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THRE
SORGHO AND IMPHEE,
THE
CHINESE AND AFRICAN SUGAR CANES.
A TREATISE UPON THEIR
ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND CULTURE;
THEIR VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP; AND THE MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR,
SYRUP, ALCOHOL, WINES, BEER, CIDER, VINEGAR, STARCH AND DYE-
STUFFS ; WITH A PAPER BY LEONARD WRAY, ESQ., OF
CAFFRARIA, AND A DE: CRIPTION OF HIS PATENTED
PROCESS FOR CRYSTALLIZING THE
JUICE OF THE IMPHEE.
TO WHICH ARE ADDED,
COPIOUS TRANSLATIONS OF VALUABLE FRENCH PAMPHLETS.
BY HENRY §, OLCOTT.
Fully Clustrated With Drawirgs of the best Machinern.
NEW YORK:
A. 0. MOORE, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER,
(LATE ©, M. SAXTON & CO.)
No. 140 FULTON STREET.
1857.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, ty
AUGUSTUS OO. MOORE,
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, for the
Southern District of New York.
EDWARD 0. JENKINS,
ivinter and Stereotpper,
26 Frankfort St.
5
“i Yj
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rs
i
PREFACE. LIBRARY
tta HW DEIN
So many wonderful discoveries and inventions have, from time to
time, been brought before the American public, and have been so
puffed and belauded by their sanguine and imaginative introducers,
that a really cautious and sober minded man, mindful of these constantly
recurring illusions, is not unnaturally prone to receive with suspicion
and even to disbelieve statements, however true they may be, should
they seem to promise more than ordinary advantage and profit from
the cultivation of a new crop.
As I am well aware of this existing feeling, I am the more anxious
to lay before my readers the fact, that the subject of this work, the
Chinese Sugar Cane, has been fairly before the scientific world for
some three or four years past; and its various claims have been sub-
mitted to most rigid scrutiny.
In Europe it has engaged the attention of the most eminent agri-
culturists, chemists, sugar makers, and other competent authorities ;
whilst in our own land it has been made the study of some of our
most respected and trustworthy citizens, who have made fair trial of
it, under various circumstances, and have stated the results obtained
in various sections of the country, attaching to these statement their
names, as a guaranty of their rigid exactness. So vouched for, then,
~ the value of the “Holcus saccharatus” cannot reasonably be con-
—_ sidered a doubtful fact, nor one fostered by sanguine minds for inter-
[3]
iv PREFACE.
ested purposes. I have therefore addressed myself to the task of com-
piling all the evidence as yet placed at our disposal, strengthening it
by such new facts as have reached me, and thus completed down to
the latest moment, present it to the public, in the confident hope that
it may prove of some interest.
Since the commencement of our existence as a nation, there has been
no time more propitious to the introduction of a new sugar bearing
plant, nor in which a more generous welcome would have been afford-
ed to it, than the present ; for not only are our planters filled with ap-
prehensions beeause of the rapid decline of the Antilles sugar cane in
the southern states, but the article of sugar has become so generally
an actual necessary of life, and the number of consumers is increasing
in such accelerated ratio, as to cause the demand to far exceed the
supply, and thus produce a very considerable enhancement in its
price. Under the stimulus of this condition of affairs, the manufacture
of sugar from the sap of the maple tree, has this year been largely in-
creased ; and official statistics at the end of the year will undoubtedly
show a crop of maple sugar to have been produced, such as was
never before obtained in this country. But, although this crop will
possibly amount to sixty millions of pounds, yet when we come to con-
sider that in the year 1855, the amount of cane sugar consumed in the
United States was nine hundred and nineteen millions of pounds, we
are made sensible of the national interest in procuring an undiminished
annual source of supply, beyond any that could be afforded by a natural]
increase in the yield of maple sugar.
The sugar crop of 1855, as compared with that of the previous year,
showed a decrease of nearly two per cent., and the evil has since then
assumed such magnitude as to influence cur General Government to ap-
propriate a large sum of money, and to send a ship to the West
Indies and other adjacent tropical countries, for the purpose of pro-
PREFACE. Vv
curing a stock of cuttings to renew the exhausted plantations of Lou-
siana.
It can scarcely be a matter of surprise, therefore, that when it be-
came bruited abroad, through our public press, that there had been
introduced from France, through the United States Patent Office, a
new plant, which was said to have been in common use in North China
for the production of sugar, and to be capable of immediate acclima-
tion, even in ovr more northern states, one simultaneous desire should
have possessed the farmers of all portions of the country to experiment
for themselves with the precious seed, and produce, if not for sale, at
least for themselves and their families, a supply of the agreeable sugar.
Thus, then, we have seen the news passed with rapidity, from paper
to paper, throughout the land; enterprising seedsmen have imported
large quantities from France, issued their advertisements, and orders
and letters of inquiry poured in upon them in one unbroken stream,
until the season of planting had passed. The United States Patent
Office has itself distributed one hundred thousand papers of the seed ;
the large crop of Colonel Richard Peters, of Georgia, has been dis-
posed of in a similar manner ; and considering the other amounts dis-
tributed, I think to be entirely within the bounds of moderation in
stating, that there are now under cultivation in the United States, fifty
thousand acres of Chinese Sugar Cane.
The interest in the question has been materially heightened, and the
hopes of success considerably increased by the arrival in this country,
from Europe, of Mr. Leonard Wray, formerly a planter at Natal. This
distinguished sugar planter discovered, on the south eastern coast of
Africa, fifteen varieties of the Holcus saccharatus, cultivated by the
Zulu Kaffirs, under the name Im-Fé, or Imphee, from which he made
sugar in large quantities ; and which, after considerable difficulty and
expense, he succeeded in introducing to the notice of European agri-
vl PREFACE.
culturists. Having discovered an entirely new method, and the only
practicable one, of making crystallized sugar from the juice of the im-
phee, or African sorgho, he patented his process in Europe, and came
to this country with the same object in view, and has recently obtained
his letters patent from the Government Office at Washington. To
Mr. Wray I am indebted for the very interesting treatise* upon the
imphee, which will be found in the body of this work, as also for the
letters and historical matter, which will be found accredited to him at
the proper place.
The success of the plant being no longer problematical then, there
is immediately created a demand for some critical work upon its origin,
culture, and uses; and to carry on its varied phases of manufacture
will call into activity a large amount of capital and industry that has
heretofore been diverted in other channels. With no hope of com-
pletely filling the existing hiatus, but as having arranged all the avail-
able materials to be found in our own, or French publications, this
volume is offered to the public. The basis of it is derived from a
lecture, written by myself, at the request of a distinguished friend, and
delivered, on invitation, at agricultural meetings of the Legislatures of
Massachusetts, New York, and Ohio, during the past winter. The
flattering reception which it met, and the paucity of information as
yet made public in this country, suggested the idea thaf, perhaps, if
enlarged and illustrated with appropriate engravings, it might be of
value in the present stage of our experience.
In the Appendix will be found copious extracts, translated from
French pamphlets, which were placed at my disposal by Messrs.
Hedges, Free, & Co., of Cincinnati and Philadelphia ; and, accompany-
ing them, the interesting correspondence between their house and the
* This treatise was prinied, for private circulation, in London, 1864.
PREFACE. vu
Hon. John Y. Mason, our Minister at Paris. To Mr. John W. Reid
of this city, I am indebted for electrotypes of the cuts of sugar and dis-
tilling apparatus, and for much valuable information. D. Jay Browne,
Ksq., of the United States Patent office, has kindly sent me an article
on the crystallization of the juice of the sorgho, written by him for the
next volume of the Agricultural Report, and furnished for this work,
in advance of its publication ; and at various times he has assisted me,
with advice and information.
The Complete History of the Culture of the Chinese Sugar Cane in
the Southern States, is from the pen of D. Redmond, Esq., Editor of
the “Southern Cultivator,” to whose labors the American public are
in a great measure indebted for the successful introduction of the
plant into general cultivation, and for the valuable experiments of
Governor Hammond and Colonel Peters, which have so fully sustained
the enthusiastic assumptions of its European friends, as to its ability
to yield a large quantity of saccharine matter.
Mr. D. Jay Browne has also kindly placed at my disposal, the
article containing the Chemical Researches on the Sorgho, by Dr.
Charles 'T. Jackson, of Boston, one of the State Assayers. The anal-
ysis of Dr. Jackson will be of interest to scientific agriculturists, as
affording a clue to the proper manner to apply to the sorgho fields
when taken in comparison with the quantitative and qualitative analy-
ses made at the Imperial School of Engineering.
The article by Aug. A. Hayes, Assayer to the State of Massa-
chusetts, evinces an amount of research and scientific investigation
into the composition of the sorgho, not previously equaled in this
country, so far as I am aware of.
Thus aided and encouraged by gentlemen of the highest scientific
and practical attainments in their several professions, the author pre-
sents this work to the agricultural public, in the sincere desire that
Vill PREFACE.
the plants of which it treats may prove to be what we are led to anti-
cipate from the experience of Europe, most valuable acquisitions, and
an enduring source of wealth to the American former.
WESTCHESTER FARM SCHOOL,
Mount VERNON, N. Y., 1857.
CONTENTS.
aart J.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN AND SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
The Cane in China—Accounts of Jesuit Missionaries—Extracts from Ja.
panese Works—Its Exhibition at the Great Fair at Moscow—lIntro-
duction into Europe—The appearance of Mr. Wray’s Imphee—
Precarious position of the Sorgho—To whom is most Honor due—Sale
of Eight Hundred Seeds to Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co.—Various Ex-
periments—Attempts of Pietro Arduino, inl 786—Mr. Leonard Wray
—Introduction of the Sorgho into America—Sugar made by Professor
Avequin, of Louisiana—How Patent Office Seeds should be Wed,
CHAPTER II.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.
The Confusion among Agricultural Writers—Appearance of the Plant —
Height, &c.—Comparative Growth of the Sorgho and other similar
Plants—Weight of the Stalk—Progressive Growth—Pulling out the
Tufts —Ripening—Prostration by Wind Storms. 32-45
Bee [9]
x CONTENTS.
CHAPTER ITI.
SOIL REQUIRED—-CULTURE—MANURING.
Should Hilling be Practiced?—Deep Culture—Subsoil Plow—Soaking
Seed—Covering Lightly—Manures—Hybridization—Cultivation—Cur-
ing Fodder—Saving Seed—Stripping—Stacking. 46-56
CHAPTER IV.
. VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP—TESTIMONY OF CULTIVATORS.
Sowing for Fodder—Rattooning—Cutting Fodder—Testimony of D. Jay
Browne, Esq.—Testimony of Author—Testimony of Mr. Gratz, of Ken-
tucky—Mr. Wray’s Remarks at the Farmers’ Club—Count Beaure-
gard’s Experience—Testimony of G. de Lacoste—Of Gov. Gardner, of
Mass.—Experience of C. L. Flint, of Mass.—The Sorgho in Texas this
year—Ability to withstand Drought—Curing—Its Nutritive Qualities—
Size of Stalks in North Africa—Testimony of Doctor Turrel, and
Lacoste—Coloring the Bones of Chickens—Yield per Acre of Seed
and Forage—Should not be allowed to Grow more than one Year.
57-71
CHAPTER V.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING—A WEST INDIAN SUGAR PLANTATION—
CUTTING—CRUSHING—BOILING.
Apparatus Required, Fully Illustrated—A West Indian Steam Mill—
Cattle Mill—Horse Mills—Stream Trains— Ordinary Trains—Vacuum
Pan—Bascule Pan—Making a Small Crop of Sugar—The Cause for
Present High Prices—The “African Apprentice ’’ System. 72-128
#
CHAPTER VI.
SYRUP—BEST METHODS OF MAKING IT.
“Experience of American Growers—The Seed obtained as well as Syrup
Apparatus Necessary—M. d’Ivernois’ Syrup made without a Mill—Iron
CONTENTS. Xl
Rollers better than Wooden Rollers—Amount of Saccharine Matter
Varies in different Cases—Necessity of Cleanliness and System—Col.
Peters obtains 468 Gallons on an Acre. 129-140
CHAPTER VII.
ALCOHOLIC PRODUCTS.
Most Approved Method of Making Sorgho Aleohols—The French Experi-
ments—Brandies—The French Government Patronage—Enthusiasm
of Dr. Turrel—J. W. Reid’s Experiments—Distillery—A pparatus II-
lustrated with numerous Engravings. 141-168
CHAPTER VIII.
PAPER—VINEGAR—STARCH—DYE STUFFS+-CEROSIE OR WAX.
The Quality of Vinegar—D. Jay Browne’s Testimony—Count Moig-
nerie’s Process Described—Dr. Sicard’s Experiments, and his Method
of Vinegar Making—The Value of the Starch—Pearling and Hulling
the Seeds—The Flour—Author’s Experiments in making the Dye
Stuffs—Coloring Ribbons—Dr. Sicard’s Samples of Colors—Chemical
Treatment to Procure the Tints—Pigments—Cerosie or Vegetable
Wax—Making Candles in China—Author’s Experiments—Monsieur
Hardy’s Calculations—Corn Stalk Paper—Duret’s Specimens—Dr.
Sicard’s Specimens—Process of Paper Making. 169-184
CHAPTER IX.
MR. WRAY’S PROCESS FOR MAKING EXCELLENT SUGAR FROM THE
»
IMPHEE, SORGHO, SUGAR MAPLE, BEET, AND ORDINARY SUGAR CANE
DESCRIBED.
qart da.
TE Bi BE Te ee E.
BY LEONARD WRAY, ESQ.
Discovery of the Plant in Caffraria—Previous attempts to Make Sugar
Unsuecessful—Botanical Position of the Imphee—The Different Varie.
Xil CONTENTS.
ties—Their Description and Yields of Sugar--Cultivation—Manuring—
The Imphee Compared to the Sugar Beet and Sugar Cane.
193-228
Ae sais ay dX
Correspondence with the American Minister at Paris—Letters of Vil
morin and Vattemare, of Paris—Article by Mr. Browne, on Crystall
lizing the Juice of the Sorgho—Analysis and Chemical Researches, by
Charles T. Jackson, of Boston—French Analysis of Sorgho Stalks, Seed
and Soil—Paper by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston—Mr. Wray’s Letter
to Author—Author’s Translations of Pamphlets of F. Bourdais—Count
Beauregard—Dr. Turrel—Paul Madinier—Duret—Louis Vilmorin—
The Reports to the French Minister of War, by Hardy and Dr. Turrel
—History of the Sorgho in the Southern States, by D. Redmond, Editor
of the “ Southern Cultivator ’’—The Sorgho at the South. 231-350
PART I.
a Ee oS OAR G B®,
OR
CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
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CH A: PT Rea’:
ORIGIN AND SUBSEQUENT HISTORY OF THE CHINESE
SUGAR CANE.
INQUIRIES into the early history of the Chinese Sugar
Cane, disclose the fact that we are indebted for this new
addition to our agricultural riches, (as for the ordinary
sugar cane,) to that mysterious country whose name it
bears, and whose agricultural products are only by slow
degrees being placed in the possession of the civilized
nations of the world. When we consider the jealous
exclusion of foreigners, the difficulty of pursuing investi-
gations into either the literature, manners, customs, or
statistics of China, and the comparatively late date at
which any communication has been opened with it, there
will be little cause for wonder that the plant concerning
which our investigations are about to be made, should
have but just been placed within the reach of the
American farmer. Nor can we consider the objection as
valid, that if it really be rich in a product which at the
present day bears a high commercial value, we should
certainly have been made acquainted with it before ; for
our past experience with Chinese productions certainly
warrants the belief, that not only may the Sorgho be
[15]
16 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
fully worthy of the encomiums which have been bestowed
upon it by its various European cultivators, but that there
may be in use in China other plants of inestimable value,
which have not as yet been brought to our attention at all.
As a corroboration of this position, we have only
to remember the early history of the sugar cane cul-
tivated in our southern states. The art of cultivating
the sugar cane was practiced in China from the highest
antiquity; and yet, so moderate were the means of
intercourse with that nation, that it was unknown to the
ancient Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, or Romans; and it
was not until the end of the thirteenth century that it
passed into Arabia. From Arabia it was carried by the
merchants to Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. 'The Moors
obtained it from Egypt, and the Spaniards from the
Moors. In the fifteenth century the cane was intro-
duced into the Canary islands by the Spaniards, and
subsequently into Madeira by the Portuguese; thence
it found its way into the West India Islands and
the Brazils. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was
known in Kurope only as a medicine, brought, as were
costly spices, from the East, and bearing the name of
‘“‘Tndian salt;” and though it was cultivated in a few
places on the shores of the Mediterranean sea, still it
was not more generally used on the Continent.
With these historical facts in view, how shall we be
authorized in the assertion that the Chinese Sugar Cane
should have of right been known to us before? The fact
is, that were it not for the merest accident, even to this
day we should not have been called upon to discuss its
merits, or have been put in possession of its riches.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 17
From the venerable Father Du Halde we learn that
there existed, even in his time, in China, in the province
of Se Chuen, situated in the western part of the Empire,
a cane which produced excellent sugar, and it is sup-
posed by Dr. Sicard that this is the same plant which
has been brought to Europe. Léon de Rosny, a dis-
tinguished philologist of France, has, at the request of
M.G. de Lacoste, searched the Chinese and Hgyptian
Archives in the Imperial Library at Paris, and speaks
as follows concerning the Chinese Sugar Cane or Sorgho:
JAPANESE ACCOUNTS OF THE SORGHO.
“The treatises on agriculture, and various other
works, in the Chinese and Egyptian department of the
Imperial Library, contain several chapters exclusively
upon the sorghos; but their authors do not seem to
have divided the varieties in such a manner as to make
them correspond with those which we recognize in
Kurope. Besides the common Chinese and Japanese
names, Sorgho is attached successively to other
graminea which should not be, according to our system,
embraced in this species. The Japanese, who, in respect
to Agriculture, are eminently more advanced than all
other people, even than the Chinese themselves, cultivate
the sorgho to extract from tt sugar and alcohol; but in
the works which we possess, no mention is made of the
coloring principle which is extracted from its seed.
However, it is probable that it 1s not unknown to them,
and that if we had at Paris a richer collection of
Japancse books, we would find in them valuable and
18 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
interesting investigations on this head. We must
remember, however, that the Chinese and Japanese
synonyms of the Holcus saccharatus are not yet clearly
established by botanists and orientalists. Nevertheless
it seems certain that under the name of Avbi the
Japanese designate several species of the sorgho; that
the Holeus sorghum corresponds to 7a (T'si) of the
Chinese, and that xe (Chu) is probably a Holcus sac-
charatus.
ITS EXHIBITION AT THE FAIR AT MOSCOW.
We have a further evidence of the fact that it 1s cul-
tivated in China in an article which we find in the
journal “ L’Utile et !Agréable,” in its number for the
month of April, 1855. The writer says at Shanghae the
plant is cultivated under the name of the North China
Sugar Cane. The Chinese Tartars value it exceedingly ;
and at the Great Exposition at Moscow, in the year 1852,
some of the stalks of this same species of sorgho were ex-
hibited under the title ‘‘ Preciewx Gaoutlam de la Chine.”
FIRST APPEARANCE IN EUROPE.
Its first appearance in Europe dates back no further
than the year 1851, at which time the Count de
Montigny, being at that time Consul of France at
Shanghae, in China, sent, in compliance with official
request, to the Geographical Society of Paris, a collec-
tion of plants and seeds which he found in China, and
which he thought would succeed in his own country.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 19
Among these was the cclebrated Chinese Yam (Dios-
corea bataias) and the Iloleus saccharatus, under the
name of “ The Sugar Cane of the North of China.”
THE APPEARANCE OF MR. WRAY’S IMPHEE,
Curiously enough, there was received in France at
about the same time a quantity of seeds of a plant
having apparently the same properties and almost the
same appearance as the sorgho, which had been dis-
covered on the south east coast of Africa, in the
country of the Zulu Kaffirs, by Mr. Leonard Wray. The
lucid, but truly surprising statements made concerning its
virtues by this latter gentleman, at once stimulated ina
most lively manner investigations into the properties
of the Chinese Sugar Cane, and upon comparing the
plants derived from these widely separate sources, the
remarkable fact was made apparent, that in ability to
yield crystallized sugar, to afford nourishment for stock,
and in the requirements of cultivation, and other pecu-
harities, they were almost identical, and much surprise
was created that from this double source, and as if cor-
roborative the one of the other, a greatly needed sugar
plant, and one apparently of high value, should have
been given to French agriculture.
THLE PRECARIOUS POSITION OF THE SORGHO.
It is a curious instance of how upon the slightest
thread depend most momentous results, when we con-
sider that, of the package of seeds sent by the Count
20 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
de Montigny to the Geographical Society of Paris, one
only, one single seed, germinated in a garden at Toulon ;
and if by any attack of insects, by injudicious planting
or manuring, by careless cultivation, or by any one of a
thousand possible mischances, the pJant springing from
this seed had been destroyed, France at this day would
have been without the Chinese Sugar Cane, and it may
be that the same opportunity would not have been again
presented for a great number of years.
TO WHOM IS MOST HONOR DUE?
Much stress has been laid in the French works upon
the fact that the Count de Montigny introduced the
sugar cane into France, and the learned Dr. Turel, Secre-
tary of the Comice of Toulon—struck with astonishment
at the wonderful results which the sorgho can give in
alcoholic products, its vast importance as filling a void
made by the failure of the grape crop, and the gov-
ernmental prohibition of the distillation of cereals—even
goes so far as to claim that to the Count de Mortigny is
due as much honor as is awarded to Jenner for his glo-
rious discovery of Vaccination. Without wishing to de-
tract from the honor due to the illustrious Ambassador, I
would respectfully urge the fact that, so far as any account
which we have at present goes, the Count sent the seed
of the sugar cane as he sent other seeds, because they
were said by the Chinese to be valuable, and because he
supposed it possible that their excellences might be re-
produced, upon experiment, in his own country. The
gentlemen receiving the package of seeds planted them
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 21
as our American farmers receive and plant the packages
sent to them by the Patent Office at Washington, often-
times ignorant and skeptical as to their value. It chanced
that into the hand of M. Robert, Director of the Marine
Gardens at Toulon, were confided a few seeds of the
sorgho, and he being an intelligent and enterprising gen-
tleman and a careful observer, was desirous of knowing
if, indeed, the plant would bear out the assumptions of its
endorsers. He planted the seeds with care, but, to his
chagrin, but one single tiny sprout appeared above the
sround; and from the interest which he took in it, it is
to be supposed that he continued its cultivation, and fol-
lowed it through the phases of vegetation with no little
apprehensions against the chances of failure. His labors
were rewarded by a plant of good size, strong and vigor-
ous, from the roots of which sprang up six rattoons or
suckers. The seeds attained a complete maturity, and
were distributed to the Agricultural Comice of Toulon.
SALE OF SEEDS TO VILMORIN, ANDRIEUX, & CO.
A gardener of Hyéres, who had received part of these
seeds, planted them with care, and the next year gathered
eight hundred seeds, which were sold to the house of
Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co., seed merchants at Paris, for
eight hundred francs! ‘They had now come into the
hands of men fully sensible of their value, capable both
by education and opportunity of investigating their worth,
and determined to make them available to the public.
The seeds were planted by the senior partner of this
house, the illustrious M. Louis Vilmorin, and numerous
22 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
experiments were made by him during the season of
erowth, the results of which fully established the expecta-
tions which he had been led to entertain, and gave him
the basis for the work which was published by him in
1854, under the title of “‘ Researches upon the Sorgho
Sucré,” or Chinese Sugar Cane.
VARIOUS EXPERIMENTERS,
Experiments were likewise instituted by members of |
the Imperial Acclimation Society; but by none were
they more zealously pursued, nor more successfully
carried on, than by the Compte de David Beauregard.
This gentleman was so confident of its value, that he
made strenuous efforts to increase his stock of seed,
planted the greatest possible area of land with it, and
succeeded so completely that it is from his third crop
that has been derived the major portion of the immense
amount that has been planted in the United States during
the present year. In France we find it successively
spreading in the provinces of: la Drdéme, les Pyrénées
Orientales, la Haute-Marne, la Gironde, le Gers, etc., and
everywhere exciting the greatest attention among the most
distinguished agriculturists ; and thence it quickly finds its
way to that prosperous, albeit lately acquired French
province of Algeria, where, according to M. Paul
Madinier, a company with acapital of several millions of
francs is about to be formed to cultivate and manufacture
the sorgho. In 1852 there was imported into France
from Russia, by M. Masson, the seed of another sugar
sorgho, but the plants which sprung from them were
much inferior in every respect to those sent by M.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. pu
Montigny. Dr. Sicard says that upon its appearance in
Europe, the sorgho was supposed by various persons to
be the millet of Caffraria, Pain des Anges, Sorghum
saccharatum of Wil, Holcus docna of Forsk, Holews sac-
charatus of Linneeus, Andropogon saccharatus of Kunth ;
and somewhat later Mr. Leonard Wray gave to it the
name of Imphee.
THE ATTEMPT OF PIETRO ARDUINO.
Frequent reference is made in all the French works
which I have translated, to the attempt made in 1786 by
the Signor Pietro Arduino to introduce the Lolcus sac-
charatus from Kaffirland into Italy; and to his pub-
lished accounts of his experiments in sugar mak-
ing. Tis son collected these fragments of writing,
added to them his own reminiscences of his father’s
experiments, and issued them in aseparate volume,
in 1808; but at the present day it is almost a matter of -
impossibility to procure a copy of the work, it having
passed out of print. Nothing is known, however, it
seems to me, to distinctly show that the plants on which
Dr. Arduino’s experiments were undertaken were the
same as the sorgho introduced from China; for he speaks
of the seeds being of a clear light brown color, while the
seeds of our Chinese variety are of a very deep purple,
almost black. His description, nevertheless, exactly cor-
responds with the appearance of the seeds of Mr. Wray’s
imphee; and hence we are led to believe that it was in
reality the African, and not the Chinese sugar cane which
was cultivated by him at Florence. Whether it was be-
24. THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
cause of the troubles which at that time convulsed Italy
from one end to the other, because of want of means on
his part for continuing the experiments, or because the
plants were not adapted to the manufacture of sugar, I
am not able to say; itis probable that all these con-
spired to militate against the prosecution of his studies.
But I think it very possible that Dr. Arduino procured
from Africa the seeds of some one of the varieties of the
imphee, which required too long time to ripen to allow
of its being grown in the climate of Italy; and that the
small amounts of sugar obtained. by him from the plants
arose from the fact that the maximum of saccharine mat-
ter is only made present in the Chinese or African sugar
canes at the moment of their complete maturity.
M. Louis Vilmorin, in his ‘“‘ Researches,” mentions that
in a package of seeds from Abyssinia, sent to the Museum
in 1840, by M. D’Abadie, which contained about thirty
species or varieties of the sorgho, he had noticed that
some of the plants were particularly distinguished from
the others by the sweet flavor of their stalks; but to all
intents and purposes, and so far as any practical result
has eventuated, from 1786 until the introduction of the
Montigny seed and of that of Mr. Wray from Kaffirland,
there is a complete void in European experience with the
plant. Considering the question as to whom is due the
honor of giving the plant to European agriculturists,
there should be no cause for strife between the partisans
of the Count de Montigny and Mr. Wray; for it ap-
pearing, upon the testimony of M. Vilmorin, Dr. Sicard,
M. Lacoste, and Mr. Wray himself, that the sorgho and
imphee are not different varieties of the same plant, but
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 25
two different species, the introducer of each plant may be
duly credited without in the least depriving the other of
appropriate honor. If indeed we base our gratitude
upon the amount of research and labor given by the indi-
vidual previous to the introduction of the plants, we cer-
tainly must agree that Mr. Wray is entitled to greater
thanks at the hands of the agricultural world than the
Count de Montigny, who took no great labor to dis-
cover the properties of the sorgho, but merely sent
the seed, as he sent others, to be experimented upon in
France.
MR. LEONARD WRAY.
Mr. Wray is widely known to the sugar planters of the
world, from his authorship of the ‘Sugar Planters’ Com-
panion,” published in Calcutta in 1848, and the “ Practi-
cal Sugar Planter,” published in London in 1848, and
republished in French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch.
In 1850, he left the East Indies for the Cape of Good
Hope, whence he went to Kaffirland, and found the
Zulu Kaffirs cultivating the imphee around their huts,
not for the purpose of manufacturing crystallized sugar
or obtaining any other of its products with a commercial
view, but merely for the purpose of chewing and sucking
the stalks. He quickly saw of what value such plants
were likely to become to Hurope and America, and ap-
plied himself to their study, their culture, and manufac-
ture into sugar, ete. After having fully satisfied himself
on these points, he returned to Europe, and planted
patches in England, France, and Belgium; applied for
2
26 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
patents in various countries; addressed the French goy-
ernment through Marshal Vaillant, Minister of War;
exhibited specimens of sugar and the plants to Mr.
Buchanan, then American Minister at London; and subse-
quently established the culture of the imphee in Turkey,
Egypt, the West Indies, the Brazils, the Mauritius, Aus-
tralia, and finally in this country. Instead of one variety
as we have of the Chinese Sugar Cane, he has discovered
among the Kaffirs no less than sixteen distinct kinds of
imphee, of various degrees of saccharine richness, and
differing very widely in the time required for their ma-
turity.
The gift that he has thus made to our agriculture may
be estimated when we reflect that we have almost every
range of climate known in the world—from the torrid and
fervent heats of the tropical zone to the most rigorous
winters of the North; and his plants requiring in some
instances but ninety days to run through the whole course
of vegetation and,ripen their seeds, others of greater
saccharine richness requiring a more lengthened season
than is necessary for the ordinary sugar cane, he has
thus given to the farmers of every section of the country
the opportunity to select from out his collection of varie-
ties some one peculiarly adapted to the latitude in which
he resides. Sugar, by this means, supposing his anticipa-
tions to be realized, and the experience of Governor Ham-
mond and other southern gentlemen to be a prestige of
what we can anticipate in future, will become no longer
even such a luxury as it is at present, but rather will as-
sume its proper position as a cheap, readily obtainable
article of common use. It is well to remark in this place,
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 27
that in the year 1854, in the month of September, an
application from Mr. Wray for a patent on his process
was filed at our Government Patent Office by Charles F.
Stansbury, Esq., acting in his name; but an error having
been made in his application, it was withdrawn until a
more favorable occasion should present itself In the
year 1856, Mr. Wray obtained the large silver medal of
the Haposition Universelle at Paris, for his imphee sugar,
alcohol, seeds, and plants, and the French government,
moreover, granted to him twenty-five hundred acres of
land in Algeria,to encourage in that colony the establish-
ment of this important cultivation.
INTRODUCTION OF TUE SORGHO INTO AMERICA.
In the month of November, 1854, D. Jay Browne, Esq.,
of the United States Patent Office, returned to America
from Europe, bringing with him a quantity of the seed
of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which he had procured from
M. Vilmorin, the gentleman previously referred to.
These seeds were distributed to various persons through-
out this country; but the feeling of suspicion with
which all new things are more or less viewed, tended to
confine this experiment of cultivation to a few of the
more enterprising farmers, until the formal report, ad-
dressed by Gen. J. H. Hammond, late Governor of South
Carolina, to the Secretary of the Beach Island, South
Carolina, Farmers’ Club, awakened general attention,
by showing the successful results of his own cultivation
and manufacture. Upon its history, in the southern
states, I do not propose to dwell at length, because the
28 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
full details are given in the excellent report which has
been furnished to me, through the politeness of Mr.
Redman. Suffice it to say, that upon the publication of
\ circular, containing the experiments of Colonel Peters,
.nd the notice of the syrup which was exhibited by him
.t the Fair of the United States Agricultural Society,
a October of the past year, the general excitement upon
he subject was at once considerably augmented; and
jhe subsequent appearance of the reports to the French
Minister of War, the experience of American farmers in
lifferent parts of the country, the excellent pamphlets
of Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Massachusetts, and Mr. Charles
F. Stansbury of Washington, all have united in lending
this increase to the all-prevalent interest; and the result
has been, that during the present year, the seed of the
Chinese Sorgho has been imported by the ton by differ-
ent seedsmen, and by the agencies which we have here-
tofore mentioned, it has been scattered throughout the
length and breath of the land.
In 1855, I received from Paris, the “ Researches on the
Sugar Sorgho,” by M. Vilmorin, and although at that
time but very little attention had been directed to the
plant, yet presuming, from a perusal of it, that it might
have some future value, I translated it, entire, for the
“ Working Farmer.”
SUGAR MADE BY PROFESSOR AVEQUIN OF LOUISIANA.
Whilst 1t was in course of publication, I corresponded
with persons in different parts of the United States, de-
siring to call their attention to its merits; and having
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. “19
ascertained from Messrs. Parker, White, & Gannett,
seedsmen, of Boston, that the editors of the “‘ New Or-
leans Bee” had received samples of sugar from Professor
Avequin, of Louisiana, I opened a correspondence
with that distinguished gentleman, and received from
him the editorial notice of the ‘Bee,’ and an article,
written by himself, for that paper, which I translated,
and which will be found in subsequent pages of this
work. The editors of the “Bee” clearly acknowledge
the receipt of a loaf of sorgho sugar made by Professor
Avequin; and I regret much at not having been able,
during the past two years, to have communicated with
this gentleman, and thus have been enabled to place my
readers in possession of all the facts concerning his ex-
periments.
HOW THE PATENT OFFICE SEEDS SHOULD BE USED.
We have thus narrowed down the circle of our in-
quiries to the introduction of the plant, and its domes-
tication among us. Inconsidering the slight contingency
upon which hung the chance of its having been put in the
possession of the French agriculturists, it seems to me a
useful lesson may be derived to guide us in our practice at
home. Although the General Government makes but very
shght appropriations to the cause of agriculture, barely
begrudging a miserable pittance out of the superfluous
revenues which it has collected, yet it does appropriate a
sum, however small it may be, for the purchase of seeds and
cuttings for distribution to our farmers, and every year
this service is performed by the department of the Patent
30 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Office. Now if we really, as American farmers, desire to
have the Government not only continue its present appro-
priations but increase them, we certainly should not take
the seeds and cuttings which it now gives to us, and by
the most culpable carelessness allow them to be utterly
lost, thrown away, and rendered unproductive of any
benefits to our farmers. In the majority of cases, seeds
received from the Patent Office, with foreign names
printed upon the packages, are looked at as curiosities,
bitten to see how they taste, placed upon the mantel-
shelf for the examination of visitors, and subsequently
put into the fire, or thrown into the top of some old
closet, because the farmer cannot find time to plant them
with care, and investigate their qualities. It is highly
possible that among the seeds distributed for the last few
years by the Patent Office, there may have been a number
which, if they had been properly planted and taken care
of, would have been productive of the greatest good to
this country. Are we not confined as to cotton-growing
to asmall section of the southern states? Would it not
be a source of immense wealth to our country if we could
find some plant which would be a substitute for the cotton,
and which could be produced in the northern and north-
western states, as in this instance we have found a new
sugar cane having a number of varieties, and some of
them specially adapted to the cold climates of the north?
and who can say but that among these seeds which have
thus been lost to our farmers, there may not have been
some one or more which would have produced a substi-
tute for the cotton plant? Many of the seeds are brought
home by the officers of our Exploring Expeditions, and
ORIGIN AND HISTORY. on
those connected with ships of war cruising in various
parts of the world. They are sometimes obtained by
them without the slightest knowledge of their properties
or value; and it may be that from some distant island in
the Pacific, or some rarely-visited portion of the African
coast, seeds have been brought to this country which
would have given us enduring sources of revenue.
CH ALP? +11.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.
CONFUSION AMONG AGRICULTURAL WRITERS.
In proceeding to consider the botanical rank of the
Chinese Sugar Cane, we find ourselves at once involved
in the midst of conflicting assumptions on the part of
various investigators. So much confusion has arisen in
regard to the plant, that M. Grcenland, an associate of
M. Vilmorin, has endeavored to extricate us from this
confusion, and is at the present time engaged in the pro-
duction of an agricultural work, which will set the mat-
ter at rest; in the mean time, from the testimony of all
observers, we are authorized to accord to the plant the
name Hfoleus saccharatus. Although, as M. Vilmorin |
says, 1t is inexact as to its generic character, yet it has
the advantage of being known, and of not having been
applied to other plants. Our seedsmen and agricultural
writers seem bent upon not only maintaining this confu-
sion of names, but also of increasing the list of synonyms,
by giving to the Sorgho sucré in turn the names of half a
dozen other plants. We must expect this, however;
but in the meanwhile, and until. the result of M. Grcen-
land’s labors are known, we are probably authorized to
call it the Holcus saccharatus.*
* Since writing the above, we have received from Dr. Charles T:
Jackson, one of the State Assayers to the State of Massachusetts, the
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THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
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DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 3a
APPEARANCE OF THE PLANT.
In comparing the appearance of the sorgho with that
of our common maize or Indian corn, we are struck with
the superiority of the former, in respect to the exceeding
grace of appearance which it presents. Like the latter,
following paper upon the botanical position of the plant, which was
read by Mr. Charles J. Sprague, Botanist to the Boston Society of
Natural History, at its meeting of April 15th. By it, it will be seen,
that although the plant was by Linnzeus termed the Holcus sacchar-
atus, it had undergone subsequent subdivisions; and, as he says him-
self, the specific name is a matter of some doubt, so that it is as well,
perhaps, to allow it to retain the name of Holcus saccharatus, until
we obtain further advices.
“The plant was called Holeus saccharatus by Linneus ; but when
this genus underwent a subdivision by subsequent botanists, this spe-
cies was placed by some in that of Andropogon, by others in that of
Sorghum. These two genera are closely allied. Some of the best
authorities consider the difference so slight as to warrant their union
into one. Steudel arranges Andropogon, Sorghum, and Trachypegon
all under one head—Andropogon. Lindley italicizes Sorghum in the
last edition of his “ Vegetable Kingdom,” and places it beneath Trachy-
pogon, evidently considering them equivalent. Dr. Gray retains Sor-
ghum for our only native species (S. nutans) in his last edition of the
Manual, considering the genus a good one.
“Tt is between Andropogon and Sorghum, therefore, that we must
choose in reference to this particular species.
“The differences between them are these—
Andropogon. Sorghum.
“ Inflorescence spicate. “ Inflorescence paniculate.
Spikelets in pairs, only one be- Spikelets in twos or threes, een-
ing fertile. tral one only being fertile.
Glumes herbaceous or mem- Glumes hard, coriaceous, or in-
branaceous. durated.
Rachis hairy. Rachis smooth.
93
Q*
84 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
it presents a tall straight stalk, marked at intervals with
knots or nodes, and from these, on alternate sides of the
plant, spring long, spreading, tapering, and drooping
leaves. The stalk very gradually decreases in diameter
from the base to the top. Its outer coating is smooth
and silicious, like the stalks of the maize, which becomes
harder as the water and starch and the sugar of the plant
become converted into woody fiber, and more silex is
deposited on the outside. The seed grows upon the
eight or ten separate stems which group together to
form the tuft at the top of the plant; and, unlike the
maize, this is the only fruit produced by the plant. When
the tassel first emerges from its sheath, the seeds are
nothing but a soft green husk, which by degrees, and in
“Tf these differences shall eventually render the genera sufficiently
distinct to establish a universally recognized separation, then this plant
must be placed under that of Sorghum.
“The specific name is a matter of some doubt. Both S. vulgare
and S. saccharatum are recorded as distinct species ; but there is fre-
quently a query appended to the latter. Some of our best authorities
incline to the opinion that these two are identical, the differences be-
tween them being due to the long cultivation which the plant has un-
dergone. We know that some of the grasses have sported into nume-
rous varieties ; and it is very probable that the Broom Corn, Doura
or Guinea Corn, and the Chinese Sugar Cane, are all descended from
one and the same stock.
“Tf we accept this as a fact, then the plant should be called Sor-
GHUM VULGARE, Pers. var. saccharatum, L. ; but as the latter name is
so extensively known, and as there is still some doubt as to the ident-
ity, it may be as well to continue the name Sorghum saccharatum.
“The true Sugar Cane, Saccharum officinarum, belongs to the same
tribe of grasses, differing in the ample inflorescence, which is paniculate,
and drooping with downy pedicles and florets.”
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 35
like manner to wheat, becomes filled with farinaceous
matter, and the grains are plump and hard. The soft
sreen pulp, as the plant approaches maturity, undergoes
transitions in color, changing to violet, brown, and
finally, to a purple, almost black. When this latter color
appears, the plant has reached its last stage of vegeta-
tion, and will give its greatest amount of sugar. The
stalk, as compared with that of the maize, is more slender
and soft. The adhesion of the parts above and below
the knots is not so firm, for I have found in the crops
which we have cultivated at the Farm School, that a
eust of wind would break the plants off at the knots
when they attained considerable height, in a wet season.
Another peculiarity distinguishing the sorgho stalk from
that of the corn, is, that as the plant approaches maturity,
we see a whitish effloresence appear upon the parts un-
derneath the foot-stalks of the leaf. This is a dry, hard
powder, and is known to the French, under the name
of cerosie, or vegetable wax. Of its uses and probable
value, we will speak in the appropriate place.
HEIGHT, ETC,
The sorgho attains different heights as the circum-
stances controlling its growth are more or less favorable,
and on some soils, the deep black loam for instance, grows
toan enormous height, as high as sixteen or eighteen feet,
while on poorer soils, on gravels or gravelly loams, or
colder soils, it is shorter; but on dry, poor soils its juices
have a greater tendency to crystallize. My own crop
averaged the last season eleven feet in height. Some of the
36 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
stalks were full fifteen feet, and but a small proportion were
nine and ten. The leaves of the plants being more slender
than those of the corn, and the joints being farther
apart, it will not give the same amount of green fodder
to the acre, if the plants are allowed to attain their com-
plete maturity; but this is only a comparative loss, for
by suffering them to stand until this time, we procure
what we cannot obtain from the corn—a full crop of
sugar; therefore all the forage which we obtain is so
much actual profit. The root of the sorgho is exceed-
ingly hard and strong. Where the ground has been well
disturbed, the roots run to a great depth, and acquire
very great strength; so much so, that it was a matter of
oreat difficulty for a man to pull up a stand of sorgho on
our place, even after the plants had been cut off from it,
and they had stood for amonth or two. There is a very
marked difference between the tuft of the Chinese Sugar
Cane and some of the varieties of the Imphee; but there
is a curious resemblance between the Shla-goo-va and the
sorgho tufts, The stems of the tufts of the Chinese Sugar
Cane are some of them four or five inches in length, and
when covered with seeds, plump and ripe, by degrees,
of course, droop over towards the ground, thus giving
the tuft a feathery appearance; but the seed heads of the
Vim-bis-chu-a-pa present a compact bunch of upright
growing stems, albeit they are all laden with seeds, and
resemble more the pompon of a military cap.
In judging of the ripeness of the imphee seed, of -
course the cultivator will not be misguided by any
previous experience with the Chinese Sugar Cane; for
while in one case he would wait for the seeds to turn
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 37
black before he would feel authorized to harvest the
stalks, on the other hand, the seeds of some varieties of
the African Sugar Cane, when they are fully ripe, are not
darker in color than a light buff, and its only distinction
then would be their plumpness and hardness.
It would be a matter of impossibility for any body but
a most experienced hand to distinguish between a field
of sorgho and one of ordinary broom corn in the early
stages of its growth; for in appearance, size of leaves,
covering, and general characteristics, it is identical. A
difference will be found, however, if rows of corn and
rows of sorgho should be planted together. So far as
rapidity of growth is concerned, the sorgho is not a fast
grower at first, and for this reason it would be very apt
to discourage persons experimenting with it for the first
time, as it did myself.
COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF THE SORGHO AND OTHER SIMILAR PLANTS.
An instance of the comparative rapidity of growth
will be found at page 11 et seg. of the excellent work of
Dr. Sicard.* We quote as follows:
‘We sowed, in a warm bed, upon the same day, at
the same hour, on the same kind of soil, seeds of the
white sorgho, the Kaffir sorgho, broom corn, and the
Chinese Sugar Cane. The seventh day the sorgho was
out of the ground, the broom corn appeared in the after-
noon of the same day. On the following morning we
* «“ Monographie de la Canne a’ Sucre de la Chine, dite Sorgho a
Sucre,” par le Docteur Adrien Sicard, Secretary of the Horticultural
Society of Marscilles, etc. Marseilles, 1856.
88 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
saw appear the Kaffir sorgho; and two days later the
Chinese Sugar Cane.”
Once out of the ground, the plants develop their leaves.
It was not thesame with the Chinese Sugar Cane. The lat-
ter remained for a long time before developing its leaves,
its increase was very slow. Thus wé see that, as compared
with broom corn, the Chinese Sugar Cane requires three
days more to make its appearance above the ground. A
sreat difference is observable in the comparative flexi-
bility of the leaves of the sugar cane and those of others.
of its congeners. The Chinese Sugar Cane leaves can be
bent and rebent into perfect circles without breaking
them, whilst the others will snap in two.
WEIGHT OF THE STALK.
Dr. Sicard, from a desire to relieve the questionings in
regard to the comparative weight of the Chinese Sugar
Cane and the broom corn, took from each one of these of
the same length, about twenty-nine inches, and that there
might be no mistake as to the identity of their period of
development, measured their diameter. These precau-
tions taken, he weighed them, and found that the broom
corn weighed thirty-five grammes, and the sugar cane one
hundred and thirty-seven grammes. Let those, then, who
say that the Chinese Sugar Cane is no more than broom
corn, that the juice of the one is as good as the other,
compare this result, which, from our experience of the
comparative weight of the two plants, (though we have
made no precise experiment,) we should think would be
a faithful indication of the differences, in the vast majority
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 89
ofcases. Dr. Sicard gives in his book a very interesting
and minute account of the growth of the sugar cane, from
the putting forth of the first radicle until the complete
maturity of the plant. Our space prevents our following
him in. detail, as we should be pleased to do.
PROGRESSIVE GROWTH.
The first effort at vegetation is, of course, the swelling
of the seed, the separation of the valves enclosing the
germ of the plant, and the putting forth of a little root.
This root, unlike the others surrounding it, is of a violet
hue. Its covering is impregnated with a tint on the in-
side of the hull. The surrounding roots are of a yellow-
ish color. The plant rarely springs up on a single stalk.
A short time after the appearance of the stalk, suckers
are formed, which commence to grow upwards. The
cane throws out in rudiments each one of the internodes
that 1t must subsequently develop, and each one of these
bears a leaf, which acquires dimensions larger or smaller,
according to the soil upon which it is grown. The time
required for the cane to acquire its full development, is
about five months; but it will be more protracted or
brief, as the soil is suited to its nature. In this respect,
the planter will be subject to the same vicissitudes as he
now has in the cultivation of the ordinary sugar cane ;
and we opine that, like this latter plant, the Chinese cane
will be found to grow exceedingly well on the soil of a
certain plantation, and on the one immediately adjoining
it, give but meager results.
The present season is, perhaps, as unfavorable a one
40 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
for the institution of experiments with the new plants as
we could have had; for, whereas, the plant requires a
warm, dry, season to develop its excellences, and to
attain a rapidity of growth, we have this year been
subjected, since the earliest portion of spring, to a con-
tinued series of drenching rains and untimely showers.
The soil, in consequence, has been kept cool and moist,
and the temperature of the air has been so reduced that
even the corn crop in the vicinity of our farm is very
much more backward than it should be at this season of
the year. One of the largest planters in the southern
states informed me, a short time since, that he had
frequently seen corn in the month of June, so tall that
the tassels would be above his head when he rode
through the field on horseback; but that in July of the
present year, his crop was but four feet high.
There will, therefore, necessarily be much apprehen-
sion existing among the experimenters of the sorgho, as to
its maturity, andit may even be that, in case the frosts set
in earlier than usual in the fall, a large proportion of the
plants throughout the United States will not ripen their
seed-heads; but because they do not, it is no index of
what we must expect, were the season but auspicious.
The experiment has been tried in France of using
excessive irrigation to produce an increased growth of
stalks; and as in that case, although the growth was
obtained, yet the proportion of the sugar in the juice
was in consequence materially reduced, we may like-
wise expect that the rain of the present season will pro-
duce, should we have warm and favorable weather till
the close of the season, a great growth of stalks, but a
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT 41
diminished richness in the juice. Wher che panicle
commences to put forth its flowers, the portion of the
stalk, immediately under it, contains a quantity of sugar,
equal to that which may be found later in the lower
portions of the plant; but in ratio, as maturity of the
seed is produced, this upper part of the stalk loses its
sweet principle, which seems to descend by its specific
eravity toward the root, slowly, it is true, but surely,
and at the time of harvesting the cane, there is a marked
difference between the comparative saccharine richness
of the upper and lower portions. In noticing this fact,
Dr. Sicard shows the analogy between it, and what
occurs in the case of grapes. ‘The latter in fact com-
mence by giving verjuice. In proportion as the ripen-
ning advances, they become more and more sweet; and
if you only know enough to gather them at the proper
epoch, and the temperature of the atmosphere is pro-
pitious, you will obtain wines of a quality, by as much
more superior as the juices of the grape are more
elaborated, that is to say, arrived at a more perfect
maturity.”
PULLING OUT THE TUFTS, ETC—RIPENING.
It has been observed by Mr. Wray, as quoted by the
French authors, that it is the practice among the Zulu
Kaffirs to pull out the panicles on the stalk, at the time
that they are appearing, for the purpose of concentrating
the juices and obtaining more sugar; but upon this sub-
ject, Dr. Sicard says, that in taking off the panicle of the
seed, when it commences to show itself, we will arrive
42, THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
at an effect contrary to what is desired. He says, that
he had some canes of which the stalk was broken, at
different periods of its development, and that he had re-
marked, that according to the color of the seed, that is
to say, according to the more or less continued progress
of the process of ripening, the internodes the nearest to
the upper portion of the plant, were more or less sweet.
Thus, he says, the colors most removed from that of the
ripe seed coincided with the greater quantity of sugar
in the internodes nearest the panicle; but the more the
plants approached the term of maturity, the more did the
saccharine matter travel downwards in the stalk. In
ripening, the Chinese sugar-cane takes on a yellowish
tint, striped in places with red. Some of them continue
to preserve an apple-green color, marked likewise with
red. ‘These colors generally indicate the term of matur-
ity; if the red passes into carmine the cane is too ripe,
and cultivators should notice this thing, In connection
with the color of the seeds. At the commencement of
our experience with this new plant, it is well to mention
the fact, that it is subject to different maladies, some of
which attack the root, and some the pith of the stalk.
Dr. Sicard has made, upon this point, extensive in-
vestigations, and at page 65 of his book says, ‘The
roots, especially the upper ones, those which we have
called secondary, take on sometimes a deep violet color.
Tf you cut these roots thus degenerated, they present in
the interior the appearance of a purplish red color,
which continues even as far as the radicles. The plants
which have these roots, languish, take on a chlorotic tint,
and end by their dying, or producing insignificant
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 48
panicles; they contain scarcely any sugar. If we ex-
press the juice from these canes, and allow it to stand
for a while, there will be found at the bottom of the
vessel a considerable portion of fecula, with a reddish
tint, which subsequently passes into a violet tint by con-
tact with the air. There is developed, sometimes, on the
plant, much before its maturity, reddish points. If we
cut into this part of the cane, it will be found to be pass-
ing from a red into a violet; having no more sweet
juice, but a species of vinegar, of a very disagreeable
flavor, (which is due to the ferments which are developed
from the juice under the influence of the air). We have
found, likewise, the larvee of insects in the interior of
the cane. Unfortunately they were lost before I could
experiment upon them. We are in possession of a stallx
which had received a bruise at the middle of one of its
internodes. This wound, which only seemed to the
naked eye a simple dot or point, controlled the violet
color in all the internodes which had acquired the defects
above indicated; but what is most remarkable is, that
the principal nodes did not participate In any way
in this alteration. This same coloring was observed
upon all the canes injured by hailstones.”
