or Roi k Bee; Tamil, Malaiitlwiice( Moun- tain Bee). APIS [NDICA, Kb. Apis indica, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl, p. 274 (1798) ; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym.. 1. 558. t. 4- f- 12. lh,. lis. Apis indica, worker. Tin small outline figure shows tin natural size. (( (riginal.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Several parallel combs, each about a toot wide and d :ep, are suspended usually in a hollow tree or similar more or less protected situation. The colonies are not gregarious. HYMEXOPTERA. 279 Status.— Very beneficial in the pollination of flowers and useful as yielding honey and wax. Remarks. — (i) The races of this bee found in the Hills arc very much darker than those found in the Plains. (2) This bee may be domesticated to some extent but will not remain in a hive for more than a few months as a rule. It is very subject to attacks of Wax-moth and does not store any greal quantity of honey. (3) This is the Indian Bee. intermediate in size between the Rock and Little Bees and slightly smaller than the European Bee ! in Tamil Thenee (bee). APIS FLOREA, Fb. Apisfiorea, Fabr., Mant. Ins., 1, 305 ; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Hym., I, 559, f. 187. I ... 119. — Apis florea, worker, ["he small outlini > the natural 1 inal.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lift-history. This bee builds a small single comb, usually about six inches broad and deep, which is generally slung from a branch of a bush. Colonies not gregarious. Status- Very beneficial as a pollinator of flowers. The honey and wax, though of good quality, are produced in too small quantity to have much commercial value. The nests are commonly robbed when found and the honey eaten. Remarks. (I) This bee i^ not likely to repay domestication. (2) This is the Little Ike; in Tamil, Seruthenee (small bee). 280 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. SPHEGID/E. OXYBELUS SQUAMOSUS, Sm. Oxybeliis squamosus, Smith, T.E.S. (1875), 38; Cameron, Manch. Mem. (4). Ill, 276 (1890); Bingham, Faun. Inrl. Hym., I, 315: Lefroy, End. Ins. Life, p. 209. Fig. 120. — Oxybelus squamosus. The small figure shows the natural si/r. 11 iriginal.) Distribution. Guindy ; Coimbatore. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — Not known in detail. These wasps, however, are known to tunnel in sandy banks and to store their nests with Diptera. Food. — Adult flies of Philcematomyia insignis. Status. — Highly beneficial as predaceous on the above-named pest of cattle. Remarks. -This little wasp is found fairly commonly on and around cattle. It stalks Philcematomyia insignis when this fly is intent on sucking blood and seizes it, when wasp and fly usually drop to the ground ; the fly is stung and carried off by the wasp and, so far as 1 have been able to observe, it is held by the sting only (and not by the legs) during flight. Sometimes the was]) collects the female flies whilst these are ovipositing in cowdung, at which time the flics arc in a rather helpless position, anchored (so to speak) by their ovipositor in the dung. This wasp does not attack Stomoxys or Houseflies, as quoted by Lefroy (I.e.) ; if it does In error clutch a Stomoxys or hrematophagous Muscid, both fly and wasp drop to the ground but the former is released immediately the mistake is discovered. As a check on Philcematomyia this little wasp is most efficient and useful. ( OLEi 28 r TENTHREDINIDjE. ATHALIA PROXIMA, Klug. (Pi. ATE II. FIGS. 12. 13.) Tenthredo proxitna, King, Berlin Mag., VII. 130(1810). Athalia proximo, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 152, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 127, 357-370, t. 20, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 165. t. 9. Distribution. — Coimbatore, Shevaroys, Bellary, Godavari, Banga- lore, Bababudins. Lifehistory. Eggs are thrust into the tissue of the leaves of the foodplant, being deposited singly during the day-time. The larva hatches out after about a week and h-w\~, on the leaves, eating holes from the edge and in the centre of the leaf. The young larva is greenish grey but it becomes darker as it grows until it is greenish-black when full-fed. It looks much like a Lepidopterous larva, but is easily distinguished by having eight pairs of prolegs besides the three pairs of thoracic (true) legs. When full-grown it constructs a cocoon in the soil ; pupa] period from 10 days upwards. In some districts (Coimbatore) this insect is only found during the cold weather (November February) ; in others (Bellary) it has been found during the South-West Monsoon (August). Foodplants- Mustard, cabbage, radish, cauliflower, turnips. Status.— A minor pest of cruciferous plants, sometimes doing considerable damage to young seedlings. Control. (1) Handpicking of larvas. (2) Protection of plants by spraying Naphthaline Emulsion or dusting with lime (20 pints) and kerosine (20 pints). COLEOPTERA. SCARAB/EID/E. HELIOCOPRIS BUCEPHALUS. Fb. Scarabceus bucephalus, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 24 (1775). Heliocopris bucephalus, Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Life, p. 241). 1. 141. lit,. 121. — Heliocopris bucephalus. (Aftei I 282 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatore. Probably throughout Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory and Food.-— The, beetles collect animal dung and make it into balls which they roll away and bury in the ground. In some of these balls eggs arc laid and the larva feeds on the dung. The exact lifehistory of all species is little known but in some cases it may extend over two years or more. Status. Beneficial to some extent. Remarks.— -A very large number of species of these beetles exist in India and are commonly to be seen in dry places. They undoubtedly do a great deal of good by disposing of dung and ordure in the vicinity of habitations. CETON1 \l> 1 . ANATONA STILLA1 \. Newm. Cetonia stillata, Newm.. Ent. Mag., V. 169 (1838). Anatona stillata, Arrow, Cetoniina; (F.I.), p. 114 (1910). Fig. Anatona stillata. The small outline figure shows the natural (( )i iginal.) Distribution. Hadagalli (September 1911). Bangalore (Arrow). Lifehistory. Eggs arc laid in moist places, the beetles burrow- in- about 2 inches underground and ovipositing there. The larva." probably \uci\ at the roots of grasses and miscellaneous plants. COLEOPTERA. 283 re perhaps laid about September, the beetles emerging about June in the following year. Foodplant. Beetle on the cars of cholam and cumbu, tenai and ragi, devouring pollen ol ear-heads in flower and milk of develop- ing grains. In the case of cholam, the beetles may enter the ear- head to the number of a dozen or more in one head and destroy the grains, filling the ear-head with excrement. Status. A local pest of some importa Control. -Collection of the beetles bj hand-nets. OXYCETONIA VERSICOLOR, Fb. mia versicolor, Fab., Syst Ent., p. 51 (1775)- Oxycctonia versicolor, Lefroy, bid. Ins. Life. p. 25S (Glvcyphaiia) Arrow. Faun. Ind. Ceton, pp. 164 166, ff. 35-36. I 1... l; nia versicolor. The small outlii ows the natural inal.) Distribution. — Bangalore, Bellary, Coimbatore, Madras. P bly throughout Southern India. May to October. Lit, history. Not known. Foodplants. The beetle feeds on flowers and tender grains of CUmbu, cholam, tenai and other cereals. Sometimes on flowers of other crop and garden-plants, such as groundnut and Cosmos. Status. Scarcelj a serious pest as a rule. Control. — Collection of the beetle- by hand and in hand-nets. 284 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CHILOLOBA ACUTA, Wied. Cetonia acuta, Wied., Zool. Mag., II. i, p. 87 (1823). Chiloloba acuta, Lefroy, End. [ns. Life, p. 258; Arrow. Faun. [nd. Ceton., p. 172. t. 2. f. 4. Fig. 124— Chiloloba acuta. 1 he small outline figure shows the natural size. Distribution. Bellary, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Shevaroys, South An nt. In September and October. I. iti history. -Not known. Foodplants. -Ears of cholam, cumbu, etc., the booties devouring the flowers and tender grains. Status.- Not a serious post as a rule. Control. -Collection of beetles by hand and with hand-nets. Remarks. — Arrow's coloured figure scarcely gives a sufficient idea ot the beautiful brilliant metallic green coloration of this beetle. PLATE III. P / jJ+> v \ j/' « ORYCTES RHINOCEROS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. ORYCTES RHINOCEROS. Fig. i. Eggs. 2. Young larva. 3. Adult larva. 4. Pupa. „ 5. Beetle. „ 6. Side-view of head oi male beetle. ,, 7. ., ,, of female ,, (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) COLEOPTERA. 285 DYNASTID/E. ORYCTES RHINOCEROS, Linn. Scarabaus rhinoceros, Linn. Syst. Nat. (x), 346 (1758). Oryctes rhinoceros, Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pests, pp. 207-208, Ind. Ins. Life, )). 256, tigs. [45, 1 4honl> of palmyras dead of bud rot. Foodplants. Palms of various species; American Aloes (both beetle and grub). The beetle also occasionally bores into sugar- cane stems. (See figure 68.) Status. -A serious pest, principally of palms. Possibly of im- portance also .1- ,1 carrier ol spores of fungal diseases of palms. Control. All dead and rotten palms should be cut and burnt. Heaps of rotting vegetable matter near palm groves should be regularly turned over and the grubs destroyed. The beetle comes to light and may sometimes be attracted by light-traps. In the Chittoor District (Nariambattu) the following method was reported to be adopted to trap the beetles. " Wide vessels of good size filled with kitchen refuse, such as rice-water, etc.. are kept among the plants at the rate oi very ten or twelve palms. The liquid soon begins to ferment and emit a strong smell attracted by which the beetles are said to appear in good numbers and drop in. when they are collected and killed." This method may lu- tried elsewhere. RUTELID E. ADORETUS BANGALORENSIS, Br. Adoretus bangalorensis, Brenske. I.M.X.. V, 38, t. 4. \'i'. 1. 2 (1900). Distribution. Bangalore. Lifehistory. Not known. Probably very similar to that of . Inomala varians. Foodplant and Status. The adult beetles were found attacking rose-bushes in the Government Botanical Hardens .it Bangalore. 286 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Control. Collection oi tin' beetles bj hand. Remarks. This beetle is perhaps identical with .1. ovalis, Bl. I"n,. 125. — Adoretus bangalorensis. The so all outline figure shows the natural size. (From Indian Museum ' ADORETUS CALIGIKOSUS BICOLOR, Br. AJorctus caliginosus, Burm., var. bicolor, Brenske, I.M.N., V, 38, t. 4. It. 3. 4 (1900). Vdoretus caliginosusbicolor. ["he sm ill outlii e Figure shows the natural size. 'I rom hull, in Museum Notes.) Distribution. Bangalore. Lifehistory. — Not known. Probably very similar to that ol Anomala varians. PLATE IV. JB* * ■IV ANOMALA VARIANS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. ANOMALA VARIANS. Fig. i. Egg, newly laid, x 4. ,, 2. Egg just before hatching. 3, Larva, dorsal \ iew. ,, 4. ,, lateral .. 5. Pupa, dorsal view, partly enclosed in last larval skin. 6. Pupa, ventral view. „ 7. „ lateral „ 8. Beetle. (The lines alongside the figures ^how the natun COLEOPTERA. 287 Foodplant and Status. -The adult beetles were found attacking rose-bushes in the Government Botanical Gardens at Bangalore. Control. — Collection ot the beetles by hand. ADORETUS OVA LIS, Hi. Adoretus oval is, Blanchard, Cat. Coll. Km., p. A.M.N.H. (7) XI, 472-473 (1903). 233; Sharp. 1 1 '7. Adoretus ovalis. ["he small outline figure shows th< natui al size. (< (riginal.) Distribution. Coimbatore, Anantapur, Bellary, Godavari, Madras, South Arcot, all the year round. Ootacamund in April. Lifehistory. Nol known. Foodplant. The beetle eats leaves of grape-vine and mango. It feed> on the foliage at night and often does serious injury. During the day numbers of them are often found hidden just under the surface soil around the plant. womai.a varians, oliv. (Plate rv.) . \nomala varians, Olivier. Ent. I, 5, p. 78, t. 10, t. 1 23 a, b\ Lefroy, Km. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., II. [43 147. t. XIV. [nd. Ins I ife, p. 254. 1. XIV. Distribution. Coimbatore. Bangalore, Bellary, practically throughout the year. 288 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Lifehistory. — The comparatively-large white egg is probably laid in the soil in which the grubs live, feeding on roots of various plants. The full-grown grub is about 40 mm. long, dirty whitish with yellow head and legs and the abdomen incurved beneath. The pale-yellowish pupa is partly enveloped in the old larval skin which forms a kind offal e-co oon for it. The life-cycle is about 6—9 months. FoodplantS. — The grubs are bad pests on all garden plants, such .iv creepers, etc. In Coimbatore flights ot this chafer generally occur when the North-East Monsoon breaks. Control. No satisfactory method of dealing with the grubs can as yet be recommended for use on a field-scale. The beetles, when abundant, may be collected by hand, by hand-nets, and at light. MTIDULIDjE. CARPOPHILUS DIMIDIATUS, Kb. Nitidula ditnidiata, Fab., Ent. Syst., I. 1. 26] (1792). Carpophilus dimidiatus, Lefroy, Ind. [ns. Life, p. 297. Fig. 128. Carpophilus dimidiatus. The small figure shows the natural size. (< •riginal.) Distribution, rhroughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory and Food. Nol fully worked out. The larva probably feeds in rotting vegetable matter, pupating in the ground. The beetles are found in rotting vegetable matter (rotten fruit, etc.) and some species of this group occur in (lowers. Status. Not known to be .1 pest hut may prove to be so by carrying fungal and other diseases from attacked trees, etc., and >o infecting health} ones. Remarks. The insects oi this group, though numerous in India, are small and inconspicuous. In their habits the} are very varied COLEOP1 ER \. 28c, mosl being found on or in rotting animal and vegetable tissues, whilst some live in flowers, and the larva of one species (in Italy) is recorded as predaceous on a Scale-insect. TRnc.usrnn.h I ENEBROIDES MAURITANICUS, L. Tenebrio mauritanicus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X). I.. 417 (1758). Tenebroides mauritanica, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, 251 2. f. 302, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 299, IT. 176 177; Chittenden, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. 4, pp. 122 124. f. 60. (1896). 19. Tcm broides mauritanicus, beetle and larva. The small figures show tin natural sizes. (Original.) Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India all the yeai round. Lifehistory. The elongate, curved, pale-white eggs, measure about 2 mm. in length. The full-grown larva is nearly an inch long, stoutly-built, of a dirty whitish colour, with conspicuous smooth brown head and chitinous prothoracic and supra-anal shields, this latter terminating in a pair of short, sharp, projections, pile beetle ma} lay forty eggs. Exact life-cycle not known. I-'iuhI. This beetle is at times vegetarian in its diet, feeding on stored grain, groundnuts, etc., and is sometimes at least predaceous. feeding on other insects which infest stored produce. Specimens were found in stored tobacco in Madras where they were presum- ably predaceous in the Cheroot Beetle Status. Rarely a pest and often beneficial. Included here as an insect commonly found in stored grain, etc. 10 290 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC CUCUJID^. SILVANUS SURINAMENSIS, L. Dermestes surinamensis, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed X), I, 357(1758). Silvanus surinamensis, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 252, f. 304, Ind. [ns. Life, p. 300, figs. 179, 180 ; Chittenden, U.S.A. Ent. Bull. 4, p. [21, f. 59. Bull. 8, f. 4. In,. 130. — Silvanus surinamensis, beetle and larva. I he small fig arcs show natural sizis. (Larva after Chittenden.) Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory. — Not worked out in South India. Food. Dried fruit, flour, etc. Stdius. — Not noted as a pest, EROTYLID/E. FATUA LONGICORNIS, Wied. Languria longicornis, Wied, Zool. Mag., II, 48 (1823). I ig. 131. Fatua longicor- ftis, Male, (Original.) I ig. 132. -Fatuatlongicor- ins, Female, (Original.) FLATE V. COCCINNELLA SEPTEMFUNCTATA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE \ COCCINELLA SEPTEMPUNCTATA. Fig. i. Cluster of eggs on leaf, natural size. 2. Eggs, enlarged. 3, [,$. Larva in various stages, enlarged. 6. Larva, natural size. j. Pupa, enlarged. 8. ,, natural size. 9. Beetle, enlarged. 1 o. „ natural si/c. • The lines alongside the ligores show the natur..! sue-... COLEOPTERA. 291 Distribution. Throughout the dry districts of Southern India. Lifehistory and Foodplant. — Lif eh istory not known in detail. The beetles arc commonly found on Euphorbia antiquorum and larvae have been found in rotting branches of this plant which had previously been bored In .1 Phycitid larva. St dt us. — Not a pesl COCCINELLID/E. COCCINELLA SEPTE.MPINCTATA. Linn. ( occinella septempunctata, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X). 1, 365 (1758); Lefroy, 1ml. Ins. Pests, p. 273, f. 331, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 306. (See Plate V.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory ami Food. The yellow elongated eggs are deposited in clusters on plants affected with colonies of Aphids (Green-Fly). The brownish long-legged larvae are active and predaceous on the Aphids which they seek out and devour. The squat, brown, mottled pupa is affixed to leaves. Status. Both larva and beetle are highly beneficial by feeding on Aphids. Remarks. This particular species of Coccinella is found chiefly on wheat and mustard, but sometimes on paddy and other crops. Numerous other species are found in Southern India, the lifehistory in general being very similar. ? COELOPHORA Sp. I"i<.. 133. Coelophora sp. ["he smallei figure shows the natural size. n.il.i (Head and thorax orange-yellow, wing-cases black, each with four elongated orange spots.) Distribution. Nilgiris (Hillgrove; 4.200 feet). 1 'I A 292 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS. KIT. Lifchistory and Food. —Both larvae and beetles have been found to be predaceous on the Green Bug (Lecanium viride) of coffee, on the leaves ol which the pupae were also found. Status. Beneficial as predaceous on Lecanium viride. EPILACHNA I2-STIGMA, Muls. (PLATE VI.) Epilachna dodecastigma, Muls., Spec, p. 789; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. I ifi . p. s<>\ 1. 188. Distribution. Throughout Southern India all the year round. Lift history.- The yellowish eggs are laid in clusters on leaves of the foodplant on which the stout, spinous, yellow grubs feed, eating the epidermal layer of the leaf in characteristic patches. The squat, yellow pupae are attached head-downwards to leaves, or more usually stems, ot the foodplant. The beetles also eat the lea\ es. Foodplants. Solanaceous and cucurbitaceous plants; especially on Brinjal. Status. Often a serious pest on Brinjal and Bitter Gourd (Momordica). Control. -Collection by hand of the insect in all stages. Spray- ing of plants in bad cases. Natural Enemies. A small Chalcid was reared from a pupa ol / . I2-stigma found in Bellary. Remarks. — The closely-allied and perhaps commoner species, Epilachna 28-punctata, is also shown on the plate (fig. 5), which depicts the colouring of the beetles as rather too deep a red. DERMESTIDiE. 1 'I RMESTES VULPINUS, Kb. Dermestes vulpinus, Fab.. Spec Ins., I. (14 (1781); Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 311, f. [QO. Dermestes vulpinus. The smaller figure shows the n.iiiii al 1 • (Oi iginal.) Distribution. South Kanara. Probablj throughout Southern India. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. EPILACHNA BEETLES. Kig. i. Epilachna dodecastigma, egg. 2. ., .. larva. 3- .. .. pupa. 4. .. „ beetle-. 5. Epilachna 26' punctata, beetle. 6. Beetles (both species) on plant, natural size, showing eggs, larvae, pupae, adults, and damage done. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) PLATE VI. EPILACHNA BEETLES. i < >l Ki >l'l KK V 293 Lifehistory and Food. Not worked out in detail in India. The beetles and larvae usually feed on dead animal matter, such as fish manure. Status. Scarcely a pest as a rule. Usually rather beneficial as a scavenger and the larva- have been found feeding on pupa; of tlies breeding in tish manure. At times, however, the beetle is said to be very destructive to silk-worm cocoons. DERMESTES Sp. Dermestes sp. The smaller figure shows the u.it ural sizi . (Original. I Distribution- Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. -Not known in detail. The beetle has been bred from larvae found feeding on animal refuse in sparrows* nests. Probably on any dead animal matter. BOSTRYCHID 1 SINOXYLON SUDANICUM, Lesne. Fig. 136. Sinoxy lott sudan icum. ["he smallei figure shows the natural ~i/i II h i Sinoxylon sudanicum, Lesne, .Ann. Soc. Ent. Fi : 15), [76, (1906), 503-504. f- 534: King,4th Rept. Wellcome Lab.. Vol.B,p. 14". t. Q, t. 1. 294 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN l\>K< I >. ET< Distribution. Bellary, Coimbatore, Chingleput. Probably throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory. Not worked out in detail. Eggs are laid in dead wood, probably in galleries tunnelled b\ the beetles. Larvae in galleries in dead wood, in which the beetles also teed. Length Ol life-cycle is not known. Food. Dry stems ol" Agathi, of Cambodia Cotton killed by Stem Weevil, and in almost any dry wood that is not too hard. Shiliis. Attacks only dead wood and is hardly a pest as a rule except when it bores into furniture, etc. RHIZOPERTHA DOMINICA, Kb. Synodendron dominicum, Fab., Ent. Syst., I, pt. 2. p. 359 (1792). Synodendron pusillum, Fab.. Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 156 (1798). Rhizopertha dominica, Lesne. Ann. S.E. Fr. (1898), 332 ; Stebbing, I.M.X., VI, 25 26; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 316 ; Chittenden, U.S.A. Ent. Bull. 96, pt. 111. pp. 21) 47, IT. 7, 8. Fig. Ml.— Rhizopertha dominica. The smaller figure shows the natural size. (I iriginal.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The white, elongate, pear-shaped eggs are laid loosely and singly amongst the food of the larva.-, which hatch out after about 10 days. The larva when full-grown is slightly less than 3 mm. long, a white, fleshy grub swollen at either extremity but more swollen .interiorly. The whole life-cycle is probably less than two months. Food. Stored cholam and CUmbu ear-; also recorded from stored wheat, paddy, flour, biscuits, etc. Status. Apparently a minor pest of stored products. Control.— Fumigation and keeping stored grain, etc., in insect- proot receptacles. FLAIE VII / ^|W^ 6 mm % 4 LASIODERMA SERRICORNE EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII. LA3IO] ERMA SERRICORNE. Fig. i. Eggs. 2. Larva, covered with particles of ti 3. Larva freed from pi.rtii.les of leaf. 4. Pupa. 5. 6. Beetle. 7. Cheroot bored by beetles, showing holes of exit. ^The lines alongside thefigjres show the natural si/e».) COLEOPTERA. rn\iD/E. 295 SITODREPA PANICEA, L. Dermestes paniceus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X). p. 357 (1758). Sitodrepa panicea, Chittenden, U.S.A. Bull. No. 4, pp. 124—126, ff. 61. 62; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Life, p. 318, t. 197- I ig. 138. Sitodrepa panicea, beetle and larva. The smaller figu show tin.- natural sizes. (Larva after Chittenden.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.—Eggs are laid in almost any dry substance of organic origin, the larvae, on hatching, tunnelling galleries in which they pupate in small cocoons. The entire life-cycle may be passed in less than two months. Food. This species has been said to " eat anything but cast iron, " even perforating tin foil and sheet lead. Books, papers, stored grain and drugs of all kinds, boots, sheet cork. Status. An important pest of books and papers and hence ol great importance in Libraries, Record Rooms, etc. Control. Books and papers should be kept as far as possible in 1 losed almirahs or boxes and protected with a plentiful supply of Naphthaline renewed regularly. Books in exposed shelves should be treated at least annually with Book Solution. (See page 172.) LASIODERMA SERRICORNE, Kb. (PLATE VTJ Ptinus serricornis, Fab.. Ent. Syst., 1, 1. 241 (179 Lasioderma testaceum, Duftschmid, Faun. Austr., Ill, 46(1825;; I efroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 253, 1 305, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 319. 1 >'' 2Q6 SOMESOl III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Throughout Southern India all tin- year round. Lifehistory. The minute shining white eggs are laid on dried tobacco, being generally thrust in under a fold of the leal ; in the case nt cheroots they are generally laid just under the outei leal inside the open end. The eggs hatch after four or five days, when the grub emerges and tunnels through the tobacco until it is full- led, when it spins a small cocoon covered with fragments ol leal in which it pupates. The complete life-cycle occupies about 8 10 weeks according to temperature and the beetles live a considerable time after emergence. The beetles are quite active on the wing Food. Dry tobacco as a rule. Occasionally found in other vegetable matter, such as opium leaves (/.■-.. the poppy petals used lor wrapping opium cakes), turmeric, etc. Status. A pest of great importance in eif£ar ami tobacco factories, Control. — The most effective method is fumigation ol the finished cheroots by exposing them to the fumes of Hydroi yani< Vcid ^as for 24 hours, then airing for half an hour, and boxing them imme- diately afterwards. This treatment does not injure the .noma of the tobacco. NECROBIA RUFIPES, Fb. Dermestes rufipes, Fab., Spec. Ins.. I. 65 (1781) Necrobia rufipes, Howard, l.S.A Ent. Hull. 4. p. 105. 1 49 Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Life, p. 320. f. 204. Fig. 13". Necrobia rufipes. ["he natural size i- indicated bj the line; .il.H ires of thi beetle. I From Indian Museum Notes.) COLEOPTER \. 297 Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India all thi round. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid in or on animal matter on which the larvae live. These are greyish-white, with a brown head, and a series ol brown patches above, separated by a paler dorsal stripe P11 pa tii mi in a glistening, paper-like cocoon Food. Animal matter, especially dried meats such as Hams or Bacon. Found abundantly in Fish manure, both al the pla< e ol preparation on the Malabar coast and in Fish Manure distributed inland. Status. Scarcely a pest. BUPRESTID T. PSILOPTERA I- \.M I OS \. Kb. Buprestis fastuosa, Fab., Syst. Em., p. 216 (1774). Psiloptera fastuosa, I.M.N., II. 45. Ill, No. 6, p. 3. fig ; Stebbing, nd Forest. Hull. No. 12, pp. 7 9, t. 2. I i'.. 1 in. Buprestis fast m figure show - thr Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Tin larva i> a borer in the wood of trees. Foouplant. Teak, and probablj other trei Status. Stated to have damaged the Government Teak Planta- tions at Nilambur in January 1800. c out rot. ? 298 SOMKSOtTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. SPHENOPTERA GOSSYPII, Kerr. Sphenoptera gossypii, Kerr., Ann. S.E. Belg. XXXVI, 195 (1892) ; Lefroy, In d. Ins. Pests, pp. 100--103. ff. 114— 119, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 330, t. 20. • [Splienoptera neglecta, King; King, J. Ec. Biol., IV, 42 -44, t. 4 ; King, 4th Report Wellcome Lab., Vol. B, p. 134, Plate; Aulmann, Faun, deut, Kolon., pt. iv, pp. iX 22. | (See Plate VIII.) Distribution. Bellary. Lifehistory.- Eggs laid on tin- bark generally about midway between base and crown of Stem. The larva on hatching bores into the Stem, tunnelling a gallery up anil down the centre When full-ted it prepares an exit hole, leaving only the bark intact, and pupates in the larval burrow, the beetle emerging through the hole previously prepared by the larva. Foodplants. Cotton (especially Egyptian). Hibiscus esculent us. Status. A bad pest where it occurs but apparently rarely found in Southern India. ( ontrol. Destruction of attacked plants which wither and are easily noticed. NOTES. — (i) Except in Bellary, this insect has not been noted on Cotton in the Madras Presidency. (ii) Two parasites (Hymenopterous) have been reared attacking the grub. (iii) Local cottons were not found to be attacked so nuieli as exotic ones. SPHENOPTERA ARACHIDIS, Lefrov .MS. 11.. 111. Sphenoptera arachidis. i . Pupa in cocoon (natural size) : .:. Larva in root (natural size) ; lo 1 (ma inf. .l>. (< Iriginal.) 142. Sphenoptera ara chidis. I'll'' small outline figure shows the natural 1 . a Iriginal.) Distribution. -In all Croundnut-growing districts of Southern India, occurring from middle to end of cropping-period. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII. -1'IIEXOPTERA GOSSYPII. Fig. i. Larva inside stem of cotton-plant. „ 2. Larva, magnified. ,, 3. Pupa in cocoon, inside stem, x 3. „ 4. Pupa, ventral view, magnified. „ 5. Beetle, magniin d. .. 6. Beetle. 7. Hymenopterous parasite. (The lines alongside the figures show the i.aturil siies. 1 PLATE VIII. COLEOPTERA. 299 Lifehistory. Small flattened scale-like elliptical eggs arc laid on the stem or on one of the branches of the plant sometimes aw a \ from the stem. The grub is ij^ inches when full fed. It bores down along the stem tissue to the roots, devouring the main root. The pupation period lasts 10 days, the milk-white pupa being formed in the Ian al burrow. Foodplants. Chiefly groundnut (called the Verpuchi of ground- nut) and other leguminous plants such as Cow-peas, Redgrami gram, Agathi, Cassia, etc. Also tunnel in wild sannhemp i I ' otalaria striata). Stains. A serious pest in certain years especially in South Arcot where groundnut is grown extensively. Control. Destruction oi affected plants is the only remedy that can be advocated at present pending further investigation. TENEBRN >.\1D/E. GONOCEPHAl.l \l HOFMANNSEGGI, Stev. . . . . hofmannseggi, Steven, Nouv. Mem. Mosc, t, 96 (1829). Opatrum, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 338. I IG. it;. Gonocephahim hofmannseggi. The small outlini t tin oatui al 1 e. u Iriginal.) Distribution. Trichinopoly probably throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory and Food. The larvae of these beetles arc found on the surface of the ground where they feed on dead and decaying vegetable matter. Exact lifehistorj not worked out. Status. These beetles sometimes occur in enormous numbers and enter houses in such quantities as literally to co\ er the walN of rooms. ( )ccasionally they do damage to potatoes, grape-\ ines, 1 tc, but as .1 mil- they arc probably rather beneficial as scaveiu dead \ egetable mattei 300 S< > M I-: SOUTH INDIAN INSEI rS, I U TRIB( >L1U.M I \M \\i:r\|. Hbst. ( olydium castaneum, Herbst, Kafer, VII, 282, t. 112. t. [3 (1797 . Tribolium castaneum, Macleaj (1825); Blair, E MM. (1913), 222 224. Tribolium fermgineum, auct. (nee. Fabr.) ; Chittenden, I'.SA. Km. Bull. No. 4; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 253. I. 307, bid. Ins. Life, p. 33s. '■ 215. 1 I i iboliuiit casta natural si/ The small figure sli..» 5 the 11 iritfinal.l Distribution. Throughout Southern India ; all the year round. Lifehistory. The minute white eggs are laid, usually thrust into 1 lacks, on the surface ol stored seeds or of the receptacles in which these arc contained. The full-fed larva is about 5 mm. long, whitish-brown, with darker legs and a pair of anal spines. The pupa is white and naked and the pupal Stage lasts for 4 or 5 days. The beetles also Iced on stored substam es Food. Stored pulses, grain, Hour, dried insects, etc. Status. A -crious pest of stored produ< ts, not onlj bj the actual quantitj eaten but on accounl oi the extremely nauseous smell and taste which it communicates to infected substances. Control. Fumigation and subsequent storage in Insect-prool 1 eceptacles. ( ( ism PHI s DEPRESS! S, Fb. Lampyris depressa, Fab., Spec. Ins.. I.. 254 (1781). Cossyphus depressus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 33a t. 21, t. 4. Distribution. Godavari, Bangalore, Bellary, Coimbatore. Maj to July and September to November. Probablj throughout Southern India. a n e< >n"KR.\. 301 I re. 145. Cossyphus depressns. The small figure six 1 (( (riginal.l Lifehistory. Not know n. Food. Not known probablj dead vegetable matter. Remarks. Often comes in commonly to light at night. A verj curious beetle on account of it* strong resemblance to a seed. Km I l\oi A [MPOLITA, Fairm. Rhytinota impolita, Fairm.. Ann. S.I-:. Belg., XL., 8 (1896) KlG. 146. Rhytinota impolita The small I I the natural si/ inal.i 302 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory and Food. -Early stages not known- Probably feeds on dead \ egetable matter on or just below the surface of the ground. Remarks. A conspicuously common beetle to be seen wandering about over the ground in dry. open plaees. MKLOID/E. (CAMHAR1D.H; MYLABRID/E.) GNATHOSPASTOIDES ROUXI, Cast. (\intli, iris rouxi, Cast., Hist. Nat., II, 274 (1840). Cantharis (Epicauta) rouxi. Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 346. 1 17. Gnathospastoides mux*. The small figure shows the 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 al size. (< Iriginal.) Distribution. - South ECanara, Kistna, Kurnul, Bellary, Coimba- tore probably throughout the Plains. Lifehistory. Eggs were laid in captivity (in October toil) in groups of 50 to 125 each. The young larva- hatched out after about fifteen days and were extremely active. In captivity the larva was found to teed freely on egg-masses ol the Decern grasshopper. Further details of lifehistory not worked out, but this beetle has been bred from a pupa found with these egg-masses. Status. The beetle itself often .Iocs considerable damage to ear-heads of cumbu, cholam and tenai, eating the pollen so that no grain is formed. In its earlj stages, however, ii is probably bene- ficial by acting as a check on the increase ol i;iasshoppers. COLEOPTEKA. 303 LYTTA TEMICOLLIS, Pall. Cantharis tenuicollis, Pall., lc. Insect., p. 102. t. E, f. 35 (17N1 1806?); Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pests, pp. 205 206. f. 243, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 346, t. 220. Fig. 1 *s-- Lytta tenuicollis. The small figure shows the natural size, inal.) Distribution. Ktirnul. Bellary, Coimbatore, Tanjore, Tinne- velly ; September to November. Lifehistory. The whitish-yellow cigar-shaped eggs arc laid in the soil in a mass which may contain over 400 eggs; the eggs seem to be deposited at night and one female may lay more than one egg-mass on subsequent nights. The young larva.1 hatch aftei about 12 — 14 days. The larva.' probably feed on egg-masses of grasshoppers but the lifehistory is not known as yet. Status. — The beetle does considerable damage to car-heads of jola, cumbu, et< Control. The beetles are attracted to light at night or may be collected during the day-time. ZONABRIS PUSTULATA, Thnb. . . . . pustulata, Thnb., Diss. Nov. Spec. Ins.. VI, 113, t. 13 (1791). Mylabris pustulata, Lefroy. [nd. Ins. Life, p. . . . f. 219. Mylabris sida, Fab. Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 120 (1798). 7^ 149. -Zonabris pustulata. (Original.) SOME sol "I H [\DI.\\ INsi-i 1 v. ETC. • Meloe cichorii, Linn., Syst. Nat. (eel X), 1,419(1758). Distribution. Found very commonly .ill over South India. Lifehistory. Eggs arc laid in masses (one mass found to contain gj are bright-yellow, elongate and cylindrical. Further history not known. Foodplants. The hectic Feeds on the flowers and tender shoots ol many plants such as cotton, gogu, redgram, groundnut, cowpea, lab-lab, Cucurbitaceae, wild [pomceas, prickly-pear, garden spp. ol Hibiscus, rose plants, sometimes found on cereal ear-heads also such as cumbu, tenai and cholam. Especially on yellow flowers. Control. Collecting by hand with small nets. Observation. The correct nameol this extremely common beetle seems to be a matter of doubt. It has for a long time been known as Mylabris pustulate, but specimens very similar in appearance have been returned by Dr. Creighton Wellman under the name of Zona- bris orientalis, Mais. Probably there are several closely allied forms confused under the name pustulata. Linne's cichorii is perhaps a composite species and probably inculded the beetle here referred ti >. /.1 IN \BK1S Sp. .. ISO. -L'ltim arabidokll larva. I" 1 G . 1 5 1 . < *T% y.niiiti'iis sp I "1... 152. Adult Bi laller figures >li"« tin- natural sizes, (< Original.) COLEOPTERA. 305 Distribution. -Bellary (Hadagalli). Lifehistory. Eggs arc deposited in the soil and the young larvae, on emerging from the egg, seek out the egg-masses of the Deccan grasshopper and devour these. Foodplants. -The perfei 1 beetle has been found on flowers of Phaseolus aconitifolius (Madiki). Status. — This insect is an important check on the Deccan grass- hopper in the Hadagalli district. "CANTHARIS" RUFICOLLIS, Oliv. (dull-grey-blue species with orange-yellow thorax.) ( antharis riificollis, Olivier, Ins., 46, t. i. f. 6. Lytta ruficollis, Fab., Ent. Syst, I, ii. 85 (1792). Fig. 153. — Lytta riificollis. The outline figure shows the i< Iriginal.) Distribution.— Bellary. Kurnul, Coimbatore, Tanjore, Tinnevelly : ( )ctobi 1 to Dei Miber. Lifehistory. Not known. Status. — Beetle docs damage to ear-heads of Cumbu a'.u\ Tola, similarly to other Cantharids. Control. -May be collected by hand, [s attracted to light al night. Remarks. — This species seems to agree sufficiently well with Fabricius' brief description. jo6 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. EPICAUTA Sp. ^w/ ! ig. 154, —Epicauta sp. The smaller figure shows the natural size. l< >i i| Distribution. — South Kanara ; in October. Lifehistory. — Not known. Status. — Local pest of paddy, eating Aowct> and also attacking ripe ear-heads. Cowfro/.— Collection by hand is indicated. BRUCHID^E. PACHYMERUS (BRUCHUS) CHINENSIS, Linn. Curculio chinensis, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X). p. 386 (1758). Bruchus chinensis, Lefroy, End. Ins. Pests, pp. 255-256, ff. 311, Ind. [ns. Life, p. 35°, f. 223. Pachymerus chinensis, Chittenden. U.S.A. Dept. Agri. Ent. Bull. 96, pt. 6 (1912). I'n,. 155. -Pachymerus chinensis. Magnified; the small figure shows the natural ii e 1 il th( beetle, (Lai \ a aftei I hitti nden, COLEOPTEKA. 307 Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory. -The clear translucent egg is about -53 mm. long by ■3 mm. broad. The eggs are laid in the field on the outside of a pod of gram and twenty or more eggs may be laid on one pod, green being preferred to dry ones. The eggs hatch alter seven or eight days and the young newly-hatched grub is slender, darkish- ured, and hairy, with long slender thoracic legs and a well- developed prothoracic plate which is armed with peculiarly sharp- led edges, which help the grub to bore through the shell oi the pod, which the grub at one 1 to do, and then eats its way into Soon after entering the seed, the first moult is undergi and the larva now becomes a thickset grub with three pair- ol short legs ; in it- resting-position inside the seed it assumes a doubled-up attitude. It grows quickly and is full-fed after about ten days when it is plump and pale-white in colour. It then tunnels almost to the outside of the seed, leaving untouched only a thin partition of the outer husk, and prepares an oval chamber whose interior is smoothed off with a soft paste ; in this chamber it remains motion- for two days and then assumes the pupal state in which it remains for seven days. But the beetle does not emerge for another lie of days until its integuments are hardened; it then bites through the circular disc previously left in the seed by the grub and then makes its way through the seed-]). id. Tin beetles are inactive during the day-time but flj actively at dusk and at night. One complete life-cycle occupies about 32 days. (V.R.R.) Foodplant. — Red-Gram. Status. A fairly serious pest to Red-Gram in the field. Control. — Attempts may be made to catch the beetles with hand- nets in the evening when they are abundant. Remarks.- Various species of Bruchida have hitherto been confused in India under the name chinensis ; it is believed that the I to is the true- chinensis of Linnaeus. So far as observed hitherto in Southern India, this particular species lives only on Red-Gram in the field; Bruchids living on Is belong to other species. BRfCHUS THEOBROM.K. Fb. Bruchus theobroma, Fab.. Syst. Ent., p - - Ins., I. 75 (1781*. Bruchus theobromatis, Gmelin, Syst. Nat. (Ed. XIII), p. [735. Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Bezwada. JO-A 308 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I ig. 156. Bruchus tlieobromtv. Tin- -mall figure shows the natural size. (( Iriginal.) Lifehistory. — Not known. Probably in stored semis. Remarks. — Specimens from Coimbatore agree with an example received from Pusa under the name of theobromee, Fb. \i i IE. — There are apparently various other species of Brut bids. some of which infest stored seeds and others which live in seeds in the held, but it is not yet possible to give exact names of the various species. CARYOBORUS GONAGRA, Fab. Bruchus gonagr a, Fab.. Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 159(1798). Caryoborus gottagra, Lefroy, End. Ins. IVsts, p. 255.1'. 309, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 351, f. 224 : Ind. Mus. Notes, 111, 14 15. 1$T& Fig. 157. — Caryoborus gonagr a. [*h< small figure shows the natural size. « Iriginal.) Distribution I iodavari, Kurnul, Bellary, Coimbatore. Chingleput ; all the year round ; generally in February and March on Tamarind. COLEOPTERA. 309 Lifehistory.- Eggs are probablj laid on the young seed-pods of ( assia and Tamarind. The newly-hatched grub tunnels through the pod-capsule and into a seed. When full-fed the grub spins a '"i nun of matted white threads within which it pupates, the beetle cutting its u.i\ out through cocoon and outer skin ot the fruit- capsule. Length of lite-cycle not known. Foodplants. Tamarind (Tamaritidus indie a), Cassia spp., Acacia spp. Status. A minor pest of stored Tamarinds when these an with the seeds. Control. —Removal of Tamarind-seeds before storing will avert attack. CHRYSOMELID^J. SCELODONTA STRIGICOLLIS, Mots. Odontionopa strigicollis, Mots., Hull. Mosc, XXXIX, 409(1866). Scelodonta strigicollis, Lefroy, A.J. I., II, 292, I.I.L.. pp. 358-359, f. 232. # r I Scelodonta strigicollis. The small figure -hows the natural size. (Aft I Distribution. — Anantapur, Bangalore, Coimbatore. Lifehistory. Not known in South India. Foodplant. — Noted only on grape-vine hitherto. Status- A sen. hi- pest ol grape-vines. Control.- Collection by hand and spraying. 3 JO SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. 'I.EPTA SIGNATA, Ol. signata, Olivier. Km., VI, 665, t. 5, f. 89. Distribution. — Gan- jam, Coimbatore, Goda- vari, Bellary ; through- out the year. Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplants. Colo- casia, chillies, radish, beet, cauliflower, cab- Status. — Often seri- ous on vegetable crops such as radish, etc. Control. Catching in small hand-nets and spraying with Naph- Emulsion when bad. ■'>. Monolepta signata. Thi figuri hi iv tin n. iiiii al 0 inal.) Nixi'i k \ MADURENSIS, Jac. Nisotra inadurensis, Jacoby, Ann. S.E. Belg., XL. 267 (1896). 1 ii,. 160. Xisotra inadurensis. The small figui natural size. (< )riginal.) COLEi >PT£RA. 311 Distribution.- Malabar (Taliparamba), PTrichinopoly ; in July [gust. Lifehistory. -Not known. Foodplants. — Gogu, jute. Status. — The beetle rats the leaves but is not .1 serious pest. Control. — Collection 1>\ hand. AULACOPHoRA ABDOMINALIS, Fb. . . . abdominalis, Fab., Sp. Ins.. [., 151 (] . . . foveicollis, Kust. Kafer Europ., X.W'III. 100. Aulacophora foveicollis, Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Life, p. 362, f. 236. 9 "'"■■- Fie. 161. — Aulacophora abdominalis. 1. Attacked n [larva Red); .;. Full-grown larva (magnified); 4. Pupa (magnified); - (magnified) and <>. Natural size. (Figs. l — -» after Shiraki.) Distribution- Throughout Southern India up to at least 4.000 Lifehistory. — Larva in ground at roots of cucurbitaceous plants. feeding on roots. Foodplants.— All Cucurbit a ceaj. Status.- Sometimes a pes! "t sonic importance; usually occurs in fair numbers and doi - a good deal of damage on the whole. Control.- Hand-collection and spraying where bad. .512 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. AULACOPHORA ATRIPENNIS, Fb. . . . atripennis, Fabr., Syst. EL, I, 482. Aidacophora excavata, Baly, J. Linn. Soc, XX, 1 8 ' 188H I ... 162. — Aulacophora atripennis. The small figure shows the natural size. (Original.) Distribution. — All over South India. Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplants. -On all cucurbitaceous plants. Status. — Not usually a bad pest. Control. — Hand-collection and spraying where bad. AULACOPHORA STEVEXSI, Baly. Aulacophora stevensi, Baly. E.M.M., XX111, 102, t. [I, 1. 1 ; Jacoby, P.Z.S. (1887), 103. t. 11, f. 1. Ii,„ 163.- -Aulacophora stevi nsi. I he small figure shows the natural size. (< Iriginal.) COLEOI'TKKA. *i3 Distribution. — Clpngleput, Godavari, Kistna, Coimbatore ; August to I )ecember. Foodplants. Snake-gourd, Bitter-gourd, Bottle-gourd. Status. Not -') widely distributed and injurious as tin- two other lulacop/wra. It is speciallj destructive to flowers of )4'<>iirtl (snake gourd chii Control. Hand-collection and spraying. - AFFINIS, Jac. Oides affinis, Jacoby, P.Z.S. 1 1883), 400. t. 45, 1. 4. 164. — Uuli..-, affinis. The --mall figure shows the natur.il inal.) Distribution. — Malabar (Shoranore) ; July and August. Xilgiris (Jacoby). Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplant. Paddy. Statu ■ h 11 il ; doubtfully a pest. LEPTISPA PYGJVLEA, Baly. Lcptispa pygma t. Hisp., p. 2 (1858) ; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Lite. p. 364, fig. 240; Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125. p. 66 (I9ID- 31 4 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. FiG. 165. — Leptispa pygniisa. The small figure shows the natural size. (Original.) Distribution. — South Kanara, Malabar, Mysore, Cochin ; July to October. Lifehistory. — The eggs are laid on Paddy leaves and the grubs also feed on the upper surface of the leaves, the attacked leaves usually folding over so as to hide the enclosed grub. The grub, when full-fed, pupates on the leaf, the beetles emerging after about 4 days. Status. — Three to five larva; may be present on a single leaf, eating out longitudinal patches. The beetles also eat the leaves, but to a less extent. The insect ma} be a serious pest. It i^ said to be worst in wet weather. Control. — Bagging by hand-nets may be tried. HISPELLA RAMOSA, Gyll. Hispa ramosa, Gyllenhal in Schonherr, Syn. Ins., Vol. 1, pt 3. App. p. 6(1817). Hispella ramosa, Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125, p. 93 (1911). Distribution.- Coimbatore (January to June). Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplants- -Grasses. Status. — Not found in sufficient numbers to constitute a pest. FLATE IX. * 111 1 PHIDODONTA MODESTA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. PHIDODONTA MODESTA. --{c 'A, B, one day old. .C, just before hatching. 2. Newly hatched larva \ 3. 3. Larva in mine in cane-leaf. 4. Full-grown larva x 3. 5. Pupae x 3. A. Immediately after emergence from pupa \ 3. , „ B. Fifteen minutes after emergence from pupa v :. (.. Be ■ ' v I C Thirty ., „ v 3. 1 1 Sixty ,. ., \" 3. 7. Beetle showing disposition ol spines. PLATE X. • I WM H1SPA ARMIGERA (>ENESCENS). EXPLANATION OF PL \TH X. HISPA ARMIGERA (.iENESi ENS). FlG. i. Eggs inside leal". 2. Voting larva, magnif ;. Larva burrowing inside leaf; the larval burrow has been cut open. - 5. 6. Pu 7. A lult beetle. 8. BeeiL- shoeing arrangement (The lines alongside the figures show ihe natural COLEOPTERA. 315 Hispella ramosa. I the right shows a side-view of thi mall figure indicates the natural inal.) PHIDODONTA MODESTA, Weise. (PLATE IX.) Phidodonta modesta, Weise, D.E.Z. (1906), 404; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 365, Plate Will ; Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fasc. 125. p. 94 (19H). Distributio : < mjam ; April to November. Lifehistory. Eggs in - ane, larva burrowing mines longitudinally in cane-leaves, pupa in leaf, beetle also eat- ing cane-leaves. Foodplant. ■ Sugarcane. Status. Usually a minor pest of Sugarcane. Control. Collection of larvae in their mines ai ties by hand. HISPA ARMIGERA, Ol. (PLATE X.) Hispa urmigcra, < Hivier, Entom. VI, 763, t. I, f. D.E.Z. (1904), 457, Wytsm, Gen. I- 25, p. 103 (ion). 316 SOME SOI I'll INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Hispa cyanipennis, Mots., Reise Amur. II, 238 (i36l). Hispa amescens, Baly, J. As. Soc. Beng., LV, 412 (1887); Cotes, I.M.N., 37 (1889); Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pests, pp. 114 116, [nd. [ns. Life, p. 364, f. 239. Distribution. In all rice-growing tracts of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs are laid on leaves of Paddy in which the -rubs tunnel, producing discoloured patches. Pupates in leaf. Status. Occurs sporadically as a serious pesl oi Paddy. Control. — Bagging by means of nets may be suggested as a remedy. PLATYPRIA HVSTRIX, Fb. Hispa hystrix, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. tl6 (1798); Weise, Wytsm. Gen. Ins. Fase. 125, p. 107 (1911)- m Fig. 167. — Platypria hystrix. The small figure shows the natural size. 1 '■ ■ 'iTil.i Distribution. — Coimbatore; Tanjore (March to June). Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplants. — Agathi, Lab-lab. (Also on Erythrina in Ceylon.) Status. — A minor pest, the larva mining portions of the leaves. Control. Onlj collection by hand can be suggested pending fuller knowledge. ASPIDOMORPHA MILIARIS, Ol. Cassida miliaris, Olivier, Ins., p. 97, t. 2, f 25 ; Fabr., Syst. Ent. p. 91, Ent. Syst., 1, 300. Aspidomorpha miliaris. Lefroy, bid. Ins. Life, p, 366, f. 243. COLEOPTERA. ji; Fig. 168. — Aspidomorpha miliaris. The outlini the natural size, ii >riginal.) Distribution. Coimbatore, Bellary, Ramnad. Probably through- out Southern India all tin- year round. Lit, history. — Eggs laid in masses on Convolvulaceae, on which larvre feed ami pupate. Foodplants. — Con vol vulai Stiitus. — Harmless as a rule hut may occur on sweet potato a- .1 minor pest. Distribution. I vari, I i . South Axcot, Tinnevellj ; througl i the year. Lifehistory. \'o! Pood plant. Sweet potato. Status. Scarcely a pest. ~v \ ■ ■ : ;:' - : %^4 FiG.8169. Coptocycla^sp.\ ^TheSoutlim shows tin- natural inal.l 3i8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSEi lS, ET< METRIONA Sp. Distribution. — South Arcot, T i n n e v e 1 1 y ; throughout the year. Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplant. — Sweet Potato. Status. — Scarcely a pest. FIG. 17C- -Metriona sp. The outline figure shows the natural size, (< (riginal.) CERAMBYCID/E. DORYSTHENES ROSTRA I ( IS, Fb. Prionus rostratus, Fab, Ent. Syst., I, 2, p. 243 0/92). Dorysthenes rostratus, Gahan, Faun. Incl. Ceramb., pp. 6 7. t'. 1. Distribution. Coim- batoi > In < letober and November. Lifehistory. - Not known. Foodplant. - Larva probably bores in trees. Status. Not known to b< .1 pest. Remarks. Often comes in to light in very large numbers at the beginning of the North-Easl Monsoon. Fig. 171. Dorysthenes rostratus, from a living specimen with jaws opened. The lower figure shows the incurved position assumed by the jaws after death below the thorax. « >riginal.) COLEOPTERA. PRIOTYRANNUS MORDAX, White. 319 Primus mordax, White. Cat. Col. B.M. Longic, I, 18 (1853). Priotyr annus mordax, Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., p. 22. I. 8 Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 371, I. 248. Fig. 172. — Priotyrannus mordax. The upper figure shows the I .•ind jaws as seen from in front. (( iriginal.) Distribution.— Nilgiris, Anamalais, Kanara, Travancore. In August and September. Lifehistory. Not known. Status. — Not known specifically as a pest. ACANTHOPHORUS SERRATICORNIS, Ol. Prionus serraticornis, Olivier, Km. IV, p. 14, t. 9, f. 33 (1795). Acanthoplwriis serraticornis, Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., pp. 23 24, I". 9; Lefroy, fnd. Ins. Life, p. 372. t. 250. 320 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I [G. I I, Icanthophorus serraticornis. (From an original photi by Mm ugi Distribution. South Arcot, Bangalore, Cochin ; probably through- out Southern India. Lifehistory.- -Not known. Foodplants. — Larva said to bore in mango. The beetle was found at Bangalore on a silk-cotton (liombnx nnilubaricttm) in which it had probably passed its earlier stages. Status. Not definitely noted as a pest but from its large size tin- larva is likely to do considerable damage to the trees it attacks. Control. — Where larval burrows are found, a mixture of two parts chloroform to one part creosote should be injected by means of a syringe. COLEOPTERA. 321 XYSTROCERA GLOBOSA, Oliv. < erambyx globosa, Oliv., Entom. IV, p. 27, t. 12, f. 81 0795)- Xystrocera globosa, Gahan., Faun. 1ml. Ceramb., pp. 106 107. f. 42. I efroj . [nd. Ins. Life, p. 372. 174. Xystrocera globosa. (Original.) Distribution . Coimbatore, Anamalais. September to October. Lifehistory. \ ,. . . 1 No1 known in India. booaplants. ' Status. Not definitely known as a pest in India. Remarks. Recorded as a serums post of Siris (Albizzia lebbek) in - I R( (MATIUM BARBATUM, Fb. Caltidium barbatum, Fab., Syst. Km., p. 189(1775). Stromatium barbatum, Gahan, Faun. Ind. Ceramb., p. 114, I'. 45 ; 1 efroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 373. V Fig. 175. Stromatium barbatum. The smaller figure shows tin- natural inal.) 322 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Distribution. — Bellary. In June. Lifehistory. — Not known in detail. Foodplants. Found emerging from bamboo at Hagari. Stated bj Lefroy to breed in Acacia catechu. Teak, Dalbergia sissii, etc. Status. —Not definitely recorded as a pest but likely to be so sporadically • NEOCERAMBYX PARIS, Wied. Cerambyx paris, Wied, Germ. Mag., IV. 167(1821). Neocerambyx pan's, Gahan, Fauna [rtd. Ceramb., pp. 124 125 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, f. 257. Fig. 176. — Neocerambyx paris, (After Lefroy.) Distribution. Bangalore, Kollegal, Coimbatore. June to October. Lifehistory. —Not known. Status. -Larva probably bores in trees and does damage by its large size. See under Acanthophorus, iPTER \. 323 CHLORIDOLUM ALCMENE, Thorns. Cliloridolum alcmeiie, Thorns., Syst. Ceramb., p. 568 (1865); ( 1. 1I1. in. Faun. [nd. Ceramb., pp. 199 200; Lefroy, Iml. In^ Life, p. 374, 1. 253. 1 Cliloridolitnt alcmene. I cultural Journal of India.) Distribution. Coorg, Nilgiris. Foodplants, etc. —Larva boring mi" 1 (range-trees in ( 0 XYLOTRECHl/S QUADRIPES, Chevr. Xylotrechus quadripes, Chevr., Mem. Soc. R. Sci. Liege, Will. 315 (1863); Gahan, Faun. [nd. Ceramb., pp. 245 246, f. 00 ; Lefrov, [nd. Ins. 1 .it*-, p. 374. f. 254. 1 Kylotrechus quadripes. Die small figure shows the natural size. '< Iriginal.) 324 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Throughout the Hill districts of Southern India. Usually two broods about March and October. Lifehistory and Foodplant. Eggs laid in stems of Coffee-bushes .1 1» nit ground-level. Grubs bore in stems and branches, being well known in Coffee districts as "the Borer." Status. A serious pesl to Coffee. Control. Cutting out of attacked hushes, collection of adult bee- tles by hand, regulation of shade over coffee, scraping and white- washing of bushes just before eggs are due to be laid. BATOCERA RL'BUS, Linn. Cerambyx rubus, Linn.. Syst. Nat., II, 625 (ed. XII) (1767). Batocera rubra, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 375, f. 245 ; Green, Ceylon Agri. Dept. Bull. No. 3 (Jan. 1913). Fig. 1 79. Batocera rubus. (< Iriginal.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Seems to emerge at the beginning of rains, in May and October. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid in or under hark and the grubs tunnel into the stem or roots of the tree attacked. The larva] stage probably lasts over a long time possibly several years. When lull-fed it pupates in its tunnel, the pupal stage lasting about one month, Foodplant. Occurs commonly in Mango. Also attacks Duki Fig, Silk Cotton [Bombax malabaricum], Hevea (Para) Rubber. i OLEOP1 ER \. 325 Control.— Injection of mixture of two parts Chloroform to one part Creosote into larval tunnels where accessible. Collection of adull beetles by hand. The beetles are often attracted to light at night. NOTE. The specific name rubus is apparently a proper name. ( a LOSTERNA SPIN VI'nR. Fb. Lamia spinator, Fl>.. Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 1 45 I '798). vlosterna spinator, Lefroy, End. Ins. Life. p. 375. Fig. 180. Ccelosterna spinator. rhe small figure shows the natural inal.l Distribution. Bangalore, South Arcot, Tinnevelly ; probablj throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Foodplants. Grub bores in Babul I Acacia arabicaj, Casnarina, and Pomegranate. The adult beetles illy eat I). irk of cotton-plants, twigs of apple, ros< Status, A minorpest. Does a good deal ol damage when abundant, .1^ it is sometimes. CCELOS1 ERNA S< VBRATOR, Fb. Lamia scabrator, Fab., Sp. Ins.. I. 224 (1781). ostema icabrata, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. I V. S [yer, Ind. Forest. Bull. No. 11. pp. 7 8, 1.4. ff., 2 a, 2 I). .26 SOME Sol' 111 INDIW INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Nellore, South Arcol ; probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Larvae bore into the wood of the roots ofCasuarina trees. Fig. 181.- Ccelostern a scabra tor, larva and beetle. (Aftei Lefro Foodplants.—Casuarina. Status. Has been noted as very destructive to Casuarina in Southern India. ( (Ditrol. — ? STHENIAS GRISATOR, Fb. Lamia grisator, Fb., Main. Ins.. I.. 136 137 (1787). Sthenias grisator, Lefroy, tnd. Ins. Life, p. 376. Fig. 182. Sthenias grisator. (Original.J Distribution. — Coimbatore, Coorg. August to January. Lijehistory. — Not known. Habits. — Girdles twigs of Dadap (Erythrina), Taberntemontana, Croton, Rose-bushes, eti . Status.— A minor pest. ( onirol. — Only collection of beetles and destruction by tire of girdled t\\ig.> can be suggested at present. PLATE XI APOMECYNA PERTIGERA. EXPLANA1 K IN OF PLATE XI. APOMECYNA I l.K NG1 Egg, magm ;. Full-grown larva .. 3, 4. Pupa. „ 5. Beetle. „ 6. Beetle on plant, natural size. „ 7. Stem cut open to show larvas and pupa, natural size. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) i < >LE< ii' I ER \. 327 VPOMECYNA PERTIGERA, Thoms. (PLATE XI.) . . . . pertigera, Thoms., Phys.i I.. 6, p. 160. Apomecyna pertigera, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 376, tab. XXX. Distribution. Only noted from Coimbatore; probably occurs ghout Southern India. Lifehistory and Foodplants. Larva bores in stems of pumpkin and probably other cucurbitaceous plants. Status. A minor pest, which sometimes does considerable damage in Northern India. Control.— Destruction of affected stems and collection of beetles when seen on the plants. STIBARA sp. Distribution. Btl 1 a r v , A n .1 in .1 I ,1 1 - ; probably t h r on g bout Southern India at low elevations in the- Hills. Lifehistory and Food- plants. Nol known. I ig. \Bi.—Stibara sp. CURCULIONID 1 EPISOMUS LACERTA, Kb. Curculio lacerta, Fab.. Spec. Ins.. I.. 198 (1781). Episomus lacerta, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 384, t. 27. 1 6 Fig. 184. Episomus lacerta. The small figure >lin«- the natui inal.) Distribution. Bellarj , Coimbatore, South Arcot. June to December- 328 SOME SOl'TH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Lifehistory.— This weevil lias the curious habit of laying its eggs between folded leaves. The tips or other portions of leaves are folded over and kept in position by the legs. The long ovipositor is inserted into the fold, the sides of which are gummed together by a sticky secretion, and from four to twelve eggs are deposited in the chamber thus formed. The egg is oval, pale while and about i^ mm. long. The eggs hatch after 12 14 days, the resultant white grubs being about 2 mm. long, legless, with a comparativelj large head bearing a pair of moderate-sized dark mandibles, with distinct segments covered with numerous delicate hairs, and having ttu' abdomen straightened out and not doubled up. The newly hatched grubs seem to bite their way out of the leafy egg-capsule and drop to the ground where they burrow down and probably- feed on rootlets of plants. The eggs are laid on any thick fleshy leaf which will retain sufficient moisture to prevent the eggs from drying up. The complete lifehistory has not been followed through, but full-grown grubs, found at roots of pulses, were pale- white, fairly stout, about 15 mm. (3 5 inch) long, with a compara- tively large head and a straightened body. The number of eggs deposited by a single weevil is very large ; a female beetle captured in cop. on I2th August IQI I had laid 1,118 eggs by 10th November when it was still living and was liberated. [Y.R.R]. Foodplants. -Usually on pulses; probably feeds on most low- growing plants. Status. An intermittent pest in local areas where pulses are grown. Control. — Collection by hand. Attraction to baits. Spraying of attacked areas, which are usually circumscribed. Natural Enemies. A minute Chalcid ? parasitizes the eggs. CEUTHORRYNCHUS ASPERULUS, Est. Ceuthorrhynchus asperulus, Faust, Dent. Ent. Zeit. (1898). 323. Distribution. — Godavari, Kistna, Bellary, Coimba- tore. ' )ctober to Februan . Lifehistory. — The egg iN laid in a very young flower-bud, being thrust through a 185.— Ceuthorrhynchus asperulus. The hole bored through small figure shows the natural size. 1'u' side p) the c< >le< >i'"i er \. ;:') calj x into the bud ; from this hole oozes out a drop of sticky liquid which dries into a conspicuous red spot. The minute oval, i - white v££ hatches into .1 tin) grub which eats its way to the pollen- sacs of th<' flower and feeds on them. The full-grown grub is 3 mm. in length, pale-white, head brownish and distincl frot which is stout and somewhat doubled up when in the resting position. As the grub grows the flower also grows so that though originally the c^K had been inserted low down through the the mature Kri|'> >s 1() be found on the pollen-sacs al the very apex of the opening flower. The grub devours portions of the pi well as the pollen. When full-fed it emerges through a round hole cut clear through the base of the flower and drops to the ground, where it probably pupates in the soil. Exact life-cycle not yet worked out [Y.R.R.]. Possibly the grubs pass the period March to October in the soil (as larvae, pupae, or beetle- mature but not \ ^.i: more highly magnified. (< (riginal.) ■ alls from the tree. The young grubs, on emergence from the egg, mine into the leaf, eating all that portion between the epidermal layers. The legless full-grown grub is about 4^2 to 5 mm. long, flattened ; dirty green in colour, spiracles at the end of short lateral spine-like projections. When full-grown the grubs emerge from their mines in the leaf and burrow just below the surface of the soil, where they form oval chambers in which they pupate, the weevils emerging after 7 to 8 days. The weevil also eats small holes in the leaves. [Y.R.R.l- Foodplant. Mango. Status. A pest which may attain considerable importance when in large numbers; in badly-infested trees practically all the young ( > M li HTEKA. 331 shoots ma) have theii leaves cut off, so that the trees have to pul forth leaves afresh. Control. Collection and destruction ol freshly-cut leaves con- taining v£g> .ind young grubs. APION Sp. 1 Jul, Apion.) Fig. 188. -Apion sp. The small figure shows the natural size. (Original. 1 Distribution. Godavari, Bellary. In May and June. Lifehistory and Foodplant. The minute thick-set. dirty whin- larva bores in the stems and shoots of Jute; the pupa is formed in an oval chamber at the extremity of tin- larva] gallery. Pupal period about four days. Status. An occasional and minor pest, causing withering of side-shoots but not (or rarely) the death or fracture of the main- stem of the plant. Remarks. — Also found occurring on Wild lute (Corchorus trilocn- larisj. Parasitized bj a small Braconid. LIX1 S BRACHYRHINl S. Boll. In.. 189. Lixus brachyrhinu -in. ill nal.l 332 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. . . . brachyrhinus, Bohemann, Schonherr Gen. Cat. VII, i, p. 464. Lixus brachyrhinus, Lefroy, tnd. Ins. Life, p. 385. Distribution. — Coimbatore, South Arcot, Chingleput ; probablj throughout Southern India. Occurs all the year round. Lifehistory. Larva bores in stems of cultivated Amaranths. The eggs are laid (probably inside the stem) under the axil of a I. ,il on one of the lateral branches, the newly-hatched grub tunnel- ling down the branch in an irregular zig-zag mine gradually increasing in size until it reaches the main stem, where it bores down a little and then upwards until reaching the junction of another lateral branch where it forms an elongate chamber in the upper part of the burrow and pupates in this, the beetle emerging after about 14 daj S. Status. A minor pest, capable of doing considerable damage to cultivated Amaranths as a single plant ma\ harbour as many as ten or a dozen grubs. Control. — Destruction of attacked plants and collection of the weevils by hand. PARAMECOPS FARINOSA, Wied. 1 [G. I'm. Paramecops farinosa. The small figure shows the natural size. [Original.) 333 . . . . farinosa, Wied., Germ. Mag., IV., 157 (1821). Paramecops farinosa, Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Life, p. 386. Distribution. Throughout Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory and Foodplaut. K^ks are laid in the rind oi CalotropL into which the voung larvae tunnel. The beetle feeds on the leaves alotropis making unsightly patches. Status. Scarcelj .1 pest, bul n mage to the Calotropis plants where these are collected and used for manure. \ I A< 1 I », VSTER PINITIMUS, Fst. Atactogaster finitimus, Faust., D.E.Z. (1904), 251 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 386, f. 203. Uactoqastcr finitimus. beetle and sidi figure -hows the nal inal.) Distribution. 1'. nbatore, Madura, Ramnad, Tinnevelly. found about October. Appears to exhibit a preference for -1 black-< otton soil. Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplants. The beetle eats most low-growing plant-. Status. A serious local pest in Ramnad and Tinnevelly ii \rars m October, the beetles appearing in larjje numbei devouring young plants . . 1 ( otton, et< . Control. Collection of beetles In hand and by attraction t<. baits •'1 leaves placed around edges ol fields. Fowls turned out into th.- cotton-fields help to keep these weevils in check. 334 some south indian insects, etc. Mango Leaf-boring Weevil.] Fig. 192.— Mango Leaf-boring Weevil. The small figure shows the natural size. (Original.) Distribution. -Godavari, Kistna, Guntur ; March and July. Lifehistory. The weevil bites into the under-surf ace of a mango- leaf ami hollows out between the epidermal layers a small oval pouch into which is inserted a minute oval egg, about 3.3 mm. long, somewhat flattened and translucent. When the leaf is held up to the light the places of oviposition are distinctly recognisable as shining white dots. The newly-hatched grub begins to feed on and mine in the green matter of the leaf, of which between a quarter and half of one square inch is destroyed bj each grub. The full- grown legless grub is about 3 mm. long, flattened, translucent, whitish, the green matter contained in its intestinal canal showing clearly through the transparent body. The grub cleans out a portion of its tunnel and converts it into a chamber roughly oval in shape, and changes into a pupa of normal weevil type. The beetle emerges four days after pupation and escapes by cutting a round hole in the wall of the pupal chamber. Life-cycle is probably, egg three days, larva five days, pupa four days, total [2 days. [Y.R.R.] Stiilus. A minor pest of local importance. As many as 20 — 30 larvse may be found in one leaf and such leaves are so badly mined that thev turn red-brown and dry up completely ; in such cases a good deal of damage may be done. The beetles also may cut small holes in the leaves but the damage thus done is inconsiderable. Remarks. In its general appearance and especially in the dilated hind-femora, this weevil bears considerable resemblance to .1 flea-beetle. It is very wary and active and jumps off the leaves on the least disturbance. CYLAS FORMICARIUS, Fab. Attelabus formicarius, Fb., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 163 (1798). PLATE XII m *s* m CYLAS FORMICARIUS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. CYLAS FORMICARIUS. Fig. i nified ten times. - Eggs thrust into potato, twice natural size. \. Larva. „ 4. Infected pi ■ 5. 6. l'upa. „ 7. Adult beetle, ,, ■ . Antenna of female beetle (above) and of male (below;. Ties alongside the figures show the natural 3izes.) COLEOPTERA. 335 Cylas formicarius, Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pests, p. ih2. [nd. Ins. Life, p. 386, t. 26, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., II.. 155 — 159, t. XVIII. (She Plate XH.i Distribution. Throughout Southern India, in the Hills up to at leasi 4,000 feet, probably all the year round. Lifehistory. -The small oval whitish egg is deposited in cavities bitten out bj the beetle in the stems or tubers of the foodplant. The legless grub, which is whitish with a pale-yellow head, bores into the stein or ruber, the presenee of the grubs often being shown bj the development of dark patches around the attacked portions. Pupation in a small chamber at the end of the larval burrow, pupa whitish. The beetle emerges after about a week, the complete life- ■ vele occupying about one month. Foodplant. -Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas). Probably also in stems of other species ot Ipomoea [e.g., I. pes-capra) though not definitel) noted in India. Status. — This may be a very destructive pest to sweet potato crops. Control. Collection of beetles by hand-nets and by attraction to light-traps. Planting of deep-rooting varieties of sweet potato. In bad cases of infection, only complete destruction of the whole crop is of any avail and sweet potatoes should not be grown in the vicinity for at least two years. APODERUS rRANQUEBARICUS, Kb. Attelabus tranquebaricus, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 162 (1798). Apoderus tranquebaricus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 387, t. 2;, f. S. I . — Apoderus tranquebaricus. The small figure shows the natural size. inal.l $36 SOME Si>l 111 l\m,\\ INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Madras. Chingleput, Smith Arcol ; January-Feb- ruary ; July-August. Lifehistory. ["he oval yellowish egg, which is about 2 mm. long, is laid al the tip of a leaf which is doubled-up; both sides of ihrlr.it are cul across to the midrib, near the base of the leaf, and this terminal portion is rolled into a tight roll cigar-wise. It is not certain whether the weevil does this before ovipositing or not, - probably before. The egg hatches after four days. The small legless, yellowish grub has a brownish-yellow head with darker mandibles and a few short hairs are scattered over the body. The pupa, which is bright yellow in colour and about 3 mm. long, is enclosed in the folded leafin the midst of black powdery cxcre- mentitious matter left by the grub. The beetle emerges through a hole through the side of the leaf-roll. [Y.R.R. and T.V.R.] Foodplant. -Country almond (Terminalia catappa) (Tarn. Pinnai), mango. StatUS.— Not a pest. Fig. 194. Green gram Weevil, beetle and side-view "I head. I In small figui e 3I11 iw - iln- natural size. (< Iriginal. I Distribution. Bellarv (Hadagalli) and Kurnul ; November ami I K'cembcr. Lifehistory and Foodplants. The eggs are laid in a hole bored in a seed of green-gram (Phaseolus piungo) or cow-pea, the female having previously eaten hei way inside the pod. Three eggs are usually laid in one pud, one at each end and the third in the middle of the pod. The grub on hatching feeds on the seed, devouring I I 'I El H'TKRA. 357 collaris. ill figure shi • natural size. (< iriginal.) three or four seeds before it is full-fed, when it emerges fro pod and drops to the ground in which it pup Status. A local pest which may at times do considerable damage. Said to occur more commonly on areas ol black cotton Con I n'l. ''. \l ( IDES COLLARIS. Pas< . . . . collaris, Pascoe, A.M.N.H. (5), XX, 358. Alcides collaris, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, i>. Distribution. Coimbatore ;Bellary. Lifehistory. The female weevil gnaws a hole in the stem of the food- plant, deposits an egg and carefully ■ - it o\ ei with fibres ol the stem. I he grub on hatching bores into the stem but does not seem to tunnel far ; a swelling or gall is formed near the point of entrj and in this the grub lives until mature, when I be a legless dirtv-white lar\a usually found inside the gall in a doubled-up posture. The grub when full-grown prepares a thin tough brownish cocoon from which the weevil emerges after about eight days, waiting another three days or so before its integuments are sufficientlj h ir it to emerge into the open air. The total life-cycle, from egg to beetle, is about 35 days. Foodplants. -Green-gram (Phaseolus mungo) and other pulses. Said by Lefroj to occur in sweet-potato fields but not found on that plant in Southern India. St, tins. A minor pest. When laid in young plants they may be killed. In older plants the locality of the gall causes a point of weakness which may cause the plant to break off it strong winds occur. Usuallj one "i two grubs occur in one plant but sometimes si\; or eight ma\ be found. 1 ontrol. Collection of the beetles by hand. Natural Enemies. — A small blackish Braconid. \I I [DES 1;' B( >. Fb. mall figure 338 SOME SOITH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. . . . bubo, Fab.. Syst. El., II. 474- Alcides bubo, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 388. Distribution. — Coimbatore, Bellary (Hadagalli), Madras (Saida- pet), South Arcot (Palur), Trichinopoly, Madura, Tinnevelly. Lifehistory. — The pale yellowish egg is laid in small holes in the stem of the foodplant excavated by the mother-weevil. After about five days it hatches into a pale whitish legless grub which burrows into the stem and grows until it reaches a length of 6—7 mm. (i inch). The larval tunnel is bored, not up and down the stem, but immediately around the point of entry, so that a distinct swelling or gall is often formed around the seat of injury. The insect pupates within the larval burrow, the beetle emerging a week after pupation. Foodplants. — Agathi and Daincha (Sesbania), Indigo (lndigofera arrecta) and Cluster-bean (Cyamopsis psoralioides). Status.— A major pest of considerable importance in betel- growing districts. Control. ? ALCIDES LEOPARDUS. Ol. . . . leopardus, Olivier, Ent., V, 83, p. 190, t. 22, f. 296. Alcides leopardus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 388, f. 261, c. Fig. ll>7. — Alcides leopardus. The small figure shows the natural (1 ii i| inal.) Distribution- Coimbatore. Saidapet, South Arcot (Palur). Prob- ablj throughout the year. Lifehistory. The beetle gnaws separate chambers in the leaf- stalk and deposits a single pale-yellow egg which seems always to be placed in only the second of the chambers excavated. The whitish grub, on emergence from the egg, bores down into the stalk and stem until lull-grown, when it is nearly an inch long, Stout, pale-white, with a dark head and prothoracic shield ; pupation in a chamber at the lower end of larval gallery. Pupa stout, pale-whitish, of general form of the beetle but with wings, legs and snout adpressed ventrally. Length of lifehistory not known. Foodplant. — Cotton and Hibiscus. COLEOPTERA. 339 Status. -A very-minor pest, the plants being little injure when the larval tunnel extends a long way down the stem. Control ? Remarks. — At Palur the grubs of this beetle had apparently been extracted by a bird which had ripped open the affected twigs. PE.MPHERES AFFINIS, Fst. Pempheres qffinis, Faust, D.E.Z. (1898). 319. Phylaitis sp., Lefroy, Indian tnseel Pests, pp. 103 104, If. 120, 121, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 389, t. 27, ff. 11 -16. <23sa 1. Larva. Pupa, #% v*** nified. 1. Beetle, natural si/,-. Fir,. His. — Pempheres a/finis. (Original.) Distribution. — Only found hitherto in the Coimbatore District all through season when cotton is in the ground. Lifehistory. Eggs are presumably laid in the tissue of the stem at ground-level, where later are found the characteristic gall-like swellings caused by the tunnellings of the whitish grub which forms a spiral burrow within the stem, pupating therein when full- led. Exact length of life-Cycle not yet known ; it is probably quite short -three or four week 1 idult beetles are very active. Foodplants. Cotton (especiallj exotic varieties, such as Cambo- dia and Tree-Cottons) and Gogu (Hibiscus cannabinus). Control. No satisfactory method has yet been found. Natural Enemies. None found hitherto. J2-A 340 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Fig. 199. Cotton plant attacked by Stem Weevil (Pempheres affinis). The 1 1 tions .it various levels show the extent <>t the larval tunnels. " Iriginal,) PLATE XIII- y (^m& CALANDRA ORYZAi. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII CALANDRA ORYZ 1 . i. Eggs laid on and in a whea't-grain x 8. 2. Larva (ceding inside a wheat-grain x S. ;. Larva removed from grain x 16. 4. Pupa in natural position inside gram x 8. 5. Pupa removed from grain, ventral view x 16. 6. Beetle, dorsal view \ r6. 7. ,, lateral view x 16. 8. ., gnawing into a wheat-grain \ 8. 0- ,, inside a wheat-grain x 8. (Th< ow the natural si^cs.) I i >l EOPTERA. 34' CRYPTORHYNCHUS M W< .IFKR.E, Fb. Curculio mangiferte. Fab., Sysl Km.. [39, 66 (1775). Spec. Ins., I. 177 (I78l). Cryptorhynchus mangifera. Lefroy, ind. Ins. Life, p. 389; Marlatt, U.S.A. Ent. Circ No. 141, Figs. (1911). Fig. !00. Cryptorhynchus mangifera beetle and side-view of head. The small figure shows the natural >i/e. (Original.) Distribution. — Bangalore, Coimbatore, Madras- Probably wher- ever mangoes are grown in Southern India. Usually in June and July. Lifehistory. Not fully worked out. Eggs are probably laid in the young fruit into which tin- newly-hatched grub bores, taking up its position inside the embryo mango-stone whose interior it devours. When full-fed, the grub pupates inside the stone and the weevil bores its way out. Length of life-cycle not known ; probabl] ne brood annually, the beetles surviving as adult- until the next mango-season. A specimen <>t the adult beetle was found on o-palm in Chittur in February 1908. Foodplant. Mango (chief!) on sweet varieties). No alternative foodplant is known. Status. Not .1 serious pest as a rule. A small proportion ot fruit is spoiled by the weevils boring out of the fruit on exit from pupa. Control. '. > \l VNDRA ORYZ/B, Linn. (PLATE XIII.) Curculio oryza, Linn.. Amoen. Acad., VI, 395. Calandra oryza, Lefroy, ind. Ins. Lite, p, 390; Fletcher. A.I.'.. ( »( tober I'M 1. Plate. 342 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Distribution. Throughout Southern India, all the year round. Lifehistory. — Eggs laid in grain in which the grub passes its whole existence pupating inside and only emerging as a perfect beetle. About six broods in the year. Foodplant- — Stored grain of nearly all descriptions. Parti- cularly wheat, paddy, et< Oci isionally found in the field on ripe ear-heads. Status. ^A major pest causing great damage and loss. Control. Fumigation of affected grain. Thorough drying of grain before storage and thereafter storing in insect-proof recep- tacles. Parasitized to some extent by a small metallic-green Chalcid. COSMOPOLITES SORDIDUS, Germar. sordidus, Germ. 101. Cosmopolites sordidus, beetle and side-view of head. The small the natural size. (( >rigina I. FLATE XIV. D & RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGINEUS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRUGIN] i - I [G. i. Egg, magnified. 2. „ as laid in a cavity of palm-stem. }. Young larva, magnified. 4. Adult ,, „ 5. Cocoon inside palm-stem. 6. Pupa removed from cocoon. 7. Beetle, magnified. 8. Lateral view of head of male beetle 9. ,, ,, female ,, (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes : COLEOPTERA. 343 Distribution. Malabar, Coimbal ivari, Ganjam. Prob- ably throughout the year. Lifehistory.— The eggs have not been noted but are probably laid in the substance of the root-stock of plantain-plants into which the beetles themselves burrow. The legless, dirty-whitish grub is 'nan half an incb in length, with a reddish-brown head. Usually a number of grubs occur in one root-stock which is tunnel- led throughout. The attack is. as a rule, confined to tl but sometimes extends a little distance up the stem. The grub, when full-grown, part of the tunnel into an oval chamber lined with excreta and pupates therein, the beetle emerging from the pupa after about a week but taking three or four days longer for its integument to harden. Foodplant. Plantain (Musa sapientium). Stains. Usually a pest of minor importance, occasionally and locally doing considerable damage. In cases of slight attack there 1- little indication ni damage, bul where the attack is severe, the central shoot may wither or no fruit be produced. Control. — Care should be taken that all old stumps should be removed ami destroyed when the new suckers are planted and these latter should be examined and not used if found to be infected. RHYNCHOPHORUS FERRIGINEUS, Kb. . . ferrugitieus, Fab., Enc Meth., V, 473. Rhyiiclwplwrus ferrugitieus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 390, ff. 268- 269; Ghosh, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.. Ind.. Vol. II. No. 10. Plate. (See I'i.a ri-. \i\'.i Distribution. -Throughout Southern India, probably throughout the year. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid in the soft parts of palms, particularly where 1 ut l>\ toddj -drawers or injured by Oryctes. The stout whitish grubs mine through the tissues in all directions and, when lull-fed. pupate in a cocoon made of twisted fibres. The complete life-cycle takes about two months, the adult weevils living two or three months more at; nee from thi Foodplants. Palmyra, date and c oconut palms. Status. — A major pest of great importance m all palm-growing disti i' ' Control. All cuts and wounds of palm-tissue should be pro- tected as far as possible by smearing with Tar. The control of the Rhinoceros beetle will directly lead to diminution in numbers of the Palm Weevil also. Badly affected trees should be cut down, split up, and burnt. 344 SOME Si H i ii INDIAN INSECTS ETC. BREN Mill) E. ORYCHODES INDUS, Karsch. Orychodes indus, Karsch. Mitth. Zool. Mus. Dresd., I, 51 (1875). I i... !02. Orychodes nntiis. The small figun ihcra . the natural size. h Distribution. -Nilgiris. Probably throughout Hills of Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known. The beetles are generally found in or on dead trees and the larva.- probably feed on rotten wood. llMD.K (SCOLYTID 1 I t \KDAMOM SC ()\.\ HI). i ardamom Scolytid. ["hi in. ill figun how the natural size. 1 m.il.i Distribution. Coorg. Lifehistory. No1 known. Foodplant. Cardamom. i i )l K( )l' I KKA. 345 Status. — A pest ol verj considerable local importance, from 10 to 30 per cent, of the capsules being bored and destroyed In the beetle. Control. — No definite measures, beyond collection and destruc- tion of attacked capsules, can be recommended pending local investigation of the work. XYLEBORUS FORNICATUS, Eich. (Shot-hole Borer.) Xyleborus fornicatus, Eichhoff, Berl. Km. Zeits. (1868), 151 ; Barlow. I.M.X., IV. 57 58, t. 5, f. 2; Green, Perad. Circ. II. No. 9, tab.; Watt and Mann, Pests of Tea, pp. 174 177.1.4.1.2. 1 Kyleborus fornicatus. (Aftei Indian Museum Nol Distribution. Travancore (Pirmad and High Rat Lifehistory. The beetle bore- in sit-ins ol Ih ing plants and lavs its eggs in the galleries. The larva is about 4 mm. long, legless, fleshy, white. Pupa soft, creamy-white, in the galleries, without cocoon. Only the female beetle is provided with wings and able to fly. Foodplants. Tea, Annatto (Bixa orellana); also occasional!) in Grevillea, Albizzia stipulata and . I. moluccana. Cacao (Theobroma cacao), Guava (Psidium guyava), Cinchona. Eryt/irina, ' and doubtfully in Lantana. (Green.) Status. The Shot-hole Borer. SO called because its galleries resemble the effects caused by firing a charge of small shot into wood, is said nol to be common in Travancore and presumably does little damage. 346 SOME SOUTH 1X1)1 AX INSECTS, ETC. Control, (i) Destruction by fire on the spot of all infected primings. (2) In cases oi recent outbreak in a district, rigid cutting and burning of infested bushes. (3) Good cultivation, by keeping the tea-bushes in a vigorous condition, will help largely to withstand attack. Remarks. I am indebted to Mr. Anstead for information regard- ing the occurrence of this insect in Southern India. DIPTERA. HIPPOBOSCIDjE. HIPPOBOSCA MACULATA, Lch. Hippobosca maculata, Leach, Mem. Wern. N.H. Soc, 11.553- t. 26, it. 11 [3 (1818); Austen. A.M.N.H. (7). XII, 258 (1903); Hewlett. [nd. Ins. Life, p. 656, t. 69, f. 7. Hippobosca siva, Bigot, Ann. S.E. France (1885), 235. Fig. -'U.S. - Hippobosa maculata. The small figure >li««s the natur.il size. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. The eggs hatch inside the mother-fly and the larvae are retained until they are full-grown, when they are extruded and at once pupate, the puparia being small round objects, at first whitish but later on turning dark brown. Status. A pest of cattle, feeding solely on blood. DIPTERA. U7 Control. — These insects can only be checked in the adult and deterrents arc therefore indii ated. HIPPOBi »S< \ i IPENSIS, i ■! Hippobosca capensis, Olfers, De Veget. et Anim. Corp.. pars I, p. 101 (1816). Hippobosca francilloni, Leach, Mini. Wern. X.I1. Sue. II. 554, t. 26, ff. 8—10 (1818); Austen, A.M.N.H. (71. XII. 256(1903). Hippobosca capensis. The small figure shows the natural size, inal.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Quite similar to that of Hippobosca maculata. Host. Dog. Status. -Common on dogs and doubtless transmits disease. Control. Deterrents such as Crude Oil Emulsion. Remarks. This species was first described by Leach, whose paper was read before the Werncrian Natural History on 10th April 1810 but, owing to delay in the publication of Leach's paper, ( lifers' name for this insect has priority of publication. CESTR1D/L. OESTRUS OVIS, Linn. (Estrus ovis, Linn., Faun. Suec. (1734); Osborn, l ,S.A. Km. Hull. No. 5. pp. 102 105, f. 48; Howlett, Ind. [ns. Lite. p. 654, f(. 428-429, t. 69, f. 6. Distribution. — Coimbatore, Madras. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory iind Food. — Eggs or living maggots (the latter almost always) are deposited by the female fly in the nostrils of th< and goat. The larvae at once begin to work their wa\ upwards. causing great irritation, until they effeel .1 lodgment in the frontal sinus v, mselves by the hooks present on either 34« SOME SOUTH IMM \\ I\SK( l S. K l< . I Fig. 2(i7. Gistrus ovis. Female fly (magnified), Larva (natural size), and IK (natural sizi i mtline figure). (< h iginal. I side ol the head and feed on the mucus. At this stage the larva is creamy-white with two brown spots (spiracles) on the last segment. When full-fed it makes it- waj down the nasal passages of its host and drops to the ground where it quickly buries itself and changes inside a smooth, hard, blackish, oval puparium. Pupal period about a fortnight. Status. A serious pest of sheep. Goats seem little affected. ( initial. Preventive measures seem little practised in India where infestation by this ll\ is apparently accepted as normal. Frequent dressing of the sheeps' noses with tar, or a mixture of Tar and (rude Oil Emulsion, may be tried to keep the llies from ovipositing. A leather dipped in turpentine, run up the nostril and quickly turned, is sometimes used to dislodge the grubs but in most eases it is impossible to reach them all. Valuable animals may be trephined but this requires skilled veterinary assistance. All grubs and puparia found in sheep-pens should of course be destroyed. Ml'SClD.-E. PYCNOSOM A II WUKPS. Macq. Lucilia flaviceps, Macq., Dipt. Exot, II, 3, 145. t. 18. f. 1 (1842). Pycnosoma flaviceps, 1 [owlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 643, t. 69. f. 2 ( [QOQ). Lucilia dux, Esch. ; van der Wulp, Cat. Dipt. S. Asia. p. 148 (1896). DIPTIiKA. 349 08. Pycnosonia flaviceps. The small figure shows the natural size. nial.l Distribution. South Kanara, Malabar. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. The grubs feed in rotting organic matter, such as putrefying fish, pupating in the soil when full-fed. The adult flies have brilliant green bodies and red heads and are attracted to animal excrement, decaying organic matter, todd) . et( . Status. Has proved a serious pest of Toddy in South Kanara. sucking all the juice exuding from the palm-spathes, fouling the pots, spathes and juice with excrementitious matter, and swarming around the vessels in the Toddy-shops. Control. The Hit's may be kept away by tying a cloth sleeve between the palni-spathe and collecting-pot (see also Leaflet No. IV of 1913 issued by the Department of Agriculture. Madras, and Fig. 72 on page 159). MUS< \ NEBULO, Kb. I I'lit Indian Houst -fly.) Musca 11, hula, Fabr., Ent. Syst, IV. 321 ( 17041 Musca domestica, Howlett, lnd. Ins. Life, p. (144 [nee Linn.). Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. Eggs are laid on decaying animal or vi ge- table matter, chiefly in night soil and in refuse around slaughter- houses, etc., on which the whitish maggots feed on hatchii pupating in the soil when full-grown. The length of the life-cycle varies with temperature but is probably about 10 days in the Plains. Status. This pest and its allies deserve to be bracketed with the Rat-flea and Anopheline Mosquitos amongst the mosl common causes ot ill-health amongst the inhabitants ol India. Bred 350 MiME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Fig. 209. — Musca nebulo. The small figure shows the natural size. i iriginal.) amongst filth the adult fly is equallj at home on excrementitious matter and on food intended for human consumption and carries on to the latter various disease-germs derived from its frequenting unclean situations. Enteric Fever, Cholera and Intestinal Worms are amongst the more important of the evils carried onto food by the House-fly. Control. — (i) The most important means of control is proper sanitation in the neighbourhood of all dwellings. This includes proper disposal of all refuse-food, stable-manure, and excrementi- tious matter of every kind. (2) Killing the flies by traps, fly-papers, etc. (3) Screening of all food, bungalows, kitchens, etc. Remarks. (l) The House-flies of India include several distinct species which may or may not be identical with Musca nebulo. The lifehistory and habits of all, however, are likely to be practically identical and all may be looked on as noxious pests of the worst description. (2) I am indebted to Captain Patton, I.M.S., for information regarding the identification of Mused nebulo, which is apparently the common House-fly of Southern India. MUSCA PATTON I, A list. Musca pattoni, Austen, A.M.N.H. (8). V, 114 117 (Jan. 1910); Patton and Cragg, Ind. Jl. Med. Re-.. 1. 17 [8, t. 2 (Aug. 1913). Distribution.- Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. -Eggs are laid in piles of cowdung, rarely in isolated patches, the eggs being laid singly, bin frequently by large numbers of flies in the same place. The larva is of the shape shown in the figure and about 10 mm. in length. The dirty greyish-white puparium, about 7 mm. long, is found in the clung. 35i Fig. 210. — Musca pattoni. 1, Larva; 2, Pupa; 3, Imago (Fly). The small figures show the natural sizes. (After Patton and I Food. — The blood and serous discharges oi cattle and horses. Status. Not definitely known to be a pest but quite likely to prove one on account of its feeding habits, whereby it may carry pathogenic organisms from one animal to another. Control. Treatment of cowdung with oily sprays or keeping in suitable receptacles. Remarks. This species is cited here as an example of the group of non-biting but bloodsucking (haematophagous) species of the genus Musca, which also includes .1/. gibsoni (? recte gibsona), Patton and Cragg, .1/. convexifrotis, Th.. and .1/. bezzii, P. and C. These tlics are not themselves provided with biting mouth-parts and are therefore unable to pierce the skin of animals to obtain blood, but they rely on other biting (lies to draw blood and there- upon endeavour to thrust their proboscides into the wound to obtain the exuding blood, often positively worrying and driving away the true biter. It is probable that this and other Hies of tin may prove to be important agents in tin- conveyance of disi domestil animals. 352 <>n SOUTH INDIAN [NSE< Is. ETC. I'HIL.K.MATOMYIA [NSIGNIS, Atlst. Phikematomyia insignis, Austen, A.. M.X.I I. (S), III, 298 299 (March 1909); Howlett, [rid. Ins. Life, p. 646; Cragg, Sci. Mem. Govt. Ind., No. 54(1912); Pattern and Cragg. Ann. Trop. Med.. V, 515 520, Figs. (Feb. 1912). I 1 , 211. Philcematoinyia insignis. 1, Egg; 2, Larva; i. Pupa; 4, Fly ; 5, Side-view of head of Fly with proboscis extended. The small figures show tlif natural sizes. (1 - 3 after Patton and Cragg : I. 5 original.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. The eggs, which are of relatively enormous size, long, cylindrical, round-pointed at the ends, curved, are laid in a large mass in fresh cowdung, in which the larvae feed. Status. I me (il the commonest insects found sucking the blood wl cattle. Doubtless capable of carrying disease. Control. No suggestions can be made, other than application oi deterrents and collection and sterilization of cowdung. Remarks. In size, colour and general appearance, this fly is almost exactly similar to .1 1 [ouse-fl) but microscopical examination OIPTERA. 353 shows thai the tip of the proboscis is surrounded by ;i ring of stout black chitinous teeth. Natural Enemies. — Oxybelus squamosus (see page 280). STOMOXYS CALCITRAXS, Linn. Conops calcitrans, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, 604 (1758). Stomoxys, Geoffroy, Ins., II, 539, t. 18, 1". 2. Stomoxys calcitrans, Bezzi, Arch. « U- Parasit, XV, 138 (Oct. 191 1) |S\ nonymy ami Distribution] ; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 646, t. 69, f. 3; Brain, Ann. Ent. Soc. Am.. V, 421— 430, t. 33, 34, I.e. VI, 197—201, t. 22. I'k,. 212. — Stomoxys calcitrans. 1. Egg : -'. Lai ■. 1 ly : -">■ Side-view ol Head ol I ly. The small figures show tin natural sizes. (Original.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. Eggs are usually laid on horse-dung, damp straw, etc., in dam)) places in whirhjhe larvae live. The larvae are 23 354 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. superficially similar to those of the House fly. Life-cycle about 3 weeks, probably less in warm weather. Status.— A. blood-thirsty anil annoying pest of domestic animals, often attacking man also. Undoubtedly carries disease. Control. — This must be based on sanitary disposal of horse-dung ami other stable-refuse. Remarks, (i) The flies, of which there are several very similar species, are very similar in general appearance to House-flics, but at once recognisable by the long, slender, chitinous proboscis. (2) Little is known at present of the lifehistories of this and other Indian Muscid Flies and the descriptions here given must be taken as merely indicative of a very few examples from the large number ol Muscid Flies noxious to man and animals in India. TRYPAXEID/E. DACUS CUCURBITS, Coq. Dacus cucurbita, Coquillet, Ent. News (1899), 120. 130 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept, Ind., I. 22S ; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, f. 4 iS ; Froggatt, Fruit Flies, pp. 84 85, t. 2., it. 6, ;. Bactrocera cucurbita, Bezzi, Mem. Ind. Mus., Ill, q6 97. t. 8, I. 7 (I9I3)- (See Plate XVI.) Distribution.- Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid on melons, etc., being thrust just under the skin by the ovipositor of the female fly. The white grubs on hatching burrow into the fruit, tunnelling in it and completely spoiling it. When full-grown they emerge and pupate in the soil. The total life-cycle occupies about 15 days. Poodplants. Fruits of Cucurbitaceae (Melons, Pumpkins, Cucum- bers, et< .)• Status. A serious pesl of cucurbits. Control. -(I) Prompt destruction of all attacked fruits by boiling, burning or burying them deeply underground. It is not of the slightest use to throw the fruit down on the ground as the maggots will emerge in due course as Hies which will attack other fruits. (2) Protection of fruit in small areas by netting, etc. Remarks. — This Fruit-fly is given here as a typical example of it- class. At least a dozen different species incur and some of them attack Mangoes, Oranges, Peaches, Guavas, Almonds, etc., the general lifehistory, habits and appearance being the same in all. This group "l flies badly requires to be worked out and the species properly differentiated. In some the flies may be attracted by EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. DACUS CUCURBITS. Fig. i. .Maggots in fruit, nature 2. A single larva, enlarged. „ 3, 4, ■;• Pupa, enlarged, with details of extremities. ,. 6. Adult fly, greatly enlarged. FLATE XVI. ■ V ••, > -° , \ m DACUS CUCURBITS. 355 traps containing oils such as Citronella and Kerosine, but iliis method of control can only be applied to particular species of flies. micro pezid..-:. CAD »i: \ I A Sp. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The maggots have been found boring into Turmeric rhizomes. Pupation in the larval galleries. Foodplants. — Turmeric, ( rin- ger. Status. — Doubtful as a pest. The larvae have only been found I. Calobata sp. Tin- small in rotting rhizomes and may the natural size. merely act as scavengers. ■mal.i CHLOROPID/E. SIPHOXELLA FUNICOLA, de Meij. (The Eye-fly. i Siphonella funicola, de Meijere, Notes Leyden Mus.. XX\ ' \. —Siphonella funicola. The small figu inal.) ten, :\n accoon published by the Indian Museum, b Indian Kruit-llies. *3'A 356 SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Through out Southern India. Lifehistory. — Not known. Food. — Not known. The larva is suspected of feeding on decay- ing \ egetable matter. Status. — An annoying pest which undoubtedly may convey diseases of the ej e. Control. — The flies may sometimes be attracted in large numbers to a piece of vertically-hanging rough string or tape and may then be killed off in quantity by burning with a torch at night. AGROMYZID/E. CHOLAM FLY. Fig. _'I5. — Cholnni Fly. 1, Attacked Cholam planl cul open to show larva and pupa of natural si/c : _'. Larva; .i. Pupa; 4, Fly. The small figures show the natural sizes, it Original.) DIPTERA. 