•v.^v.^v.^v.>;•;;i■;,V.v ;

^illiiiilliiliiiiii :

i^

REPORT v^v /'

OF THE -- «-

ELEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

South African Association

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

LOURENCO MARQUES,
1913.

JULY 7—12.

CAPE TOWX :

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.
1914.

TENTS.

PAGE..

Officers and Council ... ... ... ... ... I

Tables : Past Annual jMeetincs : —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local Secre-
taries ... ... ... ... ... ... ii

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ... ... ... iv

Evening- Disconrses ... ... ... ... ... vi

LOURENXO MARQUES MEETING. 1913:—

General Meetings ... ... ... ... ... vii

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees ... ... viii

Proceedings of Eleventh Annual General Meeting of Memliers x

Report of Council. 1912-1913 ... ... ... ... xiii

General Treasurer's Account, 1912-1913 ... ... ... .xvii

Sixth Award of the South Africa Medal (Plate i ) . . . ... xxi

Association Library ... ... ... ... ... xxv

Address bv the President of the Association: Dr. A. W. Roberts,

D.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E. ... ... ... ... i

Address by the President of Section A : J. H. von Hafe ... 12
Address by the President of Section B: Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.,

D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.... .... ... ... ... 17

Address by the President of Section C: A. L. M. Bonn, C.E. ... 24

Address by the President of Section D: J. A. Foote, F.G.S.,

F.E.LS. ... ... ... ... ... ... 28

List of Papers ri:.\ii .\t thk Si-:ctio\.\l Meictings ... ... 35

SIR W. F. HELY-HUTCHINSON, G.C.M.G., M'.A., LL.D.

(Plate 2) ... ... ... ... ... ... S7

Jubacopsis caffra Becc. : a new genus of palmae from Pondoland :

Prof. R. Marloth. !^I..\., Ph.D. ... ... ... .... 42

A new oil-yielding tree from Lourengo Marques ... ... 43

Star positions and galactic co-ordinates: R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S... 44

Dicoma anomala ... ... ... ... ... 50

Utilitarianism and researcli . . ... ... ... ... 50

Root knot in the tomato : Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.Sc. (Plate 3 and

"ne te.xt rigure) ... ... . . ., ... ... 51

Westphal's Comet ... ... ... ... ... ~,t,

The rtlation of High Schools to the Universitv Technical College :

W". J. Horne. M.1..M.E., A.M.LE.E. .". . ... ... 54

Cure for sleeping sickness... ... ... ... ... 6.?,

Histor}- of early Portuguese discoveries and exploration in Africa :

S. Seruya (S text figures) ... ... ... ... 67

Microbe of hydropholsia • • ■ ., ... ... ... ... 80

A plea for the exact measurement of rainfall : E. Flowers, C.E.,

F.R.A.S.. F.R.G.S. (one text figure) ... ... ... 81

Lightning conductors at St. Paul's Cathedral... ... ... 86

Amphibian poison ... ... ... ... ... ... 86'

Volcanic dust and climatic change ... ... ... ... 8&

On the development of the planula in certain species of Plitiiinlaria :

Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc... ... ... ... ... 87

■The bearing- of recent discoveries of early Tertiary shells, near

Trinidad Island and in Brazil, on hypothetical land routes

between South America and Africa : C. J. Maury, Ph.D. ... 92

Health conditions on the Isthmus of Panama : S. Evans ... ... 99

Etiology of cancer . . ... ... ... ... ... 104

On a meteorite from N'Kandhla District, Zululand : Prof. G. H.

STANLEY, A.R.S.M.. F.I.C. (Plates 4-7, and one text figure) 105

32472

114

CONT1-. \ IS.

PAGE.

Dr. R. IJrouiu ... ... ... ... ... ... 113

Notes on cotYee growing: F. ue jMeirki.les ... ....

Agricultural Science

The Psychic life of the Thonga tiil)e. . . ... ... ... i2_

International Electrical and Engineering Cfnigri^sses ... ... 127

International Congress of Tropical Agriculture. ... ... 127

The phallus cult amongst the Bantu; particularly the Hapedi ..f

Eastern Transvaal. Rev. J. \. VVintkk ... ... ... 131

Synthetic milk . . ... ... ... ... ... 136

The condition of the natives of South-East .Africa in the si.xteenih
century, according to the early Portu.gucse dncunients: Rev. H.
A. JuNOD ... ... ... ... ... ... ^T^y

Quincnoid oxidation products of dianisidine. .-.nd tlieir jiolvnierisa-

tion : T. Mojr, V..A.. D.Sc. ... ... ..." ... 163

Delavan's Comet ... ... ... ... ... . . 169

Chemical composition of rain in the L'nion of .South .\frica: C. F.

JuRiTZ. ^r.,\., D.Sc. F.FC. (Plate 8) ... ... ... 170

Maize production ... ... ... ... ... ... 193

SIR DAVID GILL. K.C.P,.. LE.D.. I) Sc. F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

( Plate 9) ... ... ... . . ... ... 195

.\ few notes on water divining: \\\ Ixcit.x.m. ALLCF. A'.l.McchF. 203
Productiin of sugar in the Province of Alo.TitTihique : J. .MrXKo ... 206
International Electrical Congress ... ... ... ... 221

African Insects ... ... ... ... ... ... 221

The relation of sewage flow to water supply: \V. J. D.wexpokt (one

text tigure) ... ... ... ... ... ... 222

'The South .\frican Diamond Iwelds ... ... ... ... 224

■Cosmogonic hypotheses: R. T. .\.. In.\e.s, F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E. ... 227

Notes on the distrihution and characters of reptiles and ampliiliiaiis
in South Africa, ccnsidered in relation to the problem of discon-
tinuity between closely allied species: J. HEwrrr. r...\. ( four text
figures) ... ... ... . ■ - ... ... 238

The Winburg ?^Ieteorite ... ... ... ... ... 253

Radiotelegraphic investigation ... ... ... ... 253

Anthropological research ... ... ... ... 255

The humour of estranged lndo-(Jerman cognates : Rev. W. .\.

Norton, S.S.M. ... • ■ ■ ■ • • • ■ ■ ■ • ■ 259

South -African eccniomic plants ... ... ... ... 283

Data for the study of the climate of Eourav.-o Marques: A. hk

Almeiu.\ Teixeir.\ (2r text ligures ) .. ... ... 284

The Trades School in the Transvaal: W. .1. lb)R\K. .\. M.I. CM ... 345
The hydrographer's department nf tlie Rritisli Adnn'raltv : H. PiNr 371
A lunar volcano ... . . ... ••• ••• ■• ,^84'

Determination of the latiUide and longitude of the pillar of the
transit instrument at the Campos Rodrigues ( )liservatory : .\. in:
Almeida Teixeika ... ... . . . 3*?.t

P)rief notes on the effects of geometrical survey and legal registration
of land in relation to the security of rights over immovable
property and its identification ( with Specimen Title) : P. L. nr
Bellei; AKDE da Sii-V.> ... • • • . ■ . -101

The constitution of nebuh-e... .. . -;2i

Notes on the application of the radio-telegraphic service to expedi-
tious methods of geodetic survey: P. L. de Beli.i-g akde d.\ Si.'.va
(.-Abstract) ... ... . ■•■ •■• •• ■•; 422

The measuring of air with special reference to compressors: C.

Janssen (three text figures) ... ... ... 423

The sanitarv state of the stock of the Lourenco Manpus District:

Lieut. J. B. BoTELHo ( Tillc uiily) . . ... ... ... 465

A decimal coinage for South .\frica : Prof. \V. .\. M.\cf.\dvex. M.A..

LL.D. (Title only) ... ... ... ... 46.=;

Oil extraneous education: H. L. L.\ke (Title only) ... ... 46-5

CONTENTS.

V.

Officers and Council, 1913-1914

List of Members ...

Index

PAGE.

i
n

LIST OF PLAIES.

The South Africa MedaL .
Sir W. F. riely-Hutchinson
Root knot in tlie tomato..
The N'Kandhla meteorite
The N'Kandhla meteorite
The N'Kandhla meteorite
The N'Kandhla meteorite
Chemical composition of rain
Sir David Gill. . .

TO FACE PAOE

.x\i
37

5^
105
106
log
1 10
172
19s

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1912-1913.

HONORARY PRESIDENT.

HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.

A. W. ROBERTS, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.

EX-PRESIDENT.

ARNOLD THEILER, C.M.G., D.Sc.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,

Professor of Pure Mathematics, Bulawayo.

South African College, Cape Town. i J. H. von Hafk, Director of Railways,

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., Union Obseivr.{ Louren<;o Marques
tory, Johannesburg. '

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.
C. F. JuRiTZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. I H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.Soc, Union
Government Analytical Laboratory Observatory, Johannesburg.

Cape Town. 1

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.

A. Walsh, P.O. Box 39, Cape Town.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

H. Tucker, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street, Cape

Town. P.O. Box 1497. (Telegraphic Address: " Scientific")

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

F.G.S.
M.R.C.S.,

I. CAPE PROVINCE.

Cape Peninsula.
A. J. Anderson, M.A., M.B., D.P

M.R.C.S.
Prof. T. C. Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E
Rev. W. Flint, D.D.
Prof. R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.
Prof. H. II. W. Pevrson, M.A., ScD.,

F.L.S.
A. II. Reid, F.R.I. B.A., F.R.San. I.

Graha>nstozvn.
J. Hewitt, B.A.

Kingwilliamstozvn,
Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, A.R.C.S

Kimberley.
A. H. Watkins, M.D.,
M.L.A.

Port Elisabeth.
W. A. Way, M.A.

QueenstuwTi.
Rev. C. Pettman.

Stellenbosch.

Prof. B. DE ,St. J. VAN DER RiET, M.A.>

Ph.D.

II. TRANSVAAL.

Johannesburg.
P. Cazalet.
E. A. E. Collins.

W. CULLEN, M.I.M.M.
S. Evans.

J. A. FooTE, F.G.S. , F.E.I.S.
Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc.
J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.C.S.
Piof. T. Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E.
Prof.. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M.,
M.I.M.E., M.LM.M., F.I.C.

Pretoria.
J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S. , F.R.G.S.
W. E. C. Clarke, M.A.

F. A. Kanthack, A.M.I.C.E.

Potchefstroom.

A. Holm.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.

lUoemfontein.

Dr. W. Johnson, L.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

G. Macdonald.

Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D.

IV. NATAL.

Durban.
A. McKenzie, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S.

Pietermaritsbnrg.
Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc

V. RHODESIA.

Bulawayo.
Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A., F.G.S.

Salisbury.
G. N. Blackshaw, B.Sc, F.C.S.

Rev.

VI. BASUTOLAND
£. Jacottet.

VII. MOZAMBIQUE.

S. Seruya.

F. Flowers, F.RA.S-, F.R.G.S.

J. McCrae, Ph.D.. F.I.C.

TRUSTEES.
H. M. .Asderne.

Prof. J. C. Beattie. D.Sc, F.R.S.E.
.\. D. R. Tucwell.

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, ETC.

S

■"5

t3

5:!

C3i

'^ s

c^ ^

•+-.

"2

o

3

<o

^

^

H.^

to

e

■»4

C)

a.

jw

'•(/)

; '.'A

. ; 'A

! I i U

:Stq't4

•K

■ :«

: :«

: : :ps

:-;«:§

'■tC

: '^^

: '^

; : 't-

:;sfcu

fc

:^

'.'^■'/i

■MtA

■Kt/3t/5

§ .«

:^d

:^rt

: ; § jvj

■p«hi

wWfi;

; H u^

■!3^

: .'~!fo

iJfefe

^■^ r

■ ^

■ S -

.^^ :

1^ :-*.' *

^^.Q

• -.2

■ -d

c^cj -E

lA .Ro

•y'J

•a J

d .w'hi

SS-:

■P^'"'

•^^'^

««§'-'

mer.I.!

e, Bar

M.A.,

I. M.A

t/2Q S'^

linings, M.A
rles Metcalfi
uir, C.M.G.,
F. Williams

S ° c .

r^.^wi

u ■ c

^ . c

3 oj

3

-.^s-s

fe^g-E

Ei-;g|

S 2

^^■i'i

..i:j= rt

-^ p"

. — ^

. J3 1-

VI

c/:f-ic

-.'/■; H c

— .vi — C

kA^CAH

1-1.72 HO*

c/5 f^

^ o

• o

• ON

■J o

" rC

*I '^

a "'

< •

K

4o

>-! S,

fc- -

^<

ss.

^Z,

dg

< I-"

6 A

U m

Si
-5

W 2

^ <

o6

P

a o

• uc

73

Q

<

S^

«

>

>

Q

o

o
w

w
z

Q

erf

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, ETC.

.

;j

t«

f

(A

^•

fa

V

s

J=

J^

s

„-

.'y:

6
t/3

W

5^
fa

5 «;

^^

d

<■

a

- 0

^^.

<

•a

n

'J]

-3

Wt/: o

3
1—,

eg

. u

"3

S

c

-0"

0
0

C

o

^"

d

fa'

i.^

(i<

d

d

w

d

s'c/i :

: : ;

S"N •

;v}

-§ :

;N

so .

:S

wt/i .

:d

w : :

w : :

■y; ! 1 1

^H'^

ivi

wi • '

Psi Iw

•'-•

: :h

« ioi

fa :d

ir

5 r---

; fa

• 'vi

fa" :d

- ipi

~y^ :

t/3w<U

d ■
(^ :

fa ;

■y. '■

:^"fa
: 'C«

■<tr.

u . •

c/2 fa

<fa-C

Jxw :

X -^ p^' -

.Si<'aV:

J

Ph'^

■ ._'

.t« X

.ci-^ •

. C. Beatt

niiiiigs, M.
. Schonlan
Williams, .

> .

< 1

•S 03
O

1

ss|

lib

. c

"-'_;m-; iJ
p '^ o c

u

- ". ^ "5

aiwiunW

h^SKPl,

5:

Ki^

td<<

fa>^<^

£^ V> ■

!5

o

d

'.

q :

'^ :

c«

§

c

^ *

< ■

g

d

t

^ *

;:::;

Pi ■

E

'O

jd

^' •

U
H

o

<

Q

. o

. o

1-

3 : .
j :2

J : 2-

< .

si,

' 0

V3 -

•J ! ^

0 ! -

W

Pi

v<3

<

s

O

■ 5

<

f

d "^
-"3

>

o

.m

i :o

dS

" ; ot

<

c

o

'. z"

w

L

^ ^S

< b

X ■ <

s

H

s-

. '. 0

fa^ J

• —

MO

z

. o

w
o
-J

e

t

H
<

c

<
0

> • 5
"^ ! z

.d

;t^

0

0

Ed^

2

;'

ri

?

<

<

IV PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents and Secretaries <^f the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place.

Presidents-

Secretaries-

SECTION A.— ASTRONOMY. CHEMISTRY. MATHEMATICS,
METEOROLOGY AND PHYSICS.

1903. Cape Town . .

1904. Johannesburg*

1906. Kimberley

1907- Natalf . . - -

1908- Grahamstown

Prof. P. D. Hahn. :\f.A.,

Ph.D.
J. R. Williams. M.T.M.M..

M.Amer.I.M.E.
J. R. Sutton, M.A.
E. N. Neville, F.R.S.,

F.R.A.S., F.C.S. I

A. W. Roberta, D.Sc. D- Williams, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

Prof. L. Crawford.

W. Cullen, R. T. A. Innes.

W. Gasson. A. H. J. Bourne.
D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS. METEOROLOGY.
GEODESY. SURVEYING. ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND

GEOGRAPHY.

1909. Bloemfontein

1910. Cape Town %

1911. Bulawayo

Prof. W. A. D. Rudge. H. B. Austin, F. Masev.

M.A. i

Prof. J. C. Beattie, D'Sc, A. II. Reid, F. Flowers.

F.R.S.E.

Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., A. H. Reid, Rev. S. S. Dor-
M.A., F\R.A.S. nan.

1912. Port Elizabeth [ H. J. Holder, M.I.E.E. A. H. Reid.

19 f,^. Lourengo ] J. H. von Hafe. Prof. J. Orr, J. Vaz Gomes.

Marques

SICTION B.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY,
B01 ANY, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

1903. Cape Town .

1904. Johannesburg

1906. Kimberley

R. Marloth. M.A., Ph.D. I Prof. A. Dendy.

G. S. Corstorphine, B.Sc, I Dr. W. C. C. Pakes, W. H.

Ph.D.. F.G.S. Jollyman.

Thos. Quentrall, ' C. IC. Addams, H. Simpson.

M.T.Mech.H.. F.G.S. I

CHEMISTRY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY, ENGINEERING.
MINING AND ARCHITECTURE.

1907. Natal

1908- Grahamstown

C. W. Methven, M.I.C.E..

F.R.S.E., F.R.I. B. A.
Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,

A.R.C.S.. F.G.S.

R. G. Kirkby, W. Paton.

Prof. G. E. Corj-, R. W.
Newman, J. Muller.

CHEMISTRY, BACTERIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, AHNERALOGY,
ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, SANITARY SCIENCE.

1909. Bloemfontein

C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, ; Dr. G. Potts, A. Stead.
F.I.C. I

* Metallurgy added in 1904.

t Geography and Geodesy transferred to Section A and Chemistry and
Metallurgy to Section B, in 1907.

t Irrigation added in 19 10 and Geography transferred to Section B.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place-

Presidents.

Secretaries.

CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY AND

GEOGRAPHY.

1910- Cape Town . .

1911- Bulawayo
1912. Port Elizabeth

1973. Lourengo

Marques

A. W. Rogers, M.A..

Sc.D.. F.G.S.
A. J. C. Molvnenx.

F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Prof. B. de St. J. van der

Riet. M.A., Ph D.
Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.,

D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

J. G. Rose, G. F. Avers.

J. G. Rose, G. N. Blackshaw.

J. G. Rose, J. E. Devlin.

Prof. G. H. Stanley. Capt. A.
Graga.

SECTION C— AGRICULTURE. ARCHITECTURE. ENGINEERING,
GEODESY. SURVEYING, AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

1903. Cape Town . . ] Sir Chas. Metcalfe, Bart., i A. H. Reid.

M.T.C.E. 1

1904. Johannesburg* Lieut.-Colonel Sir Percy ; G. S. Burt .\ndrews, E. J.

Girouard, K.C.M.G., ! Laschinger.

D.S.O. :

1906. Kinibcrlev . . S. J. Jennings. C.E.. D. W. Greathatch. W. New-

AI.Amer.I.M.E., M.I.M.E. digate.

BACTERIOLOGY. BOTANY, ZOOLOGY. AGRICULTURE AND
FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE.

1907. Natal Lieut.-Colonel H. Watkins W. A. Squire, A. M. Neilson,

Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S. Dr. J. E. Duerden.

1908. Grahamstown i Prof. S. Schonland, M.A., Dr. J. Bruce Bays, W.

' ! Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. Robertson, C. W. Mally,

I Dr. L. H. Gough.

1910. Cape Town t Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, W. D. Severn, Dr. J. W. B.

M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S. . Gunning.

191 1. Bulawayo .. F. Evles, F.L.S.. M.L.C. W. T. Saxton, H. G. Mundy.

1912. Port Elizabeth \ F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S., W. T. Saxton, I. L. Drege.

i F.R.M.S.

1913. LourenQO | A. L. M. Bonn, C.E. ' F. Flowers. Lieut. J. B.

Marques ' Botelho.

SECTION D.— ARCHAEOLOGY, EDUCATION, MENTAL SCIENCE,
PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

1903. Cape Town . . Thos. Muir, C.M.G., M.A., , Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

1904. Johannesburg (Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, Howard Pini, J. Robinson.

M.L.A.), E. B. Sargant, 1
M.A. (Acting). I

1906. Kimborley .. A. H. Watkins. M.D., j E. C. Lardner-Burke, E. W.
M.R.C.S. i Mowbray.

EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, HISTORY, ARCHAE-
OLOGY: ECONOMICS AND STATISTICS, SOCIOLOGY,
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOI OGY.

1907. Natal

R. D. Clark, M.A.

R. A. Gowthorpe, A. S.
Langley, E. A. Belcher.

EDUC./VTION, PHILOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, HISTORY AND
ARCHAEOLOGY.

1908. Grahamstown E. G. Gane, M..^..

Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, W.
D. Neilson.

* Forestrj' added in 1904.

t Sanitary Science added in 1910.

VI

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place.

Presidents-

Secretaries.

ECONOMICS AND STATISTICS, SOCIOLOGY, ANTHROPOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY.

1908. Grahamstown W. Hammond Tooke.

Prof. A. S. Kidd.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY. EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY. SOCIOLOGY
AND STATISTICS.

1909. Bloemfontein

1910. Cape Town . .

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

Hugh Gunn, M.A.

Rev. W. Flint, D.D.
G. Duthie. M.A., F.R.S.E.
W. A. Way, M.A.
J. A. Foote, F.G.S.

G. C. Grant, Rev. W. A.

Norton.
G. B. Kipps, W. E. C. Clarke.
G. B. Kipps. W. J. Shepherd.
G. B. Kioos, E. G. Bryant.
H. Pirn, J. Elvas.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place.

Lecturer.

Subject of Discourse.

1903. Cape Town .

1904. Johannesburg
1906. Kimberley

1907. Maritzburg .
Durban . . .

1908. Grahamstown

1909. Bloemfontein

Maseru . .

1910. Cape Town

191 1. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

191 3. LourenQO

Marques

Prof. W. S. Logeman,
B.A.. L.H.C.

H. S. Hele-Shaw, LL.D.,

F.R.S., M.I.C.E.
Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A.,

D.Sc.
W. C. C. Pakes, L.R.C.P.,
M.R.C.S.. D.P.H.. F.I.C.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E.

Prof. R. B. Young. M.A.,

B.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

Prof. G. E. Cory. M.A.

A Theiler, C.M.G.

C. F. Juritz,

F.I.C.
W. Cullen.

M.A.. D.Sc.

R. T. A. Innes. F.R.A.S..

F.R.S.E.

Prof. H. Bohle, M.I.E.E.

J. Brown, M.D., CM.,

F.R.C.S.. L.R.C.S.E.
W. H. Logeman, M.-'K.
A. W. Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. J. Goddard. B.A.,
D.Sc.
S. Seruva.

The Ruins of Persepolis and
how the Inscriptions were
read.

Road Locomotion — Present
and Future.

The Electrical Aspect of
Chemistry.

The Immunisation against
Disease of Micro- organic
Origin.

Some Recent Problems in
Astronomy.

The Heroic Age of South
African Geology.

The History of the Eastern
Province.

Tropical and Sub-tropical
Diseases of South Africa:
their Causes and Propaga-
tion.

Celestial Chemistry.

Explosives : their
ture and Use.
Astronomy.

Manufac

The Conquest of the Air.
Electoral Reform — Propor-
tional Representation.
The Gyroscope.
Imperial Astronomy.

Antarctica.

The history of Portuguese
conquest and discovery.

vu
GENERAL AIEETING AT LOURENCO MARQUES.

On Monday, July 7, at 2.30 p.m., the Association was
officially received and welcomed to Lourengo Marques at the
Town Hall by His Excellency the Acting Governor-General of
Mozambique and His Worship the Mayor. After making
acknowledgment, on behalf of the Association, Dr. A. W.
Roberts, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., took the chair as President, and
delivered an address, for which see page i.

The Acting Governor-General, at the request of the Presi-
dent, then handed the South Africa medal and grant to the
Rev. Dr. Flint for conveyance to Dr. A. W. Rogers, M.A., F.G.S.,
who was unavoidably absent. For the proceedings see page xxi.

At 4 p.m., members of the Association proceeded by special
train to the Polana Beach ; and at 8 p.m. to the opening of a local
Fair and Exhibition of the products of the Province of Mozam-
bique.

On Tuesday^ July 8, at 2.30 p.m., members proceeded by
special train to make a circuit of the town ; thereafter alighting
at the railway station and being conveyed by train to the harbour
works, which were inspected under the guidance of Mr. J. H.
von Hafe. Director of Railways and Harbours.

At 8.30 p.m., members attended a musical evening given in
their honour at Villa Joia, the residence of Mr. A. Bonn.

On IVcducsday, July 9, at 2.30 p.m., members visited and
were entertained at the Campos Rodriguez Observatory, by
invitation of the Director, Lieutenant Teixeira ; afterwards
proceeding to the Hospital and the Municipal Gardens.

At 9 p.m. they attended a ball given by the military authori-
ties at their headquarters ( Gremio Alilitaire).

On Thursday, July 10. at 7.30 a.m., members proceeded on
a whole day excursion by launch up the Bay and the Umbeluzi
River to the waterworks, and to the Experimental Farm.

On Friday, July 11. at 3.30 p.m., members attended a recep-
tion by H.E. the Acting Governor-General at the Residency.

At 8 p.m., in the Colonial Hall, Mr. S. Seruya delivered a dis-
course on " The History of Portuguese Discovery and Settlement
in Africa," the Rev.. Dr. W. Flint presiding.

On Saturday, July 12, at 11 a.m., the Eleventh Annual
General Meeting was held in the Government Council Chamber,
for the minutes of which see page x.

At 2.30 p.m., members were taken out into the Bay to the
Steamship Chinde, specially cliartered for the occasion, from
whic'a they viewed a regatta.

At 8 p.m., the harbour and shipping were illuminated, and
a special steamer conveyed members for a short cruise for the
purpose of viewing these.

At 9.30 p.m., members were taken by special trams to the
Gremio Militaire, the grounds of which were illuminated after

Vlll GENERAL MEETING AT LOURENCO MARQUES.

the fashion of Northern Portugal ; while within, the prizes won
at the regatta were distributed by the President.

On Sunday, July 13, at 8 p.m., members left Lourenco
Marques by special train. H.E. the Governor and other notable
residents honoured the departure of the visitors with their pre-
sence on the railway platform, and hearty expressions of good-
will were exchanged. The military band played the British and
Portuguese National Anthems.

OFFICERS OF LOCAL AND SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES, LOURENCO MARQUES,

1913-

LOCAL COiMMITTEE.

Chairman, R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S. ; Local Secretary, H. E.
Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S.; P. Cazalet, E. A. E. Collins, W.
CuUen, M.LM.M., S. Evans, J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Prof.
R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc, J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., Prof.
J. Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., Prof. G. H. Stanley. A.R.S.M.,
M.LM.E., M.LM.M., F.LC, S. Seruya, F. Flowers, F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S., J. McCrae, Ph.D., F.LC.

RECEPTION COMMITTEE.

Chairman, His Worship the Mayor of Lourenqo ]\Iar-
ques; Hon. Secretary, J. F. Ferreira; Major A. A. de Sa,
J. H. Von Hafe, Lieutenant Arthur de Salles Henriques,
Colonel A. C. de Sousa Araujo, Augusto \''idal, A. de
Bulhoa Pato, Captain Reis, the Right Rev. the Bishop of
Le1x>mbo, A. W. Bayly, G. R. Kennedy, Martin Budd, F. C.
Vines, A. C. Saunders, Fritz Wirth, Adalbert Bonn ; Presidents
of the following Clubs and Societies : English, British, German,
Military, Landowners, Commercial Employes, First of January.
Portuguese Benevolent, Port and Railway Employes, Maritime,
^^'orkmen's Goanese, Shopkeepers, Swiss, Centro Couceiro da
Costa, Centro Colonial Democratic, Centro Sociali.sta, Coeite
Radical and Portuguese Clubs (Gremio de Lourenqo Marques).

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING, ARCHITECTURE AND IRRIGATION.

President, J. H. Yon Hafe: Jlce-Presidents. Colonel Belle-
garde da Silva and Captain Augusto Teixeira ; R. T. A. Innes,

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. IX

F.R.A.S., G. W. Herdman, M.A., M.I.C.E., Prof. J. C. Beattie,
D.Sc, F.R.S.E., A. H. Reid, RR.I.B.A., F.R.San,!., Rev. E.
Jacottet, J. F. Ferreira, A. Bonn; Hon, Secretaries, Prof. J. Orr,
B.Sc, ^J.I.C.E. (Recorder) \ and j. \'az domes.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
MINERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President, Prof. R. B. Young. M.A.. D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. ;
J 'ice-Presidents, Dr. j. Moir, M.A., D.Sc., and Prof. B. de St. ].
van der Riet, M.A.., Ph.D.; Prof. R. Marloth, M.A.. Ph.D., P.
Cazalet, C. F. Jnritz, M.A., D.Sc., F.I.C., Prof. G. Potts. M.Sc,
Ph.D., Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A., F.G.S., G. N. Blackshaw, B.Sc,
F.C.S.. A. W. Rogers. M.A., ScD., F.G.S., H. Kynaston, M.A.,
F.G.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, Prof. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M.. F.I.C-,
(Recorder), and Sta-ff-Captain Alberto Graca.

Section C.— BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY,
AGRICULTURE. FORESTRY. PHYSIOLOGY. HY-
GIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

President, A. L. M. Bonn, C.E. ; / 'ice-Presidents, Dr. Amaral
Leal and F. E. Kanthack, A.M.I.C.E. ; Dr. A. H. Watkins. M.D.,
M.R.C.S., M.L.A., J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Dr. A. J.
Anderson, M.A., M.B., D.P.H., Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, M.A.,
Sc.D., F.L.S., Dr. W. Johnson, Dr. A. H. McKenzie, CM.,
M.R.C.S., Dr. Rolla Pereira, J. E. O. Ferraz ; Hon. Secretaries,
Frank Flowers, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. ( Recorder ) ; and Lieutcnan*^
T. R. Botelho.

Section D.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, EDUCA-
TION. HISTORY. MENTAL SCIENCE. PHILOLOGY,
POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STA-
TISTICS.

President, J. A. Foote. F.G.S.. F.E.I.S. ; Vice-Presidents.
J. T. de Souza Barbosa and Dr. D. Pepulim ; Rev. Dr. Flint,
J. Hewitt, B.A., W. A. Way, M.A., W. E. C. Clarke. M.A.!
Sam Evans. A. W. Bayly, Dr. Blanco; Hon. Secretaries,
Howard Pim, C.A. {Recorder), and Juvenal Elvas.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELEVENTH
ANNUAL MEETING OF MEMBERS.

{Held in the Government Council Chamber, Loiirengo
Marques, on Saturday, July 12, 1913.)

Present: Dr. A. \V. Roberts, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E. (Presi-
dent), in the chair; Mr. J. Daniel, Mr. M. \V. Duirs, Mr. H.
Feldmann, Rev. J. FitzHenry. Rev. Dr. VV. Flint, Mr. F.
Flowers, Mr. J. A'. Foote, Mr. J. V. M. Gomez, Captain A. C.
de F. Graca, Mr. R. T. A. Innes, Mr. A. E. Jensen, Miss S. B.
Leiter, Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, Mr. P. v. d. M. Martins, Mr. J.
Munro, Miss E. B. Noble, Prof. J. Orr, Dr. D. Pepulim, Mrs.
A. W. Roberts, Miss C. Roberts, Prof. W. N. Roseveare, Prof.
G. H. Stanley, Miss S. Stafiford, Mr. A. Stephen, Mr. J. D.
Stevens, Miss E. L. Teasdale, Lieut. A. d'A. Teixeria, Mr. F.
G. Tyers, Prof. H. A. Wager, Miss G. Watkinson, Mr. M.
White, Mr. H. E. Wood (Hon. General Secretary), and Mr. H.
Tucker (Assistant General Secretary).

Minutes. — The Minutes of the Tenth Annual Meeting, held
at Port Elizabeth on 3rd July, 191 2, and printed on pp. xviii
to xxi of the Report of the Port Elizabeth Session, were con-
firmed.

Annual Report of Council. — The Annual Report of the
Council for 1912-13, having been suspended in the Council
Chamber since Wednesday, 9th July, was taken as read and
adopted, on the motion of Mr. J. A. Foote.

Report of General Treasurer and Statements of
Accounts for 1912-13. — The General Treasurer's Report and
Financial Statements for 1912-13 having been suspended in the
Council Chamber since Wednesday, 9th July, were taken as read
and adopted, on the motion of Mr. F. Flowers.

Election of Officers and Council for 1913-14. — The
following officers were elected for 1913-14: —

President, Prof. R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.; Vice-Pre-
sidents, Prof. L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.. Mr. S.
Evans, Dr. W. Johnson, L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S., and Mr. A. F.
Williams, B.S. ; General Secretaries, Dr. C. F. Juritz, M.A..
F.I.C., and Mr. H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S. ; General
Treasurer. Mr. A. Walsh.

The following were elected as Members of Council for
1913-14:—

T. Transvaal. — IViticatersrand : Mr. P. Cazalet, Mr. W.
Cullen, Mr. F. Flowers, F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., Mr. J. A. Foote,
F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Mr. R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., Dr.
J. Moir, M.A., Prof. T- Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E.. and Prof. G. H.
Stanley, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M., F.I.C. Pretoria: Mr.
J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Mr. F. E. Kanthack, A.M.I.C.E.,

PROCEKDTNGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XI

and Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S. Potclicfstrooin : Mr. F. G.
Tyers, B.A.

II. Cape Province. — Cape Peninsula: Dr. A. T. Anderson,
M.A. M.B., D.P.H., AI.R.C.S.. Prof. T. C. P.eattie, D.Sc,
FRSE., Rev W. Flint, D.D., Prof. H. H. \V. Pearson, M.A.,
Sc.D , F.L.S., and Mr. A. H. Reid, F.R.I. P..A.. F.R.San.I.
Grahanistoivn: Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, A.R.C.S., F.G.S. King
William's Tozvn : Mr. F. A. O. Pym. Port Elisabeth : Mr. W. A.
Way, M.A. Queenstozvn: Mr. E. E. Galpin, F.L.S. Stellen-
bosch'.Froi. B. de St. J. van der Riet, M.A., Ph.D.

III. Orange Free State. — Bloemfontein : Dr. G. Potts,
M.Sc . and Mr. A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S.

IV. Natal. — Pietermwitsburg: Prof. W. N. Roseveare,
M.A.

V". Rhodesia. — Bulawayo: Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A.,
F.G.S. .Va/K^^Hry: Mr. F. Eyles, F.L.S., M.L.C.

VI. Mozambique. — Lourenco Marques: Mr. S. Seruya.

The election of Members of Council to represent Kimberley
and Dnrban was referred to the incoming Council.

Annual Ses.sion, i9i3.^The President announced that an
invitation, from the Mayor and Council of Kimberley to the
Association, to hold the next Annual Session at that place, had
been received, and was recommended by the late Council for
acceptance ; but that since the commencement of the Session, a
further similar invitation had been received from the Mayor and
Council of Pretoria. It was resolved, on the motion of Professor
Orr, to refer the invitation to the incoming Council, for final
decision.

Appropriation of AIetforites r.v Goxernment. — The fol-
lowing Resolutions were adopted, on the motion of Prof.
Wager : —

1. " That Ihe Government of the Union be asked to pass
legislation declaring tliat Meteorites are Government pro-
perty, and when found should be delivered to the nearest
Magistrate, for transmission to the nearest Museum under
Government control." „

2. " That the Hon. Secretary convey this resolution to
the Prime Minister."

Meeting of Annual Congresses. — The following Resolu-
tion was adopted, on the motion of Mr. R. T. A. Innes : —

" That the Association endeavour to get Annual Con-
gresses to meet at the same time and place as our Association
may each year — so that mutual intercourse of professional
and scientific societies may be facilitated."

■ Votes of Thanks. — Mr. Innes moved, and it was carried by
acclamation, that the thanks of the Association be accorded to the
following : —

Xll TROCEEDINGS OF AXXUAl. MEETING.

To His Excellency the Acting Governor-General, for
his cordial welcome and hospitality to the Association : for
his courtesy in placing the Council Chamber at the disposal
of Members for the Session, and for honouring some of the
functions with his presence ; to His Worship the Mayor, the
Council, and the Members of the General Committee, for
their great kindness and hospitality, the excellent arrange-
ments made for the comfort of the Members, and the facili-
ties afforded for viewing the Fair and Exhibition; to Mr.
J. H. von Hafe, Director of Railways and Harbours, for a
most interesting Presidential Address, for railway and other
facilities, and for the opportunity given to Members to view
the Harbour and Railway Works; to Lieut. Teixeira,
Directory of the local Observatory, for receiving and enter-
taining the Members thereat, and explaining the valuable
work being carried on under his control ; to Captain da Silva
and his officers, for the most enjoyable Ball given by them
in honour of the visitors; to Mr. J. E. d'O. Ferraz, Director
of Agriculture, for his hospitality on the occasion of the visit
of Members to the Experimental Farm ; to the Medical
Officer of Health, for his kindness in receiving and showing
Members over the Hospital ; to Dr. Pepulim and his Secre-
taries on the Committees, Messrs. Ferreira and Rodrigues,
for the exceedingly kind and efficient manner in which every-
thing was arranged for the comfort and convenience of the
visitors; to Mr. Adalbert Bonn, for tramway facilities
granted and his kindness in providing for ^lembers an
opportunity of visiting the Waterworks ; to the Chief of the
Maritime Services and the Port Captain, for the preparations
made for aquatic festivities to be held on Saturday afternoon
and evening; to the British and English Clubs, respectively,
for extending their privileges to the visitors ; to the local
Press, for their most kindly references, and for giving pub-
licity to the Association's proceedings.

Mr. \'"az Gomez, on behalf of the authorities and residents
at LoureuQo Marques, thanked the President and Alembers for
the kind and flattering remarks which had been made. He stated
that the visit of the Association would be long remembered, and
had resulted in twenty local members being added. He hoped
that a local centre would be developed. The Association's visit
constituted a new page in the history of the Province, and tliey
all hoped that another visit would, in due course, be paid to their
town.

On the motion of the Rev. Dr. Flint, a heart\- vote of thanks
was accorded to the President, for the efficient and happy manner
in which he had discharged his functions ; and also to the Secre-
taries and the Treasurer. The President and Mr. H. E. Wood
responded.

xni

REPORT 01<^ Till': COUXCiL FOR THE NEAR ENDED
30TH June. 1913.

1. Constitution. — The Annual Meeting of the Association,
which was held at Port Elizabeth on the 3rd July, 19 12, adopted
a series of resolutions amending the Constitution in certain
respects. These resolutions remained to be confirmed by this
year's meeting. The view was generally held that it was
desirable to begin acting on them at the earliest possible date,
and a further resolution was therefore adopted, empowering
the Council to take the responsibility of so acting, if, after having
conveyed the resolutions arrived at to all members by circular,
no objection were made within one month. The instructions
of the General Meeting were duly carried out, and, no objection
having been taken, last year's resolutions were considered fully
operative as from the ist of October.

2. Financial Year. — Amongst the amendments to the
Constitution thus affected was one terminating the financial year
on the 31st of May instead of on the 30th of June. The result
has been the disappearance of the difficulty mentioned in the
opening paragraphs of the last two annual reports — the difficulty
of submitting a financial statement within a week after the close
of the year covered thereby.

3. Abolition of Entrance F'EES.^Another amendment re-
moved what seems to have been somewhat of a barrier to
intending members — the entrance fee. The result of this was
that several associates decided to alter their status to that of
full membership, and, in addition to these, several other members
have also thus been gained for the Association.

4. Member-siiip. — Notwithstanding these additions, there
has been a considerable decrease in the membership roll
during the year under report, owing to a determined and
continuous effort made throughout the year to collect annual
subscriptions, and to purge the Roll of the names of those who
for various reasons could no longer be regarded as being of good
standing in the Association. As a probable result of the
Council's action, there has been a considerable number of
resignations of the class of members referred to.

The nett effect on the distribution of members will be seen
from the following comparative table : — .

263

242

230

219

.43

24

31

29

3H

3i

II

7

8

20

I

1

I

I

24

19

23

I

XIV REPORT OF COUNCIL.

I912. 1913.

Transvaal

> Cape Province

Orange Free State

Natal

Rhodesia

Basutoland

^lozambique

Swaziland

German South- West Africa

Resident Abroad

Residence Unknown

Total 673 594

There is consequently a numerical difference of 79 between
the membership now and a year ago. Since ist July, 1912, 96
new members have joined the Association, 4 have died, and 171
have resigned or were struck off owing to non-payment of sub-
scriptions. The number of life members is now ^;^.

5. Report of Bulawayo Meeting, 191 i. — The Associa-
tion's proceedings at Bulawayo, contained in the eighth annual
volume, were completed and bound during the year. The book
comprises 462 pages, and is therefore a trifle smaller than its
immediate predecessor. It contains 38 papers printed in full.

6. Rei'ort of Port Elizabeth Meeting, 1912. — It is pro-
posed to complete this in thirteen monthly parts ; the final issue
will be published during August. The volume will consist of
somewhat over 400 pages, and will contain 44 papers printed in
cxtcnso. The cost of printing the proceedings has been very
considerably below the ^360 estimated when the monthly publi-
cation was first considered in 1909.

7. South Africa Medal and Grant. — On the recommen-
dation of the South Africa Medal Committee, consisting of
Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc. (Chairman), Dr. A. W. Roberts,
F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.,'Dr. A. Theiler, C.M.G.. Prof. L. Crawford,.
M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc, Prof. G. H.
Stanley, A.R.S.M., F.I.C., Dr. C. F. Juritz, M.A., F.I.C., Prof.
G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D., Dr. T. Muir, C.M.G., M.A., F.R.S.,
Dr. L. Peringuev, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Prof. S. Sch5nland,. M.A.,
Ph.D., F.L.S., and Mr. H. B. Maufe, B.A,, F.G.S., the sixth
award of the South Africa Medal, together with a grant of £50
has been made to Dr. Arthur William Rogers, M.A., F.G.S.,
Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of the Union, in
recognition of his geological work in the Cape Province.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. XV

8. Grants for Research. — The Association continues to be
represented on the General Research Committee organised dur-
ing the previous year in connection with the Royal Society of
South Africa, whose Council administers the funds in conform
mity with the advice of the General Committee. The present
representatives of the Association on this Committee are Rev..
Dr. Flint, Prof. Hahn, Prof. Pearson, and Mr. Reid. In con-
nection with the grant of iioo made to Dr. A. W. Roberts by
the Association in 1905 for the reduction of his variable star
observations, Dr. Roberts reported that he had had the observa-
tions, some 60,000 in number, reduced, copied in duplicate, and
indexed. The question of printing had. however, been a
difficulty.

9. Award for Anthropological Research. — At the Coun-
cil Meeting in June, 1913, the award to Miss Tucker of the sum
of i20, previously specially allocated in the Assocation funds
for anthropological research, was resolved upon.

10. Goold-Adams Medals. — The third series of annual
awards has been made in connection with the Senior Certificate
and Matriculation examinations of the Universitv of the Cape of
Good Hope, held during the closing months of 1913. The
following are the names of the recipients on this occasion : — '

Mathcuiatics: Leo Weinberg, Christian Brothers' Col-
lege, Kimberley.

Physics: Ronald Percy Freemantle, St. Aidan's College,
Grahamstown.

Chemistry: Morris Cohen, Christian Brothers' College,
Kimberley.

Elementary Physical Science : John Daniel Newberry,
St. Andrew's College, Grahamstown.

Botany : Enid Frances Jennings, W'esleyan High School,
Grahamstown.

11. Bloemfontein Philosophical Society. — In accord-
ance with the resolution adopted at the last Annual General
Meeting, referring the proposed affiliation of the Bloemfontein:
Philosophical Society to the incoming Council for further action
in connection with the insertion of the new Clause IX (/) in the
Constitution, negotiations have been continued during the vear,
but no definite result has been reached.

12. Establishment of Botanical Garden in Cape.
Peninsula. — In connection with proposals to the above effect in
Parliament and the Press, the Council resolved, at its May meet-
ing, on the motion of Professor Pearson, " That this Council
re-affirms the resolution passed at the Annual Meeting at Cape-
Town in 1910, and advocates the establishment of a Botanical
(jarden in the Cape Peninsula, and is of opinion that such an-

XVI REPORT OF COUNCIL.

institution would greatly advance the scientific and economic
study of the vegetation of South Africa." A copy of this reso-
hition was forwarded to the Prime Minister, and the Council is
glad to record the fact that Parliament has sanctioned the initia-
tion of the scheme, and voted a substantial sum of money for the
purpose.

13. The New Council. — On the basis of membership pro-
vided in the Constitution of the Association, Section V^I {d), the
Council for the ensuing year should be distributed as follows : —

Traiisi'aal:

Witwatersrand 8

Pretoria 3

I^otchefstroom i

Cape Province:

Cape Peninsula 5

Port Elizabeth i

Stellenbosch i

King William's Town i

Kimberley i

Grahamstown i

Queenstown i

RJiodcsia:

Bulawayo i

Salisbury 1

Orange Free State:

Bloemfontein I

Natal :

Maritzburg 1

Durban i

Mozambique:

Lourengo Marques i

XVll

REPORT OF THE HONORARY TREASURER FOR THE
YEx\R ENDED May 31ST, 1913.

In presenting the Financial Statement of the Accounts of the
Society for the eleven months ending May 31st, I am pleased to
record an improved position as compared with previous years.

The amount received for current subscriptions shows a
slight improvement, 444 members having paid their current sub-
scriptions as against 432 in 1911/12 and 394 in 1910/11 for a
similar period. Arrear subscriptions have yielded £120 as
against £150 in 1911/ 12 and £170 in 1910/11. Interest from
Endowment Fund has produced £44 is. 3d.

On the expenditure side almost every item shows a reduc-
tion, and the figures appearing in the Accounts may be taken as
the lowest amount necessary to enable the Society to exist
»;'fficiently. There are no outstanding Accounts ; everything has
l)een paid up-to-date, and there is a balance at the Standard

Bank on Revenue Account of £196 i8s. 5d., as against £18 2s. 3d.
last year. It is sincerely to be hoped that this improved position
may continue for many years.

There is still ^ large amount of subscriptions outstanding;
this should not be the case, but I am afraid all similar Societies
have a like complaint.

With the exception of an item of Int-rest which has come
in, there has been no alteration in the Medal Fund Account, the
grant for this year not having been drawn. The capital of this
Fund is invested as follow^ . —

Cape of Good Hope 4% Stock .... £1,376 o o

Post Office Savings Bank 95 6 8

In hands of Chairman of Trustees . . 007

^1,471 7 3

The Endowment Fund stands at £1,198 os. od., as last year;
and under the new rule re entrance fees there will not be any
increase on this amount from year to year, from that source,
although it may still be increased by life subscriptions. The
Interest from this amount forms a welcome addition to the
ordinary funds of the Society. The amount is invested as
follows : —

Standard Bank Deposit £1,152 15 O

Post Ofifice Savings Bank 45 5 O

£1,198 o o

XVlll GENERAL TREASURER S ACCOUNT.

The Journal Account shows the cost for a full twelve
months, as the cost for the June, 191 1, number was not included
in the Accounts last year, so that the amount £226 13s. 3d., or,
say, £230 OS. 0(1., may be considered as the annual cost of this
volume, and it compares very favourably with the cost when the
volume was an annual one as distinguished from the present
monthly issue.

A. Walsh,

General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER S ACCOUNT.

XIX

cr> o O

MOO

;i rf O
452

w

OJ

C ro u

g V OS

O 2 t

2'<

c
III

■■n 'u u

!U o o

^ !/i C/5

S -^ -Q

■^3 3

M

fO O C M tOOO 00

fO O O ro t^ O o

\D (^ w-> ►-• >0 0\ f^

01 0) o c) >-4 c><
^1 M

O rt

_2 c ^ >> o

-.pC^ C/2 Dh CO CO P

>^

J

v- ID

looo
o\\o

m

fO O

IN. O

"00

O O

ooo
>o O

iri r<)

"CO
COVO

M

O rt

- m

T3

►

•a

r^

C

K^

'-

[^

^

a>

111

n)

(■Th

;_!

i-

t-

-^

'O

f^

Wfet"

O

ro

O

O

lO

O

(^ O

OOO

lO

,_

on

o\o

CO tN. 0\ C^l

0^

<+(

•+

►-

C

y

3

rt

o

<li

rO

,C

W

; )

03

'n

rr

,<~;

CS

<u

tn

C^kJ

u

J c

U

5 "3

-ou

3 -3 4-> t* U

O C 3 O^s-

"z:; 3 i> "o

T 1* o 3

0!

V ^ -O " ^

3ji 3 3 C

.—

lO

c

rt

rt

!t3

t/1

(fl

u

■a;

w

-r;

J=

u

-^ s

S s

5 S

" «

V> ^.i

i> '-«

'^-^

■^ tJ

S^

'iJ u

i.. -^

•« Q

-c.. ,'■-

^

V c^

TD

o

O

"o

3 CS

CQ

►C

w O

,- X

D^ ^

V

s;

o

j:

C3

c

n

PQ

"5

W

o<

>

o

o

J3

>.

!n,

H

O

'■ij

3

w

Lh

'^

m

W

<u

'j'l

3

■71

^

y.

rt

o

aj

O

n)

J

-*-*

::

(U

>.

J=

■^

XI

l_

c/)

c

^

s

is

o

ID

J2

"

f/i

^

^

rt

n

^

I_

o

n

W

tn

t^

r^

OJ

-1

<U

ii

aj

Ji'y:<

XX

GENERAL TREASURER S ACCOUNT.

U-, O

W

o

w
u

o

w
u

<
>

<
W

H

03
O

Hh

o

<

o

m

CO

<

<

s

<
f-l

b
o

in

u

S
<

H
O

D

(U-

a „

m

Q

w
o

Q

w

O ^0

o -

PQh:;

CO O

I- o

y

U5

<

CO

w

4 J

^

U

>

S

u

CIS

«m

ys

!« rt

> o

5j:

>

o

a;

oi

J_,

4J

rn

•rt

c

>s

u

«r c

-i~

c:

o lu

3

S

■^s

•3

1) t«

^

•^

^ +J

■«

■«

■*^ o

>:»

<\j

1

^S

• « o

Ci

1~

& o

fi.

.'-'

Is

K

o

•o

O

o

O

O u

6

S

rt 5

.S
ii '5.
> o

o

OJ 5 0)
^ •— u

■^ ^ OJ

^ JZ *^

S 5 °

ti O (U

S ^

^^ «

•- o -
>- ° c

'-^ t?

>. :« o

^ rt C

U

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913 Pl. 1.

The South Africa Medal.

XXI

SIXTli AWARD OF THE SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL AND

GRANT.

(Fund raised by Members of the British Association in com-
mciiioration of their z'isit tu South Africa in 1905.)

In the unavoidable absence of Dr. A. \V. Rogers, to whom
the medal had been awarded, the President of the Association,
after the conclusion of his address in the Municipal Council
Chamber, Lourengo Marques, on Monday, 7th July, 191 3, handed
the medal to the Rey. Dr. W. Flint for conveyance to Dr.
Rogers. In doing so Dr. Roberts said :

" Dr. Arthur William Rogers, M.A., ScD.. F.G.S., has been
engaged on geological work in South Africa since 1896, at first
as Assistant Geologist, and, since 1904, as Director of the Cape
Geological Survey. Upon the union of the Cape and Transvaal
surveys he assumed the rank of Assistant Director. A very
considerable portion of the Cape Province was geologically
mapped under his direction, and his writings upon these areas
are contained in the sixteen annual reports of the Geological
Commission of the Cape of Good Hope. In addition to his
departmental writings, Dr. Rogers has contributed a number of
papers to the Transactions of the South African Philosophical
Society (now the Royal Society of South Africa), and to the
Geological Society of South Africa, as well as other publica-
tions in South Africa and abroad. In 1910, as PVesident of
Section B of this Association, he delivered an important address
upon the origin of certain very old rocks, the history of vul-
canism, and past climates, with the object of discussing whether
they necessitate any serious modifications of the vmiformitarian
theory. In 1905, Dr. Rogers published a volume on the Geology
of the Cape Province, of which a second edition, revised and very
largely re-written in the light of new information elicited by the
operations of the survey under his direction, appeared in 1909.
In these works the physiographical and geological problems of
the parts of South Africa dealt^with are ably and judiciously set
forth. In recognition of his geological work the University of
Cambridge some years ago conferred upon him the degree of
Doctor of Science, and in 1907 the Geological Society of London
awarded him the Bigsby Medal. Dr. Rogers's work has ever
been distinguished for its thoroughness, and, in dealing with a
science in which speculation and hypothesis are apt to become
predominant he has always exercised restraint and caution in
dealing with the many difficulties presented to him when
endeavouring to unfold the coimtry's almost unique geological
problems. Dr. Rogers was a member of the Committee
appointed l)y the British Association in 1905 to investigate and

XXn SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL.

report on the correlation and age of South African strata, and
on the question of a uniform stratigraphical nomenclature, and
also of the Committee appointed by the same Association to
determine the precise significance of topographical and geological
terms used locally in South Africa."

The following is a list of Dr. Rogers's principal writings : —

1. " Summary of work done in the South-Western Districts " : Cape Geol.

Commission Reports, 1896.
la. " Report of a preliminary geological survey of the Oudtshoorn and
Prince Albert Districts " (with G. S. Corstorphine) : Cape Geol.
Commission Reports, 1896.

2. "Survey of the Stellenbosch District": Cape Geol. Commission

Reports, 1897.

3. " Survey of the country between the Karroo and the Langebergen "'

(with E. H. L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1897.

4. " Notes on the recent limestones on parts of the south and west coasts

of Cape Colony" (with E. H. L. Schwarz) : Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc.,
1898.

5. " Report on Caledon, Bredasdorp, Swellendam, and southern parts of

Worcester" (with E. 11. L. Schwarz): Cape Geol. Commission
Reports. 1898.

6. " Report on the southern districts between Breede River and George "

(with E. H. L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1898.

7. "Report on Oudtshoorn" (With E. H. L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Com-

mission Reports, 1898.
8 "Notes on the geology around Worcester" (with E. H. L. Schwarz) :
Cape Geol. Commission Reports. 1898.

9. '■ Geology of the Orange River Valley in the Hopetown and Prieska

Districts" (with E. H. L. Schwarz): Cape Geol. Commission
Reports, 1899.

10. "The Orange River ground moraine" (with E. H. L. Schwarz):

Trans. S.A, Phil. Soe., 1900.

11. "The survey of parts of the Uitcnhage and Port Elizabeth Divi-

.^^ions " (with E. H. L. Schwarz): Cape Geol. Commission Reports,
1900.

12. " The survey of parts of Clanwilliam, Vanrhynsdorp, and Calvinia

Divisions " (with E. H. L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission
Reports, 1900.

13. " Report on a geological r(nite survey from Beaufort West to Cal-

vinia " (with E. VI. L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports,
1900.

14. "Report on the Cedarbergen and adjoining country" (with E. H. L.

Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1900.

15. " On a glacial conglomerate in the Table Mountain sandstone " : Trans.

S.A. Phil. Soc.. 190T.

16. "The Transkei gap" (witii E. H. L. Schwarz): Trans. S.A. Phil.

Soc.. 1901.

17. ^' Report on a journey from Swellendam to Mount Bay " (with E. H.

L. Schwarz) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1901.

18. " General survey of the rocks in the southern part of the Transkei

and Pondoland. including a description of the cretaceous rocks of
Eastern Pondoland" (with E. H. L. Schwarz): Cape Geol. Com-
mission Reports, 1901.

19. "The geological survey of the Division of Kentani " (with E. H. L.

Schwarz): Cape Geol. Comiuission Reports, 1901.

20. " .-V survey of parts of the Beaufort West, Prince Alliert, and Suther-

land Divisions" (with E. II. L. Schwarz): Cape Geol. Commission
Reports, 1902.

21. "The geological history of the Gonritz River System": Trans. S.A.

Fhil. Soc., 1903.

SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. XXIU

22. "Geological survey of parts of Ceres, Sutherland, and Calvinia " (with

A. L. du Toit) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports,, 1903-

23. ■' Geological survey of parts of Piquetberg, Clanwilliam and Van-

rhynsdorp" : Cape Gcol. Commission Reports, 1903.

24. " The Sutherland volcanic pipes, and their relationship to other vents

in South Africa" (with A. L. du Toit) : Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc., 1904.

25. "The glacial conglomerate in the Table Mountain Series near Clan-

william"' : Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc., 1904.

26. ■■ Geological survey of the north-western part of Vanrhynsdorp " : Cape

Geol. Commission Reports. 1904.

27. "Geology of the Cape Colony'": Science in South Africa, 1905.

28. "The volcanic fissure under Zuurberg " : Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc. 1905.

29. " An introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony," 1905.

30. " Geological survey of parts of the Divisions of Uitenhage and

Alexandria": Cape Geol. Comniission Reports, 1905.

31. " Geological survey of parts of Hay and Prieska, with some notes on

Herbert and Barkly West": Cape Gcol. Commission Reports, 1905.

32. " A raised beach deposit near Klein Brak River": Cape Geol. Com-

sion Reports, 1905.
23. " The glacial beds in the Griquatown Series "' : Report S.A. Assn. for
Adv. of Science, 1906.

34. " The Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay " : Trans. Geol.

Soc. of S. Africa, 1906.
34a. "Geological Survey of parts of Bechuanaland and Griqualand West " :
Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1906.

35. ■' Geological survey of parts of Vryburg, Kuruman, Hay, and Gor-

donia '■ : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1907.

36. " The geology of parts of Prieska, Hay Britstown, Carnarvon, and.

Victoria West" (with A. L. du Toit): Cape Geol. Commission
Reports, 1908.
27. "Notes on a journey to Knysna " : Cape Geol. Commission Reports,
1908.

38. " The Tygerberg anticline in Prince Albert " : Cape Geol. Commission

Reports, 1908.

39. "An introduction to the geology of Cape Colony" (2nd ed.) (with A.

L. du Toit), 1909.

40. " De jongste geologische onderzoekingen in bet noorden van de Kaap

Kolonie '■ Koninkl. Med. Aardrykskiindig Genootschap, 1909.

41. "The geology of parts of Kenhardt, Prieska, and Carnarvon" (with

A. L. du Toit) : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1909.

42. "The Zwartkops borehole": Cape Geol. Commission Reports, 1909.

43. " Verneuk pan " : Trans. Royal Soc. S. Africa, 1910.

44. Presidential address to Section B. Report S.A. Assn. for Adv. of

Science, 19 10.

45. "Past climates of Cape Colony": Trans. International Geol. Con-

gress, Stockholm, 1910.

46. "The iron ores of Cape Colony": Trans International Geol. Con-

gress, Stockholm, 1910.

47. "The Klieis Series": Trans. Geol. Soc. of S. Africa, 191a

49. " The geological survey of parts of the Divisions of Vanrhynsdorp and

Namaqualand " : Cape Geol. Commission Reports, igii.

48. " The geological survey of parts of the Divisions of Beaufort West,

Fraserburg, Victoria West, Sutherland, and Laingsburg " : Cape
Geol. Commission Reports, 1910.

50. " The Nama System in the Cape Province " : Trans. Geol. Soc. of

S. Africa, 1912.

The President then handed the medal and cheque for £50
to Dr. Flint, who, on behalf of Dr. Rogers, thanked the Presi-
dent for presenting, and the Council of the Association for be-
stowing the award, and briefly referred to the self-denying
labours of the medallist.

xxiv south africa medal.

Previous Recipients.

1908. Grahainstozcn. — Arnold Theiler, C.M.G., M.D., Bacterio-

logist to the Transvaal Government, Pretoria.

1909. Blocmfontein. — Harry Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S., of Sher-

wood, Kenil worth, Cape Division.

1910. Cape Town. — John Carruthers Beattie, D.Sc. F.R.S.E ,

Professor of Physics, South African College,
Cape Town.

1911. Bulaivayo. — Louis Peringuey, D.Sc, F.E..S.. F.Z.S.,

Director of the South African Museum, Cape
Town.

1912. Port Elizabeth. — Alexander William Roberts. D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., of Lovedale Observatory,
C.P.

XXV

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

The following publications are regularly filed at the otftce
of the Association, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings,
St. George's Street, Cape Town, and are available for perusal
by members daily.

General Science.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa.
Meanoirs of the Royal Society of South Australia.
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria.
Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Journal of the Royal Society of Arts.
Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der

Wissenschaften.
Servian Royal Academy of Sciences :

Comptes rendus.

Year Book.
Michigan Academy of Sciences : Reports.
Bulletins of the Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Atti della Reale Accademia del Lincei, Rome.
Kungl. Svenska V^etenskapsakademien :

Handlingar.

o

Arsbok.
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam:

Proceedings of the Section of Sciences.

\^erhandelingen.
Revista de la Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid.
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of

Science.
Report of the Australasian Association for the Advancement

of Science.
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science.
Atti della Societa Ttaliana per il progressoYlelle Scienze.
Cambridge Philosophical Society :

Transactions.

Proceedings.
Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and

Philosophical Society.
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society.
University of Virginia: Philosophical Society Bulletins.
Science Reports of the Tohoku Imperial University.
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences.

XXVI ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis.

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
phia.

Archives Neerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles.

Annaes scientificos da Academia polytechnica do Porto.

Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Association.

Memoires de la Societe de physique et d'histoire naturelle de
Geneve.

Det Kongelige Norske X'idenskapers Selskaps Skrifter.

Oversigt over det Kongelige Dauske Videnskabernes Selskabs
Forhandlinger.

Comptes rendus des seances de la Societe de physique et
d' histoire naturelle de Geneve.

Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft naturforschender Freunde,
Berlin.

Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (United States
National Museum ) .

Annals of the Transvaal Museum.

Annals of the Natal Museum.

]\Temoirs of the Queensland Museum.

Field Museum of Natural History Publications.

University of Pennsylvania Museum Journal.

Bulletin of the Public Museum of Milwaukee.

Records of the Albany Museum.

Knowledge.

Science.

Chemistry, Metallurgy, and Geology.

Journal of the Chemical, Metallurgical, and Mining Society of

South Africa.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien : Arkiv for Kemi,

Mineralogi, och Geologi.
Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa.
Journal of the Geological Society of Tokyo.
Geological Survey of New South Wales :

Records.

Memoirs.

Mineral Resources.
Bulletins of the Geological Institution of Upsala.
Abstracts of Proceedings of the Geological Society, London.
Bulletins of the Wyoming State Geologist.
United States Geological Survey:

Bulletins.

Professional Papers.

Mineral Resources.

Annual Reports.
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY. XXVll

The Chemical News.

The Mineralogical Magazine.

Meteorology.

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society.
Bulletins of the Mount Weather Observatory.
United States Department of Agriculture : Monthly Weather
Review.

Agriculture.

Annali della Regia Scuola superiore agricoltura di Portici.
International Institute of Agriculture, Rome :

Bulletin of Agricultural statistics

Bulletin of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence and
of Plant Diseases.
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.

Bulletins.
Cedara Memoirs.

Agricultural Journal of the Union of South Africa.
United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station

Record.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal.

Biology and Physiology.

Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des naturalistes de Moscou.

Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :
Arkiv for Botanjk.
Arkiv for Zoologi.

Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany.

Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society.

Transvaal Medical Journal.

University of California: Publications in Botany.

Missouri Botanical Garden Annual Reports.

Smithsonian Institution (United States National Museum) :
Contributions from the United States National Her-
barium.

Entomology.

Report of the South African Central Locust Bureau.
Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Insektenbiologie.

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics.

Royal Astronomical Society :

Memoirs.

Monthly Notices.
Union Observatory Circulars.
Observatoire Royal de Belgique ; annuaire astronomique.

XXVlll ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

British Astronomical Association :

Journal.

Memoirs.
Lick Observatory Bulletins.
Kungl. Svenska Yetenskapsakademien : Arkiv for Matematik,

Astronomi och Fysik.
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.
Die Tatigkeit der physikalisch-technischen Reichsanstalt, Char-

lottenburg.
National Physical Laboratory, Middlesex :

Collected Researches.

Reports.
Proceedings of the Physical Society of London.

Political Economy and Social Science.

United Empire.

International Institute of Agriculture, Rome: Bulletin of the
Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence.

Geography, Oceanography and Hydrography.

Societa Italiana per il progresso delle Scienze : Bollettino del

Comitato talassografico.
Comitato talassografico Italiano : Memorias.

The Geographical Journal.

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society.

ITnited States Geological Survey: Water Supply Papers.

Engineering.

Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.
Journal of the South African Institute of Engineers.
Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical

Engineers
Proceedings of the South African Society of Civil Engineers.

Technology.

Patents for Inventions : Abridgments of Specifications.
The Illustrated Official Patents Journal.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

]W

ALEXANDER WILLIAM ROBERTS, D.Sc,
F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E,

PRESIDENT.

I am deeply conscious of the grave and singular honour that
has been conferred upon me, in taking me out of the circum-
stances and thoughts of ordinary school life and work, though
occupation most profoundly interesting and absorbing, and plac-
ing me for a brief space in the notable position of president of
this Association, an Association of Scientific workers and
thinkers drawn from all parts of South Africa.

And I am the more conscious of the honour that has fallen
to me when I give proper place to the knowledge that this is the
first occasion when our Association has met outside the boun-
daries of the British Dominion.

For ten successive years we have met annually in one or other
of the leading towns of British South Africa. This year we have
ventured afield into the beautiful colonial capital of our friendly
neighbour. Our friendly neighbour ! For it is to be had in
remembrance — indeed, the truth is a common-place, and requires
no setting of mine to ensure its acceptance, that the people in

2 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

whose territory and under whose flag we are met, whose hospi-
tality we enjoy, are among the oldest and most loyal friends of
our own land and race.

Yet more I We are met among a people who owe their
unique national history, a history of whch they may well be
proud, not to the waging of great wars, not to political intrigue
and dexterity, but to a long succession of brilliant discoveries, to
the epoch-making achievements of a galaxy of heroes of gallant
adventure.

The future we know not ! The past alone is certain, and so
long as time runs, the pioneer work accomplished by many sons
of Lusitania, in Maritime Discovery, in Travel, in Science, will
be an ornament in their own history and an inspiration to all who
set forth new worlds to discover.

We can never forget that it was Portugal that first lifted the
curtain from off this fair southern land, that set great highways
across the seas, that gave to the round earth of ours its true
proportions.

As an Association we are glad to be allowed to have our first
meeting outside British territory in a land so neighbourly, among
a people so friendly, and amidst traditions so worthy and
inspiring.

Ten years ago Sir David Gill concluded his presidential

address with these words : —

"Science knows no nationality. It forms a meeting ground on which
men of every race are brethren working together for a common end — and
that end is truth."

It is in this spirit that I welcome all to these meetings of our
Association, not as units divided by language, or race, or tradi-
tion, or history, or even conditions, but as workers bound together
by common aims and ideals, and inspired by a common faith and
purpose. Truth, it is well said, is a diamond of many facets.
And when one remembers its many manifestations, and how
peculiar is the light and setting required to reveal its beauty, one
is timorous lest his exhibition of it may conceal and obscure that
which he wishes to declare and intensify.

My purpose to-night is to have you as comrades with me in
the belief that a splendid work is being done in South Africa in
scientific research and enquiry, to make it clear that achievements
great and worthy are being won along every road and path of
scientific investigation in this land ; to make it clear to you that
we have witnessed, and have been vicariously partakers in
triumphs as great as any country can show.

The history of our own Association, a view of the names on
our register, and the labour and achievement that these names
suggest, is my most efficacious argument in this claim I make on
your behalf.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 3

W c may range inditferently in any of the sciences that our
Association undertakes to advance, and the same evidence will be
manifest. In Astronomy — we have had as our first president a
man of world-wide reputation, one whose name and fame will
last with the, stars he knew so intimately and loved so sincerely:
in Alathematics — again looking back a few years, we can remem-
ber this chair filled by one wlio takes high rank amid his fellows
of any age : in Chemistry — and here also we have had as our
president a worker who has summed up in his own career a
wealth of achievement and endeavour : in the domain of Biology
— and it is but yesterday that one of the most eminent of living
Bacteriologists occupied the place where I now stand : in Engi-
neering— it is to this department of science, to its commanding
position in this land, to the distinction of many of its members
that our Association owes much of its force and prestige: in
Geology — one has only to think of the honoured place held by
our medallist this year to be assured of the progress made in
South African Geology: in Botany, in Anthropology, in ]\Ieteor-
ology and in its sister science Seismology, we have a record of
things accomplislied of which any Association may be proud.

Now all this breadth and scope of outlook, this intensity of
endeavour, this harvest of achievement makes it necessary for
one addressing himself to the scientific progress of his day to
confine himself to an area of inquiry in the which he shall wander
less as a stranger than he would in other fields.

This is my reason for taking as a type of what is being done
in other regions of scientific research (su:-h fields as I have
already indicated) the progress made in Astronomy by South
African workers during the past century.

Even thus limiting the scope of this address to one special
science, it will be necessary to leave out much that not a few
may think worthy of report. For such omissions those whose
knowledge of the history of Astronomy in this land is both imme-
diate and intimate will pardon me.

Astronomical science, especially of late years, circles round
three great problems : The distance of the stars, the movements
of the stars, the structure and evolution of the stars. These
three lines of advance all converge in one great question.

The constitution, history and cosmography of the Universe
as a whole. Perhaps it lies in the Ithurial touch of this haunt-
ing land of far distances, but somehow, on these southern shores,
astronomers have never lost sight of the final goal of all their en-
deavour. Indeed, again and again, and yet again, they can claim
priority in each epoch-making departure in astronomical progress.
These leaders in scientific thought have seldom lost sight of the
wood because of the tree<.

While busy, necessarily busy, for days and weeks and months
measuring errors in the runs of screws, or recording star discs

A

4 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

by machine with the monotony of a knife grinder, they have seen
the far-off end, the imperial issues to which all their labour
tended. End and issues which would never be reached unless the
divisions on a scale were accurately gauged, or the dots on a
photograph surely indexed.

These things have to be done. They are part of the price
we have to pay for our results. And let us be thankful that
results, like gold and diamond, have to be mined for by the toil
of our fingers and the sweat of our souls.

The other day I was again reading through the classical
volumes on the solar parallax, by Gill. They form Vols. \'"I and
\^II of the Cape Annals, two bulky tomes running to over a
thousand pages, mostly packed with figures. These volumes
represent the labour of ten years : they are the condensed sum-
mary of computations that, if stacked in a pile, would re^ch the
height of thirty feet". And all to settle the second decimal place
in an astronomical constant ? Nay ! but to su])ply with all avail-
able accuracy a base line with which to measure the universe !

In the correspondence between Sir David Gill and Dr.
Kapteyn. concerning the proposal of the latter to measure all the
photographs taken at the Cape, and so form a photographic
Durclimusterung of southern stars, the following pregnant
remark occurs. Kapteyn is writing to Gill.

" I have talked the matter of the Photographic Durchmusterung over
with Dr. Bakhuyzen and his brother. I am bound to say that they were not
very enthusiastic about the matter ; of course, they thought the results once
reached of immense value, but the drudgery to be gone through before these
results are once got into the form of a catalogue almost unbearable.
However, I think my enthusiasm for the matter will be equal to six or seven
years of work."

This was in December, 1885.

In 1899, Kapteyn wrote:

"The Cap3 Photographic Durchmusterung may at last be considered
complete. The work has cost nearly double the time, the six or seven years'
which I originally estimated would be required."

Of this magnificent sidereal survey more anon ; it is of the
present, to point out that its completion meant fourteen years of
unremitting labour, and the examination, again and again, for
position and brightness, of nearly half a million stars.

I mention these two supreme labours here (labour charac-
teristic of all scientific research) lest by passing on simply, as T
shall, to the results achieved, it be forgotten by what strenuous
service, by what arduous toiling these results have been attained.

It is the mind to work, and the capacity to toil, that makes
the difference between the true scientist and the one who is simply
interested in science — and no more.

A chronicle of pioneer work in Astronomy makes good read-
ing for those who delight in South African achievement. It is

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 5

to our signal honour that we can claim i)riority in many a forward

movement in this science.

It was at the Cape that a sounding line was first thrown

across the stellar spaces. It was at the Cape that the idea of

stellar photography was horn, grew up, and reached maturity.

It was at the Cape, or perhaps by the results obtained at the Cape,

that the first vision was got of those wonderful streams of stars

that sweep majestically through our universe.

It was at the Cape that the classical distance of the sun was

reached. It was at the Cape that the first accurate parallax of

the moon, and, later on, its weight, was determined. It was at

the Cape that the most refined measures of stellar distance have

been secured.

And to-day, South Africa practically carries the whole of
Southern astronomy on its shoulders. There is more being done

in southern double-star work by one man, than by all the other

observers in this field put together.

The long lists of discoveries made by our distinguished \^ice-
President, his patient toil in accumulating valuable observations
of the position and movements of binary systems merit our
warmest appreciation. It is now thirteen years ago since his
well-known catalogue saw the light, and since then he has en-
riched astronomy by his work on variable stars, on the Jovian
system, on sidereal cartography. The Union Observatory has,
indeed, a fine future before it, a future full of promise and of
possibilities, and that mainly because it is presided over by one
who is wholly and truly an ideal astronomer.

\Mien the genius of Kapteyn made manifest the certainty of
star streaming, the attention of astronomers was forthwith
directed to the then unaccountable phenomenon. Kapteyn's re-
searches date from 1904; but prior to this — years prior — Gill had
set his face against the conception of the uniform distribution of
the stars through space. I remember, as if it were yesterday,
how, in his old roomy study at the Royal Observatory, he fore-
shadowed in prophetic spirit the very direction that investigation
and discovery is now taking. I had then in purpose — I speak of
a day twenty years ago — determining the position of the Solar
apex from the proper motions in Stone's catalogue. I went over
my " postulates " with Gill, and was vehemently assured I was
basing my equations on wrong premises. " How do you know
that the stars move hap-hazard?" he demanded. I did not
know ! " They may be moving in streams : the whole universe
may be a big whirlpool."

And for a space, not to be measured by time-beats, this
prince among astronomers allowed his imagination, his inspired
imagination, to wander hither and thither among the great ques-
tions that thronged in on his soul. But Gill was only one of

O PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

many to whom the idea of stellar streaming occurred as an ex-
planation of outstanding anomalies in proper motion.

It was left, however, to Kapteyn, and to Kapteyn first and
foremost, to place beyond the region of doubt the hitherto vague
and uncertified judgments regarding star drifting.

Those who were privileged to be present at the meeting in
Cape Town, in 1905, when Kapteyn dealt with his remarkable
discovery of two symmetrical star streams sweeping through the
spaces will remember the sensations akin to awe with which thev
heard of rivers of stars flowing on and on and on, silent, majestic,
irresistible.

What the nature of this vast movement is, whether in a
-traight line, or along the arc of some majestic circle, how con-
trolled and how conditioned, no vision can determine accurately,
no analysis reveal fully. Kapteyn 's pioneer work has been splen-
didly supplemented by the labours of Dyson, Eddington. Boss,
Schwarzschild, and Campbell. In the Southern Hemisphere,
Hough and Halm have attacked the problem from another direc-
tion, that of spectroscopic proper motions. A word of explanation
may be pardoned me as to the content of this problem of star
gauging, for upon its solution depends our assured conception of
the structure and configuration of the stellar universe as a whole.
All round us is the firmament of stars. Any movement of our Sun
through space will reveal itself in two ways. We shall have a
telescopic proper motion of every star near enough to indicate a
parallactic displacement, and, second, we shall have a spectro-
scopic proper motion of every star in the sky, far or near, which
the sun in its journey through space is either approaching or
receding from. To these relative movements, due to the sun's
motion, we must add the real stellar movements due to each star's
own absolute motion.

Now, if the stars are uniformly distributed in space, and if
the sum total of their real proper motions amounts to zero, then
a simple application of the laws of probability will yield the
direction and the amount of the Sun's motion in space, and, con-
sequentlv. the real proper motion of every star near enough to
show secular change of position in the telescope, or bright enough
to reveal line of sight motion in thie spectroscope.

But recent investigation has clearly proved that the stars are
not uniformly distributed in space. Indeed, one needs the aid
of no refined analysis to come to this conclusion.

A clear night and a pair of seeing eyes are all we need.

But what neither a clear night nor seeing eyes will reveal, is
whether the hazy stretches of misty light seen in the midnight sky
are faint stars, because they are far away, or are dimly luminous
because they are small suns crowded together. Without doubt,
the instruments Halm and Hough have chosen for their attack on

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 7

the problem of stellar movements and groupings are those that
in days to come will yield the best results.

Already Halm has been enabled, from the spectroscopic data
at his disposal, to come to two very far-reaching conclusions.
First, the two streams discovered by Kapteyn are not sym-
metrical with regard to the sun, that is, they are not equally
distributed in space.

They have, instead, their own definite locus, their own celestial
basin. Second, there are more than two streams of stars. One
is tempted to speculate on the future of this region of research.
Shall we some day be able to distinguish, not three streams of
stars, but three thousand? Shall we so enlarge our boundaries
that at no very remote day astronomers will be taken up mainly
with realms and kingdoms of stars, defining their boundaries,
determining their size, deducing their age, foretelling their des-
tination in time and space. Already something has been done in
this direction. The stars have been grouped according to their
spectroscopic characteristics, that is, according to their composi-
tion : and it is found that their proper motions are most intimately
connected with their size and structure. Stars of a certain type,
heavy, massive stars, move slowly through space ; stars of another
definite type move more rapidly. Once more, it is a Cape
Astronomer who is bent on running this relation to its cause.

Halm has on hand an investigation in which proper motion is
held to be a function of the state of evolution of each star.

The investigation is purely a dynamical one, based on the
Maxwellian law of the distribution of velocities.

When in this connection we consider that, a hundred years
ago, men despaired of ever fathoming the abyss that lies between
us and the outposts of the stars : that spectroscopy is only fifty
years old ; that stellar photography has not been in use for more
than a quarter of a century, it is impossible to say what even a
decade may bring to us of advance and discernment.

The matter of photographing the stars has naturally been
referred to again and again. We have said that in South Africa
it was born, born the hour Gill looked upon the photograph of the
1882 comet, taken with an ordinary portrait camera, and saw as
in a vision, the power of the new arm.

The first comprehensive photographic survey of the heavens
was taken at the Cape.

The present great international photographic star map, a
labour that will take three decades to complete, that will cost over
three quarters of a million adequately to finish, but which will
put on permanent record at least 15,000,000 stars, had its incep-
tion and its stimulus at the Cape.

In exact astronomy, or fundamental astronomy, as it is often
called, there has been a brilliant succession of men in South

O PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

Africa — Henderson, Maclear^ Gill, Hough, each man a leader in
his own particular branch of enquiry.

Henderson was not long at the Cape when the desire to
obtain a more accurate parallax of the moon, and, if possible, the
parallax of some of the stars, held him.

His determination of the distance of Alpha Ccntauri is an
epoch in the history of astronomy. True, his results were pub-
lished after those of Bessel on 6i • Cygni, but the priority of
observations belongs certainly to Henderson. The delay of
almost seven years between observation and publication was due
to official neglect and indifference, neglect and indifference which
drove a man of Henderson's refinement and timidity into
reticence. But the work he did remains until this day. His
determination of the moon's distance, of the longitude and lati-
tude of the Cape, of the position of the principal southern stars,
can scarcely be bettered even with the most refined instruments
of to-day. He gave to South African astronomy a certain dis-
tinction and culture ; he breathed into it his own refinement and
scrupulous honesty. And yet his residence at the Cape is
measured by months, not years. What an elusive intangible
thing personality is.

Henderson's work on stellar parallax was taken up by
Maclear. and carried to its furthest issues by Gill. The helio-
meter work of the latter, on certain well-known stars, will remain
the high-water mark in this direction until a new method of
determining stellar distances is discovered.

But the name of Gill will be indissolubly associated with tlie
determination of the Sun's distance. I remember how, in
moments of confidence, seated by his study fire, he told how he
was attracted early to this problem, the problem of a generation
ago, just as stellar cosmography is the problem of to-day. When
Gill took up the problem, it was practically in chaos as a definite
singular deduction.

Leverrier. even as late as 1872, despairing of ever determin-
ing the Solar parallax by any direct process, attempted to derive
it from some of its related functions, such as aberration and
nutation.

The transit of Venus results of 1874 gave values that diff'ered
from one another by at least 3,000,000 miles, one-thirtieth of the
total .amount to be determined. It is difficult to realise that this
uncertainty belongs to a period of time only forty years remote
from our own. But lest the scientific worker in other fields
may judge ungenerously this amplitude of error, we may remind
ourselves that the total angle on which the determination of the
sun's distance depends is less than that subtended by a shilling at
a distance of one-fifth of a mile. Yet, to-day, we know the sun's
distance to one-thousandth part of its true value, to such a high
level of refinement has modern observations been brought. Gill's

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 9

Jtirst essay at the problem was made at Mauritius in 1874. The
method he adopted was that of finding the parallax of Juno, and,
consequently, of the sun, by taking diurnal observations of the
planet. The experience gained in this expedition led him to a
second determination. The series of observations of Alars,
which was the planet used as " intermediary " between the earth
and the sun, resulted in a value of the sun's parallax equal to
93,080,000 miles.

Unsatified even with this result— what true scientist is ever
satisfied with his results? — Gill, in 1888, organized a combined
attack on the problem. Five Northern observatories and one
Southern entered upon a heliometric campaign against the
minor planets Iris, Victoria and Sappho. The observations
secured were reduced at the Cape, which throughout formed the
headquarters of the investigation. The work done, its magni-
tude, its importance, its finality, have been already referred to. It
was not till 1897, ten years after embarking on the campaign,
that Gill was able to announce a distance of 92,875,000 miles as
the result of his labours.

In more recent years two other notable determinations of
this fundamental constant of astronomy have been secured, both
by novel methods.

I.ast year, Hinks, of Oxford, from photographic measures
of Eros, taken also at a number of observatories, found a dis-
tance of 92,826,000 miles, and four years ago, Halm, at the Cape,
by spectroscopic measures of stars in the line of sight, arrived at
a value of the solar parallax equal to 92,896,000 miles. Com-
bining these three determinations, obtained by radically diverse
methods, we obtain a value ot the solar parallax equal to
92,866,000 miles.

In any determination of the sun's distance three other con-
stants come within the radius of the investigation: the moon's
distance and mass, for it is the distance of the centre of gravity
of the earth-moon system that has to be finally determined ; the
constant of aberration, that is, the relation subsisting between the
solar parallax and the velocity of light; and the oblateness of the
earth's form.

Lacaille, one hundred and seventy years ago, determined,
from his meagre home in Strand Street, the moon's distance, the
aberration constant, and also set out on this southern land the
first geodetic base line. The present Astronomer Royal at the
Cape, faithful to these old traditions, is covering unexplored
Northern Rhodesia with a network of triangulations, in hope, one
day, of carrying the line that Lacaille began to the confining
northern sea, and thus linking it on to the great web of European
stations. It seems strange to connect the measuring of an insig-
nificant base line out on the Cape Flats with spacious sidereal
soundings, but there is an unbroken sequence in endeavour and

10 president's address.

in conception between estimating the length of a standard roc!
and spanning a universe. The humble student toiling at some
laboratory analysis is an arm in the same service that seeks to
explore the remotest distances, lay bare the most hidden secrets,
declare the foundational laws that govern this manifold, many-
mirrored universe. There is no isolated labour under the sun.
The long series of observations of the moon, discussed and
worked into theory by Xeison of Natal, though long unused, has
now found its fitting place in a new theory of the moon's motion.
This new theory brings into pre-eminence a consideration of tidal
retardation, and the consequent slowing down of the earth on its
axis. And at this point we reach another aspect of astronomical
research, that which deals with the life history of our own good
green earth. It would seem a very far cry to relate all this lunar
work to the winking changes ■^een in a variable star. One man
works at the moon's position, and evolves a theory of its move-
ments ; another finds that this theory means a slowing down of
the earth on its axis and an outward spiral movement — slow with
the terrible patience of Nature — of the moon's path ; and yet
another, examining some far-ofif binary star, finds its period of
revolution increasing in the process of the years. Then comes
the unifying touch, and all this i'^ seen to be part of one great
whole, to which each worker has added his part.

The study of variation in the brightness of stars, due either
to eclipse, or to some condition of orbital motion, or to intrinsic
light changes in the star itself, has been especially studied in
.South Africa. We have already referred to Innes's work, as
embodied in the Annals of the Cape Observatory, Vol II, and in
many of the Circulars of the Union Observatory.

At Lovedale, the work undertaken during the past twenty
years has been the systematic recording of the changes in bright-
ness of over a hundred well-known stars. I do not mean here to
do aught but refer to the bigger issues which this long series of
observations has revealed, and I do so because of my desire to
give weight to the thought of the unity of all scientific efifort.

A study of the light variation of certain eclipsing stars
yields not only the form and nature of the orbit in which they
move but also the shape, density, and relative size of the com-
ponent stars. It will readily be seen that such deductions, if
reasonably substantiated, have an important bearing on the ques-
tion of stellar evolution.

That eclipsing stars are very probably in the early stages of
their life history, seems -e reasonable conclusion ; thus any facts
that emerge regarding their form, or structure, or density are of
no ordinary interest. It is of importance to note that every close
binary star is of a density many tunes less than that of the sun ;
that few of them reveal an outer atmosphere ; that the oblate-
ness yielded by an examination of their light curve is in close

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 1 1

agreement with that which the theory of rotating bodies would
lead us to expect.

Allied to the study of stellar variation is the still more im-
portant branch of stellar photometry.

The profound problem of the structure of the universe is at
present based mostly on catalogues of position and spectra.
Except for the brighter stars we have no authoritative southern
catalogue of stellar magnitudes.

True the Cape Photometric Durchmusterung supplies us with
all we at present need.

But the day is not very remote when momentous cosmic
problems will rely for their solution on the most refined esti-
mates of stellar brightness, just ?s at present we are depending
on certain fundamental catalogues of position for delineation of
star streams.

The extent of our Universe, the constitution of the milky
way, the extinction of light in its passage through space, are
questions that must depend, to some extent at least, on photo-
metric surveys for an answer.

For some years past work in this direction has been done at
the Union Observatory, at Bulawayo, at Lovedale, but the time
is near for a more serious consideration of the matter.
Astronomy is enlarging its bounds in every direction : no longer is
it the detailed study of single stats that concern us most; rather
it is the weighing, charting, photometrically evaluating battalions
of stars, that we may thereby place the encl of our measuring rod
against the outer rim of the Universe, cast all its stars into scales,
and focus into one huge glow its multitudinous lights.

My self-elected task of relating what has been done
in Southern Astronomy is nigh ended. I know I have left much
unsaid.

I have also left many activities untouched or considered
but poorly. T would fain hope I have not left aught out regard-
ing those who have added a kindly humanity to their exalted
talents, men whose friendship I have been honoured with for
the better part of a lifetime, and to whom I owe a debt of grati-
tude that no words can sufficiently acknowledge, far less dis-
charge.

There is a great future before astronomy in this land, and
just as in past days men have been found who have responded
to the clear call and the certain claim, and have kept their science
high and honourable, never lowering their ideals, or narrowing
their outlook, so in the days to come men will arise who will fill
adequately the room, the yet larger room, waiting for them,
because of the inspiration and distinction of a worthy past.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING. ARCHITECTURE AND IRRIGATION.

President of the Section. — I. H. von Hafe.

TUESDAY. JULY 8.

The President delivered the following address : —

THE HARBOUR AND RAILWAYS OF LOURENCO

MARQUES AND THEIR RELATION WITH THE

UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.

I wish I could deliver a contribution according to the high
scientific rank of the distinguished Assembly I have the honour
to address, but lack of competence on one side, and lack of
leisure on the other, preventing my making even a modest
attempt in that direction, I shall confine myself to a short review
of the harbour of Lourenqo ^larques.

This harbour, the beauty and magnificence of which you have
now the opportunity of admiring, is one of the finest and safest
in the world, and is the natural outlet to the sea from a vast
country embracing the most valuable and best developed territory
of the Union, Swaziland, the Southern part of Rhodesia, and of
the Province of Mozambique.

Its entrance is sheltered from rough seas, thus allowing free
and permanent access, even under stormy weather. The anchor-
age extends from Inyack Island to Port Matolla, a stretch of
water 25 miles in length, 20 miles along the outer bay and four
on the Espirito Santo River, where the commercial harbour is
located, a wide waterway of considerable depth which receives
the waters from the rivers Tembe, Umbeluzi, and Matolla.

Large vessels have access to the inner harbour through the
Polana Channel, three and a half miles long, with an average
"depth of 22 feet below springtide low water ; dredging being,
however, carried on, so as to allow the largest steamers free
access at any height of tide.

A series of luminous buoys and beacons permit navigation
into the harbour at any time, day and night.

Loading and unloading operations are usually done alongside
the wharf, the extension of which is being continually carried on,
in view of the ever increasing trafiic of the port. The total wharf
length will be. at the end of this year, a little under one mile.

T'RKSTDENTTAL ADDRESS SF.CTTOX A. 13

For the handling of goods there is a fine equipment and
ample sheds, with spacious room for 90,000 tons, as well as an
open area for the storage of over too.ooo tons of goods.

In order to meet the rapidly increasing export of coal, a
coaling hoist of the ^TcMyler Patent is now being built, with a
handling efficiency of 400 tons per hour.

As most of the goods landed are bound for the Transvaal
and other parts of the Union, free of Customs duties, several
bonded sheds, warehouses and yards, belonging to forwarding
Companies, have been established, where goods await orders for
despatch.

These are the most noteworthy characteristics of this Har-
bour, which, as every other harbour, has its own features due to
the influence that its geographical situation, the riches and extent
of its hinterland and the wealth of the community has on it^
traffic, circumstances that, varying from one harbour to another,
offer a criterion for grouping them into classes, according to their
different functions.

Coastal harbours are, from this point of view, to be distin-
guished from inland harbours established on large navigable
rivers, usually at some distance from the sea. The first are, as a
rule, called at by passing steamers, for passenger service, mails
and small quantities of cargo, while inland harbours deal mainly
with cargo boats and full shipments.

Southampton, Dover, Plymouth, Cherbourg and Vigo are
therefore only ports of call and small traffic, while London,
Liverpool, Glasgow, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Rouen and
other river-served harbours are essentially ports for heavy traffic.
Tliere are, of course, some exceptions where the coastal
traffic is rather intense, for instance, Marseilles, Genoa, Barce-
lona, Havre, and most of the harbours where coal and ore are
shipped for export, such as Cardiff'. Barry Docks, Bilbao and
some others, but the ratio between the gross tonnage and the
effective tonnage of goods handled, or, in other terms^ the hand-
ling co-efficient of shipped and landed goods is, as a rule, lower
in coastal as compared with inland ports, keeping, in the first-
mentioned class, between 0.10 and 0.20, and reaching, in some
few instances, up to 0.60, whilst^ inland ports show a co-efficient
averaging between 0.80 and T.20.

The character of harbours is also affected by their dominant
economical function. Alany of them supply the wants of distant
countries to which they are connected by waterways or by rail,
either through import of goods asked for from oversea markets
or through export of produce of those countries served by such
ports. In these the bulk of goods handled in transit towards
their places of destination hardly stops. Their function is there-
fore particularly regional. Rotterdam, which is the natural outlet
of the Rhine, the most important trade artery of the world, is a
typical instance of a port of this class. Others live upon large

14 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRKSS — SKCTJON A.

transactions in oversea goods. At Havre, which is, besides Ham-
burg, the main entrepot of the world for coffee, and of iM-ance
for cotton and metals, the merchandise is kept in warehouses until
it has been the object of sale to other markets. The same happens
in Liverpool, with the wool, cotton and timber trade. 'Hie pre-
vailing function of these harbours is essentially commercial. In
some other harbours the traffic consists esi)ecially in the im])ort
of rough goods that after chemical or mechanical transformation
are exported as industrial products. Chemical manure from
su|)erph()S])]iates, soap and other products of oily plants, pottery,
metallurgy and many other industries constitute the jjrincipal
elements of life of certain ports, which l)ecome famous because of
the industrial ])urpose they supply.

Sometimes these three fundamental fimctions are met with
in one and the same harl)our, especially in large ones, such as
London and Hamburg.

These factors have obviously an important influence on tlie
arrangement of every harbour and on the economv of the centre
of population to which it is attached.

Coaling ports show huge wagon-dumpers instead of rows of
cranes. Sheds are generally dispensed with to give place to,
sometimes, an extensive net of sidings, allowing an uninterrupted
hauling in of loaded trucks and the release of em[)ties without
interfering with each other.

The amount of sheds and warehouses is much larger in com-
mercial harbours where the goods are kept for some time, than in
others where they have only a short stay.

Close to harbours with important commercial connection:,
the centres of population grow more rapidly, and attain larger
proportions, than those near others where the goods only pass in
transit without sustaining any transformation, or which are the
object of commercial transactions on a large scale.

All these peculiarities have a strong influence on the life au 1
character of harbours and their urban surroundings, and are the
determinants of their special arrangement to meet the require-
ments of the trade.

At Lourengo Alarques it is to be noted that vessels, colliers
excepted, being detained only for shipping or landing partial
shipments, the same happening in other South African Ports, the
handling co-efficient of the Harbour is nevertheless rather high,
owing to its being the natural gateway of a vast hinterland of
large consumption and production. The effective tonnage of
goods imported or exported during the year 1910 was, inde-
pendently of the coal traffic, 595.823 ton>. which comi)are(l with
the gross tonnage, 2,207,179, shows a co-efficient of 0.27, whilst
the same co-efficient at Cape Town was only 0.13, at Port Eliza-
beth 0.15, East London 0.14, and Durban 0.20. These figures
show that, of all South African Ports, Lourenco ^^larques is the
one that deals with larger shipments of general cargo; that is tJ

i'ki:sii)K.V'ri.\i. addkkss — skctiox .\. i^

say that, considered as an investment of capital, it is, therefore,
the one that l)ays the best returns.

Of the whole tonnage dealt with at Lourenco Marques, that
same year. 682,000 tons were in transit, and only 30,000 tons were
destined for local trade, which shows the unriuestionable regional
function of the harbour that, it must be noted, is becoming ever
more important on account of the rapidly increasing export of
Tran'^vaal coal and the re-exportation of Mozambique products'
from the more northerly ports of the Province.

Some conclusions may already be arived at as to the specific
feature which the economical function of this harlx)ur imprints
on this place. Not having its own industries, the reason for
I.ourenco Marques's ocmmercial existence lies only in its port's
traffic ; it is therefore quite natural that not only the affairs of
the community, but also the physiognomv of the town must be
influenced by the circumstances under which that traffic is carried
on. As most of the navigation lines that call at this Port are
foreign, and the shipments consigned to a foreign country, no
wonder that shipping and forwarding agents are also foreigners,
as well as the numerous staff em])]oyed by them ; this is why the
])rincipal trade of the town is in the hands of foreigners.
Attracted bv such an important Ixjdy of foreigners, people of
other nationalities are carrying on retail businesses, small indus-
tries and other vocations. This circumstance is the source of the
accentuated cosmopolitanism that prevails amongst us, and blots
out from the general outlook of the town as well as from the
habits of its people, the national cachet that is to be met with in
other Portuguese Colonies, excepting those few where identical
circumstances are in force, as, for instance, the town of Beira.
The welfare of the community depends, in fact, upon the foreign
clientele of the Harbour, which, offering unequalled materia'
advantages, and affording every facility for the quick and easy
despatch of goods, might hold its own and help the rapid de-
velopment of the town, were it not for the competition of rival
ports trying to deviate, for own profit, the Inilk of the traffic
which has naturally gravitated to this harbour.

Competition being a striking feature of modern life, it is no
matter for surprise if we see ev-ery effort being made to flivert
and secure the benefits that accrue to a foreign harbour, although
this may be the easiest and most accessible maritime gateway to
the interior.

It must, however, be saifl that trade once following its
natural course can only be deviated towards a less convenient
route by means that, in many cases, are anti-economical.

The rivalry among .South African Ports in respect of the
competitive area traffic brought about the Mozambique Cijnven-
tion, a treaty that provided for the division of the seaborne trade.

It must, however, be admitted that this agreement has failed
in achieving its purpose, and that the true interests of the hinter-

l6 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

land commerce have not been well served. Competing routes,
because much longer, have at least been responsible for a v^^aste
of time, fuel, wages and depreciation of rolling stock, all caused
by drawing the traffic from its natural course.

It seems to me that a more rational scheme might be agreed
upon. The Portuguese Administration, acknowledging the great
benefits resulting from the through international traffic passing
through this port, might allow the Union a participation in such
benefits whenever they exceeded a stipulated percentage over and
above the net revenue of the Harbour and Railways of Lourengo
Marcjues, providing that no preferential rates were to be estab-
lished in favour of any of the rival ports. Such an agreement
might take the form of a bonus granted to the Union, or be
secured by means of a pool between all South African port^,
after mutual definition of the zones of influence or that radius
of trade interests which should naturally fall to everv port in
this Sub-Continent. If such an arrangement could be reached, I
feel sure it would conduce to the abiding prosperity of both coast
and hinterland, and raise the importance of the Harbour of
Lourengo ]\Iarques as a factor of wealth and development in
regard to its natural and extensive zone of influence.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,,
MINERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President of the Section. — Prof. R. B. Young, M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY p.

The President delivered the following address : —

In glancing over the past presidential addresses to the various
Sections of this Association, I have observed that quite a number
of them are of a rather general character ; doubtless the result of
endeavours to avoid inflicting on so mixed an assembly papers
that could interest only a very few. With the same mercifui
intention in mind, I have decided merely to illustrate the improved
conditions of geological research in this country by putting before
you a contrast between its past and present state, with some
random reflections on the latter. I shall endeavour to be brief.

We are at present fast approaching what I might term the
humdrum period of geology, when, all the outlines having been
sketched, there will remain only the verv useful, though less in-
teresting, work of filling in the details. The pioneer, armed with
a hammer and Lyell's " Principles of Geology," has retired before
the highly trained specialist. Geology, from being a passion, has
become a profession, with its ways made comparatively smooth
by a friendly and enlightened Government. This change was
inevitable, and has made for efficiency, yet sometimes one cannot
help regretting it, for, with the close of the heroic period, much
of the romance of our science has vanished.

Our South African geologists, of the true pioneer type, like
Bain, Stow, and Atherstone, were late in life made geologists by
a process having some affinity to what is known in religious life as
" conversion." Geology was then a comparatively new science,
and the wonderful picture which it drew of the vicissitudes
through which the earth has passed, with its procession of old-
world life forms, things which to us familiarity from our school-
days has rendered almost comnionplace, struck the imagination
of these men with the force of a vision, took possession of their
thoughts, and kindled an unquenchable zeal to wrest for them-
selves from the rocks some of their secrets. The spirit in which
the pioneers entered on their labours, and the excitement and'
enthusiasm with which they greeted their first successes are fully
revealed in their writings, from which I shall quote two passage;.
The first is from a ])aper* by Andrew Geddes Bain, the
■' Father of South African Geology."

* " Reminiscences and Anecdotes connected with the History of
Geology in South Africa." reprinted in the Trans. Geo!. .Soc. .S.A. Vol. IT.
pp. 59-75-

l8 PRF.STDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION' l\.

" I had the good fortune to meet with Lyell's ' Principles of Geology,'
which I took home and read with avidity over and over again. I was
smitten. Lyell had made a convert of me. I lamented that I had never
read his or any other geological work before. Soon after, being in
Grahamstown, I learnt that a merchant had imported a copy of Buckland's
' Bridgewater Treatise," for which he asked me the moderate price of 36
fix dollars, and if he had asked as many pounds. I should have given it
with pleasure to possess that inestimable work. I was now set up. My
zeal knew no bounds, and I literally left no stone unturned in search of
fossils and minerals. 1 used to ride abovit with a large hammer slung in
my belt, and a bag on my shoulder, which conduct some charitable friends
were kind enough to attribute to lunacy, when in truth it was nothing
but a severe attack of lithomania. My mouth was ever full of stones and
fossils, and nothing would go down with me but organic remains."

The second passage is a description* by Atherstone of a
discovery of fossils made in company with Bain.

" Next morning we were up at break of day, and ere I had finished
my coffee, a loud ' hurrah !' from the cliffs above me summoned me with
a bound to the spot. My friend Bain had gone off without his coffee and
got the start of me. There he stood half-dressed, with a splendid gryphaea
incurva in his hand, beckoning us to come. ' The cliffs are Liassic then I'
we both exclaimed ; and now commenced a most exciting scene. Gryphaeas,
trigonias, ammonites, gervillias, exogj'ras, nautili, whole and in fragments,
were thickly strewn over the sides of the cliff, lying uncovered by the
rain of years. Each fresh discovery was announced by a louder shout of
triumph. The two lads ran up, and their sister was not slow in follow-
ing with their hammer. The black fellows, too, thinking by the shouts
and running that there certainly must be gold now, scrambled up after
us. Such a scene of excitement ! ... As for breakfast, who thinks
of eating under such circumstances ? "

It required such fiery enthusiasm as this to overcome the
obstacles which the pioneers found blocking their way. The
principal of these were lack of knowledge and training, and the
absence of sympathy and encouragement on the part of the
Government and the general South African public.

"As for myself [says Stow], having nothing in the world trustworthy
to refer to — not even a cabinet of rocks and minerals — I feel the greatest
possible diffidence in calling a stone a stone. I alwaj'S do so in fear and
trembling; and this not>vithstanding the burning earnest desire I have
that I may be enabled to do some, if even but a little, good to my genera-
tion." I

Of all the pioneers, Stow had the hardest lot, and of his
troubles, lack of sympathy, and even active obstrtiction, on the
part of Government officials were not the least. It must be men-
tioned, however, that men like Sir Henry Barkly, Sir H. Bartle
Frere, and President Brand thoroughly appreciated the value of
scientific research, but even such men found themselves com-
paratively powerless amidst the general ignorance and prejudice
that surrounded them. The following passages taken from letters
written about thirty years ago by a living geologist, who did good
v/ork in South Africa, describe this state of affairs: —

* " Geology of Uitenhage." 7'hc Eastern Province Mnu'hly 'Mas^a:;inc.
June, 1857.

t R. B. Young. "The Life and Work of George William Stow," p. 2^.

PRF.STDENTIAI. ADDRESS SECTION \). IQ

" I have accumulated a considerable store of facts bearing on our
geology, which I hope to write up as opportunity affords, but the almost
total absence of any sympathy with my work here, and the poverty and
meanness of the powers that be, are serious difficulties in the way of
geological work in South Africa. The work that is published by the
Government here is simply disgraceful and one is ashamed to own to it.

" At the Cape I struggled through many years of very uphill work,
always hoping for better times and lioping that geology would receive more
attention, but my patience quite gave out, and T felt that 1 was merely
wasting my life."

However, against the disadvantages under which these early
geologists worked, must be placed the supreme interest which is
attached to work in an absolutely new field. As their researches,
crude though they were, proceeded, they were privileged to see
unfolding, for the first time, in its grand outlines, the wonderful
history of this portion of the earth. In the case of Stow, for
instance, it was surely some compensation for the hardships
which he had undergone, to be able to picture, for the first time,
in all its grandeur, the great ice age of South Africa. Unfortun-
ately, owing to lack of support, he was not allowed the satisfac-
tion of communicating his great discovery to the world at large,
but only to the favoured few who were privileged to read, in
manuscript, the remarkable memoir which he had prepared. No
one who has perused the manuscript of this great work of Stow
can doubt that, had it been j^ublished, the great controversy which
lasted for many years after his death, regarding the origin of the
Dwyka conglomerate, would never have occurred. As it turned
out, Stow's discovery was slowly rediscovere 1 piecemeal, and the
conclusions which he had arrived at, as early as 1876, cannot be
considered as having been finally established before 1905, the
year of the visit of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science to this country. TW that visit the doubts which still
existed in the minds of foreign geologists, regarding the genuine-
ness of the South x\frican ice age, were cleared away.

So much for the beginnings of geological research in this
country. Let us now glance at the conditions under which it h
being carried on at present.

The Geological Survey of the Transvaal and the Geological
Commission of the Cape have recently been merged in the Geo-
logical Survey of the Union, with a stafif of six geologists, besides
other officials, costing altogether, for maintenance, about £10,000
per annum. Of the field-geologists, three are working in the
Transvaal, two in the Cape Province, and one in Natal. While
it is satisfactory to think that the increased prosperity of the
country and the advance of public opinion have made the estab-
lishment of a permanent survey of this character possible, yet,
when one considers the great area of the country comprised by
the Union, and the extent to which its prosperity depends on the
exploitation of its mineral wealth, it becomes evident that the
stafif of the present Survey is quite inadequate. Large tracts of
South Africa have perforce to lie neglected, while in the other

B

20 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

parts work has necessarily to proceed at a very slow pace. There
would be greater likelihood of having- this state of affairs rectiti-
if the special utility to a mining country of geological survey work
were more widely realised than it is at present, and 1 shall take
this opportunity of saying a few words on the subject.

By many people, geology is still looked upon as a " nice
amusement," an " elegant pursuit," to quote the words of one of
our prominent politicians, and to them the connection between
the systematic geological survey of a country and the exploitation
of its mineral wealth is not at all obvious. We never hear of the
discovery by any member of the Survey of new mineral deposits.
The gold and diamond mines, which constitute so much of the
wealth of the country, have all resulted from the discoveries of
plodding prospectors, men generally possessing very little geo-
logical knowledge. From time to time, in the early history of
Cape Colony, geologists have been temporarily employed by the
Government, in the hope of making great discoveries of economic
minerals, but always with little or no result, if we except the dis-
covery, by Stow, of the Vereeniging coal-field. There might
seem, therefore, some reason for doubting the utility of geo-
logical survey work, and it must be allowed that, so far as the
discovery of mineral deposits is concerned, the geological mapping
of the country can contribute only indi recti v, by sketching ouv
the lines along which prospecting can most profitably be carried
out. The actual discovery still rests with the prospector, but he
can be told where his work is most likely to be crowned with
success, and where it is absolutely hopeless. Where, for instance,
a certain class of deposit is found to be associated with a par-
ticular type of igneous rock, or with its contact with metamorphic
or sedimentary rocks, it is obvious that the systematic mapping
of the distribution of these rocks must be of great assistance to
the prospector. The recent very detailed survey of the Wit-
watersrand district by Dr. Alellor illustrates well the negative
value of geological mapping, and anyone familiar with the results
of Dr. A^^ellor's work, and with the history of the Rand, must
realise that, while the mapping is of great present value, yet, had
it been possible to have had, earlier, the elucidation of the true
nature of the Witpoortje " break," or of the stratigraphical posi-
tion of the Du Preez series, supported by careful and indis-
putable mapping, a great saving of energy and money would
liave resulted. For the prevention of wild enterprises, such as
boring in granite for coal, which actually happened near Cape
Town some ten years ago, no geological mapping is necessary :
the presence of someone in the neighbourhood who had mastered
an elementary text-book of geology might have been deemed
suflficient.

In the great majority of cases, for the economic development
of a mining property, a knowledge of the geological structure of
the immediate area in whicli the mineral deposit lies is essential.
During a tour round the mining districts of Rhodesia, just before

rR!':sinKNTIAF. ADDRRSS — SliCTION H. 2T

the institution of a Geological Survey in that territory, I found
the want of geological information and guidance, such a.^ could
be properly given only by a systematic survey, everywhere ex-
pre'^sed among mining men, and it was doubtless largelv a^ a
result of this widespread feeling, that the present Survey was
established. It might be thought that for the solution of all the
geological problems, having a direct practical bearing, presented
by any ore-deposit, a short visit by a geologist to the property
would be sufificient ; but this is far from being the case. For the
proper understanding of the features in the immediate vicinity of
the mine, a knowledge of the structure of wide stretches of the
surrounding country is often necessarv. and no one is more
grateful than the consulting geologist for reliable geological
mapping.

A great part of the literature on ore deposits consists of
papers bv different observers on isolated occurrences. The mere
fact that thev are the result of the examination of isolated occur-
rences takes away from their value. I might add that, as far as
my observation goes, in no section of geological literature is there
so much unreliable matter as in that on ore-deposits. This is due
partly to the insufficient data presented by most mines at any
particular stage of development, and partly to the fact that it is
not generally recognised how much detailed and laborious w'ork
is usuallv necessary to avoid the possibility of a total misconcep-
tion of the nature of an ore-deposit. It i'^ no uncommon thinq
to find the results of macroscopic examination largely refuted by
a further microscopic study. All of these considerations add to
the value of careful and co-ordinated work like that contained in
the Transvaal Survey Memoir on the Waterberg Tin-fields. In
the first place it is an account, not of an isolated tin-deposit, but
of the deposits of a large district, all of them genetically con-
nected, and capable of throwing light one on another. It is
written by highly trained and experienced men, conscious from
their position of their responsiblities, and wnth all the re'^ources
of an organised survev behind them. Again, the work is sub-
ject to revision and enlargement bv the same observers from time
to time as the data revealed by further development render ii:
necessary.

T need hardlv add that there are other ways in which the
work of a geological survey amplv repays the cost of mainten-
ance, and, besides, putting aside all considerations of cash-value,
we must, if we are to maintain our dignity as a civilised and
intellectual community, take our place beside the rest of the
world in supporting science for its own sake, and for all the
indirect or unforeseen benefits which follow surely in the train of
increased knowledge.

I remarked earlier that we were approaching the humdrum
period of geology, but I did not mean to imply that there was
any likelihood of our exhausting the problems presented

22 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B.

by the rocks of this country, As research advances, fresh
problems appear. Indeed, some of the problems that first
attracted the attention of South African geologists still await
solution. There is much work to be done before the correlation
of the formations in the different regions of South Africa can
be completed. This is especially the case with respect to the older
rocks of the country. There is still considerable mystery sur-
rounding the origin of the South African diamonds. The origin
of the gold in the banket is still an open question, though the
investigations of the last few years have confined it to narrower
limits.

That the last-mentioned controversy has lingered so long on
the stage is worthy of some comment. No other ore-deposit in
the world affords such facilities for .study as does the banket.
It is exposed along its strike for more than forty miles, and on
the dip to depths as great as five thousand feet. Why, then, has
the history of the rock, including that of its contained gold, not
been fully made out by this time? In the first place, notwith-
standing the apparently simple character of the banket, on careful
investigation it is found to have undergone manv remarkable
changes, which have obliterated certain features which the rock
must have originally possessed. In the second place, it is essential
that the manner of distribution of the gold in the banket should
be known. Sufficient data for the elucidation of this have been
acquired, but they remain locked up in the assay plans of the
various mines. An analysis of these would involve great labour,
such as would not readily be undertaken by any individual. It
is unlikely, too. that the Geological Survey, with its present
inadequate staff, would care to embark on a task demanding
so large an expenditure of its time and energy. However, fail-
ing the Government, perhaps our enlightened Chamber of Mines
might consider itself justified in spending money on the investi-
gation of a matter which lies so close to them, and which is of
absorbing theoretical interest and, at the same time, of con-
siderable practical importance.

I shall now revert from what must appear to you to be a
lengthy digression to my original theme, and mention briefly
certain respects, not yet referred to, in which the conditions of
geological work in South Africa show great improvement.

Our early geologists found themselves mentally isolated.
They were regarded as cranks, and their interest in the geology
of the country was looked upon as an idiosyncracy. Besides,
they could find no suitable avenue in South Africa for the publi-
cation of their work. Even those geologists who were temporarily
engaged by Government usually found their employers unwilling
to go to the expense of printing their reports in full. Now we
have a public, a comparatively small one it is true, interested in
geological work. The geological reports yearly issued by the
Government are worthv of the country. For the private worker

PREST]:)ENTT.\L ADDRRSS — SECTION B. 2^

there is a flourishing Geological Society where he may have his
papers read, published and discussed to his heart's content.

Again, if the results of scientific research are not made easily
accessible they lose much of their value, and an obstacle is raised
in the way of further work; and till 1905 what was known about
the geology of South Africa was hidden away in numerous
scattered papers and reports. In that year, however, appeared
the excellent text-books on the geology of Cape Colony and of
South Africa as a whole by Dr. Rogers and Drs. Hatch and
Corstorphine respectively. We have also the translation by Mr.
Ronaldson, of Molengraaff's memoir, on the geology of the
Transvaal. There is still room for more work of this kind, and
text-books on the economic geology of South Africa and on its
mineralogy and petrology would be welcomed.

For the appreciation and utilisation of the results of
geological work some previous knowledge of the subject is
necessary. In the primary and secondary schools, an elementary
course of geology and mineralogy has not yet found a place, and,
though it may at first appear somewhat unreasonable to suggest
that this subject should be included in what is already an over-
crowded curriculum, yet I think that a very good case for this
could be stated. In the higher branches of education geolog}^
cannot now be said to be neglected. When I first came to South
Africa, ten years ago, I found myself occupying temporarilv the
only chair of geology in the country ; that at the South African
College. Now there is provision for the teaching of the subject
in seven colleges within the Union. The greatest advance has
been made at Johannesburg, where the South African School of
]\Iines and Technology, following the lead of many European
and American colleges, has recently established a Chair of
Economic Geology in addition to the Chair of Geology and
Mineralogy.

Section C— BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HY-
GIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

President of the Section ; A. L. M. Bonn, C.E.

SATURDAY, JULY 12.

The President delivered the following address : —
THE DE\'ELOPMENT OF DELAGOA BAY.

Lourenqo Marques, the capital and chief seaport of the
Province of Mozambique, the most important of Portuguese
oversea possessions, is now a town containing 5,324 European
and 8,029 Native and Asiatic inhabitants. It is situated on the
western shore of Delagoa Bay and, combined with its command-
ing position and magnificent Bay frontage, has by nature a situa-
tion unequalled by other towns in the whole of South Africa.
Strange to say, Lourengo Marques and its neighbourhood were
not colonized until long after the occupation of the more
northerly parts of Mozambique and the colonization of Natal,
although the Bay was discovered as far back as 1502 by Antonio
de Campo, and explored in 1506 by a trader, from whom the
tow^n derives its name.

In 1824 a AMialing Station was established, and in 1846
the Bay was surveyed by Captain Owen, of the British Navy,
with the intention of annexation. Up to this time the locality
appears to have been seldom visited, and one might say, almost
unclaimed. There appears to have been little, if anything, in
the nature of any development till about 1870, when, owing to
the opening up of trade with the Transvaal, and the establish-
ment of regular steamship communication wath Europe, the
importance of Delagoa Bay became recognized.

It is only from this time forward that its existence as a
town can be dated (although its rapid development has been
greatly eclipsed by that of other towns in South Africa), and
when this is taken into consideration, with the transformation
that has taken place during the past forty years, in the filling
ill of vast swamps, the practical eradication of malaria, the
construction of extensive wharf accommodation, and the
general laying out of a township, it must be admitted that good
work has been accomplished, ?nd this in the face of serious
opposition, of which the combating of fever and Natives forms
no small portion. In reviewing its growth one cannot say that
its development has been aught but spasmodic. Improvements
have been effected at long intervals and this, coupled with the
sparing increase of population, has undoubtedly handicapped

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 25

the good work of progress. During the last eight years the
European population has been increased by only 633, and that
of tlie Xatives by 2,870. In addition, prejudice has contributed
in no small measure to retard its progress, and even at this
date its previous unhealthy reputation, no doubt at one time
justified, is proverbial in the adjacent parts of this continent.

It is markedly to the credit of the responsible authorities
that the eradication of malaria, previously so common, was
undertaken and practically forms the base of all subsequent
improvements. Pleasures were adopted for clearing the town
and surrounding land of bush, grass, and undergrowth, and this
is rigorously enforced at the present date. In addition, the various
large swamps within the municipal area were filled in, the effec-
tive inspection of tanks and surface drains established. All
these wise regulations have contributed to the enjoyment of
immunity from fever, and the steady decline of the death-rate,
and eventually resulted in Delagoa Bay being enabled to be com-
pared most favourably as regards health with any town in South
Africa. It is a remarkable fact that other infectious epidemics
to which most towns within the Union are subject, have been and
are conspicuous by their absence.

The Administration of Lourengo Marques is in the hands
of Municipal Government ( Camara Municipal), under whose
supervision the important duty of sanitary service and cleaning
of the town is maintained. In this respect Lourengo Marques
has no reason to take second place to any other town or city.
This work is performed in an excellent manner. In the general
development of the locality it is only fair to bear testimony to
the valuable assistance rendered by the Delagoa Bay Develop-
ment Corporation, Limited, an English Company that has
obtained the important concessions of water supply, lighting
and tramways, and these undertakings have contributed in no
small manner to the progress and development made in the past.

In 1895 a concession was obtained for the establishment of
waterworks. Up to this time water for domestic and oth'^r
purposes was obtained from the numerous springs and swamps
located in various parts of the township. With the advent of
the Waterworks Company, considerable drainage works were
constructed, spring and surface water being collected and distri-
buted by means of an efficient installation. It was found, apait
from the fact of such supply being insufficient for future develop-
ment, that the water thus available was of unsuitable quality.
The Company proceeded with the erection of a Pumping Station,
situated on the Umbeluzi River, and, by means of a steel conduit
conveyed the water thus obtained a distance of eighteen miles to
Lourenco Marques. This work was completed in 1906, and has
resulted in water of excellent standard of purity and of copious
constant supply being available. The approximate daily con-
sumption for domestic purposes averages 8.6 gallons per head of
the total population. The installation is complete and adequate in

26 PRESmENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

dealing with demands in excess of five times the present total
consumption.

In 1898, owing to the instrumentality of a French Company,
the whole of the town and Municipal area was illuminated by
means of electricity ; this replaced the oil lamps previously in-
stalled by the Municipality. This undertaking was eventuallv
absorbed by the Delagoa Bay Development Corporation, Limited,
in 19 10. The public lighting is done in a most efficient manner
by means of a matter of 1,000 metallic filament lamps and 12 x-\rc
lamps, distributed over the entire Municipal area, and, in this
respect, is one of the best, if not the best illuminated town in
South Africa. In connection with both water and lighting supply,
public service is rendered by the Corporation to both Government
and Municipality at a greatly reduced rate, and by these means
such supply is made without entailing any special rate to the
inhabitants.

In February, 1904, an excellent service of electric trams was
installed, giving complete and rapid means of conveyance to all
parts of the town. This service has undoubtedly contributed
more than aught else to opening up the more distant confines of
the Municipality, making such parts accessible for the purpose of
residential districts. It "is remarkable that even in this respect
Lourenco ^larques has led the way to other towns in South Africa
by introducing electric means of transit, a twenty minutes' ser-
vice being available from 5.30 a.m. to 11.30 p.m., and this in a
town which at that time scarcely numbered 4,700 European in-
habitants. In maintaining the above-mentioned services, the Cor-
poration has undoubtedly met the requirements of the public in
an efficient and up-to-date manner, which by other means would
have been impossible ; it has secured advantages that are denied
to towns of even considerably larger population than Lourenco
Marques ; and it has, at the same time, relieved the Municii)al
Administration of serious responsibility .

Municipal enterprise has hitherto been much handicapped in
iriaugurating progress of considerable extent, owing principally to
a serious absence of continuity of policy and the lack of necessary
funds, the total yearly revenue, principally derived from a Muni-
cipal tax on imports, amounting in round figures to i6o,ooo per
annum, and from this sum all Municipal enterprises have had to
be made and maintained. On the other hand, it is highly credit-
able to note that the town is, with the exception of a matter of
£70,000. free from debt of any description, comparing more than
favourably in this respect with other towns within the Union.