=
PROSTRATION BY WIND-STORMS.
It unfortunately happened to us, that as our crop of the
last season was just approaching the time of the putting
forth of the panicles, a violent storm prostrated the
whole field. In our dilemma, ignorant of what was
best to be done, we tried various methods of raising
44 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
them. We straightened up a number on opposite rows,
inclined them towards the center, and bound them
together by wisps of straw, or by strings, thinking that
by treating the whole field in this manner, we might
save a considerable portion of our crop; but we soon
found that the knots on the canes were so tender that
a very large number of them broke in two at the joints,
and were thus rendered entirely useless. We discon-
tinued the experiment, after having satisfied ourselves of
its inefficacy. On the portions of the field which we
left untouched, the plants were mingled together in
much confusion upon the ground, and we found to our
surprise, that no fermentation occurred ; nor did the plants
beneath die out because of the superincumbent masses,
but like corn under similar circumstances, the: stalks
began to grow with a curve upward. In some cases,
the upper ones partly elevated themselves. The ones
beneath struggled to get to the light and air, in some
cases protruding their panicles where an opening occurred.
But Dr. Sicard, who met with a similar accident at the
time when they had not thrown out their seed-heads,
says, ‘‘ At the end of several days they made efforts to
raise themselves. The canes which were on top were
nearly successful; but not so those which were buried. It
seemed as if cofiscious that they could not overcome the
weight which rested upon them, they twisted their stalks
upwards, and in that prostrated condition developed
their flowers in the usual way. One of them which was
completely buried, and which could not reach the light,
had thrown out from each one of its nodes, shoots which
formed large panicles and yielded a rich harvest of
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 45
seeds. The canes have suffered nothing from this un-
propitious position. It was only those which were com-
pletely flat upon the ground and in contact with the
soil, which were unfit for the extraction of sugar. They
had been almost completely converted into feculent
matter. We should observe that we had taken the
precaution to hill these sugar canes, which were thus
thrown upon the soil by storm. It is to be remarked
that the plants which were sown alone by themselves,
which were not hilled, had not been thrown down by
the wind, which corroborates the opinion previously
advanced by us of the uselessness of hilling. It now
seems tous proved that in letting the plant take care
of itself, without coming to its aid by artificial appliances,
the cultivation would be easier, and the harvest more
sure. Too much care given to certain products of the
soil are oftentimes more hurtful than useful.” Unlike
Dr. Sicard’s plants, my own were not in hills, but were
sown in drills at two, and two and a half feet apart.
I find that some rows of canes which were planted at
a distance of about a foot apart, in the row, in a more
exposed position than the field which was prostrated,
not only were not thrown down by the wind, but ripened
their sced-heads; and from our own experience we
learned the useful lesson that the Chinese Sugar Cane,
like our common corn, should not be planted so near
together, as, when they acquire their development,
to partially exclude the free access of air and sunlight
to every portion of the stalk. In fact the planting and
cultivation should, in all their details, be similar to
that given in the most approved practice to the corn crop.
CHAPTER III
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE—MANURING.
WHEN we say that the Chinese Sugar Cane can grow
upon all soils on which a fair crop of Indian corn can be
raised, we have almost covered the entire question, and
given the desired information; but inasmuch as upon
certain soils only can the best results, so far as the pro-
duction of sugar is concerned, be obtained, we deem it
expedient to record a few facts which have been gathered
from the observations of cultivators in all parts of the
world. The experiments which have been made upon it
in Algeria, France, and this country, have proved the
fact that the best results are obtained on loose, deep soils;
but it has been demonstrated that the juices of plants
grown upon soils largely composed of vegetable detritus,
is more abundant in fecula, and the sugar manifests a
somewhat weaker propensity to crystallize than upon any
others; but in such cases, as it contains a large quantity
of fecula, it can be readily converted into alcohol. There
seems to be a peculiar difference between the juices of the
imphee and of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which is a fair
representation of the difference between the juices of
the Chinese Sugar Cane itself when produced under two
different conditions of soil; and thus, for instance, in the
Chinese Sugar Cane there is a larger proportion of fecula
than in the imphee, and it is consequently necessary for
the planter to take more care in his attempts to produce
[46]
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE—MANURING. AT
the sugar. ‘ The juice of the Imphee,” says Mr. Wray,
“is naturally more limpid, more free from extractive
matter, and proportionably easier to defecate.” In cases
where the Chinese Sugar Cane has been grown on
swampy land, very large plants have been produced ;
but the juice contains sometimes several per cent. less of
crystallizable sugar, than when grown upon dry, warm
uplands. The canes grown upon warm, dry soils, situ-
ated so that they can be irrigated at pleasure from a
neighboring brook, according as the summer heat be-
comes more or less severe, will give the desired develop-
ment of stalk, and they will also have much purer juices;
and hence, as we before observed, the effects of the con-
stant rains of this season will doubtless be to produce the
results which have been mentioned by Professor Heuzé
of Grignon, as resulting from the practice of excessive
irrigation.
M. Paul Madinier says, in his little pamphlet, that for
it are especially suitable light, sandy soils, and calcareous
soils; but particularly those formed from alluvial depos-
its. That in nearly every case, especially in Algeria and
the southern part of France, very excellent results will
be attained by the employment of irrigation during the
early stages of its growth, and when it is most rapidly
developing itself; but that if employed at a later date,
when it is approaching maturity, it proves deleterious, by
impeding the elaboration of the saccharine principle, and
rendering the canes too watery. M. Hardy, the intelli-
gent director of the Government Nursery in Algeria,
says that the sorgho flourishes extremely well on soils con-
taining carbonate of lime, and he advises frequent liming
48 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
of such soils as are deficient in it. This recommendation
finds its explanation in the astonishing success of the
sorgho on the chalky soils of Champagne, where, other-
wise, they obtained very mediocre results; but, says M.
Madinier, if calcareous applications seem desirable, it is
by no means the same of such other saline manures as
have been found by experience to be unfavorable for the
sugar cane and the sugar beet.
Lacoste urges upon his readers to avoid attempting the
sorgho culture on soils where the soluble, inorganic mat-
ters are very abundant, because they would thus be ex-
posed to the undesirable perplexity of producing juice in
their plants of a saline character, and completely unsuit-
able to the extraction of sugar.
Count Beauregard says that the sorgho will flourish
well on almost all soils, if they be underdrained and irri-
gated; but his experience shows him what would be sup-
posed by any sensible man, that the best results are ob-
tained on soils of the best quality that are best cultivated.
We may mention in respect to the soils, that one of
the French writers speaks of having procured fine crops
of sorgho from a soil on which he thinks he would not
have have got a fair crop of any other forage plant;
and the acre of plants which I raised myself last year,
was on a coarse, gravelly loam, resting on a pure gravelly
subsoil, so hard that it was a matter of difficulty to plow
it, and subsoiling was almost impossible. From the ex-
perience of all the cultivators with whose writings I have
met, I should advise the choice of land of medium qual-
ity, and between a black loam and a pure gravel, and of
a moderate richness.
/
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE—MANURING. 49
SHOULD HILLING BE PRACTICED!
There are in our own country, advanced by various
cultivators, conflicting opinions relative to the practice of
hilling corn. Some maintain its superior efficacy in
causing the appearance of extra roots, which serve to pro-
tect the plants from prostration by storms, and others as
strenuously urging that the very effort thus forced upon
the plant is an unnatural one, and is met by the penalty
of diminishing its strength. This same adversity of
opinion has been manifested in respect to the sorgho cul-
ture. Mr. Hardy, of Algiers, hills his plants three feet
apart, and irrigates them by making alongside each row a
slight surface furrow with a corn plow, and turning in it
a gentle streamlet of water from his brook or reservoir ;
but Dr. Sicard maintains that hilling is very unadvisable,
because the Chinese Sugar Cane has need of roots com-
mencing on the stall above the surface of the ground;
that, by their free contact with the atmosphere, there
may be absorbed carbonic acid and other nutritive gases,
and the just starting sap being thus early acted upon by
gases and sunbeam, is made more prone to crystallize at
a later period of its elaboration. His assumptions, he
maintains, were fully borne out by the comparative ex-
periments made on the hilled and flat cultivated plants
on his field. Without assuming the right or ability to
settle the vexed question as to the chemical principles
involved, I would merely give my preference to the sys-
tem of cultivating flat and in drills on fair soils, for with
the improved implements which are so easily obtainable
at this time, and without which no farmer can really
8
50 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
afford to'cultivate his crops, the whole ground can be
effectually stirred up to the very foot of each plant, and
the double labor of turning at the end of rows crossing
each other be avoided; the plants being spaced in the
rows at a suitable distance apart, are not overcrowded as
they are in hills, and they thus have greater tendency to
ripen their seed-heads. I should recommend planting at
three and a half feet apart, the plants in the row thinned
out to twelve inches apart.
DEEP CULTURE.—SUBSOIL PLOWING.
The land should, of course, be well worked and deeply
stirred, and the use of the subsoil plow has on our
farm been attended with the happiest results. By its
disturbing influence upon the subjacent particles of the
soil, not only are spaces made through which in infinite
numbers are insinuated the delicate radicles of the grow-
ing plant, but at the same time sunlight, and the trick-
ling dew drops, and the gases of the atmosphere, descend
through the interstices and conspire to assist the develop-
ments of vegetable life. To a plant which is so tardy in
acquiring a rapidity in growth as the sorgho, it is espe-
cially desirable to give assistance in its early stages.
The swelling of the parent seed, the putting forth of the
first radicle, and the progressive accretions of matter,
are all expedited by a sufficient contact with air, heat,
light, and moisture. When the soil remains quite com-
pact, by reason of much moisture present, the air, and
consequently warmth, is to a great extent excluded, and
the seed lying in the soil is not brought in contact with
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE— MANURING. 51
the degree of warmth which is necessary to aid the pro-
cess of germination, and thus, in many cases, will rot in
the ground. The subsoil plow, running as it does
deep beneath the surface, disturbs the relations of the
particles from the lowest portion of its path of travel up
to the topmost layers, and if its aid be called in when
the seed is first germinating, or when the tiny shoot is
but first above ground, the air, the dew, and the sun-
light are enabled to act directly upon its roots, and they
acquire great vigor and strength.
It is our practice at the Farm School to use a small
subsoil plow, with one horse,* to mark out our rows of
sorgho and corn in place of the small plow, marker, or
chain commonly employed. By so doing, we thoroughly
loosen the soil directly under our row of plants, and pre-
pare for the deposit of the seed in a most thorough and
excellent manner. If the subsoil plow be subsequently
run between the rows once or twice during the season, the
whole ground will have been disturbed.
SOAKING SEED.
I think very favorably of the practice of soaking the
seed of the sorgho for twenty-four hours before planting.
It has been found by direct experiment that seeds deprived
of the hulls will germinate much sooner than those planted
at the same time but not so treated. Dr. Sicard, to try
the experiment, planted two lots of seed, one with, the
other without the hulls, and the latter were out of the
* This admirable instrument is manufactured by Nourse, Mason,
& Co., of Boston, from plans furnished by Professor J. J. Mapes.
52 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
ground in ten days, five days before the other. This
method of procedure will be specially commendable in
those latitudes where the warmth of summer is of brief
duration, and every day that can be saved in the earlier
stages of growth is highly valuable. In warm soils,
which are likewise moist, the greatest rapidity of germi-
nation will be observed, and it behoves us to in some
manner imitate these desirable conditions by soaking the
seed for twenty-four hours in tepid water, to which is
added a small quantity of saltpeter, say about one ounce
to six gallons of water. Previous to sowing, it should be
rolled in plaster.
COVERING LIGHTLY.
It is a well known fact that it is highly unadvisable to
cover the seeds of certain of our vegetables, the carrot
for instance, too deeply, lest they rot. The sorgho is not
an exception to the rule, and the planter should beware
lest his hands carelessly cover the seed with more than
a light covering of earth; for if continued moist weather
follows the planting, the seed will certainly rot in the
ground,
MANURES.
In considering the question as to which manure is
most suitable for the sorgho, we must recall the fact pre-
viously noticed in this work, that if the canes be grown
on soils in which either naturally or by artificial appli-
cation there are present excessive quantities of soluble
saline matter, so much will be absorbed by the plant as
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE—MANURING. 53
to seriously impair the crystallizability of the sap.
Horse manure being violent in its action, and yielding a
large proportion of ammonia, is more unsuitable than
that of horned cattle, but the latter, even, is inferior
to the plowing in of clover, and other green crops.
From the analysis given by M. Avequin, of New
Orleans, which will be found in the Appendix, it will be
seen that the most important ingredients in the ash of
the sorgho are the phosphates of lime and magnesia,
acetate, muriate, and sulphate of potash, together with
hydrated silica and oxides of iron and manganese.
Lacoste gives in his pamphlet the following analysis by
M. Hetet, from the “ Revue Coloniale,” 1856, page 164.
Water, 70-000) The 0:537 contains
Salts, 0°587 | Silica, 0-062
Sugar, Chlorine,
Woody fibre, bane Acid, 0:537
Albumen, 29-463 +} Phosph. “
Fatty matter, Carbonic “ \40°475
Cerosie, Potash,
——— | Lime,
100-000 } Magnesia,
The water given in the Sorgho analysis, he thinks some-
what less than it should be, say two per cent.
The bagasse, or crushed canes that have passed
through the mill, should be returned to the field and
plowed under, for like those of ordinary sugar cane they
will prove highly advantageous. Sicard mentions the
fact that one M. Lautier sowed some Chinese Sugar
54 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Cane in a field of potatoes, and with good results so far
as obtaining a crop of large canes was concerned. Hach
potato had received, when planted, a handful of pigeon’s
dung, and the sugar canes were planted when the po-
tatoes had attained the size of a pigeon’s egg. The
canes given to the Doctor were of a fine size and ap-
pearance, but he found their juices quite unfit for sugar
making, because of the presence of foreign matters
therein contained; thus clearly demonstrating the in-
jurious effects of an application of ammoniacal manure.
We have reason to regret that in sending the seed from
Shanghae, the Count de Montigny was not at the same
time able to advise us as to the details of cultivation
and manuring practiced by the Chinese. Probably no
country in the world can show such scientifically pur-
sued agriculture as China, and it is a most untoward
circumstance that during the present year anything
should have occurred in our relations with that country
to retard a closer intimacy with her people. It would
confer great riches upon our farmers if some explorers
could but report in detail upon the systems of husbandry
employed in China, for they would be shown so su-
perior to our own practices that they should necessarily
be imitated to a considerable extent.
CULTIVATION.
As soon as the rows can be seen—and this would
be hastened by dropping a radish seed in each hill of
sorgho—the cultivator, or horse-shoe, should be run
through the piece, to destroy any weeds while they are
SOILS REQUIRED—CULTURE—MANURING. 55D
small and tender. As soon after this as it is possible
to spare time, we run the one horse subsoil plow
twice between the rows, going up alongside one row,
and down by the other. The subsequent cultivation
is only a repetition of this practice.
HYBRIDIZATION.
It must be remembered, that the Chinese Sugar Cane is
a congener to broom corn, Guinea or chocolate corn,
Doura and Kgyptian millet, and must not be planted
anywhere near any one of these, for in such case it
would most undoubtedly hybridize with them and lose
a great part of its sugar-bearing qualities. It is thought
by many extremely probable that the above varieties
are only hybridizations of the same original plant.
CURING FODDER.
Considerable care should be taken in curing the fall.
crop for stacking. Mr. D. Jay Browne recommends cut-
ting the stalks when the thermometer stands at 40 to 50
degrees Fahr., for it is then less likely to sour. The
method of cutting practiced by Dr. Robert Battey, of
Georgia, is as follows: ‘The fodder (leaves) should be
stripped, as is corn, by the first set of hands; another set
cut off one and a half to two feet of the top of the stalk
with the seed, while others cut the cane at the ground
and throw it into piles, from whence it is hauled to the
press.” It will scarcely be necessary, I trust, to urge
the necessity of having got the mill and boilers in readi-
56 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
ness to crush and boil, before commencing the harvest of
the crop. The canes should be allowed to lie but a
short time before being worked up, and hence it will be
advisable to commence by cutting and crushing the canes
which ripen before the major part of the crop, and each
day cutting up only as much as can be disposed of con-
veniently.
SAVING SEED.
The seed heads, with the two feet of stalk attached,
should be made into small bundles, and laid up or hung
up in the loft to dry. At a convenient season, the seed
should be stripped off with a broom-corn machine, a
comb, or by some other good method.* Mr. Wray has
removed his seed by putting the heads into a bag, and
threshing it with flails. There is a demand now created
for a sorgho seed threshing machine, and it will not be
long before it is supplied. The seed may be cleaned by
rubbing briskly between the hands, and winnowing in a
strong wind. The leaves stripped from the canes should
be cured and stored for fodder.
* A suggestion for a cylinder-hatchel, for stripping the seed, will be
found in the Appendix, in letter of Hedges, Free & Co.
CHAPTER IV.
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP—TESTIMONY OF CULTIVATORS.
THE plan I purpose to pursue in discussing the claims
of the sorgho to the attention of our farmers, is entirely
different from those of other investigators who have pre-
ceded me; for I shall at first consider its value as a
forage crop and a cereal, and endeavor to show that, even
if we could not make from it sugar, syrup, alcohol, or any
other of its products, we still have reason for congratu-
lating ourselves upon its introduction. If this be success-
fully accomplished, it is plain that, whatever may be the
fluctuations in its other yields of profit, it will have a
regular commercial value as a means of fattening stock,
and in this single department be a source of large wealth
to the nation. It may possibly be that some of my more
speculative readers may prefer to omit the sober consid-
erations of this chapter, and at once pass over to the
more alluring phases of the following one; but I have
too vivid a recollection of former vegetable wonders not
to seek to prove to our farmers that, in cultivating the
Chinese Sugar Cane, they will be more fortunate than
they were with the Morus multicaulis, which, after the
subsidence of the silk fever, was found to be unfit for
anything, except an application of the pick ax and plow.
Although I think the sorgho is destined to rank alongside
the sugar cane, Indian corn, cotton, and hemp, in the list
of our industrial plants, I firmly believe that it will be con-
[57]
58 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
demned and abused by hundreds who are cultivating it
this year. Not because of any fault in the plant, but be-
cause the most extravagant notions of turning a small
garden patch into a rich sugar plantation have been en-
tertained, and the hope has been unwisely put forth by
some, that, without any of the proper apparatus, even
without the necessary conditions of growth, large quan-
tities of crystallized sugar could easily be obtained.. As
I know by personal communication, in many instances
these dreams of inordinate wealth have been cherished
by persons of considerable intelligence, and I sincerely
trust that should these lines fall under the notice of any
such, they will not intemperately throw aside a really
wonderful plant after a single year’s imperfect trial, but
with me be content to assume more conservative grounds.
SOWING FOR FODDER.
In cultivating the sorgho for its forage, it should be
sown in drills two feet apart, letting fall about fifteen to
twenty seeds to the foot. I think this method much pre-
ferable to sowing broadcast, for whilst I believe the
ageregate weight of fodder would be more considerable,
it givesa marked superiority in allowing a “root cleaner”
to be run between the drills, and the growth of enormous
crops of weeds, which might spring up in broadcast
sorgho, would be entirely prevented. In addition to this,
the field presents a more regular and orderly appearance,
the crop is easier to cut, not so liable to lodge, and in
cutting off a first crop, the sunlight and air is more freely
admitted to the roots and stubble, and the second crop of
rattoons, or new shoots, is more likely to be a full one.
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 59
RATTOONING.
In speaking of rattooning, we have touched upon a
property of the sorgho, which materially distinguishes
it from corn fodder, and shows its superiority. The
life-principle of the sorgho is so active, that if the plants
be cut down when they are either small or large, and
the stubble is suffered to remain undisturbed, there will
immediately spring up from the old stocks a new set of
canes, or rattoons, and if the season be long enough, the
new plants will, like their predecessors, run through all
the phases of growth, and bear and ripen seed.
CUTTING FODDER.
Hence, when cultivated for fodder, the crop should be
mowed down as soon as it is large enoweh to feed to
stock ; and according to the length of the season, two,
three, four, and even five crops can be obtained. Mr. D.
Jay Browne speaks of having known of five cuttings for
fodder, in Florida, last year; the last crop perfecting tts seed.
M. Ch. d’Ivernois says, in a letter addressed to the
President of the Imperial Zodlogical Acclimation Society,
that the result of his extended experiments satisfies him
that the sorgho is a plant of immense value. He has
taken at Hyéres, during the last season, five abundant
cuttings on a soil light and fertile, but not capable of
being irrigated, and upon which he claims that scarce
any other forage crop would have given a result at
ull analogous. ‘The fodder was greedily eaten by all his
cattle. He thinks that the sorgho will be an acquisition
of surprising value as a fodder crop for the district of
60 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Provence, where so very few fodder plants can withstand
the four and a half months of absolute drought. He
believes that, as to the crop of seed, the more northern
districts of France cannot hope to compete with the
southern, but that it would be profitable if cut for fodder
before the ripening of the grain, as a cheap and abundant
supply of seed could always be obtained from more
southern latitudes.
TESTIMONY OF D. JAY BROWNE. ESQ.
Mr. Browne, at the last meeting, at Washington, of
the United States Agricultural Society, being called
upon by the Chair, gave a most interesting history of
his investigations and experience with the plant. He
mentioned thagin Kentucky, he knew of nine tons of
fodder being raised on an acre, the weight taken after
three months drying. As a fodder crop, he thought its
geographical range would correspond to Indian corn, as it
had been grown as far north as St. Paul, Minnesota, and
fully ripened its seeds in Massachusetts and Illinois. He
cited instances of cows which had been fed upon this
cane exclusively, giving a diminished quantity of milk,
but of increased richness of quality. He had seen two
stock cows, not giving milk, which had subsisted en-
tirely upon it for six weeks, and were in good condition
for the butcher. Animals fed upon it in the green
state throve remarkably well, affording excellent milk,
without exhibiting symptoms of “ hoven,” or flatulency,
which are sometimes produced by feeding upon succu-
lent clover or corn.
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 61
TESTIMONY OF ASA WHITNEY.
Mr. Wlutney, “the Railroad Napoleon,” whose dairy
farm is near the city of Washington, found that if the
morning’s milk of cows fed upon the sorgho were put in
a bottle or laid on the ice to keep it cool, by night it
would have become so thickened with cream as to be
removed from the bottle with some difficulty. A gentle-
man in Massachusetts informed me that he had experi-
mented with sorgho in feeding a number of cows, and
that it not only augmented the richness of the milk, but
the quantity likewise.
TESTIMONY OF AUTHOR.
We have on our farm a pair of large Conestoga horses,
which are kept constantly at hard work throughout the
season. Last year we fed them for about six weeks on
sorgho stalks, with nothing else except a little timothy
hay; and we found that, although they were continually
plowing, hauling stones and lumber, and performing such
laborious duty, yet at the end of the time they were as
sleek and fat as could be desired.
TESTIMONY OF MR. GRATZ, OF KENTUCKY.
Benjamin Gratz, Esq., of Lexington, Kentucky, Presi-
dent of the County Agricultural Society, informs me in
a recent letter, that his son, a large planter, tried some
experiments in feeding his mules on sorgho, and that
‘they consumed it with great avidity, leaving no residue.
He also gave a portion to his hogs, with the same result,
62 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
He is under the impression that it will prove very valu-
able for stock generally.”
Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, of Newton Centre, Massachusetts,
says at page 32 of his book, “‘I used the seed cane stalks
and leaves for fodder; cut up the stalks and fed to horses,
cows, and swine, and they would eat it with the greatest
avidity, even like shelled corn.”
Doctor Bowman, of Illinois, has fed the stalks to his
horses, and writes me in the most enthusiastic manner of
its value for forage.
MR. WRAY’S REMARKS AT THE FARMERS’ CLUB.
At a recent meeting of the Farmers’ Club of the Ameri-
can Institute, Mr. Wray gave some account of his discov-
ery of the imphee, and, among other things of his expe-
rience, mentioned the fact that it had been his practice to
feed the green plants to his animals. He cuts them into
pieces and sprinkles upon each mess a handful of salt.
Under this treatment he finds all descriptions of stock to
keep in good working condition, and increase in fat.
The Kaffirs told him not to feed to his animals the bag-
asse; and, disregarding their advice, he lost several head
of cattle, from the fact, as he learned by opening their
bodies after death, that the bagasse when taken into the
stomach formed itself into large balls, from the succes-
sive accumulations of which death had ultimately been
caused. This undesirable result is not attained when the
planter takes the precaution of adding to the bagasse the
scum removed from the boilers,
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 63
COUNT BEAUREGARD’S EXPERIENCE.
The illustrious President of the Agricultural Assembly
of Toulon, Count Beauregard, mentions the fact that he
had “sustained for a month and a half sixty head of
stock with the produce of a hectare (about two acres),
which had yielded sugar sorgho the previous year, and
which, by a circumstance independent of my wish, had
not been resown this year, and had received but one light
plowing, and no manure. This hectare was so well pro-
vided with vigorous plants springing from the seeds
which had been spilled at the harvest, that I did not feel
willing to turn them under, and thus we were enabled
throughout the entire month July and half of August, to
give to our animals an excellent nourishment, and one on
which they throve marvelously well.” And, further-
more, he says, “‘ The only thing which my very consider-
able experience of the past three years constrains me to
add is, that this plant, contrary to what might be feared,
robs and deteriorates the soil to a much less extent than
many others with which I am acquainted; for I have
harvested three crops in three consecutive years from the
same field, with but a slight manuring in each case, and
the yields have been more and more excellent.”
TESTIMONY OF G. DE LACOSTE.
Lacoste says, p. 26 of his book, that if fed green to
cows, the sorgho will cause an increased flow of milk,
and that every portion of the saccharine stalk is eaten
with avidity by cattle, and that it seems specially adapted
to nourishing them.
64 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
GOVERNOR GARDNER, OF MASSACHUSETTS.
Hon. H. J. Gardner, Governor of Massachusetts, in a
letter to Mr. J. F. C. Hyde, enumerates the following
facts :
“ As a green fodder it produces more food for cattle
on the same space, and at the same cost as corn. Cattle
prefer it to corn fodder; for I repeatedly gave it mixed
with corn stalks to cows, and it was amusing to see them
carefully select the sugar canes from the other. Itis
more juicy and nutritious for milch cows than any other
fodder, for it is well known that sugar contains more
nourishment than almost any other vegetable production
in daily use.”
EXPERIENCE OF OC. L. FLINT, OF MASSACHUSETTS.
Chas. L. Flint, Esq., Secretary of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture, in his letter to Mr. Hyde,
says that he knows instances where cattle picked it out,
stalk by stalk, from bundles of corn stalks; and further,
‘there seems every reason to believe that, asa forage
plant, it will very rapidly come into general favor, and
‘help us essentially through our summer drouths.”
CURLNG.
Any one of my readers who has grown our common
corn for fodder, will understand that considerable care
must be taken in curing the green succulent stalks of the
sorgho. It should be cut in the morning, when the dew
is off the plants, and suffered to lie on the ground and
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 65
become well dried before it is bound up. The bundles
should be small, and before putting them in stack, or in
the barns, should be set up in groups in the field to cause
a further quantity of water to be evaporated. The stack
should, of course, be built on rails or other convenient
poles, to allow of a circulation of air beneath, and to
carry out this requisition to a greater extent, it is well to
build the stack around rails set up on end, and leaning
inwards towards the center; by which plan, of course,
the interior of the stack is in direct contact with the
atmosphere, and thus heating will not so soon occur.
The extra trouble of curing is repaid by the increased
quantity of product, as compared with hay; but even
taking considerable precautions, it may occur that an
inexperienced person will not be able to save his crop in
good condition on a first trial.
THE SORGHO IN TEXAS THIS YEAR.
The newspaper accounts from Texas, which have
recently appeared, state the fact, that in all parts of that
state the Chinese Sugar Cane has manifested its superi-
ority to sowed corn in withstanding the drouth.
ITS ABILITY TO WITHSTAND DROUTH.
This entirely agrees with my experience of it last
summer ; for the sorgho did not manifest its real rapidity
of growth until the commencement of the two months
“heated term” which we endured. When our corn
plants drooped and curled their leaves, the sorgho was
not only unaffected by the heat, but daily grew in beauty
66 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
of appearance and height. When the great profits of
sowing a piece of corn for fodder, to be cut up and fed to
the stock in their stalls, shall have become generally
appreciated, we may confidently look for the universal
practice of replacing it in great part by the sorgho, both
because of its multiplied cuttings, its nutritive properties,
and its superior ability to withstand the as, suns
of midsummer.
ITS NUTRITIVE QUALITIES,
It may perhaps be well in this connection to refer
to the fact that in Cuba the negroes, and the animals
employed on the sugar plantations, are at no time of
the year compelled to undergo more unremitting toil
than during the boiling season; they are compelled to
keep mills and boilers at work night and day, for the
season allowed them to work up the crop of canes is
brief, and they must employ their time to the best ad-
vantage. It is customary to work the hands in “ gangs,”
who relieve each other alternately, one gang being at
work while the other rests. Yet with all this it is a fact
evident to every one who has visited an “ Ingenio,” or
sugar plantation, that both negroes and animals, by
reason of drinking the juice, and eating the stalks of
the cane, are more sleek and healthy than at any other
season of the year. Now this increase in fat is chemically
explained by the presence of large quantities of carbon
in the form of sugar, and as every one knows, sugar
and fat are made of ingredients entirely the same, viz.,
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. If this be borne in
mind, then it will be no more than fair to anticipate
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 67
what is really the fact, that animals fed upon the sorgho
stalks, should be quickly brought into a sleek, fat
condition.
SIZE OF STALKS IN NORTH AFRICA.
F. Bourdais, the distiller, at Constantine, Algeria, says,
and he calls upon Mr. Hardy to testify to the fact, that on
his place he has had a number of sorgho plants which sent
up sixteen and eighteen suckers to a height of twelve feet,
and measured four inches and three quarters in circum-
ference at the base. Numbers of others sent up ten and
twelve shoots; and the average of his field was six and
seven shoots from a single seed.
TESTIMONY OF DR. TURREL AND LACOSTE.
Dr. Turrel, in his article to the Bulletin Mensuel de la
Societé Imp. Zodl. d’Acclimation, says, that his pigs
crunch the succulent and sweet stalks of the sorgho with
delight. They devour the seeds, and thrive on them.
Grellet Balquerie maintains that sorgho seed can be fed
to horses in place of oats.
Lacoste, in a lettter to the Imperial Society, says, that
“the seeds fattened poultry, and for feeding to horses,
will profitably replace barley; and for this one thing,
pay all costs of cultivation.” According to Professor
Thompson,* of Glasgow, the barley contains 11.31 per
cent of nutritive matter..
* Thompson’s “ Food of Animals.” N. Y., C. M. Saxton & Co.
68 (THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
THE YOTE OF THE JURY OF ANIMALS.
Animal instinct is, after all, the best test of the com-
parative value of different substances for forage; and,
taking this view of the case, we can establish beyond
cavil the fact that sorgho seed is good feed for poultry
and birds of all descriptions. Sundry of the French
experimenters lament their inability to protect their
sowings of seed from the voracious attacks of sparrows;
and in one of our southern states the entire crop of seed,
on a small plot in a gentleman’s garden, was made way
with by his chickens and pigeons.
THE COLORING MATTERS IN THE SEED.
The coloring matter in the hulls is so easily separated,
and carried with the fluids of the animal body, that the
flesh, and even the minute cellular structure of the bones
of poultry, fed upon sorgho seed, becomes actually dyed
purple. Mr. Wray says, he has seen in Count Beaure-
gard’s poultry-yard, the droppings of chickens fed on
the seeds, that could at once be distinguished, by their
purplish hue, from those of the other inmates of the yard.
I have been shown, by that gentleman, a piece of
pigeon’s dung that had, by accident, been packed in a
case of his sorgho seed-heads, and been received in this
country, direct, from Hyéres, which was as purple as a
mulberry stain. Of course it will be understood, that
this coloring matter is entirely without taste, and no
injury is done to the fowl. In fact, it may become a
fashionable thing to pay extra for purple broiled chicken.
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. 69
YIELD PER ACRE OF SEED AND FODDER.
In respect to the yield of seed per acre, the north, says
M. d’Ivernois, cannot hope to equal the south, where
sixty bushels are produced. This result was obtained in
the neighborhood of Hyéres. In our own country,
Col. Peters, of Georgia, obtained twenty-five bushels per
acre, of thirty-six pounds per bushel. Gov. Hammond,
of South Carolina, weighed a peck after three days’
drying in the sun, and found the weight to be thirty-
eight pounds per bushel. I have weighed several lots
from Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co., of Paris, and Count
Beauregard, and found the weight to vary from forty to
forty-eight pounds. Mr. Hyde says the yield is from
twenty-five to fifty bushels to the acre.
Thus we see that on partially exhausted wheat soils,
or alluvial soils, both of which are specially adapted to
the sorgho, instead of a poor yield of wheat, we may
plant the former, and, not taking anything else into con-
sideration, obtain a crop of from ee to sixty
bushels of seed.
In the early portion of this chapter, I mentioned that
Mr. Brown said that nine tons of dry fodder had been
cut in Kentucky last season: Hon. Marshall P. Wilder,
president of the United States Agricultural Society, tells
me that he knows one instance where 19.844 lbs. of
fodder had been obtained, the weight taken after a three
months’ drying. The weight of the green stalks varies
from seven to forty tons, according to circumstances.
The Director of the Government Nursery at Hamma,
Algiers, in his report to the Minister of War (see
70 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
appendix), says he got a result of 83,250 lbs. of green
forage, per acre. Ourown Patent Office Report, for 1855,
says, ‘‘ Aside from other economical uses, its value for
feeding to animals alone, in every section of the Union
where it will thrive, cannot be surpassed by any other
crop, as a greater amount of nutritious fodder cannot be
obtained so cheaply in a given space within so short a
time; and without wishing to present the question in an
extravagant light, it may be stated, that this crop is
susceptible of being cultivated within the territory of the
United States, to an extent equal to that of Indian corn,
say 25,000,000 acres per annum; and estimating the
average yield of dry or cured fodder to the acre at two
tons, the yearly amount produced would be 50,000,000
tons, which, to keep within bounds, would be worth at
least $500,000,000, besides the profits derived from the
animals in milk, flesh, labor, and wool.”
SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED TO GROW MORE THAN ONE YEAR.
It is not at all desirable to suffer the stubble of canes
sown for fodder to remain all winter and throughout the
subsequent summer, to raise a second year’s crop of
fodder or sugar; for the experience of Mr. Hardy shows
that the shoots of the second year are not larger than
one’s little finger, and attain only a feeble growth, the
third season they are contemptible in size. The farmer
may well be contented with the fodder of the first year’s
production, for if it be thought profitable practice to
keep land in grass that cuts only aton ora ton and a half
per acre, what should be our estimate of a fodder crop as
VALUE AS A FORAGE CROP. a2
good as hay, and giving ¢en tons of dried nutritious matter,
with but light manuring ?
If a farmer has a field lying so that he can irrigate it
by damming the waters of some small creek or brooklet,
and by means of a flood-gate turning the water at will
into small plow furrows, running alongside each row,
it certainly would be very judicious practice to put it
into sorgho fodder; for as his desire is not to make
crystallized sugar, or other of the products of its sweet
juices, excessive irrigation will not only do no harm to
his crop, but will cause magnificent growths of plants in
every way suitable for nourishing his stock.
It must not be supposed that because Monsieur Hardy
and others have obtained ten tons of dried forage from an
acre of sorgho, the labor of every farmer, without res-
pect to peculiarities of practice, soil, or climate, will be
rewarded to an equal extent. If the proper soils be
selected, and the proper method of culture be pursued, it
lies within the reach of all to duplicate his success. With
this culture in all its phases, forage, syrup, sugar, or any
other, good judgment and perseverance will always win
the prize.
CHAPTER V.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING.
A WEST INDIAN SUGAR PLANTATION—CUTTING—CRUSHING—BOILING.
It is useless to conceal the fact, that, despite its great
excellence as a forage crop, and despite its other manifold
uses, the public are looking to the sorgho as a SUGAR
PLANT with more expectation and apprehension than in
any other light. Until the present feverish excitement
shall have subsided into more reasonable and practical
channels, it must be expected that when the vivid dreams
of sugar planting in garden spots and on five acre corn
fields, now, alas, so prevalent, are dispelled, and men
begin to realize that a good sugar plantation, with appro-
priate buildings and machinery, costs a vast deal of money,
much dissatisfaction will be experienced and publicly
manifested. or this reason, and to shield from blows
and insults a promising agricultural staple, I have chosen
to consider it, first, as a forage crop.
As yet, the sugar made from the juice of the sorgho
has been in a very small way—not more than a few
ounces, at most, at one time—and as this chapter is writ-
ten before the earliest of this season’s crops have been
worked up, I cannot speak of sorgho sugar making on
a large scale, but must defer such remarks to appear in
the Appendix, after I have been to South Carolina and
[72]
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 73
witnessed the extensive operations on the place of Gover-
nor Hammond, which, I trust, will occur in time to per-
mit their insertion in the first edition of this work.
Should the season, however, continue as inauspicious as
it has been heretofore, it may be necessary to issue the
first edition to fill the numerous orders already received
in advance, and defer until the second edition the report
on the southern experiments.
Ihave given in this chapter full details for the best
processes of sugar making, and engravings of suitable
apparatus, furnished expressly for the work by Mr. John
W. Reid, of No. 11 Old Slip, New York, and made from
drawings of articles which he furnishes to planters, so
that in case it is proved that on our soil and in our cli-
mate either the sorgho or the imphee may really rank as
sugar-producing plants, our farmers and planters may be
intelligently advised as to the steps necessary to pur-
sue to institute sugar making experiments on a large or
small scale.
THE CAUSE FOR PRESENT HIGH PRICES.
Speaking of the great need which is felt for a new
sugar plant, the ‘New York Tribune” remarks as fol-
lows:
“The recent general enhancement of the current prices
of sugars, though stimulated and swelled by speculation,
has a genuine basis. In the first place, there is an in-
crease of several per cent. in the population of the civil-
ized world within the last quarter of a century, insuring
a like increase in the natural demand for sugar. Then it
is not doubtful that, in the general absence of wars, the
4
74 - THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
proportion of people able to purchase and consume sugar
and other luxuries to the extent of their desires, has hke-
wise increased. It is further true that the general manu-
facture and use of preserved fruits, &c., is rapidly increas-
ing. But the successive failures of the grape for several
years past has led to the diversion of the beet crop of
France, which is very large and important, from the
production of sugar to that of brandy—the French
brandies, formerly made of the juice of the grape, bear-
ing a reputation and a price throughout the world which
render this conversion highly profitable. Hence France,
which, from Napoleon’s coronation to Louis Phillippe’s
dethronement, had been steadily advancing toward the
point of producing her own sugar, has recently been fall-
ing rapidly back to a position of dependence for her
supply on the tropical, cane-growing Indies. It is under-
stood that the production of sugar in the British West
Indies has fallen off since emancipation; the lberated
negroes finding employment more to their taste than the
severe labor of the cane-field and sugar-mill; though in
British Guiana the production of sugar has recently been,
and is still, rapidly increasing. California and Australia
have had some part in producing the general result, those
countries producing little or no sugar while consuming
largely, and at the same time increasing the world’s bul-
lion, and thereby enhancing the prices of nearly every-
thing but gold.
“Tt is clear that the annual production of sugar must
be increased; but where, and how? The severe cold
of last winter destroyed a great deal of cane, and practi-
cally diminished the area of tropical cane-growing soul.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. TD
India, and the adjacent regions of Southern Asia, might
produce more sugar; but their people are very slow to
change the direction of their industry, while those of
Spanish America have little industry of any sort. There
is more sugar land in the West Indies, but it is mainly
wilderness, which can only be converted into cane fields.
at heavy cost and by severe labor—of course, quite
slowly.
‘In view of these facts, inquiry has very properly
been made for saccharine plants adapted to the temperate
zone, and which may be profitably employed in the pro-
duction of sugar. Until some plant of this sort is found
and extensively cultivated, it is not probable that the
price of sugar, as measured by that of wheat, becf, and
other edibles, will be essentially reduced. With the
prospect of an active demand and a high price for sugar
through several years ahead, it seems but reasonable that
the sugar-producing area should be enlargéd, if that be
found practicable.
“That there is no lackof plants from which sugar may
be made, is well known. Indian corn, the rock maple,
and some other trees, the beet-root, and sundry other
esculents, contain and yield sugar, but generally at a cost
above that at which it can be extracted from the cane.
There is, therefore, a real and realized demand for a
sugar-producing plant which may be grown in temperate
latitudes, and which will yield nearly or quite as bounti-
fully, in view of their relative cost, as the cane.”
76 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
THE “AFRICAN APPRENTICE” SYSTEM.
There is another problem presented for solution to
the world, through the Government of the Emperor
Napoleon, and subsequently by the British Parlia-
ment, in which, it seems.to me, the sorgho and imphee
‘are destined to have an important influence. “This
proposition, when calmly examined, turns out to be
nothing more or less than a project for developing the
resources of the French West Indian Colonies, by the
immediate introduction of large bodies of negro laborers,
to be engaged on terms similar to those under which
the coolies of China are now, and have for some time,
been transported in very considerable numbers to the
colonial territories of Great Britain.” The cause for
this remarkable proposition, which in reality amounts
to a revival of the African slave trade, under a white-
washed exterior, is found in the greatly augmented
demand for sugars; and the simple problem has been
forced upon the world: in what way can a sufficient
staff of producers be most speedily thrown upon the soil
of the great sugar-growing countries? Now, if it can be
demonstrated that by cultivating the imphee and the
sorgho, the sugar fields can be so widened as to embrace
the countries throughout the whole Temperate Zone,
of course supply at once runs parallel with demand,
and the present alarming scarcity gives way to plenteous
abundance. Although it is warmly urged by sugar
planters, that free labor cannot compete with slave labor
in sugar growing, yet this assertion must be received cum
grano salis, for whilst tropical climates may raise sugar
to the exclusion of more northern ones, when prices
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 77
are so low as to make white labor more productive in
other branches of industry, yet if put in possession of
plants suited to their latitudes, the greatly augmented
price of sugar, at any time, would withdraw these la-
borers from other employments to turn producers of
sugar, for their families first, and, from their surplus, to
supply neighbors and friends. ‘'hus the strife between
the two is no longer one of latitude, but has become one
of prices.
The common sugar cane of the tropics, “ Saccharum
officinarum,” being of the same family with the plant
now treated of, and its juices for the manufacture of
syrup, or sugar, requiring almost an identity of treatment,
as illustrating this part of my subject I append the
following description, with illustrations, of the mode of
cultivating cane and manufacturing sugar on the island
of Cuba, from the pen of Mr. Reid, who has become
thoroughly conversant with the matter by a residence
in those countries.
THE CULTIVATION OF SUGAR IN THE ISLAND OF CUBA,
On the island of Cuba, farms or plantations, are di-
vided into three distinct classes: the ‘ Ingenio,” or sugar
estate, (pronounced Inhaneo); the “ Cafetal,” or coffee and
orange estate, (pronounced Caftal); and the “ Potrero,” or
farm, where stock, grain, or vegetables are produced. It
being with the first of these only that our subject has to
do, I will confine my remarks to the “ Ingenio” alone;
and if; in the sequel, I should at any time mention the
word “potrero,” it is to be understood as referring,
78 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
not to an estate exclusively set aside for the purposes
mentioned, but merely as relating to that portion of
every sugar estate, necessarily set apart for the raising of
cattle, and for such crops of grain or fodder as are
intended for its own consumption.
There are about two thousand five hundred sugar
estates, large and small, to be found on the island of Cuba,
ranging in size from the one having only fifty, to the
one with over fifteen hundred acres of cane field under
cultivation. ‘These are the extremes, however ; the aver-
age of the whole island would not exceed one hundred
and fifty to two hundred acres of growing cane to each
estate ; requiring to cultivate these, and carry on profita-
bly the business of the plantation, without overworking
the negroes, about one negro to every two acres. Many
planters, however, manage to get along with fewer hands
than this; but where a good field hand is worth from
eight hundred to one thousand dollars, it must be evident
that the over-work which ensues from planting more cane
than the gang can conveniently handle, in the end proves
the most expensive economy the planter can adopt.
&
SOIL.
The soil of Cuba has two marked characteristics of
color, depending upon the locality where each is found:
the one, and most striking, is of a deep red or Spanish
brown hue, which pigment it much resembles, soiling
every thing which it touches of a ruddy tint—the legs of
the horses and cattle, as well as the clothes of the culti-
vators; the other soil is a rich black mould or humus,
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 79
evidentiy the remains of old swamp or morass. This
latter is to be found chiefly in the valleys and level
tracts, while the other occupies more elevated ground.
The island ig evidently of coral formation, upheaved by
some convulsion of nature from the depths of the océan ;
and the red land, as it is called in contradistinction to the
black land, seems to consist of decomposed coral rock,
mixed with vegetable carbon and a metallic oxide, prob-
ably iron, which gives it the appearance referred to.
Cubans do not show preference for either soil, but in my
opinion, the black soil grows better sugar, the canes be-
ing in every way superior.
Although the soil of the island is wonderfully fertile,
producing, without apparent diminution, crop after crop
of sugar, without other manure than the cane trash left
on the ground, yet even on ‘the ever faithful island”
this exhausting process cannot and does not go on for
ever. ‘T'his is evidenced by the fact that the older plan-
tations are no longer what they were in the memory of
those still living; they are beginning to wear out; the
canes are becoming short, thin, and sparse; and in a few
years will no doubt cease to yield sugar at all, unless
the proper remedy of manure be applied. But as an evi-
dence of the wonderful fecundity of these estates, it may
be interesting to know that some of them are over one
hundred years old.
CULTIVATION
As regards the agricultural processes followed by the
Creole planters, they are of the simplest kind; for, al-
80 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
though a few of the most enterprising, as well as a few
planters of foreign birth, use the subsoil plow and other
labor-saving machines, yet the great bulk merely scratch
the soil with hoes, or small, rude surface-plows; giving as
a reason for going no deeper, that if the soil be turned
up, it will produce fever and cholera to destroy their
negroes.. So strong is this belief, that when a friend of
the writer, some years ago, imported subsoil plows from
the United States for use on his plantation, his neighbors
remonstrated, and threatened a law suit; he persisted,
however; subsoiled an old patch nearly worn out, planted
his seed, and was rewarded with the finest crop of cane
that had been seen in the district for years; no fever or
cholera resulted, and the prejudice was eradicated in that
part of the country at all events.
PLANTING—RATIOONING.
It is not necessary in the West India Islands, as in
Louisiana, to plant canes every year; there being no frost
there to kill the roots, they continue to throw up fresh
shoots for many years, which shoots are equally good, as
if sprung from canes planted each season. This habit is
called ratiooning, the canes so growing are called rattoons,
and the roots, in favorable soil, will continue to rattoon
every season for a long time. As an instance of this, the
writer on one occasion, in Cuba, was riding with a planter,
viewing his-estate; we came to a fine field of cane, each
cane with at least seven to eight feet of sap, and thick in
proportion. ‘The planter drew up his horse, and, point-
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 81
ing to the field, asked me what I thought of it. I exam-
ined it more critically, and although the joints were
pretty close, I came to the conclusion that it was cane of
the third or fourth year, and very good at that. I said
so to my friend, who commenced laughing, and told me
to guess its age, assuring me that it was more than three
years planted. I guessed seven, ten, fifteen, and even
twenty years, with no better success. It turned out that
this field had been planted by the father of my friend,
before he himself was born, and had yielded a good crop
every year since. My friend, at the time, was over
thirty years old.
In Louisiana, canes are planted generally in rows, six
feet apart between the rows. In Cuba, four feet is the
distance allowed between each row. A furrow, or series
of holes, is made, four or five inches deep, and two joints
of cane put in side by side, so that in case one joint fails
to germinate, the other may supply its place. The earth
is loosely drawn over the seed, and, with the exception
of occasional weeding till the plants are strong enough
to take care of themselves, little more is required either
for young plants or rattoons. Latterly the Louisiana
method of planting six feet apart has been introduced on
some estates with good resulis; and there can be little
doubt but that, if the same energy and intelligence pre-
vailed in Cuba as are to be found in Louisiana, this
wonderfully fertile island might be made to produce
sufficient sugar to supply the whole world, so rich and
recuperative is its soil, and so admirable its climate.
This is owing, no doubt, to its situation in the middle of
that ocean current of warm water called the Gulf Stream.
Here frost never comes, and the thermometer is seldom
82 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
known to descend lower than 65° Fahrenheit in the
open air.
BUILDINGS.
Situated as near as possible in the center of the planta-
tion, is found “the mill and boiling-house,” with their
appurtenances of negro-house, cattle-sheds, bagasse
house, &c., &. A central position for these is selected,
so as to be equally distant from all the cane fields, unless
some equally important objection against it should arise.
Such might be the absence of water, &c. This is first to
be looked for before putting up the buildings, which are
generally stone structures, with a large chimney, sixty to
ninety feet high, into which all the flues of the boiling-
house and engine lead. The chimney is the most im-
portant part of the whole establishment. If this should
be too small, or should not draw properly, it puts a stop
to everything. Steam cannot be got up in the boilers,
therefore the mill cannot work; the sugar trains only
partially boil, and general consternation prevails. Such
a calamity, however, seldom happens, unless a planter
- should have foolishly added an additional train of kettles
to an already overtaxed flue, or changed his machinery
from a cattle mill to asteam mill, without enlarging his
chimney, or building a separate one for his boilers. ‘The
remedy.in the first case is easy; in the second, an ad-
ditional chimney has to be run up with all speed. Acci-
dents like these are great annoyances to planters, being
seldom discovered until the last moment, and whenevery
day is valuable.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 83
PREPARING FOR CROP.
For a month or three weeks before the crop or grinding
season commences, the sugar-house presents an animated
scene. |
E C
ros © 3
H
fig. 1.
dome; D, the cap and collar; E, the condenser, to which
a cold water pipe is attached at K, while the condenser
~ discharges at L, connecting by another pipe with the air
pump, which is worked by water power or steam engine.
Fis the discharge valve, or gate; G, a barometer, to
show the extent of the vacuum, and a thermometer to
indicate the heat of the pan; H is an eye glass, another
being on the opposite side of the dome, for the purpose
of observing the ebullition of the “charge;” Tis a small
cup-faucet, or grease-cock, to introduce a little oil when
108 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
it is required to check the froth in the pan, serving also
to admit air when the sugar is ready to be discharged;
J is the proof-stick, by which a small quantity of sugar
may be withdrawn from the pan at pleasure, so that the
operator may know, from time to time, how the charge is
progressing.
The method of operating with the vacuum pan to best
advantage on a sugar estate, is to boil the sugar as I
have before advised in the old train, till it reaches a
density of 30° or 82° Beaumé, after which, introduce
and boil in vacuo to the crystallizing point. It
would be too tedious, as well as too expensive, to boil
down raw cane juice in this way. Rellieux, however,
by means of three closed pans, operates on the raw juice
in this way; with what economy I cannot say, never
having examined the process thoroughly. His train is
very costly, of course.