357 Distribution. —Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The larva bores in tin i. — Ri d-i is a Red-gram pod cut open to show rust into it, (Original.) Distribution.— Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory— -Eggs are thrust through the tender shell of a young pn.l ot Cajanus indicus, the grub on hatching feeding on the pupating inside the pod. Iplant. — Red-Gram (Cajanus indicus). St,itus. — A minor pest as a rule. ( niitrol. — ? Remarks.— This i- probably the same as the species called the "Turpod Agromyza " by Howletl (Ind. Ins. Life. p. fi22). 358 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. COW-PEA AGROMYZA. i romyza. The small figure shows the natural >i/i (Original.) Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Tinnevelly. Lifehistory. — The larva; bore into the stem, a number being found in the same plant, plants thus attacked wilting. Pupa in larval burrow. Foodplants. Cow-Pea (Vigna catjang). Lab-lab (Dolichos lab-lab), Green-gram (Phaseolus mungo). Status.— A serious pest of young plants. Control- — ? SYRPHID/E. syrphus spp. (Plate XV.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The eggs are laid singly on plants attacked by Aphids, on which the larva,- feed. The larva are variable in colour, usually greenish, sometimes with red markings; they teed on Aphids which they seek out and devour greedily. Pupation usually on a leaf, in a sort of cocoon formed by the cast larval skin. The flies themselves have often a wasp-like pattern of markings anil fly very rapidly or hover in the air. Status. Extremely beneficial as a natural control of Aphitls. TABANID.L. I \l; \\l S STRIATUS, Fb. Tabanus striatus, Fab., Em. Syst., IV. 371 ( 1 7^4> : van der Wulp, Cat. Dipt. S. Asia, p. 58 (1896); Kertesz, Cat. Dipt.. Ill, 281 (1908); Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life. t. 42. f. 2; Mit/main. Philippine Jl. Sci. VIII-B, 107 218, tabs. (June H;i3), /.<'. 223 -229- EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. <\ RPHID PLY. , i. Egg, magnified. 2. Young larva x 45. 3. Full-grown larva x 8. 4. Pupa on leaf x 6. 5. Adult fly, \ 4. 6. Wheat Plant. 7. Egg laid amongst colons of Aphid-.. 8. 9. Larva: feeding on Aphids. io. Pupa on plant. ti'i^s. 7 10 arc slightly larger than life-size. PLATE XV. :""'','W^^^ SYRPHID FLY. DIPTERA. 359 Fig. 218.- Taban i«s striat us, female, rhi mall figuri i natural (Original.) Fig. 219. — Fggmass of Tabanus striatus on pad .nl. i Distribution. — Throughout Southern [ndia. Lifehistory e laid in .i large mass, usuall} on .i I twig overhanging water into which the young larvae di 36o SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. emergen* e, then< eforward leading an aquatic life burrowing in the mud at the water's-edge and feeding on worms or living or dead in- sects. The full-grown larva is 40 — 50 mm. long, dull whitish, elong- ate-, tapering at each end with protuberances at the edges of the segments. When full-fed it leaves the damp mud at the water's-edge and after a quiescent period pupates in the earth above water-level. Status.- The flies themselves are a pest of cattle and doubtless carry disease. According to Mitzmain's experiments in the Philip- pines this fly can transmit Surra directly and mechanically. Control. — (1) Deterrents applied to cattle. (2) Screening of breeding-places where practicable. (3) Removal of egg-masses when found to situations where the larvae on hatching will not be able to find water whilst any parasites will escape. PANGON1A Sp. I i'.. 220. Pangotiia sp., female. The smaller figure shows the natural size. 1 in the right i^ ;l side-view oi the he; il showing the mouth-parts separated 1 iiii. I'hc proboscis itself is naturally straight, k triginal. I Distribution. — Mostly in the Hills between about 2,000 and 4,000 feet. I. ili history. Not known. Probablj similar to that of Tabanus. St,itus. The male Hies seem to feci I largely on flowers but the females are persistent blood-suckers of man and other animals and maj serve as carriers of disease. DIPTERA. 361 ( ontrol.—i Observation. It is usuallj stated that these flies suck blood whi n hovering on the wing ; but this is not the case, at least as regards the species figured here. The Hies hover with their long probos- 1 ides thrust out and probably search for a suitable place with their labella ; this found, the By settles and thrusts the tip of the pro- boscis against the skin of the animal attaeked, pressing firmly forward so that the proboscis is bent arcuately, when the mandibles are brought into contacl with the skin and thrust in and the blood sucked. Tin' proboscis itself takes no part in the sucking of the ns impossible that these flies should suck blood whilst hovering. I ig. 221.— Culex fatigam inon Indian Mosquito figure shows the natural size l'.m culicid^;. MOSQUITOS. It is impossible to give here any but a general account of the various mos- quitos found in Southern India. The eggs are laid singly or in masses forming little rafts which float on the surface of the water. The larva.- and pupae of all species are aquatic and control should therefore aim .a elimination of breeding- places in the vicinity of dwellings. Open wells and eisterns should be screened and fitted with a pump where practicable and empty tins, broken bottles, coconut husks, etc.. which may catch rain, should not be allowed i very com- (After to lie about the compound. Jars ot water under legs of tables, etc.. should be treated with kerosine oil regularly and all bodies of open water near dwellings should be treated regularly with some larvicide or a supply of a small fish kept in them. An invasion of mosquitOS in the house may sometimes be traced to flower-vases, fowls' or dogs' water pans, etc., and all such be emptied and refilled daily. 362 SOME SOI 111 INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Besides the actual annoyance caused by the mosquitos to man .mil other animals, they arc extremely common carriers of disease. Malaria is carried solel) by various species of Anophclinc mosquitos and other diseases may be carried by Culicines. For characteristic differences in resting-attitudes of these mosquitos, see figures 78 and 79. Anophelines are usually long and slender. blackish in colour, with spotted wings. Control should aim al prevention rather than remedy and this ma) be obtained by rendering water unsuitable for the breeding of mosquitos, by methods such as screening, the use of larvicides, fish, draining, etc. Screening of houses and beds by fine netting and use of repellents are also indicated. The treatment of diseases carried by mosquitos cannot be dealt with here. PSYCHODID^;. PHLEBOTOMUS MINUTUS, Rond. Phlebotomus minutus, Rondani, Ann. S.E. France (2), I. 263 (1843) ; Annandale, Spol. Zeyl., VII, 203; Newstead, Hull. Ent. Res.. II. 62. 69-70, figs. Phlebotomus babu, Annand., Rec. bid. Mus., IV. 4<) 50, t. 4. f. 1. t. 6, ff. 3- 3a- i [G '. - Phlebotomus minutus. l,Egg; 2, Larva; 3, Pupa; 4, Fly. All the i msiderably magnified, their natural sizes being indicated by tin smallei figures inside the dotted lines. (After Howlett.) Distribu Hon . — Trava ncore ; Coimbatore. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The eggs are laid singly or in small clusters in damp places. The verj minute larva.' live in damp places (e.g., 363 under heaps of bricks) and are covered with toothed spines and have long anal bristles. Total life-cycle about a month. The flies have been found at Coimbatore hiding during the day-time in the open galleries of Termites' nests and Gerbilles' burrows ; possibly the larvae also live in these galleries, feeding on decaying vege- table matter u hich falls in. Status. — This is one of the commonest species of " Sand-fly." a persistent blood-sucker, ami suspected to convey "Sand-fly Fever." It feeds naturally on the blood of geckos, i hamaeleons, toads, etc. Control. — (i) Cleanliness around houses and avoidance of the creation of damp patches Of earth in which the Hies may breed. (2) The Hies are attracted to light at night and may be killed in numbers settled on the wall around a lamp. (3) During the day-time the flies hide in dark corners, behind pictures, etc. Advantage may be taken of this habit to rout them out and kill them. (4) Protection from bites by use oi a deterrent. cecidomviaut;. ( I (NTARINIA SP. Ik.. 11:>. — Coiitarinia .-p. Ma 1 itfa their nae shown more highly magnified. The small figures inside the Distribution. Coimbati 3&4 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Lifehistory. -Not known in detail. Eggs art- deposited in or on cotton-buds into which the larvae bore, causing the buds to wither and fail to expand. Pupation in the withered bud. Foodplants. Cotton. Stiitus. — A minor pest, probably more widely distributed than has yet been noted. Control. — Collection and destruction of all withered buds is indicated but is hardly practicable on a field scale. Remarks. This insect, in general appearance anil habits, seems to resemble very closely C. gOSSypii, described from the West Indies. It is, however, apparently distinct. GIXGELLY GALL-FLY. lie. 224.— Gingelly Gall-fly, ii. ii in.il size and ma (< iriginal.l i !25. — Gingelly Capsules damaged by Gall-fly. T)i. isc nearer the tip of the stem are normal. (Original.) Distribution. Coimbatore. Lifehistory. -Eggs arc laid in flowers or young capsules of gingellj (Sesamum indicum) the small white grubs feeding in the young capsules and stunting their growth so that they become wrinkled withered galls, as shown in the lower part of the figure. When full-grown the larva pupates in the gall. Foodplants. — Gingelly. Status- A minor pest. Control.- ? Observation.- This insect is almost certainly an undescribed novelty. >NAPTERA. 365 SIPHONAPTERA. SARCOPSVLI.il ).l. . ECHIDNOPH.U.A GALLINACEUS, Westw. barcopsyllus gallinaceus, Westw., E.M.M., XI, 246(1875). Echidnophaga gallinaceus, .lord, and Roths., in Thomp. Yab Johnst. Lab. Rept., VII, p. 52, ft'. 1, 14. 21, 27 (1906) ; Nov. Zool., XX. 528; Osborn, U.S.A. Km. Bull. 5- PP- '44 U*'. "• 7"- 77 (Sarcopsylla). Fig. 226. — Echidnophaga gallinaceus. The small figure inside the dotted circle shows the natural size. (Original.) Distribution. — Hill and sub-montane districts of Southern India ; Coimbatore. Lifehistory. — Not known in detail in Southern India. The eggs are probably dropped in dusty, dry plates in which poultry are kept, the minute, wriggling, worm-like, hairless larva.1 living in the dust on small particles of organic matter. Pupa in a slight cocoon composed of grains of sand. The adults attach themselves firmly, after the manner of ticks, to their hosts, usually on the bare portions around (and especially under) the beak in the case of young chickens. I have not found the adult females of this flea encysted or buried in the skin, as described by some writers. Fond. The blood ot fowls as a rule : occasionally on dogs, cattle and man. especially on young animals. Status. Ma\ be a serious pest of young fowls, attacking also any other animals in the vicinity of the poultry run. Control.— Brushing the affected part- with crude- oil emulsion or sweet oil : the latter is better lor fowls. Thorough washing out 366 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. of the fowl-house and run with disinfectants, recollecting that damp localities arc unsuitable for these fleas to breed in. PULICID/E. XENOPSYLLA CHEOPIS. Roth. Pulex cheopis, Rothschild, E.M.M. (1903). 85 86. t. 1, ff. 3. 9; Howlett, !nd. Ins. Life, p. 658, t. 71, t. a; Reports on Plague in India, I, pt. I, pp. 240 — 250, t. It) 12, pt. 2. pp. 48(3 509. l'n.. 111. — Xenopsylla cheopis, female, The small figure inside thi .■I.!, shows the natural size. (From Reporl >n P in India.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The white, round eggs are about as large as a small pins-head and are laid on the ground as a rule. Alter about two days the larva? hatch out and live amongst and on animal or vegetable refuse ; the larva is an elongate, bristly, minute, white grub, rarely seen as it shuns the light. Puliation takes place in a small cocoon of silk covered with particles of dust. etc. Life-cycle, egg about 2 days, larva about 7 days, pupa about 7 days. Hosts. — Rats of all sorts as a rule, occasionally on cats and on man. Status. A most serious pest as being the carrier of Plague bacilli from rats to man. Control. — (1) Destruction of rats. (2) Cleanliness in houses. (3) Exposure of infested clothing to bright sunshine on a broad Hat surface. CTENOCEPHALUS EELIS, Bouche. Pulex felis, Bouche, Nova Acta Ac Leop. Carol.. XVII. 505 (1835); Rothschild. Nov. Zool., XII, 192 (1905) and Ent. Rec, XIII. 126, t. 3 [differences between felis and canis]. LEPIDOPTERA. 367 Pulex serraticep ■ rv., Hist. Nat. Ins. Apt., III. 371 (1844 ; Osborn, U.S.A. Em. Bull. No. 5. pp. [50 152, f. 83. Pulex felis (part). Reports on Plague in India, I, 495 — 498. Distribution. Throughout Southern I Lifehistory. Similar to that of X. cheopis. Host. Normally the cat, tiger, panther, etc. But, in spite of its name, this is the common flea of dogs in Madras, Ct. amis being found only on jackals as a rule. It sometimes attacks man and occasionally the horse. :'"'•• Control. — As for X. cheopis. Dogs may be cleared 0! fleas by rubbing in crude oil i Ctenocep . . . . .. . . halusl I emulsion and washing it ofl alter 24 ho,,,-. Remarks. (1) This flea is often confused with Ct. canis (the Dog Flea of Europe), but is distinct. (2) It is impossible to give here any complete list even of the commoner fleas. The differences between them are minute and only to be seen by microscopical examination. Pulex irritans, the true human flea, seems to be rather scarce in India as a rule. LEPIDOPTERA. ARCTIAD/E. \s! R \ CONFERTA, Wlk. Pitane conferta, Wlk.. Cat. 11. 533 (1854). Astir, 1 conferta, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, inside the (lotted cii cle shows the natural size. i( Original.) 11, 106. f. 72. Cat. Phal.. II, 42S. t. 340; Lefroy, Ind, Ins. Life, p. 43;. ■'.- -. isnra conferta, moth and larva, the natural Distribution. Throughout the sub-montane districts of Southern India. 368 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Lifehistory. Larva short, stout in middle, brownish-black. thickly covered with tufts of black hair; orange marks on first, seventh and last segments from head and an orange line on back from seventh to last segments. Cocoon slight, with Larva] hairs interwoven. Foodplants. — Moss and lichens and perhaps also low-growing plants. Status. — The larva is not known to do damage to crops but is in itself a peculiarly noxious pest owing to the large numbers in which it often occurs in houses and the irritating nature of its hairs. It is one of the various insects known as " Kumbli-puchi." Control. — ? ESTIGMENE LACTINEA, Cram. Bombyx lactinea, Cramer, Pap. Exot., II, t. 133. D. (1777). Amsacta lactinea, Hmpsn., Faun. hid. Moths, II, 27-28, f. 9, Cat. Phal., HI, 328-329, f. 147 ; Lefroy. bid. Ins. Life. p. 438, ff. 302, 303. 1 [1 230. — Estigmene lactinea, larva and moth. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory.- Larva black with long blackish or red-brown hairs arising from warts set in a ring around the middle of each segment, head blackish or red-brown ; active in habit. Pupa s<|uat. dark-red- brown, in a cell underground. Foodplants- Cumbu, ragi, coffee, horse-gram, and various low- growing plants. Status. Locally a serious pesl <>t cumbu. Control. Hand-picking of caterpillars in small areas and pro- tection of crops by a narrow trench around cultivated areas. PLATE XVII AMSACTA ALBISTRIGA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII. AM -AC I A ALBISTRIGA. Fig. i, 2. Larvae. „ 3. Pupa. „ 4, 5. Moth. (All thesi- figures are life-size. LEPIDOPTERA. 369 AMSAI I \ \l BIS! RIG \. Wlk. (KUMBLIH1 Aloa albistriga, Wlk.. Cat. \WI. 303 (1864). Amsai ta albistriga, Hampson, Faun. [nd. Moths, II. 28, Cat. Phal., HI. 330 331, t. 46. f. 19; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lit.-, p. 438, ff. 299 300 ; Coleman, Mysore Ent. Bull. No. 3 (1912). (See Plate XVI U Distribution. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India, mostly in dry tracts oi red sod (not noted from Malabar Coast or extreme North oi Madras Presidency). Lifehistory. Larva blackish-brown covered with long blackish hairs, head reddish or orange, with .1 narrow orange stripe down the back, central third of body often orange-brown ; very active in its movements. Pupa squat, red-brown, in the soil. Foodplams. Cholam, cumbu, groundnut, pulses, castor, etc. ; on alniOSl all low-growing plants and crops. Status. A very serious pest in some localities especially in South Arcot and Salem. Control. The moths emerge early in the evening after the early monsoon showers and are sluggish and conspicuous and easily collected by hand, thus preventing eggs being laid to give rise to caterpillars later on. It is difficult to check the caterpillars as they feed on various weeds and are not confined to crops. Narrow trenches may be dug around the cultivated fields and fresh leaves placed in them daily to trap the caterpillars which must be killed and removed regularly. Prevention (by catching the moths by hand or by light-traps) is the best remedy. NOTE. Amsacta moorei is very similar in appearance and habits and hybids between the two species probably occur, as cross- pairings are not in! requent. ' ( R] \ I 1 IN( mi s g \ .Ms. 1. inn. Phalana gangis, Linn., Amoen., Acad.. VI, 410 (1704); Hmpsn., Cat., Phal., 111. 333 334 I I efroj . Ind. Ins. Lite. p. 438. atonotus interruptus, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths. II. 26 2;. ^ W I 'i Crcatonotus gangis. (Original. Distribution. —Throughout Southern India. - 1 370 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Lifehistory. " Larva black, sparsely clothed with long hair ; head marked with white; a yellow dorsal stripe with series of orange spots on it ; prolegs pale " (Hampson); pupates in soil. Foodplants — Coffee, groundnut, lucerne and other low-growing plant-. Stdtus. — Not noted as a pest. PERICALLIA RICINI, I-b. Pt ricallia ricitii, moth and lar i LEP1DOPTERA. 371 Bombyx ricini, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 583 (1775). PericaUia iricini, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths. II, 17-1S, Cat. Phal., Ill, 350-351. 1". 155 ; Lefroy, [nd. [ns. Life. p. 438. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Larva dark-brown or blackish, thickly covered with tine long reddish-brown hairs which arise from bluish warts, head reddish or blackish; rather variable in colour; active in habits. Pupa squat, red-brown, enclosed in a rather flimsy white cocoon affixed to objects above ground-level. Foodplants. -Castor, plantain, pumpkin, gingelly, cotton, agathi, Calotropis, Moringa, oleander, colocasia and various other plants and shrubs. Status. —A serious pest of garden crops. Control. — Hand-picking and spraying. UTETHEISA PULCHELLA, Linn. Tinea pukhella, Linn., Syst. Nat. (X), p. 534 '1758). Utetheisa pulchella, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths. II, 55, Cat. Phal.. Ill, 483—485 fpartim), f. 217; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pest>, p. 148, ft'. 166—168, [nd. Ins. Life. p. 438. Fig. 2ii. — Utetheisa pulchella, larva and moth. The smaller figures indicate the natural sizes. (Ori Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs laid singly or in small batches on leave- of the foodplant. Larva when full-grown about 20 mm. long, rather stout, with an irregular pale creamy-yellow line down the bat k, bordered on either side by a blackish stripe, below which is ,t - of reddish-orange blotches margined beneath with pale- yellow longitudinal spots. A few scattered blackish hairs, longer at either extremity of tin- larva, arise singly from small warts on tin' back and Mde^. Pupation in a rather flimsy cccoon. usually in 2 4- A 372 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. folded leaves, sometimes on the surface of the ground. Life-cyc!e about four weeks. Foodplants- Sann-hemp, Heliotropium and various low-growing weeds. Status. — A serious pest of sann-hemp. Control.- Hand-picking of larvae and spraying in small areas. Remarks. I be i losely-allied U. pulchelloides will probably be found to occur all round the coasts of Southern India. The larva feeds on Tournefortia argentea and is not known to be a pest. AGARIS 111 ).!•;. .KGOCERA VENULIA, Cr. Not litii venulia, Cramer, Pap. Exot.. II, t. 165 D (1777). Mgocera venulia, Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths.. II, 158, Cat. Pha III, 597. f. 261 ; Lefroy, End. Ins. Life. p. 440, t. 34 f. 5. I i .. 234. dBgocera venulia, larva and moth. The smaller outline fi indicate tin- 1 Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is about 45 mm. long> rather stout, especially posteriorly ; the head is reddish-orange, heavilj spotted with black ; the body is smooth except for a few short scattered hairs arising from the warts, pale earthy-brown with numerous scattered short transverse black streaks, irregular both in shape and position but which tend to form black bars the dorsal surface on the anterior half of each segment, on which the dorsal tubercles an- broadly ringed with black ; spira- cle- black, with a supraspiracular tubercle heavily ringed with black and a smaller and less conspicuous postspiracular wai 1 ; on LEPIDi IP1 i 373 the segments behind those bearing prolegs the warts arc ringed with reddish-orange instead of black: legs orange-brown, prolegs pale-brownish. (Description from a preserved specimen kindly supplied by Dr. L. C. Coleman.) /■I'm iplants. — Trianthema, Baerhavia. Status- — Nol a pest. Remarks. Fairly common at light. The moth is sometimes seen flying extremely swiftly backwards and forwards over the ground in the evening. \< )(! I ID.E. < Ill.uKlDEA OBSOLETA. Fb. Not tit, i obsoleta, Fab., Ent. Syst., III. i. p. 456 (1793). Chloridea armigera, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind.. Moths. 11, 174 17,, f. n-t, Cat. Phal., IV, 45 46, f. 18; Lefroy, Ind. [ns. Pests, pp. 144 [47, ff. 161 — 164. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 414, f. 305, t. 28. ff. 2, 3 fas obsoleta]. Heliothis obsoleta, Quaintance and Brues, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. No. 50 (1905). 235. — Chloridea obsoleta, moth and pupa. (From Indian Mu Noti Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs are laid singly on leaves or pods, accord- ing to the foodplant. The full-grown larva is about 35 mm. long, rather slender, with scattered short hairs; colour variable, usually pale apple-green with whitish longitudinal lines and with a darker shade along the side narrowly edged below with whitish; the whole body (except darker side-stripe) sometimes tinged with pinkish, in which case the head may be- yellowish instead of the usual green. Pupa brown, usually in .1 slight cocoon in the soil. When feeding on fruits or seed-pods, the caterpillar bites a hole through the outside and only thrusts its head inside, leaving the body Foodplants. — Red-gram, Bengal undnut, tomato, maize (cob), tobacco (seed capsul nnabis sativa) (leaves and capsules), linseed (capsule-), safllower (capsules), lab-lab (po ami many other low-growing plants. 374 SOME S( i' 111 INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Status. — An important pest, especially of gram. Control. — Hand-picking is the only remedy that ran be adopted as a rule. Usually spraying is useless because the caterpillars teed chiefly on the seeds and do not therefore ingest sufficient of a poison-spray spread over the outside of the capsule. Remarks, (i) The larva; are highly cannibalistic and will readily eat not only one another, but other caterpillars. (2) A Pentatomid bug, Andrallus spinidens (see page 475) was found sucking the larva on linseed at Coimbatore in February 1907. (3) As Meyrick points out [Trans. New Zealand Inst., XLIV, 90 (1911)] the generic name Heliothis may legitimately be retained by those who prefer it, as the differences between Chloridea and Heliothis are so small as to be negligible in practice. CHLORIDEA ASSULTA, (men. Heliothis assulta, Guenee, Noct., 11, 178 (1852). Chloridea assulta, Hmpsn., 111. I let.. IX, 92, t. 176. f- 22, B.J., XV. 602, Cat. Phal., IV, 47, t. 55, f. 22; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 4 1 4- I ic 236. Chloridea assulta. The small outline figure shows the natural Ori inal.) Distribution. — Coimbatore. Probably throughout all tobacco- growing tracts. Lifehistory. — Not worked out in detail. Stages probably very similar to those of Chi. obsoleta. Larva figured by Hampson (111. Het.l. Foodplant.- Tobacco. Hampson gives Physalis peruviana. Status. -Not yet noted as a pest in Southern India but it may do considerable damage to tobacco. LEPIDOIMEKA. 375 :? EUXOA SEGETIS, Schiff. Noctua segetum, Schiff., Wien. Verz., pp. 8l, 2?2. it. 3 ... b (1776). Euxo H I iun. [nd. Moths, II, p. 181. f. 117, Cat. Phal., IV. [67, t. 59; Lefroy, Em. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., II, 167. Distribution. ■ Sub-montane and Hill Districts of Southern India. Lifehistory. The larva is pale greyish, sometimes with a pinkish tinge, with interrupted darker lines down the hack and sides ; the body is smooth and greasy-looking. It feeds at roots of various plants, apparently not coming above the surface, or only rutting off plants just above soil level. Iplants. Potato, cabbage, cof- nd various plants of the kitchen and flower garden. Status.- A serious pest in gardens in the N'ilgiris and Shevaroys. It has also been recorded as doing serious damage by ringing young coffee- plants in M> -ore. Control. — ? Euxoa segetii male moth and larva, inal.) POLYTELA GLORIOS.E. Kb. Bombyx gloriosa, Fab., Spec. Ins.. 11, p. 205117s Polytela gloriosa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II. [68 169. f. 108, Cat. Phal.. V, 457, f. J30; Lefroy. Ind. In-. Life, p. 445- t. .U- f. 12. W 1 Polytela glorii a-ul size. inal. 376 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. / '.it, history. — Length of full-grown larva about 40 mm.; colour purplish-brown with three- Longitudinal rows of white spots of which the central ones are the largest, and orange black-spotted sub-dorsal patches on the three anterior and posterior segments. The caterpillar is often seen exposed on the leaves in the early morning, retreating into the shelter of the leaf-sheaths later on. Foodplants. Gloriosa superba, Amaryllis, and many liliaceous plants. Status. Scarcely a pest but often does unsightly damage to ornamental lilies. Control. — Easily hand-picked in the early morning. CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA, Haw. (PLATE XVIII.) Noctua unipuncta, Haworth, Lep. Brit., p. 174 (1809). Cirphis unipuncta, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths, II, 275-276, Cat. Phal., V, 547 549, B.J., XVII, 464; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I. 175. [nd. Ins. Pests, p. 138, f. 1 56, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 446. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. In October and November. Lifehistory. — The rounded, greenish-white eggs are laid in batches, usually in two parallel rows, and thrust into the shelter of a leaf-sheath, curled leaf, etc. The full-grown larva is about 35 — 40 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth, dull-greenish or purplish with a broad longitudinal paler stripe along the side and a narrower lighter stripe below the spiracles ; head pale yellow-brown, ventral surface and legs pale-greenish, prolegs with a plate above each sucker-foot. Pupa pale-brown, in an oval cocoon of earth in the soil. Foodplants. — Cholam, as a rule. Sometimes on rice, mai. Status.- A minor pest ol cholam, the larva.' burrowing into the central shoots. ( on trol. Remarks. This is the insect usually called the "Army worm" bei ause the caterpillars appear sometime- in immense swarms which invade cultivated ground and devour the crop- wholesale. In such cases cultivated tracts may be protected by narrow but steep-sided trenches. PER1GEA CAPENSIS, Gn. Apamea capensis, Guenee, Noct., 1. 213 (1852). Euplexia conducta, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moth-. II. 2t 1 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, 11. 447. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII. CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA. Fig. I. Eggs laid in leaf-sheath. 2. ,, inside fold of curled leaf. 3. Young larvae feeding on maize-plant. 4. 5. Full-grown larva?, showing colour variation. 6. Pupa. 7. Moth in resting attitude. (The lines alongside the figure show the natural sizes.) PLATE XVIII. CIRPHIS UNIPUNCTA. PLATE XIX fit* « '■:>. PRODENIA LITURA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX. PROUEXIA LITURA. Fig. i. Egg-cluster on leaf. n -. 3, 4, 6. 7- Larvae in different stages ol gi iwth, ,, 5. Details of segments of full-grown larva. ,, 8. Pupa. 9 10, 1 1. Mi ■ I The! LEl'IDOPTERA. 377 Perigea capensis, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., VII, .532 334. t, 116, f. 20. Fig. 239. Perigea capensis. (Original.) Distribution.- Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Larva smooth, with a conical elevation on last segment, pale-green, with scries of white-dotted purple-brown blotches along the back and sides and a row of white dots along the sides lower down. >Iants. SafHower. Probably verj various; Acanthads (Hampson), Niger-seed (Khorasani), Jute, Coreopsis, Kakaronda (Blumea balsamifera) (Lefroj I. Status. A destructive pest oi safflower. Control. -Spraying with Lead Arsenate has been found effective in small experimental plots. PRODENIA LITURA, Kb. (PLATE XIX.) Noctua litura, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 601 (1775). Prodenia littoralis, Boisd. ; Hmpsn., Faun. Inch Moths, II, 247-248, I. 131); Lefroy, bid. Ins. Pests, 11. 156, ff. 176-177, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., 1, 171, 11, 7Q 93, t. 8, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 447. Prodenia litura, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., Ylll, 245 -247. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs laid in (dusters on leaves and covered with buff-coloured hairs derived from the body of the female moth. The eggs hatch after three or four days into small blackish-green larvae which live gregariously lor a short time before dispersing. After about 20 days the larva is full \od and is then about 40 mm. long, stout, smooth, except lor a few scattered short hairs, dull dark- greyish (almost blackish-green) with a bright yellow stripe down the back and along each side and a rather duller yellow stripe along the lower edge ol the body, each yellow side-stripe being bordered above by a black lunule; head and legs dark, the former with a pah' A-mark. Pupation in an earthcrn cell about two inches below the soil ; pupa red-brown, die- moth emerges alter about six days. The whole life-cycle occupies about a month. Foodplants—TolyphagOUS. It has been found to attack the following in Madias: Castor, tobacco, maize, tomato, Colocasia, agathi, jute, indigo, lucerne, brinjal, cabbages, elephant yam, peas, plantain (leaves; Godavari) and grass, h will probably eat almost any low-growing plant. 378 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Status.- A serious pesl of tobacco, castor and agathi. Well known in Tamil districts as Arakkan. Control, -(i) Hand-picking of egg-masses and batches of young larva.- before these have dispersed. (2) Surrounding of valuable crops by narrow steep-sided ditches to keep out and trap the caterpillars. SPODOPTERA MAURITIA, Boisd. (PLATE XX.) Hadena mauritia, Boisd., Faun. Mad. Maur., p. 92. t. 13. f. 9 (1833). Spodoptera mauritia, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II. 249. f. 140. Cat. Phal., VIII, 256—258. f. 66; Lefrov, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 122, 189, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I. 172, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 448. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs are deposited, usually on the under surfai e of blades of grass or paddy, in batches covered by the buff-coloured hairs derived from the bodv of the female moth. The full-grown caterpillar is 35- 40 mm. long, cylindrical, paler or darker green above, greenish-yellow beneath with a reddish stripe along the sides at the junction of the two hues; along the side there is also sometimes a broad pale stripe edged above by black lunules on each segment: when touched, the caterpillar curls up until the head and tail are nearly touching in a characteristic manner. The caterpillar feeds at night, hiding by clay under clods. etc. When full fed it pupates in the soil, turning into a brownish pupa, from which the moth emerges after about 10 days. Foodplants.— Grasses of various sorts. Status.— A pest of paddy and grasslands, sometimes doing considerable damage to seedling rice-plants. Control.— (l) Protection of seed-beds by surrounding them with narrow steep-sided trenches. (2) In small areas spraying and collection of egg-masses as far as possible. (3) Trapping of larvae by laying down sods, planks, etc., might be tried. (4) Flooding of seed-beds and turning in ducks to eal the caterpillars. This method is practised successfully in sonic- districts. LAPHYGMA EXIGUA, Hb. Noctua exigua, Hubner, Ent. Schmett. Noct., f. 362 (1808). Caradrina exigua, Hmpsn.. Faun. tad. Moths, II. 259-260; Lefroy, |„d. [ns. Pests, p. [87, ff. 214. 215. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.. Ind.. I. 173. fig., Ind., Ins. Life, p. 448. Laphygma exigua, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., VIII. 265, f. 68. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX. SPODOPTERA MAUKITIA. i. Egg mass as laid on paddy-leaf. 2. A singli i gg, magnified. 3. Young lar\.i in characteristic attitude. 4. 5, 6, 7, 8. Larvae in various stages of growth. 9. Pupa. 10, 11, 12. Moths. (Tin ;" 11 ; idi I '" figurt 5 how th> natural FLATE XX. SPODPTERA MAURITIA. PLATE XXI. SESAMIA INFERENS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI. SESAMIA INFERENS. Fig. i. Eggs laid inside leaf-sheath. 2. A single egg, magnified. 3. Larva, magnified. 4. Pupa, magnified. 5. Moth, magnified. 6. An affected plant showing dead-heart caused by the larva inside the stem, which has been cut open, and a moth in resting attitude. (The- line* alongside the figures shov, the natural sizes.) LEPIDOPTERA. 379 Disi rib nt ion. — Throughout South- ern India. Lifeh is I a r y . Eggs art' laid in batches. Larva very variable in colour, greenish or pinkish- brown, with a narrow darker line down the hack and a broader spiracular line which may be yellowish I with darker above or wholly darker. Pupation in soil. Lif eh i st ory \ cry rapid, the whole lif e- c y c 1 e being passed in as short a space as three weeks, so that in suitable circumstances the in- crease is very rapid and the caterpillars are found in swarms. Foodplants. — Lu- cerne, indigo, onions, chillies, gingelly, cowpea, brinjal, radish, Amaranthus. Polyphagous ; probably on almost any low-growing plant. Saiil to be destructive to cotton in Egypt but not as yet found on cotton in India. Status. — Occasionally a bad pest particularly ol lucerne and indigo, where these are grown, but usually not a serious pest in Southern India. Fig. 240. — Laphygma exigua, moth and larva. The -mailer outline figures shovi the natural . i Larva after Spuler.) SESAMIA INFERENS, Wlk. (PLATE JCXI.) Leucania inferens, Wlk.. Cat. IX. 105 (1856); Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 284, fig. 153. Sesamia inferens, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., IX. 327 32s. f, [44. Nonagria uniformis [Ne< Ddgn.), I.M.X.. V, [78; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. 1. [76, I. 51 (part). Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. 38o SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Lifehistory.—Eiggs are laid in clusters usually consisting of several rows of eggs laid within the cover of a Leaf-sheath ; the egg is rounded, pale yellow-green. The larva on hatching bores into the stem and is a borer all its life ; its length when full grown is 20 25 mm., its shape cylindrical, rather slender, its general colour usually greyish white, tinged more or less with red or pink, head red-brown. It pupates in the stem itself, the pupa being about 15 mm. long, moderately stout, brownish-yellow. The moth .liter about 10 days. Foodplants. Maize, cholam, ragi, paddy, wheat, sugarcane. Status. A bad pest of ragi in Madras. Control.— The plants attacked usually reveal the presence of the borer by development of "deadhearts " and destruction of these is indicated to prevent extension of the attack. El'BLEMMA OLIVACEA, Wlk. Acontia olivacea, Wlk., Cat. XII. 795 (1857). Eublemma olivacea, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 342, Cat. Phal.. X, 116; Lefroy, Ind. [ns. Pests, p. [66, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept. Ind., I. 180, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 457. ^mm 241. — Eublemma olivacea, larva and mot! 1 tiler outline figures show the natural si/rs. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The full-grown larva is about 20 mm. long, moder- ately stout, with scattered fine hairs arising from yellow tubercles LEPIDOPTERA. 381 which show up conspicuously against the brown or purplish-brown ground-colour; head reddish-brown. The brown pupa is usually found in a folded leaf, 01 < asionally in the ground. The caterpillar lives within a folded leaf which is usually rolled from the 1 p upwards, and the caterpillar feeds on the leaf-substance of the roll in which it is contained. Brinjal and wild Solatia Status. A minor pest as a rule but occasionally a very destruc- tive pest of brinjal. Control. Hand-picking and spraying. Remarks. In Northern India the caterpillar is reported to bore into brinjals but this has not been noticed in the South. BLEMMA SCITULA, Rmbr. Erastria scitula, Rambur, Ann. S.E. Fr. (1833), 26, 5, t. ii, f. 16. Eublemma scitula, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal, X. 153. Eublemma cretacea, Hmpsn., 111. 1 let., IX, 96, t. 162. f. 17, Faun. I. Moths, II, 341 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 457, t. 36, f. 9. I . HI. — Eublemma scitula, larval case. larva extracted from a mot) 1 aller outline figures show the natural si nal.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid on trees infested by Scale-in- which the caterpillars teed. The larva is short and dump concealed in a case which looks not unlike a large Scali itself; at times thousands of thes may be seen grouped together on the stems of Babul trees. Food. -Scale-insects of various sorts. Status. An extremely beneficial insect except when it attacks tin Lac-insect which, however, is not cultivated to any extent in Madras. rARACHE NITIDULA, Kb. Noctua nitidula, Fab.. Mant. Ins., II, 1. 382 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Tarache catena. Sowerby; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, H, 312; Lefroj . Ind. Ins. Life, p. 455. Tarache nitidula, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., X, 768, t. 172, f. 32. Fig. 243.- -Tarache nitidula. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplant. — Cotton and Calotropis. Status. — A very minor pest of cotton. TARACHE OPALINOIDES, Gn. Acontia opalinoides, Gn., Noct., II, 219 (1852). Tarache opalinoides, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 311, Cat. Phal., X, 775, t. 173, f. 13; Lefroy, Ind. [ns. Life, pp. 455-456. Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatore. Lifehistory. —Not known. Foodplants. — Cotton. Probably many other Malvacece. Status.— Not known to be a pest. Fig. 244,—Taracht opali noides. (< >riginal.) BOMBOTELIA JOCOSATRIX, Gn. Penicillaria jocosatrix, Guen, Noct., II, 304. Entelia jocosatrix, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. II, 393. Bombotelia jocosatrix, Hmpsn., Cat. Phal., XI, 11-12, f. 6. I I i. Bombotelia jocosatrix. The outline figure shows the natural size. 0 inal.) Distribution.— Throughout Southern India. LEPIDOl'TKKA. 383 Lifehistory. — Caterpillar green, with sub-lateral dark stria.1 ; the segments with small purple spots and a sub-dorsal series of larger spots; a few hairs from the tubercles. {plant. Mango; Terminalia belerica. Status. — Once noted as a minor pest of mango at Koilpatti, where the caterpillars were eating the young leaves of mango. BRINJAL SARROTHRIPIXE. ti>. — Brinjal Sarrothripine. The outline figure shows the natural size. To the left i- a profile view of the 1: nal.) Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatore, Malabar. LifeMstory- -The yellowish hairy caterpillar lives exposed on the leaves which it may reduce to mere skeletons. Foodplants.- -Brinjal (Solanum melongena), Solatium xanthocarpum (a wild Solanaceous plant). Status. — A minor pest of brinjal. Remarks. It is doubtful what the correct name of this moth may be. 1'ossiblv it is Cryptothripa occulta, Swinh. (P.Z.S., 1885.401.1. 27. f. 1 1 ; Hmpsn., Faun. tnd. Moths, II, 381, Cat. Phal., XI, 309, f. 108) with which the moth seems to agree structurally. Its coloration seems variable, unless several species are confused tOgi LA NARCISSI'S. Cram. Bombyx narcissus, Cramer. Pap. Exot.. I, 73 E.F. (1775). Eligma narcissus, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, 11. 43, Cat. Phal., XI. 330 331, f. 120. Distribution. Throughout 5 5 ptember to Feb- ruary. Lifehistorv. Young larva pale-greenish or yellowish with large irregular black warts from which arise long slender pale hairs. 3?4 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Full-grown larva 40 — 50 mm. long, with transverse reddish hands across the back only reaching half way down the sides, these hands being almost completely overlaid by broad transverse black bars Fig. 247. — Eligma narcissus. (Original.) which include large raised smooth black warts from which are emit- ted single long slender hairs about 15 mm. long; head yellowish with a small black triangular mark above the mouth and large black eye-like spots. Pupa moderately slender, red-brown, spiracles more or less surrounded with blackish, in a long narrow boat shaped cocoon formed on the trunk of the tree on which the larva has fed ; the cocoon harmonizes wonderfully well with the colour of its environment. Frequently numbers of larvae pupate alongside one another. Fig. 248. — Eligma narcissus, larva. 1 1 Foodplants. — Ailanthus excelsa. Status. May at times defoliate Ailanthus when grown as an ornamental shrub. rol. Spraying with Lead Arsenate, hand-picking of larvae. E \KI \S [NSULANA, Boisd. Tortrix insulana, Boisd, Faun. Mad. Maur., p. 121. t. 16, f. 9(1833). Earias insulana, Hmpsn., Faun. tnd. Moths. II, 133, f. 88, Cat. Phal., XI, 502-503; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests pp. 89-93, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. I, 184, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 456, t. 38, ((. 1—6. SEE PLATE XX 11. Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India all the 1 Mind. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII. EARIAS [NSULANA, ETC. Fig. I. Earias insulana, lar\a. ,, 2. Cotton-boll attacked by larva. ,. 3. Top-shoot of cotton-plant tunnelled by larva, showing crnir.n !• r- istic drooping and wilted appearaiv . .1. Earias insulana, moth in resting attitude. 5. ,, ,, larva, dorsal view. ,, 6. ., ,. moth, yellow variety. ,, 7. Earias cupreoviridis (chroma/aria), moth. „ 8. Earias fabia, moth. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) PLATE XXII. M A ■■fjc- ■ ■ EARIAS INSULANA. etc. PLATE XXIII. £•*£ y,r> &***, $ r>y .. T 10 | i EARIAS FABIA. EXPL VNATION OF PLATE XXIII FARIAS FABIA. Fig. i. Egg, apical view, greatlj magnified. g, lateral view 3-7. Larvas in different stadia, magnified. 8. Full-grown larva, dorsal view, magnified. 9. Cocoon, magnified. 10. Pupa, magnified. 11. Moth in resting attitude, dorsal view. 12 ,, lateral view. (The- lines alongside the figures show the natural si/es.) LEPIDOPTERA. 385 Lifehistory. — The eggs arc laid singly on shoots, flowers or young bolls. Larva bores in the shoots before bolls are formed but alter that is found only in the bolls in which it bores. Larva pale- greenish with short spinelike hairs, and 'lotted with black and with a row of short yellowish spines along either side of the back. Pupa in a tough cocoon of silk spun either on the foodplant or in the soil. Foodplants. Cotton, bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus) and other Maboacea. Status. — A destructive pest of cotton. Control — (1) Hand-picking of first-attacked shoots which are easi- ly seen and, later on, picking and destruction of all attacked bolls. (2) Removal of all cotton-bushes from the field after the crop is picked so that no harbourage may be left fortius insect to live over until the next season. (3) Bhindi and other similar plants should not be grown in the neighbourhood of cotton-fields, at least when cotton is not in the ground. EARIAS FABIA, Stoll. Noctuafabia, Stoll, Pap. Exot., IV, t. 355 H (1782). Earias fabia, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 133, Cat. Phal., XI, 507; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 89—93, figs. 98— 103, Ent. Mem. Uept. Agri., Ind., I, p. 183, figs. 52, 53, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 456, t. 38, f. 8. (See Plate XXIII.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory. Quite similar to that of E. insulana. The larvae are practically identical, those of the present species often a little darker in colour. Foodplants. — Cotton, bhindi I Hibiscus esculentus), hollyhock and various other malvaceous plants. Status. — A destructive pest of cotton. It seems rather more common in Southern India than E. insulana. Control. Similar to that of E. insulana. \( ONTIA GRAELLSI, Feist. I '(".- Acontia graellsi. Acontia graellsi, Feisthamel, Ann. S-E.Fr., VI, 300, t. 12. f. 3(1837); Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. II. 324. Cat. Phal., XI, 660, f. 272. Distribution.— Throughout the Plain- of Southern India. 25 386 SOME SOI III INDIAN INSECTS, ETC Lifehistory. -The larva is about 45 mm. long when full-grown, rather slender, with only two pairs of prolegs, green in colour; along the back on each segment is a pair of black horse-shoe shaped marks, their convex sides directed outwards, and there are also a few scattered black warts from which arise single short hairs. The caterpillar is generally seen on the plants in the early morning or evening, hiding itself during the rest of the day under leaves or on the ground close to the plants. When touched, it wriggles and jumps with great activity. Pupation is effected in a cocoon formed on the surface of the ground of earth and dry leaves. Foodplaiits.— Cotton, hollyhock, probably also gogu, bhindi and other malvaceous plants. Lavatera (Hampson). St, tins. —A very minor pest of cotton, occasionally doing slight injury by eating the tender leaves ami young shoots. ACH.'EA MELICERTA, Dr. i0.— Achcea melicerta, I u th. The outline figure shown the inal.) Noctua melicerta, Drury, 111. Exot. Ins.. 1. 42. t. 23, f. 1 (1770). Ophiusa melicerte, I Impsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. II, 494-495 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. I\st., p. 13s, it. i;,s. [79, l-'.m. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1,185, f. 54, II, pp. 59—77, t. 6, 7, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 451-452. LEPIDOPTKKA. 3*7 Achaa melicerta, Hmpsn., ( at Phal., XII, 536-537, f. 124. Distribution. Throughoul Southern India all the year round. Lifehistory. Eggs are usually laid singly, scattered over the lower surface of the leaves oi the foodplants, the larva emerging after two or three days, and making its first meal off part of the empty eggshell. The full-gn irpillar is about 50 60 nun. long, slender, .1 semi-looper with the first pair of prolegs aborted, in colour very variable but usually grey or blackish with reddish or whitish side-stripes. The pupa is brown but the colour is con under a delicate greyish bloom; puliation usually takes place in the soil, occasionally in a slight cocoon spun between leaves. The whole life-cycle occupies between 3 and 4 weeks. Foodplants. Castor, pomegranate. Euphorbia pilulifera. Status. A sporadic but serious pesl of castor, the leaves of which may be entirely stripped. Control. Hand-picking of larva1 and construction of open spaces around and across castor-fields ; birds attack the larva: freely when they attempt to cross such open ground. Spraying is impracticable when the castm leaves are grown to teed silkworms. Parasites keei> this caterpillar in check as a rule. GRAMMODES STOLIDA, Fab. Noctua stolida, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 599. Gram modes stolida, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II, 532. Cat. Thai. XIII. 21 Grammodcs stolida. The outlii inal.) Distribution. -Coimbatore. Lifehistory. -Full-grown larva about 25 mm. long, slender. smooth, first pair of prolegs absent ; in colour velvety-black with a row of red spot- I ich segment) along the side, and below spots an orange-yellow stripe bordered below by dark-grey. Pupation in an oval silken cocoon on the foodplant. 