Good and solid work has been done in the establishment of
an excellent Public Market, Public Gardens, an excellentlv
equipped Fire Brigade, the hardening and laving out of street?
and pul]lic places, and, althou8:h much remains to be done, there
are evident indications of works of important nature being under-
taken in the near future, which will place Delagoa Bay in the
forefront of towns in South Africa. To the Government also

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 27

praise is due for the establishment of a large general Hospital,
equipped in a highly creditable manner. The rapid development
of the maritime possibilities and the natural advantages of Dela-
goa Bay as a port, is also in active ])rogress, and the construction
of wharfs and equipment now under completion will undoubtedly
make this the most up-to-date and best-equipped shipping port in
Africa.

One cannot but regret that the advantages which nature has
so bountifully given in regard to Delagoa Bay have not been more
generally utilised to develop and assist in the establishment of a
port of pre-eminence and health resort long ere this, but to its _
future one can look with confidence. Such is bound eventually
to be prosperous, and, in spite of numerous obstacles which have
retarded the general progress of the locality, much is to be learnt
here by the Municipal Government of other towns within the
Union, more especially in the judicious investment of Municipal
enterprise with limited funds, and in the face of contentious
opposition. In turn, Delagoa Bay has benefited by lessons learnt
from the various Mimicipal undertakings in towns throughout
South Africa, and one cannot but believe that their lessons will
be even more utilised in the immediate future. The work of
development will steadily proceed, and amongst that of the first
importance an efficient drainage and sewerage system is being
seriously considered, the proper and adequate housing and locat-
ing of the large Native and Asiatic population, modern and up-
to-date equipment of abattoirs, crematoria, refuse destructors, the
paving of side-walks, and the develoi)ment of the marine resort
at Polana — these are matters of vital and far-reaching import-
ance, and will, when realised, effectually eliminate the fallacy and
prejudice that is still so common to those who have but a vague
knowledge of what has been, and is still to be, done to make
Delagoa Bay and Lourenco Marques the best equipped port and
town in South Africa.

/ \^{^'y^i

'<::^

Section D.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, EDUCA-
TION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE, PHILO-
LOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY.

President of the Section : — I. A. Foote. F.G.S., F.ET.S.

FRIDAY, JULY ii.

The President delivered the following address :
THE EDUCATION OF TO-MORROW.

The educational subject which has aroused most interest
during the last two years m South Africa is the question of
the future University ; but University Education, important
though it undoubtedly is. counts as dust in the balance, wdien
compared with the education of the whole people. The highly
educated few at the top will avail South Africa little, if the mass
of the people is lacking in character, intelligence, training, and
skill.

The social and political importance of the children — all the
children — has steadily increased in the eyes of those who give
serious thought to social and economic questions. The main
centre of interest therefore in the educational field should be the
iiverage boy, for national education is not organized for the bene-
fit of the few who climb to the highest rungs of the ladder.
" Education cannot save a nation, but no nation can be saved
without it," said Roosevelt. The salvation of South Africa is in
progress in the schools. But this saving process may be retarded
by influences both outside and inside. In England the interests
of the children are sometimes sacrificed to religious differences
outside the schools. It is to be hoped that in South Africa the
schools will be shielded from the blight of outside political an-
mosities.

But the foes of Education are sometimes those of her own
household. Educational authorities are hopelessly divided on
many questions inside the school. One writer speaks of educa-
tion as " the sport of prophetic persons pointing in a mist."
Another, in a chapter headed " The Chaos of the Hour," gives a
list of the eccentricities of opinion among educational lecturers
and professors. But amid all this uncertainty of thought, the
idea is crystallizing that the object of education should be, more
directly than it has hitherto been, a preparation for life, and that
curricula should be so formed as to have more direct bearing on
the future careers of those taught.

The education of to-morrow will be distinguished by the
predominance of the practical. Ruskin was no democrat. He

rUESIDENTIAI. ADDRESS SECTION D. 2()

was a believer in divinely appointed inequalities, but ho said, '" I
believe that all youths of whatever rank ought to learn one
manual trade thoroug^hly." One reason why education has failed
to produce the result^ wliicli enthusiasts expected from it when
it was made a national concern, is that it has been looked upon
as something altogether apart from life. Education should be a
preparation for both work and play. Yes, play. Was it no'
Aristotle who said that the real test of a man's education is the
manner in which he spends his leisure time?

The educator of to-morrow will not exclude from the school
the higher spiritual lite of culture, but he will constantly keep
before Kim the principle of training for practical life, in a prac-
tical world of work. One half of the education of to-morrow
will consist of doiiic/. " How do you do?" will be the appropriate
salutation to the young scholar. And if to doing is added think-
ing, the efficient youth will be the result.

It has long been acknowledged that bodily activity assist^
brain development rather than hinders it. The dormant mind
and the dormant bod\ usuallv go together. The relation of
mind and muscles is a fact of extreme importance in pedagogv.
Motor training for the mental development of subnormal children
has long been known t ) be useful ; but the education of to-morrow
will mske more use of the muscles for the mental development of
normal and supernormal children. Mosso believes that long-
continued motor activity among a people promotes intellectual
development. Tn supoort of this view he says that —

'■ during the lirst epocli of tlie Renaissance, tlic greatest artists of
Florence were all apprentices in the workshops of the eoldsmitbs Luca
della Robbia, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brnnelleschi, Francia. Domencio
Chirlandaio. Sandro Botticelli. Andrea del Sarto — to mention a few
examples — performed, durine their apprenticeship, the simplest labours
in the workshop of a poldsmith. Rut the exercise with which they g:ained
their manual dexteritx- contributed much to the development of the great
masters of genius.

■■ A fact wliich cannot be doubted is the many-sidedness of peniu?
v/hich some Italians of the Renaissance possessed, and which has never
again appeared with. like copiousness. Giotto was painter, sculptor, and
architect Leonardo dr. Vinci was a celebrated musician, a great painter,
an engineer, and architect, a man of letters and of science. Andrea del
Verrocchio was a goldsmith, sculptor, engraver, architect, painter, and
musician. These facts are to be read in many histories of art. An incom-
parable example, however, is Michelangelo. For twelve years he studied
anatomy on the cadaver and afterwards painted the Sistine Chapel and
executed the tomljs of the ^ledici and the dome of St. Peter's. ....
I am convinced that muscular movements have formed the omnipotence of
genius, just as, -rice z'crsa. intellectual exercises affect advantageously the

development of the nmsclcs."

The education, then, of to-morrow will be dynamic rather
than static. The young learner will not be kept in a seat during
his growing years, with folded arms, poring over a book. There
will be a clearer recognition of the fact that a child's thought
is never dissociated from his muscles, and that an idea is not
complete until it is realized in action. More practical Arithmetic.

30 PRESTDENTIAI. ADDRESS SE( TION D.

more practical Geometry, more practical Geography, more prac-
tice in the laboratory and more manual activity in the workshop —
these will be feature 5 of the education of to-morrow.

But not only will the education of to-morrow tend to lay
more stress on motor activity, but it will tend to become more
vocational in character. The pressing subject of vocational
education cannot be dismissed by mumbling old formula? about
earlv specialization. In future there will be more points of
contact between the school life of the pupil and his future occui^a-
tion. Modern psychology has all but rejected the old idea of
faculty training. " No one." says Bernard Shaw, " learns to do
one thing by doing something else." This remark states aptly
the new psychological dictum which is to the effect that
there is no evidence that the power of reasoning, cultivated
through, say, mathematics or classics, " transfers '" or " flows
over " to the affairs of everyday life. In fact, say the psycho-
logi.sts, there is e.xpermiental evidence to the contrary. We are
even told nowadays that the cultivation of the memory in one
direction does not guarantee that there will be retentiveness in
other directions. Dr. Roberts may know the name of every star
in the firmament. Professor \\'ager, like Solomon, may know
the names of every tree, from the cedar that is in Lebanon to the
hyssop that springeth out of the wall. Others among our mem-
bers may know, again like Solomon, all beasts, fowl, creeping
things and fishes — and yet they may forget to post their wives'
letters.

Mr. W. P. \\'elpton, lecturer on education in the University
of Leeds, in a book nublished last month, says : —

'■ There are many who are doubtful about incUiding utilitarian work
in their conception of education. The very mention of utility gives their
educational conscience a painful shock. Education to them is the prepara-
tion for a cultural spiritual life in which 'bread and butter' work finds no
place. The term ' manhood." of course, is frequently mentioned in their
educational theory, Init it is an emasculated manhood, divorced from all
concerns of daily toil. What is such manhood worth ? What appeal to
virile youth can a manhood have that is unsullied l\v the taint of utility.
that is dissociated from those activities that every boy of the middle and
working classes is looking forward to during adolescence as the essential
and distinctive work of man's estate."

Why do many boys leave school so early ? Frequently it is,
of coiu'se. from economic necessity. More often it is because
they see no connection between school and reality, at a time of
life when reality is beginning to appeal to them. School is
nothing to them but c-n enforced contact with the unreality of
books ; and they leave as soon as they persuade their parents to
let them. Every boy towards the end of the primary school
course experiences what I might call a " vocational itch." He
wants to be doing, or, at least, preparing for the real things of
real life. This healthy instinct — for it is healthy — persists
throughout the secondary school course, but there it is held in
check by the knowledge that the objective of the secondary

PRKSIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SKCTIOX D. 3I

school course — the Matriculation Examination — is really a
vocational one. Ihit there is no such check in the case of the
senior boy of the primary school, and that, in my opinion, is one
of the reasons why the highest class there is usually a mere
rump.

In the Transvaal primary course there are seven standards,
and before the boy leaves school pass in standard five is com-
pulsory, or the attainment of the age of fifteen. I think that in
urban areas the legal standard might well be raised to six, the
age of fifteen still being retained, as the normal child should
finish standard six at fourteen.

After passing this compulsory standard six, at which stage
he should have a fair knowledge of his mother tongue and tlie
other official language of the Union, the pupil would then have
the choice of beginning a four years' course of further education
at a secondary school, or of remaining in a voluntary standard,
seven at the primary school. I have come to the opinion that
the work of this standard should not be a continuation of the
work of the previous six standards, but should be vocational in
character. This might be provided for at selected schools in each
urban area, the courses being commercial, industrial or general.
I believe that in this way, the work of the highest class of the
primary school could be given a meaning, and more pleasurable
interest, without which learning is impossible, would be
awakened. As Profesor Adams said, " The theory of interest
does not propose to banish drudgery, but only to make drudgery
tolerable by giving it a meaning." Most boys, I am convinced,
look on the standard seven work as meaningless drudgery. I
believe that the raising of the compulsory standard to six, with
voluntary vocational work to follow would be cheaper and more
effective than the establishment of compulsory continuation classes.
Continuation classes, so called, are almost exclusively vocational.
Boys will not go to evening classes to learn English Composition
or South African History. An extra year at day school is worth
several years of evening work, consisting, as the latter does, of
only three or four hours a week. Let there be voluntary con-
tinuation classes by all means, with courses as varied and as in-
teresting as possible ; another year's day school preparation will
tend to increase the demand for them, and will contribute much to
their efficiency.

A national system of this kind, beginning with a primary
course of six standards, followed either by supplementary voca-
tional courses, or by a four years' secondary course, would have
at the apex of the pyramid its University education, regarding
which in South Africa a far-reaching constructive policy is soon
to be announced.

It cannot be 'denied that hitherto there has been a want of in-
telligent direction in the higher education of South Africa. Like
Topsy — it growed. I often wonder why the Transvaal Universit}'
College, at its inception, did not take all the embryo teachers in

32 PRESTDF.XTIAI. ADDRESS SKvTIOXD.

that colony under its care. 'Jlie Transvaal University College has
never been like the ohJ woman who had so many children she
-didn't know what to do. Neither, indeed, has any of its sister
colleges. If, after the War, there had been started only one
Normal College in the Transvaal under the regis of the Transvaal
University College all the non-professional work could have been
taken in the ordinary Transvaal University College classes ; and
only professional subjects, such as singing and drawing, woidd
have been taken in the Normal College Department. The Principal
of the Normal College would then have been Professor of Educa-
tion in the Transvaal University College, an' mayhap Principal oi
that institution, for the majority of the students would have been
future teachers. This would not have meant that every student
proceeded to his degree, but it would have raised a healthy ambi-
tion in many to do so ; and it would have i)revented that cloistered
seclusion of the teacher, which is not the best j^reparation for a
calling, where one's if^sc dixit is accepted without challenge all
day kmg.

But this refers not to a to-morrow, but to a to-morrow that
might have been. A different policy has been made permanent in
South Africa, in bricks and mortar and vested interests, to tiie
detriment, I think, of the teaching profession, and the University
Colleges themselves.

The Education of a not too distant to-morrow will be recog-
nised a? an exact science. It has already begun to present its data
and conclusions in quantitative as well as in qualitative terms.
" The hope of the evolution of education lie< in exneriment." s''id
Profesor Adams at last year's meeting of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, which body, by the way, is giving
an increased attention year by year to educational questions. The
experimental psychologists have, during the last few years, been
elaborating " intellieence tests." and the researches of investi-
arator^ like Rinel. Pearson. Brown, SDcarman, Galton. Burt.
Winch. Ebbinghaus and Whipple, mav in time lead to the formu-
lation of an entirelv new kind of examination for entrance to the
Universities and the Government services. Professor Pyle, Uni-
versity of IMissouri. has recently concluded a series of tests for
mental efficiencv involving the use of such mental powers as
learning, logical memorv, rote memory, attention, association,
imagination and invention. A total mental efficiency mark is
given to each Dupil. according to the average of the results,
obtained in each of the tests, and this mark is regarded as .-i
reliable index of mental capacity.

The average teacher in this country has neither the time, the
mathematical ability nor the training in scientific method ; a com-
bination of the three is required to conduct such tests. Ikit al
some future date mental tests zvill be applied to South African
children, and certain questions fraught with import suggest them-
selves. Is the quality or character of certain mental processes
different in South African children when compared with those of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SEC'llON D. 33

European chiklren of the same age? Is the South African child's,
capacity for mental work quantitatively more or less than that of
the European stock from which it sprang? Anthropometric
measurements might prove that there was no physical deprecia-
tion— prohably it would be found that there was physical appre-
ciation. Would mental measurements give a siiuilar result?

Professor Kidd, in a paper four years ago, mentioned the
fact that the timbre of the voice tended to deteriorate in South
Africa. Is there any weakening of the intellectual fibre? Are oui
sons better mentally than ourselves, or worse? South Africa has
produced no great poet, writer, artist or inventor. Neither,,
indeed, lias any country under the Southern Cross. Are the stars
in their courses fighting against us? Or is it that the climate is
too generous and too alluring? Gibbon, Scott, Wordswo-rth,
Carlyle, and Stevenson were undistinguished at school and col-
lege. It required the stimulus of new and hard conditions to^
awake their powers and intellectual energies. Is it because con-
ditions have been too soft in South Africa that there are no
Robert Louis Stevensons here? Great success means sacrifice.
Is youth disinclined to pay the price-^unwilling to scorn delights
and live laborious days — too content with the trivial round, the
common task?

It would be folly to predict the result of what such compara-
tive mental tests would be. But if the answers to such questions
as I have asked were to be of such a nature as not to flatter our
national pride, then a certain amount of immigration to this
country would be an intellectual necessity, whether it were an
economic one or not.

I have dealt with only a very few of the developments which
the educational to-morrow may bring forth If this subject wer^^
thrown open for discussion at this meeting^ every one present
would have some new educational proposal to make. Mr. Leslie
would propose, as he did on Tuesday, that all schools in South
Africa should be fitted up with simple meteorological instruments,
and all boys taught to read them. Good ! Professor Younj:;-
would approve, as he did on Wednesday, of instruction in the
simple rocks and minerals being given in the schools of South
Africa. Again, good! Professor Alacfadyen, who is sure to
have been ruminating on the "psychology of the mob during his
enforced stay further west last week, might suggest to us that
the educational psychologists, having done a g'ood deal of work on
the subject of the individual child, might, with advantage, turn
to the study of the psychology of the mass. After all, children
are taught in masses, more or less, and usually more than less,
large. The Union Astronomer might not press for star-know-
ledge in the schools, but T have heard him advocate a simplified
form of our English spelling as one of the most Dressing of
educational reforms. I believe that the demand for spelling
reform will grow in strength year by year, although its accom-
plishment may not be seen by the present generation. South;

34 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

African teachers know the handicap which our chaotic spelling
places on the children of the country. Canada and India must
feel the same difficulty. The simplification of English spelling is
a factor in the Empire's growth which will have to he serioush
considered some day.

This address is meant to be suggestive rather than exhaus-
tive. The old Chinese philosopher Confucius used to say that
when he showed his students three corners of a subject, he left
them to find the fourth for themselves. I have shown you one
corner of the subject. I leave you to think about the other three.
In conclusion, if the Union Parliament and the Provincial Coun-
cils of South Africa — and I hope that primary and secondary
education will long remain under the jurisdiction of the latter—
decide wisely and well in regard to the educational problems
awaiting solution-here, we shall be entitled to look forward not
without hope and confidence to the educational to-morrow. I
wish we could say, however, in the language of Romeo : —

" Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops."

LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL
MEETINGS.

Section A. — Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Meteoro-
logy, Geodesy. Surveying, Engineering, Architec-
ture; AND Irrigation.

TUESDAY, JULY 8.

1. Address by J. H. von Hafe, Mem. A.C.E. (Port), President of the

Section.

2. Star positions and fjalactic co-ordinates. Bv R. T. A. Innes,

F.R.A.S., P.R.S.E.

3. A plea for the more exact measurement of rainfall. Bv F Flowers,

F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 9.

4. Data for the study of the climate of Lourengo Marques. By Lieut.

A. d'A. Teixeira.

5. The measurement of air, with special reference to compressors. By

C. Jansen.

6. The Hydrographer's Department of the British Admiralty. By H.

PiM, B.A.

FRIDAY, JULY 11.

7. Notes on (a) the geometrical and legal cadastre of immovable

property in the Province of Mozambique; and (b) the possible
application of radio-telegraphy to expeditious geodesy. By
Colonel P. L. de Bellegarde da Silva.

8. Determination of the latitude and longitude of the pillar of the transit

instrument of the Campos Rodrigues Observatory. By Lieut.
A. d'A. Teixeira.

9. Cosmological hypotheses. By R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

10. A few notes on water divining. By W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E,

Section B. — Chemistry, Geology, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
AND Geography.

TUESDAY, JULY 8.

1. The bearing of recent discoveries of early tertiary shells near Trinidad

Island and in Brazil on hypothetical land routes between
South America and Africa. By Miss C. J. Maury, Ph.D.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 9.

2. Address by Prof. R. B. Young, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Presi-

dent of the Section.

3. On a meteorite from N'Kandhla District, Zululand. By Prof. G. H.

Stanley, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M., F.I.C.

SATURDAY, JULY 12.

4. Quinonoid oxidation products of dianisidine. Bv J. MoiR, M.A..

D.Sc.

5. Chemical composition of rain in the Union of South Africa. Bv C. F.

JuRirz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

36 list of papers read at sectional meetings.

Section C. — Bacteriology, Botany, Zoology, Agriculture,.
Forestry, Physiology, Hygiene and Sanitary
Science.

FRIDAY, JULY 11.

1. Notes on coffee growing. By F. de Meirelles.

SATURDAY, JULY is.

2. Address by A. L. M. Bonn. C.E., President of the Section.

3. The relation of sewage flow to water supply. By W. J. Davenport,

4. A nematode worm in the tomato. By Prof. H. A. W.\ger, A.R.C.S.

5. Jubaopsis Caffra Becc. — a new genus of Palmae from Pondoland. By

Prof. R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.
o. Observations on the development of the planula in a certain plumu-
larian hydroid. By Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc.

7. Health conditions on the Isthmus of Panama. By S. Evans.

8. The sugar industry in Mozambique. By J. Munro.

9. The sanitary state of the stock of tlie Lourengo Marques District. By

Lieut. J. B. Botelho.
ID. Notes on the distribution and character of reptiles and amphibians in^
South Africa. By J. Hewitt, B.A.

Section D. — Anthropology, Ethnology, Education, FIistory,
Mental Science, Philology, Political Economy.
Sociology and Statistics.

WEDXESDAY. JULY 9.

1. The Phallus cult among the Bantu. By Rev. J. A. Winter.

FRIDAY, JULY ir.

2. Address by J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I. S., President of the Section.

3. The condition of the natives of Delagoa Bay in the sixteenth century

according to early Portuguese documents. By Rev. H. A.

JUNOD.

4. A decimal coinage for South Africa, Bv Prof. W. A. Macfadven,.

M.A., LL.D.

SATURDAY, JULY 12.

5. The Trade Schools in the Transvaal. By W. J. Horne, A.M.L.C.E,

6. The relation of High Schools to the University Technical College

By W. J. Horne, A.M.I.C.E.

7. On extraneous education. By H. L. Lake.

8. The Humour of estranged Indo-German cognates. By Rev. W. A,

Norton.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 2

Sir. W.fF. H ELY-HUTCH INSON.

SIR W. F. HELY-HUTCHINSON.

G.C.M.G., M.A., LL.D.
{Born 22nd August, 1849. Oied 22)rd September, 1913.)

The decease of the Right Hon. Sir Walter Francis Hely-
Hutchinson, which occurred at l^eterborough on the 23rd Septem-
ber, just a month after the completion of his sixty-fourth year,
causes a gap in the hitherto unbroken series of distinguished
men who have occupied the Presidential chair of the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science.

Sir \\'alter was the second son of the fourth Earl of
Donoughmore. and was born in Dublin on the 22nd August,
1849. He was educated first at Cheam School, and subsequently
at Harrow. He then entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
whence he graduated, and was afterwards called to the bar at
the Inner l>mple. In 1874 the Hon. \\\ F. Hely-Hutchinson,
as he was then styled, entered the diplomatic service as an attache
on the sitaff of Si-r Hercules Robinson (afterwards Lord Ros-
mead), and proceeded in that capacity to Fiji. Sir Hercules
was at the time Governor of New South Wales, and Mr. Helv-
Hutchinson was appointed as his Private Secretary for Fiji
affairs, a post which he vacated in 1875 in order to assume the
more important duties of Private Secretary for New South
Wales affairs. At the age of 28 he was offered and accepted
the Colonial Secretaryship of P>arbadoes. Six vears later, after
a successful term of office in the W^est Indies, Mr. Helv-
Hutchinson liecame Chief Secretary to the Government of
Malta, and in the following year (1884') he was promoted to
the position of Lieutenant-Governor of the island. In 1888 he
was created a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael
and St. ("leorge, and in 1889 Sir AValter Hely-Hutchinson was
transferred, as Governor, to the Windward Islands. After the
lapse of four years he was appointed Governor of Natal, in-
augurating Responsible Government in that Colony, and, two
years after his arrival, effecting the annexation of the Trans-
Pongola territories. It was during his tenure of ofifice in Natal
that his services were further recognised by promotion to the
Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George in 1897, on the
occasion of Queen \^ictoria's Diamond Jubilee. In 1901 Lord
Milner, until then Governor of the Cape Colony, as well as High
Commissioner for South Africa, relinquished the former post,
and proceeded to the Transvaal as Governor of that Colony, then
recentlv annexed to the British Crowm. It was on Lord Milner's
strong recommendation that Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson

38 SIR W. F. HELV-lIUTrniNSON'.

succeeded him' as Governor of the Cape of Crood Hope, and he
discharged the functions of that high office with conspicuous
tact during a time when the most dehcate handling w^as essential.
His term of residence in the Government House at Cape Town
covered a transition period, the nature of which could scarcely
have heen anticipated at its commencement. When tiiat period
was entered upon, the country was being torn asunder by war-
fare and bitterness : at its termination the Union of South Africa
was just on the eve of inauguration, and the enthusiastic send-off
that Sir Walter received from men of all shades of political
opinion, just before his final departure from South Africa, after
seventeen years of gubernatorial service in the country, was the
best possible proof of the wisdom and skill that had characterised
his administration during those troublous years.

Sir Walter had made it his definite pur])ose to exercise
moderation to all men, and to carry amity into every circle
whither he went, and it i'^ difficult to judge whether his tactful
interest, as a townsman, in tlie w^elfare of the agriculturist, or the
facility with which he, as an Englishman, familiarised himself
with the language and habits of the other dominant race in
South Africa, did more t ) win for him the confidence and
esteem of those who, not many years previously, had sympa-
thised, passively or actively, with the forces arrayed against his
vSovereign and country. It may also be said with truth that he
took the utmost pains to make himself acquainted with every
portion of the country that he was appointed to govern, with
every phase of its resources and industries, with every class of
its inhabitants. It has been well remarked that " the country folk
especially liked the entire absence of frigidity or formality that
marked his progresses through the Colony." " ^ly ambition,"
Sir Walter said, shortly after taking office here, " is to get at the
hearts of the people, and when the time comes for me to depart,
J shall be happy if I can feel that you will remember me as a
friend." That was the feeling which animated him consistently
through his occupancy of the Cape Governorship, and he re-
mained true to it during the few subsequent years of his life, as
every possible occasion testified. Presiding over a meeting of
the Royal Society of Arts in May. IQ12, when a lecture on the
subject of " Colonial Vine Ciilture " was being delivered by
Mr. A. H. Burgoyne, M.l\. Sir Walter rather warmly and at
some length expressed his dissent from some of the lecturer's
observations. He hoped that Mr. Burgoyne would excuse him
when he said that if he had been to South Africa, he would have
expressed himself rather differently about the Dutch farmers.
. . . . When discussing South African agriculture, it might
be well to begin by leaving oft' calling the Dutch farmers ignorant
and indolent, because that was a mistake. There were many of
them, no doubt, still open to the charge, but the number was

SIR W. F. HRLY-HUTCHINSON". 39

steadily diminishing, and there were amongst the Dutch farmers
men who were not less progressive in their methods than the
most progressive Britishers. . . . He felt bound to say, in
justice to the South African wine farmers of to-day, that the
presentation of the case with regard to the South African wine
industry in the paper was scarcely fair to them, and he attributed
that, not in any sense to original sin on the part of the author of
the paper, but to the fact that he had never been to South Africa
to see for himself. . . . He had lived in South Africa for
seventeen years, and he knew the failings of the Dutch farmers
and also their \irtues, and they deserved encouragement rather
than blame.

The continued interest in South Africa and its doings which
Sir Water evinced on the occasion just alluded to remained with
him to the end. It is well known that uj) to his death he was a
Director of the Standard Bank of South Africa, and one of his
very last public appearances was at a meeting of the Royal
Colonial Institute on the 13th June, 1913, when, presiding at a
lecture on " the Plumage Bill in relation to the British Em]:»ire,"
he took the opportunity of referring to the pleasure with which
he had on more than one occasion visited the farm of one of the
pioneers of ostrich-breeding in South Africa, Mr. Oscar Evans,
and had inspected the produce of the birds on the farm.

The South African Association for the Advancement of
Science enjoyed the privilege of having Sir Walter Hely-
Hutchinson as its I'resident during the year of its meeting at
Grahamstown, 1908, and in his Presidential Address, on that
occasion, he clearly demonstrated that in making himself
acquainted with the various details of scientific progress in South
Africa, since the days of La Caille and Lichtenstein, he had
exercised the same thoroughness that characterised all that he
undertook in his official life. The main subject of Sir Walter's
address, on that occasion, was the efiforts of science in the matter
of combating disease, an appropriate theme in view of the fact
that at that meeting the first award of the South Africa Medal —
for achievement and promise in. scientific research in South Africa
— was made to Dr. Arnold Theiler, then \^eterinary Bacteriologist
to the Transvaal Government, in recognition of his work in con-
nection with diseases enzootic in South Africa. The close
acquaintance that Sir Walter then showed with the details of
contemporarv scientific advance in the sub-continent, was a reve-
lation even to those who were quite aware of his deep interest in
all the phases of the country's progress, and after that it was no
surprise to find him lamenting that so few of the scientific investi-
gators now working in South Africa were men born in the
country, and urging that it was the obvious duty of South Africa
to afi'ord many more adequate facilities in the direction of pro-

40 SIR W. F. HELV-HUTCHINSON.

viding for the training of its own scientific men. In one of the
closing paragraphs of the presidential address occur some sen-
tences which claim a special interest in view of the decision, at
the following year's meeting, to issue the i\ssociation's Annual
Report of its Proceedings thenceforward in monthly issues, under
the title of The South African JorRXAL of Science. Sir
Walter had been referring to the useful objects which the
Association might serve in co-ordinating the manv and diverse
factors that, in independence of each other, were working in the
interests of scientific advancement. He laid down that the
greatest impulse to that advancement would be derived from
co-operation and union.

Take, for instance [he continncd] the question of scientific publica-
tions. Scientific papers appear in the pubhcations of various and diverse
scientific societies and institutions in South Africa, and here and there in
vari(Ui? Agricultural Journals : manj^ are buried in blue-books, if not mum-
mified in manuscript, and lie (like Mendel's report, which was commu-
nicated to the Krunn Society in i86s, and was lost to view until iQOl),
unnoticed and unread, on dusty shelves. But there is no such thing in
South Africa as a South African Journal of Science, which might serve as a
common channel of ctmimunication between the scientific workers through-
out South Africa, and between them and the general public. It has been
suggested to me that the foundation of such a journal, which is obviously
desirable, would be possible, and that there is no reason why it should
not be successful, if managed on the proper lines. It has occurred to me,
too, in the course of preparing this address, that we ought to possess,
and to publish from time to time (perhaps in the Journal) a summary
record of the names and work of those who have devoted themselves, or
are devoting tliemselves, to scientific investigation in South Africa. . . .
In the matter of scientific development this is relatively a young country;
but we are making history in South Africa, in scientific as in other matters:
and a sunnuary record of scientific work, kept up to date from year to
year by this Association, would be an exceedingly useful work of reference
when the time comes to write it. Admission to the record, if entrance to
it were, as it should be, carefully guarded by those entrusted with the
framing of it, would no doubt be eagerly desired ; and the record itself
would bo not only a pledge of the moral support which the Association is
desirous of affording to the advancement of science, but a considerable
step in tlie direction of systeniatising the work of scientific enquiry.

In these days, when one finds that, in some phases of scien-
tific work, union is even less close than at the time of the South
African Association's (Irahamstovn meeting, when it is, more-
over, asserted that co-operation a.nd co-ordination in such work-
are unnecessary, when it is declared that best results are achieved
when the workers operate as discrete units, the closing words of
Sir Walter'^ presidential address may well be recalled.

There is reason to believe [he said] that in the matter of scientific
enquiry in South Africa there is, and has been, a considerable amount of
duplication, over-lapping, and therefore waste of effort — of repetition of
experiments which would have been unnecessary had the experimenters
been in closer touch with eacli other — had they been working as parts of
one organisation. We hear a great deal in these days of closer union:
and whatever brancli of policy or administration be brought under discus-
sion oiu- conclusion is alwavs arrived at :—" Under some form

SIR w. i-. iii:i.\-nuTciiii\sox. 41

■of closer union, these things could he better arranged." People differ
about what form closer union should take. Sonic differ, even, as to
whether it is possible at all ; but the conclusion is always the same. We
may saj- the same thing about scientific investigation. 1 do not say what
form closer union, as regards scientific investigation, should take. I will
not even commit myself to the statement that it is possible. But I think
you will all agree with me that, under some form of closer union amongst
scientific organisations, scientific enquiry in South Africa could undoubtedly
be carried on more economically and with less waste of effort, than is
possible under existing conditions. By promoting closer union and co-
■operation in scientific matters, the Association will, to quote the words of
its own Constitution, " give a more systematic direction to scientific
enquiry," and will thus do much towards affording to scientific enquiry
in South Africa that " stronger impulse " which, by its Constitution, it
has imdertaken. and bound itself, to provide.

Shortly after hi.s retirement, .Sir Walter was admitted to the
honour of Privy Councillor.sliip, in recognition of his eminent
services to the Empire, particularly while Governor of the Cape
Colony ; and, although it may be foreign to the scope of this
publication to refer to those services in detail, the eulogium
passed upon the departing Governor by the late Mr. Sauer, on
the occasion of his public farewell, may nevertheless be recalled.
" It was not possible," the late Minister of Justice remarked. " to
value too highly the strictly constitutional part which the
'Governor had played in this country."

It may not be generally known that, during his occupation of
'Government House at Cape Town, Sir Walter went to consider-
able trouble in getting together as complete a series of portraits
in oils as could be secured, of all former Governors of the Cape
Colony, from the time of its first settlement. In order to fill up
the gaps in that series the services of artists here and in Europe
were requisitioned, and these were supplied with the most
authentic contemporary prints or other pictures that it was
possible to furnish for the execution of the commissions en-
trusted to them. The result was that a most interesting and
invaluable historical collection has been gained for the country.

JUB^OPSIS CAFFRA BECC. :
A NEW GENUS OF PALMAE FROM PONDOLAND.

By Prof. Rudolf Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.

Some years ago, ^Ir. Charles Ross, then Conservator of
Forests at Umtata, reported the occurrence of a palm which was
quite dififerent from the two known species growing in our south-
eastern coast belt, I'iz., Phccni.v recUnata and Hyphcene crinita.
Some fruits of this palm v/ere sent to Kew, and considered
(possibly) to belong to Cocos Yi7tay. a native of the Argentine
and Southern Brazil. Nothing further was ascertained at tlie
time.

As artificial introduction was out of the question, and as the
palm occurs only in close proximity to the sea, it appeared not
impossible that, originally, ocean currents might have brought the
seeds to our shores. The matter appeared of great scientific in-
terest, for the genus Cocos is, apart from the widely spread Coco
palm, entirely American ; hence I collected as much information
concerning it as possible. Mr. Ross states, in a letter, that the
palm occurs only at the estuaries near the mouths of the Umsi-
kaba and Umtentu Rivers, and at both localities only on the
northern bank, the rivers flowing here nearly due east. It grows
in isolated clumps, and occupies tlie nearly horizontal rock ter-
races (Table Mountain sandstone), which form the shore at this
part of the coast, but not more than lo to 30 feet above the water's
edge.

Tlie locality is very much out of the way, and difficult of
access, but with the assistance of the present Conservator of
Forests at Umtata, Mr. P. T. Doran. 1 finally succeeded in ob-
taining leaves, a young spadix and some spikes of young fruit, as
well as ripe fruits. The material did not agree with the descrip-
tion of the genus Cocos, nor of C. Yafay in particular, and the
director of Kew Gardens, to whom I forwarded a complete set,
passed it on to a specialist, -vie. I^rofessor Beccari, at Florence.
This author replied, that there was no question about its being a
true Cocoinec, but that it represented a new genus, which he
named Jtibccopsis, and the species /. caffra.

Close to the sea the plants are low and bushy, bui a little
further in. the stem reaches a height of 20 feet, with leaves
10 to 15 feet, and panicles up to 5 feet long. Each branch of the
panicle carries 30 to 40 twigs, which are thickly covered with
clusters of fruits. The ripe fruit is orange yellow, i^ inches in
diameter, with a scanty fibrous pericarp; the stone is nearlv
globular. 1 1-5 inch, in diameter, the longitudinal section slightlv

JUByEOPSIS CAFFRA BECC. 43

conical in its lower half; i-seeded, and the weight 12 to 14
grammes. The three germinating holes are arranged near the
equator of the stone, not near the base as in Cocos. The nearly
allied Jubcca. which comprises a single species (Chili), has an
elongated, somewhat 3-side(l stone. The endosperm is hollow, of
a sweetish taste, resembling that of the coco-nut ; the embryo is
lateral.

The Native name of the p^\m is ' inkomba," while that of
Phoenix rcclinata is " lisundu."

A curious fact in connection with this palm is mentioned by
Professor Beccari, znz., that there is an illustration in " Martins,
Hist. Nat. Palmarum " (plate 164) whicii is supposed to repre-
sent Pha-niv reclinata, but obviously belongs to another species.
Up to the time of receiving my material that illustration had been
a puzzle to him, as no such palm was known, but now he recog-
nised that it is evidently our plant. Nothing, however, is known
about the original from which the drawing was made. Some
collector must have sent specimens to Europe before. Was it,
perhaps, J. F. Drege? He visited the neighbourhood of both
localities in 1832, but in the list of his collections from Pondoland
no other palm, besides the two common kinds, is mentioned.

Jubcropsis caffra is another addition to the fairly long list of
phy to-geographical problems which South Africa offers, for, as
far as known, and apart from the Coco palm, it is the only repre-
sentative of the sub-tribe in Africa, and its nearest ally, Jubcra
spectabilis, the only species of that genus, inhaljits the West Coa.st
of South America (Chili).

As this is such a rare and highly interesting plant, it would
be very desirable that it should be soon introduced into cultiva-
tion, and 1 hope that the Durban garden, as well as the new
National Botanic Garden at Kirstenbosch, will see to that without
delay.

A Neiv Oil-yielding Tree from Lourenco
Marques. — In the Kcw Bulletin, 1913, No. 4. p. 131, it i:^
announced that a tree which grows in profusion in the Lourenco
Marques district has been identified as belonging to an un-
described species of Balanites (Simarnbacecc). It produces a
fruit whose kernel is highly oleaginous, yielding at least 60 per
cent, of a fine oil perfectly stiitable for alimentary, lubricating
or manufacturing purposes. The species is described under the
name Balanites Maiighaniii. In the Madanda forest the tree is
known by the native name of Maudnro. It is doubted whether
the fruit will prove economically capable of export, as the kernel
is, enclosed in a thick filirous shell, which would, moreover, first
have to be extracted from the sugary pulp surrounding it. The
oil is a clear, yellow liquid, williout proirounced taste or smell.

STAR POSITIONS AND GALACTIC CO-ORDINATES.

By Robert T. A. Innrs, F.R.A.S.

The Galactic circle, the great circle to which the course of the Via
Lactea most nearly conforms. Every subject has its technical or conven-
tional terms, by whose use circumlocution is avoided and ideas rendered
definite. This circle is to sidereal what the invariable ecliptic is to
planetary astronomy, — a plane of ultimate reference, tlie ground-plane of
the sidereal system." — Sir J. Herschel, " Outlines of Astronomy," 1849,
P- 533-

in nearly every case concerning the inotions of the heavenly
bodies, the astronomer has to refer their places to the centre 01
the Stm ; so that if an observer could be heliocentric, much labour
of reduction would be saved. Let us trv and ima.a:ine how a
heliocentric observer, with all our notions upon astronomy, would
start to work. His first object would be to form a catalog^ue of
the stars, and to do so, he would have to decide on the planes of
reference to which their places should be referred. If a terres-
trial friend shoidd sug^g-est that the jjlane of the Earth's equator
should be the fttndamental plane, and that the direction of the
intersection of the Earth's orbit with its equator should be the
initial point, I think our heliocentric astronomer would be sur-
prised. He mig^ht say : '" but both the Earth's orbit and its equator
are changing constantly, and the stars are virtually fixed ; would
I not by choosing such co-ordinates involve myself in endless cal-
culations? Why should I not choose soine plane and starting
point nearly invariable and related in .some way to the stars ? "
The terrestrial astronomer could only reply that his predecessors
used the Earth's equator, etc, and that the theory of meridian
instruments which they used was based on the fact that the Earth
rotates. But what, the heliocentric astronomer might ask, has
the Earth's rotation to do with the places of the stars; would not
the stars .still be in their places if the Earth ceased to rotate?
Why not fix the jilaces of your stars by photography? It gives
results more precise than any meridian instrument, and from
these precise places, yoti may. if vou wish, find out the positions
of the Earth's equator and orbit ; l)irt do not mix y(mr ideas, and
put the cart before the horse !

How is it that sidereal astronomy has got so involved? I
think the difttculty grew^ in this way: Precise astronomv com-
menced about 1750. It is interesting to note that the oldest
catalogue that the astronomer keeps on his working shelf is for
the epoch 1750. and was compiled from Lacaille's observations
made in Strand Street. Capetown, with a ^-inch telescope.
The other star catalogues between 1750 and 1800 are due to the
labours of Bradley, Mayer, and Laiande. But the work of
these four astronomers is remarkable in this, that although they

STAR POSTTIONS ANl") (lALACTIC CO-ORDIN' ATES. 4?

made the obser\ations, thev did not reduce tlieni. The prison-
house of variable rigfht ascensions and declinations was not yet
readv. But early in the nineteenth century. IJessel g^ot all into
shipshape order. Bessel's aptitude for rll the problems of
spherical astroncunv was marvellous, so that to a subject which
seemed unwield>- in its chunsiness. he managed to fit formulas
of — when the complexitv of the subject is considered — remark-
able neatness. The relief was so threat that astronomers accepted
the fetters gleefulh'. Bessel's star-reduction numbers, which are
published in ever\- astronomical ephemeris. provide for the
aberration of light, nutation in latitude and longitude, and the
precession of the equinoxes. Tlius encouraged, astronomers soon
reduced the observations of I.acaille. Bradley, Mayer, and
Lalande to mean epochs. So long as the stars concerned are
not ver\- near the ])oles of rlie rotating- sky and the period does
not exceed one century, the precession formulae are not too un-
wieldy, one has to calculate for both right ascension and
declination the first term of the precession, which will be multi-
plied by / the time elapsed, then the secular variation which is
to be multii)lied bv f^/200, then the third term of the precession,
•which will be midtiplied l)v t^. Tt is true that for many thousands
of stars these precessional terms are already calculated, and all
that remains is for the user of a catalogue to do the multiplica-
tions by t, t-/200 and t^. But the labour of making all these
calculations is prodigious, and it is all done to impress an
imaginary motion to the fixed stars. This motion makes it
difficult to compare the places of stars in dififerent catalogues.
Thus we have in catalogues the following positions of e Orion: —

Catalogue. Epoch.

Lalande 1800

Brit. Assoc 1850

Cape 1900

indicating change in one century of

R.A. + 5m. 4.70s. Dec^ + 4' 30.7".

whereas the real movement of the star in that time has only been
11.66" in all,- — the rest is fictitious.

The use of the moving or equatorial co-ordinates of Right
Ascension and Declination is inevitable for some purposes, such
as in determining the places of the Sun, the interioi planets
Mercury and \'enus. and the clock-stars; for finding with an
equatorial telescope, rough equatorial co-ordinates such as can
be read off a good star map by inspection are all that are required.
Why should we, therefore, impose moving co-ordinates on
millions of fixed stars because we require moving co-ordinates
for the Sun and a few |)lancts and clock stars?

R. A.

h.

m. s.

Dec.

5

26 3.66

-1°

20'

'>'T ■->'

.S

28 36.22

-I

18

"6:5

5

31 ^8-36

-I

15

.S6.5

46 STAR POSITIONS AND GALACTIC CO-ORDINATES.

I think that the reason astronomers have kept to moving
co-ordinates was a beHef that the use of Galactic Co-ordinates,
to coin a term suggested not only by the nature of the problem,
but by Sir John Plerschel, would lead to formulae of even gf.reater
complexity than those given by Bessel. When I proposed the
use of Galactic Co-ordinates, a well-known astronomer wrote me
that the idea was attractive, but that no one would look further
unless numerical examples showing how it worked in practice
were forthcoming. I must confess, than when I took up this
challenge I was not too confident that the f ormulje would work ;
in the result I was agreeably surprised, — the resulting expressions
even in the most disadvantageous cases are hardly longer than
the old methods, and in all others they are shorter and sometimes
very much shorter. If this was the only gain, it would be con-
siderable, but the real gain is behind this, the positions furnished
by the Galactic Co-ordinates are final, comparisons betwixt star
catalogues will become immediate. To work out a proper
motion of a star to-day is hours, if not days, of work, because
of the fictitious movements impressed upon it ; with galactic co-
ordinates, the comparison will be the work of minutes, and will,
moreover, yield the proper motion referred to its natural i)lafie.

One cannot but regret that in planning the great Carte-du-
Ciel the advantages of a proper system of co-ordinates were
ignored. Let us look at the difficulty which the system adopted
leads to. To take, as an example, the Cape Cartc-du-Ciel
Catalogue, we learn from Mr. Hough's last report that it will fill
eleven quarto volumes and give the positions of about 990,000
stars in all. At the same rate the complete sky Cartc-du-Ciel
catalogues will furnish the places of some 13,500,000 stars.
These are all to be referred to the mean equator and mean equinox
of 1900. If the catalogue is repeated, as is the implied intention
in another century (or less as I hope), and it is referred to its
mean epoch, any comparison between the two catalogues will be
extremely laborious because the efifect of precession on the so-
called standard co-ordinates is com])lex. But let us assume that
instead of i3-i million stars there are only 8 million catalogued,
and that each star can be effectively compared in ten minutes of
time, then the complete comparison will occupy one man's full
time for 555 years, and at the moderate salary of £200, cost
i 110,000. I fear that there is a danger here in that the Cartc-du-
Ciel scheme is strangling itself so far as useful work goes by
adding so enormously to its load of inertia. Had the places been
referred to the galactic system by the u.se of galactic plate centres
and secular co-ordinates, comparisons would be practically
instantaneous. There is, however, a saving clause : when the
Cartc-du-Ciel scheme was started in the 1880-1890's, astronomers
tacitly assumed (forgetting Proctor's work) that each star moved
on its own— was an individuality distinct from its neighbouring
stars — an assumption engendered by the known motions of the

STAR POSITIONS AM) CAr.ACTK CO-ORDI N ATKS. 47

brig-hter stars then most studied ; to-dav it is known that stars
are travelling- in comniunities, and that the number of these com-
munities is not large, that the>', perhaps, can be counted on the
fingers of one hand, but it would not matter if there were i.ooo
communities — it is much easier to deal with i .000 communities
than with 13,500,000 individuals; and it is also known that the
number of large or erratic i)roper motion stars is very re-
strained. Hence, the real vahie of the Cartc-dit-Cicl consists in
its photographs or their enlargements; in fact, in the Cartc-du-
Cid and not in the places of stars derived from it. F.xamination
of these Cartes taken at different dates bv means of superposition
and projection in an enlarging lantern or l)v a blink-apparatus
(as made by Messrs. Zeiss) will at a glance discriminate those
stars which are moving " out of communitA- '" ; measures of these
and of a fciv of those moving " in communit\- " will give all the
information as to these motions whicli is rc(|uired. r>y this
means, instead of measuring on an average 300 stars per square
degree, about eight or nine will suffice. The saving from this
point of view alone is forty-fold.

A superficial criticism is that the galactic plane is not rigidly
marked on the sky. Rut is the equator? The former is defined
l>y the galactic latitudes of the .stars at the chosen epoch, and at
later epochs by such latitudes as will reduce the totalitv of proper
motions f freed from the effect of motion of the solar system) to
a minimum. To this plane must be referred the equator and
equinox of the Earth, and not vice-versa. In the future.' .star
places will be determined solely by photographv. but to-dav we
are in a transition i^eriod and one of rivalrv. P.ut where the
ultimate victory will be is not uncertain. If we look over Boss's
Preliminary Star Catalogue, we see that with hundreds of
observations spread over a century, we m^\ hope to know such
a well observed star's place as determined with meridian instru-
ment with an accuracy of about -j- 0.05" at the centre of gravity
of the observations or of o.i" forty vears afterwards, f^rofessor
Kapteyn. in measuring photographs of the Hyades Group of Stars
fGroningen Publications, \o. 14). finds an accuracv as great
from one set of plates, whilst ^Nlr. F. Slocurn. in measuring the
parallax of Nova Gemini (2), finds a probable error of -f" 0.007"
from observations spread over less than one vear. Tt might be
objected that the photographic measures are differential
measures, which are always more accurate than absolute
measures, but it is probable that these differential photographic
measures can be continued around the skv in belts and the trian-
gulations closed with all possible accuracv. At the present time
Professor H. PT Turner is trying various methods of finding the
absolute places of stars by photography at the University Obser-
vatory at Oxford. The results so far obtained are encouraging,
but as might be expected with any new method, various difificul-
ties arise and have to be combated. It is. however, quite
doubtful if the probable error of a well-observed meridian star

48 STAR POSITIONS AND GALACTIC CO-ORDINATES.

above given -f- 0.05" means anything, because, after all, it depends
Oti the position of the equinox, a very elusive point indeed.

I have laid the advantage of using ( ialactic Co-ordinates
before astronomers in Circulars Xos. 2, 5 and 6, issued by the
Union Observatory. In Circular No. 2 the necessarv formulae
are developed, and tables given for the conversion of mean
equatorial co-ordinates to invarial>le galactic co-ordinates for any
year from 1750 to 1950, with a special table for the conversion
of true equatorial co-ordinates to invariable galactic co-ordinates
or ricc-Tcrsa for the current \'ear igi^. The processes are illus-
trated 1)v numerical examples. The most thorough investigation
•of the position of the Cialactic Plane was made by' Newcomb, and
published in [904 under the title '" On the f^oslfion of the Galactic
and other Principal Planes tozvards -ichich the Stars tend to
crowd." Unfortunately the ])rincipal galactic ])lane cannot be
found verv preciselv because the Milk\- W'av i'. a verv irregular
aggregation of stars, throwing out wisps and branches, whilst the
zone of brightest stars is considerablv inclined to it. Xewcomb
gives the following poles : —

R.A. Dec.

Galactic Plane (omitting branch) .. .. 192.8° +27.2°
Galactic Plane (including branch ) .. .. 191. i 26.8

Plane of fifth type stars '<p.9 26.7

It is known that star> of the hfth type (bright line spectra)
are all close to the princijial ])lane, but their number is small. It
has further been assumed that the solar system is in the principal
plane. But it is not a matter of great importance if the assumed
position of the plane is in error so long as it is nearly correct,
as any small error can easily be allowed for when the progress of
astronomy requires. The total change in many thousands of
years will certainly be less than tlie change in all the present
star-catalogues every fifty years caused by the fictitious precession
of the stars. Besides the position of the plane, it is necessary
to adopt a departure point from which longitudes are to be
counted, and it is obvious that this must be a fixed point. The
point actually chosen is that one which in this age will make
the longitude of the apex of solar motion, — the direction to-
wards which the Sun is moving — equal to o'^. This point is
chosen because a considerable portion of the proper motions of
the stars is actually due to the solar motion through space, and
it renders the efifect of this motion in a uniform manner, in that
generally all proper motions so far as they are caused by the
Sun's motion, tend towards 180' of galactic longitude. Here,
again, a compromise has had to be made, because the apex of solar
motion depends on the class of stars to which it is referred. I
have adopted for 1900 the position of the apex recommended bv
Dr. Campbell, of the Lick Observatory, namely. R.A. i8h.
Dec. -f- 30"^. and for the plane. Newcomb's determination includ-
ing the branch, so that we have

Ascending node

281° 6' 0.00"

' +

4413-57"

T

Inclination

63 12 0.00

+

1967.18

7"

Departure Point

23 35 27.26

+

432.40

r

STAR POSTTION.S AiND GALACTU CO-ORDINATES. 49

- 6.88" 7"-' + 0.186" 73

- 4.56 7- - 0.145 T^

\- 22.46 7'-' - 0.128 73

in which 7 indicates solar centuries after k)00, assimiing as
correct Newconib's variations of the Earth's equator and orbit.

In Circular No. 5 the advantages of using a fixed system of
co-ordinates in planetary theories is insisted on, and for this
fixed .system there is no reason why the Galactic system should
not be used. If anything, the simplifications which would thus
be introduced into the planetary theories, are more considerable
than those already dealt with. At its simplest, the motions of
planets and comets are complicated, but this comi)lication is
vastly increased by adding on to their motions — both in their
orbits and of their orbits — other imaginary motions, as is done
at present.

In Circular Xo. 6 it is shown that if even a precise daily
ephemeries of a star in equatorial co-ordinates is required —
which appears to be the most unfavourable case for the use of
galactic co-ordinates — one can be easily and rapidly computed
without any knowledge of the star's imaginary mean right ascen-
sion and declination. As an example, an ephemeris of f Orion
is computed for the current year ( 1913 ).

Astronomers have been quite aware of the awkwardness of
referring the stars and planets to rapidly-shifting planes, and
some attempts to get over the chief difficulties have been made.
Thus the late Dr. Ristenpart proposed that the equinox should
be changed every 25 years, and he would call 1875, 1900, 1925,
etc., normal equinoxes. He has published tables for the normal
equinox of 1925. His idea would save some work, but not
much — it is, in short, only a palliative. The astronomical
ephemerides do something in the same direction. As an
example, I will deal with the issue for 191 5 of the celebrated
Connaissance des Tciuj^s, which, as it proudly boasts, is the
oldest astronomical almanac now published, as it first appeared
in 1679, and has never suffered an interruption ; besides this, it
has always been brought up to date so punctually that it might
also claim to be the youngest. For the Sun, the Connaissance
des Temps furnishes the longitude and latitude for date, and
for the mean equinoxes and ecliptics of 1915 and icyzo — three
where one would do. Similarly for the planets the heliocentric
co-ordinates are referred to the Earth's true equinox and ecliptic
of date and the mean equinox and ecliptic of 1920. Eor 732
minor planets the Gaussian Constants and their variations are
given. It seems illogical to speak of constants varving — thev
really do not do so — nevertheless, 4,392 annual variations are
specially comj)uted for 191.S. If galactic co-ordinates had been
introduced, it is only three annual variations that would have

50 STAR POSITIONS AND GALACTIC CO-ORDINATES.

been required — a saving- of 4,.^8q out of 4,^i)2. Lastly, for the
stars the elements of reduction are given for the mean equinox
and equator of 1915, and also for 1920. And when one has got
to 1920, the labour of Sisyphus will still go on. but the mountain
gets a little steeper each time.

DiCOMA Anomala— The Pluiniutcrutical Joiinial. No.
2.587, p. 694, contains a communication from Messrs. Tutin and
Naunton. of the Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories,
London, in regard to their investigation of the plant Dicoma
anomala Sond. belonging to the Composita:. Smith, in his
"South African Materia Medica." refers to it as possessing a
reputed medicinal value, the powdered root being administered in
cold water as a remedy for colic. The leaves are intensely
bitter. The authors extracted from the plant a colourless crys-
talline glucoside, possessing the formula C ^H.^^h Oit, as far as
could be ascertained, for the quantity available did not pennit
of its composition being definitely established. This glucoside
was obtained from the water-soluble portion of an alcoholic
extract of the entire air-dried plant, l-'rom the portion of the
extract which was insoluble in water, and which formed a
resinous mass, an amorphous alkaloid was obtained in small
quantity, the hydrochloride of which was a brownish amor-
phous substance, and nothing definite was obtained therefrom.
The resin yielded Hentriacontane, palmitic, stearic, and other
acids, and a phytosterol of composition C28H46O, differing in
composition from the more commonly occurring members of that
class, and apparently a lower homologue of stigmasterol.

Utilitarianism and Research. — Prof. E. H.
(Griffiths, F.R.S., in his presidential address to the Educational
section of the British Association, empiiasised the practical
value, to the working-man, of scientific research. The price of
his meat, he pointed out, was closely connected with refrigera-
tion methods founded on Joule and Thomson's researches ; the
purity of his beer was similarly connected with Pasteur's work.
The collier owes his safety to Sir Humphry Davy, the driver
of the electric tram his position to Faraday. The steel-worker
is under obligation to Bessemer and Nasmyth for employment,
the telegraphist to Volta and Wheatstone, the wireless operator
to Hertz. The wounded soldier has the bullet extracted by
the aid of Rontgen, the sailor achieves his " landfall " by help of
mathematicians and astronomers; his compass and sounding
line are due to Kelvin, his bright beacon lights to Tyndall.
Practically all wage-earners are under obligation to Lister. If
voters realised that their security, comfort and health are the
fruits of scientific research, those in authority, instead of being
indififerent to, or opposing research, would enthusiastically
encourage it. Fu'st educate the man in the street, and then,
hardest task of all. the legislator may possibly be educated.

ROOT KNOT IN THE TOMATO.

Bv Professor Hokac f. Athet,stax Wager, A.R.C.Sc.

The life history of the Nematode worm Hcterodcra radicaJc
causing this disease in America has been fully worked out by
Ernest Bessey, but the results of my own observations on a
similar disease in the Transvaal — notably in the Tomato — appear
to ditfer somewhat markedly from his account, so that I am
doubtful if the Transvaal species is quite the same. It has been
thought that the worm has been introduced into South Africa
from America, but it is more probable that the worm is in-
digenous, as it has been found on uncleared and uncultivated land.
However, it is easy to see how the worm could be disseminated if
once introduced, as small quantities of soil containing the worm
are easily carried from one place to another by the hoofs of
animals, cart-wheels, etc. The list of infected plants in America
contains now over 500 names, whereas the South African species
appears to show preference for only a few hosts, having a re-
luctance to attack others. 1 have grown likely hosts quite close
to badly-infected Tomato plants without the slightest trace of
infection appearing. In the Transvaal it forms a most destruc-
tive pest on Tobacco, it being impossible to grow Tobacco in some
districts. It is practically impossible to cure or prevent the
disease, at an}' rate without great expense. The worm evidently
lives in the soil, and enters the root, causing the disease, which
shows itself on the serial portions of the plant at any time, but
usually just as the fruit is ripening. Pathologically, however, I
do not consider it as a disease, but as an animal pest which so in-
terferes with the work of the root as to finally kill the plant. The
symptoms of the attack in the Tomato appear to be as follows : —
The whole plant becomes covered with a soft down of small
white hairs, especially on the young shoots and young fruits,
giving the plant a whitish appearance not unlike that due to a
mildew fungus. The young shoots soon become stunted, the
leaves begin to curl and shrivel up, and the fruit ripens very
slowly. The plant eventually comes to consist of bare stems with
a few green fruits still attached.

The significance of the w-hite down on the leaves appears to
be explained by an efifort of the plant to correlate the transpira-
tion with the lessened amount of moisture absorbed by the
attacked roots. The roots of most of the attacked plants are
found to be beset with numerous swellings, probably true galls.
These vary in size from about i mm. on the small rootlets to
large warty continuations on the thicker roots. At first they are
hard, but soon they begin to rot, and become soft and pulpy.
Some attacked plants show no galls, although the presence of the
worm in the root can be demonstrated. The plants do not seem
at all able to ofifer any resistance after once being attacked, as

ROOT KNOT IN THE TOMATO.

the cuttino; back of the plants never seems to invig-orate them.
Tlie worm itself is thireadlike, white, slig'htlv flattened, and varies
in length from about 300 to .SOO/i, and shows fine cnticular rings.
The oral end is slightly tapering and rounded, but the tail end
tapers to a sharp hyaline point. The American species is g^iven
as being over i mm. in length and the tail end rounded. T
have found no signs of moulting as described for the American
species. In this species there is therefore no stage that can be
considered as a larval stage. There are no sj^ines on the tail —
which is perfectly smooth — so that identification is rather difificult.
and there is no definite bend in the tail to distinguish the male.
There is apparently no difference between the male and female
in the Aoung stage, but a difference soon appears, probably after
fertilisation has taken place. The female is then seen to be wider,
with more granular contents, a more blunt tail, and shows the
genital pore in the middle. It then takes up a permanent position
in the root, and the gall swellings made of i)arenchyma are pro-
duced by the plant. It slowly changes its shai)e, becoming wider
and wider, and finally flask-shaped, the tissue of the gall being
dissolved or absor1)ed to make room for it. In this way the gall
has scattered through it small spherical spaces made of the female
bodies. These spaces can be seen with the naked eye as small
whitish circular patches of about -J mm. in iliameter when a gall
is cut across. There is no definite lining to the spaces, but a more
or less dense rind of parenchyma is found around each. Occa-
sionally a clear lining can be seen around a young space, which i>
probably the wall of the female body, but this soon disappears.

The neck of the worm also gradually disappears and eggs begin'
to make their appearance in the rounded portion until each space

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 3.

Si^^0

1. Root of tomato showing gall formation. 2 and 3. Photomicrographs of t.s. of gall,
showing nests of eggs. 4. Section of gall, showing eggs.

Prof. H. A. WAGER.— Root Knot in the Tomato.

ROOT KNOT IN THE TOMATO. 53

becomes a nest of very numerous eggs. There is thus no layin^^
of eggs at the rate of lO to 15 per day as described in the Ameri-
can species. The eggs are oval at both ends, with straight sides,
and about 70 to 80 fi long, never 90 fi, and about two and a half
times longer than wide. 1 have never found any slightly curved.
At first they show granular contents with a clear cell wall, but
soon the young worm can be seen coiled up inside, each worm
having three bends. In most Nematodes of this type this con-
dition is the larval stage, the egg having developed a kind of
mouth at one end, but in this worm, as stated above, there appears
to be no larval stage, the eggs developing directly into the young
worms. All the eggs hatch at about the same time, so that some
nests show a squirming mass of young worms. After hatching,
the worms appear to increase very little in size, and certainly no
moulting stages have been observed. At this stage the gall begins
tu rot away, so that the young worms and probably eggs them-
selves are set free into the neighbouring parenchyma and soil,
and in this way other plants may become infected. It is possible
that the worms actually live in the soil as well as in the plant, and
only enter the plant for hatching or breeding purposes. The
swellings on the roots would thus be true galls. Most of the
worms seen in a gall would therefore have been bred on the
plant, and more galls are produced by further breeding. The
galls are probably not produced until the females begin to take up
their permanent positions. That is why some infected i^lants have
no galls on the roots. Infectioi'i obviously takes place in the first
instance from the soil, so that the eggs and even the worms them-
selves must have great powers of endurance. I have had some
infected plants under observation which I have just kept alive
through the winter. I have repeatedly found the worm present
on the roots but no sign of galls. It is difficult to decide upon
the kind of injur}' effected by the worm, as I have many plants
in the last stages of attack without any sign of galls. From
infected roots kept in water for three weeks living worms have
been obtained, as also after repeated drying and wetting. I have
had the pest under observation now for nearly two years, and
have not yet succeeded in infecting other plants, although the
pest has been recorded from South Africa as occurring on Celery,
Lettuce, Radish, Potato, and some others.

WeSTPHAL'S Comet. — The periodic comet first dis-
covered by W'estphal, in 1852, was found on September 26th by
Delavan at La Plata, and was then about the eighth magnitude.
Its perihelion occurs on November 26th, and on December 3rd
its right ascension will be 20 h. 38' 16", and its north declination
42° 33'. That is to say, it will be in the neighbourhood of
a Cgyni, moving in a northerly direction. It is expected to be
faintly visible to the naked eye at perihelion. The period of
revolution of this comet is 61.12 years.

THE RET.ATIOX OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TIIE
UNIVERSITY TECHNICAL COLLEGE.

Bv \\'tllt.\m Iamf.s Horne. A.M.I.C.E.

The necessity for brevity in the title of a paper may cause
the title I have chosen for thi^ one to he slightly misleading. I
wish to iirs^e the necessity for expanding^ the science side of the
high school in the Transvaal to cover something more than merely
the preparation of the pupil for a pass in science at matriculation.
I want to suggest that the existing pronounced trend of the edu-
cation and culture given in these schools towards the literary and
legal professions should he paralleled bv an equallv pronounced
trend towards the engineering profession and those professions
allied to it.

T am moved to this mainly through a paper by Mr. Norman
Harrison, Chief Engineer to the General Post Office, read before
the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers early this
year, in wlr'ch a most pessimistic note was struck, as far as the
ability of the .South African young man to take entire charge of
anv engineering scheme of some magnitude is concerned. His
main point was that rarely in this country does the engineer take
his proper place at the head of the business ; that he is usually
there purely in the capacity of a technical adviser, whilst some
other officer controls who has no technical knowledge whatever;
that, in fact, " the engineer is lacking in business capacity " — in
other words, " he is lacking in the commercial application of
scientific knowledge." He goes on to say, with reference to
facilities offered by certain Government Departments to a few
selected }-ouths. that he is afraid that

the general and commercial education of these boys is not such as
\\ ill tend to bring the matter to a successful issue, having in mind that we
are aiming at providing the engineers of the future. No doubt many of
these boys have received a very fair education, some may be exceptionally
v\ ell trained along technical lines ; but I am very doubtful that they have
received that broad and liberal training which should underlie the technical
education of every professional man.

As the considered o]>inion of a highly-placed engineer, it
appears to me worthy of profound attention, as reflecting a cer-
tain amount of experience gained in this country. Here I may
digress to point out that engineers, as a body, appear singularly
loth to bring forward their experience in such matters, probably
because the magnitude and intricacy of their own profession en-
genders a healthy respect for the, to them unknown, difficulties of
the teaching profession ; a frame of mind to which the attention
of many amateur educationists might w^ell be drawn. Thus, I am
unacquainted with any South African papers on this subject
between the one I am now citing and the address of Professor
Orr, given, nearly five years ago. as President of the then Trans-
vaal Institute of Mechanical Engineers, in which he dealt in opti-

RELATION OF HIGH SrHOOI.S TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 55

mistic vein with the training- of the future engineer in the
technical college of University rank and in the commercial works.
To that part of the training I do not refer, except briefly: I wish
to confine my remarks to the " general education " — to the
foundation for that " broad and liberal training " to which Air.
Harrison has referred.

It is necessary, for the sake of the uninitiated, to be clear as
to what is not implied in the main when the term " engineer " is
used by a professional expert ; it does not mean the trade of
engine-driving nor that of a tradesman working in the fitting and
erecting shops of an engineering works ; the first is an engine-
driver, and the second is a fitter or engineer's mechanic. Again,
the switch-board attendant in an electric power station is not an
electrical engineer. A plumber is not a sanitary engineer, nor is a
builder an architect. The steel-worker erecting the steel work of
bridges and re-inforced concrete buildings is not a civil engineer
any more than is the mason building the stone dam of a reservoir.
The confusion in the lay mind, which, as a rule, does not distin-
guish between the profession and the trade branches into which
it has come to be divided, is probably due to the fact that it is
necessary for the professional engineer to have spent a certain
number of years at the practice of the trade: this is exceedingly
necessary in the mechanical and electrical engineering professions
and, to a less extent, in the profession of a civil engineer. In
this respect the engineering profession differs from the profession
of an architect, who is not usually expected to have worked at the
trade of builder.

The engineer, broadly speaking, is recjuired

to design the organisation, determine tlie policy, select the personnel,
control the finance and supervise the work done in his business.

This means organising efficiency, a commercial grip on aft"airs. the
ability and tact to deal with one's fellow men in every social
grade, together with the highest training in the technics of his
profession. The function of the L'niversity technical college is
the training in technics ; if its atmosi)here is right, it will continue
to call forth those personal attributes which are specially neces-
sary to the success of the engineer as a profess'onal man, and the
foundation for which must have been laid in the engineer-
student's scliool life. It is here that the high school plays a rnost
important i)art. with responsibilities as great as those in connec-
tion with the i)reliminary training for any other learned profes-
sion. Sir J. ]. Thompson has ablv summarised what is required
in the education of an engineer; it

ought to be so framed as to develop those qualities which will make him
in the best sense of the word a man of the world ; to make him a man of
wide S3'mpathies and interests. These qualities are more likely to develop
by a training which includes a considerable study of literature than one
which is severely restricted to scientific or technical subjects.

56 RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TFXHNICAL COLLEGE.

There are other claims for literary studies proper ; it is
advantag-eous that the eno^ineer should discern not only what is
commercially possible, but what is artistically impossible ; that
cheapness and nastiness often o[o hand-in-hand. Also cultural
studies which prevent a man beings a pri^ keep him likewise from
becoming a beast; the rational enjoyment of leisure is of import-
ance to the eng-ineer, since he is often lonely in a distant country
with a vicious climate; the man who can master a g-ood book is
master of himself. Thus the hig'her technical education must not,
in i)ractice, no matter how good it may be in theory, aim at pro-
ducing a finished and specialised animal instead of a plastic, well-
informed and broad-minded man. It is no more possible to pro-
duce a useful specialist in turbines, wireless telegraphy, or anv
other branch of engineering at the age of 22 than it is to produce
a first-class brain, ear, or eye specialist. The latter would be
counted ludicrous, but the former is often expected.

It is doubtful whether a successful engineering education for
a community can ever be adequately covered by any set pro-
gramme or syllabus. Within certain limits the man of superior
ability and the necessary common sense, who essays to earn his
livelihood in one or other branch of the engineering profession,
will do so, no matter how poor or how unorthodox his preliminary
training may have been. Given sufficient incentive, the world
will always produce its Stephensons, Watts, Trevithicks, Kelvins,
Nasmyths, Ericssons. Corlisses, Simenses and llolleys. We can,
however, widen the limits of possibility and remove the handicap
of an insufficient educational foundation by providing some better
scheme than has hitherto obtained. There is another very cogent
reason for all this, and one which did not exist in the days of
these earlier inventors whom I have named, that is, international
competition. A colonial possession is more open to the clever
foreigner than the older countries. Thus, if it be desirable that
we train our own young men ourselves for the highest posts that
the engineering profession has to offer, it is essential that both
high school and university technical college should keep educa-
tional pace with not only British institutions but with Continental
ones in addition.

The warning has been sounded by engineers themselves in
no uncert--in way. In November, i<^)Ot,, the Institute of Civd
Engineers, London, ajjpointed a special committee " To consider
and report ... as to the best method of training .
Engineers." A summary of the recommendations made bv that
Committee, as far as concerns the preliminarv or prej^aratorv edu-
cation necessary for engineers, is given later on.* Again, we have
another warning in the recommendations of the Im|)erial Con-
ference on Technical Instruction held at Berlin in igio. We

* Report : Education and Training of Engineers. Proceedings : Insti-
tute of Civil Engineers. Volume CLXVI, part iv, 1905-1906, page 159.

RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 57

have practical warnings all around us : how is it that our best
telephone systems are of Swedish origin? Why is our best motor-
car engine of Continental make ? What is the reason for the fact
that the best mathematical treatises on steelwork for buildings
and the new svstem of re-inforced concrete are by ( ierman and
Norwegian engineers ?

Air. Dooley. philosopher, answers, " it is education that
makes the nation " ; let us get to the necessary education. The
high school must increase the breadth and depth of its curriculum
in order to allow the University technical college to maintain its
proper status among the highest technical institutions of other
countries. Before I go on to consider how a beginning in this
direction can be made in South Africa, let me refer to an attitude
of mind very common to us. 1 again quote Professor Sir J. J.
Thomson : —

The training tliat is wanted is one that will train the boy to think
about things, one that will train him so that he will get the whole weight
of his mind upon the problem he is tackling. If he has got this power,
then it is not a matter of primary importance as to what may have been
the nature of the studies by which he has attained it. A boy who has this
power is far more likely to make a good engineer, even though his training
has been wholly classical, than one without it, even though he has studied
the whole gamut of sciences.

The attitude of mind to which 1 refer is that the classical
education already existing is sufficient for our purpose. Such an
argument, of course, ignores Professor Thomson's preliminary
hypothesis about the existence of the power to think about things :
also it would make no provision for the brain without a bent to
classics, and which might be groping in the dark for expression ;
again, it groups the brilliant and the mediocre together, probably
with more harm to classics than to technics. The better plan is to
give a boy a general education mainly literary up to certain age
— the age really depends upon the boy — watch him closely when
this time arrives, and then continue his education according to
his bent. It, therefore, follows that an applied mathematics and
science side must be added to the present high school system.
Such an addition is indicated in the following resolution of the
Conference on Technical Education called by the Alinister for
Education, the Honourable F. S. Alalan, in 191 1, at Pretoria: —

That .... in the opinion of this Conference the main entrance
to a technical university course should be through the science side of the
■ordinary high school or equivalent institution.*

I have now to quote the highest British authority I know con-
cerning the preparatory education of the engineer — the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers, England— from the report of their Com-
mittee upon this subject : —

*Blue Book No. U.G. 2/12. " Conference on Technical, Industrial
and Commercial Education held at Pretoria."

58 RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE.

Recommentations in respect of Preparatory Education: —

1. It is desirable that a boy intended for the Engineering Profession;

should, before leaving school and commencing to specialize, have
attained a standard of education equivalent to that required by the
Institution Studentship Examinations ; and that he should not
commence his special training until he is about 17 years of age.

2. A leaving examination for secondary schools, similar in character to

those already existing in Scotland and in Wales, is desirable
throughout the United Kingdom. It is desirable to have a standard
such that it could be accepted by the Institution as equivalent to
the Studentship Examination, and by the Universities and Colleges
as equivalent to a Matriculation Examination.

3. Advanced teaching of History and Geography, with instruction and

practice in Essay-writing and in Precis-writing, should be included
in the ordinary school curriculum; and the instruction in English
subjects should include at least an introduction to English Litera-
ture.

4. Greek should not l)e required, but an elementary knowledge of Latin

is desirable. The study of Latin should, however, be discontinued
during the last two years of attendance at school, or after the
standard required for the leaving certificate has been attained.
Modern languages, especially French and German, should be studied,
and should be taught colloquially or in such a way as to give the
pupils a practical knowledge of each language, sufficient to enable
them to study its literature and to converse in it with some degree
of facility.

5. Instruction in Mathematics sliould be given by methods diflfering

considerably from those usually adopted in the teaching of this
subject merely as an intellectual exercise. The geometrical side of
Mathematics should be fostered, and before they leave school, boys
should be conversant with the use of logarithms, and with at least
the elements of trigonometry, including the solution of triangles.
It is also of importance that instruction in practical arithmetic should
be carried further than has been generally the case hithert(^ with
the object especially of encouraging the use of contracted methods
and operations in mental arithmetic; and of encouraging also the
expression of results with only such a degree of (numerical) pre-
cision as is consistent with the known degree of certainty of the
data on which they are or may be supposed to l)e leased.

6. It is preferable that boys should attain at school a general knowledge

of elementary Physics and Chemistry, or what is sometimes called
" Natural Philosophy,'" rather tlian that they should pursue in detail
some particular department of science.

7. Special attention should be given to drawing; the instruction should

include ordinary Geometrical Drawing with orthograpliic projection.
Curve-drawing, Freehand-drawing, and Practical Mensuration.

8. Work in the nature of handicraft, such as Carpentry or Turning, or

elementary lield-surveying, may be encouraged as a recreation. biU
should not ))c required' as a school exercise.

9. It appears to lie impossible, in the general curriculum of school^ work,

to include advantageously time for instruction in such a subject as.

Surveying, which has been suggested.
The Conunittee recommend that this scheme of Preparatory Education
should be officially communicated to the Board of Education and widely
circulated among.st those engaged in the conduct of Secondary Schools
and Engineering Colleges, in order that future schemes of tuition of
youths who contemplate entry into the Engineering profession may be
guided thereby. The Committee are of opinion that if this course is taken
it would assist in overcoming one great difficulty now universally felt in
Institutions in wliich applied science is taught. At present a considerable

RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 59

proportion of students enter technical institutions ill-prepared, and at least
one year has to be devoted to instruction which ought to be secured
beforehand. Proper preparation is essential if students are to derive full
benefit from special instruction in applied science. Professors and
teachers ought not to be required to undertake subjects that should be
taught elsewhere, but should be left free to devote themselves to scientific
and technical instruction, which is their real work.*

Yoti will see from the foregoing that a strong literary course
in the education of the future engineer is insisted upon. I have
already referred to the old dictum that " readynge maketh a full
manne." There is a utilitarian use also : the ability to write
reports and to use words in the right connection. Mr. Harrison,
in his paper which I quoted in the beginning, laments the inability
of the average engineer in this connection.

ITow many engineers are there to-day, who are technically expert,
but who find the compilation of a report a most difficult and laborious
matter; some of them find it an impossibility to perform, and do not
hesitate to say so. . . . . It is not exactly literary style that is necessary,
although this has its value, but the perfect appreciation of any interpreta-
tions that may be made under subsequent circumstances.

My experience tallies with Mr. Harrison's in this matter of
reports from engineers ; and I venture to give here two extracts
from such an one : —

(a) Unslaked lime absorbed water with sluggish avidity and with an
absence of necessary chemical evolution and combustion ....

{b) From chemical assays the constituent parts disclose no tangible
chemical combination tantamount to the attributes incorporated in
a good hydraulic limestone. . . .

A more meaningless jumble could scarcely be imagined, but
I shall refrain from further remark on these extracts, except to
say that these were not compiled by an educated Kaffir, but by a
British-born engineer.

I pass on to consider the requirements indicated in the teach-
ing of mathematics. This .study must not be merely an intellectual
exercise, it must be taught as a tool ; thus, we have the elements of
trigonometry, logarithms and practical mathematics with geo-
metrical treatment asked for. Now, provision is made in the code
for trigonometry or a branch of applied mathematics as optional
subjects, and I think that these should at once be made compul-
sory in the science side of each high school. I need not detail ex-
actly what subjects would constitute the literary side and what the
science side ; that can be left to the principals of the schools con-
cerned. We do not force subjects ui^on the head-masters of these
schools, and rightly so. He has to be satisfied before he intro-
duces them that they are {a) generally cultural and educative,
(b) that there is a demand for them. In other words, there must
be an educated public opinion willing to realise the difficulties and
the requirements of an engineering education before innovations,
which appear to be departures from previous practice, can be in-

* Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume CLXVI
part iv, 1905-190(5.

6o RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE.

troduced. There is, however, one subject which should be intro-
duced in addit'on to these I have mentioned, and that is manual
training in woodwork and in metalwork. " A boy at school
should be trained in a scientitic habit of mind, which is, after
all, nothing but organised and directed common sense." Manual
work does this by the objective nature of the training it gives.
There is much misunderstanding, and it must be pointed out that
the modern conception of manual training workshops attached to
primary and high schools is that thev are constructive labora-
tories in which the scientific habit of accuracy may be acquired.
That is to say, they are not looked upon as tool-rooms where any-
thing mav be made in the amateur method, from a packing case
to a bookshelf for a bedroom, as has been the case in some in-
stances in this country. As " a secondary course ... is
more specifically and defin'tely related to the pupil's future occu-
pation," manual training workshops should be provided in both
woodwork and metalwork at every secondary and high school as
well as at primary schools, in order to provide the necessary
guidance for those boys with constructive inventive genius, lead-
ing them towards a professional training through the technical
college of university rank.

We have now to see how the matters in hand can be adapted
to South African conditions : and here it must be remembered
that the length and direction of the next educational step is pre-
determined bv tlic number and length of the previous ones. Thus,
with reference to the preparatorv work at present included in the
curriculum of the university technical college, and which it is
desirable should make way for tlie highest technical work, I do
not think that these technical colleges could dro]) their present
first year engineering courses for some time to come without
seriouslv affecting several well-meaning and hard-working
students. There appears to be no reason, however, why the high
school course and the first year technical college course should
not overlap until a better educational state has arisen. At the
South African College. Cape Town, the first year engineering
course consists of : —

English, Dutch. Mathematics, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physics, Geome-
trical and Freehand Drawing, Workshop Practice.

while at the South African School of }\lines and Technology,
Johannesburg, we have : —

^Mathematics. Applied Mathematics, Physics, Heat, Sound^ Light,
Electricity, Inorganic Chemisn-y, Geology and Mineralogy, Graphics.
Workshop Practice.

Now, these being merely lists of the names of subjects, it is
not fair to make comparisons between the courses without study-
ing the syllabuses in each subject advanced by each institution.
We may say at once that languages should have no place in the
engineering curriculum of the university technical college. The
ability to write a clear report in either languages of the Union,

RELATTOX OF TTIGIl SlllOOl-S iO Tr<:cHXICAL COLLEGE. 6l

and without orthographical and other errors, must be acquired in
the public school : it is a waste of time otherwise. Again, the
inclusion of a course in geology and mineralogy in a first year
engineering course is a doul)tful matter: its u^e to a future elec-
trical engineer, for example, is ])roblematic2l. Al<o Heat, Sound,
Ivight and Electricit}- are branches of physics, and, it may be
reasonably expected, are included under the term physics in the
South African College course. The same may apply to mathe-
matics, which will certainly include some applied and practical
mathematics. Chemistry, of course, means inorganic chemistry,
and grai:)hics is a newer name for the old subject, the geometrical
drawing necessary to the engineer.

Thus, the two courses at these colleges may be assumed to
be similar, if we except the two languages from the one, and
geology and mineralog}- from the other.

We are now able to suggest subjects for the final year of the
high school course for those pupils intending to enter the uni-
versity technical college ; these are : —

Both languages of Union.

French or German.

Mathematics, pure and applied, including practical Mathematics, with

graphical treatment. Logarithms and Trigonometry.
General Elementary Science (i.e.. the elements of physics and

chemistry).
History and Geography, witii special reference to Commercial and

Industrial development.
Precis and Essay writing.
Geometrical Drawing and the Elements of Mechanical Drawing and

Graphical calculation.
Manual Training {i.e., the elements of workshop practice).

To those interested I would recommend the following two
" Special Reports " issued by the Board of Education, London, as
illustrating the trend desired in the teaching — No. 12, " Mathe-
matics witli relation to Engineering Work in Schools," and No. i,
" Higher ^ilathematics for the Classical Sixth Form " — both of
which are papers that have been pre])ared for the International
Commission on the teaching of Mathematics.

The object of this paper is to promote a greater educational
efificiency by placing the schoolmaster in a position of prepared-
ness to give a considered judgrnent upon the broader issues in-
volved in the organisation of curricula and methods adapted to a
preparatory training for the professional engineer of the future.
I have endeavoured to do this by drawing attention to the fact
that there is a unanimous demand for that organisation on the
part of many re>i)onsible engineers. The '" what to teach " and
" why " has been given; the " how to teach " must be left to the
schoolmaster. If teachers cannot become professionally articulate
in this direction. 1 am afraid that the question will be decided
by amateur or professional organisers without their guidance, and
consequently without the best results. The complaint is that the
standard of the first vear course at the imiversity technical col-

62 RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE.

lege is generally too low : it is suggested that this can be remedied
by the high schools giving a better preparation to the future
student. If this is not done, the lad himself will find a way by
cramming, which, though not quite useless, is much inferior to a
systematic course of study.

The theory of modern economics is built up under the influ-
ences produced by the introduction of steam power through the
potent agencies of the steam railroad, steam navigation and the
use of steam power in industrial operations. Under industrial
operations, I include the great means for transportation and inter-
communication comprised in railways, telegraphs and telephones,
in addition to the manufacture and distribution of products in-
volving the ap])lication of power, mechanical or electrical, as well
as the distribution, whether by i)ipe or by wire, of that power
itself.

It would be folly to assert, therefore, that further develop-
ments in economic theory are not largely dependent on those in-
dustrial changes which are continually produced by the inventive
genius of the great body of engineers. The engineers precipitate
these affairs on the world by their inventions ; in return, these
affairs are the support of the engineering profession : thus, it is
the duty of engineers to do their share in moulding their various
economic creatures so that these creatures may reach the maxi-
mum usefulness to society. That is, the engineer has a public
responsibility as great, if not greater, than that of the theologian.
the physician and the legal ])leader.

Thus, the engineering profession can justly claim a right to
equal consideration in the curricula of the high school. I would
ask, therefore, that the schoolmaster should not continue to prac-
tise his profession aloof from the ordinary engineering affairs of
the world, that he discontinue considering his work as being more
confined to study and investigation from a distance, that he should
apply his knowledge to assist in the re-organisation of engineering
education, if possible by meeting a responsible body of engineers.

BlBLIOGRAI'in'.

" The Education and Training of liiu/incers." Prof. J. Orr,
Transvaal Institute of Mechanical Engineers, Journal of the
Institute, 1908. August.

" The Education and Training of Engineers." Norman Harrison,
Chief Engineer, G.P.O., South African Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers. Transaction of the Institute, \"ol. Ill,
part 8. Discussion, Vol. I\'\ i)arts 2 and 4, 191.^.

" Education and Training of Engineers." Report of I.C.E. Com-
mittee. Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, \^ol. CLXVI, part 4. 1905-1906.

"Practical Training or Qualifications required of Cii'il Engineers
in Foreign Countries." Appendix I, page 247, Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. CLXX\''III, part 4,
1908- 1909.

RELATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS TO TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 63

Report of the German Committee on Technical Instruction,
Vol. II, Office of tlie Imperial Minister for Cominerce and
Industry, Berlin, April, 191 1.
" Transatlantic Engineering Schools." Principal R. M. Walms-
ley, Journal of the Institution of Electrical iMi^ineers,
Vol. XXXIII, part No. 166, 1904, page 364, et seq.
Address by Professor Dugald C. Jackson, Proceedings of the
American Institute of I'llectrical Engineers, Vol. XXX, part
No. 8.
Board of Education. Special Reports on Education Subjects.
H.M. Stationery Office, London.

No. I. "Higher Mathematics for the Classical Sixth

Eorm," igi i, price id.
No. 2. "' Mathematics with relation to Engineering Work
in Schools," 1912, price 2d.

Cure for Sleeping Sickness. — M. Danyez, in a

paper recently presented to the Academy of Sciences, points out
the advantage, in treating trypanosomijisis. of using several
medicaments, no one singly being energetic enough to effect a
cure. Thus, in trypanosomiasis occasioned by the spirilla of
Rhodesia, very remarkable results have followed upon minute
doses of arseno-benzol and silver nitrate. A single injection of
one-twentieth of a mgrm. has cured a mouse ; similarly rabbits
have been cured by single injections of five mgrms.

TRAXSACTIOXS OF SOCIETIES.

South African In.stitute of Elkctktcal EiNcinekrs. — Thursday,
May 15th: J. W. Kirkland, President, in the chair. — "Water Power plants;
with special reference to the Belvedere Power plant, Pilgrim's Rest, Trans-
vaal" : W. Elsdon-Dewr. The author traced the development of electricpower
transmission in the Pilgrim's Rest District from 1890 up to tgio. when
the Belvedere Power scheme was decided on. The water race and power
station, completed in July, 191 1, were described. The intake is situated on
the Blyde River, above the Dientje Falls, which are 120 feet in height
The whole water race was designed for a flow of 160 cubic feet per second
at a velocity of two to three feet per second. From the gates the water-
way passes through an intake tunnel 445 feet in length through solid rock.
Three other tunnels are subsequently traversed, the longest being 1,090
feet in length. The power line, which is 19 miles in length, traverses
broken country for five miles after leaving the power house, varying
about 800 feet in altitude in that distance.

Thursday, June 26th : J. W. Kirkland, President, in the chair. — "Notes
on the construction of the Victoria Falls Power Company's 80,000-volt
station at Vereeniging" : R. B. Canning. A detailed description of the
new power station at Vereeniging, comprising notes on the water supply,
method of handling coal, the boiler plant with economisers and super-
heaters, the boiler feed system, the steam ranges, steam and electrically
driven auxiliaries, the main turbo-generators, and the switch gear.

64 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCTETrES.

/ Thursdaj-, September 18th: Prof. VV. Buchanan, B.Sc, A.R.C.S.,
M.I.E.E.. Vice-President, in the chair: — "Notes on electric furnaces, with
special reference to an induction furnace " : Dr. W. Glucksmann.

After referring shortly to the three dififerent classes of arc furnaces and
to tlie resistance furnaces in use at present, the author proceeded to
describe in detail Gassie's induction furnace recently installed at St. Jacques,
France, and concluded with some general remarks on the efficiency of
electric furnaces.

S.A. Institltion of Knginkeks. — Friday, May i6th : W. Calder, Vice-
President, in the chair. — " The manufacture of cement :" E. Davidson.
The properties and applications of Portland cement were briefly sketched,,
and details were given of improvements in the !)urning of the raw material
and with regard to the preparation nf the latter for the kiln. —
"Notes nn the theory of centrifugal pumps and ventilating fans":
A. S. Ostreicher. A teclmical paper in which the subject was treated

mathematically, with geometrical ilhistrations.

(Kimberley Branch), Thursday, May 26th: J. llarbottle, Chairman of
the Branch, in the chair. — -" Central Power station working, with special
reference to De Beers Central Power Station :" G. M. Robertson. A
fully-detailed description of the equi|)ment and work (^i the Central Power
Station.

Saturday. August 16th :W. Calder. President, in the chair. — Presidential
address : \V. Calder. Reference wa^ made to some of the problems in
connection with the mining industry that are still awaiting solution.
Amongst these are the question of cheaper working costs, the economic
centralisation of mining work, the sanitary cr-nditions underground, the
instability resulting from large worked-out open spaces, the need of
systematic underground sorting, the air consumption of rock drills, the
conservation and use of water, and the electrification of mining plants.

ChemicaLj ^Ietallukcicai. AXi) Mining Sociktv of Soi-th Africa. —
Saturdax. May 17th: \\^ R. Dowling. M.I.M.M., President, in the chair. —
" Vacuum filtration at the Victoria Mill of the Waihi Gold Mining
Company, New Zealand": W. Macdonald. .\ general description was
given of the plant, which has Iteen in i>peration since the lieginning of
1908. The vacuum pumps, which are of the double acting type, are eight
in number, the motive power Ijcing a 200 h.p. Crossley gas engine. An
outline was added showing the general conditions of the milling and
treatment plant governing the production and character of the slime pulp.
An account of the routine work of the plant was given, and the efficiency
of the filtration process and of the extraction and recovery of the last
traces of gold and silver bearing solution was di.scussed.

Saturday, June 21st: W. R. Dowling. M.I.M.M., President, in the
chair — ."Notes on the assay of Mine Samples" R. Dures. The assay
of samples sent up from working faces of mines was discussed, and some
of the errors occurring in the manipulation of these assays were
pointed out. Details were given of a variety of tests showing the effects on
assay results of (i) coarse and fine grinding, (j) varying the amounts of
charcoal and of other components of the charge, (3) careful cleaning of
the beads before weighing, (4) duplicating the assays, (5) inadequate
heating of the muffle, (6) cupelling tlie gold with silver.

South African Society of Civil Engineer.s. — Wednesday, June nth:
F. E. Kanthack, M.I.C.E., President, in the chair.. — " New station yards at
Germiston and Braamfontein '" : H. H. Elliott. Works in connection with
the provision of new railway stations and yards at Germiston and Braam-
fontein have been recently completed, and as the alterations and additions
were on a scale larger than any that had been previously undertaken at
any station in the Union, particulars of the works were given.

Wednesday. July pth : T. W. Perry, M.I.Mech.E., in the chair.—
" Roads in their relation to the development of the country " : W. Craig.
The author's remarks were virtually confined to the Cape Province, in

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES. 6S

which roads are classed as (i) Main roads, (2) Divisional roads, and (3)
Farm roads. The Government exercises no control over either the Divi-
sional or farm roads, and very little over the main roads. In the develop-
ment of the country, road construction and maintenance should, in the
author's opinion, he undertaken by the Government, and handed over to
the Local Authorities only when these are in an assured position to carry
out their duties efficiently. Indiscriminate handing over by Government to
Divisional Councils of all road control has proved such action to be prema-
ture.— " Note on staggered and squared rail joints as applied to railway
tracks" : A. J. Beaton. The term " staggered " is applied by trackmen
to broken or unsquared joints of the rails in the permanent way. Consi-
derable doubt exists regarding the relative merits of the staggered and
square joints systems of laying rails. These were discussed by the author,
who concluded tliat the use of staggered joints is undesirable for reasons
of (i) expense, (2) lack of additional stability to tlie track, and (3)
detriment to smooth track riding.

Wednesday, August T3th : A. D. Tudhope, M.I.C.E., Vice-President, in
the chair. — " Some notes on a modern Spanish irrigation c.inal " : F. E.
Kanthack. A description, based on the author's inspection, of the State
canal of Aragon and Catalonia.

Rov.\L Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, July i6th : Dr. L.
Peringuey, F.E.S.. F.Z.S., President, in the chair. — " On- some Fossil Fishes
from the diamond-bearing pipes of Kimberley " : Dr. R. Broom. Three
new types of Paljeoniscid tishes now preserved in the McGregor Aluseum,
Kimberley, were descri])ed. For these the author erects two new genera —
Disichthys and Pclciclithys — and three new species — Acrolcpis addamisi,
Disichihys Kimberlcycnsis, and Peleichthys Kiniherlcycnsis. The fossils
occur in sandstone taken from the Wesselton and De Beers Mines, and
from the absence of conspicuous sandstones in the Ecca beds of the
vicinity, and the occurrence in another slab of Chclyoposaurus ii'\:iliamsi,
they are in all probability of Beaufort age. — " On the daily range of atmos-
pheric potential gradient at Bloemfontein and the influence of dust storms' :
W. A. D. Rudge. An account of observations at Bloemfontein between
July and December, TQ12, with a Bendorff recording electrometer. The
values of the potential gradient at hourly intervals were given for the
whole period, and curves showing the daily range of the potential gradient
for selected cases. The normal curves are similar to those taken in
other parts of the world, but those for dusty days show great differ-
ences. On very dusty days there was a very strong negative potential
gradient amounting to thousands of volts per metre. This is caused by
the clouds of fine siliceous dust raised by the wind. A negative potential
gradient was never recorded unless dust was blowing or rain falling. The
rain which fell during the period under observation was invariably nega-
tively charged. — " Further magnetic observations in South Africa '" : Prof.
J. C. Beattie. The results of observations in various parts of South
Africa during 1910-13. The observations were mainly carried out in tlie
Western Transvaal, British Bechuahaland, and Bushman land. — " Magnetic
Maps of the Western and Northern parts of the Union of South Africa
and of Great Xamaqualand for the epoch ist July, 1908": Prof. J. C.
Beattie. The maps show the true isogonics, the true isoclinals, and the
true lines of equal horizontal intensity for the above region. — " Note on
Clebsch's Theorem " : Dr. T. Muir.

Wednesday, August 20th : Dr. J. K. E. Halm, Ph. D., F.R.S.E., Vice-
President, in the chair. — " On the significance of the position of the genital
apertures in Hirudinea " : Prof. E. J. Goddard. The position of the

genital pores is considered to be identical in all leeches, with two doubtful
exceptions. It is concluded that the ancestral stock, from which the
Hirudinea arose, must have been oligochaetan and aquatic in nature, with a
Ijody of 33 or 35 somites, and provided with setae similar to those of
ac^uatic oligochaeta, such as Liimbriculid?e and Phreodrilidse. — " On a

66 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIHITIES.

Phrendrilid from Sneeuw Kop, Wellington, South Africa": Prof. E. J.
Goddard. A new form, discovered on the Wellington Mountains, was
doscriljcd by the author.— " Notes on spodumene from Namaqualand " :
G. C. Scully, and A. R. E. Walker. .\ lithia-bearing mineral collected
near Jackal's Water, Steinkopf. From optical and other physical characters
the authors refer this mineral to the .species spodumene.

Wednesday, .September 17th : Dr. L. Peringuey, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Presi-
dent, in tlie cliair. — "On the interpretation of the electro-cardiogram";
Prof. W. A. Jolly. The author has ai-rived at an explanation of the
various features of the curve, based upon experiments on the isolated tor-
tc;ise heart. — " A contrilnition to our knowledge of the anatomy of the
cliamaeleon" :The Hon. P. .'X.Methuen and J. Hewitt. The authors con-
clude that the most generalised and probably most primitive forms are the
genera Brookesia and Rhamphoteon. whilst the viviparous small chamae-
leons of the pumilus group are the most primitive in the genus Chamae-
leon ; for these latter species, pumilus and allies, the authors revive the
old generic name Lophosaura of Gray. The family has probably spread
from a centre of origin situated in that portion of the Ethiopian region of
which there now remains two separated components, Madagascar and
the Cape Province of Sclater. — " Note on the pollination of Enccphalartos
Allenstcinii (KafTir Bread Tree) " Prof. R. Marloth. The insect on
which the transport of the pollen from the male cone to the female cone of
Enccphalartos Alfeusteiiiii and E. villosus depends is Antlianiiiiius Zainiae.
The female insect pollinates the ovules while moving about between them
for the purpose of depositing its eggs. Although according to Dr. Rattray's
observations, some, most, or all the seeds of a cone are thus destroyed by
the grubs of the insect, the visits of the insect are nevertheless essential
to the plant, for without them no seeds would be formed at all. There
are only three species of Antliarrhinus known, and the genus is, as far as
observed, entirely confined to Eastern Cape Province.

Cape CHE.\ncAi. Society. — Friday, September 19th: Prof. R. Marloth,
M.A., Ph.D.. President, in the chair. — " Note on the methods of determina-
tion of nicotin in tobacco and tobacco extracts " : Prof. P. D. Hahn.
The method prescribed by Uhlex results in discrepancies which make the
percentages of nicotin appear far hirgcr than the amounts actually present.
This is evidently due to distillation in the steam of proteid compounds
which are subsequently calculated as nicotin. — " Preliminary note on soil
investigations in the Olifants River Valley, Van Rhynsdorp Division " :
Dr. C. F. Juritz. The author described the nature of the country tra-
versed in a Hying soil survey, with particular attention to the indigenous
vegetation. Tables showing (i) percentages of plant food, (2) propor-
tions of brack salts, and (3) results of mechanical analysis of about 60
soils were given.

NEW BOOKS.

Pratt, Ambrose. — The Real South Africa. 8vo. pp. xix, 282. Maps and

illustrations. London: Holden & Hardingham, 1913. 24 oz.,

los. 6d.
O'Niel, Rev. J— ^ grammar of the Sindcbelc dialect of Zulu. i2mo.,

pp. xii, 177. London : Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co..

1913. 8 oz., 7s. 6d.

Lyne, R. Ji.— Mozambique : its agricultural development. 8vo., pp. 352.
Map and illus. London : T. Fisher LTnwin, 1913. 26 oz., 12s. 6d.

Pettman, Rev. C. — Africanderisms : a glossary of South Afriian collo-
quial words and phrases, and of place and other names. Royal
8vo., pp. xvii, 579. London : Longmans, Green & Co., 1913. 32 oz.,
I2S. 6d.

'qd

HISTORY UF EARLY PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES^*
AND EXPLORATION IN AFRICA. \'U\ ^ ,

J>v Salomon Sekuva.

{Evening Discourse delivered in the Colonial Hall, Lourengo
Marques, on Friday, July nth, 1913. Illustrated by lantern
slides. I

" Portugal does not forget that she was the first power to
raise the veil of mystery which covered Central Africa." These
were the introductory words of the address of the President of
the French Geographical Society to Sir H. M. Stanley, when he
presented the Society's Gold Medal to the great explorer on the
28th June, 1878.

^^'ell, ladies and gentlemen, Portugal does not forget, either,
ihat her sons were the first to set foot on the shores of South
and East Africa, and were thus the chief agents in the general
development of the world which followed their discoveries.

It is because Portugal does not forget her work of past
centuries that I venture to address to the members of the South-
African Association for the Advancement of Science, on this
tiieir first visit to Portuguese soil, a relation of the doings of
our ancestors in Africa.

It would, perhaps, be more becoming if I gave this Associa-
tion a scientific dissertation. But our programme calls this a
popular lecture, and so I avail myself of this in order to hide
my ignorance in matters of science, and, I hope, that when I

Jeronvmos Monastery.

(now the Industrial and Commercial Museum), erected in Lisbon in
commemoration nf the Portuguese discoveries.

68 EARI-Y ]'ORTUGUESE DTSCOVERTES IN AFRICA.

have given a simple and abridged review of the travels and lives
of some of those who transformed the world in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries, you will forgive the pride of the Portu-
guese, who are rather inclined to recall their history when oppor-
tunity offers.

I have used portraits of the men whom 1 shall refer to,
taken from old engravings, to illustrate my remarks.

I have also done my best to obtain copies of old paintings
and etchings of the landing of explorers at the various harbours
and of their reception by the native tribes and Arab rulers.
Valuable and abundant literature of this kind certainly exists,
but unfortunately I have been unable to procure the desired
material within the short time at my disposal. It is also but
fair to mention that I have gathered some of . ni}' notes from
early Portuguese works as well as from Dr. M'Call Theal's
excellent " History of South Africa."

When, in the beginning of the fourteenth century,
Portugal, by the initiative and will of one man, sent
her navigators across the ocean in search of new coun-
tries, and gradually became the greatest maritime power
of the time, the Atlantic was looked upon by Euroi^e as an
insuperable barrier, in front of which the aml)ition and greed of
mankind had to stop. Hercules' Columns, as ancient history
called the two promontories on either side of the Straits of
Gibraltar, were the limit of the Greek hero's marvellous deeds.
Nothing, westward of these Columns, was known to Antiquitv.
The ['h<enicians, whose enterprise and commerce were so great,
did not know more than the European and African shores of
the Mediterranean, and, although they passed through the Strait^
of Gibraltar, they never went any further than Cadiz. The
Canary Islands, caUed in former days the Fortunate and
Atlantic Islands, were so little known that for a long time they
were held to be a myth like Solomon's Land of Ophir which,
even at the present date, still remains a subject of controversy.
It was common belief that the earth was divided into five zones,
only two of which, the temperate zones, were habitable. The
others were not accessible because of the intense cold prevailirig
therein in the south and of the intense heat in the middle zone.

Ignorance and superstition went hand in hand to frighten the
boldest in any attempt to explore the African water-?. The
o-reater activitv of the waves and winds round the capes of
North Western Africa, which were after all nothing I)ut a
natural phenomena, was regarded as a sure sign of the inhospi-
tality of the South Atlantic waters. The belief was so current
that" one of the first African capes was called " Cape No," thus
indicating that Nature and Providence had combined there to
tell mankind : " No, you shall not go further." The man who
(hsbelieved the tradition and determined to unveil the secrets of
the sea was the Infante Dom Henrique, better known as Henry
the Navigator, fifth son of King lohn I of Portugal, and of Queen

EARLY PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES IN AFRICA.

69

Philippa of Lancaster, a sister of King Henry IV of England.
Having fought the battles of Portugal against the Moors in
North Africa, this great Prince realised that he could render
his countrv better service in a different field, and soon retired

Prince Henry the Xavigator.

into his estates at Sagres, in the South of I'ortugal. There he
founded the school where mathematics, cosmography and nautics
were taught, where astronomical observations applicable to navi-
gation were made, and hydrographic charts were drawn, where
instruments for the observation of the sun and the stars were
manufactured, and particular attention was devoted to imi^-oving
r.aval construction.

From the Sagres School came the seamen who, under Dom
Henrique's personal direction, discovered a number of islands,,
amongst which were Madeira and the Azores, and it was owing
to his initiative, and with his monetary assistance, that com-
panies were formed for the settlement of the discovered lands.
Let me recall the interesting fact that the Prince himself selected
the first colonists of Madeira, that he provided them with vines
and sugar cane brought from Cyprus and Sicily, and that within
twenty-five years of its discovery the island was able to maintain
not only the natives, but also a Portuguese population of eight
hundred souls, and was exporting more than 500 tons of sugar
per annum.

70 EARLY PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES IX AFRICA.

The Prince's activities were the subject of bitter attacks on
the part O'f the Court. It was contended, among other thing^s,
that it was criminal to distract good and strong men from the
war against the Aloors and to send them to certain death over
the terribly stormy seas ; that no profit could be derived from
the unknown lands which could not possibly be anything else
but uninhabitable and burning areas, similar to the deserts of
North Africa; that if indeed those lands could offer any advan-
tage, the Romans and the Phoenicians would not have failed to
attempt that kind of exploration, and the very fact that they
had not done so was a sure proof of the vanity of the scheme.
- Such criticisms did not abate the Prince's courage, nor,
fortunately, did they carry weight with the King, and when
Dom Henrique died in 1460. after forty years of continuous and
strenuous work, the whole of the West Coast of Africa down
to Sierra Leone had been discovered, and the way was open for
those skilful navigators, who astonished and revolutionised
Europe bv taking the fleets of the Kings of Portugal to the
remotest parts of the world.

Not much work was done for about twenty years after the
Infante's death. Portugal was too busy with the conquests in
Mauretania and the war with Castille to be able to equip any
considerable exploring expedition. It was not until 1481, when
King John II ascended the throne, that full advantage was taken
of the rich seed sown by the Infante. King John, whom we
rightly call the Perfect Prince, was fullv alive to the vastness
and greatness of his uncle's ideals and schemes, dnd realised
what their execution would mean for his countrv and for the
world's pr(^gress.

His officers went further south along the West Coast and
discovered Guinea and the Congo River. Their dealings with
the inhabitants of those lands were so friendly that they brought
back to Lisbon some natives with a request from the Congo
King that he might be supplied with ministers of religion,
teachers in the art of reading and writing, mechanics, agricul-
tural labourers, bakers, etc.. while some of the members of the
expedition remained behind in order to explore the interior.
" Further south," however, was King John's constant aim. and
in T486 a fleet, under P)artholomeu Dias, left the Tagus in searcii
of the -Southern Cape. This expedition is styled by a distin-
guished geographer as the " most delicate and difficult undertaking
attempted in modern times."

Navigation was then beginning to be made somewhat easier
owing to the results achieved by the mathematicians kept at
Court, whom the King constantly pressed for new observations
and new inventions. Thev prepared the pilot's declination tables
and greatly improved the measurement of the altitude of th^
sun bv means of the astrolabe. The ablest of these scientists
were Rodrigo. Joseph Hebrew and Martin P)ehaim. of Nurem-
berg. They rendered the world a great service. Their names

KAKLV I'OkmiCM-ISI': DlSrOVERIKS IX AFRICA. 71

and their work may justly be said to be immortal, as subsequent
navigators were no longer compelled to follow the coast line,
and were able to risk taking their ships into the high seas, their
course then being shorter and less dangerous.

The King's orders to Dias were tliat he should continue
the exploration of the coast of Africa as far south as he could,
and ascertain whether or no the African seas ofifered the mucn
coveted unbroken ocean route to India. This Dias unknowingly
did, for he doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and landed un an
uninhabited island in Algoa Bay. He and his officers had a

--«4..

The Belem Tower, at the Mouth of the Tagu :

suspicion that the great problem was solved, for as far as the'
eye could reach, the shore stretched east and west and, unless
they were in a deep bay, an open sea must necessarily lie before
them. Fate, however, would -not give Dias the glorv of the
great feat which was in store for another. His men complained
that their supply of food was running short, and they insisted
on returning, whereupon Dias asked them to sign a document to
that effect. He obtained from them consent to sail two or three
days further east, and so they reached the mouth of a river,
which they named the Infante, after the second officer in com-
mand ; this river is probably what we know to-day as the Kowie.
The expedition then turned back, and then the great headland
was discovered and named the vStormy Cape because of the
heavy weather encountered.

Dias reached Lisbon in December, 1487, after an absence of
nearly seventeen months. He was well received bv the Kine.

72

EARLY portuguesf: DISCOVKRTES TN AFKTCA.

to whom he gave a full account of his voyage. As he mentioned
the difficult crossing of the Stormy Cape, King John directed
that it should henceforward be known as the Cape of Good
Hope, as he conceived a great idea of the results of Bias's dis-
covery, and entertained a great hope that the scheme in view
would soon be accomplished.

Bartholomeu Dias.

I may mention here incidentally a bitter disappointment
wliich befell King John II in the midst of his efforts to enlarge
the field of discoveries. A man came to Portugal with the
promise of magnificent discoveries in the western extremity of
the Atlantic. This man, a native of Genoa, had travelled a great
deal in the Levant. Rumour went that he had settled in
Madeira where, one day, he received in his home the dying
pilot of a wrecked French ship, who told him of an unknown
continent across the ocean. King John did not take this man
seriously and rejected his proposals. So did other European
Powers until after seven years of untold striving and rebuffs the
Genoese succeeded in getting Queen Elizabeth of Spain to equip
three ships, which he led across the Atlantic in search of the New
World. Some time later, these ships anchored in front of the
City of Lisbon, and Christopher Columbus informed King John
that he had discovered America for the Spanish Crown.

EARLY PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES IN AFRICA.

7.S

King John died in 1495, and was succeeded l)y King Manoel
], under whose reign I'ortugal knew her most glorious and
prosperous times. This remarkable Monarch soon brought to
completion the preparations which had been begun by his pre-
decessor for the equipment of a second fleet to continue Bias's
unfinished work. In July, 1497, four vessels left the Tagus. the
flagship San Gabriel, piloted by Pedro d' Alemquer, who had
taken part in Bias's former expedition, the San Rafael, the Berrio
and a storeship, all under the supreme command of Vasco da
Gama. The number of men on board these four ships was not
more than one hundred and seventy, soldiers and sailors together.

King AIanoel 1.

The gloomy stories told by Bias and his companions of the
inhos"pitable seas of the Cape of Good Hope had filled the
people of Portugal with terror. Shipwrecks were the foremost
topic of conversation, and it was the firm belief both of those
who bade them farewell in the Lisbon harbour and of da Gama's
men that they would never return alive. Their terror became
more acute when, they approached the Cape of Good Hope
waters, about five months later. It was apparently a bad season,
and although some writers contend that fine weather prevailed,
reliable Portuguese historians assert that heavy storms were met
with. This circumstance, coupled with the legendary treachery
of the Cape, led the crews to mutiny on several occasions. Had

74

l■;.\KI.^■ r(iKTi-(,ri-,sK discox i-.kies in aJ'RIca.

it not been for da Gama's prudence and tirmness, the whole
expedition would certainly have failed. On the 22nd of Novem-
ber the Commander had the joy of doubling the dreaded Cape
safely with all his ships. Milder winds were encountered, and
a few days later the fleet reached Mossel Bay, where da Gama
decided to drop anchor, so as to give his men a rest, and to
procure fresh provisions. Friendly relations were at first estab-
lished with the natives, who gladly exchanged fresh eatables and
some live sheep for beads and other low price articles brought
in da Gama's ships, which astonished these simple people. But
as some altercations occurred between the Hottentots and his

^^ . %m

V.\.SC(J DA (jAMA.

men with regard to the exchange of curios, da Gama suspected
treachery and moved to another anchorage, where be decided to
abandon the storeship, as there was no further need for her.
Everything was transferred to the other vessels and she was
burned, whereupon the three ships proceeded on their course
eastward, keeping close to the land, which was observed to
improve constantly in appearance. On the 25th of December,
the country then in sight was named Natal by da Gama in
honour of the day which was being celebrated on board his
vessels. Our Durban friends have erected at the Point a small
but daintv monument to the leader of the first Europeans who

liAKLV 1'0KTI'<;L'1':SK lilSCOVIiKlES IN" AIKU A. J",

saw the country they live in. It was he who ^ave it the pretty
name it has kept to this day, and will probahly always retain,
an 1 1 am only sorry that Natal's example was not followed in
other parts of the South African continent, particularly in this
FiO\'ince of Mozambique, where not a single monument is to be
found in memory of the great man or of his followers.

In January, 1498, da Gama reached the mouth of a river,
which he named the River of the Kings, and which was subse-
quently called the Copper River on account of the quantity of
that metal found in use by the natives. It is to-dav the well-
known Limpopo.

The navigators were then becoming rather disheartened aj
the} found everywhere only the most miserable people, whose
languages could not be understood, and whose treachery was
constantly feared. It was not until they reached Ouelimane,
about the end of January, that they began to entertain hopes oi
a better turn of things. There they found black nihabitants.
It is true, but some of them were of an olive shade, better
clothed, and these understood -i few Arabic words, svhich clearly
indicated the vicinity of white people. In fact, the Portuguese
succeeded in understanding from the natives that, i+' they went
further, they would come acioss white people who had ships
almost like theirs.

Da Gama took the tidings as a good omen thai, he would
soor. be in possession of information, which w^ould iielp him to
reach India. He remained some time at Ouelimane m order to
clean, recaulk, and generally to better the condition of his
vessels, and also partly because scurvy had ap])eare'l among his
men in a very bad form.

When, a few days later, the fleet reached Mozambique, da
Gama learnt that this place carried on a considerable trade with
India. The Island belonged to the Kingdom of Ki'wa and its
Governor, Zakoeja. an enemy to Christians, paid a visit in State
to the Portuguese Commander and promised to supy-ly him witli
two pilots, who would take the fleet to India. Mischief and
treason, however, were contemplated by the Governor. Da
(lama kept him under close observation during the whole of the
con\ ersation and noticed some hesitation in his answers, which
led him to doubt the man's sincerity. In spite of that courtesies
and presents were mutually exchanged, entertainments took place
at which the Arabs went so far as to break their law and drink
Portuguese wine, and ultimately the two pilots v. ere sent on
board. But they soon deserted the ships and hostilities began,
a shower of arrows being poured into the Portuguese vessels.
Da Gama retorted with a few cannon shots, which killed four
men, amongst whom was one of the runaway pilots, who died by
the side of the Governor. Zakoeja, in terror, notified his readi-
ness to yield to all da Gama's demands. The latter con-
tented himself with accepting the services of another pilot, and
set sail on the 13th of March. The pilot took the ships amidst

76 EXRI-V PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIi:S [.\ AFRICA.

some islets, where they ran into great dangers, but paid dearly
for his treason. Da Gama had him flogged so severely that for
a long time afterwards the spot was known as "' The Islands of
the Flogged."

The pilot then promised to take the fleet to Kilwa. the
capital of the kingdom, a rich and busy city said to be inhabited
by some Christians. In doing this he expected to be avenged
there, as messengers had been sent with the report of the events
at Mozambique, and his hope was that preparations were being
made at Kilwa for a hot reception of the Portuguese. Strong
currents prevailing, his scheme failed, and the fleet put up at
Mombassa, and later at Melinde. A most friendly intercourse
was at once established between da Gama and the ruler of the
latter place, who felt proud of being visited by the emissary of a
mighty monarch of distant lands. A pledge of peace and friend-
ship was entered into, which was mutually observed ever after-
wards. When da Gama arrived at ^felinde. four Indian vessels
were in port, manned partly by Christian Hindoos and partly by
Mahommedans. who showed great joy at the sight of the strange
navigators. They gave da Gama useful information, and one
of their crew, by name Cana, a native of Guzerat, and a skilful
pilot, undertook to conduct the fleet to India.

It is contended by some writers that da Gama learnt from
those Hindoos a new manner of taking the altitude of the sun,
and how to use the compass. It is said that da Gama's astro-
labe, which he showed them, did not astonish those men in any
way, and that, on the contrary, thev showed him much more
perfect instrum'cnts, which, they asserted, were commonlv used
by the 'Arabs in the Red Sea. and by all the other people who
visited the Indian Ocean. But although the opinion has been
freely expressed that the knowledge of the compass came to
Europe from India, it is by no means a certainty that the Portu-
guese transmitted that knowledge to the European nations. The
real origin of the compa^^s is lost in the obscurity of time, and
can onlv be a matter of conjecture. It is interesting to note that
some writers give the Xeapolitan -Flavio Melpha the credit for
its invention, two hundred years before the first Portuguese
expeditions, whereas Guyat de Provins. a French poet of the
twelfth century, says that the instrument was known in his time.-
and found its birth in France. Others claim it for England,
others for China, while many believe that the instrument was
first made use of by the \'enetians, who went to India and China
through the Red Sea.

Da Gama left Melinde on the 24th of April, and on the
24th of May, 1498, he reached Calicur, in India, having thus
accomplished the dream of the Infante Dom Henrique, and
attained the object for which Portugal had striven so long, and
for which King ]\Ianoel had exacted so many sacrifices from
his country. Da Gama returned to Portugal with 55 men out
of a crew of 170.

EARLY fOKTl"(:n-:SK DTSCdVERIKS IX AFRICA. "JJ

The doing's of \ asco da Ciama and of his successors in
India form a magnificent page of history which, however, cannot
find its place here if I am to abide by my subject.

While King John II was sending out Bartholomeu Dias by
sea in search of the Cape t)f (rood Hope, his emissaries were
also doing verv interesting work on land. It was then believed
that a certain powerful Christian King called Prester John
lived in the interior of Africa. King John II had a keen desire
to enter into communication with this ruler, sure as he was that
Prester John would assist in the discovery of an overland
route to the East Coast of Africa, and thence to India, and
also in the opening up to the Portugp.iese of the routes through
which Oriental spices and wares were conveyed. A native who
cartie to Portugal told the King that there resided in the interior
of Africa a certain potentiate 1)v name O'gano. who had juris-
diction over all the neighbouring tribes, the rulers whereof he
invested with the roval insionia. consisting^ of a cane, which
was the emblem of the sceptre, a sort of a helmet in g^-ii^e of the
crown, and a bra-s cross. Their ambassadors, when visiting
O'gano's Court, never saw the monarch, but were permitted to
see onlv one of his feet, which they kissed in religious devotion.
Before thev left, a brass cross was placed round their necks, an
act which freed them from all .servitude and entitled them to rank
with the nobilitv. Narratives of this kind naturallv impressed
King lohn's mind and confirmed his idea that ?reat things could
be achieved if he could onb- get into touch with the Native rulers
of the interior. In fact, he thought O'gana. who distributed brass
crosses, could be nobody else but the much talked of Christian
King, Prester lohn. So he sent out Pedro da Covilham. who,
after a most extraordinarv v<^vage through Naples. Cairo. Aden
and Sofala. ultimatelv penetratf^l into O'gano's states. The
ruler's real name was Kscander i a corruption of Alexander") and
his land was called .\bvssinia. To him Covilham handed King
John's letters and a chart of the Portuguese explorations. Rut
Covilham was never allowed to return to Portugal. He appar-
entlv got marrie(' and left descendants, fo^ the chronicles of i.SSQ
report that a certain Eurooean called .\lvaro da Costa Covilham
resided in the .-Xbvssinian Empire. In all pn^babilitv, this man
was a son of King John's messenger.

Let me also mrntion tho name of Goncalo Eanes. whom King
John sent un the Senegal River, and successfullv reached Tim-
buctu. He WPS there^'orc the first European to visit the citv
which for many centuries afterwards remained, and porhaps still
is, a mysterious place.

In 1500 a -econd exnedition, consisting of thirteen vessels,
was sent to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral. Keeping far to
the westward, to avoid the calms usually met with on the coast of
Guinea, to his surprise he discovered a country unheard of before,
the mainland of South .America, Brazil, which was subsequentlv
annexed and cokmised by Portugal, with the success of which

78

EARLY PORTUGUESP; ])IS<. (AICKIKS IN AFRTCA.

that great State is now a vivid proof, lie sailed again towards
the Cape, in the neighbourhood of which he lost four vessels in a
tornado. One was under the command of Bartholomeu Dias. Is
it not a strange irony of fate that this man should have found his
grave on the spot he had discovered, and which he himself had
described as being so deadly?

Two years later, in 1502, John da Nova discoveretl St.
Helena. No efforts were made to colonise this island, but, in
later years, a Portuguese called Looes acclimatised there some
domestic animals, such as pigs, goats, rabbits, partridges, etc., and
made some plantations.

Pedro Alvares Caf.ral.

The following year, on his way to India, Antonio de Saldanha
landed and fought the Natives in a bay in the vicinity of the Cape
of Good Hope, which bay still retains his name.

In the course of the years 1505 and 1507 the East and West
coasts of Madagascar were discovered and explored by Tristao
da Cunha. and by Ruy Pereira and Fernando Soares, who gave
the island the name of St. Lawrence. The first captain's name
is well known to us, on account of the islands which he was the
first to sight, and of which some interesting news has been pub-
lished recently in the South African newspapers. He was the
man who, a few years later, visited Rome, at the head of a bril-
liant embassy from King Manoel to Pope Leo X. Rich presents
from India and Africa were sent to show the Pontiff the import-
ance of the trade which had been opened up with those continents.

EARLY PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES IX AFRICA. 79

Among the presents, it is perhaps interesting to note, was an
elephant, an animal which had not been seen in the Papal City
since the days of the Roman Empire. This fiact greatly contri-
buted to bring to Rome a huge crowd eager to witness the arrival
of the ambassadors of the country which was doing so- much for
the expansion of the Christian faith, and who were the bearers of
such wonderful specimens of the wealth of the Orient.