Unlike boiling in the open air, owing to its low tem-
perature, granulation, to a considerable extent, takes
place in the vacuum pan, if the operation be properly
conducted, and the vacuum well preserved, to do which,
hike everything else, requires practice in the operator.
The sugar, when discharged, instead of resembling thick
syrup, as it would if boiled in the open pan, resembles
thin mortar, being full of grain, and requiring but a
slight decrease of temperature to become solid.
THE FRENCH BASCULE PAN.
At figure 17, I give a representation of the old French
Bascule pan, which was superseded by Howard’s process.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 109
For the purpose of evaporating sorgho juice, on a limited
scale, I think it would do good service; the fire only
strikes the bottom, and the syrup, or sugar, is discharged
at a moment’s notice. I should recommend it to such
farmers as do not intend putting up a full train.
BAG FILTERS,
Where white pure sugar is wanted direct from the cane,
a refining process is required, similar to that employed in
refineries in the city. The cane juice, after defecation and
clarification, at a density of 12° or 13° B. or even as
high as 24° or 25° B., is run through bag filters, which are
made of a peculiar kind of cotton duck; they consist,
simply, of a large bag, usually a yard wide, and five or
six feet long. This is gathered together closely, and
drawn through a sheath of the same length, (like a cut
of leather hose pipe, only made of porous flax bagging,)
110 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
the open end of the cotton bag being all “ puckered up,”
is tied on to a brass tube, which, being fitted with a
screw, is screwed into a small shallow cast iron or
wooden tank, large enough to contain twenty-five to
fifty of these brass tubes; the tank, besides serving to
hang the filters, (which hang like so many sausages,)
serves to contain the syrup which is to pass through the
tubes into the bags, through which it percolates, and
emerges clear and bright, free from feculencies and ex-
traneous matters, and ready for the carbon filters.
BONE BLACK FILTERS.
These latter are large square or circular sheet iron
tanks, which should be at least five feet in diameter, and
six or eight feet deep. These have a false bottom per-
forated with holes; over this a blanket is laid, and the
tank filled up evenly with animal charcoal or bone black.
A small air-tube generally runs from beneath the false
bottom to the top. Over the top of the bone black the
bag-filtered liquor is permitted to flow, which soon filters
down through the false bottom; the cock of the filter is
then opened, and the first running kept apart, being
black and smutty from the small particles of charcoal
dust which it contains. This is thrown on again at the
top to be refiltered. The stream, however, soon runs
clear, and, according to the length of time the syrup is
left in contact with the bone black, does the decoloriza-
tion sought for take place. If the stream be kept small
the liquor may be drawn off colorless as water, and so
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 114
darker, in proportion to the speed with which it is run
off.
Filtering in this way is a very expensive process even
in large cities where labor is cheap, the bone black requir-
ing to be reburned as soon as it has filtered three times
its own weight of sugar. I would not, therefore, advise
the use of filters on a sugar estate or farm; the true
policy of which ought to be to make good Muscovado,
and leave refining to the cities, where all the facilities
exist for doing it to advantage, and with an economy
which the planter or farmer may seek in vain to imitate.
The syrup, after passing through the filters, is ready for
the vacuum pan.
In the preceding remarks on the various apparatus for,
and processes of, manufacturing sugar, I have not at-
tempted clothing my subject with any of the elegances
of language, but more to convey in as simple a manner
as possible the information required, in the hope that it
might assist in developing a new branch of industry in
the community, and so add to the wealth and prosperity
of the country at large.
GROUND PLAN FOR SUGAR ESTATE BUILDINGS.
The following cut represents the ground-plan of build-
ings for a sugar estate, with the engine house, boiling
house, cooling and purging house, arranged on a combi-
nation of the best features, gathered from various sugar
estates of Louisiana and Cuba:
As will be seen in the cut, the engine house, boiling
house, and cooling and purging house, are all built sepa-
112 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
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‘TLV.LSA UVYDNOS WOL SONIGTIIOG JO NVId GNOOUD
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. ite
rate, with a space between each; the gable walls of these
buildings ought to have no windows, and the doors com-
municating should be of iron, so that in case any one of
the buildings caught fire, the conflagration would be con-
fined to the place where it originated, and thus the valu-
able stock or machinery in the other buildings be saved.
CHEAP AND SIMPLE PROCESS FOR MAKING SUGAR OR SYRUP ON A
SMALL SCALE.
For the benefit of a large class whose facilities or incli-
nations have this year induced them only to plant a
small patch of Chinese Sugar Cane, by way of experi-
ment, yet who, nevertheless, are desirous of making a
trial of syrup or sugar making on their own account,
without waiting for the voluminous reports which will
be forthcoming at the end of the season, I subjoin the
following description of a process by which, at a trifling
expense, both syrup and sugar may be manufactured in
a small way for family use, by any farmer or householder
who has but a few canes growing in his garden, and
which may be applied to any operation on from five to
twenty-five gallons of juice.
- Of course, the first thing is to permit the sorgho to
fully ripen, as in that condition it makes the best syrup,
and will be free from the grassy flavor complained of in
previous experiments. This, as has been previously
said, 1s known by the seeds becoming black and hard.
When fully ripe, then, with acorn-cutter, a large carving
knife, or, what is better, a small hatchet, cut the canes off
close to the roots, strip off their leaves as far as the joints
114 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
extend, and chop off the rest of the stalk, saving the
seeds for future planting, if the cane proves to be of good
quality ; if not, give them to the chickens.
The next thing is to extract the juice from the stalks
or canes. ‘This must be done by pressing them between
rollers. If there is a cider mill on the premises, it will
be all-sufficient; pass them through it just as you would
crush apples, catching the juice in some clean vessel with
as few chips or dirt in it as possible.
A VERY CHEAP MILL.
If there be no cider mill in the neighborhood, you
must make a shift to construct one yourself, or get the
nearest carpenter to do so; nothing but wood being re-
quired for all you have to do. The way to go about it
is as follows: Choose some straight pieces of maple, or
any hard wood, twelve or fourteen inches across, and
saw one piece off thirty inches long, and the other forty-
eight inches. These are to make your two rollers, and
as nearly round as you can get the log, so much less
trouble will there be to fashion the work. Having got
your wood, take the blocks to the nearest carpenter, and
tell him to make you two journals on the ends of the
shortest piece, two and a half inches less in diameter than
the block will be when made perfectly round. If he has
a turning lathe he will be able to do it all in a couple of
hours. Let him make the axles or journals seven inches
long each. You have now one roller finished; the other
is like it, only after making a journal on one end, he
measures along the same length as the other roller, which
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 115
will be sixteen inches, and then cuts znito the block
another journal like the others, leaving beyond it
eighteen inches of sound wood to spare, of the same girth
or diameter as the roller part. Through this eighteen
inches that you have left over, cut a square hole or
socket, large enough to put a good stiff wooden lever in
or through it, so that when your rollers are set up on end
in a frame, like a windlass, you can walk round with the
lever, and so turn the mill. If there is a blacksmith in
the neighborhood, it would be well to get him to put
an iron hoop above and below the lever hole or socket,
to prevent the strain, which will be considerable, from
splitting the top. You have now the rollers complete ;
the next step is to make the frame that holds them
together. ‘l'ake two pieces of timber, nine feet long and
nine inches square, if you have them; if not, round,
barked timber will do; dig two holes in the ground six
feet deep and four feet apart wherever you wish your
mill to stand. Putthe posts into them, and fill the earth
in again, beating it down so as to hold these uprights as
stiff and immovable as possible. These are the supports
of your mill, and have to bear all the strain, so you must
see that they are strong and firm. Now, getaslab of
wood, six feet long, sixteen inches broad, and eight
inches thick, set your two rollers on it, standing upright,
and close together; mark the two holes for the lower
journals, and cut them out six inches deep. You must
now cut a couple of notches at the ends of the slab, fit
these notches between the two posts, and pin them tight.
Now you have the bed plate of your mill. Set the
rollers upright on it, with the journals in the holes you
116 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
have cut for them, and proceed to fit the upper frame
plate in the same way, except that it must be made in
two halves, owing to the socket part where the lever
goes preventing your slipping it over both journals, as
was done in the other case. For the upper frame plate,
taking two pieces, six feet long, nine inches broad, and
seven inches thick, fit them nicely together round the
journals, and fix as before. ‘To keep the two pieces from
spreading when the strain comes, either clamp them to-
gether with wooden clamps and wedges, or hold them
together with a dovetail tie. The mill is now complete;
put in the lever, and you are ready to crush the canes.
Cut a small gutter round the roller in the wood of the
bed plate, leading to a spout, to prevent the juice from
running all round and being lost. The above need not
cost a farmer ten dollars where wood is plenty, is suf-
ficiently strong, and will crush a hundred gallons of juice
per day, if required.
Of course, it will be understood that a mill like that
described above, is merely a make-shift for experiment-
ing with, for you could only get one half the juice by it,
that an iron one of the same construction would yield.
Another mill, of simple construction, is figured on the
following page, and is the one used by Colonel Peters in
his syrup making experiments of last season. Instead
of being made of wood, the rollers are cast iron.
ORUSHING OUT THE JUICE.
Having brought your canes to the mill, and adjusted
your lever, either let a man walk round with it, or
attach a horse or pony. Pass the canes through, two at
a
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 117
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a time, till you have suffic ent juice for a boiling, say
ten gallons or fifteen gallons; which should be crushed
out in half an hour. Now build a fire-place with stones,
or set up two forked poles, ant put another across, on
which sling your pot, which may be of sheet tin, but had
better be of cast iron. Let it hold, say ten gallons. Get
asmall tin skimmer at a tinsmith’s shop, and you are
prepared to commence boiling.
BOILING AND CLARIFYING.
Everything being ready, slack a teacup full of lime,
mix it to the consistency of cream, and set it by for use.
Light your fire, with charcoal if you have it, for it makes
118 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
no smoke, but if you have none, use dry kindling wood.
If possible, so arrange your rude fire-place as to let the
fire reach no more than half way up the sides of the
pot. Put five or six gallons of juice into the pot, set it
on the fire, and when it becomes milk warm, add one
large tablespoonful of the cream of lime, and mix it
thoroughly through the juice. Now take the whites of
two fresh eggs, beat them up with a teacupful of the
juice from the pot, and when thoroughly mixed, pour
back, and stir them well through the mass, bring it to
the boil as soon as possible, but the moment you see the
first signs of boiling, lift the pot off the fire; set it on the
ground, and let it remain quiet for fifteen or twenty
minutes. You will have perceived that after adding the
cream of lime and eggs, as the simmering went on, a
thick scum began to rise; this you must not disturb, but
allow to gather on the top, till you take the pot from the
fire as directed, and allow it to settle fifteen or twenty
minutes. At the end of this time, carefully remove the
scum, and you will find if you have carefully followed
these directions, that the juice has become clear and
bright, ready to boil down to the consistence you require,
whether of syrup or sugar. Having removed the scum,
empty the contents of your pot into some clean vessel,
which have convenient. Fill up your pot again with the
raw juice, and proceed as before. ‘This is the process of
clarifying or defecating, and is absolutely necessary, if
you do not wish to have a dark, dirty syrup, tasting of
cane stalks, and almost unfit for use.
After clarifying and skimming the second pot full, as
directed, set it back on the fire, and boil down as rapidly
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 119
as possible. As the quantity reduces by boiling, keep
adding fresh juice from the first clarification, so as not to
let the syrup get too low in the pot, or it will get burned. |
If any scum rises, remove it with your skimmer; and
by following these directions, you cannot fail to make
good syrup.
The preceding remarks suppose that you have only one
pot to operate with; but it is very much better to have
two, as it will save twenty minutes’ time, and fuel, with
each kettle of syrup you make; because, as I have shown,
you have to wait twenty minutes after taking the pot from
the fire, to allow the scum to rise and settle; so, if you
have not another pot full of fresh juice to put on, it is
so much time and fire wasted. With two pots in use,
you replace the first on the fire as soon as you take the
other off, and proceed to boil down.
SYRUP OF EXTRA QUALITY.
Should you wish to make a very extra syrup for table
use, get a flannel bag, of almost any shape, sufficient to
hold two or three gallons, and filter the juice through it
after you have skimmed it, then boil down as before.
HOW TO KNOW WHEN THE JUICE IS BOILED ENOUGH.
It is a matter of importance with those who have never
boiled syrup to know when the juice is boiled enough.
There being nothing like experiments, I would advise
such to procure a cup full of molasses, heat it, and taking
up a small quantity on a spoon, to watch how it runs
120 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
down, and when the drops come, how they elongate and
break in the middle, the upper half springing back with
a jerk, and the lower forming a ball and falling into the
cup again. Three cents in money, and the expenditure
of five minutes’ time in this way, will go farther in edu-
cating the eye to a good judgment, than an elaborate
series of directions.
I will give one other method, however, of knowing
when syrup is cooked enough. Dip your skimmer into
the boiling liquid, take it out and allow the syrup to run
off it; afew drops will remain on the edge, falling at in-
tervals. If these break with a long string between, which
at the break jerks back to the dipper again, and which
when taken between the finger and thumb feels lke
molasses, it is fair to suppose your syrup is sufficiently
boiled, and you may take it from the fire.
REDUCING TO SUGAR.
For making sugar, it will be necessary to boil this
same syrup down till the steam escapes from it in little
puffs, and when the skimmer is dipped into it, the fall-
ing drops break short and fall solid. These simple tests,
and perhaps a few failures, will enable one to make good
sugar. When enough has been boiled, pour it into a
wooden box or tub to cool slowly, standing it in a warm
place. Let the box be large enough to allow of the
sugar standing only 14 inches deep; boil another lot,
and pour over the top of the first, and a third over the
top of the second, mix them all together, and allow the
contents to cool. If, by the next morning, there should
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 121
be no signs of crystals, take a handful of raw sugar and
stir it in; in all probability it will start crystallization ;
but if it should not do so immediately, do not despair, for
it may stand for an entire fortnight, and then suddenly
strike into sugar.
The above simple and valuable directions have been
kindly furnished for this work by an experienced sugar
boiler, and will recommend themselves to those who de-
sire to experiment in sugar making on a limited scale.
To give my readers some idea of the amount of capital
requisite to carry on the operations of a large sugar plan-
tation in the State of Louisiana, I will, in concluding this
chapter, append the following extract from a valuable
article, written by my friend, Colonel 'l’. B. Thorpe, for
the November, (1853,) number of Harper’s Magazine:
REFINERY AND PLANTATION OF ST. JAMES.
“The tract of land connected with this estate, contains
nine thousand acres, one thousand five hundred of which
are under cultivation, and divided as follows: eight
hundred acres ifi cane; two hundred and ninety-four
acres in corn; one hundred and fifty acres cultivated by
the negroes for their own use; ten acres in olives; the
remainder of the fifteen hundred acres alluded to as un-
der cultivation, is taken up by potatoes, building lots,
pasturage, and gardens: remainder of the nine thousand
acres is in forest, from which is taken the fuel consumed
in manufacturing and refining, and the timber for the
casks used in packing the sugar for market.
“The buildings consist of the proprietor’s dwelling
6
122 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
and out-houses; twenty-four negro houses, with veran-
dahs in front, each cabin is forty feet square, and con-
tains four rooms, and has a garden and fowl house
attached; a hospital sixty-four feet square, containing
seven rooms, and an immense verandah; a nursery fifty
feet square, store-houses, overseer’s or manager’s house,
stables containing one hundred stalls, two wood houses,
each four hundred feet long by one hundred wide; one
sugar house five hundred and seventy feet long, by
seventy-five feet wide, thirty-four feet high between the
floor and ceiling; and a ‘double saw mill.’
“The machinery consists of steam saw mills and
pumping engine at the river for supplying the sugar
house with water, steam engine of eighty horse power,
and sugar mill for grinding cane; engines, vacuum pans,
and a complete apparatus for making and refining
twenty-five thousand pounds of sugar every twenty-four
hours direct from the cane juice, and doing this entirely
by steam.
“The stock upon the plantation consists of sixty-four
mules, twelve horses, sixteen oxen, one hundred and
forty-five sheep, eighty head of cows and ‘beeves,’ two
hundred and fifteen slaves—among which are one hun-
dred and seven field hands, two coopers, one blacksmith,
two engineers, four carpenters, twenty house servants,
four nurses, eleven old men and women that attend to
the stables, and sixty-four children under five years of age.
“The cash expenses of this estate are twenty thousand
dollars annually, paid to managers, sugar-makers, en-
gineers, and for food and clothing for the negroes, and
repairs of machinery and buildings. The weekly rations
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 128
of each negro are five and a half pounds of mess-pork,
best quality, with as much meal and potatoes as they
choose to take—in addition to which every one has his
pigs and his poultry; for all adults have not only the
chicken-yard, but also their garden, which they are
obliged to cultivate for their own benefit—the surplus
of vegetables and poultry being purchased by their
master, and paid for in gold and silver, and amounted,
in the year just past, to one thousand five hundred and
sixty dollars—this sum not including the money ob-
tained by sales of poultry, pigs, eggs, and fruits, to
chance customers. In addition still, the negroes annu-
ally receive two suits of clothes, two pairs of shoes, a
blanket, and hat.
“The value of the estate of St. James, and of its pro-
ductions for the year 1852, are as follows:
VALUE OF THE ESTATE.
Land, 9,000 acres, at $40, - : - $860,000
Buildings, - - - - - 100,000
Machinery, -_ - - - - - 60,000
Slaves, - : - : . - 170,000
Stock, - - . . . - 11,000
Total, - - $701,000
PRODUCTIONS OF THE ESTATE IN 1852,
Sugar, 1,300,000 lbs., at 6 cts., - - $78,000
Syrup, 60,000 gallons, at 86 cts. - 21,600
99,600
124 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Brought forward, - - $99,600
Corn, 9000 barrels for consumption on the es-
tate; wood: 8000 cords for the engine house.
Kistimated value j - - - - 14,400
Total products of the estate, - $114,000
“This plantation shows the average production of the
best class of sugar estates in Louisiana, the largest of
which, in 1852, yielded a revenue of one hundred and
fifty-two thousand and fifty dollars; but these estates
increase the value of their products by the aid of costly
machinery, not used on the ordinary plantations.”
This article being written four years ago, does not, of
course, give a true idea of the profits of the same estate
the present season ; for, whereas the running expenses of
the estate are about equal to the above, the prices of sugar
and syrup have greatly increased, and the gross receipts
must be by so much the same augmented.
THE NEW SUGAR MILL OF MESSRS. HEDGES, FREE, & CO.
Messrs. Hedges, Free, & Co., of Cincinnati and Phila-
delphia, who so kindly forwarded to me the pamphlets
received by their house from the Honorable John Y.
Mason, and which have proved so extremely valuable to
the elaboration of this work, have recently invented a
three roller vertical mill for expressing the juice of the
sorgho and imphee, and in reply to a request to furnish
cuts to illustrate this work, I received the following:
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 125
“ PHILADELPHIA, August 14th, 1857.
H. 8. Otcort,
DEAR S1r,—In reply to your inquiries as regards our
mills, boilers, &c., for the purpose of expressing and con-
centrating the juice of the Chinese and African Sugar
Canes, we take pleasure in saying that the cut we send
you represents our vertical three-roller horse-power mill,
that has met with very ready sale here, and at Cincin-
nati, Ohio. ‘They are so simple of construction that they
can be set up in a single day by two hands, and are pro-
vided with aconvenient arrangement for feeding, so as to
spread the cane over the whole length of the roller
equally, causing it to pass through in a direct horizontal
line—a desideratum never before attained, but very es-
sential to horse-power mills. As we construct our mills
with iron frame work entirely, we have not only strong
ones, but durable, and free from the bad effects that must
result where the juice comes in contact with woodwork.
We have mills differing in capacity, of the same general
construction, but greater length of roller. For steam-
power we furnish mills, with horizontal rollers, arranged
upon the approved plans of such mills.
“Our mills vary in prices from $100 to $500.
-“ We are prepared to furnish pans, clarifiers, filters,
ladles, skimmers, and all other apparatus and fixtures,
with diagrams and instructions complete.
‘Those west of the mountains order from us at Cin-
nati, Ohio ; those east, from this city. .
“HEDGES, FREE, & CO.,
“ Office, No. 633 Market Street, Philadelphia.”
126 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
“s, Hl iN MG .
VERTICAL THREE ROLLER SUGAR MILL, FOR PRESSING
CHINESE CANE.
SUGAR AND SUGAR MAKING. 127
For the more extensive operations of planters, Mr.
Hedges has constructed a more powerful mill, a repre-
sentation of which is given herewith.
HORIZONTAL THREE ROLLER
SUGAR MILL FOR PRESSING
CHINESE CANE.
ill TL a
he TMi ill pirat pu 7 eg
iil ALUN
oo : |!
Miz i WBN fy ;
i Kitab) Wy z AYE Tip Mi oe
NS ia Ta Al i TNs ee Yr oe
ES x il way
\i ills er
\ ae
WS f ; ss “7p,
MACHINE FOR STRIPPING THE SEED.
The following plan for a sced-stripping machine, offered.
by Mr. Hedges, is doubtless a close approximation to
what is needed:
_ “ For cleaning the seed, we would recommend the use
of a cylindrical hatchel, or hackel, (often used for broom
corn,) made of staves turned upon wooden heads, about
two feet diameter, and of a length to suit the amount to be
done and power to drive it. For teeth, use large wrought
spikes, set through the staves before putting on the
bands. These tecth may be about three inches apart,
and so distributed as to cover the whole surface in re-
128 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
volving; cast-iron flange, with stem for journal and
crank, bolted on the heads; finish cylinder—one four
feet long would, if turned by two hands, clean fifty to
seventy-five bushels perday. A plank breastwork should
be set up for the cleaners to rest their hands on while
erasping as much as convenient to hold, and the cylinder
rolling over from them will strip off rapidly all the sced.
This should be done before the boiling is commenced, so
that the seed can be mixed into the hot scum taken from
the clarifier and kettles, which combined, will fatten hogs
or cattle, beyond doubt, more rapidly than any other feed
known. The starch in the seed, added to the sugar in
the scum, must constitute capital food. Should there
prove to be a surplus, it may be preserved for a consider-
able time in cisterns well cemented and deep, where fer-
mentation will be slow; but the mass must be allowed to
get cool before being put in. Such cisterns will become
useful for storing the syrup, should it prove profitable as
an alcohol crop, as they would be cheap and safe reposi-
tories for it until the season and market demanded it,
when it could be raised by pump, and with one set of
casks, hauled away and emptied, returned, and refilled,
thereby saving much expense for casks. In this manner
I learn syrups are often kept in the large sugar districts
of the West Indies.”
CL Ae Pe Vie
na BUTE.
BEST METHODS OF MAKING IT—EXPERIENCE OF AMERICAN GROWERS.
WuHILst contending chemists have alternately sung
the praises of, and decried against, the sorgho as a sugar
producing plant, and opulent sugar refiners have trem-
bled at the threatened invasion of their accustomed mo-
nopolies, all have united in the opinion that it is indeed
a plant capable of affording an abundant and excellent
crop of syrup.
The American public received a most unexpected and
agreeable surprise in the month of October last, by the
publication of a circular from Colonel Richard Peters, of
Atlanta, Georgia, which gave the remarkable results he
had obtained in making syrup from the juice of the
sorgho. So complete, so triumphant was his success, and
so full was it of magnificent promise for the future, that
with one accord it was caught up from press to press and
scattered to every quarter of the Union. The papers of
Maine and Texas, of Maryland and Utah, discussed its
probable importance, and with but little delay Mr. Peters
became one of the most widely known men of the country.
The result was, that from that day to this, he is in the
receipt of a vast number of letters of inquiry, and in self-
defence was obliged to issue a pamphlet of directions for
[129]
130 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
the cultivation of the plant and manufacture of its syrup,
He has, besides this, he informs me, written a thousand
or more letters of reply. Samples of his sorgho syrup
were given to him by a number of persons in all sections
of the country; and amongst others, a keg of it was
kindly sent to myself.
The success of Mr. Peters being made known early in
the season, induced many farmers in the northern and
north-western states, who had small patches under culti-
vation, to endeavor to make a little syrup themselves;
and in no case, so far as I have seen reported in the
public papers, was the attempt unsuccessful. By per-
sonal correspondence, I know of syrup having been made
in thirteen states and territories. And I doubt not that
Mr. D. Jay Browne, and Colonel Peters, could add con-
siderably to the list.
As might have been expected, when we consider the
rude method employed in expressing the juice and
boiling it, the syrups in some cases were of questionable
excellence; but where more care was taken, the most
gratifying results were attained. Colonel Peters’ syrup
was boiled in a common iron ‘“cow-pot,” and from inex-
perience or carelessness of the hands employed in the
operation, it was not only suffered to become scorched,
but it was not properly neutralized with alkalies, and
kept from exposure to the air. Another reason for its
imperfect quality was, that the barrel from which the
specimen samples were taken, was made from frosted
canes. In fact, so imperfect was it compared to what it
might have been, that, judging from its quality, Mr.
Peters is now convinced, that if he but takes ordinary
SYRUP. 131
precautions with this season’s crop, he will be able to
make a syrup worth one dollar per gallon. The syrup
which we made at our own place, was of better color and
superior taste to the Georgia specimen; and I have seen
samples from other states, which much surpassed our
own. One, especially, made by Mr. Boylston, Editor of the
‘‘ Amherst Cabinet,” New Hampshire, was equal, if not
superior to Stewart’s syrup.
Doctor A. A. Hayes, of Boston, one of the Assayers to
the State of Massachusetts, told me, recently, that he was
convinced that excellent syrup could be made from the
sap in considerable quantities. And at a recent meeting
of the Farmers’ Club of the American Institute, Doctor
Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, the associate Assayer with
Dr. Hayes, said “the syrup of this new sugar plant, prop-
erly refined, and mixed with a small per centage of honey,
is equally delicious as honey from the hive.” This
gentleman informs me, that the specimens made by him
from the canes furnished by the General Government,
were completely colorless.
All these facts go to prove that the best results are
always obtained by careful management, and whilst the
climate and soil of various localities doubtless exercise
no inconsiderable influence, yet we may rest assured, that
either at the North or South an intelligent and experi-
enced operator and a suitable apparatus, will always
command greater profit and better quality of product,
than a shiftless experimenter.
182 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
THE SEED MAY BE GATHERED WHEN CROWN FOR A SYRUP CROP.
It has been sufficiently well proved that the ripening
of the seed of the sorgho does not interfere with the ex-
traction of the full richness of the saccharine matters in
the juice, and the farmer who is desirous of growing
enough of acrop to make the molasses for his family
use, will be furnished with a further inducement to do so
from the fact, that at the same time he can be cultivating
a prolific crop of seed for feeding to his poultry, and a
large amount of green forage, in the leaves, for his
horses and stock.
APPARATUS NECESSARY.
To persons who merely desire to make a few gallons
of syrup for their family use, a complete apparatus is not
of paramount importance; but if it is m contemplation
to duplicate such extensive practice as that of Mr. Peters,
it will be a matter of positive economy to procure a mill
and boilers that will extract the greatest possible amount
of sap from a given quantity of stalks. The juice last
expressed from the cane is the richest, and it is therefore
desirable to procure a mill of sufficient strength to ex-
stract nearly the whole sap. Small farmers and planters
can, of course, only approximate to this end, because of
the great grinding capacity and very large expense of
the more powerful mills; but I do not think that a farmer,
with a crop of only five or ten acres, should use a wooden
roller mill when he can procure one with iron rollers for
twice or thrice the money, The canes of the sorgho are
SYRUP. 133
hard, both because of being so very full of sap, and from
the large quantity of silex in their outer coating; and a
wooden roller mill could scarcely be depended upon to
last through a season without breaking, or, if it should,
the rollers would most probably be crushed and badly
indented by the hard canes. Another argument in favor
of iron rollers is, that the saccharine juice of the sorgho,
when taken up by the pores of wood, is exceedingly
likely to become sour, and thus injures the portions of
juice successively passing through the mill.
M. D’IVERNOIS’ SYRUP,
It is possible to make syrup from the sorgho without
the use of any mill or crushing apparatus whatever.
Thus, according to an article by M. d’Ivernois, trans-
lated from the Bulletin of the Imperial (French) Accli-
mation Society, by Hon. H. Meigs, Secretary of the
American Institute, all that is necessary is to select the
butts of mature stalks, cut them into pieces of about an
inch in length, and boil them in pure water in an iron
pot. When the water has become charged with the
sweet juices of the cane clippings, it should be strained off
and clarified in the usual way, with a little cream of lime,
whites of eggs, bullock’s blood, or skimmed milk. After
another boiling, to reduce it to proper consistency, it may
be put into stone jars or pots and tightly covered, like
ordinary preserves. This practice is at best an imperfect
one; for, not only is the saccharine matter in the stalks
boiled out, but, at the same time, all the other soluble,
G*
134 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
organic matters, such as wax and chlorophyl,* which
impart a disagreable taste to the syrup.
TRON ROLLERS BETTER THAN WOODEN ROLLERS.
An idea may be had of the imperfection of Colonel
Peters’ mill, when we reflect that whilst with it he ob-
tained but fifty per cent. of juice, Dr. Robert Battey, by
pressing and subsequent evaporation, got 84} per cent. of
sap and only 153 of woody fiber. It is found by numerous
experiments, that with proper machinery, seventy per
cent. should be obtained as an average product, and
when we consider that with only fifty per cent. Mr. Peters
actually worked up an average crop of 407 gallons of
syrup per acre, my reader will doubtless agree with me
that the difference on a single acre between the syrup
from thirty or forty and seventy per cent. of sap would
more than warrant the substitution of an iron rollerfor a
wooden roller mill.
AMOUNT OF SACCHARINE MATTERS VARY IN DIFFERENT CASES.
The different writers on the sorgho, who have experi-
mented with the sap, give various accounts of its richness.
* This chlorophyl (green coloring matter) injures the quality of the
juice expressed from the sorgho in the large processes of manufacture,
and therefore as, both in the West Indian Cane and the Chinese Sugar
Cane, the greater saccharine richness lies in the lower parts of the
stalk, these nearest the butt, it is advisable to cut off about two
and a half or three feet of stalk, when the seed heads are removed;
and all the leaves of stalks intended for sugar or syrup making should
be removed.
SYRUP. 135
Thus, asample grown near Washington gave Mr. Browne
fourteen per cent. of dry saccharine matter, but another
from the Arsenal, near Boston, yielded twenty-three per
cent. Vuilmorin’s proportions varied ten to sixteen per
cent. Dr. Turrel’s from ten to twenty. Mr. Wray’s
imphees sixteen per cent. of sugar. Mr. Avequin’s, in
Louisiana, was a little over ten. The densities were also
different. Dr. Battey, of Georgia, found his superior to Vil-
morin’s, the latter ranging from 1:050 to 1-075, whilst the
former’s uniformly stood at 1:085. Avequin’s was 1:064,
reaching almost to 9° Beaumé. Mr. Hardy’s, in Algiers,
stood at 82.°
If we accept even the lowest per centage shown above,
we still shall have a sacchariferous plant much superior to
the sugar beet, which in 1854, in France alone, employed
three hundred and thirty-two manufactories, producing
158,000,000 pounds of sugar, besides molasses. In this
same year (1854) there were consumed in the United
States over fourteen million gallons of molasses, which,
at thirty cents, cost us $4,200,000, and as we approach the
threshold of 1858, the price is doubled. Who, then, will
have the temerity to say that even if the sorgho had not
proved its capacity to furnish good, crystallized sugar,
that as a molasses-producing plant, it would not have
proved a source of vast wealth ?
SYRUP BOILING.
The process of reducing the sap to the consistency of
syrup, 1s so simple as scarcely to demand very protracted
instructions. ‘The farmer, having cut his canes as near
the ground as possible, stripped off the leaves and remoy-
136 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
ed the tufts, carts them to the mill as fast as he can con
veniently grind them. The juice runs through a tin
pipe into a tub, or box, painted on the inside, or a large
wooden reservoir, lined with tin, lead, or sheet copper,
either of which should at all times be kept scrupulously
clean. In this, those only using Mr. Wray’s patent can —
add the lime to clarify the juice in the cold state, and from
thence pump or bail it into the boiler, where, as the heat
rises to from 120° to 180° Fah., the dilute infusion of pow-
dered nutgallsis introduced. The syrup is then carried to
the boiling point, when the fire is at once checked, the
syrup stands for about fifteen or twenty minutes, to give
the scum a chance to rise and be skimmed off; the fire is
then urged again. The syrup then is kept boiling until
reduced to the proper consistency. This precise degree
is ascertained by the insertion of a little glass or metallic
instrument called a “syrup guage.” These may be had
of Messrs. Pike and Son of New York, opticians, or Mr.
Jno. W. Reid, or any other respectable sugar-apparatus
maker. My friend, Dr. Robert Battey, has prepared a
syrup guage, on which he has marked but one degree,
and it is thus rendered so extremely simple that any
farmer, or farmer’s laborer, can always tell the exact
moment of its arriving at the ‘proof point.” The draw-
back to it is that itis made of glass, and is thus liable, un-
less securely packed, to be broken in being transported,
and when in use, otherwise the idea is an excellent one.
For the benefit of such as do not wish to purchase
the right to use Mr. Wray’s patent, which all should,
I subjoin the directions given by Dr. Battey in Mr. Red-
mond’s pamphlet :
SYRUP. 137
BOILING DOWN.
“The fires should be so arranged that they may be
under good control, to be forced or withdrawn, as occasion
may require. When the juice is placed in the boiler, the
fire should be gradually increased to a simmering heat,
(not to active boiling,) and maintained at this tempera-
ture until a thick green scum rises to the surface, and
forms into puffs, seeming ready to crack. This scum,
when fully formed, should be removed clean from the
surface. The heat may now be raised to boiling, and
kept in an active state of ebullition until the bulk is re-
duced one half. The fire may be removed from one
kettle, and its contents be transferred to the other, when
the heat must be gradually moderated, as the syrup be-
comes more concentrated, to avoid the danger of scorch-
ing, which injures the color and flavor. Should more
dirty green scum rise to the surface after the first skim-
ming, it should likewise be removed.
“In regard to the precise degree of concentration to
which the syrup should be brought, it is exceedingly dif-
ficult to lay down any precise and simple rule which
shall meet every case. The plan for determining it, in use
on the sugar plantation, and which was adopted by Gover-
nor Hammond and Mr. Peters, is based upon the judg-
ment of the eye, in respect to the consistence of the syrup,
when poured from the ladle, and cooled as it drops from
its edge. This test is evidently very defective, since the
temperature of the atmosphere regulates the consistence
which the syrup must assume on cooling down—so that
a syrup boiled on a cold day will necessarily be thin and
we THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
watery as the weather moderates, and a syrup finished
at night will differ materially from that of the noon-day.
Although a good approximation, it is not exact enough
for the tyro—to secure a desirable uniformity in the con-
sistence and value of the product, or to obviate the
danger of fermentation and loss. ‘To remedy this uncer-
tainty, and secure a uniform result at all times, I have
constructed a simple instrument which determines readily,
and with certainty, the precise moment when the syrup
should be removed from the fire and transferred to the
barrels.
“Tt is a prevalent opinion that lime should always be
added to the juice, as soon as it is pressed out, and the
idea has been advanced that it could not be clarified
without hme. This is undoubtedly a mistake; the juice
alone, under my hands, clarifies itself more readily with-
out lime than with it. The latter answers no useful pur-
pose, so far as the syrup is concerned, save to neutralize
the free acid (phosphoric) which exists naturally in the
cane. Lime darkens the color, and, to my taste, detracts
from the peculiar grateful flavor of the syrup. Many
would, perhaps, object to the slight acidity. To such I
would say, use the lime, but use it sparingly. To pre-
pare it for use, take a half peck of lime, slake it in a bucket
of water, gradually added, stir up well, and strain the
milk through a cloth; let it settle for half a day, pour
off the water and dry the powder. Of the latter, you
may use from half a teaspoonful to two teaspoonful for
every five gallons juice, after the scum has been removed.”
SYRUP. - ie
NECESSITY FOR CLEANLINESS AND SYSTEM.
One requisite to ensure the production of good, clean
syrup, is that the greatest cleanliness should be observed
throughout every stage of the manufacture. The mill,
boilers, ladles, buckets, troughs, reservoir, and every piece
of apparatus, and each implement used in the syrup mak-
ing should be cleaned off as soon as they are no longer in
actual use. The canes should be stripped clean of all dry
or green leaves, and when convenient, any lumps of dirt or
other impurities be knocked off, before the canes are passed
through the mill. Only ripe and sound canes should be
used ; and the ground about the mill should be neatly
swept, and all rubbish removed. If the boiling is done
under a shed, or in a building, it should be as neatly
maintained, and all things should be as systematically
arranged as if it were a private parlor; for not only is
the introduction of impurities into the syrup prevented,
but the operator and his assistants can, at the desired
moment, at once lay hands upon any one of the instru-
ments needful at the various stages of the operation.
COLONEL PETERS’ RESULTS.
The yield of juice and of syrup obtained by Colonel
Peters, were as follows:
BEST EIGHTH OF AN ACRE.
Yield of juice from 8315 canes, : - 253 gallons.
Yield of syrup from 2538 gallons juice, - 58 gallons.
Rate of syrup per acre, - - - - 468 gallons.
140 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
POOREST EIGHTH OF AN ACRE.
Yield of juice from 2550 canes, - : 179 gallons.
Yield of syrup from 179 gallons juice, - 48% gallons.
Rate per acre, of syrup, . - . 346 gallons.
Weight of thirty select canes, - - - 494 pounds.
Weight of juice pressed out, ; - 25? pounds.
Weight of crushed cane, - - - - 28 pounds.
Loss in crushing, . - . . 2 pounds
Weight of crushed cane dried in sun, - 94 pounds.
Or, in other words, he made an average crop, jour hundred
and seven gallons of syrup; and even then obtained only
five sevenths of which he actually should, if he had been
in possession of perfect machinery.
With such results as these for consideration, how for-
tunate, nay, how providential must it seem, that just as
short crops, combination of capitalists, and increase of
consumers threaten us with an alarming advance in the
price of an article which is no longer a luxury, but a
necessary of life, a new sugar plant is given to us, of such
prolific resources as this Chinese Sugar Cane.
GH a Por Hh BV EB.
ALCOHOL.
ITS IMPORTANCE AS AN ARTICLE OF MANUFACTURE.
ALCOHOL, at the present day, occupies a very import-
ant place in the domestic economy of every family ; not,
it may be, in the form with which it comes to us from
the distillery, but disguised under the familiar cognomen
of many articles in daily consumption, it performs its
useful functions, unchallenged and unsuspected even by
the members of the Temperance Society.
In the materia medica we are indebted to it for chloro-
form and ether, and many of our most valuable vegetable
extracts and essences could not be obtained without it
In the arts we require its aid to dissolve the refractory
gums and resins; while in the shape of camphene, or
spirit gas, it yields, with other ingredients, a brilliant and
economic means of illuminating our dwelling-houses and
workshops.
It is true that alcohol, in its abuse as a beverage, is the
cause of much individual suffering from time to time;
iustances of this, however, are small compared with the
universal benefit which it affords; and seeing that it is
not in the light of a beverage exclusively that I mean to
treat of it, but also as an important item in our national
economy, I trust that even the most fastidious will hold
me blameless if, in the course of my remarks, I endeavor
(141)
142 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
to impart to others what little knowledge and experience
I may possess in regard to this most important manutfac-
ture.
TILE CEREALS NO LONGER NEED BE EMPLOYED TO MAKE ALCOHOL.
Hitherto molasses from the cane, and the cereals, corn,
barley, and rye, have furnished the bulk of the spirit so
extensively needed, but a new era seems about to dawn
upon us; the cereals may return to more legitimate chan-
nels of consumption, while a new plant, useful it would
seem, besides, for other purposes, supplies their place—
the discovery of which, and introduction to our country,
deserves to be classed among the most important events
of the age, while every endeavor ought to be used to
develop, rather than to retard, through a mistaken and
narrow-minded philanthropy, its application to the manu-
facture of spirit, which, I have shown, has now become
an article of large consumption among us.
WHAT IS ALCOHOL? HOW MADE?
Alcohol may be termed, practically, pure spiriz, the
result of vinous fermentation in certain bodies capable of
assuming this condition, from which it is obtained by dis-
tillation. A few of these bodies are wine, cider, beer,
and cane juice. When either of these liquids has under-
gone the vinous fermentation, and is subjected to vapor-
ization in a close vessel with a suitable condenser, alco-
hol is obtained as a result, more or less pure according to
the apparatus employed and the skill of the operator.
Rum, gin, brandy, and whiskey, are nothing but alco-
hol more or less dilute and flavored with the essential
ALCOHOL. 143
oils, which give them character. ‘hus rum is alcohol
flavored with the essential oil of the sugar cane; gin with
the oil of the juniper berry; brandy with the oil of the
grape; while whiskey owes its peculiarity to the well-
known fusil oil inherent in grain. By depriving either
of these liquors of the essential oils, coloring matters, and
volume of water they contain by means of rectification,
we obtain from them pure alcohol, or the well known
spirit of wine of the apothecaries’ shops.
To obtain absolute alcohol, or a spirit perfectly free from
water, is impossible by any of the distilling apparatus yet
invented, alcohol having too great an affinity for water,
to be separated entirely by mechanical means. Yet a
spirit sufficiently pure for all commercial purposes may
be produced by a variety of distillatory arrangements,
which it shall be my duty to refer to in the proper place.
Spirit containing only five per cent. of water may be manu-
factured by a good apparatus.
It being the purpose of this work to treat only of the
sorgho and its products, it is to the manufacture of sorgho
spirit only that I shall refer. But as in the case of the
manufacture of sugar from the same source, I considered
a description of a West Indian plantation and apparatus
best calculated to elucidate the subject, so, as regards the
manufacture of sorgho rum or spirit, a short detail of the
methods practiced in Cuba and the Windward Islands,
together with a few illustrations of improved apparatus,
will best serve the purpose, feeling assured—judging
from a sample of sorgho syrup received from Mr. Olcott
—that the products of the cane and sorgho are alike, and
required similar treatment to obtain like results.
144. THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Distillation being an operation which requires prepar-
ation in the fluid to be operated upon, before proceeding
to distil we must first understand how to prepare the
wash so as to obtain the largest amount of alcohol from
a given amount of sweet liquor. Where grain is the
substance employed to form the wort or wash, the mani-
pulations are complex and various, requiring long expe-
rience to understand thoroughly ; but when, as in the
present case, the fluid is already in a forward state of
preparation, by reason of its nature, and requiring to
undergo but one preparative operation previous to distil-
lation, the subject becomes simplified, and less difficult to
describe or comprehend.
FERMENTATION.
To produce the vinous or alcoholic fermentation in a
fluid, it is a first requisite that that fluid be sweet. This
sweetness may either be the result of chemical combi-
nation, brought about by art, as in the case of worts made
from grain, or it may be the natural condition of the
fluid, as in the case of the expressed juice of the sorgho.
When fermentation takes place, several phenomena not
to be mistaken make their appearance. ‘The juice seems
to boil, minute globules of carbonic acid gas come to the
surface, like the effervescence of champagne when viewed
through a glass, the temperature rises several degrees
above that of the atmosphere, an aromatic, rummy smell
is evolved, anda scum of yeast gathers on the top. To
the tongue, the previous sweet flavor has given place to
a slightly acid, pungent taste, and when the fermentation
ALCOHOL. 145
has been brought successfully to a close, the wash, which
before fermentation was commenced marked 8° to 10°
Beaumé, will now be found to mark little over 19
Beaumé, showing that nearly all the saccharine matter
has been changed into alcohol. If left twelve hours after
this, the acetic or vinegar fermentation commences, and
the alcohol gradually disappears, to the serious loss of
the distiller.
In the West Indies, the mixture of the materials, or
what is termed setting the wash, varies with the season.
When crop has just commenced, or just finished, it is
different from what itis in winter, as the rainy season is
called; besides, the scientific distiller varies his mixtures
to suit circumstances. ‘'he same proportions that are
suitable for one state of the atmosphere may be unsuit-
able for another, and it is the capacity to judge what is
best for the season that constitutes the valuable overseer
to the still house.
Owing to its lability to conflagration, the still house
is generally set apart, but in the vicinity of the boiling
house, so that too much labor may not accrue from
having to carry to it the scum of the kettles and molasses
for conversion into alcohol.
Hf the still be a small one, the planter usually contents
himself with a mere shed for a still house, and a few
rum puncheons, with asquare hole cut on the side where
the bung-hole has been, for fermenting vats. Butif rum
is intended to be one of the regular products of the estate,
the matter is gone into more carefully. A regular stone
still house is built, and proper fermenting tuns of oak or
white pine provided.
7
146 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
The still house is generally of two stories, each pretty
high; the second story consisting of a floor extending
up to the place where the still is set. Here it is cut
away, and the space is left clear from the ground to the
roof; this is to allow of the various appurtenances of the
still being elevated to the proper height, free from ob-
struction from joists or other interferences.
In extensive distilleries, however, such as that of the
Messrs. Belchers, in Matanzas, Cuba, the still house is of
several stories, and special arrangements are made to suit
circumstances. Here as many as thirty or forty large
fermenting tuns are employed, each capable of contain-
ing from two to three thousand gallons, so arranged that
no more of the mosta, or wash, shall mature each day
than is capable of being distilled within twenty-four hours.
Underneath the ground floor of the still house a mixing
tub ought to be placed, and grated over with a wooden
grating level with the floor, so that a molasses puncheon
may be rolled over it, the bung taken out, and its contents
let down through the bars, to save labor. This tub or
vat ought to contain a charge for one or more of the
fermenting vats employed. The mixture of the ingre-
dients for fermentation is made in it by agitating them
together by means of wooden rakes or oars. When
completed, the wash is pumped up into the fermenting
tubs, tuns, vats, or backs, as they are called irrespectively
according to local usage, where it undergoes the vinous
or alcoholic fermentation, and in turn is distilled into
rum or low wines. As many as twenty pipes of rum, of
one hundred and twenty gallons each, are made on some
large estates each day during crop.
ALCOHOL, . 147
So far the arrangements of West India still houses have
proved appropriate and applicable to the distillation of
the sorgho, but here the applicability ceases; for the
West Indian mode of setting the wash, and the time
allowed for fermentation there, is quite unsuited to the
variety of the cane family we are at present considering.
I will, therefore, now proceed to describe the process
best suited to the new plant, so as to obtain the best
results, taking my data from the various French reports
which have been made on the subject.
THE ALCOHOLIZATION OF THE SORGHO.
In France there have been quite a number of experi-
ments made on the conversion of the sweet juices of the
sorgho sucré into various liquors, such as rum, brandy,
wine, and beer. We find Vilmorin in 1854, Alphandéry
in 1855, Bourdais, Sicard, and Madinier in 1856, and
Detur in 1857, publishing reports on the subject, to
which I shall refer.
Alphandéry reports that he made very good brandy
by concentrating the juice of the sorgho slightly (12 B.?)
and putting it into a barrel, where it fermented a week,
then distilling it. The eau de vie, says he, thus
obtained, is incontestibly superior to that made from
wine (real brandy.) Also, that if some of the juice be
taken during fermentation, and bottled close, it makes a
very agreeable drink.
It is evident from the above that the circumstances
under which M. Alphandéry fermented his juice were
unfavorable, as the sorgho almost always, when properly
~
148 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
cared for, finishes fermentation in three days at most.
Nevertheless, his testimony is valuable as to the quality
of the product.
M. Madinier endorses the statement of M. Hardy,
that the juice of the sorgho contains naturally a fermen-
tative principle, sufficient for perfect alcoholization, but
thinks it best to throw in with the juice a few of the fresh
crushed canes, which greatly accelerates the attenuation.
He also advises very wide and shallow fermenting
cisterns, so as to expose as much surface to the air as
possible, and to set the cisterns at a temperature of
twenty or twenty-five degrees centigrade, equal to
seventy-seven Fahrenheit. M. Sicard, in his work,
merely collates the experiences of others, among which
are Beauregard, Fissiaux, and Raoul. One point, how-
ever, they all agree upon, that is, that the wash ought to
be kept in a room, the temperature of which is eighteen
degrees centigrade, or say sixty-four Fahrenheit.
M. F. Bourdais, however, a distiller in Algeria, at
length, in 1856, treats the matter in a thoroughly prac-
tical and scientific manner ; he gives us facts, not theories,
and proves most conclusively that the sorgho is perhaps
the best alcohol-producing plant yet discovered.
The operations on which he based his calculations and
deductions were all on a large scale, and therefore less
liable to error than the laboratory experiments of most
of his predecessors in this field. He planted five hectares,
say ten acres, with sorgho, and professes to give results
with scrupulous exactitude.
ALCOHOL. 149
COST TO PRODUCE A GALLON ALCOHOL FROM SORGHO, NINETY-FOUR
PER CENT. STRENGTH.
He found that to cultivate and prepare for
grinding one hectare, or say two acres, of
sorgho cost him 685 francs, or say - - $187 00
But of the green fodder stripped from the canes
he sold seventy-eight quintals, or say 17,000
Ibs., at three francs for 100 kilogrammes,
which is sixty cents per 220 lbs., - - 46 80
$90 20
Of prepared canes he obtained ready for the
mill, 520 quintals, or 114,920 Ibs., making
cost of production per quintal of 220 lbs.,
about 172 cents.
Kach quintal (220 Ibs.) yielded, on distillation,
5 litres 20 centolitres, or say 11 gallons, alco-
hol, at 94°, thus costing per litre of 12 pints
0 15 1, or about : : - . - 4 cents
To which add cost of crushing, maceration, fer-
mentation, yeast, distillation, and rectification, 10 cents
Cartage to town, - - - - - 14 cents
Cost per litre (12 pints) of alcohol, 94°, 154 cents
or say 71 cents per gallon, nearly.
DETAILS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF ALCOHOL FROM SAY FIVE HECTARES,
OR TEN ACRES, OF SORGHO, AS GIVEN BY BOURDAIS.
The canes, stripped of their leaves, are passed through
a cane mill, the juice runs into a tank capable of holding
150 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
forty hectolitres (eight hundred and eighty gallons), the
bagasse, or crushed canes, still retaining a considerable
quantity ofjuice, are steeped in hot water. Nine hundred
and fifty kilogrammes (two thousand six hundred Ibs.)
of these yield twenty hectolitres (four hundred and forty
gallons) of juice and water at 3° Beaumé, while the juice
first expressed stands 10° Beaumé.
On finding it was going to cost him too much to cut
and gather the grain from his sorgho, he determined not
to do so, but after choosing sufficient of the best seed for
next year, he left the grain attached to the stalks, and
crushed all together.
When he came to macerate with hot water, the heat
immediately acted upon the starch of the corn, and deter-
mined its transformation to sugar. He thus obtained,
by the same operation, both the saccharine of the grain
and the residue of the juice from the canes.
The juice, on leaving the steeping vats at 8° B., must be
enriched with pure juice till it marks 5° B. Eight hecto-
litres of this (one hundred and seventy-six gallons), at a
temperature of 30° centigrade (86° I.) are mixed in a fer-
menting vat with five litres (one and one eighth gallons)
brewers’ yeast ; this he calls the foot. In an hour it is ina
high state of fermentation, and he then fills up the vat with
twenty-two hectolitres (four hundred and eighty-four
gallons) also at 830° cent. (86° F.) ; in another hour the whole
is fermenting. He states the above from his own expe-
rience, and remarks that the fermentation proceeds
regularly, requires no attention, is never too rapid, and
always falls to zero on the areometer in twenty, or at
most twenty-four hours. It isthen ready for distillation,
ALCOHOL. 151
and will yield eignt litres (one and three fourths gallons)
alcohol for each hundred litres (twenty-two gallons) juice
at 10° B.