25-A 388 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Foodplant.—U\x\ Status. — An 01 i asional minor pest of linseed. REMIGIA UNDATA, Fb. Noctua undata, Fab., Syst. Ent.. p. 600 (1775). Noctua archesia, Cramer, Pap. Exot., Ill, t. 273 F.G. (1780). Remigia archesia, Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, II, 526, f. 2Q3 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., End., I, 186, f. 55, End. Ens. Life, p. 450, f. 309. Fig. 252. — Remigia undata. 1, Larva; 1. Pupa; .;. Moth, (Larva and Pupa after Mo >r< .) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Not known in detail. Foodplants. — Indigo. Status.— A very minor pest. REMIGIA FRUGALIS, Fb. Noctua frugalis, Fab., Svst. Ent., VI, 603 (1775'. Remigia frugalis, Hmpsn, Faun. End. Moths, II. 527; Lefroy. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., 1ml., 1, 1S7, t. 56, End. Ins. Life, p. 451, t. 310. 1 11,. 253. — Remigia frugalis. Tin outline figure >lmws tin- natural size. inal.) Distribution. — Throughout tin- Plains of Southern India. LEPIDOPTERA. 389 Li/ehistory. The greyish-yellow semi-looping caterpillar feeds exposed on leaf-blades and pupates in a cocoon amongst leaves Foodplants.— Grasses, including paddy. Status.- -An occasional very minor pest of rice. AZAZIA RUBRICANS, Bdv. Ophiusa rubticans, Boisd., Faun. Mad. Maur., p. 106. t. 16. I. 1 (1833). Thermesia rubricans, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, II. 534, f. 298; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite. p. 455. Fig. 254. — Azazia rubricans. (Original.) Distribution. -Throughout the Plains ol Southern India. Lifehistory- The caterpillar is slender and loops in walking although all prolegs are present ; in colour it isgreen with markings consisting of (1) an ashywhite band between each segment; (2) a few faint narrow lines along the back and (3) a bright yellowish- brown stripe along the side, but any or all of these may be absent. The pupa is formed in a slight cocoon amongsl leaves of the foodplant (usually in wet lands), or just beneath the surface of the soil (in dry areas). Themothhasa great - mblance to a di Foodplants — Green-gram, red-gram, cow-pea. black-gram; prob- ably on all pulses. Status. — A minor and sporadic pest of pulses. Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars and. where practicable, scraping the surface of the soil with a bullock-hoe to expose the pupae. HOMOPTERA GLAUCINANS, Gn. Alamis glaucinans, Guen, Noct., III. 6. Homoptera glaucinans, Hmpsn., Faun. 1ml. Moths, ||, 475, f. 263. Distribution. — Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Larva elongate, slender. 35 40 mm. long, iir-t two pair- of ventral prolegs absent, pale-green in colour with square white patches along the back of many of the abdominal segments. (NOTE.— Forsayeth figure- it as pale-green with a broad yellow stripe along the -ide.) Pupa in a slight cocoon. Foodplant. - Sesbania agyptiaca. Status.— A minor pest, only once noticed. 390 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. '%«•••'■*' -? mm?* Fig. 255. -Homoptera glaucinans. The outline figure shows the natural ;-i«'. ■ inal.) ( i (SM0PH1LA SABULIFERA, Gtl. Fig. 256- Cosmophila sabulifcra. The outline figure sh tural size. [inal.) Gonitis sabulifcra, Guen., Noct., 11, 404. Cosmophila sabulifera, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths, U. 409 ; Lefroy, LEPIDOPTKRA. 391 Ind. Ins. Pests, p. [51, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., [nd., I. 182, Ind. Ins. Life, i>. 453- Distribution. — Godavari, South Arcot. Lifehistory. — The full-grown caterpillar i^ about 25 mm. long, rather slender, with the first pair of forelegs slightly reduced ; in colour it is greenish, with narrow darker-green lines down the back and a wavy dark stripe along the vide. Pupa in a cocoon. Foodplants. -Jute. Status. — A very minor pesl ol iute in Southern India. COSMOI'HILA EROSA, lib. Not in,/ erosa, Hb.. Zutr., II., 19, ff. 287-288. Cosmophila erosa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, 11. 411 ; Lefroj Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 112, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.. Ind., I, [8l, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 433. t. 36, ff. 7. 8. FlG. 257.- Cosmophila erosa. The outline figure shows the natural size. 11 IriginalJ Distribution. -Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The full-grown caterpillar is 25 30 mm. long, slender, with normal prologs ; in colour it is green with live white lines along the back and side>. Pupates within folded leaves. Foodplants. Cotton, bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus), gogu and various other malvaceous plants. Status. Occasionally .1 serious pest oi cotton, especially in the of young plants of exotic varieties. Control. In small experimental areas spraying may be done. Remarks. Natural enemies include wasps and crows. 392 SOME SOL'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. HYBL.l. \ PI ERA, Cr. Noctua puera, Cramer, Pap. Exot., t. 103 D, E (1777). Hyblcea puera, Moore, Lep. Ceylon, III, t. 154, ft". 2, 2a; Hmpsn., Faun. bid. Moths, II, 371 -372, f. 204; Hole, B.J., XV, 679-697, t. A— E. Fig. 258. — Hybleea puera : 1, Larva; 2, Pupa; 3, Moth. (Larva and Pupa afti 1 Mi .) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The oblong, yellowish or greenish eggs are laid singly on the barks of young leaves, usually in an angle between two veins. The full-grown larva is about 30 mm. long, stout, cylindrical, very variable in colour, usually greenish below and dark-brown or blackish above, with a sub-dorsal white line and lateral spots which may form interrupted lines. It lives in the shelter of a rolled-up leaf in which it usually hides during the day- time, only coming out to feed at night. Pupation in a rolled leaf, amongst dead leaves on the ground, or in the soil. The total life- cycle is about a month. Foodplants.—TeaV (Tectona grandis), Bignoniaceae and probably many other plants. St, tins. May he a serious pest of teak. Control. Cutting out alternative foodplants in forests ; en- couragement of insectivorous birds, such as Mynahs which are reported to Iced on these caterpillars at Nilambur. In nurseries the young plants may be sprayed but this is not practicable in the open forest. PLUSIA SIGNATA, Fb. (?) Noctua signata, Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, 2. p. 81 (1794). Plusia signata, Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, II. 568-569; Lefroy, bid. Ins. IV^ts, p. 135. IT. 172 174, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., I ml., I, I go, Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 452. LEPIDOPTERA. 393 Fig. 25'». — Plusia signata. figuiv shows the Datura! >i/.v. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.—ha rva sic ri- der, attenuated anteriorly, only three pairs of prolegs present, including anal claspers ; in colour pea-green with several wavy whitish longitudinal lines and a broader white longitudinal lateral stripe. Pupation in The outline (Original.) a wnite sl'ken cocoon ; moth emerges alter about a week. Foodplants. — Tobacco, groundnut, green-gram, sann-hemp. Status. —Scarcely a pest as a rule. Occasionally does some damage to young tobacco seedlings and, in the case of groundnut, etc., the attack seems confined to the tender leaves only. Remarks. — The exact identification of this moth is a matter of doubt. So far as can be judged from the specimens obtained, the species here referred to is P. signata but it is possible that the specimens may represent P. chalcytes. PLUSIA ORICHALCEA, Kb. Voctna oriclialcea, Fab., Sp. Ins., II, 227. Plusia oriclialcea, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths, II. 573; Lcfroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., [nd., I, 193. [nd. Ins. Life, p. 452. t. 37, f. 10. Distribution. Th rough- OUt Southern India. [.1 tV hi story. — L a r \ a about 25 mm. long, slender, a 1 1 e n u anteriorly, in colour pale-green, the head darker-green, the body covered with small whitish tubercles with a central black dot from which issues a short white hair; along each side runs a row of black tubercles bordered below by .1 white spira- l. -Plusia orichalcea. The outlim cular stripe. Pupation figure shows the natural size. (Original.) period about 8 days. 394 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Foodplants. -Cow-pea, potato, pea, indigo, Carum copticum (Bishop's Weed) ; Cruciferae (Lefroy), Coreopsis (Hampson). Status. Occurs fairly commonly on cow-pea, indigo and potato (Nilgiris), but scarcely a pest in Southern India. PLUSIA PEPONIS, Fb. Voctua peponis, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 608 (1775). Plusia agramma, Guen, Noct., II, 327 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Mollis. II, 574; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 1 94, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 452, t. 37, f. H. Fig. 261.— Plusia peponit I In outline figure shows the natural size. (< >riginal.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The greenish-white, globular, beautifully-sculptured eggs are laid singly on the under-surface of the leases of the food- plant. The newly hatched larva is about 1'5 nun. long, head and legs black, body whitish, with scattered dark hairs arising from black warts. After the first moult the larva has on each segmenl a dorsal and a sub-dorsal black conical wart from which arises .1 short hair. The full-grown larva is about 30 — 35 mm. long, slender, segments distinct, covered with whitish conical warts each giving rise to a short hair; head olive-green; body whitish-green with milk-white longitudinal stripes ; legs green, only three pairs of prolegs including anal claspers ; anal segment humped. The caterpillar remains on the lower surface of the leaf which it cuts so as to make the distal portions bend down and provide a shelter for it. The colour of the caterpillar is extremely like that of its foodplant. Pupation in a tough cocoon of pure white silk spun between folds of the leaf; pupation period about a week |T.V.R.]. Foodplants. Snake-gourd, pumpkin and other Cucurbitacece. Status.- Occasionally a rather serious pest of cultivated cucurbits. Control. Hand-picking of larvae and pupae. LEPIDOPTERA. 395 SIMPLK I \ R( >B1 SI ALIS, Gn. Simplicia robustalis, Guen, Delt., p. 58 ; Hmpsn., Faun. lnd. Moths. m, 36, f . it>; Lefroy, lnd. Ins. Life, p. 457. 62. — Simplicia robustalis. Thi ire shows the natural size. To the right is seen a profile view of the head. < Distribution. — Coimbatore, Kurnul. Probably throughout South- ern India. \istory. Caterpillar about 20 mm. long, slender, smooth. dirty brown in colour, with faint irregular interrupted whitish longitudinal lines. Pupation in a slight eocoon ; pupa] period about 10 days. Food. Dead leaves, cumbu stalks, etc. Status. Only noted as doing damage on one occasion when the caterpillars were present in thousands in the thatched roof of a house, devouring the dry coconut leaves and cumbu stalks which composed the thatch. Control. The caterpillars were destroyed by spraying the thatch with lead arsenate in the case noted above and the moths on emergence were driven away by smoking with sulphur and spraying with cyllin. LYMAXTRIAD/E. ORGYIA POSTICA. Wlk. Orgyia postica, Wlk., Cat. IV. 803; Hmpsn., Faun. lnd. Moths, I. 436, f. 303; T V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, B.J., XX, 341. 6 1.— Orgyia postica, male moth. (( Iriginal.) 396 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Distribution. — Bellary, Coimbatore. Lifehistory. Eggs in clusters ; spherical, depressed in centre. The eggs hatch after about ASY< HlKAl SECURIS, Hi). Bombyx securis, Hubn., Zutr., II. iq. It". 291, 292. Dasychira securis, Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths. I, 453-454; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite. |). 460. t. 39. f. 7- Vic,. 265. — Psalis securis, male ami female moths. The outline figures show the natural 1 inal.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory Kggs are laid in batches covered with hairs derived from the anal tuft of tin- female moth. The full-grown caterpillar is 30 -40 mm. long, rather stout, in colour bright-yellow with a broad red-brown stripe down the back and a narrow paler stripe along the side; head dull-orange; on either Side of the head two long tufts of hair project forward and a single tuft backwards from the anal segment; on the first four abdominal segments are short, thick, rounded brush-like tufts of pale-yellowish hair and on the sixth and seventh abdominal segments two bright-red papules stand on the centre of the back ; all the segments with numerous warts from which arise spreading tufts of fine pale hairs. Pupation as a rule on a leaf-blade in a cocoon formed of silk interwoven with larval hairs ; the pupal period is about [0 days. Foodplants. Paddy, cholam, ragi, sugarcane, grasses. Status. — A minor pesl of paddy. Control. The caterpillar is conspicuous and feeds exposed and so is easily hand-picked. 398 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. EUPROCTIS FRATERNA, Moore. Euproctis fraterna, Moore, Lep. Ceylon, II, 85 ; Hmpsn, Faun. Ind. Moths. I, 477; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 461, ff. 334. 315. 1 1 1 g ltd.— Euproctis fratema. The outline figure shows the natural size. u.al.i Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs laid on the lower surfaces of leaves in a mass covered with hairs from the anal tuft of the female; the egg is creamy yellow, circular, flattened. The newly hatched larva is about 2i mm. long, slender, hairy, yellowish. The full-grown larva is rather stout, dark reddish-brown, paler along the lower sur- face, head and prothoracic shield bright orange-red. thickly covered 1 7. — Euproctis fraterna, lai 'After I LEPIDOPTKRA. 399 with tufts of wliit ish hair and with a pair of large tufts of darker hair directed forward on either side of the head and a single similar tuft directed backwards from the anal segment. Pupa red-brown, in a slight cocoon interwoven with the larval hairs. Life-cycle : egg, about 7 days ; larva, 30 days ; pupa, about 4 days. Foodplants. Castor, pomegranate, cotton (occasionally), red- gram. Status. Occasionally a rather serious pest of castor. Control. Hand-picking of the caterpillars and moths. The caterpillars art' gregarious and easily collected; their hairs are somewhat poisonous and they should not be touched with the bar • hand more than is necessary- 1 ' PROCTIS SCINTILLANS, Wlk. Somena scintillans, Wlk.. Cat. VII, 1734. Euproctis scintillans, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. I, 483 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p 461. tag i Euproctis scintillans The outline figure shows the natural size. « Iriginal.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Similar to that of E. fraterna. Caterpillar rather stout, dark coloured, with tufts of fine hairs, a pale-yellow stripe down the back and on the first two abdominal segments (the two segments between the legs and prolegs) a thick tuft of blackish or reddish stout detachable hairs. Foodplants. Mango, gogu (Hibiscus cannabinus), sann-hemp, linseed, castor, red-gram. Status. — A minor pest, rarely of much importance. Control. — As in E. fraterna. 400 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. HYPSID^E. HYPSA FICUS, Fb. Bombyx ficus, Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, 2, p. 27 (1794). Hypsa fiats, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths. I, 504 ; Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Life, p. 463, t. 39, ft". 1, 2. Fig. 269. — Hypsa ficus, larva and moth. (Original.) Distribution. — Coromandel Coast, Trichinopoly, Coimbatore. Lifehistory. — The caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, cylindrical, rather flattened posteriorly, its whole body covered with scattered yellow-brown warts from which arise fairly long white hairs; head jet black; the body is black with a white stripe along the back and white dots along the side, sometimes with pale yellow mark- ings on the back and beneath the sides, sometimes with red warts. Pupation in a cocoon usually underground. Foodplant. — Figs {Ficus glomerata, F. carica, F.religiosa, etc.). Status- — An occasional defoliator of fig-trees. Control. — In the case of young trees in small areas, hand-picking and spraying may be done. ARGINA CRIBRARIA, Cl. Phalcena cribraria, Chick, Icon. Ins., II, t. 54, f. 4(1764). Argina cribraria, Hmpsn.. Faun. [nd. Moths, II, 51 52, f. 24; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Life, pp. 463 464, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri.. [nd., p. 150, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. I48, 193, figs. LEPIDOPTERA. 401 [rgina cribraria. The outlini mal.i Distribution- Throughout Southern India. Lifehistor) re laid in small clusters on lower surfai leaves. Caterpillar 25 nun. long, in colour white with a black line along the side, am! irregular black patches, a yellow line along the iveloped into an orange spot on each, segment ; hairs black above, lighter beneath. Foodplants. Sann Hemp. Stdtus. A minor pi casionallj abundant. Control. In small plots spraying ami hand-picking of young larvae. A.RGINA SYRINGA, Cr. Phalana syringa, Cram.. Pap. Exot., 1. t. 5 c. Argina syringa, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. II, 51 ; Lefroy, md. Ins. Pests, pp. 14^. lop Mm. Mem. Dipt. Agri., Ind.. I. [58. I 1 na syringa. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistoi to .1. cribraria. Foodplan (Crotalaria joined). \ minor pest occasionally abundant. Control. Hand-picking of young larva.' and spraying in the case of small a: SPHINGID 1 . HERSE CONVOLVULI, Linn. Sphinx convolvuli, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed. X). p. ; Hcrsc convolvuli, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, i. 103, f. 60; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Pests, p. [59, ! t., Ind., I, 155. Ind. Ins. Lite. p. 467. 26 402 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Fig. 272. — Herse convolvuli. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid singly on leaves. The full-grown caterpillar is about 100 mm. long, with a sharp down-curved horn on the tail end; colour dark brown with indistinct oblique red- brown blotches on the sides or green with oblique yellow or pink black-edged bars on the sides. Pupa in the soil, in a chamber just below the surface ; colour red-brown, tongue-sheath long, pro- jecting, incurved. Foodplant. — Sweet potato, green-gram and other pulses. Status. — A minor pest as a rule, occasionally occurring in large numbers when the damage is serious. Control. — Hand-picking of the caterpillars. Spraying of small areas. ACHERONTIA STYX. Westw. (PLATE XXIV.] Acherontia styx, Westwd., Cab. Or. Ent., p. 88, t. 42, f. 3 ; Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths, 1,67, f. 40; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 160, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Inch, I, 1 54, f. 40, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 467, t. 40. Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory- The large, globular, green egg is laid singly on leaves. The full-grown caterpillar is about 90 mm. long, rather stout, with a rough skin, and a recurved horn on the tail end; in colour it is variable, usually light greenish with oblique darker green stripes along the sides and meeting over the back. Pupa red-brown, in a chamber below the ground. The moth sqmaks when disturbed. Foodplants. — Brinjal, lab-lab, gingelly. Status.— A minor pest of brinjal and gingelly. Control. — Hand-picking of caterpillars. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV. ACHERONTIA STYX. FlG. I, :. liggs, enlarged. n 3< 4> 5> 6. Larvae in various stages of growth. „ 7. Pupa. „ 8. Moth. (The lines alongside ihe (igures show the natur.il si/us.) FLATE XXIV. I 2 ; ; , x ACHERONTIA 5TYX. LEPIDOLILKA. 403 DEILEPHILA NERII, Linn. Sphinx nerii, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed X), p. 798 (175&). Deilephila nerii, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 94-95, f. 54; Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Life, p. 4(18, f. 316. Deilephila turn, larva and pupa. (Original.) 404 SOME SOI 1H INDIAN INSECTS, ETC I- 1. .. ' . Di i/< phila nerii. i Vftei I i froy.) Distribution. Throughoul Southern India. Lifehistory. Egg laid singlj . The full-grown caterpillar is about ioo mm. long, attenuated anteriorly, with a short roughened horn on the tail end ; colour variable, usually pale-green, with white dots especially evident along the sides and a bright blue eye-spot on either side of the third thoracic segment. Pupa pale-brownish yellow, with black spots; pupation in a cell below ground. Foodplants. Oleander (Nerium oleander) and other plants. \ minor pest of ornamental oleanders which it some- times strips of theii \<-.<\ es. Control. Hand-picking oi the larvae, which rest on the leaves and twigs, although they are by no means easj to see in spite ol their large size. EUPTEROTIDiE. EUPTEROTE MOLLIFERA, Wlk. 5, — Eupte rote mollif 'era, male, rhe outline figure sljov tb< natural size, (I >i iginal. I I ctias Sell ■ I ml ndian Museim LEPIDOPTERA. 405 Eupterote mollifera, Wlk., Cat. XXXII. 376; Hmpsn., Faun. 1ml. Moths, l, 57 59; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 471. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Caterpillar about 40 mm. long, dull brown or red- brown, with a dull whitish line along the side above the spiracles ; head and true legs reddish ; all the segments with numerous warts from which arise spreading tufts of line brown hair; on the back of the first and third to sixth abdominal segments are also large thick tufts of short dark-brown hairs. Food pi ant, Moringa pterygosperma (Tamil, Moringai). Status. Occasionally a serious pest, occurring in enormous num- ber and defoliating the trees. ('mitral. The caterpillars usually rest on the tree-trunk during the day time and maj be destroyed by burning with a torch. NOTE. — The hairs ot this caterpillar are poisonous and care should be taken not to tomb them or even to approach the tie., on which they occur nearer than necessary. S \ rURNIAD 1 ACT I AS SELENE, Hb. Attacus selene, Hubn., Samml. Exot. Si hm., I. t. \;2. 1. 3, Actios selene, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. I, [3, f. 8; Lefroy, hid. Ins. Life, p. 478, f. 326. [See Figi re 276.] Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The full-grown caterpillar is about 75 mm. long, stout, with distinct segments, in colour bright apple-green, with two rows of yellow spinous warts alone, the back and another row along the side ; the line hairs on the back are yellowish, t hose on the sides and beneath blackish ; pad to anal claspers reddish. Cocoon tough, oval, brown, usually enclosed in a leaf or leaves. Foodplants. Moringa pterygosperma and various other shmbs. Status. Xot very common as a rule. Remarks. < )n account ot the large size of the < ocoon, inquiries n made with regard to the value of the silk produ this insect. It is. however, of no commercial importance. CRICI t. \ 1 Kii I'.i STRATA, Heifer. Cricula trifenestrata, Hi \ " 1 . 4 5 : Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 28, f. 14; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life. p. 481. Distribution. Throughout the damper districts of Southern India. 4 ■» ' SOME SOl'TII INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. • Fig. 277. — Cricula trifenestrata : 1. Larva; _;. Cocoon enclosing pupa ; I, 1 emale Moth. (< (riginal.) Lifehistory. — Full-grown caterpillar about 50 mm. long, segments sharply defined, each with six large wart-- from which arise tufts ot fine hairs; colour ilark brown, with a pale-reddish stripe along the side, prothoracic segment (first segment behind head) and anal claspers crimson. Cocoon spun amongst leaves and twigs, often in masses; composed of a net-work of bright golden silk. Foodplants. — Mango; cashew (Anacardium occidentale). Status. -An occasional pesl oi mango and cashew, stripping all the leaves. Remarks. (1) The hairs of the caterpillars are poisonous and they should therefore not be handled. (2) The cocoons are often found in large numbers and inquiries are made regarding a possible sale for them. They are, however, of no commercial value. I LEPIPOPTERA. 40? BOMBYCDDjE. OCINAKA VARIANS, Wlk. Naprepa varians, Wlk.. Cat. V, [153. Ocinara varians, Hmpsn., Faun. Iml. Moths, I, 35 < Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 484. f. 327. Ocinara varians, moth and larva. The outline figure shows the natural size of the in ith. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The full-grown caterpillar is about 30 mm. long, humped anteriorly and with a slight horn on the tail end ; in colour pale grey, matchini on which it rests. The bright yellow cocoon is spun in a rolh rule. Foodplanls. Figs of various sorts. Statu*. A pest of fig-trees, occasionally stripping every leaf, especially in the case of young ti 408 : SOUTH INDIAN !.\SF.( TS, ET< . Control. — Spraying with Lead Arsenate or similar poison and hand-picking of small trees. It must be noted, however, that the caterpillars arc often very difficult to see especially when on the bare twigs after having stripped all the leaves. xoroDoxi'i! ).i:. STAUROP1 S U.'l ERNUS, Wlk. Statiropits alternus, Wlk., Cat. V, 1020 ; Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, I, 149-150, f. 91 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 472. f. 321. !79. — Stauropus alternus, larva. (Original.) 1 , 180. Stauropus alternus, mal< moth. Distribution.- Coimbatore, Ganjam. Probably throughout South- ern India. Lifehistory. Full-grown caterpillar about 40 mm. long, with extraordinarily dilated ami flattened posterior extremit> which is held over the back when alarmed, the anal claspi reduced to two slender filaments ; a row of paired sharp triangular humps down the back ; second and third pairs ol thoracic legs very long ; colour grey-brown mottled with darker. This caterpillar cannot be mistaken for anything else when once seen. The young caterpillar mimicks an ant ; the full-grown one looks not unlike a spider when alarmed. The dark red-brown pupa is formed in a slight cocoon spun amongst leaves, etc. Foodplants.- Tamarind, Tur (Cajanus indiens), Trewia nudifolia, Status. — Rather a scarce insect a- a rule, but has once been I ■ idic pesl 'it tea in Ceylon. LEPIDOPTERA. GEOMETRI1 BISTON SUPPRESSARIA, Gn. Biston suppressaria, Guenee, Phal., I. 210 : Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. III. 247: I.M.X.. V. 13. ft'. 10. Man- ' 2. Distribution. - Reported to occur in the Tea districts. Life history.— Not known in detail. The caterpillar may be either dark-brown and twig-like or green with darker bands. Pupation in the plants.- Tea, Cassia auriculata. Status. — Apparently only mal and very minor ; tea in Southern India. Control. -Hand-picking of caterpill Remarks. — Included here on the authority of V | who informs me that it has once been reporteil as damagingtea h S India. LASIOCAMPIDjC. METANASTRI A HYRTACA. Cram. Phalatia hyrtaca, Cram.. Pa p. E\ot.. 111. t. 2 . Metanastria hyrtaca, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. I. 410 411. Lefroy, Ind. In-. Life. p. 40;. ft Distribution. Coimbatore, Chingleput, Ganjam. Probably ghout Southern India. Lifehistory. Full-grown larva about 75 mm. I01 . covered with -tout hairs and with flaps at th< • tufts of longer hair projecting forward on either side of the Ik the metathorax and first abdominal 410 i SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I [G. 282. Metanastria hyrtaca : 1. Larva (after Moore) ; 2, Male Moth in resting attitude (aftei I oi ayi th) . '.. Male, and 4. Female Moths, mal.i segment behind head) is a patch of short blackish or reddish hairs, concealed in repose but exposi d when alarmed. Pupa brownish-red in a long cocoon usually spun on a branch of the foodplant. Foodplants.—Mimusops elengi, country almond (Terminaliacat- appa), Nyctanthes arbortristis (Tamil, Pavazha malli). Status. Nol a pest as a rule but occasionally appears in large numbers and strips trees. LIMACODID/E. P \R \s \ LEPIDA, Cr. Phalcena lepida, Cram., Pap. Exot., 11, t. 130 E. Parasa lepida, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I, 388, f. 264 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. ]). 500, f. 330 ; I.M.X.. III. No. 4. p. 13. figs. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Full-grown caterpillar 15 25 mm. long, squat and stout; in colour bright green with a broad interrupted blue stripe down the back and a narrower blue stripe along each side ; both dorsal and lateral stripes are bordered by a row of warts from which arise thick spreading brushes of short spinous hairs ; at each LEPIDOPTER \. 411 extremity the two internal hair tufts arc much larger than the rest. In walking, the legs arc not visible and the caterpillar moves with a sluglike motion. Pupation in a tough shell-like rounded cocoon, often found in numbi tree-trunks. Pupation period three to five weeks or lonf Fig. 283. —Parasa lepida, larva. 'I lit- small figure shows the natural size. i al.) Foodplants.- Castor, mango, ccccnut. palmyra, wcod-apple, pepper, pomegranate, cauliflower, tea, coffee. Polyphagous. St, iltts.- An occasional serious pest, even of large trees, which it strips entirely of leaves. Control. — (I) In the case of low-growing trees and shrubs the larvae, being more or less gregarious, may be hand-picked, can- being taken not to touch them with the bare hand as the larval spines are very poisonous. (2) Spraying with Lead Arsenate or similar poison. Cm of pupze in tin- cocoons on tree-trunks. \M 11 \ NI\ 1 \. Wlk. Althanivea, Wlk., J.L.S., VI, 173; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Mot 397, f. 273; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 499- 412 I SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Iii.. l&b.—Althanivea. (Original.) Distribution. Bellary, Coimbatore. Probably throughoul South- ern India. Lifehistory. -The round shell-like cocoons have been found on the stem of castor-plants, below the surface of the ground. Foodplants. -Castor (Ricinus communis). Status. Not known to do any damage. XYMl'HALin.i:. MELANITIS ISMENE, Cram. [PLATE L. FIGS. J 0. | Papilio ismene, Cram.. Pap. Exot., I. t. 2(1. ff. A, B (1775). Melanitis ismene, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 122. f. 139, Iml. Ins. lit.-, p. 410. t. 29 ; Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt.. I. 1 58 159, f. 36. Distribution. Throughout Southern India, occurring from sea- level to elevations above 7,000 feet. Lifehistory. The round, while eggs are laid on leaves oi on which the larva feeds. This latter is pale green with a roughened skin, with a darker head hearing a pair of horn-like processes and with the anal extremity produced into two slender processe- ; it feeds chiefly at night, remaining immobile during the day-time. The Stout, smooth, pale green pupa is slung by the tail from a grass-stem or leaf. Foodplants. Grassi s. St, i/its. A pest of paddy hut as a rule does very little damage, its numbers being probably cheeked by parasites and natural enemies. I'AIMLIOXTD/E. PAPILIO DEMOLEUS, Linn. [PLATE XXV.) Papilio demoleus, Linn.,Syst. Nat., X. 404 (1758); Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., II, 39 40, f. 7; Lefroy, hid. Ins. Pests, pp. 174— 177, ff. 195 10;. Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 422 423, ii. 29] 292. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The rounded greenish-white egg> are laid on leaves of Citrus of various kinds. The young larva is brownish or black- ish with an irregular, broad, conspicuous white bar across its back, and is protected by its resemblance to a bird's dropping. The EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV PAPILIO DEMOLEUS. Pig. i. Eggs laid on leaf, magnified. 2-6. Lan ae in \ ai i'ous stadia. 7. Larva suspended for pu] .. 8. Pupa. q, 'o. Butterfly. I Lrt 1 C J\J\ V . FAPILIO DEMOLEUS. LEPIDOPTERA. 4' 3 full-grown larva is green with oblique brownish cross-bands. Pupa pale brownish or greenish slung by a girdle and anal pad. I I larval and pupal periods are each of about a fortnight's duration. Foodplants. Various species ol Citrus (Orange, Citron), Bael V marmelos) and other Rutaceae. Also occasionally on Psoralea corylifolia (Tel. Bavunchi) sometimes on curry-leaf plant (Murraya kcenigi) (Tarn. Karuveppilai). Stiitus. -Sometimes a serious pest, stripping all the leaves when in large numbers. Control. — Hand-picking when the attacked bushes can be reach- ed; the eggs and larvas are fairl) easily seen. ITERID/E. ( \ rOPSILIA PYRANTHE, Linn. Papilio pyranthe, Linn., Syst. Nat, X. 469(1758). Catopsilia pyranthe, Lefroy, End. [ns. Life. p. 418, I. 289; Kershaw. Butt. Hongkong, pp. ioo-loi, t. 7, f. 9. t. 11, f. 5, t. 13, f. 9, t.3\ ff. 21-22; Bingham. Faun. Ind. Butt.. II. 221 223. psilia pyranthe. (( )riginal.l Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The egg is spindle-shaped, white and almost si and is laid singl) on the leaves and stems of the foodplant. The larva has a roughened skin and is pah- leaf-green in colour with a lateral row ot nearly-continuous black dots above a longitudinal pal. -yellow stripe. Pupa smooth, pah green, attached to a twig or leaf bj a girdle and anal patch of silk. Foodplants. Cassia occidentalis and (. auriculata, Sesbania and probably other Leguminosa>. Status. — Rarely a pest though it often occurs in very large numbers. On one occasion, however, the caterpillars of this butter- fly were sent as destructive to Sesbania in the Cumbum range, Madura district; but various noctuid caterpillars were also cerned in this > a 4M SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. TERIAS HECABE, Linn. Papilio hecabe, Linn., Syst. Nat. (el. X). p. 470 (1758). Terias hecabe, Bingham, Faun. Butt., II, 250 — 254, ff. 60 — 62; Swinhoe, Lep. Indica, VII. 50-56, t. 567. Fig. 287. — Terias hecabe. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout. Lifehistory. — The smooth, white, spindle-shaped egg is attached singly to the upperside of the leaves of the foodplant. Larva rathei slender, pale-green with a white stripe along the side, the skin rather roughened and sparsely covered with short hairs which are probably hollow as minute drops of liquid may be apparently exuded from their tips, so as to give the larva sometimes the appearance of being irrorated with white. Pupa attached by the tail and slung by a girdle from a stem or leaf of the foodplant ; usually pale-green, slender, rather sharplj pointed anteriorly. The caterpillar and pupa are usually difficult to see on their foodplants. Foodplants. — Agathi, Daincha and other species of Sesbania and Cassia. Status. -Scarcely a pesl as a rule but sometimes strips tin- lca\ es of the foodplants especially in the case of young plants. Occa- sionally a pest of . Ubizsia planted as shade for tea. etc Control. Spraying with Lead Arsenate. Lead Chromate, etc., in the ease of localized attacks, young nursery beds, etc. LYC/ENID/E. 1 ^.TOCHRYSOPS CNEJUS, Fb. [PLATE XXVI.] Hesperia cnejus, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 430(1798). hrysops cnejus, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., II, 415-416; Lefroy, lnd. Ins. Life, ].. 42;. t. 32. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The rounded highly sculptured egg is laid on flower- buds. The newly-hatched larva bores into the bud, f< eding on the unopened flower and after eating that it attacks another flower or enters a pod where it feeds on the unripe seeds. When full-grown it is about 13 nun. long, flattened, pale-greenish or yellowish, KXPLANATION OF PLATE XX \ I CATOCHRYSOPS CNEJUS. Fig. i. Eggs laid on a shoot of black gram (Phaseolus radiatusl. „ 2. Egg, magnified. ,, 3. Larva boring into a pod. ,. 4, 5. Larvae. „ 6. Pupa on a pod, at the base of which is seen the hole bored by the larva with pellets of brown excreta around it. ., 7. 8. The butterfly. FLATE XXVI CATOCHRYSOFS CNEJUS. LEPIDOPTERA. 415 covered with short spine-like hairs. " When full-grown the larva descends to the ground, enters the earth at the base of the stem of the foodplant and there constructs a weak cocoon of silk in which it transforms into a dark-coloured rounded pupa provided with a slight silken girdle " [Y.R.R.] but, sometimes at least, pupation is effected on or amongst the leaves of the foodplant. Foodplants- Red-gram. Lab-lab and other puis Status.— Serious injury may be done when this insect is in large numbers, a very large propo the pods being completely emptied of their contents. Control. — ? POLYOMMATUS BCETICUS, Linn. Papilio bceticus, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. XII;, I, 789 (1767). Polyommatus Initials, Bingham, Faun. Ind. Butt., II. 432 — 434 ; . Ind. Ins. Life. p. 428 ; Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, p. 75, t. 9. ft'. 2, 10. ■.unit us boeticus : 1. _'. I rfly in resting attitude showing undi 1 ; 5, Butterfly, left male, righl Distribution.— Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid on flower-buds and pods into which the young newly-hatched larvae burrow. The full-grown larva is 416 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. about 12 nun. long, pale-green, with a roughened skin. The short s(|iiat pupa is pale yellowish-green or greyish, smooth, with a double sub-dorsal series ol small blackish spots; pupation usually on a leaf, twig, or pod of the foodplant. Foodplants. -Crotalaria and Pisum of various species, and prob- ably on most pulses. Status. May be a serious pest in localities where Crotalaria is grown lor seed. Control. — ? VIRACHOLA ISOCRATES, Fabr. Hesperia isocrates, Fab., Ent. Syst., 111. i, 266 267 (1793). Thecla isocrates, Westw., T.E.S., II. 1 8. t. 1 (1835). Virachola isocrates, Lef roy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 179 180, ff. 199—206, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 428, f. 293- tcliola isocrates, larva and male and female butterfly. I Lai va after 1 ei figures original.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid on the flowers and buds, the larva boring into the fruit until full fed, when it emerges and secures the stalk of the fruit to the stem with a silken binding; thisdone.it ters the fruit and pupate-. Foodplants. Pomi granate, guava, loquat, tamarind, orange. Status. Sometimes .1 serious pest of pomegranate, but only occasionally attacks other fruits. FLATE XXVII. PARNARA MATHIAS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVII. PARNARA MATH l Fig. i. Eggs, lateral view x 10. 2. Voung larva rolling a 3. Full-grown larva. 4. Pupa in rolled leaf. 5-7. Butterfly. 8, 9. Puppria of Tachinid parasites. 10. Hymenopterous parasite. 11, 12. Tachinid para^r (The lines alongside the tjgures show the natural - LEP1D0PTERA. 417 Control. -Destruction of attacked fruits, catching of butterflies by hand-nets, and perhaps covering of valuable fruit in muslin bags. HESPERIAD/E. GANGARA THYRSIS, Moore. Papilio thyrsis, Fab.. Syst. Ent., p. 532 (i/75>- Gangara thyrsis, Lefroy, End. Ins. Life, p. 431, t". 295 ; Distant, Rhop. Malay, p. 394. t. 34, f. [3. Fig. 290. — Gangara thyrsis, larva about half grown. (( >riginal.) '.91.— Gangara thy Distribution. Coimbatore. Lifehistory and Foodplant. 1 ire laid on leaves of various species of palms on which the larva feeds. The larva, when full grown, is pair greenish, reddish in parts, but the colour is concealed under long delicate white waxy filaments which form a fluffy secre- tion all over the larva ; it lives inside rolled up palm-leaves in which it also pupates. The greenish white pupa is about 27 mm. long and attached by the tail to a stout silken cord spun across the leaf chamber in which it vibrates with great energy when disturbed so that it produces a loud rattling noise. The butterflj is on the wing Only at dusk. St, tins. -A minor pest which occasionally does some damage to ornamental palms and in nurseries oi you .alms. etc. Control The larva is easily found and collected by hand. The bitten leaves and fragments oi white wax} secretion on the haves give a good clue to its wlierea bouts. PARNARA MATHIAS, Fb. [PLATE XXVII.] Hesperia mathias, Fab . Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 433 1 1; Baoris mathias, Distant, Rhop. Malay, pp. j8o }8l, t. 55, f. 10. Parnara mathias, Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, p. 1 jo, t. Vila. f. 1 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite, p 4i8 SOME SOUTH [\I)I.\\ INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The larva is pale-greenish with indistinct pale yellowish- white bars across tin- hack and a whitish line along the side ; it lives in rolled up lea\ es oi various grasses. The translucent pale-greenish pupa is formed on .1 blade of the foodplant, attached by the tail and a girdle. Food plants.— Grasses of various kinds, especially paddy, and more occasionally cholam, etc. Status. — A minor pest as a rule. Control. — ? Remarks. The nuihbers of this butterfly are usually kept in check by numerous parasites and predators. PARNAR \ ( 1 >l. \< \. Moore. Hesperia colaca, Moore. P.Z.S. I [877), 504. t. 58, f. 7. Parnara colaca, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 431. f. 2Q6. 1 ig. !92. — Parnara colaca. 1 hows the natural size. < 1 mala Distribution. — Chingleput (Saidapet and Madras). Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Foodplant. Paddy. Stains. Scarcely a pest. SUASTUS GREMIUS, Fb. Hesperia gremius, Fab., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 433 ( 1 798). Suastus gremius, Lefroy, bid. Ins. Life, p. 431 ; Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, p. 123. t. 14. f. 25. t. 7.1. I. 11 ; W'illcv. Spol. ZeyL VI, 123 130. lit;-. (1Q09). Distribution.— Bangalore, Godavari, Coimbatore. In July and August. (Probably throughout palm-growing districts all the year round.) ! I I'll" IPTERA. -41'' S astus greiniu I In outline figure shows the natural size. al.) Lifehistory. -The larva is pale-green with a narrow blue line down the back; it lives in tubes formed by rolling up portions ol palm-leaves. When full fed, it closes the ends ot this tubular-cell with silk and changes to a yellowish pupa. Prior to pupation the larval cell is sometimes cut adrift from the palm-leaf, the larva pupating on the ground. Foodplants. -Palms, mostly palmyra. Also recorded from coco- nut palm. Status. — A minor pest. Control. — ? TELICOTA AUGIAS, Linn. Papilio augias, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. XII). I. p. 704 ' 1767V Telicota augias, Distant. Rhop. Malay, p. 382, t. 34, I. 23 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 43] 432. I 11 >ta augias. (Original.) Distribution. Vizagapatam, Coimbatore, South Arcot. Probably throughout Southern India all the year round. 420 SOME S( >l I II INDIAN [NS1 Lifehistory. Thegreenish larva folds the leaves of the foodplant into tubular cells in which it lives and pupates. Foodplants. Sugarcane. Also said to feed on bamboo and paddy. Status.— A minor pest, rarely doing much damage even when abundant. Control. — In small cane-plots the larva- may be hand-picked. UDASPES FOLUS, Cram. Papilio loins, ("ram., Pa]). Exot., I. t. 74, f. 7 ( 1 779). Udaspes folus, Davidson and Aitken, B.J., V, 371 372: Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. [68; [nd. Ins. Life, p. 432; Kershaw, Butt. Hongkong, pp. 136 137, t. 14. f. 20. I ig. 295. Udaspes folus ["he outlim ! un n 11.il. * tli'- ]i. 11 ill al size. Distribution. — Northern Circars and Coimbaton:. Lifehistory. Larva greenish (cither pale or dark 1 with a darker stripe along the back caused 1>\ the digestive tract being visible through the skin ; head brownish or blackish. Pupa with the head-end produced into a beak, yellowish-white or greenish-white, attached by an anal pad and a girdle; pupation inside a rolled leal' but the pupa is not entirely concealed. Larva in a rolled leal of the foodplant. Foodplants. Ginger, turmeric, and probablj wild lilies (Ker- shaw notes the loodplant at Hongkong as Alpinia nutans). Status. Rather a scarce insect a- a rule hut occasionally a set ious pest ot ginger and mrm 1 it . Control. The folded leaves containing the larvas and pupae are easily seen and the insects collected by hand. /# " ' i ; i »N J %i>»irt • > T GALLERIA MELLONELLA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVIII. GAl LERIA MELLONELLA. Fig. i. Lggs, larva, and moth on comb, natural siz< 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon. 4. Pupa, removed from c< u oon. ., 5. Male moth. Female moth. 7. Eggs, enlarged. incs alongside the figures show the natural size LEPIDOPTERA. 421 296.- Stenachroia elon- gella. The outlim •■ ■ the natural maU PYRALID 1 STENACHROIA ELONGELLA, Hmpsn. Stenachroia elongella, Hmpsn., B.J., XII. 04. fig. : Lefroy, Ind. [ns. Life, p. 510. Distribution. — Bellary. Lifehistory. Not known. Cater- pillar webs over earheads on which it feeds. Foodplants. — Earheads of cholam. Si, tins. An occasional but verj local pest of cholam, doing con- siderable damage when in large numbers. Control. — Destruction of first- attacked heads. ^ GALLERIA MELLONELLA, Linn. [PLATE XXVUI.] Phalami mellonella, Linn. Syst. Nat. (ed. X), p. 537 1758). Gallcria mellonella, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. IV. <). f. 8; Lefroy, lnd. Ins. Life. pp. 500 501, f. 338; Fletcher, A. J.. I. Oct. 1911. tab. 1 with silk by mellonella. 'After Li I • (•,ilU Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.— Eggs are laid singly or in small clusters on wax combs of Bees' nests. The larva- tunnel through the wax. on which 422 S< 'Ml sol ill [\D1A\ INSECTS, ETC thej feed, lining their tunnel with silken webbing. Tin- full-grown caterpillar is about 20 25 mm. long, moderatel) stout, smooth except for a few short bristly hairs, dirty-white with a yellowish head. The pale-yellowish pupa is enclosed in a tough oval cocoon of white silk, usually spun in a crack or crevice and often covered with larval excreta on the outside. Food. — Wax of Bees' combs. Status. — A pest of Apiaries. ( Otltrol. — Colonies of bee should be kept strong. The use of bar-frame hives, coupled with regular examination of the combs, will keep this pest in check. Wax foundation should be kept in tight boxes to which the moths cannot obtain access. diatr.4-;a sp. I'ig !98. Diatraa sp. 'II tline figure shows the natural size. IOi Distribution. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Caterpillar, a borer in stalks of cane, whitish with dark waits from which arise bristly hairs. Pupa slender, brown, in larval tunnel. Foodplant. Sugarcane. Occasionally (exceptionally) in cholam. Status. A serious pest of sugarcane. ( ontrol. The shoots attacked by the caterpillars wither and show as dead-hearts. These should be cut out and burnt to prevent the moths emerging and spread oi the attack. If this is done at once, while the crop is voting, new shoots will be thrown up and no loss of crop occur. Remarks. This insect lias hitherto been confused with Chilo simplex, but is distinct in structure, habits and main foodplants. It is perhaps Diatrcea venosata, Wlk., of which striatalis, Snellen, well known as a serious pest oi cane m Java, is a synonym. ( llllo SIMPLEX, Bull. Chilo simplex, Butl., l'.Z.S. (1880). 090; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Mi th-, IV. 2b. f. 17; Lefroj [partim), bid. Ins. Pests, pp. 125 130, ff. LEPID( IP! ERA. 42.? 14.? 150: Km. Mem. Agri. Dept, Incl., I. 1Q5. it. 5;. 58; Iml. Ins. Lite, pp. 510 511, t. 47, IV. 1.4- 15, l6; I [mpsn., B.J., XXI. 1250. ^OTXD^ I i'.. 299. Chilo simplex, larva. I ire above shows the natur; size; the 1 ihow details on a larger scale. (Original.) «c?sni»» I P.. .Win'.— C/l«7o simple* : 1. I • tin natural (Authi 424 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs .ire laid in masses overlapping one another. Caterpillar dirty-white or pinkish-grey with numerous small dark warts bearing short bristly hairs, head brownish, thoracic plate horny. Pupa rather slender, yellow-brown, in gallery bored by the larva in the stems of the larger cereals. Foodplants. -Cholam, ragi, maize, occasionally in cumbu and sugarcane. Status. A serious pesl of cholam, ragi and maize, the larva boring down the stem which it hollows out so that the whole upi er pari ol the stem is filled with rotting excremental matter. Control. [) In large areas it is not practicable to pull out the early affected plants but this can be done in small experimental pints .md the like. (2) The female moths are attracted by light at night and numbers can be caught at times by light-traps placed in and near the affected fields. This is probably the only practical measure on a large sea le. ANCYLOLOMIA CHRYSOGRAPHELLA, Koll. C/iiio chrysographellus, Kollar, Hugels Kaschmir, IV. 494. Ancylolomia chrysograplwlla, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths, IV, 33 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 511 ; Km. Mem. Uept. Agr., lnd.. I, 198. Ancylolomia chrysographella. The outline figure shows tin natural size. < (riginal.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. /.;/, history. — Caterpillar about 20 — 25 mm. long, cylindrical. slender, smooth, with short prolegs. in colour pale-green with black- d ind plate on prothorax. The caterpillar feeds at night, remaining during the day in hiding underground in long tubular LEPIDOPTERA. 