Portuguese settlement in East and West Africa went on
steadily, as the subsequent expeditions to India required the
establishment of refreshment stations, and men were left at the
various ports, to see to the needs of the fleets and to open up
commerce with the interior. Important commercial centres
sprang up at Loanda and Benguella, in Angola, and at Mozam-
bique and Sofala in this territory. A great portion of the in-
terior, as well as the whole of the coast belt, was gradually ex-
plored by Portuguese officials and traders.

In 1545, Dom Joao de Castro, one of the most distinguished
Governors of India, reported to the King the recent discovery of
the bay and rivers of the Lagoa by a man called Lourenzo
Marques, and the following year the King, in reply, sent instruc-
tions for a closer investigation of the discovery. King Manoel
apparently had more faith than the succeeding generations in the
destiny of this town, since this place remained for centuries un-
developed, and it is only in recent years that it has attained suf-
ficient comfort to attract the members of the South African Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science !

Portuguese penetration and settlement in Africa has been
steady and consistent. When, during the first portion of the
seventeenth century, the wars with I^ngland and Holland de-
prived her of her Indian Empire. Portugal remained in Africa.
If her African dominions do not show a degree of development
and wealth equal to those of other powers, the reason is easily
traceable to the small population and limited financial capacity of
the Mother Country. In spite of that, the work of the Portuguese
will leave its mark for all time in all branches of human activity.
They have rendered gigantic service to science by their nautical
discoveries, and by their gift of a new geography to the world.
They have augmented the world's wealth by opening up new
channels of commerce. In Africa in particular, they were faced
with enormously large tribes extremelv superstitious and tena-
cious in their habits as well as in their hatred of any innovation.
Christianity' has made many converts in Africa : it has, perhaps,
not made a single civilised man who will adopt our customs and
mode of living, so much so that a celcl)rated statesman once ex-
pressed the fear that x\frica would for ever be the eternal abode
of barbarism. Nevertheless, the Portuguese were the first to
attempt to civilise the African Natives, and the greatest share in
whatever Iws been achieved to this day is undoubtedlv theirs.
Thev claim that with reason, as they also claim with equal reason
a great part in the European colonisation of this countrv. where

8o

EARLY. PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES IN AFRICA.

they have displayed much activity and enterprise in tlie cause of
science and civilisation. This entitles them to a prominent place
in Africa, quite apart from the rig-hts hequeathed to them hy the
deeds of their navig-ators and warriors, which are looked upon
nowadav'i as onlv a brilliant romance.

Luiz HE Camoexs.
the poet of the Portugue>e epic of Africa and India.

Of those heroic times the rememi, 'ranee has been immor-
talised by the great poet lAiiz de Camoens in his Lusiad.

Microbe of Hydrophobia. — I'rof. Hideyo Nogushi

claims to have discovered tlie micrnbe of hydrophobia, and gives
a description thereof in the Bulletin of the Rockefeller Institute.
In this connection Prof. MetchnikofT, of the Pasteur Institute,
makes the following remarks: " Nog"iishi has made a discovery of
great importance. His note, hastily published as it was, is in some
respects brief and obscure, but the strict contrci that is exercised
at the Rockefeller Institute, as w^ell as the personality of Nogushi
himself, are sufficient safeguards that this is an authentic dis-
covery, and that it will mark an epcch in the history of bacteri-
ology. The culture of the hydrophobia protozoa may permit of
the preparation of a serum or vaccine of far higher activity than
the spinal preparations now employed for inoculation against
rabies, and probably the lengthy and painful treatment of twenty
injection^; will be much shortened."

A PLEA FOR THE EXACT MEASUREMENT OF
RAINFALL.

By Frank Flowers, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.

The detailed study of rainfall should be a national question
in every civilized covuitry, and the economic importance of it is
so tremendous that there is no need for an apolog^y in introduc-
ing' a paper, which has for its purpose a brief consideration of
the method of rainfall measurements.

It is unnecessary here to tiilate on the influence of rainfall
ujion climate and then upon immobile and mobile life. Its
importance upon the water supply to towns is apparent. Many
industrial concerns depend upon a favourable rainfall. Besides,
the character of its occurrence determines the safety of life and
property, the formation of dongas and a best of other con-
siderations into which the subject enters.

From the day, in 1662, when Sir Christopher "VVren fir.st
designed the rain-gauge, little was done in the British Isles until
i860 to establish a co-ordinated system of rainfall observations.
Since the latter date, however, an organized body of observers
has been working', and a large amount of valuable information
has thus been secured. In South Africa, for manv years past,
the Cape and Natal Provinces have been attending- to this national
necessitv, while in the Transvaal we are just celebrating- the
tenth anniversary of the establishment of its Meteorological
(Observatory. The success achieved by the latter institution
during^ the past decade is a matter of gratification to all interested
in the subject of climate. Its Annual Reports, which have been
regularly issued in the past, have been much -rippreciated and of
considerable value. It is hoped that the new Union Depart-
ment of Meteorolog-A- will continue the excellent practice.

In countries where the characteristic rainfalls are slow and
continuous, and where the total annual precipitation is such ss
to adequately replenish both natural and artificial reservoirs the
question of the exact measurement of rainfall is not so impera-
tive and the ordinarv eaug^es of the '' Snowden " or Indian
pattern give sufficient data upon which to design hydraulic
schemes. In the zone of torrential rainfalls, however, it is con-
tended that the ordinary gauge does not g-ive sufficient informa-
tion, and that tlie automatic instruments possess manv advan-
tag^e's over the older forms.

For the ag^riculturist, in areas where the characteristic rain-
fall is torrential, the determination of the ratio of beneficial to
non-beneficial rainfalls of the total annual precipitation is a sub-
ject of great importance, while to the engineer :i knowledg-e of
the intensity of rainfalls, tiie area covered by same, and the run-
ofif for any particular locality is absolutelv necessary for the
correct desig^ning of public and private works.

The British standard unit of rainfall is taken as the number
of inches precipitated per hour, and the run-ofif is calculated in
cubic feet per second from any g^iven catcliment area; conse-
q4.iently, the more clearly the rainfall measurement shows the

82

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL,

Q

a

■*

( )

UJ

^

kx

<

•0

u.

X

?;

•><

H

Z

w

K

Q
2>

^

■-«»

p^

u

^

S

MEASUREMF^.NT OF RAINFALL. 8.?

relation of rainfall to time — li.:., intensity— the more valuable
become such data.

Jn the Transvaal it is not uncommon to receive a precipita-
tion of one-third of an inch in lifteen minutes, without further
rain for the twenty-four hours ; hence, by the ordinary rain-jjauge
measurement, which is read once a day, such a shower would
be credited as a day's rain, and would sug^g'est, without further
explanation, a beneficial rainfall, but bv the automatic g'aug'e the
ciiart would show the true character of the rainfall.

The soil obviously takes a much longer time to absorb rain
than the latter takes to fall; consequently, one-third of an inch
precipitated durinic^ twenty- four liours is much more beneficial to
the country than one-third of an inch, in fifteen minutes, which
represents an intensity of 1.32 inch per hour. For these reasons
the automatic rain gaug'c is much more valuable for a correct
study of rainfall than the ordinary gau^e, and when calibrated
occasionally with, some standard instrument, gives far more re-
liable data, because of the elimination of the personal equation.

At i^resent time, in the Transvaal Province, there are over
fXDO ordinarv gauc^es of the " Tnrlian " pattern in use. Of the
automatic rain gauges there are some forty whose charts are
divided into two-hour sections, and are changed every week.
One automatic instrument (and one only, as far as can be ascer-
tained) of the same type, whose chart is changed every twenty-
four hours and whose sections read for single hours, ; and there
is also one Halliwell Automatic Rain fiauge. The former are
manufactured by Richards, of France.

The ITalliwell gauge is an extremely useful instrument, for
the reason that its charts are large, and. consequentlv, the mark-
ing is easilv read to single minutes. Its fine adjustment, too,
ensures maximum accuracv in working; but it requires handling'
In' trained men. and. as the chart has to be changed everv twelve
hours, renders the instrument onl\- suitable for important meteor-
oloi2^ical stations.

The simplicity in constructicn and management of the 8-day
and 24-hom' auto gauge by Richards recommend them for more
extensive use ; both instruments are identical, except that the
clock gearing- is adjusted for one or the other period of charts,
rmd the cost is practically the same.

The only advantage that can be urged for adopting the
weekly geared instrument, in preference to the daily one. is the
time saved in attendance ; this, however, is a small matter, and is
mainly a question of habit.

On the other hand, the weekl}- chart has an important dis-
advantage, and that is, if the pen has to travel more than once
])er hour up the chart — vis., to record a rainfall greater than
0.40 inches per hour — then it is almost impossible to obtain even
an approximate idea of the character of such rainfall from the
chart, because the pen markings overlap and obliterate each
other, whereas the markings on the twenty-fcur-hour chart can
easily be read by means of a tracing cloth template to every five-

B

84 MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL.

minute period. And, since the object soug-ht in all these observa-
tions, automatically determined, is that the data should approach
as near as possible to the unit of measurement used in their
practical application, the twenty-four-hour chart is therefore pre-
ferable to the weekly one, and doubtless many of the eight-day
instruments in possession of the Government could be converted
to the twenty-four-hour type by a simple adjustment of the
clockwork.

By the kindness of the Town Engineer of Johannesburs^ —
Mr. G. S. Burt-Andrews, M.I.C.E. — the Avriter has been per-
mitted to discuss the performances of the two types of instru-
ments belongino^ to his department.

Until recently the 24-hour Richards .-Vuto-oauoe was
stationed at the Klipspruit Sewerag-e Farm, which is 7.4 miles
south-west of the 8-day Auto-gauge at tlie Burghersdorp Pipe
Yard, Johannesburg. The altitude of the former i< 5413

M.S.L., and the latter is 5460, or a difference of 237 feet in
vertical height, each instrument being" 4 feet above tlie surround-
ing ground, and in open positions.

Unfortunately it is only possible to take the ]:)eriod of 1909-
13 into consideration, and a large number of charts have been
studied. The larger chart gauge being stationed at Klipspruit,
the data therefrom is put forward with greater confidence than
the weekly chart of the Burghersdorp instrument. In both
cases, however, the results are only indicafiz'c not c(Miclusive;
not cnly the period is small, but the comparison is made on
different charts. Notwithstanding, however, it is claimed that
these indications arc important and justify the larger use of the
24-hour -Auto-gauge, and the more exact measiuxmcnt of rain-
fall.

For the period inider review, rain fell at Klipspruit for 594
hours in 231 days, giving a total preci])itation of 75.19 inches
during the period, of which 16. t6 inches fell in 620 minutes, rv'.cr:
21.49% of the total rainfall fell in i-75% ' f the total time. Fur-
ther, it was found that for the season 1910-11, there were 18
falls of rain, which lasted from o to t hour, 24 from i to 2
hours, II from 2 to 3 hours. 6 from 3 to 4, 4 from 4 to 5, 6 from
5 to 6, 4 from 6 to 7. 3 from 7 to 8, i from 8 to 9, 3 from 9 to
10, I from 10 to II, I from 13 to 14, and i from 15 to 16 hours
of continuous rain; while for the season 1911-12, it was found
that the number of showers in duration of o to t hour \vas 20,
I to 2 hours 25, 2 to 3 hours 11, 3 to 4 hours 1. 5 to 6 liours
I, 5 to 7 hours I, and 10 to ii hours i.

It was further noticed that rains of 2 hours and less in
duration contained spurts or spasmodic turns of intense fall,
where a few minutes of such rain dominated the rainfall for the
period. By combining these rains as against the 83 days of rain
for the season 1910-11. and the 68 days of rain for 191 r-12. we
get 57.6% of non-beneficial rainfall for the two seasons.

In this connection it is interesting to note that this deter-
mination is in close agreement with one made by Mr. H. F.

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL. 85

Wood, ^J.Sc, of the I'liion Observatory. In his paper on " The
Intensity Distribution of Rainfall over tlie Witwatersrand."'
abstracted in the Xatal Report (1907) of this Association, he
says : —

A further comparison table shows that only _'o per cent, of the
Transvaal rainfall falls in what may be classified as light, directly beneficial
showers, against, roughly, 50 per cent, of the English rainfall; whilst about
60 per cent, of the Transvaal rain falls in heavy showers against only 25
per cent, of the English rainfall. It is, therefore, inferred that the greater
part of tlie Transvaal rainfall is not directly beneficial to the soil, nnd,
unless conserved, is lost to the Colony.

The Burghersdorp weekly charts show that rain fell for
322 hours in 144 days during the same period, producing a
total precipitation of 63.55 inches, of which 9.22 inches fell in
207 minutes, z'i.:;., 14.5 of the total precipitation in 170 of the
total time. A sample of both charts is annexed hereto, on each
a two-hour continuous rainfall of similar intensity ha? been
marked. On the 24-hour chart it is a simple matter to deter-
mine the character of the fall for every five minutes, but on the
v;eekly chart it is very difficult" to do more than tell the total
precipitation for the period. Obviously, therefore, the 24-hour
chart is of a greater practical value than the weekly one.
Although both instruments above referred to have not been
calibrated with any standard instrument, the figures stated
herein mav be accepted as sufficiently accurate for the purpixse
of this paper.

In advocating the more extensive use of the 24-hour auto-
rain gauge, it shculd be noted that the ordinary gauge has to
be read once every day, so that no extra work is entailed upon
observers b}- substituting an auto for the ordinary gauge, and as
already pointed out, the instrument is so simple in management
that no difficulty should be experienced in its continuous work-
ing, while, on the other hand, charts give better information at
headquarters than the ordinary cards.

Finallv, a field of investigation lies in the direction of deter-
mination determining such problems as : —

(a) What intensity of rainfall may be rated as non-bene-

ficial to the soil for a given catchment. CIt is recog-
nised that this question is governed by many factors :
still, it is confidently expected that such an investiga-
tion would result in the establishment of some useful
standard.)

(b) A\'hat intensity of rainfall may be regarded as phenom-

enal, the disastrous results of which are often re-
ferred to as an " Act of God."

(c) What intensity of rainfall should a designing engineer

provide for in schemes to deal with flood water, and
at the same time keep within reasonable economic
bounds.

These and many other questions are continually presenting them-
selves whenever the problem of the control of stormwater is

86 MEASUKIiMENT OF RAINFALL.

being dealt with, and, as Mv. F. E. Kanthack, M.l.C.E. pointed
out in his address to the First South African Irrigation Congress,
in 1909, that generah'sation in rainfall is not much use for prac-
tical purposes; this is undoubtedly true, not only for tlie Irriga-
tion Engineer, but in every department of engineering into which
the question enters.

When it is considered that large sums of money have been
spent in the past— and much of it on guess work — and that still
larger sums have to be spent in the future for accommodating the
rainfall in South Africa, the author, after years of personal con-
tact with the problem, is of opinion that what is required is a
more exact measurement of rainfall in every district in South
Africa.

Lightning Conductors at St. Paul s Cathe-
dral.—The recent installation ot new lightning conductors at
St. Paul's led to the discover}- that a portion of oiie of the
original iion l)av conductors, which, was erected under the super-
intendence of Benjamin Franklin himself about 140 years ago.
was still in position and in a good state of preservation. When
lightning conductors were originally empkyed, they were termed
*' Franklin rods," and a warm controversy arose at the time as to
whether they should terminate in points or balls. King George III
was a hrm believer in ball terminals, and the advocacy of points
by the President of the Royal Society brought about his resigna-
tion.

Amphibian Poison. — Prcf. J. Arthur Thomson writes,
in a recent number of Knowlrcio;,' : " It is well known that the
defenceless amphibians — toads, frogs, newts, salamanders, anrl
the like — are protected by a poisonous secretion formed by skin
glan(E. The phr\-nin of the toad has been often experimented
with, and is a powerful poisv;)n. Wadame Phisalix has recently
found thai injections of a modificatic-n of amphibian poison- will
immunise an animal. (\.c.. rabbit or guinea-pig. against a strong
dose of the same poison. This is what might have been expected
from analogous cases. Cut the further i)oint is of nnich interest
— that animals immunised against amphibian poison are also im-
munised against the poison of the viper."

Volcanic Dust and Climatic Change.— In a

paper nubHshed in the BiiUctiii of the Mount Weather Obsenv-
tory, \1 fi] 1-3-1- Prof. W. J. Humphreys discusses the various
factors in the production of climatic change, and particularly the
profound changes resulting in the glaciation of the ice-ages. He
considers that "the presence of volcanic dust in the upper atmo-
sphere, is an important factor, wdiich decreases the intensity of
solar radiaticn in the lower atmosphere, and therefore the tem-
perature of the earth, .^n elYect such as this he traces Imck as
far as 1750. These changes of temi)erature, though small in
absolute magnitude, are of^gi'eat importance, seeing that a varia-
tion of only \. 26'' F. has been known to delay the maturing of tho
. Mauritius sugar cane crop by a whole year.

ON THE DEN^ELOPMEXT OF THE PLANULA IN A
CERTAIN SPECIES OF PLUMULARIA.

P>y Prof. Ernest Warrek, D.Sc.

The present brief paper on the peculiar mode of develop-
ment of the plannla in a hydroid constitutes a summary of a
more detailed account with plates, which will be published at a
later date in the " Annals of the Natal Museum."

The species of hydroid is probably new, and was found in
January, 191 1, on an oyster shell in a rock-pool just north of
the mouth of the St. John's River, Pondoland.

The hydroid has a creeping hydrorhiza, which sends upwards
pinnafte stems about f inch in height. The hydrocaulus in the
region of the pinn?e consists of only hydrothecate internodes,
which carry a median sub-calycine nematophore and a pair of
supra-calycine nematophores. The pinn?e are peculiarly short,
and carry, as a rule, only two hydrothecse. The pinnae arise
alternately on the right and left; there is a basal non-thecate
internode articulating with a slight protuberance of the hydro-
caulus internode, then follows a somewhat short, non-thecate
internode with a median nematophore, then a thecate internode
with a median sub-calycine and paired supra-calvcine nemato-
phores, followed by a non-thecate joint, and terminally there is
a second thecate internode. The pinnse usually bear a short
pinnule which arises on the distal edge seated on a slight
prominence springing just above the first theca. The pinnule
carries only one hydrotheca.

The gonothec?e. both male and female, are frequently borne
on the same i^innate stem. The female gonothecte spring from
a spot just below the hydrotheca of the main stem, and on one
side of the sub-calycine nematophore. Frequently three or four
of such gonothecre arise in succeeding internodes, the oldest and
largest being the proxim'al one.

The male g'onothecs arise on the more proximal pinn.x just
below the i^roximal theca.

Here, as in other hydroids. which bear the sexual organs of
both sexes, it may be noticed that the female organs are carried
on the main axis where the available nutritive supply would be
greater, while the male organs arc borne in places where the
nutritive supplies are smaller.

This fact is suggestive that the determination of sex is at
least partly dependent on the amount of available nutriment.

The male gonotheca is small, and consists of an elongated
theca with a well-marked " covering plate " at the apex. Inside
there is a blastostyle carrying a sperm-mass.

The female gonotheca when mature is broadly ovate.
When young the covering plate (Deckcnplattc) is verv marked.
Later the gonotheca becomes inflated and encloses a median narrow

0» DEVELOPMENT IN PLUMULARIA.

blastostyle bearing' one egg at its extremity. There is a large
rounded operculum at the distal surface. The female gono-
theca is markedly flattened in a plane at right angles to the
antero-posterior median vertical plane passing through the
main-axis. It bears near its base a pair of lateral nematophores.

We have now to describe in greater detail the orig^in of the
e^g, the growth of the female gonotheca and es;s, and the develop-
ment of the embryo.

The amount of the material available was fairly consider-
able. The specimens were fixed carefully in warm, corrosive
sublimate and acetic acid solution, and stained with Delafield
Haemotoxylin followed by Orange. Some six pinnate stems
with female gonophores were sectioned in different planes, and
owing to the fact that the gonophores in succeeding internodes
of the main stem were in different conditions of growth, all
stag'es of development would seem to be present.

Notwithstanding this fact, the youngest ovum that could be
identified was already in the endoderm, and was situated just
below the sub-calycine nematophore. Presumably, according to
August ^^'eismann, and from analogv with observations on other
hydroids, the ova first arose in the ectoderm and then migrated
into the endoderm, but fhev were not definitelv located in the
outer la\ er, although carefullv searched for. The ovimi is small,
measuring about 14/^ in diameter, and is surrounded by
ordinary endoderm cells. The presence of the ovum causes a
slight swelling projecting into the lumen of the internode.

The ectoderm immediately above the area where the ovum is
imbedded in the endoderm, earlv becomes slightlv modified in
that the cells are more :olumnar and somewhat taller than the
crdinarv ectoderm cells. The chitinous perisarc situated just
above is become markedly thinner, apparcntlv through being dis-
.-olved bv the subjacent ectoderm.

In the next stage the plate of ectoderm grows out into an
ovoid swelling, which is covered b\' a verv delicate layer of
perisarc continuous with tlie general perisarc. The endoderm
follows the ectoderm, and the whole structure is the beginning
of the female gonotheca. The portion of endoderm carrying
the ovum passes into the gonotheca at the time of its formation.
and 1)ecomes located on one side of it. The diameter of the e^^
has increased to 17 fi

Ey this time the mesoglea between the ectoderm and the
area of endoderm in which the ovum occurs becomes thin and
evanescent. At the same time the ovum graduallv becomes
separated from the endoderm, and the ectoderm around becomes
modified and forms a kind of cap over it. This cap mav be
legarded as rei)resenting a rudinientarv gonophore.

The distal i:)ortion of ectoderm of the voung gor.otheca
consists of columnar cells with pear-shaped, coarsely granular
cells wedged between. This is the beginnin.g of the " covering
plate." The endoderm with the c^ielenteron expands distally and

DEVELOI'MKNT IN PLUM ULARTA. C9

becomes somewhat I'-shaped. The ovum has now entered the
ectoderm, and the covering cap becomes divisible into an inner
columnar la^'er in immediate contact with the ovum, and an
outer layer of flat cells. The ectoderm at the sides of the
.^onotheca .s^radually contracts away from the chitinous layers.
The diameter of the ovum is now about 20 /i.

The gonotheca continues to expand and the egg grow>
sliglitly (diameter about 23/A) ; no obvious yolk is passed into it.
The covering cap of ectoderm cells of two layers, which pro-
bablv represents a rudimentarv gonophore, also grows. A
delicate mesoglea layer appears in this region, and the endoderm
cells on which the ovum is seated are granular and stain more
leadilv than the remainder of the endoderm.

The gonotheca expands further, and the distal plate of tall
columnar cells and granular cells begins to secrete a thicker
layer of perisarc ; this is the beginning of the operculum. The
blastostvle. except in the region of the opercuhnn, is quite
.'-eparated from the chitinous layer of the gonotheca and lies if-
the mid-axis. The cap of two layers of ectoderm around the
ovum grows and becomes separated from the ovum, so that there
is formed a distinct space above the egg.

The egg is probably fertilized at tliis stage, and iM-esumably
after such fertilization it secretes a kind of vitelline membrane,
which is thicker on the outer side tban on the inner side. The
endoderm becomes slightly pushed out into a blunt process con-
sisting of narrow granular cells, and the egg is seated on this
out-pushing. The ovum reaches a diameter of about 34/^.

The gonotheca now grows to its full size, and the cells of
the covering plate and of the endoderm. become attenuated and
thin. The space between the egg and tlie ectoderm layers repre-
senting the gonophore increases in size. The vitelline membrane
becomes thicker. The operculum consists of thicker perisarc
than the rest of the gonotheca, and its edge is sharplv marked
off from the surromiding thinner portion below. The gonotheca
has now assumed its definite form and size and further growth
does nor occur; its greatest width is about 0.48 mm. and length
o.Sg mm.

At a somewhat later stage the outermost gonoijhore layer
of the cells disappears, and the inner la3^er of cubical or columnar
cells breaks up to form an irregular cluster around the
ovum. The covering plate of ectoderm cells below the oper-
culum and the endoderm layer become still more attenuated, and
will shortlv disappear. The outpushing of endoderm becomes
rather more pronounced, and the cells remain granular and
actively living. The egg does not grow, the protoplasm is finely
granular, and there is a large nucleus with nucleolus. There is
still a pronounced membrane around the egg : it is less obvious
in the inner side against the granular cells of the endodermal
outpushing. There is no obvious mesoglea separating the egg
from the endoderm.

QO DEVELOPMENT IN PLUMULARIA.

In the next stage considerable changes have taken place iii
that the whole of the " covering plate " of ectoderm and also
the upper horizontal limbs of the T-shaped endodcrm have
entirely disappeared. The out-pushing of endoderm has grown
upwards and has pushed the egg, together with the surrounding
cells derived from the breaking up of the columnar ectoderm
cells of the rudimentary gonophore, into a more or less central
position in close contact with the operculum. The membrane
around the ovum becomes less distinct.

Sul)sequently the ovum becomes quite central at the apex
of the gonotheca. and is closelv surrounded bv the tissue derived
from the rudimentary gonophore. The endoderm is now in the
form of two symmetricallv i<laced lateral lobes, one being formed
from the endodermal out-pu.shing and the other is the end of the
main axis of the endoderm of the blastostyle. The egg is seated
symmetricallv between the two lobes. The ovum ■segments an'!
a rounded cluster of about t6 iooselv attached blastomeres i--
formed. The endoderm immediatelv under the voung embrvo
consists of taller and more gramdar cells than those of the rest
of the endoderm of the blastostvle.

The number of blastomeres increases, and they become
smaller. A segmentation cavity soon appears, and tliis is not
central l)ut occurs nearer to the apex of the gonotheca, so that
below the embryo is two or three cells in thickness, while above,
it is mostly only one cell thick.

The embryo is now being obviouslv supplied with nouri^li-
ment bv the cells in which it is embedded. The diameter of the
embrvo is 2^ times that of the original ovum, which was never
swollen with ^•olk. The embrvo continues to expand, and the
segmentation cavity increases in size. A differentiation in the
cells of the embryo now becomes evident in the lower side, where
an inner layer of flattened cells can be seen. This laver lines
the segmentation cavitv on the lower half only. Tt would appear
to arise rather by differentiation than bv delamination. Tlie
cells around the embryo constitute a kind of placental feeding
tissue, and the tissue between the embrvo and the endoderm
appears to be the most active portion in the transfer of nourish-
ment. Here some of the cells are rounded or stellate, and they
were doid^tless amreboid.

The embrvo begins to sink further into the gonotheca, and
Ijecomes more widelv separated from the apex. The embryo has
assumed a pear-shaped outline, and the two lobes of endoderm
grow upwards around it, followed bv the ectoderm. The cells
of this ectoderm are verv elongated and extended to the walls of
the gonotheca. The ectoderm between the embrvo and the lobes
of endoderm retains the same characters as before, and doubtless
it carries nourishment from the endoderm to the embryo. The
inner flat layer of cells of the embrvo. which constitutes the be-
ginming of the endoderm. is still confined to the lower half or
two-thirds of the embryo.

DEVELOPMENT IN Pr,T^AIl'T. \Rr\. ()l

The embryo continues to s:i'ow, and the cells of which it is
composed increase ^s^reatl}' in number, but their size remains the
same as before. The endoderm of the embryo is continued
rii;ht round antl liecomes more than one cell thick. The ecto-
derm is also mostly two or three cells in thickness. The cells of
the ectoderm and endoderm differ but little from each other in
appearance. Init the endoderm cells are perhaps a little flatter.
There is, however, a fairly sharp line of division (an !nci|)ient
mesoglea) between the two layers. Whether the endoderm
arises as a definite splitting off of the ectoderm (delamination)
or by a .g^radual differentiation of the innermost cells cannot be
clearly seen, but the difference between the two method^ of
orio^in is probably so small that it may be regarded as an artificial
distinction which cannot be fulb' distinguished in anv individual
case of development.

The outermost cells of the ectoderm of the embrvo are not
sharjily marked off from the placental tissue. The cells of this
tissue come into the most intimate connection with the embryo.

The embryo still further increases in size and pushes itself
into a more central position in the gonotheca. The ccelenteron is
very extensive, and the wall n{ the embrvo is comparativelv
very thin. This wall is thinnest along the flattened sides of the
gonotheca, and here it consists of a single layer of ectoderm and
endoderm cells, and is closely .squeezed against the perisarc.

Above, below and laterally, the wall is considerablv thicker,
arid both the ectoderm and the endoderm are several cells in
thickness. Thus in section parallel to the plane of flattening of
the gonotheca the planula is quite thick walUyl.

The material has not permitted an examination of a later
stage, but it is probable that the planula in the above condition
i^ nearlv readv to break out of the gonotheca. for the gonotheca
that was immediately below, and tlierefore slightly c Ider, was
empty and the operculum gone, doubtless through th--' i)iu-sting
out of the planula.

Here, then, wc liave an interesting case of the nourishing of
the developing embrvo. Tn the majoritv of Invertebrates the
egg is charged with enough food or volk-material to enable
development to proceed sufficientlv far until the voung creature
c?n feed and provide itself with food. Tn this hydroid the e^;^
rcma^ins quite small and is never i^rovided with volk. but it
segments, and development takes place in a kind of placental
maternal tissue, which supplies the embrvo with food during the
whole develoi)ment. This placental tissue arises as a modifica-
tion of an outgrowth of the ectoderm of the blastostvle. This
outgrowth, as we have seen, forms a kind of cap over the young
ovum, and doubtless may be regarded as representing a rudimen-
tary gonophore.

THE EEARTNG OF RECENT DISCOVERIES OF EARLY
TERTIARY SHELLS, NEAR TRINIDAD ISLAND
AND IN BRAZIL, ON HA^POTHETICAL LAND
ROUTES BETWEEN SOUTH AMERICA AND
AFRICA.

'Bv Carlotta loAQi'TXA AIaitry, Ph.D.

It was my good fortune lately to be sent as palseontolog'ist
of a geological experlition in charge of Mr. Arthur C. Veatch.
and under the auspices of the Cieneral Asphalt Company of
Philadelphia, to Trinidad Island and Eastern Venezuela. We
obtained fossils ranging from Cretaceous to Quaternary; but
the interest centred around these of early Eocene age. For true
basal Eocene fossils had never before been found in that region
or anywhere in the Antilles. Moreover, this Eocene fauna
formed a perfect link between the basal Eocene of the southern
United States and that of the Pernaml)uco beds of Brazil, the
a.ge of which had previously not been determined.

The Eocene fossils were discovered by Mr. Veatch and
several of the other gentlemen of the expedition, on Soldado
Rock, an islet 1T7 feet high, lying in the Gulf of Paria near the
Serpent's Moutli, just west of the south-western extremity of
Trinidad.

The lowest of the fossiliferous beds on this rock is an
extremely hard greyish to reddish limestone. Lithologically it
is exactly like the basal Eocene formations at Ri]>ley, ^lississippi ;
Fort Gaines, Georgia: and Clayton, Alabama. And this resem-
blance becomes most striking when fragments of the Soldado
rock contain shells of the same species as those of the Gulf
States. Indeed, it wa:^ most fortunate that, although a very
large proportion of the Soldado forms w^ere new, there were
also such very characteristic North American lower Eocene
species as Vcnericardia planicosta. Leinfusus pagoda, Latirus
iortilis. Calyptraphorus velatus var. comprcssns, and Tnrritella
mortoni. Very happily, mingled with these were characteristic
Pernambuco forms as Callista incgrathia)m, Chioue paracusis 2liv\
CnaiUcra Jiarttii, all of which had never liefore been found out-
side of the State of Pernambuco.

Thus I was able to correlate both the Soldado beds and those
of Pernambuco as basal Eocene equivalent to the Midway stage
of Alabama*.

The uppermost fossiliferous bed on Soldado contained
fossils that were mostly new, but Ostrea thirsce, FusoHcula
]iri'cnis, and Modiola alabanicnsis, and even the aspect of the
new species indicated a Lignitic Eocene age corresponding t»
the Nanafalayan stage of Alabama.

* For complete descriptions, see Maury: " Palaeontology of Trinidad."
Jour. Acad. Nat Sci. Philadelphia. 2nd series. Vol. XV, pp. 25-112, 1913.

TERTIARY LAND ROl-'lES I'.ETWEEN AMERICA AND AFRICA.

9:s

(ireat stress has been laid by many writers on the resem-
blances of South American fossils to those of contemporaneous
times of the Old World. Relationships have been established
between the South American faunas and those of France, Spain,
Malta. Morocco. Egypt. South Africa, and India; but until Dr.
Derby's work on the Paheozoics of Brazil little was said of the
faunal relationships of the two Americas. It fact, it was thought
that hardly any mingling had occurred between the species of
these adjacent continents.

But this discover}- of lower Eocene forms on Soldado Rock
awakened my belief in the very close kinship of the North and
South American Tertiary life. This view was strengthened by
the previous discoveries of Dr. Heilprin and Dr. Dall that the
Antillean Oligccene has a close relationship with that of Florida.

Nor are these kinships limited to the Tertiary. They existed
in tlie Pal?eozoic and now exist in the present, as a glance at the
accompan^'ing table will show: —

RELATE]) I'AUXAS OF THE A^I ERICAS.

Geologic Age. ■ South America North America.

Mnllnscan and coral faunas Mnlluscan and coral faunas
nnrilnvard from the La Plata- southward from Cape

Recent and
Quaternary

Hatteras.

Olicocene. Upper Olitcocene faunas of ITpperOligocene of Florida

Cumana (Venezuela), Trini (Tampa silex bed and
dad and Jamaica. Chipola marlsL

Lower Oliijocene faunas of San Lower Oligocene of Vicks-
Fernando and ^Manzanilla hur.a:, Mississippi.
Trinidad.

Eocene. Lignitic fauna of Soldado Lignitic fauna of the Gulf

Rock. States.

Midway fauna of Soldado and Midway fauna of the Gulf
Pernamhuco. States.

Cretaceous. Cretaceous faunas of Vene- Cretaceous of the South-
zuela and Colombia. Western LTnited States

and Mexico.

Carboniferous. Faunas of the Amazonian Val Coal Measures of the
ley in Brazil, Bolivia, and Western United States
Peru. - (More tlian half the spe-

cies being identical).

Devonian. Erere fauna of Brazil.

Maecuru fauna of Brazil.

Onondaga fauna of the

United States.
Oriskany of Alabama.

Brazilian and Venezuelan Silu Niagaran of the United
rian faunas (LTpper forma- States,
tion).

Brazilian Silurian faunas Clinton and Richmond
(Lower formation). faunas of the United

States.

It appears as if, — just as the present moUuscan and coral
faunas of the (julf coast of the United States came originally

94 TERTIARY LAND ROUTES I'.ll'l tVEEX AMERICA \XD AFKK A.

from the coast of Brazil, as Dr. Dall and Dr. \ errill have shown
— so the Tertiary marine invertebrate faunas of the Gulf States
])robably originated in the Brazilian and Antillean waters.

On the other hand, various recent researches have shown as
regards the supposed affinities of the Antillean and South Ameri-
can Cretaceous, Eocene, and Oligocene invertebrate faunas to
those of South-Western Europe and Northern Africa and India,
that although there are very few species in common, and others
bearing resemblances, yet the evclution of the faunas on the two
sides of the Atlantic was distinct. The si>ecies common to both
coasts were in some cases pelagic, as the South American
Cretaceous Ammonite, PulcheUia. which occurs in Colombia and
neighbour i-ng countries, and in the Alps, Roumania, and Asia.
3n other cases as Venericardia planicosta, we can easily suppose
the molluscs to have crossed xna the Greenland-Spitzbergen
route, especially when we recall the sub-tropical climate prevail-
ing in those high latitudes during the early Tertiaries. Or
these species may have been of northern origin and migrated
down the east and west coasts of the Atlantic. Some of the
resemblances have been found to lie parallelisms of develop-
ment, merely responses to similar environments, and not specific
identities. Moreover, in a number of cases species identifie<l
years ago with those of the eastern hemisphere have turned out
later when more material was obtained, not to be precisely the
same. For example, in 1887 Dr. C. A. White, in his fine mono-
graph on Brazilian fossils* identified a Turrit cUa from the Rio
Maria I'^arinha beds, Pernambuco, as I'ltrritcUa clicita described
by Stoliczka from the Cretaceous of Southern Indiaf. Since
then Professor G. D. Harris has monogra])he(l the Alabama Mid-
way$, and now it is clear that the true identity of the Brazilian
TurritcUa is not with the Indian species, but with Conrad's
Turritel'a lunncrosa, characteristic of the North American Lower
Eocene.

There is, however, a TurritcUa in the lowest fossiliferous
bed on Soldado, which is extremely close to Stoliczka's shell,
differing mainly in its less slender form, and I have named it
elicitatoides. But Dr. Dall once pointed out to me an interesting
■''act shown by the rich and exquisitely preserved Florida Oligo-
cene shells, namely, that in successive horizons there often come
repetitions of certain types of sculpture. Now this must indicate
a ready response to similar external conditions, a repetition of
physical conditions causing a repetition of sculpture. And it
would seem likely that the resemblance between the Soldado
and Indian shells should be explained in this way.

Those who advocate the relationships between the South

* " Arch, do Museu Nac. do Rio de Janeiro" (1887), pp. 162-163. pl-
XVIII, figs 6. 7-

t "Pal. Indica, Geol, Surv. India," Vol. II. p. 221. pl. XIV, lig. 3, 1868.
t " Bull, American Palaeontology," Vol. I.

TKKTIAin LAXD ROl'TKS KKIWEEN AMEKIC.\ AND AFRICA. Q:^

American aiul Antillean 'JY-rtiarv faunas witli tliosc of Northern
Africa, and Soutli-Western lun-ope, and Asia usually postulate
cither a mid-Atlantic route ])assing- north-east and east from
Trinidad to North Africa and South ]un-o]ie. or a South Atlantic
route ■<■■/./ nortliward extensions of Antarctica.

Tlie mid-Atlantic route is thout,dn to have heen first a conti-
nent (virtually Atlantis) hecoming- later, throug-h subsidence, a
chain of islands which, according to some authors ( as Dr. Guppy,
of Trinidad ) existed into middle or even late Tertiarv times.

The crystalline highlands of lirazil and ( iuiana are looked
upon as ruins of the western extremit}' of this continent, while
the eastern remnants are Aladeira and the Canary Islands.

Some writers of brilliant imag;ination, but not geologists.
as Donnelly and Jules Verne, have endeavcnu'ed to prove from
Greek and Egyptian traditions of a A-anislied continent to the
westward of Northern Africa, that Atlantis existed fluring the
Human period and was the scene of a splendid ancient civiliza-
tion, lint, as I need not sa}'. its existence since man has been
upon the earth is to be looked ui)on only as a charming fairy
tale. ^Moreover, its existence at any period is not supported by
evidence given by the floor of the Atlantic for some of the pro-
found deeps now lie in its pathway.

Yet it is not impossible tliat there w^as a limited land ma.ss
not transoceanic, lying to thf north and east of northern South
America, which supplied rock debris for building u]) the PaLxo-
."'oics of Brazil and oldest rocks of Trinidad, for they appear
according to Katzer and other< to have been formed of material
derived from the eastward. \\'e can more readily believe this,
because the presence of deep sea genera of Foraminifera in
.^vntillean formations indicates tbat this area lias been sirbjected
to very unusual changes of level.

The South Atlantic route r'/Vr extensions of Antarctica appears
somewhat more probable because of the configuration of the
ocean floor in that regie n. It was first advocated b\- Sir Joseph
Hooker, in 1847, to explain the distribution of flowering, plants.
Evidence in its favour was later set forth by Beddard, Moore,
Spencer. Ameghino, Hatcher and Ortmann, and, in 1900, Dr.
Osborn reccnstructed x\ntarctica by elevation to the three thou-
'-and and forty meter sounding line. This connected the Ant-
arctic continent with South .America, .Australia and Ne\A- Zealand,
but not with Africa.

This evidence furnished by the oceanic floor against an Ant-
arctic connection of South .America and Africa was strengthened
in the following year by the results of Ortmann's sturly of the
fossil shells and mammals of Patagonia. He found their resem-
blance to certain forms of New Zealand and Australia to be so
close as to be regarded by him as an indication of a former con-
nection of South America with Australia, hiif not ivifh Africa.

96 TERTIARY LAND ROUTES r.KTWEEK AMERICA AND AFRICA.

Finally^ in 1910,* Dr. Osbcrn abandoned as a matter of im-
perfect record the theory of an Antarctic land connection even
between South America and Au.straha.

He now believes that the greater part of the animals and
plants of the .Southern Continent are of northern origin, and that
the evidence advanced for Antarctic coimection> is probably ex-
plainable through distribution from the north.

Of the South American mammals. Dr. Osborn remarks, f
" There is no satisfactory evidence of connection at any time with
the manmialian life of Africa except in the very late Pliocene
times, through migration by way of North America."

It was a delight to find that these conclusions of Dr. Osborn,
reached from a study of the vertebrates, should so harmonize
with my own, based on the invertebrates.

In conclusion, we may say that our present knowledge indi-
cates: (i) that the early Tertiary molluscan and mammalian
faunas of South America were closely akin to those of North
America; and (2) that the evidence furnished by Ix)th the mol-
luscs and land vertebrates of South America is against the ex-
istence of Tertiarv or Cretaceous land bridges to Africa.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCfETIES.

Royal Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, October 15th : Dr. L.
Peringuey, F.E.S.. F.Z.S., Presideni. in the ciiair. — " A new mimicry plant
{Mesembriaiithcuiiim lapidcfonne)" : Prof. R. Marloth. In summer the
plant consists only of two fleshy bodies (the leaves), which are half buried
in the sand. Each leaf is shaped like a tetrahedron, with blunt edges and
\angles, and brownish-red in colour ilke the angular fragments of stone
among which the plant grows. It is consequently most difficult to detect
even in localities where its occurrence is known. In spring the plant pro-
duces two flowers, one at each side, which are joined to the parent plant
by a very thin connection. The ripe seed vessel is consequently easily
detached at this spot and can be carried away b}' the wind — a mode of
dispersal unique among the nearly 400 species of the genus Meseuihrianthe-
muni. " On an experimental modification of Van der Waal's equation " :
J. P. Dalton. The a of Van der Waals's equation is considered to be a
function of the temperature only, and the b to I)e independent of the
temperature. The function is then determined for a typical normal sub-
stance (isopentane) from the experimental isothermals. The modified
vapour pressure curve is found to represeint experimental results for both
normal and abnormal substances much more closely than the original.
The new values agree well with the Van derWaals vapour pressure for-
mula, and the modified equation is used with quite satisfactory results for
the calculation of latent heats and also for oi)taining the curve of inversiion
of the specific heat of saturated vapours. — " Barometric variability at Kim-
berley and elsewhere " : Dr. J. R. Sutton An attempt to determine work-
ing constants which shall represent the " cyclonic activity '" at various
places in South Africa and such other places outside as have available
information regarding the barometer. Tables are given showing the
monthly mean constants, with maximum and minimum values, or baro-
metric variability. One deduction is that the " equinoctial gales." so far
as barometric changes can represent them, have no existence in fact.

* " The Age of Mammals," p.
t Op. Cit. p 78.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES. 97

Geological Society of South Africa. — Monday, June 30th: Mr. H. S.
Harger, Vice-President, in the chair. — "The Bushman's River creta-
ceous rocks " : Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz. The author recently examined
the Wood Beds (Lower Cretaceous) of the Bushman's River, where
Antliodon serrarius was discovered by Atherstone over fifty years ago.
The resuk of the examination was the discovery of a large bone, estimated
to have been quite rive feet long, which would give about twelve feet for
the length of the hind leg. At the base of the Wood Beds are brow*n
sandy beds, and above red marls, both containing great logs of petrified
wood, probably Araucarias, up to 18 in. diameter. Near Woodbury is the
alum cave whence the mineral bushmanite is obtained, the cave having
been formed by the weathering of the unconformity between the Witteberg
quartzites and the Enon conglomerate. As a natural occurrence the
chemical combination of this mineral, a magnesia-manganese alum, is
unique in the world. — " The geology of Katanga and Northern Rhodesia — •
an outline of the geology of South Central Africa"': F. E. Studt. The
author described (i) the sequence and general characteristics of the rock
systems of Katanga and Northern Rhodesia, and gave an ou'tline of the
tectonic geology of that portion of the African continent, covering an area
twice that of the British Tsles ; (2) He showed that the rock systems
recognised in South Africa cover the greater part of Equatorial and South
Central Africa, having similar lithological characters and geological
sequence; (3) He indicated the general distribution and relative age of the
large areas of subsidence which occur in Equatorial and South Central
Africa; and (4) lie summarised generally tlie conclusions arrived at.
Structurally he divided Equatorial and Southern .Africa into the follow-
ing regions: {a) the Couiio-Aii}iola-Kalahari Region, distinguished by the
presence, in almost undisturbed condition, of the Transvaal system and
the Waterberg System, and almost completely surrounded by rocks of the
Swazi system; (b) the Katanga-Rhodesia-Transi'aal Region, characterised
l)y the presence of the Transvaal and Waterberg forma,tions, very much
disturbed by granitic intrusion ; { c) the Cape Region a country of foldecL
and mountainous nature, covered I)y the apparent equivalents of the Trans-
vaal and Waterberg Systems: ( d) the Karroo Region, the large and high
plateau whose southern part was continously immersed in Ithe Karroo
Sea; (e) the East African Region — that part of the Continent east of Lake
Graben, from which the Transvaal and Waterberg formations are almost
entirely absent. The region is almost wholly granitic, schistose and vol-
canic, and is characterised by an extension of the subsidences, accompanied
by powerful volcanic activity, from the Katanga-Rhodesia Region; (f)
the Coastal Belts, narrow zones in which Cretaceous and Tertiary post-
Karroo deposits have been laid down. Incidentally, the author pointed out
the resemblance of the subsided areas, which extend apparently over 2,000
miles, from the Zambesi-Luangwa graben into Abyssinia, to the Martian
canals, and suggested that, if those canals really exist, these long subsi-
dences afford an explanation of them.

Monday, September 8th : A. L.- Hall, B.A., F.G.S., President, in the
chair. — "The cassiterite lodes of Leeuwpoort; the paragenesis of the lode-
forming minerals " : D. P. McDonald. Cassiterite is very widely dis-
tributed throughout the area, but development has been concentrated on
live occurrences, and these were fully dealt with by the author, and the
minerals occurring in the lodes described. The ore bodies result almost
L-ntirely from the replacement of the quartzites by those minerals: these
replacements were each shortly discussed. Conclusions as to the order of
succession of the lode-forming minerals were stated, and the processes by
which the tin ore was mineralised from the granite of the Bushveld Com-
l)lex indicated. — " Notes on the tin deposits of Embabaan and Forbes Reef
in Swaziland " : A. L. Hall. The localities mentioned constitute the two
main tin-bearing districts of northern Swaziland. Practically the whole of
the tin recovered from the Embabaan workings occurs in the form of loose
crystals of cassiterite, no definite lodes in situ being visible. The source
of this cassiterite is undoubtedly the pegmatites belonging to the older

9^ TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

granite formation. At Forbes Reef, 14 miles north of Embabaan, there are
two modes of occurrence ; these may be referred to as in granite and in
schist. The Forbes Reef deposits consist entirely of reef tin, and they are
probably genetically connected with the intrusion of the granite into the
schists. This mode of occurrence is unusual, and suggests the economic
possibilities of beds of schists in close proximity to intrusive granite. —
" The terraces of Eerste River at Stellenbosch " : Prof. S. J. Shand.
Along a certain part of its course the river is boimded by flat alluvial
terraces, horizontal in a direction at right angles to the river course, but
inclining constantly downstream. The author examined into the conditions
under which a silt-charged river may deposit part of its load, and found
it chiefly in the confluence, within a small area, of a number of txDrrential
streams. When once the alluvium had been deposited, the river com-
menced to remove some of the deposit and to establish a new level at a
horizon 27 feet lower. Still later, part of this second terrace was carried
away, and a third level, six feet lower, established. The present flood level
is 12 feet below this. The inference is the elevation of the surrounding
area within recent times b}- not more than 50 feet, involving the previous
submergence of the isthmus connecting the Cape Peninsula with the main-
land and the separation of tlie Peninsula itself into a pair of islands by
means of a strait connecting Chapman's Bay with Fish Hoek.

NEW BOOKS.

Sander, Dr. L. — GeschicJitc dcr Dciitschoi Kulonial-Gescllschaft fiir
Siid-ivest-A frika von Hirer Griindwiii bis znm Jahrc 1910. 2 vols.

1912. loi X 8 in., pp. (vol. [) xxxix, 315, (vol. 2) iv, 477. Maps
and ports. Berlin : D. Reimer. 30M.

Nielson, P. — The Matahclc at home. l\\u<. Bulawayo : Davis & Co.,

1913. 4s. 6(1.

Baltzer, F. — Die Erschliessinig Afrilcas durch Eisenbahncn. gh X 6i in.,
pp. 36. Map. Berlin: D. Reimer, 1913, 1913. is.

Madan, A. C. — Lahj-Lain!ia-U'isa and English, English and Lahi-
Laniha-VVisa Dictionary. 7 X 4] in pp. 328. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1913. los. 6d..

Ellenberger, D. F. — History of the Basuto. Ancient and Modern. Med.
8vo., 9X6 in. pp. xxii, 396. London : Caxton Publishing Co.,
Ltd., 1912. 30 oz.. 7s. 6d. net.

Junod, Henri A.— The life of a South African Tribe. — //. The Psychic
Life, g X. 6 in., pp., pp. 574, illus. London: Macmillian & Co., 1913.
15s.

Torday, E. — Camp and Tramp in African IVilds: A record of adven-
ture, impressions and experiences during many years spent among
the sai'age tribes round Lake Tanganyika and in Central Africa.
8vo., map and illus., pp. xv, 316. London: Seeley, Service &
Co., 1913. 32 oz., i6s.

Scully, W. C. — Reminiscences of a South African Pioneer. 9 X 6 in. pp.
320, illus. London : T. Fisher Unwin, T913. los. 6d.

Stuart, J.~A history of the Zulu rebellion. 1906, and of Dinisulu's arrest,
trial, and expatriation. 8vo., pp. xvi, 581. Ports and map. Lon-
don : Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1913. 37 oz., 15s.

Holt,H.P. -77;i' Mounted Police of Natal. 8vo., pp. xviii, 366. Ports, and
illu>. London: John Murray, 1913. 28 oz., los. 6d.

HEALTH CONDITIONS ON THE JSTHMUS OF
PANAMA.

Bv Samuel Evans.

Count Ferdinand de Lesseps faded in his efforts to construct
a canal across the Isthmus of Panama chiefly because of the high
mortality among the workers, and that notwithstanding a la\ish
expenditure on hospitals and on medical attention. The Ameri-
cans acquired the right to make the Panama Canal by a Treaty
which was ratified on February 26th, 1904, but it was not until
near the end of 1905 that the authorities in Washington fully
realised that the completion of the undertaking would depend on
the successful solution of the health problem,. The sanitation
work on the Canal Zone was placed under the direction of a
member of the United States x\rmy Medical Corps, Colonel
Gorgas, who had already distinguished himself as Chief Sanitary
Officer of Havana.

In the 1903 edition of the West India Pilot, the Panama
Canal District is described as "one of the hottest, w^ettest, and
most feverish regions in existence." Sir William Osier in
" Man's Redemption of Man," states that " For centuries the
Isthmus had been the white man's grave." In an address deli-
vered before the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce in June,
191 1, Colonel Gorgas said: —

The present raih-oad across the Isthmus was under construction from
1850 to 1855. During this period the mortality was so great that several
times construction had to stop because the labouring force had died or
were sick. No statistics were retained concerning this period, so we can
judge of conditions only from individual instances. At one time the
construction company imported one thousand negroes from the West
Coast of Africa, and within six months these had all died off. At another
time, for the same reasons, they brought over one thousand Chinamen and
within six months these had all died off.

Under the first French Panama Canal Company the work
was at its maximum from 1881 to 1889. In January, 1886. the
company had in its employ on, the Isthmus 14,605 negroes and
670 Europeans, making a total of 15,275 men. Colonel Gorgas,
in the address from which I have just quoted, states :

From the best information which I can get, and which I, consider
accurate, I believe the French lost 22,189 labourers by death from 1881 to
1889. This would give a rate of something over 240 per thousand per
year. I think it due to the French to say that we could not have done a
bit better than they, if we had known no more of the cause of these

Tropical diseases than they did We ourselves, with an average

force of 33,000 men, in nearly the same length of time, have lost less
than 4,000.

Colonel Gorgas gives a number of instances to illustrate the
deadly character of the Isthmus of Panama at that time, so far
as Europeans were concerned :

lOO HEALTH CONDITIONS OF PANAMA.

The first French Director, M. Dingier, came to the Isthmus with his
wife and three children. At the end of the li'rst six months all had died of
yellow fever except himself. One of the French engineers, who was still
on the Isthmus when we first arrived, stated that he came over with a party
of seventeen young Frenchmen. In a month they had all died of yellow
fever except himself. The Superintendent of the railroad brought to the
Isthmus his three sisters ; within a month they had all died of yellow
fever. The Mother Superior of the Sisters nursing in Ancon Hospital
told me that she had come out with twenty-four Sisters. Within a few
years twenty-one had died.

M. Bunau Varilla, writing of the busiest period when the
Canal was tinder French control, states :

Out of each loo individuals who arrived on the Isthmus it is not an
exaggeration to say that on an average not more than 20 were able to
keep at their posts in the construction camp.

Referring to the fact that under the French practically all
the manual labour was done l)y negroes, M. Bunau X'arilla
writes :

Death within three months was almost certain for white labourers on
the Canal works.

Now let us see what has taken place on the Isthmus under
the Americans. Colonel Gorgas went to the Panama in June,
1904. Owing, however, to red tape and official delays, he was
not able to accomplish much during the first year. Mr. W. F.
Johnson in " Four Centuries of the Panama Canal," writes :

It took many weeks to get mosquito netting for- the windows of the
Canal office buildings, and then not enough was supplied, and in the m.ean-
time some of the most valuable men of the staff were prostrated by the
bites of malarial mosquitoes. The Chief Sanitary Officer wanted netting
for all the official buildings in the Canal Zone. This request was refused
as extravagant and unnecessary. Then he asked for at least enough to
enclose the verandahs of the hospitals. This, too. was refused, and he
was told tliat there was no need of enclosing more than half the verandahs,
and that even then a part of ihe space should l)c solidly l)oarded up instead
of screened.

Howe\er, the Chief Sanitary Officer persisted ; he gradually
overcame all opposition. By the end of 1905 yellow fever had
been entirely suppressed, and since the end of 1907 the Isthmian
Canal Sanitation Department has shown results which are prob-
ably unparalleled in the history of human achievement.

I do not think I can better convey an impression of the im-
I)rovement in the health conditions effected under the American
Administration than by means of the following table, which gives
the disease death-rate per thousand i)er annum among the Canal
employes from the beginning of 1906 until the end of last
year : —

Year.

Europeans.

Negroes.

Total.

1906

12.35

45-52

• 38.98

1907

10.92

29.61

24.53

1908

7.27

9-24

8.68

1909

6.43

7-9r

7-55

1910

4.92

8.39 . .

7-50

191 1

5.88 . .

8.2^

7.6s

1912

4.62

. 6.9'

6.37

HEALTH CONDITIONS OF PANAMA. 101

The average num'ber of workers was : —

Year.

Europeans.

Negroes.

Total.

1906

5,264

. 21,441

• 26,705

1912

• • • 12,553 • •

• 38.340

• 50,893

I have taken 1906 as a starting point because that is the first
year for which I have been able to obtain detailed statistics.

I may mention that the last case of yellow fever originating
on the Canal Zone was in November, 1905.

In 191 2 there were living on the Canal Zone, which is in the
Tropics, 4,502 white women and children from the United States,
and the mortality from disease amongst them was at the rate of
5.55 per thousand per annum, a record which compares favour-
ably with the mortality rates of women and children in many
European health resorts.

Colonel Gorgas attril^utes the phenomenal success of the
Isthmian Canal Sanitation Department to

The great discoveries in Tropical medicine made during the time
between the coming of the French to the Isthmus and the coming of our-
selves.

Colonel Gorgas's policy appears to be based mainly on the
following discoveries : —

1. Tn 1898 Sir Ronald Ross proved that malaria is caused by a parasite

which is transmitted through the agency of a mosquito belonging
to the genus anopheles or other closely related genera.

2. Tn 1900 and 1901 a Board composed of four surgeons of the United

States Army Medical Corps conducted a series of experiments in
Cuba, which proved conclusively that the virus of yellow fever is
conveyed from one person to another by the mosquito stegomyia
calopus and in no other way, excepting by experimental injections.

3. In 1898 Dr. Simmonds claimed to have proved that plague was

spread by fleas from plague infected rats. This claim was not
hnally accepted by medical men until 1905. In 1902 and 1903 Dr.
D. J. Verjbitski, by a scries of experiments, showed that plague
; could be communicated to healthy men and animals by bujfs as well

as by fleas.

4. In 1900 the United States Government published an abstract of a

report by the Commission which investigated the origin and
spread of typhoid fever in the United States Military Camps
during the Spanish War. One of the conclusions of the Commis-
sion was that " flies undoubtedly serve as carriers of infection."
Previous to the publication of the Commission's Report, Dr. L. O.
Howard, Chief Entomologist of the United States Department of
Agriculture, had warned the American public tliat the common
house fly was in all probability a disseminator of typhoid fever.

Lieutenant-Colonel Macpherson. of the Royal Army Medi-
cal Corps, who visited the Panama in March, 1908, stated in a
paper read before the United Services Medical Society, July ist.
1908, that there had been a considerable incidence of enteric
fever in the labour camps on the Canal Zone, and that

102 IIEAI.TH CONDITIONS OF PANAMA.

Much practical attention is being paid to the prevention of its spread
by flies and other insects. The association between tiies and disease became
very prominent in connection with the American camps in Florida in 189S.
Since then the United States medical awthorities have made considerable
progress in measures for getting rid of flies in connection with habitations
and camps, special attention being paid to preventing them having access to
latrines and food. On the Canal Zone all latrines, no matter of what
form, are made fly-proof.

Most of the measures ado])ted by Colonel Gorgas were
specifically designed with a view to suppressing yellow fever,
malaria, plague, and other insect-'borne diseases by —

(a) Killing insects and vermin.

(b) Eliminating or destroying their breeding places.

((-) Making it as difficult as possible for them to get at
infected matter and at human beings.

Such in broad outline are the distinctive features of Colonel
Gorgas's .system of sanitation.

The Hon. Joseph Baynes, of Natal, has initiated and is the
champion in South Africa of a somewhat similar policy as
regards animal diseases. Dipping does for animals what Colonel
(lorgas's system does for human beings— -it prevents the spread
of disease by insects. In both cases, professional men have been
slow to accept the results and to act tipon them. In 1910, at my
suggestion, a circular was sent to each of the managers of the
Rand Mines-Eckstein Group of companies, instructing them to
take steps to deal with flies in the compounds, btit I Ijelieve very
little has been done, owing, no dou])t, to the fact that many of the
mine doctors are n.ot convinced that flies are a serious danger to
health.

So far as I know, Khartoum is the only place besides the
Panama where the health authorities have concentrated atten-
tion on preventing insects from spreading disease. Dr. Balfour,
Director of the Wellcome Research Laboratories, and also Medi-
cal Oflicer of Health of Khartoum, has distributed among the
inhabitants a " Handbook on Sanitation," which is intended to
make the public " con\'ersant with the main lines of sanitary
policy which are followed in the city." Nearly the whole of the
Handbook is devoted to the reduction and elimination of insects
and vermin — mosquitoes, flies, sand flies, bed bugs, rats, etc.
"The consequence is that Khartoum, like the Canal Zone, is not
only almost mosquito-less, but also nearly fly-less, and the results
are equally gratifying, the death rate for the two years ended 30th
September last being under ten per thousand per annum.

The saving of human and animal life which has followed
the adoption of Colonel Gorgas's system in the Panama and of
dipping in South Africa points to the conclusion that we have
hitherto greatly under-estimated the extent and character of
the mischief done by insects.

. It is now recognised that dipping helps to keep in good health
not only cattle and sheep, but also horses, mules, donkevs and
dogs.

HEALTH CONDITIONS OF PANAMA. 103

The. improvement of the health conditions on the Panama
Canal is not conlined to any particular race or to any particular
disease. As a matter of fact it is most marked in two wholly
unexpected directions : —

( 1 ) With negroes who are supposed to be largely immune
from Tropical diseases, and

(2) In the case of pneumonia, which is not ordinarily consi-
dered as being a Tropical disease or insect borne.

It would probably surprise most people to hear that in the
days of the French Canal companies, and also in the first years
under the Americans : —

(a) The death rate among the negro workers was much
heavier than among the European employes, and that

(b) The principal cause of the high mortality of the negroes
was pneumonia, as is the case with the Kaffirs on the
mines of the Transvaal and of Southern Rhodesia.

By the end of 1007 Colonel Gorgas had brought his measures
for preventing the spread of disease by insects to a high state
of perfection. In nearly every one of the monthly bulletins for
that year is reported the completion of some important item
in the plan of campaign against insects and vermin. Before the
commencement of 1908 the houses of practically all the Ameri-
cans working on the Canal had been screened and made vermin
proof and provided with water closets in place of the pail system.
An examination of the table giving the mortality rates from the
beginning of 1906 to the end of last year shows that the reduction
in the death rates of the employes coincide in a remarkable
manner with the maturing of the plans of the Isthmian Canal
Sanitation Department. Further, that table points to the conclu-
sion that the improvement effected is permanen: in f'haracter. An
idea of the extent and bearing of this improvement can be
gathered from the following comparisons of the disease death
rates of 1906 with those of 1912: —

]\Iortalit>' from Diseases per thousand per annum among the
employes of the Isthmjan Canal Commission and the
Panama Railroad Company.

A. — Europeans.

1906.

Pneumonia 3.61

Malaria 2.85

Typhoid and other intestinal diseases 2.09

Meningitis 38

Other Diseases 3.42

Reduction

I9I2.

m 1912.

.24

3-37

.48

2-37

.08

2.01

.08

•30

3-74

+■32

Total 12.35 462 7.73

104 HEALTH CONDITIONS OF PANAMA.

B. — Negroes.

Reduction

1906. 1912. in 1912.

Pneumonia 18.46 1.41 17.05

Malaria 9.74 -21 9-53

Typhoid and other intestinal diseases 4.66 .29 4.37

Meningitis 116 .26 .90

Other Diseases 11.50 4.77 (^■']},

Total 45-5^ 6.94 38.58

C. — Total Force.

1906.

Pneumonia 1 5.54

Malaria 8.39

Typhoid and other intestinal diseases 4.16

Meningitis i.oi

Other Diseases 9.88

Total 38.98

Reduction
1912. in 1912.
14.42

1. 12

•27
.24
.20

8.12

3-92
.81

4-54 5-34

6.37 32.61

Had the mortality rates of 1906 among" the employes of the
Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Railroad Company
prevailed last year, about 1600 additional deaths would have
taken place ; and there would, no doubt, have been a large number
of additional deaths among the families of the employes and the
other residents on the Canal Zone. 1 consider that we are justi-
fied in concluding that most of these lives were saved in precisely
the same way as animal life is saved in South Africa — by pre-
venting insects from spreading disease.

Etiology of Cancer. — At the International Medical
Congress held a few months ago. Dr. Freund, of Vienna, an-
nounced the discovery that there usually exists in normal blood
a fatty acid possessing the power of destroying cancer cells. In
cases of cancer the blood was found to lack this fattv acid, but,
on the other hand, contained a substance which had the property
of destroying the acid wdiich would normally destroy the cancer-
cells. Dr. Freund belie\es that when cancer tumours develop in
the body the normally present fatty acid must have ]5reviously
disappeared from or diminished in the blood.

8. A, Assn. for Adv. of Sc

1913. Pl. 4.

WT

Prof. G. H. Stanley.— The IM'kamdhla IVIeteorite.

ON A METEORITE FROM N'KANDHLA DISTRICT,
ZULULAND.

Hy Prof. George Hardy Stanley, A.R.S3I., FJ.C.
(Plates 4-7.)

This meteorite was observed to fall on the ist of Aui^ust,
1912, and is therefore of quite exceptional interest, as, of the
large number of this variety which have been found, less than
a dozen have been actually seen to fall, and, of course, others
have been seen without having been subsequently found.

The phenomena accompanying the fall call for no special
comment, as there appears to be no material difference between
the observations reported in the present in>tance and those
recorded in connection with other falls.

Briefly, the first occurrence noted was the usual sound of an
explosion, wdiich naturally attracted attention over a consider-
able area, and on looking up into the sky, a rapidly moving body
was seen, whicli left a spiral trail of smoke and at the same time
appeared to produce a rumbling or crackling sound.

It is not clear that only one was afterwards found, though
I have only been able to definitely locate one ; there may have
been two or three, but the one which forms the subject of this
communication fell near the junction of the Buffalo and Tugela
rivers, on the Pokinyoni hill, in the N'kandhla district, witliin a
few yards of a native woman.

The accounts are somewhat in conflict as to the direction in
which the meteorite travelled, but it was probably towards the
South-East.

The time of its appearance is variously given as from
10 a.m. to 1.30 p.m., but the latter appears to be the correct
statement, affidavits and other statements in connection with the
fall are appended.

It is of interest to note that two other meteorites were seen
at not very distant dates ; onfe on June 2nd was observed at
places as far apart as Grahamstown, Malmesbury, Port Nolloth.
Potchefstroom, Standerton, and maaiy intermediate places :
another on August 6th at Umtata, Tembuland, but in neither
case was the actual fall, if any, observed.

This meteorite weighs nearly 38 pounds, and consists
almost entirely, of nickel-iron alloy; it is therefore classed as a
siderite.

It is coated w^ith a skin of magnetic oxide exhibiting flow
lines, and shows also a profusion of " thumb marks."

The external appearance is shown by the accompanying
photographs i, 2 and 3 (Plate 4), which are about one-fourth

lOO A METEORITIl from ZULfJLAND.

actual size linear. it s-hows several cracks (the largest being-
very apparent in No. 2), tlie- edges of which are mostly qu|i!te
sharp and the metal inside quite bright, ])oth of which circum-
stances indicate that the metal was cold when the cracking
occurred, i.e., most probably at the moment of impact with the
boulder which it struck on falling.

In at least one place, however, the edges of a crack show
signs of fusion, being in fact rounded, and oxide penetrates into
the crack; possibly this side was foremost (brust-scitc), and
therefore hot immediately before impact, the other sides being
cold, or jiossibly this was a previously formed crack.

It is inconceivable that a body of such irregular form would
be always oriented in the same direction during its passage
thrtuigh the air, and indeed the lines of How indicate that
dififerent sides have been foremost at different times.

Not only oxide, luit metal, has been caused to flow and form
well marked "lips '" in several places, generally at the rear
edges of grooves or " thumb marks " as seen in photo 3. A
cross section thiCiUgh one of these lii>s is also shown very well
in the photo of the etched slice No. 6 (Plate 5), and may also be
shown diagrammatically as below.

.rrff'''''^'

Apparently it struck a somewhat glancing blow and shows
deformation due to impact, i.e.. indentations and strire at several
places. At the chief point of impact the metal became (or was
already) sufficiently heated to reoxidise, and shows a blue
oxide film where a s^pall piece has cracked off. Yet as a whole
it was not sufficiently hot to scorch the dried grass on to which
it rebounded after the impact.

While not excessively hard, the metal of which it is com-
posed is extreme!}' tough, so that it was found to be impossible
to olDtain samples for chemical analysis by drilling. Shavings
were therefore removed from a corner by a shaping machine
for this purpose ; this had the advantage of leaving a flat sur-
face from which a slice could be cut without removing an exces-
sive quantity of the meteorite.

Preliminary experiments showed that although it was com-
posed almost entirely of metal, some of its constituents were
very differently soluble in various solvents, particularly in dilute
acid.

All the sawdust obtained in cutting the section was boiled
in dilute sulphuric acid till all action appeared to cease. After
the treatment 1.6 % of a dark grey residue, with apparent
metallic particles, was left.

On heating this in air to redness it glowed, increased in
weight, and became brown in colour. It was then boiled w'^h
strong hvdrochloric acid, and still left a sHght insoluble resiuuj

S.A. ASSN. FOR Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 6.

Prof. G. H. Stanley.— The N'kandhla Meteorite.

A METEORITE FROM ZULULAND. 10/

which showed, on examination, the presence of a trace of
platinum.*

The hydrochloric acid solution was found to contain a trace
of copper, and (expressed on the original 1.6 %, insoluble
residue ) about 50 ^o iron and 30 % nickel ; the small quantity
did not allow of a more exact determination.

Five grams of the shavings ' were treated with dilute sul-
phuric acid for twelve hours ; the black insoluble portion remain-
ing was filtered off. dried and weighed and found to consti-
tute 5.8 %. It consisted chiefly of heavy metallic flaky particles
with some few floating black ones ; all magnetic, and the metallic
looking ones tough and malleable. The appearance of
these is shown in photo No. 4 (Plate 5).

Of this. .1 gram was lx)iled with dilute hydrochloric and
sulphuric acids, and the solution decanted off.

There was still a heavy insoluble residue, consisting chiefly
of light grey, strongly magnetic particles of metallic appearance,
shown in photo No. 5, with a few light, black particles, and
fewer ,-till minute transparent ones, one or tw^o of which were
found to be isotro])ic.

The amount of this insoluble residue was only .64 % of
the original sample. It was extremely brittle and easily pow-
dered, but even in the state of fine powder was scarcely attacked
by hot concentrated nitric acid; it was, however, easily soluble
in aqua regia, leaving no apparent residue.

It was found to consist of iron, nickel, and phosphorus, the
proportions present being: — Iron 53.2%, Nickel 23.3%. Phos-
phorus 8.9 %, which indicates that it was probably largely com-
posed of schreibersite, the iron-nickel phosphide.

The other portion of the relatively insoluble 5.8 %. i.e.,
5.16 ^r contained 65.9% Iron and 33.1 % Nickel (correspond-
ing very nearly to the composition of Fe2Nii), while the easily
soluble original portion, i.e., 94.2 %, contained 9.50 % Nickel
and 90.30 % Iron.

By calculation this gives the total Iron as 88.94 % ^^^^
Nickel 10.89 %• Direct determination of Iron and Nickel in a
fresh portion, completely dissolved in hydrochloric and nitric
acids gave Iron 89.28 % and Nickel 10.68 %.

Other portions were used for the determination of other
possible constituents, the complete analytical results being a-s
.follows : —

Iron 89.28 %.

Nickel 10.68 %.

Silicon .004 %.

Sulphur trace.

Carbon .030 %.

* The colour reaction with po'tassium iodide was used.

t Tliis corresponds to Catherinine, which, according to M. de Mauroy,
is not found associated with other allovs.

108 A METEORITE FROM ZULUI-AND.

'>,_, Phosphorus 057 %.

Akiminium trace.

Magnesium trace.

Platinum trace.

Chlorine trace.

Manganese not detected.

Cobalt not detected.

Chromium not detected.

Obviously, with a body of such heterogenous structure, it
would be almost impossible to obtain an accurate sample of the
whole from one place only, and the above results may not there-
fore represent accurately the composition cf the whole body.

For the examination of the internal structure, a small slice
(2y X 20 mm^ was cut from the corner where the sample had
been taken, ground flat, taking precautions against overheating,
and finely polished.

At this stage the crystalline structure became apparent,
owing to the varying hardness of the several constituents, but it
was developed further by a brief immersion in dilute nitric acid,
as usual in metallographic investigations of the internal struc-
ture of steels. It then presented the appearance shown in
photograph No. 6.

\\'hen examined under the microscope and its appearance
compared with published descriptions of other meteorites, some
difficulty was experienced in identifying the various constituents,
but this was found to be largely due to the use of vertical illumin-
ation instead of oblique. The difference produced in the appear-
ance in this manner is shown in photos No. 7 ( oblique ) and 8
(vertical), the dark constituent (taenite?) in one becoming the
white constituent in the other.

Photograph No. 6 was taken with oblique illumination.
The long "bars" or "beams" which make up tlie greater
portion of the area of the section appear from their colour an i
structure to be most probably " kamacite," of lengths from about
2 to 8 mm, and widths in the neighbourhood of i mm ( excep-
tionally .5 and 1.5 mm).

Surrounding these almost completely in nearly every case
are what appear to " combs " of taenite," and in between are
" fields " apparently of " plessite."

The names given and used here are in accord with most of
the descriptions of structures, and some of the compositions,
given by different authors in the limited literature of the subject
available in Johannesburg.

But with regard to the chemical compositions there appear
to be conflicting views.

Kamacite is variously stated to be a solid solution with 6 to
7 % Nickel, and a chemical compound Te^iNi (Nickel 7 %).

Taenite similarly is given as a solid solution containing 15
to 35 % Nickel, and also as a compound F„Ni (Nickel 15 %),

S, A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 6.

Prof. G. H. Stanley.— The N'kandhla IVFeteorite.

A meteoritp: from zului.and. 109

and Plessite, a eutectic or eutectoid betkeen kamacite and
plessite, and as a compound Fio^^i (Nickel 9.5 %).

I have, therefore, assigned names with considerable hesita-
tion and in accord, as already stated, with the structure rather
than with the chemical composition.

While they may serve for the present description, they must
be regarded as subject to revision.

The nature of the section corresponds, I think, to '* medium
octahedrite." Comparatively little of any accessory con-

stituent is apparent, but there are several smaM isolated jiatches
of a hard, bright, white constituent, apparently brittle, since it
appears often cracked and broken, occurring generally in the
centre of a large bar of kamacite. These can be seen in photo-
graph No. 6, and several of the other photos, and photograph
No. 9 (Plate 6) shows an enlarged view of one such occurrence
(X 170 diameters*). (The black patches are simply depres-
sions more or less filled with the polishing material). They
are chiefly of long drawn out form of length up to 3 mm,
and width about .3 mm, and show angular outlines.

They appear to be the brittle constituent separated by aci J
treatment, probably " schreibersite."

At the edges of soiue of them, little excrescences of rust
became visible after a few days' exposure to the atmosphere,
possibly due to specks of " lawrencite," a trace of chlorine having
been detected.

Even on examination of the section by the unaided eye, a
band of different appearance to the rest is seen down one side^-
which originally was at the outside of the meteorite — varying in
thickness from about 2 mm, where a " Hp " is evident, down to
zero. Photograph No. 10 (X 18) shows an enlarged view of
a portion of this ( and indeed of every constituent of the
meteorite), and it will be noted that a banded or zoned structure
is apparent, indicating probably that this outer layer has been
fused, or at least caused to become plastic, and flow, so that it
has lost all trace of its former structure. The line of division
between the crystalhne and altered structure is quite sharp.

The same photo also shows a curious inter-penetration of
kamacite, one small bar apparently piercing another.

The kamacite appears to be very well defined wherever it
occurs. This is seen, for instance, in photograph No. 11. where
every bar, though of irregular shape, has quite sharp outlines.
Under higher power ( X 170) its structure is shown in photo-
graph No. 12.

The dark lamellae between the bars, apparently " taenite,'
on the other hand, are only sharply defined on both sides when
between two nearly adjacent bars of kamacite

When the kamacite is some little distance apart, leaving

*The magnifications are those of the original photo?, which for purposes of
reproduction have been reduced to two thirds.

no A METEORITE FROM ZULULAND.

room for a field of " plessite." the taenite appears to merge into
the latter, as seen in photo 1 1 . .

Taenite has been stated to be a solid solution of iron in a
Nickel, containing 13 to 35 per cent. Nickel, and according to-
this, the difficultly soluble portion, photo 4, may be regarded as
taenite ; this .however, is in conflict with the statement of another
authority that Taenite is TCgNi.

Under high power (Xi/O) and vertical illumination
(photo 13) this constituent is seen as white bands between two
kamacite bars, but whenever it broadens out a dark constituent
appears in the centre, as is well shown in the photo and wherever
it enlarges so as to become of sufficient size to be apparent ac
lower powers, or to the naked eye. they apparently constitute
the fields of plessite.

This plessite is of the greatest interest. Apparently the
kamacite crystallised first, the mother liquor became continually
richer in nickel, and finally caught between two nearly approach-
ing faces, solidified as taenite. But when more space was left
and a cell formed, the material enclosed in the cell would not
be sufficiently rich in nickel to crystallise as taenite, and further
segregation would occur.

The amount of segregation and nature of the resulting
structure would vary with the size of the cell, and consecjuent
composition of the mother liquor entrapped, and this appears
to be the reason for the variable appearance presented by the
"plessite '" fields in different cases.

This difference in appearance has. of course, been noted by
other observers in other meteorites, such terms as " dark plessite "
and " light plessite." " plessite with metallic sheen." etc., etc.,
having having been used, but I have not seen any accounts of
the examination of plessite fields under high powers.

In the present specimen, to the unaided eye, the small fields
of plessite are dark, and as the size increases, the centre becomes
lighter, till, with the larger fields, the i>lessite appears to consist
of a lig"ht area with a peculiar orientated metallic sheen.

Under high power (X 170), each plessite area, dark or
light, is seen to be surrounded by a thin line of " taenite," inside
that occurs a zone of a dark constituent (photograph No. 13),
resembling in structure pearlite, i.e., it shows a true eutectic
structure of alternating ]3lates ; in the small areas this makes up
the whole section, but as the size increases the centre shows
segregation till in the largest areas only a comparatively narrow
zone of dark eutectic is seen inside the taenite, the whole interior
being occupied by a crystalline aggregate resembling very much,
on a microscopic scale, the macroscopic structure of the meteorite
as a whole.

This is shown in photograph No. 14. and it appears probable
that these small crystals are also of kamacite surrounded by
taenite. the taenite. however, being relatively more abundant than
in the whole meteorite.

S. A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 7.

•^A^

Prof. G. H Stanley —The N'kandhla Meteorite.

A METEORITE FROM ZULULAND. Ill

Photograph No. 15 (X 18) shows this is an extreme case,
a new system of kamacite crystallisation having started inside
the cell, leaving smaller cells of plessite.

In conclusion, I have pleasure in acknowledging the great
assistance rendered by Mr. M. T. Murray in the preparation of
the photographs.

Appendix.

Affidavits.

Brancli Court. Ensingabantu. X'kandhla District, the nth
October, 1912.

Ijefore me — T. A. Jackson.

Magistrate. N'khandhla district.

Appeared : Chief Mapoyisa, Ntuli tribe, N'kandhla district,
who, being duly cautioned, and having made the declaration
required by law.

States :

I was at my kraal at the Ekulela stream near the Tugela,
and shortly after noon, I heard a loud explosion overhead, and
looked up and saw what appeared to be smoke It came from
the direction of Helpmakaar, apparently, i.e., from a northerly
direction, and appeared to go south towards the sea. It travelled
like smoke, with a spiral motion, accompanied by a rumbling
sound.

It seemed to pass over the Qudeni point, and disappeared.
All that we could see was a trail of smoke ; there was no fire
accompanying it.

I was first attracted by the sound as of thunder, and then
looked up and saw what I have described. Afterwards I heard
that a lump had dropped near where a woman named Dedisa was
gathering firewood. Dedisa is my sister, who married Mata-
njana, and is living at the Xsunguza stream, a tributary of the
RufTalo river, just over the l)oundary in Nqutu district.

That is all I know.

Mapoyisa — his X mark.

Read over, interpreted and adhered to before me.
(Signed) T.A.Jackson,

Magistrate, N'kandhla.

Appeared : Dedisa, wife of Matanjana, Chief Ngvvoni,
Nqutu district.

States:

I was cutting grass near my kraal, and was in a stooping
position, when I heard a loud explosion. Then all the Irillside
was filled' with a deafening sound, which continually grew louder
until I heard a sound as of something striking the ground. J

-112 A METEORITE FROM ZULULAND.

saw stones flying all around me. and I threw myself down on my
face in a great fright. I did not know what was happening,
and thought that it was a visitation from Almighty God. At
last I got up and attempted to run, but my strength failed, and
I fell down again. I got up and staggered home, and told the
people at home. The thing that struck the ground struck it
wathin about five yards of where I was.

I have never been back near the spot, as I am too frightened
to do so. I cannot say anything more as T was in too great a
fright. The noise was deafening, and it seemed as though the
whole hillside was tottering and falling. I did not even see the
thing that struck the ground ; I was too frightened to go and
look at it.

Dedisa — her X mark.

Read over, etc., etc.
A]')peared : j\Jatanjana ka Mpunzi. Chief Ngwoni.

States :

I live between the Mlambomunzo and Xsunguza streams,
tributaries to the Buffalo River^ in Nqutu district, quite near the
boundary between that and N'kandhla district. I was away at
the Umhlatuzi on the day that the meteorite was seen. T heard
a great noise like a cannon being fired, and on looking up into
the sky, I saw what aj^i^eared to be a spiral column of smoke
following a round looking object. It appeared to come from
South-\Vest to North-East, but I am not sure of the direction.
It was about a week later that I returned home, and I then
heard that something had fallen near where my wife was cutting
grass. I then went to look at the spot, and found that a hole
had been made in the ground about a yard across and two feet
deep. -Ml the stones there were smash'^d to pieces and scat-
tered all around.

The boys Sihau and Mahoyana tell me that they went at
once to see it, when they heard my wife's story. They say it
was a lump somewhat resembling lead. It had rebounded out
of the hole a few yards.

INIatanyana— his X mark.
Read over, etc., etc.

Statement of Zacaria Dhladhla. Xative catechist at Oudeni,
in regard to the meteorite which fell at Qudeni on the ist
August, 1912.

" The meteorite struck a hard, blue, whinstone boulder about
two feet in diameter fair in the centre I should say, and crushed
this into dust and small fragments, there being very few pieces
left of it bigger than two inches square.

The depression in the ground was about tn-o feet in diameter
and about nine inches deep, and concussion so great as to loosen
the boulders in the neighlbourhood for distance of about fifteen
feet radius, and several of these in the close proximity of_ the
impact, jumped out of their places and rolled down the hill a
little distance.

A METEORITE FROM ZULULAND. TI3

] could find no fragments of the meteor, which appeared
too tough to break, though it had cracks caused bv the impact
I think."

The dust from the collision went up the hill, but the large
pieces of the crushed stone spread in all directions round the
hollow in the ground, which at the spot is nearly all rock with
very little soil, and is principally vertical schist, with white
c[uartz and whinstone.

As far as I can gather, the meteor came down nearly
vertical, though in a slanting direction towards north, striking
the southern slope of the hill at right angles to it, as it did not
rebound, but only rolled down the hill about 12 feet from where
it struck. It could not have been very hot. as the old dry grass
where it fell, was not singed. \\'hile in the air nothing was
visible except a little smoke following its course, but some
natives say it was bright like a star, and had a tail like a comet,
followed by a line of smoke.

(Signed) G. M. Gunderson.

for Zacaria Dhladhla.

Extract from Circular No. 3. 1912, November 26th, of the
Union Observatory.

]\rr. Brandon, the Magistrate at Mpofana, supplies the
following addttional remarks : —

At 1.30 p.m.. I was sitting in my house after lunch, when
I heard a sound as of crackling wood.

I rushed out, thinking the house was on fire, and saw all
the natives pointing to the sky.

Looking up. I saw a long line of smoke across the sky from
West to East, which soon disappeared.

The sergeant of police camg to ni}' house a few minutes
afterwards saying he had been on the hill for a walk, and had
heard a huge explosion, and feared a disaster at one of the
Natal coal mines.

\\> could get no particulars for some days, but about a weeic
afterwards I heard that a meteorite had faHen on the Pokinyoni
hill in the N'kandhla district of Zululand, about 18 miles from
here.-

Dr. R. Broome. — " Dr. Robert Broome, the authority on
South African palaeontology," says Science of October 31st, *' is
visiting America for a year of scientific research, especially upon
the ancient vertebrates of the Permian period. He has accepted
a tem])orary appointment upon the staft' of the American Museum
of Natural History for this purpose, and has brought with him his
pri\ate collection of South African Permian reptiles."

NOTICIA SOBRE A CULTURA DO CAFE

Por Francisco de Meirelles.

0 cafe e uraa plaiita da familia das Rnbiaceas e ornuida da
Abyssinia. As snas especies sao numerosas e as mais iiiteres-
.santes segiiiido H. Jumelle debaixo do ponto de vista pratico sao:
a Coffea Arahica, a Coffea Liberica e a Coffea Stnoj)hiUa.

COFFEA ArABICA.

E expoiitaaiea na costa oriental da Africa Portnguesa, en-
contrando-se no estado selvagem, e e nm arbnsto que nao vae
alem de oaf) raetros de altura. 0 verdadeiro typo da Coffea
Arahica e o cafe vnlgarmente conhecido por Moka; as folhas sao
oppostas, glabras, ovaes e as flores sao braneas e reuividas era
peqnenos grnpos nas axillas.

As principaes variedades da Coffea Arahica sao. cafe d^
Brasil, S. Thome, Java, Jamaioa, etc., etc.

Clima.

Sao variadissimas as opinioes, sobre qual sera o meilior clima
para o cafe — nns dizem que elle prefere f.s regioes altas do que
as baixas, conio acontece por exemplo no sul da India e na Yeaie-
zuela, aonde as plantacoes vac alem de 2 :000 raetros de altitude.
No Brasil, a partir de 600 metros ate 1 :000 de altitude, colhem-se
OS melhores cafes; de 200 metros para baixo, sao os cafes de in-
ferior qualidade. As temperaturas ontre 15° a 25° sao as mais
favoraveis e as que melhor Ihe convem. Acima de 25° a eultura
e perigosa e necessario se torna abriga-la para a defender do
calor. Diz Raoul que " as regioes onde o cafe vive melhor se
acham nas montanhas da zona intertropical, a imia elevaeao cor-
respondente as condicoes thermicas das regioes eomprehendidas
entre o 20° de latitude norte e o 23° 30' de latitude sul.'" Outros
autores, segundo Jumelle, dao como altitude media, entre 6° a
12° de latitude, 1:000 a 1:800 metros.

De 10° para baixo, o cat>^, embora com elle haja todos os
cuidados nao podera resistir.

Estudadas, pois, as temperaturas e as altitudes mais con-
venitntes ao cafe, vejamos ag(;ra as chuvas. Como toda a gente
sabe, 0 cafe aprecia terrenos aonde a humidade Iha nao falte.
Elle agradeee-a e corresponde no crescimento, que dia para dia
apresenta, com as regas que se Ihe da. E, na opiniao de alguns
autores, elle deseja uma atraosphera moderadaraente humida e
ama frescura constante do solo.

E, nao sera de estranhar que em (>fcrtas regioes aonde abunda
0 cafe, elle se nao apresenta no jnais exuberante vigor, porque as
eond'coes climatericas sao de excellente ordem, como acontece na
India, Ceylao, Brasil, etc., aonde as chuvas annuaes vao de
2"^.50 a 3'".75. .

NOTICIA SORRE A CULTURA DO CAFE. II5

E, sendo o cafe imia plaiita de raiz pivotante, se a sua cul-
tura for feita iiiim terreno fofo e permeavel, a colheita fornecera
dados para se avaliar se, sim on nao, o solo sera causa principal
para iinia boa acclimatacao iiuma dada e determinada regiclo !

Em luinlia opiniao, nao serao os terrenos a causa principal
Ua sua acclimatacao, porqne o.stes corrigem-se. Deve-se attender
em especial as condic5es climatericas, factores principaes para
lima boa cultura. Poderemos, e facto, coQistruir abrigos, c pre-
parar sebes (jue o recatem dos ventos fortes, apropriando-lhe
irrigacoes que ao terreno deem hiimidade. 0 que nao poderemos,
e dar-lhe calor, elemento indi-spensavel a vida e qne, sem elle, a
})lanta nao resiste.

CULTUKA.

Foi em 1908 que pela primeira vez experimentei uma cul-
tura de cafe na circumscripcao de Marracuene. Era o cafe da
Jamaica que ia experimentar. Foi este semeado em pequenos
vazos de papel, cbeios de terra, previamente preparada e es-
colhida : a constituticao d'ella devia aproximadamente ser areno-
humifera.

Em eada vaso foi disposto um grao de cafe, regado moder-
adamente, foram os vazos eollocados numa estufa de eaniet^ e
capim, sujeitando-os todos os dias a uma exposicao ao sol de
duas horas. E era conveniente nao os expor mais, porque o mes
era perigoso — dezembro. Desde o 15.° dia comecou a germinacao
que se prolongou quasi por um mes, verificando-se depois que, a
percentagem dos nao germinados era relativamente peqnena — de
214 graos germinaram 183. Xao e de estrauhar que isto acon-
teeesse porque as sementes ja traziam longa viagem e, enibora
admiravelmente aeondicionadas. como e mister da casa Vilmorin
Andrieux. de Paris, nada mais facil que uma ou outra se resen-
tisse. Dois meses depois, em fevereiro, soffriam a transplantaeao
para latas de petroleo que tambem foram cheias com a mesraa
terra, nao tendo nenhuma d'ellas morrido com esta operarao.
E foi nessa occasiao que admirei como agradeciam as regas que
se Ihe administravam. Ja entao coUocadas numa estufa, somente
feita de canico, que diexava coar uns raios de sol nao muito
violentos, em poucos meses, fizeram-se umas plantas disnas do
se admirar pelo vicoso colorido de suas folhas.

Notei apenas entre quatro ou cineo, uma especie de ferrugem
<iue llies mancliava e murchava as folhas, e que creio ser o que
ua America se chama, como diz Jumelle, " mancha de hierro "
devido ao Stibium flavidum.

Houve duas mais cujas folhas embraqueceram, ignorando
fiual a causa, morrendo tamben. As atacadas de ferrugem
foram pulverizadas com a solucao eonhecida por " Paris Green."
mas sem resultados efficazes.

E um anno depois, eram plantadas definitivamente em local
previamente abrigado e preparado. Escolheu-se o terreaio junto

B

Il6 NOTICIA SOP.RE A CTLTIUA DO C'AFK.

de \\m:\ peqneiia mata, aonde cresciam nnias acacias?. As plantas
foraiii eollocadas de 4 X 4 metres e abrigadas por pequenos toros
de madeira encastellados — covas largas e fnndas e beni ostrn-
mad;i-. 0 cafe nao estranhon e, embora lentamente, eomecoii
desen vol veil do-se. Regas, o mais frequeiite, conform e as eon-
dicoes (") permittiam. Dezoito meses depois as plantas em media
apresentavam 1,10 de altiira e algumas frutificavam.

< ) erao. pelo iiienos os que vi, oiao tinha degenerado ; era
perfeitameiite ignal a semeiite mae.

Aetiiabiiente, na Estaeao Experimental do l^mbeluzi tral>alha-
se nnma pef[neiia plantaeao de cafe de S. Thome, cnjas plantas,
em nniiiero de 800, abrigadas em estufas de canico que Ihe per-
mittem a entrada dos raios solares, apresentam iim aspecta
soberbo. 0 terreno, escolhido com todo o cuidado, recebera a
planta<;ao em qninconcio. Nada poderei dizer d'esta variedade
porqne a ja vim enc(mtrar nas eondieoes em que actiialmente se
apresenta. Dirijo a mesmn plantaeao e so depois d'ella feita e
que poderei collier elementos que mais tarde me antorizem a
emittir n minha opiniao.

DoENCAS DO Cafe.

Iiifelizmentc sao variadissimas, e, na maioria dos Cciso>5, per-
niciosas para a planta. Ha a distingnir as doencas causadns por
insectos. como e a Xi/lotresus qnadrnpoi. Segiindo Jumelle, e a
femea que perfura a planta ate a iiiednla, dividindo-a em
galerias aonde deposita os ovos. A Ccmiosioma Caff'ecllo. pro-
dnzida por nma larva que se enrosca nas folhas. xVs doencas
causadas por um persevejo. " Bug," e d'ahi as doencas a que os
plantadores ingleses, seguudo o mesnio autor, dao o nome "Black
busr '' [Lfcanwm nigrum) e o "Green bug" {Lecanium
ve rifle).

Estes insectos atacam as hastes e muitas vezes vao ate {\ raiz.
Ha a seguir as doencas causadas por cryptomagas, como a
Ilemileia vastatrix, que e um cogumelo.

Os tratamentos a applicar sao varies, citando-se eiitre os*
melhores: a calda bordeleza, a terebinthina, o petroleo e o sabao
em solucoes.

E perante tautas doencas e outras causas aiiida boje descon-
hecidas que atacam o cafe, poz-se ja em pratica em varios ptp'ses
a enxertia para a multi plica (;ao de hybridos interessantes. Assim,
por exemplo, ha hoje productos de uns " Stenophilla " com um
Liberia que, segundo opiniao dos plantadores, resiste muito mais
a qualquer doenca. A enxertia e feita antes da planta ser plant-
ada, num vazo convenientemente preparado para nao sotifrer
f|uando da plantaeao definitiva. E a enxertia de lenda, a es-
colhida.

Cafe de Ixitambane.
Na provincia de IMocambique, o cafe mais conhecido pelo sen
typo <^ houquet especiaes, e com certeza o cafe de Inhambamv

NOTTCIA SOP.KE A C ULTURA DO CAFE. II. 7

E urn pequeno arbusto com a folha pequena glabra, oval,
tendo a pacina superior de um verde brilhante

As flores reunem-se em peqnenos ramos jiuito da axilla das
folhas ; o sen grao e extreraamente pequeno, medindo em media
4 a 5 millimetros de comprido.

0 eafe de Inhambane e exeelleute para lotar com outros; o
sen aroma e sabor, completametite ditlVrente dos outros, levou ja
alguem a affirmar que elle nao possuia eafeina.

No norte do districto de Inhambane, priucipalmente nas
circumseripr-oes de Panga e IMassioiga, encontram-se frequentes
traces mais ou menos numerosos de cafezeiros incultos e que a
maioriii dos indigenas derruba quando amanha as suas maclicun-
bas. 0 sen rendimento, conforme tive occasiao de verificar numa
propriedade de um agrieultor, regula entre 200 grammas por
cada planta. Dadas as suas condicoes de resistencia. parece-me
que e uma cultura que deve renumerar o agrieultor a que ella
se dedique.

Uma p]fintacao regular em quin^concio tera por hectare 663
plantas que renderao aproximadamente 1 :326 kilogrammas de
cafe. Em Inhambane, o preco oscilla entre 300 e 400 reis o kilo,
eomo algumas vezes tive a occasiao de verificar.

Mas deixemo-nos de optimismos e conteino-lo ja em 200 reis
o kilogrannn;!.

Kendera i)ois um hectare 265^200 reis. Qual sera o pre.^o
do amanho de um hectare' Nao podera ir alem de 60$000 reis:
accrescent emos mais a decorticagem, transporte, direitos adu-
aneiros que arbitraremos em 80.^000 reis. Ve-se pois quu ha uma
despesa. valorizando o cafe muito por baixo, de 140$000 reis por
hectare e um remlimento de 125$200 reis!

Sera talvez. dira quem me ler, uma phantasia algo extrava-
gante. este men calculo. '

Eu falo do cafe de Inhambane aonde a mao d'obra por ora
e relativamente barata : euidada e tratada convenientemente, e
de presumir que o agrieultor que a ella se dedique se nao arruine.
8e attendermos tambem as condicoes meteorologicas, veremos
igaalmeute que a planta resiste as mais variadas mudancas de
teraperatura : e frequentissimo nesta quadra do anno um ther-
momet.ro de relva accusar 3° abaixo de zero — e verificar os gra-
phicos dos thermometros registradores que aecusam altas e
baixas deveras interessantes. Elle resiste a ausencia das chuvas
que se fazem sentir com uma irregularidade assustadora, para
quem da terra vive e nella empregou os sens capitaes; e, como
exemplo frisante, apresento este: desde o primeiro de Janeiro do
corrente anno as chuvas caidas no Umbeluzi aonde ha um nucleo
de agricultores illustrados e uma Estacao Exprimental do
Governo, apetias se registaram 96 millimetros!

E se compararmos a altura annual das chuvas, como acon-
tece no Brasil, India e outros paizes, aonde ellas attingem
3 metres e mais, com as que cairam este anno e o anno transactor

Il8 XDTICIA SOBRE A CUl-TURA DO CAFE.

poderemos affirmar sem receio, que o cafe de Inhambaiie e uma
CTiltura na qual se pode arriscar capitaes.

Nao aconselharei a ninguem aiesta provincia que metta hom-
bros, sem previamente estiidar e ter fundos capital] zados, a uma
plantacao de cafe de outras variedades que por ora sao des-
conhecidas nesta provincia.

Sobre o cafe de Inhambane, nao teria duvida algunia em
arriscar capitaes desde que a cultura fosse modelar, e para isso
bastava a boa vontade e a persistencia de quem a dirigisse.

Nao e transcendents e hoje, com as aperfeicoadissimas
alfaias agricolas que na sua maioria estao ao alcance de todo o
agricultor, e os raagnificos apparelhos para o deeorticar, a em-
presa nao seria grande, que qualquer a nan pudesse levai- a bom
fim.

E ao encerrar aqui estas ligeiras notas sobre o cafe, haja
quem me ler de corrigir as muitas dificiencias e lacunas que ellas
conteem, porque, sendo o mais obscuro funccionario da Re
partigao de Agricultura d'esta provincia, nao caberia em meu
animo a louca vaidade de exliibir-me num trabalho de tanta
responsabilidade, quando e certo que nao era a mim. mas sim a
outrem, que tal competia,.

(translation.)
NOTES ON COFFEE GROWING.

Cv Francisco de ]\Ieirelles.

Coffee is a plant of the Rubiaceae family, a native of
Abyssinia. Its species are numerous, and according to H.
Jumelle the most interesting ones from a practical point of view
are: Coffea Arabica, Coffea Liherica, and Coffea Stnophilla.

The Coffea Arabica is indigenous to the Portuguese East
Coast of Africa, where it is found wild. It is a shrub wliich
does not atttain a height of more than 5 to 6 metres. The true
type of Coffea Arabica is the coffee generally known as Mocha,
and its leaves are opposite, glabrous, oval, and the flowers are
white and in small clusters at the axils.

The principal varieties of Coffea Arabica are the Brazil. Sao
Thome, Java, Jamaica, etc.

Climate.

Opinions differ considerably as to the best climate suitable
for Coffee, Some say that it prefers high to low lands, as, for
instance, in Southern India and in Venezuela, where the planta-
tions exceed an altitude of 2,000 metres. In Brazil the best
grades of coffee are gathered at altitudes varying from 600 to
i,ooo metres. Coffee grown below 200 metres is of an inferior

NOTES ON COFFEE CROvVrxc,. 1 19

grade. The most suitable temperature is between 15 and 25
degrees Centigrade. Cultivation above 25 degrees is risky, and
it then becomes necessary to shelter the plant in order to protect
it from the heat. Raoul says that the regions where Coffee
thrive.^ better are those in the mountains of the intertropical
zone at a heig-ht corresponding to the thermic conditions of the
regions l>"ing between parallels 20 "^ North and 23° 30' South.
Other writers, however, according. to Jumelle, give the average
altitude, lietween latitudes 6 and 12 degrees, as 1,000 to 1,800
metres.

Below 10° Centigrade, coffee, however careful the treatment
may be, cannot resist the conditions.

Temperature and altitude best suited to Coffee having been
ascertained, let us now consider the question of rainfall. As
everyone knows, Cofifee loves a soil where there is no want of
humidity. The plant benefits much thereby and corresponds in
its daily development to the watering given to it. In the opinion
of some writers it requires a moderately moist atmosphere and
constant coolness of the soil. In certain regions where Coffee is
found in abundance it is not surprising that it shows itself in a
most exuberant condition, seeing that the climatic conditions
are excellent, as in the case of India, Ceylon, Brazil, etc., where
the annual rainfall rises from 2.5 to 3.75 metres.

Coffee having a tap root, if its cultivation is made in soft
and pen'ious ground the crops will furnish sufficient data to
ascertain whether or not the soil is mainly responsible for its
satisfactory acclimatization in a particular region.

In my opinion, however, the soil is not the principal factor
of acclimatization, for the soil can be corrected. One must pay
attention especially to the climatic conditions — the main factors
in satisfactory cultivation. Of course, \^e might budld shelters
and provide hedges to guard the plant against strong winds, and
irrigate the soil so as to render it moist, but we cannot give it
'heat, and this is indispensable to the life of the plant, which
cannot do without it.

Cultivation.

In 1908 I experimented for the first time in the cultivation
of Coffee in the sub-district of Marracuene. I tried Jamaica
Coffee. This was sown in small paper pots filled with earth
previously prepared and selected. The earth was approxi-

mately a humus-sandy soil.

One Coffee bean was placed in each pot and was moderately
\\'atered. The pots were placed in a green-house made of
reeds and straw, and were exposed to the sun during two hours
every da}'. It would have been risky to have exposed them any
longer as the month (December) was a dangerous one. Ger-
.mination commenced on the 15th day and extended over a period
of nearly one month. It was later ascertained that the perceil-

I20 NOTES ON COFFEE GROWING.

tage of non-germinating seeds had been comparatively small ;
out of 214 beans 183 sprouted. This should cause no surprise,
as the seed had travelled a long way. and while the packing was
excellent, as is usually the case with Messrs. Vilmorin Andrieux,
of Paris, it was not strange to find that a few beans had been
affected thereby. Two months later, in February, they were
transplanted to paraffin tins filled with the same kind of earth,
and none perished as a result of this operation. It was just at
this time that I was able to appreciate how they benefited from
the watering administered. Placed in a greenhouse made
of reeds only.' through which a few not too violent sunrays were
allowed to filter, the plants became in a few months worthy of
admiration for the luxuriant colour of the leaves.

I noticed that in four or five plants only a kind of rust
stained the leaves and made them wit'.icr. I believed it to be what
according to Jumelle is called in America " mancha de liierro,"
and is due to the Stilhum Flavidufii.

The leaves of two other [ilants bleached through some cause
unknown to me. Those affected by rust were sprayed with
Paris Green, but uo satisfactory results ensued.

One year later they were definitely planted in a previ(nisly
sheltered and prepared site. The i>lace chosen la\' close to a
thicket of acacias. The ]:)lants were ])laced at a ili>tance of
4 metres from each other and protected ])y small wooden -tum])3
with wide, deep ditches well manured. The plants did nut feel
the change, and they commenced to develop, ithough slowly.
Watering was administered as frequently as condition> required.
Eighteen months later the plants showed an average height of
T.io metres, and some were bearing fruit.

The beans, at least those I saw, had not degenerated, an.l
were perfectly equal to the mother seed.

At present a small plantation of Sao Thome Coffee is being
made at the Umbeluzi Experimental Farm. There are Soo plants
sheltered in greenhouses made of reeds, which permit of the sun
passing through, and they have a superb appearance. The site
for the plantation was very carefully selected, and will receive
the plants in quincunx. I am unable to express an opinion con-
cerning this variety, as I found it already in its present condition.
I am now suj^erintending the plantation, but not until it is made
shall I be able to gather sufficient data to form an opinion.

Diseases of the Coffee Plant.

Unfortunately there is a great variety of diseases, these
being in most cases pernicicus to the plant. Firsit come those
wbich are caused by insects, such as XUotresus quadnipes.
According to Jumelle it is the female that bores into tlie plant
down to the medulla, where, dividing it into galleries, it deposits
the eggs. Ceniiostoma Caffcclla is caused by a larva which wraps
itself up in the leaves. Some diseases are caused by a bug, such

NOTES ON COFFEE GROWING. 121

as those which, according' to the same writer, are called by Eng-
lish planters "Black bug" {Lccaninm )ni^nim) and " Cireen
bug" (Lccanium veride). These insects attack the stems and
often get down to the roots. Next come those diseases caused
by cryptogamia, such as the fungus HemUeia vastatrix.

There are various ways of combating these diseases, and
llie best treatments recommended include: j^ordeaux mixture,
turpentine, petroleum, and soap solutions.

In view of so many diseases and several otiier still unknown
causes which attack the coffee planit, grafting has been resorted
to in various countries for the purpose of ])roducing interesting;
hybrids. Thus we hind now. for instance, the products of Steno-
philla with Liberia, which, in the opinion of planters, will offer
far more resistance to disease. Grafting is made before planting
in a conveniently prepared pot, so that the plant will not suff"er
from the effects of trans])lanting. The system preferred is cleft-
grafting.

Inhamdane Coffee.

On account of its ]:)articular type and boucjuet, Irihambane
Coffee is undoubtedly the best known Coft'ee in the Province of
Mozambique.

It is a small shrub with oval, glabrous leaves of a brilliant
green on the upper side.

The flowers gather in clusters near the axils of the leaves.
The beans are extremely small, and measure an average length
of 4 to 5 millimetres.

Tnhambane Coffee is excellent for blending purposes, and its
aroma and flavour, which are totally dift'erent from any other
kind, have led many to state that it contains no Caff'ein.

In the Northern portion of the Inhambane District, more
especially in the sub-flistricts of Panga and Massinga, one fre-
quently comes across more or less mmierous traces ot imcul-
tivated coff'ee plants which the majority of the Natives pull down
when tilling their gardens. I had an opportunity to verify, in a
private farm, that the crops average about 200 grammes per plant.
In view of its resisting properties, I am of opinion that its cul-
tivation will handsomely repay those who undertake it.

A plantation in quincunx should, as a rule, have 663 plants
per hectare, which will yield about 1,326 kilogrammes of coft'ee.
Prices at Tnhambane vary from 300 to 400 reis per kilo, as \
often had the opportunity of ascertaining.

Putting aside, however, any optimistic views, let us quote the
price as low as 200 reis per kilogramme. One hectare will thus
yield 265,200 reis. What will be the cost of tilling per hectare""
it cannot be far beyond 60,000 reis. Let us now add the cost of
decortication, transport, and Customs dues, \yhich we may reckon
at ^,000 reis. Thus we have an expenditure of 140,000 reis,
and if we take the value of the coffee at a very low figure, there
would remain a profit of 125,000 reis.

122 NOTES ON COFFEE GROWING.

J o the miivl of readers this might appear too extravagant a
iancy on my part, bnt I am referring to Inhambane Coffee, where
labour is still comparatively cheap. Provided the cultivation is
pro]xrly looked after, one can safely say that the planter will not
be ruined ! As to meteorological conditions, one sees that this
plant resists most successfully the most varied changes of tem-
perature. Tt is not at all infrequent for a grass thermometer to
record 3 degrees below zero — one need only examine the dia-
grams of the registering thermometers, which show really inter-
esting oscillations. The plant stands the drought, which occurs
with an irregularity that is most alarming to those who make
their living out of the soil. The following is a striking illustra-
tion. From the ist Jamiary of the current year the rainfall at
Umbeluzi. where there is to be found a nucleus of trained agi'i-
culturists and at Government Experimental Farm, was only
96 millimetres (3.74 inches). If we comjiare the annual rainfall
in Brazil, India, and other countries where it often reaches as
high as 3 metres, and sometimes more, with cur rainfall in this
and the previous year, we can safely assert that Inhambane
Coffee warrants the investment of capita 1.

I should never advise anyone wlio has not previousuly
studied the cultivation of Coft"ee and does not possess sufficient
capital, to go in for other varieties that are not yet well known
locally-.

T should not mind putting money in Inhambane Coffee, pro-
vided the cultivation was carried on in a thorough way, and thi'i
can easily be accomplished b}- means of an attentive and perse-
vering management. The undertaking is oy no means an exceedr
ingly difficult one, and now that such perfect agricultural imple-
ments can always be procured at prices well within the reach of
all farmers, and with splendid decortication machinery available,
anybody could make Coffee cultivation a success.

in concluding these hurried notes on Coffee, I shall expect
whoever reads them to be indulgent to their defects. Being one of
the least important officials in the Agricultural Department of-
this Province I do not put myself forward ns an expert in a work
of so much responsibility.

Agricultural Science. — Two books, which have

recently issued from the press in connection with Messrs.-
Charles Griffin and Co.'s series of technological handbooks, claim
a more than merely passing reference. An era of agricultural
renaissance is," we trust, opening up for South Africa— -an era
of which probably no more than the beginnings have as vet been
seen. To take full advantage of this time of agricultural oppor-
tunity; South Africa will need all the energy of mind and all the
energy of body that men can put into practice. And it is neces-.
sary, also, that many South Africans nqt directly connected' with:
agriculture should have an intelligent grasp of agriculture's

AGRICULTURAL SCIE.VCE. 123

needs and capabilities. To these as well as to the embryo farmer
i\Jessr-. (jriftiu's two publications are bound to be of much assis-
tance and interest. Mr. Herbert Ingle's handbook on Elemen-
tary Agricultural Chemistry" should interest them liecause the
author spent some years in South Africa as Chief Chemist in
the Transvaal Department of Agriculture, and is therefore in
a position to illustrate some of his teachings by means of
examples drawn from this country. The need of local colour-
ing in some text books -locally used is often felt, because of the
diversity of conditions that separate between South Africa and
some of the countries more highly organised as to their systems
both of technical education and of intensive cultivation. Such
a need, in respect of zoology, for instance, was met in Professor
Gilclirist's book on " South African Zoology." ]\lr. Tngle's
handbo<")k. however, does not aim at being distinctively South
African, and so the author is in no sense to be blamed because
that ]")ronounced colouring is not as prominent as in Dr.
Gilchrist's book: on the other hand, though less pronounced, the
touches of South African colouring are by no means absent. In
a way. Mr. Ingle almost seems to apologise for putting in these
touches : he thought it advisable, he says, to give some acco-uit
of the products of tropical ag'riculture. " because the book was
prepared while the author was in touch with many of the crops
and agricultural practices of South Africa " ; and again, the
references to the composition as well as to the amount of ash
constituents in the food of animals are defended on the ground
that though not felt to be of much importance in Europe, where
diet is varied, their importance is considerable " in sucli
countries as South Africa, where the usual food of draught
animals is. composed almost entirely of cereals." Now many a
South African student of agricultural science will think that
these apologiae are supererogatory : rather would he wish that
more of the illustrations apologised for had been given.
Amongst those quoted are noticed a few results of investigations
of rain made at Pretoria, some analyses of veld soil and ant
heap soil from Christiana, an ascripti(5n to the supposed presence
of sodium carbonate in many South African streams of the
muddy condition of their waters, a reference to a South African
practice of screening plants from the early morning sun, several
analyses of South African fodders, a more detailed mention of
Lounsbiuw's Cape experiments on tick-destruction, the use of
lime and sulphur dips at the Cape, and last, though not least,
the Cape weights and measures. Those who study a book like
this because of the general agricultural chemical information
contained in it — and they, doubtless, make up by far the greater
number of its readers — will find, in addition to a few dozen

=■•' Iiv^le, Herbert, B.Sc, F.I.C., F.C.S., Elementary Agricultural Chem-
istry. Crown 8vo., pp. ix, 250. 2m\ ed. London : C. Griffin & Co., Ltd.,
1913. 4s. 6d.

124 AGRICULTL'RAT, SCIENCE.

pages outlining- modern chemical princii)le.s, chapters deaHng
with the atmospliere, the soil, natural waters, crops, manures,
stock feeding and dairying, and also one mainly devcted to
insecticides and fungicides. Altogether }^Ir. Ingle's handbook
is the nearest approach to a South African handbook of agricul-
tural chemistry that has yet appeared in print.

Professor Lohnis, in his laboratory liandbook on Agricul-
tural Bacteriology. t has. it is true, no South African illustra-
tions to put forward, one obvious reason being that in South
Africa agricultural bacteriology is still uninvestigated. This
remark does not apply to veterinary bacteriology, which scarcely
falls within the ground covered by the author. Moreover,
the object of the book is to impart instruction in laboratorv
practice. It claims our attention for the important reason that
the study of agricultural bacteriology in this land cannot l^e set
about too soon in downright earnest, and it is quite time that
a thorough and general interest were aroused in this branch of
science. The bacteriology of foods, dairy products, manures
and soils requires to be understood with far greater clearness
than the prevalent hazy notions allow of — notions so hazy,
indeed, that bacteriology, chemistry and pharmacy are apt to
become agglomerated, in the minds even of those who have to
set the pace, into one mass of vague ideas, to the inexpressible
detriment of South Africa's agricultural industry. Bacteriology
is a relatively new science, and agricultural bacteriology one of
its more recent aspects, hence it is not only in South Africa
that the bacteriology of agriculture has not been as widely
studied as necessity demands : indeed. Professor Lohnis i^ >ints
to the abundance of literature on bacteriology for medico}
students, and in connection with the brewery industries, wliile a
laboratory book on methods of practical as:rieiilturaJ bacteriology
has been lacking. The author, therefore, designed his work
specially for students of agriculture, in order to fill this gap.
He devotes the first five dozen pages to a genera! introduction
to the subject of agricultural bacteriology and to experiments
in order to induce familiarity with bacteriological technique, but
the main part of the book consists of three^ sections, namely, on
dairy bacteriology, the bacteriology of manures, and soil
bacteriology. \\'hile every farmer need not be an expert bac-
teriologist, the dairyman and the agriculturist will be far better
equipped for their work if they have books in handy form like
that of Professor Lohnis, available for reference, for its character
is such that many in South Africa whose student days are over.
and had not the opportunities of studying the bacteriology of
agriculture which scientific advance has put within the reach of

t Lohnis, Prof. Dr. F.. Laboratory method.'^ in Af^riciilfiirnl Bacteri-
ology. Translated by W. Stevenson and J. Hunter Smitlr Crown 8\o.. pp.
xi,V36. London: C." Griffin & Co., Ltd, 1913. 4s. 6d.

A'GRICULTURAL SCIENCE. 125

the new generation, will do both themselves ;ni(l the country
service ijy ac((nirin,!^- Intel li^'cnt comprehensicn of the principles
on which the agricultural bacteriological methods described by
Professor Lohnis are founded.

The Psychic Life of the Thong a Tribe.— On

page 175 of the previous volume reference was made to the Rev.
H. A. Jnnod's book on " Social Life amongst the Tlionga people."
A second volume, having for its main subject the psychic life of
the same tribe, has now been published. This book, like its
predecessor, is divided into three sections, one of which deals
with agriculture and industries amongst the Thonga. and the
second with the tribe's literary and artistic life. Thc>.;- two
sections occupy the first half of the book, tlie remainder being
devoted to Thonga religion and superstitions. These three
heads, however, scarcely afford an idea of the comi:)lexity of the
tribal life as delineated by M. Jnnod with an ability that carries
conviction as to his right to speak authoritativelv. The wealth of
detail in which the work abounds, combined with its comprehen-
sive width of range, together constitute a striking testimonv to
the author's large and almost unique exi)erience of Thonga
customs, and to the ethnographic value of the facts recorded by
him. Those facts are marshalled in the manner characteristic
of the scientist who recounts the results of his exhaustive studies.
The section of the liook dealing with Thonga agriculture naturally
divides up into two chai)ters. The first of these, beginning with
a brief description of the soil, and of Thonga customs in regard
to land tenure, passes on to the subject of grain, vegetable and
fruit culture, and general agricultural practice. The author
wisely disclaims the idea of a sharp demarcation of what he
calls the i^sychic life, seeing that grain-threshing and horticulture
have each their distinctive taboos. Such a taboo, for instance,
is connected with the planting of new or foreign trees, including
mangoes, oranges, etc. Other aspects of Thonga agriculture
discussed — with regard to which the author contributes a great
store of information — are the preparation of foodstuffs, the
breeding of stock, the chase, and the piscatorial art. A few
pages on alcoholism and its concomitant vices are also inter-
posed, and then one becomes interested to learn that, amongst
the culinary dainties of the Thonga. caterpillars, locusts, and
white ants are universally appreciated. The features of Thonga
industries described include costume, dwelling-places, and
various small appliances, such as pottery-ware, basket-work.
carved wooden utensils, and metal-work. The author i^roceeds
to introduce his readers to the niceties of the Thonga grammar,
and this, after a brief excursus on the^Jribe's literarv faculties,
leads on to a chapter on the proverbs, riddles, and enigmas of
the Thonga. The reader next makes acquaintance with Thonga

"126 TIIF. PSVCTIIC LIFE OF THE TMOXGA TRIliE.

poetry ( lyric, epic, satiric, and dramatic) ; then follows a most
interesting- and exhaustively illustrated account of the native
folk-lore, and this, in turn, is succeeded by a chapter on Thonga
music and musical instruments. Nearly a dozen pag-es of staff
notation sufficiently illustrate the former, and M. Junod asserts
that the Thonga are familiar with both major and minor modes,
while accidentals and the chromatic scale present no serious
difficulties — nor, to judg-e from some of the illustrations given,
do consecutive fifths. In discussing shortly, at the close of the
second section of this book, the problem of Native Education,
the author makes it a cardinal principle that such education must
be bi-lingual: the teaching of vernacular reading^ and writing he
declares to be the basis of the whole edifice, but m the ever-
increasing intercourse with white people he sees a need for
knowledge of Portuguese, English, or Dutch., and accordingly
he proposes a division of native primary education into three
-Stages : ( r ) The vernacular stage, ( 2 ) a mixed or transition
stage, and ( 3 ) a European stage, during the last of which one
or other of the three FA\vo])ea.n languages mentioned should, as
far as possible, be employed as the medium of instruction. In
that ])i;>rtion of his book wherein he describes the Psychic life
proper, consideration is first of all given by the author to Thonga
conceptions of the world and its origin, and to thei*- ideas of
cosmolog}', physiography, meteorology, and biology. By an
easy transition this passes over to the native conceptions regard-
ing man as embracing body and soul, and from these again to
the Thonga religion, which is ancestrolatry of a purely
spiritistic type, that is to say, idolatry and fetishism are absent.
The religion, though non-moral, is not immoral, and coupled
therewith is a conception of Heaven — a term with which is
associated a dim idea, not only of uninhabited locality, but also
of impersonal, though active power. Magic rites amongst the
Thonga people possess several more or less distinct phases, some
beneficent, others the reverse. Medical practices belong to the
former category ; less exclusivelv so is the treatment of
demoniac possession, while witchcraft is met with both in the
form of white and black magic, the latter being decidedly male-
ficent. The concluding portion of the chapter on magic is
concerned with divination, the object of which is to provide
guidance and direction in regard to the future, under perplexing
circumstances, by means of such expedients as presages and
divinatory bones. The fourth and final chapter of the book
deals with some of the restraints put upon the people : these are
the taboos and moral restraints. The origin of the taboos is
generally inexplicable, but when a taboo has been proclaimed
and then ti*ansgressed, condign punishment is' thought to be
averted from the transgressor by the drugs of the medicine-man'.
As for moral restraints, M. Junod comes to the conclusion that,
if Bantu religion is non-moral so also Bantu morality
is. non-religious, nor can a man even so much as feel

THE PSYCHIC LIFE OF THE THONGA TRIBE. 12/

himself guilt}' of a crime which li£ has committed if he
has not been convicted thereof. In his concluding sentences the
author, having in view a long list of the vices of civilisation
(which list he tells over categorically), expresses fear for the
extinction of the tribe unless these influences be checked, and
so he makes an appeal to Education to provide the enlighten-
ment of mind, and to Christianity to lead the weak and carnal
Bantu to its own ideal, as the people's only salvation from the
annihilation which he otherwise considers inevitable.