From these statements it would appear that, however
little success may attend.the attempt to produce crystal-
lized sugar from the sorgho, that there need be no diffi-
culty, at all events, in making good domestic rum,
alcohol, and other kindred products from its juice. The
following instructions for setting a vat are not, however,
to be taken as based upon the result of my own expe-
rience, for as yet I have only been enabled to experiment
upon a small quantity of syrup, which was over a year
old, badly defecated and burned, and withal considerably
acid. I have nevertheless carefully perused the reports
of the French operators, and extracted what I considered.
best from each, which was applicable to our climate and
national habits.
TO SET A VAT.
If the farmer be manufacturing syrup from his cane,
let him select the most perfectly ripened and healthy
canes for this purpose, setting aside those which have
only partially ripened, or have been frosted, for the
manufacture of rum or alcohol; by this means, and sav- —
ing all the scum of the pans for the same purpose, he
may thus be enabled to use all his product to advantage,
and waste nothing.
Supposing him to have determined on making rum
or alcohol only, let kim cut his canes, grind them, and
put his juice into a pan to evaporate slightly. Ifthe juice
152 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
>
marks 8° B. no evaporation need take place, but the pan
be used to raise the temperature of the liquid to say 80°
Fahrenheit, then discharge the contents of the pan or pans
into a vat suited to the quantity the farmer desires to
ferment, fill this vat to within a foot or nine inches of the
top, and, if you can getit, add by measure one gallon of
brewers’ yeast to every hundred gallons in the vat, first
take four or five gallons of the warm juice, mix the yeast
well up in it, and return it to the vat, agitating the whole
well together. In a couple of hours or so, if the weather
be propitious, the contents of the vat will seem alive or
boiling, owing to the bubbles of gas which are rising to
the surface, and an aromatic flavor will begin to arise.
The vat is now fermenting. The door of the room or
shed where the vat or vats are placed, must be kept shut
or open, asthe case may be, so as to keep the tempera-.
ture of the air about 65° or 70°. In winter a stove will
be necessary, for if the juice should get chilled, in all
probability it would stop fermentation, and give trouble.
Examine the vat from time to time, to see that all is
going on well; in twenty-four hours after the fermen-
tation has begun, take out sufficient to float Beaumé’s
saccharometer, and insert a thermometer in the vat
You will find, in all probability, that the wash has be-
come attenuated to a certain degree, and has risen in tem-
perature to 80° or 82°. That which yesterday marked
8° B. now perhaps marks only 5° or 4° B., in which
case you may be sure your vat is progressing as it ought
todo. Had you set your wash with common molasses,
instead of sorgho, it would not have attenuated one
degree in soshort a time, and the fermentation would
AT.COHOL. 153
only becommenced. ‘This is a peculiarity in the sorgho
greatly to its advantage in making alcohol.
Attenuation is the term applied to that action in sac-
charine fluid mixtures by which they gradually lose part
of their gravity in fermentation, and it attains perfection,
if the wash can be brought to the same specific gravity,
or less, than water itself. Before fermentation, the mix-
ture being much heavier than water, is shown by the
areometer. This change in density is owing to the sugar,
which is denser than water, changing into alcohol,
which is lighter; and as a mixture of alcohol with water
must, from the difference of gravity between the alcohol
and the water, render a given bulk of such mixture
lighter than the same bulk of pure water, it follows that
as the sugar in the wash changes into alcohol, the mass
changes its gravity, or attenuates.
In forty-eight hours, in warm weather, after the wash
commences to ferment, examine it by pushing the head
or scum on one side, if it has not already sunk to the
bottom, and if you find that the bubbles cease to rise,
and that the temperature has gone down to 70° or 75°, get
your still ready and distil the spirit as soon as possible.
If you leave it twelve hours after this, the vat will have
commenced the acetic fermentation, and be in process of
making vinegar at the expense of your alcohol.
Since commencing this article on alcohol, I have been
enabled to test, to my own satisfaction, the capability of
sorgho syrup, even in an advanced ‘state of acidity, for
making spirit.. The quantity experimented upon being
small was against the success of the operation, especially
in the fermentation. Yet, nevertheless, I obtaimed a
7*
154 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
very strong, well-flavored spirit, infinitely superior to
whiskey, and giving evidence that, had the syrup been
fresh, a sorgho brandy would have been made, which
would have compared favorably with any of the French
brandies in quality. Jam not aware that sorgho spirit
has been previously made in America; it may, there-
fore, prove interesting to give the details of my experi-
ment.
On Tuesday, the 17th of August, I secured from
Mr. H. 8. Olcott a little over a quart of sorgho syrup,
part of a small quantity sent to him by Mr. Peters,
of Georgia, the product of last year’s experiment; it was
extremely acid, having been imperfectly defecated and
clarified, burned in the boiling, and contained much
extraneous matter; its color was a dirty yellowish-brown,
and its density, by Beaumé’s saccharometer, was 39°.
I commenced operations upon it at 2 P. M.,on the
18th, by mixing in a pail five quarts of water, heated to
100° Fahrenheit, with one quart of the syrup; when the
mixture was effected, the temperature of the whole stood
90°. Iset the temperature thus high, owing to the small-
ness of the quantity, being doubtful as to the fermenta-
tion proceeding fast enough. I also made the density,
which was 9°, one or two degrees higher than would be
necessary in larger quantities. Having stirred the whole
thoroughly, I took out a small portion in a tumbler, into
which I put one quarter of a pint of fresh brewer’s yeast;
this I beat up with a spoon, and when well mixed I
poured it into the pail with the rest, and stirred the whole
together. The temperature of the room being 75°, I left
it undisturbed fora time. On examining it two hours
ALCOHOL. | 155
subsequently, I found that a lively fermentation had set
in, and that the temperature had fallen to 77°; at ten
P.M. it was in a high state of fermentation, the tempera-
ture had risen 2°, and the wash had attenuated 11
Beaumés* In twenty-four hours from the time of starting,
the temperature was 80° F., and the density 4° B. In
forty-two hours the temperature was 2° lower, the
density 2° B., and the fermentation less lively. In
forty-eight hours the temperature had fallen to 76° F.
Fermentation had almost ceased, and the wash marked
only $° Beaumé, which was a very good attenuation
under the circumstances.
I now distilled the whole in asmall copper still, a
model of Figure 3 of the distillery cuts. The foreshot, or
first runnings, I set aside; as also the faints, or last run-
nings, the balance—about 14 pints—was a pleasant aro-
matic spirit, resembling brandy, containing 55 per cent.
alcohol.
This distillation having been made in nearly a simple
still, over the naked fire, was the severest test the sorgho
syrup could be put to; for had there been any disagreea-
ble peculiarities inherent in it, they would have appeared
in the spirit run in this way. As was to be expected
by so imperfect a process of distillation as the simple still
and worm affords, a good deal of essential oil came over
with the spirit, as well as water. So I determined to re-
distil the 1} pints at a low heat, in order to see what
improvements could be effected. The small still I used
being intended for experiment, was so arranged as to
interpose, when required, a stratum of water between
the fire and the substance under distillation, which, by
156 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
this means, was preserved during the operation at a tem-
perature not exceeding 212°.
Having filled the bath of the still with water, and
urged the boiling, the spirit soon came over; as before,
I rejected the foreshot and faints, in this case returning
the foreshot to the still; the result was about 2 of a pint
of pure, well flavored spirit, of 724° strength.
Such results are encouraging and full of promise for
the future; for it must be remembered the stock in this
case was imperfectly cured to begin with ; had been kept
in a demijohn over a year fermenting, and had thus lost
part of its alcohol before it came into my hands. Yet,
nevertheless, I will venture to say, that the spirit pro-
duced from Mr. Peters’ first experiment in sorgho syrup,
will rank favorably with many samples of spirit in the
market.
Having got so far, the only question that remains, is
the important one of apparatus. Of course, the size must
be proportionate to the quantity of brandy, low wines or
alcohol, the planter intends to manufacture; but, as many
circumstances have got to be considered in arranging a
distillery, besides the mere size of the still, I would recom-
mend that the planter, before taking steps in the matter,
state his case to some competent person and obtain his
advice.
To farmers and others, who do not intend to make a
regular business of distilling, except at times when no
other occupation occurs, as in winter, | would recom-
mend to defecate and clarify their juice as directed in the
chapter on syrup and sugar, using, say two pans,
when the juice is well cleaned. Then boil down to 35°
ALCOHOL. 157
or 86° B., allow to cool, and barrel it up for winter
distillation; the juice treated in this way will keep for
years, if well defecated and kept in a cool place. The
form of still they ought to use, should be the simple still
and worm, either with or without a wash heater. The
following cuts represent the common still; Figure 1 in
elevation, Figure 2 in section:
LT
i
Ss
SSS
—SS
SS
&
a
— i
= aim
In the above cut, the brick work, body and goose neck
of the still are shown. JL, is the offshot of the worm;
M, the worm tub, full of cold water; it should have a
stream of water supplied to it, to prevent its getting too
hot; N, is the drip pipe of the worm. A section of this
form of still is shown in the following page, at Figure 2,
of which A is the body of the still, B the cap or capital,
158 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
Fig. 2
C the goose neck, leading to the condenser worm D. EH
is the discharge cock of the still, F the brick work, G the
opening of the flue into the furnace, H the same flue
going round the still, I the furnace bars, J the ash pit,
ALCOHOL. 159
and K the charging screw, where the stillis filled. This
still makes low wines.
By adding a wash heater to the above, a great saving
in time and fuel is effected, besides, a purer and stronger
spirit is obtained. This still is shown at Fig. 3, page 158,
of which A is the still, B the heater of the wash for the
160 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
next charge, and C the worm. To operate with this
still, fill the still through the heater, and then fill the
heater. When the charge in the still is run over, draw
off the spent wash, and fill up again from the heater.
When a pure spirit, standing 80° to 90°, is wanted, a
still like Fig. 4, on page 159, 1s required ; of which A is the
still, B the doubler, C the heater, D the check cylinder,
EK the worm.
Alcohol 95° may be obtained by a distillery similar to
F
=
Fig 5
In this A is the still, B the heater, with a pecw iar
arrangement inside, C the doubler, D the separator, E
the pump to feed the heater with wash, F the separator
pipes, G the drip pipe, H a thermometer to tell tempera-
ture of wash.
Where the quantity of sorgho planted is large, a very
ALCOHOL. 161
good rum or low wine still is shown at Fig. 6, together
with the general arrangement of the still house.
ime
th
ib!
|
2) l
isl
1 ee en
|
UL | >| By]
|
ul
A is the mixing tub, B the pump to raise the wash to
the gutter C, which supplies the fermenting vats D. His
the pipe leading from the vats to the heater shown at F,
Gis the still. This still may be so arranged as to run
very strong spirit.
162 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
By means of stills without columns or separators, low
wines only are made with advantage. ‘These are named
in contradiction to high wines above 65°.
The stills hitherto represented have been of the inter-
mittent kind, but in the cut on the opposite page a con-
tinuous brandy or alcohol distillery is shown. These stills
have a continuous stream of spent wash running out at
the bottom, while a corresponding stream of live wash
runs in at the top. They are rather expensive, and re-
quire some practice to operate.
The apparatus represented in the cut is on the princi-
ple of Durosne & Cail, of France, who got it up some
years ago for the purpose of distilling brandy from wine.
It is extensively used in France, and there are a few in
use in the United States. I refrain from any description
of this still, as it would be too tedious, and perhaps, after
all, prove incomprehensible in mere words. Suffice it to
say that it yields a pure spirit, and of any required proof
under 95°.
To planters and farmers, many of whom will doubtless
this year order distilleries and other apparatus for their
various operations on sugar, I would advise that they
stipulate beforehand with the manufacturer, for a full
written description of the proper mode of erecting and
working each apparatus, otherwise there will be trouble
and expense before it is finished.
One half of the failures in apparatus on sugar estates,
are owing in the first place, to the mechanic who under-
takes to make a machine or a distillery, while, in the
meantime, he is ignorant of the first principles of the pur-
pose to which such still or machine is to be applied; and
ALCOHOL.
164 TIE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
in the second place, it is due to the person giving the
order, who, probably, is little able or willing to enlighten
him: in either case dissatisfaction and loss is the result.
In the manufacture of alcohols from the sorgho for the
market, it is well for the farmer to know what is required,
as regards strength and quality, so as to be guided in
making an article which will find ready sale; and first
and foremost, doubtless, he would like to know what is
considered the market proof of spirits in America. By
proof is meant the strength in alcohol which ‘a liquor in-
dicates on the areometer, and is derived from the English
excisemen, who proved each cask as it eame from the dis-
tiller or importer, levying a heavy duty per gallon on
the amount of alcohol contained; when it passed the
officer’s hands, he gave a certificate of its strength, which
was proof to the customer, the bung being sealed up and
stamped.
In America usage has designated a certain per centage
of alcohol in liquors, as the standard strength on which
the price is to be calculated, and according as the per-
centages exceed or fall short of this, the spirit is above or
below proof. This standard is composed of one half
water and one half spirit, marking 50° on the guage or
areometer, at the temperature of 60° Fahrenheit.
Of course, if the farmer be far from his market, the
less water he transport in his casks the better, and he
ought in this case to make high wines or alcohol, now so
much used for camphene, &c., whilst the one who is under
less charges for transportation, may be guided by the
demand, whether it shall be low wines, high wines, alco-
hol, brandy, or rum that he produces from his juice—all
ALCOHOL. 165
these various liquors being merely the result of a little
difference in the mode of fermentation and distillation.
Before taking leave of the subject, I would state that
the sample of Mr. Peters’ syrup, referred to before, on
being offered in the market as rum, was appraised at 90
cents to $1 a gallon, Porto Rico rum being worth $1 10.
In the shape of brandy, $1 to $1 50 was offered, while in
the shape of 95°, alcohol, 65 cents was the price.
Now, the farmer, so soon as he knows what it costs
him to make a gallon of syrup, can tell at once what these
prices indicate in the shape of profit, by adding eight
cents per gallon, which is an over estimate of the cost of
conversion into spirit. Supposing him to obtain only
200 gallons, whereas he ought to get 400 gallons syrup
per acre, and it costs him fifteen cents per gallon to make
it, his brandy would stand him in twenty-three cents,
and be a purer and more wholesome article than most of
the trash palmed off upon us as French cognac.
Say, 200 gallons syrup, per acre, 15¢, $3000
Cost to ferment and distil, 8 «., ; 16 00
$46 00
Returns—200 gallons proof brandy, at $1, 200 00
Profit per acre, . $154 00
Besides fodder and seed, worth, say, : 50 00
Net profit, . ; . $204 00
On reading over the foregoing, I see that I have omitted
mention of the means by which, in the absence of yeast,
fermentation may be induced in the wash, or preserved
166 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
from year to year, as also the use to which the spent wash
may be applied where water is scarce, or at a distance.
As a general thing, well water, if good, is better than
river water for mixing with syrup, or other substances to
be fermented, inasmuch as it holds in solution less vege-
table matter. Spring water, which has lime in solution,
is very good, provided it does not contain other minerals
unsuitable for the purpose. ‘Trial in every case can
alone settle this authoritatively.
If the reports of the French chemists apply to the
sorgho of this country, there need be no anxiety as to
the success of its fermentation, possessing, as it does, a
strong tendency towards alcohol even unaided. In all
cases, however, I would add to the vat, as directed, one
quarter per cent. of fresh crushed canes as a ferment.
This, as in the case of grape stalks on wine, secures the
result. If a brewery be near, by all means get fresh
yeast from that.
After one vat or cask has been put into fermentation,
it will be easy to inoculate all the others from it, for on
the bottom will be found, on drawing off, a grayish sub-
stance, which will induce fermentation wherever it is
applied to saccharine solutions.
By many, the best flavors of the West India rums are
attributed to the mixture with the wash of a certain
amount of spent wash of previous distiliations; this is
done generally in the proportion of one third or fourth;
and in case this plan be found favorable to the sorgho, I
will give a few simple directions on this head, which
may be varied as experience dictates, when sorgho dis-
tillation has become an znstitutvon among us.
ALCOHOL. 167
The scum of the sugar train, during crop, is used to
mix in the vats, six gallons of scum being considered
equal to one gallon of syrup or molasses. ‘T'welve or
fifteen per cent. of saccharine matters, whether of scum
or syrup, is a common mixture, as, for instance, eighteen
gallons scum, ten gallons syrup, thirty-six gallons spent
wash, and thirty-nine gallons water, will do very well;
say thirteen per cent. of saccharine, or twelve gallons
syrup, may be used, so as to make fifteen per cent. sac-
charine. |
When the planter has got through with his distillation
for the year, he leaves his vats full of spent wash, in order
to prevent their leaking, as well also as to preserve the
fermenting principle which the wash acquires before next
season. After standing a short time, the wash throws to
the surface a thick crust or scum, which protects it from
the air, leaving the fluid underneath clear as sherry wine.
This method I would advise our farmers or planters to
adopt with their vats for sorgho, or wash them well
with lime, and fill with pure water, which, if followed
with the other suggestions I have given, will no doubt
place us in a better position as regards alcohols than any
other country in the world, inasmuch as, for the produc-
tion of alcohol at all events, the sorgho will become suf-
ficiently ripe throughout the Union, from Maine to Texas,
and thus give us unrivaled facilities, not only for sup-
plying our own markets, but those of the world, with this
useful solvent.
For the preceding remarks on alcohol, I am indebted
to the same gentleman who furnished the illustrations
and descriptions of sugar-making. He, as well as my-
168 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
self, takes great interest in the development of our new
plant, which, both as foddet, cereal, saccharine, spirit,
beer, and wine, seems destined to add so largely to our
wealth as a nation.
DESCRIPTION OF GROUND PLAN.
See p. 112.
In the cut representing the plan of a sugar house, A represents the
steam boilers outside of the building ; B the cane shed, built of brick
or stone, with wide archways; C, the mill-house, having two floors,
the mill on second floor ; D, the boiling-houses, with two trains, and a
small office which overlooks both the mill and boiling houses; E, the
cooling house ; and F the purgery. These two latter are ina separate
building connected by a railroad, both to avoid risk of fire and admit
of being kept locked up to prevent pilfering. G is the distillery, about
one hundred yards removed from the other buildings.
a shows the cane carrier ; } the mill and engine on the second floor,
supported on solid masonry ; c a shute which takes the place of the
bagasse carrier, and delivers the crushed canes into a mule cart under-
neath, outside; d are juice tanks, to receive juice from mill; e are
oblong defecators attached to the trains; f are the trains of pans; g
railroads to carry the syrup to the coolers, and the sugar from coolers
to purgery ; / are the coolers; 7 are the alley ways, level with furnace
mouths ; k, furnace mouths ; /, sugar hogsheads in purgery.
CH APDBRR wV ib be
VINEGAR.
Like all other saccharine juices, the sap of the sorgho,
raw, and the wines and cider made from it, will rapidly
pass into the acetous fermentation. As soon as the cut
end of the stalk is exposed to the atmosphere, the oxygen
attacks it, and the fermentation commences. I have
found the sap of stalks which had lain in stack on our
place for two months, to be as acid as the best vinegar,
and although I have had no personal experience in vine-
gar manufacture, I still should not be afraid to testify,
with no other facts corroborative, that the sorgho is a
vinegar-producing plant.
The Count Moigneric, says Dr. Turrel in the Imperial
Society’s Bulletin, of September, 1856, made vinegar by
watering the bagasse, already crushed, with fresh juice
of the sorgho. He obtained the acetous fermentation
and a perfect vinegar.
Mr. D. Jay Browne, in his done before the United
States Agricultural Society, said that he believed fifteen
hundred gallons of vinegar could be made per acre from
the sorgho. He had a specimen at his house in Washing-
ton, and pronounced it very good.
Lacoste says hkewise at page forty-four of his book,
“that the juice of the sugar sorgho submitted to the
acetous fermentation, will produce vinegar of excellent
quality; and it will also be profitable to submit to this
8 [169]
170 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE,
transformation the weaker alcohols arising from the final
distillations.”
The methods for the production of vinegar are so
simple, as to be familiar with almost every one of my
readers, and it will, consequently, be useless to occupy
much space in detailing them at length. I would simply
recommend that the practice usually employed in treating
the juice of apples, of the sugar maple, and the various
other saccharine fluids commonly employed for the manu-
facture of vinegar, be applied to the juices of the sorgho
and imphee as they come from the mill.
Sicard says that he has been in the custom of making
vinegar of the knots of the cane stalks, and of adding to
them such canes as were more or less spoiled. His pro-
cess is extremely simple, and is as follows:
‘ Bruise the pieces in the mill, put them in contact with
a sufficient quantity of water to cover them a few inches,
let them ferment then all alone until the liquid has ac-
quired the qualities desired for good vinegar. It is in-
dispensable to draw this vinegar off once or twice, with a
view to removing from it all foreign substances.” He
says that his vinegar is of a yellowish white color, and of
avery agreeable acidity. He has sometimes allowed the
knots to ferment before covering them with water, and in
this way has obtamed a vinegar very deeply colored.
For the purpose of making vinegar, he has likewise made
use of the cider or piquette of the sorgho, by adding to it
a slight quantity of tartaric acid. He says vinegar can
likewise be obtained by putting into a barrel the residue
of canes from which the juice has been extracted for the
manufacture either of sugar or alcohol. In this case he
VINEGAR. 17
left them without disturbance until they had acquired a
heat, of which he was made sensible by putting the hand
in the mess; he then added to it water, and let it ferment
as before mentioned.
STARCH OF THE SEED.
The consumption of starch in the United States, at all
times large, has recently increased, owing to causes,
among which may be enumerated the present universally
prevalent custom of our females wearing stiff skirts; and
much more starch is eaten than formerly, prepared in
various forms for the table, such as starch, farina, tapioca,
&e. The seed, deprived of its envelope, has been sub-
mitted to numerous experiments by Mr. Wray, Count
Beauregard, Dr. Sicard and others, chemists and amateurs,
and has been found to yield forty-five per cent. of pure
starch of very excellentquality. In fact, it only needs for a
person to cut in twoa fully matured seed, to be convinced
of the possibility of causing starch manufacturers to be
considerably interested in this plant, when the area under
cultivation shall be such as to bring down the prices of
the seed to a moderate rate. On taking off the outside
envelope of the seed, the one in which is contained a
very deep purple dye tint, we see adhering to the starchy
matter, another of a clear brown color, and somewhat
unctuous to the touch. So intimately is it a part of the
composition of the seed proper, that we anticipate an im-
possibility to separate it, except by the process applied to
barley, which is known as pearling, and in this way the
desired result will be easily attained. What will be a
172 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
cheap and expeditious method for removing the seed
hulls, we cannot at present say. If it can be shown that
the hulls, are valuable for the dyes which they will yield,
ingenuity at once will be stimulated to produce a hulling
machine; and if, as we think very probable, it shall be
found the starch of the seed can be readily made use of, then
again the same causes in operation will demand such a
machine. But, at present, Dr. Sicard has made his ex-
periments, as I have made my own with the hulls, by
rubbing the seeds together in such a manner as to cause
the hulls to separate of their own accord. Dr. Sicard
made an experiment with about 175 lbs. of the seed to
determine the proportions of coarse bran, middlings, and
fine flour, and obtained thirty-three pounds of each of the
two former, and about ninety-five pounds of the latter.
The coarse bran and middlings were both of a violet tint,
arising from the coloring matter impregnating the outer
lining of the hull. 'The fine flour itself offered to the eye
an appearance of violet shghtly bordering upon a rose
color, and even after having been passed through a silken
sieve, was still of a very pale rosecolor. To assure him-
self that the coloring matter which thus tinted the fine
flour was merely contained in the outside covering of the
seed, he undertook very minute experiments, completely
removing all the hull and the two successive interior
coatings before passing the seed through the mill, and
even made use of chemical agents to remove the color.
The result, itis true, was the production of a starch of
very brilliant whiteness, but his experiments proved to
my mind that the production of pure white starch will
be a matter of considerable difficulty. Itwill havea pale
VINEGAR. 173
rose color, which may, or may not, militate against its
general introduction. He made from the starch at diffe-
rent times bread and cakes, and in the different cases
varied success, some being palatable and others not.
The flour of the sorgho is of an inferior quality as com-
pared with wheat flour, and others of the finer grains,
and any mixture of that with wheat flour is a fraud upon
the stomach, giving a quantity of inferior aliment with
an accompaning bribe of a better one, as quack physicians
will make palatable to their patients nauseous pills by
surrounding them with a coating of sugar. In speaking,
however, of starch and the various forms of food to be
made from the Chinese Sugar Cane, I would not be
understood as embracing in the same category those
which the imphee may furnish, for, because of the absence
of any coloring matter from its hull, the peculiar plump-
ness of the seed, and the large quantity of starch found to
be present, I have reason to believe that it will indeed
be a valuable acquisition, and its culture be duly under-
taken with this simple object inview. Be that as it may,
we cannot alter the composition of the starch, nor of the
other components of the sugar. Whither tinted rose
color, or as white asthe driven snow, it still will have its
own unchanging proportions of carbon, oxygen, and hy-
drogen, which will represent a certain nutritive value, and
for animals it cannot but prove, as indeed experience has
already proved it to be, a very excellent fodder crop.
Madinier says, at page 10, that the seed contains 10 to
12 per cent. of nitrogenous matter—eluten—and about
60 per cent. of starch, which would make it, so far as the
proportions of nitrogen are concerned, to resemble our
174 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
common corn; but where he obtained his analysis, I am
not informed. He says that the real use of the sorgho
is not for bread-making, but it should be eaten on the
farm in the form of broth and soups for the laborer, or to
be boiled up in quantities and given for fattening pigs
and cattle.
DYE STUFFS.
Previous to the receipt of the pamphlets from Messrs,
Hedges, Free, & Co., which were sent to them by his
Excellency our Minister at Paris, I had seen in my re-
searches after the facts collated by French experimenters
and published in the French journals, occasional mention
of the experiments of Dr. Sicard of Marseilles, in pro-
curing from the hulls of the seed a tint for dyeing; but
not the slightest clue was given as to how the dye was
produced. Thinking it an interesting aspect of the
sorgho culture, I was anxious to duplicate, if possible,
his success; and to this end made various laboratory
experiments with alcohol, sulphuric ether, the various
acids, boiling the hulls in a retort with oxalic acid,
muriate of tin, alum, dilute acids, and plain water, and
obtained a number of tints of greater or less brilliancy.
Of these one was a deep purple, obtained by simply
boiling the hulls in pure water for about fifteen minutes ;
another, a beautiful rose colored fluid, was made by
boiling the hulls of another sample (received from
France) in very dilute sulphuric acid, a few drops of the
acid toa pint of water being sufficient. And, by dropping
into the pure water in which the hulls were being boiled
VINEGAR. 175
a few drops of nitric, muriatic, or acetic acids, as the case
might be, I obtained different shades of red. I inserted
inthe liquid strips of cotton and silk fabrics, and set
them with alum. In one case, I took a piece of white
ribbon, and by boiling it in the tinted solution for a few
moments, obtained a very deep color. In another case,
in a weaker solution, a ribbon was colored pink. Being
entirely unacquainted with the principles of dyeing, of
course my experiments were but imperfect, and were
useful only as proving the fact, that in the hulls was
actually contained a tint, which might be very easily
separated. They led me to believe that, under proper
circumstances, this dye could be extracted and made into
pigments with profit.
In Dr. Sicard’s “ Monograph of the Chinese Sugar
Cane,” he has introduced a specimen of twenty-one colors
obtained by him from the seed, and for which he has
received letters patent. They range through all tints,
from a light buff to a very deep purple, but do not, of
course, present the brilliancy which they do when repro-
duced on different fabrics. ‘In fact,” as he says himself
in his Postscript, ‘it would be difficult, by these speci-
mens, to give the slightest idea of the beauty of the tints
which may be obtained on silk, woollen, or cotton
stuff. The first substance has especially a very great
affinity for the coloring matters obtained from the plant
which has occupied our attention; but if silk has more
affinity for all the colors in general, there are others
which show remarkable beauty on woollen and cotton
stuffs. The coloring principles which we have obtained
are to the number of nine, entirely independent from
176 THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE.
each other, and capable of eiving colored salts perfectly
crystallized. By combining our coloring principles with
different chemical substances, there are obtained not only
a number of known colors, but, furthermore, tints on the
stuffs which are unknown in France, and like which we
have no specimens except the beautiful embroideries
which we receive from China. We sincerely hope that
the Government, comprehending all the importance of
these discoveries, shall publish the results obtained. It
is impossible that a plant which, in the hands of a single
individual, has given results so extraordinary and so
varied, should not be called to play a great part in all
branches of industry.”
I translate as follows the account of his curious
researches: ‘The hulls which envelope the seeds
of the sorgho are tinted with a reddish brown so
deeply that they appear black. The tint is due to a
complex coloring matter condensed in this part of the
seed, but which also exists in the radicular fibers at their
origin, and in the young suckers. This coloring matter
is insoluble in cold water. Boiling water dissolves it,
with a red violet color. Alcohol, even cold, takes itfrom
the hulls, and becomes colored with a deep red. Ether
dissolves it, and takes on a bright red tint. *\).36°20° -56°75. - 7-05 Prout.
Sugar of honey, . 36°36 56°58 17-06 do.
38°53 54:60 6°87 Saussure.
Sugar of manna, .<{ 38°70 54:50 6:80 Prout.
44:10 49:76 6:13 Henry and Plisson
Glycerin,. . . . 40°08 51:00 8-92 Chevreul.
38°82 53°83 724 Gay-Lussac and Thenard.
Sugar of milk, . .< 45:26 4834 6:38 Berzelius.
40°00 53:36 6°63 Prout.
* The first analysis published by Berzelius differs considerably from this, being
carbon, 442; oxygen, 4001; hydrogen, 6-78; Berthellot and Saussare obtained
results corresponding with those of Guy-Lussac.
CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE. psy
In comparing these numbers, it will be seen that cane sugar, which
can be considered as the prototype, may be represented chemically by
an atom of carbon and an atom of water ; and that the proportion of
water increases as the sugar becomes less capable of compact crystal-
lization. Accordingly, the sugar of grapes, of starch, of honey, &c.,
has less carbon and more water than cane sugar. The results of the
different analyses are also the more discordant as the sugar is less
regularly crystallizable and associated with a greater number of
foreign substances, as in the sugar of manna and the sugar of milk.
And the analysis which exhibits the greatest proportion of hydrogen
is precisely that of the sweet matter, (glycerin,) which is procured
from the most highly hydrogenated of all these substances, namely,
oil and fatty matters.
Although the principles of sugar making are simple, the practice,
as before stated, is beset with difficulties and attended with loss and
injury of material, arising from the extreme susceptibility to change
of the cane juice itself. The latter, as it runs from the crushing mill,
is nearly colorless ; but a very brief exposure to the atmosphere, in
warm weather, hastens decomposition, which, unless checked, rapidly
advances, and in a short time converts this sweet-tasted, bland liquid
into a spiritous or acescent product, turbid from insoluble suspended
matter, and wholly unfit for the purpose to which it was intended to
be applied. To guard against this evil, the operator always endeavors
to conduct the first part of the process, at least, as expeditiously as
possible. But instead of heating the freshly expressed juice of the
sorgho, in order to insure its crystallization, in a large vessel to blood-
heat, or upward, and adding a little slaked lime, as is usually the
case, to neutralize the free acids, which are always present in the juice
of the sugar cane, the lime should be applied while the liquid is cold,
conformably to the method discovered by Leonard Wray, of London,
and recently patented by him in Europe and elsewhere. The lime is
employed for the purpose of saturating these acids, which should be
done as quickly as possible, in order to restore the gluten contained in
the liquid to its original insolubility, so that it may immediately coag-
ulate, and, in this manner, envelope in its volume all those substances
consisting of green and gummy matters. Let it be borne in mind, in
238 APPENDIX.
connection with this process, that the lime will absorb a greater
quantity of free acid, aud this more rapidly, in a cold than in a warm
state, in a similar manner as cold water will dissolve more lime than
warm. After this proceeding, the liquid is strained through cloths,
and then clarified with nut-galls, or other tannic substances, aided
by the action of heat, when it is again strained or filtered, and then
boiled down to a proper consistency for granulation, conformably to
the method patented by Mr. Wray.
In a letter from M. Louis Vilmorin, of Paris, bearing date of April
20, 1857, he says: “ The crystallization of the sugar of the sorgho, it
seems, should be easily obtained in all cases where the cane can be
sufficiently ripened ; and, as the proportion of the sugar is an unfailing
index of ripeness, it follows that we could always be sure of obtaining
a good crystallization of juices the density of which exceeds 1-075,
whilst weaker ones could not yield satisfactory results after concen-
tration.
“T attribute this peculiarity to the fact that the sugar is preceded in
the juice by a gummy principle, which seems to be transformed, at a
later date, for its proportion diminishes in exact correspondence with
the increase of the saccharine matter.
“The uncerystallizable sugar, or glucose, undergoes the same
change ; that is to say, it is more abundant before than after the
complete maturity ; but its action seems less unfavorable to the pro-
gress of crystallization. The gummy principle obstructs it in two
ways ; for, besides being a serious obstacle to the commencement of
crystallization, it afterward renders it almost a matter of impossibility
to purge the crystals,if obtained.
“ However, as I observed, this difficulty only presents itself in the
employment of unripe canes; for, as soon as the juices attain the
density of 1-080 and more, they contain but little else than erystalli-
zable sugar, and their treatment presents no difficulty.
“The lime employed, even to a slight excess, is not so detrimental,
it seems to me, in practice, as theory would perhaps indicate. Per-
haps a slight fermentation, which is inevitable, may disengage enough
carbonic acid to destroy the uncrystallizable compound formed by its
union with the sugar. The fact is, that the best crystallizations
CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE JUICE. 239
obtained have occurred in those experiments in which I feared to
have used too much lime.”
Subjoined is an extract of another letter from M. Madinier, of
Paris, on the same subject :
“ Up to the present time, the making of sugar from the sorgho has
received but little attention, in France, owing to the present state of
commerce, which makes it much more advantageous to convert the
cane into alcohol than into sugar. Aside from this fact, it is certain,
that from this plant crystallizable sugar can be extracted similar in
every respect to that made from the cane of the tropics. Of this, I
entertain the highest conviction, which is supported by authentic,
though not very numerous, facts. * * * * * The stalks of the
sorgho contain crystallizable sugar, without furnishing a greater
quantity of molasses than the cane. An experiment made at Ver-
riéres, with Clerget’s apparatus, showed the juice to contain 16 per
cent. of sugar, of which there are only 103 per cent. crystallizable,
and 5% per cent. uncrystallizable ; yet we can by no means depend
upon aresult gained from plants grown in the Department of the
Seine and Oise, in a climate altogether beyond the range adapted to
the sorgho.”
Thus it will be seen that the making of sugar has been much aided
by science. It was a philosophical chemist who first introduced the
vacuum-pan method into use, by which such facility was given, with a
remarkable reduction of the price of the article, to the refining of
sugar. It has been by the application of chemical science in France
that the sugar from the beet root, the produce of that country, has
been able to compete with cane sugar, affording a remarkable instance
of the conquest, and it may be said, the triumph, effected by science,
as the proportion of saccharine juice of that root is only about half
as much as that of the cane, and is mixed with substances more diffi-
cult of separation, and more injurious in their reaction. Let the
same skill, directed by science, be applied to the making of sugar
from the Sorgho sucré, and we may reasonably expect the happiest-
results.
240 APPENDIX.
CHEMICAL RESEARCHES ON THE SORGHO SUCRE.
BY ©. T. JACKSON, M.D., OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS.
On the 29th of October, 1856, I received from the Patent Office a
bottle of expressed juice of the Sorghum saccharatum, procured from
plants raised upon the government grounds in Washington. This
juice, after being strained through fine linen, had a specific gravity of
1-062 ; and, after boiling and the separation of an albuminous scum,
1-055. Three and a half fluid ounces of the strained juice, evaporated
at 212° F., until it became a dense straw-yellow syrup, too thick to
run, when cold gave 217 grains of saccharine matter. That portion
of the juice which had been freed from albuminous matter and filtered
through paper, gave, on evaporation of a fluid ounce, 78 grains of
thick yellow syrup, which, being dissolved in absolute alcohol, left 9
per cent. of mucilaginous substances containing starch. ‘The alcohol
took up 69 grains of saccharine matter. This is equal to 14°36 per
cent. on the juice.
Other portions of the juice were operated upon by lime water and
bone black, and filtered and evaporated to syrup. A small proportion
of crystallized sugar was obtained from the bottom of the vessel, in
which the syrup had stood for some days. A part of the juice,
diluted with warm water, with the addition of a little yeast, fermented
and produced spirit, which, on being separated by distillation, was
found to be an agreeably flavored alcohol, having, as M. Vilmorin has
stated, a slight noyau taste. Good judges declared that it would
make excellent brandy spirit. According to the experiments of Vil-
morin, the amount of absolute alcohol obtained from the juice is a
fraction over 6 per cent.
On the 3d of November I also received from the Patent Office two
parcels of the sorghum plant, in different stages of ripeness. That
with quite ripe seeds was by far the sweetest; while the green one,
which was just in flower, contained but very little saccharine matter.
One thousand grains, taken from the middle of the ripe stalk, when
peeled, gave 670 grains of pith, from which the juice was separated
CHEMICAL RESEARCHES. 241
The latter, on being evaporated to a thick syrup, gave 90 grains of
saccharine matter, or 9 per cent. on the weight of the stalk. Another
sample gave from 23 ounces of the pith, 217 grains of thick syrup, or
12 per cent. Thus we have from 180 to 240 pounds of saccharine
matter, in the form of a dense syrup, to a ton (2,000 pounds) of the
stalks. By means of a screw press, I separated the juice from some
of the canes, which had a specific gravity of 1:0987.
Being desirous of ascertaining the saccharine value of the sorghum
raised in Massachusetts, I obtained from Capt. R. A. Wainwright, of
the United States Arsenal, at Watertown, in this state, five plants,
which had been cultivated on the arsenal grounds. Sixteen ounces of
one of these plants, nearly ripe, gave 94 ounces of clear pith, which I
exhausted of its saccharine matter by means of boiling, distilled water,
and pressure. This liquid, on evaporation, gave 742 grains of thick
syrup, too dense to pour from the vessel when cold. The yield of
saccharine matter in this case was 10? per cent.
Another and riper sample, from the same parcel, yielded from 1,000
grains of the stalk 640 grains of pith, and 146 grains of thick syrup,
or 143 per cent. of saccharine matter. On expression, the plant
yielded a clear, sweet juice, having a specific gravity of 1-0975.
Analysis of the Bagasse——One hundred grains, dried at 212° F. and
burned in a platinum vessel, left 12 per cent. of gray ashes. Having
thus determined the proportion of inorganic matter in the bagasse, I
burned a larger quantity for further experiment. It was found that
the ash consisted of the following ingredients :
Per cent.
Silicic acid - : - . 3 4 EAD
SONNE CUD nw a YL AS
Sulphuric acid - - - 2 i - 28-70
Chlorine - : e : . z 7 bs 3-70
Potash - = = “ e * Mi 3 5 Sag
Soda. - - - - = = “3 R £ 9-60
Lime - - - ~ - s = 2 ~ Et-80
Magnesia - - - x S 3 _ 9-80
Traces of oxyd of iron, a little carbonic acid, and loss 0°68
100-00
11
242, APPENDIX.
This analysis shows that gypsum (sulphate of lime) will operate
favorably as a fertilizer on this plant; and it is evident that the
bagasse ashes would serve as a good manure for the crop.
THE CRYSTALLIZED SUGAR QUESTION.
My readers will perhaps remember, that in the chapter on Soils and
Manures, the proposition was distinctly laid down, that in cases where
the sorgho had been grown on soils containing large proportions of sol-
uble saline matters, or when manures of a nitrogenized nature had
been applied to the plant, the juices were rendered averse to crystal-
lization, but were not deteriorated, so far as the production of alcohol
or syrup is concerned. I mention these facts in this connection, as,
perhaps, affording some light upon the vexed question as to whether or
no the sorgho juice will give perfect crystals of cane sugar, and as
prefatory to the conflicting opinions of Doctors Hayes and Jackson,
both gentlemen of the highest acknowledged ability as chemists, and
one of them, at least, practically acquainted with sugar making.
I have the highest respect for the professional position of Dr. Hayes,
and esteem him as a private gentleman, but cannot print his very able
paper without expressing the hope that future experience may prove
that the canes and syrup upon which his experiments were undertaken
were raised under the unfavorable application of manures containing
much nitrogen, or on soils of the character above indicated ; and, from
personal communication with that gentleman, I know he would rejoice
as much as any one if success shall prove my supposition to have been
a just one.
From the “ New Orleans Bee” we have most unequivocal testimony
as to the actual presentation to the editors of crystallized sugar made
by Prof. Avequin; and as corroborative of that fact, I append the
following extract from the official report of the meeting of the Comice
Agricole of Toulon, held December 5th, 1854:
“The honorable President presented to the Assembly a detailed re-
port upon the Culture of the Sorgho, its Uses and Products. This
report, of a very high degree of interest, will be inserted in the follow-
CRYSTALLIZED SORGHO SUGAR. 243
ing number of the Report of the Assembly. M. De Breaurscarp (the
President) PRESENTED TO THE AssEMBLY Rum aNnp ORysTALLIZED
SUGAR EXTRACTED FROM THE SoRGHO. A. PELLICOT.”
The report of the Count made its appearance according to the above
announcement, and the Count speaks as follows :
“T have likewise been able, gentlemen, (thanks to the obliging and
intelligent assistance of M. Verignon, a chemist at Hyéres,) to make
attempts to obtain the crystallization of the syrup from the juice of
the holcus saccharatus.. ... After practical boiling, losing the
hope of seeing in form the crystals, we left upon a shelf the con-
centrated syrup without disturbance for a while, and we have been
most agreeably surprised to find, on again looking at it, that the entire
inside surface of the vessel containing it was studded with very beautiful
crystals, which I have the pleasure of exhibiting before you to-day.”
At the sitting of May Ist, 1855, was presented a paper, entitled,
“Documents Nouveaux sur la Culture du Sorgho a Sucré,” in which
occurs the following :
“We have recently learned from a manufacturer at Lyons, M.
Doney, that he has, the past year, obtained from a small quantity of
sorgho stalks, treated by him, beautiful cubic crystals of sugar. His
process is as follows: The clippings of sorgho stalks are submitted to
maceration ; then they are pressed, and the juice obtained is reduced
by boiling. ‘Treated by lime which is purified of salts, defecated by
means of ox blood, clarified with animal black, the juice evaporated
gave BEAUTIFUL CRYSTALS OF CANE SUGAR.”
Testimony stronger than this could not be made. In his official re-
port to the Minister of War, Dr. Turrel distinctly states, that experi-
ments made by a Commission of the Imperial Acclimation Society had
“resulted in their obtaining magnificent cubic crystals of sugar.”
Thus supported, then, my readers will, doubtless, unite with me in
the previously expressed wish, that indeed by the lst of January we
may be able to offer a complete refutation to the opinion advanced by
- Dr. Hayes. It must be remembered that, in making beet-sugar, the
manufacturer is sometimes obliged to wait as long as a fortnight before
the syrup will strike into crystals.
Doubtful as has been the question as to the crystallization of the
244. APPENDIX.
sorgho juice, the paper of Mr. Wray entirely sets at rest any doubt as
to the possibility of sugar making with the imphee juice; and if the
former be found wanting in this season’s trials, the effect will be, to
augment the demand for the imphee, and largely extend its culture.
ON THE SACCHARINE MATTER FOUND IN THE
VARIETY OF SORGHUM, CULTIVATED IN NEW
ENGLAND AS A SOURCE OF SUGAR.
By AUGUSTUS A. HAYES, M.D, Assayer to the State of Massachusetts.
Ear ty after the ripening of this plant the stalks were sent to me for
a chemical examination of the kind of sugar produced from the juice.
Samples of the syrup, from several places in the northern states, and
one sample made by Colonel Peters, of Georgia, were also given to me.
The research was deemed important in its economical bearings, and
interesting in a chemical view. The course was, therefore, made to
embrace a knowledge of the sugar as it naturally existed in the stalk,
in its appropriate cells, and of the sugar extracted by the refined
methods of modern chemistry.
Sugar in the Cells—The horizontal and angular sections of the
pith of various samples of the sorghum plant, produced from the
black, or French variety of seed, were found, when viewed by_the
microscope, to show perfectly-formed cells, with every character of
maturation.
In these cells, isolated from other principles, a fluid sugar could be
seen and experimented on easily.
When withdrawn from the cells it did not crystallize, even after long
exposure. Recent pith, carefully dried by absorbents, did not exhibit
pe crystallized sugar. Slips of the common sugar cane, under the
ame exposure, showed crystals of sugar formed, and, as it dried, bril-
ie colorless, and beautiful groups formed in the cells, without the
apparent presence of any other matter. A minute drop of the fluid in
the cells of the common sugar cane, soon after exposure, became a
CRYSTALLIZED SORGHO SUGAR, 245
mass of crystals; and no two secretions are more unlike than the fluid
sugar of the sorghum and the crystallizable juice of the common sugar
cane. ‘The fluid sugar of the sorghum in the cells became brown when
treated with potash. It did not become dark in sulphuric acid. It
readily dissolved in alcohol, and left, by evaporation, a syrup; no
crystals. A minute drop, when warmed, instantly reduced the tartrate
of copper, dissolved in potash, to protoxide of copper. These are the
characters of glucose; and so far as observation and tests can serve
us, we must conclude that the saccharine matter in the cells of the
sorghum plant is glucose, in the state of a syrup, without the presence
of true sugar.
At this point of the examination I supplied Prof. John Bacon, of
the Medical College, with samples of the stalk, who, with his usual
accuracy and skill, after a minute examination, failed in detecting any
cane sugar, and pronounced the matter to be glucose, as secreted by
the plant.
Sugar Extracted—The clean pith was bruised in contact with
pure animal charcoal, and the saccharine part extracted by cold
and pure alcohol, which was evaporated at the ordinary temperature
of the air, and left a fluid, colorless, sweet glucose. This could be
dried over sulphuric acid to a paste; but it attracted moisture from
the air, and returned to the state of a syrup on exposure. It contained
a trace of a lime salt, but was neutra!. The animal charcoal was then
boiled in successive portions of alcohol, and the solutions obtained
afforded only the syrup of glucose; no crystallized sugar.
A quantity of the pith was crushed in mixture with some pure car-
bonate of lime, animal charcoal, and water, at the common temper-
ature of the air. The colorless, neutral syrup, was rapidly withdrawn,
and one portion evaporated, by the heat of steam, to a thick syrup,
and closed from the air. It remained a syrup after fourteen days, and
when spread thin on plates of glass, gave a few microscopical crystals
of saline matter united to glucose. Another portion of the colorless,
pure juice, was evaporated in a current of warm air; it dried toa
thick varnish, without a trace of any crystals being seen. 'These are
the characters of glucose, physically.
An analysis of a portion of the pure juice was made by reducing
it to a nearly dry mass and treating it with alcohol saturated with
246 APPENDIX.
cane sugar, in which it dissolved, excepting a mere trace of a lime
salt; proving that no true sugar exists in the juice, chemically.
Samples of Sorghum Sugar.—These, as specimens of the product
obtained by boiling to the state of a dense syrup the expressed
juice of the plant, were all impure; differing much, in this respect.
They exhibited, after repose, some brilliant grains as a deposit. After
separation, these grains proved to be in large part, transparent, mi-
nute fragments of pith cells mixed with some crystals, which, contain-
ing chlorine, sulphuric acid, lime, and alkaline base, were considered to
be compounds of sugar and alkaline salts. The fluid sugar was, in
every case, acid, and exhibited a strong tendency to ferment, after it
had becn afew hours mixed with water. It was, therefore, in every
case subjected to the usual process of refining before the application
of the tests was made. Neither of the samples, when subjected to
the tests which have been named, exhibited any traces of true sugar ;
and the characters of solubility, and freedom from tendency to crys-
tallize, place the fluid sugar obtained in the usual way, among the fruit
sugars, as varieties of glucose.
After long exposure to air, the pure glucose, chemically obtained,
forms mammilary concretions made up of radiating prisms, and then
becomes the variety of glucose called dry fruit sugar : adding another
distinctive character of fruit sugar.
I purposely excepted from my trials all unripe or decayed stalks.
Some subsequent observations show that the unripe stalks afford much
saline matter which mixes with the syrup.
When we consider the definiteness and reliability of the chemical
tests for glucose, the clear and certain manner in which they distin-
guish all its varieties from ordinary sugar, we may conclude that, as
far as physical and chemical means permit, the question in relation to
the kind of secretion in the sorghum of the northern states is settled.
This plant cannot, by any known process, be made to yield any other
saccharine matter than glucose, and there is no method known to
chemists by which glucose has been converted into sugar.
Generally, those persons skilled in the manufacture of sugar from
the maple sap, who have failed in producing sugar from the sorghum,
have attributed their want of success to a difference of composition in
LETTER FROM MR. WRAY. 9AT
the juice, as compared with maple sap. This is the true view, and
reflects no discredit on the ability or judgment of those enterprising
persons who have endeavored to add another to our resources of an
agricultural kind. Some few persons have boldly asserted that they
have obtained sugar from the sorghum of the northern states, and an
impression has been fostered that some new process of manufacture
would enable us to obtain a supply of sugar from this source. It isa
part of the duty of men of science to point out what can be done, and
thus direct attention to resources around us; it is no less a duty on
their part to draw the broad line of distinction between what can and
what cannot be accomplished. No dairy man or dairy woman would
accept the proposition of converting at will butter into cheese, or
cheese into butter; yet this may be done as easily as the glucose of
the sorghum can be converted into sugar.
While the variety of sorghum produced from the French seed in our
northern states contains in its cells only glucose, which can be easily
separated and exhibited with all its properties, we have before us a
positive fact : those who suppose sugar to exist in the plant are sup-
porting a negative, until they present us that product in a tangible
form.
16 Boylston Street, Boston, April, 1857.
LETTER FROM MR. WRAY TO THE AUTHOR.
Canapa, July 4th, 1857.
Henry S. Oxcort, Esa.
_My Dear Sir,—In reply to your inquiry, I beg leave te make the
following remarks upon the statements put forth in Boston by Doctors
Hayes and Bacon, relative to the character of the sugar contained in
the Chinese Sorgho, which is now so generally denominated the
Chinese Sugar Cane.
That small quantities of crystallized sugar (identical in all po
to that of the sugar cane, and not grape sugar) haye from time to
time been produced in France, and even in this country (North
America) is an established fact, admitting of no denial, and, as such,
quite sufficient to prove that the Chinese Sorgho docs, under certain
948 APPENDIX.
favorable conditions, contain, and will, by a peculiar mode of manu-
facture, yield a proportion of real cane sugar, however small that
proportion may be.
The remarkable assertions of Messrs. Hayes and Bacon must, there-
fore, in my opinion, have arisen from two causes, of which those gentle-
men were not aware, viz.,
Ist. The sorgho stalks, or canes, which they examined were, in all
probability, either unripe, or past the stage at which crystallizable
sugar existed in their juice ; or, again, those canes might have been
grown on such rich lands as did not permit of their juices being per-
fectly elaborated.
2d. The “very carefully prepared syrup of Col. R. Peters, of
Georgia ” had, in reality, been boiled down in the rudest manner, in a
large iron cow-pot, after a constant exposure to a great heat for a
period of from seven to eight hours.