42 5 galleries lined with silk or may be found at the roots of its food- plant. Puliation in larval gallery ; pupal period about ten days. ' I V R Foodplants. -Paddy, Paspalum dilatation. Probablj on all Gramineae. Status. Onlj found on one occasion as a serious pest oi p seedlings. It is. however, liable to occur al any time in dry. sandy localities. ( 'ontrol. ' 1 ) I'll"' moths are strongly attracted to light and light- traps maj be employed. (2) In paddy seed-beds or small experimental areas, spraying 1 it plants. ($) Where practicable flooding of affected areas will bring up the larvae which are greedily devoured by crows, etc. SCIRPOPHAGA AURIFLUA, Zeller. Scirpophaga auriflua, Zeller, Mon. Chil., p. 2; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. 1\'.4(); Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, pp. 130 [33, t. 152; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. I, [99, f. 59; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 511, t. 47, ff. 2, 5, 14. 17- Scirpophaga intuitu. Snell, Tijd. v. Ent. (1891), 343, t. XVIU, ff. 1 4 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, t. 47, f. 10. 1 si irpophaga auriflua. The outline fi| - :nal. Distribution.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid on a leaf in a cluster covered with the orange hairs from the anal tuft of the female moth. Caterpillar dirtv yellowish-white, rather stout, smooth except for .1 few -hort 426 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. bristly hairs; burrowing in the stem of young plants, in top-shoots bf older ones. The yellowish, elongate pupa in the larva] burrow. Foodplant. Sugarcane. Status. A rather minor pest of cane in Southern India. Control. '[) Cutting out and destruction of affected top-shoots. (2) Attraction of moths by light-trap-. SCIRPOPHAGA MONOSTIGMA, Zeller. Scirpophaga monostigma, Zell., Mon. Chil., p. 3 ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moth-, IV. 46; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. I, 200, f. 60 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 511, t. 47- f. 3- 1 i I 103. Scirpophaga monostigma. The outline figure shows the natural >i/.-. (( (riginal.) Distribution. Coimbatore ; probably throughout the submontane district- oi Southern India. Lifehistory. Probably the same as in S. aurifiua. Foodplant. Sugarcane. Status. -A rather minor pest of cane. Control. —As in S. aurifiua. SCHCENOBIUS BIPUNCTIFER, Wlk. [PLATE XXIX.] Schcenobius bipunctifer, Wlk.. Cat. XXVIII. 523: Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, IV. 48, t. 32; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 512. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. -Eggs art- laid on leaves in clusters covered with yellowish hair derived from the anal tuft of the female moth. The caterpillar bore's in the stems of paddy and perhaps of wild grasses. ["he lull-grown caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, slender, smooth. segments distinct, in colour dull-whitish or yellowish sometimes with a green tint, head orange-yellow. Pupation in the larval burrow which is lined with silk. The moth emerges through a hole previously cut by the caterpillar through the side of the stem. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX. SCHCENOBIUS BIPUNCTIFER. FlG. i. Egg-mass on leal', natural si s. Egg-mass on leaf, magnified. 3. Larva. 4. Pupa. 5. Stem cut open, showing cocoon. i. Female moth, in resting attitude. „ 7. Moth, male. 3. .. female. (Thelin the figures show the natural sizes, rhe plant shows a deari-hcart characteristic of attack by the Ian .1. PLATE XXIX. SCHCENOBIUS BIPUNCTIFER. LEPIDOPTERA. 427 Foodplants. Padclj . Stiitus.-- A verj serious pest of paddy in Southern India. Control. — (i) The moths .in- strongly attracted at night to light .iiul may be caught in large numbers by means of light-traps. onspicuOUS and. when plentiful, are d-picked. Paddy-stubbles should be ploughed up, and if possible burnt alter the harvesl is gathered. s \i.i kia [NFIC1 I A. Wlk. Acrobasis inficita, Wlk.. Cat. X.W'II. 30 (1863). Poujadia inficita. Rag.. Mon. Phyc, t. 44, f. l8;Hmpsn. Ind. Moths, IV. 58. ■a inficita. I 0 I nti d by the ' ■ 428 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. Probablj throughout the Plains but only actually noticed at Coimbatore. Lifchistory. Not known in detail. The larva is moderately stoutly built, the prothoracic segment large, the next two segments short but projecting ; in colour it is purr creamy-white, tin- head yellowish tinged with blackish around the mouth-parts ; there are a few short, white, inconspicuous hairs on all segments. It bores into the stem of the foodplant low down at about or just above ground-level ami pupates in the stem or emerges and pupates in a small chamber excavated in the soil. Foodplants. R igi. Status. A minor pest noted on the Central Farm at Coimbatore in August and September in 1908, 1909 and 1913. ( ontrol. The female moths are attracted to light at night. M ZOPHERA PERTICELLA, Rag. / uzopliera pcrticella, Rag., Xouv. Gen., p. 32 ; Hmpsn., Faun. bid. Mollis, XX. 73, I. 4S ; I.etrov, hid. Ins. I'ests, p. 106; Fnt. Mem. Agri. Dept, lnd., 1, 203; Ind. Ins. Life. p. 514, t. 48. (See Plate XXX. Figs, i 4.) Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifchistory. The caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, moderatelj stout, smooth except for a few bristly hairs, in colour yellowish- white with an orange brown head. It bores in the stems of its foodplant. Pupa rather stout, red-brown, in a cocoon formed in the larval burrow. Foodplant. Brinjal, chillies, potato. Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal, especially in gardens. Control. Destruction of affected plants which wither and die owing to the boring of the caterpillar in their stems. PHYCITA [NFUSELLA, Meyr. Phycita infusella, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., fV, 218 (1879) ; Lefroy, hid. his. Pests, p. 99, ff. 110 113: F-»<- Mem. Agri. Dept.. hid.. I, 205. f. 61 ; Ind. Ins. Lite. p. 5] p Phycita bipartella, Hmpsn.. Faun. hid. Moths. IV. 90 (18961. (SEE PLATE XXXI. 1 Distribution. —Throughout Southern India Lifchistory.— The full-grown caterpillar is 10—12 mm. long, rather stout, smooth except for a fi w scattered bristl] burs, in colour pale- EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX. PESTS OF BRINJAL. Fig. i. Euzophera perlicella, larva in its burrow in the stem. ,, 2. .. ., larva removed from bui ., ;. ,, ., pupa in stem, magnified. ,, |. „ .. moth in resting attitude. „ 5. Lt ■ talis, larva. 6. ., .. larva, effect ol boring in stem, causing withered top-shoot. ..7. ., .. cocoon. 8. „ „ pupa. 9. „ .. moth. 10. Epilachna i2-stigtna, egg-mass on 11. .. ,, beetle and larva. 12. „ „ EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXI. PHYCITA l\n SELLA. Fig. i. Larva, magnified. 2. Pupa ., j, 4. Moth, magnified. ,, 5. Top-shoot of cotton-plant webbed by larva showing character- istic brown knot of withered leaves. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) PLATE XXXI. K PHYCITA INFUSELLA. LEPIDi I] (29 green with a blackish head and dirk prothoracic shield. Pupation in .1 slight silken coco >n in folded le tves. Caterpillar in top-shoots, which wither and drop. Foodplant. Cotton, Roselle and Gogu {Hibiscus cannabinus). Status. A minoi pesl o1 cotton, occasionally appearing in some numbers on young plants. ('intra!, (i) Picking and destruction of affected top-shoots. (2) Attraction of moths bv light-traps. In, ETIELLA ZINCKENELLA, Tr. . . . sinckenella, Treitschke, Schm. Eur., IX. p. 201. Etiella zinckenella, Hmpsn., Faun! 1ml. Moths, IV, [08 [09; Lefroy, . Ins. 1 .ite, p. 515. . nella. Thi ire shows the natural size, inal. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Caterpillar green with five black spots on protltoracic shield; when about to pupate it turns pink. Pupation in silken cocoon outside the pod. Foodplant il gram, Cowpea, Red Gram, San n Hemp. Status. A minor pest of pulses as a rule, occasionally doing 1 onsiderable damage, the whole of the seeds being destroyed in pmls entered by the caterpillars. Cunt rot. ? MAC U.l. \ M< IN< USALIS, Wlk. Macalla moncnsalis, Wlk.. ("at. XVI, 252; Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths. IV, 1 13. 430 SOME S< H 111 INDIAN [NSE( fS, ETC. i 106. Macalla moncusalis, larva (dorsal and lateral views) and moth. The outline figures -how the natural i ; Lnal.l Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory and Foodplant. - The caterpillar webs mango-shoots and devours the young Kaves. It is sometimes gregarious, several being found in one web. When full-grown it is about 25 mm. long, rather stout, in colour brown with a paler stripe down the baek and with a yellowish lateral stripe edged with dark-brown above; head pale brown, sprinkled with darker. Pupation in a slight silken cocoon ; pupa squat red-brown. S/,itits. — A minor pest of Mango. Control- -The webs are conspicuous .md easily collected and the enclosed caterpillars destroyed. WMl'lll l.A DEP1 NCT VLIS, (.n. Nymphula depunctalis, Guen., Delt & Pyr., p. 274: Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 105; Lefroy, tnd. Ins. Pests, 121 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 207 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 5 1 5. t. 49. (SEE PLATE XX XI I.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII. NYMPHULA DEPUNCTALIS. Fig. i. Full-grown Ian a, ma 2. Pupa. j. Pupa in id,;, Mm, winch is cut open to show the pupa. I. Moth. 5. '.. i.ar\;e in their cases feeding 'in paddj plant. 7. Cocoon inside larval casi . 8. 9, 10. Larval cases rloatin , on the water. 1 The lines alongside the figures show the natural -n i c y\y\/\i i. LEPIDOPTERA. 431 Lifehistory. The caterpillar is semi-aquatic, living in made of rolled pieces ol leaf, and is furnished with bunches ol slender filamentous gills along the sides. The caterpillar is slender, about 15 mm. long, in colour pale green with an orange head. It feeds on tin- green tissue of the leaf. Pupation in the larval ease. Foodplant. Paddy. Status. A serious pest ol Paddy, sometimes causing great dam, 1 Control. Draining the water off the affected fields, when practi- 1 able, is indicated, but this is rarely possible. In some districts a thorny bush is dragged over the field to dislodge the larval cases and the walei then drained off; it is difficult to see what is the value of the thorn) branch and the draining of the water is evidently the important factor where success is claimed in treatment of this pest. HYMENIA PASCIALIS Phalama fascialis, Cramer, Pap. Exot., IV. t. 398, f.< >. (1782). Phalana recurvalis, Fabr., Ent. Syst., III. ii. 237 (1794). Zinckenia fascialis, Hmpsn., Faun. Iml. Moths, IV. 262, I. [58; Lefroy, Iml. Ins. Pests, p. [82 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., 1ml.. I, 208. fig, 02 : Iml. Ins. Life, p. 516. Hvmenia fascialis, Marsh, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. No. loo. Pt. [(iQll). Hy men ia fascialis. 1. Moth ; • ml natural size) ; 4 6, 1 natni ' rsh.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. 432 ■ INSE4 rs. ET< ■ Lifehistory. Caterpillar rather flattened, about 15 mm. long with .1 pair of narrow wavj whitish lines along the back, anil with lateral black spots on two of the thoracic segments. The reddish- brown pupa is enclosed in a thin coarse silken webbing between the folds of a leaf. Pupal period 6 7 days; total lifehistory about tour weeks. Status. Usually a minor pest of Amaranthus, occasionally doing serious damage in gardens. Control. Spraying in small areas. A mixture of .Nicotine Sulphate, 1 fluid ounce; Whale Oil Soap. 4 ounces ; Water, 4 gallons is recommended by Marsh for use on vegetables intended for con- sumption and with which it would be unsafe to use arsenical sprays. Care must be taken to apply the spray to both sides 01' the leal. CNAPHALOCROCIS MEDINALIS, Gn. . . . medinalis, Guenee, Delt & Pyr., p. 201. Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, Hmpsn., Faun. 'vd. Moths. IV. 275, f. 166; Lefroy, bid. Ins. Pests, p. 122; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., bid., I. 209 ; bid. Ins. Life, p. 516. I 1 ... 108. Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, male. The outline figure shows the natural size. t< (riginal.) Distribution. -Throughout the Plains ol Southern India. Lifehistory. The slender green caterpillar is about 20 mm. long. It lives in folded leaves, which are not actually rolled but the tip is merelj fastened over the broader basal part. Pupation in a brown- ish cocoon on the leaf; pupal period about 6 days. The cater- pillars eat the leaf tissue so thai the leaves become whitened and sickly. Foodplants. Paddy. Probably on grasses also. Status.— A minor pesl ol Padd) as a rule, occasionally doing considerable damage in the Northern Circars. Not known as .1 pest in the Southern parts of Madras. Control. — ? MARASMIA TRAPEZALIS, Gn. Botys trapezalis, Guenee, Delt. & Pyr., p. 200. Marasmia trapezalis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. IV, 277 ; Letroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. [38 ; Ent. Mem. 1 >ept. Agri., Ind., I, 210. f. 63 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 516. (See Plate XXXni.) EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIII. M VRASMIA TRAPEZALIS. Fig. i, z. Larva, magnified. ,, 3. Pupa in rolled and damaged : „ 4. Moth in resting attitude, natural s ,, 5. Mot! Tl t .. j \ * ; * 7 ^ ' ■ X \" MARASMIA TRAFEZALIS. PLATE XXX IV. ••. T y DICHOCROCIS PUNCTiFERALIS. EXPI \ .\ATION OF PLATE XXXIV. HOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS. Stalk and capsule ot castor-plant showing silk webbing and excrement of larva. „ 2. Shoot of castor, with larval md excrement and two moths in resting attitu >. 3- I .. -. !■ - eed. LEPIDOPTERA. 433 Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The full-grown caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, cylindrical, segments distinct ; its colour is variable, greenish, sometimes pale-yellowish green ; scattered over the body arc small oval horny patches from which arise stout bristly hairs. It lives in .1 fold ol the leaf, which it rolls over and fastens with silk, only emerging to cat the green matter of surrounding leaves. It is \< r\ active when disturbed. The small reddish-brown pupa is contained in a slight cocoon within a folded leaf. The pupal period is about a week. Foodplants. Cholam, Maize, Ragi. Status. — A very minor pest of the larger cereals. DICHOCROCIS PUNCTIFERALIS, Gn. Botys punctiferalis, Guenee, Delt & Pyr., p. 320. Dichocrocis punctiferalis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 307, f. 181 ; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 159 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., bid.. I, 21 1 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 517, t. 50. (See Plate XXXIV.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Full-grown caterpillar 15—25 mm. long, rather stout, pale or reddish brown with numerous flattened horny warts from which arise short bristly hairs; head red-brown, prothoracic shield large. Bores in stems, seeds and fruits. Pupa in a strong silken cocoon ; pupal period 7 10 days. Foodplants. Castor (stems and seed-capsules), Turmeric (stem), Ginger (stem and rhizome). Guava (fruit). Outside of Southern India it has been reported as attacking Mango flow* psules, etc. Status. Sometimes a serious pest of Castor and Fruit. Chiefly tot pest. Control. — Attacked shoots and seed-capsules of Castor an spicuous (see plate) and should be collected and d( stroyed. Remarks. In the coloured plate the caterpillar is shown as rather too dark a brown and the moth should be more of a bright orange- yellow colour. >I.EIA INDICATA, Fb. Ph, iluna indicata, Fab., Ent. Syst., Ill, ii.. 218 I i; vulgalis.— Guenee, Delt & Pyr., p. 202, t. 6, f. 8. \eia vulgalis, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths. IV. 315 316; Lcfroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 517. 28 434 SOME SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS, ETC Fig. 309. I i Xacolcia Judicata, two forms ol the mi >th. I he outline- figure shows the n.itiii al size. (( (riginal.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory.—Nol known in detail. The caterpillar rolls and fastens together leaves of its foodplant. Foodplants. — Lucerne, Green Gram. Black Gram (Phaseolus in lingo radiatus), Horse Gram (Dolichos biflorus). Status. — A minor pest of pulses, especially harmful to young plants. Control. Not sufficiently serious as a rule to require remedial measures. SYLEPTA DEROGATA, Fb. Phalcena derogata, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 641 I Ent. Syst., 111. ii, 218 (1794)- Sylepta multilinealis, Guen., Hmpsn., Faun. lnd. Moths. IV. 334. Sylepta derogata, Lefroy, lnd. Ins. Pests, p. 96, ff. 10S. 109; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., lnd.. I. 212; II. 95 no. t. 9; lnd. Ins. Life, p. 51/- (SEE PLATE XXX V.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The pale-yellowish eggs are laid singly on Leaves and shoots of the foodplant, usually on the lower surface of a leaf. The lull-grown caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, rather flattened, smooth, with a few short bristly hairs, in colour pale greyish, greenish or yellowish, semi-transparent, with a dull-yellow head. :planation of plate \.\x\ S\ I.KI'TA DEROGATA. s on cotton-leal. 2. Young larva. .5. Adult larva on rolled cotton-leaf. 4. Details of larva. 5, 6. Pupa. 7, 8. Moth. ■ The lines al< 1 natural ■-i/es. ) rLA i c s\s\s> < o . ,.'", v. •. • ■ SYLEPTA DEROGATA. LEPIDOPTERA. 435 It lives in folded leaves and wriggles verj actively when disturbed. Pupa brown or red-brown, in the leaves folded by the larva. Total life-cycle, egg 2 — 3 days, larva 13 [8 days, pupa 6 0 days. Food plants. — Cotton, Hibiscus spp. Status, A minor pest of native Cottons, sometime serious on exotic varieties (Cambodia, Caravonii a I. Control. -The folded leaves are easily seen and the caterpillars collected or crushed by hand. GLYPHODES C/ESALIX Wlk. Glyphodes casalis, Wlk., Cat. XVII, 4Q9 ; Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, IV, 356. .ill. — Glyphodes ccesalis. I the natural Distribution. South Kanara, Godavari. Lifrhistory. -The caterpillar is pinkish, each segment b with numerous black flattened horny warts from which arise single short bristly hairs; head and prothoracic shield yellow. Pupation in a silken cocoon ; pupa red-brown ; pupal period about 7 days. Foodplant. Jak. Status. -A minor pest, the caterpillar boring into flower buds and young fruits. GLYPHOD und. Eudioptis indica, Saunders. T.E.S. (1851), [63, t. \2. \\. 5—7. Glyphodes indica, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths. IV, 360; Lefroy, Ind. bis. Pests, p. 105. f. 187; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept, Ind., I, 213 Ind. Ins. Life, p. 518. - 436 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Fig. .512. — Glyphodes indica. ["he outline figure shows the natural si/r. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, rather slender, with the anterior portion flattened, in colour bright green with a pair of white lines along the back ; it is found as a rule on the lower surface of the leaf. Pupa dark brown, in a transparent- coarse, white silken cocoon ; pupal period 8- 10 days. Foodplants- Cucurbitaceous plants of all sorts. Status.- Minor pest of pumpkins, etc. Control— Rarely in sufficient numbers to require remedial measures. If vegetable crops are badly attacked the caterpillars and pupae may be hand-picked and the plants sprayed. LEUCINODES ORBO.NAL1S, Gil. (PLATE XXX, FlGS. 3 Q.J Leucinodes orbonalis, Guenee", Delt. et Pyr.. p. 223; Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, IV, 370, f. 198 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 16. ff. 188, 189; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dipt., hid., 1, 214, I. 65 ; Ind. Ins Life, pp. 518 519. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. -The caterpillar is about 15 mm. long, rather stout, pink or pinkish-brown, with numerous darker smooth warts emit- ting short bristly hairs. Pupa in a tough dark-coloured cocoon on the stem or fruit. Foodplant. -Brinjal (Solatium melongena), Solatium xanthocarpum. Status. — Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal, the caterpillar boring in shoots and fruits. Control. — Collection and destruction of affected fruits and shoots. LEPIDOPTERA. 437 CROCIDOLOMIA BINOTALIS, Zellcr. cidolomia binotalis, Zeller, K. Vet. -Ak. Handl., p. t>6 (1852) ; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV. 372; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept. Incl. I. 213 ; tnd. Ins. Life, p. 519. II \. -Crocidolontia binotalis. The outline figure shows the natural >i/r. (Original.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Caterpillar 12—15 mm. long, pale green, with a pair of broad dark-green bands on the back bordered on either side by prominent whitish streaks, and with a faint whitish line down the centre of the back ; on the side of each segment is a group of three black tubercles, arranged in a triangle and each emitting a long slender hair. The caterpillar lives and feeds under cover of a web spun on the lower surface of the foodplant. Pupa in a silken cocoon, sometimes formed on the leaf, sometimes in the soil. Pupal period about 10 days. Foodplants. All cruciferous plants, especially mustard and radish. Status. Sometimes a serious pest of mustard ami radish, the caterpillar webbing the whole plant. Control. Hand-picking ami spraying. HELM L \ UND \I.1S. Fb. Phaleena undalis,) - -t. Ent.. p. 392; Ent. Syst.. III. ii. 220 (1794)- 438 1! INDIAN [NSECTS, ETC Hellula undalis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Mollis IV, 373, f. 200; Lefroy, hid. Ins. Life, p. 519; U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 10. pp. 51—57. i- 12, I.e. No. 23, PP. 53—61, f. 13. A /I Fig. 114. — Hellula undalis. Larva, pupa and moth. The outline 1 show the natural sizes. (After U.S.A. Dept. Agri. Bulletin.) Distribution. —Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The creamy-yellow eggs arc laid as a rule on the under surface of leaves or on the top-shoot of the foodplant, occa- sionally on the stem, dry leaves, etc. The newly-hatched cater- pillar at first mines the leaves but later on builds covered passages of silk and excrement, at first on the leaves and then on the petioles, until they reach the stem into which they bent- and pass the remain- der of their larval existence. The full-grown caterpillar is about 12 — 15 mm. long, moderately stout, with a few short hairs scattered over the body ; in colour it is variable, pinkish-white, greyish-yellow oi yellowish-grey, with purplish-brown stripes, one down the back and three on each side, of which the lowest is faintest ; head black. The pah- yellowish-brown pupa in a rather compact cocoon of white silk, spun either amongst leaves, on the ground, or in the larval burrow. Life-cycle, egg about 4 days, larva about 9 days, pupa 6 days, total about 3 weeks. Foodplants. Cabbage, radish, mustard. Status. Sometimes verj destructive to small garden-plots of cabbages, radish and other cruciferous plants. Control. The only practical method seems to be the destruction of all plants first attacked to prevent the increase of the insect later on. TERASTIA METICULOSAI.IS. C,n. Terastia metiadosalis, Guenee, Delt. el Pyr.. p. 212 (1854) ; Hmpsn.. Faun. In. 1. Moths. IV. 381. f. 206. I Kl'llx H'TERA. no Terastia meti culosalis. inal.) Distribution. — Bellary, Madras, Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern [ndia. Lifehistory. -Not known in detail. Caterpillar creamj -white with large flattened shining brownish warts from which arise short hairs. Bores into terminal shoots and unripe seed-pods <>l Erythrina. Foodplant. -Erythrina of various species. Status. A minor pest. Control. Cutting out caterpillars from terminal shoots, the attacked portions of which wither ami die back. OMPHISA ANASTOMOSALIS, On. Botys anastomosalis, Guenee, Delt. et Pyr., p. m. Omphisa anastomosalis, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV. 382, f. 20/ ; Swezey, Pr. Hawaii Ent. Soc, I, 76 jj ; Fullaway, Hawaii Expt. Stn. Bull. 22. pp. [6 10, figs. ; Calif. Monthly Bull., I. 242 253, ff. 103- 107. Distribution. —Coimba- tore, Saidapet. Prob- ably throughout South- ern India. Lifehistory. Cater- pillar about 25 mm. long, moderately stOUt, smooth ; in colour whitish, each s< . rather faintly indicated, with darker smooth flattened wart-. each emitting a short bi i~tl\ hair: head yellowish, true leg> blackish. The caterpillar bores in stems, ih'- pupae also being found in the larval tunnels. dplant. Wild [pomoea. Remarks. — Thi cies has not yet been nol i nt culti- t potato in the Omphisa anastomosalis. 2. Pupa ; .'.. Moth. The small* tlic natural 1 vated crops in India but it is a 440 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Hawaiian Islands and in Formosa and will probably be found to attack this crop in India also. MARUCA TESTULALIS, Geyer. [PLATE XXXVI.] Pyralis testulalis, Geyer in Hubn. Samml exot. Schmett, IV, 4, p. 12, IT. 629, 630; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 393-394, f. 211 ; . Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 149, f. 169; En't. Mem. Agri. Dipt.. Ind.. I, 216, f. 66 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 519, f. 342. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Caterpillar about 15 nun. long, rather slender, segments with dark rounded warts emitting single short bristly hairs ; in colour pale brownish-green, head olive-brown. It bores into the end of pods and devours the ripening seeds one after another. The larval burrow is marked by a mass ot brownish excrement at the entrance of the gallery. The yellowish-green pupa in a large oval cocoon. Pupal period about a week. Foodplants. Dolichos lab-Lib, green gram (Phaseolus mungo), red gram. Status. — A minor pest of pulses. Control. — Collection and destruction of affected pods. PACHYZANCLA .ICGROTALIS, Zell. Botys cegrotalis, Zeller, K. Vet.-AK. Handl., p. 38 (1852). Pachyzancla cegrotalis, Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 405; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 519-520. 1 117.— Pachyzancla cegrotalis. Che outline figure shows thi hum. J 1 1 : inal.) Distribution. — Coimbatore ; Malabar; S. Kanara. EXPLANATION OF PL \ I E XXXVI. MARUCA TESTULALIS. Fio. i. Pod of green gram attacked by larva, showing masses of e.vtruded excrement which mark affected pods. 2. Larva, magnifii d. 3. Pupa in cocoon within pod. 4. Pupa, magnified. 5. Moth, natural size, in resting attitude. 6. Moth, magnified. (The lines alongside the figures shm\ the natural PLATE XXXVI. urn-**. I-LA 1 fc AAAVII. ANTIGASTRA CATALAUNALIS. I\IM AX.\ I K).\ OF IMA II- WW II. ANTTG WIN \ c \ i \> \r\ \i,is. Ktg. i, 2. I Iggs, magnified. , 3. Eggs as laid on leaf. , 4. Newly-hatched larvte feeding on green tissue ol leaf. 5. Gingelly shoot rolled by the larva 6. ,, „ ,, showing larva hanging by a thread. , 7. Larva, magnified. •s. Cocoon with enclosed pupa, magnifiei 9. Pupa, magnil , ro. Moth, natural -;i/t . in resting attitude. , 11. Moth, magnifi I 1 lines alongside ihe figun I EPIDOPTERA. 441 Lifehistory.— Caterpillar about 25 mm. long, cylindrical, smooth, peagreen in colour with numerous irregularly-oval black smooth flattened warts tending to form bands around each segment. Webs together leaves of the foodplant, feeding gregariously and eating the leaves covered by the web. Pupation in a cocoon covered with particle- nt leal and 1 1 n ment, in the web ; pupa slender, reddish- brown; pupal period about 10 days. Foodplants. — Brinjal and wild solanaceous plants. Status.— A. minor pest of brinjal. rol. — The webs are conspicuous ami the caterpillars ma\ easily be destroyed by hand-picking. ANTIGASTRA CATALAUNALIS, Dup. [PLATE XXXVII. | Botys catalaunalis, Dup., Lep. France, VIII, 330, t. 232, f. 8. Antigastra catalaunalis, Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moths. IV, 412, f. 224- Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 161 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 218 ■ Ind. Ins. Life, p. 520, t. 51. Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lit\-histor\: —Eggs are laid singly on leaves. Full-grown cater- pillar about 15 mm. long, smooth with a few scattered short hairs, in colour green with a few small blackish warts, head dark-brown. The newly-hatched caterpillar eats blotches in the leaves of the foodplant, later on in life it webs together the top-shoots and bores into the shoots and pods. Pupa whitish, with black eye-spot and nish abdomen, in net-like cocoon of white siik. Pupa 1 period about a week. Foodplants.- -Gingelly (Sesamum indicum). Status. — Occasionally a serious pest of gingelly. Control (l) Hand-picking of affected top-shoots which are conspicuous, as they wither and turn blackish (see figs. 1 and 2 on Plate XXXYI1. (2) The moths come fairly freely to light and light-traps may be tried in badly-affected fields. NOORDA BLITEALIS. Wlk. Noorda blitealis, Wlk., Cat. XIX. 979 (1859) ; Hmpsn.. Faun. Ind. Moths, IV, 414-415, f. 227; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Fife, p. 520. Fig. 31s. — Noorda blitealis. (Original.) Distribution.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India. 442 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSE< is, ETC. Lifehistory. -The white eggs are laid singly on leaves of the foodplant. The caterpillar is about 15 mm. long, rather slender, in colour pale green, marked with darker at either extremity, and with a few small flattened warts on each segment. The red-brown pupa in an oval cocoon, usually spun in the soil at the base of stem of foodplant. The caterpillar folds or joins the leaves and feeds on the green matter. Foodplant. — Horse-radish tree (Moringa pterygosperma). Status. -A minor pest as a rule, occasionally serious. Control. ''. PYRAUSTA MAUI l.K \I.IS. Wlk. Pyrausta macharalis, Walker, Cat. XIX, 1013; Hmpsn., Faun. [nd. Moihs. IV. 1.32 433; Hole. B.J., XV, 679 697, tabs. «rg$$JE?&> I . 119. -Pyrausta machteralis, larva and moth. The outline figures show the natural sizes. (From Indian Museum Notes. 1 Distribution. -Nilambur. Probably throughout Plains. Lifehistory. The small, round, greenish eggs are laid singlj on the backs ol young Teak leaves, close to a rib or veinlet. The mature larva is about 24 mm. long, elongate, moderately stout, pale- green in colour with yellow sub-dorsal lines sometimes tinted with reddish-purple and a double scries of yellow purple-dott.d spots on each abdominal segment along either side of the mid-dorsal line. The larva feeds on the green matter of the leaf, leaving the bare skeleton, and the presence of such skeletonized leaves is highly < haracteristic of this insect. When full-fed, the larva pupates in a slight coeoon, usually formed inside a shrivelled and rolled leaf. I hi total lite-cycle is about 30 davs. (Hole.) Foodplanls. Tea k 1 Tectona grandis). PTERA . 443 Status. — May be a serious pest oi IV. ik Forests. Ai Nilambur the larvae have been noted to be kept in check by Mynahs. Remarks. -Hole (I.e.) quotes damastesalis, Wlk.. as a synonym of this insect, but Hampson (B.J., XV, 221) had already pointed out that damastesalis, Wlk.. is a Pionea and the same species as leucanalis, Swinh. I presume that the Teak defoliator is macharalis, Wlk., and have therefore retained the name in the absence of specimens from Nilambur. PTLROPHOKIKl SPHENARCHES CAFFER, Z. Oxyptilus caffer, Zeller, Linn. Ent., VI, 348. Sphenarches caffer, Wlsm., I.M.N., II, 20 figs. ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind., I, 220; End. Ins. Life, p. 528. f. 343; Fletcher, Spol. Zevl.. VI. 21. t. E., I. S, 10, t. F., f. I (1909)- o^' Sphenarches caffer, larva, pupa and moth. The outline 1 show the natural mala Distribution. — Throughout Southern India, in the Plains and Hills. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid singly on buds and leaves. The full- grown caterpillar is about 7 mm. long, rather stout, segments well marked, all legs long and slender, all segments with a few large mitting long hairs of which two on each side have palmate tips and the whole body alsocloselj studded with short white club- bed hairs ; in colour variable, paler or darker green or greenish- yellow, with a narrow darker line along the back and a series of reddish spots forming a stripe along the sides. Pupa pale pink and greenish. 1 o\ ered with complex spines ; attached by the tail to the undersurface of the mid-rib of a leaf or to a stem : pupal period about 5 — 7 days. 444 IH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC Foodplants. — Bottle-Gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris), Dolichos lab-lab, and various other plants. Status. -A minor pest of Bottle-Gourd and Lab-lab. Control. Spraying in small areas. Remedial measures are rarely necessary. PLATYPTILIA PISILLIDACTYLA. Wlk. Oxypt ilus pusillidactylus, Wlk., Cat. XXX, 933 (1864). Platyptilia pusiUidactyla, Fletcher. Spol. Zeyl.. VI, 13, t. A, f. 2. t. E, ff. 5, 6. M. — Platyptilia pusiUidactyla. The small figure shows the .1 size. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India to about 5. 000 feet. Lifehistory. -The very pale greenish-yellow eggs are laid singly on terminal shoots of the flower-bud, into which the caterpillar bores and lives. The caterpillar is about 5 mm. long, stout, pale yellow and without hairs. The pale-yellow pupa is found in a regular cocoon formed of bits of vegetable matter spun together with silk and placed in .1 cavity gnawed into the side of the fruit- receptacle. Foodplant. Lantana. Status. — Beneficial in Districts invaded by Lantana. Where attacked by this caterpillar bunches of fruit contain only a few shrivelled fruits instead of a dozen or more plump ones. This little moth is therefore a factor of some importance in checking the spread of Lantana through the dispersal of the seeds by Birds. EXELASTIS ATO.MOSA. Wlsm. Aciptilia atomosa, Wlsm., P.Z.S. (1885), 885. Exelastis atomosa, Meyr., B.J., XVII, 730; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., hid.. I. 210, ff. 67. 68 ; Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 527 528, t. 53. (See Plate XXXYliu Distribution.— Throughout the Plains of Southern India. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXV EXELASTIS ATOMOS i... i . I n d ur.iMi -'. Kggs. magnified. , 3. Larva, magnifi , 4. Details of larva. , 5. Pupa on portion of pod of red gram, magnified, , 6, 7. Moths, magnified. The lines :i li n | sifl he n ' :> < '* si/.es. ) ^•ym / EXELASTIS ATOMOSA. LEPIDOPTERA. 445 Lifehistory. — The pale-green eggs are laid singly on young pods and leaves of the foodplant, the caterpillar boring into the pod and devouring the seed. The caterpillar is about 10 mm. noderately stout, denselj clothed with short hairs and with long spines emitted from raised warts ; in colour it is green, usually with a pink or brown stripe down the back. Pupa thickly clothed with spinous hairs, attached by the tail, greenish or pinkish. Foodplants. Red Gram (Cajanus indicus), Dolichos lab-lab. Status. An important pest of Red Gram and Lab-lab. Control. — ? PTEROPHORUS LIENIGIANUS, Z. Pterophorus Uenigianus, Zeller, Linn. Ent., VI, 380 ; Meyr., T.E.S. (1907), 407; Fletcher, Spol. Zcylan., VI, 34-35 (1909). Pterophorus serindibanus. Moore, Lip. Cej Ion. Ill, 527. t. 209, f. 14. /'/, r< phorns Uenigianus. The -mall figure sh(«s the 1 size. (Original.) Distribution. Godavari, Coimbatore. Probablj throughoul Southern India. Lifehistory. Caterpillar about 8 10 mm. long, moderatelj stout, hairy, very pale yellowish, head brown. Foodplants. — Brinjal (Solatium melongena). [In Europe on Artemisia vulgaris. Doubtless polyphagous.] Status.— Scarcely a pest. Caterpillars found eating leaves "1 I'.i in jal on iv. 0 occasions. Remarks. — The moths seem to run much smaller than European specimens but otherwise do not seem to differ. 446 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. ZEUZERJD /,EIZERA COFFE.E. Nietn. f ///, Red Borer oj ( offee.) Zeuzera cofiece, Nietner, Edin. New. Phil. Journ., XV, 36 (1862) llmpsn.. Faun. Iml. Moths, I, 312 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept, [nd., I, 156, f. 41 ; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 496. I [G. US.— Zeuzera coffea : larva inside stem, pupa projecting from larval gallery after emergence ol moth, pupa removed from cocoon, and moth. (After Indian Museum Notes.) Distribution. Throughout the Hills of Southern India. Lifehistory. Caterpillar about 50 mm. long, stout, smooth, in colour red-brown ; it bores into stems and branches of Coffee. Tea, etc. Pupa red-brown, provided with bands of hooked spines; in larval burrow. Foodplants. Coffee, Tea. Sandal (Santalum album), etc. Status. — Often does a considerable amount of damage in plant- ing Districts but not looked on as a verj serious pest as a rule. (antral. — The entrance ol the larval burrow is usually marked by the extrusion of excrement and wood-dust. The caterpillar maj be cut out, or the burrow syringed with a mixture of Chloroform 2 parts, Creosote I part. AZVGOPHLEPS SCALAK1S. Fab. Hepialus scalaris, Fab., Mant. Ins., II, 135. Cossus .scalaris. Fab., Ent. Syst., III. pt. 2, p. 5 (1794). ophleps scalaris, Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths. I, 310, f. 211; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 496. i IF] ERA. 447 ophleps scahtris. l< Iriginal.) Distribution. -Throughoul the Plains oi Southern India. Lifehistory. — The pale-yellowish eggs are laid in a mass which may contain upwards of 2.000 eggs and which is placed between two leaflets of Agathi which have folded together for the night; the egg-mass is cemented together and to the leaves by a sticky secretion which rapidly hardens. The young caterpillars hatch out, usually in the morning, after about six days and lower them- selves by slender silken threads by which they swing freely in the air and are dispersed by the wind on to neighbouring plants, which they attack at the growing-point, tunnelling down into the main where the rest of their larval lite is passed. The newly hatched -pillar is about ti mm. long, with a black head and greyish body studded with pinkish warts. Tin- full-grown caterpillar is ab,,ut 60—75 mm- long, slender, with slight transverse humps on the back of the body-segments, in colour opaque white, the head and the large prothoracic plate red-brown. The cater- pillar bo- n, its tunnel being filled with frass which is occasionally ejected through holes bitten in the side-walls ol the stem. On attaining full growth, the caterpillar bites an exit hole almost through the outer portion of the stem and, 1 spinning some silken partitions across its gallery, transforms into an elongate blunt red-brown pupa provided with bands of hooked spines almost encircling the segments. The total life-cycle Egg six days, larva 50 80 days, pupa 14 (5 d; Foodplants. — Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora), chithagathi fS. 1 (aincha fS. aculeata). Status. A serious pest of agathi; an especially bad p young plants. Control. (1 ) In the 1 ithi plants height, the larval burrow may be slit up and tin' caterpillar killed. (2) Syringing .1 mixture oi chloroform 2 ; sote 1 part, into the larval burrow, which is marked by the mass of extruded excrement. 448 SOME SOLTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. PSYCH II >.H. CLANIA CRAMERI, Westwd. Oiketicus crameri, Westwd., P.Z.S. (1854). 236, t. 37, f. 4. Eumeta crameri, I. M.N., IV, 17-18, t. 3, t". 2. Clania crameri, Hmpsn., Faun. End. Moths, I, 291 ; Dungeon, B.J. XII, 643; Anstead, Planters Chron., VIII. 170; Watt and Mann. Pests of Tea. pp. 188 189, t. 7. f- 4- In.. 325. — Clania crameri, larva case and male moth. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.- -Not known in detail. The caterpillar lives in a case composed of silk overlaid with small twigs, grass-stems, etc., laid longitudinally to form a faggot-shaped bundle. Pupation inside the larval ease. The male moth is winged, the female a wingless grub, little more than a bag of eggs, which never leaves the case. The caterpillar feeds on both leaves and bark of tea-bushes. Foodplants. Polyphagous. Babul (Acacia arabica), Tea, etc. Status. Not a pest in the Plains but sometimes does a good deal of damage to Tea. Control. The larval cases are fairly easily seen and may be handpicked and burnt. Remarks. I have not seen specimens of C. crameri from the tea Districts and the name is given on the authority of Mr. Anstead who informs me that it does a good deal >>t damage to tea some- times. It is possible that Clania variegata is really referred to (See Hmpsn.. Faun. End. Moths, I, 291. I. 200; Hell, B.J., XVII, 837 — 840, fig.). The habits and general appearance of both insects are almost identical. ZYG^NID/E. HETERUSIA Y1RESCENS, Butl Heterusia virescens, Butler. III. Het. v. 21. t. .S3, Ind. Moths, I, 262. 3 ; Hmpsn., Faun, LEPIDOPTER \. 449 fit terusia viri Distribution. - Nilgiris. Wynaad. Lifehistory — Not known. Probably very similar to t hat of //. cingala. Foodplants. I • Status. An occasional local pest ot tea, tin- cater- pillars sometimes stri] the bus Control. -Collection of the caterpillars by hand and ot the moths by hand-nets. The moths fly by day. Remarks, (i) Apparently onlj once reported as doing damage in Southern India. The outbreaks in the case of the allied //. cingala Ion are usually sporadic and severe in circumscribed areas hut parasites soon increase in numbers and hold the moth in check. (2) I am indebted to Dr. Coleman tor the loan of the specimen from which the figure has been drawn. EUCOSM1D/E. AKi.YROPLOCE ILLEPIDA, Butl. Teras illepida, Butler, T.E.S. 1882.. 42. Cryptophlebiacarpophaga, Wlsm, I.M.X.. IV. 106. t. 7. I. 1. ; Lefroy, bid. Ins. Life. p. 53 1 . t. 28, \'\\ II 12. Cryptophlebia illepida, Walsm., Faun. Hawaii, I, 681. t. 10. (\. 23—25. Argyroploce illepida, Meyr., Rec. Ind. Mus., V, 218. . /r < . . * • . - '-a f ' of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs are laid singly, usually on the leaves at the upper part of plants. The caterpillar is about 9 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth except for a few short scattered hairs, in colour yellowish, with a brown head. It rolls and webs together the upper leaves of the food-plant, pupating in a scanty covering of white silk between the folds of a leaf. Pupa reddish-brown, in spun-up shoots of Cajanus indicus; pupal period about a week. Foodplants. — Red Gram (Cajanus indicus). Status.— A minor pest. LASPEYRESIA KOEN1GANA. Fb. Pyralis koenigana, Fab.. Ent. Syst. III. ii. 279 (17 No\ \ ■ 4. f. '■:. Laspeyresia aurantiana, Meyr.. P. L: - N.S.W., XXXVI, 292-293 (1911)- r The smal - the natur; Distribution. — Coimbatore. Probably throughout Southern India. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIX. EUCELIS CRITICA. Fig. i. Egg, magnified. ,, 2. Larva, m tgnified. ,, 3. I )etails of larva. I. Shoot of red gram showing rolled leaves and empty pupa-case projecting i ice of the moth. ,, 5, 6. Moths, magnifi I. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural si^es.) PLATE XXXIX. -' • EUCELIS CRITICA. PLATE XL. LASPF.YRESIA TRICENTRA. EXP1 ANA HON OF 1M ATE XL. LASPEYRESIA TRICEN IRA. ' ued . ;. Affected plant, showing pupa-case projecting from stem ir'ter emergence of moth. ;, 5. Pups, \e:itral and dorsal „ 6, 7. Moths, 1 (The lines alongside ihe ngnres show the natural sizes.) LEPIDOPTKK \. 451 Lifehistory and Foodplaitts.—Nol known. I have seen the moths flying around pomegranate and guava, one oi which is perhaps the food-plant. Status. — Not known as .1 pest. Remarks, (i) A common little moth which may be found to feed on cultivated crop-. (2) Fabricius description, which seems to have been looked hitherto, clearlv refers to this species and his name should be restored. LASPEYRESIA TRICENTRA, Mevr. Laspeyresia tricentra, Meyr., B.J., XVII, 734 (1907) ; P-Z.S 721 722: Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., ind., I, 222; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 531- (Si 1: l'i \tk XL.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. The caterpillar is about 6 mm. long, smooth, in colour dull whitish with dark-brown head and prothoracic shield, turning pinkish-red when full-fed. It tunnels in the stems of Crotalaria, causing a characteristic gall-like swelling, in which it pupates. Foodplants- Sann Hemp (Crotalaria juticea) and probably other varieties of Crotalaria. Status.- A minor pest, only noted as doing any damage in the Northern Circa rs. LASPEYRESI \ TORODELTA, Mevr. Laspeyresia torodelta. Mej r., B.J., XXII. 772 0014). Distribution- Coimbatore, Malabar. Lifehistory. The cater- pillar is upwards of 10 mm. long, slender, with short hairs scattered over the body, in colour pale green with a reddish head. It bor< s into the giowing tip- of the stein of the foodplant, devouring the tissues of the stem so that this droop sand dies. Pupa- tion in the larval burrow ; Pupal period about ten days. Foodplant.- Lab-lab (Do- lichos lab-lab). ! Laspeyresa torodelta. The Status— A minor pest, outline figure shows the natural size. , ■ , doing most damage to young << )nginal.) 29-A Plants" 452 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. TORTRICID/E. HOMONA COFFEARIA. Nietn. Tortrix coffearia, Nictn., Obs. Enemies Coffee-tree. pp. 4, 24 (1861). Homonafasciculana, Wlk., Cat. XXVIII. 424 (1863). Capua coffearia, I.M.N.. V. [87-188; Green, Perad Circ. II. No. 3. tab. 11, No. 17. PP. 237 238. ^ . 330. — Homona coffearia. 1. Eggmass, natural size, on tea leaf; 2,3, Larva, natural size .md magnified; 4, 5, Pupa, natural size and magnified; 6, Male moth in resting attitude ; 7, 8, Male moth, magnified and natural size; 9, Female moth in resting attitude; 10, 11. Female moth, magnified and natural size. (Figs. 1 — 6 and 9 after Green). PLATE XLI mi! ARBELA TERAONIS. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. I. AK11ELA TETRAONIS. Fig. i. 2. I-arva. 3. Details of Ian a. 4. Pupa. ;, 6. Details of pupa. 7. Moth. 8. Larval gallery, composed of silk and on frass, branch of tree. The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) LEPIDOPTEKA. 453 Distribution. — Tea districts. Lifehistory. — The pale-yellow eggs are laid in compart masses nil the upper-side of mature leaves. Th< young caterpillars arr at first more or less gregarious but separate after the first moult. When full-grown the caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, pale green in colour with a shining black head and prothoracic plate. It spins ther two or more leaves to form a shelter, often enclosing a young shoot, nibbling the leaves and buds here and there and destroying far more than it eats. The reddish-brown pupa is found in the larval shelter. Foodplants. Tea. Coffee, Acacias, Albizzias, Eucalyptus, etc. (Green). Status. The "Flush Worm" does considerable damage- in all Tea districts of Southern India. Control. — (i) Collection and destruction of egg-masses. (2) Collection and destruction of all twisted leaves containing caterpillars and pupae. (3) The female moths have been found to be attracted by suspending withered Grevillea branches between the rows of tea- bushes. The branches are slung from sticks about 40 feet apart so that the bottom of the branch is level with the tops of the tea- bushes. The dry brandies are visited daily and shaken into a sack which is then banged on the ground to kill the moths. Remarks. II- coflearia has not been definitely recorded from Southern India and is included here on the authority of Mr. Anstead. Particulars of lifehistory, foodplants and control are based on work in Ceylon. ARBELID/E. " ARBELA " TETRAONIS. Moore. Arbela tetraonis, Moore. P.Z.S. (1879), 411, t. 34, f. 3; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I. 3 1 5 ; Let'roy. bid. Ins. Life, p. 403. t. 45 : V. S. Iyer, Ind. Forest Bull. Xo. 11. pp. 3 7, t. 1-2. Plate xld. Distribution. Nellore, North and South Arcot. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The e>;gs are probably laid singly in bark. The larva on hatching bores a gallery into the stem or a branch and from this it emerges to feed on the bark under cover ot a long gallery ot silk overlaid with small fragments of wood. Pupa red-brown provided with rings of hooks on the segments, in the larval gallery in the stem. The life-cycle is probably: eg^s laid June-July, larvae feci July-April, pupae May-June, moths June-July. 454 E SOI Til INDIAN INSECTS, Foodplants. — Casuarina, Rain-Tree (Pithecolobium samanj, and various soft-wooded trees. Status. Has been noted as doing serious damage to Casuarina, especially in dry seasons. Control.— The larval galleries and freshly-eaten hark around them are evidence of the presence of the caterpillar which is readily destroyed by syringing into its burrow a mixture of 2 parts chloroform and one part creosote. NOTE. The generic name Arbela, being pre-occuped in Rhyn- chota, is not available lor tins genus of Lepidoptera. It seems, however, unnecessary to introduce a new term here. GELECHIAD/E. GELECH1A GOSSYPIELLA, Saunders. (Pink Bollworm.) Depressaria gossypiella, Saund., T.E.S., III. 283 (1842). Gelechia gossypiella, Meyr., B.J., XVI, 502 ; Wlsm., Faun. Hawaii, 1. 73] 7 '33 : Durrant, Bull. Ent. Res.. Ill, 203 206. fig. ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 93, ft'. 