International Electrical, and Engineer-
ing Congresses.— The International Electrical Congress is
to be held at San Francisco from September 13th to i8th, 1915,
under the auspices of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, by authority of the International Electrotechnical
Commission, and during the Panama Pacific International Exjw-
sition. The deliberations of the Congress will be divided among
twelve sections, which will deal exclusively with electricity and
electrical practice. The International Engineering- Congress
will be held at San Francisco during the week immediately follow-
ing the Electrical Congress. The F,ngineering Congress is
supported by the Societies of Civil, Mechanical, and Marine
Engineers, and by the Institutes of Mining and Electrical
Engineers, as well as by the prominent Pacific Coast engineers
who are actively engaged in organising it. This Congress will
deal with engineering in a general sense, electrical engineering-
subjects being limited to one of its eleven sections.

International Congress of Tropical Agri-
culture. — The International Association for Tropical Agri-
culture has decided to hold an Liternational Congress in London
during June, 1914, and all countries interested in Tropical Agri-
culture and Forestry are invited to participate therein. The
principal object of the Congress is the discussion of ways and
means of improving agriculture in the Tropics, and thereby
increasing the production of the numerous food-stuffs and
industrial raw materials derived from tropical countries. The
Congress is to be held in the Imperial Institute. South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W., and communications intended for submission
thereto may be made in English. French. German, or Italian, but
the general language of the Congress will Ix- English. The
following subjects for papers and discussion are suggested: —
Technical education and research in tropical agriculture. Labour
organisation and supply in tropical countries, Scientific problems
of rubber production. Methods of developing cotton cultivation
in new countries, Problems of fibre production. Agricultural
credit banks, Agriculture in arid regions. Problems in tropical
hygiene and preventive medicine, Problems relating to tropical
agriculture and forestry. The cultivation and production of
rubber, cotton and fibres, cereals and other foodstuffs, tod^acco,
tea, cocoanuts, other agricultural products, and forest products,
Plant diseases and pests affecting tropical agriculture.

V. .

128 THE I'SVCIIIC LIFE OF THE TilOSGA TRIBE.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Chemical, ^Iet.-\llurgicai. anmi Mixinc; Society of South Africa.—
Saturday. August i6tli : A. Richardson, AI.I.M.]\I„ President, in the chair. —
Presidential address: A. Richardson. The training and work of the
mine surveyor were shortly reviewed, and a syllabus of subjects requiring
closer attention on the part of students of surveying and assistants on the
mines suggested. — " Mining copper ores at Messina " : J. A. "Woodburn.
Ancient copper workings, extending over a considerable area, exist at
Messina, near the Limpopo, in the Northern Transvaal. Of these three
distinct lodes are at present l)eing worked. These lodes and their develop-
ment were described and illustrated, and the methods of stoping, stope-
filling. sinking and ventilating the shafts, sorting the ore and milling shortly
explained.

Saturday. September 20th: A. Richardson, M.I.]\r.M., President, in the
cliair. — " The determination of the acidity or alkalinity of waters " : Dr. J.
Moir. Tables of 54 indicators and the effects produced on them were sub-
mitted in connection with whicli the author called attention to the mislead-
ing conclusions as to acidity of mine water or alkalinity of town water that
mav be drawn if filtrations are performed witli indicators of a wrong class.
—"The Sand-filling of mines"; Dr. W. A. Caldecott and O.P. Powell.
The general considerations relating to sand -filling were discussed; tlie
methods in actual employment on certain mines at the present time were
described, and details given of their cost. — " A system of keeping mine and
mill accounts, costs and metallurgical records " : ]\T. W. Maclachlan.
An outline of a system of centralisation of work in preparing mine operat-
ing costs, records and general accounts, as personally installed and super-
vised at a group of mines in .Mexico.— " Ventilation of the mines of the
Rand : The problem of obtaining healthier conditions " : G. H. Blenkinsop.
The author discussed shortly the underground conditions on tlie Rand,
with the enquiry why a system of ventilation, which fulfils practically all
needs in Europe, fails to attain the desired result on the Rand. In reply
to this enquiry, the much higher daily mean temperature, and susceptibility
to pulmonary complaints owing ito high altitude, are placed foremost. The
author proposes to substitute a blower method for fan ventilation in the
mines, maintaining that the blowers would introduce constant supplies of
fresh air, whereas fans neither lower the temperature of the mine air nor
dimini.sh, its impurity.

Saturday. October i<Sth: A. Richardson, MT.M.M., President, in the
chair. — " Electric blasting "' : W. Cullen, T. Donaldson, and W.
"Waters. The endeavour of the authors was to show that the beneficial
effects of electric blasting are not so mucli along the line of olitaining
better Hasting results as in l)ringing about improved liealth conditions for
all underground workers. It diminishes the dust and smoke inseparable
from the safety fuse ; it removes the danger of premature explosions, and
it is more economical than the safety fuse to the extent of £2 per 1,000
shots. The authors proceeded to describe a series of underground experi-
ments carried on at the ]\Ieyer and Charlton mine, and concluded with
details of the appliances required for electric blasting.

Saturday, November i6th : A. Richardson, M'.I.M.M., President, in the
chair.^" The natural soda deposits of .Africa ; with some notes on the
alkali trade " : J. Watson. Short descriptions were given of the soda lakes
of Egypt. German East Africa, and Magadi, British East Africa. The
author then proceeded to a more detailed account of the soda-pan at Zout-
pan, 25 miles north of Pretoria, in connection with the working of which
the South African Alkali Limited Liability Company has recently been
formed. In this connection the establishment of a new South African
industry was advocated and lines of operation suggested. — " Explosives in
hand and machine labour stopes " : T. D. Delpart. The author pointed
out that notwithstanding the advantages which machine-holes for blasting
have over hand-labour holes, a greater quantity of explosives is required in
order in break a 'ton of reef in machine stopes than in liand-labour stopes.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES. 1 29

The reasons of this were discussed and suggestions made for lowering the
cost of explosives per ton of reef broken. — " The effect of charcoal in gold-
bearing cyanide solutions, with reference to the precipitation of gold " : M.
Green. It was found that equal weights of tinely crushed wood charcoal,
agitated with gold-bearing cyanide solutions of equal strength, for lengths
of time varying from three to 18 hours, in each case precipitated identical
quantities of gold, it was also found that freshly-ignited wood charcoal
precipitated 90 per cent, of the gold contained in a stock cyanide solution,
while similar charcoal, after six months" exposure, precipitated only 50
per cent. ; also that sugar charcoal obtained by heating sugar in closed
retorts precipitated 62 per cent, of the gold, sugar charcoal prepared by
treatment with sulphuric acid failed to precipitate any gold whatever. Dis-
cussing the underlying principles of the effect of charcoal in cyaniding, the
author concluded that charcoal does not stop the passage of a dissolved
substance through it by means of an osmotic effect, but that its power as a
precipitant of gold from aurocyanide solution is due to occluded gases,
loosely held gases having little or no influence. It appears to be mainly
carbon monoxide that is responsible for the power of charcoal thus to preci-
pitate gold.

South African Society of Civil Enginfeks. — Wednesday, September
loth : A. D. Tudhope, M,.I.C.E^, Vice-President, in the chair. — "The water
supply of Kingwilliamstown " : T. G. Caink The water is obtained from
a catchment area of about 9„300 acres, consisting of forest-clad mountains
rising to between 3,000 and 4,000 feet above the dam. Rain gauges near
the top and bottom of the catchment area show T6-year averages of
respectively 74 and 2>7 inches of rain per annum. The water shows a
remarkable absence of silt, even after severe storms, and has no trace of
the brown colour characteristic of Western Province rivers. The run-off
from the catchment area amounted to 4,968 million gallons in 1911 and
1,980 million gallons in 1912. The dam is curvilinear on the middle portion,,
with a straight length on either side. Detailed descriptions of the con-
struction of the dam, reservoir and pipe line were given by the author.
The water, on reaching- the town, passes through " Candy '' filters, and the
monthly consumption during 19 12, by a population sliglitly over 9,0.00. of
whom about 3.400 are natives, averaged close on thirteen million gallons. —
'■ X()tes on the casting and driving of reinforced concrete piles " : H. A.
Fuhr. A description of the operations involved in the construction of tlie
Tyumie River Bridge, Alice, Victoria East, Cape.

Wednesday, October 8th: G. T. Nicholson, AI.I.C.E., Vice-President, in
the chair. — " The Stockton tunnel " : A. Colman. The tunnel is on the
Natal main line, between Mooi River and E^tcourt, and constitutes a
deviation whereby the high watershed, previously crossed by a deep open
cutting at an altitude of 5,300 feet, is reduced in elevation to 4,980 feet,
and the ruling gradients of i in 30 have been eased to i in 65, at a cost of
half a mile of tunnel and a deviation two miles to the west.

South African Institution of" Engineers. — Saturday, October nth:
]\Ir. W. Calder, President, in the chair. — "Air consumption and mainte-
nance costs of rock drills": E. G. Izod, and E. J. Laschinger.
Greater economy in the use of compressed air for transmission of power
w-as urged. Air power is mainly used for actuating rock-drills, and on
an average twice as much compressed air is used on a development shift
as on a stoping shift. That large savings in the air-power bill of the
mines may be eft'ected is shown by the fact that in one group of mines, a
saving of over one shilling per machine shift in the air power cost as
lietween January and December, 1912, was l)rought about; in other words,
there had been a saving of 1.205.038 air units, notwithstanding an increase
in the number of rock-drill shifts during the same period from 73,926 to
78,545. With regard to maintenance, there had been a saving comparing
January witli Decemi)er, of 51 shillings on every 52 machine shifts worked.
Suggestion"^ were made as to the lines along which such savings might be
effected.

I30 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Saturda}', Xovembcr 8th: ^Ir. W. Calder, President, in the chair. —
" Ventilation of Mines " : W. Pile. The author insisted on the absohite
ntcessity that a free and continuous supply of fresh air should be equally
and efficiently distributed throughout each mine. Me compared the
" naturally " with the " mechanically " \entilated mines, and with those
where a combination of " natural " ventilation with fans was employed.
" Natural " ventilation he regarded as unreliable, and as the flow of air
can be more easily induced than forced, fans would be more efficient if
placed at the top of the upcast shafts. The system of blowers is not com-
mended, as the forcing of air down a mine would raise fts temperature,
while the air itself, coming from the travelling roads would be impure
and heated. The construction of large airways was suggested, and the
constitution of a Ventilation Board, composed of practical men, in respect
of each mining district.

Geological Society of South Africa. — Monday, November 17th: Dr.
E. T. Mellor in the chair. — " Notes on a form of black diamond from the
Premier Mine " : D. P. Macdonald. Specimens of this rather peculiar
variety of diamond have been found distributed throughout the part of
the pipe now being worked, and were not confined to any one locality in
the mine. The largest piece weighs 104 carats. The physical characters
of the diamond were described, as well as the efTects noticed on heating
fragments and powder under different conditions. The appearances. Iwth
of the diamond powder and of the sections under the microscope were
described: throughout the specimens there is transparent carbon, but in
mass tlie diamond is opaque, because of tlie density of tlie opaque particles
scattered throughout its substance. Tn the muffle furnace the diamonds
yielded a yellowish-brown ash, to the extent of 3 per cent. This ash was
physically, microscopically, and cliemically examined. The results observed
were detailed, and tlie nature of the black carbon enclosed in the diamond
discussed.

Rhodesia Scientific Association. — Wednesday. December 24th: IVIr.
H. B. Maufe, B.A., F.G.S., in the chair. — " The Mosquito Plague, and the
necessity for eliminating the nuisance from the town " : D. E. H. Strong.
An account of the life-histon,- of the mosquito was given, and the best
means of securing its destruction discussed.

XKW ROOKS.

Fraser, Donald. — Wiuniiif; a primitive people: Sixteen years' work
aiiioiic: the warlike tribe of the Ngoni and the Senga and Timbuka
peoples of Central Africa. 8 X 5 in., pp. 320. Maps and illus.
London : Seeley, Service & Co., 1914. 5s.

lYorsfold, S. N. Basil. — TIic reconstruction of the new Colonies under
Lord Milliter. 8vo. (2 vols.), pp. vi, 376, j\2.g. London: Kegan
Paul. Trench, Triibner & Co., 1913. 48 oz. 25s.

Markham, Violet R. — The South African Scene. 8vo., pp. vii, 450.
London : Smitli, Elder & Co., 1913. 24 oz. 7s. 6d.

Tremearne, Major A. J. N. —.9o;n^ Austral-African notes and anec-
dotes. 9 X 5} in. pp. xii, 215. Illuis. London: Bate, Sons &
Danielsson, 191,3. 7s. 6d.

Macdonald, Dr, W.— T/ie conquest of the desert. 9 X Si^ in.-, pp. xii.
197. Maps and illus. London : T. Werner Laurie, 1913. 7?. 6d.

THE PHALLUS CULT AAIONGST THE BANTU;
PARTICULARLY THE BAPEDI OF EASTERN TRANS-

\'AAL.

i'.y Kcv. !()ii.\NXi:s Auc.ust Winter.

The following- is a translation of a manuscript written by a
native minister, Martinus Sebusane, on the subject of the Koma,
or circumcision. It was revised by the native minister, J.
Mphole. The pamphlet has been translated by me, and I have
added my explanations. Many authors, amongst almost every
nation, have written essays about the Phallus Cult, as one of the
oldest Cults, nay, by many it has been spoken of as the very
first religious Cult of men. In one of the back-numbers of the
Religious Psychology — one of the best German periodicals deal-
ing with religion and psychology in their relations to each other —
many German, French, and English writers about the Phallus
Cult are referred to. Some go so far as to make out that the
Cross (Christian and others) was originally a symbol of this Cult.

The following is only a small contribution, useful to men
who study and are interested in the scientific researches regard-
ing original religion, especially the sacred rites of the aborigines
of South Africa. -

That the mvstery of germinating life sliould tlraw the atten-
ti(^n of simple human beings, and lead them into the belief in an
unseen supernatural power, we can easily understand. The
golden bull, the Apis Cult, amongst many other historical facts,
prove it. In how far the Old Testament Circumcision has been
influenced by this Egyptian Cult, is difficult to say. I dare say,
however, that the following about the old Circumcision amongst
our natives will induce the reader to think that this most sacred
and most secret mysterious law is nodiing but the Phallus Cult,
or, at least, a remnant of it. The very symbols of breeding
(sit 7'ciiia fcrbo! ) are praised in the hymns used throughout, from
early to late, during this most sacred season of our natives. The
very hymn is a Cult. AH Cults have it.

Translation.

Koma is the name of the congregation of those going to be
circumcised, of those who henceforth are no more to be seen
or to have intercourse with those at home. The name means
Mystery (Secret), it indicates also a very great matter of the
hig-hest importance. Go holla — the \\'ord for what is going to be
done — means : to go out.

The beginning of the Kouia. — The young uncircumcised
boys inform all their family connections, that they are going

A

13- PHALLUS Cl.Ll AMONGST THE BANTU.

go uchi (to fall inj. They take off every kind of dress that they
have been wearing before. The cattle are taken out, not allowed
to be milked in the morning-. In the evening they are milked in
this way: The two preceding boys, those lately circumcised,
thrasli each other with long, heavy lathes of a s]:)ecial kind of
shrulD (iiiorctloa ). It is a sham-fight, the winners to have the
right to milk."- All women and girls must grind grain. Lots
of sweet milk-porridge is cooked, to be eaten next morning.
Early next day all come together at the Kgoro.j A number of
the most brave warriors distribute the porridge into the hands
of the boys, thrashing them cruelly, calling out: Dikgoinol (The
cattle!)! This ceremony is to teach them to be brave in war.||
The boys, who, afraid of this severe thrashing, run away leaving-
their porridge, are called with that most ugly, indecent nanie
Maf^shcga.§

After this they go out into the field, to have their hair cut,
to do away with all childishness." At sun-down "all return to
the Chiefs fire and council place, where they eat and sleep, aft^r
walking round the kraal singing. They are not allowed to eat
porridge, hu\_ must eat ungmund lioiled grain mixed with soil.
This food also, like everything else_. has its special name. In fact,'
during this time nearly everything- has another name, not the
common words. This bad. (lirty food is ji symbol, to indicate:
You are going to become men, who will marry wives who v.'ill
cook nice, clean porridge for you. The songs all have the point
to despise the boyish and childish state and to praise manhood.

The next day very early all go out into a lonely desert place.
An old man is chosen by the Chief to perform the work of circum-
cising, in the same way as described in Genesis xvii. The prse-
putiuni is cut ofl". All boys have to sit on a flat stone, all on the
same stone, called Sctlalo. All boys, who either themselves or
through their mother, have some blemish on their character or
family-name {e.g., immorality, an adulteress as mother, etc.),
are not allowed on this stone Seflalo, but must be circumcised on
another stone called by the infamous name tiaba. The first bo3^s
operated on are those who are chosen to suffer before their Chief
(son of their Chief) ; they are called Malckadigalc (the triers).
Then comes the highest in rank, then those of lesser rank, down
to the lowest and poorest (servants and those taken as children

* A certain mimher of \ears. generally from three tu five, intervene
between the kt^iinis. Wlien natives wish to tell their age. they say: We are
of such and such a koiiia. Each konui has, and keeps, its name.

tFire- or council-place near mouth of cattle kraal.

X I have known natives who regard their cattle as something holy,
who actually ask buyers: "Are cattle a thing to be sold?"

II Xo kraal is regarded as defeated, the cattle of which are not taken.

S Men suffering from diarrhoea.

■[The proper- hair-cutting designating the ditiferent tribes, is done
when the time of the circumcision — generally three months — is o\-er.

rilALLUS CULT AMONGST T 11 K IJAN'TL'. 1 ^j

from defeated kraals). A water-melon is cut. pieces of which
may be sucked by those suffering' from faintness because of loss
of blood. When all is over they are told the old formula: Sco ki
Tiroanc-tiyoa-inayoiigoaua magoshi a go fcla ha d'wiloc sco.
meaning : " All chiefs and all men of all times have been marked
by this mark." X'ow they are called Madikaiia (the hidden ones ).
No eye is allowed to look upon them, except those who have
formerly gone through this process. Women and Mashiboro
(uncircumcised ) mvist run away whenever they hear the special
songs and hymns, singing which they roam over berg and dale.
The elder boys (last and second last before these) now com-
mence to thrash each other, as also the freshlings, with cruel big
rods. Hymns and songs, fixed from the oldest times, in praise
of manliness, in praise of the female parts — exceedingly indecent
— are now sung from early to late during their ceaseless excur-
sion from sunrise to sunset.

After the operation, skins or blankets are cut into broad
strips reaching from hip to knee, and called Motsliabelo. The
thin lines to keep these must be so tied that nothing of them can
be seen. Their name is Kgoyaiia. whicli means: " What is hidd.eii
must not be seen ! "

The first thing to be done after the circumcision is this: The
elder boys must hurry to the place, the most sacred place of their
home, the sleeping and eating place, called ]\[pato. This is a kind
of kraal, made of big branches freshly cut. with two openings,
one for the old circumcised and one for this year's boys. Any of
the latter entering by the other opening is mercilessly killed (even
now). As soon as the elder boys arrive, after the ceremony, they
start kindling the " holy fire," never by matches, but always by
rubbing two sticks (one of hard, one of soft wood ) till a flame
appears. This fire must never be allowed to die out during the
three months, day or night. During rain they cover it as best
the}' can. This is the only fire to be used by them, no second fire
or firebrand otherwise taken may be used. When the Madikaiia
are brought there, everybody is shown his own sitting, kneeling,
and sleeping place, in the same^ rank and order in which they have
been circumcised. They are ordered to sleep on their back with
widely spread out legs, taking great care that no blood touches
any other part of their bodies. Only the riding Chief's eldest son
is allowed to use a blanket in the night. Before sleeping they
are allowed only to kneel, but not to sit. Plenty of food is given
them; in fact, they are purposely fattened like pigs, because it is
a shame to bring them back to their home in a meagre condition.
The porridge is cut with sticks by the elder boys and given into
their open hands. On the day of New Moon no food at all is
eaten — it is a fast-day. If during the eating a boy coughs, all
eating is at once stopped. All teaching is thrashed into them.
The greatest amount of thrashing is accompanied by: "Obey

134 PHALLUS CULT AMONGST THE 15ANTU.

your Chief." They are taught to regard him* as their God.
Whenever they see a Chief they must all kneel down, clapping
their hands and shouting the necessary greeting: Moriba. and
looking down as if not worthy to look at him. All men, meeting
them, must also be greeted in nearly the same way. Certain
fixed formnlie are used, for this greeting as well as for the
answers from the men. 1"he men usually answer the followin.g":
Tsikaiia. cti rara ca iiiatcnua, ka tif<a niadi a falaUi, hti vi: _^(( sc
iinidi ao ki malakapctki modi a basadi a bO'iiniiaocuii li dikgai-
tslicdi." Which sentence signifies that they are not to think too
much of their blood, it being only blood like those of women,
their mothers and sisters. After some days they are given some
feathers (ostrich or pigeons) and driven into a pool of water
to wasli and soften the wounds. All this is accompanied by
thrashings. When the sores are healed, there commences tlieir
eternal roaming round about, under chosen leaders, accompanied
by elder boys with rods. Then they are compelled to sing all
their old hymns and songs, all kinds of manners and customs
being also thrashed into them, all that a man could and should do,
especially in relation to women. They are often thrashed on the
soles of their naked feet, with the words : " A man ought to have
shoes" (sandals). Further thrashing: "Always obey your
father, never obey your mother." Before eating, morning and
evening, they receive lashes on their fingers : " A man does not
eat with unclean hands," coinjx'lling them to wash their liands.
They receive lashes on the tips of all fingers of their left hands
joined together, to teach them how to commence using the female
parts. \\'ith a hot burning rod they are thrashed between the
parts of their posteriors.tto teach them cleanliness there, and not
to use open places or near their hoines for defilement, liood and
bad teachings are strangely mixed ! An instance of a good one :
An elder boy says to the Madikaiia. " 1 am going to sleep with a
girl or woman " — then all must cry out : Matsocro !$ spitting out
before him, as before a nasty filthy thing. When crossing foot-
paths, where women usually go or have just passed, all cry out
the same bad word. It seems to be impressed upon them, both
the use of women, and at the same time to despise all women as
a lower, unclean class. Another teaching is called : Mogano.
They receive cruel wounds in their neck, to teach them to have
done with all impudence, disrespect and flisobedience, in fact, to
teach them humility before elders. Uncircumcised boys are
called Mashiboro, which means: quarrelsome, disrespectful ones.
Another cruel practice with their fingers, to teach them no longer
to steal milk, when milking goats, is called : Go aiiiiisha dipudi."
Besides these cruel and often immoral and indecent lessons,
they have to roam about in the hills to catch game, or to cut
poles for the Chief's use, or other work done for the Chief.

* Who is often called the Poo, the bull of their home.

t They call it : Go roka, to sew.

X An infamous word. j j

PilALLLS CULT AMONGST THE 13ANTU. 135

Ahvavs in the afternoon, when ai)i)roaching their Mf>ato, the
elders cry out: Tsoai la nfsoetsoc."^ Whereupon the Madikaiii
have to answer: J/a/r/o If In connection with this tiiey are in-
structed to make use also of a dead Ijrother's wife, to ohtain
children for the dead brother.

When the time is near to bring- them back to the home-
kraal, the men make an image of a naked nia;a from soft wood.
Before this all must kneel down and wHh bent heads greet it with
the name of one. of their old famous Chiefs. Images of game
are also made round it, colouredi with clay, lime, coal and ochre.
Then this special Mpato is given the name by which it will
always he known, e.g., Matooba (that of Chief Sekukuni),
Masociu\ Manilla. Magasa, Makoa. Every boy now also gets his
own new name. Before leaving they build two little stone-heaps
with the image of a hya;na macle of clay (and also coloured like
one), called Piri. This the new men destroy. Then all the men
sing and dance in praise of the new men, holding long rods
upwards, no more to thrash — called: Naka tsha kojiia (horns of
the kouia).

After this all arc well washed, the hair cut, fresh loin-bands
put on (either from klipsi)ringers or shee]i), their bodies are
well greased and rubbed in with Lefsuka.f a last heavy thrashing
is given with the shout: Bonra ki byol ( Idiis is to be a man > —
and Avith tremendous shouting, dancing, and singing in the after-
noon, they are at last 'brought home to their kraal— as men.

All things used during those months are bmmt down. Tlie
boys are strictl}' forbidden to look I)ack at them and at the place,
when the)- go lK>me.

Xo\v the\- arc men. They have been told, that from now,
the\' will 1)C judged a^ men, no mc^rc like children.

Une or two experiences added by the Translator.

Years ago, long before the war — when that splemiid I'ara-
mount Chief Kgolokoe was ruling the Sekukuni coun.tr_\-. and I
was at my station, imder the ■ Ea.stern Precipices of the Lolu
A fountains — one day a messenger from the Cliief came to inform
me of the death of Selatole, the Chief's brotlier. ( )n the after-
noon of the next day I went up with niy few men, wlio had black
bands roiuid their arms, driving up also a black ox from me,
according- to the usual way of friendh' (,"hiefs to show their
sorrow. When on top of the Mountain, ah Induiia, sent by
the Chief, asked me not to use my usual l)ridle-path, hut "to go by
Another on the left side, ^\dlen asked : ' Why? '" he said : " Our
Konia is on this i^iath, and nobody can use it." I became verv
angry, and said: " Xever in my life have I turned out of mv wav

* Sweet salt — meaning soon to lie able to use women.

+ A cry of astonished wonder.

±A yellow-brown ochre from bbrnt slate with ircm iiarticles.

136 I'llALLUS CULT AMONGST TITF. HAXTU.

because of Satan's festivals."* 1 flatly refused, and. althDugli
late and already dark, I preferred to go home down the bad kloof,
but allowed my men and the ox to go on by the other patli. Early
next morning" a messenger arrived, saying: " The Chief is deejily
sorry for my turning back, and also that he could not accept an
ox given with averted head." lUit 1 still refused. A week
passed. Many Chiefs going u]) and returning passed m\- house.
At last a Christian Chief, whom T had baptised, also returned,
and gave me a message from Chief Kgolokoe, that, if I would
infc^rm him of the day and time of my coming, he would arrange
with the headman of the Koniu. to hide the boys in the long grass,
so that I may use my usual bridle jjath. The very next day I
went. I saw the /\'o/;u/-boys from afar lying down in the grass.
The Chief received me very kindly. I found my ox s'till alive.
and, after the cu.stomary inquiries into the sickness and death,
and expressions of my sorrow. I handed it over. In an-wer, T
had a beautiful Ijlack ox, w hich 1 ordered to be killed. The kraal
was under a low hill, on {op of which the Mpato of the Kama
was. We heard the continual singing of the boys. Knowing
that when a friendly Chief visits the Cai)ital, they often let these
boys have a quiet rest, I told the Chief to send word up. and let
them rest, .\fter a little while there was a loud shout, k'rkr-rrke
horoko, of thanks, and so they were allowed a rest.

When, not very long ago. I visited ]\Ir. llaigh, at a store at
Sekukuni's kraal, at the bottom of the hill, on which the Mf-ato
was, Mr. ITaigh told me that his horse went astray, and tli^t it
was very likely somewhere half way up the hill. Upon my say-
ing: "Why don't you go and fetch it?" he said: "That would
be as much as my life is worth."

Once, in 1888, I had the pleasure and honour to receive our
then Administrator, Sir Owen Lanyon, at my house. In our
talk we also touched upon the Koiiia, and the possibilitv or im-
jiossibility of the (jovernment having some supervision over these
secret proceedings, during which boys are often killed and nobody
allowed to talk of it. Neither then nor later_, up to the present
day even, could the Government in any way obtain any right to
interfere. I mention this only to show how secret this half cult
half custom is kept, being the very backbone of our Xatives'
national life.

Synthetic Milk.— A factory is about to be established
in Liverpool for the manufacture of synthetic milk from soya
beans and other ingredients. The ground beans will be treated
Avith a small proportion of sodium phosphate, and just brought
to4he boil with water. After addition of sesame oil, milk sugar,
and salt, the milky liquor will be filtered and sold to dealers at 2d.
per quart.

*I regard this /coma as the heathen haptism, ahhough Livinustnne
says that he found nothing to find fault with in it.

THE CONDITION Ol^^ ^J'HL{ XATlVi':S OF SOUTi 1-1<:AST
AJT>LJCA IN riil-: STNTEENTll CENTL'R^', ACCORD-
lN(i TO 'J'JIE h.AKIA' TOR TL'i ;U!<:S1<: DOlTMENTS.

Rev. I l!:.\Ki A. ]i nod

What is tlie orit^in of the South African lUmtu, and, if thih
cannot he (liscovere<l, what are. at least, the influences which have
broui^ht about the peculiar features of their social and psychic
life, their customs, their special ideas, their characteristic rites?
Did they borrow them from other people, or are these customs
absoltitely underived? What is, in one word, the secret of their
past ?

if we consult the Native> themselves on these (|ue--tii^ns, on
wlrch every student of mankind would be very glad to get a
trustworthy answer, we must confess that the information they
give is very unsatisf actor}'. I hey still remember vaguelv some
historical events which happened a hundred years ago. They
have kept the memory of jxlitical changes and of migrations
which took ])lace from 200 to 400 years ago. They possess the
genealogies of chiefs of their clans wdiich number eight to
twelve names, and wliich may reach somewhat further back in the
past. But legendary traits are mingled with the historical facts,
and, when asked about their origin, they either say : " W'e do
not know," or they answer by the well-known story of the reed
and the chameleon. This is pure myth."^

The Portuguese displayed considerable activity in this part
of the world during the sixteenth century. Have they not left
documents wdiich would supplement this scanty Native inft^rma-
fion? In a review of the first volume of the book just referred
to, thQLoiirciico Marques Guardian put forth some hypotheses on
the origin of the Delagoa l>ay Natives, and exj^ressed the wish
that I should go to Li.sbon and there stud\' the Portuguese
archives, so as to throw more light on the fiuestion. It happens,
in fact, that I have lately had the opportunity of staying in Por-
tugal for two months, and 1 tried to find those precious docu-
ments. ( )wing to the courtesy of the directors of the (Geographi-
cal Society, I had access to their fine liijrary. but I came to the
conclusion that sixteenth century documents on the Natives of
South Africa are very few. The best report dealing with our
tribes is certainly the book of the Dominican brother [oao dos
Santos, Ethiopia oriental e z'arias Jiistorias de cousas ii('ta':'eis do
Orient^ printed in Evora in 1609. in which he describes what he
saw in Sofala and Tete. Is this work, in which the splendours of
the Monomotapa kingdom are revealed, entirely trustworthy?
It is hard to .say. As it deals rather with Central than with
Southern .Africa, and as Dr. Theal in his book. The Portui;;nese
in East Africa, has sufficiently made it known to modern readers.

* Compare my work on " The Life of a South African Tribe,." Vol. II,
p. 3-26-328.

138 NATRES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tI[ CENTUkV.

I did not spend much time in studying it. The Decades of Jcao
de Barros and of Diogo de Couto also contain much interesting
material, hut they relate militar\' feats accomplished hy the Portu-
guese in India and East Africa rather than ethnographical facts.
The mcst interesting documents which I met with are the reports
of four shipwrecks which occurred on the coast of Natal and
Dqlagoa Bay between 1550 and 1598, which were incorporated by
Gomes de Brito in his Historia trai^icoinaritinia. pulilished in
1736 in ten volumes. I'his extensive work was reproduced in
1904 in the Bihliothcca dc classicos Portugueses, and the wrecks
which interest us more directly are de.5cri!ied in Vols. I. 1\' and
V of that edition. I have found since then that these stories
were reproduced in Vols. 1 and 11 of the Records of South Ea.-^t
Africa, jmblished by the Cape (iovernment. The Portuguese
text is given, together with the English translation, and one uiay
be thankful thtit these records, written without any ])rec()nceived
idea in the most genuine and simple way, historical documents
of the best type, have thus been put within the reach ( f the South
African public.

The same collection contains letters of two Jesuit Brethren
who made an attempt to convert the iSratives in the neighbour-
hood of Inhambane in 1560-15O2. These letters coming from
men whose first object was to influence the minds and hearts of
the Natives and who stayed amongst them a certain time, trying
to understand them, ha^'e even more value than the records of
the shi])wrecks for the solution of the question which T have put
in the beginning.

T confess that all these documents are uot absolutely new,
but they have not yet been studied with a sutificient knowledge
of the Natives of to-day, and they certainly contain most precious
details on the condition of the Black tribes of South East Africa
300 to 350 years ago. Shall we find in them glimpses of a further
past? This remains to be seen.

Tn the first part of this paper, 1 intend giving the contents
of the documents on which our study bears and a short resume
of the doings of their heroes; then, we shall extract. from them
what information they contain about the Natives of these pre-
historic times, more particularly about those of Delagoa Bay,
who played tjuite a prominent part in these tragic events.

Part 1. 'JTie Documents.

Delagoa Pay was discovered in the beginning of the i6th
centurv by Antonio de Cam])o, the captain of one of the ships
W'hich composed the second fleet of \'asco da Gama. It was only
in 1554 that two Portuguese cf Mozambique, LourencoMarques
and Antonio Caldeira undertook an exploration in the country
round it. They were very successful. Having peneratcd into the
interior bv a river which reaches the sea on the 25° South
latitude (evidently the PimiKjio) they found the Natives dis-
posed to sell copper, " which they had in abundance " ; they also

NATI\1£S OF AFIUCA IN THE i6tH CHXTURV. I39

^a\v a great man}- elephants, and the Blacks sold them tusks on
very favourable conditions. I'^or some beads worth three vintens
(three pence) they could get ivory worth loo cruzades (which
means in the present currency about £7). Lourengo Marques
sent a request to the Vice Rey of India, Dom Joao de Castro,
who forwarded it to the King of Portugal, Dom Joao III, and
the King gave orders to provide the explorer with a ship loaded
with goods for barter in the Bay. This was the beginning of
regular coinmercial transactions between the Portuguese of
Mozambique and the Natives of these regions. Each year a
" pangaio,"" 7'i^., a boat made of planks sewn together, went to
Delagoa ; the sailors stayed in the little uninhabited Elephant
Island (which D. de Couto calls Sentimuro) for months, feeling
themselves there better protected against any possible attack and
visiting the interior as far as they could, following the rivers ;
they exchanged their goods, which consisted of beads of ircn,
and stuff, against ivory and occasionally amber. Eater on, in
1580, the pagaio came onl}- every second year. A regular traffic
was also started with Inhambane in 1550 to 1590.

These facts must be known in order that one may understand
that, for those rescued from the wrecked ships, the Bay of
Eourengo Marques or Rio de Santo Espirito was the great hope
of salvation. It was also called Bahia de Alagoa, the Bay of the
Lake, because the Portuguese believed that one or two of the
rivers flowing into it came from a big lake in the interior, that
from which flowed also the Nile to the North and the Zambesi
or Cuama to the A\'est.

I. The (jiiUcoii S. JoCtc.

This was the richest of all the ships that had yet left India
for Portugal. Her cargo was said to be worth one conto of
gold. One can guess the importance of the galleon by the fact
that the crew and passengers numbered about 600 souls, 200
Portuguese and 300 to 400 slaves. She was wrecked en the
coast somewhere on 31'' S.; 40 Portuguese and 60 slaves died,
and the 50b persons remaining, amongst them some women of
the best families of Portugal, succeeded in saving only very little
of their goods and a portion of their provision of rice. Their
journev to Delagoa Bay has been told by an anonymous writer,
who obtained the particulars from the "guardian" of the ship,
Alvarao Eernandes. The captain, Manuel Souza, took the lead;
he had with him his wife. Dona Leonora, and his uncle, Panteleon
de Sa. Thcv decided to follow the border of the sea, and started
on the 7th of July. The distance to be covered was 181 leagues
in a direct line ; but thcv. travelled more than 300. leagues, owing
to the difficult)- of the road. The first month they lived very
poorly on their rice; later on. they began to buy some food fiom
the Natives, but it seems that they did not know how to deal
properlv with them ; they often had to fight with them in order
to open their way ; the_\- endured untold sufl:'erings from hunger,

J40 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTL'RV.

still more from thirst, living on fruit of the veld, on shells and
tish of the sea. More than 300 died on the road. After three
months they reached the Bay. I'he chronicler says :

They then met with a Kaffir, master of two villages, an old man who
seemed to them of good condition, to be well disposed, and who proved
himself to be such by the hospitality which they received from liini ; lie
told them not to go further, but to settle with him, and that he wiould
do his best to help them, indeed, this country was poor in means of sub-
sistence, not that it could not produce them, but because the Kaffirs were
people who only sowed very few seeds and ate nothing Init the beasts
which they killed.

This man was the chief of Inhaca to whom I.ourengo
Marques had given the surname of Garcia de .Sa, the name of
the commander of Malacca, because his features were somewhat
like those of that official. He tried to keep the party near him,
telling them that on the Northern side of the Bay, there was a
chief with whom he \vas fighting, a great robber who would
certainly do them harm. The l^ortuguese, wishing to show
their gratitude for the kind reception received from the Inhaca
chief, consented to heli^ him to subjugate another petty chief,
six leagties to the South, who had revolted against him. So
Pantaleon de Sa and twenty white men accompanied the 500
warriors of the native king and defeated his enemy, bringing back
all his cattle as a prize. The Portuguese still niunbered 120.
But they insisted on going forward. They crossed a river (one
now called the Maputo River), and with great difticr.lty a second
one ( Tembe and Umbelozi). But, (hiring the crossing, .Manuel
de Sonza lost patience and, with his spear, he threatened the
Natives, who were to take the white men over in canoes. His
companions told him to take care, that this action would bring
disaster on the whole party. P>ut he was out of his senses. Plis
reason was giving way under the burden of his responsibilities
and the greatness of his sufferings. They all crossed the river,
but on the other side (which is the present Matjolo country), the
native chief comi:)elled them to give np their guns, saying his
people would not dare to stay with white men as long as these
had these frightful engines in their ix)Ssession ; then he scattered
them all over the land, and when they were totally unable to
defend themselves, the Kaffirs robbed them of everything thev
possessed. They stripped them of their clothes. For a time
Manuel de Souza and his wife were spared this disgrace, but
they had to submit to it after all. Dona Leonora, who was a
fidalga fa person of noble extraction), after having behaved in
an admirable way all through the journey, was so grieved by
this shameful treatment and the death of her child, which then
took place, that she died miserably. Her husband buried her
and fled to the bush, half mad. Then he disa])peare<l,. probably
eaten by wild beasts. His rings were found later on in a forest
of the Mpfumu country, and the chief showed them to the Por-
tuguese who vi.sited him. Most of the companions of M. de
Souza met the same fate. The ship for Delagoa Bay had already

NATIVES OF AFKICA IN THE i6tII C1:NTLRV. I4I

returned to Mozanibi(iue. The (jne which came in 155.^ found
€ight Portuguese still living and seventeen slaves, who were
brought back to that town on May 25th, 1553. The narrative
of the terrible loss of the San Joao is well written and most
touching, but not being by a witness, it contains very little infor-
mation on the Natives, no names at all; so it is of no great use
for our purpose.

2. The San Bcnto {St. Bciioif), 1554.

The story of this wreck, on the contrary, is most interesting.
as it \vas written by Manuel de Mesquita Perestrello, a well
educated man who was one of the passengers. The shij) ccn-
tained about 400 persons, and 322 were rescued. 98 [^^rtuguese
and 224 slaves. They had managed to save a gun, twelve loads
of ammunition, and many spears. They came on shore at about
the same place as the San Joao. and also followed the road by
the border C)f the sea. But they had very few goods for barter,
and thus suffered terribly from hunger. Their captain. F. de
Alva res Cabral. died w^hen crossing Santa Luzia River ; they
wandered fourteen days round a bay, which they called Rio dos
Medoas de Ouro, and which must be Kosi Bay, and lost not less
than twenty persons during that time. A tribe of robbers
attacked them in these regions : some shots from the only gun
saved made such a wonderful im])ression that as the chronicler
says.

When they heard the noise, it was as if devils had jumped on them;
they scattered and fled so quickly that they disappeared in a minute.

But fighting with Natives was dangerous for them as it cut
short any sitpply of food they might have obtained from them.
A terrible famine began to decimate them. Perestrello describes
it in the following words : —

Some of us were forced to eat their own hoots .... and if some-
one found a bone of a wild beast quite dry, as white as snow, 'tliey ate it.
reducing it to charcoal as if it were a real treat. All were looking at the
veld to see if they could discover any herb, l)one or insect .... and
if one of these things appeared before them, tliey all ran to take it and
often they quarrelled, friend with friend, relative with relative, for a locust,
or an insect, or a caterpillar. After having walked three days doing this,
we reached a hill where they were many wild onions ; though we suspected
tjhem of being poisonous, we took them and made our meal of them, and
it pleased Our Lord that they did not harm us.

Four sailors were then sent forward to inform the captain of
the ship. in Delagoa Bay of the presence of this party, if per-
chance the ship had not yet returned to Mozambique. Dying of
himger they killed a native on their way and ate him. This did
not prepare a nice rece])tion for the party coming behind. They
had one day to fight in the same circum.stances as the soldiers of
Feonidas : —

The Kaffirs attacked us, throwing so many assegais, at us that all the
air was full of a cloud of them.

The fight lasted two hours and, if they escaped, it was only
owing to their gun which struck the Natives with terror and

14-2 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN Tllji i6tH CENTURY.

cleared the way. Another time, one of the enemy having been
killed with the asseg-ai, the whole party discussed if they would
not eat him to relieve the pangs of hunger.

According to what was whispered it was not the first time that the mis-
fortunes of this journey had pushed some to taste human flesh. But the
captain did not consent to it, saving that,' should the news scatter, that we
eat natives, these would flee before us to the end of the world and would
persecute us with much more hatred.

They were at their worst, when ha])pily a messenger came
from the chief cf Inhaca; he had heard of them and ofit'ered
them hospitality, saying that he was- the brother of tlie White
men who frequently came to the Bay, and to whom he sold much
ivory in exchange for beads ( contas ) . This was a great relief.
The Inhaca subjects consented to sell produce for money which
the Natives further South had always refused. Those who
reached the Bay were fifty-six Portuguese and six slaves. They
had travelled for "2 days and covered 300 leagues.

W'liat a miserable life they led in Inhaca's' country for five
months, decimated by hunger and leopards, covered with vermin..
oliliged to cut wood, to carry water for the Natives in order to
receive some food and save their lives. The report of Peres-
trello describes it in most touching terms. At last, in November,
1554, Perestrello, who was settled in the island of Inhaca, one
day saw a sail on the sea, a ship ; he fell on his ' knees, blessing
God for His mercy; this was salvation. But of all the party,
only twenty Portuguese and three slaves succeeded in reaching
^lozambique. The story of Perestrello is full of charm and of
interesting remarks. As he remained five months at the Bay,
he was able to see much of the Natives, and his report contains
many precious details about the subject which interests us.

3. The San Thome.

Thirty-five years later, in 1589, another ship was lost in the
neighl)oin-hoo(l of Delagoa Ba}'. This was the San Thi^mc.
whose ca])tain was Dom Paolo de Lima. On March 22nd. she
was wrecked on the shore of the Terra dos Fumos, the country
of the smokes, so named by the Portuguese narrators because,
when passing near it? they always noticed much smoke, a proof
that it was thickly populated.* Ninety-six persons were saved.
In tliis ship travelled also Diogo de Couto, the author of the
Decades, one of the principal historians of that time. lie wrote
the record of the vear i6ti. This is also the work of a witness
and not of an ordinary individual, but of a practised writer, of a
man who took an interest in the land and its inhabitants, ^id
possessed a real gift of observation.

The country of Fumos is on 2'/l° south latitude; it is the
present Amatongaland. only 50 leagues distant from Lourengo

* One mtist not confound the Terra dos Fumos with the country of
Fumo or Vumo or Rumo on the North of the Bay. Fjimos. in the first
case, is the Portuguese word for smoke, in the second the name of a native
chief, or, rather, clan, as will be seen later on.

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6t]I (KXTUKN-. I43

Alarcjiies. So the rescue of tlie party seemed to be an easy
thing-. However, the travellers had any amount of difficulties
in reaching the kraal of Inhaca. There they heard that the
Mozambi(|ue ship had left the Uay ten days before. The chief who
behaved very well towards the unfortunate Portug-uese led them
at their request to the Island Setimuro, where they found m« re
than fifty huts built by the traders There they settled, but as
the ship had gone, most of the sailors crossed the Bay in two
boats which they found there, wishing to continue then- journey
to the North and to send larger vessels from Inhambane or
Sofala to save the thirty-six who had remained behind. The
iwo boats were separated from each other by a terrible hurri-
cane. The smaller one found the mouth of the Alanhit;;i
( Xkomati) River, -'^ reached the capital of the chief of Alanhica.
and had the good fortune to find there Jeronymo de Leitao, the
master of the Mozambique sh']:), whcse pangaio had been wrecked
near the Rio do Ouro (Lim])opo). and who had taken a refuge
near the Manhiqa chief. jeronymo immediately sent a letter
to Sofala to ask for help, and the whole party crossed the Bay
and joined the others at ]\Ianhica. The second boat was wrecked
not far from the mouth of the Linipopo, but the men were saved
and well received by the chief Tnhapula. who gave them guides
to go to Inhambane. "They reached their destination, passing
through dififerent clans whose names Couto quotes carefully.
thus giving us a i^recious account of the tribes between Lourenco
Marques and Tnhanibane. Having found no help in this last
])ort, they went on to Sofala. When they reached that ]:>lace. a
])angaio had already sailed to rescue Paolo de Lima and his
]>arty. But the old man died before that ship came. The report
of Couto ends here ; he does not say how many others left their
bones on the shores of Delagoa Bay and how many returned
to Mozambique.

4. TJic Sail Alberto.

This was the last of the four wrecks. It took place in i 593,
four years after that of the San Thome. The ship had 317
passengers on board, 163 Portuguese and 194 slaves. She went
ashore on the Natal coast, in the same region as the .SV;;; .Jocio
and the San Bento. But the story of the rescue of tiie part)- is
wonderful. It illustrates the old Greek proverb, " An army of
deer comiuanded by a lion is stronger than an army of lions com-
manded by a deer." The captain of the party, Nuna A^elho
Pereira, was a man full of courage, of wisdom, and of personal

* The story as told by DioRo de Couto is almost impossible to under-
stand in its actual form, as the manuscript was evidently altered. Tn its
second half the word "' Inhaca " is regularly employed instead of " Man-
hiqa."' and " Manhiqa " instead of " Tnhaca."' .... As " Inli.'ica "' is
south and " Manhiqa " north of the Bay, this error makes the movements
of the party absolutely incomprehensible. Having discovered the mistake,
which was committed probably by the printers later on, I have been able to
restore the original text, and tlie whole story becomes quite clear.

144 NATIVES OF AFRICA IX THE i6tII CENTURV.

lorce, who succeeded in saving" 182 persons out of 285 who
reached the shore. The voyage lasted three months, and
covered more than 500 leagTies. Having heard of the awful
d.ifficulties met hy the San Joao and San Bento's crews, Pereira
decided to travel inland and not along the coast, trusting" that he
would find more means of subsistence, and that the rivers would
be easier to cross. ¥{\s expectations were partially fulfilled.
But what helped him most was the kindness united with firmness
which he always showed to the natives, preventing hds people
from plundering the plantations, paying regularly for all that
he bought by means of bits of copper and iron, adorning children
and women with ordinary beads or beads of crystal taken from
rosaries, which had happily come to the she re after the wreck,
etc. Xuna \'elho Pereira did so well that the Natives of Zulu-
land said the white men were just like the black, and diiTered
only froni them in their colour. In some places, they kissed the
Portuguese on their faces and accompanied them dancing and
singing. How difl^erent from the dreadful experiences of the
earlier parties. So his journey was a kind of triumphal crossing
of all Caft'raria (as the Portuguese called this coast) with almost
1 o fighting; he bought a great nuniber of cattle, whicii the party
took with them, eat'ng theni when they had to cross deserts.
Thev still had nineteen with them when they reached Inhaqa ;
they had the good luck to find there the traders' ship, which only
can"ie every second year. Most of the party could embark in it
for Mozambic|ue.

The story of the wreck was written by Joao Baptista
Lavanha. " C( smografonior de Sua Magestade." in 161;,
from a detailed account by the pilot of the ship. It con-
tains tlic names of most of the ]:)ett\" chiefs whicli the party
found froni },2° south latitude up to Inhaca Island, anrj this list
is most valuable.

Though the subject of this paj^er is the condition of the
Natives in the i6th century, and not that of the Portuguese of
that time. I will not proceed further without insisting on the
strong religious faith which animated and comforted these men
through the horrors of ' their peregrinations. The anonymous
chronicler of the wreck of the San Joao says his aim in telling
this stor\' was to teach the men who travel on the sea to recom-
mend themselves constantly to God and to the Virgin that she
should pray for then"i all In their order of march throughout
the country they generally put in front a priest or the pilot carry-
ing the crucifix. In all their misfortunes, they saw the finger of
God, a punishment for their bad deeds. Relating the terrible
journey round Kosi Bay, Perestrello says:

No doubt, if someone ha'd seen us, from the top of these hills (may he
be one of the savages living in the midst of these inhabited mountains)
marching naked, without boots, weary and strangers, lost, and in awful
necessity, feeding on raw herbs, of which even we did not tind eniough for
our needs, he would have thought we had gravely sinned against God,
because, if our sins had been small, His mercy would not have allowed

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tII CEXTURV. I45

such heavy puiiishinenl to fall on such miserable bodies Having

given up all hope of escaping- from those marshes by human power, we
resolved to have recourse to the Divine One. So, having all fallen on our
knees, in prayer, we asked Our Lady by her holy Conception to obtain for
us from her glorious Son another miracle similar to that which He made
for the Children of Israel when they left Egypt and passed the Red Sea

that we might that same day hnd a way through the marsh

which seemed impossible to cross, and there, owing to her guidance, we
found the way tlirough to the other side. Having witnessed sucli an
evident miracle, we again bent our knees, promising to make a pilgrimage

to Xossa Senhora de Guadeloupa and a solenm missa and, in

order to show us clearly by wlio-^e hand this work had Ijeen done, and that
the manna of the desert would not 1)e wanting, we found many cocoa nut.^
bn wild palm trees, etc.

I'ere.strello certainly was a my.'^tic, a mystic of the right sort ;
Lavanha is more matter of fact. He says he has Avritten his
report to give useful indications to the sailors who may fall into
similar misfortune. However, in his story also, the relioious fer-
vour is not wanting". See what Nuna X'elho Pereira, the distin-
guished Captain of the rescued party did when taking" leave of
the Chief Gamabela, on 27° South Latitude, a few days before
reaching the end of his traveh :

We were all thankful for the kind welcome received from this Kaffir :
and h'.- himself was no less pleased to have offered it to us. So he asked
Xuna Velho to give him something which he might keep in remembrance
of liim and of all tlie Portuguese accompanying him. Nuna Velho
answered that he would act according to the request, and would give him
the most precious treasure which was in the world. So taking the cross
which was hanging on his chest, and taking off his hat, he raised his eyes
to Heaven and with greait devotion kissed it ; then he gave it to the Portu-
guese who were near him, who performed the same ceremony, and to the
chief, saying this was the sacred token of his friendship, and that he
ought to show it the same respect as he had seen our people do. Thes
barbarian took it and kissed it with the same reverence, putting it to his
eyes ; so did all the Natives. And seeing this, Nuna Velho ordered the
carpenter to make a cross from the branch of a tree. It was made and
was eight palms in length. Nuna Velho handed it to Gamabela, teUjng him
that on such a tree the .\uthor of Life had overcome death by his own
death, that it was the remedy against death, the health of the sick and
that by the power of this sign the great Emperors had won victories. . .
So that the chief ought to put the cross on his hut and every morning,
when leaving his hut, he ought to show respect to this cross by kissing it,
and to adore it on his knees, asking help of it with confidence when health
was failing amongst his subjects or when rain was wanting for his
gardens. . . . With these words- he gave this royal trophy and unique
glory of Christianity to the headman, who took it on his shoulders, and
with his men, who numbered about 500. he went to his village to do what
Nuna Velho had told him. In this way the Lloly Cross was planted by this
virtuous noble man in the very midst of Caffraria, centre of the heathenism
over which to-daj^ it is triumphant. . . . May God Our Lord be pleased
to enlighten the minds of these poor heathens, so that holding firmly that
trustworthy Cross which remained amongst them, they ma}- be saved from
perdition .nnd from the blindness in which they live.

Is not the religious candour of these men most toucliing?
Of course, the hope of saving Native tribes fi"om the power of
heathenism by a mere sirbstitution of the catholic rites for those
of 'the animistic religion was most childish, and we know that
other and more spiritual methods are needed to reach such an

14'J ^:ativks of Africa in the iGth century.

end. However, there was an evident earnestness in those men of
old, and their faith gave them strength and hope in their terrible
jonrneys.

The same can certainly be said of the Jesuit Fathers who
undertook to convert the Kalanga tribe, located thirty leagues to
the South-West of Inhambane, and who wrote the letters to
which T alluded. A son of the Chief of tb.at tribe had gene to
Alozambique. and, after having been received with great honours,
he had been converted there and baptised. He therefore asked
the Portuguese to send missionaries to his home. The request
Avas agreed to, and (ioncalo da Silveira, a nobleman of Portu-
gal, started in 1560, from Goa, with another brother, Andre
r'ernandez. to found the mission. They had great success; at
least, they thought they had, because in the seven weeks of their
stay at Otongwe, the capital of the chief Gamba, they baptized
450 persons, the chief, his sons, his wives, etc. GonQalo, leaving
tlu- kraal after these few weeks, was most enthusiastic and hope-
ful. Alas ! The good Fathers had considered as true conversion
what was merely external adhesion to a doctrine very imperfectly
understood. Fernandez, who had remained on the spot, very soon
ncrticed it. d1ie lUack GhristieUis did not abandon a single one of
their superstitions, and, when warned by their missionary that
the old animistic ])ractices were inconsistent with their new faith,
the Chief and his men rebuked him, 'left him all by himself, even
threatened him. and the mission ended miserably after two years,
leaving absolutely no trace. We shall see directly what customs
and ideas Fernandez discovered amongst these strange converts.

Part II. — What the.se Documents Teach Us ahout the
Natives of SorTii-EAST Africa.

I. The iia)i>.-'s of the sixteenth eentury tribes eoinpared zcHh those

of to-day.

First of all, what were the tribes inhabiting the South-East
Coast of Africa in th( se times? According to Dr. Theal :

Tn all the region traversed by the crews of the wrecked ships, not .1
single tribe is mentioned of the same name as any one still existing now ;

and the Cape historiographer adds:

Tt would serve no useful purpose to give the names of the tribes
round Dclagoa Bay and further north, as placed on record by the Portu-
guese writers, for, even if these names were accurate at tlie time, the
comnnmities that bore them have long since ceased to exist and never liid
anytliing to merit a place in history.

I am sorry to contradict the distinguished gentleman to
whom we owe so much excellent work on South African history,
but these assertions do not correspond to the facts. For conveni-
ence of discussion, let us consider first the Delagoa tribes, the">
those South of the Bay, and, thirdly, those North of Delagoa.

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tII CENTURY. I47

As regards tlie tribes round Delagoa Bay, with which I am
hest acquainted, the situation was ahnost exactly the same in 1550
as it was before the Gungunyana war. We possess three descrip-
tions of the Bay, descriptions containing names : the first, of
Perestrello (Hist, trag.-mar. I, p. 130) ; the second, of Diogo de
Couto (IV", p. 100); the third, of Lavaniha (V, p. 82). Tliey
mention five chiefs inhabiting the borders of the Bay, two on the
Southern side, and three on the Northern side — A^umo, Lebombo
and Manhica. Let us consider these names.

The name of 'Mnhaca " (Nyaka), the old friend of the
Portuguese, is well known up to this day, being applied especially
to the island which lies to the East of the Bay. In former times,
the kingdom of this Chief extended much further South. He is
one of those who were deprived of their dominion by the growth
of the AJaputju clan, to which we shall refer directly. The
Alaputju defeated Mutlhobotahomu, the descendant of Nyaka,
but this tribe still exists, though it has lost its independence, and
"those of Nyaka" (ba-ka-Nyaka) still greet each other by say-
ing: ^'Shoz^-on, iV3'fl/?a '" ;" I greet you, Nyaka."

Zembe is evidentljrthe actual Tciiibc\ a clan which has played
a great part in the history of the Bay, especially in the Anglo-
Portuguese contest about the possession of the country. (See
the Memoirs concerning the arbitration of President MacMahon,
in 1873). Why the old Portuguese writers spell Zembe instead of
Tembe I cannot explain. This is probably a mistake made b}'
Perestrello, and adopted later on by Lavaniia.^'^

The name " Tembe " applies in a special way to the ancient
Chief who is considered as having founded the royal family, but
also to all his descendants, by whom it is used as a kin<l of family
name; it has also become the name of the river Tembe, called
by the Natives Mi-Tembe (z>iz., daughter of Tembe, as rivers are
considered as feminine by these tribes.f

On the Northern side we find mentioned Ruino (I, p, 130;
IV, p. 102), or ruiiio {l\\ p. lo^), or Fiiiiio (V, p. 83). evi-
dently ^NJpfumo, the most celebrated of the Delagoa little king-
doms, which ceased to exist as an independent clan after the war
of 1894. Mena Lebombo is probably Pibombo, who was one of
the first invaders of the Nondwane country on the VA^stern
border of the estuary of the Nkomati. This word Meiia, put !>y
Perestrello before Lebombo. means: I, myself. The chronicler
may have heard that Chief tell his name by saying: '^ Hi uicna
Lebombo " ; " I am Lebombo "' ; and he believed this Alcna to be
a part of the name. Lebombo was first located in the Lebombo
hills.

Manhica is well known up' to this day, and the " ba-ka-

* Diogo de Couto does not mention this name.
t" The Life of a South African Tribe," II, p. 301.
B

14^ NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY

Manyisa " form one of the most numerous clans of the Ba-
Ronga.*

If ^ve consider the map of the country as it is to-day. we see
that two or three names are wanting in these three descriptions :
Maputju (Maputo), :\Iatialo (lAIatolla), and Mazwava
(iMagaia) ; but we can very well account for this want; in fact,
these three clans are of modern orig-in. The Maputju and Mat-
jolo are younger branches of the Tembe and Mpfumo royal
families, which severed themselves from the main branch and
made themselves independent in relatively modern times.
]\Iaputju was the younger brother of ■Nluhari, the fourth Chief
in the Tembe genealogy, and he managed to found his own king-
dom,, probably in the course of the eighteenth century, conquer-
ing Xyaka, Bu}'ingane, and many others, probably destroying the
Makomata mentioned by Diogo de Couto, with their Chief Vir-.i-
gune ( ?. . a nam.c which does not sound much like Bantu). The
Magaia, or more correctly pronounced Ma.:K'aya, emigrated from
the Lebombo hiUs after I\lena I.ebombo overcame this latter
Chief, as well as the primitive inhabitants (the IMahlangana,
Honwana and Nkumba), and extended over both banks of the
Lower Xkomati, probably encroaching on the territory of Man-
hica. One of the first chiefs quoted in the Mazwaya genealogy
is Ngomana. This name is also encountered in the description
of Diego de Couto under the form Angomanes, and is applied to
a chief living in a locality whose descrij^tion well answers to th.c
old abode of the Mazwaya clan in the Lebombo hills.

]Vly conclusion is that in the middle of the sixteenth century
the Native population round Delagoa Bay was composed almost

•*■ As regards the names given by the Portuguese chroniclers to rivers,
there are many diificulties in these reports. When coming from the South,
the first river met is that now called the Maputo, and the second is the
Tembe. Strange to say, the two chroniclers of the XVIth century wh'>
mention the river Tembe, Perestrello and Lavanha. apply that name to the
first river. " that which separates the country of Tnhaca from that of
Zembe.'" The first river is also called by Lavanha Mclengana. There is.
not far from the mouth of the Maputo River, a hill still called Nkelengen.
and tliis is probably the origin of Mclengana. Diogo de Couto calls the
Maputi:) River Belingane, saying that this is also the name of a kingdom.
No doubt this is Buyingane, name of a chief who was located near the
moutli of the river and who was conquered by the Maputju, but whose
clan still exists in the same conditions as that of Nyaka. The country is still
called Ka Buyingane.

To the second river, the Mitembe, Diogo de Couto and Lavanha apply
the name of Anzete, or Ansate. This seems to me to be a corruption
of the word LTsutu or Lisutu (Umzuti on the Portuguese map of 1873I
which is the old name of one of the branches of the Maputo River, the
other being the Lipongolo. I believe there has been a confusion made
by the chroniclers between these two rivers. As regards the Manyisa
River, there is no doubt about its identification. It is the Nkomati of
to-day ; but Natives do not call it by that name in this part of its course :
they call it Morako (hence the name Morakwen, Marracuene). They may
have termed it " nambu zm ka Manyisa/' viz.. the river flowing in the
Manyisa country, and the chroniclers have mistaken this expression for
the name of the river itself.

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6t1I CENTLRV. I49

of the same elements as tc-day, and that the Native traditions
account perfectly for all the changes that have taken place. Thus
it is not true to say that these communities " have long since
ceased to exist." It is also an error to pretend that they " have
clone nothing worth mentioning in the history of South Africa.'"
For a long time before the Eurcpean or Asiatic traders occupied
the high land of South Africa, the tribes round Delagoa Bay
acted as intermediaries between the White merchants and the
tribes of the interior; llie Mpfumo clan, especially, was known
as a clan of merchants ; large caravans were organised to carr}-
clothing", beads, and other goods to Gazaland, to the Northern
Transvaal, even to Zululand, and. in this way. the^e Native^^
really contributed to the civilisation of the country.

Let us pass now to the tribes Soutli of Delagoa Uay, in the
countr}- now called Caffraria proper. Natal. Zululand, Amatonga-
land. In the report of Lavanha we find an extensive list of
names of chiefs, or, rather, of headmen, through whi se territory
the party of San Alberto made its way. I reproduce it here with
the Portug^uese orthograjihy, which is, of course, very defective,
as these old chroniclers had no idea of the special Bantu sounds :
so I add to these names their translation into what seems to have
been their real pronunciation :

From ^T,^ to 32° South Latitude we meet vvith the Tizombe
clan, the Chiefs Luspance ( Lusiphansi?) and Ld^abu. From
32'' to 31", Inhancoza ( Nyana-we-nkosi), \'ibo. Fro.'n
31° to 30". Inhancunha ' Nyankunya ) ; Ospidanhama ( Usipidan-
yama) ; Moxangala (^Urnshangala ) mountains; Catine ( Katini )..
From 30" to 29^: Inhanze ; Mabomborucassobelo ; Mocongolo
(Umkongelo). From 29'' to 28°: Alutangalu river; Gogam-
bapolo ; Giniijacucumba ; L'quine Inhana (Ukinyane). near the
Tugela River, called Uchugel. From 28° to 27°: Panjana;
Malangana ; Gamabela, l.uimbe. Further North begins the king-
dom of Inhaca.

To these chiefs Diogo de Couto adds the following, in Ama-
tcngaland : jNIacalapapa, near the Santa Luzia Bay. and the
]\Iacomato tribe, with a chief called by him Viragune. between
Mocalapapa and Inhaca.

I have not been able to ilentify those names with any still
existing, except that of the river Uchugel. evidently the Tugela.
The other river mentioned — Mutangala — is, according to Theal's
supposition, the actual Umzimkulu ; the Mashangale mountains
would be the Ingele. It may be that some student of Native his-
tory dwelling in those countries will be able to find traces of some
other words of the list. Iiowever, should this attempt prove un-
successful, we should not wonder at the disappearance of those
names, as we know what frightful disturbances the military raids
cf Chaka caused in the whole territory of Natal and Zululand
from 1812 to 1820. This sanguinary despot destroyed, or amal-
gamated, hundreds of clans under his cruel rule. In Bird's
"Annals of Natal," I have found a list of 93 tribes which were

150 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY,

living" in Natal during the pre-Chaka period. However, I have
not met any of Lavanha's names amongst them. It must be
remarked that these were names of petty headmen, and not of
clans, as is the case with those of the chiefs of Delagoa Bay
Natives ; so the}' may have been lost more easily.*

On the other hand, it is evident that the population of Natal
and Zululand was very similar to that of to-day, and that the
language spoken was already the actual Zulu-Nosa. This is
proved by the many words reported by Lavanha ( r.i,'., ancosse,
iiikosi; inhancosa, nyena-icc nkosi: sinkoa, isiiiku'o. bread) ; there
were already many dialects of the same tongue, if we can rely
on the information of the chronicler, who savs : — •

The language is almost the same all through Caft'raria and the differ-
ence between them (the dialects) is similar to that existing in the lan-
guages of Italy or between the common idioms of Spain.

The third region crossed by the shipwrecked men of the
sixteenth century extends from the Limpopo to Inhambane.
Diogo de Couto mentions the following tribes as having been
met on the way by the travellers : Near the mouth of the Limpopo,
on the \A'estern shore, the kingdom of IiiJiapitlc ; on the other
side of the river, the Maimca. On the coast further North, the
kingdom of Inhahosc, reaching the river called Inhorino^ue. On
this river were five other chiefs: Panda, Monhibcnc, Jarara, Gani-
ba., Mokumba ; further on. they reached the river of Lrhabane.
We step here, and do not follow them further North, to Sofala.
Though I have never visited this ])art of the coimtry myself, I
have easily identified most of these names by questioning Natives
coming from the region. Inhapule is evidently Nyaf^iirc. the
name by which Natives still designate the country round the
mouth of the Limpopo. This name is found on all the maps
iinder the form of Inhampura. As is the case with Nyaka, the

='^ The only name which Theal proposes to correlate with an actual tribe
is Banibe, as quoted by Diogo de Couto (IV. p. 100) and Lavanha (V,
p. 76). He identifies it with the Abambo tribe, which he supposes toi
"have come from the Zambesi between 1570 and 1593 and to have settled
hetween the Umbelosi and the Umkumazi rivers and shortly afterwards to
have broken up into numerous fragments amongst which were the Amazizi
in the upper Tugela valley and the Amahlubi on the Buffalo river. Theal
describes this horde as having devastated all the territory between the
Zambesi and the Limpopo, only sparing boys and women who were incorpo-
rated in this mass. I do not know from what sources Theal draws all this
information. It is true that the party of the San Alberto found Ihe
Natives to the South-West of Delagoa Bay in a certain state of unrest.
Nuna Velho, before reaching Inhaca, thirty leagues from the Bay, met
with a treacherous attempt on the part of a headman called Bembe to rob
him of one of his cows. This occurred not far from Santa Luzia Bay ; but
it was by no means an attack by a powerful invading tribe. It is true tha,t
this " Ancosse " was an usurper, reigning by terror ; however, the identifica-
tion of this Bambe with the great .\bambo tribe seems very doul)tful.
Moreover Perestrello, already in 1554. mentions a tribe of robbers in the
same neighbourhood. Diogo de Couto in 1589 places the Vambe tribe
further South, and says it occupies the great part of Natal. These are
contradictory statements, and it seems to me difficult to prove any real
relation between this Bambe and the supposed migration of the Abambo.

NATIVKS OF AFRICA IN TIIIC irnil CENTURY. I5I

tribe no long-er exists as independent, but the clan of Xyapure is
still living-, "these of Xyapurc " ; and they are saluted thus:
" Good morning-, Nyapure ! " The same can be said of Tnhaboze
and Manuca. " Those of Manuse " have lost their self-governing-
condition, but ])eople bearing that family or clan name are met
witli on the Eastern border of the Limpopo. The river Inhar-
ingue is the actual well-knoAvn Inyarrime lagoon, in the midst of
the country of the so-called Ba-Chopi, and most of the little king-
doms here mentioned still exist. Gamba, the Mokalanga invader
who was baptised by Goncalvo da Silveira. is certainly the
Gzvombc clan whose chief Khugunu ( Cogune ) is one of the most
important amcngst the Chopi. Mocun-iba is proliably Nkiiiiibi,
his neighbour, and these two clans seem to inhabit exactly the
same tract of country where the Portuguese found them in the
sixteenth century. Panda, still called by that name in the Portu-
guese orthograph.v, but in reality Pande, is settled furtlier Xortli,
directly westwards of Inhanibane. Javara is either Zaralla or
Zaiora. ]\ronhibene alone is unknown to my informants. As
regards Tnhambane, it is naturally the Inliambane of to-day, or
more correctly pronounced Nycinbonc. It was already the name
of a country round the Bay, not of a chief, though a chief of
that name must, no doubt have lived there in former times.

The ethnology of the country between the Pimpopo and Jn-
hambane is rather complicated. We meet now with three main
ethnic or linguistic elements in that region ; ( i ) The Bn-Leui^i,
more commonly called Ba-Chopi ( wrongly spelt " APchopes " on
certain maps) ; zi:::., *' those who are transfi.xed with weapons "
(as their country was the favourite hunting, or, rather, raiding
ground of Gungunyana) ; they occupy the border of the sea in
the southern part of the region. (2) The Tonga-Nyembane* ;
viz., the tribe round Inhambane who speak a peculiar language,
the Gitonga. (3) The Ba-Tswa, who are but a branch of the big
Hlengwe group which belongs to the Thonga-Shangaan tribe.
When inquiring- into the past of these various clans, we find that
many of them emigrated from the Nyai or Kalanga groups,
countries in the South of Rhodesia. There are Alalalanga
amongst the Ba-Tswa, r/c, the clans of Khambane and Makwa-
kwa called by the common name of Nwanati. The clan of Gamba,
or Gwambe. also came from the North, and its emigration took
place during the reign of the father of the chief whom Silveira
Ijaptised. viz., in the beginning of the sixteenth century. This
Kalanga origin is proved by some Native words quoted by the
Jesuit fathers in their letters, Fernandez reports the following
song as having been sung a great many times in Otongwe, the
capital of Gamba :

Gombe ziica na virato ambiize capana virate,

* I propose, for the sake of clearness, to call the tribe near Inhambane,
Tonga-Nyemhane. to distinguish tlieni from the Thonga-Shangaan (Thonga
with an aspirated h ) who occupy all the district of Lourenqo-Marques
and nart of that of Inhambane.

1^2 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY.

Which he translates by:

The ox has leather to make sandals, the s?oat has no leather to make
sandals.

Combe mi.i^ht be Nwonibe, a word which Tong'a-Xyemliane use
to say ox. I Jut the Baiiyai also employ it and the word mbuze,
or mbudzi, for g"cat, is not Tonga, but distinctly Xyai ; the Tonga
and the Chnpi say phongo. Again the word ^luzimo (Alud-
zimc)), wliich the missionaries fotmd meaning the spirits of the
departed, is X}'ai. Strange to say. to-day the Gwambe clan
speaks the regular Chopi language. This fact is most interesting
to note. It confirms the supposition to which I was led when
inquiring into the past history of those tribes, -vi.r., as a rule, in
this part of the world, the immigrating clans lose their idioms
and adopt those of the primitive inhabitants in the course of time.
Consequently, the languages whidh we find in these regions are
the oldest monuments of human activity. Tribes and clans may
have come and gone: fhe language has remained, whatever fluc-
tuations and changes it may have undergone. Though it may
form many dialects, it keeps its identity througbcut the ages.
Thus the study of the language helps to penetrate more deeply
into the past than any other study.

Let us draw the following conse(|uence of this rule regard-
ing the Delagna tribes. Diogo de Couto. speaking of tlie inhabi-
tants of the Lebombo hill.-,, says:

The people of these forests speak the same language as the Vumo and
the Anzete, their neiehhoiirs. rnd are all, men as well as women, of such
a size that they seem giants.

The \'um') and the Anzetes arc tlie Mpfumo and Tembe
clans. According to all the traditions, the ]\Ipfinuo came from
Ztihdand and the Tembe from the Alakalanga country." ■ If
the report is true, in 1580 already, they liad both a(lopte<l the
language of the Bay. the Ronga which is a dialect of the Thonga-
Shangaan. If it is so, their arrival in the country must have
taken place a long time before that date, as such a change of
language cannot be acccmplished in one generation. (The Ba-
Ngoui of Ciungunyane have still more or less preserved their
idiom eighty years after their invasion of 1820-1830). This
argument, which seems decisive, leads us to assert that the Tembe
and Alpfumo clans were already settled in Delagoa P.ay in 1450
(perhaps 1350), and that, before that date, the primitive popu-
lation already spoke a language akin to the Ronga of to-day. I
<lo not think any scientifically accurate statement can be made
regarding Natives of South-Eastern Africa reaching fiu'ther
l^ack in the past than this.

2. Political and Social Life.

If the Natives of 350 years ago were nearly the same tribes
as to-day, were they very different as regards their form of gov-

* See "The Life of a South African Tribe." I, p. 21-23.

NATIVKS OF AFRUA IN Tllli lOxii CFNTL'RW I53

eminent and their degree of civilisation? Diogo de Couto ?eenis
to establish a great difference between the tribes round the LJay,
including t'le X'ani'be of Xatal and those further South, in the
Southern part of Xatal and Caffraria. Hie chiefs cf the first
were " kings " reigning over an extended area, mustering as
many as 500 warriors, and this des€ri])t;on also aj^plie^ to the
Inhambane clans, whilst the Caftrarian ones were onl}- "" an-
cosses " {iciiikosi), headmen, heads and lords of three, four,
five villages. Pere>trello gives a similar account, saying that
these Caffrarian Natives " do not go far from the place where
they were born, and from the neighbourhood of the huts where
they were created and die." For that reason they were unaljle
to guide the jwrty more than two days, and lost their way. This
difference is also noted by l.avanha. He found a " cajitain or
Inhaca,"" t/;., an induna, who had disjjossessed an " ancosse,"
(iimbacucumba, on the southern border of the Tugela (\'. p. 37),
and he promised him to plead his cause v\'hen he should reacii
Inhaca's kraal. The Delagoa Natives were raiding as far as
Zululand and further South in those liines, whilst the reverse
took place since the nineteenth century, after the rise of Chaka.
as one knows. In fact, though Perestrello complains of the
scarcity of food in the land of Inhaca, he describes the cajMtal
of this king as being quite an im})ortant place.

It is not wanting in a certain polity and order of Government, for it
is large and contains many people, with its squares and streets not very
complicated, surrounded with a fence of very hard branches, high enough
and well closed, with three or four openings at the convenient places.

This descri])ti( n perfectly answers to the "' iifsiiuija," or capital
of the Ronga chiefs some years ago. when fhey had still rct-ained
their full ]:)ower.*

The same disintegrating influences acte^l then as ulw (in the
clans. 77'rr., younger brothers and sons of reigning chiefs wanted
to make themselves independent and to found new political
bodies. The son of Inhaca had tried to do so, but failed ( \',
p. 82 ) . The chief used to place sub-chiefs in the remote places
of his kingdom ; thus, the sister of Inhaca was reigning in that
cai)acity in the South of the country ( \'. p. jy ) . He had counsel-
lors, called by the chroniclers " Crfpitao '" and " Alajorial." More-
over, these petty kingdoms lived in perpetual warfare with each
other, and the tribes South of the Bay were hereditary foes of
the Mpfumo chief (I, p. 133), on the Northern shore. This
feud has persisted to the present day. and was one of the nctable
features in the war of 1894.

The social customs have not been studied with much care by
our chroniclers; however, what they say regarding them is suf-
ficient to show that they were the same as now. The Kafifirs were
polygamists. Lavanha tells 'how the Chief Ubabu proudly

* Cf. "The Life of a South African Tribe." T, p. 2,02, illustration rif the
Tembe capital..

154 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tIT CENTURY.

showed him his 200 oxen, his 200 sheep, hi.s seven wives, and his
numerous children. '" They are very sensual, and have as many
wives as they can afford, being- very jealous about them." That
polygamy was founded on lobola (cattle marriage), and that the
wife bought was the property of the clan whicli purchased her, is
proved by the fact that the missionaries of Gamba noticed with
horror that their new converts inherited the widows of their dead
relative^ and took them as wives, a custom which is one of the
characteristic features of the social law of tlie South African
Bantus.

Lavanha tells that all the clans south of 29^ South Latitude
were circumcised, and the Jesuit Fathers assert that the Tonga-
Xyembane had the same custom, whikt the Makalanga were un-
circumcised. When inquiring from those Tonga about the origin
of the rite, they w^ere told it was taught to the Natives by " a Moor
of rank who came to these parts." This information is interest-
ing, as it throws some light on the (juestion of tlie origin of
circumcision amongst the South African trilies. 'J"he Chopi and
Tonga-Xyembane still circumcise the lads to-day, but they are
convinced that this custom is their own, and deny that it has been
introduced by strangers. The fact that Caffrarians, South of 29°,
in a region not yet visited by the Arabs, followed the same rite,
is altogether against the hypothesis of a Semitic origin. Sup])Ose.
liOwever, that the first idea came from the Arabs, the circumcision
initiation, as it is now jiractised in South Africa and in many
other parts of the Dark Continent, bears the Bantu character so
strongi}', that it can be said to have been thoroughly adai)ted to
the circumstances and to the genius of these animistic tribes.

(3) Sialc of C'n'iiisation.

The K'capoiis used by the Natives of the sixteenth century
were already made of iron. In addition to the knobkerries. our
chronicles mention " arragaias." Perestrelk) noticed them as far
as 32" S. They were seen all through Caffraria, Natal and
Zululand by his followers. The ( iamba Natives had " bows,
arrows and small assegais." Amongst the 'I'izombe, Lavanha
also noticed hatchets of the typical South African form, which
he describes as follows: — " Tiiey are like an edge fixed into a
stick, and with it they also cut trees and carve dishes." Natives
also used ox-hide shields.

The presence '"f assegais proves that Natives knew iron and
even had great tiuantities of that metal at their disposal. Where
did they procure it ? They eagerly bought pieces of iron and
nails from the crews of the wrecked shijis, and the Portuguese
so well knew the value attached to iron by Natives that those of
the Sd)! Thome and of the 5a;i Alberto burnt their wrecks in
order to extract all what they could of the iron employed in the
construction of the ships. Nuno \'elho even ordered his men to
destroy what they could not take with them in order not to

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY. I55

depreciate the valuable metal as a means of exchan.u'c. I'ut it is
evident that these few wrecks did not provide all the dans with
their assegais. In Amatong-aland the Natives possessed so

many of them that, according to the highly coloured narrative
of Perestrello. for two hours these assegais formed a cloud in
the air ! The South African Bantu must have known the art of
metallurgy already in those remote times. So the iron foundries
still met with in the Xorthern Transvaal are not a moderu imita-
tion of white methods.

Col'pcr was also plentiful, at least on the borders of the
Limpopo, and very much. a]>preciated. It was used in the manu-
facture of large bracelets, of which the Inhaca chief wore many
on his arms. Xo doubt these ornaments were also of Native
make ; the co])per proceeded perhaps from the Palaora mine in
Zoutpansberg, where certain Basuto have mined the ore exten-
sively up to our times. On the other hand, gold and sili'cr were
quite unknown ( \'. p. 27 ) ; at any rate the San AJhc'to crew did
not see an}- trace of them. This corresponds with the fact that
there exist no indigenous words in the Thonga-Shangaan lan-
guage to designate those two precious metals, whilst iron and
co])per are called nsiinhi and iisiiku, two typical Bantu words.

Iinplcincnfs ap])ear to have been few: pots dried by the rays
of the sun, wooden dishes are mentioned amongst the Tizombe.
But basket work of the present type, which is evidently primitive.
must have been i^resent everywihere.

The Jiufs had already their present round form, the two pre-
sent ]:)atterns having been duly noticed by the San Alberto crew :
the bee-hive hut of the Zulu {rcdondas c baixas, V. 21), and the
hut provided with a wall and conical roof (como as nossas
cJioiipaiias dc rinha — "similar to our huts in the vineyards"),
which is met with first at Inhaca's sister's village and is the
tvpical dwelling of the Thonga-Shangaan. I found no descrip-
tion (if (iama's huts. 'J'he villages V\'ere circular, surrounded by
a fence (\ . 2\ ) with the cattle inside the enclosure.

Tlic agricultural ciistoiiis were also nearly on the same level
as three centuries later, before the introduction of new and im-
proved seeds. I'erestrello was surprised to see the Tnhaca
peo])le cultivating .so little ground:

Tlie people of these parts, he says, live in forests, naked, without law.
without custom, without clothina;, and have no other wants which may
induce them to gather provisions and keep the surplus which they may
obtain in favourable times for times of scarcity. They live on roots and
herbs which the bush provides, and sometimes on the flesh of elephants
and hippopotami, without thinking of tilling the ground by the products of
wliich tliey all live, chiefs as well as subjects.

This description, which is not very clear, does not prove that
the Inhaca people did not cultivate fields, as they ate Kafir corn.
but that they did so on a very small scale; so when a troop of
sixty or seventy white people arrived amongst them they were
not prepared for that eventuality which it was impossible to
foresee, and the poor Portuguese sufifered bitterly from hunger.

156 NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY.

If we carefully study the Reports, we see that, in fact, the
Natives possessed most of their present cereals. The most
v/idespread was a grain called nachcium <r v.aclnr.ni. or
ncchinim (a word, the origin or which I am unable to trace; it
seems to be an Indian word) ; this grain is a seed similar to
mustard, from which they make cakes (I. 136, 184; V. 51, 30°
Lat. S. ) ; it is called milho and alpistre by the Portuguese (I.
136), and is said to be the best means of subsistence of the land.
It is of that cereal that the Inhaca king measured a certain quan-
tity to each of his guests. No doubt this is the actual Katir ccrn
or millet. Perestrello also mentions a " milho zaburro " ( 1.88).
and Lavanha another cereal called ameixoeira {V, 50) ; it is, if
] am not mistaken, the Sorghum''' ; Nuno A'elho found a vegetable
called " jugo '" in Natal (this is a kind of pea), and the " gerge-
lim " ; the travellers sometimes obtained beans, which were
plentiful near Inhambane. Fernandez, in his tiresome ji urney
to Gamba, enjoyed them immensely, and noticed that each pod
contained sixteen beans. They are extensively cultivated to-day
by the Thonga-Shangaan under the name of " timbawen." It
seems that the country round Inhambane was more advanced as
regards agriculture than any other on the coast, as we find also
mentioned there " grains which grow beneath the ground,"
either the Kafir pea or the monkey nut.

The millet and sorghum were also prepared under the form
of beer, which Lavanha calls " poml')e," ecidently the hyala or
tjii'ala of which the Natives are so fond all over South Africa.
This is a food as well as a beverage. The culinary customs
were the same as to-day.

Cafi^raria and Natal were full of oxen. Nuno \'ellio counte<l
as many as 100 at Luspancc, and 200 at Uljabu (32° S.) He
managed to buy some all along his journey. They were plentiful
in the Inhaca island. Lavanha says about the Cafifrarian cattle:

Their meat is fat, tender and savoury; they are hig ; nnist of them
are without horns (mocho) and the greater part are oxen.f whicli c«n-
stitute the riches of the people ; they sustain themselves on the milk and
the hutter made of it."

The Capridfe also were abundant, mostly sheep in Cafifraria
and Zuiuland (120 at Luspance, 200 at Ubabu), some of a large
size and of the race of Ormuz ; in Inhaca there were principally
goats (I. no; W 82). Fowls are often mentioned at the same
place, and amongst the Gamba people who " possess an abundance
of cattle, large hens and fat cows, but few goats and sheep."

* The word " ameixoeira," or " mexoeira," nowadays designates the
small grey kaffir corn in Lourenqo Marques. There must have been a
confusion of terms in the Reports. Moreover, the chroniclers seem to
•consider these names as indigenous, which I believe is a mistake.

t The travellers noticed with amazement in one of the kraals an ox
with four liorns, two ordinary ones and two others under them pohiting
Iwckwards ; another ox had three horns proceeding from one which divided
itself into three at tlie distance of one pahn from the head (V. 58).

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN TIIF i6tII CENTURY. 1 5/

Hiditiji!^- seems to have been more developed near Liliambane
than in Delagoa Ray. I^>rnandez gives a vivid account of the
manner in which Gamba men succeeded in killing- elephants. Tlie
hunting- party numbered as many as 150 men, and, after having-
forced the beasts into a narrow passage in the forest, tried to
wound the legs so that the elephants would fall un^lcr the
\veight of their own bodies.

The way of drcssiii<^ of all these tribe^ has not been clearly
described by the travellers. The Xatives are represented as
naked in Caffraria (I. 76), and in Inhaca's country ( T. 137).
Lavanha, on the contrary, asserts that the Tizombe jiut on a coat
of ox-hide with the hair outside, and, as regards the Inhambane
clans, in 1560 already the women at Gamba's Court had adopted
cotton clothing- adorned with beads twisted togetlier. This
description exactly answers to the short skirts worn by all the
Thonga-Shangaan wouien in the interior. The national costume,
however, worn by common people, consisted of skins cr strips of
bark, and they already manufactured blankets by sowing together
pieces of the bark of the mpharna fig-tree. These blanket^, which
are remarkably strong, are called ntjahi. The taste for crua-
iiienfs was very great, and was the real incentive for commercial
transactions. Beads of Indian make, of red clay, were met bv
the shipwrecked men as far as 7,2° S. Father Fernandei:
minutely describes the horns which Gamba men made by twisting
their hair in such a way " that the 'head was no Icnger to be seen."
Some wore as many as ten of theiu ! This seemed rather a
worldly fashion to the missionary, and he asks one of his friends
to forward to him a picture of the last judgment representing
devils provided with horns in order to show his converts that this
is altogether an infernal custom ! I have not heard of any clan
still practising this curious treatment of the hair.

(4) The Psychic Life.

Is it possible to get some glimpses of the mental life of the
South African Bantus of the sixteenth, century from these
Reports? Occasional visitors, not knowing the language, arc
apt to make the greatest mistakes on such a subject. However,
I discovered a few illusions in them which take a special interest
when put in relation with what we actually know of Bantu rites
and ideas. There are, of course, many more in the letters of
the missionaries.

As regards the vioral character of the race, it was ^o plain
as to be at once detected. The curious mixture of generosity
and selfishness, of good humour and of treachery, of mildness
and of cruelty, which is still noticed in native morals, appears
clearly in the relations they had with their first visitors. Fer-
nandez puts one of these contrasts of the Bantu character in the
following pleasing and apt way : '' Though so poor, they are
very proud, and each of them is a king of the woods !'" In some
cases they treated their unfortunate gues's very badly. The

I5<S NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE l6Tn CENTURV.

way in which the ^Ipfumo people robbed Manuel de Souza and
his wife is most disgusting. But we must not forget that he
was coming as a friend of Inhaca, the hereditary foe of Mpf umo,
and that he had substantially helped that chief in a battle with
another chief. Moreover, the party was proceeding with arms,
fighting and sojiietimes killing the Natives, and the behaviour
of Souza himself had been very imprudent. It seems to us very
hard and oft'ensive that these black people dared to deprive a
Portuguese lady like Dona Laura of all her clothing; but
remember that, on the question of modesty, they had not the
slightest idea of the offence they were committing, as a little
bit of clothing is quite sufficient in their opinion to answer all
the exigencies of decency. In other cases, the hostility shown
was the direct outcome of an attack on the part of the poor
wrecked people who did not know how to liehave. I recall only
the crime of anthroijophagy committed by some of the San
Thome's party. On the other hand, one cannot help admiring"
the kindness shown by the Inhaca chief to the four caravans ;
their jiresence was a heavy burden for his people who had such
scanty resources. !Ie did not forget to work for his own
interests and taxed them to the utmost ; however, he showed
himself a friend in need. As regards Xuno A'elho of the
San Alberto, he had almost no difficulty with all the tribes
through \vhich he passed, and this seems to be owing to the
]jerfect atttitude he adopted towards the Natives ; he always was
just and good, preventing his people from robbing the least
object, himself adorning the women and the children with the
bits of coral or of crystal he paid for his purchases, treating
black people as men. In the meantime, he was very firm and
did not lose any occasion of asserting his prestige. So. when
he killed a cow, he always did so by shooting it with a gun. and
he called the Natives to witn.ess the wonderful efifect of his
arms. They sometimes ran away, but he took them by the arm
and reassured them. He would have made a perfect Native
Commissioner I

The Portuguese saw very little of the rcUiiion of the
Natives. Lavanha says :

They are very wild (briitos) and du not adore anything, so the}'
received our holy Christian law with great easiness. They helieve that
Heaven is another world similar to the world we live in, inhahited hy
other people who hy runninti aI)()Ut cause the thunderstorms and Iiy making-
water cause the rain.

This testimony is very short indeed, and one could hardly
acce]it it as a tru.stworthy resume of the subject. But when
reading carefully our documents, we find traces of the two great
sets of religious institutions, which a deeper study reveals
?mongst these tribes, -de, the ancestor worship and the idea of
Heaven.

The aiicesk:r -ceorshil^. The pilot of the San Alberto directly
after the wreck saw the chief Luspance going with another

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tH CENTURY. 1 39

Native to tile place where the sheep lie had given to Xuiia X'elho
had been skinned. He ordered this man (who was no doubt the
priest of the family) to take some half digested grass in the
bowels of the animal, and he threw it into the sea with words
of thanksgiving, " for having brought Portuguese to his land as
he expected great gain from them." Xo\v, this is exactly the
rite which takes place in most of the sacrifices of South African
Bantu. This grass is called psanyii in Thonga, and its impor-
tance is fully shown in my description of Thonga Ancestrolatry.*
The habit of throwing [>sonyi into the sea is practised exactly in
the same way amongst some Thonga. It is an invocation to the
."'Pirits of the ancestor, who are buried near the sea. and are more
(;r less confounded with the impersonal power of the sea itself,
this rite showing the transition between a ]mrely ancestrolatric
and a naturist sacrifice. f

It i> natural that the travellers had no 0]5portunity (jf wit-
nessing many manifestations of the ancestor worship, as thev are
generall\ purely private acts of the family 'ite. Even the Jesuit
fathers did not notice the details of it. They, however, heard
Gamba people speak about " Muzimo." spirits v;hich come at
night to ask for food and they give them food and drink, placing
it at the foot of a big green tree." These Muzimo are certainly
the Manes, the spirits of the departed. Besides these Fernandez
speaks of " Umbe " as being the name of God in the tril^e. Thi<
IJmbe is probably Mumbi, the Creator, or rather the " Former "
of the world, from the root kn bitmba, to make pots, a -root very
widespread in the Bantu languages. This God is often con-
founded with the Sky and the Su)i, and Natives have a number
of curious ideas about him which constitute ^\'hat I called their
deistic notion.

According to the Reports. White men are called by the
Natives Sons of the Sun, " because they are white like the sun."
Heaven is inhabited by . mysterious beings which cause the
thunderstorms and rain. This is almost the same superstition
as that of the " balungwane " still met with amongst the Thonga-
Shangaan ; balungwane, . little men who are said to inhabit
heaven and look down to us. When they see a man walking on
earth they sometimes discuss \vho h.e is. If not agreeing, they
spit on the traveller; he looks to the sky to see where this un-
expected drop of rain comes from ; they then see his face, and
thus they know himj.

The fact that these mythical beings are called baluus^'icaua,
diminutive of baliin^s^o, the name given to White people in Zulu
and Thonga is interesting to note, and shows that the meaning
of the word balungo might have been precisely: people of heaven.

The rescued people of the San Thome having left a few sick
Portuguese in the village of the chief of Inhampula, this man

*Cf. of. cit.. Vol. IT, p. 361-385-

t Vol. II, p. 29Q.

t See op. cit., Vol. II, p. 405-

l6o KATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tII CEXTUKV.

•

called the other members of the party and ordered them to
remove the patients immediately, "because," said he, "the
i^atives did not want to see any people dying there, as the sun
would be angry with them, and would not allow the rain to fall
on the earth, and so there would be no fruit nor means of sub-
sistence for the whole year." " They said sc," adds Diogo de
Couto, " because they believed that the Portuguese are sons of
the sun, as tliey arc white and fair" (I\'. p. 122). The same
superstition reigned at Inhaca, where the Portuguese had to
bury their dead secretly, in the same way when Paolo de Lima
and others d'ed in ]\fanhica. the Natives did not allow them to
be buried in their ground ; their graves had to be dug near the
river. This is one of the most curious taboos of these tribes.
They believe that Heaven (rather than the sun) is offended if
any one dying an unnatural death is buried in dry ground. Jt
would be more correct to say : If an3-one dies having not been
lawfully incorporated with the tribe by special rites: children
dying^ laefore the ceremony of "tying the cotton string" (see
\'ol. I., p. 54). twins, and also strangers, as they may bear this
objectionable character which irritates Heaven and brings the
malediction on the land.

Thus tiie great taboos are not a new thing amongst our
tribes. The same can be said of the sexual taboos and of the
taboos of death. Natives of the Northern part of Natal hearing
from the Portuguese that the cross they wore was such a sacred
thing, kissed it as they saw the White people do, and asked
them afterwards if they were allowed to have relations with their
wives after they had received this holy sign. This is quite in
keeping with the sexual tabcos of Native initiation (V. 65).
Lavanha reports that, at the death of a member of a kraal, they
all break their huts into pieces and build in another place,
believing that when one of the neighbours oi relatives has died,
everything will go wrong in the village (V. 21). This is the
great law consequent to the tabco of death still observed in our
days.

If the taboo superstitions were the saiue as to-day amongst
the Natives of South Africa, their niai^^ic seems to have been also
quite similar. Divination is practised amongst the Gamba
people by casting lots with small shells stuck at the back with
the wax of black" wasps, and this consultation takes place in cases
of disease and death. The Thonga-Shangaan of cur days also
use shells for the purpose, shells mixed with astragalus bones
and various stones; certainly the systeiu Is the same. However,
divination by the examination of the intestines of fowls and mice
which Fernandez reports as common amongst the Gamba is no
longer resorted to in these tribes, as far as I know.

Smelling out witches was of common occurrence. All the
practice*^ of witchcraft were known, and the accused were tried by
the " uiondjo" ordeal (called motro), vb., by drinking a poison-
ous drug. I find, however, no traces of the exorcism of so-called
jiossessed persons by drum-beating in our documents. Tlie

NATIVES OF AFRICA IN THE i6tII CENTL'RV. i6i

disea-e of pos.^e.ssion was perhaps not yet known, as this kind of
nervons trouble seems to spread as an epidemic in certain times
and under certain circumstances only.

The comparison might be pushed furtlier. but this rapid
survey is quite sufficient to jirove that in the middle of the six-
teenth century the Natives of South- East Africa, especially
those of the shores of Delag'oa Bay. were grouped in a manner
very similar to that of to-day, three centuries later; they had
the same customs, the same character, very nearly the' same
degree of civilisation.

That condition, according to all probability, was alreadv an
aiicic-iit state of tJiin^s;s, at any rate nothing proves that it was of
recent origin, and the unity of language, as already pointed out.
proves that there had been no great change in the poi)ulation of
the country for a long time. The tribes lived in relative peace,
and the nu'grations had not the sanguinary character of the Zulu
raids of the last century: Gamba, the Afokalanga invader, was
respected and estimated by his Tonga neighbours.

My conclusion is that we must be very prudent when we try
to make hypotheses on the remote past of the South African
tri1>es. Xative traditions are of no avail, as we saw ; com])arison
of the names of the ti'ibes is delusory, as these names often are
mere nicknames, or have not the same signification, or are merel_\'
designat'cns of cardinal i^oints, and mean, conse<|uently, people
of the East (Ba-Ronga\ of the North (Ba-kalanga ). etc.^
The stuiiy of the language does not help nnich more, if really
the emigrating clans adopt more or less completely the dialect
of the people tliey subjugate, the men marrying the women of the
land, and the women are always the best preservers of the
kuiguage, at least amongst the uncivilised. Dialectic differences
occasionally may help to trace the origin of certain clans. For
all these reasons I ask to be allowed to remain sceptical when I
see splendid maps showing the road which our tribes bave
followed since the time they severed from the Ur-Bantu stem
till they reached their present abode. The Bantu tribes of
South Africa are very, very old; their peculiar rites I am con-
vinced, especially the belief in Heaven, are really primitive and
not modern importations. This was the conclusion of my study
of the life of a South African tribe. f I am glad to have found
in the<e precious documents a confirmation of that impression.

* Thus, as regards the name Ba-Tonga. — There is a large tribe
bearing tliat name on the Zambesi, in Northern Rhodesia, a much smaller
group near Tnhambane, the Tonga- N3^em1)ane group, and the Thonga-
Shangaan, of Delagoa Bay, the Zontpansberg and Gazaland ; but this sinn"-
larity of name is no proof at all of a common origin or of special relations
between these various tribes. Thonga, in Delagoa Bay, seems to be only
the Zulu pronunciation of Ronga, the name of the clans round the Bay.
and Ronga means East or dawn. They are the people of the East —
for their Western neighbours! Kalaiiga means North, or- at any rate, for
the Ronga, Bakalanga people are the tribes of the North, irrespective of
their origin, they say that their kinsmen of Khosen (Cossine or Magude)
soeak tlie Shikalani>a, x'/^.. the language of the Ba-kalanga.

t Vol. II, p. 535.

l62 TRATsSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

TRAXSACTTOXS OF SOCIETIES.

South African Institute of Electrical Engineers. — Thurxlay,
Xovember 20th : Mr. B. Price, Vice-President, in the chair. — " Railless
Electric Traction"': J. W. "Westwood. A short technical description of
the various systems, including also the general problem of railless traction,
with statements of comparative costs. — "Electrification of Railways":
Prof. W. Buchanan. An examination into the proliable advantages to
be gained by electrifying existing steam railways, and a comparison of
the relative merits of different available electrical systems. In considering
the relative merits of steam and electricity as applied to railways, the
author discussed (i) cost of operation, (2) reliability of service, and (3)
convenience to the general travelling public. In the second part of the
paper the relative merits and defects of alternating as compared with
continuous electricity were considered; in the former case the single and
three phase systems were comjiared, and in the direct current the low and
high voltage systems.

Thursday, December i8th : Prof.. W. Buchanan, B.Sc, A.R.C.S..
M.I.E.E., Vice-President, in the chair. — The Electrical Testing Work of
a large Power Company " : T. F. "Whimster. The work of an electrical
testing department was described untler the following heads: (i) exami-
nation, adjustment, and maintenance of electrical protective apparatus (2)
testing and repairs of electricity meters (3) testing and upkeep of elec-
trical nieasuring instruments, (4) tests on generators, transformers, etc.,
including efticiency and temperature tests, (5) electrical testing of samples
of tapes, insulators, oils, etc., (6) experimental work entailing use of the
oscillograph, (7) standards and sul)-standards.

Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining Sociftv of South Africa. — •
Saturday, December 13th: A. Richardson, AI.I.M.M., President, in the
chair. — " The solubility of iodine in sodium iodide solution " : H. \\ . Gill.
The author has demonstrated ( 1 ) that the proportion of iodine dissolved
is directly proportional to the concentration of the sodium iodide solution,
(2) that a solution containing 1.5 per cent, of sodium iodide will dissolve
sufficient iodine to prepare a dccinormal solution, and (3) that the com-
pound Nalg -|- 2H.,0 probably exists in the iodine-sodium iodide solu-
tion.—" The Union'Patents Bill": A. L. Spoor, and W. E. John. A
general review of the draft Bill prepared by a Commission appointed by
the Government of the Union, and a critical discussion of some of its
chief features.

XEW BOOKS.

McKee, W. M.—Soiith Africau Sheep and IVool. 8h X Sh in., pp. 3^6.
Illus. Cape Town : T. Maskew Miller. 1913. 12s. 6d.

Cameron, Charlotte.—.] Jroniaii's zciiitcr in Africa : a 26,000 miles Jour-
r.cy. 8vo., pp. 403. Maps and illus. London: Stanley Paul &
Co. 1913. 42 oz. los. 6d.

Johnston, Sir H. H. — Pioneers in SouHi Africa. 8vo., pp. vii, 316. Illus.
London: Blackie & Son. 1914. 32 oz. 6s.

QUINONOID OXIDATION PRODUCTS OF
DIANISIDINE, AND THEIR POLYMERISATION.

By James Moir. M.A.. D.Sc.

Previous work on the formation of quinonediimines is
represented by Willstaetter and Pfannenstiel's work on oxida-
tion of phenylenediamine.* In the diphenyl series the chief
references are : Willstsetter and Kalbf, whose papers deal with the
oxidation of benzichne and its meth}-! derivatives to coloured sub-
stances which the authors consider to be quinonoid : see also the
present author's work on *' diphenoquinone-diimine " and its
3-3'-dimethyl derivative, and on their quinhydronesj ; " Oxida-
tion-products of benzidine "|| ; also " New derivatives of dipheno-
quinone.§

The present work deals with certain beautiful and compara-
tively stable substances analogous to the above, obtained by mild
oxidation of dianisidine (3-3' dimethoxy-benzidine). One of
these is undoubtedly a quinhydrone, and wiU be termed dianis-
im'mo'quinhydrouc . to indicate that it is a compound of the un-
known 3-3'-dimethoxy-diphenoquinone-diimine with dianisidine ;
and its formula may be written in monomolecular form by mak-
ing one only of the benzene-rings quinonoid. (This is merely to
save space, since it involves writing a trivalent carbon-atom.
This formula is :

NH: ( y^\ y^NH,

CH,^0 OCH3

The basal idea in this is, I think, the same as what is meant by
certain German writers in using the term nicriquinone^ but I,
personally, see no advantage in abandoning the term quinhydrone.
x'^.s regards the corresponding quinonediimine, I shall bring
forward evidence to show that, when formed, it immediately
polymerises to an azodye. This behaviour was suspected in the
case of Willstaetter's " dipheno-quinone-diimine," which I now
consider to have the formula

NH„^ >K / N.X > — < V-NH

This is perfectly analogous to the behaviour of ordinary quinone-
diimine, which in contact with water apparently polymerises to
azoaniline

* Berichte, 1904, p. 4605; see also Rer.. 1894, p. 480; 1904, pp. 1494 and
2906.

f Berichte, 1904, p. 3761, and 1905, p. 1232.

t "Benzidine Chromate," Proc. C.S., Lond.

il Trans Roy. Soc. S.Afr., 1912, p. 205.

§ Rept. S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Sc. Bulawayo, T911, p. 253

164 OXIDATION PRODUCTS OF DIANISIDINE.

NH.,~v^ V N„ -; V NH.

and a higher polymer CigH^s^c- i consider, therefore, that no
true quinonediimine of the diphenyl-series has yet been prepared,
although several quinhydronic substances (so-called " benzidine
chromate," and the green oxidation products of dimethyl and
tetramethylbenzidine, etc.) are known, and the present paper
deals with a new and comparatively stable member of the
quinhydrone class.

A. Salts af Dianisimino-quinhydrone. — The chloride is very
easily obtained by dissolving dianisidine in excess of dilute
hydrochloric acid at not over 25°, and suddenly adding a slight
excess (over the theory) of strong ferric chloride solution. The
mixture becomes immediately deep blood-red, and the quin-
hydronic chloride almost immediately crystallises out in deep-
indigo microscopic needles, quite black in the liquid, and com-
pletely opaque under the microscope. Great excess of ferric
chloride, or too high a temperature, lead to an impure product:
otherwise the reaction is nearly quantitative. The presence of
strong acid prevents the separation of the indigo compound
(which is the wo/zo-hydrochloride*, and is soluble in strong acids
to a deep blood-red colour, still visible in a dilution of i part in
a million, presumably due to a diacid salt).

The preparation is washed on a Buchner funnel until iron is
removed and the substance begins to dissolve with a greenish-
blue colour: further washing leads to partial hydrolysis: an
olive-green coloration of the washings is seen when the free acid
is almost gone, this being a mixture of the blood-red and i>lue-
green colorations of the diacid and monacid salts respectively.
For analysis, the substance was dried over sulphuric acid in vacuo.
0.2390 gram reduced by standard stannous chloride in presence
of hydrochloric acid, and back-titrated by iodine used 0.0477 >'^'''
in the reduction — 19.95^^'.

0.1810 treated with silver nitrate excess and boiled to de-
struction with concentrated nitric acid gave silver chloride, which
was weighed as Ag after reduction : Ag := 0.0S05 : hence HG in
substance = 15.0%. Iron impurity in filtrate found 1%
= 1.9% HCl as FeCla, therefore corrected HCl in substance
:= 13. 1 %. "By removing tin from the reduction-liquor by sul-
phuretted hydrogen and adding ammonia the reduction product
was obtained, and was pure dianisidine (;»./'. 137°).

Dianisiminoquuihy drove mojwhydrochloridc. —

NH

CH3O OCH3

r= CosHooOjN^Clo on the official formulation
requires HCl =: 13.1%, Sn for reduction to dianisidine == 21.3%.

'*' This is on the C, . formula.

OXIDATION PRODUCTS OF DIANISIDINE. 165

A more basic salt of lighter purple colour and with copper-
coloured metallic lustre is obtainable by using- sodium acetate
after the addition of FeCl.^ in the preparation, or by o])erating- on
a diluted alcoholic solution of dianisidine (the base) with nearly
neutral FeCl^. This variety is very slimy and unfilterable, and is
best freed from iron by washing with very dilute acetic acid, in
which it is practically insoluble : it gives a bright bluish-green
colour when rubbed on a white surface so as to give a thin layer.
The coloration given by concentrated sulphuric acid with both of
these hydrochlorides is garnet-red, which is orange when diluted,
and quite stable even on great dilution.

The parent substance from the action of FeCl;. on benzidine,
diplicniuiiuoquinhydronc, gives a pure orange colour.''-

The most remarkable property of these blue salts should be
mentioned here, viz., the isomeric change induced by alkalis. Any
alkali, even tap water, produces a chestnut-brown precipitate of
an insoluble base which on treating with acids gives salts entirely
dififerent from the above quinhydronic salts : with very dilute
acids the solutions of the new salts are brownish orange : stronger
acids give olive-green solutions: still more acid gives a wine-red
colour : quite strong acids give an intense and beautiful crimson
purple: on dr)nng up an acid solution of the chestnut base, these
colours appear in rings edging the vessel. In the solid state the
HCl-compound of the isomerised chestnut base is dull olive and
almost without lustre. Concentrated sulphuric acid gives an intense
crimson-purple shade with traces of the isomeric base. The crude
chestnut base melts easily and contains free dianisidine which,
can be removed by hot dilute alcohol, and the undissolved base,
which melts at about 220° (not sharp) and should be dianisiniiiio-
quinone, is in reality a polymer thereof of azo-dye nature, viz.,
NH.XeH.OMe.Q.H^OMe.N :N.C,H,OMe.QH3. OMe.NH,.

This follows from the fact that the substance is difficult to
reduce by hot stannous chloride and then yields dianisidine.
whereas the original quinhydronic substance is immediately
reduced in the cold.

(2) Hydrohromide of the quinhydrone. — 15 grams dianisi-
dine in excess of cold 1% HBr solution is treated with 30 cc
liquor ferri percMor. fort. B.P. previously mixed with 100 grams
of potassium bromide in saturated solution. The purple hydro-
bromide is filtered off after standing twenty minutes (not longer),
and being well crystallized, can be properly washed out, if only
small quantities of wash water are used at a time, since hydrolysis
occurs as the acid is removed. The quinhydronic hydrohromide
forms a magnificent purple paste with brilliant copper lustre on
rubbing: it is blue-green by transmitted light, but in mass the
coppery lustre causes it to appear purple. The solution in slightly
acid water is blood-red, and on dilution greenish blue. In abso-
lutely neutral water the colour is at first dull red, after some
time changing through olive to green, the latter stage being

* See Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr., p. 209.

l66 OXIDATION PRODUCTS OF DIANISIDINE.

micro-crystalline — presumably the basic salts as in the case of
the HCl and HNO3 salts. Tap water liberates the isomerised
chestnut base CssHggO^N^, from which boiling water extracts
the dianisidine which accompanies it.

A specimen dried in vacuo gave the following" analyses :
0.2605 used 0.0398 Sn for reduction = 15.25%.
0.3210 gave 0.1125 Ag' — 26.3% HBr. On correcting for trace
of potassimn bromide ash, these figures become Sn = 15.4,
HBr = 25.6.

CagHggO^N^Br, requires Sn =r 18.4, HBr ^ 25.0

The reduction product was again pure dianisidine.

On sciaking a weighed quantity in cone, ammonia and finally
washing out with dilute soda, and finally with warm water, it
yielded 71.7% of crude chestnut base, and the washings con-
tained a trace of dianisidine.

Thus 71.7 base + 26.3 HBr ^98.0 is accounted for, the
amount of base (mixture of C28H28OJN4 and dianisidine) agree-
ing" "vvith above formulation. On percolation with cold alcohol
about 48 % of the original was left undissolved: (m.p.
190-210° ), being the crude polymerised diii"nine Co,iH280^Nj.

3. Basic Nitrate of the quinhydroiv:^. — This is much less
soluble than the above salts, consequently an almost quantitative
yield is obtained when dianisidine in excess of 5% HNO. is
treated with ferric nitrate. It can be completely freed from iron
by washing, and forms a black-violet paste, soluble in acids to a
deep blood-red solution : a trace gives an intense garnet colora-
tion in concentrated sulphuric acid. Owing to this intense colour
the substance could be used as its own indicator in titrating it
with stannous chloride, after dissolving in warm dilute hydro-
chloric acid. 0.1370 dried in vacuo used 10.7CC stannous chloride
dec = 0.00274 Sn) to disappearance of red colour. Sn for re-
duction -:: 21.4% of substance. Titration of a specimen dried in
the steam-bath left a ]M-oportion of violet azo-dye unreduced and
gave Sn = 15.3%: so that some degree of isomerisation occurs
on heating.

Q^Hg^O^N^ (NO.,) requires Sn = 21.7% : it thus seems to
be a basic nitrate analogous to the basic hydrochloride above
described.

4. Qiiinhydrouic sulphate. — From action of ferric chloride
on dianisidine in very dilute H.^SO^ at 30°. The almost black
precipitate obtained on standing is the sulphate, and i^" quite
insoluble in dilute sulphuric acid, though on washing it com-
mences to dissolve to a blood-red solution : inky-violet paste
almost black on drying in vacuo, which treatment alters it to some
extent, as the dried substance gives a purple shade in cone. HgSO^
due to the polymer (see belr.w). On reduction with stannous
chloride the liquor was brown, and was found to give a black
precipitate with iodine (so deep as to mark the starch endpoint)
which was used as the endpoint of the back-titration. 0.2400
used 0.0456 Sn for reduction, and filtrate worked up witli Barium

OXIDATION PKODUCTS OF DIANISIDINK. 167

chloride gave 0.0840 'BaSO^. Sii — 19.0%, lUSO^ — 14./%.
CzsHaaO.N, (SO,) requires Sn = 20.4, H^SO, = 16.8%, but the
specimen consisted partly of the sulphate of the isomeric base
(the polymer) as a result of drying- at too high a temperature.

5. Bichromate. — This is the dimethoxy-derivative of the so-
called " benzidine chromate " investigated by the author,* and
like it, is somewhat indefinite, being either quinonoid or quin-
hydronic according to circumstances. The specimen analysed
was obtained by working at 30 "" and adding an excess of i)otas-
siurn dichromate solution to the blood-red mother liquors from
the hydrochloride preparation : a voluminous blue slime is ob-
tained, which was washed out and dried at 90°. It forms a black
violet cake which deflagrates on heating or on touching with con-
centrated sulphuric acid. It was therefore analysed i)y boiling
with hydrochloric acid and precipitating chromic hydrate. 0.611
gave 0.183 Cr..O, = 30.0%.

■ .C,Hy„0,^^i-^HXr,0_ rccjuires Cr/-);, == 33^r . wliich is
sufificiently near to the experimental result for the case of a ct im-
pound of this indefinite character.

P). Iirz'cstigatioii of the broicn isomeric base (polymerised
dimethoxy-diphenoquinonediimine). — This is best prepared from
undried specimens of the quinhydrone salts by treating with
ammonia, filtering and washing with dilute soda ( wlien it becomes
rather lighter in colour), and finally with pure water. The
product is brick-red on drying, and melts easily, being partly
composed of free dianisidine and partly of " poly.nerised dianisi-
minoquinone." Titration v\ith Sn.CU used 19% Sn, so that rather
less than half is the " quinone." Most of the dianisidine can be
extracted by hot 70% alcohol. After this treatment the undis-
solved brown substance ( dried at 90° ) used 29% Sn for reduc-
tion and melted at 150-175''. Another quantity of gummy im-
purity was removed by digestion in acetone and washing. The
insoluble dark brick-red melted at 220-240°, and on reduction by
stannous chloride used Sn =^ 48.4% of substance : no a^h was
left on burning it.

NH :< >:< >•. NH

CH3O 0CH3

or the polvmeric azo-dve formula CgHoyOj^N^ requires

Sn=4Q.2rc.

It is fairly soluble in benzene, chloroform and similar
solvents.

A portion was dissolved in hot dilute acid and orecipitated
with ammonia, and this procedure repeated until the aqueous
filtrate contained no dianisidine (as tested by rendering just acid
and adding FeCl,). The "quinone," thus completely freed from

* Proc. C.S., London I.e., and Trans. R.S.S.Afr.

l68 OXIDATION PRODITCTS OF DIANISIDINE.

dianisidine. was reduced by SnCia, and the tin removed from the
diluted solution by HgS. On concentrating somewhat, adding
ammonia, and cooling, the reduction product came out in hair-like
needles and glistening scales melting at 133° and 137'' respec-
tively : both varieties were dianisidine, which thus appears to be
dimorphous. No other reduction-product could be obtained.

All attempts to regenerate the blood-red quinhydronic salts
from the "■ quinone " have failed. The basic salts of the above
" quinone '" are olive, both solid and in solution, and the acid salts
intense purple. With concentrated sulphuric acid the base and
the salts give an intense bluish purple even in the minutest traces,
as in the case of coerulignone. It is thus probable that the
" quinone " does not possess the simple quinone-diimine structure,
but instead the isomeric polymerised form :

CH3O OCH3

vis., the teframethoxyl-devivative of the asa-xenylaminc (4-4'
diamino-arjohisdiphenyl) obtained by the author from "benzidine
chromate."" Both the alternative formulas agree with the formation

of dianisidine by reduction. On the one hand the properties of the
substance are stictly analogous to Willstaetter's ''diphenoquinone-
diimine," and, on the other hand, the substance is quite stable,
does not lose ammonia, and has all the properties of an azo-dye,
so that the arguments apply to Willstaetter's compound as well
as to the i)resent one : and my opinion is that both have the
dimolecular formula, and are aminoazo-dyes. The only difficulty
is that the supposed isomeric change of the qiunone-diimine is
apparently instantaneous. Even in the most dilute solution the
quinhydronic salts give with ammonia a red precipitate of the
above base (the dianisidine simultaneously formed remaining in
solution), and no sign of an intermediate true quinone-diimine
can be detected.

I'he colour changes of an acid solution of tliis base,
CgyHo^O^N^, on evaporation are interesting. The brownisli-green
solution in very dilute hydrochloric acid changes to pink, bright
reddish purple and dull blue, forming rings on the edge of the
vessel which change colour as the steam passes and repasses, with
quite remarkable effect.

The l)ichromate of this base is an insoluble brown precipitate,
quite different from the blue quinhydronic bichromate.

On drying the hydrochloride of the base C.^^Ho^O^N,^ (ob-
tained by evaporation) at 105°. it undergoes a further partial
change, for on extraction with water, a brown insoluble is left
which gives a royal-hluc coloration with sulphuric or strong
hydrochloric acid. This is also formed if the hydrochloride is

* Loc. cit.

OXIDATTO.V PRODUCTS OF DIANISIDINE. 169

allowed to stand for a week in jiresence of acid, and is probably
a demethylated derivative of the diimine: the black precipitate
formed is the almost insoluble hydrochloride of the demethylated
compound, and only g'ives the blue coloration on dilution and
heating. Another bye product is obtained on boiling- the quiu-
hydronic salts with acid water for some time : a black slimy pre-
cipitate is g'ot which gives only a dirty olive coloration with sul-
l')huric acid, and was therefore not investigated.

Following W'illstaetter, I attennpted to make the true
quinonediimine from dianisidine in chloroform with lead dioxide.
The product was mainly the brown base CosHagO^N^ (m.p.
220-225°), along with a small quantity of a higher polymer, very
sparingly soluble in all solvents, of chocolate colour, and giving
a pure blue coloration to sulphuric acid (m.p. 245^). From the
analogy of Bandrowski's work on polymerisation of c[uinone-
diimine to CisHjcN,,,''' this sparinglv soluble 'substance is probablv
C,,H,.,0„N^, vis^::

MeO NH., NH., OMe

<_> " <

MeO

Organic Cliemistry is nowadays so specialised that there is
nothing left in it of interest from the mental point of view — ex-
cept filling up cracks in the plaster of the edifice. For example, the
new substance I describe is about the 120th known isomer of the
formula Ci^Hj^OoNg, so I cannot imagine anyone taking a real
interest in investigating ordinary colourless substances under
circumstances such as these. It is the great intrinsic beauty of
the substances which I describe, and the interesting problem of
the cause of the multiplex colour-Changes which alone attract
me to work at this field, despite the manifest special difficulties
of doing organic work in South Africa without satisfactory
appliances.

DelavaN'S C0MET.--A new comet, 191.3/, was dis-
covered at La Plata by M. Delavan on December 17th, ten months
before perihelion, which will be reached on October 4th. The
comet will probably be a grand naked-eye object, for even
Halley's comet was not discovered until eight months before
perihelion, and was then only of the i6th magnitude, whereas
that of Delavan's at discovery was loj. On March 29th it will
be nearX Ceti, vh., 2h. 56m. R.A. andS" 55' N.D.

* Ber. 1894. p. 480.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN IN THE UNION
OF SOUTH AFRICA.

By Charles Frederick Juritz, M.A.. D.Sc, F.I.C.

In a paper by N. H. J. ^liller. Ph.D., on " The amounts of
nitrogen as ammonia and as nitric acid, and of chlorine in the
rain water collected at Rothamsted," published in the Journal of
Agricultural Science, Vol. I, October, 1905, pp. 280-303, Dr.
Miller compared the nitrogen and chlorine contents of Rotham-
sted rain with the amounts found in rain water from various
other parts of the world, as shown by analyses performed during
the previous forty years. Contrasting, as far as that could be
done, the composition of rain in tropical and in temperate coun-
tries, he came to the conclusion that tropical rain does not supply
the soil with an essentially larger amoimt of nitrogen than the
rain of temperate climates. Omitting some abnormal results at
Caracas and in Mauritius, he found that the average total nitro-
gen brought down to the soil by rain amounted to 3.58 lb. per
acre per annum in tropical countries, with the high average rain-
fall of 68.3 inches per annum.

Dr. Miller tabulated the monthly results of analyses of the
rain which fell at Rothamsted during the period 1888 to 1901,
and stated the average amount of nitrogen at 3.84 lb. per acre
per annum, with an average rainfall of 27.25 inches per annum.
In winter the total nitrogen was found to average 1.80 lb. per
acre, and in summer 2.04 lb., the nitric nitrogen remaining con-
stant, so that the increase was entirely due to a larger production
of ammonia in summer. For every 1 part of nitric nitrogen he
found in summer rain 2.55 parts and in winter rain 2.15 parts of
ammonical nitrogen.

Professor C. G. Hopkins, in his " Soil fertility and per-
manent agriculture," 1910, pp. 309. 310, records the proportions
of nitrogen brought to the earth annually by rain and snow in
various places. From his statements the following table has
been compiled : —

Nitrogen.
Pounds per acre.