It might be an interesting and highly instructive experiment to
such chemists (and others who know nothing of sugar making) if they
would try the effect of from seven to eight hours continuous boiling
(or simmering) on a simple solution of pure lump sugar and water ;
always remembering that a large iron cow-pot (hung in a very primi-
tive manner) is the vessel to be employed. What do these gentlemen
imagine would be the product resulting from the action of such a
long continued heat on this simple solution of pure cane sugar? What
would be the proportion of crystallizable sugar remaining, and how
much glucose would they have achieved? I should like them to
make this trial, and favor the public with a statement of their results.
I beg you, my dear, Sir, to believe that I do not for a moment call
in question the ability and honest purpose of such well educated and
respectable men as Doctors Hayes and Bacon; but asa dabbler in
chemistry, and as an old sugar planter, I well know how easily men
of the highest order of intelligence may be deceived in such investi-
gations, and may omit to make due allowance for unknown circum-
stances, which may, nevertheless, exercise an entire controlling influ-
ence on the result of their experiments.
So far, therefore, in answer to your inquiries respecting the Chinese
Sorgho, which I hope may be satisfactory ; but in speaking of the
LETTER FROM MR. WRAY. 249
real “ Imphee ” of Kaffirland, which I have introduced to the notice of
the world from south-eastern Africa, you must be good enough to
understand that I draw a very marked distinction between them and
the plants known under the name of Chinese Sorgho, in regards to
their value as sugar producing plants.
The juice of the Zulu-Kaffir imphee is much more limpid, and much
less mucilaginous than that of the Chinese sorgho; and is conse-
quently very easily induced to crystallize.
The African plant, under ordinarily favorable circumstances, so
perfectly elaborates its juice that I have generally found it to contain
almost as large a proportion of cane sugar as that of the real sugar
cane itself grown in the tropics.
The samples of sugar made from the imphee, and in your possession,
have been pronounced to be equal to the best clayed Havanas ; but,
farther than this, I may tell you that I have submitted them to my
honored and revered friend Justus Liebig, the great chemist of our
age, and he has found them identical in all respects to the sugar from
the West Indian and Javanese canes.
I do not think I necd say more, for in a month hence I shall com-
mence manufacturing my imphee crop, and I hope then to give you
the fullest proofs ,that whatever the Chinese Sorgho may yield, my
African Imphee will at least come up to the character it has earned,
and yield sugar abundantly:
And I remain, my dear Sir,
Very faithfully yours,
Lp. WRAY.
250 APPENDIX.
MONOGRAPH OF THE CHINESE SUGAR CANE,
CALLED THE SUGAR SORGHO.
BY DOCTOR ADRIEN SICARD,
Secretary of the Marseilles Horticultural Society, Member of the Imperial
Acclimation Society, etc., ete. Marseilles, 1856.
CHAPTER V.
Studies in the Structure and Intimate Composition of the Chinese
Sugar Cane.
Let us take a joint of the cane, deprived of the clasping part of
the leaf, designated by the name petiole or footstalk, and let us study
it from exterior to the interior.
Immediately beneath the footstalk we find a deposit of cerosie,
which completely covers the epidermis of the cane. This deposit,
which is but slightly apparent midway between the knots, under the
footstalks is considerable enough, on the contrary, from its being pro-
tected from the contact with the air. Some canes will even manifest
this same substance on their leaves. This is called cerosze because of
its resemblance to wax (c7re.)
The cerosie being passed, we come to the epidermis, or outside coat ;
this is thin, very strong, tinted usually with colors of straw color,
yellow, apple green, and rose color, passing into a violet when the cane
is too ripe. If a piece of this epidermis be magnified to five hundred
diameters, it appears to the eye like the bark of the elm as seen in
nature by the naked eye, especially if the examination be made on the
portion covered with cerosie. If the fragment of epidermis be turned
so as to present the interior face, there will be seen angular protuber-
ances, which correspond with the joints of the cells, and filaments
running in a direction from above to below, or from knot to knot, of
the stalk. Whatever pains be taken to separate the epidermis of the
cane, some fragments of cells will always be seen adherent.
I submitted the epidermis to the action of pure sulphuric acid* ;
* All my studies of organic chemistry with the view of discovering the intimate
structure of the Chinese Sugar Cane have been made under the microscope.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 251
it assumed in this liquid a deep yellowish color, and the appearance of
the very rough bark of a tree, marked with black spots and streaks.
By the addition of a drop of anhydrous alcohol, there was immediately
formed, in the liquid, a movement of oscillation; the fragment of
epidermis was borne by the current in the liquid from left to right.
At the end of some minutes the yellow color had entirely disappeared,
but the piece preserved the original appearance. Submitted, then,
to the action of tincture of iodine, the epidermis preserved its trans-
parency ; except that the more dceply tinted parts assumed a very
light blue color, surrounding plates and cells which were completely
white. Ata magnitude of one hundred diameters the objects of our
previous study can be seen, but in this case the piece of epidermis
looks like the bark of the plane tree.
It is difficult, at this magnitude, to recognize the details above
mentioned ; still with a great experience in microscopic study it may
be done.
If the piece of epidermis belongs to a cane long time previously
ripened, or the experiments be made with the knots nearest the ground,
it will be found that the cerosie always will adhere to the epidermis,
even though it may have been scraped to remove the former; the ad-
dition of sulphuric acid can determine the yellow color ; but anhydrous
spirit of wine subsequently added, does not produce so strong a sudden
oscillatory movement as in the former experiment. The decoloration
of the tissues docs not take place; they always preserve the yellow
color, and the disposition of the fibers is the same, except that the
most prominent tubes are particularly distinct. The tincture of iodine
added to the solution docs not give any color changes, except that the
deep color of the epidermis becomes clearer. Some fragments of cells
are visible.
The epidermis is now removed. We next come to the dermis, or
inner coating.* Submitted to a glass of five hundred diameters, it pre-
sents an assemblage of tubes all disposed side by side in manner accord-
ing to the height of the plant. Submitted to the action of pure
sulphuric acid, the deep color soon passes into a red brown; numerous
* This piece of derma was taken from the last joint of a cane of large size, and it had
remained on the stalk after its ripening.
252 APPENDIX.
cells of rounded form show themselves under the tubes. The addition
of anhydrous alcohol causes a very slight movement of oscillation ; the
yellowish-red-brown color brightens up and becomes yellow; but the
longitudinal tubes are perfectly apparent, and upon these are seen at
intervals rounded cells. These celis are unequal, and of three dimen-
sions ; large, medium sized, and small. In the liquid are seen floating
perfectly white crystals.
The addition of the tincture of iodine produces, in time, in certain
portions of the tubes, a slightly violet hue; but the little cells have
become colored a deep violet. As to the crystals, of which we have
previously spoken, they preserve all their whiteness.
Let us continue our researches. The epidermis and dermis have
been removed. We next find between the knots long threads of a
yellowish color, running from one knot to the other, and which may
be easily removed by hand: they are united together by a kind of pith.
A specimen of these threads was submitted to the microscope, (magni-
fied to one hundred diameters,) and despite all my efforts, it was im-
possible to completely deprive it of its covering of pith. Under the
glass the appearance it presented was that of a magnificent column of
stalactite of the most beautiful whiteness. Sulphuric acid colors this
part of the plant yellow on the edges, and reddish brown throughont
the rest of its surface ; a continuance of about a quarter of an hour in
the liquid produces the disaggregation of little grains almost white, but
bordered with a more roseate hue.
The addition of anhydrous alcohol produces the complete decolora-
tion of the portion formed by the separation of the small grains above
mentioned ; they may be distinguished perfectly isolated from each
other, and preserving by their arrangement the form of the bark of a
tree, or, rather, of a lace of dazzling whiteness. As to the portion
which has not been detached, it preserves its original form and color.
The addition of a strong proportion of tincture of iodine has not
changed the color of the grains of which we have spoken; only the
liquid in which they are held, becomes strongly tinted yellow ; the
surface seems to have assumed a slightly bluish tint. As to the cells,
and the portion of the specimen which was not separated, they have
taken on a bluish violet. Besides this, there is seen the yellow color
in portions of the cell not changed to blue.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 258
If we remove with great care, by means of a piece of silk paper,*
the liquids in which we steeped the piece of sugar-cane used in our
experiments, and if we replace it by water, suffering the piece of cane
to steep for some minutes, we remark that the tissues become more
transparent ; but the violet color always remains in the thicker por-
tions, especially in the cells. These have a hole in their center.
If we deprive of water + the specimen of Chinese Sugar Cane under-
going experiment, and replace this water by anhydrous alcohol, we
observe a decoloration of the tissues and the separation of the portion
which had formed the lace; this detaches itself from the piece, lets
escape a large number of entirely colorless crystals, and ends by taking
on the appearance of a hempen thread, which should be placed in the
field of the microscope and examined at the magnitude which was em-
ployed by us at the commencement. We shall find, floating in the
liquid, some violet cells, which have preserved their rounded form. As
to the piece which did not dissolve, it maintains the appearance indi-
cated in the preceding experiments.
Another piece of filament, taken from the same place, and submitted
to the same magnifying power of five hundred diameters, has seemed
to us organized ; it represents a fragment of hemp, with the exception
that the latter is white throughout the greater part of its length.
Submitted to the action of pure sulphuric acid for about an hour, we
observe the separation of the cells ; the filaments take the appearance
of threads of hemp seen by the naked eye, and placed beside each
other we observe some disaggregated cells; the filaments have a black
color.
No change caused by the addition of anhydrous alcohol. The tinc-
ture of iodine added to the mixture, makes to appear slight violet or
bluish spots. 'The general tint is observed to be diminished in inten-
sity. The entire liquid is sprinkled with white crystals.
The specimen which we are about to study is taken from the center
of the cane. We were at pains to separate it entirely from the threads
which we have just dissected ; it presents to the naked eye the appear-
*It will readily be conceived that it is impossible to accomplish the entire removal
of all foreign matter.
+ We cannot say but that a little water has actually remained after all our precau-
tions,
954 APPENDIX.
ance of elder pith, except that on pressure it permits to escape a very
sweet juice.
Under the microscope, at a magnitude of one hundred diameters, the
specimen which is the object of our study resembtes a grain of sugar
seen with the naked eye, and of which the appearance is of a brilliant
whiteness ; the crystallization is like that of the most beautiful sugar.
We remark on the edges a whitish liquid which oozes from it; in it
we see some small cells, which are doubtless those which have permit-
ted to escape the liquid which we have just noticed.
Some moments’ rest in pure sulphuric acid changes the appearance
of the specimen which we study ; the edges are yellow, the center rep-
resents a bunch of grapes, of which the grains are perfectly distinct,
and of a violet red color; some grains separated from the bunch have
an appearance identical to those which we have observed in the pre-
ceding experiments, except their violet red color; they are all perfo-
rated with a hole in the middle. Some crystals are seen in the
liquid.
Anhydrous alcohol, added in the segment of sphere, produces a
slight movement of oscillation from right to left ; the violet red color
is unaltered; the edges only have assumed a tint much less yellow, and
which has a tendency to disappear. As to the crystals disseminated
throughout the liquid, they are always incolorous.
The addition of the tincture of iodine gives, after a contact of some
minutes, a color less deep; one would say that in place of coloring the
substance, the iodine had, on the contrary, lightened it. However, by
regarding it with the greatest attention, we distinguish little veins of
an infinitesimal dimension, which appear colored violet.
The piece of Chinese Sugar Cane submitted to the above experi-
ments, was now taken from the liquid, then placed in the segment of
a sphere, with anhydrous alcohol that we had increased with water.
A portion of the fragment was dissolved ; at the bottom of the liquid
we see a great quantity of white crystals. As to the mass itsclf, it is
found at the bottom of the liquid, and presents the appearance of a
mixture of empty cells, of crystals and granules, the whole seeming
white by refraction, and tinted violet by reflection.
A fragment imperceptible to the naked eye, submitted to a magni-
tude of five hundred diameters, is completely identical with crystals of
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. D5
sugar in the perfect state ; they are surrounded by an incolorous liquid.
This fragment has stripes very light and blackish in color.
Pure sulphuric acid has entirely changed the appearance of the
fragment which we are studying ; it has taken a blackish color in the
surface of the crystals, which have become more deep.
Anhydrous alcohol, added to the mixture, seems to dissect the crys-
tals.
An addition of tincture of iodine lessens the coloring. By refrac-
tion, the crystals are completely white.
We have taken at the center of a knot, a portion of the substance
which it contains, seeking to separate, as much as possible, from it the
filaments which, in this plant, run from the ground to the top of the
stalk, bending, it must be remarked, at each knot. It is, so to speak,
compressed, and in the experiments which I have made on these threads,
they have always broken at this part.
The portion above mentioned was placed under the microscope. At
a magnitude of one hundred diameters, it resembled a piece of certain
plants seen with the naked eye. Placed in concentrated sulphuric
acid, the specimen becomes broken apart, and takes on a black color,
bordered by a reddish tint. The cells are apparent, someof them sep-
arated. Anhydrous alcohol produces no other effect than to detach
some flakes of cells, and some rare white crystals, the whole floating
on the liquid.
We then took a portion of the knot which had served us for the
above experiments, and placed it in water, but its appearance did
not change from that of woody fiber, corroded by sulphuric acid.
A portion of knot which we endeavored to completely isolate from
the filaments, was magnified to five hundred diameters. Placed in
contact with sulphuric acid, it was disorganized, numerous cells made
their appearance, and the whole was colored black, mixed with deep
yellow ; the addition of anhydrous alcohol has made apparent to us
woody fiber, in the condition in which it is when it has been in contact
with sulphuric acid.
From the experiments which we have thus made, it follows :
That the Chinese Sugar Care is composed from outside inwards,
first of a layer of cerosie or wax, avd an inert epidermis. The dermis
contains gums, filaments, fecula, and some portions of sugar.
256 APPENDIX.
The interior part of the cane is composed, in very great proportion,
of sugar and filaments. It is in the most central portion of all that
are found the sacchariferous products.
If the cane be deprived of its epidermis and dermis, it will be placed
in the best condition possible to furnish sugar of good quality, and of
easy extraction. Such, at least, is our opinion, which is based upon
the practical studies which we have made with this precious gramine-
ous plant. ;
FROM F. BOURDAIS, DISTILLER, AT CONSTANTINE,
ALGIERS.
Bur however great seem the probable results of the introduction of
the sorgho into France, and however great the enthusiasm which has
arisen in the minds of its cultivators, they still look upon the new
colony of Algiers as the country in which, both on account of climate,
soil and the peculiar adaptedness of the plant, the most remarkable
results can be obtained. There, it will be recollected, that M.
Hardy, the chief of the government nursery, at Hamma, in his report
to Marshal Vaillaint, certifies to having allowed his canes to stand upon
the ground where they grew, first having removed the tufts and leaves,
throughout the whole winter, the climate being so very mild. The
immense importance of such an aid to the manufacture will be seen
on a moment's reflection, for he may pursue his manufacture throughout
the whole year without interruption, and thus not be obliged to greatly
increase his expenditures for labor and considerable machinery to
harvest and work up his crop in the short space of time which is
absolutely required by the changes of the American climate.
M. Bourdais, a large distiller at Constantine, in the province of
Algiers, has written a pamphlet called, “ Guide to the Distiller of the
Sorgho Sucré,” in which he gives the result of his extended experi-
ments. He seems to have been a careful experimenter, and his book is
entirely practical; indeed, he says himself, “All the eloquence of our
writmgs, rests upon the figures offered.” We quote his language, as
follows :
M. BOURDAIS’ STATENENT. 257
My first experiments were most satisfactory, and I should not hesi-
tate a single moment to pursue with new zeal, in consideration of the
initiative taken by M. Hardy, and with the appearance of a new plant
capable of giving in alcoholic products according to the figure of this
philosophic experimenter, a net profit of about $1,662 64. Let us re-
mark in passing, that Messrs. Madinier & Lacoste, in the new pamphlet
which they have just published, under the title of “ Guide to the Culti-
vator of the Sorgho,” carry this figure as high as 9241 fr. Let us re-
mark the enormous discrepancy between these two computations,
amounting to $185 30.
“ By taking this figure of 9241 fr. as a basis, it is evident that a
planter should, with a capital of $20,000, distil in six or seven months,
the product of fifty acres, and realize thus the enormous profit of
$37,000. ‘Twelve acres were quickly planted by me. Agreements
with other persons permitted me likewise to count upon the yield of other
estates upon which the sorgho culture had been undertaken. One may
judge exactly by the following figures what are the results. The calcu-
lation has been made to a most scrupulous exactitude:
COST OF CULTIVATING ONE HECTARE (ABOUT 2} ACRES).
1. CULTIVATION
Plowing, - - . - wilt HS - $16
Hoeing, - - - - - - 8
Making irrigation furrows, - - - - 4
Sowing, - - - - - - 9
Watering, - . . > - - - 10
Manures, - - - - - . 20
' Hoeing, and subsequent cost of cultivation, - - ' 20
$87
2. First Cost or ManuFracture.
Cutting the canes at maturity, . = : - $14
Stripping the leaves (done by Arab children, at 1 fr. per day) 28
Transportation of the canes to the manufactory, - ae
"$50
258 APPENDIX.
By following successive weighings, made with conscientious exact
ness, I learned the fact that 24 acres well managed, with the desirable
conditions of good culture, yields
1,520 metrical quintals of canes, deprived of their leaves.
278 “ a green leaves, very excellent.
For the nourishment of stock, and representing, at sixty
cents the 250 lbs., a sum total of - - $47
Adopting, as a starting point, the first cost of culture and
manufacture, the result above given would be - 137
My expenses were thus reduced by - . - AT
Giving - - - - - ‘ $90
I had already a sure basis. Ninety dollars was my entire expense
for the product of 520 quintals of cane. I obtained the sum of 84 c.
as a representative value for the production per metrical quintal. I
will detail in another place the different operations which preceded the
distillation. It will be sufficient to say that a metrical quintal of canes
yielded, on distillation, 5-2 quarts of alcohol at 94°, being 0.15.1 of
raw material for a quart of alcohol at 94°.
Thus, then
The cost of raw material being, - - . $0 03
The cost of crushing, maceration of the bagasse and of the
seeds, fermentation, yeast of beer, distillation, rectifica-
tion, about, - - - - . <2 AD
Cutting and transporting to the still, - - 0 02
I obtain, as the cost at Constantine, for the 3)}6* reduced
to 94°, - - dee - - $015
This will, doubtless appear a high price, but taking into considera-
tion the extravagant price for manual labor in the province of Con-
stantine, the explanation will be sufficient. In fact, a workman em-
ployed either on the farm or in the distillery does not have less wages
than seventy to eig!.ty cents per day, for ten hours’ work. I have been
* A technical expression, used in France to signify a certain strength of alcoholic
liquors. It cannot be translated.
M. BOURDAIS’ STATEMENT. 259
compelled to raise the salary of the chief distiller to $1 60 a day, which
in France is not higher than $1. It is the same with respect to the fire-
man, whose wages here are forty cents higher than they are in France.
The English bituminous coal which I use costs me at the distillery about
$1 75 per 250 lbs. It will be urged, doubtless, that the native labor
would be less costly. The objection would be a valid one, if it were
possible to employ the Arabs in any other department than that of
manual labor. Ata later day, when the culture of the sorgho has
become much more extended, and when they have become familiar with
it, we may possibly find among them those who would be able to fill
. the more important places.
I have shown that about a quart of “3/6” reduced, costs me for
hand labor about ten cents. his price may appear a high one, but it
is not very remarkable. I will show by the following figures that a
very large profit can be realized from it in the Algiers market, because
of the economy of transportation and other expenses. This economy
is not less than 403 cents. Let us calculate upon the exportation of
a pipe of 3/6 of about 150 gallons, to France, at sixty cents per gallon,
supposing it put in the hands of a commission merchant in Marseilles.
We will have, firstly, then, to deduct for commission, 3 per
cent., aii ete Die ae breed. =cut “pe ode a AB
Storage, carting, guaging, etc. - - - - . 1 20
Insurance, - - - - - syeh. = - - 108
Freight by steam vessels, —- - - - - - 3 80
Commission for transportation to Phillippeville, and various
expenses, - - - - - - - - =r tke 20
Leakage, and other accidents of the journey, 10 litres, at
| PRIRI HA cineca ret) xiiadtemed =) ne SBD
Transportation, Phillippeville to Constantine, at 89 50 per
50 gallons, - : - - - - - - 9 20
$26 58
Tt will be seen that the expenses for an order of 150 gallons are
very rapidly increased, before the merchandise can be put into the
storehouse, to the enormous figure of $24 54, about 16 cents per gallon,
which would be an entire profit if sold in the interior of Algeria.
260 APPENDIX.
In fact, the net price, which we know to have been fifteen cents, is
reduced four, and then stands at eleven cents.
For the same reason the price of hand labor is reduced to about
seven cents.
It will be remarked that I have abstained from speaking of the seed
of the sorgho, when detailing above the productions of this grain. I
have made the best employment of this seed the object of a special
study, and I believe that I have discovered its. most profitable use,
taking all things into consideration. It seems to me an undoubted
fact, that there is a large profit from changing into sugar the starch con-
tained in the seed of the sorgho, by submitting it to a vigorous and
warm maceration, along with the canes.
I previously said, that a metrical quintal of canes yielded me on dis-
tillation about five quarts of alcohol at 94°.
In this was included the juices expressed from the seed of the sorgho
by means of maceration.
I have passed without notice the so-called product to be obtained
from the bagasse, because, like the seed, I submit them to the same
maceration, in order to extract from them all the saccharine matter
which has escaped the action of the cylinder. I find a further profit
in this, since the bagasse, deprived of all its nutritive matter, after the
completion of the process of maceration, should not be eaten by stock,
as I have proved in my experience. As to a second crop being able
to give an additional amount of alcoholic products, it seems to me
little probable. We may count certainly upon a second crop, which
can give a large quantity of forage to be cut up and eaten.
All the writers who have discussed the sorgho sucré, have also men-
tioned as one item of production, the cerosie, which covers the stalks of
the cane. To my mind it is not worth while to engage in an opera-
tion so costly by itself, when the profits resulting from it are very
problematical.
The computations I have given are the results of distillation under-
taken with about twelve acres of crops made on alluvial soils, or river
bottoms, which can be irrigated at high water, and naturally manured
by the detritus of the old swamp, where my distillery has been located
for a number of years.
The truly surprising results which I have obtained, have been ad-
M. BOURDAIS’ STATEMENT. 261
mired by the Director of the Government Nursery of Algiers, on the
occasion of a visit which he was good enough to accord me. He has
frequently noticed the existence on my place, of hills of sorgho, tiller-
ing from sixteen to eighteen stalks of twelve feet in height, which
often were five and a half inches in circumference at their base. In
other instances ten to twelve stalks have been very commonly noticed ;
the average is from six to seven.
It is commonly known that M. Hardy is one of the first who has
occupied his time with the culture of saccharine plants, and very espe-
cially with the Chinese Imphee. The intelligent experiments which he
has undertaken, upon a small scale it is true, (about half an acre,) and
as he says himself, deprived of favorable conditions, that is to say, not
having at his disposition any other instrument for distillation than
Saleron’s still retort ; these trials, I say, although not permitting him
to arrive at results completely satisfactory, have not however suffered
him to have any doubt upon the future of a culture which promises to
be an inexhaustible source of riches and prosperity for Algeria.
Although it has been necessary for me to cultivate my grounds at
great expense, (at first with the pick, to eradicate all the stumps and
stubble of the old swamp ; afterwards with the plow, to bury as deeply
as possible by very arduous labor ; and finally to make ditches and
drains, for the aération of the soil,) the result has amply repaid me“or
all these labors attending the first cultivation. I will now confine
myself to the details relative to the fabrication of the wines of the
sorgho, to their distillation, and finally to the rectification of the bran-
dies which have been obtained from it. I will explain as clearly as
possible different methods I have employed; and I shall deem myself
happy if these reflections can open the way to other investigators.
DETAILS OF MANUFACTURE.
The canes, stripped of their leaves, are submitted to the energetic
action of a cylinder, with three rollers moved by steam, and making fifty
revolutions in a minute. The vesou, or juice, runs into a vat of a capacity
of about one thousand gallons, placed under the cylinder. This first
operation finished, the bagasse passed out of the cylinder contains still a
large quantity of saccharine matter, which can be extracted in scarcely
262 APPENDIX.
any other way than by maceration. This new operation is, however,
more indispensable, as the saccharine part remaining in the bagasse
gives in maceration for 2500 Ibs. of these latter, 500 gallons of juice,
weighing 3° by the areometer of Cartier.
Thus, then, 260 Ibs. of canes yield, in reality, seventeen gallons of
vesou, at a density of 10°, or, as we have already said, five quarts of
alcohol at 94°, being two gallons of alcohol to twenty-five gallons of
juice. But it is impossible to obtain these results if recourse is not
had to maceration. Thus there will be seen the motives which have
induced me to seek for the better employment of the seed of the
sorgho. ;
When I perceived that the cutting and stripping cost me so much,
I caused to be made in the fields of the plants which were growing, a
choice of the finest grain for my sowings of the following year ; and I
left the panicles adhering to the stalk. Of the remainder, the panicles
and leaves should be crushed in the cylinder and afterwards subjected
to the process of maceration with the bagasse. The action of the warm
water determining immediately the transformation into sugar of the
starch contained in the grain, I was able to obtain by a single opera-
tion the saccharine residue escaped from the cylinder, and to save thus
the cutting off the seed, stripping, the grinding of the grain, and the
tr®uble of the preparation of a certain quantity of malt to assist in the
fermentation. The possibility of leaving for some time standing in the
field the plants of the sorgho, has considerably assisted me in this ex-
periment; for, as M. Hardy judiciously observes, the stalks of the
sorgho preserve themselves not only uninjured for several months after
their maturity upon the ground as they grew, but even increase in the
proportion of sugar. I find proof of that in the specific weight of the
juice, which in September last weighed 9° and now has increased
to 10°.
FERMENTATION.
The juice as it passes out from the vats from maceration, is enriched
by the addition of pure juice, and arrives in the fermenting vat with
a density of 5°. Ihave made what is technically called the “foot ;”
that is to say, by turning into a vat 200 gallons of juice at a tempera-
ture of 30°; with this 5 quarts of brewer's yeast should be mixed; an
M. BOURDAIS’ STATEMENT. 263
hour afterwards this “foot” is in full fermentation. I then filled my
vat with 500 hectolitres, at a temperature of 30°. An hour after these
quantities pass themselves into fermentation. Let us remark that this is
the result of our own experience; that this fermentation progresses
regularly, has no need of being watched, is never violent, and falls
always to zero of the areometer, in 20 hours at least, and 24 hours at
most. It is very true that the juice of the sorgho contains naturally
its own ferment. M. Hardy has considered it sufficient to produce
the alcoholic fermentation without the addition of any stimulant ; and
in this latter case this fermentation progresses very gently, much
too gently even, since it requires less than 6 to 8 days to fill; and
finally it cften happens that it ceases before the- sugar is entirely
transformed. Then the wines weigh still 1, and sometimes 13, by the
areometer.
DISTILLATION,
I distil my wines by steam, and by means of a column still, after
the system of M. Dubrunfaut.
RECTIFICATION OF BRANDY.
The rectifying column of which I have made use is that of M.
Dubrunfaut, comprising two analyzers, whose purpose it is to spread
the liquid of the condensation and the vapors, which are obtained
simultaueously. The 3|6 obtained are of a strength of 94°, and fine
in flavor. It now only remains to present a summary view of the
figures which have appeared in the foregoing remarks, and to draw
the attention of the reader to the following conclusions: they speak
for themselves, and have no need of comments. We have seen that
about 23 acres can produce 58,240 lbs. of stripped stalks ; and that a
hundred kilogrammes (225 Ibs.) of these same stalks may give about 14
gallons of alcohol at 940. The hectare (23 acres) yields then about 700
gallons 3|6 at 94°, worth in the Constantiae market about $1 50 per
gallon, say . 7 : : ; 4 : . $1,081 60
We know that the litre of 3|6 costs, all expenses included,
0.74.1, say for 200 gals. ‘ : : : : 400 73
There remains, per hectare, a net profitof . . . $680 87
264 APPENDIX.
In the preceding calculations we have examined the question of the
sorgho in all its relations, both as to the process for the transforma-
tion of its product, and the farm which gives them. In a word, it is
certain that an establishment thus constituted can distil in the space of
six or seven months a crop of about 50 acres, and produce by an ex-
pense of $20,000, (in which is comprised about $17,000 fixed capital,
represented by the apparatus and works,) a profit of $12,000, or
thereabouts. We have said the sorgho not only furnishes to industry
a precious element ; but furthermore, it can profitably be employed
as a forage crop. One acre cultivated in sorgho costs less for culture,
and pays incomparably more than the best artificial meadow. They
have already comprehended this in the north of France, as is shown
in one of the pamphlets previously quoted; but in those countries
where the sorgho does not ripen, planters have to overcome difficulties
which do not exist for us, and are far from being able to obtain, not-
withstanding all their efforts, results equivalent to those which come
in this country without other assistance than native labor—[From
“ Guide du Distillateur du Sorgho a Sucre.” I’. Bourdais.
REPORT or truzE COUNT De DAVID BEAUREGARD,
TO THE AGRICULTURAL ASSEMBLY OF TOULON, UPON THE ALCOHOLIZA-
TION OF THE JUICE OF THE SORGHO SUCRE. TOULON, 1857.
WE are aware of the fact that the juice of the sorgho, whose intro-
duction we owe to M. Montigny, has within itself all the ferment
necessary for the transformation of its saccharine matter into alcohol.
It ferments with such activity under a sufficiently elevated tempera-
ture, the formation of a great quantity of alcohol is so rapid that this
reacts upon the ferment, of which a portion precipitates itself before
having had time to accomplish its useful transformation.
Thus it often happens that one, two, and even three degrees of sugar
remain still in the wine of the sorgho at the moment when the fermen-
tation ceases. To this first cause of loss there is frequently added
another, when large vats are made use of.
REPORT OF COUNT BEAUREGARD. 260
The temperature, under the influence of this tumuituous fermenta-
tion, arises in these great masses, even so far as to acquire, in warm
weather, from 35 to 40 degrees centrigrade, which occasions a still
further loss of a considerable quantity of alcohol.
Desirous of avoiding the viscous fermentations which cause so much
loss in sugar beet distilleries, when the proper degree of heat for the
ferment is wanting, I heated my juice to 25° before putting it in the
vat, which I rapidly filled, and added to its various ferments. I not
only accomplished my purpose, but even got more than I desired.
The fermentation proceeded with great violence. The imaginary
inconvenience which I wished to avoid occasioned me a serious and a
real one. The heat and ferment only aggravating the conditions of
the operation, and I was not slow in perceiving that we obtained as
much less alcohol as the fermentation had been more lively, and that
there remained finally in the wine as much more of sugar in an
unchanged state.
I have since then been led to follow an entirely opposite course,
seeking to render the fermentation as mild as possible, but however to
make it complete by sustaining it at every moment. I avoided all
use of ferment in the juice of the canes, and I have made my vat of a
temperature as near as possible from 10° centigrade to zero.
To obtain this temperature when the weather is warm enough, in
September or October, it is well to treat only the canes cut the even-
ing before, and which are stacked against the north side of a wall to
profit by the moisture of the night. The juice likewise should be
caused to run into the vat in a continuous thread. Into the vat is also
introduced, at the same time, a thread of fresh river or spring water, and
if this should not be had, water from clean well-built wells.* The diame-
ter of this thread of water should be calculated, so that the mixture of
the two liquors shall mark 60° on Beaumé’s Glucometer. If the
machine discharges more of juice than is necessary to obtain this
density and this temperature, the necessary number of vats to regulate
that should be simultaneously filled. When frost comes it is necessary
-* The mode of feeding can be altered. After a first vat full, in place of water,
vinasse taken from the still retort can be used, or, better still, the results from the
maceration of the bagasse.
12
266 APPENDIX.
to warm the mixture to obtain this initial temperature of 10° centi-
grade. In this case the water added is heated, and not the juice. It
is necessary also, when the temperature of the juice is below 10°, to
elevate the temperature of the water, so that it shall exceed 10° above
zero as much as it lacked of arriving at this point during the night
preceding the filling of the vats.
Despite this low temperature, fermentation commences even on the
first day, and thanks to the manner in which it commences and to the
mode of feeding, it is maintained mild and regular, transforming every
day into alcohol a sixth part of the sugar contained inthe mass, and
making it gain two degrees of heat from the initial temperature,* so
that on the seventh day, my vats, of a capacity of about 250 gallons,
contained nothing but a liquid marking zero on the glucometer of
Beaumé, and 22° of heat on the centigrade thermometer.
If it has gained only two degrees of heat in twenty four hours, it
will be found that the transformation of the sugar into alcohol is
diminishing, and the water should be heated to cause the mass to arrive
at the desired temperature during that day.
This will only happen when the outside temperature is very low. It
will be seen that the thermometer and the spirit guage are two instru-
ments which must be employed, unless the operator wishes to go blindly
to work.
The sixth day, that is to say, as soon as my vat is filled, I stir up
the mass with the hand, to replace in suspension whatever portion of
the ferment remains unappropriated. The next morning the transform-
‘ation is perfect. My wine is made; but to abstract from the alcohol
a slight peculiar taste, due to the presence of certain essential oils
which it contains, I throw that day into the vat two kilogrammes of
powdered quick lime, (about five and a half pounds, troy,) previously
slacked with twenty litres of water, (six gallons,) and again rapidly
stir it up with the hands.
The lime unites with the essential oils to form an insoluble com-
pound, which is precipitated.
We will let the fluid remain quiet for two days, and we then distil
* On the morning before recommencing the distillation, the state of the fermenta-
tion and the temperature of the vat should especially be examined
REPORT OF COUNT BEAUREGARD. 267
it in the Derosne apparatus, and obtain in alcohol “3/6” of an
agreeable taste, reminding one somewhat of kirsch, almost as strong
per cent. as the juices indicated of degrees on the Beaumé glucometer,
say usually from eight to ten per cent.
This result, which I invariably obtained since my change of system,
seems to me of such a nature as to give confidence to those who, up to
this time, have not dared to undertake the cuiture of the sorgho, and
also to favor the establishment of distilleries, where the profitable
manufacture, on a large scale, of the crops brought in by the farmers
of the neighborhood can be undertaken.
But in this regard, gentlemen, and to enlighten those who would be
tempted to organize an enterprise of this nature, I believe it is useful
to add some words on the method I have employed up to this time, to
extract the juice of the cane. By mentioning the advantages and dis-
advantages of my process, I can enable others to profit by the experi-
ence, and do better.
You already know, gentlemen, that to extract the juice of the canes,
I pass them between plate cylinders, as is done in the colonies with
tropical sugar cane. This mode of extraction, sanctioned by long
custom, has seemed to me, more prudent to use at first; but in order
that none of the juice may be Jost, it is requisite to key up the cylin-
ders very closely, which requires the employment of a strong motive
power.
When the operator can make use of a strong and natural force, a
fine waterfall, for instance, the inconvenience which we notice is no
longer met with; but if this cannot be obtained, it would be well to
try some other mode of extraction, requiring less motive power. A
crusher, a stalk or straw cutter, or other similar instruments, can ac-
complish the end desired. |
The state in which the canes are found, according to the mode
adopted for dividing them, will naturally necessitate particular ar-
rangemenpts in the work for the extraction of the juice, their fermenta-
tion and their distillation ; but this is not the place to enter into the
details of ‘the subject. I wish simply to guard you against the idea
that the crushing cylinders will be found to be, in all circumstances,
268 APPENDIX.
and in every case, the most suitable method of extraction to be
employed.
* x * %
Of the other aspects of the culture of the Sorgho, I shall not speak
at present, but having confined myself to the particular department of
alcohol manufacture, on which much light was needed, I shall esteem
myself happy, gentlemen, if I can contribute to extend the culture of
a plant which, for many reasons, seems to be one of the most precious
which Providence has ever placed at our disposal.
COUNT DE DAVID BEAUREGARD,
President of the Agricultural Assembly of Toulon.
Touton, Dec. 2, 1856.
ON THE SUGAR SORGHO AND THE IMPHEE.
BY DR. TURREL, SECRETARY OF THE ASSEMBLY OF TOULON.
[From the Bulletin of the Imperial Acclimation Society.]
Tue question of the sugar sorgho has taken an importance in agri-
culture, not only because of the yield in alcohol of its sweet stalks, but,
still further, because of the coloring matter of its seed, and of its pro-
duction of seeds which are capabie of serving as means of food for
man, and for fattening cattle.
It is, then, perfectly natural that persons should occupy themselves
with this cultivation ; but, however, we would not wish that an incon-
siderate haste should make us lose sight of the conditions on which it
is dependent for being largely remunerative. These conditions seem
to us essentially to be—
1. A combination of rural industry and agriculture.
2. Large cultivation.
3. The remoteness of sufficient markets for usual crops.
The cultivation of the sorgho as a source for the production of al-
cohol, cannot be undertaken without a manufactory connected with the
SORGHO AND IMPHEE. 269
farm, because the raw matter is very cumbrous, difficult of transport-
ation ; and supposing even the establishment of a central distillery in
the middle of an agricultural district fit for the culture of the sorgho,
it is probable that the cost of transport would be very high, and that
because of the rapid change of the saccharine matter by spontaneous
fermentation in the masses of the stalks, the greater part of the
saccharine richness would be lost for the producer and to the manu-
facturer.
It is in the field that the sorgho preserves most completely its prop-
erties, a precious peculiarity for Algeria, as the different reports of
M. Hardy prove; for Guadaloupe, as M. Grellet Balguerie writes to
us ; and in similar climates.
Cultivation on a large scale* seems to me fitting for making profit-
able the cultivation of this plant. This opinion is the irresistible con-
clusion to which we arrived. The cultivator on a large scale can
afford the cost of manufacture: plate cylinders, hydraulic presses, fer-
menting vats, and still retorts. Small culture would be entirely un-
able to make similar expenditures ; and on this scale sorgho should be
cultivated only for the production of seeds—that is to say, in the light
of a product less remunerative than the cultivation of vegetables, or,
very exceptionally, for the extraction of the fermentable saccharine
matter, as a sort of recompense or substitute needed because of the
grape disease in vine countries, where wine is no longer grown.
With this view, in the districts near Toulon the landholders have
mixed in their vintages and fermented with grape juice the liquid ex-
tracted from the sorgho, and obtained wine more abundant, and with-
out any unpleasant flavor. This mixed wine, whose production has
been very limited, was unfortunately consumed at home by the fam-
ilies of the cultivators.
Further, cultivation on a large seale could not be undertaken with
* We are in position to affirm that a society, important because of the honorable
names attached to it, has been formed in Paris, with a view of making experiments on
a large scale. This year, even, it will undertake the manufacture of about 85 acres of
sorgho, which have been cultivated in the neighborhood of Bayonne. We might quote
the names which are at the head of this Association, called an Experimental and Pro-
tective Imphee Association, which has a great future; but we prefer to wait until we
are able to quote the facts arrived at, and that will not be a long time.
270 APPENDIX.
the sorgho, except when there was no readily obtainable market sufh-
cient to warrant richer crops and of less difficult production.
In the arrondissement of Toulon, for example, the crops on the re
claimed swamps, and the fruits cultivated in irrigated soils, give an
average net profit of 500 francs to the hectare.
It is difficult to guarantee to the culturer of the sorgho a greater
profit in the absence of a distillery devoted exclusively to the manu-
facture, on a large scale, of this plant, when the cost attending it are
taken into consideration. ,
Far from the city, on the contrary, and where grazing of cattle can
be undertaken on a large scale, the sorgho sucré can become as an
average plant when the price of alcohol has decreased : of very great
importance, because it is greedily sought after by cows and horses.
Pigs even craunch with delight its succulent and saccharine stalks,
They devour the seeds, which, M. Grellet Balguerie thinks, can be
given to horses in place of oats. Finally, in the form of flour, this
seed will become, because of the abundance of its yield, an excellent
means of fattening cattle for the butcher.
It is especially because of this peculiarity that we think favorable
notice should be taken of a new species of sorgho sucré, whose intro-
duction into Provence we owe to M. Grellet Balguerie, of Guadaloupe.
This sorgho, which has been the object of the studies of Mr. Leonard
Wray, under the name of imphee, or Kaffir sorgho, is, in all proba-
bility, the one upon which, in 1766, Pietro Arduino made his experi-
ments in Italy. This is the opinion of M. Grellet Balguerie. “ The
description of Pietro Arduino,” says our correspondent, “seems to
apply very exactly to the imphee, which we cultivate in the Antilles.”
M. Grellet Balguerie specially congratulates himself upon the yield
in seed of the imphee, which is much superior, in this regard, to the
sugar sorgho; the latter, however, being preferable, because of its
more early maturity.
In Martinique, M. Hayot cultivates, with profit, the imphee, simply
to feed his Indian coolies with the flour of its seeds, which he finds
preferable to coolie rice, and with more nutrition in an equal quantity.
He gives its leaves to his cattle, which are fond of it; and manu-
factures of its saccharine juice an excellent taffia.
The sorgho sucré and the imphee, then, recommend themselves in the
SORGHO AND IMPHEE. yA
three different points of consideration—the production of alcohol ; as a
forage plant; and as a food by their seeds, which, if it is desired, can
also be converted into alcohol in prolific seasons. But the sugar
sorgho offers to industry a new and rich product. The coloring matter
extracted from its seed is of a beautiful solid carmine, and the Lyonese
manufacturers are seeking it for tinting their silks. This is a new
source of riches for the bs Syngas if he knows how to make use of
them.
We cannot accept as serious the calculation of M. Hardy, which
shows, as one of the profitable products of the North China sorgho, the
cerosie, or vegetable wax, which develops itself upon the surface of the
stalk. Thesame waxy substance is found upon all the sorghos, upon
the sugar cane. However, it has never been sought, to make use of it,
except in the laboratory, and for the gratification of chemical analysis ;
for, supposing that the costs of extraction were sufficiently covered by
the product, the scarcity of labor, which is especially felt in the farm-
ing districts, would form an invincible obstacle to its being undertaken,
especially in Algeria.
One of our honorable correspondents of Turin, M. le Count Moign-
erie, has made vinegar by watering the bagasse, already crushed, with
the juice of the sorgho. He has obtained the acetous fermentation,
and, according to his own testimony, a very perfect vinegar.
_ Count de Beauregard has gathered about 135,000 pounds of stalks
to the hectare (25 acres). He has extracted from it about 7,600 gal-
lons of saccharine juice.
M. Raoul has obtained about 100, 000 to 112,000 pounds of stalks,
and has obtained from them from 50 to 55 per cent. of juice.
From the preceding observations, it follows that it is especially de-
sirable for our agriculture to accomplish the distillation in the shortest
possible time comprised between the last days of September and the
first of November ; for frosts, by congealing the juices in the stalk,
alter and destroy the greater part of the saccharine matter, which
ferments without giving profit, when the stalks, cut at maturity, re-
main crowded together under sheds. It is always more profitable to
treat them at the moment when they are cut. In this point of view
Algeria offers an immense advantage to its agriculturists, since the
rile. APPENDIX.
sorgho can there remain on the field, without freezing, for the whole
winter.
It is evident that in the vine countries, the harvesting and manu-
facturing of the sorgho sucré, coinciding with the time for the vintage,
which occupies all the desirable forces, would there offer to cultivators
great difficulties to be overcome.
The saccharine richness of the stalks not seeming to diminish by the
fact of the maturity of its grains, it is very much to the interest of the
cultivators to allow it to ripen, and the yield in seeds may be estimated
at nearly 150 bushels to the two and a half acres (sixty bushels to
the acre), weighing each from 175 to 200 Ibs. We will conclude. by
a statement much exaggerated as to cost, much moderated as to profits,
upon the culture of the sorgho on about two and a half acres of ground.
Cost of culture and manuring, about - - $60
Cost of distillation per hectolitre of alcohol, at six dollars
per fifty-eight bushels, - - - : 120
Topping and stripping of 125 acres of seed, - - 20
Total costs per hectare, - - - - $200
Prorits.
Twenty hectolitres of alcohol, at about $7 15, _ - - $400
145 bushels of seed, at about $1 45 per bushel, - 200
Coloring matter of the seeds ?
Total cost receipts, - - - . - $600
Total expenses, - > - - - 200
Net profit to the hectare, - - - - $400
This sum of $400 in net profit, which results from the figures of
the cost, comprising the interest on the capital employed in the in-
dustrial manufacture, represents a profit sufficiently high to encourage
the industrial cultivation of the sorgho, wherever an addition of the
suitable machines can be made to a farm. We have purposely
avoided mentioning the value of the leaves as a forage, in order to
make better understood the particular interest the Zodlogical Acclima-
tion Society takes in the extension of this culture.
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 273
THE SUGAR SORGHO.
Cuiture, Harvestine, Use of THE SEED, EXTRACTION OF THE SWEET
Juice, DistmiaTion. By Pavunt Mapinier. Paris, 1857.
CHAPTER. I,
CULTURE.
For several years past, French agriculture, stimulated on all sides
by intelligent and industrious men, who work without relaxation for
the improvement of the system of agriculture in our country, has been
occupied especially with the grave question, not new, it is true, but
which had not arrested the attention of the masses before: the natural-
ization among us of the sugar sorgho. This is a subject of great
interest for all, and more especially to the laboring man, with whom it
is actually a luxury, used by him only in cases of sickness. There is
room for astonishment at the dearness of this alimentary substance,
since the investigations of science have found it so largely prevalent in
the vegetable world, more especially because the prospect of abundant
supply should apparently make a proportionally good market for it,
by inducing greater numbers of persons in moderate circumstances to
become purchasers, who otherwise could not.
In fact, we may say, other things being equal, that the price of a
product is not sc much a matter of pure conventionality, that specu-
lation alone can materially change it. The price of an article of
merchandise rests on its greater or less abundance, and, at the same
time, on the amount of work needed for its production. This last con-
dition is very important, for the more the methods of extraction and
preparation are perfected and simplified, by so much the more does it
become possible to furnish it at a lower price. However, when we
find a substance very rare, which after a protracted search gives
moderate returns, the simplification of the process of manufacture does
not produce a very marked reduction in price, and for very obvious
reasons. Thus, to apply this reasoning to the subject in hand, the
12*
974 APPENDIX.
nitrogenized products, very rare, are exceedingly dear, whilst carboniz-
ed matters (starch and sugar) are sold at a much lower price, by reason
of the profusion with which they are found in all the vegetable kingdom.
If we dwell somewhat at length upon these considerations, it is to
show that the high price of sugar is a profound anomaly, contrary to
the universal laws of production, and which should certainly disappear
after a short time. And this anomaly is so well understood, that it is
with a lively enthusiasm that the appearance of this sugar sorgho has
been greeted, and that the alccoholization of topinambour and sweet
corn kas been adopted. Thus, what a haste is shown in all France to
commence the cultivation of this Chinese sugar cane ; how everywhere
each makes a trial; this one on whole hectares, that one on small
plats, even upon the corner of his garden. _
Nevertheless, up to the present time, the sugar sorgho has not been
used nor manufactured to any considerable extent, except as an alcohol
producing plant. Decisive experiments will not lung be lacking to
decide upon the yield of sugar. But even admitting, which we are
very far from believing, that the sorgho cannot give crystallizable
sugar, it still will exercise a wide influence upon the production of
saccharine matter. It is easy to be understood that the South under-
taking the alcoholization of a plant much superior to the beet, would |
so interfere with our departments of the North, that they would be
obliged to restrain themselves entirely to the manufacture of sugar.
Although highly supported, the sorgho has not failed to have de-
tractors ; for example, they reproach the sugar sorgho with being a
very exhausting plant. They say that its enormous profit is very
greatly reduced the moment that you deduct the cost of gathering,
manufacturing, and the damage done to the soil by its culture. Fortu-
nately, it is not difficult to meet these objections, and to show their
slight weight. It wiil suffice us for that to rest simply upon the au-
thentic facts already known, and upon others more recent, but not less
irrefutable. Let us endeavor to apply to the sugar sorgho, the rules
in use with the different scientific agriculturists to determine the action
of vegetables upon the soil. We see that the sorgho is a plant of
rapid growth, is but lightly shading, and as a gramineous plant, may,
in truth, be ranked among those which take much from the soil; on
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 275
the other hand, we observe that this vegetable, poor in nitrogenized
matters, should not much impoverish the soil of the most precious
ingredients, for the leaves of the sorgho, being eaten by cattle, pro-
duce manure. The canes, deprived of their sweet juice, may serve as
long manure, or even for forage, and the seeds, which will be profit-
ably consumed on the farm, in the form of soups and broths for man,
or for fattening animals, will also furnish its proportionate return. In
a word, it is clear that the nitrogenized matters are returned to the
soil, and it is only the carbonaceous matters which are employed for
manufacture, consequently there are in the cultivation the most re-
markable conditions of an improving and progressive agriculture.
We will here add the following results to explain this mooted
question of the exhaustive action of the sorgho. Admitting for_a
yield the figures of M. Hardy, we find,
Crop.
Stalks, 215,000 pounds; dry matter, about 64,000 pounds
Leaves, 54,000 “ is = 16,000 Ibs. Troy.
Seeds, 96,000 Se - - 9,400 a
89,000 lbs. Troy.
Admitting that the impoverishment of the soil by the sorgho be
fifty per cent. of the dry matter, we have 45,000- Ibs. of impoverish-
ment, which requires 400 of manure for 100 of impoverishment, say
180,000 lbs. of natural manure.
We should deduct from this total the amount of manure furnished
by the crop itself. We have
. Roots left in the soil, - - - 8,000 lbs. Troy.
Bagasse (supposing that it is deprived of its
water of vegetation), - - = ED O00. 0 i4*
Leaves, - - - - 54,000 os
Total, - - - . - 250,000 Ibs. Troy.
Which we may consider to be worth 60,000 of hay (taking the equiva-
Jent of 400 of the millet), giving, at least, 122,000 Ibs. of manure.
Thus, on the 175,000 lbs. to rise upon the two and a half acres for the
cultivation of the sorgho, there is of manure 122,000 Ibs., which are
276 APPENDIX.
produced gratis, while the transformation of the forage which this
quantity gives, results in a still further profit in the nourishment for
cattle. It is, then, 56,000 lbs. of manure that we really pay to obtain
the seed and the saccharine juice of the sorgho.
M. De Gasparin estimates that two thousand seven hundred and
seventy pounds of manure are necessary to produce 2°84 bushels of
Indian corn (seeds and stalks.) Supposing that the sorgho is more
exacting, and needs two thousand nine hundred and thirty-five pounds
Troy for 2°84 bushels, that would make for a yield of nine thousand
six hundred pounds of seed to 23 acres, 160,000 pounds of manure
necessary.