104 too; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept. Ind., I, 223, f. 69; End. Ins. Life, p. 534. f- 344- (See Plate XLEL) Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The eggs are laid singly on Cotton-bolls, into which the caterpillar bores, feeding on the oily seeds. The young eater- pillar is whitish, but when older it assumes a pink tinge until, when full-grown, it is almost of a salmon-red colour. It is then about [5 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth except for a few short scattered bristly hairs, with a brown head and prothoracic shield. Pupa brownish, in a slight eoeoon formed on the stem of the foodplant, 111 or on the soil, or in the expanded boll itself. Foodplants. Cotton. Sttitus. A serious pest of cotton, sometimes doing great damage. 1 ially to exotic varieties. Control. (1) Picking and destruction of first-attacked bolls. •2) Careful removal from the field Ol all open but damaged bolls. Leaving these on the bushes, as not worth plucking, invites attack of this and other cotton pests. GNORIMOSCHEMA HELIOPA, Lower. Gelechia heliopa, Low., P. Linn. Soc, N.S.W. (1900). 417. Gnorimoschema heliopa, Meyr.. B.J., XVI, 592 (1905); P. Linn. Soc, N.S.W. (11)04). 320-321 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 156; Ent. Mem. Agii. Dept. Imk. 1. 224; bid. Ins. Life, pp. 534-535; A.J., 1.. lll.pt. 1, tab. (SEE PLATE XLII1.) EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. II. GELECHIA <,(»s\ I'll. I LA. Fig, i . Eggs, enlargi d. 2. Young larva. ;. Adult Ian a. |. I'upa. 5. Infested cotton-boll. '1. Larva inside cotton-seed. ;. 8. Moth. (The lines .1 loin- 1 li the figures sho« the natural si/e».) PLATE XLII. •* GELECHIA GOSSYPIELLA. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIII. GNORIMOSCHEMA HELIOPA. Fig. i, 2. Eggs. ,,. 3, 4. Affected tobacco-steins, showing characteristic swelling and mode of entry of larva. ., 5. Larva. 6. Pupa. 7, 9. Moth. „ 8. Side-view of head of moth. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural sizes.) PLATE XLNI. GNORIMOSCHEMA HELIOPA. FLATE XLIV < •';. © • ORIM>EA OPERCULELLA EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIV. I'll IHORIM.F.A OPERCULELLA. Fig. i. Potato plant, showing injury to growing plant caused by larvx. ,, 2. Moth resting on leaf. ., j. Potato tuber showing evidence of larval attack in the masses of excrement at the eyes. There is also a cocoon on the tuber. ,. 4. Tuber cut open showing damage done by larva. ,, 5. Tuber cut open showing larval track and pupa. ., '1 Young larva, magnified. 7. Male moth, magnified. ,, 8, 9. Female moths, magnified. , 10. Pupa, magnified. 11. Full grown larva, magnified. 12. Eggs deposited at the eyes of a potato tuber, magnified. (The lines alongside the figures show the natural si/cs.) LEPIDOPTERA. 455 Distribution. Godavari, Bellary, Anantapur, Coimbatore. Prob- ably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid singly on t lie stalk or rib of a leaf, the newlj hatched caterpillar boring down through the stalk into the stem in which it passes the rest of its immature life, causing a characteristic swelling of the stem. The full-grown caterpillar is about 10 mm. long, whitish or pale pink, with a darker head. When full-fed it changes to a yellowish brown pupa inside the gall-like swelling. Foodplant. Toba Status. — Usually rather a minor pest of tobacco in Southern India, occasionally doing serious damage. Control, -(i) Killing the caterpillar by slitting the gall with a sharp knife. 2 Removal and destruction of all old stumps of tobacco- plants as soon as the crop is harvested. Remarks. The hindwing of the moth should be more pointed than is indicated on the Plate. PHTllORIMKA OPERCULELLA, Z. Gelechia opercnlella, Zeller, Verh., Z-B. Ges. Wien, XXIII. 262-263. 1. 3, f- 17(1873)- Bryotropha solandla. Boisd., J.B., Soc. Centr. Hon.. XI 1 1874). Phthorimaca opercnlella. Meyr., K.M.M. ( 1902). 103-104; Busck. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. XXV, 821 822, t. 30, f . [9; Wlsm., Faun.. Hawaii. I. 483 4S5. t. 13. f. 27 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 535. t. 57 ; A. J.. I.. V, 19 2S. t. 1 (Jan. [910); Chittenden. U.S.A. Entom. Circ. No. 162 (1912). (SEE I'L.vi K XI.IY.i Distribution.— Bangalore, Xilgiris up to 7,000 feet. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid on stored potatoes into which the caterpillars tunnel. Caterpillar about 10 mm. long, smooth, with .1 few scattered short hairs, in colour white with dark-brown head and prothoracic shield. Pupa pah- brown, in a cocoon on the out- side of a potato-tuber or in any convenient situation giving a little shelter. Foo i 5 >oes. Status. A serious pest of stored pot il Control.- Storage of potatoes under drj sand, examining about twice a month and rejecting and destroying all affected tubers. Remarks. < hitside of India the caterpillar is known to mine in the leaves of potato and tobacco in the tield. as shown in the Plate and is sometimes a serious pest of tobacco. But SO far. it has only been noted as damaging stored potatoes in Southern India. 456 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. S] I < >I ROGA CEREALELLA, Oliv. Alucita cerealella.— Olivier, Enc. Meth., IV (Ins. L), 121 (1789). Sitotroga cerealella. — Meyr., B.J., W'l. 59] (1905); Busck, Pro.'. U.S. Nat. Mus., XXV, 782, t. 28, f. 3. Distribution. Throughout South' em [ndia. Lifehistory. Eggs are laid on grain into which the caterpillar bores. This is a short, stout, whitish grub with poorly-developed legs ; when full-fed, it is about 4 nun. long. Pupation inside the grain. Food. Stored grain (Paddy. Maize, etc.) Status. — Not noticed much as a rule but a strums pest ol stored grain and in the aggregate must do a great deal of damage. Sitotroga cerealella. Fumigation and pre- nicjtli and larva. 1 he outline ...... , ., , , servation .> gram in mseet-proot figun >how the natural sizes. «=»»«»" & (Original.) receptacles. <5?32i DICHOMERIS IANTHES, Meyr. Hypsoloplms ianthes.- Meyr., T-E.S. (1887), 273-274. Ypsolophus ianthes. — Meyr., Rec. Ind. Mus.. V, 223; T. Linn. Soc. (2) XIV. 275. Ypsolophus oclirophanes.— Meyr., H.J. XVII. 981 (1907); Lefroy, In. I. Ins. Lite. pp. 533-534- Dichomeris ianthes— -Meyr., BJ. XXII., 172 (1013). I ,,, (32. — Dichomeris matins, moth and profile view "I head. Tin outlim !i ure shows the natural size. I Original.) IPTERA. 457 Distribution. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India Lifehislory. " Larv smooth and nearly hairless, with small lateral black spots, and black head and prothoracic shield. h webs together two top leaves and lives within, eating holes in the neighbouring leaves." (Lei W,////.v. -I,<.'i;unn . irious kinds, especially lucerne, Status. — Has been noted as an occasional pest of indigo, but not hitherto in Southern India. AI'Ko.KKKMA NERTERIA, Meyr. 1. PUCHI.) Fig. Hi. — Aprotcrcma nerteria. (Original.) 458 SOME miCTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Anacampsis nerteria. Meyr., B.J.. XVII. 130 11906) ; Lefroy. Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept-. Ind., I, 226 ; Ind. Ins. Life. p. 534. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The egg is laid on leaves oi shoots of groundnut, the caterpillar on emerging mining into the leaves, the mine show- ing as a yellowish or brownish blotch on the leaf. After about a week, the caterpillar emerges from the mine and webs together small leaflets, still continuing to feed on the green leaf-tissues. When full-fed it is about 6 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth, with a few scattered short bristly hairs arising from minute blackish chitinous warts, in colour pale greenish, head and prothoracic shield blackish. Pupa yellowish or reddish-brown, in the chamber formed of spun leaflets. Life-cycle, egg three days, caterpillar 12-14 'iays. pupa four days. Foodplants. — Ground-nut. Red Gram (Cajanus indicus), Psoralea corylifolia. Status. A serious pest of ground-nut. Control. — Light-traps have some considerable attraction for the moths, but no really effective method has vet been worked out. COSMOPTERYGID/E. PYRODERCES CORIACELLA, Snell. f •-.- - coriacelhi, moth .iiul profile view "I head. small outline figure shows the natural size. (Original.! Batrachedra coriacella. Snellen. Tijd. v. Ent.. XLIV. 95, t. 6, f. 17 (1901). matophora gossy- piella. Wlsm., A.M.N.H. [7) Will. [78 179 (1906); Mor. statt, Pflanzer, Ylll. 253 (1912). Pyroderces s i m /> / r x . Wlsm.; Durrant, Bull. Ent. Re-.. 111. 206 207. f. 2 1 1912) [part.]. Stagmatophora coriacella, Meyr. T.E.S. (19IO), 372. D i s t r i b 11 1 i 0 11. — South Arcot. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. LEPIDOPTERA. 431) Li/ehistory.— Not known. Bred from ripe cotton-bolls, cater- pillar probably feeding on the seeds. Foodplants. Cotton. Status. — Doubtful. Will probably pro\ e to be injurious to stored -red. Remarks. South Indian specimens have kindly been identified b Mr. Mevriek. It is possible that P. simplex, Wlsm. (T.E.S. (1891). 1. 58) is a prior name as stated by Durrant (l.c.l but, as this synonymy i> doubtful. Snellen's name is retained for the present. CECOPHORID/E. 1. INICA ZIZYPHI, Stn. Depressaria zisyphi, Stainton, T.E.S. (N.S.), V, 115 116 ( 1K50). Depressaria augusta, Wlsm., Moore- Lep. Ceylon, III. 508, t. 209, f. 5- Tonica zizyphi, Meyr., B.J., XX. [67 (1910). <§&s> uzyphi. The small outlii ws the natura ( Original.) Distribution. Coimbatore; Palm Hills. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The caterpillar is about 8 mm. long, slender, yellow- ish-green with a black head. It folds orange leaves longitudinally, feeding on young leaves and the green matter of older ones. Pupa Omm. long, reddish-brown, in a cocoon of transparent white silk spun in the folded leaf; pupal period about four to five days. . itrus of vai Lemon. 1 1 Status. A very minor pest, occasionally injurious by eatii the tender shoots of young plants. Control. Hand-picking of caterpillars in the folded lea\ 460 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. XYLORYCTID/E. NEPHANTIS SERINOPA, Meyr. Nephantis serinopa, Meyr., B.J., XVI. 603 (1905); Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 535 536. Fig. 55Ci. — Nephantis serinopa. Portion of Palm-leaf eaten by larva, and moth (natural size and magnified). (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs, which turn pinkish after deposition, are laid in small batches of a dozen or twenty together amongst the trass and debris of larval galleries on palm leaves. The caterpillar constructs a galler} "t silk and excrementitious matter over the lower surface of palm leaves, eating away the green matter and reducing the leaf to a thin membrane so that it dries up and dies. In cases of bad infestation, practically the whole leaf may be eaten \\ 1 . onlj the ribs remaining. The caterpillar is about 25 mm. long, in colour greenish with faint paler lines along the body and a black head. Pupa slender, dark red-brown, in a cocoon spun in the Ian al gallery. Foodplants. — Coconut and Palmyra palms. Possibly on other palms also. Not yet noted on Date or Arecanut palms. LEPIDOPTERA. 461 Status. -A serious pest oftheCoconut palm, no) damaging Pal- mj ras much as .1 rule. Control. (11 Cutting and burning of first attacked branches. (2) Catching of moths in light-traps I Spraying with lead arsenate 01 other stomach-poison in the case ol small arras and ornamental palms. riN^EGERIAD I ERE1 MOCER \ IMPACTELLA. Wlk. Getcchiat impactella, Wlk.. Cat. XXIX. 637. Eretmoccra impactella, Wlsm., T.E.S. (1889), 34-35, 39, 1. 6, 1. [8; Hmpsn., Faun. Ind. Moths, I. 208, f. [35 : Lefroy, tnd. Ins. Life, p. 537. FlC. Si7. — Eretmoccra impactella. The small figure sln.u s tin- natural size. iaal.1 Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Xot known. Foodplants. - Amaranthus. Status. Xot known as a pest. Remarks. A common and conspicuous little moth which Hies by • lav and also commonly comes in to light at night. HYPONI IMETJ I'lIi.K. EVA FABRICIELL \. Swed. Phalcena Tinea fabriciella, Swederus, Kngl. Svensk. Vet. Ak. Handl, VIII, 277(1787). (',»i>i<;i niviguttclla, Wlk.. Cat. XXYIII. 542 543 1 iv At leva fabriciella, Wlsm. in Swinh. Cat. Het. Oxf. Mus., If, 559 (1900). Distribution. Nilgiris, Coimbatore. 402 SOME MilTIl INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Fig. 338. Atteva fabriciclla. 1 . Leaf oi A ilanthus excelsa webbed and eaten by larvae (the mine of a sfnall leaf -miner is al o hown !,Yi an I arva ; 3, Full-grown Larva ; 4, Pupa enclosed in cocoon; 5, 6, Moth, enlarged and natural size. (( )riginah) Lifehistory. The eggs are creamy-white, rounded, Battened, and beautifully sculptured; they are laid, usually on tine lower surface of leaves, either singly or in small groups. The caterpillars live gregariously in a common web of fine silk spun over the leaves and shoots of the foodplant, which, in conjunction with larvae of Eligma narcissus, they may sometimes completely defoliate. The full- grown caterpillar is about 20 mm. long, moderately stout, smooth, with scattered short hairs arising from small whitish warts, head bla< kish, body greenish-grey with paler longitudinal stripes, one faint one down the back edged on either side by a more distinct stripe-, and a well-defined stripe along each side. Pupa orange- brown, in a transparent boat-shaped cocoon spun in the common web; pupal period about ten days. Foodplants. Ailanthus excelsa. Status. An occasional serious pesl of Ailanthus. 1 I PID< (PTERA. 463 Control. The common webs are conspicuous and easily torn down and the caterpillars destroyed. Ornamental specimens of AilaMthus may be sprayed with Lead Arsenate or other stomach poison. Remarks. The closely-allied .!. niveigutta, Wlk. known from Bengal, Silhet and China, feeds on Ailanthus excelsa, larvae in a common very fine web. At times a perfect pest, denuding the tree of it> lea\ es. See Wlsm. H.c). GLYPHIPTERYGID 1 PHYCODES RADIATA, Ochs. Chinitem radiata, < )chs . Schmett. Europ., II. 5 6 1 [808). Phycodes hiriidinicornis, Guen., Noct., II. 389, 1249. t. 13. 1. 5 1 [852). Tegna hyblwella, Wlk., Cat. XXXV, [810 fi866 F01 tyeth, [) 579, t. 14, f. 10. Phycodes radiata, Wlsm. in Swinh. Cat. Lep. Oxon. Mus., II, 568 In. I. Ins. Life, ]>. 538, t. 52, fif. 7 TO. I 1 Phycodes radiata, larva and moth. I Distribution. Bellarj ably throughout the Plains. ' iterpillar about 20 mm. long, moderated stout, rather flattened, smooth, with scattered short hairs, in colour dull yellowish-white with a broad interrupted dark | ,ng the side, head and prol 1 red-brown, a broad dark hand trans\ i - the hack of meso-and meta-thora< i< segments. 464 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC The caterpillar rolls leaves of Fiats. Pupa red-brown, in a tough paper-like cocoon, occasionally spun on a leaf but more usuallj in .1 crack of the bark or similar situation ; pupal period about 15 days. Foodplants. -Ficusoi various spi Status. -Occasionally in such numbers as to do damaj Fig-trees. Control . ': I'UTHI.Un.l PLUTELL \ M \< ULIPENNIS, Curt. Cerostoma maculipennis, Curt., Brit. Ent., IX, t. 420 (1832). Pltttella cruciferarum, Zeller, Stett. Ent. Zeit, IV. 281 283 (1843) ; Quanjer, Tidjs. Ent. (1906). II, 17, t. 1 2. Plutella maculipennis, Meyr., Rec. Ind- Mus., V. 229; Lefroy, bid. Ins. Pests, p. 152, ff. 170 i/i; Ent. Mem. Dep. Agri., Ind., I. 225. f. 69; Ind. Ins. I. ilc, p. 538, f. 345. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — The eggs arc laid singly on leaves. The full-grown caterpillar is about 8 mm. long, moderately stout, attenuated at each extremity, smooth, with short scattered bristly hair>. in colour pale-green with a pale-brown head and prothoracic shield. Pupa in a slight silken cocoon <>t open texture; pupal period about ten days. Foodplants. — Cabbage, cauliflower, radish, mustard, and other cruciferous plants. Status. — The caterpillar eats holes in the leaves of cabbage, etc., and may sometimes almost skeletonize the leaf. A minor pest as a rule. Control. -Spraying with Naphthaline Emulsion in the case of edible plants. IIILAROGRAPHA CAMINODES, Meyr. Hilarographa caminodes, Meyr.. B.J., XVI. 610 (1905) ; G Perad Circ, II, 17, p. 250 (not named). Lifehistory and Foodplants. The larva bores in the root of cultivated Cardamoms and in wild Zingiberaceous plants. The eggs are laid on the exposed upper part of the bulb; the stem propei is able to resist attack (Green). Control. — Green (I.e.) suggests earthing over the exposed bulbs. Remarks. Recorded as .1 pest of Cardamoms in Ceylon. Not yet noted from India, so far as 1 am await-, but included here as it is likely to occur. I have been unable to obtain a specimen for illustration. itella maculipcnnis. 1.1 I.KI'IIX (PTERA. 465 PHYLLOCNISTID^ 1'IIN !.!.< >C\ISI IS (I I KKI.I. \. Sin. Phylloaiistis citrella, Stainton, l.K.S. (n.s.), III. 302 303 (1856); Meyr., Ann. S. Mr. (Mus. [909), p. 360. Fig. (41. Phylloaiistis citrella. I if and moth. II ' urc within tin- dotted circli I ural Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Hie minute, almost legless, transparent pali . 1 aterpillar mines tunnels between the epidermal layers of Citrus leaves. Pupa minute, yellowish, in the larval mine. Foodplants- < >range. Status.- A minor pest as a rule, occasionally occun large numbers that ever) leal is badly mined. Control. The inseel is so minute that it is little noticed, altl the larval galleries are fairly evident. As the 1 aterpillar mines inside the leaf it cannot be attacked by a contact or stomach -pray. The onl) practical method seems to be (i) fumigal ?° )(,., SOM1 SO! Ill INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. attacked trees, <>r (ii) crushing the caterpillars in their mines by hand. Remarks. Phyllocnistis minutella, Snell. (Tijds v. Ent. (1903), 87 ; van Deventer (I.e. J, i>]). 87 —89, t. iO, ft". 4 \ er the world ; attacking furs especially. Control. Proti Naphthaline and of mounted trophies oi Garni painting the >kin-> with an all solution of < \ LI I >.!•".. I'll ASM S M VLABARK US, Mo. Phassus in, il.it>, irn us. Moore, P.Z.S Hmpsn., Faun liul. Moth-. I. 321 ,,,s SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Fig. (44, Phassus nialabaricus in r< sting attitudi han in| From .1 twig. An. 1 Li froy.J Distribution. — Nilgiris ; Bangalore. Lifehistory. Hii caterpillai bores in roots and pupates in the larval burrow. Foodplant. — Has been reared from a tea-bush; probably on various roots. Status. — Not noted as .1 pest but may do damage. Control. — ? PLATE XXXXV. CHRYSOPA SP. EXPLANA I K)X OF PLATE XI A". I HRYS( >PA SP.' 1 i'.. t. (.roup i.i eggs laid on leaf. .'. A single egg on its stalk, magnified. 3. Young larva, magnified. .1. Full grown larva, magnified. 5. Full grown larva. 1 iteral view, showing empty skins of Aphids which it has devoured. b. Cocoon, magnified. 7. Adult By, magnified. nes alongside ihe figures show the natural sii«..) NEUROPTERA; RHYNCHOI \ 469 \l-.l R< >PTERA CHRYS< H'lD 1 CHRYSOPA Spp. PLATE XLV.) Clirysopa, Lefroy, In. I. Ins. Pests. P. 273. ff. 332, 334, 336, $37 j [nd. Ins. Life, pp. 154 [56, IV. 76 80. Distribution. — Throughoul the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The eggs, which are erected on the apex of long slender stalks, arc laid in small (lusters on leaves, twigs, etc. The larva is predaceous on Aphids which it sucks dry and (in some species) then places the empty skins on its back where thej are retained by long curved spines (see Plate). The larvae are active and voracious and destroy large numbers of Aphids. After feeding for about a week they form a rounded cocoon inside which the pupal period is passed. Food.- Aphids, especially on cotton and cholam. Status. — Extremely beneficial. R!l\ \< llol V PENTATOME COPTOSOMA CRIBRARIA, Kb. Cimex cribrarius. Fab., Km. Syst. Suppl., p. 531 (1798). Coptosoma cribrarium. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 22-23, f. 11 ; 1.' frov, Ind. Ins. Life. p. 672. a .. 345. — Coptosoma cribraria. The small outline figure shows the n. it ur Distribution. -Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.— The creamy-white elong ire laid in bat- ches of about 35 eggs arranged in two rows, their bases being opposed. The young bug emerges by pushing open the lid with which the egg is provided ; it is about '75 nim- long, shining orange in colour with red eyes. In their younger -tages they an rious but later on separate, living on the foodplant all their lives. 470 SOME SOUTH INDIAN [NSE< TS The life-cycle is :- Egg, six days, nymph 8 + ( to days, the nymphal periods representing those spent in each instar between the moults ; total, about seven weeks. [T.V.R.] Foodplants. -Lab-lab (Dolichos lab-lab), Green Gram (Phaseolus in lingo), Cluster Bean (Cyamopsis), Agathi (Sesbania grandi flora). Also mi various wild Leguminosa I Co >sitae. Status. A minor pest of Lab-lab and Agathi. Control. Catching in small hand-nets. ( APP 1 \ I \l'k< IBANENSIS, Dall. Pentatoma taprobanensis, Dall.. List. Hem. I, 244(1851). CaPpaa taprobanensis, Dist., Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, [49. I- 88. Distribution. S h e v - Coonoor, Bababu- dins ; Malabar. /. if e h i story. Not known. All stages prob- ably passed on the tree. Foodplants. — Orange. Status. — Apparently a minor pest in the Hill Districts, the bugs sucking Fi&. 346. -Cabpcea taprobanensis. I hi ... r ., , „ ... 1 ,, .,,,..,1 the mice 01 the twigs and small outline figure shows the natural ize. (< iriginal.) shoots. Control. Collection by shaking over cloths, etc., spread under the tree. DOLYCORIS INDICTS. Stal. Dolycoris indiais, Stal., Enum. Hem, V, 70(1870); Distant, Faun. I„,l. Rhyn.. 1. 100, t. 96; Lefroy, Ind. ins. Life, p. 675, t. 73. f. to. X, /nx 1 ig. 347- Dolycoris indie us. The outline figure shows the natural size. (Original.) KHYM'IM H \. 47i Distribution. — -Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. -No1 know n. Foodplants. Cholam, Cumbu iPcnnisetum typhoidcuni), I tria italica), Wheat, Safflower, Sunflower. Status. A minor pi Control. Catching the bugs in hand- EUS \KC<>i i >RIS <.iii [GER, Thnb. Cintex guttiger, Thunberg, Nov. Ins. Sp., II. 32, 1. 2. 1. 47 m; Eusarcocoris guttiger, Dim.. Faun. nd. Rhyn., I. 165 ; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Life, t. 73, f. 5. Distribution. -T h roug h 0 u t the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory Not kno Foodplants- — C u m b u (Pennisetum typhoideum). St at US' — A minor pest of Cumbu. Control- Collection by hand-nets. SlirCOCOrlS Kllttl^ I . I In outline figure -.h"« s the natural size. (( Iriginal.) EUSARCOCORIS VENTRALIS, Westwd. Pentatoma ventralis, Westwd., Hopi Cat., I. 36(1837). Eusarcocoris ventralis, Distant, Faun. [nd. Rhyn., 1. [67. I mil.) 472 SOME SOUTH l\l)l.\\ INSECTS, ETC. Distribution.— Ganjam, Bangalore (Distant)' Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplants- Gingelly. St, tins. Found as a serious pest on one occasion. Control. Collection by hand-nets and by shaking plants over pans of water and oil. VNTESTIA ( Rl CIATA, id). Cimex cntciata, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 714 (1775). Antestia crnciata, Distant, Faun. [nd. Rhyn., I. 18.5 : Lcfroy, IihI. Ins. Pests, p. 235 ; Ent. Menu Agri. Dept., ind.. 1. 233. Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplants. ( offee, Jasmine. Status. — An occasionally serious pest of Coffee. Control. Collection in hand-nets and shaking bushes over pans of « atei and oil or over cloths saturated with oil. ic. 150. Antestia ciata. The outline --hows the natural (( (riijinal. size. AGONOSCELIS NUBILA, id). Cimex nubila, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 712(1775). Agonoscelis nitbila, Distant, Faun. [nd. Rhyn., I. [89. 1 1 1 nubila. The outline figure shows the natural size. 1 Original. kHY\CM> il \. 473 Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Nol known. Foodplants. Cholam, Cumbu (Pennisetum typhoideum), Wheat and i'n1- - Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum). Status. A minor pest, not yet noted as doing any serious damage. Control. Collection in hand-m Remarks. -Verj similar to Dolycoris iudicus in general appearance Am\ habits, but distinctlj smaller and the abdomen is not visible when the wings are i tosed and is unspotted. BAGK \i> \ Pit I A. id). Cinii'A picta, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 715 (1775). radapicta, Dist.. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I. [93 194, t. 116; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 233. i. 278; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. I. 232. 1 75 : Ind. Ins. Life, p. 676. I. 430. (See Pl \ 1 1. 11. Fig. to.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory- Not known in detail. Foodplants. Cruciferous plants (Cabbage, Cauliflower, Mustard Turnip, etc.). st, tins. A minoi pest ol Cabbage and Cauliflower. ( initial. Hand-picking. NEZARA VIRIDULA, Linn. ( imex viriduia, Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X). p. 444 1 [758). ',/ viriduia, Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I. 220. t. 1 }<; : Lefroj Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 168, f. 190 ; Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept.. Ind., I, 230. t ;} : Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 676, f. 440. . in, tut, 1. The untlini fi« hows thi inalj 4/4 S( (ME SOI in INDIAN INSECTS, ET< Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Foodplants. Cumbu (Pemiisetum typhoideuin), Wheal (Triticum sativum). Also found on Cholam, Ragi and various other plants. Status. Usually a minor pest of Cumbu and Wheat, sucking the juic es of the developing grain, occasionally doing serious damage- to Cumbu. Control. Collecting the bugs by hand or in hand-nets. PIEZODORUS RUBROFASCIATUS, Fl>. Citnex rubrofasciatus, Fab., Mant., 11. 293 (1787). Pi, odorus rubrofasciatus, Distant, Faun. hid. Rhyn., 1. 224 225, f. 142 ; Lefroy, Ind. [ns. late, p. 676, t. 74. f. 10. Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lift history. Not known. Foodplants. Cholam and Pulses fP/nr seolus) and oil most low-growing plants. Status.- A minor pest of Cholam and Pulses. Control. — Collection by hand and in hand-net-. Pi, odorus rubrofasciatus. I hi ontlim B ll" hows the ,1 size. (Original.) MENIDA HISTRIO, Fb Cimex histrio, Fab., Mant., H, 296 (1787). VtoMa histrio, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 228. ^-Menida histrio. The outli. ' ows the natural (Original Distribution. I hroughoul Southern India to aboul 4,000 feet. Lifchistory. Not known. Foodptants. m. .mil I'ii St.iius. A minor pest ol I'. Cunt mi. HE< ONA Fl RCELLATA, Wolff. C/w/rx furcellat us, Wolff, Ico V, 182, I 1.S01). Caiitliccona furceUata, Distant, Faun. In. I. Rhyn., I, 24S. f.158; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 677, t. 74. I. 2. Distribution. Throughout the Plains ol Southern India. Lifchistory. The nymphs tly coloured with pink and blue ; the) were found feeding on larva; of Athalia proximo. Food. Predaceous on Athalia proximo: doubtless also on various small caterpillars and other insi St, tins. Beneficial. 1. until, unci fur- the natural inal.) VNDRALLUS SPINIDENS, Fb. Fab., Mai ■- - 787). Audiiietia spinidens. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I. 2; . Ind. Ins. Life, t. 74, f. 5. Androllus, Dist. (I.e.), IV. 453 [Audiiietia nom. prasocc.]. Distribution, ["hroughout Southern India up to aboul | Lifehistory. Not known. Food 1 1 'oridea obsoleto. If" SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CYCL< (PEL I \ SICCIFOLIA, Westw. Aspongopus siccifolia, Westw., Hope Cat., 1, 26(1837). Cyclopelta siccifolia, Disl int, Faun. [nd. Rliyn.. I. 280 281. f. 178; Lefroy, End. Ins. Life, p. 678, t. 74. f. 11. Fig. 357. Cyclopelta siccifolia. 11 itlini figure shows the natui inal.l Distribution. Throughout Southern India. I. a, history. Not known in detail. Nymphs similar to adult but smaller and also feed on plants. Foodplants. -Red Gram (Cajanus indicus), Erythrina indica, Betel Vine (Piper betle). Status. Sometimes does considerable damage to Erythrina where this is used as a support for pepper-vines Control. These bugs are sluggish and inclined to be gregarious and are therefore easily collected by hand. ASPONGOPUS JAM'S. Fb. Cimex janus, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 714 0775)- Aspongopus janus, Distant. Faun. [nd. Rhyn., I, 281 282, f. 179; Lefroy, In. I. Ins. 1 ife, 1. 74. f. 3 ; M inn, B.J., XX, 1166-1167, figs. 1 158. — Aspongopus janus. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Earlj stages are passed on low-growing plants such as pulses. The nymph is orange-red with black legs and antenna: KIIYXCHOTA. 477 and black spots down the hark and a large black blotch on each side. Foodplants. -Most low-growing plant-. Status.— A minor post in vegetable plol ial, Lab-lab, Pumpkins, etc. Control.— Hand-picking. TETRODA HISTEROIDES, Fb. Acanthia histeroides, Fab.. Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 32(> (i; Tetroda histeroides, Distant, Faun. tnd. Rhyn., I. 299, f. 191. Tetroda histeroides. ['he outline figure shows the natural size. Distribution. Salem, Coimbatore. Lifehistory. -Not known. Foodplants. Paddy. St, tins. An occasional minor pest of paddy. Control. Collection by hand and in hand-i O >ri:ii ).!-:. 1 IPLOCNEMIS I'll VSIANA, lb. Lyga-us phasianus, Fab., Spei . Ins., II, p. 36] I [78] Anoplocnemis phasiana. Distant, Faun. !nd. Rhyn.. i. 340 347, t. 210 : Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 682, 1. 444 [verj poor figure]. \rf \noplocnemis phasiana, male. (Or 478 - SOU! II INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Distribution. Godavari, Bellary, Coimbatore. Common in the Hills. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Foodplants. Brinjal, Red Gram (Cajanus indicus), Green Gram (Phaseolus mungo), Cholam (Erythrina). Status. Not a pest in the plains but sometimes a serious pest of young Erythrina trees in the Hills. Control. Collection by hand. Remarks. Tin- adult bugs seem to pair off for life, a male and female being found i ommonly in close proximity. CLAY1GK ALL A GIBBOSA, Spin. Clavigralla gibbosa, Spinola, Ess., p. 202 (1837J ; Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 401 402, f. 235. ! 6). — Clavigralla gibbosa. The outlin ral size. Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Probably similar to that of ( . horrens. Foodplants. Red dram (Cajanus indicus), Lab-lab (Dolichos I, ib-lab). Stains. A minor pest of red gram and Lab-lab, sucking the juice of unripe seeds in the green pods. R11YM 1 1 • ■ 1 \ Control.' t nil ami water or over a cloth saturated with oil. CLAVIGRALLA HORRENS, Dohrn. Clavigralla horrens, Dohrn. Stett. Ent. Zc it. (i860), 403; Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 1. 402; Lefroy, Km. Mem. Dipt. Agri., In. I.. I. 234; linl. Ins. Liu-, t. 75 [as gibbosa]. Distribution. Th roughout tin- Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Sec coloured Red Gram (Cajanus indicus). Status. — A minor pest of red gram. Control.— Collection of the eggs (on pods', nymphs and bugs, and shaking the active stages off the plants into is of oil and water or onto cloths soaked in oil. H /*\ Plate in " Indian if \ Foodplai • lavigralla horrens. iiitline figure shows the natural siz< The "in LEPTOCORISA VARICORXIS, Fb. Gerris varicornis, Fab .. p. 260 (1803). Leptocorisa varicornis, Dis- tant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., I, 409 410, f. 241 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, i'. 116; Ent. Mem. Dept., Ind.. 1. 235, t. 70; II. 1 [3, t. I : Ind. Ins. Life, p. 0S4. f. 446. Distribution. -Throughout Southern India up to 4.000 feet. h is tory. The round- tl tttened, dark-brow: laid in row • and i nymphs are pale green with very long antennae; they ^llck the jllil es of their ' plant but are little noticeable 480 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. as they do not affect the exposed parts of the plant and readily drop to the ground when disturbed. The bugs especially attack the ripening grain, sucking the milky juice, so rhat the ears turn wholly or partly white, no grain being matured. FoodpLmts.— Paddy and wild gr ass - - rule. Occasionally on cholam, maize, ragi {Eleusine coracana). Status. — A serious pest of paddy, especially on the West ( Control. — Collection in hand-nets has been found the most efficient method. RIPTORTCS PEDESTRIS. Fb. Gerris pedestris, Fab. Syst. Ent. J2J JJ$ - Riptortus pfdestris. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. 1. 414. !. 244. ) < FlC. 364. — Hiptor! natural size. 'Original.' Distribution. -Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — The oval, dark-brown, seed-like eggs are laid singly, and apparently only a small numbt J) are deposited by one bug. The newly-hatched nymph is about 2'75 mm. long and looks like a small red ant. In the second instar it is about 4 mm. long, red-brown in colour and in general appearance lik. .-ant ophylla smaragdina). In the third instar it is about 6'5 mm. long and of a uniform dark colour, as it is in the fourth and fifth instars when it measures respectively 75 and II mm. in length. The nymph in the later stages is very active and hides itself away, so that it is little noticed. Life-cycle : egg. 6 days : nymph [T.V.R.] RHYXOHOTA. 48I Foodplants. — Lab-lab (Dolichos lab-lab), Cowpea (Vigna catjang), Luff a acutangula 'Tain., Pirkari), Black Gram (Phaseolus mango radiatus) Green Gram t cotton. Control. The bugs arc generally found in old open bolls left unplucked, or in bolls attacked by bollworm whose hole of exit they use as a means All such attacked and ripe bolls and this will prevenl the bugs from breeding. When the> are present in numbers they are readily col- 1 In shaking the bolls ovi 1 pans '>t oil and water or over oiled c loths. Remarks. Distant's descri] om Kirby's discoloured type) inco testhat the antenna- are unii olorous ; his figures also incorri I trds length ■>! the rostrum, whii h r--j well beyond the third pair of legs, and in omission of spinal arma- ture on anterior femora. I am indebted to Mr. Distant for the identification of this spei : APHANUS SORDIDUS. Fb. < imex sordidus, Fab., Mant, II. 302 (1, Aphanus sordidus, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II. 79 No. f. 62; Ind. Ins. Life, p. 689. ■ ■• natural inal.) Distribution. Throughoul Southern India. istory. Not known. 11 ir\ esl lundnut, cumbu, on the plants in the ti '■ I the thresh- roducts 3«-a 484 SOME SOL'TH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC PYRRHOCORIDjE. dysdercus ( [ngulatus, fb. Cimex cingulatus, Fab.. Syst. Ent., p. 719 (1775). Dysdercus cingulatus, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. II, 1 18 1 19, f. 87; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 104, f. 123, 125, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Intl.. I, 237, f. 78, II, 47 58, t. 5, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 692, t. 77. (See Plate XLVI.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory.- The creamy-yellow eggs are laid in small masses, usually in cracks of the soil. The young bugs hatch out after about a week and are bright rid in all their stages. They feed, often gregariously, fully exposed and are 1 consequently conspicuous. At certain times of the year adult bugs and young in all stages of growth may sometimes be found massed together in the open on tree-trunks, walls, etc., forming a scarlet splash of colour visible from a Ions distance. The length of the life-cycle is about 6 8 weeks. Foodplants. Cotton, bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus), Portia tree (Tiwspesia popttlneaj, asa rule. Also occasionally on various other plants. Status. A serious pest of cotton. Control. — The bugs are conspicuous, usually found on or near the boll and are easily collected by hand or in a bag fitted with a tin funnel. HXGIDID/E. STEPHANITIS TYPICUS, Dist. V Fig. 369. — Stephanitis typicus. Tin- lower figure shows a profile view of the head and thorax. The small outline figure shows the natural size. (After Distant.) EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVI. DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS. Fig. i. Group of eggs, natural si/e, and a single egg, magnified. On the right, without black background, is a single egg just before hatching. „ 2. Nymphs, first instar, immediately after hatching and later. 3. Nymph, second instar. ,, 4. ., third 11 5- „ fourth „ 6. „ fifth „ 7, 8. Adult bug, dorsal and ventral views. (The lines alongside the (inures show the natural sites.) FLATE XLVI. I ♦ i "4: H; DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS. kHYNCHOTA. 485 Cadamustus typicus, Distant, Ann. S.E. Belg., XLVII, 47 (1903), Faun. [nd. Rhyn., II. 132, f. 95- Stephanitis typicus, Dist., Rhyn., V, 108. Distribution. Coimbatore, Bellarj ■ ( rodavari. Probably through- out the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. -Not known. Nymphs are found on the under- surface of leaves together with the adults. Foodplants. Turmeric, plantain. Found on cardamom in Ceylon (( rreen 1. Status. A very minor pest of plantain and turmeric. The leaves, where punctured, are at lirst spotted with yellow and later the whole leaf assumes a pale unhealthy tinge. URENTIUS ECHINUS, Dist. Urentius echinus, Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II. 134, f. 97 (1903). Fig. 370. — dentins echinus. The lower figure shows a profile view of tin- head. The small outline figure shows the natural size. (After Distant.) Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known. Eggs and nymphs occur on the leaves of foodplant with adults. Foodplants. — Brinjal. Status. Sometimes a serious pest of brinjal. the leaves being sucked to such an extent that they turn yellow, iirv up, and fall off the plant. Control. Spraying with a contact insecticide, such as ("rude 1 )il Emulsion, in small areas where brinjal is grown as a garden crop. MONANTHIA GLOBULIFERA, Wlk. Tingis globulifera, Wlk.. ("at. llet.. VI, [82 (1873). Monanthia globulifera. Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II. 144, f. [07, V, 123-124; Lefrov. Ind. Ins. Life. p. 693. f. 460. 486 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. xoi FlG. 371. — Monanthia globulifera. The small figure shows the natural \ii. i Distant.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. —Not known. Foodplants. — Tulsi (Ocimutn sanctum), Safflower (Carthamus tinctoria). English Sage (Annandale). Status. Sometimes a serious pest of Tulsi, the attacked leaves turning yellow. REDUVUD^E. CONORHINUS RUBROFASCIATUS, de Geer. Cimex rubrofasciatus, de (leer. Mem., Ill, 349, t. 35, f. 12 (1773). Conorhinus rubrofasciatus, I distant, Faun. End. Rhyn., II, 286, f. 189 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life,"]). 700"; Green.'Spol. Zeylan., VII. 50. Fig. 372. — Conorhinus rubrofasciatus. The outlii hows the natural size. (Original.) RHYXCHOTA. 487 Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Nymphs an found in houses, generally in dusty corners, and cover themselves with dust and debris; they are probably predaceous on small household insects. This insect 11 been found in squirrels' nests and is perhaps a natural parasite of these animals. Food. Probably predaceous on other insects as a rule. sionally attacks man, both in nymphal and adult stages, sucking blood. 15. Not very common as a rule, but this bug may prove important as a carrier of disease owing to its bloodsucking habits. It has bem suspected ol acting as a carrier of Kala-azar and an allied bug in Brazil is known to transmit a human Trypanosome. Control. -The adult bug is sometimes attracted to light at night. CLixornkin.h. CI [NOCORIS HEMIPTERUS, Kb. Cimex hemipterus, Fab., Syst. Rhyng., p. 113 (1803); Horvath, Ann. Mus. Hung.. X. 259. Cimex rotundatus, Signoret, Ann. S.E. Fr. (1852), 540, t. 16, f. 2; Howlett.Ind. Ins. File, pp. 703-704, 1. 474a : Patton, Sc. Mem. Med. Dept. No. 55. Rec. Ind. Mus.. 11. 155, t. 13. if. 1. 2. 5. Acanthia macrocephalus, Fieber, Fur. Hem., p. 135 (1861); Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn.. II, 41 1, f. 262 (Cimex). Hi. — Clinocoris hemipterus. The small I Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory laid usually in cracks in wood work. The young nymphs (which are very similar to the adult but usually 4$8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. "I .1 pale yellow colour) suck blood. The length of life-cycle depends largely on the amount of food available and may occupj two months or upward-. Food. The blood of man, birds and bats. Status. —A human parasite which is not only annoying by its bite ano disgusting by its smell but also of great importance as a disseminator of disease. It is considered that the transmission of Indian Kala-azar from man to man is effected solely by bed-bugs ( CI i inn (iris liemipterus). Control. — Cleanliness in the house. In cases of badly infected houses fumigation may be necessary. Ordinary article.- of furniture may be rubbed over with Kerosine Oil or Turpentine and Carbolic Acid. The bugs anil their eggs are usually found in cracks in the woodwork. CAPSID/E. IIELOPELTIS ANTONII, Sign. Helopeltis antonii, Sign.. Ann. S.E. Fr. (3), VI, 502(1858); Dis- tant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II. 440, f. 2S5 ; Mann, Ent. Mem Agri. Dept.. Ind., I, 321-325 ; Green, Perad. Circ. I, No. 21, II. No. 2, II. No. 17, p. 241 ; Planters' Chronicle, VIII, 206. Fig. .574. — Helopeltis antonii. 'I'd the right 1- seen .1 more enlarged view .mil .1 profile \ iew o( pari oi tb< thorax showing the curious erect drumstick *p] la 1 ["hi mall 1 ■ shows the natural size. (After Distant.) Distribution. Coimbatore, and probably throughout the Hills of Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs laid singly or in small groups thrust into pods 1 or in young shoots of the foodplant. After about 10 days lies out into a small reddish insect, with long legs and RHYNCHOTA. 489 antennae, and looking not unlike a slender ant. This sucks the juice of the foodplant and grows, without altering greatly in form, until the final stage when it- wings are full-sized and it attains the adult colour of rod, black and white. [Green.] Foodplants. M ' Persian Nim (Melia azedarach), Tea, ^.Cinchona. Annatto (Bixa orellana). Status. Sometimes a serious pest in the Mills. Control. Catching adults in hand-nets and spraying the young individuals. DISPHINI 1 1 > POL] ITS. Wlk. Monaionion politus, Wlk.. Cat. llet., VI, 103 (1873). Disphinctus formosus, Kirk.. B.J., XIV, 205, t. A.. I. [o, t. C, I. 2 (1902) ; Green, Entom. (1901), 114 115. tigs. Disphinctus politus, Distant. Faun. fnd. Rhyn., II. 444 445. 1 and Adult insect. I he outline fi 1 shoot into which it has shows the natural '"in. tnal.) 175. Disphinctus politus. Distribution. Kurnul. Probably throughout the Plains of South- ern India. Egg pale creamy-white, elongate, curved, thrust into a shoot of the t' Iplant, its position being then marked only by a pair of diverj sy, horn-like pnu.^s.s projecting from the plant. The nymphs are small, reddish, ant-like creatures, found ■ leaves which thej puncture together with tin- adults, iter are active and look like small Hymenoptera ; they are readily disturbed and take t.> wing. Foodplants. Betel (Piper betle). Status.- A minor pest as .1 rule, occasionally locally and spo- radically doing serious damage to Betel Vii 490 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' INSECTS. ETC Control. Catching adults in hand-nets and spraying for nymphs Remarks. Very similar in appearance and habits to Helopeltis but lacks the peculiar drumstick appendage on the thorax. The allied Disphinctus humeralis is perhaps sometimes the "Mosquito- blight " of Cinchona in Southern India. CALOCORIS ANGUSTATUS, Leth. coris angustatus, Leth., I.M.X.. III. No. 2, p. 90, fig. (1893); Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 11. 452; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 236, f. 282, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., Ind.. I. 238 . f. 79. I [G. 176. Calocoris angustatus. The 01 natural size. (< )riginal.) Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. dstory. Young nymphs are found with adults on the ear- heads, rhey are pale-green in colour and resemble the adults but are of course wingless. Foodplants. Cholam, maize, and probably various grasses. Status. A minor pesl as a rule. ( 'ontrol. '■■ G U.LOBELICUS CRASSICORNIS, Dist Gallobelicus crassicornis, Dist., Faun. Ind. Rhyn., II, 478, f. 3:0; I.efroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 708, I. 480. KIIVNCHOTA. 491 I .377. Gallobclicus crassicornis. The small figure shows (he natural ~i/r. (( Jriginal.) Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. Nymphs are found with adults on the tender shoots and flower-heads of tobacco. Foodplants. Tobacco. Status. A minor pest. Control. -Catching in hand-nets and shaking plants over pans of water and oil or over oily cloths. RAGMUS IMPORTUNITAS, Dist. Ragmus importunitas, Dist.. A.M.N.H. (8), V, 18 (1910), Faun Ind. Rhyn., TV. 289. f. 159. nus importunitas. The small I Distribution. -Coimbatore. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. 492 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Lifehistory. The creamy-white egg is cylindrical, curved, rounded at one end, the other fitted with a black flattened cap; it is thrust into the stem just beneath the bark (but not into the stem tissues proper! the black cap lying level with the outer surface of the bark. The egg has no projecting horns. The young nymph emerges after about 6 days and is green in colour with long legs and antennje. (Y.R.R.) Foodplants. Sann Hemp (Crotalaria juncea). Status. A minor pest as a rule, occasionally serious so that all die leaves curl up and assume an unhealthy pale-yellowish colour. Control. Use ol bagnets and hand-nets while the crop is low. Remarks. The closely-allied R. fellucidiis. Distant, is recorded from Cochin, but R. importunitas seems the only species of economic importance. FULGORDDiE. EURYBRACHYS TOMENTOSA, Fb. Cicada tomentosa, Fab., Syst. Em.. II, 324 ( i775>- Eurybrachys tomentosa, Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., III. 223; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 725. Fig. 379. — Eurybrachys tomentosa. The small figure shows the natural size. (Ori Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lit, history. -Eggs are laid in masses on leaves and are covered with the white flocculent waxy efflorescence from the body of the female. Nymphs are found on the leaves; thej are brownish, with long anal filaments. |Y.R.R.] Foodplants. Calotropis, Cotton and various Malvaceous plants. Folyphagous; found on most shrubs and plants. Status. Xol a pest. PHENICE MUSTY, Westwd. Phenice mcesta, Westwd., A.M.N.H. (2). VII, 209(1851); Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., Ill, 290-207, f. 142; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 726, f. 499- Assamia dentata, Buckton, I.M.N., IV. 1, t. 1 (1896). KHYNCHOTA. 493 Phenice moesta. The outline figure shows the natural size. (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory.—'Nol known. Muir (Hawaii S.P. Bull. No. 12) says that the immature I in rotting wood; certainly only adults arc found on plants. Foodplants. Sugar-cane and various Grasses, occasionally on Cholam, Palms and various other plants. Status. A \ erj minor pest. i In'ng in hand-net-. Remarks. .Numbers of these bugs may often be seen sitting in rows on the lower side of leaves of Sugar-cane, etc., and readily jumping off and taking to winy when disturbed. Fig. 381. — Pyrilla perpusilla outline figure shows the natural mal.> PYRILLA PERPUSILLA, Wlk. Pyrops perpusilla, Walker. List Horn., II, 269(1851). Zamila perpusilla, Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhym. Ill, 327. 494 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Pyrilla aberrans, Lefroy, 1ml. his. Life, p. 727. t. 500 (part). Dictyophara pallida(nec Don.), Dist., F.I. Rhyn., Ill, 244 (part); Lefroy, End. Ins. Pests, p. 134. f. 153. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1, 240, f. 80. Distribution. Throughout tin- Plains of Southern India. Lit, history. The pale-green or yellow eggs are laid on the lower surface of a leaf of Sugar-cane, in a mass covered with fila- mentous white material derived from the body of tin- female. The young bugs are pale brown with a pair of long straight anal processes covered with white mealy wax; they leap actively and suck the juice of the cane. Length of life-cycle not worked out. Foodplants. Sugar-cane as a rule; sometimes on Maize and Cholam. Status. Rarelj a serious pest of Cane in Southern India, but always present as a minor pest in Cane-fields. Control. Egg-masses ami groups of young nymphs are con- spicuous and leaves on which such are found should be collected and burnt. Remarks. I am indebted to Mr. Distant for the correct identification of this insect, PUNDALUOYA SIMPLICIA, Dist. Pundaluoya simplicia, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., 111,468-469, f. 255- > minute slits. The young nymphs are pale yellowish and usually occur in numbers within the shelter of the leaf-sheath, being attended by black ants (Camponotus compres- susj. Attacked plants assume a yellow unhealthy appearance. Foodplants. Cholam, Mai/.e. Status. Sometimes a serious pest of cholam, usually localised in patches. In case of had infestation practically no grain is formed. RHYNCHOTA. 