Rothamsted 3.97

Barbados 3.45

Britisli Guiana 3.54

Kansas 3.69

Utah 5.42

Mississippi 3.64

Paris 8.93

GembloUx (Belgium) 9.20

Ottawa 4-32

Several of the above figures, together with others not quoted
by Hopkins, are tabulated on page 286 of Dr. Miller's paper,
appended to which there is also a bibliography of titles of 125
publications relating to rain water and its chemical composition.

It had been proposed to have a general discussion of the

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN. I /I

subject of Meteorological Chemistry at the International Con-
gress of Applied Chemistry which was held in Washington,
U.S.A., during 1912, and in this connection an attempt was made,
a few years earlier, to organise a systematic examination of rain
in various parts of the globe. There had been numerous previous
analyses of rain water, but many of these results were of little
practical value, because they had been made without any refer-
ence to the magnitude of the rainfall. Obviously, if the az'crage
composition of the rain during any particular month (or year)
has to be determined, either the ■:^'liolc of the rain falling on some
definite area right through that month (or year) has to be
analysed, or a iixcd proportion of that whole. Hence, in addition
to noting the amount of rain that falls on such an area, it is most
essential to include in each monthly sample the whole of each
day's rain.

In connection with the scheme of world-wide examination
an invitation from Dr. Miller to co-operate therein reached me a
few weeks prior to the inauguration of the Union of South
Africa, and, although greatly hampered by the unsettled condi-
tion of afifairs just then, I undertook to aid in the investigation as
far as circumstances would permit. Those circumstances, as
subsequent events proved, could scarcely have been less pro-
pitious towards the organisation of a connected series of in-
vestigations.

As already stated, one of the ultimate objects of studying
the chemical composition of rain, with reference to the propor-
tions of ammonia, nitrates, chlorides and sulphates present
therein, in different parts of the world, was that of comparing
the rain of temperate with that of tropical countries. A sub-
sidiary idea was to ascertain what differences, if any, were due
to land and sea winds. The only series of analyses of rain pre-
viously made in Africa was that performed by Mr. Ingle. Chemist
to the Transvaal Department of Agriculture, and published in
the Annual Report of that Department for the year 1903- 1904.
In these the relations of ammonia to nitric nitrogen were excep-
tionally high, and so, probably, for some unexplained reason, not
properly representative, as results subsequently detained by Mr.
Watt, Mr. Ingle's successor, were much lower. Mr. Watt shortly
afterwards left the country, and so the investigation was dropped,
and had not been restmied in 1910, when the general investiga-
tion above referred to was initiated.

At the outset I sought and obtained the advice and practical
help of Mr. R. T. A. Innes, Director of the Transvaal Observa-
tory (now Union Astronomer), and of Mr. C. Stewart, Secretary
of the Cape Meteorological Commission (now Chief Meteorolo-
gist of the Union) ; but there, too, difficulties confronted one, for
meteorological work throughout the newly-formed Union was
linewise in a state of fluidity.

My first idea was to collect and examine the rain only at
Cape Town and Grahamstown, as typical of the two sections of

1/2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

the Cape Province which have their rainy seasons respectively in
winter and in summer. Subsequent consideration, however, led
to an endeavour to embrace the whole Union within the scope of
the investigation. The collection of rain water tyi:)ical of each of
the four Provinces of the Union was therefore aimed at. In the
Transvaal I decided, on Mr. Innes's suggestion, to have rain
water collected (T) at the Johannesburg Observatory, (2) at the
Potchefstroom Experimental Farm, and (3) at the Government
Nurseries at Ermelo. On Mr. Stewart's advice, the following six
collecting centres were resolved on for the Cape Province : Re-
treat, Mr. Stewart's residence (Cape Peninsula), Calvinia,
Douglas, Kokstad (Mr. H. D. Coyte), Grahamstown (gaol),
and Cradock (gaol). In the Province of Natal, Weenen (Ex-
perimental Farm) was selected as representing Upper Natal,
Cedara (Government School of Agriculture), as typical of Cen-
tral Natal, and Durban Observatory for the coast region. In the
Orange Free State the centres were Bloemfontein, jModderpoort,
and Lindley.

The method of collecting the rain water for analysis pre-
sented problems from the very start, not due only to the circum-
stances above alluded to, but owing as well to the climatological
and other conditions of the country. In order to obtain a suf-
ficient supply of rain water for monthly analysis by means of the
eight-inch gauge, a monthly rainfall of about three inches would
be needed. Rut if the whole Union was to be represented by the
rain typical of each rainfall district, some of these arid areas
would not afford much more tlian three inches of rain in an
entire year. In any case, small rainfalls had to be considered,
and so the course was adopted of mixing as one sample the rain
collected during two or more months in succession.

On account of the long storage involved, it appeared un-
desirable to adopt this course more often than necessity com-
pelled, but. on the other hand, it was impracticable to provide a
sufficient number of gauges of the dimensions necessary to over-
come the chemical difficulties occasioned by small rainfall. It
was therefore decided in extreme cases to confine tlie determina-
tions to nitrogen.

Another difficulty was involved in the dust storms frequent
in certain parts of the Karroo, as well as in the more northerly
Provinces of the Union, which would cause the accumulation of
large quantities of dust in the gauges during the high winds that
frequently precede ram. This would require the exercise of con-
stant care to keep the gauge free from dust up to the very instant
that a shower commenced. Such dust is frequently calcareous,
and would therefore im])art to the rain an alkaline reaction, while
in the neigbourhood of great alkali tracts the dust might even
contain nmch soluble salts. Of course, it will be sufficiently
recognised that, quite apart from dust-bestrewn gauges, first
rains would, in the districts mentioned, necessarily encounter
considerable c|uantities of calcareous and alkali dust in their mere
passage through the air.

S. A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1913. Pl. 8.

C. F. JuRiTZ.— Chemical Composition of Rain.

CHEMICAI, COMPOSITION' OF RAIN. 1/3

A further liability to en(M" in the chemical results was fore-
seen in connection with the numerous hawks and other large birds
which have their habitat on the expansive South African veld,
and are apt to use any upward projection (such as a rain gauge)
in the treeless Karroo, as a settling place, so fouling the gauge
with their excreta. In fact, the Director of the Meteorological
Observatory at Johannesburg at first considered it quite impos-
sible to keep raiti gauges free from dust and excreta, and believed
that samples from even well-watched gauges would give most
misleading results. .As far as the dust was concerned, the decision
arrived at was to eliminate it by simple filtration, and the bird
problem having been experienced in Barbados, and there over-
come by the use of large glass funnels, which the birds seemed
to refrain from settling on, it was resolved to try the same plan
in the South African districts wherever a similar trouble was
likely to occur. The appended photograph illustrates the manner
in which this difficulty was dealt with at the Johannesburg Ob-
servatory. The delivery spout of a five-inch gauge was removed,
and the apex of its funnel opened out so as to allow the neck of
a seven-inch glass fimnel"^ to pass through. The glass funnel
was then firmly held in ]X3sition by three hooks of copper wire
passing over the rim. A glass receiver was placed inside the
gauge, so that, except for the three copper hooks, the rain came
into contact with nothing but clean glass. The gauges were
mounted in the usual way on firm stands, with their rims four
feet above ground. Two of these gauges were placed a few feet
apart, and the rain collected from them was stored in Winchester
quarts until the end of eacli month. The glass funnels and re-
ceivers were kept clean_ by washing twice a day if no rain had
fallen for a day or two, and every efl'ort was made to prevent
contamination of the water. Where there was possibility of the
gauge being contaminated by birds perching on its rim, the addi-
tional safeguard was adopted of surrounding the funnel and
gauge by a cylindrical screen of wire netting, the vertical wires
of which projected above the highest horizontal strand, in order
to prevent the birds from finding any foothold.

Unfortunately, the untoward circumstances already alluded
to came in the way of the analysis of most of the rain v/ater col-
lected with so much precaution at Johannesburg; the Ermelo
samples were likewise left untouched, and the Potchefstroom
samples were only partially examined. But, for future guidance,
it is nevertheless useful to record the truncated efforts made to
obtain an idea of the composition of uncontaminated water from
that centre.

Instructions were sent to all the collecting centres in tlie
Cape, Transvaal and Natal Provinces on the above lines, and, as
regards the period of storage, the following memorandum was

* Preferably one of Jena or resistance glass, so as to diminish the
possibility of alkali being dissolved out.

174 CHEMICAL COMPOSITIUN' OF RAIN.

furnished to each of these centres as well as to the five laljora-
tories engaged in the chemical part of the work: —

As a rule each month's supply of rainfall should be analysed at the
end of the month, a copy of all particulars in connection with such fall
being supplied, mentioning any possible source of contamination that may
have unavoidably occurred in the case of any sample either before, on,
or after collection. If the amount of rain, in exceptional cases, should
happen to be less than 200 c.c, the best course would be to keep it over
and add it to the next month's rain.

After the method of collecting the rain, the method of
analysing it claimed consideration. In deciding on this, I con-
sulted the analytical chemists in charge of the variotis laboratories
outside Cape Town, anion g.st whom the work was to be distri-
buted, namely, at Bloemfontein, Durban, (jrahamstown, and
Pretoria. T had been furnished by Dr. Miller with a copy of the
methods in use at Rothamsted, but some of these seemed wholly
inapplicable under South African conditions, especially in certain
parts of the Cape Province.

The following represents tJK- lines of procedure eventually
adopted. Determinations of nitrogen, both ammoniacal and
nitric, were regarded as of most importance, and, when there was
not sufficient water to enable other determinations to be carried
out, these were given the preference. When it was impossible to
devote 1,000 c.c. to these determinations, 500 c.c. was the quantity
substituted, or, if even that were not available, whatever quantity
was available was diluted with nitrogen-free water to 500 c.c.
before distilling. After performing these determinations, chlorine
was taken next in order. At Rothamsted the amount of water
prescribed for this determination was one litre, but here, again, a
smaller quantity had to suffice when necessity demanded it. I'or
the determination of sulphates, preliminary evaporation in a large
platinum dish was considered most satisfactory, but, in the
absence of such an appliance, a Jena glass retort or a large Jena
flask was decided on.

As far as the actual analyses are concerned, it is i^lain that
uniformity of method was absolutely essential, seeing that the
work was being done at five distinct laboratories, and so the
following details of methods for chlorine, sidphur trioxide, am-
moniacal and nitric nitrogen, employed at Rothamsted, were
communicated to each of the^e laboratories, and adopted, except
as above indicated.

Chlorine. — The method of estimation is that of titration with silver
nitrate, potassium dichromate being used as indicator. The amounts of
chlorine in rain show great variations, from one part per million to well
over 200 parts per million, but as a rule the proportion is too small for
accurate determination in the unconcentrated water. Prof. Warrington*
found that some rain waters give an orange tint with the reagents em-
ployed, producing the idea that chlorine is absent. This orange tint is
not discharged by the addition of a cliloride. The procedure adopted for
carrying out the determination is to add 5 c.c. of lime water, free from

* Trans. Chem. Soc. i88q, vol. 55, p. .S45-

CHKMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN. 1/5

chlorine, to i.ooo c.c. of rain water, and to concentrate the water, in an
open basin, in a qniet room, to less than 250 c.c. After cooling, the water
is filtered through a filter previously washed with chlorine-free water, into
a marked 250 c.c. flask. The Flask is then filled up to the mark, and the
contents used for determination of chlorine in the usual way.

Sulphur trio.vide. — For determining sulphates, it was proposed to col-
lect the rain water for six months in succession, so as to make up one
special sample of from four to seven litres of water. The rain used for
this exclusive purpose is collected through a glass funnel having a small
piece of asbestos cloth in the pipe no vulcanised caoutchouc being employed
for connections. The combined' quantity of 4 to 7 litres is concentrated
in a retort to a small bulk, and filtered through Swedish filter paper pre-
viously washed with hydrochloric acid. In the filtrate, heated to boiling,
sulphur trioxide is then gravimetrically determined by the addition of
boiling barium chloride solution. The concentration in a retort is esseri-
tial, because an open gas flame is a constant source of sulphuric acid. To
avoid this the use of an alcohol flame was suggested, which would permit
of a platinum dish being substituted for the glass retort, and thus avoid
the possibility of contaminating the Barium sulphate precipitate by silica
dissolved out from the glass.

Ammonia. — The retort and condenser are freed from ammonia by
boiling some distilled water with a little magnesia in the former; after
which one litre of rain water is introduced and boiled with a small
quantity of magnesia until 250 c.c. have distilled over. In this distillate
duplicate determinations of ammonia are made by Nesslerising.

Nitrogen as nitrites and nitrates. — The 750 c.c. of boiled rain water,
remaining in the retort after determination of the ammonia, are trans-
ferred to a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle supplied with six strips of
zinc foil converted into couple, and placed in an incubator at 21° to
24° for three days. The copper zinc couple used is prepared as follows:
Six strips of zinc foil, four inches long by i] inch wide, are bent at right
angles along their middle in order to obtain stiffness. The couple is then
further prepared in a series of five beakers, containing respectively (i)
a dilute solution of sodium hydrate {2) very dilute sulphuric acid, (3) a
three per cent, solution of copper sulphate (4) ordinary distilled water,
and (5) distilled water free from ammonia. Through these five beakers
the zinc foil is successively passed. It is rinsed both after the alkali and
after the acid, but after the copper has been deposited the strips are simply
drained, and carefully placed in the distilled water, as it is diflicult to
rinse without removing the copper. The couple shotdd be entirely sub-
merged when it is placed in the rain water.

It wa.s not pos,sible to arrange for commencing the collection
of the rain water at all the designated localities simultaneou.slv^ ;
in fact, nearly a year had passed after the scheme of investiga-
tion had fir.^t been mooted before any practical beginning conld
be made at all. When the first results began to come in — those
froni rain collected at Cedara, Natal — they seemed to show that
the yearly amounts of nitrogen would be distinctly higher than in
England, and Dr. Miller suggested the possibility that, owing to
the higher temperature, the soil in Natal gives off more ammonia
At the satne time, the absence of ammonia from the Cedara water
in November, igio (and from the Grahamstovvn rain of October,
1912), suggested nitrification, and this in turn led to the sugges-
tion that such nitrification might be obviated by the addition of
a small amount of a lead salt to samples liable to contain dust
and nitrifving organisms. Another early modification of the
collecting arrangements arose from the presence of leaves in the
Durban samjile. Though, to judge by comparison between the

176 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

latter and tlie simultaneously collected Cedara sample, this had
no appreciable effect, it was thought that an improvement in the
collecting appliances might be effected by tying a piece of muslin
(weighted down by a small stone in the middle) or wire gauze
over the rain gauge, or else by placing over the gauge a per-
forated lead disc.

The collection of the samples in the fifteen selected centres
was undertaken by the following : —

Cape Province :

Retreat : The Secretary, Meteorological Commission.
Calvinia : (No samples were recei\'ed at the Cape Town

Laboratory)."^
Douglas: Mr. A. C. Martin, Water Bailiff.
Kokstad : ^Ir. H. D. Coyte, Attorney.
Grahamstown : The Gaoler.
Cradock : Tlie (Gaoler.

Transvaal'.

Johannesburg : The Director, Meteorological Observa-
tory.

Potchef stroom : Mr. T. Reinecke, l>ecturer in Cliemistry,
Government School of x\griculture.

Ermelo : Mr. A. C. Drummond, Forester.

Orange Free State :

Bloemfontein : Mr. J. Lyle. Principal, Grey College

School.
Lindleyf: Mr. John Oates.
Modderpoort : The Provincial, St. Augustine's.

Natal :

Cedara : The Chemist, Government Experiment Farm.

Weenen : The Officer in charge, Government Experi-
ment Farm.

Durban : The Director of the Natal Observatory.
Of the Cape Province samples those from Retreat, Calvinia
and Douglas were assigned to the Cape Town Laboratory, while
the Kokstad, Cradock and Grahamstown samples were analysed
at Grahamstown. The Transvaal samples were allotted to the
Pretoria laboratory, and those of the Orange Free State were
examined in the laboratory at Bloemfontein. The Durban
laboratory dealt with the Natal samples. In all 127 samples of
rain water were analysed in pursuance of the scheme of investi-
gation outlined above, the results of the analyses being given in
the following: tables: —

* Samples were collected, but the transport riders refused to convey
them as their wagons were generallj' loaded with wool and skins in charge
of natives.

t The Lindley samples were never received at the Bloemfontein labora-
tory.

C'lIliMICAL (OM POSITION OF KAIN.

177

O

c
di

'3

<u

a'-.'H

>

o
ex,

fti

'^^ «

-E .- ii

D, I- ^

"3 H 'S

c;3

O -^

u

rt .s

S.2

US

§0

ID rj

£ o

o ^

t« S

0 o

t-,

o S

1- 03

CO t~ CD lO

^ CO XJH CO

t^- CD t- t>-

cD t* CO th CO cq ,-<

-^ r-H t> CD 05 O CO
C^ l>- CO CD CO rH Ol
CD tH i-H I-! CM

cq Oi 00 ci oq
-* O 00 Oi c:
CO ^ cq o CO

CO

00 00 OS

i-H I— I CO
CO 00 t~

-*• Oi c- 10 o

CO 00 CD CD -^

CO CO 1—1 O CO

o

CD

Ut) 00
CO O

00 o 1— I -rti oq
O cq c-q CO 10

O O rH O O

C^ . t^ CO T— I t^ CD CD

O "O Tfl -rfi Titl _ o

O rH -* CO O O O

c^ o o o

'^ CO CD O

O 05 l>- CO

S

O CO o o o

O ^ C~ rH 00
cq 40 rH 1— I^IO

■ ■ ■ ■ "cb

>0 00 CO 00 lO

o cq CM »o 10

O o 1— I o cq

0

CO
rH

1

0 0 CO Oi CD CO »o

0 t- »o CO cq CT) t>-
^ th -^ CD 0 cq t-

Cq tH T-( —1 rH

0

I— 1
CO

0

1 — 1

0

00
CD

1-580
•160

1 1 1 i

cq

CO

1— (

cq

1 1^864

' 2-676

•041

-016
•016

00 t- ^ O O ^+1

CO rH CO CD OS tH

t>- CO -^ cq ' rH

cq

«t) <— I 00 O O CO CO
cp t- O -^ C^ t~ CD

rH cq lb -* th CO in

m C a

3

(U

<u

(X)

S g r-,
> Ur,

<(r>0'ZQ

fc

.::;•• <u

• • j=i

CJ — -■ 3 <u

178

CIIKMICAI. COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

o

>
O

Oh

u

Remarks.

Water yellowish, with a consider-
able amount of sediment.

Water brownish yellow, with little

sediment.
Fair amount of sediment.
Very little sediment.
Fair amount of sediment.

u

Q.

•c
c

O
(X

Sulphur

Tri-
oxide.

11! 11

Chlor-
me.

84

8^91

1132
9-^0
116

t^

c
<u

tut

O
u

2

5

•180

1^986

6^274
6 604

•122

a

o

As i As

Am- i Ni-

monia. trates.

-050

1-878

3-647

5-541

•098

•130

•108

2-627

1-063

■024

c

u

a
Cu

Sulphur

Tri-
oxide.

111 11

Chlor-
ine.

6-39

35-50

15-98

14-20

391

c
o

As As

Am- Ni-
monia. trates.

-380

7-480

5-150

8-030

•330

•990

•430

3-710
1-540

•082

Rainfall

in
inches.

00 CD 1— ICOOi— llOOJCD
lO CD-"^ T— 1 rHOCOrHOqr-l

rH Z tH CO CO tH * ' '

o

1911.

October ...

November
December

1912.

January...

February..
March ...
April
May
June
July ...

CHEMFCAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

179

= 0

<u

<u

c <->-

rt _

rt

rt

isc-z;

i:

Ji

u 03

0

0

0 H
-*-, ^

^

^

u

0

0

0

0 0

u

0

0

r

■4-» ^~'

n

-a

-a

C OJ

m

C

c

c

x: =

>

o

ej

G'E

E

J^ 5 c -a c

- ^ S S^ _^

•r c <u <u o

- P I- C <U

.—I
o

0-

^ < o

ttj .t:

o

0:1

o

00

<

Oh

rt o
C13 o

« c

. « « 1^

c

be
O

--- OB

Cj » l-i

c i- o

i_ o

. .E
<u -a

E^

03 O
C (U

ii 2
OH

c ^

■-5 E c«

M^ o

O *-• '-'

^ £^

CO CO

CO oq

CO t- CO cq
O CO >o CO

O C75
rH O

CO

00
O

oq -* »o CO OJ

00 t- O WD CO

CM i-H I— I fM O

O^ >— I OS o
00 00 t~ CD

00 O O

Oi C~ CM

02 10 CM

O O 7-1

O CO
CO I— I

o o

o o

00
CO
CM

CO C^ 00 rH CO

00 r-l Cq CT) O

rH I— ( O ^H O

o o

CO ^
10 CO

C30 CO
CO O

10
CO

CO

0 0 t-

CO -* 00

■^ <b lb

0

2 1

CO C32 Oi

0 0 c~

T— ( I— t CM

0 0

o o

o
o

CM

O CM -^ 1>- rH

0:1 CM CO rH C-1

f-l Cq O CM -*

10 t^

CO
CM

'^ CO 00
rH CO (35

Tt^ Cfq rH

CD CJi

CO 10

CO

OJ ^
(U o

en O

J3

E

O

^

p

(M >i ^

p, cu ■

B

i8o

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

? -^

C^ !C

U

1

" 1J -i,

jj ^

_u

CJ

c .5 <u

?, '=

'E

C

rt ^ y

^ «

03

03

1- -r; nj

.i Ef

bc
u,

bjO

o r;

^3 0

0

0

U ^3

1)

c

t/2 LM

'O

'O

0 0

c

c

"o o 5

'S =

a

o3

c

rt 0

g_t

.4_j

c/:

C/3

o '3 c
£ ?£ o

0 0

-a
0

-a

03 p -4:;

%-

c

c

• 2 ^

D •

p •

■^ C c

0 ^

8^

?^ s--p

H 2 ^

•S 2 a; £

rt OJ 1^

> lyj 03

« E

rt £

CO

&■-§
rt ="

W c/2

0

J

J

u

V— vy—-/

D

1 1

1

1

1

•=H S

1 1

1

1

1

c^ c

cq

t-

CD

0

^ s

0 1

q)

CO

i>-

^5

OJ

CO '

cq

'^

T— 1

o

<:

^

'C;

-J

c- 0

00

0

'^

:::;

-*^

CD C^

'sH

0

05

p

o

1-1 0

1—1

rH

0

en

C

H

i.

D
O

«

00 ^

a

0

CD

^

D-

"^

^^ CM

<x>

0

00

(r-

t^

0 0

0

T-H

cp

^

y^

1

_

00

0

"c

V 9

cp

2

cp

^

j^

O

u

5 • «

1 1

1

1

1

sf- iiJ

' '

(r ^

C

'•^

0

0

CO

CD

^

2. u

00 1

CM

c:q

-*

sz c

v^

i

u

c.

^ '

cb

C5

0

'J?

00 -^

CO

X

t~

<?< re

(X> 05

■<T'

CD

CM

.4-*

c

cp cp

1-H

1—1

10

Oh

3J

c

-

1-

1 re

CO ^

10

05

j?

<I1

■ 5

s ^

CO

S

0

.-~l ,

■^ -^ rH

cq

CO

C<I

oi op p

1—1

CN

t-

•s^

-H ' tH

cjq

CN

tf •-

u.

J_^

OJ

V

5

o4 *^

V

E

c

^ ,< 3

(U

-Q

u

<5

2 ^ >,bjo

0
0

0

>
0

CO

en
o

0

00

^

t~

t-

0

CT>

10

0

^^

cq CD (M

CD t- CD

.— 1

. 1-1

• <u

• X

T— H
r— 1

^ E

(U

Ct!

3 <u

-£3

T—t

i^f n

3 (D

CJ

<u^O

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

l8l

5 ^

>

o

OS

Cl,

O

jJ -C

en ■^-'

^ ■§

73

■>-> o

r-" ■ — '

S 8

,0

•g s-

^

u

^

OS . o c

rt

C

(L>

.£

'3

E 13 rt t/3

tn

cfl <u ^

tj_

-a c/3 <-« o

O

73

g°!s

<U

•-- cu u y ij

U

<D O ii 2 rt

rt

ii

H

.

o ^^

Ol

(M t^ CD

o

^ 'U

>o

1 C^ CM CO

>o

6
-t:

o-

CO

' rH CO

rH

"re

03

,05 10 oq

HH

c.

CO

-^ CX) lO

cq

-a

g

CM

1 T-H cp O

o

c

o

1 ^'

CO

CM 05 l>-

o

Dh

p

<g|

I— I

1 O IT- CO
1 T-H O O

rH

o

, re

.— 1

^ CO o

1 — ' o ^

•05

o

^ < c

o

1 O CO o

o

3

■5.-C-0

1

III 1

1

-H'S

1

III 1

1

^

75 °

,

.£

S ,t

lO

CO o o

o

—

_ u

t~-

1 00 'vti CO

b-

.c c

5

O'"

t^

' -^ 4^ I>-

»b

a

1 '^

JS

lO CO CO

OS

u

u

<'^l

to

loo o

1 -* ^H ^

lO

cp

re
0,

o

"•^

u

."ti

1 .2

C<)

'^ K3 CO

o

;^

C/3 C r-

-*

»0 T— 1 CO

CO

cp

i P GO -y

o

s

^

5 S

rH

ocMi-Ho:! oot-oo

n.£.£

(M rr

gocnthcm -^looo

re -i

rnZ

" tH tH CO

cu .s

—

-^ > (J —

O oj

73

c

D 2 O .-^ .

5 "::: D

ZQ

5>fc^< s

AA<

c

c

(U

<u

E E

na

Tl

<u

<u

7;

73

^-4-1

* 1 ,

o

o

C/3

73

<u

aj

CJ

CJ

oi

rt

iT uT C aj

C3 03 oi y

qj Oj aj 03

UUOH

cx) 00 lo o

OS -* iH 00

^ O-l ff; CO
O CM CO CO
CM CO tH CM

■30 CO lO O
CO O CO o

o o o o

CO 05 -^ X

CO CD O CO

■r-\ O^ T^ ^^

o o o o

1— I Ci tH O
rH ' CO 6l

,H Oq "H CO
00 CO OS CD
O O O --H

CO CO O O
CO CD GO cq
rH ,H (M •*

c^ 0:1 •* t-

cp CM CO t;-

CO t^ -^ rH

,— I »- ^ r-

^ 3 So

3 d CJ-

"■^ o '-' 'C

1 82

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

O

O

•5Hg

O)

..

_s ti

^ c

^

«

o

H

£ <^2 n

E'5

-r o
E

U2 .;!■ lu

<: 2

■s ^

o

o

(U

a.

E

(/}

rt

0?

u

>.

ctf

C

^-i

«I

c

Ui

OJ

1>

S

J3

o _

§ E « «

™ CO (U OJ

rt

.t!;

CL, 1>

C

E ^

C)

03

OS 'U

o

D

CO

03

D-

OJ

C

(-1

15

E

CO

03

4-1 u

O

c o

it;

^3

E

(U

CO o

CO

n

, — 1

vk "^^

o

O

o

O

OJ

03

n

o

'^ "1:1

.

CO

o

CJ

T3
O
O

03 .3i

'a

i-i
o

E

03
C

01

E

>
O

U, CO

OS c

c
£

03

C/2

(72

u

GO

o

Oi 1-1

o o

CO

o

C- CO
O i-H

o o

o

CM QO
CM (M

o o

o

CM

o

(Ji CO

o ^
O — I

CM ^

t-H CO

O rH

CN

o o

CO

o

CM

o

CO

CO O _ '^
lO O •- CM

en

03

. . . <u
• • • JD

to E

3 OJ

^

<u

J-:

J21

<L)

O
CJ

O

O

'/^

u

CO
CM

O

o

CM

O
O

CO
CO

J2
E

CHEMICAI, COMPOSITION OF RMN.

183

^ s

J^

I.

rs

E

<u

Oi.

u

Sulphi

Tri-

oxide

1

1 i

i

cq

•0 c~

^ «

CO

CO 0

1—1

1—1 r-t

<

V,

_:

03

00 CD

b^C

rs

CTS

G> 10

0

10

Cq CO

s

■o

H

E
D

C

a,

c

"o
'.0

1 ^

•ys .- 0)

CM

1-1 t^

T— 1 T— 1

kH

0

'■p.

-^

^

' 5

Ol

CD <M

•^fi

CO

t~ 00

CO

tH 1-1

H

u

a

r- • V

~ .- -0

1

1 j

c

rs

' '

,

0

0

CD CO

•S

CT

tH cm

s

w* ""

r-H

tH tH

u

a

. ="

00

0 0

t/)

en .- W

00

^ 0 0

c

1—1

rH (M

!-•

i>

(«

p

a.

-

^

1 «

0

00

2

S

lO 1—1
rH Oq

."= S

00

Oi -*

CD

0

1-H op

»b CO

Dd •=

^

.

w

: >.

0

910,

emb

911

jary
ruar

^

(U

" ^-S

Q

Afe

M

M

0

?

^ 00

CO CD
CD CO

0

00 0

01 T-l

a,

CD CO

00 C5

CO T-t

II

II

»o 0

CN CO

Oi CO
CO CO

4-38

2-58

1911.

November
December

1 84

CHF,Mir.\I. COMPOSITION OF RAI.NT.

c

1

c .

M

3 >.

<u

rt

CJ

§^

en

c
oq .

« CD

3 ii

1^

o o

Di

c3 :=;
^ o
>^ o

c

O

O o

4-»

•a

C 1- 1>

i-H 00 CD

t-

00

00 rH
rH OS

0

rH OO qj

>o

CD — —

r::

1-5

O lb tr-

CO

rH 'c 'C

cq

c

CD

u n!

5^^

— . — .

.ti «;

C ci!

cp o o

o

o J:; i:

o o

0

"5 "O

cb do o

-^

CD 3 3

cb •*

3

6

_™ u

o, u;

cq

lU (L)

(3j

r-k

^

cS

G C

c

2 . u

t-

rH

C/2

1 1 1

'

' _

P

O '^ -*

Ol

O t^ CO

as T^

cq

CD

° <u

I^- CO i^O

00

qq CO qq

qq p

p

p

<

rH ^

rH

rH

_^

lO tH CD

lO

cq CO Tji

cq c^

CO

CD

OJ

"rt

Oi CO -^

05

CD t- »0

rH O

-*

05

O

ip cp CN

CO

-^ 00 CO

P I>-

p

P

•u

H

rH-

I— 1

5

c
u

tiE

o

X

lO C^ ^

o

CD CO cq

O CO

'^

t-

(A .i U

— 1 Oi I— 1

CO

r^ o t~

t- CO

cq

^^

< Z rt

CO ^H 1—1

tH

rH CO O

o qq

0

CO

Z

^

, rt'

O ^ iQ

o

CD o cq

t^ ^

a:

O)

00 CO CO

CO

^ t~ X

CO rtH

■r-\

t-

cq ^ th

cq

CO lO CM

p ^

^

p

tH

o ,

CD

——"

1 1 1

i

'"'

1

rH

c
o

l^s

6q

CD

^

o o o

o

o o o

o o

0

0

^ «

O O CD

p

O OQ CO

00 '^

CD

rH

s

cq cq rH

rH

'^

T-*.

rH

V*

U5

O CO 00

lO

CM 'vtH lO

CD CO

CO

»o

t« .i u

C- CT3-00

00

rH CD OS

O O

cq

cq

j:

c

<Z rt

CO cq c>?

rH

^ rH O

qq r-i

GO

0

OJ

o

u*
-*-<

rH

CO ^-^

CD

CT>

."tlj

, t«

as CD o

t~

lO en '-1

I^ -^

10

t-

z

cq 'st* 'JiH

o

CO o t~

O CD

CD

c~

CO CD CO

CM

cq CO CO

cq -H

cq

.

rH

__

_

rt f5

CD t- CO O

lO -::tH CD CO

t~ -^ '^tl t^ t~ »o

lo cq

t- 05 t~ qp

tH qq rH CO

CqcOCDOOI>>iOrH 1

■«•" ^

CO cq' tH

CO rH do CO

rH ' " '

<M cq 1

Oi -5

^

o ■ ■ '

— H

' X.

c
o

T— 1

(73 O Z

O OS
(U rH

i'^a^

01 CJ

0 <U

Q

Afe^<

^^^<

c^OZQ 1

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

185

0

'«

1

^

1

5;

a

*j^

<

0

H

<o

72

W

'.

W

S

Qi

fa

a

S

z

■^

<

0

n

CQ

~H-g

<Z rt

tH

p ,

■5 ■;:

-q

-^H

X

0

m

6

OJ

0

c

u

r/i

OJ

c

(U

^

Z

o o

CO

o

O C^ 00 t~ 00 05
t— O CT3 O lO C75

CO o cq ^ o 10

i-H O t^ Cq CM iO

00 10 05 05 ^ 10

O i-H o o o o

-^ c-i I— I lo CO '^

Oi O O CD 1-H -^

c<j 00 cq CO 10 o

10 o

I— I ^

CO CD CT5 ^ CD 05

o i-H o cq Oi cq
■^ cq OQ 1— I cq CO

t~ '^ 00 "* CO t~

-* or CO 05 cq ^^

CD 1—1 CD ^ CD 1—1

o 00 05

CO rH CO

lO CO o
o CO oq
cq t~ 00

lo 00 00
cq 05 o

T-H o ^

o o cq

'00 CO CD
O CO CO

CD CO
cq rH

00

0 10

0 CD

"* oo

rH

cq

rH
O)

CO

00 CO

0 lO
05 cq

O5O0O5L— oocqcq_cqOiH-*

C-rHCOCqcDCO'*--OCqcOOO

4 fe g <t: S H? h^ < c« O ^ Q

i86

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

a

<
H

w
o
z

<
a;

O

Remarks.

Sample too small for analysis.
Very yellow in colour.

6
o

<

<u

o.
t«
-a

c

3
O

Sulphur

Tri-
oxide.

O oi

kO O rH
CO 1 1 (M 1 rH

o
o

c

0)

o

O

-372

•163
1-185

o

.\s As

Am- Ni

monia. trates.

•267

•061
-067

-=;

lo cq CO

oil O 1 tH

rH 1 1 ^^ 1 1— 1
rH

CU
(0

l-l

(«
a,

Sulphur

Tri-

oxide.

III III

Chlo-
rine.

1-20

•40
•20

c
<u
bo
o

Z

As

Ni-
trates.

■^ CO CO
05 1 1 CM 1 (M
'^ 1 1 ^ 1 ^

As
Am-
monia.

•194

-206
2-059

Rainfall

in
inches.

05 '^ _^ 05 O O
CO CD ~ tH -*l '^l

cq '^ ^ cq »b cq

;

c
*-*
c
o

1911
October...
November
December

1912
January ...
February
March ...

ii

0)

■t-l

Ct!

^

tj

^

M

r/i

<u

>

w

re

>!

u

o!

., ,

C

o

rt

in

(U

(U

ii

d

■^

u

C

-Q

OS

3

-13

a>

cr

I-.

(U

OJ

iJD

^^

U2

03

J

t-

1

1 °p 1

1 T^ 1

CO

lO -^ rH

CO

^ t- cq

t~

•r^H CO Kt)

•^

00 00 lO

CO

lO CD Oi

^

^ rH cq

si

'^

CD >0 lO

X'

O 00 00

Q

o

iH rH O

o

1

t- oo O

o

CI CO rH

00

cq CO cq

CO

1

1 ^ i

' rH '

o

to 00 CO

cq

-* C7i CO

CO

t- lO t-

i-H

o

o o o

*

»o

cc cq cq

^

Cl -H ^

CO

CO CO CD

cq

CO 05 OS

CO

lO cq cq

t-

CO 00 CO

-*

^ OS •-'

CT

cq -* CO

>, : :

rH >^

l-l

rH I-

rt _

05 «

rH 3
C
Ctf

Febru
Marcl
April

u u

V CO

-a

t: c

o •-'
O in

tr c
o.i.

CHEMICAL C(JMPOSlTION OF RAIN.

187

>

o

OS

a.

>

Large quantities of leaves, &c. : water
filtered before analysis.

Large quantities of matter in suspen-
sion.

Very clear and free from suspended
matter.

Nearly free from suspended matter.

Quantities of leaves and suspended
matter.

Small (juantities of suspended
matter.

Sample very clear.

Small quantities of suspended
matter.

Quantities of suspended matter.

V

0

<

V

&.

•a

c
3
0

Sulphur

Tri-
o.xide

(M O^CDOX)OCMCO

^ III ^ c^P 'V '7'cp cp|0|

III ' t- CO <M (M T* <M ' CM '

0 u

S.E
U -

185

5^33

3^46

19-43
10-52

6-09

5-69
5-50

5-21
2-10
9-03

c
2

•122

•399

•198

1^592
■576

•348

•331

•474

•499
•479

•985

As As

Am- Ni-

monia. trates

•023

•080

•078

•451
•110

032

•067
•042

nil
•052
•146

•099

•319

•120

1-141
-466

•316

■264
•432

-499
•427
■839

c

1)

CS

Sulphur

Tri-

oxide.

0 OCOOOi-HOiOCO

Ai ill ■ (Mcb CO coco oi'cm'

Chlo-
rine.

4-90

2200

3-80

5-60
13-40

7-60

8-52
942

6-20

16-50

9-90

c
u
tic
0

2

As

Ni-
trates.

062

•330

-086

•130
-140

-040

-100
-072

nil
-160
-160

As
Am-
monia.

•263

1318

•132

-329
-593

•395

•395
•741

-593

1-320

■920

Kainfall

in
inches.

1-67

-20
nil
107

402

15-33
3-47

3-54

2-95

2-58

3-72
L43
4^03
nil

c

0

1911
May

June

July ...
August ...

September

October...

November

December

1912
January...
February

March ...
April
May
June

i88

CHEMICAL COMrOSITION.OF RAIN.

Pu $

^

OJ

03

c/i =

• - 'O

j^ '-0

O! C

c <u

« ^

:/:

(D a

efor
of s

v

XI t«

Pi

Water filtered
Smallquantitie

2 ■ V

O CO CO

■^5^

1 1 1 trp oil ci

■3^3

' ' ' CI 6-1 CO

Cfi

6 ,c

00 00 05 CO O -*l

CD CM 05 O -* '*

<

o'=

-=t^ ^ O t- l>- CO
1— (

u

_

-* -^ "* <XJ CT5 O

lO C— -* Oi CO 'X

o

O O T-H -r t- 00

T3

H

3

c

O

u

«

t- O CO O CD CO

1^

o

[/) 1 1)

CO CD OS »0 CI t^

^Z 2

O O O i-H CO C-T

."ti

V

1 re

t^ -^ rH CD CO -*

< <: o

tH T— 1 »0 -^ r-^ O

O O O CO -^ CD

e

b-

2 . u

O C^ ^

•a:^:2

1 1 1 op [>- t^

3^g

' ' ' >b CO -

v:

c
o

o (u

O t- O lO Oi o

O i-H 00 t- OC 00

1)

x:.S

CO -H O t^ rH lb

^ O CO 1— 1 l-H

o.

o:

o o o o o o

As
Ni-
trate

CO c^ 00 X CM cq

^

i^

c

O

t4

CO t^ "* CO O — 1

,ti

, rt

1— 1 lO CO CO 05 CO

y.

t~ CO m: t~ O CD

th th c-1 GO -o cq

^^

^=1

lO C^ CD O t- CO

'^ CO 00 t~ t^ 1— 1

■rt ^

rH Oq O

Cii •£

I— 1

c
o

1912
July ...
Auo;ust ...
September
October...
November
December

CD

O
CD

O

CD

oq

E
-a

C

cn

00
lO

Oi

CO

CO
CO

o

o

CD

o

lO
OS

CO

T3 'a

-a !u

c ^

CD fi

cT ^

3 r-

^ 2

O u-.

ly. 1> "-•

(U oj rt

• - , CJ J;; •-

1-1

aj

03

C

dJ

-a

<u

en

c

c

a.

7J

-a

c«

aj

n.

1/3

en

D

OJ

Cfi

4-*

iJ

o

c

CO

a)

•J

."ti

3 rt <u c 3

35 tH Oi O CO
00 05 Cq O O

lO O ^ Oi t^
■<*l OS C~ i—t '^

^ CO CO oq op
oi " ' ' '

CTS >0 (J5 CO

lO '^i CO -"^ cn

Cq CO ^H C -+I

CO o CI o: '-tH

00 '^l CO rH lO

• o CI cq CO

o o o o o

q^ CD CD GO CO

A cq cq cq cq

o o o _ o
o CD '00 ■":: o
00 c~ ci a i—t

0 010500

Oi O^ '^ Oi o^
CO O -^ CO t^

TtHrHiocq^oOGOOosoQO
oi>-cpo"poor--(.'*q5
ibo-^-^ ^ " cqcqcqcqrH

■ OJ

d cj

-2^

C-

03

c

aly

eptemb
ctober.

U^%<%

O u

,< cAi o iz; Q

CHEMK Al. COMI'OSITION OF RAIN.

T89

>

O
ft!

<
<

>

7-

1
i

Bottle containing sample receivec

broken.
Small quantities of suspended matter
Small quantitiesof suspended matter

Continued drought.

Small quantities of suspended matter

V

u

<

V

&-
tn
•c

5
p

Sulphur

Tri-

oxide.

1 Mill

c

T

5i

Chlo-
rine.

•94
1-18

1-36

c

z

0

2-296
•638

677

As

Ni-
trates.

•043
-104

•475

As
Am-
monia.

2-253
•534

•202

c
0

u
1)

a.

a-

Sulphur

Tri-
oxide.

•8H
1-59

1-77

c
u
be
0

Z

As

Ni-
trates.

0 0 - 0

1 OrH||||llll<X>

As

Am-
monia.

00 CO

: 1 T-H b- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 qq

Rainfall

in
inches.

CD CM00iOt-»O 0 T— liOCTi
— ( i:^cNioiOO.'^co."T:;c^cpco

CO -?t^.■o(^^' ^ ' '-'rHCMcb

0
f<-.

1912
January

February

March ...

April

May

June

July ...

August ...

September

October...

November

December

-a
<u

-a

C- £^

X ^

3 • ^

1

X c "^

'

"-1-1 0 t;

0 •- 0

M 2 M

S c U

.S; 1) • —

.ti o-t:

*-• M -*-'

C D G

C3 X OS

3 r- 3

cr.S cr

"rt tc '^

£3 £

1

—

C/3QC/2

"

t~ t~ t-

CO <X) 0

CM i-( CM

^.0 0 0 1

^lO OS 0 1

1^

0 T-t t-l

?

'a.O'-i 1

e

.^

c:;^ 0 <:d

Aj

^ 05 30

0

^

0 f-H r" '

T-l o^

0 ~ '^

0 c 10

1—1

.

III

Cq rH — t

CD X) 0

cq CM <M

QC 0 0

'TtH CO -*

0 :0 rH

CM „G0

CO ^ cq

j

CJ2 C "^

10 CO 00

10 CD O)

^ oq 10

! i3 S

\o ^-^X^

— ' 1^ £ c

is > 0

a 0 <u

OZQ

I90

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

'T= S

>

o

Pi

<

<

>

b^

en >-"

c

u

D ii

<u

4-f

■4->

c/l ^

C«

^ ^ c«

« c

s

u 0 £

£«

T3

. S y, 'O

rO ti

t^ U

Ir, =* u <u

1) 03

-?£

rri U

03 ^ H aJ

OJ 13

l-H

2d m;
susp

ed m
ende(
nly t

susp

•0 a- 0 "^
u 3 x; u "?

^ a.

ai

D, .H

0, cc *- Z; «

.H "^

3 '^^

sus
s of
r, w

mai
.ntit
r.

'Z 0

w C

S ="'

vfc- rt

"i:; <L> OS -o 2 03

Co nj

0 3

0 -^ aj qj u

3 • -

<" c z^ = = r^

CJ".-

0 rt

ui 3 <U '-^ £ OJ

c^ rt

2 S

£ 3

EH CQ

HO^> c/3>

C/30

phur

ri-

ide.

1 1 1 1 1 1

INI 1 1

1 1

•BH g

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 III II

C/2 °

i oj

cq CO CO

02 as CM 00

t- CM

-A

t^ 1 :o lO 1 1

1 1^ 0 0 as ^

GO CO

«J

6
u

<

r^ ^ ^ - 1 1

' rH ' -N C>1 CM

th cm

5;

1

~

u.

^

T—t lO IQ

0 CO -M CO CM

CO as

.^

rt

tH 1 CO CM 1 1

1 t- CD l-H tJI t~

00 — (

0

0

10 1 rH CD 1 1

1 0 rH t>- lO CO

P CO

'^

C
3

c

H

1 — 1

tH ■ tH -H "

(M

1

.

0

lU

U3

05 T-H CO

g^OS OS CO rH l>.

1 2*0 c- t- 00 as

CO CO

^

Q^

bo

« .- U

10 1 ^ 10 1 1

CM CM

^*

0

P 1 r-H Cp 1 1

1 ~ t- 0 CO rH (M

P rH

?/:

1 t^

oq '^i as

-^ 1— 1 ^ -* CM 0

CO CO

-«

52 ? ■£

»o 1 0 CO 1 1

! .•> CO X CO CO t-

CD OS

%J

"^< 1

-*i 1 0 10 1 1

1 S- GO 0 CO CO 0
•^ • • rH ^ ■

0 --H

^

^ £

rH

cjq

a, i- ~

-3H-g

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 III 11

1 1

d
0

cfi 0

i V

0 0 CM

0 OS 0 C~ 0

0 c^

t~ 1 t- ^ 1 1

1 CM Tt< -H CM rH

OS oq

JZ c

s

•j-c

tH ' rH rH ' '

1 CO --1 CM CM

rH rH

«

0 00

000 00

^ 0

tf)

CO ' 1)

to 1 CM 0 1 1

1 0 CO l-H "# CO

CN t-

bo

0

Cp 1 ,-1 rH 1 1

1 as -^ (M v* ^

rH

P p

1—1 00

CO rH r-l ^ CO

CO CO

z

<S|

CO 1 CM tH 1 1

1 0 CD ^ 10 CD

CO l-H

•»*( 1 tH »o 1 1

1 CO '^ t- 00

p CM

^ s

T^ r-<

(M ' ' rH '

rH

3 S

Oi <M 00 CO C^ C^

OS ' 0 tH CD I— 1 »0

^ CO

CO CO p CO 10 —1

0 p GO p "^ P

CM OS

•5 g

CO »b "* rH

th ' t^ 0 »b

-* t-^

as -5

.£

:>,::::

ast ...
ember
ber...

ember
;mber

c
0

191
Januar
Februa
March
April
May
June

.— 1 u? 03

OS 03 3

^

>> !=cd,2 > CJ
— 3 37 cj 0 jj

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

TQI

2 o

> s^

Di I

<

<

>

73 °

Z rt

^2 £c
<<< o

u'n

Z rt

I— (

-a

c

3

CO CO

UT) CO

X o

CM CO

o o

t^ CO

T— I r-H

O-l o

CO op

CO CN

£
c

(/}

rt

03

E

E

'O

■a

lU

<u

•a T3

c

C

lU

lU

a-

D.

w

C/3

D

3

M

t/3

<-i-i

M-.

o

o

75

tn

o;

1>

C

C

03

CS

3

3

cr

cr

^.^

^_

cc

03

B

£

03 CC

O CO

CO

o ■<*
00 »o

05 ^
CO T-H
r-t CM

o

r-< O
t~ CO

CO CO

o o

00 CO

o o

O T-H

o

CO

o o

CO X)

oi cq

lO CO
O CM
CO O

CO
CT5

cq ao

>OQ0COi— It- OCOt^CD

rHcicor— ii— irr^-t^cqcoco
em JLi -Li ■ * C • -c, •, ,.:_

M C OJ g C

3 <u -^ S h

'^ — 3 jr tj o

03 p, 03

«^-i T'l^-i T -1 -J <u (J ^ >"

§ < § ^^< c/, O Z Q

192

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIN.

The results in the foregoing tallies are manifestly incom-
plete, and in other respects imperfect, so that, under ordinary
circumstances, one would prefer postponing their collation until
they could be made more complete ; but the circumstances are not
ordinary, and, as the inevstigation has nijw been discontinued,
with but little prospect of its resumption for some years to come,
I have thought it best to bring the results together in their
present condition, notwithstanding the obvious blemislies, so that
they may at least serve as a point of departure and as an indica-
tion of the needful precautions, should the work happen to be
resumed on some future occasion. Meanwhile, the very incom-
pleteness of the records precludes much discussion of t!ie figures
at the present stage.

^^dlere possible, the rain water analyses have been sum-
marised into annual aggregates, and the summaries thus ob-
tained are as follows : —

Twelve-month period
covered.

Rain-
fall for
period

Hounds per Acie.

Locality.

Nitrogen.

As

As

Chlor-

inches

Am-

Ni-

Total.

ine.

2G-59

monia

trates.

Grahamstown

Aujiust, 1911, to Jiilv, 1912

1030

■726

1-756

23-38*

,,

Dec, 1911, to \ov., 1912 ..

2214

•858

-735

I -593

23-63t

Kokstad

January, 1912, to Dec, 1912

26-54

1-118:

670 :

1-788:

—

Bloemfontein

Sept., 1910, to August, 1911

27-82

3-658

1-620

5-278

6-72

Sept., 1911, to August, 1912

1.V49

4.870

1-363

6-2.33

2-311

Durban

January, 1911, to Dec, 1911

42-34

3-65111

1-23411

4 -885 II

61-1611

January, 1912, to. Dec, 1912

31-07

3 906

1-249

5-155

70-40

Cedara

January, 1912, to Dec, 1912

26-68

4-710S

•865Ji

5-575S

16-17(i

In four cases it has been found possible to make a conv
parison between summer and winter rains, in respect of their
nitrogen content, and these are tabulated below : —

Nitro<ien : In [^

• •unds pc

r Acre.

Summer : Sept. to Feb

Winter

: March to Aujj.

Local. ty and Period.

As
Am-
monia.

As
Ni-
trates.

Total.

As
Am-
monia.

•448

As
Ni-
trates.

Total,

Grahamstown (Sept.,
1911, to Aug., 1912i

•592

465

1-057

•264

-712

Bloemfontein (Sept ,
1910, to AuJ,^ 1911)

1-425

•907

2-332

2-233

713

2-946

Bloemfontein (Sept.,
1911. to Aug, 1912)

3-244

1^077

4-321

1-626

-286

1-912

Durban (Sept., 1911,
to Aug., 1912)

2-739

-780

3-519

1^796

■295

2-091

* Not including August and December, 191 1, aiidMay, igi2.

t Not including December. 1911, and May and August, 1912.

t Excluding one-fourth of an inch of rain during September, 1912.

H Not including March. 1912.

II Excluding one-fifth f>f an inch of rain during June, 191 1.

§ Excluding one-tenth of an inch of rain during June, 1912.

MATZE PRODUCTIOX. 193

In each of these four cases more nitric nitrogen was brought
down by the summer than by the winter rains, and ammoniacal
nitrogen was also larger in amount during the summer than
during the succeeding winter months at Grahamstown and at Dur-
ban ; at Bloemfontein considerably more nitrogen was brought
down as ammonia in winter than in summer during 1910-1911,
but during the succeeding year Bloemfontein also fell into line
with the other two localities.

The salt spray from False Bay during south-east rains had
a considerable effect in increasing the chlorides at Retreat during
the summer months of 1912. At Douglas the rain showed large
proportions of chlorides for a locality so far inland : possibly this
may be in some way connected with the saltpans in the district.

My thanks are due in the first place to I^Ir. R. T. A. Innes,
Union Astronomer, and ]\Ir. C. M. ^Stewart, Chief jNIeteorologist,
for their valued advice and aid ; next to all those who undertook
the trouble of collecting rain vrater from month to month and
forwarding the samples to the Government laboratories ; and,
lastly, to the officers of the various laboratories, for their assist-
ance in carrying out the analyses here recorded, and particularly
to Mr. A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S., of the Bloemfontein Laboratory,
and Mr. J. S. Jamieson, F.T.C., of the Durban Laboratory, for
the work done bv them in this connection.

Maize: Production. — In a brochure, entitled " Maize
Cultivation and Export," issued towards the close of 1909,
under authority of the Governments of the Cape, Natal, Orange
River and Transvaal Colonies, it was stated that " maize is the
staple crop of a large part of Natal, the Transvaal. Rhodesia,
and Eastern Province of Cape Colony, and the Eastern Districts
of the Orange River Colony."' On the same page it was frankly
confessed that " the whole of civilised South Africa produces, at
present, less than one per cent, of the world's crop " ; and yet
" maize is a crop eminently suited to vast areas of South Africa,
and vast quantities could be produced if the veld were brought
under cultivation." Mr. J. Burtt-Davy. who interested himself
very greatly in maize breeding during his incumbencv of the
post of Government Botanist and Agrostologist, resigned that
office some months ago in order that, in the ampler atmosphere
of a private position, he might with greater freedom and eft"ec-
tiveness devote his energies to fostering the maize industr\ in
South Africa. Under those circumstances all — and they ' ar^^
numerous— who appreciated Mr. BurttT^avy's efforts on
behalf of that industry in tlie past, will give a warm welcome to
the bulky volume that has just issued from the press as a result
of his labours.* The book is written with the object of meetino-

* •' Maize : its history, cultivation, handling, and uses." 8vo., pp. xl
0,31. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1914. 60 oz., 25s.

194 MAIZE PRODUCTION.

the diverse needs of the farmer, the student, the teacher, and
others concerned with the maize industry and its various branches,
such as commerce, manufactures, and the supply of agricultural
implements, machinery, and fertilisers. It is inscribed to
General Botha, whose photograph constitutes the frontispiece,
and there are 245 other illustrations. The author is not sparing
of statistical and other tabular information, no less than 132
tables being embodied in the work. In his opening chapter, on
the importance of the maize crop, Mr. Burtt-Davy takes care to
l»int out that this importance, great as it is, is not wholly derived
from tlie grain, for there are other parts of the plant deserving
of a more extended use for winter-feeding than they are put to
at present. Even the refuse of maize may be put to a variety
of industrial uses, and probably when South Africa awakes to
an adequate realisation of the commercial possibilities of many
products that are now regarded as so much waste, the cobs,
stalks, and straw of maize will take their place with other articles
like seaweed and prickly pear, that are now looked upon as mere
cumberers. In his closing chapter the author returns to this
phase of the subject, and it is to be hoped that some, amongst
the many who are sure to study this book, will turn from the
reading of that final chapter with strong desires to give practical
effect to the hints contained therein. Emphatic endorsement is
given to the opinion that South Africa will be in days to come
the maize granary of Europe, and although the professor of
Economics at Harvard. Professor T. N. Carver, considers maize
to be the leading product of the United States and maize-grow-
ing the leading industry, Mr. Burtt-Davy, echoing the views
expressed in the brochure of 190Q, is convinced that for maize
production South Africa has enormous advantages over America.
The dryness of the winter allows the South African farmer to
harvest and shell in the field up to the very day when he starts
planting his new crop ; in South Africa the percentage of grain
damaged by the weather is exceedingly small; and the moisture
content of the grain is some 5 per cent, lower in South African
maize than in the American article. To these advantages may be
added the considerations that South Africa has an excellent local
market for a large part of her maize crop, and, because she owns
her own railways, she can carry the surplus to the coast at cost.
Three chapters are assigned to the climatic requirements, the
geographical distribution, and the botanical characters of maize,
three to maize-breeding, four to what may be termed maize
agrostology, including maize pests, and in the later chapters the
chemistry and feeding value of maize are dealt with, as well as
its preservation by silage. Finally, there is a bibliography of
over 400 titles. Altogether the South African maize grower will
find in this monograph a compendium of information and advice
excellently adapted to his peculiar needs.

S. A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1914. Pl. 9.

Sir DAVID GILL.

SIR DAVID GILL,

K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
{Born 12th June. ICS43. Died 2J^t}i January. 1914.)

For the second time, within a few weeks^ the South African
Association mourns the loss of one of its past presidents. By the
death of Sir David Gill, which took place on January 24th last,
science has lost an astronomer of exceptional capacity and skill
and a powerful advocate of its claims, in all its branches, on the
community at large.

David Gill was born at Aberdeen on the 12th June, 1843. ^^
received his early education at the Bellevue and Dollar Academies
of that city, and afterwards proceeded to the Marischal College
and University, Aberdeen. Though destined to succeed his father
in business, his interests from early days lay rather in scientific
pursuits. The direction these interests took in later life was, as he
himself was fond of relating, largely inspired by Clerk Maxwell,
under whose influence he w-as brought during his course at the
Marischal College.

i)n the completion of his University course he at first settled
down to a business career, but de\oted all his leisure to the con-
struction and use of astronomical instruments, with a view to
furthering the work which he had at heart. The success he
achieved in this manner attracted the attention of Lord Lindsay,
who at the time was contemplating the creation of a private obser-
vatory at his father's seat (Dun Echt) and led to the ofifer from
the Earl of Crawford that (iill w^ould take charge of this obser-
vatory. Recognising the opportunity that this would afford him
of fulfilling his desire to devote himself exclusively to science.
Gill resolved, at considerable pecuniary loss, to abandon his busi-
ness and acce]5t Lord Crawford's offer.

The next few^ years were spent in planning and fitting out the
equipment of the observatorv and in making pre])arations on an
elaborate scale for an expedition, proposed by Lord Lindsay, to
Mauritius to observe the transit of \''enus in the year 1874.

Such an event had not occurred for more than a century. Its
occurrence at this time served to focus the attention of astrono-
mers on the i:)roblem of the determination of the sun's distance
from the earth, and numerous costlv expeditions were fitted out to
places whence the phenomenon might be favourably observed with
a view to the determination of this important astronomical con-
stant with all precision attainable.

Hie comi)arative ill success of the results secured, so far as
they related to their immediate purpose, led Gill to the considera-
tion of alternative methods Ijv which the same end might be more
effectively attained. Hitherto determinations of the Sun's dis-
tance, or what is equivalent, the scale of the Solar system had been

196 SIR DAVID GILL.

based on the comparisons of observations made simultaneously, or
almost simultaneously, from different stations widely separated
on the Earth's surface. This of course necessitated the employ-
ment of different observers and different instruments at each
station.

The quantities under investigation were so minute that there
always remained uncertainty as to whether the results derived
might not in considerable measure be attributed to some personal
or instrumental peculiarities, rather than to the primary phenome-
non sought. To obviate such uncertainty, Gill proposed to make
use of the so-called " diurnal method," which enabled a single
observer, with the same instrument throughout, to make all the
necessary observations. The parallax was to be derived by the
difference in the apparent displacement of a planet in relation to
the surrounding stars as derived from observations soon after
rising, and that derived from similar observations just before
setting The heliometer had already proved in Gill's hands a
highly efficient instrument for measuring these minute displace-
ments, and a preliminary attempt by means of the planet Juno at
Mauritius had convinced him of the ultimate efficiency of the
method when a more extended series of observations under more
favourable geometrical conditions both as regards the position of
the observer and that of the planet could be got.

A favourable opportunity for a further application of the
method occurred on the occasion of the oiJ]iosition of Mars in
1877. To secure the most advantageous conditions it was neces-
sary to occupy a station as near as possible to the e(|uator. and the
Island of Ascension was selected as being convenient of access
and, as far as could be ascertained, likely to yield favourable
weather conditions. The interest of the Royal Astronomical
Society was readily secured, and through their means the neces-
sary funds were obtained to provide for an expedition.

This expedition, of which a charming account has been
written by Lady Gill, proved a complete success, though almost
doomed to failure from the outset by a serious accident to the
instrument, which would have deterred a less determined observer
from proceeding.

Shortly after his return to England, the post of H.M.
Astronomer at the Cape became vacant through the retirement
of Mr. Stone, and Gill was selected as his successor. He occupied
the position for a space of 28 years, and it was here that the
principal contributions to his life's work were made. On his
arrival he found the establishment but poorly equipped and inade-
(juately staffed, but by his own energy and persistent pressing of
its claims to official support he left it with an equii^ment that
would bear favourable comparison with that of any existing astro-
nomical observatory.

Under Stone's directorship the establishment had been almost
exclusivelv devoted to meridian astronomv. To enable him tO'

;iK DAVID GILL.

197

follow up the researches which had been broug-ht to so successful
a conclusion in Ascension, Gill desired that the extra meridian
appliances should be stipplemented, and to this end obtained by
purchase from Lord Lindsay the heliometer that he had used in
Mauritius and Ascension. He devoted his personal attention to
the working of this instrument, primarily with the object of deter-
mining with all available precision the annual parallaxes of a
series of stars, selected either on account of their brightness or on
account of their large proper motions, as likely to yield measurable
results.

The researches were afterwards continued with a new and
more powerful heliometer furnished by the Lords Commissioners
of the Admiralty, in response to Gill's urgent representations. In
all the distances of some 22 stars were determined with one or
other or both of these instruments, the observations with the old
heliometer being shared by Gill with Elkin, who had volu'itarily
offered to accompany Gill to the Cape for the pur[)0se, and those
with the new instrument with Finlay and De Sitter.

Gill has himself pointed out that in preparing the programme
of his second parallax-campaign he was guided not so much by
the desire to select such stars as would yield considerable paral-
laxes, but rather by the wish to make a contribution to cf smical
astronomy, which would throw light on the general distribution
of stars in space. A volume in which he summarises the results'
of his researches* contains an excellent discussion of the material
available at the time of its publication as bearing on this important
question.

To elucidate the problems of cosmogony it w^as, however,
essentially desirable that more rapid, even if less accurate methods,
should be used. Gill w^as perhaps one of the first to recognise the
advantages of celestial photography as a means of securing data
on a wholesale scale rather than by the slow and laborious
methods of visual observations.

The year 1882 was a memorable one in the annals of astron-
omy. The appearance of the great comet of that year was the
occasion for numerous attempts to secure photographs of this
remarkable object. For the most-part these attempts were of little
scientific value, as the cameras employed were not provided with
the means of following the comet through its diurnal movement.
However they showed effectively that the comet could be photo-
graphed.

There was at the time no photographic equipment at the Cape
Observatory, but Gill secured the assistance of a local photo-
grapher, and with the aid of his camera strapped to the counter-
poiise of an equatorial telescope, so as to allow of motion to com-
pensate for the earth's rotation during exposure, excellent pictures
of the comet were secured. But what struck Gill more forcibly

* Capf Antiah, vol. viii, part ii.

igS SIR DAVID GILL.

than the comet itself was the number and perfection of the star
images found to be impressed on the plate. The images were
such that their positions could be easily measured with high pre-
cision. Here then was a means by which the stars throughout the
sky could be rapidly charted. Moreover by regulating the time of
exposure the pictures could be made to indicate any desired limit
of stellar magnitude. Correspondence with Admiral Mouchez,
the Director of the Paris Observatory, was at once opened, the
outcome of which was the formation of an International Com-
mittee of xA.stronomers, which iirst met in Paris in 1S87, to discuss
the project of obtaining photographs on a uniform plan of the
whole sky.

But without waiting for the deliberations of this Com-
mittee, (jill set to work to make a preliminary survey of the
Southern skies. With the aid of grants from the Government
Grant Fund of the Royal Society, and partly at his own expense,
a series of photographs covering the whole region of the sky from
18° S. declination to the South Pole was secured during the
years 1885-1889.

At first it seemed probable that the measurement and discus-
sion of these plates would have to be relegated to a remote future,
but thanks to a timely offer of co-operation from Kapteyn, of
Groningen, arrangements were made by which all the plates were
sent to Holland and measured there. The results of this happy col-
laboration are contalined in three volumes of the Cape annals under
the title of the Caf^e Photograpliic Diirchmustrnnu/. whereby
the visual " Durchmusterungs " of Argelander and Schonfeld
are extended to the South Pole.

The work has pro\-ed in\alua])le as a contril)Ution to statis-
tical enquiries regarding the distribution of stars of different
magnitudes in the sky, and as affording ]M"eliminary rough data to
form the basis of a more accurate survey.

Meanwhile, in April, 1887, the Paris Conference had met and
plans had been agreed on whereby the larger scheme of photo-
graphing the whole sky on a scale of i millimetre to a minute of
arc was divided up among eighteen co-operating observatories,
the largest share being apportioned to the Cape. Regular work on
this programme was begun at the Observatory in 1892, and has
continued to the present time. The pul:)lication of results, which
will be contained in eleven volumes, giving the accurate positions
in duplicate of about half a million stars, is however now in pro-
gress, and Gill had the satisfaction- of seeing the issue of the first
of these volumes shortly before his death.

The general organisation of this scheme was controlled by
the Paris Committee, which met again on various occasions
l>etvveen 1889 and 1909. At each of these meetings Gill was
present, and his voice was prominent in guiding the course of pro-
cedure. His vigorous presence and directing influence at such
meetinus will be sorelv missed in the future.

SIR DAVID GILL. I99

Before the full significance of this vast undertaking, as bear-
ing on the cosmical problems which Gill had in view, can be
attained, a generation or more must elapse, when a repetition of
the work in whole or in part may be expected to throw light on
the changes that are taking place. For the investigation of such
changes the earlier records cannot fail to ]:)rove of the highest
value.

No reference has hitherto l)een made to Gill's further re-
searches on the Solar Parallax. The great success of the Mars
expedition led him to look forward with hope to a still more ambi-
tious project from the favourable oppositions of Iris, Victoria and
Sappho in 1888-9, ^"<^ ^^ was largely with a view to this scheme
that the new 8-in. heliometer was installed. As, however, the
Observatory was not favourably situated for the employment of
the diurnal method and Gill's other official duties prevented an
extended al^sence from the Observator3% it was necessary to
invoke the assistance of other suitably equipped observers. ( )n
Gill's initiation arrangements were made which secured the co-
operation of the heliometers at the Cape, Yale, Leipzig, Gottingen.
Bamberg and Oxford while no less than 22 observatories offered
assistance in meridian observations of the planet and comparison
stars used for the heliometer observations.

The comprehensive programme was brought to a satisfactorv
conclusion and an exhaustive discussion of the material made by
Gill, with the assistance of Elkin and Auwers. The results
obtained gave not only by far the most reliable determination of
the solar parallax, but incidentally also a strong determination of
the mass of the moon, the constant of nutation and the mechanical
dlipticity of the Earth.

Among other valuable researches with the heliometer must be
mentioned an extensive series of observations of Jupiter's satel-
lites by Gill and Finlay in 1891-2, subsequently continued by Mr.
Bryan Cookson in 1901-2.

While Gill's personal share in the observational activities of
the establishment was largely confined to the use of the helio-
meter, a steady programme of meridian observations was conti-
nued under his directorate, and the reductions of arrears of
observations accumulated by his" predecessors in office were
brought to com|)letion. There resulted the Cajje General Cata-
logue of stars for the epoch 1865, based on observations made
imder Sir Thomas Maclear during the years 1860-1870, and
catalogues for the epochs 1885, 1890, 1900. The catalogues for
the last epoch were no less than three in number, including the
determination of accurate star positions of some 8,560 stars for
the standardisation of the astrographic plates from observations
between the years 1896-1899, some 2,798 zodiacal stars as refer-
ence points for determinations of jjlanetary motion observed
between 1900-1904, and t,too southern stars, of which accurate
modern places were required by Prof. Boss for the completion of
his fundamental catalogue, observed during 1905-6.

200 SIR DAVID GILL.

Meanwhile, with the sanction of the Admiralty, a new
meridian circle had been constructed and erected in a specially
designed house, in accordance with plans prepared by Gill. Much
time was spent on preliminary investigations of the instrument
before it was brought into regular use in 1905. Though no defini-
tive results with this instrument were obtained during Gill's
directorate, subsequent discussion of the observations have served
to prove that it has in a large measure realised the high expecta-
tions that he had fomied.

The munificent gift to the Observatory of a large refractor of
24-in aperture, fully equipped for the most refined spectroscopic
researches, by Mr. Frank McClean in the year 1897, served to
open up new fields of research, into which he threw himself with
characteristic energy.

One of the earliest objects to which it was devoted was to
the confirmation of Mr. McClean's own discovery of the presence
of oxygen in certain of the fixed stars, but Gill's greater interest
lay in the application of the spectroscopic method to the refined
measurement of velocities in the line of sight. Such determina-
tions, if carried out on a sufficiently extensive scale, might be
expected to throw light on the great cosmical question of the
stellar distributions. Moreover, even in the early days of the use
of the method he had foreseen the possibility of utilising it for
a determination of the dimensions of the solar system with an
accuracy at least comparable to that with which it had been
derived from even the best previous methods. A large number of
photographs of spectra with this oliject in view were obtained
during his tenure of office. These have been subsequently dis-
cussed and a value of the solar parallax derived in almost perfect
accord with that obtained by Gill in previous methods.

Early in his career at the Cape, Gill succeeded in impressing
on the Colonial authorities the urgent desirability of an accurate
survey of the country. Thanks to his persistent advocacy and
tact in securing the co-operation of the various authorities con-
cerned. South Africa has now been covered with a network of
primary triangulation extending from Cape Agulhas to within a
few miles of Lake Tanganyika, of an accuracy which bears fav-
ourable comparison with any similar system in the world. Most of
this has been accomplished under Gill's directorship. It was his
ambition to see the chain carried throughout the continent so as
to connect up with the surveys in Egypt and thence ultimately
with the great European surveys.

Vast as was the work accomplished cither personally by Gill
or under his immediate directorship during his career at the
Observatory, he always had time to spare to help on projects for
the advancement of science. He was early elected to the presi-
dency of the South African Philosophical Society, which was
founded shortly before his arrival in the Colony, and always took
a deep interest in its work. When the foundation of the South

SIR DAVID (;ILL. 201

African Association for the Advancement of Science was contem-
plated, Gill was called into consultation, and the present constitu-
tion of the Association owes much to his advice. He was chosen
as its first president, and it was largely due to his influence that
the Association commenced its existence on a basis which has
secured its continued and permanent usefulness. He continued,
up to the end, his interest in the Institution which he had thus
helped to found, and only a very few weeks before his death he
presented the Association with the photograph of himself which
accompanies this memoir.

Gill left South Africa in October. 1906, and formally retired
from official life on February 20, 1907.

He made his home in London, where he continued to devote
his time to the furtherance of scientific projects. His advice was
much sought in relation to the design and construction of large
telescopes and geodetic apparatus, and it was seldom that he
could be visited without meeting some British or Foreign astrono-
mer who was seeking his assistance. He gave his services freely
in connection with the various scientific societies, and was rarely
absent from the regular meetings of such bodies as the Royal
Society of London or the Royal Astronomical Society. He served
as President of the British Association in 1907, an honour which
he was invited to accept partly in recognition of his extensive
services to the Society in connection with its visit to South Africa
in 1905. He served on the Council of the Royal Society and the
Royal Astronomical Society, and was president of the latter
Society in 1909 and 1910. He was nominated as British repre-
sentative on the Liternational Geodetic Association and on the
International Bureau of Weights and Mea.sures. He recently suc-
ceeded Lord Cromer as President of the Research Defence
Society.

In spite of these numerous preoccupations he found leisure
to complete a project which he had in view when he left the Cape,
and the material for which he had been collecting for some years
previously, namely the preparation of a " History and Descrip-
tion of the Cape Observatory."

This work contains a fascinating description of the early
struggles of his predecessors, but no reader can fail to appreciate
how much the establishment is indebted to Gill for the high status
it has attained to-day among the observatories of the world.

This monumental work forms a fitting climax to a lifetime
devoted to the furtherance of natural knowledge, and he was
happy in living to see its completion.

In the middle of December last, though previously in the
best of health, he was suddenlv stricken down with an attack of
pneumonia. A strong constitution enabled him to rally on two or
three occasions, but pleurisy and heart trouble interv^ened, and he
quietly breathed his last on January 24th. His wife, though in a
weak state of health, nursed him devotedlv till the end.

202 SIR DAVID GILL.

The funeral took place at the (Jld Alachar Churchyard,
Aberdeen, on January 28th, and simultaneously memorial services
were held at St. Mary Abbott's Church, Kensington, and at the
Church of St. Michael and All Angels, Observatory Road, the
church at which he regularly worshipped while in South Africa.

The large number of floral tributes, together with the full
attendance at these services testify to the world-wide respect
in which he was held. Several foreign Governments and scien-
tific societies all over the world sent representatives to pay their
last tribute to one who was universally beloved.

His keen delight in handling a new instrument, or in discuss-
ing a new problem, or new methods of dealing with an old one.
could not fail to communicate to all who came in contact with
him somewhat of his own enthusiasm and zeal.

To these inspiring qualities, combined with a geniality of
manner which gave him ready access to officials of all classes.
must be attributed his great administrative success. When Gill
wanted anything done, he always knew exactl}^ what he wanted,
and there were few in a position to meet his recjuirements who
could say him nay. He would permit of no shoddy work.
Every detail must be of the best.

For instance, though the immediate re(|uirements of boundary
survey might l^e met at a small cost, he would eagerly press that
it might l)e conducted with geodetic accuracy, such as to ensure
that at no future time would there be likely to' be a call for
repetition. In astronomical measurements of all classes there
existed in his own mind no standard of accuracy short of " per-
fection."' and with this ideal in front of him no detail could be too
insignificant to be worthy of his attention.

Outside his work he was an enthusiastic sportsman and a
keen golfer. He was excellent as a raconteur and will be well
remembered by many who were not brought into more intimate
contact with him as a racy after-dinner s])eaker.

His domestic life, though clouded from time to time by the
shadow of his wife's ill-health, was of the happiest. To those
who were admitted to this inner circle his loss will be irre])aral~)le
while many others will share the feeling that they have lost a true
and warm-hearted friend. All will join in heart-felt sympathy
with the much-beloved and sorrowing widow who has sur\-ived
him

S. S. H.

A FEW NOTES ON WATER DIVINING.

By W. Ixc.HAM, MT.C.E., M.I.Aiech.E.

It is not within the scope of this sliort paper to deal with the
class of individuals carrying' out this work, but rather with the
power they are supposed to possess of tinding water. The sub-
ject of water divining has been investigated by Professor Barrett,
F.R.S., of Dublin University, and by Professor J. Wertheimer,
B.Sc, F.C.S., of the Merchant \'enturers' Technical College,
Bristol, and their conclusions are submitted for consideration.

In his book, "Psychical Research," published in 191 1, Pro-
fessor Barrett, F.R.S., says that

A dowser requires to be tested before he can be relied upon, and it is
always better, before sinking a well, to have the independent evidence of
more than one water-hnder, for the dozvser is by no Jiieans infallible,
though he generally thinks he is.

The ct^nclusions arrived at by the Professor are as follows: —

(a) That those wlio really possess the faculty of divining are rare,
and many pretenders exist.

(b) The involuntary motion of the forked twig, which occurs with
certain persons is due to a muscular spasm that may be excited
in different ways.

{c} The explanation of the success of good dowsers, after pro-
longed and crucial tests is a matter for further physiological and
psychological research, though provisionally we may entertain
the working hypotliesis suggested, z'ic.. unconscious clairvoy-
ance.

Professor Wertlieimer states in his report that he requested
all the well-known diviners in Great Britain to take part in the
test. He points out, however, that the best knov^m diviners, such
as Chesterinan, (iataker, Mullin.s and Tomkins, declined to take
part in the tests. Another diviner, named Kerslake, who origin-
ally consented to underg(5 various tests, declined when asked to
fix a date.

Professor Wertheimer says in jiaragraph 4 of his re]x:>rt : — ■

The main object of the tests described below was to ascertain whether
or not the movements of the dowser's rod, or the sensations he experiences,
are due to any cause exterior to himself; an experimental investigation
in regard to this seemed necessary "l:)efore any attempt to ascertain the
nature of the alleged external influence.

My attitude of mind in regard to the matter was quite neutral ; for,
while 1 should have been glad if the results of the experiments had shewn
that there was a new unknown external force I was, on the other hand,
fully aware of the possibility of persons misleading themselves in such
matters, and mistaking subjective for ol)jective effects.

Professor Wertheimer goes on to say: —

I sliould like to add at the outset that I do not in any way doubt the
absolute honesty of every dowser, amateur and professional, with zvhom I
have up to nozv had the pleasure of experimenting. They showed their
belief in their own powers by consenting to submit them to a test.

Before proceeding to give an account of the experiments, it may be
added tliat in all cases special precautions were taken to avoid the possi.

204 A FEW NOTES ON WATER DIVINING.

bility of the dowser ascertaining anything about the place where the
experiments were to be performed. Those who lent their properties were
not told anything about the dowsers until they arrived to perform their
experiments and the dowsers were not told what places they were to visit
until they met me on the day appointed for the experiments.

Although very interesting, it is unnecessary for me, in a
short paper of this kind, to analyse the various tests to which the
diviners were subjected, but the conclusions arrived at by Pro-
fessor Wertheimer are given below : —

In so far as these experiments have gone, I am inclined to believe
that the motion of the dowser's rod and the sensations which he experi-
ences are not due to any cause outside himself. The experiments do not
answer definitely the question whether or not dowsers have the power to
find water; but I think they show (a) that experienced doivsers did
not give the same indications in the same places; and (b) that the move-
ments of their rods were in most of the experiments described due purely
to subjective causes.

It would be futile to infer that the power of divining is not
possessed by certain individuals, but how far it is desirable to
spend large sums of money on their recommen<;lations is quite
another matter.

There is no doul>t that many successes have been obtained
by diviners, and it is within my personal knowledge that small
quantities of water were found on two occasions in England,
where, as an engineer, I should not have had the temerity to
recommend the sinking of wells. The quantities obtained in the
two cases referred to were about 20,000 and 45,000 gallons per
day respectively. It is a well-known fact, however, that it is verv
difficult to sink a well or bore in earth, shales, the sandstones,
chalk, limestone, the oolites, and certain other formations, with-
out intersecting some underground water, and to this fact alone
many of the dowsers' successes are to be considered due.

A diviner is supposed to rely absolutely on the occult power
he possesses when selecting a site for obtaining water, but it is
generally found that he has some elementary knowledge of
geology and hydrology as well, and that he is not guided alto^
gether by the divining power.

It is also difficult to understand how a diviner discriminates
between water and metals, for the divining rod is supposed to
be affected in both cases.

A hydraulic engineer with large e.x'perience, who is
thoroughly conversant with geology and hydrology, is, without
douljt, in a nmch better position to deal with schemes requiring
lari^c sn[>plics of water than one who simply relies on the divining
power only. In fact, I am not aware of a single instance where
a diviner has been called in to obtain large supplies of water.
On the contrary, I know of a large number of cases in the neigh-
bourhood of Johannesburg where water has been found by
diviners, but has failed altogether in a dry season. The
reason, of course, is not far to seek, for the diviners on the Rand
have generally been successful in connection with sniall supplies
from quartzite fissures in impermeable rocks, and this is alsf> the

A FEW NoriCS ON WATKR DIVININC;. 205

reason for their successes being princi])ally with small supplies
of under 100,000 gallons per day.

In 1887, at the annual audit of the accounts of the Urban
District Council of Ampthill, Bedfordshire, England, the Local
Government Auditor, I\lr. W. A. Casson, refused to pass an
account which had been i)ai(l to a well-known diviner. The
objection was raised by several ratepayers, who produced geo-
logical plans and sections showing that, if the diviner's recom-
mendation was acted upon, the Council would be boiling into a
stratum o'f Oxford clay, the thickness of which had been proved
by boring to a de]:)th of 700 feet.

An automatic water finder has been invented for indicating
water up to 1,000 feet in depth.

]n the ])amphlet issued l)y the makers they say: —

The principle on which the instrnment works is the measuring of the
strength of the currents which flow between the earth and the atmosphere,
and which are always strongest in the vicinit\- of subterranean water
courses the flowing waters of which are charged with electricity to a
certain degree. Should a subterranean spring be present under the instru-
ment the needle commences to move and the observer must carefully note
the number of degrees the needle moves on the scale, and the position of
the instrument should be changed from time to time ; the spot where the
greatest movement of the needle has been obtained is that where the boring
should be carried out.

If the needle remains stationar}-, it may be taken for granted that a
subterranean spring does not exist under the spot where the instrument is
fixed.

The cost of the instrument in England is £50, for depths up
to 500 feet.

The makers also say : —

In all cases where our staff use the Patent Automatic Water-Finder
we are prepared to liore on the principle of no zvater no pa\.

A few experiments ha\e been made at Zuurl^ekom, with an
instrument belonging to Mr. Ford, of Johannesburg, but they
were most unsatisfactory. Tt is, however, possible that the in-
strument was not in good working order, and it will be advisable
to carry out a further set of experiments before giving a definite
opinion about it.

The ])hilosopher " Albinus," as far back as the year 1700,
wrote : —

_ I ween tliat no confoundcdcr thing is to be found in the world than the
divining rod business, for whatsoever is right and fit according to one, the
same is wrong and unfit according to others, until there is no good to be
presumed out of so much confusion.

This, T think, clearly sun.is up the position to-day.

In conclusion. I may add that tlie divining rod has been used
by myself, and this has led me to take an unbiassed view in dis-
cussing the matter. There is no dotrbt that diviners have been
successful in many cases, but I do not think that an\- Engineer
would be justified in expending large sums of money on the
recommendation of a diviner.

PRODUCTION OF SUGAR UN THE PROVUNCE OF
.MOZAMBIQUE.

By James ]Munro.

Blessed with a combination of favouring" conditions — includ-
ing a warm climate, abundant rainfall, a magnificent river
system, a Hue level surface contour, soil naturally highly fertile,
and an abundant and industrious Native j:)Oi3ulation — the Pro-
vince of Mozambique has, in the opinion of every authority who
has visited it, agricultural possil)ilities far surpassing those of
any other ]:)art of South Africa. All are agreed that the soil is
most favourably adapted for the easy and profitable raising of a
great variety of crops, but, though differing as to details, in
other respects, all combine in the statement that the production
of sugar on an enormous scale is what its rich rivers, valleys and
fertile plains are particularly adapted for, declaring that for
this purpose this favoured land is unsurpassed by any other on
the face of the glol:)e.

Speaking on this point, Mr. T. R. Sim, formerly Conservator
of Forests in Natal, and an expert in both agriculture and arbori-
culture, referring more particularly to the Uimpopo Valley, said,
in a report to the Governor-General, Col. Andrade : —

It forms probably the most fertile tract of large area in South Africa.
. . . . No other such valley exists in South Africa for the cultivation
of sugar on an extensive scale, and where the facilities for preparation,
cultivation, and collection, and manipulation are so abundant.

And, again :

The conditions are more suitable than exist extensively anywhere in
Natal or Zululand, and remind me^ on an enormously enlarged scale, of the
few best spots in the lower Umhlatuze Valley.

Indeed. Mr. Sim spoke of this Valley ag capable of being
made into one vast sugar field, which would more than supply the
sugar consumption of the whole of South Africa.

Mr. F. T. Nicholson, Secretary of the Transvaal Agricul-
tural Union, an agriculturist of wide South African experience,
speaking also of the lower Uimpopo \'alley, in a separate report,
said that it consisted of the most fertile lands which it had ever
been his lot to see. In his opinion the most profitable crop would
be sugar-cane,

Which grows most luxuriantly and whose sugar contents is remark-
ably high, considerably above that of the Natal plantations, and coming to
maturity much earlier.

This authority spoke most favourably of the Inhambane dis-
trict for sugar production, and, also, of course, of those of the
Quelimane 'district, where he found sugar-cane growing most
luxuriantly, being unusually tall and thick, and yielding a large
percentage of sugar.

Then, again, ^Ir. O. V. PJarrett. then Director of Agricul-
ture for the Province, an American agricultural authoritv of

SU(;AK I'KODIH TIOX I\ .MDZAMI'.lni'K. 20'/

Standing, speaking of the extraonlinarv fertility of ])arts of the
Inhambane district, said :

Indeed so fertile is the soil in parts that at ]\hitaniba (the starting
point of the railway to Inharrime) there is a sitgar plantation so rich natur-
ally that it is never fertilised or even ploughed.

his comment on this phenomena being:

What would a Cuban or a Hawaiian sugar planter think of having no
ploughs, nor mules, nor oxen, on his estate, and yet having a good growth
of cane year after year?

Mr. llarrett also spoke highl}- favourably regarding the
Zambesi area for sugar production, whilst, with reference to the
district of Ouelimane, he declared that it alone should yield an
export of more than half-a-million tons of sugar, leaving plenty
of ground for rice, beans, maize, fibre plants, etc. Concluding,
he gave the opinion that, along with sisal fibre, sugar-cane would
constitute the best paying crop throughout the Province as a
whole, whose natural fertilit}- he described as simplv amazing,
and in certain places unparalleled elsewhere.

Mr. Barrett's successor as Director of Agriculture. Mr.
R. N. Lyne. F.L.S., now Director of Agriculture in Ceylon,
another prominent authority on tropical and sub-tropical agri-
culture, after speaking of the IVovince as the most favourably
conditioned, from an agricultural point of view, of any coiuitry
in South or East Africa — probably, indeed, in the whole conti-
nent— declared that sugar would certainly become one of the
leading crops, as the cost of jjroducing it compares favour-
ably with what obtains in Natal and Zululand. Indeed, he pre-
dicted an enormous expansion in the sugar producing industry
of the Province, particularly in the Zambesi and Chire areas, in
the Limpopo \'alley. and such like, declaring that its only limiting
factor would be the want of sufficient labour; and. hence, he
added, the adoption of labour-saving methods should be the first
care of capitalists.

Yet despite this almost unique suitability of the Province
of Mozambique for sugar production on a large and
profitable scale, the sugar industry is of but recent
establishment. Indeed, up to the year 1890 the only sugar-cane
produced was that grown by Xatives for their own primitive
purposes, mainly for chewing directly. Even to-day, with an
output -in the neighbourhood of 30.000 tons annually, the produc-
tion is far below what might have been expected with sitch
favouring factors in operation, though in the near future that
amount will be very largely exceeded. Aloreover, until quite
recently, practically the whole of the output was limited to a
region in the Zambesi area measuring not more than one degree
in Latitude and not much more than two degrees in Longitude,
all comprised within a belt measuring not more than about 150
miles in length by 80 miles in breadth. Indeed, as late as 191 1,
over 21.000 tons out of a total of 27.500 tons for the entire
Province, were produced within this small area, abutting on the

208 SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBiyUE.

lower Zambesi River, mainly on its right bank, in the territory
of the Mozambique Company.

It was in the year 1890 that the tirst sugar-growing and
manufacturing company in the Province was founded, i.e., the
Companhia do Assucar de Mogambique. whose estate has lately
been leased by Messrs. Hornung & Co. The first crop was in
1893, when 605 tons of sugar were ])roduced. The estate is in
the Prazo Maganja Aquem Chire, on the left bank of the Zam-
besi River. The factory is on the right bank of the Qua-Qua
River, near the old township of Mopeia. Other particulars
respecting this important concern are given later on in this paper.
The next of the leading sugar companies to start operations was
the Sena Sugar Factory, Limited (\'illa Pontes), which was
formed in 1905, and commenced working in 1906 in preparing
the land, its output now being the largest of all the sugar com-
panies. Its concession is in the Prazo Caia, on the right bank of
the Zambesi River, near the township of \'illa Pontes, in the
territory of the Mozambique Company. In October, 1910, this
company took over the property of the Companhia de Exploragao
de Fabrica de Assucar de Morromeu, a French syndicate, be-
coming known as the Sena Sugar Factory, Limited (Morromeu).
The estate is in the Prazo Luabo, on the right bank of the Zam-
besi River, near the township Morromeu. in the territory of the
Mozambique Company.

Altogether there are seven sugar factories at work in the
Province of Mozambique — One at Mutamba, Inhambane, two on
the Buzi River, in the territory of the Mozambique Company
(namely, Inhanguvo and Lusitania), one at Inhamcurra, Queli-
mane, and the three just referred to on the Zambesi River at
Mopea, \'illa Pontes, and Morromeu. There is another very
small one at Inhambane. but, in a review of this scope, it is too
ymall for serious consideration.

The approximate outjmts of these factories for 191 1 were as
follows : —

Tons.

1. Mutamba, Inhambane 1.500

2. Inhanguvo. PUizi River 3.IOO

3. Lusitania, Buzi River 1,700

4. Morromeu, Zambesi River 3'50O

5. Mopea, Zambesi River 6,500

6. X^illa Pontes 11,000

7. Inhamcurra, Ouelimane 300

Total output for Province . . . . 27,600

At that date the total number of Natives employed in grow-
ing and manufacturing the sugar was approximately 11,000
during crop time, and a little more than half that number during
ofif-crop time. The output of sugar per man employed was as
follows : —

SUGAR I'RUDUCTION IN MUZAM F.KJUK. 20^

Inhambane 3 tons per man.

Inhanguvo 3 ,, ,,

Lusitania 2.8 ,, „

Zambesi 2.4 „ „

which are low hgiires. contrasting with al)out 4 tons per man ii>
Natal.

The total area under cane, including new cultivation on
estates then working', was about 30.000 acres, but only a portion
of this was cropped in 191 1.

Between thirty and forty varieties of cane are grown on the
estates, the ubiquitous Yuba being found on all of them.

The estate with the highest yield of any in the Province is
that at Inhambane. where the Inhambane green variety of cane
is principally grown. This yielded 405 tons per acre, 10 tons
7 kilos of cane producing i ton of sugar. This is equivalent to
4 tons of sugar per acre. The cost of growing" and manufactur-
ing a ton was from £5 los. to £6.

It is undoubted that the sugar industry is as yet only in its
infancy in the Province. As we have seen, the output in 191 1
was 27,600 tons, and it is calculated that the output for the year
1914 will be more than double that amount. At the present,
six more sugar estates are being opened up, whilst the present
concerns are rapidly extending their operations and putting up-
new plane. Of these new estates, one is on the Chire, and the
other at Bompona, where large areas have already been put under
cultivation, it being expected that in two years' time there will
be enough to justify the erection of a factory. Again, further
south, the Rhodesian Cotton Company, at.Ville Machado. has
been making experiments in growing sugar on the Pungue flats,
with very satisfactory results. So much so, that there is every
possibility of central mills being established and land allotted to
small farmers of about 100 hectares each, the enterprise being
under the auspices of strong financial groups. The success of
<uch an undertaking seems assured, as there is an"" open market
in Southern Rhodesia for the bulk of their product. The scheme
is somewhat similar to that proposed by the Municipality of
Chai-Chai, for sugar production in Gaza.

Then, in Inhambane district, the Alutamba Sugar Estates,
Limited, which is a reconstruction of the Inhambane Sugar
Estates, Limited, is going in for extensive planting and large
development generally.

Still further south, in the Lourcnqo Afarques district, we
have the Inkomati Sugar Estates, Limited, through whose pro-
jierty a railway, 90 kilometres in length, is now being constructed,
from Moamba to Xinavane. This new companv has already a
large area under Yuba cane, which will be ready for cutting next-
season. Plant for the erection and fitting up of a factor\- will
arrive in a few months.

Again, in the Lourenco Marques district, the African Agri-
cultural Estates, Limited Toriginallv the Moven.e Estates,

2IO SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMKIOUE.

Limited), have already planted considerable areas with Yuba
cane, on their concession of 300 square miles, extending from
Moamba to the Umbeluzi. Later on, the output from this estate
should be a very large one, as all the operations are on a very
extensive scale.

Lastly, the survey has just been completed of a large area
amounting to something like 30,0CX) hectares, extending from
the Maputo at Salamanga to the Portuguese border. It will be
developed into a large sugar estate by a Xatal company.

In estimating the possibilities of the industry in the Pro-
vince, it should always be borne in mind that there the growth of
cane per acre, and the sugar content, are l)oth considerably
greater than in Natal, where the average yield of cane is about
30 tons per acre every two years.

At Inhambane, on the other hand, where Inhambane green
is principally grown, the average, in 1910, was 40^ tons per acre,
10 tons 7 kilos of cane producing i ton of sugar, which is
e(|uivalent to 4 tons of sugar per acre, the cost of growing and
manufacturing a ton being from £5 los. to £6.

At Inhanguvo, on the Buzi, 698.22 acres yielded 38.6 tons
of Yuba cane and 2.83 tons of sugar per acre, being at the rate
oi 1 ton of sugar from 10.3 tons of cane. Two fields which were
cultivated between the rows yielded : ( i ) 60.9 tons of cane and
4.46 tons of sugar per acre; and (2) 70.8 tons of cane and
5.1 tons of sugar per acre, showing strikingly what can be
effected l)y adopting a higher standard of cultivation.

On the Zambesi, one variety, 109 D, gave, from 400 acres,
an average of 75 tons per acre. Put the average throughout the
Zambesi area is probabh' not more than 35 tons of cane and
2.S tons of sugar per acre, the cost per ton being between £8 and
£9 at the factory.

At present the licences for the distillation of spirit from
molasses are practically prohibitive. ( )n only one estate, at
Inhamcurra, is it done, the lessees distilling for the Companhia
do Porror, who have a monopoly of its sale in the district. At
all other estates, except Axilla Pontes, where the molasses are
mixed with the megass for fusel, it is wasted.

Besides the above, there is a strong movement aiuong the
agriculturists of Chai-Chai, who are growing sugar-cane in
much abundance. These agriculturists have found that it is
impossible, with their limited capital to erect the necessary ex-
pensive plant for sugar mills. The municipality have taken the
matter up, and advised a scheme on similar lines to what has
been done in Zululand, whereby the farmers can bring their
sugar-cane to a central mill, receiving at once a fixed sum per
ton, and If the crop has been gathered, the sugar disposed of to
receive pro rata according to agreement the balance of profit. The
municipality has applied to the Provincial Government for power
to raise a loan ou the rates of Chai-Chai, for the purpose of
erecting a central sugar mill, to treat the sugar-cane from these

Sl'GAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE. 211

agriculturists. Should such a scheme come to full fruition, it
will mean that thousands of hectares of rich alluvial soil in the
Limpopo \'alley. at present lying- barren, will be productive in
producing thousands of tons of sugar annually. If this co-
operative scheme between the municipality and the agricultur-
ists of Chai-Chai becomes a success, there is little doubt that it
will be extended, and other municipalities, no doubt, will follow
on similar lines, to assist the agriculturists in the i:)roduction of
sugar.

It would seem as if the Province has just entered into com-
petition with other parts of the world in sugar producing, and
numerous applications have been constantly received by the
local Government for information regarding sugar land. Need-
less to say, there are vast tracts of land, in all parts of the Pro-
vince, from its most northern to southern extremities, suitable
and available for such cultivation.

To give an idea of what has been done by some of the com-
panies in developing the sugar industry, hereto is appended a
history and details of information regarding three of the sugar
factories and sugar plantations on the Zambesi, which the writer
recently visited : —

COMPANHIA DO AsSUCAR DE MoCAMCIOUE.

This Company was formed in 1890. and is actually the first
one which started sugar growing in the Province of Mozambique.

Its first crop was in 1893, when 605 tons of sugar were made.

The original factory was a very small one, being only able
to make 60 tons of sugar per week. Since then the capacity of
the factory has been increased gradually by improvements and
additional machinery.

Its weekly output reached, in 1902, 220 tons, and this year
from 350 to 400 tons of dry sugar.

Since the beginning of 191 1, the Company's estate has been
leased to Hornung & Co.

The concession of this Company, which measures 50,000
acres, is situated in the Prazo Maganja Aquem Chire, on the left
bank of the Zambesi River.

The factory is on the right bank of the Quaqua River, about
two miles from the old township Mopea and three miles from
the Zambesi. Its geographical position is Long. 35° 43' 45" E.
Lat. 17° 58' 10" S.

The landing and loading station is on the Zambesi, near the
Native village Murriua, where all the cargo received by river
steamers is discharged, and all the sugar for export is shipped
to the coast port, Chinde.

The landing stage is connected with the factory by a 20"
gauge railway, which runs through the middle of the' plantation.

The discharging of heavy cargo on the landing place is done
with a lo-ton derrick crane.

212 sugar production in mozambique.

Plantation.
Area Under Cultivation Since 1905: —

1905 3»500 acres.

1906 3-625 „

1907 3-900 „

1908 4,000 „

1909 4,000 „

1910 4.100 „

191 1 5-300 „

1912 5-425 -

10T3 5.900

Steam Ploughs in Use: —

From 1895 . . I Set of Class R B Compound Engines com-
plete with Ploughs.
„ 1906 . . I Set of Class B B Comi:)oun(l Engines com-
plete with Ploughs.

1 Set of Class Z 5 Compound Engines com-

plete with Ploughs.
„ 1912 . . I Set of Class B B Compound Englines com-
plete with Ploughs.

2 Sets of Class Z 5 Com]:)ound Engines com-

plete with Ploughs.
Supplied by ^Messrs. John Fowler & Co., Ltd., Leeds.

Irrif/afion Machinery : —

18 Portable Compound Engines: — ■

7 with 12" Centrifugal Pumps,

9 >, 10"

2 „ 7"
total capacit}- 2,500,000 gallons ])er hour.
1,000 feet Piping.
4,000 ,, Fluming.
T^c^ miles of Irrigation Canals (earth work).

Raikvay Line and Rolling Stock ( 20 in. gauge) : —

16 Miles — 24 lb. Track.
8 „ _i4 lb. „
5f „ —12 lb. „
si -^ — 10 lb. Track (Portable).
5 — 4 \Mieel-Coupled bogie tank Locomotives.
300 Cane Trucks, each of 3 tons capacity.

2 — 10 ton bogie trucks for transport of heavy material.

Draught Oxen : — For transport from fields to Permanent Rail-
way, and W'atercarts for Ploughs :
76 — Native Bred.

Field Labour: —

Supervision: — 6 White men (not including 2 ploughmen),
6 Coloured Demerara men, i Goanese, 50/75 Native Capitaos.

SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE. 21,3

Manual Labour :— During Crop time— /.c.. from about May
until December— an average "of: — 70 Skilled labourers per day,
2,000 Labourers per day (Natives).

During Off-cro]^, aii average of:— 2.S Skilled labourers per
day, 1,200 Labourers ])er day (Natives).

Factory.

The Factory was originally built and started as a pioneer
concern in 1892. It was the first sugar Factory in tropical
Africa.

The whole of the buildings were constructed of native tim-
ber cut in the forest and sawn into 8" square logs : the main
building had a span of about 30 feet and was 30 feet high to the
apex of the roof; it was pulled down only this year and replaced
by a line steel building.

The capacity of the original Factory in 1892 was 60 tons
of sugar per week. Ten years later, in 1902, the outpul; for
one week had increased to 220 tons, and this year the Factory
is capable of making 350 to 400 tons of dry sugar in one week.

The cane is unloaded from small trucks on to an endless
Carrier, composed of narrow boards attached to two chains,
Vvhich pass round a revolving drum at either end. This Carrier,
travelling at the rate of about 24 feet per minute, delivers the
cane into a pair of crushing" rollers, w^hich prepare it for the
Mills.

These mills are a set of nine rollers in sets of three rollers,
between which the cane is successively passed ; between each set
of Mills is a short carrier, of the same type as the cane carrier,
but made of steel entirely, which carries the mat of partly
crushed cane from one mill to the other; from the third ]\Iill the
megasse is carried by similar means to the Boilers for fuel.

The Boilers consist of one Water Tube Babcock & Wilcox
Boiler — in which the water is inside the tubes and the heat out-
side— and six multi-tubular Boilers — in which the water is out-
side the tt^bes. These supply steam to the whole Factory at
100 lbs. per square inch.

There are two steel chimneys 120 feet high for natural
draught.

The Juice from the Mills is pumped through vessels in
which it is heated by the waste steam to boiling point ; from
these it passes to a large number of settling tanks after being
treated with the usual reagents; the cleared juice, now of the
appearance of Sherry, is passed through a Triple Effect Evapor-
ator, and two-thirds of the water is evaporated under Vacuum,
the syrup resulting from this evaporation is pumped to receiving
tanks, from which it is periodically drawn into the A'^acuum
Pans as required.

These Pans are of various sizes, and consist of large ca.st
iron cylindrical vessels with conical bottoms and tops; inside are
series of cop]:)er coils through which steam is circulated ; the tops

214 SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

of the pans are connected by large tubes to Toricellian Baro-
metric condensors and a Vacuum pump, the interior of the pans
always being more or less in vacuo throughout the boiling pro-
cess.

In these pans the syrup is boiled slowly and concentrated
until a fine grain like sand appears ; this is the commencement
of the formation of Sugar, and as the process is continued the
grains increase in size.

When the size of grain required is reached, the boiling is
stopped, air admitted, and a valve at the bottom opened, and the
massecuite — that is, the sugar surrounded by a " masse " of
treacle or molasses — flows out into the tanks, where it is cooled
previous to being separated in the Centrifugal machines.

These are baskets of fine wire gauze, suitably supported
and. revolved at a high speed of g.ooo circumferential feet per
minute ; the fluid molasses is impelled through the holes leaving
the granular Sugar behind in the baskets, from which it is dis-
charged every few minutes.

The Sugar is now ready for bagging and shipment. Any
class of sugar is made at this Factory for Refineries or for
direct consumption without charcoal filtration.

Additional Machinery.

Tzvo Stone Flour Mills: — To make flour for the Native
labourers, who are all fed on the Estate.
Vertical Saw : — To cut up logs.
Circular Sazv: — To cut u]) firewood.
Cold Storage Plant : — For the benefit of the staft'.
All the above machinery is steam driven.

Crops.

The following are the figures for the year 189,-^ until last
year.

Year Raw Sugar White Sugar

1893 605 tons _ —

1894 807 „ —

1895 -77 ,> —

1896 966 „ —

1897 261 „ —

1898 . . . . . . 1,094 „ —

1899 1,674 „ —

1900 2,600 „ —

1901 1,271 „ —

1902 i>796 ,, —

1903 2,056 „ —

1904 3-7I9 M —

1905 4.T57 V —

1906 3,165 „ —

1907 T-770 „ —

1908 6,016 ,, —

SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

215

Year

1909

191O

1911

1912

This year's crop, now in course of production, is estimated
at from 7 to 8,000 tons.

The sugar produced since 1908 was disposed of as follows:

Raw Sugar

White Sugar

6,277 „

of which 836 tons

6,210 „

,, ,, 2,000 ,,

7,777 »

3.696 „

5.905 >.

„ „ 4,472 »

Year

1908
1909
1910
1911
1912

U. K.

1 ,683640
920000
1 ,000000
1,568-500
1 ,364 600

Portugal Transvaal Province Other
of Ports

4,318000
4,500440
3,209000

1459-500

Mozambique

— 15040

— 20080

— 1650

— 3250
50000 18650

•034
50000

White Sugar.

Year. Tiansvaal.

1908 —

1909 791-520

I91O 1,920794

I9II 3,141 212

I912 3,109728

Province of
Mocambique.

14000

79685

554635
840957

Other African
Coast Ports.

30040
•202

52II22

The Sena Sugar Factory, Limited, Marromeu.

This Estate belonged formerly to the Companhia de Ex-
phoracao da Fabrica de A'ssucar de Morromeu, a French Syndi-
cate from whom it was taken over in October, 1910, by the Sena
Sugar Factory, Limited, already established at Villa Fontes.

It is situated in the Prazo Luabo, in the territory of the
Companhia de Mocambique, on the right bank of the Zambesi
River, near the township Morremeu, the gec\graphical ]iosition
of which is : —

Long ^35° 57' 19" E.

Lat 18° 17' 17" S.

The Estate measures about 7,500 Acres, and runs about 7^
miles from the Zambesi and 2)4 miles inland.

The Factory where the sugar is manufactured, with dwell-
ing houses for staff, offices, etc., is situated near the Zambesi
River, where is also the landing and loading place for cargo
received and Sugar to be shipped.

A lo-ton Derrick Crane for discharging heavy machinery
and other cargo assists in the unloading of the River Steamers.

From the Factory a railway line of a 24 inch gauge runs in
different directions through the Estate.

2l6 sugar production in mozambique.

Plantations.

No figures are at hand for the time the Estate was under the
control of the French Company. When the Sena Sugar Factory,
Ltd.. took it over there were about 2.500 acres under culti\-ation,
which number was increased to

3,460 Acres in the same year

5,580 „ „ 1911

6,940 ,, „ 1912

7,220 ., „ 1913

Steam Ploughs in Use: —

From 1910 I set

1912 3 sets

All su])])lied by Messrs. John Fowler & Co.. Ltd.. ]>eeds

Iirigation Machinery: —

I Portable Ctmipound Engine with 12" Centrifugal pump,
ca]iacity 180,000 gallons per hour.

Railway Line and Rolling Stock: — (24" gauge). .

12! miles .... 21 lb. Track. ' »

4 24 lb.

1 28 lb. „

2^ Portable Railway Track.

2 . . 6 \\'heeled Coupled Tank Locomotives.

,3 • • 4 " v >• »>

260 . . Cane Trucks.
25 . . Sundry Trucks.

DrauiiJit Oxen : — For Transport from fields to Perm nent Line.
68 Native Bred.

Field Labour : —

Supervision : — y \Miite men, 4 Coloured Demerara men.
36/50 Native Capitaos.

Manual Labour: — During Crop time — i.e., from about May
until December — an average of 62 Skilled Native Labourers per
dry, 2,000 Labourers per day (Natives).

During Off-Crop, an average of 1,200 Labourers per day.

Factory.

This l\ictory was l)uilt by the Fives Lille Eng^ineering Com-
pany of France.

Since the business was taken over in 19 10 l)y the Sena Sugar
Factory, Limited, a large amount of money has been spent to
bring the Factory up to its present capacity.

The buildings are throughout of Steel, of spacious construc-
tion and wide spans, the walls being filled up with concrete, giving
a sub.stantial appearance.

SUGAR I'KODLCTIUX IX MUZAMIUOUE. 217

The original Mills — -taken out at the end of 1910 — were two
single three roller Mills wi/th rollers i.6oom. long by 0.800m,
diameter, each driven by its own engine. These Mills were aban-
doned, and for the 191 1 Crop an eleven roller set was installed in
a new building, with a complete new system of Railway lines and
sidings leading to and from the cane carrier, which also was re-
built to enter the Factory in an entirely different direction. To
these Mills a fourth set of rollers have been added, making now 14
rollers.

The Bagasse from the last Mill is conveyed to the Boilers to
be burnt.

The Boilers are five Brouilleur type as originally installed,
and a Vertical Water Tul^e Westgarth " Nesdrum '' lx>iler
erected for the 1912 crop.

The Mill Juice is passed through tubular heaters until it is
al:)Ove boiling pont, and from there goes to settling tanks, the clear
juice then passing through a Quadruple Eft'ect Evaporator to be
concentrated to one-third of its original volume. From the
Evaporator the new syrup goes to storage Tanks for the Vacuum
Pans, in which it is boiled to Sugar, then discharged into
Tanks to cool, after which it is centrifuged, and is then ready
for sale.

This Factory has a capacity of 300 to 350 tons of Sugar per
week according to the riclmes"^ of the canes manipulated and
quality of Sugar required.

Additional Machinery.

Two Stone Flour Mills: — To make flour for the Native
labourers, who are all fed on the Estate.

A Circular Sazv : — To cut up timber and firewood.

A Cold Storage Plant.

All the above machinery is driven by steam.

Crops.

The followng are the figures as from the year 191 1, when the
first Crop was reaped by this Company : —

191 1 4.201. 100 Ks. Raw Sugar.

T912 7,060.150 Ks. Raw Sugar.

The last Cro]) of the Companhia de Exploracao da Fabrica
de Assucar de Marromeu { 1910) was 2,686.080 Ks.

The present Crop now in course of production is estimated at
7,000.000 Ks.

The Sugar ])roduced was dis])osed of as follows: —

Province of
Year. U. K. Portugal. Madeira Mozambique.

1911 .. 3.027.200 .. 960.000 ^. 211.650 .. 2,250.000

1912 . . 3.876.625 . . 3,168.825 . . 8.500 . . 6.200

While under the control of the French Company, the Crops
were, as far as records exist, as follows : —

2l8 SUGAR PRODUCTION IN MOZAMBIQUE. ' *;

Tons.
1902 2,950

1903 1,190

1904 3,500

1905 1,900

1906 700

1907 1,200

1908 2,000

1909 2,011

' I9IO 2,680

The Sena Sugar Factory, Limited, Villa Pontes.

This Company was formed in 1905, and commenced opera-
tions at the beginning of 1906 by marking out the plantation,
growing seed cane, and by preparing the land for the planting
in the following Rainy Season.

At the end of 1906 a start was made with the foundations
of the Factory, Stores and Dwelling Houses, building of which
was commenced in 1907 and concluded in 1908.

The Concesson of this Compnay is situated in the Prazo
Caia on the right bank of the Zambesi River, in the territory of
the Companhia Mozambique, and near the township of the Villa
Pontes, the geographical ]:)Osition of which is : —

Long 33° 28' 21" E.

Lat 17° 48' 33" S.

It measures 5,500 hectares — or about 13,600 acres — and
runs for about 10 miles along the Zambesi, and extends inland
for about seven miles along the unnavigable River Zangue.

The Factory where the Sugar is manufactured is situated at
about 2^ miles from YiWa Pontes, at a place called Changadeia,
which is connected with the township of Villa Pontes by a
railway.

From the Factory there runs also a railway line, 7J/2 miles
long, to Marra, a small native village on the banks of the Zambesi,
about 6 miles below Villa Pontes, where the Company have
their landing and loading staton, where all the cargo received by
the River Steamers is discharged, and all the Sugar for export is
shipped to the coast port Chinde.

Plantation.
Area Under Cultivation : — Acres.

1905 49

1906 661

1907 1.329

1908 2,138

1909 2,400

1910 2,822

1911 ... 2,857

1912 3,666

1913 5,666

SUGAR rKODUCTlON IN MOZAMBIQUE. 2ig

Steam Ploughs in Use : —

From 1906 . . I Set of Class Z 5 Compound Engines com-
plete with ploughs.
„ 1907 . . 2 Sets of Class Z 5 Compound Engines com-
plete with ploughs.
„ 1912 . . — Sets of Class Z 5 Compound Engines com-
plete with ploughs.
Supplied by Messrs. John Fowler & Co., Ltd., Leeds.

Irrigation Machinery : —

18 Portable Compound Engines, with 12 in. Centrifugal
Pumps, total capacity 3,780.000 gallons per hour.
4,850 Feet Piping.
4,300 Feet Fluming.

45 Miles of Irrigation Canals (earth-work).

Railway Line and Rolling Stock (36 in. gauge) : —

20 Miles 28 lb. Track.

5^ Miles 35 lb. Track.
16 Miles 14 lb. and 16 lb. Portable Track.

3 6-\Vheeled Coupled Tank Locomotives.
300 Cane Trucks, each of 4^/2 tons capacity.
25 Sundry Trucks.

Draught Oxen : — For Transport from Fields to Permanent Rail-
way : —

150 Native Bred.

Field Labour: —

Supervision: — 7 ^^'hite men, 11 Coloured Demarara men,
60/120 Native Capitaos.

Manual Labour : — During Crop time — i.e. from about May
until December — an average of 120 Skilled Native Labourers
per day, 3.300 Native Labourers per day.

During Off-Crop time an average of 80 Skilled Native
Labourers per day, 2,200 Native Labourers per day.

Factory.

The following is a description of the Factory where the
Sugar is manufactured : —

The Factory building is of Steel throughout, and consists of
four spans of 30 feet, two spans of 45 feet, and one of t8 feet.
The height varies from 30 feet to 50 feet, and length of each
span is about 75 feet.

The Lighting throughout is by some 300 incandescent electric
lamps at 220 volts.

The Engineers' JVorkshops and Stores are in a separate steel
building, about 200 feet by 30 feet span, with the necessary
lathes, drilling machines and planing machines.

The Cane is unloaded from the Trucks on to an endless

220 SUGAR i'RUDL'CTlU.X i.\ MOZA Mliiy Uli.

travelling conveyor, by whicli it is delivered down a chute to the
Mills.

The Mills consist of a crusher for preparing the cane, and
three Mills, each having three rollers weighing some nine tons
each, and all driven by one 400-horse-power Engine, followed by
a powerful fourth Mill of three 12-ton rollers, driven by one 250-
horse-power Engine. The Cane passes in a continual blanket or
mat through the successive Mills, and refuse crushed cane —
known as bagasse — issuing from the fourth Mill is conveyed to
the Boilers and burnt for raising steam.

The Boilers consist of four Babcock and Wilcox Water-tube
boilers and one Westgarth " Nesdrum " Vertical Tube Boiler.
There is one chimney of steel plates 150 feet high.

The Juice extracted by the Mills is passed through strainers,
heated and clarified in a large battery of settling tanks, from which
the clear juice passes to a triple effect evai)orator, where two-
thirds of the water is evaporated off. The resulting liquor, now
known as syrup, is then pumped to storage tanks, from which it
is drawn into the Vacuum Pans, in which it is boiled to Masse-
cuite, that is until the grains of Stigar are formed to the required
size, surrounded by molasses as the " Mother Liquor."

The Vacuum Pans are discharged periodically, when and as
the process is completed, the issuing Massecuitc is allowed to cool
s-lowly, and then conveyed to the Centrifugal machines, which
consist of perforated baskets about 36 in. diameter, lined with
fine wire gauze. These I)askets revolve at a high velocity ; the
centrifugal force expels the molasses through the gauze and the
dry marketable Sugar is left behind in the basket. The Sugar is
discharged on to a Conveyor, by which it is carried to a " Jacob's
Ladder " elevator and deposited on an overhead floor. From
there it is thrown down chutes into bags, weighed and sewn up
ready for shipment.

( )riginally built to crush 500 tons of cane in 24 hours, this
Factory has ])een added to year by year until now it is ca])able of
crushing 900 tons in 24 hours, equivalent to a weekly output of
some 450 tons of dry Sugar.

Any quality of Sugar can be made here, from Brown Sugar
for the Refineries to \\niite (iranulated Sugar for direct consump-
tion, without passing over Charcoal Filters.

AnniTio.NAL MAc•TII.\l•:R^■.

Tti'o Stone Flour Mills: — To make flour for the Native
labourers, who are all fed on the Estate.

A Vertical Saw: — To cut logs for building purposes.

A Circular Saw: — To cut up firewood.

A Cold Storage Plant: — For the benefit of the staff".

This machinery is driven by steam.

A Pug Mill: — For Brickmaking, worked by oxen.

One jo-ton Derrick Crane : — At the landing stage at Marra,
for discharging heavy cargo.

sugar i'kudl'c tio.n ix mozamiuoue. 221

Crops Oi;taim:i) Si.xce the Formation of thk Company.

The following are the figures from the year 1908, when the

first Crop was reapefl, until last year: —

Raw Sugar. White Sugar,

^'ear. Tons. Tons.

1908 5,199 —

1909 8,911 136

191O 4,838 1,994

191 1 8.949 1. 261

1912 7^:^^^ 482

The Crops in 1910 and 1912 were relatively small on account
of a severe drought.

This year's Crop, now in course of production, is estimated
at 10,000 tons.

The Sugar produced during the years mentioned was dis-
posed of as follows : —

Raw. White.

f ' ^

Pi

ro-vince

of

"

Province of

Year.

U. K.

Portugal.

M(

Dzanibi(

que.

Transvaal Mozambique

1908

2,774

2,395

17

—

—

1909

5,297

3-51I

22

103

—

I9IO

1,597

3,027

10

1,515

—

191I

2,834

2.873

4

1,728

31

I912

3-710

7-364

24

421

72

International Electrical Congress.— In con^

junction with the International Electrical Congress, which is to
be held at San Francisco during September, 1915, the following
South African Engineers have been appointed honorary members
of the International Committee on Congress organisation : Prof.
John Orr. .South African School of Mines and Technology,
Johannesburg; Mr. J. H. Rider, P.O. Box 4563. Johannesburg;
Mr. J. Hubert Davies. P.T). Box 1386. Johannesburg; and ^Ir.
Frank Pickering, South African Railways. Capetown.

African Insects. — The Journal of the African Society
announce.-^ that one of the most capable entomologists in the
United States Bureau of Entomolbg)-. ^Ir. \\\ F. Fiske. has been
engaged to make a thorough investigation of the bionomics of the
tsetse fly. Glossina niorsitans. He will work under the direction
of the Royal Society, and the expense will be borne by the (tOv-
ernment of Xyasalancl. As a ])reliminary. he has gone to Uganda,
to investigate Glossina palpalis. Thence he will go to Xyasaland
for the purpose of his special study. It is interesting to note, in
this connection, the considerable increase that has taken place
recently in the work of the Entomological Research Committee.
The Committee's activities last vear had. as its outstanding fea-
ture, the establishment of the Imperial Bureau of Entomo!og}^
80.000 specimens of insects were received during the year, of
which 75 per cent, came from Tropical Africa.

THE RELATION OF SEWAGE FLO\\' TO WATER

SUPPLY.

By WTLr.iA]\T John Davenport.

It will be noticed in the accompanying diagram* that the
sewage flow is approximately 60% of the water consumed. This
is to be accounted for by the fact that the town is not completely
reticulated with sewers. The balance of the water consumed is
at present disposed of by French drains or thrown on the soil, etc.
By examining the diagram it will be noticed that the water con-
sumption is at its lowest whilst the sewage flow is within
i| million gallons of its absolute maximum per month — during
the month of July — or an absolute maximum percentage of water
consumed reaching the sewers of 74.6. During August, although
the water supplied has increased by five million gallons, the quan-
tity reaching the sewers is less by six millions of gallons. As
gardens are now being put in order, etc.. it indicates that five

70

\i

Jan Feb Mar Apl Mav Ju.n Jly Aun Sep Oct No^ Dec

million gallons of water liave Ix-cn used for irrigation purposes,
in addition to six millions that have been first used for household
purposes.

September is a dry month, and it will lie seen that a further
seven million gallons of water was consumed, coupled with a drop
of three millions in the sewage outflow. Tliis gives twelve
million gallons of water used for garden purposes, plus nine
million gallons that have first been used for household purposes.

October sees another six million gallons consumed, or a total
above July of thirty-five million gallons. It will be observed
that the sewage discharge lias increased to nearly the July quan-
titv, from which it can be inferred that, as rain has fallen, the
inhabitants are less thrifty, and are content to allow practically

* A comparison of the water consumed in Johannesburg during 1912,
with the flow of sewage as affected by the rainfall.

SEWAGE FLOW AND WATER SUPPLY. 223

the whole of the water used for household purposes to reach the
sewers.

November has a slightly greater rainfall than October, and
there is a small decrease in the water consumption, and a return
of the sewer discharge to the July figure. This docs not alter
the fact that approximately sixteen million gallons were used
during the month that did not have any visible effect on the
sewage flow compared with that during the month of minimum
consumption. The total above the July consumption is fifty-one
million gallons.

Deceml)er has a rainfall of 5.50 inches. It is promptly shown
by a drop in the water consumed of eight million gallons. The
discharge of sewage is only increased by one million gallons.
This still leaves seven million gallons that can only be accounted
for by the watering of gardens. This brings the total above the
July consumption rate to fifty-eight million gallons.