Let us consider finally the testimony of a person who is certainly
the most competent upon this matter, M. Beauregard, who for the
past three years cultivated the sorgho upon the same land, without
having experienced any diminution in its yield. We will now consider
the choice of the soil which is most suitable to the sorgho, and also
pass in detail the methods of cultivation most appropriate. This plant
flourishes in light soils, sandy and calcareous, and particularly in allu-
vial formations. It needs a certain moisture, but is averse to it in the
extreme. Almost always, both in Algeria and the Mediterranean dis-
trict of France, excellent results will be obtained from the employment
of irrigation, both during the early and more advanced stages of the
growth of this plant ; but as it approaches the ripening of the seed, it
is not so profitable to employ irrigation, and is even detrimental, by
hindering the elaboration of the saccharine principles, and causing the
canes to be watery. Mr. Hardy, the illustrious Director of the Gov-
ernment Nursery at Algiers, tells us that the sorgho delights in soils
containing carbonate of lime, and he advises frequent liming of those
which need it. This recommendation is explained by the astonishing
success of the sorgho upon the chalky soils of Champagne, where they
have obtained but very slight crops. If the use of lime seems benefi-
cial, it is not the same as regards the employment of salts, of which we
know the depressing influence upon the sugar cane and the beet. As
a fertilizer, the excrement of horned cattle is very excellent. Manur-
ing with green crops cannot be too much recommended in this cultiva-
tion. They increase the fertility of the soil, render more assimilable
=
THE SUGAR SORGHO. oe
the materials which compose it, and preserve in it a more constant
moisture. In general, the fertilizers formed by vegetable matters un-
dergoing decomposition, are more efficacious for sacchariferous plants.
The land destined for the sorgho should be well prepared by deep
plowing and deep harrowing. It is necessary that it should be a, cer-
tain depth. The plant thus gains a stability, and finds itself to make
a more rapid growth, besides having at its disposal more moisture.
The plantation can be made in two different ways—by sowing in a
hot-bed and transplanting, and by sowing in the field. In Algeria
and the south of France this last method will be preferred. Fora
great number of localities in the center of France, the Chinese method
of replanting will be more profitable, but with the condition that labor
shall be abundant.*
The field sowings should be made when the late frosts are no longer
to be feared ; that is to say, in Algeria during the month of April ; in
France, from the middle of April to May, according to the position,
more or less northern, in which we find ourselves. It is good to sow
when the earth is a little moist on the surface, because then the seed,
which requires to be slightly covered, germinates more rapidly, and
grows very vigorously. It would even be well to water the ground if
it was too dry at the time of planting.
It is the practice to sow m lines of different width, according to the
situation, in Algeria. Mr. Hardy has adopted three feet two inches as
his width. In Provence, several agriculturists have chosen a width of
about three and a quarter feet. But thisis a matter of choice and
locality. Sowing in the hot bed is done in March and in April, upon
a border sheltered from cold winds. The plants are transplanted
when they have acquired a height of about fourteen inches. For the
field sowings, the first hoeing is given as soon as the sorgho has at-
tained about fourteen inches of height, and at the same time is thinned
out from fourteen to sixteen inches in the rows. The superfluous plants
can be fed to cattle. In the course of the vegetation of the sorgho,
* M. Itier, who has recently given us the details of the culture of the sorgho in
China, recommends strongly the adoption in France of the system of transplanting.
For our part, we do not believe it will succeed ; at least, that it will not be adopted as
the profitable practice of cultivating sorgho in the thickly populated er of the
North * * * * * #
278 APPENDIX.
there could be given frequent hocings and cultivations. These are
necessary to obtain good results ; for, as we have previously seen, the
gramineous plants, which harden the soil, exact, as a condition upon
which they will yield the best results, a very complete and thorough
cultivation.
For irrigating, you make little furrows at the foot of the lines of the
sorgho, and water is caused to run through them as often as the state
of the plant and the season admits. Arrived at this point of the
growth cf the vegetable, an important question presents itself for our
examination. Should we hill, or should we not hill? . M. Hardy tells
us that hilling is necessary to insure to the plants the means of resist-
ing winds, and to favor the growth of advantageous roots, which are
thrown out by the sorgho, as with the corn, at the bottom of the stalk.
Dr. Sicard thinks on the contrary, that hilling is dangerous. He ex-
plains his opinion by this fact, that the Chinese Sugar Cane has need
of roots elevated above the soil, taking from the atmosphere the food
furnished, without doubt, by the superincumbent air, and an elabora-
tion of the sap, which is due to the contact of its roots with ihe soil.
The comparative experiments made upon the same field of sorgho had
been entirely favorable to the canes which were not hilled.
In reality, in a soil in good condition, the roots of the plant can
penetrate so deeply that they can resist the effect of the wind. Upon
the question of adventitious roots and the hilling, we cannot defini-
tively decide, because of our want of decisive experience. However,
we believe, since its roots are provided with spongioles or suckers, that
burying them cannot be injurious if hilling is moderately used, so as
only to cover a little of these roots in such a manner that the air, being
absorbed by the soil, can stimulate them, and aid in the decomposition
of materials that they may absorb. We know that the roots of the
cereals are so superficial that they take away from the svil much, be-
cause they grow in a limited circle, and that the loosening of the soil
augments its permeability for the atmosphere, and the gases favorable
for vegetation which are contained in it give an activity much greater
for the growth of the plants whose preducts are found considerably
increased by these means. We believe, then, that these adventitious
roots may be covered by hilling, if only we do not suffocate them under
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 279
too great a mass of earth, and that we cover them, as much as _possi-
ble, with soil of a good quality, in order that their power of asssimila-
tion may better develop itself, and produce the greatest benefit to the
plant.
Ch 2P Fl hort:
HARVESTING—USE OF THE SEED—EXTRACTION OF THE SWEET JUICE.
Tue sorgho should be gathered when the seed is completely ripe, that
is to say, when it shows a deep chestnut color ; when it turns to car-
mine, the commencement of fermentation is indicated. Plants are cut
in a rough way, (while we are waiting for the invention of machines for
the harvesting of sorgho upon the plan of those which already exist in
the United States for the corn,) and then transported to the sheds or
to the manufactory where they are to be worked up. They are stripped,
aud then deprived of their tufts in various ways. One of the best con-
sists in placing the bundles of canes on a platform, by the side of which
they place some kind of a box or other receptacle. The workman,
drawing towards him the stalks, cuts off successively the tufts, which
fall to his right in the box. These are then taken away, and placed to
dry with care. The least moisture which shows itself will deteriorate
the seed.
The separation of the seed is accomplished with flails, or thrashing
machine of some sort. The heads which bear the grain being of a
-very woody nature, may be employed as kindling to feed the fire under
the boilers. The canes of the sorgho, when the season is propitious,
that is to say, when it does not rain, may be preserved some consider-
able time. It is much better, in this case, to leave them with their
tufts, and not to strip them, except at the very time when they are to
be used ; or, as in Algeria, the plants may be left in the field where
they grew, as also in the southern district of France. In that case the
panicles are removed for fear of loss of the seed. Unfortunately, these
means are not sufficiently general and positive. They can never place
at our disposal more than two months of time, and that generally ig
280 APPENDIX.
not sufficient for the manufacture. It is to be hoped that experiments
may be undertaken for the preservation of the canes in pits or by
other methods. The preservation of the juice as M. Vialle practices,
merits some commendation, and offers a great field for research, and
much reward for the labors bestowed upon it. After several years of
experiment, it is probable that experience on one part, and researches
and investigation on the other, will resolve, in a satisfactory manner,
this problem of prolonging, for four or five months, the season for dis-
tilling the sorgho.
It has been said, with a certain degree of reason, that in the South
and Algeria, the harvesting and treatment of the sorgho coinciding
with the vintage, which occupies all the hands, there would, in that
case, be for our farmers a great difficulty to be overcome. Let us ob-
serve, however, that the harvest of the sorgho is very simple, that it
will be very much lightened by the addition of mechanical appliances,
and that, after all, it is possible, though, in some degree, restrained, to
retard the epoch for manufacture. Finally, as to suitability of soils,
the sorgho will not find itself adapted to exactly the same localities,
and thus the difficulty would be obviated.
Finally, admitting the fact that a real embarrassment is caused by
the coincidence of the time for these two harvests, there will not result
from it other than a very good effect. The introduction into the
South of agricultural machines for taking care of the sugar sorgho ;
for every one hearing this plan spoken of, and wishing to profit by the
advantages which it brings, will be obliged to make use of machines
to be drawn by animals. On the other hand, the other cultivations
will be simplified at the same time, and the vine and the sorgho will
profit by it; whilst, in the other case, the gathering of the crop bunch
by bunch, and the numerous difficulties which manufacturers would
have, would remain almost the same as now. On this subject we will
remark, that it is well to understand that the most minute manual
operations gain vastly by being executed in a systematic manner ; and
the grains of these two harvests, so similar in pecuniary profit, will com-
pel a simplification and systemization heretofore overlooked. In bad
processes of manufacture, with bad utensils, with directors and labor-
ers lacking intelligence, a large portion of time, at the period of harvest,
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 281
is lost. But what a different appearance does a well regulated farm
present.
Before entering upon the details of the application of the sorgho to
general purposes, we will say some words upon the improvement of
. wine, by means of this plant.
It is the custom in bad years, when the latter end of the summer
has been rainy, to add some glucose to the vats, which are in fermen-
tation, for the object of supplying the lacking proportion of sugar,
which has. not been elaborated in the grape in a suitable quantity.
To this end, a few have tried, in different cases, to replace the dregs
by canes of sorgho rudely broken, and very excellent results have
been obtained by this means. We think it useful to recommend this
custom in all cases when the harvest may have turned out bad in the
localities situated near the North. We know, for example, that the
wines of the neighborhood of Paris, contain little of alcohol or acid,
and do not keep well. As to their earthy taste, sometimes very
marked, it generally arises from the excessive quantity of manure,
and not of the best, that is applied to the vine. With the sorgho the
amount of alcohol will be increased, and we will be assured of a longer
keeping if we will perfect the quality of the wine, and very likely
abolish this disagreeable taste of which we have spoken. But to ac-
complish this transformation, this real revolution in the vintages of
Parisian life, what is necessary? Simply to sow in April, some sorgho
in a hot-bed, or in a warm border, replant it in the middle of May, in
a well sheltered corner of the field, exposed to the sun, or even in a
somewhat more exposed situation, if there is not much reason to fear
the effect of the wind. You certainly will not gather from that the
seeds, but you will have good, and very fine stalks, containing, at least,
ten to twelve per cent. of marc; but the possibility of this latter is
proved in the perfect success of the experiments on the sorgho of M.
Jomard, at Lozere, near Palaiseau, and of M. Vilmorin, at Verries.
As a forage plant, the sorgho has a great interest. From the South
to the farthest northern extremity of France, it will be cultivated with
profit for this crop, which it yields in such great profusion. In the south-
ern departments and in Algeria, by the assistanee of irrigation, it will
caquire a great importance, by reason of the abundance of its yield,
282 APPENDIX.
because it will suit exactly by its composition for the nourishment of
milk cows, for which it will undoubtedly replace the beet. It will
compose the food for the females of the races of our working cattle,
which are very poor milkers, almost incapable of nourishing their calves,
and for which it is necessary to furnish, during the time of suckling, the
kind of fodder adapted to the secretion of milk.
The seed, of an elongated spheroidal form, is enveloped in its firmly
adhering valves, which are impregnated with a very intense coloring
matter, found even in the interior portion of the seed. It contains
from ten to twelve per cent. of nitrogenized matter, and about sixty-
six per cent. of starch; a composition which, upon the consideration
of the amount of nitrogen, reminds one of Indian corn. The yield of
seed is large, but not exactly established at the present time; but we
know enough of it to be assured that it could not be inferior to that
of the millets, and of the common kinds of Sorgho, such as broom corn.
We may then calculate upon eighty five to one hundred and forty bushels
(probably, per hectare, two and a half acres,) in ordinary circumstances,
but with good cultivation we may obtain very much more. However,
it is necessary to make, in this respect, an important distinction in the
yield of the seeds of the sorgho. According to the observations of:
science and practice, the saccharine plants are excellently well grown
in the soils composed of vegetable detritus, or humus, not too rich in
mineral salts; plants bearing seeds for food, do not require lands too
much charged with humus, but they allow of the presence of a notable
quantity of mineral salts. Those of the first sort can receive, without
great inconvenience, excessive manuring, provided that they contain
but little of animal and mineral matters. The second, on the other
hand, profit entirely from the presence of these substances, but they do
not require strong manures. The excessive use of these latter, com-
monly results in producing a great excess of straw. From these con-
siderations, it is evident that the sorgho, cultivated especially for its
saccharine principles, will produce seed in quantity very different, ac-
cording as it is cultivated in a soil favoring more or less this crop;
and everything goes to prove that a culture perfect for the elaboration
of the saccharine principles of the vegetable would be singularly in-
S-!
jurious for the formation of seed. It is thus that we explain the very
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 283°
dissimilar appearance of the tufts coming from soils of different nature,
and the great dissimilarity in the yield of seed of the sorgho, as stated
by the different persons who have cultivated it.*
The bulk of the seed of the sorgho sensibly diminishes, when they
are used for feeding; the hull which surrounds them causes a de-
crease of about one third when removed; but this is far from
being a loss. Mr. Sicard has obtained by hulling nearly three bushels
(weighing 175 pounds Troy) one hundred and twenty pounds Troy, of
clean seed, and forty pounds of hulls. Thus a yield of 145 bushels
will divide itself in six thousand two hundred pounds of seed, deprived
of their envelope, and two thousand pounds of shells. As this shell is
susceptible of assuming an important value, it will be always necessary
to remove it from the seed before grinding. The flour obtained would
be much whiter. M: Sicard shows the following result from the
grinding of 2°84 bushels, weighing 174 pounds Troy, the seeds not
hulled :
‘Coarse Bran, - - - - - 35 pounds.
Middling, Sy a - . = - 35 pounds.
Fine Flour, - 2A) 2 - - - 100 pounds.
This flour has a violet hue, very apparent. If bolted with the
greatest care, it is made completely white ; but as it is raised it forms
a dough in which the violet color becomes apparent again. The bread
made from it is also tinted with this disagreeable color, nevertheless it
digests very well, and is very pleasant to the taste. The flour of the
sorgho, mixed with that of wheat, gives a bread of better color, better
raised, with a less gummy feeling when broken than pure sorgho, and
comparable in every point to the ration (?) bread, the color of which
it very much resembles, a fact which will militate against it, by reason
of the habit the public have of according to bread excellence in pro-
portion to its whiteness. Generally speaking, this is entirely wrong,
* Thus Mr. Wray gives 3750 pounds, Troy, of seed from 195,000 pounds of cane.
In Georgia, United States, they have likewise obtained a product of 3750 pounds;
Mr. Hardy, six thousand seven hundred from two hundred and twenty thousand
pounds; Mr. Sicard, eight thousand two hundred from one hundred and sixty thous-
and pounds; M. Itier, 8,888 pounds from 114,000; M. Ture!, nine thousand three hun-
dred pounds of seed; M. Hetet, nineteen thousand pounds from eighty thousand
pounds; M. Vallarino, twenty four thousand trom 256,000 pounds.
284 AP#?ENDIX.
and the bread from coarse flour, (which appears inferior to the inhabi-
tants of cities,) is in fact the most nutritious and the most healthy that
can be used.
But the real use of the seed of the sorgho is not for bread-making ;
it should be consumed upon the farm, in the form of soups and broths,
for the men, or used for fattening cattle. We repeat it, that this plan
may become really profitable, it is necessary that all that part which
is not alcohol, sugar, or dye-stuff, should remain and be returned to the
land, by being used for food and otherwise. The cultivator will ulti-
mately hull his seed and sell the product, which will prove a conside-
rable source of profit. As to all these experiments of mixing the
flours, they have no value. They only indicate the real embarrassment
—a miserable condition. Once for all, let us understand then, well,
that all inferior food, (and the varieties of food of which we are treating
are inferior, since we make an effort to have them pass into use under
the cover of a richer species of food,) should only be consumed indi-
rectly, after having been transformed by cattle into meat, milk, and
cheese. It is well to invent a thousand ingenious artifices, but the
result obtained will only be in proportion to the matters experimented
“pon; and it will never result, by adding to the flour of wheat a third
of the flour of barley or of sorgho, that we will have the value of a
pure flour. Bread made from wheat and barley, from wheat and rye,
is not certainly bad, but it is not of the same degree of excellence as
that from wheat alone. The richness of a food does not depend entirely
upon its composition of azotized matters or fatty matters. It depends
also upon the proportion in which these principles are found associated.
For example, every one knows that the great difficulty in the forma-
tion of a food for stock, resides not only in the choice of the ingredients
which should enter into it, but especially upon the quantity of the dif-
ferent elements introduced. But nature prepares this association in a
manner the most judicious, and according to the laws which, although
little known, are not the less admirable. If then, we break this har-
mony of the proportions of the ingredients of food, we do not do less
than destroy a portion of its nutritive power. The flour of the sorgho
should be given to cattle both cooked and while still warm. Care
must be taken not to feed the seed when rudely broken and cooked
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 285
afterwards, for the dying principle of the hulls has the property of
coloring the bones of the animal, as has been proved by M. de Beau-
regard.
Reserving for the end what we have to say about the dye stuffs from
the hulls of the sorgho seed, we will now pass to the consideration of
the extraction of the sweet juice from its stalk.
We will speak in the first place of the process of M. de Lacoste, by
which small cultivators can make use of their canes for preparing the
molasses necessary for household uses. The stalks being gathered,
they are cut into small pieces, put to boil in a moderate quantity of
water, until they arrive at the consistence of marmalade. The juice
is extracted by pressure, then put back upon the fire, and clarified by
milk of lime, or better, by powdered lime, using about 660 grains to
the kilogramme of juice; then the defecation is finished by using the
whites of eggs. This syrup, thus treated, is put for keeping in earthen
pots, in a place which is neither moist nor warm. This easy and simple
process is €specially valuable to small operators ; when it is proposed
to act upon a large scale, such means are necessarily very insufficient.
In the United States, a planter of Georgia has obtained an average
of 407 gallons of syrup to.the acre (say 4617 litres to the hectare).
He estimates that the price of manufacture should not exceed 10 to 15
cents a gallon, (54 to 81 centimes, for 43 litres,) say 11f. 88c. to 17f.
82c. the hectolitre of syrup.*
The extraction of the sweet juice of the sorgho has for its end the
transformation into sugar and alcohol. We will not occupy ourselves
at this time with the detail of the method for extracting juice after it
has been treated of in our other book, the “ Guide to the Cultivator of
the sorgho.” At the time of writing that, however, we had not suff-
ciently conclusive facts to base a preference for either the one or the
other processes mentioned. Now it is quite different, and it is with a
conscientiousness that we offer the maceration as much preferable to
all other systems in use. We will not enter into the details of this
operation. The limits of this little work prohibit it, and besides they
are mentioned in numerous works upon distillation. It will suffice
merely to present the most important points.
* *Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine, Nov. 1856.
286 APPENDIX.
Before submitting the canes to maceration, it is necessary to prepare
them. They are readily broken and then submitted to the action of
stalk-crushers, which increase their state of division, and tear apart the
fibers containing the sweet juice. Then the latter is carried to the
maceration vat. We recommend for this operation the employment
of the dregs, that is to say, of the liquid remaining after the distillation
of the juice previously treated. By this particular method, almost all
the saline matters and the (?) immediate principles, fix themselves in
the residue, which increase the elementary richness, at the same time
that the acids contained in the dregs acting upon the bruised canes,
facilitate the displacement of their sweet juice. Finally, an economy
of water is made which is insignificant in consideration ; but what
merits more attention is, that we have no longer to fear the influence
of waters charged with sulphate of lime, so destructive to fermentation.
The residues arising from the system of Champannois, (maceration
with the use of dregs,) are most precious for agriculture,and much
preferable to the bagasse of the mills, containing more of sugar, it is
true, but less of salts and of fatty matters, and besides being more
woody. With maceration, the fibers by the action of heat and acid,
cause the commencement of a change which renders them more assimi-
lable for cattle. The residues may be used by mixing them with dry
forage and leaving them for a day, or a day and half, in a tub, until a
slight fermentation is commenced, which flavors the mass. We have
thus a very agreeable forage for cattle, and particularly excellent for
fattening stock. To complete our remarks upon the extraction of the
juice of the sorgho, we will say a few words concerning the process of
F. Bourdais, an intelligent distiller from Algeria. He allows the pan-
icles to remain upon the stalks, and causes the entire plants to pass
under the cylinders of his mill, and then submits them all to maceration.
The action of warm water then determining the transformation into
sugar of the starch contained in the seed, he is enabled to make it of
use for the production of alcohol, and by a single operation, at the
same time that he economizes the cutting of the tufts, the stripping,
moving, carting, and the trouble of the preparation of a certain quan-
tity of malt to assist in fermentation.
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 287
CHAPTER III.
DISTILLATION.
THE sweet juice or vesou being obtained, we propose now to give
directions for transforming it into alcohol. Under the head of distil-
lation, we will remark, at first, that this operation is divided into two
separate ones, entirely characteristic the one from the other, although
closely united, namely, fermentation and distillation. From habit, the
first is commonly considered as a very secondary matter, as spontane~
ously rising without need of much care, whilst in reality it demands
close attention, and it is only upon its being well conducted that the
success and the profit of the whole speculation depends. We may be
very certain that a bad process of fermentation will never give an ex-
cellent result, however much may be the perfection of the apparatus
made use of for the manufacture. In all matters, the end is commen-
surate with its antecedents, and a fault is much more grave as it is
committed nearer to the beginning of a process.
Thus we have fermentation, having for its end the transformation
into alcohol of the saccharine matter; the second distillation having
for its end the extraction and concentration of the alcohol. A
good fermentation demands as its first conditions: 1st. That it should
be rapidly accomplished, providing that we avoid the ill effects of an
injurious precipitancy. 2d. That it may be continued in such a way
that the distillation can proceed with uniformity. 3d. That the juice
shall not be too dense nor too watery. 4th. That the liquid possesses
sufficient heat, but we must strictly guard against such conditions as
will produce a too great elevation of temperature. We will remark
here, that the danger of acetification of the juice increasing with the
fermentation more rapid, we should in this case make use of quite shal-
low vats, with a large surface, with which a minimum of heat is neces-
sary to Jeactstah the conversion of the sugar into alcohol. As to
what concerns the particular dispositions for the process of the opera-
tion, they should be necessarily subordinate to the fundamental rules
288 APPENDIX.
which we have laid down, and never to depart from the perfection of
detail which is suggested by practice.
The ferment to make use of admits of certain discrimination ; for,
although it may be proved that the juice of the sorgho maintains its
fermentable principles in itself, as its action is too weak, it is
indispensable to hasten it by artificial means. Brewers’ yeast, which
is made use of commonly, has the fault of often giving a bad taste to
the products arising from distillation, an effect which is lessened,
it is true, by a continuous system; but the juice of the sorgho, as we
learn from M. Pezery, reproduces a large quantity of yellowish
ferment, presenting a great analogy to the yeast of beer in the form
of its globules, and possessing also the same stimulating properties.
Here, then, we have a ferment already to our hand, which may be
made use of, not only for its legitimate end, but the surplus of which
can be profitably used by bakers. We cannot conclude our notice of
the matters which relate to the fermentation, without saying a word
upon the use of sulphuric acid. It is well understood to-day, that the
addition of this acid in the proportion of one half thousandth part to
one and a half thousandth parts, favors the transformation of the
sugar into glucose,* and prevents the viscous fermentation. This last
property should be taken into consideration, when, at the end of the
season, we have upon our hands only canes which are more or less
damaged, one is obliged to operate upon juices of which the fermen-
tation is irregular, and sometimes causes very prejudicial accidents.
Finally, experience has proved that the residues of fermentation,
where the sulphuric acid is employed, are more profitable for cattle.
Let us remark further, with M. Beaudement,t that all fermentation
cannot be carried on without acid or its equivalent ; if it is not put in,
it forms itself at the expense of the sugar and of the alcohol; and so
positive is this, that the fermentations made without the addition of
acid are more acid at the end than those where it has been added.
The sugar of the juice having been changed into alcohol, it is neces-
* M. Du Bronfaut, who since 1825 has known this influence, apprises us also that
the acids have a favorable action upon the reproduction of an energetic yeast, capable
of being used in the other fermentations of juices.
+ Report upon the Beet Distilleries, 1855 and 1856, made to a Commission of the
Society of Agriculture, by M. Beaudement, p. 58.
THE SUGAR SORGHO. 289
sary then to extract the product by means of a distilling apparatus.
Here presents itself the important question of the choice of an appa-
ratus. We acknowledge our great perplexity in resolving this
question, being quite ready to acknowledge that we do not know the
apparatus answering to all the exigencies of the manufacture upon
the farm; but, however, we will say, procure a simple apparatus,
economising fuel, accomplishing much, and at a relatively low price.
Avoid, by all means, too great cheapness. It is often accompanied by
very grave evils, which reveal themselves without any room for
improvement, at the most critical time. All things being equal, and
taking into account the particular situation of a distillery next to a
farm, it is much better to spend a little mores and have a good useful
apparatus.
Manufacturing industry may find in the collection of Messrs.
Derosne, Du Bronfaut, &c., a most perfect apparatus, but rural
industry, perhaps, will not admit of the employment of such perfect
instruments. They require more simplicity, even although the yield
may be less complete. It is but a short time since much attention
has been paid to this rural distillation, and consequently all the details
of this interesting manufacture cannot be considered perfect ; the
success which the Champonnois system has attained is a result sig-
nificant of an attractive future. We do not hesitate to mention to
farmers, as the most perfect system at present used, since it embraces
all the conditions which we have previously used as the funda-
mental principles of a good distillation. 1t is especially in the
extraction of the juicy maceration with the dregs, and in fermentation,
that the superiority of the Champannois system appears. As to
distillation, which isdone with the apparatus of Cellier Blumenthal,
perfected by Derosne, it is far from having been carried to that state
of perfection of which it is capable.
We will proceed to notice certain other details bearing upon the
products of the distillation of the sugar sorgho, their rectification, and
use ; but this will only be a consideration of comparatively slight
value, since it will not be based upon other than very limited facts ;
and, besides, we have mentioned this subject at length in our “ Guide
to the Cultivation of the Sorgho.”
13
290 APPENDIX.
Before passing to the economic part of our subject, we will speak
of some special products furnished by the sugar sorgho. The researches
of many intelligent observers have evinced in this plant certain
coloring principles, susceptible of acquiring a certain importance that
is very likely, so far as regards the hull of the seed; but as to the
stalk, it is not possible to hope it having a good result in practice.
But in advancing this opinion we hope that we will not be understood
as being hypercritical upon the scientific laborers who, analyzing
matter, have extracted from it its most hidden secrets; thus again
proving that man, thanks to the sources of his intelligence, finds in
everything a part worthy of his attention, and that he has only to
interrogate to obtain all he needs; that, in a word, there is nothing
in the whole realm of nature which is entirely without valne. We
may repeat the preceding remarks in considering the cerosie, a waxy
efflorescence which is met with upon some large cereals, the obtain-
‘ment of which is not more possible in the case of the sorgho than with
the sugar cane; nevertheless, it is a substance which merits being
studied, and it is necessary to know it more intimately to follow it
through the different elaborations which it undergoes in the saccharine
stalk.
EXPENSES AND PROFITS OF THE INDUSTRIAL CULTURE OF THE
SORGHO. '
In the following table we have not the pretension to fix in a peremp-
tory manner, a result which the sorgho may give under all circum-
stances. We wish only to present the probable results of a good
culture, with a soil suitable to its growth, and endowed with certain
fertility.
RAW PRODUCT.
1. Sixteen thousand pounds of stalks, which, treated by
maceration, will yield at least seventeen gallons of juice to -
two hundred and seventy pounds, say ten thousand three
hundred gallons of juice, susceptible of giving eight per
cent. of alcohol (in the south of France and in Algeria ;
seven and six per cent. in our central departments) upon
distillation. This, then, is a yield of about eight hundred
THE SUGAR SORGHO.
and twenty gallons of alcohol, at the price of about seventy-
five cents per gallon - - . ad) yes - -
2. Thirty-two thousand pounds of leaves, furnishing a very
excellent green forage, at. two francs a quintal, -
3. Eighty thousand to ninety-five thousand pounds of the
residue after maceration, at one franc fifty centimes the
quintal, about - - - - - - .
4. Seed, one hundred and seventy-four pounds. Three
thousand nine hundred pounds of hulled seed at twenty-five
francs the hundred kilogrammes, - - - =~ =
One thousand two hundred and sixty pounds of hulls for
dyeing, at fifteen francs the hundred kilogrammes, - -
Total, - - = = = E a = y
EXPENSES.
1. Cost of good culture, with manure and irrigation, compris-
ing the cost of gathering, of cartage to the manufactory,
about one hundred dollars to one hundred and forty
dollars, average - - - - + - - -
2. Cost of distillation and rectification, at six dollars to
the twenty-six gallons, - = ee =
3. Hulling the seed, at the price of about twenty cents per
bushel, - - - - - - - - - -
Total, - - 2 i : 1 2 c . f
Raw product, - SY dnt eaters iat Pale eae han ae & St ae ag
Expenses, as elias site eu at a tire . dkikear dane
Net profit, Fe Sn ee ge ee kyu :
291
$625
48
95
$120
$325
$856
325
—_.
$531
Now if, in place of putting twenty dollars, or about seventy-five cents
per gallon, as the price of the alechol, we take its actual value in our
market, that is to say, $1 05 to $1 12, that is at once an increase of
the profit of not less than $240. Admitting that the price of alcohol
may descend to $12 in a few years, still the industrial manufacture of
it by the farmer will bring in a net profit per acre of about $111.
One is tempted, in view of these figures, to think it a species of
292, APPENDIX.
exaggeration ; but, after all, do we not see the distillery of the sugar
beet give $400 to $600 per two anda half acres? How, then, should
it be a matter of surprise that the sorgho, much more rich in saccha-
rine principles, and which, besides, produces seed, should give a profit
much more considerable? The inevitable conclusion then is, that we
raust expect a very considerable reduction in the value of alcohol.
As to a yield in forage, we will say that M. Niviére has obtained
to an acre, (in the department of L’Ain,) 80 quintals dried sorgho
fodder, at $1, worth $80. This is a magnificent result, and we doubt
it will be duplicated in the most of cases.
Conciusion.—When a culture like that of the sugar sorgho, im-
planting itself in a country, commences to be really popularized,
the question is immediately agitated what influence it may exercise
upon the agriculture of that country; if it furnishes products of a
commercial character. The question is mooted if it takes more than
it leaves, that is to say, makes other cultures tributary to itself, at the
same time particular consideration should be given to the state of the
district where it must localize itself.
We have already sufficiently established that the sorgho leaves in
the farm the greatest and most valuable portion of itself, since it is
only the carbonaceous matters which are exported for manufacture.
It remains to show in what manner it will influence the agriculture of
the south of France.
From the progressive tendencies, and the great popularity which
the sorgho is destined to acquire, we may affirm in advance that the
inhabitants will make a considerable sacrifice for its culture. It is
probable that much attention will be given to obtaining residues from
the distillery, the most suitable for feeding stock. Cows supplied
with this forage, and especially with the green sorgho, will be better
milkers and more able to bring up their young; and this cannot be
without its notable influence upon the gradual improvement of their
stock. . The farmers will find themselves supplied with a very prolific
and excellent substitute for the pasture-fields and meadows. These
sippositions may appear measurably problematical; but look at
them in what light we may, we cannot be blind to the fact that the
sorgho is destined to exercise a certain reaction, which, under the
influence of favoring circumstances, wil! eventuate in much good
ALCOIMOLIZATION. 293
The exigencies of the case will demand the establishment of suitable
distilleries organized upon the plan of those already existing in the
southern departments. Weare happy to be able to announce that
projects of this kind are already in process of execution, and that a
large company has been formed whose operations would be as profit-
able as they are vast.
A further advantage of the Chinese Sugar Cane, which it is only
needful for us to make generally understood, is that it will cause the
distillation of wines to completely disappear. Sorgho alcohol once
coming into use, there will be no longer any reason for burning infe-
rior wines, but rather they will necessarily be driven to improving
them, before being able to make them enter into general consumption.
To conclude our work, we call attention to the great effects which the
sugar sorgho is destined to produce in all countries where it is propa-
gated, not only in France, Algeria, Lombardy, Tuscany, but ‘still in
Russia for its southern provinces; and in the United States it isa
question whether this precious plant may not replace the sugar cane.
One of the large planters of Alabama, Dr. Terrill, is making this
year a plantation of some twenty acres. The future presented by the
sorgho is a vast one. Its influence upon our agriculture is marked,
and the efforts of this general company for manufacturing the sorgho
will have a great influence upon the success of the sorgho, and at the
same time we may say upon the progress of southern agriculture, so
backward nntil now, causing it to become, if not the first of our
country, at least one of the most rich and flourishing.
294 APPENDIX.
ALCOHOLIZATION OF THE STALKS OF INDIAN
CORN AND THE SUGAR SORGHO.
BY DURET, CHEMIST, PARIS, 1857.
4
2 2 * # * “ *
Tue plant known under the name of sorgho, has been cultivated for
a long time in France, but is not designated under that name in the
west. It has been known under the name of broom corn, and under
the name of millet, in Gascony and the department of Landes. In
the early stages of growth, our indigenous sorgho differs very little
from corn; has the some appearance, same leaf, same rapidity of
growth. In proportion as the plant grows, the peculiar appearance
of each is manifested. The leaves of the sorgho are less developed,
its stalks more hardy, more woody, grow to a. greater height, whilst
those of the corn, more tender and full, preserve the appearance of
the sugar cane. This circumstance, which is met equally in the new
sugar sorgho, causes us to think that it would be without doubt
preferable to corn for the manufacture of sugar, because its juice
should contain less mucilage. Every one knows that this vegetable
product is injurious in the manufacture of sugar. The following
article upon the sugar sorgho we find in the journal L’utile et
Vagréable, for the month of April, 1855 :
“The sugar sorgho (holeus saccharatus) has been introduced into
France by M. Montigny, who has brought this plant from China,
where it is cultivated like grain. It is there designated under the
name of sugar cane of the north of China. The Chinese Tartars
make great use of it. At the great exposition of Moscow, in 1852,
some of the stalks of this kind of sorgho were exhibited under the
title Précieux Gaoutlam de la Chine graminé. Various experiments
in the cultivation of this plant have been made in several of our depart-
ments, from which it has been proved that it ripens perfectly in the
south of France.
“A report of the Agricultural Assembly of Toulon, to the Minister
of War, has communicated curious details upon the sugar sorgho in
respect to the agricultural industry, and to the manufacture of sorgho,
ALCOHOLIZATION. 295
and also of distillation. The different experiments made in Le Var
have given very important practical results, proving that the vesou or
juice obtained from the sorgho is endowed with an alcoholic richness
much superior to that of all other substitutes for the vine.
«The sugar beet contains 8 to 10 per cent. of saccharine matter.
The sorgho, as has been proved by the experiments at Verrieéres, by
M. Vilmorin, have given 16 to 20 per cent., from which can be
obtained 8 to 10 litres of pure alcohol, appropriate for all industrial
and domestic use ; and as this precious cereal, an excellent nourishment
for the stock, which eat it greedily, developes itself with extreme
rapidity, the same where irrigation is rare and difficult, it will be
readily understood that this is destined to play an important part in
our cultivations, and especially in those of Algeria. M. Turrel, the
author of the report, says that in accepting for France the yield
obtained at Verriéres by M. Vilmorin, with the sorgho cultivated on
his estate, we would have the following result. The sorgho furnishes
at a minimum of 50 per cent. weight of its stalks in sweet juice. As
a minimum yield, calculated according to the result at Verriéres, would
be about 30,000 kilogrammes to the hectare. From it could be
extracted at least 21 hectolitres of alcohol of a value of 3,780 francs,
which would give to the hectare a yield that no other agricultural
product can hope to equal. Let us add, that the yield in Provence
and in Algeria would be probably more considerable than that
obtained at Verriéres. M. Vilmorin notices a remarkable superiority
of the sorgho: the purity of its juice is such that brandies of the
first quality coming from it are sufficiently pure to be directly put into
manufacture. M. De Beauregard, in a recent report to the Assembly
of Toulon, has shown that having distilled the juice of the sorgho
fermented by the assistance of the grape stems, or of the bagasse of the
cane itself, he has obtained an alcohol of excellent flavor, which has
been sold in the Marseilles market at the ordinary price of other
alcohols (200 francs the hectolitre of 316). Several cultivators, of
Haute Marne are also undertaking the extensive culture of the sorgho.
One of them, M. Ponsard, has made for three years experiments upon
this plant. ‘ From it,’ says he, ‘I have arrived at the conviction that
the holecus saccharatus cannot ia the climate of Paris be cultivated
on a large scale for manufacture. It will have an enormous yield as
296 APPENDIX.
a forage, but as a sugar plant it will only be very lucrative at the
south. This has been well understood by the seedsmen of Paris, who
have sowed in Provence their stocks of seed for sale. This plant is
very prolific in seed. It is probable that in a very little time it will
be sold at as low a price as that of the common sorghos. Of an
easy culture and extraordinary hardiness ; considerable yield in three
different respects, seed, forage, and sugar ; these are the advantages
presented by this plant.
“Tts syrup is without any unpleasant taste ; its alcohol very pure,
and without a trace of empyreumatic oils, so abundant in the alcohol
of the beet. The fermented juice makes a very agreeable drink. M.
Vilmorin has made of it a cider quite analogous to the cider from
apples. He has mixed with it, in variable quantities, various other
ciders and drinks made from fruits, and always with a decided advan-
tage.
« From the necessity of not covering the seed of this plant too deep,
in order to facilitate the germination, the sowings should be made on a
hot-bed, to preserve them from the birds, and other thieving animals.”’*
M. Ponsard adds: “It is to be hoped, and I am shortly expecting
this result to happen, that the cultivation in the climate of Paris will
render this plant more precocious, and that some varie*ies will be dis-
covered which will perfectly ripen their seed in this latitude. Under
these conditions, the holcus sacciharatus will take its appropriate and
important position. From the cultivation of a small plot of this seed,
a person could have seeds for his poultry, forage for his cow, and an
agreeable and abundant drink for himself.”
We will mention, in concluding our remarks concerning the trials of
the cultivation of the sorgho, which have been made at Hyéres by M.
Rautonnet : “The plant, in ordinary conditions, has furnished 30,000
kilogrammes of juice to the hectare—a yield which exceeds that of the
beet. One stalk, of 450 grammes, gives 150 grammes of juice, con-
taining 10 to 15 per cent. of sugar.”
* We do not agree with M. Bensart, that the culture of the sorgho, which is entirely
like that of broom corn, should be protected in the same manner. The transplanting
of it will injure its ulterior development. To preserve the seed against birds, it is
much better to watch the crops, as is the custom with other seeds, until the plant
comes out of the ground and has acquired sufficient strength to defend itself against
their voracity. To expedite this matter, the seed may be steeped before sowing.
ALCOHOLIZATION. 297
Before going further, it appears to us useful to compare the different
sugar-bearing vegetables, to glance at their yield of sugar.
1. The sugar cane gives, by the old process - 14 per cent.
By the new apparatus, perfected hy Derosne
ie Wyle) ee a We ea ae rn oe
2. The sorgho cultivated in the South - soe NL Af
3. Maple tree - - - - - - 4 «
Be Ree ra spre oe) see a a
But, in practice, obtain only - - - Ge &
5. The Jerusalem artichoke, from 15 to16 per
cent. - - - . - . Sines ue
6. Corn cultivated at Paris Se ae ck Babee
7. Corn cultivated at New Orleans Bir ee, eae
If this last figure is reliable, which we do not greatly doubt, the
corn cultivated in the south of France will give a result almost equiv-
alent. It will be understood that their conditions of growth are
similar in the corn as in the sorgho. In rainy seasons, a juice con-
taining more of water, should, by that very fact, contain a less pro-
portion of sugar ; which explains the remarkable differences between
the analysis made by different experimenters. Here, then, we are in
possession of two plants equally interesting and equally productive of
sugar; for there exists between them some differences upon the score
of yield. This would only be matter of greater or less quantity ; but
their expressed juices are, chemically, the same. These two varietics
have between them a relationship so similar, that it should not be an
astonishing matter to see them giving similar products. We have
seen, in the article extracted from the journal, L’utile et l Agreéab’e,
that M. Vilmorin has made with the fermented juice of the sugar
sorgho a cider of good quality. The fermented liquor of corn would
be quite similar to it. What confirms this fact is, that in Chili, and
in a part of South America, according to the saying of travelers,
they make with the stalk of maize a species of fermented liquor called
chica, which has, they say, the appearance and taste of a real cider
from apples. They add, that it is in common use in the households ;
and that, distilled, it furnishes a brandy very agreeable, which has
quite a similarity to rum. With these facts before us, then, we advise
15*
298 APPENDIX.
the reader, that in the following considerations we will not distinguish
between the two plants in all that respects the time of their maturity,
their leafing, the grating of their stalks, the pressure of the pulp, and
the use of the residues. They should be treated in the same manner
throughout. .... . And seeing all the good that is said of the sugar
sorgho and the articles published in its praise, we do not understand
why maize is passed by unnoticed. Is this a matter of speculation, or
a furor for a new product, such as is produced every day with all new
things. We are ignorant on the subject. We are far from dissuad-
ing agriculturists from undertaking the cultivation of the sugar sorgho.
We are much pleased, on the contrary, to give it a decided support,
and we place it in the first rank among our recent agricultural acquisi-
tions; but these advantages should not hinder us from rendering to
each other product, of a similar nature, the justice which is their due.
While awaiting, then, the generalization of the culture of the sorgho
in our southern provinces, we beg that the cultivators will distil the
stalks of the corn. Besides the product in brandy, they will find in
the residue the means of increasing the food for their stock, in a
country where it is generally scarce and dear. Let proper attention
be given to both maize and the sugar sorgho; the results will be about
the same. The capital point to obtain complete success is to seize
the exact favorable moment for gathering the stalks. If too soon,
the plant contains too much mucilage and gum ; if too late, the. seed
has consumed part of the sugar contained in the stalk ; at least, it is
so in the maize.
It is probable that, at a subsequent day, there will be erected in
the southern districts manufactories for treating the sugar sorgho,
which we believe fully to be more appropriate for the manufacture of
sugar than corn, because we judge that its juice contains less of
mucilage and gum.* The yield of the sugar sorgho being equal to
* Our author has here made a very important distinction between the maize and
the sorgho. The sugar of the corn, after the ripening of the seed, is very rapidly and
considerably reduced; but with the sorgho, if we may judge from the experiments
made in Algiers by M. Hardy, not only does it not lose in its proportion of sugar by
standing in the field after it has attained a complete maturity, but, if the tufts be cut
off, the juice will actually show on the saccharometer a perceptible increase in
strength.—H. §. O.
ALCOHOLIZATION. 299
that of the sugar cane, the planters of the south can, with profit,
compete against the sugars from the beets and from the colonies.
Undertakings of this sort would give very large profits, doubtless.
Not only is the sugar sorgho more rich than the beet, but it ripens
much more rapidly than the sugar cane. The agreeable use that can
be made of the molasses and the pulps of this plant, place it, in this
regard, in a position unequaled by others.
What we have said concerning the erection of manufactories of
sugar in the south of France for working up the crops of sugar sorgho,
should be considered more as a hope than as a prophecy to be immedi-
ately realized. In these unenlightened districts, ingenious ideas applied
to agriculture are so scarce that we have but small hope of a speedy
realization of enterprises such as these. = scan eagle
EXTRACTION OF THE JUICE OF THE MAIZE AND OF THE SUGAR SORGHO.
To extract juice of sugar bearing plants, there is, independent of the
pressure of which we have already spoken, an expeditious process.
This is maceration. This system has been applied with success in the
manufacture from the beet. It has been found that those treated thus
are purer, ferment better, and suffer less change than when they are
obtained by prolonged pressure. Independent of regularity, which is
the distinct property of maceration, the treatment of beets by this
method is an excellent one in more ways than one. On the one hand,
the acidulated liquid boiling increases the sugar in the beets, sacchari-
fying them. On the other hand, it raises the temperature of the juice,
and disposes them to undergo a good fermentation. Maceration, then,
is particularly advantageous and applicable to the beet distilleries,
nearly all of which are in operation at the North, and at work on the
coldest days of the year. But it is entirely different with the maize
and the sorgho, as to distillation. Being accomplished at the South,
and oftentimes with the greatest heat of weather, the warming of the
juice is not necessary, any more than saccharification. The sugar
being entirely formed in these plants, maceration in cold water would
have the effect of weakening these juices. It is just upon these points
of consideration that the press is preferable for it, because they yield
then the sweetest and densest juices. In this condition they present
800 APPENDIX.
less obstacle to fermentation and distillation ; although, it may be known
that the more sugar is dissolved in water, the more prompt and complete
is its conversion into alcohol, nevertheless, this absence of water can be
compensated for by a temperature more elevated, with the addition of
an increase of ferment. As the still retorts already in operation in the
vine districts operate mildly, and as we do not wish to change them,
it is much preferable, it will be understood, to distil the juices ferment-
ed at ten to twelve degrees of the saccharometer, than liquors of five to
six degrees, like those of the beet, obtained by maceration.
FERMENTATION.
The juice of the sugar sorgho contains truly its ferment in but small
quantity. It is well, then, to add to it, and even to force the quantity
to operate with more rapidity. This celerity is especially necessary
when the liquor is destined to be put to immediate distillation. It
would be quite the contrary, though, if this kind of cider is desired to
be preserved for a long time. The quantity of the fresh yeast of beer
to use, is about 500 grammes to the hectolitre of juice in fermentation,
Tn those districts far removed from the cities, it will often be diffi-
cult to procure the yeast of beer fresh enough, because the brewers are
very scarce. To obviate this inconvenience, which may present itself
in spite of all possible precautions, we propose to replace it, with
the lees of wine, red or white, pressed and putrified a little, that may
be dissolved in the juice in the same proportion as would be the yeast.
It is well to notice that white lees have less action than red ones, and
that, consequently, there would be needed a greater quantity of those
to produce the same effect. Yeast, when it can be procured, should
be preserved in a cool place until the moment of using it; otherwise
it will pass into putrefaction, and will no longer be good for use.
The fermentation of the juice may be sufficiently well done in the
great tuns used for wine in distilling districts. It is well to remark
that fermentation is accomplished more readily and completely in ves-
sels of great, capacity, than in those which are smaller. A more ele-
vated temperature is also necessary for this latter. However, in the
absence of the first, we may make use of the second, but it is necessary
to practice the method employed for wines destined for the boiler.
ALCOHOLIZATICN. 301
These wines are fermented naturally, and without tlic use of dregs, in
the large vats, which are partially filled. This process presents two
advantages: the first is escaping the loss of the liquid, which wastes
nothing at the bung during the tumultuous fermentation ; the second
is rendering the fermentation more prompt, by reason of the swect
liquid being found in contact with a larger mass of air. This circum-
stance is very important for the production of alcohol. Every one
knows that if wine preserves its sweetness at the moment of introduc-
ing it in the still retort, there is a loss for the distiller. This circum-
stance indicates that all the sugar is not decomposed, that is to say, not
converted into alcohol. When the tumultuous fermentation is termi-
nated, it is not proposed to distil the liquor immediately ; it may be
drawn from the tuns and transferred into the casks, in order to escape
the evaporation which would take place in large vessels but partially
closed.
FERMENTING HOUSES.
We will say but little upon these fermenting rooms. Their tempera-
ture should be maintained at about twenty-five to thirty degrees. Jn
the summer it would be well to take certain precautions not to suffer
this to be exceeded. For this purpose, it will be well to open the
doors and windows during the night, and closing them at an early
hour in the morning. In order to maintain the fermenting room at a
constant temperature, it should not be entered except when absolutely
necessary, and kept tightly closed. It is well understood that all we
say here only applies to distilling practice in the summer time, upon
the maize and sugar sorgho, intended to be fed to cattle afterwards,
of which the juice are extracted previously to make them ferment and
distil This manufacture, beginning in the month of June, should con-
tinue throughout the months of July, August and September, and be
completed about the end of October.
As to the distillation of the maize and the sugar ‘sorgho, from which
the seed is removed, as it is doue in the fall, it will be no longer neccs-
sary to guard against an excessive temperature. It may be useful in
certain cases to warm the place artificially, and even to warm the juice
802 APPENDIX.
To avoid the constant purchase of new quantities of beer yeast, it
would be well to fit against the vats some box or receptacle in such a
way that the ferment which escapes from the bunghole can be received
in the vessel placed below it. ‘This ferment will do for subsequent
fermentations, in place of wine lees or beer yeast. On the same princi-
ple, the ferment which floats on the surface, in the large vats, may be
employed ; and the whole of this should be kept in a cellar until the
moment of using them. When it is thought proper to wash the pulps,
or parenchymas, in place of pure water, vinasse, or others, should be
employed, and then the pulps should: be again put in press. ‘These
wines, and those cooled containing their ferment, will permit of
diminishing by so much as the quantity is judged necessary for a good
fermentation. To warm the juice of the maize and of the sugar sorgho
when it is judged necessary, a large cauldron will be suitable, such a
one as is frequently found on estates. In the opposite case, the caul-
dron which is used for distilling wines would be made use of, always
taking, however, the precaution of making it perfectly clean before
using it.
In place of selling the ciders of the sorgho manufactured for the
still retort, to professional distilleries, it will be much more profitable
for the planters to distil it themselves. "We recommend, then, all who
shall undertake this industry, to purchase apparatus of the kind we
notice in another place. This practice is much preferable to that in
use at the South. There the planter is obliged to take care of his
wines, and experience the loss resulting from the presses up to the
very moment of giving them to the distiller. Furthermore, the costs
of transportation, even to the distillery, are to be met by him, all of
which diminish by so much his profits. The prices of the proper stills
are quite moderate, and they give excellent yields of brandy. As they
are not at all complicated, or liable to get out of order, the most
ordinary hands will usually be able to conduct them after a few days’
practice.
The method which we have adopted for the distilling of the sorgho
is so simple, that we really believe that its general adoption presents
but very slight difficulty. Each one can, with our work in his hand,
undertake this industry. A reference to the list of utensils indis
ALCOHOLIZATION. o03
pensable for the work, will show to our readers that the expenses to be
met are really insignificant.
List of Apparatus necessary for the Distillation of the Sorgho, in those
countries where the Still Retorts are already in operation.
1. A rasping mill, such as is used in the sugar beet factories,
but supplied with stronger teeth, because of the stalks
of the sorgho being harder SE AGS! SO B58 OO
2. A centigrade thermometer - - - - - 60
3. A saccharometer - - - - - - - - 70
4. An alcohol meter” - - - - - - - 70
About - - - $52 00
Thus the principal expense will be confined to the rasping mill, of
which the price is moderate, and within the reach of almost every one.
For small cultivators, a mill at the price of thirty dollars to thirty-
two dollars will be sufficient.
Agricultural Distilleries.
The still retorts, with which the cognac brandies are made, are,
with trifling alterations, those which have been used for a hundred
years past. They consume much fuel, and perform their work very
slowly. Still, in spite of these defects, it must be that they offer, in
practice, a real superiority as to the qualities of the brandies, since
‘the merchants, the supreme judges in these matters, continue to prefer
the products of these still retorts to those of more perfect apparatus.
What contributes to maintain and perpetuate the existence of these
alembics in the vine districts, is their simplicity and their low price~
advantages which coyer up all their defects. Thus, to these two cir-
cumstances, the distillation has taken a wide range in the departments
of which we speak. There is scarcely a single small operator making
50 to 60 casks of wine who does not purchase a little still, with which
he converts his wine into brandy. These circumstances have urged us
304. APPENDIX.
to advise tneir general adoption; but to do away with a portion of
the inconvenience attendant upon their use, we have caused the ap-
paratus to undergo an improvement which, without making them lose
anything of their primitive simplicity, procures two important results
—an economy, more or less, of fuel; and a double production of
brandy in the same space of time. By this new plan our still gives
brandy of 20° to 22° of the first quality, while the old way only
gives these results after two successive distillations of the same pro-
duct. The capacity of the apparatus is thus doubled, by an expense
which does not exceed two hundred francs on an average.