495 Control. — This is very difficult as the insects live protected within the leaf-sheaths. No satisfactory method ran be suggested at present except cutting affected plants lor use as green fodder. Remarks. The identification of this insect lias kindly been confirmed by Mr. Distant. It has hitherto been ion fused with Libumia psylloides, Leth (I.M.N., 111, 105, fig.) but, by the figure given of the latter, differs in several points. The large spurs on the hind-legs are characterise . CERCOPID/E. COSMOSCARTA RELATA, Dist. Cosmoscarta relata, Dist., T.E.S. (1900), 669, Faun. Intl. Rhyn., }; Lallemand, Gen. tns. fasc, [43 (Cercopidas), p. 136. " - I. — Cosmoscarta relata. I he outline figure shows the natural size. Distribution. — Sidapur, Pollibetta (Coorg) ; Saklaspur (Mysore). Lifehislory. — The immature wingless young are blackish-purple with greyish-yellow head, pronotum and legs, and with paler bands around the abdomen. They live in small colonies inside .1 common mass of froth from which drops of clear liquid fall dov wet the ground beneath the tree. The masses of froth are generally found on the stalks of young shoots and of ripening fruits and these latter often drop off the tree as a result of the infestation. The winged adult, which is blue-black with reddish pronotum and markings on the tegmina, is very active and difficult to catch. I ik (Artocarpus integrifolia). \ serious local pest of Jak in M Control. — Removal and destruction of the young insei I closed in the in ith. fASSID/E. IDIOCEKi th. Idiocerus niveosparsus, Lethierry, J.A.S.B., LYIII. 252 (1889); Distant. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., IV. [85, f. 121; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 736- f- 511. 496 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. I 1G. (84.- Idiocerus niveosparsus. The small outline figure shows the natural sizi . i I Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The small eggs are laid in shoots of the foodplant. The young are similar to the adult but wingless and the legs com- paratively longer. The bugs, both nymphs and adults, feed on the sap of shoots and flower-stalks, excreting a sticky substance (honey- dew) which, when the bugs are numerous, is produced in very large quantity, and a characteristic black fungus soon grows on the honey-dew. Foodplants. — Mango. Status. Sometimes a serious pest of mango, the honey-dew ex- creted by the bugs falling on the flowers so that they fail to set fruit. Control. — Spraying of mango-trees before the flowers open if the bugs are present in any numbers. After the flowers have opened the bugs may sometimes be driven from the trees by kindling smoky fires below them. TETTIGONIELLA SPECTRA, Dist. Tettigoniella spectra, Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn., IV. 211, f. 137; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, pp. 736-737, f. 51 1 . Fig. 3S5. — Tettigoniella spectra. The small'outline figure shows the natural size. (Original.) RHYNCHOTA. 497 Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The yellow eggs are laid in a row in rice leaves which often become submerged. Thej are attacked bj a Procto- trypid which walks under water in search of them (Lefroy). This parasite i> figured on page 203. Foodplants. Paddy. Status. Not actually noted .is a pest but liable to become so as it is usually abundant in paddy-fields. Control. The adults are strongly attracted to li^ht and this fact may be utilized as one means of control. PHOTET1 IX BIP1 N< r VI US, Kb. \da bipunctata, Fab., Syst. Rhyng., p. 78 (1803). Ncphotcttix bipunctatus. Distant, Faun. Ind. Rhyn, IV, 35 : 228. Nepliotettix bipunctatus. male and female and fi iral Distribution. Throughout the Plains of Southern India. history. Not known. on various I to do damage but sometimes appears i mous numbers that it .1 least Control. The adult- .n^\ this fact may be utilized. Remarks. Thi I 'ids bug wholb ■ • id). : 4Q8 SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Chlorita flavescens, I.M.X.. III. pt. 4, pp. 34—36. figs. Empo Di it. Faun. Ind. Rhyn., IV. 405-406. Fig. 187 Empi cetts. I hi small outlim the natural Oi iginal.) Distribution. Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known. Foodplants. rea, castor. Probably on various other plants also. Status. -Wellknown as " Green Fly Blight " in the tea Districts oi North-East India but so far as known does not att.uk tea in India or Ceylon. Control. — Spraying with contact insecticides and catching the adult bugs in hand-nets when numerous. Remarks.- This, or a closely allied species, is sometimes very abundant on potato when grown as a field crop and may be seen in thousands hopping off the leaves as one goes through the Held. PSYI.I.Il'.i:. PSYLLA ISITIS, Buckt. (PLATE XLVII.) Psylla isitis. Buckton, I.M.X., II, p. [8, fig. ; Lefroy, A.J.I., Ylll. 1—26, t. I 2 (Jan. [913). Distribution. South Arcot ; Tinnevelly. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. The pale-yellowish-white, cylindrical eggs are laid singlj on Indigo, usuallj near the tip oi a shoot. The eggs hatch :■ ; about 5 days, the nymphs feeding on the plant for about a fortnight, during which they undergo live moults, after which they assume the adult (winged) Si Foodplants. Indigo (all cultivated varieties ; also found on a ■' wild Indigo" at Koilpatti). Status. Usually rather a minor pest oi Indigo in Southern India. The tops of attacked plants assume a characteristic curly appear- ance. Control. (1) Spraying with soap solution. (2) Cultivation methods. (See A.J.I, cited above.) I XPLANATION OF PLAT!'. XLVII. I'SYLLA ISITIS. Fig. i. Eggs laid in groove of a leaf stalk, x 16. Egg a few hours old. \ 64. Egg about a day old. Nymph, first stage. ,, second stage. third „ fourth ,, „ fifth Imago, female, x 20. . The hind end of the abdomen of male, x 20. . The adult female sitting on a shoot, x 2. . The head of a Java-Natal indigo plant showing crumpling of the leaves produced by the feeding of the nymphs, with a nymph sitting just below the head. \ (>4 \ 64 x 50 ^ 45 x 30 x 20 PLATE XLVI1. "' f, PSYLLA ISITIS. RHYNCHOTA. 499 A.PHIDID 1 ^PHIS GOSS\ I'll, Glov. Aphis gossypii, Glover, I'. it. Off. Rept., p. 02 (1854); Essig, Calif Monthly Bull.. I. 120 122, 1. 41 (Mar. 1912). \-w-/ Aphis gossypii, winged and wing The small I inside the dotted 0\ d show the natural size . 1 Vft< 1 I Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs very dark-red or brown. Nymphs green or brownish. The females as a rule produce living young, and not eggs, and these young are usually females which are themselves aide to reproduce living young .1 Iter about three days, no males being produced at all tor a considerable number of generations. In small 3 the members are usually wingless, but, as the colonv grows, winged forms are produced which fly off to found new colonies on other plants. The increase may thus be very rapid. The insi I a sweet liquid 1 honey dew) from the anus and this is very attractive to ants which tend and defend the Aphids ; the honey dew also tails on the leaves and fii\es them a character- istic sticky appearani e, usually rendered more conspicuous in damp weather by the growth of fungus on the honey dew. Foodplants. Cotton. Polyphagous; has been found on over fifty different plants in America. Control. Spraying with 1 onta< t inse< tii ides. Remarks. 'D Usually kept in cheek by various predaceous insects (Clirysopa, Coccinncllids, Syrphids, . ' 2 Numerous other species ol Aphids are found on various plants but the different species have not been identified as yet. J2-A 500 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. SCHIZONEURA LANIGERA, Hausm. Af/iis lanigera, Hausmann, Qlig. Mag. [nsekt, I. 440 U802) ; buckton. Aphides. III. 89. t. 105, 106 ; Atkinson, I.M.N., II. 52—58, fig. i [1 - 589 — Schizoneura lanigera. To the left is a port: In- the insect I ■ the 1 ighl is seen • eel aatui I ; 11 magnified. (After Marlatt in Grandi.) Distribution. Coonoor, Bangalore. Lifehistory. The "American Blight," "Woolly Blight," or " Blood Louse " appears in two forms, one of which attacks the trunk and branches of apple-trees, the other the roots. The trunk- living form is usuall) found in crevices (.it the hark or at the base of twigs, etc., springing from the trunk and is covered with ,1 white downy covering. The root-living form has also white cottony fila- ments. In both cases, the seat of attack is indicated In numerous gall-like excrescences. The females may be winged 01 wingless and can reproduce agamogenetically. Males do not seem to have been observed in India. Foodplants. Apple. Status. Ma> be a serious pes) oi apple-orchards. Control. For trunk-living form, spra) ing and scrubbing of stems and affected branches with Crude Oil Kmulsion or other contact RHYM 50] V Iphis. i. nn.i ol •bin the inal.l 502 SOME SOI Ml INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. insecticide. For root-living form, application of Crude Oil Emul- sion or Kerosinc Emulsion or digging in Tobacco Refuse around the roots. The following has lately been recommended in Europe but has not yet been tested in India. A paint is prepared of Linseed Oil 7 lb.. White Lead L lb.. Zinc Oxide 1 lb., and this is boiled for 10 minutes and, when cold, i lb. of Turpentine is added. The paint is applied by means of a brush to all the affected parts. [Rome Bull. (1913), 491.] R \(.l ROOT APHIS. (See figure on page 501.) Distribution. — Only noted at Coimbatore in August and Septem- ber, but will probably be found to be widely distributed in the Plains. Lifehistory. -The whole lifehistory is passed underground on the roots of ragi plants. The young, which arc probably always pro- duced .dive, are very minute, slender, pale-yellowish-white, of the shape shown in the figure. They suck the juices from the roots of the foodplant and. as the) grow, the abdomen increases in size until it assumes a globular form of about the size of a pin's head. A few winged viviparous females are also found on the roots but no males have been observed, so that reproduction is apparently normally agamogenetic. These Aphids are attended by several ants, of which the commonest and most conspicuous is Camponotus compressus, and the plants attacked may generally be picket! out by the heap of small grains of earth around the stem, marking the situations where the ants have excavated chambers into the soil to visit the Aphids for the purpose of obtaining "honey-dew." The ants also probably carry the Aphids into new localities but the latter are also distributed by the winged adults. Foodplants. - Ragi. Status. — This insect may be a serious pest, sucking the juices ot i he plants so persistently that the whole crop may wither unless constantly irrigated and even then the yield is considerably reduced. Control. — This is a very difficult insect to attack, as its under- ground habit- make control measures difficult. The addition of Crude Oil Emulsion to the irrigation wati r has be n tried with sonic succe-s but this is not economic ally possible cm a large scale. M" earching out and :l truction ol thi ants' nests around the ragi ti' Ids may p< rhaps yi< Id betl Remarks. — In general appi recalls R11YM lldl \. 503 Tetraneura lucifuga, Zehntner (Mei fstation vor Suikerriet in West-Java "Kagok" te Pekalongan, No. 53, pp. [6 21, t. II. M. 29 34) but differs structurally. 1. \< 1I.MS I'YKl. BU Lachnus pyri, Buckton, I.M.N., IV, 274, 1. 16. I adult. Distribution. Ootacamund ; Shevaro Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Proh similar to thai ol Aphis gossypii. Pi ir (P Status.- A rath on the Control. - 1 with anj ide. gma bambu , insect ; iform; ». Mature winged fori: na of mature winged form : 6, Colony on Giant Bamboo, natural size; 7. Wingless enlarged, showing waxy filament.-. The small figures within the dotted circles show the natural sizes. (Original.) HOTA JOS klA HAM HI S.h. BUI kl. ma bambusce, Bu< kton, I.M.X.. II. 87 88 : S( houti den, Spol. Zeyl., II. [85 [8j [redescr]. Distribution. Coimbatore. Probably throughoul Southern India. Lifehistory. The insects, in various stages from young to winged adults, occur on the undersurface of leaves ol thi Gianl B (Dendrocalamus), sometimes in verj large numbers so that the plant is smothered with a black fungus which grows on the honey-dew 1 by tin- insect-, this sweet excretion being also visited In hordes of flies, ants and other insects. Tin- young insect is pair greenish-yellow with a pair oi very long projei ting cephalic .lined in size in the adult ins< it grows, the bod) becomes spherical, flattened, hut the head and thorax remain distinct ; in colour it is pale \ ellowish-green, the tip intenna darker, the eye blai kish, the anterior portion of the abdomen dark-green as tar as a line drawn between the which scarcely project above the surface oi the bod) ; the whole of the abdomen is surrounded along its edge In a marginal bordei ol short pure-white waxy Glami I 3 of which sometimes occur also on the sides of the thorax. In the winged adult the general colour is dull-green with a dark area on the abdomen correspond- ing to that in. the immature form ; prothorax yellowish with a pair of ill-defined brownish spots ; eyes reddish; antennas black ; legs pale-greenish infuscated at apices of segments. When disturbed, the immature insects elevate their bodies at right angles to the g surface in a very characteristic manner. Foodplants.- -Bamboo (Dendrocalamus giganteus). Status. Apparently a minor pest, doing little harm even when in large numbers, although the drain of plant-juice must then be \ er\ I ing with contact insecticides .\m\ checking - when this inseel disfigures the appearance of garden-grown bamboos. Rente insi t under consideration i>. apparent!) Buckton's Oregma bambusa although, as Schouteden remarks, Buckton's " description is unusually incomplete and the drawings re not at all exact." Van der Goot voor Ent.. LV, 330 and I. VI. 151 > s. t . 1 1 > ■ s that Oregma is ably identical with Ccrataphis, Licht. ; I leave thi- point for Aphid. settle, but it ble that insuiaris, v. d. may 1^- identical with bambusa; Buckton. 506 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Coo »ni i Aphis. Fig. 193. ( Coconut Aphis, V part of a i ' m . ■ i ■ d winged adull and ant< una ol latter. " iriginal.) Distribution. Coimb itor( Lifehistory.—Nol known in drt.nl. Winged and wii i i inn ns .in found together in colonies on the leaves. RHYN< 507 Foodphm ul Palm. Status. A serious pest ol young palms. Control. Spraying with Crude Oil Emulsion has p effective. Remarks. This Aphid was found on young coconuts which had been brought to Coimbatore from Colombo bj .1 private owner, anil it is probable that the Aphid was introduced with them. It is hoped that this colon n exterminated but the insert is figured lure in order to enable it to be recognized if found else- where. AI.Kl'RODID.H. ALEl R( IDES BERGI, Sign. Ah'iirodes - Ann. S.E. Fr. (4), VI II. 800 Zehntner, Arch. Java Suiker-Ind., XIY. 969, tab. 1 |-"IG. ' I. -1 ,■'. II I Atllll' urc within 1 ribntion. Throughout the Plains of Southern In Lifchistory. — Eggs arc laid on cane-leaves in more or less onccntrii circles. ["h< young nymphs live rather - and arc dark-green or bl ded bj a whitish w TIC. Status. - A minor p< st as a rule. 1 burning ol th< first- tl soon I. I itiv< ■ hit h nunc 1 istly unid( ntifh d 5o8 S( .Ml. S< »1 III INDIAN INSE< fS on various trees and plants. The commoner species noticed hitherto are : Aieucodes citri on Orange, Jasmine, etc., A. ricini on castor, and several unnamed spei ies on sugarcane, castoi I I u v[i )..!•;. »( OO i S HIBIS< I. Gr. Cerococcus hibisci, Grei n, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 11. 19 21. t. 2. IT. 2 4 (1908) ; Lefroy (I.e.), p. 122. . inal.) Distribution. Godavari ; ( oimbatore. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifekistory and Foodplants. The conspicuous golden-yellow scales are found on twi^s anil >tenis of cotton and Hibiscus. Status. A minor pesl <>l cotton. ('until'!. The stale- are con picuous and easily removed by hand. Remarks. This species appears 10 be kept in check by parasites ami so rarely increases to numbers sufficient to cause damage. n.\cn I.Ol'lt s CITRI, Risso. Dorthesia citri, Risso. Hist. Nat. des Oranges (1813). Pseudococcus citri, Fernald, Cat. Cocc, pp. <)<) 100; Grandi, Disp. Entom. Agraria, pp. 140 14 3, ff. 126 12S. Dactylopius adonidum, Atkinson, I.M.N., 1. <•- 7 (nee. Linn). Daclylopius citri, 1 efroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., i. 24S ti.r.i. II. 122 124, Iml. [ns. Pests, p. 244, f. 207. RHY\( I 50() Dactylopiiis 1 i-iews of insect with waxy ■ ilh waxy covi ' v.ii I [he natural Distribution. Throughoul Southern India. Life hi story. -Females below ground on roots, on plants, in ant- shelters. (Lefroy.) Foodplants. Coffee, \< ... Croton, various species of Ficus, Ageratum, Erythrina, and numerous other plants. Status. An occasional serious pesl ol coffee, especially of young plants in the nurserj . Co ntrol. — Contact Insecticides. 'Sec also Ent. Mem., Vol. U. No. 7. p. 123.) DA( I VLOPH S MI'.K. Mask. Dactylopius uipce, Maskell, N.Z. It.. XXV, 232(1892); Green, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., II, 23 ; Lei [36, t. 12. ff. 8, 9, VI. I.. V, [62 104. iococcus iiipa. Fernald, ( il [07. Dactylopius ■ 5io SOME SOI ill l\Dl.W INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Probably throughout Southern India. Lifehistory and Food. — Found living on seed-potatoes, collect- ing in masses around the eyes, and destroying the tubers. Also found living freelj on shoots of Mulberrj . Cotton, ! fibiscus, causing the leaves to curl up and the growing shoot also to curl up into a hard knot. Control. — In the rase of seed-potatoes, washing the potatoes with an insecticide before storing, or fumigating when in store. In the ease of attack on Mulberry, etc., the twisted shoots should be plucked and burnt. DACTYLOPIUS VIRGATUS, Ckll. Dactylopius virgatus, Cockerell, Entom., XXVI. 178 (1893); I froy, Ent/Mem. Dept. Agri., [nd., II. pp. 127-128. Pseudococcus virgatus, Fern., Cat. Cocc, 11. p. ill. Dactylopius ceriferus, Newst., I.M.X., III, No. 5, pp. 24 25. t. 3, f. 3. I 1G. 19£ Dactylopius virgatus, dorsal and ventral views ol insccl (enlarged) and antenna (more highly magnil Newstead.) Distribution. Probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory.- Occurs on the leaves and young \o\ of the I Iplants. Foodplants. Cotton, Violet, Acalypha, Hibiscus, etc. Status. Sometimes in very large numbers on Garden plants. A minor pest as a rule. Control. Spraying with contact insecticide and (in bad cases) cutting and burning of badly infested branches on plant-. PULVINARIA PSIDII, Mask. Pulvinaria psidii, Maskell, X.Z. Trans., XXV, 223 (1892); Green, Cocc. Ceylon, IV. 204 265, t. too; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri, Ind., II, 131 134. Ind. Ins. Life, t. 82, f. 1. RIIYM'll' n \. 511 Piilv iii aria psidii. 1. Insects on leaf, natural size; 2, Youpg N'ymph, magnifi I; I. Adult scale, magnified : 4. Side-vie« of adult Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Eggs laid in the white flocculent mass which lies under and behind tin female scale and which is characteristic of this " ( ireen Meal y Scale." Foodplants. Ficus glomcrata, Lagcrstrcemia (anccolata, MangOi ( rua\ a, I .oquat, 1 ■ sionallj on Coffee. Status. Chiefly important in the Hill districts (Mysore, ( Xilgiris and Shevaroys) as a pest of Shade Trees <>n Coffee When il occurs in large numbers such trees may be greatlj weakened or even killed. 512 !H INDIAN INSECTS. ETC. Control. When the attack is localized the attacked trees should be sprayed with a contact insecticide and neighbouring unattacked trees isolated In painting a ring of some sticky substance (eg., tar and grease) around the trunk to prevent the g bugs crawling up. In districts where this bug is prevalent, trees of varieties more or less immune to this si ale should be utilized lor shade. The immature bu<;s, when found on Coffee, may easily be mistaken foi /. canium viride, but are larger and lack the dark intestinal loop characteristic of Gl CEROPLASTODES CAJANI, Mask. Eriochiton cajani, Maskell, I.M.N.. II. 6] 62, t. 1. If. 3a n U891). Ceroplastod escajani. Green, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., lnd.. II. No. 2. pp. 32. 43. Ceroplastodes cajani. From Indiai M Distribution. Madras {N.B. It is not clear whether the original record refers to the Presidencj or the citj ; possibly Saidapet is intended. 1, Coimbatore. Lifchistory. The scales are scattered on the twigs of the food- plant as shown in the figure. ''Knits. Red Gram (Cajanus indicus), Ber fZizyp/ms jujuba). n Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and on Coleus (Green). Status. Originally described from specimens sent in as dam- aging Red Gram in January 1890, Not since noted as a pesl pi kllVNCHOTA. 513 cultivated crops but found in masses on twigs ol Zizyphus at LECANIUM VIRIDE, Lecanium marsupiale. On the left is a portion of leaf of Black Pi pper with male and fi 1 natural size ; in the centre is winged male, and oi in adult female, magnified. (After Green.) Distribution. — Wy naad. Lifehistory. — The large ovoid, flattened, chestnut-brown scales surrounded by a conspicuous yellow bonier and are found on the upper surface of leaves of pepper. The adult scales are very large, 7 mm. long. The young scales whitish. Foodplants. — Pepper (Piper nigrum). Status. — A minor pest. Control.— Destruction of affected leaves and spraying. HEMILECANIUM IMBRICANS, Green. Lecanium imbricans, Green, I.M.X., V, 94, t. 18. ft". 2. 2a— d; Lefroy, Hut. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind.. II. No. 7. p. 130 ; Green, Jl. Ec. Biol., V. 6 7 (March IQIO). Hemilecanium imbricans, Planters' Chronicle. V, 185. Hemilecanium tlwobromce, Newst., Jl. Ec. Biol., Ill, 39(1908). Distribution. Xilgiris, South Mysore (Balur District), Coorg. Lifehistory. The large, flattened stales form a dense silvery- white scalj covering on twigs and branches of the trees attacked. The scale is accompanied by a sooty fungus which grows in great quantities on the plants below and rapidly kills out coffee. Foodplants. -Toon (Cedrela toona), Red Cedar (Acrocarpus fraxinifolius), Ficus mysorensis, F. glomerata and F. in fee tori a. RHYNCHOTA. 5i; Fig. 406. — Hetuilecatiium imbricans. (From Indian Museum Notes.) Status.— An indirect minor pesl "t Coffee, attacking shacle- Control ii) [nfectecl branches should Ik- cul off and buml and the apparently clean tree whitewashed. (2l Replacing affected shade-trees by other trees not attacked »ect. ASPIDIl ITUS C WIF.II.I .V.. Sign. Aspidiotus camellia, Signoret, Essai, p. 117 (1869); Green, . pp. 60 i)i. 1. [3, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., 1ml. . I. No. 5. p. 353. Diaspis circulata. Green, I.M.X.. IV. p, \. Fig. 407. — Aspidiotus camelh 5i8 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. -Probably throughout the Hills of Southern India. Lifehistory. — These scales are usually found massed on the upper portions of young tea plants. The scale itself is chestnut- brown surrounded by a broad outer ovoid margin pale-yellow or greyish in colour. Foodplants. Tea, Cinchona, Acacia, Grevillea, Sapu (Michelia chatnpaca). Status. — Sometimes does considerable damage to young tea plants in Southern India. Control. — In the case of verj young plants complete destruction by fire, in the case of older plants drastic pruning, the primings being burnt on the spot. There is risk of infecting other plants if attempts are made to carry affected plants elsewhere to be burnt. ASPIDIOTUS DESTRUCTOR, Sign. Aspidiotus destructor, Sign., Ann. S.E.Fr. (4). IX. 120 (1869); Fernaldj Cat. Core., p. 257 ; Cotes, I.M.N., II. 168, III, 66-67 ; Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., II, 137; Green, B.J., XIII. 70, t. B, f. 5. Aspidiotus lataniee, Green, Cocc. Ceylon, I, 49~50. t. 8 {nee Sign.). Aspidiotus destructor. I, Scales on leaf, natural size; 2, Femali ; and '. Male, both magnified. (After Green.) Distribution. South Wynaad, Coimbatore ; probably through (jut the PI tins ol Southern India. Laccadive Islands. Foodplants. — Coconut, Mango, Pepper. Status. — Occasionally injurious by weakening the tree when the scale occurs in large numbers. Control. — ? RHYNCHi t1 519 MYTILASPIS PIPERIS, Green. Mytilaspis piperis, Green, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., II, No. 2, pp. 34 35, t. 4. t- is. Mytilaspis piperis. Scales, natural Pepper; magnified. (( Original.) Distribution. — Wynaad. Lifehistory. The long, narrow, brown scales live thickly clus- er "ii the young stems. The vines are attacked by this scale usually about 10 feet from the ground, a rusty patch b leaves and about a yard long being formed on the stem. Foodplant- Pepper (Piper nigrum). Status. A local, minor pest. Control. Spraying and destruction of attacked portions of plants. CHIONASPIS BICLAV1S, Comst. Chionaspis biclavis, Comstock, 2nd Rept., Dept. Ent. Corn. Univ., p. 98(1883); Green, I.M.X.. IV. 2. Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I. No. 5, p. 354, II. No. 2. p. 36. Cocc. Ceylon, pp. 152 154. t. 54. 320 SOME SOUTH INDIAN' IN SHiTS. ETC. Fig. 410.- Chionaspis biclavis. On the right is seen a piece of Cinchonastem with Scales in situ, natural si e of bark from a rea t< in showing two scales greatly enlarged. (After ( i Distribution. Xilgiris. Lifehistory. — The female scales arc always found on stems or bark of the foodplant, never on leaves; they are extremely incon- spicuous, being covered with the superficial fibres and 1" of the bark on which they rest. Their presence may, however, be detected by the pimply appearance of the bark. Foodplants. — Tea, Cinchona. Occasionally on Grevillea and Coffee. Status. Not noted as a pest in Southern India, but Green states that it is " perhaps the most serious and widespread of all Coccidae affecting the tea plant in Ceylon," its attacks resulting "in an unhealthy hidebound condition of the main stems and branches." Control. -Cutting out of worst affected stems during pruning and scrubbing the remainder with a pad of coir matting moistened with Kerosine Emulsion (Green). HEMICHION VSPIS 1 HE/E, Mask. Chionaspis thea>, Masked. I.M.X.. II, 6o, t. I, ff. 2 a c; Green, Coci Ceylon, II, p. 113. t. 33; Watt and Mann. Pests of Tea. pp. 307-309. i- 39- Hemichionaspis tliea, Green, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri , 1ml.. 1. No. 5, P- 342. Distribution.- Throughout the Tea Distri< ts >>\ Southern India. ANOPLURA. ;,2i I [G. HI. Hemichionaspis theee. Male and Female Puparia on Tea-leaf, natural size and magnified. (Aftei G Lifehistory. — The female scales are usually found on the branches of older bushes and are so like the bark that they are difficult to distinguish. The white fluted male scales are often seen in little colonies on leaves, where they are conspicuous. Foodplants. — Tea. Also on Psychotria and other plants. [Green.] Status. — This scale scarcely seems to he a pest in Southern India. ANOPLURA. PEDicri.iD.i;. PEDICl lis i mm i is. de Geer. Kig. 412. — Pediculus capitis. The small figure within ll e shows the natural inal.) 522 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS. Pediculus humanus, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, p. 610 (1758) [part]. Pediculus capitis, de Geer, Mem., VII, 07. t. 1. f. 6 [778); Osborn. U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 5. pp. 166 167, f. 96; Lefroy, [nd. Ins. Pests, p. 264, f. 317 ; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 762; Brumpt. Precis de Parasit., pp. 549—550. ff. 395 -397 ; Alcock. Ent. for Med. Offrs., pp. 213—215; Castellani and Chalmers, Man. Trop. Med., p. 633, ff. 267 268 (1913). Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. The eggs (or nits) are fixed by the female on to a hair of the human head, the portions just behind the ears being most commonly selected. The young lice hatch out after about 5 days ami are full-grown after another 10 or 12 days. The lice suck blood at least once in ever} 24 hours. I-'thhl. Mi blood of man. Status. A serious pest, as the insect may act as a carrier of disease from one host to another. It i- known to carry Typhus and to produce a form of Impetigo. Control. Personal cleanliness. Soap and water combined with almost any of the ordinary antiseptics will be found efficient. Washing the head with ordinary kerosine-oil (care being taken not to approach any light or lire and afterwards with soap is a simple method. PEDICULUS HUMANUS, Linn. Pediculus hum, nuts. Linn.. Syst. Nat. 1 ed. X I, I, p. 610 1 1 758 > [part], Pediculus corporis, de Geer, Mem., VII, 67, t. I, f. 7 (1778). Pediculus vestimenti Nitzsch, Genua r Mag. Ent., Vol. Ill (1818); Osborn, U.S.A. Ent. Bull. No. 5, pp. 107 108, ff. 94, 97; Howlett, Ind. Ins. I Mc. p. 762 ; Brumpt, Precis de Parasit., pp. 552—554; Alcock, Entom. forMed. Offrs., pp. 213 2\y, Girault, Entom. News, Will. 339^344: Castellani and Chalmers. Man. Trop. Med., p. 634, ff. 269 270 (1913). Fig. 413. Pediculus humanus. The Distribution.- Throughout small figure within tin- .1 Southern India. shows the natural size. 0 >i iginal.) Wol'LXRA. 523 Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid on clothing in which the lice live except when actually sucking blood from the body. Egg development much as in P. capitis. Food. Tin- blood of man. This louse has been induced to bite fowls (Neveu-Lemaire) and is said to have been taken from c; tile (Osborn), but is not known to attack anj host except man in a natural state. Status. The bite oi the bodj louse is said to be more irritating than that of the head-louse. The former is known to carry Typhus Fever and both are equally to be avoided as possible carriers of disease. Control. Personal cleanliness. Baking, boiling, or fumigation of infested clothing or bedding. The newly-hatched young are only able to exist about two days without food so that disuse of infected clothing, etc., for a period of at least 10 days should result in starving of any young emerging from eggs in the clothing. It may, however, be noted that the eggs may not hatch for five weeks in cold climates ; no exact observations on this point seem to be on record for Southern India but the period may be expected to be much shorter -probably always less than a week. PHTHIRIL'S PUBIS, Linn. Pediculus pubis, Linn.. Syst. Nat. (ed. X), I, p. 611 (1758). Phthirius inguinale, Leach, Zool. Miscell., QI, 63, t. 51, f. 5 (1817) ; Osborn, U.S.A. Entom. Bull. No. 5, pp. 165-166, f. 95 ; Howlett, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 762 ; Brumpt, Precis de I'ar.iMt.. pp. 554"555. f- 398 ; Alcock, Entom. for Med. Offrs., p. 216, f. 96; Castellani and Chal- mersi Man. Trap. Med., p. 634, f. 271 (1913). ^•-\ 'hthirius pubis. I he small figure within tin dotted circli tlir natural -i^i-. (( Iriginal.) Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. This minute louse, which isonly about one-fifteenth of an inch long, lives on the coarse hair- of the pubic and axillary 524 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, regions of the human body ; occasionally found in the hairs of the face but in those of the head only in extremely rare cases. The eggs arc fixed at the base of a hair, and the young hatch out after about a week and are full-grown after about another fortnight. Food. The blood of man. Status. An annoying and disgusting parasite whose bites produce small itching papular eruptions. Not definitely known to carry disease, but extremely likely to do so. Control. Persona] cleanliness. These lice are highly resistant to ordinary antiseptics. Crude Oil Emulsion will probably be found effective. Mercurial ointments are usually recommended. NOTE. — The specific name pubis, Linn., is applicable to this insect and has priority. H.EMAToiMNTS TUBERCULATUS, N. & G. Pedictilus tubercttlatus, Nitzsch and Giebel, Zeits. f. ges. Naturw.. XXIII, 32 (18641. Hamatopinus tubercttlatus, dalla Torre, Wytsm. Gen. Ins., Anoplura, p. II I 1908). Distribution. Throughout Southern India. Lifehistory. Not known in detail. Live on the ears of buffaloes. Food.- Blood of buffaloes. Status, Not known to be a serious pest as a rule but sometimes occurs in \ ei \ large numbers. Control. Application of Crude Oil Emulsion. # 1 U5. Hamatopinus tuberculatus, enlarged ami natural size. >' Original.) Remarks. 0) Outside of India similar lice have been found capable of transmitting Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) from one host to another, ami young lice have been found to be transported by clinging to the legs of a fly (Lyperosia) which also infests buffaloes. (2) For other animal lice see page 185. ORTHOPTERA. ACRIDID/E. TRYXALIS TIKRITA, Linn. 1, 1 i,l,i turritus, Linn., Syst Nat. (ed. X), p. 427 (1758' Tryxalis turrit, 1, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 82, fig. 23. Acrid, 1 turrit,i. Kirby. Cat. Orth. Ill, 92-93. ORTHOPTEKA. 525 Fig. MG.—Tryxalis turrita. (Original. Distribution— Common throughout the Plains. Lifchi story. — Xot known. Status— Scarcely a pest although it often occurs in large numbers. Control. Easily caught by the help of small bag-nets. EPACROMIA TAMULUS, Fb. Gryllus tamuius, Fabr., Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 195 (1798). Gryllus dorsalis, Thunberg, Mem. Acad. Patersb, V, 229 (18151 Epacromia dorsalis, I.M.X., 111. No. 5, p. 7i. fig. ; Lefroy, Irid. Ins. Life. p. 83. f. 24. /Eoiopus tamuius, Kirby, Cat. Orth. 111. 192. yf?S\ Epacromia tamuius. . The outline figure shows the natur. nal.l Distribution. Tinnevelly and Ramn.id. Lifehistory. -Not known. Perhaps two broods annually, one in July-August, the other in February-March. dplants. — Cotton (bolls, flowers and leaves), grasses. Status. A very loeal and sporadic pest, occasionally doing some damage to cotton-plants by eating the young bolls. Control. Catching in small bag-nets or hand-nets. Remarks. This species is perhaps undescribed. It is some- what similar to Catantops similis. but is larger, with longer wings and with a distinct pattern of markings on thorax, elytra and posterior i< 54 530 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. CYRTACANTHACRIS SUCCINi I \. I. inn. Gryllus succinct us, Linn., Amoen. Acad. VI, 398(1763). Acridium succinctum, Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., [nd., I. pt. 1. pp. I 52, t. I 4, t. S, I'. [, t. 9. I. 1. t. 10, IT. I, 2. In.!. Ins. Life, p. 86, t. 2-3. Cyrtacanthacris succincta, Kirby, Cat. Orth. III. 44*. I . 4_'J. —Cyrtacanthacris succincta. (After Lefroy.l Distribution. Bellary, Kurnul and Anantapur. A stray spe* i- 111, n was obtained in South Arcot in November 1907 and another from Dhavani (Xilgiris, 6,000 ft.) in December [907. Not noted in South India since 193/. but scattered individuals may occur throughout. Lit, history. — See Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agr., Vol. I, No. 1. Foodplants. — All green vegetation. Status. — The Bellary and Kurnul districts are occasionally visit- ed by migrant swarms from Bombay, usually in May and June, when there are practically no crops on the ground, so that the damage done in Madras is slight. Control. Little can be done to check the locusts when a locality is visited by one of these enormous swarms. The best method of 1 traction is probably to burn them with torches when resting on trees at night. They are also readily destroyed when coupling by beating them with brooms, branches, etc. \( \\ rHACRIS RANACEA, Stoll. Gryllus Locttsta ranaceus, Stoll, Spectres Saut., p. 30, t. 14. b, f. 53d8l3). Acridium aeruginosum (nee Bur.), Lefroy, Ent. Mem. Agri. Dept., [nd., I. 53, t. 8, t. 3, t. 9. f. 38, t. 10, f. 5. Cyrtacanthacris ranacea, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 86, t. 6; Kirby, I )nh. 111. 451- PLATE L. PESTS OF RICE. EXPLANATION OF PLATE L. F ig. i. Hieroglyphus banian. Adult grasshopper. 2. „ Half-grown grasshopper. 3. ., „ Young grasshopper. 4. Nytnphula depunctalis. Larva in case feeding on paddy-leaf. 5. ,, „ Larva removed from case. 6. „ „ Moth. 7. Melamth ismene. Larva (Caterpillar). 8. .. „ Pupa. 9. „ „ Butterfly. 10. Spodoptera mauritia. Eggmass on paddy-leaf, n. „ „ Moth. 12, 13. „ „ i.). Iliipa armigera. !5 •6. „ 17. Parnara mathias. 18. 19- Larva (Caterpillar). I Early stages in tissue of leal. Larva (magnified). Larva (Caterpillar) in folded leaf. Pupa. Butterfly. ORTHOPTERA. 531 I :. \2A.— Cyrtacanthacrisranacea. (Original.) Distribution. All over South India. Lifehistory. — Not worked out in detail. The nymphs are charac- terized by the broad yellowish stripes on the prothora.x. Foodplants. — Cotton, castor, groundnut, ragi and various other crops. Status. -Common, especially in cotton fields, but scarcely a pest. Control. — Collection by hand or in nets. HIEROGLYPHUS BANIAN. Fb. Gryllus banian, Fab, Ent. Syst. Suppl., p. 194 (1798). Acridium furcifer, Serv., Orthopt., p. 677, t. 14, f. 12 (1839). Hieroglyphus banian, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Lite, p. 87, t. 7 ; Coleman, Mysore Ent. Bull., No. I, pp. I— 52, t. 1—5. [See Plate L.] Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India up to about 4,000 Lifehistory. — The eggs are laid in masses in the ground, usually between October and December, the young emerging about June, soon after the South-West Monsoon Rains have started. The young nymphs are brownish-yellow, with a yellowish stripe down tin- middle of the thorax, and do not usually assume a greenish colour until they are about to acquire wings. The deve- lopmental period for males is about 70 days, for females about 80 days. Foodplants. — Paddy, sugarcane, maize : chiefly on paddy. Status. A major pest of paddy, sometimes doing serious damage both in hopper and adult stages. Control.— Bagging in small bag-nets. IIIHROGLYPHUS NIGRO-REPLETUS, Bol. Hieroglyphus nigro-repletus, Bolivar, Trabajos del Museode Cient. Xat. Madrid, No. 6, pp. 56—59 (1912). Hieroglyphus banian, Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life. I. 27, nee Fab. 35 532 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Bella ry, Kurnul, Guntur. Lifehistory. — Eggs arc laid in November in masses at a depth of two or three inches from the soil surface. Young hoppers emerge in June July and arc adult in September October. Foodplants. — Cholam, tenai, ORTHOPTERA. 533 Status. — A minor pest of cholam and tenai, not occurring in large numbers as a rule. Control. — Catching in small bag-nets, or by hand (adults). Remarks. Most forms arc short-winged ones, but a few forms with the wings fully developed have also been noted. These latter are. however, distinct from //. banian in colour markings. In 1909 specimens were received from the Bcllary Farm as doing damage to cholam. This species has been named //. nigro-repletus by Senor [gnacio Bolivar and a translation of his description will appear shortly in the Journal of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Society. OXYA VELOX, Fb. Gryllus velox, Fab.. Mant. Ins., I, 239(1787). Oxya velox, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 88; Bolivar, Ann. S.E.Fr. (1901). 613 ; Kirby, Cat. Orth., Ill, 393~394- [26.— Oxya velox. (Original.! Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory. — Not known. Foodplants. — Paddy chiefly. Among other crops cholam, sugarcane. Status. — A minor pest of paddy. Sometimes this insect does some appreciable damage to paddy. Sometimes this and Hiero- glyphic banian are found together in paddy fields. Control. Sweeping with bag-nets. Remarks. Adult specimens are sometimes attracted to light at night and light-traps might perhaps be of some use. PHASCOXl'RID/E. SCHIZODACTYLt s MONSTROSUS, Dr. Gryllus monstrosus, Drury, Illustr. II, 81, t. 43, f 1 (1773); Orth., pp. 322 523; Li froy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 224, f. 271, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I. 125. f. g, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 95, f. 33. 3S-A 534 I SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. in.. )_'.. Schizodactylus monstrosus. (Original.) Distribution. — Bella ry only. Lifehistory. — The nymphs and adults hide during the day singly in tunnels driven into the ground in sandy places, probably emerging at night to forage for their prey which consists of inn tically any other animal small enough to be overpowered and devoured. They will starve in captivity rather than touch vegetable food. Food. -Predaceous on caterpillars, small frogs, etc. Not a pest. Found in sand along a river bank at Hagari. Stqtus. Beneficial as destroying caterpillars, grasshoppers, etc., injurious when attacking batrachians. On the whole, probably of neutral value to agriculture. Remarks. In localities where it is common this insect is often accused of damage really done by Brachtrypes. CRYLI.ID/E. GRYLLOTALPA AFRICANA, Pal. Gryllotalpa africana, Palisot— Beauv., Ins. d'Afriq et d'Amer., p. 229, Orthopt, t. 2°, f. 6 (1805); Serv., Orth., p. 307 ; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 224, f. 270, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., 1, 124. f. 8, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 101, ff. 37-38. ORTHOPTERA. Curtilla africana, Kirby, Cat. Orth. II. fi. 535 Fig. 428. Gryllotalpa africana. (After Left Distribution. — South Kanara, Malabar, Madura, Coimbatore, South Arcot. Ramnad ; probably throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifehistory- Not known in detail. Food diul Status. — Not a pest, often found in damp corners of houses. Once reported as damaging sugarcane to some extent in Tellicherrj (Malabar district) by gnawing the setts. Probably also predaceous on smaller animals and does damage sometimes by driving tunnels through the ground in search of food. Control. — The insects usually prefer to live in damp localities and it is therefore possible to bring them out ol their burrows by flooding the ground, when many birds readily attack them. CECANTHUS [NDICUS, Sauss. (Ecanthus indicus, Saussure, Melanges Orth., p. 594 1877); Lelroy, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 105. f. 42 ; Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 74. I • I. (Ecanthus indicus. The outline figun inal.) iral si/e. 536 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Coimbatorc, Godavari, Bellary, Kistna. Food. — Found on tobacco plants but never doing any damage to the same ; they have not, however, been observed to feed on any insects though they were found in numbers on plants infested with Plant-lice, Capsids, etc. It is, however, probably predaceous on small plant-feeding insects. Status. — Probably beneficial. BRACHYTRYPES PORTENTOSUS, Licht. Acheta portentosa, Licht., Cat. Mus. Zool. Hamb., Ill, 85 (1796). Brachytrypcs portentosus, Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 22. Gryllus Acheta ackatina, Stoll, Spectres Saut., p. 4, t. 2C, f. 8 (1813). Brachytrypcs achatinus, Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 225, f. 266, Ent. Mem. Dept. Agri., Ind., I, 122, f. 7, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 103, f. 40, Ent. Mem., Vol. rV, pp. 161— 182, t. 10 : V. S. her, Ind. Forest Bull.. No. II, p. 2, ff. 1", i\ Fig. 430. — Brachytrypes portentosus. (After Lefroy.) Distribution. — Nellore. Apparently not widely distributed in Southern India. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid singly at the end of burrows made into the ground. The young n\ mphs hatch out after about a month and attain the winged state after about six months. They live hidden in their burrows during the daytime, emerging at night to forage for food which they carry down into their tunnels. Foodplants.— Casuarina (seedlings). Statics. - Noted to do damage in Casuarina nurseries. ORTHOPTERA. 537 LIOGRYLLUS BIMACULATUS, dc Gccr. Gryllus bimaculatus, de Geer, Mem. Ins., Ill, 521, t. 43, f. 4 (1773). Liogryllus bimaculatus, I.M.N., IH, pt. 2, p. 97, fig; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pests, p. 226, f. 269, Ind. Ins. Life, p. 104, f. 35. Acheta bimaculata, Kirby, Cat. Orth. II, 26. Distribution. — Throughout the Plains of Southern India. Lifeliistory. — Not known. Usually found under stones, logs, etc. Food. — Probably feeds on decaying vegetation ; possibly predaceous on other insects. Has been noted as attacking and devouring the Deccan grass- hopper (Colemania) in the field. Status. -Not a pest. Fig. 431. — Liogryllus bimaculatus. (Original.) BLATTID/E. PER1FLAXETA AUSTRALASIA, Fb. Blatta australasia, Fab., Syst. Ent., p. 271 (1775)- Periplaneta australasia, Marlatt, U.S.A. Ent. Bull., No. 4. P- 9L f. 40; Lefroy. Ind. Ins. Life, p. 6l, f. II. FlG. 432. — Periplaneta australasia:. (Original.^ 53* SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Distribution. — Common in towns but not so common as P. americana (see figure 74) which seems to be dispossessing this species in many districts. Probably introduced by shipping. Lifehistory. — The eggs are deposited all together, contained in a hard horny case. The young lead an independent existence as soon as they hatch out. The life-cycle is a long one, probably over two years from egg to adult, the adult being also long-lived. Status. — In the field cockroaches do little, it' any. damage, but in houses, especially in towns, this and other species are well-known household pests. They gnaw unsightly patches in any leather articles (harness, boots, book-binding, etc.), and not only 1 food to which they find access but contaminate it with their disgusting smell whilst there is a further possibility of their communicating pathogenic germs onto food which they touch. Cockroaches have also been shown recently to be of some import- ance in the occurrence of cancer in mice. Corks are frequently destroyed and form favourite places lor the deposition of the egg-sacs, which are placed in holes gnawed in the cork. Control- — Traps and paste containing borax are the best remedies. Small cockroaches may often be trapped in any empty tin with a little grease smeared around the inside and a lump of bread, etc., as bait. BLATTELLA GERMANICA, Linn. I '.. — Blattella germanica. The outline figure shows the natural size. (< higinal.) Blatta germanica, Linn.. S Nat. (ed. XII), p. 688 (1767). Ectdbia germanica, Marlatt, U.S.A. Ent. Bull., No. 4. P- 92, f. 42. Blattella germanica, Shelford, E.M.M. (mm. 154- Phyllodromia germanica, Kirbv. Cat. Orth. 1. 87. Distribution.- Common in towns. An introduced species. Lit, history. Status and] Control. See Periplaneta J australasia. DERMAPTERA ; ISOPTERA- DERMAP1 ERA. FORFICULIDiE. NALA LIVIDIPES, Duf. Forficula lividipes, Dufour, Ann. Sc. Nat., XIII, p. 340 (1828). Labidura lividipes, Burr, Faun. Ind. Derm., p. 97, t. 4, f. 31. Nala lividipes, Burr., Gen. Ins. Derm., p. 36, t. 3, f. 10. 539 Fig. 434. — Xalriginal.) Distribution. — Coimbatore, Bellary ; probably throughout the Plains. Lifehistory. — Colonies of soldiers, workers and young occur in decayed portions of living trees and in wooden beams, etc. The winged adults fly just after sunset on still evenings in January and February at Coimbatore. Status. — In the case of living trees colonies only appear to occur in old trees and probably only occupy and perhaps enlarge already existing dead portions or hollows in the stem and branches caused by disease or injury. In the case of buildings, however, these Termites may do considerable damage by hollowing out beams, especially in the roof. Their presence is often detected by the long narrow galleries, partly excavated in the wood and covered with mud or chewed wood, which they run over tree-trunks, beams, etc. The soldiers exude a large drop of milky, sticky, latex-like liquid from the head. Control. Little can be done unless the headquarters of the colony can be located. It may then be destroyed by injecting poisonous fumes. Treatment with preservatives of beams intended for constructional use is indicated as a means of prevention. 1S0PTERA. 541 TERMITID/E. ODONTOTERMES Sp. Under this name reference is made to the Termites — whether of more than one species is uncertain, as is also the exact identity — which commonly cover trees in the dry weather with sheets of mud under cover of which they nibble off the outer bark. The direct damage done is usually small although occasionally the Termites may eat into the inner bark but it seems probable, in some cases at least, that their attack may provide a means of entry for bacterial diseases which may affect the trees more seriously. Various mixtures are in common use for application to tree-trunks. 1 have found a mixture of Crude-oil Emulsion and Tar (half and half) eflfei tual for some months at least, and it is usually only during the dry weather that trees are attacked. Pure Tar by itself willsome- times injure the tree, as will kerosine-oil. Crude-oil Emulsion (without Tar) may be applied in the case of young trees with tender bark. The nest is below ground, the sponge-like fungus-combs being found sometimes as far as twelve feet below the surface, but usually in the first two or three below soil-level. The nests are not marked by above-ground mounds and can rarely be located exactly. (See also figure 32.) ( 1 * ■ 16.— Outline I Odontotermes and (j) Micro- termes, showing 1 1 inal.) MICROTERMES Sp. Under this name reference is n).\<\i- to those small Termites which attack growing crops, particularly cereals and young plants. These Termites are much smaller than the species of Odontotermes and the soldiers have a relatively much smaller and weaker mandi- bli ["heir nest^. which are in scattered colonies under the soil 542 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. sometimes in or alongside the nests of other Termites, show no outward indication of their position and are almost impossible to locate. The only method of mitigating damage, that can be suggested at present, is by the use of deterrents, whose use often gives young plants time to reach a point of growth at which they are little attacked. Where irrigation is practicable a bag of Crude-oil Emulsion suspended in the irrigation-channel will usuallj drive Termites away temporarily. Cane setts may be dipped in a solution of Copper Sulphate before planting. Methods adopted for special crops must depend very largely on local conditions. THYSANOPTERA. THR1PID/E. THRIPS. I ic $37.