January has rather a deficient rainfall, it being only
3.30 inches. The water consumption is seventy-eight million
gallons. com])ared with seventy-one million gallons for December.
The sewage flow is still only about half a million gallons above
that of Jidy.

The dift'erence between the water consumed in January
and the water consumption for July compared on the basis of
flow of sewage, is fourteen and a half million gallons. This
would bring the total water used since July that did not show
any efl^ect on the quantity of sewage up to seventy-two and a half
million gallons.

February has a good rainfall, it being 5.70 inches. On this
account the drop in the water consumption amounts to twelve
million gallons for the mnoth. The water consumed is three
million gallons above, and the discharge of sewage three million
gallons below, that of July. There is probably no diminution of
the household consumption, the difl:'ercnce in the flow of sewage
being due to the usual garden irrigation, by utilising the water
that has been used in the house.

The quantity of water over and above that actually neces-
sary for domestic and trade consumption, as shown by the July
figures, now reaches the total of seventy-five million gallons.
There is no doubt that more water is actually used during the
summer months for baths, etc., but there are no means of esti-
mating the quantity.

In the four months ending December, 1912, fifty-eight
million gallons were supplied in excess of that shown by the
sewer discharge, on the basis of the Jidy figures, and in one
month — October — the excess was seventeen million gallons.
From this it can be seen that a pumping plant is* reqtiired for
supplying this excess, which would be idle during six months
of the year.

A study of the diagram shows that, if the whole town was
reticulated by sewers, and all the water consumed in July reached
the sewer, the maximum flow of sewage would be only one and

224 s i:\VA (•.!■: i-low and \\aii;k siitia.

a bait million galk)iis. or 3.19% greater tlian the tiow during- the
iiionth of niininnini consumption. The deduction, therefore, is
that it is quite reasonable in designing the sewage sjfstem for a
town climatically similar to jobannesbiu'g. to base its capacity
upon the minimum water cousupi])tion plus, say, a 15','r increase,
to allow for a factor of safety.

The South African Diamond Fields. — Dr.

Wagner's recently published book* is a most valuable account of
the geological and economic aspects of the diamond fields of the
Union, Rhodesia, Cierman South-W est Africa, and the Belgian
Congo. The author has had a large experience in the mines and
diggings, and has a tht^rough knowleilge oi the results obtained
by other geologists who have investigated various i)arts of the
subject. The long table of contents, the numerous references in
the text, and the excellent list of previous ])ublications will enable
readers to follow up almost every detail in the geological side of
the subject, l)ut the lack oi an index is a great source of incon-
venience.

The discussions of the many geological problems raised by
the diamond-bearing rocks are marked by their fairness to all
previously expressed views and by their sound common sense.
The greatest ditficulty in the petrology of the original deposits is
due to the fact that the rocks are unknown in an unaltered state,
and there are no signs that new discoveries will remove this
difficulty.

The first chai)ter deals with the habit and general characters
of the rocks known as kimberlite ; in the second there is a very
useful and complete account of the minerals which occur in
kimberlite ; in the third chapter the petrogra])hy of all the known
varieties of kimberlite is described, as well as of other rocks
which there is reason to think were genetically connected with
them, the concluding section being devoted to speculations on the
possible connection of the eruption of these deep-seated rocks
with the event which resulted in the elevation of the sub-con-
tinent in late Cretaceous or Tertiar\- times.

The fourth chapter deals with the extraordinarily interesting
xenoliths which are evidently related in origin to the kimberlite
containing ihem ; in the fifth chapter the (liamond is described,
the characteristics of the stones got from different mines, and
there is a careful discussion of the various views as to the origin
of the» diamond, which the author shows has probably crystallised
in the magma that gave rise to kimberlite while it was deep down
in the earth's crust.

The next three chajiters are devoted to the methods of mining
under the various conditions in the chief mines, the separation
of the diamonds from the kimberlite, of which they form from-

* P. A. Wagner, "The Diamond Fields of South Africa.'' pp. xxv,
347, maps and illus. Johanncshuri; : T!ie Traiisz\ui! Leader. 1914.

TKANSACTIUXS OF SOCIETIES. 225

two to twelve niillionths pQv cent., and a short discussion of the
factors which control the working of a mine at a profit.

The ninth and tenth chajiters contain an account of the
secondary deposits, and tlie various questions raised by the
diamonds in these beds are fully discussed.

In the last cha]Jter there is a list of the exi^tin^ diamond-
mining com])anies in the sub-continent, and tables of statistics
relating to diamond production.

The numerous photograjjliic illustrations of exposures, rock-
sections, plant, etc.. are well chosen and ])rinted, as is also the
case with the maps and diagrams.

TRAXSACTTOXS OF SOCIETTl-lS.

South African Institution ov Knoinkrrs. — Saturday, I-'ehruary 141.I1:
Mr, \V. Calder, President, in the chair. — "Notes on Structures ": A. S.
Oatreicher. The author descrihed the method adopted by him in the
construction of a wooden roof of 100 ft. span, and 45 ft. from abutment
hinge to apex hinge, which had to be erected at comparatively short notice
in order to replace anotlier roof that had collapsed six weeks after com-
pletion. The roof designed by the author depended for its construction
entirely upon the carrying capacity of bolts, the roof being designed like
a steel structure with gussets, the bolts taking the place of rivets.

Wednesday, March i8th : Mr. W. Calder, President, in the chair.-—
" The recovery of bye-products ; the plant required, and its location " : K,
Austin. The author referred primarily to the bye products obtainable in
the combustion of coal, and particularly in connection with the manufac-
ture of coke, the working of gas-producing plants, and the smelting of
iron in blast furnaces. The possibilities of recovering ammonium sulphate,
tar, and benzol on a prolitable scale were pointed out.

( Kimberley Branch). — Thursday, March igth : Mr. J. Ilarbottle in
the chair. — "Concentration of diamondiferous ground, as applied to the
works of the De Beers Consolidated ^Tines, Limited " : J. Stewart.
A short account of the earlier methods of concentration was given, and
the present arrangements for workin.g the pulsators and grease tables
described in detail,

Gkologicai. Socikty of South Afrka — Monday. Feljruary i6th : .\, L.
Hall, B,A,. F.G.S., President, in the chair.—" The Bushveld complex
as a metamorphic Province'" (Presidential address;: A. L. Hall.
A review of the more important results prf>duced by the intrusion
of the Bushveld Plutonic complex into the .surrounding sedimentary rocks.
The schistose rocks over the disturbed portion of the metamorphic pro-
vince are essentially due to thermal metamorphism, but possesses special
structural fentures arising from the-additional influence of intense pres-
sure.

Monday, February 2.3rd: D, P. McDonald, M..A.. B.Sc. President, in
the chair. — " Notes on some prehistoric stone implements found in Ka-
tanga ■' : F. E. Studt. The implements were : an arrow-head of white
quartz : a " celt '' fashioned from the greyish wdiite granular q;-,ai-tzite of
the Kafubu Beds; an axe-head made from massive haematite ; two splie-
roidal stone hammers, one of quartzite and the other of ferruginous late-
rite ; two similarly but roughly shaped quartzite hammers ; and a " hole-
stone " of greyish brown sandstone. — "The granite dykes of tlie 3.520 ft.
level . Kimberley Mine " : Prof E. H. L. Schwarz. The paper opened
with ;t general historical account of granite dykes in South .'\frica, to
whicli was appended a resume of the recorded occurrences of the horn-
blende schists in the north-west of the Cape Province, and a discussion of
the irregular dykes, mostly of pegmatite type, which, together with the
schists, pass into the foliated rocks surrounding the masses of granite in
the area. The author proceeded to describe in detail the rocks of the
section on the 3,520 ft. level.

226 NEW BOOKS.

South African Institutk of Elfctmcal Engineers. — Thursday,
February 19th: Mr. W. E. Dew, President, in the chair. — Presidential
address : W. E. Dew. The address dealt with the Institute and its work,
and suggested the compilation of a record of all the important informa-
tion respecting details, alterations and reports on the general workings of
concerns dependent upon electric i)ower.

Thursday, March 19th : Mr. W. E. Dew, President, in the chair. —
" Impressions of my American tour " J. W. Kirkland. A summary of
observations made by the author in regard to the generation of electric
power, and various developments of its application in the United States.

Chemical^ Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa. —
Saturday, February 21st: A. Richardson, M.I.M.M., President, in the
chair. — " A method of assaying concentrates and battery chips for gold
and platinum metals" ; A. F". Crosse. .\ method for determining gold, pla-
tinum and osmiridium in ores, concentrates, etc.. was detailed.

Saturday, March 2rst: Prof. G. H. Stanley. A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E.,
F.I.C.. Vice-President, in the chair. — " Relation of falls of roof in col-
lieries on the Middellnirg Coalfield to weather changes " : C. J. Gray.
It was found, on comparing the annual accident rates with the year's
rainfall, and the number of accidents in particular months during a period
of seven years, that a decrease in the annual rainfall corresponded with
an increase in liability to accident from falls of roof in the collieries, and
vice versa, and that this liability was almost certainly much greater in the
dry winter months than in the summer months. While both annually and
seasonalh' the accident rates change in a reverse direction to the rainfall,
they also change seasonally in a reverse direction to the temperature and
annually in a reverse direction to the atmospheric humidity.

South African Society of Civil Engineers. — Wednesday, March
nth: F. O. Stephens, M.I.C.E., President, in the chair. — Presidential
address : F. O. Stephens. The address dealt with railway surveys and
surveying engineers, particularly referring to their duties and bearing on
the cost of the undertaking. The temporary character of the employment
of engineers on railway survey work was criticised as tending neither to
the well-being of the profession nor to the l)est service of the country.
There are mainly two railway systems in South Africa — the South African
Railways, with a capital of 81] million pounds sterling, and the Rhodesian
and Beira Railways, with a capital of 16 millions. These, it was consi-
dered, should be able to afford a small permanent department of expe-
rienced engineers for running preliminary surveys. It was also argued
that in the past there had not been sufficient surveys made, nor had the
rract of country to be crossed been sufficiently studied before the construc-
tion of a line was started.

Cape Chemical Society. — Friday, March 27th : Prof. R. [Nlarloth,
M.A., Ph.D., President, in the chair. — " Notes on some indigenous and
other fodder plants " : Dr. C. F. Juritz. A table of 70 analyses was given,
mcluding both fresh and dried plants of various kinds. These were com-
mented on and compared with analyses of similar plants in other countries.
It was suggested that in view of the wealth of fodder plants indigenous to
the country, labour spent in the introduction of such plants from abroad
was to a great extent needless. Particular attention was given to the
feeding value of certain species of Euphorbia. Opiiiitia (Prickly Pear),
and Kaffir melons (Tsamma and Monketaan). experimental cultivation
of tlie latter having yielded from 180 to 300 tons of melons per acre, the
potential yield of oil from the pips amounting to from 700 tc 1,200 lbs.
per acre.

NEW BOOKS.

Letcher, O. — The bonds of Africa : impressions of travel and sport from
Cape Tozvn to Cairo. 1902-1912. 9 X Sh in. pp. 267. ?vTaps and
illus. London: John Long, Ltd. 1913. 12s. 6d. net,

Gill, Sir David. — .-/ history and description of the Royal Observatory,
Cape of Good Hope. 15 X n in. pp. cxc. 1.16. Maps, plan, illus.
London: Published by the Admiralty. 191,^.

CC)SMO(X)NIC HYPOTHESES.

By Ror.ERT T. A. Innes.

The best known an 1 still the most widely accepted cosnio-
gonic theory is Laplace's nebular hypothesis. This hypothesis
was only put forward in a tentative manner by its author,
although on several occiisions he recurred to the subject. It is
proper to note that altlioug'h it is doubtful if anyone had ever
a greater facility for clolhing his ideas in mathematical formulae,
Laplace used none in ex: plaining the nebular hypothesis. Many
cosmogonies have been based on ideas not essentially different
from Laplace's, that is tl'ie condensation of a primitive nebula into
rings, which later disrupt into planets, whilst the central and
final condensation forms the central body or sun of the system.
The fission theory of the formation of satellites and double stars
from condensing bodies is closely connected with the nebular
hypothesis.

Other sets of cosmogonies are indicated under the meteoric
or planetesimal hypothesis, and capture theory. Kant's cosmo-
gony was more general in that he postulated neither nebulous
matter nor meteors — merely matter. The nebular hypothesis
of Laplace, and its modifications by Faye, Darwin, See, and
others, seized on the popular mind, because it was not in too
marked discord with the theological teachings of the age, '* the
earth was without form, and void.'' Genesis i, 2.

By the very mode of its existence, the human race can view
but a small part of the drama of nature. O 1 the surface of the
earth, thanks mainly to the geological record, the mode of the
evolution of flora and fauna, and the making of rocks is fairly
clear. Rut when we view not the surface of the earth, but bodies
outside the earth — the planets, stars and nebulae, oiu- interpre-
tation is not so easy. We cannot even say if the sun, and with
it the earth, is growing hotter or colder. We imagine the rhythm
of the universe is periodic, but until one period is completed — and
this the human race cannot live to see — how can we tell, nay, even
guess, the nature of its periodicity? The periodicity may ibe
complicated, is almost certainly more complicated than that of a
butterfly which goes through tjie stages of egg, caterpillar,
chrysalis, butterfly, etc., and what person could by the closest
inspection of, say, a millionth of any one of the sub-periods, egg,
caterpillar, chrysalis or butterfly, foretell the other sub-
periods? It is probably thus when we attempt to explain the
evolution of the stars. A\'hen Laplace wrote his nebular hypo-
thesis, facts were few-, the laws of thermodynamics had not even
been formulated, and modern chemistry was in its infancy.
Hypotheses without facts are not uncommon ; the Greek genius
loved hypotheses, but seemed to disdain facts, and the effects of
their examples are buried deep in the fibres of our mentality.
The fundamental assumption of the nebular hypothesis is that a
nebula can condense, i.e., not only get more dense, but even form
ultimately liquids and solids of various atomic weights. This

228 COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES.

assumption lias no foundation in nature, and is so improbable
that it cannot be accepted without proof. I.ockyer's meteoritic
hypothesis started with a swarm of soHd bodies, meteorites,
which by their colHsions gave rise to a nebula, which then fol-
lowed more or less closely the developments suggested by the
Laplacian theory, iDut the spectroscopic evidence on which it
rested has since been proved to be devoid of foundation.

Although many cosmogonic hypotheses have been imagined,
I wisli to shmv that another can be added to them ; its chief
merit being that it takes into account the few facts of observation
which are available to-day. The hypothesis is compounded of
the planetesimal hypothesis of Chamberlin and Moulton, and
the radiation theory of Arrhenius with the addition of an explo-
sive element suggested by the nuitations of uranium-radium-
helium.

The primordial stuff out of which the universe is made is in
the form of meteors. Aggregations of meteors are caused by
collisions and gravitation. These aggregations increase in size,
forming, firstly, cometary bodies ; secondly, planetary bodies ;
thirdly, sun-type bodies. Growth is continuous in one direction
in all these bodies, so that a cometary body by the addition of
more meteorites can pass into a planetary body, and a planetary
body similarly into a sun-type body, but a sun-type body cannot
increase in size indefinitely, as a time comes when it will disrupt
with explosive force. A cometar}^ body is a loose aggregation
of meteors. A planetary body is a solid body in which the forces
of solidification and cohesion are at a maximum. A sun-type
body is a liquid body, of which the sun is a prototype. The
reverse process cannot take place ; thus a sun-type body cannot
shed meteorites and so lose matter until it becomes a planetary
body, etc. Under certain circumstances such as the near presence
of a large mass, a cometary aggregation can, however, be dissi-
pated, but this is an indirect effect which does not concern us
here. All three classes of bodies can radiate substances in the
form of electrons, although at vastly different rates, so that they
can pass from the solid or liquid to the gaseous state, which is
and will be called here the stellar state, and from the gaseous or
stellar state to the final form — the ne1:)ulous state. The stellar
state is the first step in the degradation of atomic matter.

It has to be considered how this liypothesis fits the facts.
Clausius has taught us that the end of the universe as an abode
of life or available energy will be reached when entropy* becomes
a maximum, and that it does tend to such a maximum. This
conclusion is not contradicted, it is only enlarged so as to include
in the available energy the enormous stores of power contained

* In Thermodynamics "' entropy " means a property of a body ex-
pressed as a mathematical quantity which remains constant when a gas
changes its volume or does work without any heat entering or leaving it.
but which, if a small amount of heat enters or leaves the body, is increased
or diminished proportionately to this amount divided by tlie absolute tem-
perature.

COSMOGONIC IIVI'OTIIESKS. 229

in every atom. The end of the universe, or at least one sub-
period of it, is reached when every atom has cUsintegrated into
its component parts, be they electrons or the elusive nebulium
of which nebulae are mainly composed. The older cosmogonists
started with nebulium, which in some way could condense into
atoms and end with vast cold stars consisting of heterogenous
collections of atoms containing enormous stores of unavailable
energy. The present hypothesis reverses the process. We know
there are meteorites — numbers flash through our atmosphere and
are seen on every clear, dark night ; a few reach the surface of
the earth. Examination and analysis of the meteors which have
been foimd. show that in the main these bodies contahi all the
elements found upon the earth, and that they are compact bodies
formed under considerable pressure. How they came into being
is quite unknown ; to us they must represent an earlier stage or
sub-period of the universe akin to the egg or chrysalis stage in
the butterfly's period of existence. The earth is increasing its
mass by these falls of meteorites, but the increase, although con-
stantly in action, is very slow. But it is improbable that the
planets of the solar system were formed by this process; it is
possible that the planets grow by accretion, but their formation
was due to explosions of the central mass. As long as matter
was considered to be inert, there was no limit to the quantity of
it which could be assembled in one mass and held together by the
power of the mutual gravitation of its parts. But it is obvious
on further thought that a time will come when the gravitational
pressure of a mass will break into the atomic structure of its
matter and cause explosions. It is by such explosions that
planets are throw: i off. We can imagine, that in the solar sys-
tem one great explosion threw off all the planets and their
satellites, and that some of the satellites are due to sub-explosions
at the same epocl;. and some due to capture of remnants. In
this, the solar-typi of explosion, but one 730th part of the solar
mass was thrown off, but we may expect all types of explosions
— thus the original mass might explode into two nearlv equal
parts, examples of which we see in many double-star systems, or
the explosion might be so shattering that the original mass is
almost uniformly broken into thousands of fragments forming
a star-cluster like to Centaurus of f Toucan. Or the mass of a
system may so nearly balance the explosive force that explosions
are muffled and intermittent ; these would give rise to stellar-
variability or in the case of a body like the Sun. act as one of
the causes of sunspots. It has been shown that some of the
transformations of radium are rhythmic, a fact which suggests
that the sunspot period may he due to atomic disintegration.

Here we may remark, that it is not impossible that explosive
action on the Earth, as shown in volcanic action, is due to the
liberation of atomic energy. Eormerly it was ascribed to the
percolation of water into hot strata, ibut the recent researches
of A. Brun have proved that the ejecta of volcanoes are free from
either steam or water. A time comes when the central mas'>

230 COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES.

of a system becomes fairly quiescent, such as the Sun now is. In
this quiescent stage, the Sun is a globe of liquid with an enor-
mous radiation of heat and light waves, and emitting electrons;
its heat being mainly clue to atomic disintegration, which will
continue as long as any of it remains, or, in other words, as long
as it contains atoms of more than gaseous atomic weight. Its
end will be approached by its passing into the gaseous or stellar
state, which will later devolve into a nebula. There are no dark
suns or stars. Continuity requires that the P:^arth and other
planets should be going through a like process, but on a much
slower scale, owing to their smaller masses, and perhaps also to
the different proportions of the elements of which their chemical
constitutions are built up. One can imagine that whilst, say
Jupiter, is still growing by planetesimal accretion, the Sun's:
attractive mass may become so small through the emission of
electrons that the centre of our system will be transferred; in the
course of ages, to the planet Ju])iter.

The explosion hypothesis suggests an explanation for the
phenomena exhibited by the so-called Novas or new stars. These
are small stars which almost instantly increase enormously in
luminosity and slowly and somewhat irregularly fade away, often
to small nebulae. These may be assumed to be gaseous stars, in
which the ratio of the specific heats exceeds one and one-third;
they are then essentially unstable, and a time comes when a
radical change of state occurs — a sudden blaze up, followed in
most cases by a rapid disintegration into the final state of nebu-
losity, in which entropy has become a maximum and atomic
energ}' a minimum.

The implication of this hypothesis in the glacial epochs of
the Earth is simple. A glacial period will come on slowly as the
heat of the Sun falls through the rhythmic close of a period of
chemical disintegration ; the hot period will follow suddenly with
a prodigious melting of the polar-ice caps and vaporization of a
great part of the oceans — a time of cloudy skies and the enor-
mous rainfall of a carboniferous era, a time of maximum tem-
perature following the epoch of greatest cold comparatively
closely. If temperature and time were plotted the curve would
resemble that of the light of a variable star, as it should, because
the cause at work is the same.

If we seem to live in an age of uniformity in temperature
conditions, it is perhaps because the race can only flourish under
such circumstances, the theory gives no promise of continued
uniformit^^ An explosive disintegration of atomic energy on the
Sun may occur at any time. We can only surmise from past
conditions on the Earth that at present the Sun is getting colder
in preparation, or as an antecedent to a further outburst. Here,
again, the behaviour of variable stars is an indication ; although
some of these stars are remarkably regular in their changes,
others are not; and generally, the fainter the minimum, the more
rapid and brighter the follo^^Mng maximum.

COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES. 23 1

In building up the above hypothesis, the following facts of
observation have been borne in mind : —

1. The mutation of heavy elements, such as Uranium

(atomic weight 238.5) into Helium (atomic weight
4) with an enormous liberation of energy spread over
thousands of millions of years.

2. The changing of stars into nebulae of which some four

or five cases are known, whereas the reverse process
is unknown.

3. Gaseous stars (spectra showing helium and hydrogen,

with or without^ bright lines) are very light, their
density not exceeding i-qth that of the Sun, whilst
their gravitative ix)wer seems to be " nil." Thus the
brilliant close pair of a Crux shows no orbital motion,
whilst the essentially wider solar-type star a Centaurus
is a rapid binary pair.*

4. Nebulous matter is found near most stars of the gaseous

types — thus the nebulous regions of Orion are in the
midst of helium-type stars, nebulous matter i> un-
known near solar-type stars.

As under the explosion hypothesis the Sun is liquid, it cannot
maintain its temperature by contraction, because liquids are virtu-
ally incompressible, hence Helmholz's theory of the maintenance
of solar heat is not applicable. It is further improbable that
gaseous or stellar-type masses always contract as they radiate
heat; on the contrary, Kelvin's investigations indicate very
strongly that such masses of gas may expand. The argument
that spiral nebulae are systems in formation overlooks the palpa-
ble fact that these objects are exceedingly faint. Long exposure
photographs give very misleading pictures of spiral nebulae. In
nearly every case the total brightness is less than any one of its
neighbouring small stars. It would be of the same order of
reasoning to assert that islands are formed out of wisps of cirrus
cloud.

The comn.ionly received view that gaseous stars are hotter
than liquid or sun-type stars has perhaps been engendered by the
classification really based on the nebular hypothesis, vis., that
white stars are the hottest, and that sun-type stars already show
signs of cooling, but Huggins clearly shows that solar-type stars
are the hotter — thus in his " Atlas of Spectra," 1S99, p. 85, he
says : —

In strong contrast with this falling off in Vega at about X 3.700,
the continuous spectrum of the solar stars. Procyon and notably Capella — ■
that is to say, the narrow bright intervals between the numerous strong
dark lines ... is obviously far more intense.

And it may fairly be asked, if the gaseous or stellar
type of star is the hotter, why it should not show metallic lines in

*" Wider" is used in a general sense and includes the effect of
surface luminosity, because as far as distance alone goes, a Centaurus
is not so wide as a Crux. See Newcomb's remark on a star in Orion,
which is quoted in the references given later.

232 COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES.

its Spectrum. The answer, under the new hypothesis, is that such
stars no longer contain substances of higli atomic weight, as these
substances have disintegrated into the simpler gaseous elements.

One cannot imagine the process (in a universe tending to
uniformity and to a maximum of entropy) by which a simple gas,
such as nebulium is, can be transformed into complex atoms con-
taining enormous stores of energy. The reverse process seems
to be a more fitting one ; it starts with heterogeneity and finishes
with homogeneity.

In short, Laplace's nebular hypothesis as a representation
of nature is quite untenable, as it is contrary to observation and
to known chemical and thermodynamical laws ; in spite of this,
literally volumes of mathematical deductions (but not by its
author) have been drawn from it.

I have added a list of references to various modern authorities
whose views have influenced my own ; some numerical results
have been quoted.

REFERENCES.

Brun_, a. — Recherches sur I' Exhalaison volcanique. Geneva,

191 1. A brief notice of Brun's researches will be found in

the Britannica Year Book, 1913, p. 106.
Barnard. — The Temporary Stars. On the present appearance

of some of these bodies. Astronomische Nachrichten

No. 4655, 19 1 3, May 20.

Nova Cygnus, 1876: Its appearance is distinctly hazy.

Nova Auriga, 1891 : Its image is ill-defined.

Nova Sagittarius, 1898: It is always hazy and ill-defined.

Nova Lacerta, 1910: It presented the appearance of a very
small nebula, less than 2 inches in diameter, of a bluish-white
colour.
Chamberlin, T. C. — Journal of Geology. 191 1, Vol. xix. In a

paper in this volume, the author points out how his planetesi-

mal hypothesis has been strengthened by the discovery of

radio-activity.
Chamberlin , Moulton and others. — Contributions to Cos-
mogony and- the Fundamental Problems of Geodesy — The

Tidal and Other Problems, 1909.

This is a remarkable work, which is published under cost
price by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, but it is so
poorly advertised that its circulation is far below its real merits.
For this reason, I venture to quote some of the conclusions
reached in it.

Chamberlin : — " The application of the most radical and the
most rigorous method of estimating the frictional value of the
present water-tides . . . seems to show that they have only
a negligible influence on the Earth's rotation. . . . The tides
of the lithosphere are chiefly elastic strains, and have little retarda-
tive value. . . . The accelerative forces seem to be also
nesflisfible. . . . There has been no such change in the rate

COSMOGONIC UVi'OTilESES. 233

of the Earth's rotation ... as to require to be seriously
considered in the study of the Earth's deformations." (p. 59.)

Chaniberhn writes (p. 23) : — " There can be no theoretical
doubt that there are tides of the lithosphere."

Since then Professor A. Young's discovery of lunar-tide
effects on the Karoo has been published.*

Moulton : — " In a word, the quantitative results obtained in
this paper are on the whole strongly adverse to the theory that
the Earth and Moon have developed by fission from an original
mass, and that tidal friction has been an important factor in their
evolution. Indeed, they are so uniformly contradictory to its
implications, as to bring it into serious question, if not to compel
us to cease to consider it as even a possibility." (p. 133.)

"... The hypothesis of Laplace has the support of no
observational evidence. On the contrary, there are well-known
considerations . . . which compel us to reject it. . . ."
(p. 137.) As to the possibility of the fission-theory of the forma-
tion of satellites, planets and double-stars, Moulton's conclusions
are : —

" (I ) We find that the .Sun cannot arrive at this critical stage
(fission) until its mean density shall have exceeded 307 X 10" on
the water standard. This corresponds to an equatorial diameter
of the Sun of about 22 miles. (2) We find that the Sun cannot
become so oblate as Saturn is now until its mean density shall
have exceeded 148 X io'° on the water standard. . . . Since
■even the latter density is impossibly great, we conclude that tlie
Sun will never become so oblate as Saturn is now, and that it will
always be more stable than .Saturn is now.

" (3) We find that Saturn cannot arrive at the critical state
at which Jacobian ellipsoids branch, until its mean density shall
have become 21 times that of water. . . . We conclude be-
cause of the great density demanded that Saturn will never suffer
fission." (p. 159. ) " Perhaps the hypothesis that stars are simply
condensed nebulae, which has been stimulated by a century of
belief in the Laplacian theory, should now be accepted with
greater reserve than formerly. Up to the present we have made
it the basis not only for work in dynamical cosmogony, but also
in classifying the stars. It may be the time is ripe for a serious
attempt to see if the opposite hypothesis of the disintegration of
matter — because of the enormous sub-atomic energies, which per-
haps are released in the extremes of temperature and pressure
existing in the interior of suns, and of its disperson in space
along coronal streamers or otherwise — cannot be made to satisfy
equalh' well-known phenomena. The existence of such a defi-
nitely formulated hypothesis would have a very salutary effect in
the interpretation of the results of astronomical observations.
We should then more readily reach what is probably a more
nearly correct conclusion, 77'^.. that both aggregation and disper-
sion of matter under certain conditions are important modes of

* " Tidal Phenomena at Inland Boreholes near Cradock." Trans. Roy.
Soc. of South Africa, 1913, Vol. Ill, pt. I.

234 COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES.

evolution, and that possibly together they lead in some way to
approximate cycles of an extent in time and space so far not
contemplated." (p. i6o.)

LuNN. — " Geophysical Theory Under the Planetesimal Hypo-
thesis.'"

In this paper, if I grasp aright the meaning, the author
shows, by adopting plausible laws of compression and density,
that it is only small bodies that can be very dense, which is borne
out so far as they go by astronomical observations ; thus we have

Type.

Body.

Mass,

Density.

Planetary

Meteorite

Infinitesimal

3 to 8

»>

Mercury

1/5,000,000

1.21

,,

Earth

1/330.000

1. 00

Sun or Solar

Sun

I

0.26

Stellar or

Gaseous

Algol*

3

0.14

»

^ Lyra

9/6

0.00016

Cox. — " Beyond the Atom." 1913.

" One pound of the emanation would, at its maximum in-
tensity, radiate energy at the rate of about 10,000 horse-power.
This large emission of energy from the radio-active bodies throws
an interesting light on two questions which have long been the
subject of controversy, the age of the Earth and the source of the
heat of the Sun." (p. 109.)

Period of fall of Uranium to half -value f). 000 ,000,000 years.
(Table, p. 91.)
Kelvin (and Green). — "The Prol)lem of a Spherical Gaseous

Nebula. Trans. R. S. of Pldiii., 1907-1908.

" It is scarcely possible to conceive that any fluid composed
of the chemical elements known to us, could be gaseous in the
Sun's atmosphere at depths exceeding 100 kilometres." (p. 268.)

Kelvin called a gas in which 7, the ratio of the specific heats,
is greater than i ^ a gas of species P ; and it is almost certain that
all monatomic gases have 7 =r 1 2..

" We see that the central temperature of a globe of gas P in
equilibrium increases through gradual loss of heat by radiation
into space. \Ve then see also that the internal energy of a globe
of gas P, continuing in a condition of approximate equilibrium,
while heat is being radiated away across its boundary, would go
on increasing, and the work done by mutual gravitation of its
parts would go on increasing till the gas in the central regions
becomes too dense to obey Boyle's Law." . (p. 281.)

In the above statement no account is taken of any possible
liberation of atomic energy, but, even without this, it is evident
that the underlying idea of contraction is at fault, and that a de-
crease of internal temperature and increase of size could go on
together.

So far as observation goes, the evidence is in favour of the
latter view. Although hardly supplying an exact parallel, it is

* Uncertain ; Stebbins gives Mass 0.55, Density 002

COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES. 235

well known that tlie gaseous envelopes of comets contract as they

approach the Sun.

Newcomb. — "The Stars: A Study of the Universe." 1902.

" A very remarkable case is that of ^ Orionis. It has a
minute companion at a distance of 2.5". VVere it a model of the
Sun, a companion at this apparent distance should perform its
revolution in 14 years. But, as a matter of fact, the motion is so
slow that even now, after 50 years of observation, it cannot be
determined with any precision. It is probably less than o.i" in a
year. The number expressing the comparison of the density and
surface brilliancy of this star with those of the Sun is probably
less than 0.000 1. The general conclusion to be drawn is obvious.
The stars in general are not models of our Sun." 1 p. 200. )
Newcomb. — " Popular Astronomy." 1882.

" Then a mathematical computation of the attractive i)ower
exerted by such a system of masses (500.000,000 sun-masses)
shows that a body falling from an infinite distance to the centre
of the system would acquire a velocity of 25 miles a second. '
(p. 501.)

This calculation does not seem to be correct, but it serves to
show how impossible it is for the potential energy of a nebula
composed of nebulium, lielium and hydrogen to be changed by
gravitation into the radio-active and other atomic energies of
heavy atoms. The velocity with which a small mass falling from
rest at an infinite distance would strike the Sun is 380 miles a
second. This means that a gram falling into the Sun would
generate 44,844 calories; this is but i/50,oooth of that evolved'
by radium.
Perry. — " The Life of a Star." " Nature." 1899, July 13.

" Assumptions like those of Homar Lane and Ritter may
lead to results which are altogether wrong. . . Homar

Lane, Lord Kelvin. Ritter and all people who have tried to make
exact calculations, iiave assumed that the stuff of which a star is
composed behaves as a perfect gas in a state of convective equili-
brium. . . . I)Ut if we api^ily our results to the Sun we find
that at its centre there is a density 33. that is, 50 per cent, greater
than the ordinary density of platinum. It seems to me that specu-
lation on this basis of perfectly gaSeous stuff ought to cease when
the density of gas at the centre of the star approaches o.t or one-
tenth of the density of ordinary- water in the laboratory. . . .
It seems to me that if a mass of this kind of gas (in which 7, the
ratio of its specific heats = i^) gravitates by itself from an in-
finite distance, it retains all its energy. But such gas must surely
be imagined to be radiating heat, as it is not at zero temperature.
Where can it get such heat? I come to the conclusion that there
must be atomic energy available somehow in it. . . .1 say
that no substance for which 7=: li can behave as a perfect gas."

Kelvin's remarks on and his endorsement of Professor
Perry's conclusions will be found in Nature, 1907, February 14.

236 COSMOGONIC HYPOTHESES.

Ramsay. — " Elements and Electrons," 191 2.

" Cordite, the explosive powder used for our artillery, evolves
1,253 calories per gram. . . Radium, 2,800,000,000 calories."
ScHWARz. E. H. L. — Causal Geology, 1910.

The ideas awakened by this original anci suggestive book
gave rise to the present paper.

ADDENDUM.

Since the above was written, a paper on the " Structure of
the Universe," by Professor J. C. Kapteyn, has appeared in
Scieiitia, Vol. XIV. He writes (page 352) :

Must we conclude that the nebuhe are not the birthphxce of stars? It
may seem so. Let us not conchide too hastily, however. There are nebula?

and nebul?e Herschel saw in them (the planetary nebulae) a

likeness to what, according to Laplace's cosmogony, must have been the
primitive aspect of our solar system, and he thus imagined that they must

be worlds in statu nasccnti Such a view now seems untenable.

The planetary nebulae cannot be the birthplace of the stars. . . As I
have just now said, there is one nebula for which the radial velocity has
been determined, which is not planetary. It is the well-known Orion
nebula belonging to the class of the irregular nebulie. May not these
irregular nebulae give birth to the stars?"

On page 353 he writes :

How have to explain the fact that the internal velocity of stars
increases steadily as they grow older? The astronomer who, in his
study of the motion of the heavenly bodies has found hardly a trace of
any other force than gravitation, will naturally turn to gravitation for

such an explanation If it be true that mutual attraction of the

stars has generated such an enormous amount of internal motion in the
time needed by the stars for their evolution from helium to second- or
third-type stars, how have we to explain the fact that we find the same
matter nearly at rest at the first stage of stellar life? .... WhaJ;
may be the explanation ? Is there really no gravitation in primordial
matter? I have no solution to ofifer?"

Although the whole of Professor Kapteyn 's article should be
read, the above extracts are those which chiefly concern my argu-
ment. The first extract shows that in F^rofessor Kapteyn's
opinion a great part of the Nebular Hypothesis must be thrown
overboard, in that it is on!}- the large irregular nebulae such as
that of Orion that we must now look to as forming the matter
out of which stars are formed. This, however, svipplies no
answer to the pressing question. Whence comes the energy which
transmits light elemetits into heavy elements? In the second
extract given. Professor Kapteyn is very sure that tlie order of
evolution is (i) irregular nebulae, (2) helium stars, (3) hydro-
gen stars, (4) metallic line stars, (5) absorption band stars, and
mainly because the velocities of stars increase in this order. The
remarkable discovery that stellar velocity depends on spectral
type was made independently and by ditferent methods of attack
almost simultaneously by two American astronomers. Dr. Camp-
bell, of the Lick Observatory, and the late Lewis l)Oss. The
following little table is taken from Lick Observatory Bulletin
No. 196, 191 1, -A^pril 20: —

COSMOGONIC

HYPOTHESES.

237

Velocities

in kilometres a second.

Spectral Class.

Campbell.

L. Boss.

B-B5 Helium Stars

(6-2)

(6-2) [classes Oe5-B5|

B8-B9 Helium Stars

67

(9-6) [B8-A4]

A Hydrogen Stars

10-3

(13-5) [A5-F8I

F Hydrogen-metallic Stars

14-4

G Metallic stars, solar type

I5'9

159

K Intense metallic stars...

168

168

M Absorption band stars

17-1

17 I

The rough interpretation (^t the spectral classes enclosed in
square brackets is my own ; Oe5 is the class of bright line spectra
which were not considered by Campbell. The assumption that
increasing velocities indicate later evolutionary stages seems to
be unnecessary for Kapteyn's argument which it appears would
be ju.st as strong, if not stronger, if the other view had been
adopted. Xo analogy will suit the case, but one or two rough
analogies may help to hx one's ideas. A piece of coal in a loco-
motive may be looked upon as a small mass of energy in rapid
motion ; when thrown into the furnace, it parts with much of its
energy, it is partially vaporised and emitted as smoke which soon
comes to rest in its medium, in this case the atmosphere. Or,
consider a comet with an enormcjus velocity near the Sun ; it
throws off a tail of vapour which vapour loses velocity, and
probably enough comes finally to rest in the Ether. The life of
a planetesimal is roughly the same — the origin of such a body is
unknown to us, but its existence is a fact which should not be
ignored. These bodies are travelling through space with veloci-
ties comparable with those of the G, K and M type stars. Ulti-
mately, under mutual coalescence, their higher atomic elements
resolve into the lighter elements. At first as a planetesimal the
mass flies through si)ace without any diminution of velocity, but
as the life history outlined in my address progresses, light-wave
or radiation pressure commences and some of the energy is com-
municated to the Ether; in this way velocity is lost, and finally
matter in the last stage of exhaustion and approximating to the
Ether itself, merges its velocity in that of the Ether which is nil.
When the velocity of particles emitted from atoms are comparable
with the velocity of light, the etheric resistance becomes very
large. Tt is, perhaps, axiomatic to assert that no particle can
travel quicker than light, but this being assumed, the resistance
in such a case would be infinite. The case of the brilliant double-
star a Crux has already been adverterl to. It is composed of stars
of magnitudes 1.58 and 2.09, spectral class Bi, but it shows no
motion due to gravitation since the fir.st measures' made some S6
years ago. Had it been a sun-type star, the two bodies would be
revolving around their mutual centre of gravity in some 25
to 30 years. It is certain that there is no such motion, so that we
are^ faced with two alternatives : ( i ) that these stars, in spite of
their brillianc}'. are of very small mass compared with the Sun ;
(2) that the material they are composed of has little or no gravi-
tative power, or that the gravitative power is neutralised by
radiation pressure.

NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS
OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS IN SOUTH
AFRICA, CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE
PROBLEM OF DISCONTINUITY BETWEEN
CLOSELY ALLIED SPECIES.

By John I-Iewitt, B.A.

( ll'itli Four Maps.)

The data for the study of geographical distribution of
animals in South Africa are rapidly becoming obscured as a
result of the operations of civilised man. Amongst the terres-
trial vertebrates, probably the reptiles and 1)atrachians are now
most suitable for zoogeographical studies, as their natural
distribution has not been so radically modified through human
agency as is the case with the higher vertebrates.

Through the work of the late Dr. Bolus and others,
botanists are well acquainted with the broad facts of plant
distribution in South Africa, and as animal and plant life are
so closely associated and mutually dependent, it may be inferred
that some correspondence must ol)tain in their manner of dis-
tribution. The facts are as follows : the orders and genera of
flowering plants separate tlicmselves into a number of well-
defined botanical regions, but the families and many of the
genera of reptiles range throughout the sub-continent, and only
in a very loose way may we distinguish two areas, an Eastern
and a Western, partly separated by the Drakensberg Range:
nevertheless, the species of polytypic genera of reptiles do in
some cases arrange themselves into areas which roughly coincide
with the various floral regions, but in other cases the species
of a genus occupy areas which seem to have no relation with
botanical regions. The exact distribution of all these species
and the nature of the characters which separate them from
their nearest allies, may be expected to afford important data
bearing on the great question of the origin of species. Some
of the contested problems we may hope to investigate are : ( i )
What is the importance of Isolation, geographical or topo-
graphical, as a factor in the formation of species? May several
species arise from the same stock within a uniform environ-
ment provided that several portions of that environment are
separated from each other by barriers? (2) What is the

evidence for and against mutations as opposed to the older
view of a gradual evolution through more or less minute and
fluctuating variations? (3) Are .specific characters adaptative?

Isolation as a factor of primary importance in the evolution
of species. This view has been vigorously championed bv
Wagner, Romanes and Gulick. and by many systematists.

The term Isolation may be used in reference to all the
various factors which prevent the interbreeding of two groups

THE UISTRII!UTR)N ANI/ CHARACTERS OF REI'TFLES. 239

of animals, but for the present I use it only in a geographical or
topographical sense.

,H. Seebohm has stated, " So far as is known, no species ot
birds has ever been differentiated without the aid of geographical
isolation." Dr. Jordan, dealing with birds and fishes in North
America, attached the greatest importance to barriers which
effect isolation : in regions broken by barriers which isolate
groups of individuals, we find a great number of related species.
The Rev. Mr. Gulick makes a good case for isolation from a
study of the land shells which live under apparently unifonn
conditions in the forests of the Hawaiian islands, where an
original variable stock seems' to have separated into a number
of distinct species unaided by any process of selection, and
simply as a result of the geographical separation of the colonies
which gave rise to the various species. For a similar investiga-
tion in South Africa the land shells of the genus Achatina
would probably prove eminently suitable as the genus abounds
in local forms : in this genus no case of divergence which is
clearly a result of unassisted isolation has yet been brought to
my notice, but a more thorough investigation than I have been
able to make is much to be desired. In the case of most

reptiles in South Africa we are not likely to find anything
strictly parallel to the phenomena recorded by Gulick, seeing
that their active life makes geographical isolation almost im-
possible within uniform environments, which are unbroken by
large natural barriers. On the other hand, this subcontinent
presents such a number of dift'erent climates and environments
even in limited areas that in attempting to account for the
differences between two forms, which are geographically
separated, we can hardly ever be certain that the factor of
environment has been eliminated. Amongst the lizards, per-
haps the most sluggish or most homeloving are the species of
Zonurus. There are ten species which are distributed in dis-
tinct areas, those areas in most cases coinciding with regions of
very distinct climatic or physical conditions. These specific
areas are contiguous, but for the most part do not overlap
except to a slight extent in the case of the group of related
species, including Zonurus cordylus. The species of the
cordylus group are distri1:)Uted as follows: ^irdyhis occupies the
coastal belt of Cai^e Colony : a very closr allied form, vittifer
lives in Natal and parts of the Transvai,:, whilst another near
ally occupies the central plateau from the Transvaal to Angola,
its distribution somewhat overlapping that of vittifer in the
Transvaal : two other species, which are not so closely related
to cordylus as vittifer or joncsii seem to occu])y small areas
within the larger area of cordylus. Z. capcnsis being known
only from the Hottentot Holland mountain, and Z. coeruleo-
punctatus occurring on a hill between Knysna and Avontuur.
If we assume that these forms all originated from the same
stock we cannot satisfactorily explain the occurrence of the two

240

THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

species last mentioned as due to peculiar environmental condi-
tions when the wide range of cordylus is considered, and as
their scutellation characters are in some respects primitive they
are, perhaps, best regarded as isolated sections of the original
variable stock. However, if this case may be thus explained,
it is the only example known to me of differentiation of species
solely as a result of geographical isolation within a uniform
environment. Excepting the case of Z. cordylus and its two
nearest allies, vittifer and jonesii, the genus Zonurus is remark-
able amongst lizards in South Africa in that species whose areas
are geographically adjacent are apparently not closely related:
for instance, cordylus, the coastal si)ecies of the Cape, gives
place to cataphractns in Little Naniaqualand, to polyzonus in
the central and northern regions of the Cape, and this, again, is
succeeded by gigantcits in the Free State, but these four species

±t MACR0PH0LI5 {.no^ precisely t
^^ locahed)

ri:;;; coerulcopunctatos

CATAPHRACTUS

■ WARRENI ^^_

ACAPEN3I5

Distribution of tht species of Zonurus in South Africa.

are very sharply separated from each other in a number of
their specific characters. It is probable that these large
differences between the species are in part a result of their
sluggish and retiring habits, which facilitate geographical
isolation.

Sluggishness of habit certainly favours the differentiation of
a genus into species. The pumilus group of chamaeleons,
which are proverbially slow of movement, coinprises half a
dozen or more species, each of which is the local form of some
area along the southern coast : but how far the differences are
due to isolation, and how far to environmental differences, it is
hard to say, as it cannot be said that the environmental condi-
tions are identical in any two cases. No other genus of lizards
is split up into so many species within the same region.

It is interesting to note the change of fauna in passing
from the Eastern to the Western districts of South Africa,

Tllli DISTRIBUTION AND CHAR.\CTEKS OF KEI'TILES. 24I

distinguished as they are by profound differences of climate.
A number of widely distributed tropical species reach as far
south as Natal or Eastern Cape Colony, but are quite unrepre-
sented in the Western parts of the Cape, probably because the
climate is unsuitable, cf., the lizards Homopholis zvahlbergi,
Lygodact\'lus capeiisis, Mabuia quinquetaeniata, and the snake
Dendraspu angusticeps : in many other cases a widely distri-
buted tropical species reaches as far south as Natal or Eastern
Cape Colony, but in Western Cape Colony is represented by a
closely allied species. The water frog, Rana angolensis. occurs
from Angola to German East Africa, and passes southwards
along the Southern coast as far as George, but in the Karroo and
Western districts of the Cape it is replaced by R. fuscigula, a
closely related form : the cobras Naia haie and N. mgricollis
extend from the Nile to Natal, but in the Cape are replaced by N.
flava : the toad Breviccps mossamhicus ranges from German East
Africa to Natal, but our Cape form is gibbosiis : the common toad,
Bufo regularis occurs practically throughout Africa except Bar-
bary, but is unknown in the carroid regions of the Cape, where,
however, B. garicpensis (granti) is common. Now, as there is no
strongly defined geographical barrier separating the Eastern and
Western parts, there is great probability that the differentiation
of species in these cases has been determined by climate and
related environmental influences.

Amongst all genera of Lizards in South Africa, it is the
general rule that closely related species of the same genus are
geographically separated, and not only so, but usually in such a
way that the specific areas coincide with regions of very different
climatic or vegetational condidions : on the other hand, the Ameri-
can systematists in various groups of animals report that their
closely allied species occupy distinct portions of the same environ-
mental area, this being broken up by natural barriers which pre-
vent free communication.

The hispida section of the genus Agama is distributed some-
what on the same plan as the species of Zonurus. A. hispida
proper, seems to be confined to the South-West parts of the
Cape. A. brachyiira occurs in Little Namaqualand, and other
Western parts of the Cape, A. distanti occurs on the high veld of
the Free State and Transvaal, A. aculeata occurs in the Kalahari,
Namaqualand and the Karroo, whilst A. armata ranges from
Natal to East Africa. Unlike Zonurus, hoewver, these species
are neither greatly nor sharply separated from each other in their
structural characters. We may add that A. atra, which struc-
turally belongs to a different section of the genus, occurs in tlie
same localities as any of the above-mentioned species, though it is
actually quite isolated topographically from any Agama that may
live in dts neighbourhood, owing to its rock-frequenting habits.

The distribution of the geometric tortoises has much in

24-

TH E DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

common with the scheme of Zomirus and of the hispid Agcmias.*^
The snakes of the genus Psammophis are also distributed in a simi-
lar manner. t In view of these facts, it may be stated that in South
Africa the environment directly or indirectly produces the species
as described later on, probably the simplest explanation would be
in terms of the natural selection theory with or without Lamarck-
ian factors, and yet it seems to me just possible that these dif-
ferent environments have merely operated in providing a means
of isolation for the several portions of the original varying stock.
The isolation afforded by the different environments prob-
ably is a real factor in the formation of species, and the fact that
allied species almost invariably occur in different environments
may mean that only in this way can isolation be effected: still it
is hardly likely that this is the only way in which environment
affects the species. There are, moreover, several classes of facts

l' K. X ». jl 1«. X

Distribution of Agama hispida and allies.

which are not easily explained in accordance with the view of
geographical isolation as a prime or sole factor. Firstly, there
are some cases known where the most closely related species
live in the same localities : as instances may be mentioned the
frogs Rana oxyrhynchus and R. mascarenicnsis or the grass
frogs Rana grayi and R. fasciain, and amongst snakes Boodon
lincatus, B. infernalis and B. guttatus or Chlorophis natalensis
and C. hoplogaster. In these cases, though their whole distri-
bution areas may not completely coincide, the related species
often occur together in the same place, and there can be no reason
for suspecting that they ever were geographically separated into
distinct areas. It may be argued indeed that even here each
species may be topographically isolated from its nearest ally
through some peculiar mode of life, such, for example, as obtains

* See Duerden in Report S.A.A. Advancement of Science, Kimberley
(1906), 3, 204.

t See Records Albany Museum 2 [4] 268.

THE DlSTRIIiUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTH^ES. 243

within the genus Ayama or Mabuia: Agama atra and A. acu-
leata both occur at Kimljerley. hut they do not meet, as the former
lives entirely amongst rocks on kopjes, whilst the latter inhabits
the open veld or climbs up trees {fide J. H. Power) : exactly
similar differences of habit separate the skink Mabuia
sulcata from its near ally, j\'I. striata, and they also occur near
Kimberley. However, whilst admitting the scantiness of our
knowledge with regard to the habits of some of our commonest
reptiles and ibatrachians, I think it very improbable in the cases
above mentioned, that the species are separated by habits which
effect rigid isolation in a topographical sense. Indeed, the most
likely explanation of the occurrence together of closely related
species in a series of widely separated localities, is that they share
a preference for the particular kind of en\'ironment which obtains
in those localities.

Secondly, how can we explain adaptations in terms of the
isolation theory? As stated later on, the structural specific charac-
ters are not as a rule obviously adaptative, but sometimes they are
almost certainly so. How is it possible to suppose that isolation
alone, unaided by natural selection or Lamarckian factors can
direct the chance variations to which a rounded snout is suscep-
tible into a sharp cutting snout, such as is found in various bur-
rowing species of reptiles found in the Kalahari? And yet it is
such differences that separate the Kalahari species from their
allies elsewhere. Again, the lizard genus Eremias comprises many
species which inhabit the drier parts of Africa and Asia. Some of
them have transparent scales in the lower eyelid ; others have the
lower eyelid entirely granular and opaque, which no doubt repre-
sents the primitive condition, whilst between the two extremes
are other species which collectively show a complete range of
intermediate conditions. The character of the lower eyelid is
very constant in any one species, and in some cases would alone
serve for the identification of the species. Now this transparency
of the lower eyelid seems to be an adaptation against the blinding
sandstorms of an- arid country, the lizard which is thus provided
being enabled to see with his eyelids closed. Similar adaptations
are found in other genera, li we accept that explanation, it will
be impossilble to explain this typical case of Orthogenesis, the evo-
lution along definite lines of the transparent " window-eyelid "
from the scaly opaque eyelid, as merely the result of isolation.
As a matter of fact, lineocellata which possesses a " window eye-
lid " occurs in the same district as nantaquensis, in which the
lower eyelid is scaly and only semi-transparent, and indeed the
South African species of this genus apparently do not as a whole
distribute themselves into (juite distinct areas. Nevertheless,
though in such cases topographical or geographical isolation
seems to have in no way contributed to the splitting of this genus,
yet Eremias has one pair of closely related species, z/i.::., E. lineo-
cellata and E. pulchella, in the formation of which geographical

244 THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

isolation may have played an important part : the former occurs
in the Transvaal, Free State, and Bechuanaland, the latter in the
carroid areas of Cape Colony : it should be added that the differ-
ences between them are very slight, being based mainly on the
degree of keeling of the dorsal scales.

The fact that many genera can be structurally divided into
groups of closely related species, the members of each group
being geographically separated whilst members of different groups
may live together in the same locality, may imply
that species formation of a larger kind occurs without
the help of geographical isolation : for instance the species of the
geometric group of Tcstndo have a geographical significance, but
besides these the genus includes some very distinct species, such
as the giant tortoise {T. pardalis) which commonly occurs in the
same localities as any of the geometric tortoises, and there is no
reason for supposing that the giant and geometric tortoises ever
were geographically separated.

Mutations. — By many biologists the mutation theory has
been thought to afford an explanation of the discontinuity between
species, and saltatory evolution has been welcomed as affording a
much better handle for the tool of natural selection than was
available in terms of the older Darwinian hypothesis. The term
mutation, as used by De Vries, implies a genetic variation which
is constantly transmitted to the offspring, and which introduces
a new character to the organism : as such it is distinguished from
f!uctuational variations, which are not transmissible as definite
single characters. Whether these two classes of variation are
rigidly distinct may well be doubted, and it is obvious that if we
distinguish between them only on the basis of their transmissi-
bility, the term mutation might be used to include variations so
small as to be scarcely perce]itible, in which case the theory loses
much of its value as an explanation of discontinuity or of the
origin of new characters. Broadly speaking, therefore, a muta-
tion is understood to mean a variation which is relatively large
as well as definite and transmissible, and in this sense I employ
the term here. There can be no doubt about the reality of muta-
tions in certain cases, but that such mutations have contributed
to any considerable extent in the formation of species is not sO'
certain. The phenomena of Mendelian inheritance include the
production of what may rightly be called mutations in the reces-
sives, and instances of Mendelian inheritance are common enough,
both in animals and plants An interesting case is that of our
common rat Mus rattus, of which two colour varieties occur in
Grahamstown and elsewhere, a pale-bellied form and a dark-
bellied form : these forms have been shown by Mr. Bonhote to
follow the law of simple Mendelian inheritance. On the other
hand, it has been suggested that the various mimetic forms of
the same species of butterfly are of Mendelian origin, but Prof.
Poulton has recently shown that in some cases at least such is not

THE DISTRIHUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 245

the case, the various forms being connected together by various
grades of intermediates.

De Varies found that his new " elementary species " (which
correspond in degree to what we should call constant varieties)
appeared within the very home of the parent form from which
they arose, and he says, " Many distinct species (his elementary
species) can and do exist side by side in the same range, and are
in fact found to be heaped up in the centre of their area of distri-
bution, but more scattered at the periphery." Now it is obvious
that such a mode of evolution is not likely to have efifected the
origin of the great majority of our species, for they are geo-
graphically separated, but it is possible that mutational evolution
may explain the various cases of closely allied species living
together in the same environment. However, if we seek for
characters which are essentially mutational, it is most difficult to
find a clear case. The two green water snakes Chlorophis natal-
ensis and C. hoplogaster are often found in the same localities :
the former has along each ventral scale of the body a distinct
keel on each slide, whilst the latter is described as having per-
fectly smooth ventral scales. Formerly I suspected that the keel
of natalensis represents a mutation quite unconnected with the
smooth scale of hoplogaster. but careful examination of the latter
species led to the discovery of a very slight, but nevertheless dis-
tinct rudiment of a keel in the ventral scales of hoplogaster,
which at once suggests that the natalensis condition has been
arrived at through a series of minute stages and that the hoplo-
gaster and natalensis conditions will be found to grade. Similarly
though the ringhals has all its body scales sharply keeled, whilst
its generic allies the cobras have smooth scales, we cannot assume
that this is a mutation character, seeing that in other snakes such
as Causus or Leptodira all grades from strongly keeled scales to
smooth scales may be met with in the same genus, whilst the
same species may exhibit a wide range of variation in its keeling.
The genus Acontias, including our commonest blindworm. will
probably afford an interesting study in evolution, as dt has dift'er-
entiated into species which in certain localities are very distinct,
but in other places seem to merge. Acontias meleagris and A.
lineatns occur together in Little Namaqualand, where they seem
to be quite distinct species, the latter being easily recognised by its
much depressed and strongly projecting snout. At Port Eliza-
beth typical meleagris occurs, and along with it a form which is
recorded by systematists under the name of lineatus, but whilst
agreeing in all other respects with that species, it differs in the
form of the snout, therein resembling meleagris rather than
lineatus, and indeed it may be an aberrant juvenile form of
meleagris Whatever name we apply to it, this form may be
fairly regarded as intermediate between lineatus proper and
meleagris (juvenile) but such intermediates are not found appa-
rently in Namaqualand The large black blind worm Acontias

246 THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

phunhcHS, found in the Transvaal low country, will probably be
found to merge gradually into A. meleagris.

In many genera of reptiles, systematists make use of the
wide differences in the number of repeated parts for the separa-
tion of species : for instance, we might separate the lizard genus
Zonunis into its species, merely by counting the transverse rows
of body scales. Now such " meristic " variations, though they do
not introduce new characters, yet inasmuch as they are definite
and constant, might be styled mutations ; but as a matter of fact,
they are usually very indefinite, though there mav be disconti-
nuity between the speecies. In some species of snakes, e.g., the
mamba. the number of longitudinal rows of scales on the body
is highly variable. But in the genus Psammophis the various
species show much less variability in this respect and amongst the
chief characters used by systematists for separating P. crucifer
from P. Sibilans is the occurrence of 15 longitudinal rows of body
scales tin the former and 17 rows in the latter, yet specimens of
crucifer with 17 rows of body scales are known. The same two
species may be distinguished by the number of subcaudal scales,
but. as the observed range is from 62 to 8t in crucifer, and from
86 to 104 in sibilans, we cannot describe this form of variation as
other than fluctuational. and no doubt with more material the
two series will (l>e found to overlap. Chlor aphis uatalensis again
has 114 to 140 subcaudal scales, whereas C. hoploc/aster has 85
to 107. and the Rhodesian species C. neglectus hns yy to 114.

An apparently good instance of a mutation character is
found in the si)ecific characters which separate the smallest South
African gecko. Lygodactylus capcnsis, from its ally L. ocellatus.
The former has the margin of its mental scute deeply cut on both
sides, but in the latter the margin of the mental scute is entire :
these conditions appear to be quite constant, and I have found no
intermediates. It is of interest to note that two Madagascar
species of Lygodactylus, which are distinct from ours, show pre-
cisely similar differences, probably indicating a great antiquity
for this " mutation."

Again, though there is abundant evidence of much inter-
grading of characters within the species of a genus, yet, as Gadow
has pointed out, such intergrading is not necessarily the same
thing as continuity. Our 17-scaled specimen of Psammophis
crucifer is in every other respect typical of the species, and is not
to be regarded as an intermediate between sibilans and crucifer.
Dr. Duerden. in his admirable work on the geometric tortoises,
found very much intergrading in respect of nearly all the charac-
ters he employed for the discrimination of the species, and
expressed the opinion that they furnished no evidence in favour of
the mutation hypothesis : but though he found three distinct types
of combinations which were sufficiently separated from any tran-
sitional forms to be given specific rank, yet he was so impressed

THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

-M7

(by the amount of intergrading within the group as to make this
statement :

I am convinced that if all the tortoises belonging to the gcuiiictnca
group at present living in South Africa could be gathered together . . .
there wor.hl be an almost ini]ierceptible passage from one so-called species
to another : there would be numerous specimens of which it would be
impossible to say to which of two species they should belong.

However this statement can only be considered as a possi-
bihty, for as yet nothing truly intermediate between ocuHfera and
verreauxii has been brought to light, though Miss Wilman, of
the Kimberley Museum, has secured numerous tortoises from
a district where both these forms occur. In my opinion there is
real discontinuity in this case at the present day.

No doubt, those of us who deny the occurrence of mutations
in specific characters and yet admit that species are real entities,

ooZ, GEOMETRICA

Distribution of Tcstudo gcontctrica and allies.

will find some difficulty in explaining the structural discontinuity
between species. Probal)ly the simplest explanation is to suppose
that a complete range of intermediates has existed, but such inter-
mediates have either been directly cut out or have merged into
one of the divergent stocks. This is indeed the \ iew actually held
by De Vries. That an actual c-utting out has occurred in some
cases is obvious enough from the distribution data : for instance,
the genus Tctradactylus in Western Cape Colony extends from
Capetown to Knysna. and is quite tmknown in Eastern Cape
Colony, though it is not uncommon in parts of Natal, Zululand,
and the Transvaal. The snake Amphorhiniis multimacidatus is
common on the high veld of the Transvaal and in the neighbour-
hood of the Cape Division, but is quite unknown in intervening
districts. But such cases are rather rare, and generally speaking
the areas of nearly related species either closely adjoin or actually
overlap. It may be presuined that the extent of isolation in habit
that obtains between two divergent stocks will largely determine
the chances of survival of intennediates : if strong ditiferences of

248 THE DISTRIBUTION AND CIIARACTKRS OF REPTILES.

habit should accompany structural divergences, intermediates are
less likely to persist.

Are specific characters adaptative? — A great many instances
of utility in trivial characters have been brought together by
Darwin, Wallace, and their followers, but the structural charac-
ters which separate species are not usually regarded by system-
atists as of particular value to their possessors. For example,
two allied species of antelope, T.ichtenstein's Hartebeest and
the Red Hartebeest, are distinguished by the form of their horns.
Now whilst admitting the general utility of horns in antelopes, it
is hard to 'believe that the particular form of horn in either
species lis specially adapted to the peculiar needs of that species.
But one may argue, as the Darwinists do. that our ignorance of
the minutiae of the life history of species is so profound that we
can form no proper conception of the function of such charac-
ters : moreover, it is possible that structures which at one time
were of great importance have now ceased to be of use. This
latter argument can only be applied with great caution, but it
should not be overlooked. The extraordinary protective devices
which are such a feature of the Karroo insect fauna and the
remarkable facts of mimicry amongst our butterflies must in
terms of the simplest theory which can explain those facts imply
a high degree of usefulness in the characters concerned, either
to-day or in past times ; yet in the case of the butterfly miinics
at any rate, the necessary facts required to prove the utility of
the deception — r/rr., the decimation of unprotected butterflies in
enormous quantities by discriminating foes, and the immunity of
mimics and mimicked species — seem to be almost entirely lacking,
and we have to assume that the mimicry was evolved at a time
when the struggle for existence amongst butterflies was much
keener that it is to-day. Again, as is well known, orchid flowers
are constructed with some elaborate mechanisms for bringing
about cross-fertilisation through the agency of insects, and the
majority of species cannot be self fertilised; but quite a numlber
of species are known in which the same beautiful contrivances
are still found, and yet the species are no longer dependent on
insects, being always self-fertilising.

Amongst re])tiles the structural characters which separate
species onlv rarely appear to be undoubtedly useful. Examples
are found in Typhlosaurus lineatus or Typhlops schiiiri. which
are both separated from their allies by the possession of a sharp
cutting snout, enabling them to burrow in the sun-baked soil of
the Kalahari. The window-eyelids of several species of the
genus Rronias may also be counted in this category.

In the frogs, adaptative differences often separate the main
groups of species in a genus: for instance the aquatic species of
Rana have broadly-webbed feet, whilst grass frogs have only
slightly weblbed feet. But when we consider the differences
between the most closely allied species, rather than between the

Tin-. DISTKir.UTION AiXn CHAKACTKRS OF KKI'TILES. 249

groups of species, we cannot be so certain. Rana fuscigula of
\\'estern Cape Colony has entirely webbed feet and shorter legs,
whereas Rana angolcnsis of Eastern Cape Colony has rather
longer legs, and the feet are described as three-fourths webbed,
but that these characters are peculiarly useful to each species in
its particular envdronment seems a little doubtful, especially as
their distribution areas slightly overlap and in intervening dis-
tricts both species may occur in the same locality. Yet, of the
geometric tortoises. Dr. Duerden wrote :

Tf one were able to study the peculiarities of the environment closely,
there is little question that the variations would be found to be largely
adaptative.

On the other hand, it is impossible to see utility in the struc-
tural characters which separate the cobras, the species being dis-
tinguished mainly through a slightl}' different arrangement of
the scales on the head, and such distinctions constitute the speci-
fic differences in many other closely allied species of snakes.
Lizards also present many cases of species differentiation based
on varied arrangements in the scutellation of the head or body.
Chama-elcon ventralis of Grahamstown is separated from C.
pumihis of Capetown by several characters, amongst the chief of
which is the shape of the lobes which form a fringe under the
throat. A(/ama hispida of the Cape division is distinguished
from distanti of the Free State and Transvaal, chiefly in that the
belly scales of the former are keeled and spinose, whilst those of
the latter are almost or entirely smooth. Similar differences
separate annata of Natal from acnlcata of the Kalahari and
Karroo. Bnfo regidaris. the common toad, has a granular belly,
whilst B. gariepcnsis, the Karroo species has a smooth belly. It
seems very probable indeed that the structural characters which
separate species are not necessarily of importance to the species,
or at any rate are not of life and death importance. Nevertheless
it is highly probable that in many cases there do exist between
allied species certain physiological differences which are adapta-
tive. There seems to me no other explanation of such facts as
the following : The common toad, Bitfo regularis, is wndely dis-
tributed throughout Africa (except Barbary), and is common in
all suitable localities from Egypt to the Cape, but does not occur
in the carroid parts of the Cape, where, however a closely-allied
species, B. gariepcnsis (granti) is fairly abundant. The Eg}^p-
tian cobra ranges from Palestine to Zululand, and the black-
necked cobra from Egypt and Senegambia to Natal, but neither
of them enters the Cape, where the yellow cobra is common.
Now seeing that the common toad enjoys such a wide distribution,
but does not penetrate into the Karroo, though it occurs on the
north, east and south sides thereof, we may fairly assume that it
cannot live there, and most probably also the Egyptian cobra
avoids Cape Colony because the climate does not suit its parti-
cular constitution. It seems to me. indeed, that the dift'erences

250

THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

between the toads Bufo regularis and B. garicpensis are far more
profound than those which are shown in their skins, and that
the external dififerences are only to be regarded as incidental
accompaniments of a different constitution. In the case of toads
it is obvious that natural selection must operate, especially during
their tadpole stages, and in the drier parts of South Africa, where
rains fall at rare intervals, and natural pools soon disappear,
there can be no doubt but that differences in the duration of the
tadpole life may ibe of life and death importance. Now I have
elsewhere endeavoured to show that in all probability the genus
Bufo came to South Africa from the North, in which case it
may well be that B. regularis represents the ancestral form in
South Africa. This being the case it will be of great interest to
know to what extent regularis and its presumed derivative garic-
pensis differ in the duration of their tadpole life, a question which
unfortunatelv I cannot answer. Nevertheless some careful

REGULARIS
GARirPENSI5

Distribution of Bufo gdricpciisis {xranlij and of Bufo rrxnlatis.

observations made by J. H. Power, of Kimberley, show that Bufo
vertehralis, another prol^able derivative of regularis. an inhabitant
of the drier parts of the Cape, has an uiiusually short tad])ole
life, the period from deposition of eggs to the appearance of the
young toads covering only i6 days, which is the shortest ba-
trachian inetamorphosis known to me. This species moreover
can make use of muddy pools for its tadpole hfe, whereas regu-
laris seems to require running water. Such an adaptation can
be easily explained in terms of the natural selection theory,
though the possibility of a Lamarckian explanation must also be
considered, seeing that the development of tadpoles is so easily
accelerated or retarded by varying the temperatures.

However, the differences between regularis and vertebralis
probably are not merely the result of differences in the periods of
development of the tadpoles, for according to observations made
by J. H. Power, the same species of frog { Raiia fuscigula) may
vary extremelv in this respect without showing any perce])tible
differences in the adults. When we consider the profound differ-

IHE DISTRIKUTTON AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES. 25 1

ences of environment wliich characterise the different regions
in which our closely allied species are isolated, it cannot be
doubted but that their physiological processes are not (|uite the
same, which of course implies ada])tation in the specific physio-
logical characters. Such species physiologically, as well as mor-
phologically, are distinct entities. On the other hand, if several
species may arise as a result of isolation within a uniform envi-
ronment, there can be no adaptational differences whatever
between them. Dift'erences in habit between allied species which
inhabit the same locality probably imply constitutional dift'er-
ences, and so far as we can judge, may have no direct relation to
the structural characters separating the species.

Closely allied species which on the whole occupy distinct
regions are sometimes found to overlap considerably in their
distribution, but even then the specific peculiarities of habit may
often be seen. Dr. R. Broom gives a very suggestive case when
dealing with the golden moles.* Chrysocliloris asiatica occurs
commonly in tlie Cape Peninsula, and passes eastwards as far
as Bredasdorp and .Swellendam. C. hotteniota occurs from
Stellenbosch to Zululand. He says :

At Stellenbosch, both C. liotientota and C. asiatica are found in the
same gardens, but they apparently keep certain regions to themselves.
Thus in my garden C liotientota is the species commonly met with, while
across the road in the college quadrangle C. asiatica most commonly
occurs. It appears probable that C. asiatica prefers the drier and sandier
soil and C. hottentota the richer garden soil. The breeding season of C.
hottentota appears to be later than that of the smaller mole.

Later on he points out that though Stellenbosch is separated
from the Cape Peninsula by only about twenty miles of rather
sandy soil, C. hottentota has not been found at Capetown, where
C. asiatica is common. It would appear that these two species
are adapted to minor differences of the environment.

The hypothesis of the close physiological adaptation of
species to a particular environment must imply that a particular
species will not be able to persist permanently as such if removed
from its own environment and placed within that of its ally.
Tested in this way, the hypothesis might not be of verv wide
application, and Mr. Bateson has, emphasised the fact that at the
present day the fit of an organism to its environment is not after
all very close. Bateson's statement is no doubt correct in numer-
ous cases, but it must be clearly emphasised that the hypothesis
only relates to the case of closely allied species geographically
separated in different physical environiuents. It seems to me
worthy of serious consideration as a factor in evolution, as it
helps to afford an explanation of the beginnings of discontinuity
between species when structural adaptations are not included in
the specific characters : for firstly, through physiological adapta-
tion to different environments the same stock tends to become

Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc. (1907). 18. 296.

252 THE DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERS OF REPTILES.

divided into isolated sections and as Gtilick states, " No two
portions of a species possess exactly the same average character,"
so that such isolated sections must from the first be slightly dif-
ferent in average character. How that adaptation is brought
about I cannot pretend to discuss. If it be merely the result of
spontaneous internal impulses, the process of natural selection
will have to be invoked, in which case the cutting out of the less
adapted forms must accentuate the structural discontinuity : on
the other hand, it may be that compensatory impulses arise in
direct response to the environment. Secondly, structural dififer-
ences would probably tend to arise as a result of a different phy-
siology.

The fact that some species can live without structural differ-
entiation in various diff'erent environments is not inconsistent
with the assuniiption that the groups belonging to the different
environments differ physiologically, though the differences may
be insufficient to eff'ect actual isolation. That physiological differ-
entiation should precede the morphological differences, is not
imprdbable when we consider that this is a well known pheno-
menon amongst Bacteria and other lowly organisms.

Conclusions. — The study of the distinctive characters and dis-
tribution of closely allied species of reptiles in South Africa fur-
nishes the following data relating to the origin of specific discon-
tinuity : —

1. That it is difficult to find evidence in favour of the muta-

tion theory at any rate in the numerous cases of
closely related species which are geographically sepa-
rated.

2. That the structural characters which separate species are

sometimes adaptative, but often, perhaps usually, not
so.

3. That closely allied species are often rigidl\' confined to

adjacent but distinct areas, which dift'er in climatic
and vegetational conditions.

From this last-mentioned fact we are probably entitled to
assume —

(a) That such species must be physiologically adapted to

the particular environment.

(b) That they are therefore in a dual sense isolated from

each other. Now any form of isolation will alone
imply some degree of discontinuity in structural
characters, since no two portions of the same stock
have exactly the same average character.

(c) Such adaptation might conceivably be brought about

by the cutting out of the less adapted (natural selec-
tion) in which process some structural discontinuity
would be caused.

RADl()TKLt:(iKAPinC IXVESTHiATION . 253

These suggestions will explain only the commencement of
the discon-tinuity. By what j^rocess the structural specific char-
acters are further l)uilt up I do not know, 'but, if all species have
a physiological as well as a morphological significance, it may be
broadly expressed that the structural dififerences are an expres-
sion of different physiological processes.

The WinbuRG Meteorite. — At a recent meeting of
the Royal Society a j^aper ov " A meteoric iron from W'inburg,
Orange Free State." by W. A. 0. Rudge, formerly professor of
physics at Grey University College, Bloemfontein. was read. An
account was given of the structure, and (.f the mechanical and
magnetic properties of the meteorite, which is said to have fallen
in 1881. It consists of large crystals of ferrite, with veins and
crystals of an iron-nickel alloy, the nickel not amounting to more
than 3 per cent. Flakes of the alloy, being insoluable in dilute
acid, are easily separable from the ferrite, in the crystals of which
very fine crystals of the alloy are found enclosed. The material
stands a stress of nearly 10 tons per square inch before yielding,
and in the elastic limit. ^"r>ung's modulus is nearly the same as for
pure iron. A\'hen the metal was submitted to a pressure of
7,000 lb. dead load, " slip " bands were developed, showing evi-'
dence that twinning had been set up. The magnetic properties
resemble those of Swedish iron, but for moderate field strengths
the susceptibility is greater, but less for very strong fields.

Radiotelegraphic Investigation. — Under the
auspices of the British Association a Committee has been formed
to organise a special investigation of the effect on the propagation
of electric waves of the total eclipse of the sun, which will take
place on the 21st August next. The eclipse will afford an excep-
tional and important opportunity of adding to existing knowledge
of the propagation of electric waves through air in sunlight and
in darkness, and across the boundaries of illuminated a'lrl un'llumi-
nated regions. It will be total along a strip extending from Green-
land across Norwav, Sweden, Russia and Persia to the mouths
of the Indus. In Russia the duration of totality will be a little
more than two minutes. There are two main points calling for
investigation during the eclipse. In the first place the propagation
of signal bearing waves through air in the umbra and penumbra
will probably obey laws different as regards absorption and refrac-
tion from those obeyed in illuminated air. In the second place,
the strength, frequency and character of natural electric waves,
and of atmospheric discharges, may varv. The variations may
occur either because the propagation of natural waves from dis-
tant sources is facilitated or impeded by the eclipse, or, possibly,
because the production of natural electric waves or atmospheric
discharges is. for some unknown reason, affected 1)v the eclipse.

254 KADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION.

These points have previously been investigated to only a slight
extent. The observers of signals during the solar eclipse of the
17th April, 1912, nearly all agreed that the strength of the signals
was greater during the eclipse than an hour before or after.
There was only one special observation of strays during the same
eclipse, when very pronounced and remarkable variations were
recorded during the passage of the shadow-cone across Europe.
To investigate the propagation of signals across the umbra it will
be necessary to arrange for wireless telegraph stations on either
side of the central line of the eclipse to transmit signals at intervals
while the umbra passes between them. This transit of the
umbra occupies about two minutes. It is thus very desirable that
the Scandinavian and Russian stations should transmit frequently
throughout several minutes before, during, and after totality. But
stations other than those favoured by their proximity to the central
line should endeavour to keep a complete record of the variations
of signals during the eclipse. Stations in Europe west of the cen-
tral line and stations in the Mediterranean and in Asia Minor
may find noticeable changes in the strength of signals, particularly
long distance signals, l^etwcen the hours of 10 a.m. and 3 p.m.,
Greenwich time ; and it is probable that the stations of India and
East Africa, and ships in the Indian Ocean, may feel the efifect of
the penumbra in the afternoon. On the other hand, ships in the
Atlantic, and fixed stations in Eastern Canada and the United
States, will probably be affected by the penumbra in the early
morning. At Montreal the eclipse (partial) is at its greatest
phase at 5.52 a.m. Standard Time. It is possible that the eclipse
may have some influence even when it is invisible. The investiga-
tion of strays is of as great interest as that of signals. So far as
is yet known, the natural electric wa\es reaching wireless tele-
graph stations in latitudes higher than 50° appear to travel mostly
from the south. Thus the greatest changes produced in strays by
the eclipse will probably Ije experienced at stations in Scandinavia
and Russia, to reach which the waves must cross the path of the
umbra. At the same time changes of some kind are to be expected
in other districts than these, and it is therefore desirable that statis-
tical observations of natural electric waves be made all over the
world, and especially at places within an earth quadrant of South-
ern Russia. It is also desirable that meteorological observations,
including those of atmospheric ionisation and potential gradient,
should be at the disposal of the Committee when considering the
records of strays and signals. The Committee proposes to prepare
and circulate special forms for the collection of statistics of signals
and strays, especially within the hemisphere likely to be afifected by
the eclipse; it will endeavour to make provision for the transmis-
sion of special signals at times to be indicated on the forms ; and
it will ofifer for the consideration of the authorities controlling
stations near the central line a simple programme of work. The
discussion of the observations, and the comparison with the

Ai\THR()I'OL()C;iC"AL RESEARCH. 255

meteorological data, will be carried out by the Committee; and
digests of the statistics, together with the conclusions drawn from
the analysis, will be published in due course. The Committee
would be greatly aided in the organisation of this investigation if
those possessing the necessary facilities and willing to make
observations during the eclipse would communicate with the
Hon. Secretary, Dr. W. Eccles, University College, London, W.C.,
at the earliest possible date.

Anthropological Research. — The Council of the
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, in
its last Annual Report, announced* that the sum of £20, previously
specially allocated in the Association funds for Anthropological
research, had been awarded to Miss Agnes W. Tucker, B.A., for
the purpose of aiding her in the prosecution of her anthropological
studies in South Africa. Miss Tucker had been further assisted
by a grant for research from the funds administered by the Royal
Society of South Africa, as well as by a grant from the Wit-
watersrand Council of Education, and by a Croll Scholarship
awarded her by the South African College. Miss Tucker hopes,
during the course of the present year, to publish such results as
she has been able to obtain, and although very much still remains
obscure, she will endeavour to give a fairly complete report of
some aspects of the culture of the tribes specially studied by her.
Meanwhile she has furnished the following details of her recent
journey —

" On May 3rd, 1913, I .set out for Capetown, where I made
all my purchases for camping in W'alfish Bay and German South-
West. Thence I proceeded overland to Springbok, in Little
Namaqualand, to interview the ex-captain of the Bondelzwarts,
and their leader in the late war against the Germans, Abram
Morris. The information was the more interesting in that the
Bondelzwarts tribe is one of the oldest in Great Namaqualand,
though since the GermanTlottentot war it has practically ceased
to exist as a separate tribe. Later on, in Keetmanshoop, I had
an opportunity of interviewing some other of their chief men, but
found they could add but little to my knowledge; indeed, Abram
Christian's words proved to be quite true, that all who knew any-
thing of the tribal customs had perished in, or soon after, the
war.

From Springbok I weiU to Walfish Bay, where I spent three
months among the Topnaars— in many respects the most inter-
esting of all the surviving tribes of Hottentots. The Topnaars
dwell among the sand dunes of Walfish Bay and subsist upon the
fruit of the 'Naras, a cucurbitaceous plant wdiich grows only in
this region. The fruit, wdiich is a species of melon, is extremely
nutritious and luscious, so that as long as it is in season the natives

* Tide this \olume, p. xv.

256 ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

do not trouble about any other food. The territory inhabited by
this tribe is dreary in the extreme, and for a people devoid of
proper home and with insufficient clothing, it is very unhealthy,
owing to the rapid changes of temperature, the violent winds
which bring clouds of dust, and the heavy damp fogs at night. It
is little wonder, then, that the people are saturated with disease,
and are in every sense degenerate.

Their pastoral habits have been almost entirely abandoned since
the German occupation of Great Namaqualand, as the boundary
between British and German territory cuts right through their
original tribal grounds, and they can no longer wander where they
will. Thus the whole tribe has been reduced to the condition of
the Strandloopers of early Dutch days.

In spite of such unpromising material and such dismal sur-
roundings, my best results were olitained in Walfish Bay.

It is very probable that the Topnaars broke away from the
main stream of Hottentot migration many centuries ago. As they
wandered southwards with their flocks they came upon these
'Naras fields, where food was to be had six months in the year
for the simple picking of it. Yielding to the temptation they
remained in the neighbourhood of Walfish Bay in the desert
coastal zone. For years they must have been isolated, and when
other people broke in upon them it was American and English
sailors who were hunting whales along the West Coast.

The coming of the white man was the beginning of their ruin,
but their degeneration has been unaccompanied by much contami-
nation of tribal custom. It has become gradually laxer and less
complicated and tribal lore less rich, but what there is is pure.
Hence I was able to make fairly complete studies of their social
and tribal organisation, their sociology, and partly, too, of new
aspects of their religious and magical beliefs.

Law and government could not be studied here, as the tribe
has been too long under English influence and jurisdiction. I
therefore went inland to Berseba, in German South-West. where
the Gai Khauas, a tribe which originally inhabited the Tulbagh
district in the Cape Colony, and migrated across the Orange River
after 1809, when chieftainship was abolished by the British, still
nominally retain their old tribal organisation, and are governed
by their own laws under their own captain. The tribe is unfor-
tunately not pure, as many of the families were bastardised before
ever they crossed the river. Their customs are, therefore, much
modified by Dutch influence, and great caution has to be used in
coming to any conclusions regarding their original culture. How-
ever I gained many new lights upon their culture here.

All the other tribes which originally inhabited German South-
West are now disintegrated, and the whole people is fast degene-
rating and becoming bastardised. Unlike the Bushmen, who died
out pure, the Hottentot is disappearing only to leave a rapidly
increasing tainted population of Bastards behind him. Indeed,.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES. 257

among children under ten T had the greatest difficulty in obtain-
ing any pure specimens of their race. White blood is traceable
somewhere in the parentage always.

Old people of any intelligence are few, and they alone know
anything of tribal lore. The Hottentot himself says he has been
absorbed into a new condition of things, and it takes him all his
time to keep abreast of the tide. An onlooker sees that he is not
keeping abreast, and never will for all his struggle.

The material for further investigation is thus no longer to be
had, and I had perforce to be content with the remnants I had
been able to gather. On some lonely farm, perhaps, some old man
or some old woman may still be able to add to the collected facts,
but the time for further systematic scientific work is past.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Geological Society of South Africa. — Monday, March 23rcl : D. P.
McDonald, M.A., B.Sc, President, in the chair. — " Outlines of the geology
of German South-west Africa "' : Dr. E. Rimann — " On the occurrence
of the Brazilian trilobite Pcnnaia in the Bokkeveld beds": Prof. S. J.
Shand. Clarke, in his monograph on the Devonian fossils of Parana,
erects three new genera for the BraziHan representatives of the Metcp-
cryphaeus group of the Phacopidce. One of these new genera, Pcnnaia. is
known to Clarke only as a Brazilian genus. The author described a new
species, the ilrst of the genus to be recognised in .South Africa, having
been found by Mr. R. A. Page on the farm Osplaats in the Hex River
Valley. For this the name Pcnnaia africana is propofsed. — "Note on
graphite coated diamonds from the Premier Mine": Dr. P. A. Wagner.
The author described four well-formed diamond crystals, coated with a
thin film of graphite, by which they were rendered black and opaque.

South African Society of Civil Engineers. — Wednesday, April 8th:
F. O. .Stephens, M.I.C.E., President, in the chair. — '' Ferro-concrete works
at Mossel Bay and Knysna ' : F. W. Waldron. A description was given
of a ferro-concrete jetty at ]\Iossel Bay for the larding and shipping of
goods into lighters, and of a similarly constructed wharf at Knysna ; also
of an elevated circular tank capable of containing lo.ooo gallons, and of
the casting and laying of a number of reinforced concrete pipes for surface
water drainage at Mossel Bay.

Royal Society of South .\frica. — Wednesday, April 15th : S. S.
Hough, M.A.. F.R.S., Vice-President, m the chair. — " Note on a theorem of
Ph. Gilbert, regarding the differentiation of a Special Jacobian " : Dr. T.
Muir.^" Note on Rosanes' Functions, resembling Jacobians " : Dr. T.
Muir — " The Triple Stellar System t, Virginis and S 1757 " : R. T. A.
Innes. These stars, although a considerable distance apart, constitute a
system, as they are moving through space with ahnost identical velocities
and directions. — " A Curious Mosquito '" : G. A. H. Bedford. — " On the
porosity of the rocks of the Karroo System " : Dr. A. L. du Toit.
Determinations were given of the porosity of 90 rocks, the majority being
from borehole cores. It was found with respect to the three-fold division
of the Beaufort beds that the mean porosity of the sandstone was 2.9 %
for the lower, 5.2 % for the middle, and 5.5 % for the upper division. The
figures for the Transvaal phase of the Karroo were much higher. The
efifects of weathering in increasing the porosity were discussed and
analysed.^'' A Note on the Temperatures of the air observed at Mochudi."

258 NEW BOOKS.

Dr. J. R. Sutton. A brief account was giv'en of some points of interest
in the results of temperature observations by Harbor at Mochudi in the
Bechuanaland Protectorate. The extremes of temperature are consider-
' able, the greatest range so far observed' l)eing from 108° F. to 28° F.
The mean maximum temperatures depend upon the sun's meridian altitude
in miuch the same way as as they do at Kimberley. The annual cold wave
of the middle of July is felt at Mochudi as it is elsewhere further South.

South African Institute of Engineers. — Thursday, April i6th : Mr.
W. Calder, President, in the chair. — " Irrigation, with special reference to
the future of Engineering work in South Africa " : F. K. Stevens. The
author broadly sketched the irrigation methods adopted in the United
States. Canada, Australia, India and Egypt, and then compared the various
systems of applying the water to the lands. He indicated the sources of
water supply in South Africa (i) from perennial streams: (2) from
rivers subject to large fluctuations; and (3) from rivers subject to occa-
sional flow, and, with special reference to South Africa, discussed the
subjects of rainfall and run-off, pumping, and pumping appliances, some
of the financial aspects of irrigation, the opportunities for engineering
work in connection with irrigation, and finally gave some details with
regard to a number of South African irrigation schemes, in existence and
projected.

NEW BOOKS.

Maugham, R. C. F. — Wild game in Zambcsia. 8vo. (9X6 in.) pp.
xii, 376. Map and illus. London: John Murray. 19x4. 12s. 26 oz.

Lucas, Sir Charles and A. Berriedale Keith. — A liistorical geo-
graphy of the British Colonics. Vol. 4: South Africa. New ed.
7r] X 5 in. Pt. I, pp. viii. 331. Pt. II. pp. iv. 2,?,^. Maps. Ox-
ford : Clarendon Press, 1913. Each part 6s. 6d.

Cory, G. E. — Tlie r-^c of South Africa: a history of the origin of South
African colonisation and of its development towards the East from
the earliest times to 1857. Vol. 2; 1820-1834. 9} X 6 in. pp.
xvi. 489. Maps and illus. London: Longmans. Green & Co., 1913.
i8s.

Range, Dr. P. — Geologic des Deutschcn Xainalandes: Beitrdge cur
gcologi\schen Erforschung der Deiitschen Schutcgebiete. Heft 2.
pp. 104. Map, illus. Berlin: Kgl. Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt.
1912. 10 X 7 in. M.12.

Darter, A. — The Pioneers of Mashoualand. pp. 213. London: Simp-
kin, Marshall. 1914. 5s.

Yoigt, B. — Deutsch-SiidiL'estafrika: Land tin d Lent c. pp. xii, in. Port.
illus. Stuttgart : Luzac & Co.. 1913. 2s 6d.

Sargent, A. J. — South Africa: Sez'cn lectures prepared for the J'isual
Instruction Committee of the Colonial OfUcc. 7^ X 5 in- PP- viii,
120. Map and illus. London: G. Philip and Son, 1914. 8d. nett.

Stigand, Capt. C. H. — Hunting the Elephant in Africa and other recol-
lections of thirteen years' zvanderings. 9X6 in., pp. xv, 379,
illus. The Macmillian Co. New York, 1913. $2.50.

L I B R A R Y Uc

THE HUMOUR OF ESTRANGED INDO-GER^X T*^ K-^/
COGNATES. \^'/.^.r ' v'-

I'.v Rev. W. A. NoRTOx, S.SAL

A pedagogue friend of mine asked me to make him a list of
Aryan cognates for the sake of his pupils, and this is the result
of work on Prof. Herman Hirt's IndogermaniscJicr Ablaut, of
which my paper is largely a digest, although I must also make
my acknowledgments to the late lamented Dr. Skeat.

Aly method has been to produce under each Aryan root a
sentence to illustrate various forms which it takes. The sentence
is often nonsensical enough, if not alarming (for crude 'physical
ideas are naturally the oldest, and best illustrate the common life
of our primitive forefathers ) so 1 beg my readers will forget the
sentiments and fix their minds only on the words which express
them. These consist, as far as possible, of various forms of the
same Aryan roots, and the faint suggestion of Alice in Wonder-
land, due to the frequent strangeness of the conjunction is only an
index to the amazing distance which the word's meaning wdl
travel by association, etc. I have preserved English throughout,
using only words that somehow or other appear in that language,
because a foreign word means so little to an Englishman, but, if
adapted to his own language, helps at once to an enlargement oi
his vocabulary, and a Imking-up with the original language.

In some cases the cognate words are not far apart either in
force or meaning: take slack and lax (L)"^; name, naam, nama
fSk), nomen (L). ovo/xa (Gk); us, oiis, wis (G), nos (L")
asmaii, iias (Sk), i)/j,a^ (Gk).

For a wide difference in names and things, which yet are
cognate, take honey and kancanam (Sk for gold) ; again, teach
and (G) zcigcn^ the change of former and latter consonants both
illustrating Grimm's Law.

The case is similar with several obsolete or nearly obsolete
English words: e.g., thrum is the end of a thread in weaving, i.c ,
its term or terminus (L). Ejiie means uncle in old English
(old G '-= Oheim), but is connected with Gk. rt/x?; (honour^
rrjpew (to guard). Necm (D for to take) is the L cmo (to
buy). In primitive barter you took the other man's or woman's
goods for your own.

A famous case commented on l^y Max Miiller for the light
it throws on the primitive history of European Botany is Birc^.
( Sk Bhurjas) cognate with E fra.rinus (ash) the tree which took
its place in other lands.

A last example is pejor (L comparative of bad) and f^y
(doom.ed), which reminds us that our forefathers also thought
that if we give a dog a bad name we might as well hang him.

* The followinp- alibreviations are employed throughout tliis paper ■.^-
L = Latin, Gk = Greek, G = German, D =^ Dutcli, Sk = San.skrit.

26o INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

Some words seem close, through false association, Hovv
tempting" to the harassed housewife, for example, is the idea th?t
the houseboy sent on an errand is erring and straying like an
arrant knave, i.e., errant boy. Whereas errand is pure English,
and has nothing probably to do with crrarc. which is so nnii'er-
saliter human !

Some words are really close in form and meaning, but noi
obviously so, because of the omission of a letter. Thus, a nit
is very like a grain of dust, in Gk. kovk; (stem /coinS ) ; but it has
dropped its Ji.

Sometimes the meaning is even identical, with the form
apparently ver}' different : thus a hurdle, a crate, and a grating.
are similar in form, or rather in make, and their names ety-
mologically allied.

Having illustrated various types of relation between Aryan
words in their variant forms, I shall now give further examples
in connection with their Aryan bases in Hirt's order. It will be
seen how extraordinarily different has been the development,
though the base will reveal the unity of origin.

Arvan Bases of One Svllai'.le.

B'lsc Illustrations. RciiKuks.

DHE (place, do ) The deed is not a hypo- The Gk 0 (L /)
thesis hut 3. fact. corresponds (bv

Grimm's Law) to

our (/

SPE (extend) The psahnist did not de- da-spernre is to lose

spiiir (L), thou,!4h but patience, and lai/^

a spam's spine (L) of sufferinj^-. Double

life seemed left him. consonants are very

stable in Ar\an
lan^"ua<^es.
LED He was full of lassitude Aryan liquids are \er\-

(L) and always late. stable.

STHA. The Canon had a staid Double consonants

sfiiiidiiii^ stutiouitry ( L) a,!;-ain.

in his stall.
BHA Many a fable (L) passes

on the ' phoue (Gk) and
many a prophet's (Gk)
fiuic (L) is blighted.
MAGH The mechanics (Gk) of a

////o-/;/v niaeli ine (L from
Gk). '
BHOG To hake their fellow-men (f) in Gk (/ in L) ^

was a function of the our b by Grimm.

authvopoph agi (Gk). In Herodotus' story

of Pharaoh's ex-
periment with
isolated infants to

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

261

Bdsc,

Illustrat'wus.

Riiiuirks.

find the original
language of man,
they first utter the
Phrygian word
bekos (bread) from
this base, and so
showed Phrygian
to be (not the
original language
but) an Aryan
languaire.

Bases of One Syllable with a Diphthong

DHEI (suck)

POU (foal

MOI

OUS (mouth)

GHOUM

PAU

SOUT

The young have a filial
relation to the female.

Pullets (L) are the young
of animals : the puerile
( L) human is cared for
by a pedagogue (Gk
really irdfLq).

Of old the Mime (G) was
considered mean and
false'"" ; his character
must necessarily be-
come mutable (L).

The doctor r///.scultated (L)
with his right ear and
delivered his verdict
orally (L).

Tennyson's '"Jaws of
vacant darkness " were
the faucal orifices of
CJiaos : but has Chaos
i^ums ?

Pj'7'otechnics are artistic
^'/r-vvorks.

The boy was sad^er\e6.
by his 5(^/^iffying (L)
dinner.

These Latin words
are connected with
felare and the Gk

For the ear, from its
shape, is also an
orifice or mouth
(L OS).

This is a case of y
= 0- by Grimm.
Note that (L)/ ha
to represent all the
aspirates, as the
Gk 0 and ^ are
wanting in Latin.

cf. the base Pou
above. The p is
aspirated in the
English form (by
Grimm's Law).

But the 5 is dropped
in the Greek. The
boy was doubtless a
liedomst — too fond
of sweet things.
[L sua{d)via ; Gk
[a-F^rjBrea {sive-
dwea).]

Such is the meaning of old High G mein.

-2<)2 i indo-cermax cognates.

T\v(j-s^llai;led Bases.
JidSiS. Illiistrntioiis. Rfiitdi'ks.

ERA bases

Aramos The Kinj^-'s (inns raiii\iy Anu{us) and rdiiiiis

from liis trunk, and at illustrate Hirt's

his coronation he wears Point of the VoU

an (initill on his stufe I cV II : the

shoulders. former from nva-

jiios, the latter from

(Ilu'llllOS.

Ero (love) David when at rtsf from
war became erotic.

Kera I'ho rhinocYV-o.'; is an aristo- The horn, KpaTo<;

cnitic looking beast, strength, Kctpa the

but has but a small head, and the brain

u-rc'hva] development. are all fairly obvi-

oush' connected.

Kera (mix) This crock is a specimen The crater is, of
of the ccmiiiic art, in course, a uii.viiii^

form like the cnitcr of bowl for wine and

a volcano. water, itself origi-

nal 1 }' of c 1 a N^
iiiiui^lcd with water.

Gera Ihe hail beat out the .\gam cf. Grnvm's

<rraiii from the stand- Law.

ing corn.
Gwera The specific (jriiciiv of liaritones will excuse

the baritont was ecjual the implication as

to that of a (jiicni or to their weight,

handmill. Ihe Bapv'^-roi'O'i

is one of the Greek
ecclesiastical
modes Note the
labialisation in the
Greek: sometimes it
occurs also in Latin
cf. has against Sk
gdits and our cojc.
Gwero A crane belongs to the

sub-family Gruhrdt.
Ghere What think you of the The garden fork for

t7/(n-acter (Gk) of a digging was doubt-

man who or»/;bed up less anterior to the

a orai-c with a fork (Lj table fork which we

ha\-e only used
about three cen-
turies.
Tereb The houses of the tliorp Our ancient Aryan

were ;'/-(r/jeated black dorps were built of

and white. wood (at least in

the north). Lat.

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

263

Bases.

Dera

Dhera

Pera

Pero
Werod

Stero

ELA bases
Kole

Kela (call)

Illustrations.

The ta.\i(/(r;;/atist tore' his
skin.

I (Irciid this fi-aiidult-nt
person

The Christians of Jerusa-
lem fared into Prrata.

Vou take /^''ccedence he-

forc me.
Raeiicals (L) pull up

thini;s bv the roots.

Mangel U'lirrjcl (G) is

roots !

They were STrewn upon
the STrand in con-
,S Vernation at the
,S' T/vf tegics of the
enemv.

In spite of the mclciiieul
weather, ih^y col on ncd
a hill by Stock//o////,
which is so called from
being built on coliiiiin.s
ot wood.

I heard the clear (L) lou
of a hvst-cla.ss (L) cow.

Remarks.

trails a beam, then
a stripe, e.g., on a
senator's toga.

From Gk Selpo) to
Hay.

13ut fraud is not con-
nected '.vith fear.

Peraea was beyond
Jordan [rrepav rnv
'Io/aSfii'oL')hence the
name ; and to reach
it they had to cross
or fare over (iTepav)
that river

Note that the High
G sibili/es the low
G / instead of
aspirating it, as it
should by Grimm's
law. of. zn, zahn
for to, tandje.

Constant double con-
so n a n t s again.
Strategy is the
management of a
a-rparoi;, which is a
"leaguer" or army
laid out in order.

A holm is a river-
island (f/. the Flat
Holm and Steep
Holm in the Severn
Sea). The connec-
tion between this
and /////, and that
and colnnin is ob-
vious. Early (ireek
colonics had to be
settled where there
was a ///// to flee to
from pirates.

A clear view is one
that calls aloud A
c I a. s.s is or fleet was
called together by
a signal. Alo'd'inir
from KKLA has
lost the weak first

264

INDO-GKRMAN COGNATES.

Bases.

Illiistraiioiis.

Gela

Gelag

Ghele
Tele

Pele

Pela

Phele

Melo

Male

In this o-/(a/al weather he
gave us cold jelly.

What a galaxy of milk-
maids.

Was the vflldn' o-as Clilo-
riuc known to the
Flavian Emperors ?

I have not the talent of
patience to tal crate a
broken tludc to mv oar.

Seleb

Folk are ///// to rtpletlon
(L) of this plebeian
(L) plethora (Gk).

Tlie pelav:,\c floor was as
plain in its mani-
fold movement as the
flat of a palm.

What a fl a ring hi (I st ! what
a blasting Jla re !

Whata florid bloom ! what
a blooming Flora I

His blood was a melan-
choly blne-blaek.

How laboriousiy he sleeps.

Remarks.
syllable. Teutonic
words from KKLA
would bei^in with
// — bv Grimm, cf.
Schil'ler: Du Kiich-
lein silber//(7/ und
kf:r.

The connection be-
tween glaees and
gelecs will be clear
to all. But English
cold will have its
beginning sharp.

The change from
ryaXaKT — to m i I k
is an interesting
case of labialisation
of gutturals.

This base supplies pf.
and supine to ferre
(=bear!. The thole
bears the strain
of the oar. A
talent is a lump of
gold or silver which
l/ore verv heavih',
e.g., on the shoul-
ders of Naaman's
ser\-ants.

The plebs was the
///// meeting of the
citizens in their folk
mote.

P is the Southern
equivalent of low
G. f by Grimm
[ef. above).

B, on the other hand,
is our equivalent of
of the Southern f

For the denasalising
of m before / when
the intermediate
vowel drops out, cf.
^X(i)(TKco, /uLoXovfxat
etc.

ef. labes, a slipping
away.

I ndo-(;i-:k ma n coc n ates.

265

Bases.
Skela

Illustrations.
Do not IdccTixte the slffiii I

EJA, EMA,
ENA bases,
&c.
Gene

Wena

(S)tona

Dema

Doma

Deja

EWA bases
K r e w o

(bloody

flesh)

Tewo (be

strong)

I kii(>7i' the Gnostics (Gk)
were a (gjiiotahle (L)
sect.

(.^//cs'imus V (■ I! (' /// o u s I y
li'islitd ill to Philemon.

The thuiuhr of the de-
ioiiation was heard on
Thursday.

Dame Alice and the Xiuis
have the nuitcridl to
fiinher their dome. :ind
that is the chief unifti r.

Adiueius means untamed,
but she whom he called
" Daiuar " (wife), had
the inc('o//ntable cour-
atre.

He had a great 2cal for
jfac<^cr\s clothing.

Rtnc pancreas (Gk) is crude
(L) diet.

A thousand was the total
of those buried in one
tumid tomb.

Remarks.

cf. the preceding for
ellipse of .v before /.
The guttural of
Idccro and XdKL^o)
re-appears in our
slaughter.

cf. the preceding for
the dropping of the
guttural before //.

The primitive method
of poisoning was
magical rather than
physical. It was ill-
'li'ishing. Yet a
poison' drug was
useful (ovrjaiixov .

Thor or Thunor was
God of ' thuuuer '"
(dialectical : cf. G
Doiincr).

The first two are
corruptions of
dom{i))ia. Matter,
&.C. (^stuft" for house
building) have lost
the initial d of
domus, which like
the G Znnuicr and
Ihirf, was tiuibcr-
built.

We do not, like the
( J reeks, now con-
sider women-folk
domestic animals :
but some in Eng-
land just now might
well be tamed !

^/}Xo9 and Siojkm are
connected with
jogci! (to hunt).

The English word
originally began
with a h

Til us -hund may
be a • s t roug
hundred.' (/. Bantu,
where 100 is the

266

indo-ger:\ian cognates.

Bases.

Bhewa
Sewa

Skewa

(hide)

Mega

Ilhistrafions.

What will the /;/ture of

y^/M'sicians be ?
Planets of the .s7)/ar (L)

system are near the

sun at their pcrilit lion .
He ///r/es himse f under

an oh,v(7/re e.s'(//tcheon.

The /;/tf^''(/thcriiim was
uutcJt more ;//r/i;'nificent
than a ;//';//r;raja's ele-
phant.

Rcniarks

gnat numher (Suto
le-kho'o &.C i

Gk {sa',c)-,j\t()<;.

Shields were original-
ly (like the Zulu)
made of hide,
which once eocered
a beast.

I'he nasals are thus
\'er\- constant in
Ar\an, ran<j;'ini(
from Welsh luawv
to Sk. The mum-
bling toothless babe
at the breast bei^ins
b V calling; on
■' ///other " with an
/// all over the
world, so primitive
is that sound.

DiSYLLAIiLKS WITH Dl I' HTHONGS.

EXEI bases

Tersei

Weidei

EXAU bases
Gwejew

Wer(au)

Welau

(to veil round )

The tornd /one is a

thirsty place I
Admire the -witty idtns of

the t'/xionary.

He illustrated from hio-
loi;y and soology with
a virld t/niekness.

\it7care to rei'^rence the
Jionzon, in paintins<
the \)i\nor(iina.

A reiltd couple of j^reat
uo/ume were -icalfryimr.

From rid-sio : \Sea
from riSeh'-

Virus has lost the
initial j^uttural,
labialised in /3io<;
{ef. (3aiv(i^, venio)
and swallowed in
llwr), but preserved
n English, accor-
ding to Grimm, as

V-
Last two Greek, from

fopuo) see.

The idea is coniolu-
tion. wrapping
something to-
j-ether.

INDO-GEKMAX COCINATES.

267

Bases.
EXEU bases

Akous
Ereudh

Kokoubh

(top)

Genewo
Dejewo

Bhereu

EXE bases
Perei

Meleit

EXEN bases
Elengh

Dekemto

Jlliistratioiis.

Has A'rn-nia rrtated all
this oear ?

Acousixc^ is the science of

He has r///;ricated in his
map the Ervi!iv:ic:in or
Red Sea.

What a capitiu licddini^
for his first chapftv.

He gc'Jiiif\tcted on hoth
kiiL'ca to the penta-
guii.

Tncsdav is so named from
dicmt ZcwA ory//piter.

He hrcwftd a /trvent bowl
of — broth.

There is a j4reat ptri\ in
em/j/ricists' txpcri-
ments.

Mild Miliss'd speaks iiud-
//fluously.

Lungs are "lights"
because full of air.

A dean was originally a
ruler over ten : a deca-
gon has ten sides : a
c^n^urion was the cap-
tain of a hundred : a
hecatomh, a sacrifice
of 100 Beeves.

Qainquao-fsima is the
Mtieth [fif-0'=5 x 10]
before Easter and

Kcinarks.

Sk. kr. ]'(irt in
nautical V. n ,i;' 1 i sh
(cf. the wreck-
scene in the " Tem-
pest ' ) is cognate.

— not connected with
ear, a 11 res (see
above)

Gk has preserved
the initial vowel
which L and Teu-
tonic have lost.

For the medial con-
sonant ef. hoofd,
Hanpi.

[^- sky -father), gen.
Afo?. Sk. Dvaus.
Lithuanian De-
nis.

Perhaps connected
with fare (;.•. supr.)
G e fall r (G) ' is
danger one goes
through, cf. peri-
clu/n (from per-eo)
and perish.

Doyen has lost the
guttural of decamis,
as ten that of tegen.

Hund-r^v/ = hund-
rate.

Hecatom/> - eKaruv
/3{6e,).

Quinqua-g-/«ta,

7revTi]-K0VTa ; rent
and Jiund-ved: The

N.B. — Contrast ^eo? (below), which may be the Southern or
Mediterranean idea of divinity as opposed to Zeus, the Northern or
Arvan idea.

268

IXDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

Bases.

Stoment

EREK bases
Kere

Kered

Torek
Meret

(dead)

Marog
Wereg

Werem

ELEK bases
Kolos

Pele

Jlhtstratioiis.

PcntetrKst the fiftieth
after.

The stoiii'dch is so caUed
from its having' a
h'ttle iiiunth.

Peleth

(Spread)

He was cremated at his
own lutirth.

In spite of the weakness
of his pericardium (Gk)
he was h en rf Wy cordis.!
(L).

He tJirc7i> his tore at him.

The iiiiirdertY struck a
Jiiorf3.\ blow. Mars is
the i;od of Mors !

The Marquii^ iiiarki^ his

marches at the iiiar^irin

(L) of a stream.
The Or^'-anisation (Gk)

was an ent;/'o-etic (Gk)

piece of work.
He 7/ro^ed him to wreak

(vengeance).

The t't7-///icelH is worni-
eaten !

Heco/Iared (L) thering7/((/5
and the rin^lials col-
lared him.

The ptplos was a kind of
pelisse Hke a filmy sur-
plice.

The platypus was licking"
a plate in the field.

ReiJiarks.

first syllable of
c/ 6' c e m ( t o ) has
been dropped in all
these.
This case is similar
to the last in that
(L) lueiitum (chin),
(G) Miiiid, have
dropped the first
syllable of the
base; (Gk) crTo/xair)
half of the second
syllable.

ef. Slavonic Srdce
where the initial
guttural becomes a
sibilant.

Mortal ( G k )

iSpoTO^, the ;;/ being
de nasalised as
above before the
liquid.

The last word is but
a cognate accusa-
tive, unnecessary
in old English.

A iiliu is a thin skin
or fell, (L) pellis :
hence pelliceus or
fur coat, and 5///'-
pelisse, or white
tunic worn over it,
because of the cold-
ness of the church.

The veld is thus a
broad and open
place.

indo-(;erman cognates.

269

Bases.
Bheleg

ENEK bases
Onokt

Onogh

Onebh

Onobh

Bhenedh

Senot
EWEK bases,
Awekwe

Awege

Ewegh
Ewet

IHustratioits. Remarks

The banks of the /^'//(■A''on P)leak : c/. hlc<icli,

are a hhnk yet //c.i,'- i)laiic.
rant spot.

The iVj'c^icorax, a ;/oc/ur-
nal bird, seeks its prey
bv iiii^Iit.

The onyx stone is the
colour of a nail, but
not //;/"7/lar in form.

Aplirodite was surrounded
by a nebulous mist.

The niiibilic'd] cord is so
called because it is
attached to the nnvel.

Bind the two nadules
tojiether.

The Notua is a sonthtvly
wind.

Xi-ht: (D. and G.
Xm-ht). Note the
Teutonic aspirate,
by Grimm.

The Greek vvaaw
(stab) from
ENOGH, (ejKOi;,
a spear) has, like
.V n gc I , lost the
initial yowel.

(C}) Ncbi-l, (L) Iinbtr
ou^po'i and ve(^o'^
are all allied here-
with.

cf. umbo, boss of
a shield, and
6/ji(ba\o^ yf]^ (the
earth's centre).

Nodus has lost its
first syllable, like
— men turn, etc.,
above

This case is similar.

He declaimed the epic (LJ voc-s Sk^ palata
rf'ralK'. lises vach-, as (Gk

labialises Feir.o s"

Ewod

Augustus did not /Vi^etate,
but 7i'f/.red stronger by
the vigour of his hy-
giene

The Greek was defV'ted to
his liuelio-lo^ion.

A 'ii.(7her does not in these
da\ s produce real .

The science of /n/r/ulatin^
water is called hydro-
dynamics.

Note that 7caclisen in
H. Germ, aspirates
ace. to Grimm.

Note how (e)vov-eo
softens the original
aspirate.

]'<(iu for '//ulum
(calf). There is an
interesting- bit of
pastoral history in
this change of the
word from bovine
to ocine species.

Note Grimm in iinda,
u8ai -, leoter. (G)
7L'assei', as usual,

J/O I Nl)i I (;h.K,\| ,\\ ( WCN A'n';s.

lutSi'S. / lliislnil iiiii.s. l\'('iiiiirL-s.

siliilisin;; inslfiul ol
:i spiral in;; the /
OWO(S) Wlial /vslinc did he

audi :'

Ewes Miiimt I 'r.siiviiis and I'ts

( li'dilcii) la inalclu'S arc holli

C()in^//,slil)k'.
AWOSO 'Idle ('(/.st( III . I //roia (il Ihc Aiislci- is llic soiilli,

/■'w.slir Mill sliiiK", w li (■ ic 1 li f sill)

Inrlli alioiil the in iial iiicsl lijdilciis. Idu

(■(|iiiii()\, lull this is nol aiicicnls did iiol

ti lie in . I //.slialia di i am id a ;;ri at

sonlli land larini;

anlairtu' rold on

lis south

DheweS Wdial /////ons ///(Mlo;;ians! Ovo^ is coniuctcd

(^hrcathc) with Slaxdiiir ilin li

(a spirit) and proh
ahl\ with Dnlih
il n' ii n s . So in
S\\ aliih : inui ii'ii:/t-
inii he lias ances-
tor spii Its f;ocls
he is mad (hiti-
/j.()i'i!^()/ji.ii'(i'^). Sec
Dl'.Jl'.VVO ahovc.
Sewep // I'/'Z/olism is .s('/;/;/iUroiis. {0)1177 /'ov sop niis
Bheweg 'Idu- fii^\[\\v An;;lo/'//p/u- Thus ((1) h(u,i;rn

/'""'fd to iiu , ,^), nyiir ( (i !■. )

(/)o/-^(;s' shrws la-

hiahsalioii of t he ;;.

Lewep 'Idu /, /'t r Ircinhlcd hki' a ( (i) /.r////;, < /'. ( i rinim.

''''/■ AfTT^s' scale, A(7r(>v

shell.
BliejOJi It /"/ hhii in the /'.i.sse. I'od sa from I'odjo.

EXEK bab(5s

Odokru I'he /(/i /// I'liiose whalir (/(. oil (d' hhihher,

dro|i|>(cl A /(III into the distillm;; like tears

/i-diii oil. ((i) 'Idiriiiu-).

Okosth (^s7e()lo^\' may i\plam I roin ()(A-)fTT(o/' (\ ')

tlu' c.ssil'icntion n{ his cs a hoiu' !

ic.stal niiiscles,
EXE bases

Deike llu- Itncln-y was within (jiitlex pir die s.

the jmisr//Vtioii (d' the ((i) '.rl^i'ii ((ik)

|U(/:!^'e f^( / />■ /' i> V (t I to

point, slu'w, (•/".

<^<tK Ti'Aos' dij;itiis.

Leikwe /><(;rc his re//Vs alone. < /• (d) h(c)lcibcii.

(D) i)lijvcii, labial-
is ccl like (i k .
A/7r(7;'.

J M )( )'< ;i-:i<M A N (:<)(;n ATES.

271

Bases.
Jeuge

>ljindj

Ede

Nogwe

Pede

Rege

Yerfhe

Bhere
Gweme

AXE bases
Age

(drivcj

Nase

OXE bases
Okwe

Illuslnitioiis.

A sy'iy^y is a conjiiiu Uon

or j'r;/i'in^ toj^ethcr.
" ()>/tj/ lorthc/r/7//," s-ii(l

he iiii(l\\.y {\A f)f (ircek

;y///nastic ((jk) was not

always exactly inikn/-

ness,
he chiro/'rv/ist (01<) hit

his fool ai^ainsl the

/>tY/estal (L).
he RiiJil reif^nod (Lj in

her own n'l^'al fLj

ri''/n.

he «,rorious ("L) man
carried a j^reat uuit(lii
in his /Y//icIe (L).

he stars conycrred Jor-
tune at liis /;/rth

"he /;ases of the Presi-
dent's statue ctiJJic hy
;;reat ad«t';/tiires.

lie rt6tive (L) r^/i,''rf)noniist
iGk) of the enil)^/.ssy
cxfiniintd the ticrt ac-
cording,' to the ai,Tarian
laws

"here are two iinsn\
f^rifices in the nose.

"he t'j'6'-doctor ^ave an
c;6'/<lar demonstration
at the Hutopsy.

Kcmnrks.

Odont- (eajtooth (())
Zahn (e)dent -
"The eater" (all
connected with
hase 1':DI':).

Note the palatal in Sk.
Raja = re^-s (L)
and the aspirate in
Teutonic Riclit,
&c

The old lyatin wife,
like the modern
native's, seems to
have carried the
harden. She was
the t'LWor.

hdscs from ihu ' la-
hialised f-iaii'o> fl>j

cell /'I.

Amb-ff/,''-es (tx-dff-
men) a j^oin^
round (here with a
messaj^ej.

()o<rcn, Aui^eii, have
the media, by
Cirimm : oTT-rri^ is
lahialised.

2/2 indo-german cognates.

Trisvllaiuc Bases.

Bases. Illustrations. Remarks.

DEREWO 79/'rads, if not r//7/ids, are It is doubtful if

connected with trees. Druid is connected

with Bpv^' (oak) cf.
Sopv (spear).
KWEKWELO The hkvcle is a hec-u'lieel,

AJEWO and ^oes on for ever Gothic, ai-n's. Sk.

and aye, fi'ernally ayiis (L) aivoiii

throui^h the aeons. ( (/ 6' r / - t e r n u s )

=^ alwv.

I trust that these nonsense-sentences have not wearied m/
readers — I have been thinking largely of young students whose
philological labours need lightening. They at least have shown
the extraordinary powers of dialectical change and association,
as the mingled causes which have set our languages so far apart
ni the Aryan family, that we can seldom recognise by the light
of nature the cousinship I)etwcen the derixatives frcjm the same
original base.

I recently heard of two brothers who had been working for
years in South Africa, but had not succeeded in meeting, unlil
thev were one day introdticed to one another. A similar estrange-
ment of members of the same family long parted in distant landf
has suggested the title of my paper — " The humour of estranged
Indo-German cognates."

I commend to our educationists tlie following method of
teaching European langtiages, and so mtich of ancient languages
as are required for the understanding of these by the ordinary
" modern side " boy. Surrender Latin and Greek composition,
and even Syntax, appropriating part of the time saved to elemen-
tary Aryan philology, and tise Greek, Latin (French, Italian
Spanish, etc.), and (jerman vocaljularies, to illustrate Grimm
and other philological laws given by the philology elements.
Li this way we preserve the practical utility of the classics for
English derivatives and scientific nomenclature; but we teach
the words in connection with the original Aryan bases, and the
modern forms of Aryan, somewhat as in the following key. The
examples of the preceding pages might help to lighten the sub-
ject and to amuse the youthful philologists.

indo-german cognates. 2/3

Key to Illustrations.*

MONOSYLLABIC BASES.

/. MOXOPHTHOXGAL.

Engl is). High-Grnuaii In(li)-(rrr)naii. Ln/iii. Greek. Reninrks.

do ... thun ... dhe ... facere ... riOepat

meet ... Mass me ... Men sura ^eToov

(measure)
Seed ... Saat ... se ... Semen

f slack ... schlaff ... slej:;" ... laxus

ftake ... — teg ... tango

tSpan ... — spe (e.\- Spes

tend) Spatium
. lassus
. stare

ilet (late)

lassen

.. led

stand

stehen .

.. stha

fstall stool

—

—

—

—

tbha

tM i g- h t

Macht .

... magh

(may)

tbake

backen

... bhog

fari Fama (f)0)i>)j,

Fabula •^•po0>;T?;s'

(bcoyeij',
(jiayel

II. DIPHTHONGAL
I . lidsts cini tain 'nil' I.

own

(ei

gnen) ...

Aik

—

tErrand ...

—

Air (one

sent)

—

(uncle)

Oh

leim ! . ..

kwei

~

nip

kneifen ...

gnaib

—

tdhei (suck)

felare :

filius

femina

6?]\\'^

Needle ...

Nc

idel
(niihen]

nei

—

tfey

—

pe (bad)...

pejor

(doomed)

poi

bibere
potus
poculum

—

—

poi

Pastor ...

TTOIfUjl'

feed foster

poit

Connects
with above.
But S gives
this as PA.

* S = S

kea

t. Sk =

= Sanskrit.

t The rows of cognates thus prefixed are illustrated in the foregoing
exanii^les.

274 IXDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

K)i<jl'\sli. Jl ifjii-drnitan Iii>h)-(j'rnii<ni. Latin. Greek. liemarks.

jFoal ... — Pou ... PuUus TraFi?

Puer
fmean ... O. mein Moi ... mutare
(false)
sith(since) seit(dem) sei(late)... serus
? small ... smahi ... smeik ... mica ... {a)fxiKp6<i

2. Bases coiit(iiiiiiii> U.

Udder ... Euter ... Oudh ... uber ov6ap

t? Ear ... Ohr ... Ous Os

(mouth) Ausculum!

jGum ... Gaumen... Ghoum ... Fauces ... ^ao?

Rook ... — Krouk ... — Kpavy/j n,iv infra.

tFire ... Feuer ... Pau ... — irvp

isad ... satt ... sout ... sat-is

DISSYLLABIC BASES.

A. WITH SECOXD SYLLABLE LONG.

L MOSOPHTHONGAL.

ERA Bases.

tArm

do

Aramos .. .

.Arm us
Ramus

Rudder ...

Ruder

ere

Remus ...

ratis ?

ipeTfxo^

(abn/s/o//)

ara

arare
radere
rastrum

apo(0

IRest ...

Rast

ero (love)

—

epdro

Kera

Cerebrum

Kepa<;,

KpaTO^

K('(py]VOi'

Hornet ...