Expense attending the purchase and erection of an Improved Agricul-
tural Distillery.
1. A cucurbite, or copper cauldron, containing 890 gallons,
about eG tae iS aT rat Ss eet See
2. A copper wine heater, of the same capacity -~ - 14 00
3. A copper condenser, of 150 quarts . - - &- 54 00
4, A wooden cooler, bound with iron - - - - 12 00
5. A copper worm -~ - LPS . - - 40 00
§. A little pump, to introduce the fermented juice into the
cauldron - - - - - - - - - 8 00
7. A rasping mill and its apparatus” - oe - 50 00
B. Cost of erection - - - - - - - - 20 00
Total- - - - $290 00
With this apparatus, which should operate night and day, according
to established custom, three heatings a day of twenty-four hours would
be made, and about 240 gallons of liquid distilled ; but, as our maize
and sorgho wines contain double the alcohol as those of the beet, it is
about 475 to 500 gallons that would be worked up in this lapse of
time. This quantity of fermented juice would give about 16 per cent.
of sugar; an average for the sorgho of about 38 gallons of brandy,
at 50 degrees centesimal; and for corn, about 12 per cent., about 30
gallons of brandy of the same quality.
ALCOHOLIZATION. 305
For the Distillation of 2,500 lbs. of Sorgho Stalks, per day of twenty-four
hours.
To gather the stalks, cleanse them, rasp them, press them,
ferment the juice, and carry on the retorts, there will
be needed an overseer- - - - - - - $0 60
An intelligent workman -— - - atin . - 50
Pepering mia ep ae oe etn aS 40
Two women, at 13 frances each - - - - - 50
A little boy, lO or18 yearsold - - - - = - - 30
Interest on the material used, at 10 per cent., calculated on
$400, (the season being about 150 days,) an average,
per day - . : Say ae : : 20
Wood orcoal -~— - - - Eek PS beet: 40
A hectare, (about 23 acres,) sown in sorgho, should give a
minimum of 160,000 lbs. Troy of stripped stalks. We
value 2,500 Ibs. at - - - - - - - 4 00
Totalexpense perday - - - - - $690
265 lbs. of stripped stalks would give, according as the season
had been dry or wet, from 50 to 60 per cent. of juice—
that is to say, 130 to 160 gallons, which, added to the
water necessary for liquefying the pulps, would carry
the quantity of liquid to about 275 gallons, which would
furnish 45 gallons of brandy, at 19 degrees of Cartier.
This brandy, by reason of its quality, may be estimated
at about 55 cents per gallon - -~— - Se Sis 24 00
Deduct the expenses, $6 90, profit perday- - - - 1710
Multiply by 150 days, the profit during the season - - $2565 00
Distillery of Cognac Brandies.
We have mentioned that the distillation of cognac brandies is done
with very simple and cheap apparatus. We give here the description
306 APPENDIX.
and the price, to afford an idea of what may be done with very little
capital.
Cot of Purchase and Erection of the Distillertes in Saimtogne and
? Angoumois.
A copper cauldron of about 65 gallon, . . . «. $70 00
A wash heater, of same ee of wood bound with iron, 10 00
A copper worm, ‘ A : : : soy gers OO
A wooden cooler, bound with j ion, ‘ : 7 10 00
4 wooden tubs to receive the pr oducts of distillation, ac) 200
Cost of erection, . ; : ; ‘ : . : 10 00
$140 00
With this apparatus, three charges a day of 24 hours can be made,
which is about three barrels of 46 gallons. For fuel, only wood or peat
can be used. Peat charcoal cannot be used for this purpose, because
in burning it throws a very large quantity of heat, and would burn,
on the bottom of the cauldron, the leaves, seeds, and other heavy
matters which it is the custom to leave in the wine. These foreign
matters, precipitated by their specific gravity to the bottom of the
still, would be carbonized, and would give to brandy an empyreumatic
taste. In spite of the evident imperfection of this apparatus, not-
withstanding the time and fuel which they require, they accomplish
their work in a satisfactory manner, and give good results—results
which are generally appreciated: for all the Cognac brandies are
made with an apparatus of this sort. We, however, beg the planters to
avoid the use of the wooden wine heater, because of the loss of alcohol
which it would evidently suffer to be made by the escape of the
steam through the staves. It would be well to replace this with a
copper vessel, or at least one of iron, which would be more reasonable
in price. With this modification, this apparatus can be employed
wisn profit in the small manufactories. They can distil three hun-
dred barrels of about sixty-five gallons in the space of a season of
about five months, or a hundred and fifty days in duration.
ALCOHMOLIZATION. 307
Price of an improved distillery for operators on a small scale.
Copper cauldron of about 55 gallons, - - - $50 00
Sheet-iron wine heater of the same capacity, - - 30 00
Copper worm, - - - - - - 30 00
Copper condenser of 14 gallons, - . - - 20 00
A small pump, - - - - - - 1000
A wooden cooler, - - - - - - 10 00
A rasping mill and its apparatus, - - - - 40 00
Cost of erection, - - = - - - 30 00
Total, - - - = $220 00
Thus for $200 to $240, a small distillery could be had, embracing
all the advantages of that which we propose in another place, but
which would do one third less work, in consequence of the reduced
size of the apparatus.
Cider of the Sugar Sorgho, ,or the Maize, for Consumption and
for Commerce.
Those who wish to undertake this manufacture, should give more
care to the production of these sorts of cider, in order to give them
the property of keeping, equal to that of wine.
Below we give our formula. We can be certain that it will give
good results. We suppose the juice at 8, 10, or 12 degrees of
density, and the cask of a capacity of about sixty gallons. In this case
especially, the operator shouid be provided with a thermometer and
saccharometer, to weigh the juice and toassure himself of their tem-
perature before putting them into fermentation.
RECIPE.
1 kilogramme, 500 grammes (3 pounds) of good pulverised argols, (the
raw tartar scraped from the cask of either red or white wine) ; 500
308 APPENDIX.
grammes, equal to about 1 1b. of grapes coarsely bruised ; about 2 Ibs.
8 oz., Troy, of fresh yeast of beer, or an equal quantity of good wine lees,
white or red, a little putrefied. When the lees of wine are used for
supporting fermentation, the dose of raw tartar is lessened, and
in this case would be reduced one kilogramme, 2 Ibs. 8 oz. only.
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE.
- Put the tartar and the rapes in a hundred quarts of juice, that you
carry to the boiling point, (in warm weather it is not necessary to make
the juice boil.) After some boilings throw the whole into a receptacle
of a capacity of 65 gallons, and finish by filling with cold sorgho juice.
Before putting it into the fermentation, let the temperature fall to
25 or 30 degrees centigrade. Assure yourself of the actual degree
by the use of the thermometer. The next step is to take from the
vessel two or three quarts of liquid, add to it the two and two third
pounds Troy, of fresh yeast form a mixture of it and throw it back
into the vessel. With a stick stir it all up together.
Some days after the fermentation shall have ceased, it is necessary
to draw of the cider, which already will have fermented in the large
vat, and place it in the cask, which should be entirely filled.
A month, or two months afterwards, the cider should be sealed up
and then drawn cff with care to deprive it of its lees. Under such
conditions these ciders will be of very excellent quality, and can be
preserved like white wines, to which they bear considerable resemblance.
Like them they will gain in quality by becoming older.
If it is desired to give these ciders a flavor which they do not have,
there may be introduced into the barrel, either before or after the
fermentation, two ounces of powdered iris,* to 65 gallons; or four
ounces of elder berries, or some vanilla. Many farmers may possibly
find this method of manufacturing cider, complicated and embarrass-
ing. .T'o boil a portion of the juice before putting it into fermentation,
seems to them a useless and superfluous thing. However, I insist
upon this portion of our recipe, if it is desirable to operate with cer-
tainty. We are of the opinion, that the same process should be
* Fleur de lis, flag flower.
ALCOHOLIZATION. 809
employed for wines in cool seasons. It is evident that this trouble
may be avoided in the summer, because the end which it is proposed
to accomplish by carrying the juices to boiling, is to make them
ferment at 25 or 30 degrees, the temperature neccssary for a good
fermentation. This degree, we repeat it, is especially necessary for
casks of a small capacity. The larger the vats are made, the less
elevated a temperature is necessary. Thus for tuns of a capacity
of twenty-five to thirty hectolitres,14 to 15 degrees would be ne-
cessary for a good fermentation.
Recipe for making a very agreeable beer with the juice of the sorgho
or of Maize.
The juice is boiled with about one Ib. of hops per twenty-five gallons,
or ten oz., Troy, according as it is preferred to be more or less bitter.
The juices are cooled to 25 or 30 degrees centigrade. Then they are
put in contact with the yeast, (as we have mentioned for the cider,)
one lb. of quite fresh yeast to the twenty-five gallons.
As soon as the tumultuous fermentation is quiet, the liquid is
drawn off, and the second operation is ready to proceed in the same
manner as for the cider.
Then it is clarified with gelatine, or the white of an egg, in the ordi-
nary matter.
As will be seen, this process is very simple, and nothing can be more
economical. In this manner will be obtained, at a very low price, a
fermented drink very healthy and agreeable, which will present the
appearance and flavor of the most approved white beers. It suffices
simply to add to it a little caramel.
New Process of Fermentation, and preservation to an indefinite time,
maturing after several days.
The manufacture of the cider at a low price, with a preservative
quality, and that is made by age like wine, will have so important
results for the well being and richness of our agricultural public, that
we have decided to treat it with all the detail that it is deserving of.
810 APPENDIX.
We have already mentioned elsewhere, that the beer manufacturers
of Bavaria were in possession of this secret. Chance, aided by the
very low and suitable temperature of the climate, seemed to have been
the accidental cause of this interesting discovery. Its practical ope-
ration is very simple. It consists in carrying on the fermentation of
the sweet juice at a temperature of nine or ten degrees centigrade, in
shallow vessels with large surface, which are left without any other
care than from contact with atmospheric air.
By these processes, beers, ciders, and wines, acquire a great preserva-
tive quality. They are not at all affected with the variations of the
temperature ; and what is remarkable, they are as perfect some weeks
after fermentation as if they were two or three years old.
To thoroughly comprehend upon what law these good results depend,
it is indispensable to know the phenomena which occur in the alcoholic
and acetic fermentations. The ferments, which are the producers of
the fermentations, are azotized substances, in condition to unite with
oxygen, for which they possess a great affinity. They have, further-
more, the faculty of transmitting the action with which they are
endowed, that is to say, the fermentation, to the sweet alcoholic
liquids with which they are placed in contact ; but the degrees of tem-
perature necessary for these transformations are not the same for these
two different fluids. The degree the most favorable for the conversion
of the alcohol into acetic acid (vinegar), by means of a ferment, lies
between twenty-five and thirty degrees of centigrade ; at nine and ten
it loses completely this faculty, and it is no longer in action upon the
alcohol. On the contrary, the oxidation of the ferment at this low
temperature, does not experience any obstacle—not more than that of
the sweet liquid to which it imparts its action, converting it into alcohol
by means of oxidation or fermentation.
Let us now apply this principle, deduced from the attentive observa-
tion of facts, to the manufacture of wines, as it is practiced. As soon
as the expressed juice of the grapes comes in contact with atmospheric
air, its ferment combines with the oxygen, and it produces at the same
time in the sweet liquid a like phenomenon. - 0107
Ist. Matters insoluble in Water or Nitric Acid.
Silica and a little clay - - : 0:493
Carbonic acid and loss - - - : 0086 2-000
100:000 100-000
3d. Acrp oF THE SorGuHo.
Hygrometric water lost at 130° - - - - 14850
Organic matters and water of combination; not including
nitrogen - - - - . - 79:298
Nitrogen - - . - - - . 2°052
Ashes - - - - - - 3°800
100-000
By a treatment with ether, the seed was found to yield 3:13 per
cent. of oil. Signed,
Hervé Mancon.
Countersigned,
CAVALIER.
SUPPLEMENT
SORGHO AND IMPHEE.
‘THE history of the Sorgho in this country, from the first exhibition
by Mr. Peters of his syrup at the Fair of the United States Agricul-
tural Society in 1856, to the gratifying success of Mr. Joseph 8S.
Lovering, in producing Sorgho sugar of all qualities, and their exhibi-
tion before the same society January 13th, 1858, is fraught with
interest-to the American public. This society has conferred appro-
priate honors upon the two men who have been especially instrumental
in popularizing the Sorgho in the United States ; first, by bestowing
its diploma upon Mr. Peters, and second, by awarding its large silver
medal to Mr. Lovering. As the matter has assumed historical inter-
est, it will perhaps be as well to transcribe from the minutes so much
of the proceedings as relates to the subject :
“The Chair next read a letter from Mr. Joseph S. Lovering, a sugar
refiner of Philadelphia, advising the society of the shipment to them
by him of several boxes of sugar made from the Sorgho, or Chinese
sugar cane; as also some pamphlets embodying the manner and
resu'ts of the experiments.
“ Mr. Oleott, of New York, stated that he had seen and carefully
examined the samples referred to, and had studied the pamphlet that
morning, and congratulated the society that at last the fact was
established that excellent sugar could be made in the Northern States
in large quantity, and at a moderate price. Mr. Lovering had cut
the Gordian knot, and done it in so thorough and scientific a manner, -
2 SUPPLEMENT.
that there was no longer room for a doubt. He claimed that Mr. I.
had earned the thanks of the farmers of America, and as this society
was the representative of its agricultural interests, he should move that
the large silver medal of the society be conferred upon Joseph S.
Lovering.
“Senator Harlan, of Iowa, moved the reference of the matter to a
Special Committee, and this being seconded, the Chair appointed as
such committee Messrs. D. Jay Browne, of the Patent Office, Simon
Brown, of Massachusetts, and Olcott, of New York.
“ The committee retired for consultation, and after a season report-
ed as follows : |
“«The committee appointed to consider the propriety of awarding
the large silver medal of the society to Mr. Joseph 8. Lovering, of
Philadelphia, respectfully report that, having examined the specimens
of sugar presented by him, and the scientific examinations set forth in
his published pamphlet, they recommend that the medal be awarded
to Mr. Lovering, for the care with which his experiments have been
made, and the sample presented ; but your committee do not wish to
be understood as certifying that the manufacture of sugar is as yet
demonstrated to be more profitable than other crops.
‘Simon Brown, Chairman.’
“This report was adopted.”
It must by no means be inferred that Mr. Lovering is the first per-
son who has made sugar of good quality from the Sorgho. Two or
three years ago this was accomplished by Professor Avequin, of New
Orleans, as will be seen from an article from the Bee in another part
of this Appendix. In addition to these, Professors C. T. Jackson and
A. A. Hayes, of Boston, have both made it in small quantity, and re-
ports have been published during the past season of sugar making by
a great number of persons; but Mr. Lovering is entitled to especial
honor because his experiments were conducted in a manner so intelli-
gent, careful, and satisfactory ; his results have been so cheering and
of such an available character, and so clearly demonstrate the practi-
cability of making sugar throughout the most northern portions of the
Temperate Zone. Mr. Lovering’s pamphlet wiil be found in this Ap-
pendix, as well as further practical directions to farmers based upon
his successful process.
Judge J. D. Cator, of Ottawa, Illinois, has published an interesting
account of his experiments and successful sugar making. The sugar
REPORT OF U.S. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 3
he made is stated to be of good quality, but the quantity per acre
could not be practically demonstrated, because the amount produced
was on too small a scale to afford a useful basis for computation. This
has been the case in most of the instances reported, and the mere pro-
duction of these small quantities of sugar is useful only as corroborat-
ing the fact of its existence in the juice. Now that it has been proved
beyond the shade of a doubt that sugar can be made from Sorgho and
Imphee, and that in large quantities ; of course this branch of industry
will be undertaken with greater or less profit, according to existing
conditions. Sugar may be a profitable crop in distriets far removed
from the seaboard or from the great lines of transport ; but there
should be a careful scrutiny of many possible contingencies before
capital is extensively employed in this way.
If, however, it is a mooted question whether we should grow the new
canes for a sugar crop, it is much less questionable if, in almost any
locality, they would not be very remunerative as a source of alcohol.
In this case, all that is necessary is to have command of any desired
amount of fuel, either wood or coal, and then the nearer the seaboard.
or to large cities of the interior, the farm may lie, the more certain will
the cultivator be to have a profit from his crop. The cold rainy
seasons which injure the secretion of cane sugar in the stalk, operate
rather favorably than otherwise for the production of alcohol. The
sugar in the stalks will be in large proportion giucose, and thus one
step in its transformation towards alcohol is saved, for cane sugar must
change into glucose before it can pass into the alcoholic fermentation-
To afford some idea of the range of latitude in which the Sorgho
will grow, the effects of manures and soils upon the height of stalk, the
varying time required in different localities to complete its growth, and
the keight and diameter of stalk, I give the following tabular state.
ment from the American Agriculturist, of returns made to that paper
during the present season.
SUPPLEMENT.
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J. S. LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS.
A DETAILED account of Experiments and Observations upon the Sor-
ghum Saccharatum, or Chinese Sugar Cane, made with the view off
determining its value as a sugar-producing plant, from September
28, to December 20, 1857, at Oakhill, Philadelphia County, Pa. By
JosEPH S. Lovertne. a
Tue introduction of this plant into the United States, and the hope
of producing sugar from it at the North, profitably, have excited such
universal interest, that it has this year been planted in almost every
State in the Union; and as the season has advanced, the opinions
early expressed by many intelligent and scientific experimentalists,
that it contains no crystallizable sugar, have apparently been confirmed
by later trials. A few crystals, it is true, have been obtained in one
or two instances, but all hope of producing sugar from it profitably
seems to have been abandoned.
My object in making the following experiments has been to throw
what light I could upon this important question, and, in the event of
the result proving favorable, to give such a formula as would enable
the uninitiated to proceed with confidence of success. They have
been pursued without any attempt at extraordinary production,
either in the cultivation of the cane or the development of its proper-
ties ; on the contrary, the experiments were made upon small quanti-
ties, under many disadvantages that would not occur in large opera-
tions, and consequently with results less favorable.
The series being completed, perhaps the best method of communi-
cating the results and imparting the knowledge obtained to the public,
will be by giving the following extracts from my notes, made as the
work proceeded. They will show-the progress of the development of
the sugar in the stalk, and its decline, with many other interesting
facts.
EXTRACTS.
On the 10th of May I planted about half an acre, on upland of good
quality, such as would yield, in ordinary seasons, fifty to sixty bushels
Indian corn to the acre. The rows four feet apart, and the plants in-
tended to be six inches apart in the rows, but which, on taking off the
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 7
crop, proved to be a little over seven inches apart. When the canes
were about eighteen inches in height, I had the suckers removed.
Daring the month of June I passed the hoe-harrow through it twice, a
man following with the hand-hoe, as in the case of Indian corn. It
was then left to take care of itself. It grew rapidly and evenly, and
attained the height of twelve to fourteen feet.
My apparatus and utensils for conducting the experiments consisted
of the following, viz. :
A pair of iron rollers, seven inches diameter and twelve inches long,
set in a frame one eighth of an inch apart, with spout to catch and
collect the juice, and a crank turned by hand; a few sugar moulds
and pots; some ivory black or animal carbon; two filters, made of
eommon bed ticking, in the shape of an elongated pudding bag; a
thermometer, Beaumé’s Pesé-Sirop or saccharometer, and a polariscope.
All the other utensils I cbtained from the kitchen, viz.; a copper
kettle of ten gallons capacity, a ladle, some tin pans, bowls, buckets,
&c., to contain the juice.
FIRST POLARISCOPIC OBSERVATION. ;
Sept. 28.
Temperature, Of two canes took the first joints above the stay
noon, 71° F.
Wind S. W. roots—
Clear,
1st joint, 9 inches long, weighed - - > - - - - 118.854 grammes,
9d “ 8 “ “ sc ‘ae 2 = a e sf = 93 742
Weight of ist joints of two canes, 212.596 -
After passing these three times through the rollers, the bagasse
weighed - - - - - - - - - - - 64.380 ae
Leaving, as weight of juice, (69.7 per cent.,) > - - 148.216 ce
Measured the juice, and found 135 fluid grammes—specific gravity, 1 063
After precipitation by basic acetate of lead, of a voluminous green
colored flocculent substance, it filtered with difficulty, then completed
the decolorization by passing it through animai carbon, and found by
first observation in polariscope,
A deflection of the ray, right, T° Fj
Add 10 per cent. for dilution by precipitant 2°.7 29.7 right.
After inversion by H.Cl. left 12°.0
Add 10 per cent. as above, 1°93 temperature 27°, 13.2 left.
Sum of inversion, 42.9
8 SUPPLEMENT.
This sum of inversion, (42°.9) at temperature 27°, indicates 54.35
grammes of pure dry sugar to the litre of juice, aad by reference t
past results it is found that 204.24 grammes of sugar per Htre, ah
18.82 grammes per 100, or 18.82 per cent. ‘Then, as 204.24: 18.82
:: 54.35 : 5.008 per cent. of sugar in the juice, and as 100 : 5.08 ::
69.7 : 3.49 per cent. of sugar in the cane. A second cbservation in
polariscope, of the juice from the two joints of the saine canes next
above these, indicated 5.57 per cent. of sugar in the juice, proving thera
to be richer than those nearer the ground.
FIRST PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT.
eens e. Bs The fact of the presence of crystallizable sugar in the
40°,m. 66. cane being established, I proceeded to cut and grind
twenty feet of a row, and passed the thirty canes which it produced
three times through the rollers; about one fourth of the seed had
changed to a dark glistening brown color, but was still milky; the
remainder was quite green; ground six to eight of the lower joints,
which together yielded three and a half gallons of juice, weighing 9°
Beaume ; neutralized the free acid by adding milk of lime; clarified
with eggs and boiled it down to 240° Fahrenheit.
This first experiment looked discouraging and unpromising at every
step ; its product was a very dark, thick, viscid mass, apparently a
caput mortuum ; it stood six days without the sign of a crystal, when
it was placed over a flue and kept warm four days longer, when I
found a pretty good crop of soft crysta!s, the whole very similar to the
“ Melada,” obtained from Cuba, but of darker color.
SECOND EXPERIMENT.
Oct. 13, About two weeks having elapsed since the first experi-
Temp. § 4 M- ment, the weather in the interim having been quite warn,
ee
8.#. cloudy. temperature at 8 a. Mm. 40° to 52°, and at noon 66° to
75° Fahrenheit ; and about one half the seed being ripe, I determined
to try it again, but not being very sanguine of success, no polariscopic
observation was taken.
Cut and ground fifty feet of a row, which produced cighty-cight
canes, and yielded eight gailons of juice, weighing 10° Beaume (cne
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 9
degree more than the previous cutting), from the six and seven lower
joints ; juice slightly acid. First clarification four and three quarter
gallons, neutralized with three tablespoonsful of milk of lime, stirred in
one pound fine bone black, and three eggs, and placed it over a slow
fire; at 215° Fahrenheit took off a very dense, thick, green scum;
when at 162° Fahrenheit it marked 73° Beaumé.
A second parcel ef juice from this grinding (three and a quarter
gallons) was treated in the same manner, and set aside, both having
been first boiled down to 22° Beaume.
Oct. 14, Cut and ground fifty feet ; eighty-one canes, produced
poe +, seven and a quarter gallons juice, 10° Beaumé, which
N. W. clear. was treated as above, except that the eggs were
omitted.
Oct. 15,
Temp.S8 a.m. Out and ground fifty feet, produced eight and a
ue i quarter gallons juice, weighing 10° Beaumé.
rain.
ea «, Cut and ground fifty feet, eighty-six canes, eight and
46°, noon 60°. three eighths gallons, 10° Beaumé.
N. W. stormy.
The whole of the foregoing four parcels were at this stage of the pro-
cess concentrated to 22° Beaumé, and set aside until I had completed
the series on the 21st October ; they were then collected together, and
again clarified with eggs, and a second scum taken off; they were
then again placed over the fire, and when at the temperature of 225°
Fahrenheit, clear lime water in small quantities was added to coagulate
the vegetable albumen, which is not disengaged at a lower temperature,
but which is then observed as a whitish scum, very tenacious and
glutinous, and is very detrimental to crystallization. After the vari-
ous delays, heatings and re-heatings consequent on my limited means
of working, (the great disadvantage of which, those acquainted with
the subject only can appreciate,) I commenced filtering the whole, but
found it so ropy and glutinous that it would not pass through; diluted
it to 10° Beaumé, when it came through tolerably bright ; then passed
it through five feet of animal black ; it parted with its coloring matter
very freely. '
10 SUPPLEMENT.
nt Divided the product into three parts, and boiled it as
Temp. 8 A. M.
82°, noon 50°. :
8. W. clear. follows :
First part to 230° Fahrenheit. This stood an hour without
erystallizing ; found it too low, although the thumb and finger proof
indicated otherwise.
Second part to 246° Fahrenheit ; which was added to the first, and
in a few minutes crystals began to appear.
Third part to 238°; being the mean of the other two. On finishing
this, the two preceding had formed a thick, opaque mass of good
crystals.
Filled one mould, weight 20 Ibs.
Weight of mould, - - 4%
net weight 15} Ibs.
Filled one mould, - 14} Ibs.
Mould, - - - 44
== et 6) 410 Abe:
Total net weight, - - 2 - = - - 254 lbs.
and next morning set them on pots to drain. Also boiled down the
juice from the tops, four and three quarters gallons, which preduced
with the scum thirteen and a half pounds molasses.
Temp re u. Knocked out the proceeds of this experiment with the
46°, noon 60°, = aa
5. We elear, ’ 10llowing results, Viz. :
1 mould, gross weight, 20 Ibs.
tare, ae fae : .
— net weight 151 lbs.
weight of molasses, 84 Sugar. Molasses,
— net weight 7 lbs. 84 Ibs.
1 “ — gross weight, 144 Ibs.
* tare, 44“
net weight * Ibs.
$
_ net weight 44 lbs. 5‘ Ibs.
Add molasses made from the tops, as above, 13} Ibs.
weight of molasses,
Total weight of product of two hundred feet of a row, Ibs. 11.50 27.25
Fifty rows, four feet apart and two hundred and eighteen
feet long, constitute an acre, and two hundred feet
of a row is less than one fiftieth part of an acre by
eighteen feet, therefore add pro rata, 1.03 2.45
Product of one fiftieth part of an acre in lbs. 12.538 29.70
Multiply by 50 50
Product of an acre in lbs. 625.50 1485.00
A gallon of molasses weighs twelve pounds, therefore, divide 1485
by 12, and we have, gallons, 123.75.
For the acre 6253 pounds sugar, and 123} gallons molasses, pro-
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 11
duced from 18,148 canes, yielding 1,737 gallons juice, weighing nine
pounds per gallon, or 15,633 pounds, being four per cent. of sugar
and 9.50 per cent. of molasses, or 13.50 per cent. together.
This sugar is of a yellowish brown color, about as dry as, and about
the color of second quality Cuba sugar, such as is used by refiners.
(See sample No. 2.)
THIRD EXPERIMENT.
Oct. 23, The foregoing favorable progress induced me to make
oe ss, another trial, on a larger scale. The weather looked
Foggy. threatening, and as a precaution, I cut five hundred feet
of canes, and stored it in the barn, to be used in quantities conforming
to my means of working.
Nearly a month having elapsed since the first polariscopic observation
was taken, and two weeks since the second practical experiment, having
had several heavy white frosts, and three nights of ice, one eighth to
three sixteenths of an inch in thickness, I concluded to have another
examination by polarized light, to see the effect of these changes, when
I was gratified to find the following results; juice weighing full 10°
Beaume :
First observation, right, 55° °
Add ten per cent for dilution, 5°.5 60°.5 right.
After inversion, 2° 2 90
Add ten per cent as above, 0°.2 temperature 25° 2°.2 left.
Sum of inversion, 62°.7
This sum of inversion, (62°.7,) at temperature 25°, indicated 79.06
grammes of sugar per litre of juice; then,
_ As 204.24 : 18.82 :: 79.06 : 7.29 per cent. of sugar in the juice.
Oct. 24, Feet. Canes. Galls. juice.
Temp. 8 a. M
54°, noon 69°, Ground 100 160 18} 10° B
Fog and rain.
Oct. 26,
Temp. 50°-60°. + 100 159 18} 10° B.
Heavy rain.
Oct. 27,
Temp. 46°-52’. e 100 166 18 1-16 10° B.
Very stormy.
Oct. 28,
Temp. 40°-52?. e 100 149 163 io Oe Be
Cloudy, N. W.
Oct. 29, ; a ae
Temp. 43°-48, . 100 148 14} 10° B,
Clear, N. E. rs
12 SUPPLEMENT.
These several parcels were clarified like the second experiment,
boiled to 15° and 18° Beaumé, and sect aside till November 2d, when
I found all but the last day’s work had changed to a thick, liver-like
mass, resembling good soft soap, very acid, and totally ruined. ‘The
last parcel, having stood a much shorter time than the rest, was but
partially affected. It was boiled to proof, and crystallized very well.
I regret this misfortune less for the trouble it cost me than for the
failure of the experiment, for it worked beautifully in the first stages,
and the last grinding crystallized freely. The juice weighed heavier
than previous or subsequent parce!s, and would probably have pro-
duced better results. It taught me, however, the danger of delay, and
also that no injury had been sustained by the juice so long as the
canes remained unground, the last parcel having crystallized perfectiy.
FOURTH EXPERIMENT.
“a tae an Since the 28th October, the weather has been mild
N. E. clear. and foggy, with heavy rains; temperature varying from
48° to 60°. A very decidedly increased development of sugar in the
juice has been ascertained, viz.: 7.29 per cent., instead of five per
cent., and I have gained some experience; so, instead of allowing the
syrup to remain from four to twelve days, still containing a great por-
tion of its fermentable impurities, gradually undergoing decomposition
and depreciation, I remedy this evil to some extent, as will be seen. I
also dispense with the fine ivory black and the filtering, thus simplify-
ing the process.
Nov. 2, it or Pel a 3 oe D
Temp. 83°-50°, Cat and ground ity eight feet of a row, one hundred
NN. E. clear. canes, the upper portions of the stalks turning yellow,
leaves dead and dry; ground six and seven of the lower joints, pro-
duced ten gallons juice, weighing 10° Beaumé, nmch less acid than
previous samples, and barely changing litmus paper, neutralized with
milk of lime, and clarified at once perfectly with eggs, passed it imme-
diately through three and a half feet black, and boiled it to 234°
Fahrenheit ; after standing an hour the crystals were large and sharp,
but not very abundant till morning, it being boiled too low.
a ee
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 13
me nis Sse Cut and ground fifty-eight fect, one hundred canes,
Ice, nine and fifteen sixteenths gallons, 10° Beaumé, rather
more acid . the last, clarified it fully as above, passed it through
five feet black, and set it aside, as it is clear and bright, and contains
no feculent heat e
Ascott aan Cut and ground fifty-eight feet, ninety-four canes, nine
8. W. and three quarter gallons, 10° Beaumé, treated as above»
and set it aside.
Temp 50°62". Weather changing, eut and ground fifty-eight feet,
8. cloudy. ninety-five canes, nine and five eighths gallons, 109°
Beaumé, treated as above; also ground the ches of all the above 232
feet, which produced four gallons, two quarts, and three half pints of
juice, weighing 12° Beaumé, more acid ae the lower joints, treated
it the same, boiled it to 288° Fahrenheit, and set it aside. In the
morning I found a good crop of crystals, but the. mass thick and
viscid, added three tablespoonfuls clear lime water, heated it to
enable me to pour it into a mould; gross weight nine and a half
pounds, tare four and a half pounds, net five pounds. On the 13th
knocked it out, and had three pounds good brown sugar, and two
pounds molasses.
Noy. 7, Boiled one half of the remainder of the proceeds of the
Temp. 54°-66°. nee :
South, above lower joints (one third of the whole having been
92D
boiled on the 2d, as above stated) to 236° Fahrenheit, and added it to
that boiled on the 2d; boiled the other half to 237° Fahrenheit
potted it at 176° Fahrenheit, very handsomely crystallized, and very
light colored.
Nov. 8,
Renip. 60°-74°,. | Withdrew the stops and set it on pots to drain.
Temp 34°750°. The full mould (fifteen pounds size) had run one and
S. W. one eighth gallons molasses, or syrup; if it had been
boiled a little higher it would have produced more sugar, and less
molasses.
Noy. 14, The whole having now stood seven days, and being
Temp. 30°-42°, 5 3
N. E, ice. thoroughly drained, weighed as follows : ‘
14 SUPPLEMENT.
1 small mould, 10 Ibs.
Tare, 44
llarger “ 18}
Tare, ig
net weight sugar, 54 lbs.
os
= wee “ 1044
Sugar from the tops, 3
Product of 232 feet canes, 19.75 lbs.
: pot molasses, ~ Ibs., tare 5 Ibs. - lbs. net.
‘ “ 74 5
“ 121 ¢ 5 7.25
Molasses from the tops, 2
Product of molasses from 232 feet canes, 25 25
236 feet are more than one fiftieth part of
an acre by fourteen feet, therefore de-
duct pro rata ee aa ee - 1.19 1:52
Product of one fiftieth part of an acre, 18.56 23.73
Multiply by - - =) ge - - 50 50
Product of an acre in Ibs. - = = — 928.00 1186.50
A gallon of molasses weighs 12 lbs., therefore divided by 12 for gallons, 98.87
and we have 928 pounds sugar (first returns) and 98.87 gallons
molasses, made from one acre (18,277) of canes, which produced 1847
gallons juice, weighing at nine pounds per gallon, 16,623 pounds, or,
sugar, first crop, 5.58 per cent., molasses, 7.14 per cent.; together,
12.72 per cent.*
This sugar is perfectly dry, as shown by Sample No. 4, it worked
perfectly, and without the slightest difficulty, at every stage.
Tere 6 eats Boiled all the molasses from the above (except the
N. W. two lbs. from the tops, which was too poor for recrystal-
lization) 22.25 Ibs.; added clear lime water until it marked 35°
Beaumé when boiling ; took off a thick, glutinous scum, and boiled it
down to 243° Fahrenheit. In two hours it produced a copious crop of
very good crystals. Allowed it to stand till morning, when it was quite
solid.
Temp $0" 52° Here an unfortunate accident occurred. Having
8. E. placed the crystallized mass over a slow fire, to render it
fluid enough to cast into a mould, I was called off to a ease of illness,
leaving it over the fire, and being detained much longer than IJ antici-
pated, on returning I found all the grain melted and the molasses boil-
* Neither the scales in which this juice was weighed, nor the quart measure in
which it was measured were sufficiently delicate or accurate to give precise results,and
as they form the basis of these calculations, the per centages are probably not absolutely
exact, but they are sufficiently so for all practical purposes,
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 15
ing vehemently, and badly burned. Much discouraged, I however
proceeded. It crystallized the second time, and was put into a mould.
December 20. Weighed the sugar from the 23.25 lbs. molasses boiled
on the 17th November, as follows, viz. :
Serer Wee a ENT SP a se te Pat a 11 Ibs.
PE Ar ay geen me) a AS ROBT as pA eM srl Salant aa tm 43
Second crop of crystals from the 23.25 lbs. molasses, - _- oan = - 6.25 Ibs,
Deduct pro rata for the fourteen feet excess over one fiftieth of an acre, 313
Second returns from one fiftieth of anacre, - - -— - - - 5.877
Multiply by a: eA ESTA Ga RE, Lape el REL Baa i ON ae 50
Product of an acre from the molasses, - - - - = = 298.85
Then we have, as the whole final result of an acre of canes,
Sugar. Molasses.
ist returns, - - - - - - - - - : 928 Ibs. 1186.50 Ibs.
2d ‘© (Sample IV.) - - - - : - - 293.85
And deduct molasses converted, - - - - : 293.85
1221.85 892.65
And 12 lbs. molasses per gallon gives - 2 ale - - - 74.39 gal.
Say sugar, per acre, 1221.85 lbs.; molasses, per acre, 74.39 gal-
lons; sugar, per cent., 7.35 ;* molasses, per cent., 5.37; sugar and
molasses, 12.72 per cent.
I will repeat here, that, owing to the accident before stated, this
sugar, (Sample No. IV.,) 2d returns, is not nearly of so good quality
as it otherwise would have been.
FIFTH EXPERIMENT.
November 9. I must now mention that the last experiment was in-
tended to have been on a considerably larger scale than those pre-
vious. Each day’s work was, however, kept distinct and separate
from the others, thus enabling me to determine it at any point.
Having thus proceeded to, and finished the clarification of the 4th
parcel, (Nov. 8th,) and the weather becoming and continuing very
warm, (thermometer as high as 74°,) I observed a very sudden and
unfavorable change in the working of the juice. Instead of clarify-
ing perfectly and with great facility, as at first, the defecation was dif-
* It may, perhaps, appear inconsistent to the casual observer, to find 7.85 per cent.
of sugar obtained, when the juice only contained 7.29 per cent , as shown by the po-
lariscope. This is readily explsined. 1st. by the causes stated in a previous note;
and 2d—the polariscope indicates pure sugar; whereas the sugar produced contains
about four per cent. free moisture, and about three per cent. of molasses adhering to
the crystals, also gum, &c., which would account for much more than the apparent
excess.
‘16 SUPPLEMENT.
ficult, the color many shades darker, the juice gradually fell off in
weight from full 1¢° Beaume to 9° Beaume, and required ten fect of
granulated black to bring it to the same color as that made six days
previously with five feet black. I however proceeded (keeping this
separate) to the crystallization.
Boiled it to 242° Fahrenheit, when it produced good, hard, sharp
crystals ; but finding the quantity, by measurement, had decreased
very considerably, I took no further note on that head, but gave it
white liquor until it was neat, (about the usual quantity,) and pro-
duced the sugar, (Sample No. 5,) being white sugar, directly from the
cane, without refining or re-melting.
SIXTH EXPERIMENT.
November 27. Since the canes for the fourth and most successful ex-
periment were cut, on the 6th inst., the weather has been very
changeable. We have had warm indian summer weather, with heavy
rains, also very cold weather, making ice two inches in thickness—
thermometer having varied from 16° to 60. To try the effect of these
changes, I cut one hundredth part of an acre, which produced il
15-16ths gallons of juice only, instead of nineteen or twenty gallons,
as before. It had, however, regained its former weight of full 10°
Beaumé, but was much more acid, rank, and dark colored than pre-
viously. It clarified without difficulty, but raised a much thicker
and denser scum, and when concentrated, was very dark and molasses-
like ; it however produced good, hard, sharp crystals, but the quantity
being much reduced, there was no inducement to pursue it further.
This experiment proves, however, that this cane will withstand very
great vicissitudes of weather, without the entire destruction of its
saccharine properties.
SEVENTH EXPERIMENT.
Took the proceeds of the experiments that were considered failures,
viz., all the third and the poorest portion of the second, viz. : thirty-
four pounds very indifferent sugar ; refined it in the open kettle, by the
old process, and produced fifteen pounds loaf sugar, (Sample No. 7,)
which is a very full yield for the quality used.
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 17
The foregoing are all actual results produced by myself, (the polar-
iscopic observations having been taken on the spot, under the supervi-
sion of my partner, Mr. William Morris Davis) with no cbject in
view but the truth, and a desire to contribute whatever useful inform-
ation I could towards the solution of this interesting and impcrtant
question. They are, I think, sufficiently flattering in themselves to
warrant renewed exertions on the part of our agriculturists of the
Northern and Middle States especially, and perhaps those of the
South also, in the pursuit of this promising branch of industry, to
the full and profitable development of which it is certainly capable,
and which it is destined ultimately to attain—(as before mentioned
they have been accomplished without the advantages of the powerful
sugar mill, the vacuum pan, and the many other improved imple-
ments and apparatus now in general use in Louisiana and eise-
where) and they are also very important and interesting in many
respects, not apparent to those unacquainted with the subject ; it may
therefore not be superfluous to mak@ some further explanatory re-
marks :
Ist. The mill used and the power employed in these experiments
were much less efficient than those in general use on sugar planta-
tions, and the waste proportionally greater; the loss from which
causes I estimate at not less than ten per cent.
2d. It is well known to all who are acquainted with sugar and sac-
charine solutions, that, by frequent heatings and coolings, a considera-
ble portion of the crystallizable is converted into uncrystallizable
sugar, and is consequently lost as sugar. In these experiments every
parcel was from necessity heated and re-heated from eight to twelve
different times.
3d. It is impossible to produce as good results, whether as regards
quantity or quality, from small as from large quantities.
Ath. This sugar, (Sample No. 4,) is quite dry, and will lose compara-
tively nothing by drainage; the yield wouid be considerably greater,
if it contained the usual quantity of footing that is contained in the
hogshead when sold at the plantation, one of which being weighed
there and re-weighed in Philadelphia, in the month of July, will be
18 SUPPLEMENT.
found to have lost by drainage from 100 to 150 lbs., or from 10 to 15
per cent.
Assuming these propositions to be true, I make the following esti-
mate of the probable yield of an acre of canes of ordinary growth,
such as I have experimented upon, viz. :
Actual yield as per Experiment No. 4, 1221.85 lbs. sugar, 74 39 molasses.
Add for inefficiency of mill, 10 per cent.
For heating and reheating, &c.,
For footings, say but*
20 per cent. 244.37
Probable yield per acre, lbs. 1466.22 sugar: galls. 74.39 molasses.
Further, it will be observed that my acre produced but 1847 gal-
lons of juice. I have, however seen published accounts of far greater
yield than this ; one, for instance, in this county, apparently well au-
thenticated, reaching 6,800 gallons per acre, which, according to my
actual results, would produce 4499 lbs. of sugar, and 274 gallons mo-
Jasses—and according to the foregoing probable results, would yield
5389 lbs. sugar, and 274 gallons to the acre. I do not pronounce
such yield of juice impossible, but it will certainly be of rare occur-
rence—a mean between this and my yield would be a large return.
Another subject worthy of notice is the nature of the season. My
impression is, that owing to the lateness and coldness of the spring,
and the continued wet weather, the last has been quite an unfavorable
season for the ripening and development of the sugar in the juice, to
which cause I think a deficiency in the yield of at least ten per cent.
may be attributed, which would further increase the quantity to
1612 lbs. of sugar, and 81 8-10 gallons molasses, a yield very nearly
corresponding with that of the best conducted plantations of Louisiana,
as will be seen by the following figures, which I have collated from a
minute statement furnished to me by the enterprising proprietor of one
of the most complete and costly establishments in that region, (it
being furnished with vacuum pans, and all the most approved ma-
chinery of later times, and conducted under his own personal super-
vision,) of the actual product of one of his piantations of 266 acres,
* These two latter gains in sugar would be made at the expense of the molasses,
taking from it the gain which would be realized by the use of a better mill, and there-
fore leaving the quantity of molasses unchanged.
*
LOVERING’S EXPERIMENTS. 19
for eight consecutive years. These figures will also furnish useful data
for the estimation of the cost of production here, viz. :
Aggregate yield of juice from 266 acres for eight
consecutive years, F ’ : : : 4,757,700 gallons.
Aggregate yield of sugar, . : : : 3,626,425 lbs.
% ‘6 molasses, . : : 217,585 gallons.
COMPARISON.
LOUISIANA. PENNSYLVANIA.
Yield of juice per acre,....... . .2,286 gals, | «+++ -rer cece eee cree teeter er ee: 1,847 gals.
Density of juice,(Beaumé) 8.447 | eee tree ee ee cece cece eee e rete cee: 10
Yield of sugar per gall. of juice,..0.76 Ibs. YRORS ia Srey ve
: ‘ re La ae ER ee 221. '
Yield of sugar per acre,.......<-1,704 “ | 4 Drobable,........s0++ esse: 1,632.00
Yield of molasses per acre,...... 102 gals. | ole Pisa sae ed 81.83 ee :
Wood consumed per acre, 3.87 cords, at
$2 50 per cord.
Coal for engine, 0.41 tons at $2 50 per ton.
Labor, per acre, 3.70 days.
These details have been extended to a much greater length than
was at first intended, but perhaps not beyond a useful limit for those
interested. To the working farmer they may appear formidable and
prolix; but he may, nevertheless, gain some grains of useful knowl-
edge from them to repay for their perusal. The conclusions to be
drawn from them will be seen by the following
SYNOPSIS.
Ist. That it is obvious that there is a culminating point in the de-
velopment of the sugar in the cane, which is the best time for sugar
making. This point or season I consider to be, when most if not all
the seeds are ripe, and after several frosts; say when the temperature
falls to 25° or 30° Fahrenheit.
2d. That frost, or even hard freezing, does not injure the juice nor
the sugar, but that warm Indian summer weather, after the frost and
hard freezing, does injure them very materially, and reduces both
quantity and quality.
20 SUPPLEMENT.
3d. That if the cane is eut and housed, or shocked in the field when
in its most favorable condition, it will probably keep unchanged for a
long time.
4th. That when the juice is obtained, the process should proceed
continuously and without delay.
5th. That the clarification should be as perfect as possible by the
time the density reaches 15° Beaumé, the syrap having the appear-
ance of good brandy.
6th. That although eggs were used in these small experiments, on
account of their convenience, bullock’s blood, if to be had, is equally
good, and the milk of lime alone will answer the purpose ; in the latter
case, however, more constant and prolonged skimming will be required
to produce a perfect clarification, which is highly important.
jth. That the concentration, cr boiling down, after clarification,
should be as rapid as possible without scorching, shallow evaporators
being the best.
With these conditions secured, it is about as easy to make good
sugar from the Chinese sugar cane as to make a pot of good mush,
and much easier than to make a kettle of good apple butter.
APPLICATION OF LOVERING’S PROCESS. 21
‘Instructions for the Domestic Manufacture of Sugar and Syrup, upon
asmall scale, from the Juace of the Sorgho, being a Practical Applica-
tion of J. S. Lovertne’s Process.
For the use of persons unacquainted with the subject,.we commence
with a brief statement of
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
The juice of the ripe Sorgho is composed of
. Crystallizable sugar, about seven and a quarter per cent.
. Uncrystallizable molasses, about seven per cent.
=) Acid.
. Vegetable mucilage, or gum.
. Coloring matter.
. Water.
Our object is to separate the sugar and molasses.
The acid and mucilage prevent the sugar from crystallizing.
1. Our first step will be to neutralize the acid in the juice by com-
bining it with an alkali (lime).
2. Our second step will be to remove the mucilage by the addition
of liquid albumen (blood, eggs, or milk) to the cold juice; we then
apply heat; the albumen, being heated, coagulates, and, rising in the
form of scum, carries the mucilage with it. This process is called
clarifying, and should be twice repeated at least.
3. Having now got rid of the acid and most of the mucilage, our
third step is to remove the coloring matter, by filtering the clarified
juice through granulated bone black.
But a peculiar mucz'age still remains, isseparable at a lower heat
than about 225° Fahrenheit.
A. Our next step will be to boil the filtered juice to 225° Fahrenheit,
and then to add lime water. This mucilage then rises as a scum, and
is removed.
We now have left a sdlution composed of 1. Sugar. 2. Molasses.
3. Water.
5. To crystallize the sugar, we must evaporate the excess of water,
by boiling. Most of the sugar will crystallize when the solution grows
cold. The uncrystallized part, we drain off as molasses.
oor Wh eH
af
92 SUPPLEMENT.
These operations require the greatest exactness, for
If we do not boil enough, the sugar contained in the solution will
not crystallize when cold; or,
If we boil too much, the molasses will become so thick when it cools,
as to impair the crystallizing of the sugar, and cannot be separated
from it.
But how shall we know when to stop the boiling ?
By the heat of the boiling liquid, as marked by the thermometer.
Pure water boils at 212 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. You
cannot make it hotter without changing it to steam.
The Sorgho juice, being a solution of about fourteen per cent. of
sugar and molasses, &c., in water, becomes three degrees hotter before
boiling, and boils at 215° Fahrenheit. As the water evaporates, a
greater heat is required to keep the concentrated juice at a boil; in
other words, the juice grows hotter and hotter. When it reaches the
heat marked on the thermometer 238° Fahrenheit, there is just enough
water left to enable the sugar to separate from the molasses when cold.
6. We now pour the concentrated juice into a mould, a keg, a bar-
rel, or other deep vessel, with a plug in the bottom, and allow it to cool.
- 7. When quite cold (say in twenty-four hours), we remove the plug.
The liquid portion, being molasses with a little sugar and water,
gradually drains out, leaving the sugar dry in from four to ten days.
It is also important to remember
That the juice begins to ferment almost as soon as it leaves the
cane, and therefore, should be neutralized, clarified, and boiled without
gelay. A very few hours’ delay will spoil it.
A long continued exposure to heat gradually converts crystallizable
sugar into uncrystallizable molasses, therefore, the evaporation should
be as rapid as possible.
A concentrated solution of sugar and molasses is very liable to burn,
and should, therefore, be carefully watched, and exposed to a more and
more moderate fire as the evaporation advances.
The use of a saccharometer is to indicate the relative weight or
density of a liquid as compared with water. This density depends
upon the amount of sugar, or other heavy substances held in solution.
APPLICATION OF LOVERING’S PROCESS. 23
Consequently, the degree of density indicated by the saccharometer is
an index of the proportion of sugar, &c., contained in the juice.
It is simply a hollow tube terminating in a bulb, loaded with shot;
to keep the bulb down and the tube upright. Floating in pure water,
the tube, at the point where it appears above the surface, marks 0.
But in proportion as the liquid is heavier, the bulb does not sink so
deep, and more of the tube appears above the surface. The density
of the Sorgho juice, cold, is about 10° Beaumé, so called from Beaumé,
the inventor.
If your kettles or moulds are of iron, give them two good coats of
white paint inside, drying each coat thoroughly. This prevents the
sugar from being made dark by contact with iron, which will be the
case if the slightest acid be present. Before using them, scald them
thoroughly twice, letting boiling water stand in them until cold, to
remove the taste of the paint.
NECESSARY UTENSILS, MACHINERY, &c.
1. A thermometer marking 250° Fahrenheit. One without a case,
or which can be removed from the case.
2. A saccharometer, or Pesé Sirop, scale of Beaumé.
You had better get two of both the above, to provide against accident.
3. A few sheets of litmus paper.
4. Two kettles of copper, brass, or iron, holding twenty-five gallons
each ; one of these may be smaller than the other, but if so, should be
as large a diameter, only shallower.
5. Three, or more, large iron sugar moulds, holding twelve gallons
each. Ifyou cannot get the sugar moulds, three long, narrow twelve
gallon kegs will answer.
6. Three five gallon pots of glazed earthen or stone ware, with
mouths somewhat smaller than the caps of the sugar moulds. If you
use kegs instead of moulds you can use pails instead of pots.
7. A barrel of granulated (not pulverized) bone black, such as is
used by sugar refiners. ~
8. Four ten gallon tubs. (Two water-tight whiskey or cider bar-
rels, sawed across the center, will answer.)
9. A yard of thick heavy bed ticking.
24 SUPPLEMENT.
10. A circular piece of coarse wire gauze, to fit the inside of the
sugar mould or keg, three inches above the lower end.
11. A cireular piece of half inch board, fuil of gimblet holes, to fit
the inside of the sugar mould or keg, three inches above the lower end.
12. A shallow perforated iron or tin skimmer.
13. A large iron or tin dipper, or ladle.
14. A sugar mill; if to work by hand, two parallel, horizontal iron
rollers, set firmly in a frame, one eighth of an inch apart, and turned
by a crank, with a spout to catch and collect the juice. If by horse
power, three rollers set closer together, will be more effective. The
greater the compression of the canes, the larger the yield of juice.