—Thrips. The hair-lines show the natural sizes, I \fto i I Various species of Thrips (Sensu latiori) occur in Southern India on various crops, such as cholam, paddy, onion, sugarcane, and groundnut, but the species concerned are very little known and c.mnnt be discriminated without careful study. The damage done is usually small so far as particular plants are concerned, but is undoubtedly large in the aggregate, and further study of these minute insects will probably reveal that many different species I HYSANURA. 543 will have to be included in the list of insects injurious to Agricul- ture Their habits arc various ; some live in flowers and doubtless devour the pollen, a few produce galls in which they live, and many live on leaves (especially in the shelter of the leaf-sheath in crops such as cholam), piercing and eating the green matter. No practi- cal treatment can be recommended pending further study of the species concerned. THYSANURA. LEPISMID/E. CTENOLEPISMA Sp. Fig. 438. — Ctenolepisma >p. The outline figure shows the natural (Original.) Distribution. — Throughout Southern India. A domestic species occurring in houses amongst papers, books, pictures, etc. Lifehistory. — Eggs are laid amongst papers, etc. The life-cycle is apparently a long one, taking about two years from egg to adult. Status. A regular household pest, frequently doing consider- able damage to papers, office tiles, pictures, etc. Control. -Books should be treated with Book Solution regularly, .it least once a year, it kept in open shelves. Pictures should be painted over their backs with Naphthaline Emulsion and their frames thoroughly well made and closely lined with tin. Books in closed shelves, papers in boxes, etc., may be protected by naphthaline. (See also page \J2. i Remarks. These Fish-insects in Southern India do not seem to be >on trolled by Croce as in Northern India. 544 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC ARACHNIDA. ACARINA (Mites). TETRANYCHUS BIOCULATUS, W.-M. (RED SPIDER). Tetranychus bioculatus, Wood-Mason. Report on Tea-Mite (1884); I. MX.. III. i)i. 4. pp. 48-56, figs. ; Green, Perad. Circ. I. No. 17. pp. [98 199; Lefroy, Ind. Ins. Pesis. t. 2; Watt and Mann. Pests of Tea, PP- 348 359. f. 40. Fig. -139.— Tetranychus bioculatus, male and female. The small figures within the dotted circles show the real sizes. 0 Original.) Distribution. — Probably throughout the Tea Districts of Southern India. Lifehistory. The mites live in colonies on the upper surface of mature leaves under a very delicate protective web. The reel eggs are laid in hollows, usually close to a rib of the leaf, and the newly-hatched \011ng have only three pairs of legs but soon attain the adult condition in which they have four pairs of legs. The female mite is only about 1 mm. (one twenty-fifth of an inch) between the tips of the out-stretched fore and hind legs, and the male is still smaller. Foodplants. — Tea. Probably on other plants also; Green men- tions tomato. Stat us. Sometimes a serious pest of tea. Although the mites feed only on the older leaves, the loss of sap due to their sucking the juices <>i the plant causes the leaves to become dry and curled and in bail cases to fall off. Control. (1) The mites are most injurious during spells of dry weather. Heavy rains arc inimical to them. ARACHNIDA. 545 (2) Dusting with Flowers of Sulphur is the best remedy. By suspending two bags on the end of a pole a cooly can dust two rows of bushes at once. About 1 cwt. per acre is required. (3) Spraying with Flour Paste and Sulphur is indicated as mi experiment in control. Observation. — Cotes (I.M.N., 01,48) states that Tetranychus biocu- latus, W.-M., is the same species as the " Red Spider " of the Coffee- tree, described as Acarus coffea by Nietner in his " Observations on the Enemies of the Coffee-tree in Ceylon," published in 1861 - If this statement is correct, the Red Spider should apparently be known as Tetranychus coffea, Xietn- PHYTOPTUS CARINATUS, Green- (PURPLE MITE.) Typhlodromus carinatus, Green, Ins- Pests of Tea. Phytoptus carinatus, Green, Perad. ("ire I, No. 17, pp. 199-200 ; Anstead, Planters' Chron., VI. 189; Watt and Mann, Pests of Tea, PP. 365-368, f. 42. FlG. 440. — Phytoptus carinatus, seen from side and from above. I within the circle shows the natural si/c. ('After < ,1 Distribution. — Nilgiris. Lifehistory. — The Purple Mite feeds on both surfaces of the leaf, giving it a more or less uniform purplish-bronzy tint, the leaves withering and dropping in bail cases. The outer margins of the leaves are often more attacked than the central portions- The mite itself is microscopic and invisible to the naked eye. although close inspection will often show very minute white specks which are the 1 skins of the mites. The young mites are greenish, semi- transparent, pear-shaped. The adult mites are coloured dull purple and have five ridges of white waxy material along the back ; there art' apparently only two pairs of legs and these are small and placed close together near the head ; at the tail-end there is a sucker which acts as a prehensile organ and is used in locomotion. [Green-] 546 SOME SOUTH INDIAN INSECTS, ETC. Food pi a n ts. — T e a • Status- — A constant and sometimes serious pest. Control- — Dusting with Flowers of Sulphur in the early morn- ing, or spraying with Crude-oil Emulsion and Sulphur or with Flour Paste with or without Sulphur. Remarks. — I have not seen this mite in Southern India and am indebted to Mr. Anstead for information regarding its occurrence. 547 IX DEX The Lists of Crops with their pests and of Allied Hants (pages 240— 273), being already shown in order, are not indexed here also. All names in italics are synonyms. An asterisk (•) placed after a name means that the organism under reference is figured either on the page quoted or on a Plate inserted opposite thereto. aberrans, Pyrilla, 494.* Abdomen and appendages, 11. abdominalis, Aulacophora, 311.* Acacia latronum harbouring ants. 63. Acacia sundra, 63 * Acanthophorus serraticornis, Acariases, 185. Acarina, 544. Achn a melicerta, 3S6.* achatinus, Brachytrypes, 536.* Acherontia robbing beehives. 130 , larva, 131.* Acherontia styx, 402.* Acheta bimaculata, 537.* Acontia graellsi, 385.* Acrida turrita, 524.* Acridid.-r, 524.* acridiorum, Coccobacillus, 124. Acridinm teruginosum , "530*; A sue- cinctum, 530.* Acridotheres tristis. 221.* Actias selene, 405.* acuta, Chiloloba, 284.* adonidum, Dactytqpius, 508.* Idoretus bangalorensis, 285* ; A caligin- osus bicolor. ZSr,* ; A. ovalis. 287.* .Kgocera venulia. 372.* .rgrotalis, I'achyzancla. 440.* tencscens, Hispa, 316.* .7: o/o/)/i s famulus, 525.* teruginosum, Acridium, 530.* Estivation, 55. affinis. Oides, 313.* affinis, I'empheres. 156. 339.* africana, Gryllotalpa, 534 * ; — leg of, 8.* Agamogenesis, 15. Aganstida-. 372.* Agonoscelis nubila. 4 72.* ,i lira m ma, Plusia, 394.* Agricultural methods for control of pests, 36 Agromyza, Cow-pea. 358 * ; Red-gram, 357.* Agromyzidse, 356 ; — as crop-pests, 158 Agrotis segetum, 135. Agrotis ypsilon, 57. albistriga, Amsacta, 135 *, 369.* albuminosa, Collybia, 64.* Alcides bubo, 337* ; A. collaris, 337"; A. leopardus, 338.* alcmene, Chloridolum. 323.* Aleurodes bergi, 507*; A. citri, ricini. 508. Aleurodidae, 507 ; — pupal stage. 19. Alimentary System, 14. alternus, Stauropus, 408.* Altha nivea, 411.* americana, Periplaneta, 170* ; — antenna, 5 * ; — , leg, 8* American Blight. 500.* Amphibia, 235. Amsacta albistriga. 135*. ■ •' \. lactinea, 368*; A. moorei, 369. Anacampsis nerteria, 458.* anastomosalis, Omphisa, 439.* Anatomy of Insects, 2*, 3.* Anatona stillata. 2,S2.* Ancylolomia chrysograpbella, 424.* Andrallns {Audinetia) spinidens, 4 75 * Androconia, 49. Anemotropism, 56. angustatus, Calocoris, 490.* Anomala varians. 2.S7.* Anophehne mosquitos, 180.* Anoplocnemis phasiana, 477." Ant-attracting glands of Acacia sundra. 63.* Ant-eater. Scaly. 215. Antennae, 5.* Antestia cruciata, 472.* Ant Kxtcrminators, 121.* Anther.i a paphia. 20*.* Anthrax, 190. 548 INDEX. Anthrenus, 171.* Antigastra catalaunalis, 441. • antiqua, Orgyia, eggs of. 3-'. Ant-lions, 198. antonii, Helopeltis, Ants, 274 * ; communication amongst 50 ; control of — by Potassium Cyanide 104 ; — defending plants, 63 ; food of — . 195 ; — in houses, 171 ; intelligence of — , 51. Aphauiptcra, 365. Aphanus sordidus, 483.* Aphidida-, 499: care of — by Ants. 66, 67. Aphis K'ossypii, 499.* Aphna us, directive markings, 39. Apida , 277. Apion sp. , 331 -^ \pis dorsata. 209, 277*; A. rlorea. 210. 279 * ; A. mdica, 210, Apoderus tranquebaricus, 335.* Apomecvna pertigera, 327.* Aproarema {Anacampsis) nerteria, N5. 457* ; parasite of—, 201.* arachidis, Sphenoptera, 298.* Arbela, use of name, 24. Arbela tetraonis, 453.* Arbelida-, 453. archesia, Kemigia, 388.* Arctiada;, 367. Argasida ,184, Argina cribraria, 400*; A. syringa, 401. Argyroploce (Cryptophlebia) illepida (carpoplititfti), 449.* Aristolochia imprisoning flies, armigera, Chloridea (Hcliothis). 373. ' armigera, Hispa, 315." Army Worms, 136. Armillaria eurhiza, 64.* Arrhinotermes flavus, 9.* Arsenites, 99. Arthropoda, 1, 2. Asilidse, 198.* asperulus, Ceuthorrhynchus, 328.* Aspidiotus camellia-- (circulata) , 517*. A. destructor, 518.* inorpha miliaris, 316* : A. sam i? crucis, larva, 45.* Aspongopus janus, 476.* Assamia dent at a, 492.* Assembling of males, 49. assulta, Chloridea [Heliothis), 374.* Asura conferta, 367.* Atactogaster finitimus, 333.* ater, Dicrurus, ZZi.* Athalia proxima, 2S1.* Athene brama, 226.* atomosa, Exelastis, in.* Atractomorpha crenulata. 52s.* atriceps. Par US, 223. atripennis. Aulacophora 312.* Attacidce, 405. Attacus ricini. 207.* Vtteva fabriciella (.niviguttella), k>l.* Attraction of sexes, 49. Audinetia spinidens, 475.* Auditory organs, 47. ati^ias, Telicota, 419.* august a, Depressaria, 459.* Aulacophora abdominalis, 311*; A. atri- pennis, 312*; A. cxcavata, 312* .1. fovcicollis, 311*. A stevensi. 312.* Aularches miliaris, 526* ; — , mi defeni aurantiana, Laspeyresia, 450.* aurantius, Brachypternus, 226.* aureus. Cam s, 221 . auriflua, Scirpophaga, 425.* australasia , Periplaneta, 537.* Autospray Machines. 115.* Azazia rubricans, 389.* Vzygophleps scalaris. 44o. B Babblers, 224. babu, Phlebotomus, 362.* Bacterial Diseases of insect pests, 123- Bactrocera cucurbit a, 354.* Bag net, 90*. 91.* Bagrada Picta, 473.* Bag-worms, 448. Baits for crop-pests. 93. Bamboo Beetles. 1(.4. 175. bambusa . Oregma. 504.* bangalorensis, Adoretus, 285.* banian. Hieroglyphus, 531.* Bandicoot, 216. Banding trees, 94. Baoris mathias, 417.* barbatum, Stromatium. 321.* Barbets, 1Z'). Barrel Sprayers, 112.* Batesian Mimicry, 37. Batocera rubus, 324*; - simple anatomy, 2*; B. rubra. 324.* Batrachedra coriacella, 458*; B. stego- dyphobius, 237. Bats, 219. Bears, 220. Bed-bug, 171, 487*;—, names of, 23 ; negatively phototrophic, 54. Bee-eaters. 230. I \ • I > E X . 549 -Ml.* Bees, 209. 278*: — in houses. 171 reproduction in - . 15: stine. ol 44 * ; warning note of . 44. i attacking stored products, 160. bergi, Aleurodes. 507.* biclavis, Chionaspis, 519.* bimaculatus, Liogryllus, 537.* Binomial Nomenclature 23. binotalis, Crocidolomia, 437.* bioculattis. Tetranychus, 544.* bipartella, Phycita, 428.* bipunctatus, Nephotettix, 497.* bipunctifer, Sclwnobius, 426.* Birds, 222 checking grasshoppers, 139 importance of . SO, 86. .114. itippressaria, 409.* Blattella (Phyllodrtmiici) germanica, 538.* Blattida . 537. Blister-beetles, 185 - as checks on K'ass hoppers, 139 pests, 154*; — as parasites. 204 * ; means of defence of — . 42. blitealis, Noorda. 441.* Blood of Insects. 14. Bloodsucker lizard, 230. Blowfly, egg-laying habits, 55. Blue-bottle Fly spoiling toddy. 159 Body-louse. 523.* Boerhavia catching insects 5'1 eaten by insects. 60. I 'i ilyommatus, 415.* Bollycorms. Zi. 133. Bombardier Beetles. 41. Bombotelia jocosatrix, 3,S2.* Bombycid.e. 407. Bombylida?, 203. Bombyx mori. 205.* Book-beetle, 295.* Book Solution. 172. booduna. Mus, 2K,. Bordeaux Mixture. 105. Borborid Flies on Dunjj-beetles, 66. Boring caterpillars, 132 control of — , Bos bubalus. 214 : B. gaurus, 214 Boselaphus tragocamelus, 214. Brachypternus aurantius. 226.* brachyrhinus. I.ius. 331. Brachytrypes portentosus (achat inus), 536.* Braconida\ Polyembryony it Brain of Insects, 12. brama. Athene brassier Brenthida 144 Nana. lib. Brinjal Sarrothripine, 383.* Brodia priscotincta, 18.* Brown But; of Coffee. 514.* Bruchida , 161, 306. Bruchus tbeobromae, 307.* bubalus, Bos. 214. bubo, Alcides, 337.* Bubulcus coromandus, 227. bucephalus, Heliocopris, 281*; — , an- tenna, 5 * ; — , ball of, 204. Bucket Sprayers. 108. Buftalo. 214. Buffalo-louse, 185. Hut.' melanostictus. Bungarus candidus, 232.* bunyarus, Naja, 233.* Buprestids, 297: — as wood-borers, 153. Burning Crop-pests. 94, Butho, 237. Butterflies. 412. Cacopus systoma. 235.* Cadamustus typicus, 485.* caesalis, Glyphodes. 435.* caffer. Sphenarches. 443.* cajani, Ceroplastodes. 512.* Calandra oryzae, 160. 341.* calcitrans, Stomows, 353.* Calcium Carbide residue, use for, 105 Calcium Arsenite. 100. Calf-louse. 185. calininosus, Adoretus. 286.* Calobata sp., 355.* Calocoris anjjustatus. 490.* Calotes versicolor, 230. camellia-. Aspidiotus, 517.* caminodes, Hilarographa, 464. Camponotus compressus, 277.* candidus, Bungarus. 232.* Cane-borers. 422*. 425*. 426.* Canine l'iroplasmosis, 190. Canis indicus. 221 ; C. aureus, 221. Canorus, Crateropus Cantao ocellatus. maternal solicitude in, 34.* Canthand beetles Mvpermetamorphosis in. 32. Cantharida, 1S5. 302. Cantharis rouxi, 302* (". ruficollis, 305* , C tcnuicoltis, 303.* 550 INDEX. Canthecona furcellata. 475.* capensis, Hippobosca. 347.* capensis. Perigea (Apamca), 376.* capitis, Pediculus, 521.* Capp«ea taprobanensis. 470.* Capsida;, 488. Capua coffearia, 452. x Caradrina exigua, 378.* Carbolic Acid Emulsion, 102. Carbon Bisulphide, 165. Carboniferous Insects, 19. Cardamom Scolytid, 344.* (area subtilis, larva. 41. carinata, Echis, 233.* carinatus, Phytoptus, 545.* carinatus, Typhlodromus, 545."* Carpenter Bees carrying Mites, 67.* Carpet Beetles, 174.* carpophaga, Cryptophlebia, 149. Carpophilus dimidiatus, 288."* Caryoborus gonagra. 308.* casei, Piophila, 186. Cassid Beetles, 316 * : — . larval defence. 45.* Castaneum, Tribolium, 161, 300.* Castor Aleurodid, Parasite of. 202.* catalaunalis, Antigastra, 441.* Catantops sp., 529.* catena, Tarache, i*--"1 Caterpillars, 131.* Catochrysops cnejus. 414.* Catopsilia pyranthe, 413.* Cats. 221. Cattle Egret, 227. Cattle Fly, 346.* Causes of damage to crops, 76. Cecidomyiada\ 363*. — as crop-pests, I5M. Centipedes, 237. Centropus sinensis, 2.1''. Cerambycidse, 318. Cerataphis, 505. Cercopidnr. 495. cerealella. Sitotroga. 163. 456.* Ceria sp.. 37.* ceriferus, Cerococcus. 212. ceriferus, Dactylopius, 510.* Cerococcus ceriferus. 212 C. hibisci, 508.* Ceroplastodes cajani, 512.* Cerura vinula, 41. Cetoniada-. 151, 282. Ceuthorrhynchus asperulus, 328.* Chalcididse, 202.* chalcytes. I'lusia, 393. Changing time of planting, 85- Checks on increase. 72. Chemotropism. 54. cheopis, Xenopsylla, 366- * Cheroot Beetle, 162, 295.* Cheese Hopper, 186. Chigoe, 186. Chili) simplex, 423." Chiloloba acuta, 284.* chinensis, Bruchus, 306.* chinensis, Pachymerus, 306.* Chionaspis biclavis, 519 * ; C. thece, 520 • Chironomidae, use of forelegs, 9. Chironomus, Pedogenesis in, 15- Chloridea armigera, 373 * ; C. assulta, 374 • ; C. obsoleta, 373.* Chloridolum alcmene, 323.* Chlorita flavcscens. 498.* Chloropida?, 355. Cholam Borer, 423.* Cholam Fly, 356.* Cholam, Fly pest of, 158.* Cholam mite, 200. Cholera, 1S8. Chrotogonus, 13S *, 52J chrvsographella, Ancylolomia, 424.* Chrysomelida^ 309. Chrysopa spp., 469 * ; larval habits of — , 45. Chrysopida\ 198, 469. chromataria, Earias (t. ' ' Chunam Frog, 235. Chyle. 14. Cicadidse, number of moults, 31; means of defence, 43. cichorii, Meloe, 304. i Cicindelidse. 199 : digging appendages ol — , 12. Cimex lectularius, Hypergamesis in, 16. Cimex rotundatus, 487.* cingulatus, Dysdercus, 484.* circulata, Diaspis, 517.* Circulatory System, 13. Cirphis unipuncta, 376.* citrella, Phyllocnistis, 465.* citri, Aleurodes, 508. citri, Dactylopius (Pseudococcus), 508.* Clania (Eumeta) crameri, 45. 448*; C. variegata, 448. Clavigralla gibbosa, 478*; C. horrens, 479.* Clean cultivation, 82. Cleridse, 296. Climate, effects of, 73. Clinocoris (Cimex) hemipterus (rotun- datus), 487.* i x n e x . 55i oris lectularius, Hypergamesis in, 16. Clothes-moths, 1 73. 467.* Cnaphalocrocis medinalis, 432.* cnejus, Catochrysops, 414.* Cobra, 212* Coccida\ 50,s , pupal stage of --. 18. Coccinella septemptinctata. 291.* Coccinellida\ 200. 291. Coccobacillus acridiorum, 1 14. Cockchafers, 150*. Cockroaches. 170. 5JS*; means of zoic — ,35; Sperma- tozoa of — , 55. Coconut Aphis, 506.* Codling Moth. 134. Ccelophora sp.. 291.* caeruleus, Biingarus, 232.* Ccelosten.a scabrata, 121* . C. scabra- tor, 325 • ; C. spinator, 325.* coffee, Tetranychus, 545. i offea Zeuzera, 446.* coffearia, Homona (Capua). 452.* Coffee Borers, 153. 12} * bug pests of — , 147: — Scale. 513.* colaca, Parnara. 418.* Cold Storage for control of pests, 168. Colemania sphenarioides, 527* ; Bomby- lid parasite of — , 203. Coleopteraas pests of stored products, 160. collaris, Alcides, 337.* Collybia albuminosa, 64.* Commensalism, definition of, 65. compressus. Camponotus, 277.* conducta, Euplexia, 376 * conferta, Asura. 367.* conica. Eumenes, 197 * pupa of . 32.* Conjunctivitis, 189. Conorhinus rubrofasciatus, 4S6-* Contact Poisons, 96, 101. Contarinia attacking cotton-buds. 158, 363.* convolvnh. Herse, 61 *, 401.* convulsionarius, Termes, means of de fence. 44 ; communication amongst. 50. Cooly itch, 186. Copper A .i Copper Sulphate for cane setts, 105. Copra itch, 186. Coptocycla. 317.* Coptosoma cribraria. 469.* Coptotermes heimi, 53". • Coracias intlica. 221. Coreid.T. 177.* coriacella igossypiclla) , 45S.* 37 coromandus, Bubulcu l hus, 22s C. splen dens, 228.* Cosmophila erosa, 391*; C. sabulifera 390.* , lues sordidus, 342 • Cosmopterygicl i Cosmoscarta relata, 495.* Cossyphus depressus, 300.* Cotton, bug pests of, 1 16, 484, 148.< Cotton-hugs, collection of, 89. Cotton, destruction of old crop, 83. Cotton Seed. Rests of, 134. Stem Weevil, 156. 339.* Coucal. 226. Cow-pea Agromyza, 358.* Coxa. 8.* Crab-louse, 523.* Crabs, 237. Clania, 45. 448.* caudata, W .215. crassicornis. Callobelicus, 490.* Crateropus canorus, 224 ; C. griseus, 224. motus gangis, 369* ; C. intcrruptus, 369.* Cremastogaster in Acacia thorns, 63. crenulata, Atractomorpha, 528.' cretacea, Eublemma, 381.* cribraria. Argina, 400.* cribraria. Coptosoma, 469.* Crickets, 534; — in houses 17.' crop-pests, 139. Cricula trifenestrata, 405.* cristatus. Sus, 214. critica, Eucelis, 450.* Crocidolomia binotalis, 437." Crops, area and value, 75 ; rotation of — , 84 . trap. 84 . mixed, B4 beasant, 226. 227.* cruciata. AntesI Crude Oil Emulsion, 101. cruciferarum, Plutclla. 464.* Cryptophlcbia carpophaga Cryptorhynchus mangifera 141.* ihripa occulta. JXJ. Cryptozoic animals, 54. ephalus felis, 367.* Ctenolepisma. 543.* Cucujid.i cucurbits, Dacus, 354.* Culex fatigans, 361.* 361.* Culicine mosquitos, cupreoviridis, Marias (t. 22. f. Curculionidx 552 INDEX. Curtilla africana, 535.* Cutworms, 135. cyanea. Scutellista, 24.* cyanipennis, Hispa, 316.* cyanophlyctis, Rana, 235. Cyclopelta siccifolia, 476.* Cyclops, 188. Cylas formicarius, 156, 334.* Cynopterus sphinx, 219; C. marginatum. 219. Cyrtacanthacris ranacea, 530*; — , antenna, 5* ; — leg, 8 ; C. succincta. 530.* Dactylopius citri, 508*; D. nipa?, 509* D. virgatus (ceriferus), 510.* Dacus cucurbits, 354.* Damage by insects, notation, 74*; annual amount, 76. Dasychira mendosa, 396*; D. securis, 397.* Deadhearts, 95. Dead organic matter, Insects and, 204. Dead trees, necessity for destruction. 95. Death-feint in weevils, 37. Deaths from insect-borne diseases, 76. Death's-Head Moth, larval stridulation, 48. Deccan Grasshopper, 527.* Deer, 214. Definition, meaning of, 25. Deilephila nerii, 403.* Delhi Boil, 189. Demodex folliculorum, 186. demoleus. Papilio, 412.* Dendrocitta rufa, 225. Dengue, 187. dentata, Assamia, 492.* Depressaria zizyphi [augusta), 459.* depressus, Cossyphus, 300-* depunc talis, Nymphula, 45, 430.* Dermatophilus penetrans, 186. Dermestes sp., 293 *; D. vulpinus Dermestes surinamensis, 290.* Dermestidaj, 292. derogata, Sylepta, 434.* Descent of Insects, 19.* destructor, Aspidiotus, 518.* Devonian Insects, 18. Diaspis circulata, 517.* Diatrar-a sp., 422*; D. venosata (stria- talis). 422. Diatraea, Parasite of, 200.* Dichocrocis punctiferalis, 433.* Dichomeris (Ypsolophits) ianthes I n, hrophanes) , 456.* Dicrurus ater. 2M-* Dictyophara pallida, 494.* dimidiatus, Carpophilus, 288.* Diopsida:. eyes of, 7. Directive markings, 39. Dischidia, 63. Disea i insects, 187. Disphinctus politus (formosus), 489* dodecastigma, Epilachna, 292.* Dog Fly, 347.* Dolycoris indicus, 470.* dominica, Rhizopertha, 294.* dorsalis, Epacromia, 525.* dorsata. Apis, 277.* Dorylus orientalis, 274.* I >orvsthenes rostratus, 318 * ; — . antenna, 5.* Dragonflies, 195 *; eyes of — , 7. Draining to control pests, 87. Drill-sown crops, advantages Drongo, 223.* Drosera, 1 , 59. Drugs. Insects used as, 212. Dryophis mycterizans, 36. Dung Beetles, 204, 282. Dusky cotton-bug, 482.* dux, I.iuiha, 348.* Dynastida?, 285. Dysdercus cingulatus, 484.* Dysenteries, 188. E Earias cupreoviridis (chromataria f. 7; E. fabia, 133, 385*; E. in 133. 384.* Earwigs, 539* ; forceps of — , 12 : maternal solicitude in — , 33. Ei iS) 31. Echidnophaga gallinaceus, 365.* echinus. Urentius, 485.* Echis carinata, 233.* Eciton hamata, 50. Ectobia germanica, 538.* Ectoparasites, 68. Eelworms, 238.* Egg Stage, 28. Egrets, 227. Elephantiasis, 188. IClephants, 214. Eligma narcissus, 383.* elongata, Mecopoda, leg, S.* elongella, Stenachroia, 421.* Empoasca flavescens, 497.* INDEX 553 Endop.im -.11. Enteric Fever, 188. Epacromia tamulus (dorsalis), 525.* Ephemerids, respiratory system, 13. Ephestia, 163.* Epicauta. 306.* Epidemic Dropsy. 188. Epilachnadodecastigma, 135,292*; E. 28- punctata. 155. 292.* Epimys norvegicus. 216 ; E. rufescens, 216 Episomus lacerta, 327*: E. montanus, antenna, 5.* equitans, Limosina, 66. Eretmocera impactella, 461.* Eretmocerus sp.. 202.* Eriochiton cajani, 512.* Eri Silkworm, 207.* Eristalis, larva of, 13. erosa, Cosmophila, 391.* Erotylidx, 290.* Estigmene lactinea, 368.* Etiella zinckenella. 429.* Etiblemma. larval habits, 15. Eublemma olivacea, 380*: E. scitula (cretacea), 199*. 381.* Eucelis critica, 450.* Eucosmid.i . 449. Eugnamptus marginatus, 329.* Eumenes conica, 197 * : pupa of — , 32.* Eumenes tlavopicta, 37.* Euproctis fraterna, 398 * . E. scintillans, 399.* Eupterote mollifera. 404.* Eupterotidae, 404. Euplcxia conduct a, 376.* Eurybrachys tomento enrhiza, Armitlaria, 64.* Eusarcocoris nutii^er. 471 * . E. ventralis 471.* Eutelia jocosatrix, 382.* Eutermes, means of defence. 42. Euxoa segetis. 57, 375.* Euzophera perticella excavata, Aulacophora, 312.* tis atomosa, 444.* exigua, Laphygma Caradrina), I . Extension Rods, 118. Eye-fly, 355* 175. ! if insects, 6.* labia, Earias, 385.* fabriciella, Atteva, 461.* Facets of Eve. number of, 7. farinosa, I'aramecops. HI* fascialis, Hymenia(ZiMc*e»i •; II. arraigera, 315 * ; H. cyanipcnnis, 316.* Hispella ramosa, 314.* Hispinae, 155. bisteroides, Tetroda, 477.* Menida, 474.* hofmannseggi. Gonocepbalum, 299.* ire Spravers, 1 15.* Homona(C;«r) coffearia, 452.* Homoptera glaucinans, 389.* Honey dew, 66. Hoopoe. 22S. Hoppei horrens, Clavigralla, 479.* Hose for Sprayers, l is, Housefly, 169, 183 ; — , larval moults. 31. House-mouse, Indian, 216. parrow, 230. 158.* humanus, Pediculus, 522.* Hilarographa caminodes, 464. puera, 392.* hybUeella, Tegna, 463.* Hydnophytum, 63. Hydrocyanic Acid gas, l_'0. 166 Hydrotropism, 56. Hymenia {Zinckenia) fascialis (>, lis), 131.* i ■ . I typermetamorphosis, 52. Hvpci; UK).* Hypsidae, 400. Hypsolophus ninth, : I - . 1 : - : I (61. hyrtaca, Metanastria, 409.* hystrix, Platypria, 316.* ianthes, Dichomeris (Ypsolophus), 456.* Ichneumonida.-, 202 ; — ovipositor of, 12. niveosparsus, 495.* (carpophaga) Argyroploce {Cryptophlebia), 449.* imbricans, Hemilecanium, 516.* impactella, Eretmocera, 461.* impolita. Rhytinota, 301.* >, 78. importunitas, Ragmu . i . rate of, in insects. 71. indica. Apis. 278.* indica, Coracias. 225. indica. ( ilyphodes, 435.* ndica Mj labris, 154.* indicus, CEcanthus, 535. indica, Tatera, 215.* indica, Upupa, 2.2.5 indicata, Nacoleia, 433.* indicum, Tapinoma. in Acacia thorns, 63. indicus. Canis, 22] indicus. Dolycoris, 470.* indicus. Galeodes, 237. mclus, Haliastur, 227. miliis. t Irychodes, 344.* inferens. Sesamia (N 179.* inficita, Saluria (Poujadia), 427.* infusella. Phycita, 428 * ingttinalis, Phthirius, 525* Insectii idal methods for control oi 95. Insectivorous animals, education of, 38. Insectivorous plants. 59. insignis, Pbilaematomyia, 352.* insulana. Earia Instar, 31. intacta, Scirpobhaga interrupt us, Creatonotus, 41. aung plants. 63 iridtpennis. Xylocopa. eye. 6 * Irrigation to control pesl 556 INDEX ismene, Melanitis, 412.* isocrates, Virachola, 416*; — directive markings 39.* Itch, 185. Ixodida>, 184. Ixodoidr Jackal, 220. Jalamandalam, 237. janus, Aspongopus, 476.* Japygidae, forceps of, 12. jarbas, Rapala, antenna, 5.* Jassidae, 495. [aj , Blui " Jerry Munglum," 237. Jigger, 186. jocosatnv Bombotelia [Eutclia), 382.* Jute Apion, 33 1 .* Kala Azai Kerosine Emulsion, 102. Key to important Order- 21 King Cobra, 233.* King-crow . Zlif' Kites, 227. Knapsack Sprayers, 110.* koenigana (aurantiana), Laspeyresia, 450.* kok, Gunomys, 216. Krait, 232.* kuehniella, Ephestia, 163.* Kumblihula, 42, 135,* 369 *; — control 82, 85, 88. Kumblipuchi, 42, 135* ; — control of, 82, 85, 88 kundoo, Uriohis, 224. Labidura lividipes, 539.* Lac, 212 lacerta, Episomus, 327.* Lace-wing Flies, 198. lachesis, Achcrontia, robbing bee lines, 130. Lachnus pyri, 503-* lactinea, Estigmene, 368.* Lady-bird Beetles, 200, 291 ; — , geotropic habits, 56. lastus, Oxycarenus, 482.* lanigera, Schizoneura, 500.* Laphygma exigua, 37s.* Larval stage, 29. Larva, Structure of, 30. Lasiocampida;. 409 ; — . larval defence. 43. Lasioderma serricorne, 162. 2'J5 * ; L. testaceutn, 295.* lasiurus, Platacanthomys, 215. Laspeyresia kcenigana (aurantiana), 450*; L. torodelta, 451 * ; L. tricentra, 451." lataniir, Aspidiotus, 518.* Latin names, 2i. Lead Arsenate. 98. Lead Arsenite, 99. Lead Chromate, 98. Leaf-mining caterpillars. 136. Lecanium hemispharicum, 514 * /. imbricans, 516 * ; L. marsupiale. 516*; L. nigrum, 514*; L. ole.i . 515*. L viride, 513.* Lecanium viride. 147, 513*; introduction of — , 178; — attacked bv fungi, 123.* Legislation for control of pests, 125 Legs, 8.* leopardus, Alcides, 338.* lepida, 1'arasa, 410.* Lepidoptera attacking stored products, 160. Lepidopterous mouth-parts, 4. • LepismidiB, i I i Leprosy, 188. Leptispa pygmEea, 313* Leptocorisa varicornis, 82, 146 *. 479.* Leucania inferens, 379.* Leucinodes orbonalis, 436.* lewisii, l'erga, maternal solicitude in, 34. Lice, 522 ; — of domestic animals, 185. Lichens, composition of, 65. lienigianus, Pterophorus, 445.* Life, length of, 32. Light, attraction of, for insects, 57. Light-traps. 57, 92. Limacodida*, 410 ; stinging larvae of — , 43. Lime as a repellent, 105. Lime-Sulphur, 101, 103. Limosina equitans, 66. lineatus, Haplochilus, 236.* Linseed Oil Emulsion, 102. Liogryllus bimaculatus, 537.* littoral is, Prodenia, 377.* litura, Prodenia 377.* lividipes. Nala {Labidura), 539.* Lixus brachyrhinus, 331.* Lizards, 230. INDEX 557 lobata, Stenodictya, 9.* Local pests defined, 128. locusts, 137 ; as foot London I'urple, 100. Longii 118. i ms, Fatua, 200.* rs, 132 Lucilia. 186. Lucilia dux, 348 * L. flavii eps, .(48.* Luminosity in insects. 45. < . 4 1-4 Lyi aenid Caterpillars, glands of, I 6 Lygseus pandurus [milita- ns), 481.* Lyman triads, J'»5 Lyroderma lyra, 220. Lytta tenuicollis, SOS.* M Macalla moncusalis • macharahs, Pvrausta. 442.* macrocephalus, Cimex {Acanthii 487.* Macrones vittatus, 236 maculata, Hippobosca maculatus. Rhacophorus, 235 maculipennis. Plutella, 464.* maderaspatensis, Motacilla, 225. madurensis, Nisotra. 310.* Major pests denned. 128. malabarica. Bandicota malabaricus, Phassus, 467 * Malabar Spiny Mouse, 215. Malaria, 177, 183; — carrying mosquitos, 181 : — parasite, life-cycles of.l - Malpigbian Tubules. 14. manei, Mus, 216. mangifei i • nchus, 341.* —Hoppers, 94, 495 * leal boring weevil, 334*; —weevil, 156, 341.* Manis crassicaudata. 215. Mantidae, 195 : predaceous leg of — , 8.* Marasmarcha atomosa, 444.* Marasmia trapezalis, 432.* marginatus, Eugnarrptus, 329.* marginatus, Cynoptertis, 219. marsupiale, Lecanium, 516.* Maruca testulalis. 440.* Mass infection Maternal solicitude. SS. mathias. l'arnara. 417.* mauritanicus. Tenebrotdes. mauritia, Spodoptera. Mayflies, respiratory system, 13. Measures and Weigh) Mechanical methods for control i pests, 88. Mecopoda elongata, leg, S * ; avipositor, 12. medinalis, Cnaphalocrocis, 432.* Melanitis ismene, 412.* melanocephalus, Oriolus, 224. melanostictus, Bufo, 236. melicerta, Achaa (Ophiusa) tnellonella, Galleria, 421.* e, 185, 302. meltada, Millardia, 216. Melursus ursinus, 220. Membracidse, maternal solicitude in, 34. mendosa. Olene {Dasychira) . 396.* Menida histrio. 474.* Merops viridis, 230. Mesotermitidae, 539. Metanastna hyrtaca, 409.* Metazoa, 1. meticulosalis, Terastia, 133, 438.* Metriona sp., 318.* Miastor. definition of, 1 S3. Miastor, Pedogenesis in, 15. Mice, 215, 218. Micromalthidae, Pedogenesis in, 15. Micropezidae, 355 : — , use of foreleg microscopica. Orneodes, wing, 11.* Microtermes sp. , 541.* Microvelia. stridulation of, 48. Migration-flights, 56. miliaris, Aularches, 526.* miharis, Aspidomorpha, 316.* Militaris, Lygceus, 481.* Millardia meltada, 216. Millipedes, 237. Milvus govinda, 227. Mimicry. 37. Mm. >r pests defined, 12s. minimis, Phlebotomus, 362.* Mites, 544. Mixed crops, 84. modesta, Phidodonta. 315." ■ Mole-cricket, 534 • ; maternal solicitude in — , 34. Mole-rat, Southern, 216. mollifera, Eupterote. 404.* Monanthiaglobulifera, 485.* moncusalis. Macalla. Mongoose, 221. Moniliform Antenna;, 5.* Monkey-louse Monkeys Monolcpta signata, 310.* 55« INDEX. Monomorium gracillumim, 275.* monostigma, Scirpophaga, 426.* monstrosus, Schizodactylus, 533 * ; , leg of. 8.* montanus. Episomus, antenna, 5.* mordax, Priotyrannus, 319.* mori, Bombyx, 205.* Mosquito 161 •;- and Malaria, 177-183; in houses, 175 * ; irritation ol bites, 184 ; — . use of hind-legs, 9. Motacilla maderaspatensis. 225. Moult. 31. Mouth-parts, 4.* Mulberry Silkworm, 205.* Mullerian mimicry, 37. multilinealis, Sjftepta. 434* Mungos mungi i E21. Mus booduga, 216; M. manei, 21G. Mus deciimanus. 216; M. >;tttits, 216. Musca 1" ", 351; M. convexifrons, 351 ; M. domestica, 349* . M. gibsoni, 351 ; M. nebulo, 349*; M. pattoni. 350.* Muscida , 348. mycterizans, Dryophis, 36. Myiases, 185, 186. Uylabridce, 302. Mylabris indica, 154.* Mylabris pustulata, 303 * . M. sidte, 303.* Mynahs, 224.* Myrmecodia, 63- Myrmecophilous insects, 66. Myrmeleonidae, 19S. Mytilaspis piperis, 519.* N Nacoleia indicata(i'f photettix bipunctatus, 497.* ncni, Deilephila, 403.* nerteria, Aproserema (Anacampsis), 85. 457* ; parasite of—. 201.* system, 12. Nesokia bandicota, 216. 10.* ps, 79. Nezara viridula, 473.* niger, Paradoxurus, 221. Night-jars, 226. nigro-repletus, Hieroglyphus, 531. nigrum, I.ecanium, 514.* Nilgai. 214. Nilgin cockchafers, 150.* nipae, Dactylopius (Pseudococcus), 509.* Nisotra madurensis, 310.* nitidula. Tarache, 381.* Nitidulidse, 288. nivea, Altha, 411.* niveosparsus. Idiocerus. 495.* niviguttella, Corinea, 461.* Noctuidsr, 373. Nomenclature, Rules of, 2i. Nonagriu infcrcns, 379*. N . uniforinis 379.* Noorda lilitealis. 441.* norvegicus, Epimys, 216. Notodontidae, 408. Nozzles of Sprayers. 1 Is. nubila, Agonoscehs, 472.* Number ol Insects. 22. Nvctipao hieroglyphica, clicking sound Of, 48.* Nymph, 29. Nymphalidse 412; Pupae of — . 31. Nymphosis in Termites. 18. Nymphula depunctalis, 45, 430 * . larval respiratory system of — , 13. obesus, Odotuotermes, 142 * obsoleta, Chloridea {Heliothis), 373.* occulta, Cryptothripa, 383. ocellatus, Cantao, maternal solicitude in 34.* Ocelli, 7.* Ocmara varians, 407.* ochrophancs, Ypsolophtis, 456.* Odonata, 195.* i (dontotermes obesus, 142.* Odontotermes sp., 541 * ; fungus on comb of—, 64.* CEcanthus indicus, 535.* horidae, 459. CEcophylla smaragdina, 41, a . 347. INDEX. 559 CEstrus ovis, 186, 347.* affinis, 31 J * oleao, Lecanium, 515.* • . 6.* Olene (Dasychira mendosa olivacea, Eublemma, 380.* Omphisa anastomosalis. 439.* opalinoides. Tarache, 3N2 • Opatrum, 299 * operculella, Phtborimaea, 163, 155 • ; introduction and damage, 79. Ophideres, 130. Opkiusa melicerte, 386.* Orange Leaf-miner, 465.* orbonalis, Leucinodes, 436.* Orders of Insects. JO. Orectochilus semivestitus. eye, 6 * 1 Iregma bambusac, 504.* ( >rgj ia antiqua, eggs of, JJ. Orgyia postica. 395 * . antenna of . 5.* orichalcea, Husia, 393. • ■ I Sore, 189. orientalis. Dorylus, _'74.* orientalis, Zonabris, 304. Orioles. 224. Ornaments, Insects used as, 213. Orneodes hexadactyla, pupa, 30.* Orneodidae, wings of, 11.* Ortliacns sp. , 527.* Orthopterous mouth-parts, (.* Orychodes indus, 344.* Oryctes rhinoceros, 15X *. 152*. 285 * ; control of — , 95. oryzae, Calandra, loO, 341.* Osmaterium, 41. o\ahs. Adore t us, 287.* Ovipositor, 12, 15. ovis, 'KstniN, 186, 347 • Ovum Ouls. < >xya velox, 5ii.* isquamosus Oxycarenus laetus, 482.* Oxycetonia versicolor. Pachymerus chinensis. 306.* pachyspila, Tinea, 466.* Pacbyzancla aegrotalis, 440.* Paddy Stem-borer, 4 jr.. Paints, metallic, as insecticides. 100. Palaeornis torquatus, 229 * Palamna as, 237. pallida, Dictyophara palmarum, Funambulu Palm Beetle, 153 • control ol — , 95. Palm-civet, Indian, 221. Palm Weevil, 343 * , control ol — , 95. panduriis. Lygaeus, 481.* 1'angolin, 215. Pangonia sp., 360.* panicea, Sitodrepa, 162, 295.* I'antala flavescens, eye. 6.' Papers, preservation of, 172. paphia, Antheraea, 208.* Papilionid;e, 412 pupa; of — . 31. Papilio demoleus, 412.* Pappataci Fever, 187. Paradoxurus niger, 221 . Paramecops farinosa, HI* Parasa lepida, 410.* Parasites, 200 ; definition of — crop-pests. 124. Parasitism, mode of occurrence 68 69." Paratyphoid Fever. 188. Pans Green, paris, Neocerambyx. m* Parnara colaca, 418 • ; P. mathias, 417 * Parroquets, 229.* Parthenogenesis, 15. Parus atriceps, 225. Passalid beetles, parental soli. le in, 33 stridulation in — , 49. Pectinate Antenna?, 6.* pedator, Xanthopimpla, 201.* pedestris, Kiptortus, 480.* Pedogenesis, 15. Pedicinus eurygaster, 185. Pediculida, 521, Pediculoides ventricosus, 186. Pediculus capitis, 521 • ; p. bumanus (vestimenti), 522 * , P. pubis, 515 * . P. tuberctilatus, 524.* Pempheres affinis, 156, 550. • penetrans, Dermatophilus, 186. Pentatomida:-, 469 ; maternal solicitude in — , 34 peponis. Plusia 1'erga lewisii, maternal solicitude in, 34. Pericallia ricini, 370.* Perigea capensis, 376.* Periplaneta americana. 170* . — , anten- na- 5*. — . leg, 8*; P. australasia 537.* Perisphaeria, means o! defence, 36. perpusilla, Pyrilla (Zatnila), 493.* pcrticella. ICuzophera, 428.* pertigera, Apomecyna, 327.* Pest, definition of. 74. Phanerozoic animals, 54. Phasgonuridx, 533 . auditory organs of — , 9. 56o INDEX. pliasiana, Anoplocnemis. 477.* Phassus malabaricus, 467. * I'lienice moesta (dentata), 492 * Phidodonta modesta, J 1 5 * Philarnatomyia insignis. 552.* l'hlebotomus minutus, 362* Phi. hulm. 362.* Phoresie, 66. Pliototaxis. 53. Phototropism, 53. Phthirius pubis, 523.* Phthorimsea operculella [solanella), L63 455 * ; introduction and damagi Phycita infusella (bipartella), 428.* Phycodes radiata, 463.* Phylaitis sp., 339* Phyllocnistidae, 465. I'liyllucnistis citrella. 465* . P minutella, 466. Phyllodroniia germanica, 538.* Phylogeny of Hexapods, 19.* Phymateus punctatus, 526.* Pbysorbynchus, 237. PhytOptUS carinatus. 545 *. picta, Bagrada, 473 * Pictures, preservation of, 172. pictus, Pcecilocerus, 526. * Pieridx, 413 ; pupa' of —.31. Pieris brassica-, t. 2, ff. 5 — 8. I'm odorus rul n ofa ciatus, Pig. 214 Pig-louse 1 Piopliila casei, 186 piperis, Mytilaspis, 51 • " i 'iti her plant, 59. Plague. 187. Plague-flea, 366.* Platacanthomys lasiurus, 215 Platypria bystrix, 316 * Platyptilia pusillidactyla, IM.' Plotheia nephelotis, 25. Ploughing for control of pests, 85. Plume-moths, 443. Plusia orichalcea, 393*; P. peponis (agramma). 394 •; P. signata (? chal- 392.* Plutella maculipennis {cruciferarum), 464* Plutellida 164 i ilocerus pictus, 526* P n-gland of Harpactor. ll * Polistes in houses. 171. politus, Disphinctus, ; politus. Trachelizus, antenna, 5.* Pollinia attached to insects, 02.* Polyembryony, 16 Polyommatus bceticus, 415.* PolyphagOUS caterpillars. 136 Polytela gloriosa?, 375.* pomonella. Cydia, 134. 1'orcupines, 218. portentosus. Brachytrypes, 536 * postica, Orgyia, 395* ; antenna of — , 5.* Potassium Cyanide for checking ants, 104. Potato Moth. 23, 79, 163, 455* Poujadia inficita, 427.* Power Sprayers, lid Powdered insecticides, application "I. 106.* Predai i 194. 1 i i me Sprayers, 113.* Primary Parasitism Priority, Law of, 24. Priotyrannus mordax, 319.* priscotincta, Brodia, 18.* Proctotrypida-, 202.* Prodenia litura (littoralis), 377.* Protective resemblance, 35- Prothoracic wings, 9.* Protozoa, 1. proxima, Athalia, 281.* Psalis (Dasychira) securis, 397.* Ptcudococctts citri, 508*. Ps. niptc, 509 * : Ps. virgatus, 510. I :idii I'ulvinaria, 510.* Psiloptera fa-i i i llv Psychodidse, 362. Psylla isitis, I Psyllidse, 198. Pterophoridif, 443 ; wings oi — , 11 ihorus lienigianus (scrindib(Knus)x 445.* Pteropus giganteus, 219. ■ . 295. pubis, Phthirius, 523.* Publii ation, definition of. 25. puera, 1 lyblsea, VI.* pulchella, Utetheisa, 371.* pulchelloides, Utetheisa, 372. Pulicidae, 3(<(> . thoracic spiracles of — 13. Pulse Beetles, 161. I'ulvinaria psidii, 510.* •i.\itcns, 526.* punctiferalis, Dichocrocis, 433.* Pundaluoya simplicia, 494.* Pupal stage. 27 . extended periods of— , 35. Purple Mite, 545.* pusillidactyla, Platyptilia. 444* pusillum, Synodendron, 294," INDEX 56l pustulata, Zonabris, 303.* , i • Pycnosoma flavtceps. 348* pygmtBa, Leptispa, (it* pyranthe, Catopsilia. 413.* Pyralidas, 4J1.* Pyrausta machseralis, 442.* pyri. Lachnus, 503 • Pyrilla perpusilla (aberrans), 494.* Pyroderces {Batrachedra) coriacella, Pyroderces simplex. 45J Pyrgomorpha cretutlata, 528.* Pyrrhocoridse, 184. quadripes, Xylotrechus, 525. K radiata, Phycodes, 463.* Ragi Borer, 427. Ragi Root Aphis, 502.* Ragmus importunitas, 491.* ramosa, Hispella, 314.* Rana breviceps, 255. R. cyanophlyctis, K. tigrina, 235. ranacea. Cyrtacanthacris, 530' . — anten- na, 5*; — leg. 8.* Kapala jarbas. antenna, 5.* Raptorial legs, 196- Rat-louse, 185. Rats, 21 Reactions. Tropic, 54.* rcciirxtilis, Pltaliena, 431.* Red Borer of Coffee, 446.* Red-gram Agromyza, 357 * Red Palm Weevil, 153.* Red Spider, 544 * Red Tree Ant, 11 . Reduvi •-. mouth-parts, 44 • ; maternal solicitude in - ,34. Relapsing I relata, Cosmoscarta, 495.* Remigia undata [archcsia), i^ * ; R. frugali Repellents, 105. Reproduction in Id sects, 15. Reproductive System, 14. Resistant varieties of crop-. i, 13. Rhacophorus maculatus, 255. Rheotropism, 56. Rlim.il Myiasis, 1S6. rhinoceros. Oryctes, 151 *, 152 control of — , 95. Rhizopertha dominica, 294.* Rhizoglyphus parasiticus, 186. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, 153*, 343 .*. Rhytinota impolita, 301.* Rice-bug, 146*. 479.* Rice Case-worm, 430.* Rii e Weevil, 160, 341.* ricini, Aleurodes, 508. ricini, Attacus, 207.* ri( ini, 1 Vncallia, 370.* Riptortus pedestris, 480*; R. linearis, 181 , R fuscus, 181. flie i, 198.* robustalis, Simplicia, 395.* Roller, Indian, 225. Root-boring caterpillars, 133. Rose chafers. 151, 282 Rosin Compound. 102. Wash, 102. rostratus, Dorysthenes, 318' ai tenna ol - , 5.* Rotation of Crops, 84. rotundatus, Cimex, 24 rouxi, Gnathospastoides, 302.* rubra, Batocera, 324.* rubricans. Azazia (Thermesia) , 389.* rubrofasciatus, Conorhinus, 486.* I rubus, Batocera, 324 • ; Simple anatomy of — , 2* rufa, Dendrocitta, 225. , Epimys, 216. ruficollis, Sarcophaga, 186. rufipes, Necrobia, 296.* rugosa, Sathrophyllia, 35* . leg ol Rules of Nomenclatur. - Viper, 255* Rutehd.i sabulifera, Cosmophila, 390.* Saissetia (see Lecanium). Saluria inficit.i i i rucis, Aspidomorpha, Larva, 45. Sand-flies, 362 ; — in houses. 175. Sandfly 1 ever, 187. Sarcophaga rufii Sarcopsyllidie, 365. Sarrothripine, Brinjal, 383.* Sathrophyllia rugosa, 35 * ; — , le| Saturniada . 405. Sawflies Sawfly, maternal solicitude in, 34. ?«- I \ I) E X 1*5 scabrata, Coelosterna, 325.* 'sterna, 325.* scalaris, Azygophleps, 446.* Scale- Insects, 508 ; — tended by ants, Scarabaeidae , 281 Scarabams gangeticus, 66, Scelimena, leg, 8.* Scelodonta strigicollis, 309.* ins, Euproctis, 399.* Scirpophaga auriflua (intacta), 425*; S. monostigma, 426.* scitula, Eublemma, 199 *, 381* Schizodactylus monstrosus, 533" ; — , leg. 8* Schizoneura lanigera, 500.* Si tioenobius bipunctifer, 426* Scolopendra, 239. Scolytidte, 344. -cultivating plants, 63. Scorpions. 237. Screening fruit ami vegetables, 94. Scutellista cyanea, 24. Scymnus, 200. Secondary Parasitism. 68 securis, Psalis (Dasychira), 397.* segetis, Kuxoa, 57, 135. 375.* selene, Actias, 405.* Semi-loopers, 132. in i ,titus, Orectochilus, eye, 6.* septempunctata, Coccinella, 291.* serindibanus. Pterophorus, 445.* serinopa, Nephantis, 460.* Serrate Antennas, 5.* serraticeps, Pulex, 367.* serraticornis, Acanthophorus, 319.* serricorne, Lasioderma, 162, 295.* servus, Graptostethus, +82.* Sesamia inferens, 379.* Setaci o i 5.* Sheep-fl; . 186. Shoot-boring caterpillars, I ml.- Borer, 345*: — cultivating plants. 63. Shrews, 220. siccifolia, Cyclopelta, 476.* siTte, Mylabris. 303.* signata, Monolepta, 31C* signata, I'lusia, 392.* Silk. 205. Silvanus surinamensis, 161, simplex, Chilo, 423.* simplicia, Pundaluoj Simplicia robustalis, 395.* sinensis. Centropus Sinoxylon sudanicum, 2'J5.* Siphonaptera, 365. Siphonella funicola, 355. * Sitodrepa panicea, 162. 295.* ga cerealella, 163, 456.* siva, Taragama. 43.* siva-. Hippobosca, 346.* Sloth-Hear. 220. Slugs. 239. smaragdina, CEcophylla, 41, Snails. 25'>- Snakes. 231 : snake-bite, treatment of, 231. Soap as an insecticide, 104. solanclla, Bryotropha, 455.* Solenopsis geminata, 274.* Solicitude for young. 55. sordidus, Aphanus, 483. sordidus, Cosmopolites, u .* Spanworms, 132. Sparrow, 230. spectra. Tettigoniella, 196 • parasite of — , 203.* Spence, on classification. 25. Sphegida Sphenarches cafler, 443.* sphenarioides, Colemania, 527*. Bom- bylid parasite of — , 204. Sphenoptera arachidis -' 5. gossypii, 298 * ; S. in-. Sphingida . 101. sphinx, Cynopterus, 21''. Spiilirs, 237. spinator, Ccelosterna, 525.* Spines, use of, 43. spinidens, Andrallus (Audinetia), 475.* Spiracles. 13. pi idi j'tera mauritia, I . " Sporadic pests defined, I . Spraying Machinery, 106; selection of — , l I- upkeep of - , 118. squamosus, Oxybelus, 280.* Squire Vnt Exterminator, 123.* Squirrels, 215. Stadia, 31. Stagmatophora i oriaci lla (gossyptella), 458.* pus alternus, 408.* Steam for control of granary pests, l<>7. phobius, Batracbedra, 237. Stegodyphus, 237. Stegomyia. eggs of. 52. myia fasciata, 175.* Stem-boring caterpillars. 133. Stenachroia elongella, 421.* Stenodictya lobata, 9.* Stephanitis (Cadamustus) typicus, ist INDEX 563 (1-!.* Sthenias grisator, 1 53, 326.* Stibara sp., 327.* Stigmata, 13. stillata, Anatona Stimulation of plant-growth, 86. Sting of Honey bee, 44.* Stink Glands, II. U. •-imIi, 1,1. Grammodes, JS7.# Stomach Poisons, 96, 97. Stomoxys calcitrans, 353.* Strainers for Sprayers, 117. i metamorphosis in. 32. stria talis, Diatraja, 422. striatus, Tabanus, 3'- of, 6.* Stridulation in m>o t's, 17. strigicollis, Scelodonta, 309.* Stromatium barbatum, 321.* Stubble, danger of leaving, on ground, - stvx, Acher.intKi.40J*; —robbing bee- 131. ;remius, 41 8.* 1, larva. 41 . succincta. Cyrtacanthacris, 530.* sudanicum, Sinoxylon. 293.* Sugarcane Setts, treatment with < Sulphate, 105. Sulphur for use again IM 103 Sundew. 1 . 59. suppressaria, Biston, surinamensis, Silvanus, 161, IS''. Surul puchi, 85, 457.* Sus cristatus, _'14. Swarming Caterpillars, 136. Sweet-potato, beetle pests of. 155 Sweet-potato Weevil. 335.* Teleopsis, ej 1 derogata (miiltilin iis, definition 1 Synodendron dominicum, 294 •; S. pusillum, syringa, Argina. 401.* Svringe. Spraving, 107 * . Injection. 132.* Syrphida .'35.* Tabanida-, 35,s . eves . .i — Tabanus striatus. 358 • eye ol -, 6 • Tachinida famulus (dorsalis), 1 ! olopus). 525.* tapetzella, Trichophaga (Tuna), 467 * Tapinoma indicum in Acacia thorns, 63 taprobani ppaea, 470.* Tarache nitidula (catena), 381* T opali noides, 3S2.* Taragama siva, 43* Tarsus, S.* Tasar Silkworm, 208.* Tatera indica, 215 * Tea Tortrix, 452. Teleopsis svkesii, eve. 6.* mgias, 4)9.* Tenebrio mauritanicus, 28 ' I : i le - maurita tenuicollis, Lytta, 303.* Tenthredinidae, 2S1. Terastia meticulosalis, 438.* Terias he( abe, 414 • Termes convulsionarius, means of defence, inmunication amongst, 50 Termes obesus. 142.* Termites, 139, 541 * ; absence of eves in — , 7; — as crop-pests. MS, 543; — as food. 1 -, 140*. communi- cation amongst — . 50: control ol machines, 121 *. cultivating Fungi, 63 ; — encouraged by stubble. ,S3 ; — in buildings, 144, 171 ; means of defence of , 11 . nymphosis in — , 18; prothora- cic wings in — 9*; preservation of wood against . Mi. 17:. Termitidae, 541 • ■ 1] ihili hi . in i« 1 Termito 1 hermaphrod tcstaccum, Lasiodcrma, 295.* testulalis, Maruca, 440.* Tetranychus bioculatus, 544 * "1 545. : 3.* 177.* 203.* thea I lemii hionaspis, 520.* theobromae, Bruchus, 307.* thcobronne, Hcmilccanium , 516* tlicobroniatis, Bruchus, 307.* Thereiceryx zeylonicu Thermcsia riibricaii Thermotropism, 55. Thigmotropism, 55 Thorax, App< ni Three I (ay's Fever, 1 B7. Thripida Thrips. 542.* thyrsis, < rangara 417.* Tibi.i 564 I V D E X Ticks. 184: feeding habits, 184. Tiger-beetles, 199. tigrina, Rana, 235. i i 161. Tinea pachyspila. 466*; T. tapetiella, 467.* Tineida:, 466. Tingidida?. 484. Tits. 225. Toads, 236. Tobacco Decoctions, 103. Dust, 105. Toddy Cat. 221. tomentosa, Eurybrachys, 492.* Tonica zizypbi (augusta), 459.* torodelta, Laspeyresia, 451.* torquatus, Palreornis, 229.* Tortoise Beetles, 155. Tortricida-, 452. Trachelizus politus, antenna. 5.* trachypterus, Chrotogonus. 528. tragocamelus, Boselaphus, 2\i. tranquebaricus, Apoderus. 335.* Trap-crops, 84. trapezalis, Marasmia, 432.* Tree Pie. 225- Trenching of cropped areas. 93. Tribolium castaneum 161. 300*. T.ferru- gineunt, 300.* tricentra. Laspeyresia, 451.* Trichophaga tapetzella. 467.* trifenestrata. Cricula, 405.* tripudians, TJaja, 232 • Trisop-.i d1( a ej e, 6.* tristis, Acridotheres. 224.* Trochanter, 8.* Trogositidae, 289. Trophies, preservation of, 173. Trvpaneida;, 354. Trypanosomes causing diseases in animals, 189-190. Tryxalis tnrrita, 52^.* tuberculatus, Haematopinus. 524.* tnrrita. tryxalis {Acrida), 524* Typhlodromus carinatus, 545.* Typhoid Fever. L88. typicus, StephanitislCadamwsrMs), 484.* Tyroglyphus longior castellanii. 186. II I . folus. 420.* undalis, Hellula, 437.* undata. Remigia, 388.* uniformis, Nonagria, 379.* unipuncta, Cirphis, 376.* Universal Ant Exterminator, 122.* Upupa indica. 223. in scales. 40. Urentius echinus. 485.* ursinus, Melursus, 220. Utetheisa pulchella. 371.*; U. pulchel- loides. 372 Valid Names, 25. Vampire. Indian. 220. varians, Anomala, 287.* varians, Ocinara, 407,* varicornis, Leptocorisa. 146*. 479.* variegata, Clan Vegetables, spraying of, 97, 100. Veins of wing, names, 10.* velox, Oxya, 533.* venosata, Diatra»a, 422 centralis, Kusarcocoris, 471.* venulia, /Egocera, 372.* versicolor. Calotes, 230. versicolor, Oxycetonia. 2M.* vesrimenti, Pqdiculus, 522.* vigintiocto-punctata, Epilachna, 2^2.* vinula, Centra. 41. Vipera russellii. 2)i.* Virachola isocrates, 416* ; — , directive markings. 39." virescens, Heterusia, 448." virgatus, Dactylopius (Psettdococvus), 510.* viride, Lecanium, 147. 513*; — introduc- tion of, 78 ; attacked by fungi. 123. viridis, Merops. 230. viridula. Ne/ara. 173.* vittatus, Macrones, 236. Viviparity, 33 vulgalis, Nacolcia, 433.* vulpinus. Dermestes, 292.* W Wagtails, 225. Warning coloration, 38. Wasp-,. 196: — in houses. 171 : colours of — , 38. Water-beetles, 199. Wax-moth, 421.* Weeds, Insects checking, 204. Weevils, 327*; — and death-feint, 37; — as crop-pests, 155 ; hardness of — . 42. Weights and Measures. 126. Wings, 9; prothoracic, 9*; structure of, 10*. shapes of 1 1 * : parts of 1 1 Whale Oil Soap. 104. Whipsnake, Green, 36. INDEX 565 Whirligig Beetles, eves of. 7. White-ants (see Termites). White Borer of Coffei White-grub, 150.* Whitewash, 106. \\ 1 1 peckers, 226.* B u i, 135.* Blight, 500.* Xantliopimpla pedator. 201.* Xenopsylla cheopis, 366.* .is fomicatus, 345.* Xylocopa, mouth-parts. 4*; -carrying Mites, 67*; — in houses, 171. Xylocopa iridipei Xyloryctitl.r. 460. Xylotrechus quadripes, 32J.* Xvlotrupes. means ol Xystrocera gli Yaws, 188. Yellow Fever, 187. ypsilon, Agrotis, 57. Ypsolophus ianthes, 456.* Zamila perpusilla I Zeuzera coffer, 446.* Zeuzeridae, 446 zeylonicus, Thereicerj Zinc Arsenite. 99. zinckenella. Etiella, 42 I * Zinckenia fascialis, I II zizyphi, Tonica, 459.* Zonabris pustulata, 303*. 304. Zygaenida 4- 'II II II 1 1 3 ioaa D02?sa2b nhent SB931 F61 iome south Indian msecis and other amm