Horniss ...

Kera

Crabro

Rook

—

Kero

Corvus

Kopa^

(v sup)

Corni.\

(Hurdle ...

—

Kerat

Crates

Kopcopj],

Kpd^O)

t ? (Crock)

riihren ...

Kera (mix)

—

Kepdi'i>Vfj,i,

(stir)

K€p(ip.o<;,
Kpr]T)jp

(i,-rateful)

—

i;'\vere

(sin-)

gratas

tCorn

Korn

Gera

Granum

tQuern ...

(millstone)

Gwera ...

gravis ...

l3apvi;

tCrane ..

Kranich ...

Gwero ...

Gr(okis ...

yspavo'i

t Grave

Grab

ghere

P'urca ! ...

'^apdacrco

INDO-GEKMAN C()( ".NATES.

Er.ijilsli. lliyh-Ucnnan I itilo-dnimui. l^aliii.
jThorp ... Dorf ... Tereb ... Trabs ! ...

(jreck.

^75

llcmarlcH.

ripcifxrop (house)
for
Tepa/3vov

Thread ...

Draht

(wire)

terei

tero

.. TpifSd)

through...

—

tera

(in)trare
trames

ttear

—

dera

—

Beipo)

tdread

trueben ...

dhera

Fraus

.. rapax^i

fare

fahren ...

pera

—

Tvepaco

(roast) ?

braten ...

pere

—

irtpTrp-Tjpi

fore

frueh

pero

prae

■■ TTpoii

D. vroeg

liirch

Birke ...

Bherag ...

Fraxinus
(ash

!)

IRoot

Wurzel ...

Werod ...

Radix

wreck

—

wereg ...

—

{F)pi]yvvpt

shear

scheren ...

skere

—

Kapyji'ai

ji strew ...

streuen ...

stero

sterno

■ ■ aropei'i'VfML

j Strand...

—

—

stravi

• • arparo^i

spurn

spornen

sphere
(spring)

sperno

ELAB,

\SES.

(drive)

ela

alacer

rjXdOi]

t(Hill ...

Huegel ...

Kole

Columna

IHolm ...

Columen
Clemens !

KOXCOVT]

lew

lau

kele

calere

(-warm)

flow (of a

hallen

kela

(call)

calare

KciXeo)

cow)

(sound)

clarus

hell

-

clamo

t(Cleric) ...Holz

I

Haulm ... Hah

(wood)

(gush) ? quellen ..

-jcold ... kalt

tMilk ... Milch ..

— melken ..

yellow ... gelb

kola

—

/cXrtSo?,
i<:\)]po<i

Kelam

Culmus

KdXafio<i

(stalk)

gwele ...

—

/SdWo)

gela

gelidus
Glacie

Gelag ...

Lac

ydXa

melag ...

—

ghele

flavus

xXMp6^

276

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

Engll&li. IlKjh-Gcrinan Iiido-dcnnan. Latin.

glide ... gleiten ghelo ... glaber

glatt
Hail ... Hagel ... ghela —

(rush
ferment)
— tele ... (t)latus

thole —

(endure)
tfull ... voll

Volk
i Floor ... Flur

Fold falten ... ,,

(hand?)

flat ... flach

iBlast blasen ... bhele
(blow)

Mould mahlen ... mela
Meal

t Bloom ... Bliimen ... melo

fblue Blood blau Blut mele
Black ... -

Wool ... Wolle ... Werena

tSleep ... schlafen... seleb

pele (vb)... plenus
— Pplebes

pela —

(spread
out & ap-
proach)
,, planu;

Greek,

•^dXa^o

rdXavTov

TrlfJLTrXrj/Mi

irXTjaLOV,
7reXajo<i

Remarks.

palma !

vrXar fs"

flare

Flos

fjLaXuKO'i,

{d)l3\i]Xpo^
j3XwcrK03
/xeXwi

sla\

, .. schlauen... skela

Lana

Labor, labo
Labes
lacero ? ... XuKii^M

oft)

— Atem ?

Name ... Name
Honey ... Honig

tjKin(d)... Kind
(Knave... Knabe

I (know kennen I
I (ken) konnen j
D. donker dunkel

ENA Bases.

ana ... Animus

Onomen... Nomen
kanak ... —

"ene

Genitor
Natus

gene

dhwena
(be. extin-

bi'Ojjbci
KVi]aa<;
yspeaa
yp7]TL,<i

yiyi^ioaKW
Odvaro'i

(brother)

twish
(win
Snare

spin

;uished)

wi'mschen wena ... Venenum ov/jai/jios
gewinnen weneu)
Schnur ... sene ... nere

... spmnen ... spene

— stohnen ... stena
jthunder... donnern... (s) tona ...

— — sena

(bathe)

irereadai (work)
cnevd-)(^(o

tonare

naftalre

N

y-jpev^

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES. 2/7

EMA Bases.

Eiifflish. High-Grrmaii Irulo-Gcnnan. Lai in. (Ireck. Remarls.

grim(etan, — ghreme ... — ■^pefxeril^a-) (neigh)

tSkTimber Zimiiier... dema 00(111111)118 oe/da'i

(build) Materies !
ftanie ... /;iliinen... doma ... domare ... {"A)8/jii]To<;

Ad flap (wife)
Sand ... do ... same (rub) — "A/uaOo^

EJA Bases.

3'a\vn ... giihnen ... gheja ... hiare, ■y^aivoi

hi SCO
gleam ... gHlben ... ghleja ... — ^\Lao6<i (warm)

t(Zeal) ... Jagen ... deja — StcoKco,

(hasten) ^)]\o^

Withy ... Weide ... weje viere

(twist) Vinien

sift ... sieben ... seja —

Shine ... scheinen... skeja ... — o-klu

Stone ... Stein ... steja stipare arenp ?

(be hard) (stuff?)

EWA Rases.

Wind

... Wind .

. . awe

.. Ventus .

. . 0 ;

for

hew

..• hauen

. . kowa

.. cudere

d fdSjay

raw

... rob

Krewo

cruor

A

:oea.<i

bloody crudus

flesh
tThousand Tausand tewo (be totus r^fi/So^,

strong) tumeo a«o?

pewa ... Pus
bhewa ... fui ... (f^^ats

Bhrewa?.. _ (^peap

mrewa

(say)
sewa

(beget)
sewa ... Sol ... (Saw)/;Xfos"

sewad suavis ... 7]8v<i

(taste)
S. Hide .. Haut ? ... skewa ob-scurus ctkvXoi',

(hide) aKVTo^

Slumber Schlum- slewe (be
lower nier silent)

foul
be

■■ faulen

Burn

. . Brunn

Bride .

.. Ijraut

Son

. . Sohn

S. Sun .

• • Sonne

sweet

.. suss

IJQ INDO-GEK.MAN COGNATES.

]J:.(jli.s]i. Hi(jIl-(Jci iiKin I lulo-ilcihiuit. L<uiii. (Jicel\ nciuaiks.

Feather... Feder ... PETA ... — Trera/jLat

good ... gut ... aghodh ... — dyaOo'i

PBerry ... Beere ... bhese — yjrda),

(rub oft) y^wfjiO'i;

yjrdiiiaOo'i,

I much — mega ... ma gnus /niyui;

(micklej

say ... sagen ... sokwe ... in-(s)quam eTTO?

//. DIPHTHOSGAL.
1. Bases \citlt I.

greedy .

—

gherei

(desire)

horior

thirsty .

.. durstig .

.. tersei

(be dry)

torreo

love

.. lieben

.. leubhei ...

lubet

will

.. wollen .

.. welei

velle

wit

.. wissen .

.. weidei ...

video

.. Ihelv,

olSa

J. Ihiscs -^.cith U.
quick ... — gwejew ... vivus ... l3i6<; ,^P)v

Riemen ... werau pvaOai.

(beware for)
(S. wary gewahr ... wer ... vereri opaw)

t waken ... welau (veil volumen elXvixa
round)

B. WITH SECOND SYLLABLE SHORT.
(L EXEU ; where X ^ raryiitg middle eousonaut.)

yare

gear

Sk. Kr.

S Creo

strew

streuen .

.. Sk. str .

.. struo

aTOpVVfJLl

hear

horen

.. akous

—

() KO VQi

—

ohne

.. eneu

—

dvev

nine

neun

. . enewen .,

. . novem

(red

rot

. . ereudh .

. . ruber

epvdpo'i

run

rennen .

. . oreu

. . orior ? ruo

opivuL

INDO-GERMAN COC'.NATES. 2/9

ii'rccl,'. I!()ii(trl:fi.

Eiiijiisli. Ji i(/li-(lci mail ] ndo-GcniKUi. Laliii
i Head ... Haupt ... Kokoubh Caput

leap

jKnee

Fleece

true
D. veel

ft brew
\ broth

" Nous ''

(top)
laufen ... keleu ... Caliis KeXeuOo^

(calv^)
Knie ... Genewo... Genu ... '^/oiw,

y(ovia
Flie.ss ... toleu ... —

— fdejewo

treu ... dhereu

viel ... peleu

brauen ... bhereu

Sinn ... Senewo ...

divus Dies Zeus"

pollere ... iroXu^;,

irXovTo-i
ferveo
de-frutum
(of wine)

— (avof^o<:

(2. EXEI.)

Roe ... Reh ... Eroi(goat) ' — E/3i0o9

t(K)Nit ... Niss ... Koneid ... — K6vi<i

t" Ex-peri- - - perei periculum Treipa

ment" (tempt)

— Mehlthau! Meleit ... Mel ... ixe\i{o-(Ta)

blithe, mild

?Fr. Saule Saal- Seloik ... Salix ... eXiKi-j
(weide)

(3. EXER. EXEN.)

Jflio-ht ... leicht
I Lung!
Lamb ■ —

Want ...

/'tte(ge)n Zehn

I hund- hund(erd
I (red)

tMouth ... Mund .

elengh ...

—

eK.a-)(^v<;

Elen-bho

eXacf)o<;

(Hart)

ewen (be-

—

€VlH<i

reaved)

ewen (Bed)

Venus

eum'j

dekemto...

decem

. SeKa,
-(h)K6vTa

)>

centum .

■ eKarov

. Stoment... Mentum... arofia

28o

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

(4 Bases ending in — EK
iclici'i K = final coiisoiKiiit.)

in. EREK.)

EiKjiisli. Hifili-dcj mail

1 ,i(h>-(ler)nan

Latin.

Greelc.

Remarks.

Hearth ...

Herd ...

kere

cremo

Heart ...

Herz ...

Kered

Cor

Kj'ip

crack

krachen ...

garog

throw

drehen ...

torek

torqueo ...

D. draaien

—

—

Thrum

—

Terem

Terminus

rep/xa

(end of

(e.

d)

thread)

(pray) ...

fra.^en ...

perek

preco

posco

Freckle ...

—

perek

—

TrpoKci^

(Doe!

sprinkle?

sprenkeln

Murder ...

morden ...

me ret

Mors

^poTOi;

March ...

Mark ...

(dead)
Marog ...

Margo ...

Work ...

W^erk ...

wereg

—

epjov,

wreak ...

raechen ...

wereg

urgeo ...

bpyavov,
pe^o)

Worm . . .

Wurm

XA'erem

Vermis ...

D. Hals

Fell
fold

Field .

Hals

do.

falten

Feld

b ELEK.

Kolos ... Collum

pele ... Pellis

pelet ... —

.. peleth —

(spread)
bleak(ch) bleich(en) Bheleg ... flagro
melt ... schmelzen meled

ScTrXco/jia
TrXaru?

(pXejo)

{c. ENEK, EMEK.)

Night ..

Nacht

... Onokt ...

No.x

I'V^, aKTL<i

Nail

Nagel

.. Onogh ...

Unguis ...

ovv^

—

—

enogh

—

I'vaaci),

(Nebula)

Nebel

(stick)
.. Onebh ...

Nebula ...

ejKO'i

Navel ..

Nabel

. Onobh ...

Imber
Umbilicus

(l(f)pO<i
OyLK^aXo?

D. neem

nehme

.. enemo ...

emo

us (ons)

uns

.. enos

nos

rffia-i

bind
South ..

binden
Sueden

.. bhenedh...
.. Senot

Nodus ! ...

Trelafia
v6ro>i

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

281

(,/. EJEK, EWEK.

English.

Uigh-German

Tiiilo-Gn-inan

1. Latin.

Greek.

Remarks.

(speak) ...

—

—

Praeco

(Prai jeqo)

eiTTOV

?Bug

—

Bojes ^fear)

—

Bogey

awekwe ...

Vox

eTTO^

wax

w a c h s e n

awege

augeo
augustus
vigeo

a /■ t'^CO

bid

beten

evvegh

(pray)

voveo

ev'^o/jiai

t Wether...

Widder ...

evvet

Vitulus

t Water ...

Wasser ...

Kwod

Unda ...

vBwp ?

Weave !

fwear

—

o\ve(s)
(clothe)

Vestis ...

evvvfxi

—

—

iewes

(Vesta
Vesuvius)

evco

tEaster ...

Ostern ...

awese

Aurora

i)coi^, avao<i

(lighten)

Ve(sjr

avpiov

Ear

—

? wahr

(wes-ro)

verus

t PD.dwaas

dhevves
(breathe)

Furius ...

Oe6^

(dhwesos)
Slav. Duch.
mhd.getwas
(eo).

reek

riechen ...

sewek

—

Ksevvep

sopire

Somnus

VTTl'O'i

fbow

beugen ...

bheweg ...

fugo

Leaf ...

Laub

lewep

—

Xe7ro9

(shell)

tBite

beissen ...

bhejod ...

fodio

Deal ...

Teil

Uoiol ...

—

jTear ... Thrane
Hammer do.

u EXEK)

Odakru ... Lacruma BuKpv
Akamon — ciKpwv,

(Stone) Ka/j.ii'o'i

fOkosth ... Os ... oariov

Costa (rib) (oksth-)

tteach
tleave
iwit

(5. Bases ending in E).

{a. EXE.)

zeigen ... deike ... dixit Ju-dex eSeL^a
(b)leiben leikvve ... linquo ... XiTretv
vvissen ... weide ... video ... ISelp

282

INDO-GERMAN COGNATES.

K,i>lllsli.

II l<lh-(ici mail Jndu-Clerman

Lai in.

a reel,-.

I'cmaiLs.

Dug (te£
lYoke

.. Joch

dheughe —
(give profit)
.. ieuge(bind) Jugum ...

Tongs

.. Zange

.. deike

—

SaKelv

t ( eat

.. essen

.. ede

edo

eSfw

1 Tooth

.. Zahn

—

(E)dens ...

oSou'i

t naked

Foot
t Right

.. nackt
.. Fuss
.. Recht

.. nog we ...
.. Pede
.. rede

nudus
Pedem ...
rego Rex

TTOVi

Raj (Skt)
-rix (Kel-
tic)

-j weigh

.. wiegen

.. weghe

(ride)

veho

Uxor

-

go
Flood

.. gehen
.. Flut

seghe
.- eje
.. pi ewe

(swim)

e(j)o
pluit

exetv

elfxi

ttXmm

Birth

.. Gehurt

.. bhere

fert Fors

(f)aperpov

come

.. kommen

gweme ...

venio

^aivM

(Ij. axe.)

i Acre ... Akker ... age (drivej ago, Ager ayco,

Amb-ag-es ay p6<i

Ex-amen
— — jage (offer) — dyp6<;,

Nose ... Nase ... do. ... Nares

Nasus

lEve

Autre

{c. OXE.)

Okwe ... Oculus

o/xfxa,
oyjro/jiai,

TRISYLLABIC BASES.

fTiw (god Ziu ... Dejewo ... divus Zeu^, Sk. &

of War) Jupiter Slo<i Lit.

devas.
iTree ,.:. — Derewo ... — 8pv^, Sopv

fAye — ajewo ... Aevum ... at frcov

(Goth
Aiws)
Wheel ... — Kwekwelo — kvkXg^

spew ... speien ... spejewa ... sputum ... Trvril^ci}

SOUTH AFRICAN ECONOMIC PLANTS. 283

South African Economic Plants. Hie i)/^/7r-

tin of the Imperial Institute ( 1914J 12 [ij, records the results
of some investigations recently performed in the institute's
laboratories into the economic values of some South African
plants. Amongst these was some aloe fibre from Bechuanaland.
thought to have been derived from. Aloe Linjardiana. This fibre
was lustrous, fairly fine, and soft, of pale straw coloiu', and well
cleaned and prejxired. It was found to be of fairly good
strength, and \aried in length from 20^ to 37^ inches, averaging
about 30 inches. Il.s percentage of cellulose was found to be low,
and this fact, coti{)led with a rather high loss on hydrolysis,
indicated that it was somewhat inferior to Sisal hemp in respect
of chenncal composition and l)chaviour, and that it would pro-
bably prove to be less durable. The fibre was valued at £27 to
±28 per ton in London, and would probably be saleable in the
United Kingdom as a cordage material, although rather short
for that puri)ose. /Another economic plant examined was

SeiUa rigidifolia from Swaziland. The leaves were dry and
rather l)rittle, containing a fair pro])ortion of fibre, which, how-
ever, was very weak, and cotdd not be profitably extracted for
textile purposes. It is possible, nevertheless, that the leaves
nfight tind a market for ])aper making, and with this object in
view thev were examined. Com])ared with Algerian esparto
grass the leaves yielded a larger proportion of pulp, although
the ultimate fibres of the pulj) were rather shorter. It seemed
likely, therefore, that the dried leaves would be saleable for
])aper making at a price approximating to that of Algerian
esparto grass. .Vt such a jrice, however, it appeared oln-ioiis
ihat the collection and export of the leaves of .S'. rigidifolia would
not l)e ])rofitable, and so the employment' of the ))lant for pa])er
making in South Africa was suggested, or the local conversion
of the leaves into " half stuff." Vidiich could then be shipped to
Europe, and so efi'ect a considerable saving in the cost of trans-
port. A third economic product to which allusion is made in
the Bulletin is the timber of Khaya nyasica from the Mozam-
bifjue Province. The Avood was well seasoned and uniformly
sound, and weighed 38 lb. per cubic foot. When freshly ctit
it was pinkish-red with a brown tinge, l)ut on exposure the
colour improved to a deeper red-brown. It was uniform in
texture, firm, moderately hard, and worked freely, and would
be classed as a good average African mahogany: so closeiv,
indeed, did it resemble mahogany that it Avas imagined there
Avotild be no difiiculty in selling it as such ; in fact, it is said
that many woods inferior to it are already being sold as
mahogany.

AL(;rXS ET.EMEXTOS PARA 0 ESTUDO DO CLBIA DE
LOUREXCO r^rARQUES.

Por AroTSTo de Ai.meida Teixeira.

Jvste trabalho e principalmente baseado iias observacoes do
Ob.servatorio " Campos Rodrigues " e iias do.s aiitiyos postos
da Capitania do Porto e Missao Suissa.

Prequcntemente se fazein refereiK'ia.s ao.s eb^iiicntos lueteoro-
logicos da Africa do Sul, para o que foram coiisultadas as
e.spleiKlidas niemorias sobre o assiiiito dos P^x.'"""" Sr.s. Robert
T. A. Jni](.s, Director do Oliservatorio Astronomico da rniao,
J. R. Sntton, Director do Observatorio de Kimberley. Charles
Stewart, Director dos Serviros ileteorologicos da Taiiau, Coronel
II. E. Ra\v.-:on, memljro da Commissao de Meteorologia, e
capitao de fragata Hugo de Lacerda, ex-chefe dos Servicos de
^Mariiiha de iMocambiqiie, algnmas das quaes veem publicadas
iios relatorios anniiaes dos Congressos Scientificos da " South
African Associatio'n for the Advancement of Science."

Temperattjka.

A temperatiira e sem duvida o i)i'incipal elemento a con-
siderar, qualquer que seja o aspecto .sol) que se pretenda encarar
0 clima de iima regiao. A media annual da temperatura em
Lourenco Marques tem o valor de- 22°. 2 C .(72 P.) obtida por
ob.servacoes de 14 annos. A temperatura media mensal tem os
seguintes valores: (Quadro X"o. 1).

Como se ve, a ditt'erenca entre o mes mais quente, Janeiro, e o
mais fresco, .julho, nao attinge o valor de 8° C. (14° F.), jiisti-
licando o jioder considerar-se regular este clima, o que e natural
consequencia da posicao de Loureneo ^Marques cercada de XXE
a SW pelas aguas do Rio Incomati, da bahia e do estuario do Rio
Es])irito Santo. Esta circunstancia, o predominio dos ventos
maritimos, principalmente nas noras de mais calor, e, por ultimo,
a escassez de calma concorrem para amenizar a temperatura,
tornando o clima mais a^radavel do (pie era de esperar da sua
posicao geographica.

E conhecido o aquecimento (pie para a costa oriental da
Africa resulta da corrente maritima de Mo(;ambique, contraria-
menta ao que succede na costa occidental resfriada pela corrente
de Btnguella, facto contirmado pela inspec(-'ao de uma carta
isothermica onde pode verificar-se que para igual latitude corres-
pondem temperaturas mais elevadas na primeira costa e que
uella a temperatura aumenta de S para o N.

Igualmente o Sr. C. Stewart, pela analyse das temperaturas
da Africa do Sul, concluiudar-se um aumento de temperatura
de O para E ao longo do parallelo de latitude (^ de S para o X
ao longo da costa E.

Xo estudo do caso particular de Louren(:o ^larques, a com-
para(;ao das temperaturas do logar com as das regi5es para AV

CLIMA DE LOURENC^O IMAKOUKS. 20>5

n'uu pocle lazer-.se a priiiicii'a vista, por causa da i;i'ande difft'i'enea
de altitude e posieao de Ijouiviua) Marques no litoral, mas e facil
fazer-se com a dos outro.s nouto.s da costa.

D'esta eomparaeao couelue-se ser o auimMito de teuiperatura
de Durban para Loureneo Marques inferior ao que seria de
esperar, dada a dift'erenea de latitude de 2'U millias existente
eiitre os doi^- pontes.

Assim, a media annual de Loureneo A!ar(iues e superior a
de Durban ape:uis em 0°.6 C. (l°.l F.), a do mes mais quente
l°.l C. (2°F.) ; a temperatura do mes mais t'rie e sensivel-
mente a mesma mis duas cidades.

Os valores extremos — maxima e minima a])solutas — sao
superior's era Lourento ]\Iarques, respeetivamente, Crrea de
r\-4 C. (2°. 3 F.) e 2°.l C. (3°.8 F.). (Quadro No. II.)

Se eompararmos Durban e East-London, distando 190
milhas em latitude, eneontramos differeneas muito maiores: o
mesmo se da entre Loureneo J\Iarques e Inhambane com uma
ditferenea de latitude de 124 milhas, st-ado para notar que
Inhambane se afasta bastante emquanto as maxima e minima
absolutas, por divergir muito do regime met?orolog'ieo do litoral
da Africa do Sul.

Estas comparacoes sao favoraveis a Lourcnio ^larques
t[uanto ao aumento de temperatura de S para X e demoustram
a semelhanea do clima pelo que respeita a temperatura das
eidades de Loureneo Marques e Durban, liavendo maior dif-
ferenca no valor da temperatura minima ahsoluta inferior na
ultima cidade.

Talves eoncorra ])ara esta eircunstanciM a eonfiguraeao- da
costa para o S da Ponta Zavora e a extensao da bahia, que deem
origem a eorrente de ^toeambique se atfastar de Loureneo
]Mar(pies, nao elevaiulo tanto a sua temperatura, o que s('i um
estudo mais detalhado das correntes pode confirmar.

Pela analyse das tem])eraturas 'nos dift'erentes meses verifica-
se ser bastante agradavel a temperatura de mriio a outubro, para
■os quaes e tambem menor a ]iercentagem de humidade relativa.
Nos meses de de/eml)ro a umreo. com a> tem]i(M'aturas mais
elevadas, o elima toma nm aspecto mais tropical, sobretudo nos
dois ultimos, os mais humidos. Nos restantes meses. de transicao.
com frequencia as t»miperatura:s sao agradaveis.

As quatro estacoes nao sao bem caracterizadas, pois os meses
de transicao estao longe de jioderem chamar-se — primavera e
outono — sendo mais adequado dividir o anno cm duas estacdes — ■
quente e chuvosa de outuliro a nuir>,o. fresca c (pia>i srcca de
al)ril a setembro.

No r/uadro No. Ill re,uistam-s(^ a-: varia ncs ".la temperatura
. — media mcnsal e a chnva media de cada me.s :

As differeneas durante o aumento da tenqxM'atura i)ara o
lue-mo periodo sao menores e afi'ectam maior regularidade do que
durante o decreseini! iito. talvez devido a inliuencia da chuva que
relarda ;) mcir>'ha asceiidente da t(^mperatnra. dimiiiuindo-llic o

2Sh CLIMA DE LOURENCO MAROUES.

^•ill()^. (' pclo coiitrario. nos ineses tin ((iie uieiios ehove, o decresei-
muitu e muito mais rapido. devendo iiotar-se ([wv a estes meses
rorresponde menor nebiilosidade, o que, juntamente com a
iiiaior ii'radia(>~io noctnrna occasionada pela superior dnraeao da
iioite. deve coneorrer para essa descida mais rapida. A marcha
do sol inflne iia variacao annual da tein})eratura. havendo o
retardaniento usual.

A variacao dp teniperatura duraaite o dia pouco ottVreee de
ii'vcuiilar. A minima da-se, como e normal, antes de nascer o
sol. (' a maxima eerea das XIII boras, sendo o aumento mais
rai)ido e aecentuado das VII para as IX : dei)i)is, talve/ por eft'eito
ila ])ei'sisteneia doi wntos maritimos. o ere-iiMmeiit!! toriui-se mais
lento.

A diminiii ao da teinpei'atura com o [)or do sol nao e tao
accciitnada ; dei)ois da Dieia uoilc ate a hora da minima, o
deereseimento e mi eerea de 1 ('. A irradiar-ao nocturna
durante o anno nao parece tei" intluciicia tao urande como era de
esjierar. o (|ue talvez se expli(|ue attendendo a (pie nas noites de
menoi- lu l)ulosidade e mais frecpiente o cacimbo. o qual. eomo
s( ,-;il)e. coiiipc'iisa a irradiaeao devido a ^rande (puuitidade de
calor liherto jx^la eo'ndensaeao de vapor de apua existente na
atmosphera. O eaeimbo e muito mais frequente na estaoao seea.
A media das oseillai'oes diarias. eujo valor annual regula por
10 (" (1S° P'), ttni o seu maioT' valor 11° para 12" (' ('20'' i)ara
21 ..") F). .!e alunl a aiiosto e nos outros meses este valor desee
jtroizressivamente a 70° C (12°. 6 F). Ksta dift'erenea provem
d( (|nr, (•seillando a variaeao maxima media eerea de 7° C.
( 11: .() F.). a variacao minima oseilla de 10" ('. (18° F.). isto e, a
os,'illa';a;) da tcmperatura mi'uima e nniito maiof do que a da
maxima, o eontrario do qne sueeede cm Ijisl)oa. o (jue nos parece
])o(]rr (■xi)]icar--:c ixla coineideneia ;i<(ui existente das ehuvas e
da niaioi" iK^hnlosidade no epoea (piente. Alem d'i-to, os voifos
(jiKiihs de N e XXW, originados pela passaoem das perturba-
eoes atmosi)berieas. tambem se faxem sentir na epoca fresea. eau-
sando (levacdes de temperatura relativament,^ mais importantes
do ([ue na outra.

Analoua dittercMiea existe entre os valores de maxima e
minima al)solntas. devida as niesmas cansas.

Estes valores extremos de temperatura oft"erecem ba.staute
interesse no estudo de um cliuui, posto (jue o desenvolvimento das
doenc-as endemicas, segundo lemos. deptiida essencialmente das
medias de temperatura. 0 europeu residente nestes climas torna-
se iiuiito mais sensivel as variacoes de temperatura. ainda mesmo
aos i)e(jnenos decreseimentos que na Europa nada impressionam.
e tanto mais quanto mais longa e a sua permanencia, o que talvez
se possa justiticar })elo seu depauperamento physico e pelo estado
byg:ometrico da atmospbera. A neeessidade (pie parece haver
de evitar mais cuidadosamente, nestes climas, os resfriamentos
pelas suas mas conse(iueneias, da tambem importancia ao conhe-
cicento do> valores extremos da tem])eratura.

CLIMA DE L()UREXC(» MAROUES. JO/

() rxanie das niaxiriias c iiiiuiiiias al)soliitas, eontidas no
Quadro No. IV. pod(^ inipi'essiouar desfavoravelmente, nia.s e.stas
varia(;oes extremas sao devidas ao rotlo quente de NNW que
aiiteeede a passagem das depressoes atniospherieas, segnido
inimediatameiite de vento S fresco, origmando grande abaixa-
iiKiito de temixn-atui-as. por vezes de 16° C. (28°. 8 F.) em nina
e meia hora.

Esta circumstaiicia. seni duvida iniportaiite, e coniiiiniii a
toda a eosta da Africa do Sid. de Walfiseh Bav a Durban.

Dos tres annos completes de observacao no Observatorio
extrahimos os segiiintes eliinentos:

Temperatura maxima superior a o5^ C (!)5° F)

registou-se '21 vezes

Temperatura maxima superior a -10° C (104° F)

registou-se 5 ..

Temperatura minima entre !)° e 10° (' (48°. 2 e

50° F) re-istou-se 21

Temperatura minima e-ntre 8° e !)° C (4H'.4 e 48°. 2

F) registou-se (] ,,

'i"( mpei-atura minima entre 7° e 8° (- (44°. (J e

4(i°.4 F) registou-se 1 ,,

T( mixratura minima igual a 25° (' (77° F) regis-

ton->e 1 ,,

Temi)tratura minima entre 24° c 25° (' (75°. 2

e 77° F) registou-se 8 „

Temperatura minima entre 23° e 24° (' (73°. 4

e 75 ~. 2 F) registou-se 2(i ,,

Variacao de temperatura no mesnio dia de 25°. 8

C_(4()°.4F) 1

Variacao de temperatura no mi^smo dia entrc^ 20°

e 25° C (36° e 45°.5 F ) 17

Variacao de temperatura no jnesmo dia entre 15°

e 20° C (27° e 36°.4 F) 67

Como se ve, as temperaturas superiores a 40° C (104° F)
e inferiores a 9° C (48°. 2 F) podem considerar-se excepcionaes
e bem assini as variacGes diarias superiores a 20° C (36° F).

[gualmente se conclue Cjue raras vezes a temperatura minima
diaria e superior a 24° C (75°. 2 F), e poucas a 23° C (73°.4
F), pelo (pie durante a noite, em geral. o calor iiiconnnoda
pouco.

Parece-nos, pois, que estas temperaturas extremas e
variacoes diarias elevadas nao devem impressionar muito
desfavoravelmente, dada a sua i)e(piena frt^piencia, devendo
notar-se que temperaturas superiores a 40° ('. (104° F.) regis-
tam-se cm climas temperados, como Lisboa, e ainda na Franca,
onde OS valores minimos sao nuiito inferiores aos d'aqui.

Sobre a explicacao d'este vtnio quente NNW, cpie se regis-
tou sempre que a temperatura excedeu 32° C. (89°. 6 F.).
voltaremos a falar. Nao ba duvidi-t (|ue e basttviite incommodo

288 CLIMA DE LOURENCO MARQUES.

devido a ser extremameiite seen, (-ausfindo uma impre.ssao iiao
menus desagradavel. que a provoeada pelos ventos ([iientes e
linmidos.

Pressao Barometrica.

A pressao barometrica que oecupa um logar principal na
Meteorologia passa para o segundo piano no estudo de um clima
e consequente influencia na vida hnmana, se nao co'nsiderarmos
OS sens eifeitos nos outros elementos, pois as suas oscillaeoes
parecem nao ter influencia perceptivel sobre o homem e so nas
grandes altitudes e um elemento climatologieo de importancia.

Xo quadro No. V mencionam-se os valores das medias
mensaes e annual, para iim periodo de sete annos. da pressao
barometrica reduzida a 0° C e ao nivel do mar.

Alem da dupla variacao diaria. improprian.iente chamada
mare, explicavel por varias theorias (|ue mais on meno> satis-
fazem, existe bem definida a variai;ao ainmal com os valores.
minimo em dezembro e maximo em .julho, correspondendo e
media annual a media de abril, para o mesmo periodo de sete
aunos.

Esta variacao annual da-se em se'iitidd contrario a variacao
de temi)eratura, como e regra nos continentes de climas tem-
pera dos.

Analysando as variacdes em vinte e quatro boras, nota-se
([ue a minima da noite tem geralmente logar das III para as IV
boras, e a do dia das XV ))ara as XVt. sendo a regra geral; a
maxima da manlia regista-se das VIII para as IX boras, bavendo
tcndencia para se dar mais cedo de outubro a dezembro, e a
maxima da noite e retardada, dando-se geralmente das XXIII
para as XXIV boras, e mesmo depois da meia noite. A minima
do dia e inferior em cerca de 1'"™.5 (0".059) a da noite, o que
e mais pronunciado de outubro a Janeiro, a maxima do dia ex-
cede a outra em cerca de 0'"'".5 (0".0197), sendo a diit'erenca
mais elevacla de jnnbo a outubro ; consequentemente, a dift'erenca
entre a maxima e a minima do dia e mais accentuada que a da
noite. Estes factos, na sua maioria, parecem-nos explicar-se pela
marclia diaria da temperatura ja mencionada, e ligados a bora
do nascer e occaso do sol.

As pressoes extremas registadas no 0[)servatorio sao :
maxima 779™"\4 (30".686), minima 7-i6"^"\2 (29".878), isto e,
uma variacao absoluta de 33"''"\2, comprehendida entre os
limites registados para Durban e Elast-London. As minimas
absolutas, como e natural, correspondem a passagem das de-
pressoes, seguiaido-se as maximas que se accentuam quando o
regime anti-cyclonico se fixa no planalto de uma forma mais
estavel.

Alem d'estas duas variacoes regulares — diaria e annual —
falta considerar as variacoes irregulares provenientes da passa-
gem de areas de altas ou baixas pressSes.

Como exemplo de uma d'estas pertubacoes e dos sens
effeitos nos outros elementos meteorologicos. apreseataremos os

CLIMA DE LOURENqO MAKOUES. 289

respet'tivos valores liorarios dc uiiia depi'essrio em -8 de setembro
de 1912. que ponco interesse otrerece a quern tenha estudada
phenomeno semelliante em qnalquer ontro local na Africa do
Sill, e simplesmente servira para evidenciar a analogia do regime
meteorologiea de Loiireiico ^Marques com o d 'esses po'iitos.
(Qnadro Xo. A^).

A sim})les observaeao dos valores d'este quadro torna evi-
dente todos os etfeitos na temperatura, direccao e forea do venlo,
teusao de vapor e Inimidade relativa. As depressoes, occa-
sioiiaiido (piasi sempre rcufos quentes de NNW e do N. influem
ua evaporacao, toniando-a excessiva, o que ol)rig"a a cuidados
espeeiaes para iiao faltar agua no evaporometro e no psychro-
metro.

Nesta depressao, a duraeao do votlo <jucntc foi a usual, mas
a iieseid;" rapida da temperatura, quaudo o veuto depois de
uma pequena calma se fez ao S, nao foi das mais aceentuadas:
geralmente esta calma dura um maximo de 20 miuutos, ronipendo
depois o ventu S com bastaute violencia, ]ior vezes com rajadas
correspondeutes a velocidades 70, 80 e ainda 100 kilometros
a hora, provocando as ehamadas iempestade de p6, aqui menos
frcijuentes do que vemos meucionada para outro-; locaes da Africa
d(» ;Sul.

As depressoes nem sempre sao precedidas de cirrus, e,
quaudo o sao, notam-se priucipaliiKMite com dois ou tres dias de
anteeedeucia.

Poucas boras antes do vento rondar i)ara o S e frequenU-
formar-se uma barra no horizonte e o ceu ir-se nublando sueces-
sivaniente com uma camada de cirrus-stratus e depois de cumuios
e cunuilos-nimbos. O S por vezes vem acompanhado de chuvas,
mais frequentes iios segundo e terceiro dias, sobretudo na epoca
da chuva, mas nunca chove quaudo o vento esta do quadrante do
X. Outras vezes vem acompanhado de trovoadas. 0 vento ESE,
(|ue nesta depressao se registou as XII boras de 29, persistiu
dejtois durante bastantes boras, como e frequente, com inten-:i-
dade variavel, por -vezes fresco, fazendo-se depois E e EX^E.

Tivemos oecasiao de verificar em 1912 que as depressoes se
fazem sentir tni Durban com uma antecedencia de oito a vinte
boras em relacao a Lourenco Marques.

• ( reralmente sao mais frequentes em maio e de agosto a
dezeml)ro : teem menor duracjlo na epoca seca do que durante as
cbuvas.

p]ste exemplo comprova geralmente as seguintes conclusoefi
a ({ue entre outras cbegou o Sr. Sutton sa sua memoria " Oit
i/u vnrkdion of the hoiirhj meteorological normals at Kimherley
during the passage of a barometric depression " : Causarem as
de])ressoes um grande exaggero nas variaeoes normaes da pressao^
e da temperatura, infliienciarem a neljulosidade. sobretudo para
as nuvens baixas. originarem cbuvas. mais abundantes no segun-
do dia. e por ultimo parece-nos tamliem dever concluir-se en-

-290 CLIMA DE LOURENc^O MARQUES.

trareiii aio L-ontiiieiite de preterencia de S ou SW e niiu do X. e
ainda nao atravessarem 0 sal de Africa de W para E, etc., etc.

Faltam nos no entanto elementos para um estudo detalhado
d'esias depressoes 0 que tambem alongaria mnito este trabalho
o que nao e 0 nosso intento.

Vento

Em Loureiieo Marques sao raras as lioras de calma 0 que,
juutamente com os ventos predominantes do lado do mar, muito
co'iicorre para amenizar o clima. Nos annos 1909 a 1912 regis-
taram se, respectivamente, vinte e quatro, duas. vinte e uove e
sessenta e uma horas de ealnia. innuero insigniticantissimo. uao
attiugindo tm media annualmeiite trinta horas.

Os anemometros do Observatorio estao eoUocados st)hre o
edificio assente em terreuo pouco aceideiitado. nao, haveiido nada
ma is elevado muitos kilometros em roda.

No ([uadro Xo. VII media de quatro annos, verifiea-se ser
l)equeno o numero de dias em que o vento e fraeo, menor ainda
OS de vento forte, e somente sao muito fn'(|uentes os dias de vento
moderado.

Quanto it variaeao diaria da direeeao, era facil prever. dada
a posii ao de Lourenco ^Marques no litoral, a intiueneia ])em ma'ui-
I'esta (la viraeao e do terral. O tcrral faz-se sentir mais nos nieses
de abrii a ai^osto, e menos em novembro e dezenibro: principia
pelas XXIII horas e termina geralmente depois das IX. o mais
tardar as XI, sendo rarissimo haver vento dos ((uadrantes W
depois do nr.Mo din, a nao ser ((uando soj)ra o n 11 to queiite XXW.

Xos me.ses tm que este regime esta bem estal)elecido, so
quaudo o vento de X ou S sopra com violencia, e (\\\e nao ronda
para os quadrantes de W, durante a noite.

Conforme a regra nas circunstancias de Lourenuo Marques,
(hirante o dia a forca do vento excede a da noite, soprando
geralmente mais fraco das O as III horas, aumentando succes-
sivamente ate as XVI horas, persistindo fresco ate as XIX: como
se ve, a velocidade do vento estk ligada com a variaeao de tem-
peratnra, mas, (piando esta decresce, a velocidade do vento nao
diminue logo como e mais usual.

Dois factos ha a mencionar: j'ls XI horas da-se geralmente
uma diminuitao do forca do vento, o que talves se justifique pela
inlluencia do regime, viraeao e terral, pois esta diminuieao e
mais accentuada nos meses de abril a agosto, sendo a esta hora
que geralmente o vento ronda; talves pela mesma causa, 0 de-
crescimento da forea do vento e mais acccntuado das XXI para
as XXIII horas. '(Quadros Xos. VIII e IX).

A regra da viraeao e do teiral serem mais intensos nos meses
de maior variaeao de temperatura e de menor velocidade nos
outros ventos predominantes, explica o estabelecer-se mais
accentuadamente este regime nos meses de abril a agosto. Em
Lourenco ]Marques, a velocidade media do vento e mais elevada
nos meses r> sctembro a Janeiro.

CLIMA DE LOURENqO MARQUES. 29I

Os grapliieos com as percentageois da frequeiu'ia e kilo-
nietros percorridos nos ditt'erentes riimos facilitam bastante a
analyse do regime nos varios meses.

Xa quadra mais (jnente, de outubro a maio, predominani os
ventos EXP] a SSW, com pequena percentagem de ventos do
quadrante XW e dos nimos SW a W. 0 vento predominante
do qnadrante SE successivamente vae rondando para J^W de
ontubro a maio, e igiialmente se nota um aumento de percen-
tagem de XP] para EXE ate fevereiro, em que predomina este
ultimo rumo, a (pial i)or sua vez diminue bastante em mareo.
Assim, durante os meses mais quentes predominam os ventos
maritimos e ainda o SSW que e bastante frio. Xos restantes
meses de viraeao e terral mais pronunciados naturalmente sao
mais frequentes os ventos de W, aumentando de abril a julho a
frequencia de XXW c dimiiuiindo nos tres seguintes meses. Ate
junho o vento aumenta em fretiuencia de SE para SW, voltando
entao a soprar com mais frequencia de S, SSE e do (juadrante
XE.

Em resumo : nos meses de maio. junho e julho pi'cdoiniiiam
OS ventos dos (piadrantes W, principalmente XXW e depois
SSW; nos meses de novembro, dezembro e Janeiro predominam
OS ventos dos quadrantes XE e SE, principalmente EXE, E, ESE
e ainda o S. Os outros meses podem eo'nsiderar-s(^ de transieao
para estes regimes mais definidos.

A percentagem do nuniero de Icilometros pt r('{)ri'id()s nos dif-
ferentes rumos acompanha a percentagem iia frequencia,
notando-se naquella um aumento nos rumos em que, como vimos,
o vento sopra com maior forca.

As monsoes que se sentem para o N no canal de Mocambique
nao se fazem aqui notar, ainda que talvez tambem tenham in-
tiuencia na forca e direccao do vento.

A analyse do quadro Xo. X mostra a inHuencia do Gcral de
SK, <(ue como se sabe, predomina no Oceano Indico nesta latitude,
pois a resultante annual e sempre proximamente SE e. na
inaioria dos meses, principalmente dos meses quentes, a resul-
tante e tambem d'este quadrante. Isto e, estes valores poem em
evidencia um grande deslocamento de ar para NW, sem duvida
devido ao grande aspirador da Africa ec[uatorial, o que o Sr. C(^m-
mandante Hugo de Lacerda ja tinha concluiclo pelas analyses
do anno de 1909, justificando a maior' frequencia das depressoes
aia quadra quente por esta aspiraeao ser mais accentuada. 0 Sr.
commandante Hugo de Lacerda emittiu a hypothese de (jue os
regimes de altas pressoes dos dois oceanos que banham a costa de
Africa servissem de compensadores ao desicpiilibrio que tende
constantemente a dar-se na Africa Central, reforeando a sua
opiniao com a circunstancia de nao haver resultante em Kim-
berley.

Quando falamos das perturbacoes barometricas, men-
eio'namos a existencia tlos vottos quentes, commuiis ao lit'oral da
Africa do Sul. A maioria dos illustres meteorologistas qv.9 se

A

292 CLIilA DE LOURENCO MARQUES.

teem oceapado d'estes veiitos attribiu'in-lhes (•uiii[)leta semelhaiiL-a
com 0 FoeJiH dos Mpcs. que foi eahalmeute explieado pelo Dr.
Haiin, e sopra no lado X dos Alpes, muito quente e seco, qiiando
urn cyclone se manifesta na Europa Occidental com as pressoes
mais baixas na Ingiaterra e as mais altas no .Mcditerraneo Orien-
tal, e no lado S, na Italia, em circunstancias oppostas.

Se considerarmos so Lourenco IMarques, a explicacao de uma
forma identica pode, a primeira vista, pareeer pouco apropriada,
dada a distancia a que fleam elevadas montanlias para N e NNW,
alem de que a subida do litoral para o planalto da Rhodesia nao
se fa/ abruptamente. mas sim por ressaltos fracos.

Xo entanto, provindo da Africa e<|uatori«l. e natural (lue
seja de temperatura elevada, e a descida para o litoral ainda o
torna mais quente e seeo, pois nao atravessa na sua passagem
para o S qualquer regiao (^ue llie possa dimi-nuir a temperatura
ou clcvar a humidade. A absoluta analogia com os ventos da
costa da Africa do Sul mais justitica esta explicacao, ainda re-
forcada j^orque em Inhambane nao se faz sentir tao caracter-
isticamente ({uente e seco, pois ali o vento NXW jc'i nao provem
dos clcvados j)lanaltos do interior.

A contrai)or a este vento quente, temos o vcnto S cuja tem-
p(M-atiira pouco elevada tern muito maior intluc'ucia no clima, por
scr muito mais frequente. ao contrario do WW ([uv. como dis-
senids. dura i)()ucas horas e ])oucas vezes se faz sentir: nao st> deve
porem confundii' iios gra[)hic()-; da perccntngeiu com o XXW
devido ao terra!.

Xovamentc chanuiremos a atten(;ao para as rajadas violentas
correspondentes a 60, 70, 80 e 100 kilometros a hora, que se
sciitciu. poi' vezes. ao princi])iar o vento S, (piando da passagtni
das perturbaeoes atmosphericas.

As maiores velocidades horarias registadas em (juatro aamos
de observatorio f oram : 88 kilometros com vento SSE e 77 kilo-
metros com S em outubro e marco de 1911, attingindo varias
vezes velocidades entre 60 e 70 kilometros.

Nao se nota em Lourenco ^lanjues (jual(|uer rotacao diaria
do vento num ou noutro sentido (hdch-iii;/ ou vcfrhuj).

Humidade relativa e tensao de \apor.

Segundo a classificaeao mais geral considera-se — moderada-
mente humido — o clima cu.ja humidade relativa esta compre-
hendida entre 60 e 80 por cento, assim deve ser classificado
Loureni'o ^larqnes por(pu\ como se ve no quadro N^o. XI, nao
so a media annual, mas as niedias mensaes, ticam entre estes
limites.

0 conhecimeto do estado hygrometrico da atmosphera e uni
elemento de valor pela sua influencia deprimente e desagradavel.
sobretudo para temperaturas elevadas. Em Lourenco Marques,
como ja vimos, o vento ([uente excessivamente seco e bastante
incommodo, ainda que indubitavelmente meiios prejudicial a
saude <|ue o vento quente e humido. Aos cinco primeiros mese-

CLIMA DE LOUREXCf) MARQUES. 2(;3

do aiiiio correspoiide a iiiaior perreiitaucni dr huiiiidade relativa,
(' ;i uifiK)]' aos dc julho a oiitiibro, isto e. atiuelles de incnor tem-
[)eratiii'a e de ehuva mais escassa.

O excesso de Immidade iios meses de mareo a maio. contribue
para os tornar peores do que seria de esperar, se attendessemos
s(') ;i sua teiuperatura relativameiite baixa.

Se eompararinos o oraphico das teniperaturas nieiisaes com
o da hiimidade relativa, ve se que, variando em seutido differeute,
uao existe uma relac-ao perfeita, pois ha um certo atrazo na
marelia da eurva da humidade. Assim, em abril, em que o de-
erescimento da temperatura ja se tornou sensivel, a humidade
attiuiie o sen nuiximo valor, priueipiaudo so entao a tleereseer
ate st-teml)r(). em (jue attin^ie o miuiuio vah)r. ao passo que a
tem])eratura sobe desde julho.

Eiu relaeao a epoea das ehuvas, a humidade rehiti\'a attiui^e
o seu maximo quaudo ella esta a fiudar. e o seu miuimo em setem-
l)ro. poueo depois de eomeear a aumentar a ipiautidade de ehuva
men sal.

<) faeto de predominarem os veiitos maritinu)s Ua epoea
qiiente deve tambem intiuir uos valores da humidade relativa,
pois. seuuudo a observaeao. os veutos mais humidos sao os de
XE a SSW por E.

Em theoria. a humidade relativa, seudo a relaeao j. eutre
H teusao de vapor f (humidade absoluta) num dado momento e a
tensao de vapor F no estado de saturaeao. deve diminuir com a
temperatura, pois o luimerador d'esta fraceao pouco aumeuta
com ella ao passo que a denominador cresce bastante.

Ja vimos que na variacao annual existe lun atrazo em relyeao
a mart'lia da temperatura; vejamos aja'ora- a iuHuencia d'esta na
variacao diurna.

0 maximo valor da humidade relativa antecede o nascer do
sol. coincidindo com a minima thermometriea ; o valor minimo
tern ueralmeute logar pelo meio dia, antes da maxima da tem-
l)eratura ; o decrescimento acompanha regularmente o subir da
temperatura. O aumento da percentagem de humidade e mais
rapido da liora da minima ate as XXI horas, depois aumenta
vauarosamente, registando-se por vezes o estado de saturaeao ou
va lores a proximados.

O valor minimo ahsoluto da humidade relativa corresponde
aos dias de lu iito quriit( . che.u'ando a ter o pecpieno valor de 8 por
Cento.

A variaciio media tem um valor annual de 88 e, analotia-
mente a variacao de temperatura, e maior nos meses mais frescos,
o que tambem succede com as ditt'erencas entre as maxima e
minima absolutas. As vezes, pelas XXI horas, nota-se um ac-
crescimo rapido na humidade relativa e na tensao de vapor, sem
duvida ligada a marcha da variacao da temperatura ja men-
cionada.

A marcha da tensao de vapor, tanto annual como diaria,,
acompanha reiiuhirmeute a temperatura. A tensao de vapor

2y4 CLIMA DE LOUREXgO MARQUES.

media annual tern o valor de 14'""\71 ; a variaoao media oscilla
entre 3""". 11 e o'""M5, de uma forma ana.lo,^a mas mais regular
do que a temperatnra, e nas snas differencas existe o mesmo
aeordo. O valor minimo diurno tem loi>ar a hora da temperatnra
minima, o valor maximo varia das XII para as XVII horas.
sendo posterior a maxima temperatnra e occorrendo mais tarde
iios meses mais frescos.

Os valores extremos re<>istados em 4 annos, sao : maximo
26'""\7, minimo 4""".3.

Pelo que fica dito, sobresae bastante o elevado estado de
Immidade relativa durante a ooite.

0 eaeimbo torna-se muito frequente nos meses de junlio a
setembro, por vezes consegue-se medir no udometro, de 2 deei-
metros de diametro aia boca, 0'""\1, 0""".2 e, mais raras vezes.
0'""\3.

A agua proveniente de cacimbo e nevoeiro recolliida no
udometro durante o anno de 1912. foi 12'"'". 1, devendo notar-se
que iieste anno a percentagem de neliulosidade foi menor que a
usual.

E geralmeute r<'conheeido ter grande intiuencia no cacimljo
a percentagem de nebulosidade, edrrespondendo em Loureneo
J\Iarques a menor nebulosidade media as XXI horas, relativa-
mente as horas de observaeao. No entanto, devo mencionar que
o Sr. Sutton, eomo resultado da sua observaeao directa em Kim-
berley, eoncluiu nao ser condicao essencial para haver eacimbo
nao haver nuvens e ([ue isto so concorre i)ara Ihe apressar o
eomeco e que sao elementos determinantes para a formaeao dn
eacimbo, a Immidade do ar pei'to da saturaeao e o comprimento
da noite.

Por vezes notamos cacimbo ahunthuite em unites nnl)]a(las. o
que confirma a opiniao do Sr. Sutton.

Com 0 vento X e XXW nao ha caciml)o, que se regista em
maior (inantidade nas noi'tes em c(ue o terral se estabelece fraei>.

ClIUVA

Os elementos meteorologicos das regioes (pie, como Loureneo
IMarcpies, estao situadas nos limites de zonas. sao mais ou menos
atTectados pelos caracteristicos das duas zonas com que confinam.
A epoca das ehuvas em Loureneo ^lanjues, de outubro a
mareo, isto e, quando o sol esta mais proximo do zenith, corre-
spoude ao regime tropical {sol vertical). Nos seis meses de abril
a setembro, a quantidade de agua medida aio udometro e cerca
da quarta parte da que cae na estacao das ehuvas, notando-se
um pequeno aumento correspondente ao mes de julho, que apezar
de insignificante, talves seja originado no regime chuva de in-
verno mais vulgar nos climas sub-tropicaes.

A media annual da chuva e 677'"'" (26". 660) iiumero ainda
comprehendido na designaeao de chuva moderada, mas ja bas-
tante perto do regime denominado chuva escassa.

CLIMA DE LOURENQO MARQUES. 295

Estando Loureneo Alanines sitnado iia zoiui seca {'20" para
30° de latitude) assini elassifirada seuuiido as leis da eireulac-ao
da atmosphera, dediizidas na supposieao da superfieie da terra
ser liomooenea. e aiuda ponpie nestas latitudes a chuva e pouco
abuudaute quaudo uma coniponeute do vento e dirigida do polo
para o equador. justifiea-se (|ue a totalidadc da eliuva seja in-
ferior ao valor medio da aiiua eaida na zona tropical.

0 exame de inna carta de distribuicao de ehuvas mostra ser
a zona seca mais accentuada no bemispherio sul, nas costas ocei-
dentaes dos continciitcs, devido a varias causas como: direceao
predominante do vento, disposieao das cordilheiras, regime
cyelonico. etc. Com isto coincide o regime de Loureneo iNIarques,
omde nao sao freijuentes as cbuvas torrenciaes de pequena duracao
uem as moderadas de duracao prolongada sem interrupcao, como
e frequente nas zonas temi)eradas e em algumas partes da zona
tropical.

No <piadro No. XII vao indicados os valores medios
mensaes e annual da quantidade de agna recolbida e o numero
medio de dias de chuva, conforme os resnltados de ([uatorze
anuos.

No Observatorio sao considerados dias de chuva, a(|nelles eui
que se regista quautidade superior a 0"'"™.l.

Os meses mais chuvosos sao dezembro e Janeiro, e os mais
secos junho, julho e agosto.

0 graphico da percentagem de chuva correspondente as
diit'erentes direccoes do vento torna evidente a sua abundaneia
([uando este sopra de SSE a SW, principalmente do S e depois
de SSW. Em relacao aos outros rumos a percentagem e muito
meiior, sobretudo a X c NNW, onde e iusiguificante. Ao rumo
AV corres])onde uma nuiior percentagem de ehuvas devido a
sei'tm mais frequentes as trovoadas d'esse lado, embora para a.s
mais violetitas se registem aguaeeiros de varias direccoes.

Em (piasi todos os trabalhos ja mencionados, contesta-se nao
so a theoria dos ventos predominantes de SE, mas tambem estes
causarem a chuva na Africa do Sul. 0 Sr. C. Stewart ac-
crescenta (pie se deve esperar chuva em Port Elizabeth e East
London, quaudo, a passagem das depressoes para o N, o vento
ronda de N para o S na peninsula do Cabo, e regista o facto de
em Port Elizabetli, mini mes de excepcional frequencia de SE,
a chuva ter sido 8() por cento abaixo do normal.

Em Loureneo .Marepies as ehuvas mais copiosas correspon-
dem igualmente ;i passagem das depressoes, por vezes, tambem
ao rondar o vento de N i)ara S, mas mais geralmente no dia
segui'nte on no immediato a este. E para notar igualmente que
aos meses de niaior percentagem de vento SE, nao corresponde
um aumento detinido na quantidade de chuva. Em resumo: o
regime de ehuvas em Loureneo JNIarques, obedecendo ao typo de
ehuvas tropicaes em relacao a epoca, esta ligado com a passagem
das depressoes, aproximando-se do regime denominado c/nd'us
cyrlDnicas.

296 CLTMA DE LOURENCO 1\I ARGUES.

Qiiaiulo no traeado das isobaras o eeiitro de altas pressoes
se estabelece em Loureiieo Marques, reyistam-se as vezes peqneaios
ajiiiaceiros com ventos variaveis, o ([iie esta em desacordo com a
theoria das cliuvas dc convcvcilo, pois, eomo e sahido. aos eeiitros
de alta pressao eorrespondem eorreiites de ar descetidcntcs. as
menos proprias para provocarem as chuvas.

Em Lonreneo ^Manpies as chuvas sao ma is frequentes das

IV as IX horas e das XVIII a meia noite: nas restautes lioras
chove mais de noite tlo que de dia, e menos das XV as XVII
lioras, isto e, (juando a velocidade do vento e maior.

Em (juatro aainos, 1909 a 1912. re^iistaram-se vinte A'ezes
chuvas superiores a 30 millimetros durante vinte e ijuatro horas.
D'estas, as maiores ((uantidades medichis no ndomctro sfio:

Em li)()9. — Janeiro. 70"i'" ( ^".T.IT ) fin inii.i liora c (piinze
minutos.

Xovembro, 30'"'" (1".181) em <|ninze minntos.

Dezembro. 50'"'" (1".9H9) em ((uinzc minutos.

Dezemlu'o, 96'"'" (3". 781) em (puitrt) horas.
Em 1910.- Fevereiro, 1ST"'" (7". 128) (in doze horas.

Outubro, 43'"'" il".H93) i^m quareiita minntos.
Em 1911. — Oiitnbro. .■)l)""" (l".!)H9i dii nnia bora.

("onjnntamente com a percenta.uem de horas de sol encoberto

V com a 'nel)uh)si(hide, apreseiitamos um j^raphico da chuva que
110s parecc interessante pela impressao geral da lit;a(;a() d'estes
tres' elementos, e do estado ,ueral da atmosphera.

Tambem apresentamos iim ^raphico do nnnici-o medio
mensal de dias de r'hnva e de trovoadas.

P^VAI'OKAi'AO

Para medir a evapara;rio, cmi)rejia-sc no OT)servatorio um
evaporometro " Piclie." (MTectuando-.se a sua leitnra as IX horas.
Como se sabe, o estndo (hi evaporacao nao esta hem definido, uao
se podendo com para r ohserva(_;<~)es feitas com o mesmo instru-
mento em dois locaes ditferentes. facto devido ])riucipalmente a
intiuencia da t(miperatura da amia. Admitte-sc ((ue a evapora(]ao
anmenta com a temperatnra da a^ua e velocidade do vento, h
dimiime com a hnmidade e com a pressao atmospherica. E o
<ine se veritica em Louren(-o AIar((ues onde a intiuencia da tem-
peratnra e da velocidade do vento sao bem mauifestas. taiito na
variacao de (Ha para dia, como (\i' m^s ])ara iik'^s. No entanto,
este ultimo factor t^ o predominante, pois a evapora(;ao e maior
durante a estac/ao (piente, nos meses de maior velocidade de
vento. Em marco, earacterizado p(U' 11m accrescinio dc veloci-
dade do vento, a evaporacao anmenta i^iialiiKMitc A intiuencia
da pres.sao c hnmidade, factores menos importantcs, tambem nao
e contraditada na inspeccao do.s respectivos valorcs diarios.

Para o estndo da evaporai^'ao nas ditferentes lioras ffdtam
elementos. () (pie se tem tornado b(mi evidente. e o sen annumto
extraoi'dinariii dni'niite as horas de luiilo ([lu iit(.

CLl.MA Dli LOrKENi;*) MAKOUliS. 297

() (|n;i(li-i> Xo. XI II colli OS vnlores nicdios d.i rv;ii)oi'a(-ao
iiieiisal jn)(l(^ conrifiiiai' o (|ii(' (ica cxposto sohi-c o assuiito.

XeBT'I-OSIDAOK K IIOK'AS DE SOL A DESCt >I-!KKT().

O (^stado (Ic iichulosidadc i' de sii'aiide iiDportancia na
Aleteoi'oloiiia. pois. ah iii da sua iutiiiia li^iiaeao com a clmva. tera
graude iiifiiKr'ncia iia disi rihiiirao da radiaeao solai- c da ii'i'adi-
acao terr(>sir(^ c t'oriicrc ('ciiiciilos para o cstudo das corrciites
siipci'iorcs da alinosphcrn c pai'a a [>r('visao do tempo.

J'avestiua(;o('s i'imtiiIcs do I'rofcssor Alhot. tciulentes a dr-
monstrar a iutlucncia das imvciis soIm-c a [)('i'i'('iita,u'('in da I'adi-
atiio .>o!ar (pie ehega a supci'Hcie tenvsti'e, levaram-iio a coiicluii'
Koffrer esta radiaeao uiiia po'da de 50 por cento do sen valor ao
atraves.sar a atniospluM-a sem iinvens, e ipie esta pei'centaiiem
anmenta n()tav(dinente com a iiehulosidadi'. |>or al)soi-|)cao e re-
tlexao.

Adniittindo (pic cm nuMlia ')'2 ]h)v cento da snpertlcie da terra
esta obseurecida pelas iinv( as. conclne (pie a radia(;a() solar que
attinge a snperlicie da terra ilea rednzida a '24 por cento do valor
que tern no limite superior da atmosjihera, o (pic jxle em evideneia
a. inflnencia da nchnlosidade na MctcoroloL;ia.

As ohserva(;(lcs de nel)iilosi(_lade sao i'eitas no ( )l)ser\'atorio
tres ve/es ao dia : IX, XV e XXI lioras. ^Qnadi'o Xo. XIV.)

A UK^dia niensal da (piantidade de niivcns esta de acoi'do
com a distribni(;ao de clmva. INdas horas de ol)serva(;ao regista-
se uni decreseiniento no seiitido da nnrnha })ara a noite, a nao ser
em .iunho e .iulho em (pie a maior (piantidad(^ de nnveiis se regista
as XV horas.

0 nnmero de ()l)serva('(les de ecu liini)o e de ali^umas niivi-ns
e superior ao do een (MK*ol)erto com on s(Mii claro^;. A nehiiiosi-
dade media de Loni'cnco .Aiai'(pies ( 4.(i ) a])roxima-se hastanic do
valor attril)ui(_lo para esta latitude nas cartas isoiirfas. e esta
proxima do limite superior da iiclmlosi(lad(^ da Africa do SnI.

Os cumulus pr(n]oniinam lodo o a'iino. c na e[)oca das chiivas
OS cumulus c cumulus nimhiis. Os ciri-iis observam-se sobretudo
a tar(_le. de .Janeiro a iiiar(;o, e em maio, frecjuentemente orieu-
tados de SW a XE, par(M'(Mido alunmas vezes irratliar de um
})onto do (piadrante S\V ; movem-se mais iisualmente de W para
E. Os stratus sao mais t'rc(pientes nas manhas da ei)oca fresca.

Como e natural, o nuniero de horas de sol a deseoberto esta
intimamente ligado com a ncbnlosidade. Xo Observatorio em-
prega-se o " Sunshine "" -Ionian (pie tem o incon\'eniente de
registar as observac^H^s com um eri'o de 1 a '2 por cento por nao
serem as folhas impressionadas (piando o sol esta baixo.

A ])ercentagem de lioras de sol a deseoberto esta 'na razao
inversa da chuva e nebulositlad(\ como se ve pela insi)ecca() do
graphico. onde se registou a i>ercentagem de horas de sol cn-
cohcrfo, a ncbnlosidade e a chnva.

Esta r(da(*ao nao c pertVita. siicce(l(-iido (pie os meses de

298 CLIilA DE LOURENCU .MARQUES.

meiior perecentageni de sol descoberto. outnbro e iiuvembro. nao
sao OS de maior chuva e iiebnlosidade.

Se sommarmos as pereentagens de horas de sol e nebulosi-
dade. vemos que esta soiuma varia de 118 a 97, respeetivameaite
nos ineses mais ehuvosos e nos iiiais secos. porque a percentageni
de iie])ul()sidade oscilla entre maiores liiiiites — 62 e 24 — do que a
pereentagem de sol — 73.5 a 52.8. Varia formulas se tern apre-
seutado para ligar estes dois elementos, o que e difficil. atteudendo
a (jue pode registar-se grande (luautidade de uuvens, sem eii-
eobrir o sol.

() iiiaidi- imiuero d(' iiiiinitos de sol deseoberto regista-se
U^uadro No. XV j das Xlll para as XVI horas, isto e, durante
as horas mais (pientes e de maior veloeidade do vento, deereseendo
progressivamente ao aproximarem-se as horas do iiascer e por do
sol : (puiudo aumenta nota-se um retardamento das XI para as
XIII horas e, durante o decreseimento. este accentua-se mais das
X\^I ])ar;i ;'is XVII hoi'as. (Em Loureneo Mar(|ues o sol esta
todo n ;iiiii(i aciiiia d(i horizoiite ate as XVII horas e 8 miiiutos).
Estas alteraedes estao sem duvida ligaihis as dos outros elementos
ja nil neionados. Estes factos sao commnns em todos os meses,
com jicquciia (lifferenea. Nos meses de maior pereeiitagem de
hoi-as (ic sol ;i aumento d;i-sc de |)refereneia das X ])ara as XVI
horas.

Em trcs amios'de observaivlo liouve quarenta e einco dias
sem sol. isto e. em (|ue o papcl nao foi impressionado, quinze dias
em (|ue foi impressionado inctios de 1(J minutos. c 4B entr(^ 10
minutoH e 1 hora.

ACTI NOMETKO 1-: IKKADIACAd SOL.XK K XOfTL'RN .\.

E eonheeida a imi)oi'taii('ia do cstudo dri radiacao solar pela
sn;i iiiflneneia em todos os elementos meteorologicos.

.\o ()l)servatorio emprega-se um aetinomcti'o dc Marie-
Davy, u.sando-se a formula de Bouguer. As suas indicaeoes nao
sao, eomo se sabe. de eonfianea, por varias eausas, principalmente
a ab.sorpcao dos raios ealoriferos o])seuros pelo vidro.

As experieneias, espeeialmente do professor Crova. mostram
que a ealor reeebido do sol tem um maximo numa epoea inter-
media entre o inverno e o verao, em maio no hemispherio X :
durante o verao a intensidade diminue ate alcanear um minimo,
cre.seendo depois ate um segundo maximo no outomno. Apenas
possuimos oliservaeoes eompletas durante o amio de 1912. Nestas
observaedes notamos dois maximos um em fevereiro e outro em
setembro. respectivamente 45.6 e 44.7 graus actinometricos e
eorrespondentes aos dois maximos do outro hemispherio: os
valores minimos sao 36.3 e 41.2 graus actinometricos em maio e
dezembro.

As ol)servacdes fazem-se as IX, XII e XV horas, 0 que nao
e bastante para se poder estudar a dapla variacao diaria, e nellas
se regista um maior valor nas observaedes do meio dia e depois
nas das IX horas.

t'LIMA D1-: LOURENgO MAROUES. 299

'i'al ('uiiio sao t'eitas estas observaedes podem iiiteressai' inais
partienlarniente a agrieultura.

No estudo da radia(:ao solar enipregani-se no Ohscrv alorio,
alem do actinometro. iiiii thernionietro de maxima ii-i-adiaraa
solar, cnjo reservatorio esta eoberto de neyro de I'limo iiuma
camara cle vidro onde se fez o vaeno. e mn thermometro de
minima irradiaefio noctnrna, de aleool. que se colloea de forma
que 0 sen reservatorio fi((ue no foeo de uui espelho paraboiieo,
metallico, dirigido para o Zenith.

Xos valores que apresentamos (Quadro No. XVI), medias de
tres annos. nao se nota seiiao a varia(;a(i annual a('(»iiii)anhaiido a
da temperatura a sombra.

()s respeetivos graphicns dizem respeito a niaxiina media da
radiaeao solar e aos valores — minima absolnta — de ii'i'adia('ao
nocturiia em cada mes.

VVs valores — maxima e minima absolutas — de tres annos,
•nestes dois thermometros. sao 75°. fi C (168°. 1 F.) e 7°. 8 C.
(46°.0 F.).

'rilKH.MoAiKTKOS XA KEL\A.

Observam-se as temperaturas na relva com dois thermome-
tros, mn de maxima de reservatorio negro e outro de minima,
pretendendo dar uma ideia da maior quantidade de calor
reeebido e irradiado pelas plantas. Os seus valores, media de
tres annos (Quadro No. XVII), interessam especialmente a agri-
eultura. e acompanham sensivelmeoite a marcha annual da tem-
peratura. Os valores extremos, registados durante o mesmo
l.ei-i,.do. sao 52°.2 C. (129°. 6 F.) e 5°.7 C. (42°. 3 F.).

Temperatura do Terreno.

A temperatura do solo otferece bastante iiiteresse pelos seus
eifeitos na temperatura do ar, sobretudo pelo que respeita as
suas variaeoes.

0 solo aquece e arrefeee t.uito mais faeilmente cjuanto maior
e a sua eonductibilidade, poder emissor. poder absorvente e
eapacidade ealorifiea.

Na areia eoneorrem em maior gran todas estas eircunstan-
eias favoraveis, ao eontrario do que succede com a agua.

A temperatura do solo, ainda que menos importante na
vida vegetativa do que a temperatura do ar, e no entanto um
elemeiito a considerar. For sua vez, a vegetaeao. bem como a
evaporaeao, alteram a temperatura do terreno.

E tambem para notar que alguma relacao pareee existir eutre
a temperatura do torreno e a existencia e desenvolvimento de
certas doeneas, como a diarrheia e a febre typhoide.

A leitura dos thermometros coUocados a 0.5, 1, 2 e 3 metros
de profundidade eft'ectua-se as IX horas, e das medias dos seus
valores, para um periodo de tres annos. publicamos um quadro
No. XVI [I.

Como e natural, existe acordo com as tres leis da temperatura
do solo, a saber: a da amplitude, a do retardamento na epoca dos

300 CLIMA DE L(K'RE^;CO MAK(JL"ES.

Vfilores extreiiios e. poi' nltiiiio, a da rednerao da amplitude coiu
o periodo e()iisiderad(t <' i-oiu ;i prot'iindidade.

TROVOAnAS.

As trovoadas sao niuito niais i'i'(-([uentes em dezembro e
depois em ()ntul)n>, iioveml^ro e maio, e meiios em jnnho, julho
e agosto. eoiueidi'udo esta freqneneia com a das perturliaeoes
atmn-plierieas; ja mencionamos o facto de, qiiaiido o vento rouda
p;ira o S na passauem das depressoes, vir as veses aeompaidiado
de trovoadas.

Quando as mais l)aixas pivssdes s(^ estal)eleLH'm para \V on
SW e () baro.urapho priii('ii)ia a trai-ai- uma linlia siiiuosa, sao
vnljxares as trovoadas com aiiiiaceiros de W. As graiidcs trovoa-
das. ((lie as vezes duram horas, sao acompanhadas de vento fresco
variavel em direccao. Sao mais vulgares ao anoitecer e inenos
do nascer do sol as XIII horas. Como se ve, as trovoadas em
Jjourenco ^larques podem, na sua maioria, classificar-se em
fi-()voa(]as (](' deprcssoas de preferencia a trovoadas dr color.

Os relampa^os sem trovoes registam-se muitas vezes nm on
dois dias antes da i)assaiiem das depressdes e a sna freqnencia
seune a mesma marcha da trovoada.

( )rTR')S PIlE.XO.MKXdS.

Ai)resentarem(»s ainda nm majtpa coin varios elemeutos
meteorolouieos. fdiiiuis dos <piaes ja foi-as cdiisidcM'ados : ( Qnadro
No. XIX).

() nevoeii'o e mais freipiente na estacao t'resca. sohretmlo de
manha. () uranizo re,uista-se i)oncas vezes, sendo di^no de nota
'pela sna ahnndancia o cpie em V.)\'l eain na cidade baixa.

As eoi'oas luiiai'es ohseiA'am-se uiiiitas vezes e os halos. qne
sao poueo fi'e(pieii1(\s, assiLinalam em uci'al uma proximidade de
ehuva.

C'ONSIDERACOES GERAES.

Trocuramos. sem alonyar demasiado este trabalho, apresen-
tai" OS elementos mais importantes pnra o estudo de nm elima,
iiuiando-nos na sua ennmeracao pelas indicacoes dos professores
J. llann e Clevebi'nd Abbe, em hai'monia com as observa'-des de
<(u.e (lispunhamos.

Se [)retendermos ahivumer numa iiiiiea desiLinaeao os earac-
teristieos do elima para uma determinada reiiiao, poderemos
adoptar vai'iadas classiticacdes, a^'rnpando dois on mais dos sens
princii)aes (dement(xs meteorolouieos; (^ como estes ja iiearam
definidos em relacao a Lourenco Manpu^s. ]iassaremos em revista
quaes as classitieai-des (pie se Ihe podem ada])tar, consideramlo as
bases i;cralmente admittidas.

A [)rimeira e mais antiua elassiticaeao e a. solar (ni nslrnHo-
III led em tres zonas; tropical, temperada e arctica.

Lourenco ^Farques est/i fora (bi zona tropical, na sua verda-
deira accepcao, e no emtanto Supan. cuja elassiticaeao esta muito
acceite, liniita estas zonas, nao pelos parallelos de latitude, mas

CLIMA ni-: LOUKENCO MARQUES. 3OI

j)ela.s liiihas isotrriiiieas, riMitinanclo a zona li-opical pda isoter-
miea de 20'' C. [68° F.) com a qual coincide aproxiiuadamente
o liniite dos veuto!^ gerars e das palmeiras. Sciiundo esta classi-
fieacao, Loiirenco Alanines esta na zona tropical, mas. se
passarmos em revista os sens principaes elemeutos meteorolouifos.
comparando-os com os caracteristicos das zonas tropical e tem-
perada (temperatnra, pressao. respectivas variacdes, humidade.
estacao das chuvas, qnantidade de agua recolhida, (4c., etc.),
ve-se facilmente (pic estes elementos estao intineiiciados niais on
menos reoularmente pelas dnas zonas principaes. i'or isso nos
agrada ma is a classiticacao de Koppeai que, attendendo as
relaeoes com a vida oruanica, considera especialment!' <• numero
de meses do anno em <ine a tenq)eratnra s(^ coiiserva dnitfo de
eertos limites.

Xesta elassific;i:;a(), a termo sub-tropicdl applica-se as regioes
onde ({uatro a onze meses sao qnentes, acima de 20° C. (68° F.).
imi a oito meses temperados entre 10° a 20" ('. (50° a 68° F.) e
onde o regime das chuvas e u(-ralm(Mite caractt^rizado pela sua
ponca abundancia.

Lourenco Marques esta l)em comprehendida 'iiesta zona com
a sua temperatnra media mensal durante nove meses acima de
20° C. (68° F.), OS restantes tres meses com valores inferiores
a cste mas acima de 10° ('. (50° F.), e com a totalidade de clniva
de 677""" (26". 660) — c/iKva moderada.

Ontra base geral para classiticacao de climas e a </( oDrap/ilcn
(pie comprehende tres divisoes — continental, oceanica, insular ou
litoral: esta ultima (pic coi'responde a Louren(_'o ^larques i)ai'-
ticipa mais on mciios dos caracteristicos dt^tiiiidos das outras
zonas.

Sol) o ponto dc vista (K ro-p/i jisico, o clima tem sido classili-
cado : ([uanto a t(nij)(r<iliir(i: (picnte, intcrmediario c frio, ou
reunlar, medio e cxtrenio; c (pianto a Ii uiukUuU : hnmido, inter-
mcdio e seco. Pclo (pic respeita a temperatnra de J^onreni-o
Mar(pies, alem (^lo (pic ja ficou mciicionado, podemos classiticar o
sen clima como fcf/iihir. pois assim se C(vnsidera ([uaiido a vari-
a(;ri() da temperatnra ;iniiiial (^ inferior a 10° {'. (18° F. ) c a(pii a
dill'eren(;a entre os iiicscs tiiais qnentes e mais frios nao chcga a
8° C. (11:'.4 F.). Sc att(Miderinos a hunn'dadc, ja A'imo-, (pic Ihe
competia a dc^ignac/ao de niodcrad'niK iif( /iitnu<J<i, com a siui
humidade relitiva annual c iiKMisal entre os limites (iS (^ SO j)or
cento. Como dissemos. outras classiticaiMVs mais r(^strictas teem
sido apresentadas pcla coiiil)ina(;rio de' dois on mais clemtiitos
meteorologicos. l*or simples lucncao diremos a})cnas (pie na
classiticacao em trinta c ciiico pro\'incias climatologicas di^ Supaii.
pertence a esta regiao o nomc ilc I'l-ormcid I'nipicdl <h Africa.
e na classiticacao de Koppcn. dchaixo do ponto (\i' vista hotanico,
a designacjao de Mesot henna.

Resta-nos ainda falar dc uma base de cIassitica(:ao Plnjsi-
oliKjica. (pic comprchcndi' dois iiriipos:

302 CLIMA DE LOURENC<i MAROUES.

(a) .Se,uundu as sensaeoes que produz: — eiinia suave, agra-
davel humido, desagradavel. etc. :

ib) Segundo os effeitos geraes de eada elima: — reconsti-
tuinte, depriineiitc rigoroso. etc.

E-nos niais difficil al)t)rdar este assuuto por t'aita de compe-
tencia, pelo que solu'e elle farenios apenas ligeiras consideracoes.

E]n nossa opiiiiao. Lourenc'o ]\larques nao pode compre-
hendei'-se auiina iniica d'estas divisoes, dada a diversidade de
regimes apontados, quer nas duas estacoes, quer de mes para mes.
Xao e de mais repetirmos aqui a affirmacao ja feita quanto a
VHi'iabilidade de seusacoes produzidas por pequenas alteraeoes de
temperatura nos diversos europeus que haliitani as regiqes tropi-
eaes e que tal facto e prini'ipalmente de[)eudente do seu de-
pauperanieulo physieo e do estado hygrouietrico da atniosphera ;
citarei aiuda, por exemplo. o facto de ua impressao pessoal ter
intiuencia, o seguir-se a luu dia bastante quente outro de menor
temperatura mais humido on uieuos veutoso, o que exaggera a
seusacao do calor.

Cousideremos agora, nuiito superiicialuieute, os elfeitos do
clima. C'omo vimos. o anuo jvode dividir-se em duas epoca.s,
(J lie life ( chnvom de outubro a marro. f re. sea i (iiiasi seea de abril
a setembro. pois as (juatro estai^les uao sao a(|iii bcm caracter-
izadas.

Dui'aute OS meses luais (iiiciitt's c luimitlos o clima tem ai)roxi-
madamente caracteristicos di^ tropical, mas os vi^iitos predomi-
iia'utes do lado do mar. sopvamlo. mais fortemciitc as horas de
maior calor, coucorrem para o amenizar.

O ceu apresenta-se i)or vezes com o aspecto dos climas tropi-
caes. c a i)assagem das perturbacoes atmosphericas com os ventos
qiieiites do N, seguidos de veutos frios do S, toriuim estes meses
desagradaveis e depauperantes. Estas depressoes tambem se
seutem na estacao fresca, mt-nos fre([uentemeute comtudo, nos
meses melhores.

Os meses de fcvereiro e man-o sfio talvcz os mais acceutuada-
mente tropicaes. pela maior fre(jueucia dc calor humido. ((ue as
vezes se sente ainda em abril e maio.

Apezar do clima uesta epoca uao ser absolutamente bom, os
seus effeitos deprimeutes sobre b orgaui.smo podem em grande
parte ser corrigidos por medidas de hygiene apropriadas. Assim
0 affirma Sir Patrick Manson (|uando, escrevendo sobre doencas
tropicaes, diz: " acclimatisation is less an unccnseious adaptation
of the ])hysiology of the individual than an intelligent adapta-
tion of his habits. "

Sobre a adapta(;ao da raca branca nesta cidade o Sr. com-
mandante Hugo dc Lacerda friza a semelhanca d'este clima com o
de Durban, (tndc a ra(;a branea se tem adaptado. Esta semel-
hanca e bem conhecida e pode confirmar-se com a analyse das
circunstancias meteorologicas das duas cidades. onde. como vimos,
a temperatura e sensivelmente identica. bem como a hinnidade.
relativa, sendo a(|ui inferior a <[uantidade de chuva.

CLl.MA DK LOURENg) MARQUES. 3O3

Xa estaeao fresca o clima pode considerar-se bom, espeeial-
mente os meses de jiiiiho a outnbro, ciija teinix'ratura e menor
humidade os torna muito agradaveis e reconstitnintes.

Uma rapida consulta aos relatorios dos Ex.'""^ Srs. chefes do
Servieo de Sande, no que diz respeito ao districto sanitario de
Lonreneo ^Farfiues, poe ioualmente em destaque as boas condicSes
sanitarias durante os meses mais frescos, e que o estado sanitario
e eonsiderado muito bom, especialmente de junho a outubro.

Final mente, em reforeo da nossa opiniao sobre o optimo
elima da estaeao fresca, citaremos as seguintes phrases do Sr.
commandante Hugo de Lacerda :

"' No inverno, durante o regime de bom tempo, ainda com os
ventos S, o clima pode-se por a par dos melhores do mundo ; ha
dias nessa epoca tao amenos e luminosos que bem podem merecer
a vulgar designarao de diaS eriadores, produziiulo ura bem estar
muito apreciavel.

"A temperatura media em Loureneo .Alar(|ues nos meses mais
secos do anno e proximamente igual a temperatura media annual
<]o Transvaal, e a temperatura media dos meses de junho a outu-
bro correspoudc a temperatura media dos meses de novembro a
abril, de ]\Iiddell)urg; os habitantes d'essas regioes teem, por-
tanto, para onde fugir facilmente aos rigores da temperatura
baixa d'essa altitude, vindo para a que entao se pode chamar — a
' costa azul ' dn Afi'ica do Sul."

( Traxslation.)

DATA FOR THE STUDY OF THE CLEM ATE OF
LOURENCO MAROUES.

By AuGUSTo DE Almeida Teixeika.

This work is mainly based upon observations made at the
Campos Rodrigues Observatory and those obtained at the old
Port Captain's and the Swiss Mission's stations.

In the course of this work reference is frequentl\- made to
the meteorological elements of South Africa. These have been
culled from the most excellent })apers written on the subject by
Messrs. Robert T. A. Innes ( Director of the Union Astronomical
Observatory), J. R. Sutton, Director of the Kimberley Observa-
tory), Charles Stewart (Chief Meteorologist for the Union),
Colonel H. R. Rawson (Member of the Meteorological Commis-
sion), and Commander Hugo de Lacerda (late Chief of Marine
Services for Mozambique), some of which have been pnl)lished ir.
the Reports of the Annual Sessions of the South African
Association for the Advancement of Science.

Temperature.

Temperature is unf|uestionably the ])rinci]jal element to take
into account, whatever may be the aspect under which one wishes
to study the climate of a certain district. The mean annual tem-
perature at Lourenco Marques, according to observations made
in 14 years, is 22.2° Centigrade (72° Fahr). The mean monthly
temperature is expressed in Table No. I.

The difference between the hottest month, Januar\-, and the
coolest, July, therefore, is not as much as 8" C. (14'' F. ) thus
permitting of the climate being called regular, i) natural conse-
quence of the position of Lotirenco Marques, which is surrounded
from NNE to SW by the waters of the Incomati River, the Bay
and the estuar\- of the Espirito Santo River. This circumstance,
the predominance of sea breezes, especially in the hottest hours
of the day, and, lastly, the scarcity of calms, contribute to im-
prove the temperature and make the climate far more pleasant
than could be expected from its geographical position.

It is well known that the Mozambicjue current has the effect
of warming the East Coast of Africa, while the Benguella cur-
rent produces the cooling of the West Coast, as confirmed by an
inspection of the isotherms, from which it can be seen that to
equal latitudes higher temperaures correspond in the former
coast, and that temperature increases from South to North.

Similarly Mr. C. Stewart, by analysing the temperatures in
South Africa, concluded that an increase of temperature took
place from West to East along the parallels of latitude, and from
South to North along the East Coast.

In .studying the particular case of Eourenco Marques, the
comparison of the local temperatures cannot be made at first sight

THE CLI!\rATF. OF LOl'RENCO MARQUES. 305

with those of the Western Districts, owing to the large difference
in altitude and- to the position of Lourenco ^Manjues on the
littoral : it is an easy matter, however, to make such a comparison
with other j)laces on the coast.

From such a comparison (see Table No. II j one concludes
that the increase in temperature between Durban and Lourenco
]\Iar(jues is smaller than one might expect from the dift'erence of
latitude (234 miles) existing between the two places.

Thus the annual means at Lourenco Marques exceed Dur-
ban only by 0.6'' C. (1.1° F.), the means for the hottest month
being i.i" C. (2° F.j, while the tem])erature in the coldest month
is practically the same in both towns.

The extreme temperatures — absolute maxima and minima —
are higher at Lourenco Marques respectively l)y about 1.3° C.
(2.y F.) and 2.1^ C. (3.8° F.).

if we compare Durban with Fast London, at a distance of
KjO miles in latitude, we find much greater differences, and the
same occurs between Lourenco Marques antl Inhambane. where
ihe latitudinal difference is 124 miles, while it should be noted
that Inhambane differs considerablv as to the absolute maxima
and minima, owing to its diverging to a great extent from the
meteorological conditions of the South African littoral.

These comparisons are favourable to Lotirengo Aiarques as
10 the increase in temperature from south to north, and show the
siuMlaritv of the climate as to temperature in the towns of
Lourenco Ahir(|ues and Durban, a larger difference being noted
in the aljsolute minima, which are lower in the latter place.

This circumstance nmy be partly due to the configuration of
the coast to the South of Zavora Point, and the extent of the Bav.
which compel the Mozaml)i(iue current to keep' away from
Lotu'enco Marqties, thus preventing the increase of temperature
there, but this can only be definitely ascertained by means of a
more detailed study of the currents.

From the analysis of temperatures in the various months,
one finds that the temperattire in the months from May to Octo-
ber is rather agreeable, the percentage of relative humidity also
being smaller in these months. The temperattires being higher,
the climate from December to ]\larch becomes more tropical,
especially in the last two months., which are the dampest. In the
remaining month, which may l)e called transitory, the tempera-
ture is more pleasant.

The four seasons are not well marked by special character-
istics. The transition months cannot be called " Spring " and
" Autumn," and it is more correct to divide the year into two
seasons, that is, the warm and rainy season from October to
]\Iarch, and the cool and practically dry season from April to
September.

In Table No. Ill the variations of temperature are regis-
tered, with the monthly means of temperature and rainfall.

Diff'erences in the same period during the rise of tempera-

3o6 THE CLIMATE OF LOURENCO MARQUES.

ture are smaller and more regular than during its decrease. This
is, perhaps, due to the influence of the rainfall, which retards the
rise of tem])erature, thus decreasing it, while, on the contrary, in
the month of least rain the decrease takes place more rapidly.
It should be noted that these months are less cloudy, and this
fact, combined with the great nocturnal radiation caused by the
higher duration of the night, must contribute to a quicker
decrease.

The march of the sun bears upon the annual variation of
temperature, and the usual retardation takes place.

Variations of temperaure in day time show very little irregu-
larity. The minimum occurs normally before sunrise and the
maxinnun at about XT IT. the increase being more rai)id and pro-
nounced Ijetween VII and IX ; after this hour, owing probably
to the influence of sea breezes, the increase becomes more slow.

The decrease of temperature at sunset is not so pronounced;
from midnight to the hour when the minimum temperature occurs
the decrease is generally i^ C. Annual nocturnal radiation seems
not to have so great an influence as one might expect, which may
be explained by the fact that dew is more fretiuent in less cloudy
nights, and this compensates for radiation, owing to the great
amount of heat liberated by the condensation of water vapour
existing in the atni.osphere. Dew occurs far less frequently in
the dry season. The mean daily oscillation, the annual range of
which is about io° C. ( i8° F.), attains its maximum — ii° to 12"
(20° to 21.5° F.) — from April to August, while in the other
months it decreases steadily to 7° C. (12.6" F). This dift'erence
arises from the fact that, the mean maximum variation oscillating
about 7° C (12.6° F.), the minimum variation oscillates 10° C.
( 18° F".), that is to say, the oscillation of the minimum tempera-
ture is much greater than is the case with the maximum tempera-
ture, this being the opposite of what happens in Lisbon. I
think that this can be accounted for by the coincidence here of
rainfall and the greater cloudiness in the hot season. Besides the
Iwt ■zi.'inds from N and NNW, caused by the occurrence of
atmospheric disturbances, are also felt in the cool season, and
cause increases of temperature which are relatively more
im])ortant than in the other season.

An analogous dift'erence exists between the absolute maxi-
mum and minimum, which is due to the same causes.

These temperature extremes are rather interesting for the
study of a certain climate, although the development of endemic
diseases depends, according to some writers, on the mean tem-
peratures. Europeans residing in this climate become much more
sensible to the variations of temperature even in respect of such
small decreases as cause no impression in Europe, and the longer
their term of residence the more they feel such variations, this
being possibly due to physical exhaustion and the hydrometric
state of the atmosphere. The apparent need for avoiding chills

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENc^O MAROUES. 307

in these climates, owing to their bad consec(iiences, also lends
importance to the knowledge of temperature extremes.

An examination of the absolute maxima and minima shown
in Table No. IV gives one an unfavourable impression, but these
extreme variations are due to the hot zviiids from NNW that
precede atmospheric depressions, and are immediately followed
by fresh v^outh Wind which causes great decreases of tempera-
ture, these being at times as much as i6° C. (28.8° F.) within
one and a half hour.

This undoubtedly important circumstance is common to the
whole South African Coast, from Walfisch Bay to Durban.

From the observations of three complete years I have 0I1-
tained the following data : —

Maximum temperature higher than 35° C. (95° F.)

was registered 21 times.

Maximiim temperature higher than 40° C. (104'' F. ) 5
Mininium temperature between 9° and 10° C. (48.2°

and 50° F.) 21

Minimum temperature between 8° and 9"^ C. (4(^.4°

and 48.2° F.) 6 ..

Minimum temperature between j° and 8° C. (44.6°

and 46.4° F. ) once.

Minimum temperature equal to 25° C. (/y" F. ) . . once.

■\rinmum temperature between 24° and 2=^° C. (75.2°

and '/■/° F.) 8 times.

Minimum temperature Ijetween 2t,° and 24° C.

(73.4° and 75.2° F.) 26 ..

\'ariation of temperature on the same day,. 25.8° C.

(46.4° F.) once.

Variation of temperature on the same day between

20° and 25° C. (36° and 45.5° F.) 17 times.

\'ariation of temperature on the same day between

15° and 20° C. {27° and 36.4° F.) . .' 67 ..

Thus temperature higher than 40° C. (104" F. ) and lower
than 9° C. (48.2° F.) may be considered exceptional, and the
same can be said of variations in one day higher than 20' C.
(36° F.).

Similarly, one concludes that the minimum daily temperature
is rarely higher than 24° C. (75.2° F.), very seldom above 23" C.
(73.4° F.), and for this reason the heat at night is not, as a rule,
very troublesome.

I am therefore of opinion that these extreme temperatures
and high variations in one day should not have a very unfavour-
able result, owing to their rare occurrence. It should also be
noted that temperatures above 40° C. (104° F.) are registered
in temperate climates, such as Lisbon and in France, where the
minima are far below those obtaining here.

I shall refer again to this NNW hot zvi}id that has always

B

308 THE CLIJiIATE OF LOUKIiXCO MARQUES.

been registered whenever the temperature exceeded 32'' C.
(89.6= F.).

This wind is unquestionably unpleasant. It is extremely
dry, and causes an impression not less disagreeable than the hot
damp winds.

Barometric Pressure.

Barometric Pressure, which plays an important part in
meteorology, is of secondary importance in the study of a climate
and its consequent influence upon human life, especially if we do
not consider its efTects upon the other elements, as its oscillations
seem to have a perceptible influence upon the human body, and
only in very high altitudes does it become a climatic factor of
importance.

In Table No. V the monthly and annual means of the pres-
sure are shown for a period of seven years, reduced to 0° C. at
sea-level.

Besides the double diurnal variation, improperly called
" tides," which are more or less satisfactorily accounted for bv
various theories, the annual variation taking place is well dehned.
The minimum in December and the maximum in July, and the
annual means, correspond to the April means, for the same
])eriod of seven years.

These annual variations occur in the opposite direction to the
variations of temperature, as is usual in temperate continents.

if we analyse the variations in 24 hours we notice that the
nocturnal minimum generally occurs from III to IV, while the
diurnal minimum takes place, as a rule, between XV and X\'i,
while the morning maximum is registered between V'lII and IX.
with a tendency to occur earlier from October to December; the
nocturnal maximum is late, usually occurring between XXII 1
and XXI\\ and even after midnight. The diurnal minimum is
about 1 .5""" ( 0.050/') lower than the nocturnal minimum, thi::^
being more i)ronounced from October to January ; the diurnal
maximum exceeds the nocturnal by about 0.5""" (0.0197"), the
higher difference taking place from June to October ; conse-
quentlv, the difference between the diurnal maxima and minima
is more pronounced than is the case at night. Most of these facts
seem to be explained by the daily march of temperature, as men-
tioned before, and to be connected with the hours of sunrise and
sunset.

The extreme pressures as registered at the Observatory are :
:\Iaxinuun, 779.4""" (30.686"); minimum, 746.2™" (29.378");
I.e., an absolute variation of 33.2'''"' (1.308"), which is within the
limits registered at Durban and East London. The absolute
minima naturallv correspond to the occurrence of depressions,
and are followed' by the maxima, which become more pronounced
when the anticyclonic system becomes more stably fixed upon the

plateau.

Besides these two reo-ular variations, daily and annual, one

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO INIAROUES. 3CK;

has also to consider the irregular variations arising from the
passage of areas of high or low pressure.

As an instance of one of these disturhances and its etfects on
the other meteorological elements, I shall mention the respective
hourly ranges of a depression on the 28th September, 1912, which
may be of very little interest to those who have studied similar
phenomena in any other locality in South Africa, but which will
serve to give evidence as to the analogy of the meteorological con-
ditions of Lourengo Marques with those of such places.

The mere observation of Table No. V'l shows all the effects
on temperature, the direction and velocity of the wind, vapour
pressure, and relative humidity. Depressions, by causing NNW
and N hot zvinds, practically in every case have some influence on
evaporation, and render it excessive, thus requiring special atten-
tioii to avoid the shortage of water in the evaporimeter and
psychrometer.

In this depression the duration of the hot zciiid was as usual ;
but the rapid decrease of temperature, when the wind, after a
short calm, veered to the south, was not very pronounced. This
calm generally lasts a maximum of 20 minutes, when the south
wind breaks out with violence, sometimes with a velocitv of 70,
80, and even 100 kilometres per hour, and brings about the so-
called " dust storms," which are less fre([uent here than in other
localities of South Africa.

Depressions are not always preceded by cirrus clouds, and
when this occurs it is chiefly noticed two or three days before.

A few hours before the wind veers to the south the horizon
frequently becomes cloudy, and the sky gradually obscured by
cirro-stratus, followed by cumulus and cumulo-nimbus. The
south wind is at times accompanied by rain, which is more fre-
quent on the second and third days, especially in the rainy season,
but it never rains when the wind comes from the north.

(Ju other occasions it is accompanied by thunderstorms. The
ESE wind, which on this occasion was registered at XII on the
29th, prevailed for a good many hours, as is frequent, with vari-
able velocity, being sonietimes quite fresh, and it finally
veered to E and ENE.

I had the opportunity of ascertaining, in 1912, that depres-
sions are felt in Durban from eight to 20 hours before they
occur at Lourenco Marques. They are generally more frefjuent
in May and from August to December, and last a shorter period
in the dry season than in the rainy season. This example seems
to prove in a general way the following conclusions which Dr.
Sutton arrived at in his paj^er " On the variation of the hourly
meteorological normals at Kimberley during the passage of a
barometric depression " : — That depressions greatly increase the
normal variation of pressure and temperature ; that they influence
cloudiness, especially in the case of low level clouds ; that they
originate rains, which are more abundant on the second day ; and,
finally, it seems to me that it can also be concluded that they

310 THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO M AROUES.

come inland, by preference from the S or SW, and not from
the N, also that they do not travel across South Africa from west
to east, etc., etc.

I lack, however, sufficient data for a detailed study of these
depressions, and such would not come within the scope of this
paper, which I do not intend making too long.

Wind.

In Lourenco Alarcjues the hours of calm are very rare, and
this fact, combined with the prevailing sea-breezes, contributes to
a great extent to make the climate more pleasant.

From 1909 to 191 2, 24, 2, 29, 61 hours of calm respectively
were registered, this being very insignihcant, and not reaching an
average of 30 hours per annum.

The Anemometers at the Observatory are placed over the
building, which is situated on very even ground ; for many kilo-
metres around there is nothing higher than the 01)servatory
itself.

In Table No. VII, giving the means for four years, one sees
that only in a limited number of days is the wind light, that
strong winds are even less fre(|uent, and that onlv moderate
winds are really very frequent.

As to the variation of the direction of the wind, it would be
an easy matter to foresee, on account of the position of, Loureni:o
Marques on the littoral, the very jjronounced influence of the
land and sea-breezes. Land breezes make themselves felt par-
ticularly from April to August, and not so much in November
and December; they begin at about XXIII, and generalh go
down after IX, and not later than XT. It is most rare to get
wind from the W quadrant after noon, except when there is the
NNW hot zvind.

During the months w'hen this system is well estal)lislied. it
is only when the N or S wind blows violently that it does not
veer to the W quadrant during the night.

According to the rule ap])lying to circumstances such as are
peculiar to Lourengo Marcjues, the velocity of the wind is higher
in the day time than at night ; it is weaker between the hours
O and III, and increases steadily vmtil XVI, and a fresh wind
prevails until XIX. As will be seen, the velocity of the wind is
connected with the variation of temperature, but when the latter
decreases, the velocitv of the wind does not usually immediately
diminish.

Two facts shovdd be mentioned : at XI the velocity of the
wind generally decreases, and this may be explained by the influ-
ence of the land and sea-breezes, as the decrease is more pro-
nounced from April to August, and it is at this time that the
wind generally changes. The more pronounced decrease in wind
velocity from XXI to XXIII is perhaps due to the same cause.

The rule as to land and sea-breezes being more intense in
the months of greater variation of temperature and the smaller

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENCO MAROUES. 3II

velocity of the other prevaihng winds, accounts for such a con-
dition being more pronounced in the months from April to
August. At I.ourenco Marques the average velocity of the wind
is highest from September to January.

Tables VII, \'III and IX, showing the frequency and the
number of kilometres traversed in the dilferent courses, facilitate
considerably the analysis of the conditions in tlie various months.

In the hottest season, from October to l\Iay, liNE and SSW
winds prevail, willi a small percentage of winds from the NW
([uadrant and from SW to W directions. The prevailing wind
from the SW quadrant successively veers to SW from October
to May, and an increase in the percentage from NE to ENE is
similarly noticed up to February, when the latter direction pre-
vails, decreasing, however, considerably in March. Thus, the
prevailing winds during the hottest months are the sea winds
and also the SSW wind, which is rather cold. In the remain-
ing months, when the land and sea breezes are more pronounced,
the W winds are naturally more freqtient. The frequency of
the XX\A' wind increases from April to June, and decreases in
the three following months. Up to Jtme the wand increases
in fref[uency from SE to SW, and it again blows with more
frequency from S, SSE and from the NE quadrant.

In short, the winds from the W ([uadrant, principally NNW
and next SSW, prevail in ^lay, lune, and July ; in November,
December, and lanuary tlie winds from NE and SE quadrants
prevail, especially ENE, E, ESE. and also S.

The other months may be regarded as a transition between
these more clearly defined conditions.

The percentage of the number of kilometres traversed in
the different directions accompanies the percentage of frequency,
the former showing an increase in the directions in which, as we
have seen, the wind blows more violently.

The Monsoons at the N of the Mozambic[ue Channel are not
felt here, although they may also have some influence on the
velocity and direction of the wind.

A study of Table No. X shows the influence of the SE
trade wind which, as is known, prevails in the Indian Ocean in
this latitude, as the annual resultant is always aj)proximately SI^.
and in most months, especially in the hot months, the resultant
also falls to the same quadrant. These figures show a great dis-
placement of air toward XW, which is no doubt due to the great
aspirator of E(juatorial Africa, as Commander Hugo de Lacerda
had already concluded in 1909, thus justifying the greater
frequency of depressions in the hot season through this aspiration
being more pronounced. Commander Hugode Lacerda put
forward the hypothesis that the high pressure systems of the
two Oceans that wash the coast of Africa might compensate for
the loss of balance which shows a tendency to occur in Central
Africa, and strengthened his opinion by the circumstance of there
being no resultant at Kimberlev.

312 THE CLIMATE OF LOURENgO MARQUES.

When I referred to the barometric disturbances I nien-
iioned the existence of the hot winds which are common to the
South African littoral. Alost of the distinguished Meteorolo-
gists who have studied these winds consider them absolutely
similar to the Foehn of the Alps, which was ably accounted for
by Dr. Hann, and is a very warm, dry wind, which blows in the
North of the xA.lps when a cyclone occurs in Western Europe,
with the lowest pressure in England and the lightest in the Eas-
tern Mediterranean, and in the south of the Alps in Italy, when
the reverse is the case.

If we take Lourenco Marques only into account, a similar
explanation might at first sight appear as not being verv apposite
in view of the distance from the high mountains towards X and
NNW, and the fact, besides, that the elevation of the littoral to
the Rhodesia plateau is not abru})t.

Originating, however, in Equaiorial Africa, it is natural that
its temperature should be high, and the descent towartls the
littoral makes it even warmer and drier, as in its passage to-
wards the south it does not travel through any region that could
decrease its temperature or increase its humiditw

Absolute analogy with tlie winds of the South African coast
serves to justify this explanation, and this is also backed by the
fact that in Inhambane it is not so characteristically hot atul dry.
The wind there does not come, however, from high plateaus in
the interior.

In opposition to this hot wind we have the south wind, the
low temperature of which has a greater influence on the climate
owing to its greater frequency than the NNW. which, as I said
before, lasts only a few hours and is seldom felt; it should not,
however, be mistaken in the percentage diagrams for the NNW
caused by the land-breeze.

1 shall again call attention to the violent winds, with a
velocity corresponding to 60, 70, So, and 100 kilometres per
hour, which are felt at times when the south wind commences to
rise during an atmospheric perturbation.

The "highest hourly velocities registered during the observa-
tions of 4 years were: 88 kilometres with SSE wind and yy
kilometres with south wind in October and Alarch, 191 1, veloci-
ties varying from 60 to 70 kilometres being often recorded.

At Lourenco A barques no daily backing or veering of the
wind is noted.

Relative Humtoitv and Vapour Tension.

.Vccording to the widest classification a climate, the relative
humidity of wdiich falls between 66 % and 80 ^/c, is considered
as moderately moist, and this classification should apply to
Lourenco ]\Iarques, where, according to Table No. XI, not only
the annual l)Ut the monthly means are comprised within these
limits.

THE CLIMATK OF LOURENl^O MAROUES. 31 3

Knowledge of the hydrometrie condition of atmosphere is a
vakiahle element owing to its depressing and disagreeable in-
fluence, especially in high temperatures. In Loureneo Marques,
as we have seen, the excessively dry hot zcijid is very un|)leasant,
although it is un([uestionably less prejudicial to health than a warm
damp wind. The greatest percentage of relative humidit\- cor-
responds to the first 5 months of the year, and the smallest is
recorded from July to October, which are the months of lowest
temperature and very scarce rains.

The excess of humidit\- from March to May contri]jule> to
make these months worse than what might be expected if we
only took into consideration their comparatively low temperature.

If we compare the diagrams of monthly temperatures with
those of relative humidity we shall see that they follow ditterent
directions, but there exists no ]>erfect relation Ijetween them, as
there is a certain retardation in the march of the humidity curve.
Thus in .\pril, when the decrease of temperature is already
noticeable, humidity attains its maximum, and then it begins to
decrease until September, when it reaches its minimum, while the
temperature rises from July on.

In relation to the rainy season relative humidity attains its
maximum at the close of the season, and the minimum is reached
in September just after the amount of monthly rainfall begins to
increase.

The fact that sea winds prevail in the hot season should also
have its influence on the ranges of relative humidity, as according
to observation the dampest winds are those of NE to SSW
throtigh the E.

In theory, relative humidity, /. Ijeing the ratio between vapour
tension f (absolute humidity) at a certain moment, and Aapour
tension F at saturation, should decrease according to tempera-
ture, as the numerator does not increase much, while the de-
nominator becomes greater.

We have already seen how a retardation occurs in the annual
variation in relation to the march of temperature ; let us now see
the latter's influence on the diurnal variation.

The maximum relative humidity precedes sunrise, and coin-
cides with the thermometrical minimum ; the minimum generally
occurs at about noon, before the maximum temperature, and the
decrease follows regularly the rise of temperature. The increase
in the percentage of humidity is more rapid from the hour of the
minimum until the XXI ; afterwards it slowly increases and
saturation, or near approaches thereto, are recorded.

The absolute minimum of relative humidity corresponds to
hut zcind days, and it goes down as far as 8 per cent.

The mean annual variation is ^7,, and siniilarly to the varia-
tion of temperature it is greater in the coolest months, the same
occurring with the difl'erence between the absolute maximum and
minimum. Sometimes a raj^d increase in relative humidity

314 THE CLi:\IATR OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

and vapour tension is recorded at XXI, this l)eing no dotibt con-
nected with the aforesaid march of the variation of temperature.

The march of vapour tension, both annual and daily, regu-
larl\- follows temperature. Mean annual vapour tension is
]4.7r""\ and the mean variation oscillates between 3. 11 """ and
5.15'"'" in a similar but more regular manner than is the case
with temperature, and the same agreement exists in its dif-
ferences. The dittrnal minimum takes place at the hour of the
minimum temperature ; the maximum varies between XIII and
X\'I1, and is later than the maximum temperature, es])ecially in
the coolest months.

The extreme ranges in 4 years are: Maximum Jh.^'""',
mininmni 4.3'"'".

The foregoing emphasises to a considerable extent the high
condition of relative humidity during the night.

Dew is very frequent from June to Sei)tember. The rain
gauge (2 decimetres in diameter) sometimes records o.T'"™,
0.2'"'", and very seldom 0.3'"'".

Idle dew and fog water collectetl in the rain gauge in 191 2
amounted to i2.i'""\ It shotild be noted that the i>ercentage of
cloudiness last year was less than usual.

It is generally acknowledged that the percentage of cloudi-
ness has a considerable influence upon dew. The smallest
amount of average cloudiness in Lourenco Marques is at XXI in
relation to the hours of observation. I shotdd, nevertheless, "
mention that Dr. Sutton, as a result of his direct observations at
Kimberley, concluded that a clear sky was not essential to the
formation of dew. that this merely contri1)utes to hasten its com-
mencement, an.d that the dampness of the air and the length of
the night are the determining factors in the formation of dew.

1 often noticed that there was abundant dew in cloudy nights,
and this fact confirms Dr. Sutton's opinion.

There is no dew with N and NNW winds, the former show-
ing a higher record during such nights when a gentle landbreeze
is l)lowing.

Rainfall.

The meteorological data of regions which, like Lourenco
Marciues, are situated within the zone limits, is more or less
afliected by the characteristics of the two zones with which they
connect.

The rainv season in Lourenco Marques from October ta
]March. nameiv, when the sun is nearer the zenith, corresponds
to the tropical condition {vertical sun). During the six months
from April to September, the quantity of water recorded by the
rain gauge is about one quarter of that falling during the rainy
season, a small increase being noticed in the month of July,
which, though insignificant, may perhaps have its origin in the
winter rainfalls, which are more comnx)n in sub-tropical climates.

The annual rainfall mean is 677""" (26.660"), which

TiiK fLir^rATi': ok louri^nqo marques. 315

figure is still C(jni])risc(l in the designation of "" moderate rain-
fall," but a]:)proaching very closely to that called " light rainfall."

Lourenco Alarcjues being situated within the dry zone (20°
to 30° latitude), so classified according to the laws of circulation
of the atmosphere, which are deduced on the assumption of the
earth's surface being homogeneous, and furthermore owing to the
fact that in these latitudes the rain is scarce when a comi)onent
of the wind is diverted from the pole to the ecjuator, will account
for the total rainfall being inferior to the average amount of
water falling in the tropical zone.

The examination of a chart of distriljution of rainfall will
show that the dry zone is mostly accentuated in the southern
hemisphere, on the west coasts of continents, this being due to
various causes, such as : prevailing direction of the wind, exis-
tence of mountain ranges, cyclonic conditions, etc. The conditions
of Lourenco Alarques coincide with this, when neither the heaviest
short downfalls, nor moderate rainfalls lasting continually for
many hours, are frequent, as often happens in temperate zones
and in some parts of the tropical zone.

[n the Table No. XTI the average monthly and annual
amounts of rainfall collected are showm. also the average number
of rain}- da}-s according to the records of 14 years. At the
Observatory, all days on which an amount of o\er n.T'"'" is re-
corded, are considered as rain\' da\'s.

The months of most rainfall are Decem])er and lanuarv, and
the driest are June, July, and August.

The chart showing the percentage of rain corresponding to
the different directions of the wind gives evidence of its abun-
dance wdien the latter blows from SSE to SW, but chiefly from
the S and then from the SSW. In relation to the other wind
directions the percentage is much lower, especially the directions
N and NXW. where it is insignihcant.

A higher percentage of rainfall corresponds to the direction
\V, which is due to thunderstorms being more frequent from
that side, although showers from various directions are recorded
in the most violent thunderstorms.

Nearly all the al)Ove-mentioned authorities reject not only the
theor}' of the prevailing Sl'^ winds, but further that those winds
cause the rain in South Africa.- \\v. C. Stewart adds that rain
may be expected at Port Elizabeth and East London whenever
the winter northwesterly winds veer from north to south in the
Cape Peninsula, indicating the ])assage of a disturbance to the
north-east, and records the fact that in Port Elizabeth in the
only month when the SE was at all prevalent the rainfall was
&6 % below normal.

In Lourenco Marques the most abundant rainfalls corres-
pond likewise to the passing of depressions, also sometimes to
the veering of the wind from N to S, but more generally on the
next day or the following one. It is also worth noting that the
months showing greater percentage of wind from SE do not

3J'' THE CLIMATE OF LOURENCO MARQUES.

correspond to a dehned increase in the amount of rain. In
short, rainfall in Lourenco Marques, followino- the type of
tropical rainfalls to the season, is closely connected with the pass-
mg of depressions, and approaches the rainfall known as cyclonic
rainfall.

When in the isol)ars the centre of hioh pressure is estab-
lished at Lourenco Marques, small showers are sometimes re-
corded with changing winds, which is in disagreement with the
theory of " convectional " rainfalls, because, as is known,
descending air currents correspond to the centres of high ores-
sure, and such currents are the least likely to promote rain.

In Lourenco Marriues rainfalls are very fre(|uent from TV to
IX and after XVIII : during the remaining hours it rains more
at night than during the day, and it rains the least from XV
to XVII. that is to say, when the velocity of the wind is greater.

During four years — 1909 to 1912 — on 20 different occasions,
rainfalls have been recorded which registered over 30 millimetres
in 24 hours. Of these the highest figures recorded by the rain
gauge are as follows :

In 1909 — January 70'""' {ij^y" ) in 1 hour 15 minutes.
November 30""" (i.iSi") in 15 minutes.
December 50""" {1.969") in 15 minutes.
December 96""" (3.781") in 4 hours.

In T910 — February 18T"'" (7.128") in 12 hours.
October 43'"'" ( r.6(j3") in 40 minutes.

In 1911 — October 50'"'" {].</«/') in 1 hoin-.

Together with the percentage of sunless hours and cloudi-
ness, I give a diagram of rainfall which I consider interesting on
account of the general impression it affords as to the connection
of these three elements, and of the general condition of the atmos-
phere.

I also introduce a tliagram showing the average monthly
number of rainy days and thunderstorms.

Evaporation.

A " Piche " evaporimeter is employed at the Observatory to
measure the evaporation, the- instrument being read at IX. As
is known, the study of evaporation is not well defined, it being
impossible to compare the observations made with the same in-
strument in two different localities, this being principally due to
the influence of the temperature on the water. It is admitted
that evaporation increases with the temperature of the water
and the velocity of the wind, and decreases with humidity and
atmospheric pressure. This is what actually takes place in

Lourenqo Marques, wdiere the influence of the temperature and
the velocity of the wind are quite manifest, both on variations
from day to day and from month to month. This latter factor
is, however, the prevailing one, as evaporation is greater during
the hot season, in the month of greater wind velocit}-. In the

THE CLIMATE OF LOUREN^O .MAKOUES. ^IJ

month of March, which is characterised by an increase in the
velocity of the wind, the evaporation Hkewise increases. The
inflnence of pressure and humidity, which are factors of less
importance, is not contradicted by an examination of the respec-
tive daily ranges.

Data are lacking for the study of evaporation during the dif-
ferent hours. Its extraordinary increase during the hours of
occurrence of the hot zvind has, however, become c|uite evident.

Table No. XIII, showing the means of monthly evaporation,
will confirm the above remarks on the subject.

Cloudiness and Hours of Sl'nsfiine.

The state of cloudiness is of great imjjortance in nieteor-
ologv, because, apart from its close connection with ramfall. it
has a great influence in the distribution of solar radiation and ter-
restrial radiation, and alTords data for the study of the upper
currents of the atmosphere and for the forecasting of the weather.
Recent researches by Professor Abbot, tending to demon-
strate the influence of the clouds on the percentage of solar
racHation which reaches the terrestrial surface, lead him to con-
clude that the solar rays sufl:'er a loss of =io % in value when
passing through a cloudless atmosphere, and this percentage of
loss noticeably increases with cloudiness, through absorption and
reflection.

Taking it that an average of 52 % of the terrestrial
surface is obscured by clouds, he concludes that the solar
radiation which reaches the terrestrial surface is reduced to
24 % of its total amount, and this fact enhances the influence of
cloudiness in Meteorology.

Observations of cloudiness are made at the < )l)seryatory
three times a day, at IX, XV and XXI.

The monthly average of the amount of chnul i> in agree-
ment with the distribution of rainfall. From the hours of
observation a decrease is recorded from morning towards night,
except in June and July, when the greatest amount of cloud is
legistered at XV.

The number of ol)servations of clear sky and sky with a
smalll quantity of cloud exceeds those of overcast sky with or
withottt breaks.

The average cloudiness of Lourenco Manjues (4.^)) closely
a]jproaches the figure attributed to this latitude in the cloudiness
charts, and nears the maximum cloudiness of South Africa.

" Cumulus "' clouds prevail all the year round, and during the
rainy season " cumulus " and " cumulo-nimbus." " Cirrus "
are observed more esi)ecially in the afternoon, from January to
March, and in May, freciuently grouped from SW to Xk^ and
sometimes seeming to irradiate from a point in the SW ((uadrant :
they move more usually from W to E. " Stratus " are more
frequent in the morning of the cool season.

31''^ THE CLIMATE OF LOUREiXQU iMAROUES.

-\s is nalLiral, the number of hours of sunshine is verv
cio^'^ly connected with cloudiness.

The Jordan Siuishine recorder is employed at the Observa-
tor}-, Ijut has the inconvenience of recording the observations
with an error of from i to 2 %, owing to the sheets not printing
when the sun is low.

The percentage of hours of stmshine is in the universe ratio
to rain and cloudiness. This can be seen from Tal)le XIV and
the diagram recording the percentage of sunless hours, cloudi-
i'e>s and rain.

This relation is not perfect, and it so happens that the months
ot lower percentage of sunshine, (Jctoljer and November, are not
those of greater rain and cloudiness. •

If we add the percentage of the hours of sunshine and
cloudiness, we shall see that this addition varies between Ii8 and
Qy, respectively, in the months of greatest rainfall and in the
driest ones, because the percentage of cloudiness oscillates be-
tween wider limits — 62 and 24 — than the ])ercentage of sunshine

X'arious formuke have been introduced to connect these two
elen:ents. but this is rather a difhcult matter, seeing that it is possi-
I'le to register a great quantity of clouds without hiding tht sun.

The highest figure in minutes of sunshine is registered, as
seen from Table No. X\' ,from XIII to XVI, that is during the
hotirs of greater heat and wind velocity, and decreasing steadily
toward simrise and sunset. When it increases, a retardation is
noticeable from XI to XIII, and during the decrease the latter is
more pronounced from X\'l to XVII. (In Lourengo Marques the
sun is above the horizon all the year round u]) to 5'^ 8' p.m.) These
alterations are tmdotil)tedly connected with those of the other
elements alreadv mentioned.

These facts are common to all the months, with a slight
dift'erence. In the months of higher percentage of hours of
simshine the increase takes place more often from X to XVI.

During three years of observation there were 45 days of no
sunshine, days when no printing of the " sunshine " paper took
place, 15 days when it printed during less than 10 minutes, and
46 days from 10 minutes to i hour.

ACTTNOMETER AND SoLAR AND NoCTURXAL RaDIATIOiV.

I'he importance of the study of solar radiation is well known
owing to its influence in all Meteorological elements.

At the Observatory a Marie-Daw actinometer is employed,
and the Bouger formula is used. This actinometer's records are
not, as everyone knows, reliable, for different reasons, principally
on account of the absorption of some calorific rays by the glass.

Ex])eriments made, especially those of Professor Crova,
^hfnv that the heat received from the sun attains its maximum
at an intermediate period between winter and summer, in May in
the northern hemisphere ; during summer the intensity diminishes

TMK CLIMATh: Ol' L()URENi;0 MARQUES. 3I9

until it reaches the minimum, and rises again to a second maxi-
mum in Autumn. I possess complete observations only for the
year 1912. In these observations (see Table No. XVI j I notice
two maxima, one in February and the other in September, re-
sjjectively 45.6 and 44.7 uctinometric degrees, corresponding to
the two maxima of the other hemisphere ; the minima are 36.3
and 41.2 actinometric degrees in May and December respectively.

The observations are made at IX, XII, and XV, which does
not suffice to permit of the study of the double daily variation :
in these observations a higher value is recorded, first at noon and
then in those taken at IX.

These observations, such as they are, may Ije of interest to
agriculturists.

For the study of solar radiation, l)esi(les the actinometer, the
Observatory employs a thermometer of maximum solar radiation,
with a blackened bulb enclosed in a vacuum glass sheath, and a
thermometer of minimum nocturnal radiation containing alcohol,
which is placed in such a way that the bulb remains on the focus
of a parabolic metallic mirror, turned towards the zenith.

The figures presented in Table No. X\T, being the average
for three years, show only the annual variation accompanying
that of the temperature in the shade.

The respective diagrams refer to the maximum means of
solar radiation and to the absolute minimum of nocturnal radia-
tion in each month.

The absolute maxima and nu'nima of three years in these
two thermometers are 75.6° C ( i08.i° F) and 7.8° C (4>'>"Fj. .

Grass Thermometers.

Temperatures over the grass are observed with two kinds of
thermometers, one of maximum with blackened bulb and another
of minimum, for the j)urpose of getting an approximate idea of
the greatest quantity of heat received and radiated by the plants.
Their records, averaged for three years, shewn in Table No.
XVII, are of special interest to agriculturists, and noticeably
follow the annual march of the temperature : The extremes re-
corded during the same period are ^2.2° C (129.6° F) and
5.7° C (42.3- F).