15. Two simple furnaces, or fire places of brick, upon w&ich to place
the two kettles. One larger furnace, with two holes, and one fire place
under both kettles, will do, if the kettles are movable. But as the
labor and delay of lifting them off and on is great, two separate arches
are better. These furnaces must have a flue, communicating with a
chimney, to create draft, and carry off the smoke.
16. A bushel of quick lime.
17. A gallon of fresh bullock’s blood, or twelve dozen of eggs, or
twelve quarts of mill. Either will do, but one of the first two is pre-
ferabie.
PRELIMINARIES.
Having your mill ready, your furnaces built, your kettles and other
utensils above described, on the spot ; you will need two men, if you
use a hand mill, to relieve each other at the crank, the one turning it,
wile the other passes the canes, one at a time, twice through the
rollers, as you must work the mill without cessation throughout the day,
to keep the kettles constantly supplied. If you use horse power, two
boys will suffice, one to drive the horse, the other to pass the canes
through, several at a time.
1. Provide abundant dry fuel, close at hand, and ready for imme-
diate use.
2. Cut and deposit at the mill enough canes for the day’s work, say
ten canes for each gallon of juice required. Place two tubs (which we
will call tubs 1 and 2) at the mill ready to receive the juice.
APPLICATION OF LOVERING’S PROCESS. 25
3. Prepare a bone black filter as follows :
Take one of the sugar moulds (which we will call mould No. 1).
About three inches from the small end, fit into it the circular piece of
half inch board full of small holes. Upon this, lay the circular piece
of wire gauze ; over the gauze lay a piece of heavy ticking (or blanket
of several thicknesses), laying the edges carefully round the sides of
the mould, so as to prevent the bone black from escaping ; stop the
hole at the small end of the mould, half fill the mould with hot water,
then pour in as much bone black as the mould will hold, leaving about
three inches of space on top. Set the filter, thus made, upon another
of the tubs (which we will call tub No. 3), to serve as a cistern to
receive the filtered juice. Or, a filter may be made ofa tight keg or
barrel, set on end, with a hole in the bottom, stopped with a plug or
faucet, and having a wooden second, or false bottom, perforated with
gimblet holes, three inches above the first ; cover this with a piece of
ticking or blanket, and on that put the bone black, as directed.
4, Prepare some milk of lime as follows :
Put about a gallon of quick lime into a pail, slacken it with water,
until it resembles milk in appearance and consistency. Set it aside |
and stzr it before using.
5. Prepare some lime water as follows :
Put a gallon of quick lime into another pail, slacken it, fill up the
pail with water, stir it thoroughly, let the lime settle. The clear water
will be a saturated solution of lime, and is called lime water. Do not
stir this again, but use it clear.
PROCESS OF MAKING THE SUGAR.
‘When the seeds of the Sorgho are at least three fourths ripe, or if
in a cold climate, when a hard frost has come, cut your canes just above
the ground, strip off the leaves and seed heads, and cut each cane into
two parts, separating the eight lower joints from the upper ones. Lay
aside the upper joints, which contain but little sugar, but will make
good molasses.
Pass the lower joints through the rollers twice; let the juice flow
into tubs 1 and 2. When about twenty gallons of juice are ready, put
into one of the kettles, which we will call kettle No. 1, or the clarifier,
26 SUPPLEMENT.
three gills of blood, or the whites of eight eggs, well beaten. If you
have neither, two pints of milk will answer, but not so well. Add six
tablespoonsful of milk of lime previously prepared, and stirred before
using. Add about a gallon of juice, and stir the whole thoroughly
together.
Now dip into one of the tubs of unmixed juice a small strip of the
blue litmus paper. It will immediately turn red, more or less vivid in
proportion to the acidity of the juice. Lay the strip of litmus paper
aside, and add to kettle No. 1 about nineteen gallons more of juice ;
stir the whole. Then dip the strip of reddened litmus paper into the
kettle. If it again become blue, the acid is entirely neutralized. If
not, continue to stir in milk of lime in small quantities, and to test
with the litmus paper, until its original blue color is restored.
Now light a fire under kettle No.1. As the juice grows hot a
thick scum will rise. Do not disturb it, but bring the juice to a boil.
To be sure that it does boil, remove a little of the scum with the
skimmer, and insert your thermometer. When it marks 215° Fahren-
heit, and the scum begins to ro/l over, put out the fire immediately, or
remove the kettle. Let it stand ten or fifteen minutes. Then care-
fully remove the scum with the skimmer into a third pail. Then boil
again.
When the saccharometer marks 15° Beaumé in the boiling juice,
extinguish the fire, or remove the kettle, and let it cool to 160° Fah-
renheit, or cooler. Now stir in six more eggs well beaten, or two
gills of blood, or one pint of milk. Omit the lime. Again bring it
to a boil, again extinguish the fire, or remove the kettle; and, after
standing ten minutes, remove the scum as before. Then ladle the clear
juice into the bone black filter, (see preliminaries No. 3,) having first
withdrawn the stopper, allowing the warm water to flow out below,
as the juice is poured in above, being careful to keep the filter full of
liquid. When the water below begins to run sweet, marking 3°
Beaumé, throw away what has previously run out, and receive the re
mainder in tub No. 3.
We are now ready to continue evaporation, and it will be better to
do so in smaller quantities, as in a shallower mass the concentration
will be more rapid. Therefore, when about ten gallons have passed
APPLICATION OF LOVERING’S PROCESS. 21
through the filter into tub 3, ladle into kettle No. 2, which now first
comes into use, and which we will call the Evaporator. Boil to 225°
Fahrenheit. Then put in a gill of clear lime water (see preliminaries
No. 5). Ifa dirty white scum arises, skim it off, and continue to add
a little more lime water every few minutes until no scum rises. Con-
tinue to boil to 238° Fahrenheit. If it boil over, put in a piece of
butter the size of a walnut; then remove the kettle, or put out the
fire, and pour into a tub which we will call No. 4.
By this time ten gallons more will have passed through the filter.
Ladle it into kettle No. 2, which we have just emptied, boil to 225°
Fahrenheit, clarify with lime water as before, boil to 238° Fahrenheit,
and add it to the contents of tub No. 4, stirring the two together.
Previously, however, as soon as kettle No. 1 has been emptied upon
the bone black filter, put into kettle No. 1 milk of lime and eggs, (or
blood, or milk,) as before, and neutralize and clarify twenty gallons
more of fresh juice from the mill, which has been grinding without
interruption. This second charge of kettle No. 1 should be neutral-
ized, tested with litmus paper, heated to 215° Fahrenheit, cooled,
skimmed, boiled to 15° Beaumé, cooled again, a second time clarified
with egos, skimmed again, and passed through the filter; all this
being done simultaneously with the filtering and evaporation of the
first charge of kettle No. 1. Ié will then be put, in its turn, into ket-
tle No. 2, now again empty, ten gallons at a time, boiled to 225°
Fahrenheit, clarified a third time with lime water, skimmed, evaporated
to 238° Fahrenheit, and added to the contents of tub No. 4.
While the second charge of kettle No. 1 is passing through the fil-
ter. and kettle No. 2, a third charge of twenty gallons of fresh juice
will be neutralized and clarified in kettle No. 1.
While the third charge from kettle No. Lis passing through the fil-
ter and kettle No. 2, a fourth charge of twenty gallons of fresh juice
will be neutralized and clarified in kettle No. 1, to follow the others,
when boiled down to 238° Fahrenheit, into tub No. 4.
When as much juice as can be boiled the same day has been ex-
pressed, stop the mill.
Highty gallons of juice clarified and boiled down to 238° Fahren-
28 SUPPLEMENT.
heit will be reduced to something over twelve gallons, or enough to fill
one of the sugar moulds.
When the day’s boiling is completed, put the contents of tub No. 4
into a sugar mould or keg, having previously plugged the hole. Set
it in a warm place, in no case colder than 60° Fahrenheit, if 70° or
80°, so much the better. This completes the day’s work.
When cold, the next day, it will be a solid mass of crystallized
sugar. Then withdraw the stopper, set the mould on an earthen pot
or pail; in from four to seven days the molasses will have ceased to
drain out; then turn over the mould upon a clean board or table,
strike the rim smartly once or twice, and the sugar will slide from the
mould inasolid mass. Break it up with a shovel, and it is fit for
use. The contents of this mould should be from forty to fifty pounds
of dry, yellow sugar, and about four gallons of excellent molasses will
have dripped from it into the jar.
If preferred, the sugar making may here terminate; but, as the
purifying power of the bone black filter is not yet exhausted, and as
the whole labor and expense of preparation have been already in-
curred, it will be best to continue at least a second and third day.
SECOND DAY.
The process will be in all respects a repetition of the first day’s
work, and the result will be to fill an additional sugar mould or keg.
THIRD DAY.
The process will be a repetition of the above ; but the filter being
now exhausted, after the third day, it will be necessary to change the
bone black. Before emptying the filter, or stopping the third day’s
work, however, pass cold water through the filter, which, so long as it
runs sweet enough to mark 3° Beaumé, is to be added to the juice of
the upper joints, of which we are about to speak.
MOLASSES.
At the close of the sugar making, pass through the mill the upper
joints of the canes, previously laid aside. Add to the juice the liquid
portion of the scum in third pail, together with the washings of the
APPLICATION OF LOVERING’S PROCESS. 20
filter, of tub No. 4, and of other utensils. Neutralize the acid with
milk of lime, and test with litmus paper as before. Clarify twice with
eggs, (or blood, or milk,) but omit, if preferred, the filtering through
bone black. Boil finally only to 228° Fahrenheit, instead of 238°
Fahrenheit, as for sugar.
The product, when cool, will be about eighteen gallons of excellent
syrup. From three days’ work, of two hundred and forty gallons of
juice—from say two thousand canes —in all there should be a total
product of about one hundred and tienty-five pounds to one hundred
and fifty pounds of sugar, and twenty-seven gallons molasses.
This operation being on a very small scale, and with a hand mill, is
carried on under great disadvantages. The same labor on a larger
scale would produce much greater results. The process and routine
here given will answer for larger operations. It would be better,
however, especially if the quantity is increased, to have the second or
evaporating kettle of greater length and breadth, and as shallow as
possible to expedite the evaporation. A larger and longer bone black
filter will also be needed.
Hither sugar or molasses of good quality, but of darker color, may
be made by the above process, omitting the bone black. If it be
desired to make syrup only, stop the boiling at 228° Fahrenheit.
If white sugar is desired, the following additional process will be
necessary. On the third day after the sugar has been put into the
moulds, the greater part of the molasses having drained from it, scrape
off, with a knife, the crust on top of the sugar, leaving a smooth granu-
lated surface, hollowing a littie to the center. Moisten the scrapings
with cold water into a thin paste, and replace them on the sugar.
Next day dissolve enough refined sugar, the whiter the better, in six
quarts of water, to make a solution marking, when boiling hot, 32°
Beaumé. Pour one inch in depth of this solution, cold, on top of the
sugar. On each of the two following days, put on a similar quantity.
After the sugar ceases to drain, knock out the loaf ; the upper portion
will be white, the lower part light yellow. Divide the loaf and crush
each portion separately.
If by any mistake, or carelessness, by barning or overboiling, or by
30 SUPPLEMENT.
the immaturity of the canes, the molasses does not begin to drain from
the mould on the second or third day, run an awl, a large nail, or other
sharp iron instrument, into the hole at the foot of the mould some two
or three inches, and then withdraw it. If, after ten days longer in the
warmest place you have, it still fails to run, put the contents into a
kettle, add a little water, heat it to 228° Fahrenheit, and it will make
good syrup.
NY
i\
y
SUGAR MOULD, DBAINING POT. MOULD AND POT.
AMERICAN NOTES FOR 1857
ON THE IMPHEE.
Tue history of the introduction of the imphee into the United
States has substantially been given in the historical portion of Part I.
That it may be perfectly understood I will make a condensed state-
ment in this place. Mr. Wray arrived in this country in the month
of March last, bringing with him seed of each of his varieties of im-
phee, and samples of alcohol and sugars made from them. The
greater part of the seed he planted upon the estate of Governor J. H.
Hammond, of South Carolina ; but portions were put under cultiva-
tion by Mr. R. Peters and Mr. J. Eve, of Georgia; Brutus J. Clay,
of Kentucky; a gentleman in Canada; and Mr. D. Jay Browne, of
the United States Patent Office. Of all these lots, the only one from
which any considerable part of the crop was saved was that of Mr.
Hammond. In Canada the seed did not ripen, Mr. Browne’s lot but
partially, that of Mr. Peters and of Mr. Eve were entirely mixed with
durra* corn, and consequently not saved. Of Mr. Clay’s I give the
account published by himself. (Page 37.) The imphee seed brought
by Mr. Wray was grown for him by the Count de Beauregard, on his”
estate at Hyéres, France, and was there packed and shipped direct to
America. By some chance a large quantity of the seed of durra
was sent mixed with the imphee, and was unsuspectingly distributed
by Mr. Wray to his several partners in the adventure here. At Govy-
ernor Hammond’s urgent solicitation, Mr. Wray sorted out enough
seed to plant several acres of some ten or more of the choicest
varieties, and these were planted separate and apart from each other.
The remainder, over one hundred acres, was planted with the sced just
as sent from France. The result was that before the time of ripening, to
their great dismay they discovered that it would be necessary to sacri-
* The word durra has been spelt dourah, dhurra, doura and dourrha by various
writers. In the preceding pages I have adopted the spelling doura; and Mr. Wray,
I perceive, has done likewise The encyclopedias of Loudon, Johnson, and Hooker,
make no mention whatever of the plant ; but Noah Webster, in his dictionary, spells
it dwrra, and as this is nearest to the Arabic derivative, and more correct on phonetic
principles, I shall in future adopt it.
82 SUPPLEMENT.
fice some six thousand five hundred bushels of this precious seed, and
the only crop which could with safety be disseminated, and conscien-
tious!y recommended by Governor Hammond, was that harvested on
the assorted acres of the ten or more best varieties. The crop of Mr.
Peters was utterly ruined, as he had not taken the precaution to select
and plant separately. Before making arrangements with Mr. Wray,
he had imported directly from Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris,
about fifteen pounds of what was supposed to be a variety of imphee
named Vim-bis-chu-a-pa, at a cost of $10 per pound; but this turned
out to be nothing but worthless durra.
With that generosity which characterizes him, General Hammond
declined receiving any share of the profits from the sale of the seed,
and presented to Mr. Wray the entire crop of the pure seed, amount-
ing to about four hundred bushels.
To inform myself particularly as to the success of this first cultiva-
tion of the imphee, and to assist in making sugar from it, I visited in
October of 1857 the plantations of General Hammond, Mr. Peters,
and Mr. Eve. A part of the imphees I found mixed as above
stated. On the separate lots I could see no signs of a hybridation
with durra ; but on one or two there were straggling plants of some
variety of imphee, the seeds of which resembled those of the lot with
which it was mingled. The appearance of the various plants is truth-
fully given by Mr. Wray. Of the comparative amounts of sugar
which they are capable of yielding I cannot speak, for our attempts
to produce it were not successful.
It is comparatively an easy thing for northern and western farmers,
living adjacent to lines of railroad, to provide themselves with any sort
of machinery or apparatus at a moment’s notice; and, if breakages
occur during their operations, a competent mechanic is speedily found
to repair them. But such is not the case on an inland southern plan-
tation ; and hence it resulted at Governor Hammond’s that, what with
the novelty of the operations, breakages of the mill and steam engine,
quarrels of mechanics, the late arrival of Mr. Wray with his seed, and
other things combined, no attempt was made to “ commence crop,’ to
use the West Indian phrase, until the canes were considerably past
THE IMPHEE. Se
maturity ; and, after operations were commenced, breakages and acci-
dents caused great confusion in the work, and fatal delays. Besides this,
the canes were grown upon a reclaimed swamp, thoroughly drained,
and so rich in soluble saline matters, that the crop of corn on an ad-
jacent lot was, on one measured acre, one hundred and eight bushels.
Those who have read my remarks upon the pernicious influence upon
the crystallization of sugar, of soluble mincral matters taken up by
the cane juice, will not be surprised to learn that, although the train
worked in the most satisfactory manner, and the boiling was superin-
tended by a negro sugar maker from Florida, no crystallization of im-
phee juice could be obtained.
Mr. Wray found that the proportion of salts of iron was so great
in the juice, that the single trial we made with nut galls gave us a
liquid nearly as black as ink. Suffice it to say that the sugar was not
made: but, as will be seen subsequently, it was not because crystal-
lized sugar does not exist in the imphee. |
Governor Hammond, failing to produce sugar, turned his whole at-
tention to the manufacture of syrup; of which he made from the
imphee exactly three thousand gallons, which will be entirely con-
sumed on his own estate.
With Governor Hammond and Mr. Wray I frequently tested the
juice by the saccharometer. In one case the juice of the Boo-e-a-na
I found to be 10}° Beaume, which it will be remembered indicates no
less than nineteon per cent. of sugar in the juice. I am convinced
that on favorable soils, and in suitable climates, the juice of the im-
phee will mark nearly if not quite as high a saccharine richness as the
Saccharum officinarum, or tropical sugar cane.
Judging from my observation, the imphee is more succulent than
the sorgho. An experiment was made with ten stalks each of sorgho
and imphee, to test the respective quantities of juice. The result was
that the imphee gave sixteen pints, or two gallons; sorgho gave
eleven pints; a very large per centage in favor of imphee. Imphee
starts off more rapidly in its spring growth, and will be valuable on
that account for northern latitudes. Many of the imphees have also
a larger stalk than the sorgho, and smalier seed heads, or panicles, and
84 SUPPLEMENT.
will not only give more juice for distillation and sugar making, but
will not so readily be prostrated by the winds of our western prai-
ries. The outer covering of the imphee stalk is thinner than that of
sorgho, and is consequently easier to crush in the mill.
Frequent allusion is made in the preceding pages of this work to
the practice of cutting off the seed heads to increase the secretion of
sugar. I saw many stalks at Mr. Peters’ thus treated, which had been
utterly ruined. The energy of the plant is so great, that when its
forces were diverted from the elaboration of starch in the seeds, the
butt at each joint of the stalk threw out short stems, which attained a
length of some eighteen inches, and attempted to produce miniature
seed heads. The result was, that the vitality which would in the
natural course of growth have produced a perfect plant, with a full
crop of ripe seed, was exhausted in the production of monstrosities.
It is sufficiently well attested that the ripening of the seed does not
interfere with a maximum yield of sugar. |
Mr. Peters found that sorgho planted on the 15th March ripened
within a week of that planted on the 15th May. He had some imphee
ripening which had been planted only ninety days.
On Governor Hammond’s place the Boom-vwa-na and Nee-a-za-na
ripened the earliest. The former grows to a height of eleven feet, but
the latter only seven. This brevity of stalk is, however, compensated
for by the number of suckers which grow from the stool. The Oom-
se-a-na and En-ya-ma were thought to be best for syrup making. The
Koom-ba-na grows about ten feet high, and is very excellent. A new
variety, the Sorgho-ka-baie, promises to be very excellent. I should
be willing to plant, to a moderate extent, any one of eight or ten
varieties which were saved by Mr. Wray, and sold to Mr. Moore.
NEWS OF THE IMPHEE FROM AFRICA.
In the month of September last there appeared in the New York
Journal of Commerce a letter from Rev. H. A. Wilder, an American
missionary at Umtwalume, in Caffraria, in which Mr. Wilder states,
that considerable quantities of excellent sugar have been made from
THE IMPHEE. 35
imphee in that colony during the past year. He also says that he
sent a small amount of the seeds to friends in this country some three
years ago; but that nothing had resulted from it.
I have had further intelligence of the manufacture of imphee sugar
in Caffraria by Mr. Wray, from Mr. Charles H. Caldecott, a merchant
of Port Natal, who is at present in New York. This gentleman
informs me that he both saw and tasted imphee sugar in the colony,
and that it does not differ from the sugar made from the ordinary
cane.
RESEARCHES OF DR. JACKSON.
At the recent meeting of the United States Agricultural Society at
Washington, January 13th, 1858, Dr. Charles T. Jackson being called
upon to give his testimony upon the capability of the imphee to pro-
duce sugar, stated, that he had been employed by the United States
Patent Office to make experiments upon both sorgho and imphee.
Seed heads and stalks of imphee had been sent him for examination
by Mr. Browne, of the Patent Office ; he had given them minute study,
and had sent in an official report to the government. The juice of
_imphee would give nine per cent. of true cane sugar, and six per cent.
additional of glucose. It would give twelve per cent. of alcohol or
proof spirits, which was peculiarly suitable for the manufacture of
brandy, because of an agreeable aroma which it contained. This very
large yield of alcohol which it and the sorgho would afford, would
materially affect a very important interest. Three fourths of the
alcohol made in Massachusetts last year was consumed in the manu-
facture of burning fluids, and in mechanical and chemical operations ;
and if these plants can afford us a readier and cheaper supply of
alcohol than the cereals it is a very strong recommendation for their
culture. His official report will be found in the next Report of the
United States Patent Office.
The following letters, from Governor Hammond to Mr. Wray, will
fully explain his estimate of the value of the imphee.
36 SUPPLEMENT.
LETTERS FROM GOV. HAMMOND.
“Dear Srr— “ Repcuirre, November 26th, 1857.
“T received to-day, the Southern Cultivator for December. It con-
tains two letters from Mons. Vilmorin, denouncing your imphees in a
manner that appears to me malicious ; and, as | know his statements
are false as regards the imphee grown in this latitude, I deem it due
to truth and to you, to give my testimony against them. Your imphee
came here too late to allow a perfectly satisfactory comparison to be
instituted between that and sorgho. But I do not remember that in
any attempt we made to compare them, the results were in favor of
the sorgho. Certainly, most of the varieties of imphee have a larger
stalk and produce more juice; none, I believe, are smaller. As to
‘red rot,’ which so seriously affected the sorgho, I do not think it ap-
peared at all in more than one kind of imphee, and that had ripened
long before we reached it in our operations. I am sure the im-
phee is not more subject to the ‘red rot,’ than the sorgho, and was
not so much affected by it this year here. As to the per centage of
saccharine matter in the juice, I saw the saccharometer mark eighteen
once, and frequently fourteen to sixteen per cent. I believe the sorgho
never reached seventeen per cent. _
‘From my experience of this year, I should be unwilling to say that
the imphee is decidedly superior to the sorgho. But I am equally un-
prepared to say that any single variety of imphee is inferior to the
sorgho. I shall try all of them again and again before I determine
which is the very best.
« As you say Mr. Vilmorin obtained no pure imphee seed from you,
T am inclined to think he has not made his expiriments with pure seed.
Certainly the seed he sent to this country last spring for imphee, at
$10 per pound, was thoroughly mixed with durra corn ; and one par-
cel that he sent as Vim-bis-chu-a-pa, was all durra, as I am informed.
“T have not, as you well know, any interest in the sale of imphee
seed, or anything made from imphee, and you are well aware of my
aversion to having my name in the papers, but you can show this letter
to any one you please, and, if absolutely necessary, publish it. 1 shall
probably put the substance in the next Cultivator. Yours very truly,
“LL. Wray, Esq.” “ J. H. Hammonp.
SUPPLEMENT. 87
The following is an extract from a letter to the publisher from Gov.
Hammond, in answer to-a request that he would give his opinion as to
the value of the different varieties of imphee.
“ ‘Wasuineton, D. C., January 13th, 1858.
“ * * * Tthink these seeds well worth distributing. They
produce a sugar cane at least equal to the sorgho in all respects, and
some of them are twice the size. I am inclined to think we shall ult-
imately find several of them (ripening at different periods,) supersed-
ing the sorgho altogether.
“T plant sixty acres of the cane this year—of these, four will be
planted in sorgho, and the remainder in imphee. * * *
(Signed) “J. A. Hammonp.”
LETTER FROM HON, BRUTUS J. CLAY.
“ Paris, Ky., November 23d, 1857.
“ Dear Sir—
“| planted imphee on the 23d day of May last. I broke the ground
twice, and planted the hills three by four feet apart, two and three seeds
in a hill ; about three fourths of it grew, hence it was rather thin on the
ground. It did not well mature before frost ; the middle of October.
“T think the average product of stalk was no more than eight feet.
They were, however, one third larger than the sorgho, and contained
much more juice, of a quality very similar to that of the latter. It stood
up well, large at the bottom and tapers to the top : is not liable to be
blown down by the wind.
“The sorgho I planted about the 13thof May. It came up well,
producing stalks small and slender, ten to twelve feet high, very apt to
be blewn down by the wind ; but this and the imphee require a little
more care than corp.
“Of the two varieties of cane, I, think the imphee will prove the
most valuable plant; if planted earlier and upon a good soil, with a
southern exposure, I think it will ripen before frosts. The past season
has been a bad one for a fair experiment ; even our corn is not yet
dry enough to grind for bread, it has been so backward and late.
“Yours, &e.
“Tsaac A. Henaes, Esq.” “ Brutus J. Cray.
388 SUPPLEMENT.
Despite the unfortunate result of the attempts to make sugar on
Governor Hammond's place, and the mixture of durra corn with all
of the immense crop of imphee seed, which otherwise would have
immmediately supplied the country, which, from the few hundred
bushels saved pure by Mr. Wray, can only be accomplished in one or
two years, I think my readers will see in the facts above set forth
reason to believe that the year has not been entirely unproductive in
results, nor without a great promise for the future cultivation of the
’
imphee.
All the Books on this Catalogue sent by mail, w any part of the Union, free
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including New and Valuable Kinds.
COLE’S AMERICAN VETERINARIAN, - - = r 50
Contarnina Diseases or Domestic ANIMALS, THEIR Causes,
Symptoms and Remedies; with Rules for Restoring and Preserving Healih by good
management; ulso for Training and Breeding.
SCHENCK’S GARDENER’S TEXT BOOK, - - - - 50
ContTatntne DirecTIons FOR THE FORMATION AND MANAGEMENT
of the Kitchen Garden, the Culture and Use of Vegetables, Fruits and Medicinal Herbs.
AMERICAN ARCHITECT, - - - - - - 6 60
Tue American Arcuitect, Comprising original Designs of Cheap
Country and Village Residences, with Details, Specifications, Plans and Directions,
and an Estimate of the Cost of Each Design. By Jounw W. Riton, Architect. First
and Second Series, 4to, bound in 1 vol.
BUIS?T’S (ROBERT) AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTCGRY, 125
Containine PracricaL Directions For THE CctLTuRE oF Pants,
in the Flower-Garden, Hot-House, Green-House, Rooms or Parlor Windows, for every
Month in the Year; with a Description of the Piants most desirable in each, the nature
of the Soil and Situation best adapted to their Growth, the Proper Season for Trans-
planting, &c.; with Instructions for Erecting a Hot-House, Green-House, and Laying
out a Flower Garden; the whole adapted to either Large or Small Gardens, with In-
structions for Preparing the Soil, Propagating, Planting, Pruning, Training and Fruit-
ing the Grape Vine.
THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER, - - = - s
CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE Breepiye, Rearinc, Frep-
ing, Management and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Ilustrated with Engray-
ings. By D. Jay Browne,
REEMELIN’S (CHAS.) VINE DRESSER’S MANUAL, - ° 59
An IniustraTeD TREATISE ON VINEYARDS AND Wrne-Matrne,
containing Full Instructions as to Location and Soil, Preparation of Ground, Selection
and Propagation of Vines, the Treatment of Young Vineyards, Trimming and Training
the Vines, Manures, and the Making of Wine.
DANA'S MUCK MANUAL, FOR THE USE CF FARMERS, - 1690
A TREATISE ON THE PuHysicaAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
Soils and Chemistry of Manures; including, also, the subject of Composts, Artificial
Manures and Irrigation. A new edition, with a Chapter on Bones and Superphos-
phates.
CHEMICAL FIELD LECTURES FOR AGRICULTURISTS, - 100
By Dr. Juttus Apotpnus Srocxuarpt, Professor in the Royal
Academy of Agriculture at Tharant. Translated from the German. Edited, with
notes, by Jam:s E, TroHEMAOHER.
By Books Published by A. O. Moorp.
BUIST’S: (RBOERT) FAMILY KITCHEN GARDENER, -~ - $073
ConTAINING PLAIN AND ACCURATE DESCRIPTIONS OF ALK THE Dir-
ferent Species and Varieties of Culinary Vegetables, with their Botanical, English,
French and German names, alphabetically arranged, with the Best Mode of Cultivating
them jin the Garden or under Glass; also Descriptions and Character of the most Select
Fruits, their Management, Propagation, &c. By Roxpertr Buist, author of the “ Am-
erican Flower Garden Directory,” Xe.
DOMESTIC AND ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, Plain Plates, © 190
Do. Do. Do. Colored Plates, - 20
A TREATISE ON THE History AND MANGEMENT OF ORNAMENTAL
and Domestic Poultry. By Rev. Epmunp Savi Drxon, A.M., with large additions b>
J. J. Kerr, M.D. Illustrated with sixty-five Original Portraits, engraved exprescly ful
this work. Fourth edition revised.
HOW TO BUILD AND VENTILATE HOT-HOUSES, > - 125
A Practica, TREATISE ON THE ConsTrUCTION, HEATING AND
Ventilation of Hot-Houses, including Conservatories, Green-Houses, Graperies and
other kinds of Horticultural Structures, with Practical Directions for their Manage
ment, in regard to Light, Heat and Air. Illustrated with numerous engravings. by
P. B. Levcnars, Garden Architect.
CHORLTON’S GRAPE-GROWER’S GUIDE, - - - - 60
InTENDED ESPECIALLY FOR THE AMERICAN Crmate. Being a
Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in each department of Hot
House, Cold Grapery, Retarding House and Out-door Culture. With Plans for ths
Construction of che Requisite Buildings, and giving the best methods for Heating the
same. Every department being fully illustrated. By WiILLtAm CHoriton.
NORTON’S (JOHN P.) ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE, 60
Or, THE CONNECTION BETWEEN SCIENCE AND THE ART OF PRACTICAL
Farming. Prize Essay of the New York State Agricultural Society. By Joun P.
Norton, M.A., Professor of Scientific Agriculture in Yale College. Adapted to the
use of Schools,
JOHNSTON’S (J. F. W.) CATECHISM OF AGRICULTURAL CHEH-
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, . . 25
By James F. W. Jounston, M.A., F.R.SS.L. and E., Honorary
Member of the Royal Agriculiural Society of England, and author of “Lectures on
Agricultural Chemistry and Geology.” With an Introduction by Jonn Pitkin Nor-
TON, M.A., late Professor of Scientific Agricultvre in Yale College. With notes and
additions by the anthor, prepared expressly for this edition, and an Appendix compiled
by the Superintendent of Education in Nova Scotia. Adapted to the use of Schools.
JOHNSTON’S VJ. F. W.) ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHEM-
ISTRY AND GEOLOGY, - . - 100
With a Complete Analytical and Alphabetical Index and an
American Preface. By Hon. SircN Brown, Editor of the “New England Farmer.’
JOHNSTON’S JAMES F. W.) AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, 1 26
LECTURES ON THE APPLICATION OF CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY TG
Agricultnre. New edition, with an Appendix, containing the Author’s Experiments
in Practical Agriculture.
THE> COMPLETE FARMER AND AMERICAN GARDENER, 1 25
Rurat Economist anD New American GarpENnER; Containing
a Compendious Epitome of the most Important Branches of Agriculture and Rurai
Economy; with Practical Directions on the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables, in-
os Landscape and Ornamental Gardening. By THomas G. FEsseNDEN. 2 vols,
one. -
FESSENDEN’S (T. G.) AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER, - 59
ConTAINING DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES AND
Garden Fruits. Cloth.
Books Published by A. O. Moors. 5
-_— eee
NASH’S (J. A.) PROGRESSIVE FARMER, - - ° - 50 60
A Screntiric Treatise ON AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, THE GE-
ology of Agriculture, on Plants and Animals, Manures and Soils, applied to Practical
Agriculture; with a Catechism of Scientific and Practical Agriculture. By J. A. Nasu.
SRECK’S BOOK OF FLOWERS, - * - - - 100
IN WHICH ARE DESCRIBED ALL THE VARIOUS: Harpy HErBAcEous
Perennials, Annuals, Shrubs, Plants and Evergreen Trees, with Directions for their
Cultivation,
$MITH’S (C. H. J.) LANDSCAPE GARDENING, PARKS AND PLEASURE
GEOUNDE, | «tots... aie Ae ait ain ehh ek BS
Witrn Practicat Notes on Country REsIDENCES, VILLAS, Pusric
Parks and Gardens. By CHaries H. J. Suirn, Landscape Gardener and Garden
rcntiedt, &e. With Notes and Additions by Lewis F. AuLen, author of “ Rural
Architecture.
fHE COTTON PLANTER’S MANUAL, - - - - 100
Batya A Comprnation or Facts rrom THE Best AUTHORITIES ON
the Culture of Cotton, its Natural History, Chemical Analysis, Trade and Consumption,
and embracing a History of Cotton and the Cotton Gin. By J. A. Turner.
VOBBETT’S AMERICAN GARDENER, - - ~ - 59
A TREATISE ON THE Situation, Sort, AND LayInc-out oF GARDENS,
and the making and managing of Hot-Beds and Green-Houses, and on the Propagation
and Cultivation of the several sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers.
ALLEN (J. FISK) ON THE CULTURE OF THE GRAPE, - 1 00
A PracticaL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE AND T'REATMENT OF THE
Grape Vine, embracing its History, with Directions for its Treatment in the United
States of America,in the Open Airand under Glass Structures, with and without
Artificial Heat. By J. Fisk ALLEN.
ALLEN’S (R. L.) DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS, - 75
Brine A History anp Description or THE Horse, Mute, Cattir,
Sheep, Swine, Poultry, and Farm Dogs, with Directions for their Management, Breed-
ing, Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a Profitable Market ; also, their
Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the Dairy,
and the comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, the Horse, Mule,
Oxen, &. By R. L. ALLEN.
ALLEN’S (BR. L.) AMERICAN FARM BOOK, - - - 160
Tur American Farm Boox ; or, a Compend of American Agricul-
ture, being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain,
Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar Cane, Rice, and every Staple Product of the
United States; with the Best Methods of Planting, Cultivating and Preparation for
Market. Illustrated with more than 100 engravings. By R. L. ALLEN.
ALLEN’S (L. F.) RURAL ARCHITECTURE ; - + - 1 25
Betnca A CompLETE Description or Farm Housts, CoTraGEs, AND
Out Buildings, comprising Wood Houses, Workshops, Tool Houses, Carriage and
Wagon Houses, Stables, Smoke and Ash Houses, Ice Houses, Apiaries or Bee Houses,
Poultry Houses, Rabbitry, Dovecote, Piggery. Barns, and Sheds for Cattle, &c., &e.,
together with Lawns, Pleasure Grounds, and Parks; the Flower, Fruit, and Vege-
table Garden; also useful and ornamental domestic Animals for the Country Resident,
&e., &e. Also, the best method of conducting water into Cattle Yards and Houses,
Beautifully illustrated.
WARING’S ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE; = = © 75
A Book ror Youna FARMERS, WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE USE OF
Schools.
6 Books Published by A. O. Moors.
et
PARDEE (R. G.) ON STRAWBERRY CULTURE; - - $9 60
A CompLeTe MANuAL For THE CULTIVATION OF THE STRAWBERRY -
with a description of the best varieties.
Also, notices of the Raspberry, Blackberry, Currant, Goosebe-ry, and Grape; with
directions for their cultivation, and the selection of the best varieties. “Every process
here recommended has been proved, the plans of others tried, and the result is here
given.” With a valuable appendix, containing the observations and experience of
some of the most successful cultivators of these fruits in our country.
GUENON ON MILCH COWs; - ~ - - - * 69
A Treatise on Mitcu Cows, whereby the Quality and Quantity of
Milk which any Cow will give may be accurately determined by observing Natura‘
Marks or External Indications alone; the length of time she will continue to give
Milk, &c., &c. By M. Francis Guenon, of Libourne, France. Translated by Nicuo-
uas P. Trist, Esq.; with Intioduction, Remarks, and Observations on the Cow and
the Dairy, by Jomn 8. Sxryner. Illustrated with numerous engravings. Neatly
done up in paper covers, 87 cts.
AMERICAN POULTRY YARD; - - - ” - 100
Comprising THE Oricin, History anpD Description of the different
Breeds of Domestic Poultry, with complete directions for their Breeding, Crossing,
Rearing, Fattening, and Preparation for Market; including specific directions for
Caponizing Fowls, and for the Treatment of the Principal Diseases to which they are
subject, drawn from authentic sources and personal observation. Illustrated wiih
numerous engravings. By D.J. Browne.
BROWNE'S (D. JAY) FIELD BOOK OF MANURES ; . - 1 25
Or, American Muck Boox; Treating of the Nature, Properties,
Sources, History, and Operations of all the Principal Fertilizers and Manures in Com-
mon Use, with specific directions for their Preservation, and Application to the Soil
and to Crops; drawn from authentic sources, actual experience, and personal observa-
tion, as combined with the Leading Principles of Practical and Scientific Agriculture-
By D. Jay Brownz. ;
RANDALL’S (H. &.) SHEEP HUSBANDRY; - * * 125
Wir an Account or THE DirrErENT Breeps, and general direc-
tions in regard to Summer and Winter Management, Breeding, and the Treatment of
Diseases, with Portraits and other Engravings. By Henry 8. RANDALL.
THE SHEPHERD’S OWN BOOK; . - - - . 200
Wirg an Account or THE Dirrerent Bresgps, Diseases AND May-
agement of Sheep, and General Directions in regard to Summer and Winter Man-
agement, Breeding, and the Treatment of Diseases; with Illustrative Engravings, by
Yovatr & RANDALL; embracing Skinner's Notes on the Breed and Management of
‘Sheep in the United = tates, and on the Culture of Fine Wool.
YOUATT ON SHEEP, - - - - - - - 75
TuetrR Breep, ManaGEMENT AND Diskasks, with Illustrative En-
gravings; to which are added Remarks on the Breeds and Management of Sheep in
the United States, and on the Culture of Fine Wool in Silesia) By Wiii1am Youart.
YOUATT AND MARTIN ON CATTLE; . - - - 1 25
Berne A TREATISE ON THEIR BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND DisEases,
comprising a full History of the Various Races; their Origin, Breeding, and Merits;
their capacity for Beef and Milk. By W. Youartr and W. ©. L. Martin. The whole
forming a Complete Guide for the Farmer, the Amateur, and the Veterinary Surgeon,
with 100 Illustrations. Edited by AmBrosE STEVENS.
YOUATT ON THE HORSE; - - - - - - 1 25
Youatr ON THE SrructuRE anpD Diseases OF THE Hors, with
their Remedies. Also, Practical Rules for Buyers, Breeders, Smiths, &c. Edited by
W.C. Spooner, M.R.C YS. With an account of the Breeds in the United States, by
HENRY 8. RANDALL.
Books Published by A. O. Moors. 7
YOUATT AND MARTIN ON THE HOG; - - - - $0 75
*
A TREATISE ON THE BREEDS, MANAGEMENT, AND Mepican Treat-
ment of Swine, with Directions for Salting Pork, and Curing Pacon and Hams. Py
Wma. Youart, V.8 , and W.C.L.Marrin. Edited by AmBrosz Stevens. Illustrated
with Engravings drawn from life.
BLAKE’S (REV. JOHN L.) FARMER AT HOME; - - 1 25
A Famity Text Boox ror rae Country; being a Cyclopedia of
Agricultural Implements and Productions, and of the more important topicsin Do-
mestic Economy, : cience, and Literature, adapted to Rural Life. Ey Rev. Jonn L.
Li. akE, D D.
MUNN’S (B.) FRACTICAL LAND DRAINER; - 7 - 59
Berne A TREATISE ON Draryine Lanp, in which the most approved
systems of Drainage are explained, and their differences and comparative merits dis-
cussed; with fuil Directions for the Cutting and Making of Drains, with Remarks upon
the various maievials of which they may be constructed. With many illustrations. ty
b, Munn, Landscape Gardener.
ELLIOTI’S AMERICAN FRUIT CROWER’S GUIDE IN ORCHARD
SOUT SL EEO: AMIRI Sr Ih PLU eSR a ic 1 25
Bertne A Compenp or THE History, Moprs or Propacation, Cur-
ture. &c., of Fruit Trees and Sh ubs, with descriptions of nearly all the varieties of
Fruits cultivated in this country ; and Notes of their adaptation to localities, soils, and
a complete list of : ruits worthy of cultivation. Ly I. R. Extrorr, Pomologist.
FRACTICAL FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDENER’S COM-
PANION; - - 2 mae hea oe - - - 109
Wirn a Carenpar. By Patrick Neitz, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Secre-
tary of the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society. Adapted to the United States
from the fourth edition, revised and improved by the author. Edited by G. Emerson,
M D., Editor of “The American Farmer’s Encyclopedia.” With Notes and Additions
by R. G Paxrvus, author of * Manual of the Strawberry Culture.” With illustrations.
BSIEPUMENS’ (HENRY) BCCK GF THE FARM; = - 4 00
A CompLetE GvipE To THE FARMER, Strwarp, Prowman, Oart-
tleman, Shepherd, Field Worker, and Dairy Maid. By Henry Strernens. With Four
Huntred and Fifty Illustrations; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks,
&c., by J S Skinner. Really one of the best books a farmer can possess.
FPEDDERS’ GAMES) FARMERS’ LARD MEASURER; - = 59
Or, Pocker Companton ; Showing at one view the Contents of any
Piece of Land from Dimensions taken in Yards. With a set of Useful Agricultural
Tables.
WHITE’S (W. N.) GARDENING FCR THE SOUTH; . - 125
Or, THE KitcHen anp Fruit Garpen, with the best methods for
their Cultivation; together with hints upon Landscape and Flower Gardening; con-
taining modes of culture and descriptions of the species and varieties of the Culinary
Vegetables, Fruit Trees, and Fruits, and a select list of Ornamental Trees and Plants,
found by trial adapted to the States of the Union south of Pennsylvania, with Garden-
ing Calendars forthe same. Dy Wm. N. Wuirs, of Athens, Georgia.
EASTWOOD (8.) ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE CRANBERRY ; 50
Wirn a DescripTion OF THE BEST Vanteties. By B. Hastwoop,
“ Septimus” of the New York Tribune.
AMERICAN BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL; - - - - 100
Berne A Practica, TREATISE ON THE History and Domestic
Economy of the Honey Bee, embracing a full illustration of the whole subject, with
the most approved methods of managing this Insect, through every branch of its
Cultu'e; the resu\4 of many years’ experience. Illustrated with many engravings
By T. B. Miner.
8 Books Published by A. O. Moore.
—_—
_THAER’S (ALBERT D.) AGRICULTURE - - . $2 60
THe PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, by ALBERT D. THER; trans-
lated by Witt1am SuHaw and Curusert W. Jounson, Esq., F.R.S. With a Memoir
of the Author. 1 vol. 8vo.
This work is regarded by those who are competent to judge as one of the most
beautiful works that has ever appeared on the subject of Agriculture. At the same
time that it is eminently practical, it is philosophical, and, even to the general reader,
remarkably enteitaining.
BOUSSINGAUL?’S (J. B.) RURAL ECONOMY, - - 125
In irs Reiations to CHeEmiIstry, Puysics, AnD METEOROLOGY :
or, Chemistry applied to Agriculture. By J. B. Bousstneauut. Translated, with
notes, ete., by George Law, Agriculturist.
“ The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, and its perusal will
aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a practical and scientific knowledge of his profes -
sion.”
MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING EXPLAINED; - - - 1090
Betne A Complete ANALYsIS OF THE WHOLE SuBsect, consisting
of the Natural History of Bees; Directions for obtaining the greatest amount of Pure
Surplus Honey with the least possible expense; Remedies for losses given, and the
Science of Luck fully illustrated; the result of more than twenty years’ experience in
extensive Apiaries. By M. QurnBy.
THE COTTAGE AND FARM BEE-KEEPER ; - - < 50
A Practica Worx, by a Country Curate.
WEEKS (JOHN M.) ON BEES.—A MANUAL; - - - 50
Or, AN Easy Metuop or ManacinG BEES IN THE MOST PROFITABLE
manner to their owner; with infallible rules to prevent their destruction by the Moth,
With an appendix, by Wooster A. FLANDERS.
THE ROSE; - - . + - - - - : 50
Beine A PractTicaL TREATISE ON THE PROPAGATION, CULTIVATION,
and Management of the Rose in all Seasons; with a list of Choice and Approved Varie-
ties, adapted to the Climate of the United States; to which is added full directions for
the Treatment of the Dahiia. Illustrated by Engravings.
MOORE’S RURAL EAND BOCES, - = - as = 1 25
First Series, containing Treatises on—
Tue Horse, Tue Pests OF THE Fa
Tue Hoe, Domestic Fow1s, and
Tue Honey BEE, THE Cow,
SrconD Series, containing— Sat Sener - 1°25
Zvery Lapy HER Owx FLowER GARDENER, Essay ON MANURES,
#LEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, AMERICAN KITCHEN GARDENER,
Sinp FANnciceRr, AMERICAN RosE CULTURIST.
TutrD Series, containmg— - - - - = 1 25
MILES ON THE Horse's Foot, Vine Dresser’s MANUAL,
Tue RAaBBit FANCIER, Bre-KEE?rR’s CHART,
WEEKES ON BEES, CHEMISTRY MADE Easy.
Fovurts Serigs, containing— = - Ad iwi s 1 25
PERSOZ ON THE VINE, Hoorer’s Doe anp Gun,
Liepic 8 FAMILIAR LETTERS, SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE,
Browne's Memorrs oF INDIAN Corn.
RICHARDSON ON DOGS: THEIR CRIGIN AND VARIETIES. . 50
DIRECTIONS AS TO THEIR GENERAL MANAGEMENT. With numerous
original anecdotes. Also, Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease, By
H. D. Ricnarpson. I[lustrated with numerous wood engravings,
This is not only a cheap work, but one of the best ever published on the Dog.
Books Published by A. O. Moors. 9
LIEBIG’S (JUSTUS) FAMILIAR LECTURES ON CHEMISTRY, $0 50
Anp its Retation to ComMEeRcE, PuHysioLoay, AND AGRICULTURE.
Edited by Jonn GaRpENER, M.D.
BEMENT’S (C. N.) RABBIT FANCIER; 2 Sorte ke are 50
A TREATISE ON THE BREEDING, REARING, FEEDING, AND GENERAL
Management of Rabbits, with remarks upon their diseases and remedies, to which are
added full directions for the construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with
recipes for cooking and dressing for the Table. Beautifully illustrated.
THOMPSON (R. D.) ON THE FOOD OF ANIMALS - = 75
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON THE F'00D OF ANIMALS AND THE
Fattening of Cattle; with remarks on the Food of Man. Based upon Experiments
undertaken by order of the British Government, by Rosert Dunpas Tuomrson, M.D.,
Lecturer on Practical Chemistry, University of Glasgow.
THE WESTERN FRUIT BOOK; - - - - . 1 25
Brine A ComPeND or THE History, Moprs or Propagation, Cut-
ture, &c., of Fruit Trees and Shrubs, &c, &c. By F. R. Exxiorr.
eae SKILLFUL HOUSEWIFE? SS Sal ee Ce as 50
Or Compete GuipE To Domestic Cooxerry, TastE, ComFort, AND
Economy, embracing 659 recipes pertaining to Household Duties, the care of Health,
Gardening, Birds, Education of Children, &¢.,&c. By Mrs L. G. Apri.
THE AMERICAN FLORIST’S GUIDE; - - a ~ ss %5
CoMPRISING THE AMERICAN RosE Cuutvrist AND Every Lapy HER
own Flower Gardener.
EVERY LADY HER OWN FLOWER GARDENER; . - 50
ADDRESSED TO THE INDUSTRIOUS AND Economical ONLY ; containing
simple and practical Directions for Cultivating Plants and Flowers; also, Hints for the
Management of Flowers in Rooms, with brief Botanical Descriptions of Plants and
Flowers. The whole in plain and simple language. By Louisa JOHNSON.
FISH CULTURE.—A Treatise on the Artificial Propagation of certain kinds of Fish,
with the description and habits of such kinds as are most suitable for pisciculture.
Also directions for the most successful metheds of Angling, illustrated with numerous
engravings By THropatus Garzicx, M. D. Vice President of Cleveland Academy
of Natural Science, - - - - - - - - 1 00
FLINT ON GRASSHS.—A Practical Treatise on Grasses and Forage Plants, compris-
ing their naiural history, comparative nutritive value, methods of cultivating, cutting,
and curing, and the management of grass lands. By Cuas. L. Firt, A. M., Secretary
of Mass. State Board of Agriculture, —- ~ - ~ - 25
WARDER ON HEDGES AND EVERGREENS.—A manual on Live Fences, with
particular directions for their planting, culture and trimming, especially with re-
gard to the Maclura hedges, and how to make it. Also an essay on Evergreens, their
varieties, propagation, transplan*ing and culture in the United States. By Jonn A.
Warper, M.D President cf Cincinnati Horticultural Society, - -
10 Books Published by A. O. Moore.
ROP LLLP OD
MOORE’S
~Hand Books of Bural and Domestic Geonomy.
All arranged and adapted to the Use of American Farmers,
PRICE 25 CENTS EACH.
HOGS;
THEIR ORIGIN, VARIETIES AND MANAGEMENT, With a View to Pro-
fit, and Treatment under Disease: also Plain Directions relative to the most approved
modes of preserving their Flesh. By H. D. Ricuarpson, author of “The Hive and the
Honey Bee,” &c., &c. With illustrations—12mo,
THE HIVE AND THH HONEY BEE;
Wirs Puiain Directions ror OBTAINING A CoNSIDERABLE ANNUAL
Income from this branch of Rural Economy; also an Account of the Diseases of Bees
and their Remedies, and Remarks as to their Enemies, and the best mode of protecting
the Hives from their attacks. By H.D. Ricnarpson. With illustrations,
DOMESTIC FOWLS;
Turin NaturaL History, Breepinc, REARING, AND GENERAL
Management. By H. D. Rronarpson, author of “The Natural History of the Fossil
Deer,” &c. ‘With illustrations.
THE HORSE;
THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES; WITH Pian DIRECTIONS AS TO THE
Breeding, Rearing, and General Management, with Instructions as to the Treatment of
Disease. Handsomely illustrated—12mo. By H. D. Ricnarpson.
THE ROSE;
Tue American Rosk Cunturist ; being a Practical Treatise on the
Propagation, Cuitivation, and Management in all Seasons, &c. With full directions for
the Treatment of the Dahlia.
THE PESTS OF THE FARM;
Wirn Insrrucions ror THEIR ExtTrRPATiIon; being a Manual of
Plain Directions for the certain Destruction of every description of Vermin. With
numerous illustrations on Wood.
AN ESSAY ON MANURES;
SvupMITTED TO THE TRUSTEES OF THE MASSACHUSETTS SOCIETY FOR
Promoting Agriculture, for their Premium. By Samven. H. Dana.
THE AMERICAN BIRD FANCIER;
CoNSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO THE BREEDING, REARING, FEED-
ing, Management, and Peculiarities of Cage and House Birds. Illustrated with Engrav-
ings. By D. Jay Browne.
CHEMISTRY MADE EASY;
For THs Use or Farmers. By J. Topuam.
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE;
‘(RANSLATED FROM THE F'RencH, and Adapted to the use of American
Farmers. By F. G. SKINNER,
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