Temperature of the Earth.

The temperature of the earth affords consideral)le interest
on account of" its effects on the temperature of the air, principally
in respect of the latter's variations.

The soil warms up and cools down the greater its conducti-
bility, radiating power, absorbing power, and calorific capacity,
in sandy soil all these favourable circumstances occur to the
greatest extent, while the opposite is the case with water.

The temperature of the soil, though less important to veget-
able life than the temperature of the air, is nevertheless an

320 THE CXIMATE OF LOUREXqO MARQUES.

element worth considering. On the other hand vegetation, as
well as evaporation, alters the temperature of the soil.

It is also worth observing that there seems to exist some
relation between the temperature of the soil and the existence
and development of certain diseases, such as diarrhcjea and typhoid
fever.

The reading of the thermometers placed at 0.5,1,2,3
metres depth is taken at IX. I attach hereto a table (No.
XVI 11) of the averages during three years. Naturally there'
exists some agreement with the three laws of the temperature of
the earth, i.e.. the law of amplitude, that of retardation during
the period of the extremes, and finally that of reduction of ampli-
tude, which varies with the period luider consideration and with
the depth.

Th u n derstorm s.

Thunderstorms are most frequent in December, then in
(Jctober, November, and May, and least frequent in June, July,
and August, this frequency coinciding with atmospheric distur-
bances. We have already mentioned the fact that the wind
veering to the South when depressions occur, it is often accom-
panied by thunderstorms.

\\'hen the lowest pressures become established towards W
and S\\ . and the barograph begins to trace a sinuous line, thunder-
storms are common, with showers from W. Violent thunder-
storms, which sometimes last for hours, are accompanied l.)y f resli
winds of variable directions. They are more common at night-
fall and the last from sunrise to XIII. As one sees, most
thunderstorms in Lourengo Marques may be classified as depres-
sion thnnderstonns rather than heat thunderstorms.

Lightning without thunder is often recorded one or t\\'o days
])revious to the occurrence of depressions, and their trerjuency
follows the same march as the thunderstorms.

Other Phenomena.

I give in Table No. XIX various meteorological data, some
of which have already been considered.

Fog is more frequent during the cool season, especially in
the morning. Hail is seldom recorded, and that which fell in
1912 in the lower part of the town is worthy of notice on account
of its abundance.

Lunar coronw are often observed ; halos, which are not
frefjuent, generally mark the approach of rainfall.

General Remarks.
I have endeavoured without excessively enlarging on this
paper, to introduce the most important data for the study of a
climate, and have followed the indications of Professors J._ Hann
and Cleveland Abbe, in harmony with the observations in my
possession.

THE CLIiMATK OF LOURENCO MARQUES. 7,21

When trying- to comprise the characteristics of the chniate
for a given region, in one designation only, we may adopt various
classilications, grouping two or more of its principal meteoro-
logical elements ; and as these have already been defined in regard
to Louren(;o Marques, I shall review the classification that can
be adopted, taking into consideration the basis in general use.

The first and oldest classification is the *' Solar " or " Astro-
nomical " in three zones — tropical, temperate, and arctic.

Lourenco Marques is outside the tropical zone proper.
Supan, however, whose classification is generally accepted, limits
these zones, not by the parallels of latitude, but by the isotherms,
and confines the troi)ical zone l)y the isotherm of 20° C (68° F )
which the limit of the trade 7i'iiids and oi the palms approximately
coincides with.

According to this classification. Lourenco Ahirqu(.\s is in the
tropical zone, but if we consider its principal Aleteorological
elements, comparing them with those characteristic of the tropical
and temperate zones (temperature, pressure, respective variation,
humidity, rainy season, ([uantity of rainfall, etc., etc.) one can
easily see that tliese elements are more or less influenced by the
two princi})al zones. That is why I prefer the classification of
Koppen, who. paying attention to the relations of temperature
with organic life, especially takes into account the number of
months of the }ear in which the temperature is kept within cer-
tain limits.

In this classification the term sub-tropical is applied to such
regions where from 4 to 1 1 months are hot ( over 20° C or
68°" F), I to 8 months are temperate (10" to 20° C or 50° to
68° F, and where the rainfall is generally deficient.

Lourenco IMarques is correctly included in this zone, its
average monthly temperature during nine months being over
'20° C {p'i^° F), the remaining three months being lower but over
10° C (50° F), and its total rainfall being 677'"'" (26.660")
{ moderate rain) .

Another general basis for the classification of climates is the
geographical one, which comprises three divisions, namely, conti-
nental, oceanic, and insular, or littoral ; the latter, which corres-
ponds to LoureuQo Marques, more or less, partakes of the
defined characteristics of the other zones.

From the Acro-physical point of view climate has been classi-*
fied as folloM's : — As regards temperature — hot, intermediate, and
cold, or regular, medium, and extreme ; and as regards humidity —
damp, intermediate, and dry. As regards the temperature of
Lourenco Marques in addition to what has already been men-
tioned, we may classify its climate as regular, as this is the
classification applying to those climates where the variation in the
amiual temperature is under 10° C (18° F), and here the dif-
ference between the hottest and coldest months does not reach
8° C (14.4° F).

322 THE CLIMATE OF LOURENgO MARQUES.

Taking hnmidity into consideration, we have already seen
that it is entitled to the designation of moderately damp, as its
relative annual and monthly humidity falls within the limits 68
and 80 per cent.

As mentioned, other more distinct classifications have been
introduced by the combination of two or more meteorological
elements. I shall just mention that, taking the classification of
Supan (35 climatic ])rovinces), this region belongs to the
Tropical African Province, and in Koppen's classification, under
the botanical standpoint, to the Mesothcrms group.

I will also mention another l)asis of classification. Physio-
logical, which comprises two groups: — (a) according to the
general sensation produced, mild, pleasant, humid, disagreeable,
etc. ; (b) according to the general effects of the i)articular climate,
invigorating, relaxing, rigorous, etc.

It is difficult for me to deal with this sul)ject, and I shall
therefore merely make a few remarks.

In my opinion Lourenco Marques cannot be included in any
one of these divisions owing to the variety of conditions referred
to, whether in both seasons, or whether from month to mouth.
It is not out of place to repeat here the assertion already made
with regard to the variation of sensations produced by small
alterations of temperature on those Europeans who inhabit
trojiical areas, and that this fact is principally due to their phy-
sical exhaustion and the hyerometric state of the atmosphere.
I may furthermore mention, for instance, the influence on indi-
viduals of a hot day being followed l)y one of lower temperature,
damper and less windy, thus causing an apparent exaggeration
on the personal sensation of heat.

Let us now consider, very superficially, the eft"ects of the
climate.

As stated, the year mav be divided into two seasons, namely.
hot and rainy from October to March, cool and almost dry from
A])ril to September, the four seasons not being well characterised
here.

During the hottest and dampest months the climate has
characteristics approaching to tropical, but the prevailing sea
winds blowing harder during the hours of greater heat contribute
to make it more pleasant.

The sky sometimes takes an aspect akin to tropical climates,
and the occurrence of atmospheric disturbances, together with
hot winds from the north followed by cold winds from the south
makes these months unpleasant and relaxing.

These depressions are also felt during the cool season— not
so frequently, but they nevertheless occur during the most
pleasant months.

February and March are perhaps the most pronounced
tropical months, on account of the greater frequency of damp
heat, which is sometimes still felt in April and May.

THE iLl.MA'n-: Oi-- LOURENgu MARQUES. 323

Though the chniate ckiring this season is not ahsokitely good,
its depressing effects on the constitution may to a great extent
be corrected by proper hygienical measures. This is stated by
Sir Patrick ]\lanson. who. writing on tropical diseases, says: —
" Acchmatization is less an unconscious adaptation of the physio-
logy of the individual than an intelligent adaptation of his haljits."

Concerning the adaptation of the white race in this town.
Commander Hugo de Lacerda emphasises the similarity of the
climate to that of I)url)an. where the white race has adapted itself
to its climatic environment. The similarity is well known, and ma}-
be confirmed by the analysis of the meteorological elements in
both towns, where, as we have seen, the temperature and relative
humidity are closely identical, the amount of rainfall here being
considerably lower.

During the cool season the climate ma}- be considered good,
especially from June to October, when the temperature and
lower humidit\- render these n:onths more agreeable and in-
vigorating.

A brief consultation of the reports of the Chief Medical
Officers in the past, referring to the Health District of Lourenco
JMarques, also enhances the conviction as to the satisfactory
health conditions in the cooler ironths. During these months
the health "status "' is considered very good, espetially from
June to October.

Finally, I shall i|Uote C(jmmander Hugo de Lacerda, whose
words support my own views regarding our splendid climate
during the cool season : —

" In winter during the period of fine weather, and with the
south winds prevailing, the climate may be placed on a level with
the best in the world. There are days during this season that
are so pleasant and bright that they may well be designated as
glorious days, producing a wonderful feeling of satisfaction,
much to be appreciated.

" The average temperature of Lourenco Marques during the
driest month of the year is approximately equal to the average
annual temperature of the Transvaal, and the average tempera-
ture during the months of June to October corresponds to the
average temperature of the months from November to April in
Middelburg. By coming down to what may be called the cote
d'acitr of South Africa, the inhabitants of those districts have,
therefore, a .place where they can easily go to in order to avoid
the rigours of the low tenijjerature of their altitudes."

324

THE CLIMATE OF LOUKENCO MARQUES.

§ ^

? 5
^ ^

c >^

(U U

H 5

Anno
Yenr

o

0-6^

Q

o

goes

Z

s-f^z;

d

SI^CS

6

l-3i

^3-33

C/j

fo

9-69

d
d

88-05

<

0£9
Lf-6l

-

d

^t-9
10-81

-

d

8-1^9

85-81
6-89

§

d

09-OS

<

—

f£L

00-83

s

d

8-ez,

^8-^-3

Pii

d

LLL

l^63

(

9-8^

06-53

THE CLIMATE OF LOUREiVQO MARQUES.

525

O^

c- £■

^ '-3 '

'-^s

yinom fsapjoo 3jnf
-luacluig} aBvjaay '
ouj stBtu saiu I
Bipaut t;jn:jBaaamsj^ i

yfiioiu fs9ffoi/ ajjif

a^uant) sreiu saui ' |
urpaiu B.in'jMaamaj,

n-nifDjaduiaf

liinuitv uuajf

[BiimiB

Bipaui P.nni3.iaauiax

; sv^—apnfiBvo'j
8^sg — apn;i3uoq

p CO O iC

t^ c^ cb cb

CO ^ Tf 10

00 t^N Cp C£)
CM LO C-^ CO

q> cp O) CN

o di -^ CO
o o — I 05

CO '7^ '^ O

CO CO ^ ^
CO 'f ^ CO

--H cp ;p O)

Cb 't" -^ GO
CC CD CC CD

Cf) '^ r-. 10

ih do c» o

-H ^ « CM

Cp Cp Cp CD

o CD 6b CM
I> t^ t^ 00

•71 00 05 —

•^ -^ iJn CO

<N CN CM CM

op a> o i>

^ O CM 10

CD rs !> t>

CN Cp CM CO

CO ~ C^l Tf
-^ CM CM iM

CO O CD -<Ti
CM O CO CM

o c ; c

r^ ^ CO ic

CM CO CO CO

~ '-^ do CM
C^ 10 ip lO

CO 05 lb CO

CO CM CM CM

0 0 CO 0

04

CD

0> CM

O^

"^

CD

05

O) CO

t^

10

c
o

1^ OJ

" Cj (U H

32D

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENgO MARQUES.

QUADRO NO. III.
TABLE NO. III.

Variarues mensaes na temperatura e quantidade de chiiva.
Montlil}' variations in Temperature and amount of R.iinfall.

Mesfs

Diffpren(;a de temperatura
Difference in temperature

Chuv

Total ,

1 total
am fall

Monfhx

C.

F.

Millimetres
Millimetres

Pollegadas
Inches

J

4-0-87
-0-49
-1-04
-1-37
-2-50
-2-27
-0-22
4-1-46
4-1-41
4-1-39
4-1-18
4-1-58

4-1-5

-0-9
-1-9
^-2-5
-4-5
-41
-0-4
4-2-6
4-2-5
4-2-5
4-2-2
4-2-9

126-3
89- 1
63-4
39-2
308
12-8
13-9
12-3
29-4
64-8
88-6

107-3

4-974

F

3-509

M

2-497

A

1 -545

M

1-213

J

0-505

J

0-547

A....

0-446

s

1-158

0

2-552

N

3-490

D

4-226

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENgO MARQUES.

327

l-H >

0

X

rt

y,

6

1)

u

z

s

0

a

3

D
<
D

£

0^

1
0 ). 1

c « 1

b

6

6111

0"9t-

S'gOl

8"£

Q

b

t^sfs

0

^•z\

611

Z

b

6'ni

Z'Vi

u

v\\

311

d

b

5901

t^se

0

rl^

611

1/3

b

ceoi

86^

d

£0^

6-6

<

b

066

9-91^

u

3"Z8

18

b
u

^•68

0-9f-

6ie

%'L

-■

b"

I £8

\ LV

0

9'OS

r8

%

b

8-^6

S'^S

6

61^8

131

<

b

L'Z^

s-^e

u

£88

S'SI

2

b

^ee

809

6

^'58

£Sl

^

b

986

8-89

0

0£8

ZL\

^

b

066

rs9

6

3Y8

v%\

mniiitxviu

llUlUllUtXH

E;n[OsqB biuiuii\[

328

THE CLIMATE OF LOUKEKgO MARQUES.

O V

I80-0S

SO- 1^9^

SBpeSanod

886-6^

A

sBpBSaiioj^

oeooc

S0.lf3lUI]JtJ][

soa:)aui![jiw

e^s9^

o ,-

SEpB3a[[0j

eeo-08

soa^duiiiliM

6889^

- T3

in

sayjiij

SI3pB33||()jJ

18108

o ^

?;8S9^

5 ^

<

-■

say J II J
s-epBaaiio^

6SS-08

? ?

>)3J,)9Uflj)ll\J

8e-89Z,

-

sayji//
SBpB3ai[o^

SS3.08

1 i

aajfamrijijf

88-89^

S

sai/auj
SBpBSa[ioj^

9^1.08

scajaiuiiuj^

IL'99L

1! rt

SEpBSd[IOj;

180-08

'S 1

soj}aiui[iiH

eo-i79^

S

sBpcSajioj^

31008
6£Z9L

sau/aiuijjtjf
soa;atu;[i!i\[

-■

SBpB3a[|0J

SS6-6S

gaufaiiiii;ij\[
so.[}auiiiltH

5809^

-■

ssyotij
stipuSanoj

11^6-63

so.naiuiinw

8f'09Z

THE CLniATl': Ol" LOUKKXgo MAKOUKS.

3^9

QUADRO No VI.
TAI^.i: No. VI.

Alguns elementos meteorolo^icos durante a passagcni dc uina dcprcssHO
]\Ieteorolou;ical Data observed during tlie passage of a depression.

1912

rrtssao
Pressure

Teniperatura
Temperature

Humidade

Humidity

100— Saturavfio

100 — Saturation

Tensao de vapor

Vapour tension

Millimetros

Millimeires

Vento
Wind

Setembro
September

Millimetros
Millimetres

bD-S

Centigrados
Centigrade

Direcgilo
Direction

Dia
Days

Horas
Hours

5 o S 1
W^5

XIII

765-9

30-15

23-7

74-7

56

12-2

E

25

XIV

7G4-9

3012

23-4

74-1

59

12-7

E

27

XV

764-0

30 08

22-5

72-5

59

11-8

E

29

XVI

763-4

30 06

21-7

71-1

60

11-5

ENE

28

XVII

7G3-3

30 05

21-0

69-8

68

11-5

ENE

33

27

XVIII

763-2

30 05

20-1

68-2

68

119

ENE

32

XIX

763-4

30 06

19-8

67-6

86

13-0

ENE

32

XX

763 5

30 06

19-7

67-5

70

120

ENE

29

XXI

763-6

30.06

19-S

67-6

75

12-9

ENE

27

XXII

763-5

30-06

19-7

67-5

75

12-8

ENE

32

XXIII

763-0

30-04

19- (;

67 3

70

11-8

ENE

30

^XXIV

762-6

30-02

19-1

66-4

68

11-2

ENE

25

( I

761-9

30-00

18 0

64-4

63

9-8

NNE

23

II

761-3

29-97

17-2

63 0

61

8-9

NNE

23

III

760.7

29-95

16-7

62-1

54

7-6

NNE

20

IV

760-2

29-93

15 S

60-4

56

7-5

NNE

24

V

760-0

29 92

15-5

599

54

7-1

NNE

25 .

VI

760-0

29-92

15-8

60-4

49

6-5

N

25

VII

759-8

29-91

18-4

65-1

41

6-4

NNW

27

VIII

759-2

29-89

23 6

74-5

31

6-8

NNW

34

IX

758-9

29-88

270

80 6

27

7-1

NNW

36

X

758-1

29-85

29-4

84-9

24

7 3

NNW

42

XI

756-9

29-80

319

89 4

18

65

NNW

39

28

XII

755-7

29-75

33-4

921

15

6-1

N

34

XIII

754-3

29-70

34-7

94-5

14

5-8

N

34

XIV

753-1

29-(i5

35-5

95-9

11

5-3

N

36

XV

752-0

29-01

35-9

96-6

10

5-0

N

34

XVI

751-6

29-59

35-4

95-7

11

5-2

N

32

XVII

751-4

29-58

34-4

93-9

12

53

N

30

XVIII

751-5

29-55

33-0

91-4

13

50

N

29

XIX

752-0

29-61

30 -S

87-4

18

6-1

N

26

XX

752-G

29-63

•29-5

85-1

20

6-3

N

25

XXI

754-9

29-72

27-5

81-5

20

8-0

N

27

XXII

756-3

29 78

20-4

68-7

60

10-7

S

40

XXIII

757-2

29-81

19-8

67-6

58

10-1

S

35

^ XXIV

757-6

29-83

19-2

66-6

59

9-9

S

27

/ I

758-2

29 85

18-7

65-7

62

100

S

26

II

758-8

29-88

18-2

64-8

68

9-9

S

24

III

759-1

29 -S9

17-7

63-9

66

9-9

S

28

IV

759-8

29-91

17-2

63 0

67

9-8

s

19

V

760-4

-29 94

167

62-1

68

9-6

s

19

VI

761-4

29 98

16-8

62-2

67

9-5

s

20

29

VII

762-3

30-01

18-4

65-1

68

10-8

s

23

VIII

762-9

30-04

20-0

68-0

56

9-8

s

24

IX

763-4

30-06

21-4

70-5

59

11-0

s

25

X

763-5

30-06

21-6

70-9

59

11-2

SSE

24

XI

763-4

30-06

23-7

74-7

50

10-8

ESE

19

\ xn

7n-^-i

30-()4

22-7

72-9

50

10-2

ESE

25

330

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENCO INIAKOUES.

QUAURO No. VII.
TABLE No. VII.

Niimero de dias de vcnto-
Number of days of ivind.

Meses
Monthf

Muito fraco
Light

Fraco
Gent e

Moderado
Moderate

Fresco
Fresh

Forte
Strong

Muito forte
Itempestuoso
! St or mi/

I

T

0
0

0

1

23
22

8
6

0

1

1 0

F..

: 0

M

0

1

23

6

1

0

A..

0

1

25

3

1

i 0

M.

0

1

24

6

0

0

[••

0

1

23

ts

0

0

J--

0

1

24

6

0

0

A..

0

1

19

10

1

0

s

0
0
0
0

0
0

0

20
19
19
23

9
12
10

7

0
0

1

0

0

o

0

N

0

D.

0

Somma )

Tntnl 1

0

7

264

89

5

0

THE CLIMATE OF LOUKKNgO MARQUES.

33^

AIXX
IIIXX

08-81

Velocidades medias do vento em kilometres as differentes horas.
Average Velocity of Wind in kilometres at the different hours.

IIXX

89-13
0985

IXX

XX
XIX
IIIAX
1 1 AX

8 1 -92
0L-9Z
LS-9Z

I AX

Lf-9Z

AX

AIX
IIIX

08Sr,

os-8r,

81^23

IIX

8MS

M ►"•

IX

9t^-03

O M

X

86-OS

XI

0202

Q «

IIIA

06-61

IIA

^1-61

lA
A
AI

££•81

89-81
1 8f'8l

III
. 11

86-£l
L'SLl

I

09LI

^ K

H-S

<U^

<u

'O .=

as ~

"O ^

VI

'O

oci

ocit

rt

g

o

C

<D ~5^

X

'^

> "^

332

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

QUADRO No. IX.
TABLE No. IX,

Velocidades niedia.s em kilometros nos differentes meses.
A\erage Velocity in kilometres in the different months.

Meses
Months

Media annual.

Annual aver as e.

Vi'lofidudeb iricdia>

fill kilometros

Averuge Vi'Incity

ill kil()metre-'<

T ... ....

22-26

F .

20-60

M :

21-43

A...

19-33

M

20-57

T

19-97

I

20-23

J

A

21-48

S

24-08

O

23-68

N

23-56

D

21-30

21 54

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENqO MARQUES.

33?>

o

c

^ ;

>

C
rrt

o

*-*

•n

:3

ti

«

rt

Id

T

.^

yj

>

Oi

sopiwooaad
soiiauioxiM

cii lio M" c-f — ■ -^ crj -^" t>^ 06 do ! ai

•a •.::

a w a w ::j ::? iij :^ a a w a a

C/O CA! C/2 C/2 C/2 7: 72 C/2 C/2 C/3 C/2 C/^ 7)

o

00 Oi lt; 0 c^i ^ c^ ic ic CO c^i c^i — '

LO CO C^ 'sD -^ 00 c^ 00 ^C C^ CD 'X;

cvji-Hicooocoi^-ir^icc^

(N — - ID CM CC CC I> Oi CTi —

X 00

O — '

sopujoo.Tad
soa^jgmoiig

O — O O 1^ iC C^l GO CO -t -^ 3^ I !M

CDOxcocoir;-fLn-f"CCOO lg

rH O CO CC LC O CO '-£; r>. C: CD -^ j 00

•^ ci; do CO cb '^ c^i -^ '^ cii i^ cs 66

« .. o

-h Z .b !2;

C/5C/3t/!C/3CA2CAi;z;c/DC/32:;ZCO

o-iTroot^oc^iooirj-fCTjOi

-pco-rco 1/5X— ^ccoooooo

00 CD o o i> o CO c^nc -f o^

CO '—I -r i/j X CO 0". CD — X CO

! OiOJO^c^rHc-i-raio— '-^

>l9A}9lU0nW I OQOlOOCDOOlCO^^C^llO-^

sopijjODjadi '^ t: ?^^ ^^ '-^ ?^ O ^ ?^ "T^ «? '^

sojfjauioxiji i> l^ CO c^i — (M — I CO -p -r CO

■H S

cA(ajc/5Zc/32cA!Zc/2Lnc/3c/D

OCDOCOi/J^O'COO-^fMO
(NC^^^00|>CDCDCOI>LCCD

O^OCOLCCDOWjCNCTiGGO

cDiOTr^cooot<cD^ooac^

,fc ^ < ^

C/2

Si

00 '-t- ^ Oi CO 00 CO l-^ CD CO lO I/:

CO

s9xtaiuoii\[

CD CD 0:1 CO 00 LC t^ CD C^l t^ O CO

CO

SOpUJO0J9d
SO.H3UlO[l\I

CO !M CO GO 00 Cr. cr. CJj 00 CO CO CD

CX)

C^lOOJ^C^C^lCO— 'CNt^l^CD

^

CO

fiTfirs'^ ^'^ S s w s^w'S^

uT

1- a ■•§ Ki

tntninrn'^tn^^tmraji'^

CA!

S " ?^ J.

iTJlCOOCOLO^^^t-CDCNoO

CO

.=:! Z .= fei

CD^ COt^'"^ COl-^t^CD

LC

q q

^-

ioiC(McoLn)i''>caico-foocN

~r

--^COr^ODC^li/D^ -^OOt—

tM

— ^ COMCO ^^^„

CO

CO

C/2

00

CO

CN

c c:

,< 72 O Z Q

334

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENCO MARQUES.

ouuy

Q

op

Z

o

CO

o

CO

tn

1 x

<

X X

5 S

c- c/:

'5 H

;5 H
S 5

3 o

<

IT.

O

o

CO

o

CO

00

rt -

"73 ~ ctf CO

u. s P* s;

3 ^. 1) ^^

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

335

QUADRO No. XII.
TABLE No. XII.

Chuva (media de 14 aniios).
Rainfall (average in 14 years)

Meses.
Moutlis.

Total.

Percentageiu.
Percentage.

Numcro de dias

Millimetros.
MUliinetres

PoUegadas.
Indies.

de chuva.
Number of
rainy days.

J....

126-3

4-974

187

10

F...

89-1

3-509

13-4

9

M..

63-4

2-497

9-4

8

A...

39-2

1-544

5-8

6

M..

30-8

1-213

4-5

5

J. ..

12-8

0505

1-9

2

J....

13-9

0-547

20

2

A...

11-3

0-455

17

2

S...

29-4

1158

4-3

6

()...

64-8

2-552

9-3

8

N..

88-6

3-490

13-1

10

D..

Anno

Yt'tir

107-3

' 676-9

1

4226

15-9

9

26 660

—

77 ■

QUADRO No XIII.
TABLE No. XIII

Evaporagao em millimetros (media de 4 annos).
Evaporation in millimetres (average in 4 years).

J

F , M

A

M

J

J

A

s

o

N

D

Anno
Year

105-2

84-9^96-9

76-4

83-5

90-2

90-2

99-7

119-4

120-2

125-6

126-3

1,218-5

336

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

V i~

y^ T. ^

e 5

■ t g o 5 « S •=

cooocDr^cx>[>aico^oococ^

^o

o ^ ^
ate;

l> 't t^ 00 <M —

C ID S i; I
3 > qi S

— >-i. C •^' I

oa s

'^oocci/i(Mi>c^cooO'Nfa:co

QO-^QOCCliriCOCDCN^CD^O lO

CDt^t^'^'^CCCCOt^I^^C^ 1^

r-' ^ — — r^ -^ I (M

OiOCTiS^vCCOtXiOOiC — coo \ (Tj

iniccoO'icoinajtN'^LOccic a^

I— ioacocO"*ccr-i CM

cot>ooict>cprHoo-7'<x>'7'qi
t>cbci3ir>-Tt'(>idocc-<^cbc>tb

Sc;

,CIh^<S

,<c/dO^Q

ciihih-^-^cNcscNcbLrjcbti) -^

O :^

<3 <~i

THE CLIMATE Ol- LOL'RENCO MAROU.ES.

337

cy

H

o

O oi

OS >

Q

>

X

><■ ■

1 1—4

, ^

1— ( 1— (

r>

l-H 1— 1

>>

do

y.y.

^

1 (— 1

>~~* HH

p

>>

ob

XX

CO

>>

xx

CO

>>

o

xX

■rt<

-*

d:>

t>

HH

M

xX

^

, h-l

05

)-H »-H

O

XX

^

,

l>

x><

6

_

X

cp

X

■*

,

^

XX

6

^

^x

CD

>— < 1—4

do

>

CO

1—1

1— 1 1— 1

IT)

>>

CO

1 t—t

U3

>>

ih

I— <

>

CN

>

CO

>

;:^

>

9

'-*

-— '

— — ' ,

, — ■ — .

c ^

3S

a e

a'i

s.g

« a

O o

o-~

•oS IS

S i

g£

o.S

3 3

•x

3=

QO

338

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

O

o
PS

Q
<

11

«^

-a'"

s »

■ce s

Nocturna

minima media

Nocturnal

average minimum

fe

d

Solar

maxima media

Solar

average maximum

fe

c3

s 1

.5 ^
•/) 2

Media
.-1 verage

>

X!

><

><

II

CO

CM

c^

in

CO

CO

^^

00

•rr

cc

o

^

^

^

C7i
CO

CO
CO

0^

o

CO

CO

^

-t"

00

1"

q^cpipcococ^iooT-Ht^oocNcq

c^4u:)'^fx>cbcb•^•^'!l>CNcO'^

-^"sfTfCOCO'^-^-^TrrfTf-^

-^ i/j "T c^ t^

CO c-i d:> ih

OO — CO OC LO '^

ih c^ 00 r> r^ t~>

cocococoe^scoco'^co

liv'^'OCNCNm^inCOOOOip

cor~sihcsiocbcbiht~»ihiOTj<

^^ ^^ ^^ *^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ '^ ^^ ^^

cpcopcpw'^-^cpcpcpcoi-;*

^cbot-NODihcoodoTrcor^

Tj* ^ "^ CO CO ^ ■^ "^ '^ ^ "^ "^

00

CO

ino-T-t^cNoqiq^cocMMir) co
co-^codticb'^cb'^cbdiM'^ di

00

CO

,&H* ^ < S ^,.

,< t: O ^ Q

THE CLIMATE OF LOUKENCO :MARQUES.

339

QUADRO NO. XVII.
TABLE NO. XVIL

Thermometros na

relva (mec

ia de 3 annos).

Grass Thermometers (average in 3 yea

rs).

Maxima
Maximum

Minima
Minimum

Meses
Monllis

C.

F.

C.

F.

T

43-97
44-87

111-1
112-7

18-07
19-87

64-5

F

67-7

M

43-12

1096

18-53

653

A

39-68

103-4

16-63

620

I^I

34-42

93-9

13-88

56-9

J

31-80

89-2

10-51

5 10

J

32-50

90-5

10-44

50-8

A

33-76

92-6

1202

53-6

S

35-67

96-2

12-96

55-3

O

37-82

1001

16 09

610

N

40-49

104-9

16-92

62-4

D

Anno

4314

109-7

18-19

64-8

15-34

Yidi'

38-44

101-2

o9-6

QUADRO No. XVIH.
TABLE No. XVIH.

'I'emperatura de terreno (media dc 8 annos).
Temf erature of the I'^arth (a\erage of 3 years).

Meses.
Mouths.

J.

F.

M,
A.,
M,

J-
J-

A.,

vS

o.,

N
D.

Xa profundidade
At (I depth of

O^S

Anno

Ycdl'

28-11
28-33
27-25
25 21
22 32
19 18
18-43
1964
21-56
23-83
2539
27-54

23-90

82-6
82-9
81-0
77-4
72 1
66-6
65-1
67-3
70-8
74-8
77-7
81-5

75 0

28-51
28-84
28-21
26-53
23 94
21-21
1995
20-69
22.17
24-31
25-70
27-71

83-3
83-8
82-8
79-7
75-0
70-2
67-9
69-3
72-0
75-7
78-3
81-9

c.

28-09
28-64
28-60
27-60
25-95
23-92
22-34
22-19
22-94
24-43
25-56
2705

24-81 76-6 ' 25 60

82-6
83-5
83-5
81-7
78-7
75-0
72-1
72-0
73-2
75-9
78-0
80-6

2707
27-70
28-01
27-57
26-62
25-19
23-85
23 22
23-46
24-22
25-14
26-12

80-7
81-9
82-4
81-6
79-9
77-4
74-9
73-8
74-2
75-6
77-3
79 1

78-1 25-68! 782

340

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

QUADRO No. XIX.
TABLE No. XIX.

Dias de chuva, trovoada, cacimbo, etc. (media de 4 annos)
Days of rain, thunder, dew, etc. (average of 4 years).

Meses
Months

Nuraero de dias
Nil mber of days

Com
chuva
e com
chuvisco
With
Rain
and
Drizzle

Com

chuva
cuja agua
se medin

With

Rain
(measur-
ed water)

Com I V°™

trovoadasi '"'^'tn''''

With I ?,f°?,

,. . With

thunder >• i, ■

Com

cacimbo

With

dew

Com

nevo iro

Wirh

fog

Com
saraiva
e granizo

With
hail

J

F

M

A

M

J

J

A...

S

O

N

D

Anno
Yidr.

15

14

13

10

9

4

4

4

6

10

10

11

110

12

2

4

2

11

3

6

3

10

3

4

6

9

4

4

9

7

2

4

16

4

0

0

19

4

0

0

17

2

0

0

13

5

2

2

11

8

5

5

4

7

6

5

5

11

10

7

4

90

37

41

111

0

1

0
2
3
3
4
3
1
2
0
0

19

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

341

Humidade Relativa
(Relative Humidity)

0) v

S B

rH t/D

o ^

Pressao Barometrica
(Barometric Pressure)

Temperatura a sombra
(Temperature in the shade)

(D

U

03 ^-^

0

V

342

THE CLIMATE OF LOURENqO MARQUES.

Temperatura na Reha
(Grass Temperature)

U C if

U

JAW F£V MAR ABR MAIC /fWM JifiH* ACftJT* »£T OWT «W, Bd

Termometros de Irradiagao Solar
(Solar and Nocturnal Radiation Thermometers)

Numero de dias de Chuva e Trovoada
(Number of days of Rain and Thunder)

THE CLIMATK OF LOURKNCC) MAROUES.

343

Percentagem de chuva caida segundo u direc ,ao do \ento
(Percentage of rainfall according to the direction of the wind)

1910

:\Ieclia (Average)

S 4)

dec

Horas de sol encoberto (Sunless hrs.)

rfTT-nrrarrT'T
\iiuos 3 jears)

Horas de sol encoberto, Nebulosidade, e Chu?a
(Sunless hours, cloudiness, and rainfall)

Anno (Year)

Percentagem da frequencia e kilometres percorridos pelo vento nos varies rumos
(Percentage of frequency and velocity of the wind (various directions) in kilometres)

344 THE CLIMATE OF LOURENQO MARQUES.

Outubro (October) Novembro (November) Dezembro (December)

«

x^.P

Janeiro (January)

Fevereiro (February)

Mar^o (March)

Abril (April)

Maio (May)

Junho (June)

\ ~i>''^'f^ /

'•■><'' ^

Af,'osto (August)

Setembro (September)

u
i

Frequencia (Frequency).

- - - - Kilometres percorridos (Velocity in Kilometres).

Percentagem da frequencia e kilometros percorridos pelo vento nos \-arios rumos
(Percentage of frequency and \elocity of the wind (various directions) in kilometres)

THE TRADES SCHOOL IX THE TRANSVAAL.

By William Iamls 1 I^^kni^ V.ALJ.C.E.

During the past twelve months there has been a keen revi\al
of pubHc interest in technical education as atlecting the mass of
the people, brought about, I think, chiefly by the conference
called in November, 1913, by the Minister of Education. As I
understood it, that conference v/as called to inform the Minister
of what was Ijeing done throughout the Union ; and, in my
humble opinion, was correctly limited to heads of departments
and officials directly connected with industrial schools and
technical classes in the four Provinces. It will be understood,
of course, that I am merely expressing my personal opir.ion as a
private individual. To my mind the great good of that conference
was that men engaged in the same type of work met one another,
in many cases for the first time, to discuss ideas and difficulties.
\\^hat these educational managers consider necessary, and want
for the furtherance of their work has been focussed in some
sixty or seventy resolutions which now lie open to public dis-
ctission in bltie book form. (0) Therefore, when it was sug-
gested that I should prepare a paper on the subject of the ele-
mentary technical education in this country, I thotight it an oppor-
tune moment to deal generally with what is being done in South
Africa and more particularly with regard to my official work in
the Transvaal with Trades Schools.

In this country there is the anomalous condition of large
natural \vealth and great possibilities on one hand, on the other,
masses of people struggling with poverty a.nd its hardships. We
are beginning to feel the evil of congested cities, and the indigent
are urged by certain sociologists to "get back to the land" and.
become farmers ; at the same time the farmers are complaining
of the want of a sufficiency of unskilled labour while their children
and dependents complain of unsocial conditions and flock to the
towns. It is almost impossible for the adult to change the habits of
a life-time; therefore, if some means are not found of training
the youth of the country, sociological suggestions like the fore-
going will merely end in motion round a circle. It appears to
me that what htmianity is striving. for is to keep well and happy,
to do work efficiently, to store up the prodticts of energy against
age and to make the surplus productive. For many persons to
be poor in a wealthy country, to be sick in a good climate, to be
inefficient among a progressive people is not necessarily a sign of
inability : it points rather to a necessary part of their education
having been omitted.

It is mainly by educating the youth of the country in work
that holds the interest that a more desirable condition can be
brought about ; and I believe firmly that human nature can be
ennobled by the organisation of industry in the service of educa-
tion. There is aljtmdant reason for that belief in the hioh mental

346 THiC TKADKS SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

and moral state manifest as a result of the reverse process the
organisation of education in the service of industry. These two
things are not synonymous ; they imply two different sets of con-
ditions : and I am of the opinion that if arrangements are made
for the hrst set, it will be possible for greater advantage to be
taken of the existing second set. that is. of the already existing
organised education in the service of industry.

I am, therefore, bold enough to criticise the findings of the
Indigency Commissioners when the}' say that they " do not think
that the present conditions of the country are such as to make
it either jjossible or necessary to establish such schools." (5 ) ( i.e..
Trades Schools in country districts). .A. little before that they
have placed it on record that the ordinary- education does not
qualify the children of the rural ])opulation to take up trades
de])endent on the farming industry. (6) 1 think they should have
gone on to advise the estal)lishment of schools in which education
would h<-i\-e taken place ihroiiali such trades.

It is not sufficient for a few thousands to take complex
technical courses in uni\ersity colleges (|ualifying them as highly
trained specialists in some form of engineering or allied pro-
fessions; there must be schools, as the Indigency Commissioners
have pointed out, (7) pro\iding industrial training of the
elementary and intermediate type that is lower than that afforded
by the university college, in order that there may be a body of
intelligent men able to co-operate efficiently with these specialisvs.
The men who labour with their hands will not feel the dignity
and honour of their labour unless their work is well done as the
result of trained intelligence ; and for this to be possible the type
of school which I here wish to urge is an absolute necessity under
the conditions of modern industrial life. (8).

" The machine tool-shop has become far more important than
it used to be, and labour-saving tools have greatly displaced handi-
craft; head-work has Iiecomc far more important, and if a man is
not to be a mere tool-minder, he must know something of the
sciences which underlie his trade. It is also important that he
should be happy through interest. in his work, else he will develop
into a mere labour-sa\ing tool himself, without imagination and
without initiative — a poor sort of citizen. Again, reforms in
workshop methods and invention depend greatly upon the ideas
of the workmen, which gradually reach their superiors." (9).

If that is true of Great Britain and Ireland it is surely be-
coming more and more so for this country which is dependent on
Europe and America for its machinery in all industries. And
is the newly appointed European or American manager not likely
to put in the latest labour-saving machinery available to enable
him to save on the cost of production by (a) employing less hands
(b) rendering him less subject to human error in his men — less
dependent on the personal equation? They cannot possibly be
philanthropists and keep on those whose efficiency has become of
zero commercial value through advance in invention. And what is

Tllli TRADKS SCHOOL IN THK TKANS\-.\AL. 34/

going to ha]JiJen as machinery becomes more and more automatic,
as it makes less demand upon the guichng intelligence of human
agency, as it becomes more perfect in executing those mechanical
processes in which it has hitherto been necessary to train workmen
as a})prentices ? Competition does not stand still, and we shall
of necessity have to look round for a cheaper labourer — and the
all-pervading Katfir is again at our elbow. Let me give an
instance : The T^ublic \\'orks Department of Union, employ the
kaffir at the automatic machines in their blue print room. I •
do not blame them; the work is better done l)y adult, if inferior.
brain ; there is not time to control the young and thoughtless :
and there is less change in personnel than there would be if you
had white apprentice draughtsmen doing the work for a month so
to learn the working. No, it is certainly not going to pay
employers to take apprentice tradesman, they have neither time
nor money to spend upon them ; but they need a reduced number
of trained intelligences who can grasp the general principles
underlying technical applications and it is going to pay them,
whether they apprentice them afterwards to a man or to a machine.
to have them pre-trained in a school which will provide that
which has been lost in evolution and which is still necessary to
control the results from it.

T cannot help thinking tliat there is a tendency among em-
ployers to imagine that the trades school is an attempt to sub-
stitute theoretical teaching plus dilletaiite workshop instruction
for practical commercial works training; that there is an in-
difference to the value of practical experience. I hope to show
that that fear is groundless. In the first place, I have insisted on
the trades instructors at trades schools being men with long
workshop experience of recent date. It is essential that we should
teach ])rocesses as the boy will find them recjuired of him in the
commercial workshop when he comes to enter it at the end of his
school curriculum. We do not want technical or scientific know-
ledge of how a thing must l^e made, but practical teaching of how
to make it successfully. In teaching parlance, those processes are
subjects of instruction and not media. The knowledge of what to
teach first, and how to suit it to each boy's capabilities will come
with experience and so will the best way of presenting the
subject.

Let me digress for a moment to state here what I look for
when appointing tradesmen instructors ; these are :

r. A sound practical knowledge of the trade or industry which he has
to teach gained from practical experience.

2. A liking for teaching others.

3. A fairly good education.

4. A knowledge of the trade literature as a means of following the

changes in materials and ])rocesses used in his trade.

5. Previous attendance at classes similar to those he has to teach.

6. Some knowledge of science and of technical subjects relating to

his trade.

7. Ability to introduce theoretical matter into his teaching.

8. Energy, enthusiasm and character.

34"^ THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

The principal of the school must be a man who has had
both teaching experience and commercial works practice, the latter
predominating. If he meets difficulties be^'ond the range of his
teaching experience his second-in-command is exclusively a pro-
fessional teacher from whom he can get the assistance he may
require. As to the teachers who take the classwork continuing
the boy's education to standard Ml, we ask that they shall give a
technical bent to their tuition l^y taking their examples from work-
shop practice. Thus in arithmetic, not to deal with " stocks and
shares" as if the boys were going to be brokers or bankers" clerks;
but to choose a new application based on the workshop courses and
on the future work of the boys.

In the second place, although the staff is chosen so that the
instruction may be as practical as possiljle, it is not possible to
create in a school that atmosphere of strenuous commercial com-
petition so necessary to the training of the modern workman to
a thorough knowledge of his trade. It is impossible to introduce
the factory system into such schools, for the sufficient reason that
they are teaching institutions first and manufactories only as the
circumstances of the training given in them permit. Thus in no
sense do I claim that the bo}' on leaving the trades school is a
finished workman or that he has even finished as an apprentice;
what I do claim is that he deserves preferential treatment over
the boy who has not qualified himself for employment in a modern
workshop. That preferential treatment must be left to the em-
ployer to assess. It would be monstrous to suggest anything else.
I 'believe that the three years training in Transvaal trades schools
is equivalent to two years of the apprenticeship period in some
trades ; and in a few others, e.g., metal plate working, electric
wiring, wagon-smithing, — the ex-trades school pupil should be
accepted as an improver. My opinion, however, is neither
here nor there; we shall be content to be judged by what we
produce ; all we ask is that each individual boy should be treated
on his merits.

The contract of apprenticeship provides for the transfer of
indentures. This is usually effected if the boy finds it necessary
to earn a wage in order to keep himself ; or, when nearing the com-
pletion of the school course, and to prevent some situation oft"ered
to him being filled up by other applicants, it is necessary that he
should leave school at once. An actual period of three years has
to.be served and not a nominal period. Thus, if he be absent for
any reason, whether holidays or sickness be the cause, he has to
make up the time lost. If he does not do so he does not receive
the completed contract of apprenticeship, and he has no evidence
that he has received a training at the school. This is a necessary
proviso, as under the system of education in the Transvaal there
can be no compulsion above the fifth standard; that is to say, any
attendance above that standard is pureh^ voluntary. Employers
can assist greatly by demanding evidence of attendance at a trades

Till': TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 2)49

school by the proihiction of iiulcntures from those who claim to
have been recognised pupils.

The law concerning- apprenticeship as it exists in the Transvaal
is given in Chapter III of Law 13 of 1880. Under the provision of
that Act (Master and Servant), no apprentice may be indentured
for a period longer than five years or beyond the age of twenty-
one years. The limits are thus the same under the Act irrespective
of the relative ease or difficulty of learning different trades.
Trades schools, therefore, provide a means of overcoming this
omission ; since these schools, taking young l)oys as they do
between the most important ages from an educational point of
view of thirteen and seventeen years of age, enable boys to be
indentured first as apprentices in the school and afterwards on a
second indenture with some commercial firm. I think I may sum-
marise the advantages of the trades school to the employer to be : —

1. Economy in the cost of material wasted and in men's time, show-

ing the apprentice the handling of the simpler tools, etc.

2. A gain in the fact that the ex-trades school ptipil is able to do work

of some value to his employer at any rate sooner than the fresh
from school apprentice.

3. Relief from the trial system as the boy has been found lit for the

trade he has entered.

The advantages of the trades school to the l)oy and his
parents are (i) advice as to future employment, ad\ice on the
careers offered by difl:'erent trades, and advice on continuation in
education; (2) personal trial in one or more trades until the most
suitable one is found; (3) opportunity to see and understand the
other trades taught in the school ; ( 4 ) in addition to the specific
training given, he is able to gauge whether any employment that
may be open to him is likely to provide further training or to be
of a ''blind alley" nature; (5) he has been trained to the inter-
dependence between theory and practice, and is more suitable and
likely to take advantage of evening technical college courses; (6)
the better moral effect on young boys of training received in
special surroundings.

In an address on technical education given by Mr. Stobie, a
member of the governing body of the Pietermaritzburg Technical
Institute, he pointed out a grave objection to present methods
of apprenticeship wdiich is really an argument for the establish-
ment of Trades Schools. Dealing with the serious drawbacks ex-
perienced by the technical educationist through the existing
apprenticeship system, he said :

Technical instruction is an essential part of an apprentice's trainmg,
and no boy can gain a complete knowledge of a trade without it. Since
then these two parts, the practical and the theoretical, are both essential,
and a workshop must be considered a training school as much as the tech-
nical classes, the work that the apprentice is engaged upon on the theore-
tical or school side should be so organised as to run concurrently with
the instruction he receives in the shop, and should be treated in the same
way and regarded as part of his apprenticeship. Yet youths are paid to
learn one part of their trade, the practical, and at the same time them-
selves pay a fee Ui learn anotlier equally essential part, tlie tiienretical.

350 TIIK TRADES SCFIOOL IX TIIK TRANSVAAL.

This is an anomaly which will not hear criticism, hut there is another.
A boy joins as a working' apprentice in the shoj) and attends technical
classes. He passes from his first year in the shop to his second, his
second to his third, and so on to the end of his time quite irrespective of
the quality of his work at the technical classes. Indeed he may be in the
fourth year of his apprenticeship at the shop and first year at the classes;
this is actually the case at the present time ( tqii ). He may attend both,
but play the whole time and do no work at all. Nevertheless he passes
nnt of his apprenticeship, although he may have really learnt very little
either in the shop or at tlie classes, becomes a journeyman and is nominally
classed as one who has learnt everything there is in both shops and classes.
His real knowledge and qualifications count for nothing. So long as he
serves his time in the shop, he becomes a journeyman at the end of his
apprenticeship however ignorant he may be at the close of his indentures.
The system which thus places the earnest and capable on a par with the
careless and incapable is obviously a wrong one. The end of it can easily
be seen. The small minority, composed of those who would get on under
any circumstances, succeed, it is true, but the lazy and incapable remain
lazy and incapable, with the result that the general standard is lowered.

I Iia\e ([ttoted Mr. Stohie at length l;ecaitse he appears to me
to set forth ^'ery clearly the need for trades schools. Emhodied
in Ills remarks are three main points: (a) the recognition of the
need of theoretical knowledge and the necessity for the organisa
tion of classroom subjects concurrently with workshop practice;^
( h ) the question of fees ; and ( c ) the necessity for the recogni-
tion in indentures of training in tlie theory as well as in the prac-
tice of trades.

It seems to me that the.se three ijoint.s can he.st he met l)\- the
tyi)e of trades school which has been esta])lished for the Trans-
\aal. To take the first point, it will be obvious that to organise
the theoretical course to fit in with the worksho]) practice means
definite syllabuses in the workshop instruction as in the classroom
instruction. Syllabuses of practical work taken in a commercial
workshop are, of course, impossible, since the first consideration
is output, and also the nattu-e of the work done depends upon the
demand. Again, if the work is to be equally advanced in prac-
tice as in theory, syllabuses ipust necessarily modify each other.
That would mean dictation as to what work could be done in the
shop and the order in which it could be carried out. I think we
have there at once an insurmountable difticulty, and to my mind
{he simpler solution is to provide the workshop at the school. In
the second point we have a vei"v vexed question. If we are to
provide for the sons of those who are unable to maintain them-
selves and their families without some assistance — and these form
the greater majority of those we ought to train in trades — it will
be necessary to make grants in sui)]Jort. The Indigency Com-
mission recommended that liberal provision shouhl l)e made in
the way of btirsaries.

Togctlier with a small sum paya!)le quarterly to assist the parents in
feeding and clothing their children.

The Commissioriers went on to point out that

THE TRADES Sf llOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 35I

It is to the advantage of the eonununity to sui)i)lenieiit the earnings of
the parent in order that in the person of the child it may ol)tain a more
useful, because better trained and instructed citizen. ( 10 )

This view appears to be very prevalent in the Trans-
vaal— I mean assistance from the Go\ernment in the matter of
training children. (11) Hitherto maintenance busaries have
been awarded on application dtily certified as deserving, and
after due consideration ; but with the most perfect system ot
enquiry, errors of judgment are made resulting in invidious com-
parison and dissatisfacti'on. I have, therefore, advocated a
small daily rate of pay, advancing by grades from a minimum,
on entering the school, to a maximum depending upon the pro
gress and increase of ability in the })upil. This, of course, would
only be paid to those who submitted the usual declaration cf
financial inability to meet the cost of maintaining their sons with-
out such assistance. Such pay is not to l)e looked upon as made
on the factory system of payment for work done, but as a better
means of contributing to the upkeep of the boy in such a way as
to provide most for those of better ability. There is the precedent
of the Miners" School at W'olhuter and the Potteries Industrial
."School at Olifantsfontein, each of which pays a daily wage
increasing half-yearly, and there is the exjjectation of the majo-
rity of parents that wages will be forthcoming. These facts seem
to render some wages necessary. The third point, the recognition
in apprenticeship of some theoretical training in the elementary
technical principles underlying trades, is met h\- the trades school
curriculum in class-rooiu subjects. ( )f course the l)oy is not
carried the whole way ; the end of the trades scliool course does
not mark the end of the technical education necessary, on the
contrary, the ex-trades school pupil will still have to continue his
technical studies. The point is that he has been trained to the
necessity for doing so ; the dangerous gap between leaving school
and taking up employment has l^een bridged and bridged before
he has quite lost what may he called school ability. Classroom
su])jects are a sine qua non in the tt"ades school; if any boy does
not attend, he is invited to leave the school and of course the
workshops. The ex-trades school pupil should, of course, take
up further technical study in the classroom and laboratories of
the School of Mines in the evening course provided by that
institution, that is as far as the Rand is concerned; if in Pretoria,
he would continue in the polytechnic exening classes .it the
Pretoria institution. Pet it be thoroughly understood that it is
practical and theoretical training in technics of the artisan as an
artisan that these schools, either in day classes or in evening
classes, will cater for ; the higher professional training necessary
for the architect, the engineer, and the general works manager
can only ])e gixen in an institution where all energies are
concentrated on higher education and on higher education
dlone that is to say, in the technical side of the University College.
There are three such institutions in South Africa ; two that have

352 THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

Ijeen in existence for some years — the Engineering School of the
South African College at Capetown and the South African School
of Mines and Technology in Johannesburg; the third is still in
its infancy in Natal — the Durban Technical Institute.

My hope is that it will be possible for the clever trades school
pupils to enter one or other of these institutions for professional
training by competing among themselves for bursaries in technical
education ottered by these higher institutions and by such bodies
as the Witwatersrand Council of Education and, let me add,
this Association. It is in this way, also, that a natural
system of co-ordination in technical education will be evolved, a
system much better than any scheme that can be laid down by
regulation from a central bureau, since it will be flexible to the
needs of the country, being based on the demand for highly
trained workmen. The number of bursaries would fluctuate, of
course, with the supply and demand. That would provide for the
continuance of the technical education of the cleverer trades
school boy : but it is perhaps still more urgently necessary that
maintenance bursaries should be available to the brighter boys of
the middle classes to enable them to enter the trades school in
preference to taking up some " blind alley '' occupation offering
an immediate cash value, and, l)ecause a further stay at the pri-
mary school apparently leads only to the high school of which they
have no hope. I would suggest that such bursaries he offered on
the results of the Primary School Certificate Examination for
Standard \T, which is held annually now in all primary schools.
Also I would suggest the proviso that special stress be laid on
success in Arithmetic. Algebra and Geometry, Science, Mechanical
Drawing and Manual Training on the syllabuses laid down in the
Transvaal Education Code. It is true that trades schools are
intended to help the people in the education of their sons, but I
think that in so doing they incidentally benefit certain trades. It
is justifiable, therefore, to expect some help from trades unions
in this respect. I may point to apprenticeship schools in England
and Scotland, which are suljsidised in such manner by trades
societies : e.g., the Jewellers' and Silversmiths' School at Birming-
ham and the Bakery Schools at the Borough Polytechnic, London,
and at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, are substantially
financed by the corresponding trade societies. (12) Such com-
petitive bursaries would of course be in addition to any financial
assistance that the Governent might provide to individuals. I,
however, would rather see Government funds applied on the prin-
ciple of the greatest good for the greatest number by a system of
payment for all in the wages scheme to which I have already
referred. It is in this way that the best effect can be given to
the recommendations of the Indigency Commissioners concerning
scholarships. (13) There is another aspect of bursaries awarded
in this way and that is, control of the number of apprentices en-
tering different trades. The school fees are already low, to scho-
larship pupils they would not exist; thus scholarship pupils would

THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 353

predominate more and more, which would make it possible to
adjust the number of trained apprentices to the needs of the
industry by regulating the number of bursaries in individual
trades, and thus to avoid the excessive supply found in connection
with the German system. Let me add that this scheme does not
contemplate the donation of moneys to the Government ; these
schools are controlled, like high schools, by Governing Bodies.
The allocation of the money will not lie with me as a departmental
official, but with the donors in consultation with the governing
body, who will have the advice of the men on the spot and of the
Principal of the school to guide them. Before I leave the ques-
tion of bursary award I would like to draw attention to the
following notices from the London County Council Gazette as
the latest step in the training of artisans in London:— -

TRADE SCHOLARSHIP FOR BOYS. 1912.

The Council will be prepared to award during 1912 about 166 trade
scholarships for boys ; these awards will be tenable at technical day
schools. They will provide free specialised training in various skilled
trades for two or three years, and. in addition, maintenance grants rang-
ing from £16 to £40. The successful candidates will receive such instruc-
tion as will prepare them on the completion of their training to take up
apprenticeships or employment in skilled trades.

Scholarships are offered in engineering, ,i)uilding trades, furniture-
making, printing, bookbinding, silversmithing, cookery (for training boys
as chefs), and general technical training.

Parents and teachers are recommended to consider carefully the
exceptional opportunities that are presented in the scheme for the award
of trade scholarships for boys.

PUPIL-TEACHERSHIPS OF HANDICRAFT.

The Council is prepared to award in June, 1912, 10 pupil-teacherships
of handicraft, to boys who are not less thait* fourteen years of age on
31st July, 1912.

These awards provide free instruction ( with the use of books and
tools) at the L.C.C. Shoreditch Technical Institute, Pittield Street. Hox-
ton. N. The course of study extends over a period of four years. In the
last two years of the awards pupil-teachers attend the handicraft centres
attached to elementary schools on two days a week to receive training in
the art of teaching handicraft.

The awards include maintenance grants as follows : — First year £10,
second year £15, third year £30, fourth year £40. Pupil-teachers of handi-
craft on the satisfactory completion of their four years' training, are
eligible for appointment as senior assistant instructors in handicraft at a
commencing salary of £60 a year. It must, however, be distinctly under-
stood that the Council is under no obligation to find employment for pupil-
teachers of handicraft ujinn tJTe completion of their training.

HALF-TIME SCHOLARSHIPS IN ELECTRO-PLATING AND
WATCH AND CLOCK MAKING.
The Council has decided to award in January, 1912, not more than
four scholarships in electro-plating" and four scholarships in watch and
clock making. The awards are intended for boys who are actually appren-
tices or eniployees engaged in the trades of electro-plating or watch and
clock making. Candidates must be nominated by their employers, and
must obtain from them recommendations as to their conduct, industry
and dexterity in their trades. (14.)

354 THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. ,

The Trades School is a pubHc investment for national ends
called into existence b}^ national competition for national gain
and for precedence in national life. It finds its justification in
the fact that it will add to the producing power of the nation to its
own lasting benefit. Possibly these are sordid motives enough ;
to me they are redeemed l)y a conscious sense of patriotism
through the spirit of race preservation underlying them. In
South Africa we may divide this national competition into two
classes (a) the importation of the higher skilled artisan class and
(b) the advance of the coloured races in skilled handicraft. Now
nol)ody but a madman would attempt to stop the influx of virile
white peoples into a country situated as South Africa is. It is
easy to see that the existing white inhabitants would find it diffi-
cult to maintain that high level as a race to which evolution has
l:)rought them if that influx were to cease. But it is our bounden
duty to see that the colonial-born are not drowned in the process ;
that is to say, to see that they are not swamped l)y a su|)erioi"'
attainment in the new-comers. To deal with the new-comer by
l)lacing acti\e or passive restrictions upon him is artificial and
cannot last. Again, whether it benefits the indi\i(lual immigrant
or not, is not a matter which a Colonial Government should
inquire into; its business is to bring about the \vell-l)eing of the
country in general and as a whole. Incidentally indeed, and
almost invariably immigration does compass the good of the
immigrant, since he may "break his birth's invidious bar" and
rise to an eminence otherwise unobtainable, but. after all. such
consef[uences are but fortunate happenings by the way ; they are
neither its purpose nor its justification. It is necessary to see that
the Colonial-born are supplied with the means of attainment
which have l^een available to the Colonist from oversea, in order
that the industrial progress of the country as a whole may be
assured, and the natural, almost only possible, way is by indus-
trial education within the country itself. I submit the trades
school as one small, but none the less essential, link in the chain of
technical education, not alone because similar institutions exist
on the Continents of Euro])e and America, l)ut because the
special and economic conditions in this country demand it. (15).
By the training which it is proposed to give in these schools, a
part of the male population will be placed on the way to skilled
craftsmanship which will be the most natural way of reducing
the importation of skilled contract labour. It will, of course, be
a considerable time before this country can reach the level of
manufacture attained by America or even of New Zealand in
its one liranch of agricultural machinery, luit the inventive genius
exists in the people, and, given adequate direction, it will develop,
and the need for the importation of any but the branch expert
will gradually diminish as this country becomes more able to do
its own work with its own hamls. I now come to the coloiu-
question as it affects the artisan ; and here I would urge those who
have not done so to read at least Cha])ter I of the Indigency Com-

THIi TRADES SCH()(H. IN THE TRANSVAAL. 355

mission Report. I may, however briefly paraphrase the findings
of the Commissioners in the hght of my own fifteen years' expe-
rience in this country. Let us keep in mind that there is a very
high attainment in skilled handicraft among the coloured people
of this sub-continent and that very skilled work indeed is done
by coloured people, especially in the Cape Province. The printing
trade contains a large number of both sexes in simple composing
and in machinery. The bookbinding trade employs a number of
coloured females, principally in stitching. I need not remind any^
one of the Malay plasterer, the best of his kind. The coloured
carpenter, the coloured painter, the coloured wagonmaker, the
coloured saddler are all greatly in evidence in the Western parts
of the Cape Province. I was surprised to find in Natal, when
visiting a certain sugar estate, in 191 t, that Indian youths were
employed as laboratory assistants in the testing departments ; I do
not mean cleaners ; I mean actual assistants who could be trusted
to read the scales and verniers of half-shadow polarimeters and
such-like instruments, to make the actual adjustments, and to
record the readings. If we read Indian for coloured in my
remarks on Cape Province I think we have the conditions in
Natal fairly accurately.

And in the Transvaal we are slowly but surely approaching
Cape conditions ; we already have our native blacksmith and
native or coloured saddler. It is true that the native blacksmith is
only a hammerman and the saddler what is called a " stitcher." I
feel sure that the colour wedge will enter the printing trade here
as it has done in Cape Colony as soon as competition becomes suffi-
ciently keen to demand a cheaper production ; if, indeed, it has
not done so already. In other words we already have a little
more than the thin edge of the wedge; (16) these people are
learning here the trades controlled by whites in other countries,
and, as they increase in numl^ers they will go further afield in
search of work.

The native is rapidly qualifying himself to enter into competition with
the white population in the skilled trades. (17)

It will not do to attempt to stop this natural expansion in
ability among the coloured peoples by the adoption of preventive
measures designed against them. There are native institutions
giving instructions to natives, of course for natives, throughout
the country, which it would raise Imperial questions to take action
against ; apart from these there is the educative association with
the white man which, in the very nature of things, it is impossible
to stop.

It is impossible to prevent the coloured worker by means of legislation
from doing any skilled work for which he is qualified. (20)

It is said to be possible by adjusting wages (21) to provide
sufficient scope for the European, the Eurafrican and the Native.
Dififerentiation in wages could only take place on the basis of
relative ability; thus the salvation of the European artisan can

356 Tllli TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

only lie in a higher skill, a belter education and a more complete
trade training than the coloured races are capable of. Mere craft
practice, mere manual dexterity, the mere ability to repeat the
stereotyped process is insufficient in the European — the white
artisan must be able to write, calculate and read in the literature of
his trade ; anything less the coloured peoples can do and with
sufficient success to displace white labour. It is to provide that
necessary foundation for this improved trade training that trades
schools have been established.

Having considered the trades school more or less from the
aspect of the dweller in towns, it will be well to consider briefly
what can be done for the rural population. The healthy develop-
ment of rural education on industrial lines as one of the conditions
which make rural life possible is of the utmost importance to
urban communities, since there is always a steady migration from
the country to the town. The object of the industrial education
given to children must be two-fold — its first aim should l)e —

To inspire them with a love of country life and the desire not to
change it for the city or manufactories, and to inculcate the truth th'at the
agricuUural profession is the most independent of all and is more
remunerative than many others for industrious, intelligent, and instructed
followers. (22)

As, however- —

There must always he a considerable numl)er of people brought up on
the land who will look to making their living by other means than farm-
ing. ... It is desirable that those who wish or are forced to migrate
to the towns should, if possible, be able to qualify themselves to get indus-
trial employment before they leave the land.

The second aim must be to ])rovide an industrial —

Training in occupations which, though dependent on the farming-
industry have nothing to do with the actual cultivation of the soil or the
raising of stock. (23)

The institution in the Transvaal which combines those two
aims is the Industrial School. If I were to criticise them all.
I would say that the agricultural side is in need of greater develop-
ment; that in addition to boys being instructed in trades with a
minimum number of hours per week in the vegetable garden and
at field culture, there should be boys definitely apprenticed to
farming operations with a minimum number of hours in certain
of the workshops. That would mean, of course, the deepening of
the instruction in agricultural subjects by talks from experts (24)
on cattle and poultry troubles, dairying, grading and co-operation,
bee-keeping, arrangement of farm-buildings, simple irrigation,
and so on; in other words, development in curriculum so tliat
the first aim of the institution is agricultural education : the
industrial school to become in fact the recognised " trades school"
for the farming industry. The good work of these schools to the
country at large cannot indeed be over-estimated. Again, it must
be clearly understood that I do not propose interference or over-
lapping with the curriculum of agricultural schools and colleges ;

THK TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 357

the instruction should be elementary but sufficient for the skilled
farm labourer, in the same manner as in the trades school I pro-
pose that the instruction there should be sufficient for the skilled
artisan, with some hope of his obtaining the more highly-paid
posts. The talks to which I have referred would be given by the
experts on the staff's of these institutions for higher agricultural
education, and they would mark any lads of special aptitude
and ability likely to profit from a college course if assisted finan-
cially. Here again the bursary system comes in, and I take the
liberty of suggesting to the various Agricultural Societies through-
out the Transvaal, including those of Pretoria and Johannesburg,
that it would be meet and proper for them to provide the neces-
sary funds. I do not wish to press examinations ; I think they can
be overdone ; but, in addition to a certain number of awards to
bursaries made upon the advice of the experts to whom I have
referred, and the Principal of the Industrial School, others might
be awarded on the results of the Primary School Certificate
Examination in Standard VI, stress being laid upon success in
Nature Study, Manual Training, Arithmetic, and one language
as detailed in the Education Code. The establishment of a
developed agricultural side to all industrial schools would in time
leave the agricultural colleges more free to deal with the higher
aspects of agricultural education as defined by the Indigency
Commissioners. (25.)

It would be unwise to over-develop the trade side of the
instruction given in the country industrial school, as being likely
to tend to the migration of the youths on the completion of their
training, to the towns, in search of employment, whereas the first
aim of the instruction should be to fit them for occupancy of the
land. It is therefore advisable to keep the trade instruction
within the limits of those trades depending on the farming in-
dustry, and such as are found flourishing in country towns.
These would be : ( i ) Carpentry, including furniture-making and
simple house-framing; (2) brick-making (if facilities exist),
brick-laying and rough masonry, including dam-building; (3)
blacksmithing, chiefly on the iron-work for carts, simple repairs
to agricultural machinery, and the shoeing of draught animals ;
(4) boot-making and repairing; (5) tailoring; (6) and, in the
larger schools probably, tanning. I do not propose that each and
every one of these trades should be taken in every industrial
school; consideration must be given to the needs of the locality
served by each school. The fundamental trades are, however,
carpentry, rough masonry, and blacksmithing, if the boy is to be
of general use on the farm.

So far, boys only have been considered ; a similar type of
schools is as necessary for girls. (40) The instruction should,
of course, have a house-keeping bent, directed towards domestic
service, either in the town house or on the farm. The general
education of the girls should be continued sufficiently far to en-
able them to keep accounts for the smaller profit-making con-

358 THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

eerns as well as those necessary in household management, and
to keep poultry records and recipe books. Courses in nature
study (41) and domestic hygiene should be an integral part of
the instruction. The two orphanage industrial schools — Lang-
laagte and Potchefstroom — provide for girls. Here again, I do
not criticise, but, in my opinion there is room for development in
the direction of the farm-yard and the garden. It will be under-
stood that 1 do not urge the further provision of orphanages in
tiie foregoing remarks, but the provision of industrial schools
for both sexes, in which instruction in farming industries pre-
dominates.

The trades school directs that desire for power ever present
ill the human race towards the control of materials and things,
by a training in construction and a developing of the wish to
create. And then the vocational instruction which is the means
to that end, has a moral atmosphere of its own ; thus containing
the two essential attributes for any system of education which is
to be satisfactory — an ethical as well as an utilitarian objective.

The teacher, realising his enormous responsibilities to the
youth of South Africa, and of the importance of making the
{>eople understand that what the boy becomes so will this country
be, is crying to you, as employers controlling labour, that there
is a better way than has hitherto been followed. And I, an engi-
neer by previous training and profession, stand merely as a
finger-post on the road, as having experience of these things —
1 had almost said bitter experience — to point out the way. I,
therefore, feel that no apology is necessary iit bringing this sub-
ject forward, although I do apologise for the way in which I
have presented it. In conclusion, I may direct attention to the
following four resolutions of the Conference on Technical Edu-
cation, and I beg to sul)mit nw system of trades schools to con-
structive criticism : —

Rcsohitioii II. A. 3.

That for the fullest advantage to accrue from the establishment of
schools, it is essential that every young boy previous to workinir at
modern form of skilled trade shall have received suitable preparation for
tliat adult occupation in a vocational school.

Rcsoliilioii II. C. 14.

That this Conference is of opinion that industrial and trades schools,
at which apprentices are taught throughout their apprenticeship would
not be a success, but that at least the first two years of an indentured
apprenticeship should be spent at a trade school, the remainder under
economic manufacturing conditions in the works. During the latter
period of their apprenticesliip the apprentices should be obliged to .Utend
lechnical classes according to the trades for which they have entered.

Resolution II. C. 19.

That this Conference is strongly of opinion that no system of technical
education will be a complete success unless Government Departments and
other employers of labour thoroughly recognise the qualifications of cech-
rically trained apprentices either by means of increased wages accorduig
to the improved work done, or by promotion in the service.

THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 359

Resolmtioi IT. 60.

That in the opinion of this Conference the Trades Schools should be
a direct avenue into industries, and that the main entrance to a Technical
University Course should be through the science side of the ordinary High
School or equivalent institution.

The Curriculum.

The trades school, as a whole, is looked upon as a works
where young lads are trained with a view to a future career ; the
rules which w^ould be applied in a commercial works are there-
fore applied in the trades school, namely, that pupils attend
regularly at the hours laid down, that they make satisfactory
, progress in their respective trades, and that they make up all
absences from the school, for whatever reason, until the stipu-
lated period of training has been completed. The qualifications
for entry are that the pupil shall have satisfactorily passed the
fourth standard of the Transvaal Education Code, and be not
less than thirteen years of age at the time of joining the school.
On first admission, all pupils go through a probationary
course in general workshop practice for six months or less, at
the discretion of the Principal, who has the final decision on the
fitness of the pupils under his charge. On completing this pro-
bationary period, a pupil is required to be indentured for a fur-
ther period of three years as an apprentice in the trade selected.
While at the trades school the apprentice will work at a specific
trade, under a qualified tradesman, whose first duty is to instruct
the apprentice in the correct handling of the tools necessary in
the various processes of his trade. The instructor does not
merely do work himself, and use the apprentice to fetch and
carry for him ; he is there to give efficient instruction upon sylla-
buses of work which have been carefully drawn up for each
trade. In addition to the trade instruction given, the primary
education of the pupil is continued, as far as possible, from the
fifth to the seventh standard. The class-room subjects comprise
reading, writing and composition, history and geography, arith-
metic, algebra and geometry, drawing and science, treated in such
a way as to bear directly on trades : in the third year of instruc-
tion, applied mechanics, steam and the steam-engine, machine
construction and drawing, building construction, electricity, etc..
are added subjects in which instruction in theory will be given.
The pupils are also taught to estimate the cost of carrying out
work in their respective trades. The importance to tradesmen
of a good general education cannot be over-estimated, and the
pupils are expected, therefore, to pay as much attention to school
work as they usually do to workshop instruction. After leaving
the trades school, the boys' training should be continued bv his
entering the commercial workshops of some manufacturing firm,
and by attendance at selected classes in the evening courses
attached to this institution or elsewhere, according to the locality
of the firm engaging his services. In these evening classes he
will be encouraged to enter for the higher technological certifi-
cates of some external examining body.

360 THK TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

The school day is divided into two periods, namely, from
8.30 a.m. to I p.m., and from 2 p.m. to 5 p.m. : in the forenoons,
on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays and Fridays, the first-year
pupils will be engaged in class-room work ; and on the afternoons
of the same days they will be at work in the shops. On Wednes-
day and Saturday forenoons they will also be at work in the
shops. Wednesday afternoons may be utilised for visits to
various local works and places of interest to tradesmen ; when
no visit has been arranged, the pupils continue in the workshops.
Saturday afternoon is a half-holiday. The ordinary school vaca-
tions at the end of terms are not observed. The only vacation
allowed is that extending from the closing of the school in
December to the resumption of work in the following January.
All public holidays are, however, observed. The school fees are
ii (one })ound) per term for tuition, with a small annual charge
to cover the cost of books and school material for the class-room
subjects. The arrangement of the course of instruction may be
compared to the " sandwich " system in vogue in many university
technical colleges, in which attendance at the day classes held in
the college is alternated half-yearly with attendance at commer-
cial workshops. The difference between trf^des schools and such
colleges being: —

(a) That the colleges give professional training to the future captains
of industry, while trades schools give artisan training to the
rank and file, which properly followed up should lead to a satis-
factory career ;

{b) In the trades school the workshop practice follows in the after-
noon of the school day instead of six months later as in the
colleges ; and

(c) In the college system the workshops are separate institutions.
while in the trades school the workshops are attached to the
school, so that the pupil may attend both at the mininuun of
expense to his parent.

Such institutions should be part of a connected system : the
industrial school should lead to the trades school, and the trades
school to the technical college : that is to say, each should be
accessible to the cleverer pupils in the institution next below it.

That is the general scheme of the school. The attached
analysis of the time-tables, as arranged up to the present for
these schools, gives the number of hours devoted to each -class-
room subject, in workshop practice, and so on. The notes on
that analysis give an idea of how the various stibjects are to be
treated : I do not give the acttial syllabuses themselves, because
these are still under discussion between the principals of the
schools and myself ; and, also, because they involve questions of
detail which must be left to those responsible for the teaching
and its inspection. There is, however, nothing to hide; and, as
soon as these syllabuses have undergone, thoroughly, the test of
experience in this country, I intend to recommend that they be
published for general information.

It will still be urged, for some time, that commercial appren-
ticeship is all that is necessary for the industrial equipment of

THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THK TRANSVAAL. 361

the future workman. I llierefore summarise here the coneki-
sions of a few thinkers, to prove that such training is bad educa-
tionally, and insufficient industrially. To many parents the word
" apprentice ' still has the old meaning, the comfortable assurance
of an all-round trade training ; to the employer, on the other
hand, it generally means those younger employes whom he has
engaged simply because they are cheaper than manhood labour,
and i)ossibly with the hope that they will learn sufficient by con-
tact with his men to take their places as those men drop out. It
is no concern of his if, through the partial training thus promis-
cuously gathered on his special work, they find themselves un-
employable by other firms. It is scarcely to his economic advan-
tage to train the future employes of his competitors. .\nd here
let me remind you, as Mr. Bray, in his book, " Boy Labour and
Apprenticeship," has so ably pointed out, that those who talk of
the interests of emplo)'ers and of their boys as future workmen
being identical, confuse the good of the present generation with
the good of the generation that comes after. Competition is To-
day and not To-morrow, and the numerous immediate business
expenses, and the delayed incomings, make it impossible for the
employer to follow proper methods of training in the hope that
the new generation of workers will recoup him, by their in-
creased efficiency, for his expenditure.

Some employers have definitely stated their objection to
taking apprentices ; thus the President of the Transvaal Carriage
and Waggon-makers Association, speaking, in 191 1, on the estab-
iishment of trades schools, remarked that it is generally impossible
for an employer in this country to teach. boys, or even to allow
them to learn. The reasons he gave were, that the high wages
of skilled workmen, in comparison with the rates obtaining in
European countries, rendered it economically impossible for him
to allow his men to attend to the instruction of boys; also that
material was expensive, and that much of it had to be imported;
so much so, that it was commercially out of the question for him
to run the risk of loss through wasted material l)y training
apprentices.

Again, Mr. Cullen, the General Manager of the Modder-
fontein Dynamite Factory, in an address to the South African
Institution of Engineers, said : —

In very few, if any, establishments in the Transvaal, ov. indeed,
anywhere else in South Africa can apprencices ever be satisfactorily
trained. Some will answer — What about the mines and their fine
workshops and equally fine facilities ; but, unless I am very far wrong in
my observation, there is not that necessary atmosphere on the mines to
permit a boy to have a good apprenticeship training. The foremen and
workmen are changed about so frequently as to give the lad little chance,
and many foremen and most workmen look upon apprentices as a nuisance.
... I hardly blame them for this, for there is always a rush, the jobs
are scattered and . . . there is always a " boy '" to carry tools and to
do odd jobs.

362 THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

There must be something wrong with the system which
causes one manager of a Johannesburg printing and pubHshing
house to say :

In the last five years there has not been one of our apprentices trained
by ourselves that we have considered sufficiently qualified to continue to
employ as a journeyman.

The crux of the matter is as stated by Mr. Waldorf Astor,
in the April number of the National Review, that

Juvenile labour is at present uneducational, is a department of the
labour market and not a preparation for adult life.

If that is so in European countries, how much more so is it in
this, where we have a kind of perpetual juvenile in the ubi([uitous
Native.

We have therefore to consider carefully for our youth first,
the kind of occupation to be followed, and, secondly, how the
training is to be obtained. Here I cannot do better than by again
quoting South African opinion. In 1909, Mr. Samuel Evans,
writing to the sub-coinmittee of the Witwatersrand Central
School Board, who were at that time reporting upon the ([uestion
of trades schools, said : —

It appears to me that the guiding principle in selecting occupations for
boys in this country should be this : That the occupation should be such as
to enable boys, when they grow to be men, to compete successfully with
Kaffirs, whilst earning a very much larger pay than Kaffirs. It follows
that if South African boys are to be taught skilled trades, this must be
done as part of our scheme of public education. . . . Generally speak-
ing, these would be trades in wliich a considerable amount of machinery
would be employed.

That is to say, the trades for White boys in this country are
those which make an increasing demand on trained intelligence,
because of the evolution of improvements in those trades. As
soon as a trade, or any part of it, has become stereotyjjed and
divided into compartments in which the routine of seeing that
certain processes are carried out in a certain order by more or
less automatic tools is all that is necessary, that trade has ceased
to be a field for the White man, for the simple reason that the
skill required has been transferred from the man to the machine,
and it is therefore open to the Coloured person, and, after him.
the Native.

Thus the curriculum of the trades school must not be one of
restriction, by keeping a boy on one kind of work as long as
possible ; it must provide a broad training, without sacrificing
thoroughness of workmanship, in order that the future workman
may rise superior to the competition of the automatic tool and
Native labour. Neither must its courses be conceived to the
profit of the em})loyer, but to the progress, as rapidly as possible,
of its pupil.

the tradlus school in the transvaal. 363

Analysis of Provisional Time Tables: Trades Schools.

•t3rt">0 -IrtyjO .rtcfl" Sc'Sc

cSiSP ^!"<"E TJj^lfiC .S.S^B

2^0^, Stjo^j rt-aCJ^ CQ-O

'"'"-' ^=(v] 7^^- °

-T _

cj) 6) cij jii

!>1

Class-room In- ^ 5

STRUCTION. '£ i

o

Q ■*:: e

Mathematics : cx^ "^ cxi ^ ^^ -^ (^

Arithmetic .... 2 3 i 3^ i ] ^^ — ]

Mathematics . . i 3 3 i — j ^^ — |-

Algebra i 3 i 2\ 2 2 — J

Geometry .... i i i i i^ — • —

Office Practice — i — — i — —

Science and Applied
Mathematics :

Gen. Elementary

Science .... 4) a o ' ^ """^^ 2 — '

Applied Mech. . . — ) ^ ( — 31 41

Materials, Con-
struction and

Calculations.. — i — i 1^2 —

Steam — • — — — • i| — 4

Applied Drazving :

Prelim. Drav^ing 2 22 — —

Geom. Drawing — 2 — i^ i^

Trade Drawing 2 i^ 2 2 3

Other Subjects:

English I — I — I

History i i I — —

Geography .... i 2 i i

Hours in Class-room

Instruction . . 16 26i 16
Workshop Practice 24 12 24 19^ 22 30-J 30 32^

Intervals and Breaks 7 8^ / 8 6 6 6 5^

I9A

18

lOi

II

i9i

22

301^

30

8

6

6

6

Total Hours Per

Week 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47

Notes on Analysis of Trades School Time Tables.
Geometry,

includes practical investigation of theorems with Euclidian
proof in the third year.

364 THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

Office Practice,

includes book-keeping, costing, reading specifications, and
practice in tendering for work.

Materials: Construction and Calculations,

includes general questions involving explanations, with
testing of materials by the teacher, to bring out differences
in nature and adaptaljility for different purposes.

Preliminary Drawing,

includes the syllabus of the primary school code, with
additions mainly of a technical nature, e.g., hand sketching.

Technical (Trade) Drawing,

includes machine construction and drawing for engineer
mechanics, and is a general name to include the similar
drawing special to other trades.

English, History, Geography,

according to school code, l)ut treated from an economic
and industrial point of view.

Total Hours Per Week:

The school day extends from 8.30 a.m. to 5 p.m., and
from 8.30 a.m. to i p.m. on Saturdays. The total number
of hours per week is, therefore, 47.

The trades in which instruction is given both at Pretoria
and Johannesburg are: (see pamphlet describing the Pretoria
Trades School and Polytechnic).

1. Blacksmithing : Including engineering and tool smithing.

2. Carpentry : Including builders' joinery, furniture making,
and pattern making.

3. Electricians : Wiring, armature winding and simple shop
testing for continuous and alternating currents.

4. Engineer-Mechanics : Turning and fitting, including tool
dressing for lathe work, etc., and some knowledge of simple
foundry work.

Note. — In connection with this trade there shoidd be a small
foundry ])lant.

5. Plumbers: Including sheet metal work in iron, copper,
brass and zinc, sanitation, sewerage, and water supply.

6. Waggon Making: Including carriage building and vehicle
painting.

Note. — In connection with this trade there should be instruc-
tion in the Trades of (a) Sign Writing and Heraldic Painting,
(b) Carriage Trimming.

7. Printing and Compositors' Work : Pretoria only ; in abey-
ance.

Regulations Governing Award of Wages-Payment.

I. Each lad entering the school shall receive a minimum of
8 pence per working day (twenty-six working days per month).

THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL. 365

II. There shall be four grades of ability in school subjects
of general education as follows : —

Extra Pay

Per Day.

d.

A. — Shall be the Junior Class of the School and equivalent

to Standard IV or V according to circumstances.. —

B. — Shall be the next higher class and shall consist of
those who have passed or who satisfy the Principal
that they can pass the test at the end of the first
school year i

C. — Shall be the class next higher to B and shall consist
of those who have passed or who satisfy the Princi-
pal that they can pass the test at the end of the
second school year 2

D. — Shall consist of those who have actually passed the

test at the end of the third school year 4

III. There shall be four grades of ability in applied science
and technical subjects bearing upon each lad's trade, and which
are taught in class-rooms as distinct from workshops, as fol-
lows : — •

Extra Pay
Per Dav.
d.
E. — Shall consist of those who fail to reach the required

standard for the ne.xt following division —

F. — Shall consist of those who have passed the test held

during the first year of the course 2

G. — Shall consist of those who have passed the test

during the second year of the course 6

H. — Shall consist of those who have passed the test held

during the third year of the course 8

These tests shall be by examination, including written
papers.

I\'. There shall be seven degrees of rating according to
ability and progress in the workshops, numbered from o to 6.
The o degree shall carry no extra pay ; the tirst degree shall be
worth one penny per day extra pay; the second degree, 2 pence;
the third degree, 3 pence ; and so on up to 6 pence per day extra
pay.

\ . No pupd shall be graded beyond " A " or be rated for
extra pay in the workshops whp has not become an indentured
apprentice.

VL All payment shall be made monthly in arrear to the
pupils concerned.

VII. Full pay shall be deducted for absence for any
reason. Public and school holidays and illness, medically certi-
ficated to the satisfaction of the Principal, excepted.

VIII. Fines may be levied for disobedience, wilful damage,
absence without leave or other reasons at the discretion of the
Principal, and shall be deducted from the monthly payments due
to any pupil.

IX. Recommendations as to grading shall be made to the
Governing Body, who shall submit lists periodically, with their

366

THE TRADES SCHOOL. IN THE TRANSVAAL.

recommendations to the Transvaal Education Department. This
shall not refer to fines and deductions.

Examples of Gradinc, Applied to Pupils.
(Average daily rate js. i.6d.)

New

rate

of

Pay pe

Pupil.

Grading.

diem.

s. d

K. B.

D.

G.

6 .. ..

19

H. F.

D.

F.

4 . . ..

15

B. I.

D.

G.

5 .. ..

18

P. B.

C.

F.

6 .. ..

15

S. PI.

D.

F.

4 .. ..

15

J. W. E.

C.

G.

6 .. ..

17

H. van L.

C.

F.

4 .. ..

13

F. V. S.

D.

E.

5 .. ..

16

C. D.

B.

F.

2 . .

TO

W. S. B.

B.

F.

2 . . . .

10

E. W.

B.

F.

3 .. ..

I I

J. van Z.

C.

F.

3 .. ..

12

B. C.

B.

E.

2 . .

Oil

J. V.

C.

E.

2 . .

10

F. B.

B.

F.

2 . .

10

R. C. L. F.

C.

E.

I . . . .

oil

H. T. C.

B.

E.

I . . . .

0 10

N. R.

A.

F.

I . . . .

0 10

P. K.

A.

E.

I . . . .

09

H. T.

A

E

08

Pay per Pay per month of

26 days.

£

s.

d.

2

5

6

I

16

10

2

3

4

16

10

16

10

'2

I

2

12

6

19

0

6

0

6

0

8

2

10

4

3

10

6

0

6

0

3

10

I

8

I

8

0

19

6

0

17

4

This averages is. 1.593d. each per diem.

For the Pretoria Trades School and taking the present
pupils as representative tyi)es, the average daily rate of pay
works out at 13.6 pence or £1 8s. 6.6d. per month of twenty-six
working days. Thus the expenditure in wages-payment for
100 boys on this basis would be, for 12 months, £1,708, an
amount which compares with the present payment in bursaries.
The highest daily rate of pay under this system would be is. iid.

The advantages of the wages-payment system over that of
the bursary-payment are : —

1. The payment is based on practical and cnntinuons ability

2. The most money goes to the best and hardest worker.

3. The claim for partial support by the State is met by making the

males prove their ability.

4. The scale of grading being published, the parent has an immediate

index to the prosrress of his son.

5. The system makes for emulation among pupils and provides just

reasons why one is entitled to more than another.

6. A system of fines is rendered possible and a better control obtained

in minor delinquencies. (N.B. Attendance at all schools is
voluntary above Standard V.)

7. Unindentured pupils receive no advance in grade: i.e.. they remain

at 8d. per day until their parents complete the contract of
apprenticeship.

the trades school in the transvaal. 367

Distinctions between Trades Schools, Industrial Schools,
AND Manual Training Centres.

Ill order that clear ideas may obtain it is necessary to dis-
tinguish the differences in the tuition given in Trades Schools,
Industrial Schools, and in Manual Training Centres.

The Trades School:

A Trades School may be called an Industrial J Hgh School
where a boy works for half the day in the shops and in the other
half in the classroom ; in the classroom he is given elementary
technical instruction in the trade he is following under the trades-
man instructor in the workshops ; and also his education is con-
tinued in certain subjects from Standard \" to Standard VII
inclusive.

The arrangement of the course of instruction m the
Trades School may be compared to the sandwich system in
vogue in many of the University Technical Colleges of Europe
in which attendance at the day classes of the College is alter-
nated half-yearly with attendance at Commercial Workshops,
the difference between the Trade School and such Colleges
being (a) the College trains future captains of industry, while
the Trades School trains the rank and file; and (&) in the
College system, the workshops are separate entities, while in the
Trades School the workshops are brought to the school so that
the boy may attend both at the minimum of expense to his
parents. A Trades School can never become self-sup|)orting
because it is primarily an educational institution and a manufac-
tory only as the circumstances of the training given in it permit.

The Industrial School:

In an industrial school, as a rule, a boy works all day at one
trade or craft ; he receives no instruction in the elementary tech-
nical and scientific principles underlying the trade he is follow-
ing. Two hours' school is usually given, in the late afternoon
or evening, in reading, writing and arithmetic according to the
fourth standard of the primary school code. As such industrial
schools are nearly always intended to be self-supporting, by
means of the work carried out by the pupils, the craft instruc-
tion given depends to a great extent on the nature of the contract
work on hand.

The Manual Training Centres:

Manual training deals with the general principles involved
in the use of tools, the methods of working materials, and the
making of constructional drawings in such a way as to train
the intelligence and develop the character of the pupil. It aims
at giving an intelligent mastery over tools, materials and methods
as well as general practical dexterity, which will be useful in
an\ walk in life that the pupil may follow. The result of such

368 ■ THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

teaching is a strengthening of the intelligence, character and
productive activity of the pupil. Manual training instruction
has, therefore, two sides — (i) educational, (2) utilitarian. Such
training on its utilitarian side must be looked upon as preparatory
to trade training — may even be called preparatory trade training
— and is essential before instruction in trade processes and
methods is commenced. Such training should be taken
before the speciiic instruction given in trades schools is
attempted : it should, therefore, be given in the school where
the boy has received his general education up to the point of
entry to a trade either through the trades school or through the
shops of a commercial firm. Recent experimental psychology
has shown that hand training must precede trade training if
manual dexterity is to mature to perfection: thus manual train-
ing is not merely a counter irritant to book-learning, but a neces-
sary part of education due to changed social conditions brought
about by changes in industry.

References in Tk.xt.

0. " Conference on Technical, Industrial and Commercial

Education." Government Stationery Office, Pretoria,
1912.

1. " The Edvicational Ideas of Pestalozzi." by J. A. Grees, B.A.

2. " Emile."

3. See (1).

4. "Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission," page 155, para-

graph 311.

5. J bid., page 83, paragraph 155.

6. J bid., page 83, paragraph 154.

7. Ibid., page 156, paragraph 314.

8. Ibid., page 153, paragraph 307.

9. Prof. Perry : Address at the Opening of the New Engineer-

ing Laboratories, Belfast Technical Institute, November,
1911.

10. "Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission," page 158,

paragraph 316.

11. Ibid., page 55, paragraph 102.

12. Report. 1911 : Association of Technical Institutions

13. Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission, page 156, para-

graph 316.

14. " Schoolcraft," February, 1912.

15. " Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission." page 153, para-

graph 307.

16. Ibid., page 28, paragraph 55.

17. Ibid., page 2/, paragraph 53.

18. Ibid., page 50, paragraph 95.

19. For a description of these see The Cape Education Gazette.

20. "Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission," ])ages 32 and

45. paragraphs 60 and 83.

THE TRADES SCHOOL IN THE TRANSVAAL.

369

21. " The Problems of Coloured Labour." The State for June,

1911.
"The Coloured Menace." Rand Daily Mail, lyii.
"Report: Transvaal Indigency Commission," page 44, para-
graph 81.

22. Ibid., pages 78-79, paragragh 139.

23. Ibid., page St,, paragraph 154.

24. Ibid., page 81, paragraph 184 and Ap. 3.

25. Ibid., page 82, paragraph 150.

26. Ibid., page 121, paragraph 231.

27. Ibid., page 109, paragraph 208.

28. Ibid., page 62, paragraph iii.

29. Ibid., page 23, paragraph 112.

30. Ibid., page 63, paragraph 67.

31. Ibid., page 36, paragraph 68.

32. Ibid., page 117, paragraph 22;^.

33. Ibid., page 185, paragraph 376.

34. Ibid., pages 15-28,29.

35. Ibid., page 97, paragraph 180.

36. Ibid., page 35, paragraph 67.

37. Ibid., page 191, paragraph 392.

38. Ibid., page 56, paragraph 103.

39. Ibid., page 190, paragraph 395.

40. Ibid., page 56, paragraph 103.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa. —
Saturday, April i8tli : A. Richardson, M.I.M.M., President, in the chair. —
"The Witzuatersmnd earth tremors": H. E. Wood. In 1908, interest in
seismology was aroused in South Africa owing to the occun-ence of a con-
tinued series of small earthquake shocks or local tremors over the Wit-
witwatersrand. During 1908 and suhsequently. up to March, 1914, in all 171
of these shocks had heen experienced. The view was expressed that tliese
were semi-artificial in origin, and caused by the extraction of large amounts
of rock and water from comparatively small depths beneath the surface.
This view is confirmed by taking into account the circumstances under
which similar tremors have been known to occur hi Sunderland, in the
Rhondda Valley, and in Germany. Seismologically the author considers
South Africa to be stable, with the exception of four distinct regions of
instability : the southern part of the Orange Free State, along tlie Cape
border ; the Rustenburg and Zoutpansberg districts in the Transvaal ; and
the eastern slopes of the Drakensberg Mountains.

Saturday, May i6th : A. Richardson, M.I.M.M., President, in the
chair. — "Notes on hydraulic classiHers and classification" : Prof. G. H.
Stanley. The author described a series of experiments undertaken with
the object of ascertaining more definitely the causes of discrepancy
between theory and practice in the sorting out of mineral particles of
different sizes and specific gravity by hydraulic agency, and of overcoming,
as far as possible the causes of imperfect classification. — -" Rock tcmfyera-
tures" : E. J. Moynihan. The author criticised the data of Whitehouse
and Wotherspoon abstracted in a previous volume,* according to which

* 1910 Report, Capetown, p. 374.

3/0 NEW BOOKS.

the mean rise of temperature is i° F. for 253.9 feet vertical depth. His
purpose was to show that temperatures taken by means of drill-holes of
moderate depth, in stopes or development faces, are often far from the
original rock temperatures ; that hence the temperatures so obtained often
give rock temperature gradients that are far from the actual. The view
was also expressed — and reasons stating for holding it — that, unless refri-
gerating methods are used, one cannot hope to reduce the air temperature
gradient below the natural mean temperature gradient which the air has
due to compression, namely about 1° in 180 feet.

Geological Society of South Africa. — Monday, April 20th : D. P.
McDonald, M.A., B.Sc, President, in the chair. — "Metasomatism in Ban-
ket " : Prof. R. B. Young. The author prefaced his more general
remarks by describing some particular imrecorded instances of replace-
ment at the Rose Deep, Paarl Central, and Machavie Gold jMines. The
classes of metasomatism in general were naturally arranged in two groups :
( I ) those in which the replacement occurs sporadically at a great number
of isolated points within the rock, and (2) those in which the replacing
mineral tends to form a continuous body. The former includes replace-
ment of quartz by pyrite and other sulphides, as well as by gold and the
carbonaceous substance now represented in the banket by almost pure
carbon. The second group includes replacements of quartz by chlorite,
sericite, and calcite. In some of the cases of metasomatism, e.g., calciiica-
tion and chloritisation, the decomposition of basic dykes intersected in the
mines would afford an abundant supply of the replacing substances; while
the existence of open fissures descending to depths of several thousands of
feet, along which conspicuous solution has taken place, suggests the
descent, in quantity, of meteoric waters. — '' The geology of a portion of
the Beling7ve District of Southern Rhodesia" : Dr. P. A. Wagner. The
first part of the paper consisted of a description of the physiography of
the area dealt with, to which were added brief accounts of the drainage
and water supply, vegetation and archaeology. In referring more
exclusively to the geology of the district, the author gave special attention
to the rocks of the banded ironstone and greenstone schist groups, which
occur in narrow belts and patches, scattered like islands through a sea of
gneiss. The gneisses and granites were then described, the former under
the three heads of (i) foliated biotite gneiss. (2) mylonitic gneisses, and
(3) magmatic or composite hornblende-biotite gneiss. In the concluding
part of the paper a description is given of the great di'ke of Southern
Rhodesia, a vast intrusion which introduces a distinct element into the
landscape in the south-eastern portion of the region dealt with in the
paper, and also of the Um Vimeela dyke, running parallel to it at a dis-
tance of eight miles, and marked by a line of norite hills, along which
almost exclusively in the district the presence of fine examples of the Um
Vimeela tree (Kirkia acuminata) is to be observed.

South African Institute of Electrical Engineers. — Thursday.
April 23rd: W. Elsdon-Dew, President, in the chair. — "Additional notes
on Electric furnaces' : Dr. W. Glucksman. The author referred to
developments in the application of electric furnaces since the date of his
])revious paper (see this volume, p. 64), and mentioned particularly the
artilicial production of diamonds by Deboismenu, who had succeeded in
making a diamond weighing 2I carats.

NEW BOOKS.

Tilby, A. Wyatt. — The English people 07'erscas: Vol. I'f. — South
Africa, 1486-IQ13. Post 8vo. (S-l X S-V in.), pp. x, 632. London:
Constable & Co. 1914. 7s. 6d.

Stevens, E. J. C White and Black : an inquiry into South Africa's

greatest problem. i2mo., pp. vi, 284. London : Sinipkin, Mar-
shall. Hamilton, Kent & Co. IQ14. 12 oz. 2s. 6d.

White, S. E. — .Ifricau camp fires. 8vo. pp. 415. Tllus. London: T.
Nelson & Sons. 1914. 30 oz. 5s.

THE HYDROGRAPHER'S DEPARTMENT OF THE
BRITISH ADMIRALTY.

By Howard Pim.

This victory will not be gained in the interests of Germany alone.
We shall in this struggle, as so often before, represent the common
interests of the world, for it will be fought not only to win recognition
for ourselves but for the freedom of the seas. — {Germany and the Next
War. By General Bernhardi, p i68).

A vain hope, for the freedom of the seas /ia.y been zvon, and
belongs to-day to the whole brotherhood of seamen, without dis-
tinction of race or nationality. This has come about mainly
through the work of the Hydrographer's Department of the
British Admiralty, and a summary of this work is the subject of
my paper. It is short, because of the limited time allowed, in-
complete because I have not had access to a full series of Depart-
mental reports, and contains few personal touches because these
reports are laconic in the extreme. We are seldom allowed so
much behind the scenes as in 1881, when we are told: —

The North Coast of Borneo has been so swept by Sulu pirates thai
now these are the only people with any real knowledge of the coast. The
services of an old pirate were therefore obtained, and the names which
appear on the coast survey are mainly dependent upon his information.

In order ])etter to understand what has been accomplished,
I prefix a short statement as to the position of navigation and of
the knowledge of the seas up to 1795, when the Department was
created.

These limitations prevent more than the merest allusion to
the wonderful voyages of discovery of the Portuguese in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, or to the fact

That the praise of the application of the compass to these remote
discoveries is due to the Portugals who tirst began to open the windows
of the world to let it see itself.

Henry the Navigator, third son of John I of Portugal, was

The true foundation of the greatness, not of Portugal alone but of the
whole Christian world in marine affairs and especially of these heroic
endeavours of the English (whose flesh and blood he was)

for his mother was Phillipa, a daughter of John of Gaunt.

I deal with a later time, for discoveries came first, running
surveys followed, and finally surveys executed on rigorously
accurate principles, with the resulting charts and sailing direc-
tions.

The earliest known charts — and they are of remarkable
accuracy — were attached to the Portulani or sailing directions
for the Mediterranean, which were in general use in the thir-
teenth century, but must have originated long before this, and
without the aid of the compass. A book of sailing directions for
the coast from Scotland to Gibraltar was written in the fifteenth
century. A map of the coasts of the British Isles, and of

A

372 IIYDROGRAPIIER'S DEPARTMENT OF THE ADMIRALTY.

Western Europe and Africa nearly to Cape Verde, was drawn in
London in 1448.

In 1500 the Spanish pilot, Juan da la Casa drew a ma]) of
North America, from Cape Breton to Hatteras, which, traced on
a Ijullock's hide, still hangs in the Navy Office in Madrid. Many
early sailors advocated the making of charts, and in 1581 William
Burrough, afterwards Comptroller of the Admiralty, published
his discoveries of the Variation of the Compass, and, later, sun-
dry charts and sailing directions.*

About the same time the celebrated Dutch cartographer,
<^Ttrardus M creator, was at work, and also Waghenair, who com-
piled the collections of charts known as " waggoners," which
were in use for many years. So far as the English and adjoin-
ing coasts are concerned, " waggoners " were superseded by the
English Pilot of John Sellers, who is styled Hydrographer Royal.
It consists of a collection of rude sketches of the coasts of Eng-
land and the North .Sea, France, Spain, etc., with sailing direc-
tions. The name " waggoner," however, survived, and in 1699
collections under this name were still in use for the East Indies,
as appears from Dampier's account of his approach to the Cape.f

I should like to call special attention to this ({notation, as it
gives such a comjjlete summary of the difficulties and methods of
navigators before the days of charts and chronometers.

Longitude continued to puzzle navigators for 200 vears
more, and until the discovery of the chronometer its determina-
tion was ])ractically impossible. What the true method was, if
the instruments could be obtained, was well-known from as early
as 1530, and it is clear that Cemnia Phrysius expected to see an
instrument capable of measuring time with sufficient accuracy
in his own day. He writes as follows, about the year above-
mentioned : —

Wc sec in these our da3s certain little clocks very artificially made,
the whicli for their small quantity are not cumbrous to be carried about
in all voyages. These often times move continuously for the space of
24 hours, and may with help continue their moving in their manner per-
petually. P>y the help therefor of these the longitude may be found.

(iemma also mentions " Ephemerides and the Tables of Alphon-
sus," the first almanac having been ])u1ilished in 1457.

The seaman's view of the matter was that there be some that are very
inquisitive to have a way to get the longitude, hut that is too tedious for
seamen, since it requireth the deep knowledge of astronomy. Wherefore
I would not have any man think that the longitude is to be found at sea
by any instrument, so let no seaman trouble himself with any such rule
but according to their accustomed manner let them keep a perfect account
and reckoning of the way of their ship.

Ilie navigator's general procedure was to .sail until the re-
(juisite latitude, or height as they called it, was reached, and then
run along this parallel east or west, as might be necessary, using

* Appendix T.
t Appendix If.

iivDRoc.KAiMi i;r s ni:i'ARTM i:nt ok the admiralty. T,J^

Uic precautions mentioned by Dumpier. The instruments used
vere the compass, cross staff and astrolabe, log and hour-glass,
tOllowed by the vernier and quadrant, but I cannot here dwell
lip-on them, in 1599 Edward Wright invented the method of
r. lukino- charts which is called the projection of Alercator.

In K)75 (Greenwich Observatory was established, and I'lam-
steed was placed in charge. The Government provided no in-
struments whatever, and all he had to start with were, one iron
sextant of 7 feet radius, a quadrant of 3 feet radius ( the old form
without mirrors), two small telescopes, two clocks, and Tycho
Brahe's catalogue of y// stars, nearly 100 years old. He did
valual)le work, and was succeeded, in 1720, by Halley (the Caj)-
lain Halley mentioned by Dampier), who held the position until
1742.

The ([uadrant or sextant, in its present form, was invented
l)y John Hadley and Sir Isaac Newton, about 1731, and inde-
pendently by lliomas (Godfrey, a poor glazier, in Pliiladelphia.

Until tiii.s time [as it is quaintly put] all instruments in u^c at sea
for measuring angles either depended on a pluml)line or re(|uired the
ohserver to look in two directions at once.

The chronometer was invented bv John Harrison, about
1735. and the first Nautical Almanac was I'ublished by Nevil
Maskelyne. in 1766.

In 1714 the body known as the Commission for the Dis-
covery of Longitude at Sea was established, and it is to them that
we owe all that was done by England for the suryey of coasts,
both at home and abroad, prior to the establishment of the Hydro-
graphic De])artment of the Admiralty, in 1795. This Commis-
sion also bore ])art of the expense of Ca])tain Cook's voyages and
of the pul)lication of their results.* This great seaman and
greatest of nayigators

Was the founder of modern marine surveying and possessed qualifica-
liiins rarely comhined in . one man, which place him hrst on the roll of
maritime disco\-erers not onl\' in his time, hut for all time. He has no
equal and >tands alone. I

()thers followed. Bligh, of the Bounty. I'hipps, Vancouver,
and many others, of whom perhaps the greatest were Matthew
Flinders and (ieorge Bass. The former

Did his work on the Australian Coast so thoroughly that he left
comparatively little for his successors to do.

In 1796 the two of them, with one boy, surveyed a considerable
stretch of the New South Wales Coast, in the Tuiii Thumb, a
boat 8 feet long, and in 1798 Bass explored 600 miles of the same
coast, in very tempestuous weather, in a whale boat, with a crew
of five convicts. Later, in the sloop Norfolk, they circumnavi-
gated Tasmania for the hrst time.

* .\ppendix 111.
t C. R. Markham.

^74 HVDROCKAPHl'-.R S DEPARTMENT OF THE ADMIRALTY'.

In 1801 Flinders was given a rotten sloop, called the Investi-
gator, and in her he circumnavigated Australia, but she was con-
demned on the coast in 1803, and, after a series of misfortunes,
he was detained by the French, a prisoner, in Mauritius for six
years. This shortened his life, and he died in 18 14. on the very
day his book was published, at the early age of 40. He was the
first to investigate the deviation of the compass caused by iron
on board, and to suggest remedies. The name Australia is also
due to him.

During this period the officers of the East India Company
were actively engaged in survey work, and in 1786 their first
catalogue, showing 347 charts between England, the Cape, India
and China, was published. This catalogue was the work of H. A.
Dalrymple, who in 1795 became the first Hydrographer of the
Admiralty, and, with these small beginnings and a vote of £650
per annum, the wprk was started.

Needless to say, the want of accurate surveys was first felt
along the shores of Great Britain, and Murdoch MacKenzie's
chart was published in 1804.

In 181 1 Captain Francis Beaufort, afterwards Hydro-
grapher, surveyed part of the East Coast of Africa. In 1814 an
expedition explored the lower reaches of the Congo, for 280
miles, and Commander Tuckey and five officers died while the
work was proceeding.

Not much was done during the great War, but in 181 5 the
work expanded, and, while some other Governments

Participated so far as their own coasts were concerned, the Engish
department took under its charge practically every place where the inha-
bitants were not able to do the work for themselves.

Since that time its career of usefulness has steadily developed,
and, assisted by the work of other Governments, amongst which
that of the United States is conspicuous, it not merely under-
takes the constant improvement of the charts of the whole world,
but also issues periodically, for the use o-f the whole seafaring
commimity, without distinction of nationality, a vast amount of
information on all nautical subjects.

In 1821 Captain William Fitzwilliam Owen, in command of
the Lcven and Barracouta, commenced the survey of the African
coasts, and Table Bay was surveyed in 1822, and, later, Mozam-
bique, Sofala, Ouilimane, Zanzibar, and the Seychelles. In this
work died two-thirds of his officers and half of his men, in seven
months. Later, he surveyed the coast, from Walvisch Bay to
Sierra Leone and the ( jambia, and, after ^ivt years' work, laid
down with great accuracy 30,000 miles of coast, recorded in 83
charts and plans.

He was followed by Cutfield and Boteler, who died, on the
coast, in 1829. In 1826 a survey of the Straits of Magellan was
made by Skyring, afterwards killed on the East Coast of Africa..

Captain Fitzroy followed, in 1831, with the survey of Pata-
gonia, the Falkland Islands, and the West Coast of South

HYDROGRAPIIKR's DKPARTMENT of lllK ADMIKALTV. 3/5

America lo (auiya(|uil and the Galapagos, tinding the Spanish
charts nian\- miles ont in longitude.

As another instance of the want of knowledge then i)revail-
ing. I may mention that, up to 1839. different charts showed no
less than six different positions for Rio Janeiro.

During these years work was proceeding round the English
coast, in the Red Sea, and, by Captain Moresby, in the East
Indies. Vidal was continuing Boteler's work in the Bight of
Benin, and, from 1841 to 1845, ^^ ^^as engaged at the Azores.

In 1840 the first complete survey of the East Coast of Eng-
land and the Shetlands was linished, and the survey of the Irish
Channel was commenced by Beechey. This year is typical of
many to come, for surveys were proceeding of the coasts of
Southern Arabia, Bay of Bengal, River St. Lawrence and New
Brunswick, New Jersey, Long Island, and Cape Cod, West
Indies, Mexico, Yucatan, Bass and Torres Straits ; and so the
work continued, year by year, in all parts of the world. About
]0 ships, with 70 ofificers and over 500 men, were engaged. The
mere labour involved was stupendous. For instance, the survey
of the southern part of the North Sea was completed in 1844.
In this year alone, over 20,000 soundings were taken for this
single survey.

In 1849 charts were published for the Mediterranean. West
Indies, Canaries. England, Ireland, Australia, North America,
New Guinea, West Coast of Africa, Moolmein River, Lal)rador.
and many others. Algoa Bay also was described.

From 1847 to 1853, Evans was at work on the W^est Coast
of New Zealand and in the Archipelago. . Basil Hall charted the
Loochoo Islands. Foster, surveying in the West Indies, was
drowned in the Chagres River, while measuring the difference
of longitude between Chagres and Panama. CoUison was at
w^ork on the China coast, Blackwood on the Great Barrier Reef,
and many other surveys were in progress.

In 1854 the South Coast of England vt'as completed as far as
Portland, and a chart from Hangklip to Agullias was ])ublished.
Up to this year the Nova Scotia coasts were so faultily expressed
that many charts could only be considered snares, instead of
guides.

In 1855, 20 ships were engaged, and during the twelve
months 131,000 copies of plans and charts were published, for
whoever wanted them. In this year the West Coast of Cape
Colony was examined by Commander Nolloth, and an awkward
Bank off Port Elizabeth discovered and charted.

In 1856 the survey of the terrible Irish coast south of the
Shannon was completed, and Commander Church, worn out by
the work, died immediately afterwards. In this year the coast of
Siam was found to be laid down 10 miles east of its true ]iositioh.
and Fanning Island 32 miles.

In 1857 no less than 2^ surveying parties were at work, and
in this year Port Natal was surveyed.

376 hydrographer's department of the admiralty.

Here 1 find one of the few allusions to individuals which
ap)>ear in the rei)orts I have had access to : —

Rear Admiral Bayfield retires from tlie command of the survey of
the St. Lawrence, on which extensive work he has been engaged for
upwards of a quarter of a centur\ . It has fallen to few ofhcers to origi-
Tiate and bring to a close after so many years so extended and laborious
a work, where the surveyor had to contend with a rigorous climate in
winter and fogs in the spring and autumn, leaving but a short season in
which outdoor work could be executed. It has. however, been done in
a masterly manner, as more than 100 pubhshed charts and plans, com-
plete sailing directions, and a valuable table of geographical positions con-
nected with Quebec, Halifax and Boston most fully testify.

In 1858 we have an account of the work on the Argyleshire
Coast. In the space of 90 square miles 13,000 soundings were
made, the greatest depth heing 97 fathoms. The cost of the
survey, including soundings, when conducted in the most eco-
nomical manner, is about £30 per mile of coast line. In the same
year the coast about the St. John's River was charted, and a
closer examination made of Table Bay.

In 1859 we are told that the survey of the coast of Scotland
has occu])ied over 20 years, and will require five years more,
ihe cost, when finished, will not have been less than £250,000.

In i8t)0 an error of 11 miles in longitude was discovered in
the charts of the Spanish coast near Bilbao, and the charts of
[-"alse Bay were corrected. Two shoal spots, about a mile South-
West of Cape Point, were discovered, and the Cape Point Light-
house installed, ddie first general chart of the Coast of China
was also ptiblished.

In 1861 a cape on the North-East of Cuba was found toije
charted 20 miles of longitude from its true position, and in the
following year an important port in Sumatra was found to be
14 miles out in latitude. In this year the results of Captain
Durham's nine years' serivce in the Australian seas were pub-
lished. 200 charts, plans and drawings completed and in pro-
gress, 163 positions catalogtted, variation tested 2,410 times
afloat and 191 times on shore, 41 islands and 42 ocean reefs and
sunken shoals surveyed, 700 miles of the edge of soundings con-
toured, and 21, fabulous dangers erased from our charts.

In 1863 Mossel Bay was surveyed, Vancouver completed,
anil a most interesting Japanese chart of their own coast
obtained,

V.'duable not only as a correct map ( for wherever tested it has been
foxmd to be both trigonometrically and astronomically accurate to a
remarkable degree, though graduated in a peculiar and original manner),
but also as a work of art, illustrating the advanced stage attained by this
extraordinary people in surveving. which will compare favourably with
specimens of our own published in the beginning of the present century.

In this year 138,503 charts were distributed, and a note of
relief is allowed to appear in Sir Roderick Alurchison's summary
of the surveys of the .\ustralian coasts: —

riVDKCXiRAIMlKK's DICPAKTMliNT OF THE ADMIRALTY. 377

We arc now beginning to reap the trnits of those long- years of toil
and inchistry. the rewards of that skill, patience and perseverance which
prodnced to the world the magnificent survey of 800 miles of channels
within the reefs of this coast, a survey which when commenced must
have appeared almost a liopeless undertaking, hut which has led to the
opening of a safe highway, soon to become the beaten track between
India and Australia, in connection therewith let not the names of King-
and Blackwood and Stanley be forgotten. Well may the companions of
these gifted men who still remain feel proud to have participated in a
work which will ever remain a monument of their perse\crancc and their
skill, and among nautical sur\e\s will stand unrivalled.

Ill the Geographical Society's report for 1865 we again hear
of Captain Fitzroy. who had died not long before. After the
Bcayic voyage (in which Charles Darwin took part as naturali.stj
l\e returned to the South American Station, being unwilling to
ciuit it without rendering hi.s survey in every sense complete. He
hired two additional vessels, at his own cost, to finish oft the
examination of the Falkland Islands, and subseciuently purchased
a third ( the Bcayic itself, it should be noted, having been fitted
out to a great extent at Fitzroy's own expense). These eft'orts,
which cost him several thousand pounds, had not been sanc-
tioned by the Admiralty, and he was never reirnbursed. He died
in impoverished circumstances. An institution by which his name
should also be remembered is that of storm signals estal)lished
all round our coasts.

In 1865 Plettenberg Bay and the adjoining coast was sur-
veyed, and a total of 203,775 charts were issued to the public.

In 1866 there is a note that Captain Afansell had retired
from his long and useful labours, after 32 years passed in the
surveying branch of his profession, and another short paragraph
about the coast of British Columbia, which gives an insight into
the labour involved in survey work. Of the coast of British
Columbia it says, in speaking of a single inlet:

The islands are so numerous and the coasts so much broken that
although it is not more than 70 miles from the entrance to the head of
the inlet, yet its shores comprise an extent of coastline aniiounting to
upwards of 700 miles.

About this time the Agulhas Bank was sounded, and the
survey was completed from Cape Infanta to Yzervark Point, and
from Cape St. Francis to Receife Point. Owing to the exposed
nature of the coast, difficulties of obtaining soundings were very
great.

In 1867 a chart of the Agulhas Bank and the coast of the
Cai)e Colony, from Hondeklip to Port Natal, was published.

In t868 many hidden dangers in the neighbourhood of the
Channel Islands, hitherto unknown, were discovered and placed
upon the chart.

In 1869 a consecutive line of deep sea soundings was carried
out from the Cape of Cood Hope via St. Helena to the Fnglish
Channel.

378 hydrographer's department of the admiralty.

The making of paths through the China Sea [says the report of this
year] has been the patient but persevering work of the Navy of this
country for 30 years. Commenced in war and continued in peace, may
well it have been considered a gigantic task to which no end could be
seen when first undertaken, and yet to the end, so far as this great area
is concerned, may now be clearly and definitely counted upon.

In this year many errors were found in the old charts
between Capetown and .Saldanha Bay.

In 1870 this work is also mentioned, and that the survey has
been continued northwards to Lamberts Bay. Numerous out-
lying dangers, extending, in some instances, for several miles
from the coast, between Saldanha Bay and St. Helena Bay, were
charted, and the surveying parties continued northwards towards
Orange River.

On the Australian Station. t\vo officers died of exposure in
the execution of their duties.

In 1 87 1 the survey reached Orange River and Port Nolloth.

This year the greater part of the stretch known as the
90-Mile Beach, on the Victorian Coast, was surveyed. As a land-
ing could not be effected with safety, it was necessary to carry on
the survey by walking parties, crossing the rivers on rafts con-
structed of drift timber. In this manner, and in the face of many
difficulties and privations, among them the absence of fresh pro-
visions, 120 miles of coast were surveyed in less than three
months.

So recently as 1872, shore parties in Pondoland fotmd them-
selves on more than one occasion in considerable danger, and one
party, in the neighbourhood of St, John's River, was detained by
the Pondo chief for seven weeks. For over three years this
party, imder Lieutenant Archdeacon, working along the coast,
underwent extreme privations, and worked with unremitting
energy.

In i88y, when eleven ships, with a complement of nearly
800, were in service, there is an interesting note : —

In the Southern part of the Red Sea a fourth search was mnde fr-r
the sunken rock on which it was reported that two British steam vessels
had struck. This search was crowned with success by the discovery of
a small isolated patch with as little as 15 feet of water over it. It has
been called the Avocet rock. The unsuspected existence iif this lock
with such an enormous number of vessels passing over it is ■juc of the
most remarkable instances of its kind on record.

In 1890 a surveying officer was specially engaged in obtain-
ing the longitudes of Port Nolloth, Mossamedes, Benguela, St.
Paul de Loanda, and San Thome. This expedition, so successful
in its results,- terminated by the death of Commander Pullen, of
malarial fever.

In 1892 a new isolated rock, 1^2 miles from land, with only
20 feet- of water over it, was discovered otif the Anglesey Coasts
directly on the highway to Liverpool.

IIVDROGRAPHKR S DEPARTMENT OF THE ADMIRALTY. 371)

So, year by year, this splendid work goes on, coasts are
charted, seas sounded, and hundreds of dangers to navigation
added to the charts; (in 1889. 230 dangers were recorded, 270
miles of coast charted, and 10,435 square miles of sea sounded;
in 1890, 274 dangers, 1,223 miles of coast and 4,674 s{(uare miles
of sea) ; and to-day the work still continues on a similar scale.
To its benefits all are welcome, and the number of charts now
disposed of by the Department annually exceeds 500,000.

To me, there is nothing in all our history more magnificent
or worthy of rememl)rance than these surveys which we have
made of every sea in all the world. In the slime and heat of the
mangrove swamp, or the cold of Labrador, where the shore ice
does not float loose till the end of August, the work has been
done for all time. Once and for all we have done it, and, better
still, we have held out this freedom of the seas for all the w^orld
to take, as and when we have won it for otirselves. The sum of
the cost of it will never be made up, but a glimpse of what, in
one sense of the word, it has been appears in the note of the
Scottish survey in 1859. Gold, however, counts for nothing in
this balance. What we remember, and reverently salute, is the
incalculable ])rice we have paid in devoted lives, a sacrifice only
made tolerable to i:s and justified by Avhat has been accomplished.

Road was never so rough that we left its purpose dark.
Stark was ever the sea, but our ships were yet i^Mrc stanx.
We have tracked the wind of the world to the steps of their very thrones,
The secret parts of the world arc salted with i>ur bones.

As to the tem.per in which the work has been done, let
William Burrough repeat the instructions, very necessary and
needful to be observed, which he gave to Arthur Pet and Charles
Jackman in 1580.* when they set out to find Cathay; —

Rut withal you may not forget to note as much as you can learn, under-
stand or perceive of the manner of the soil, or fruitfulness of every
place and country you shall come in, and of the manner, shape, attire and
disposition of the people. It behoveth you to give trifling things unto such
people as you shall happen to see, and to offer thein all courtesy and
friendship you may or can, to win their love and favour towards you,
not doing or offering them any wrong or hurt. And though you should
be offered wrong at their hands, yet r(ot to revenge the same lightly, but
by all means possible seek to win them, yet always dealing wisely and
with such circumspection that you keep yourselves out of their dangers.

Thus I beseech God Almighty to bless you, and prosper your voya.^e
with good and happy success, and send you safely to return home again,
to the great joy and rejoicing of tlie adventurers with you, and all ymir
friends, and our whole countrv. .\men.

Appendix I.

Instructions and Notes z'ery necessary and needful to be obserz'cd
in the proposed voyage for the discovery of Cathay, east-
ivards, by Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, given by
William Burrough, 1580.

* See Appendix I.

380 iivdr()(.raim[i^r's department of the admiralty.

When yon come to Orfordnesse. if the wind do serve ycni to go a
seaboard the sands, do you set off from thence, and note the time dili-
gently of 3-our beins' against the said Nesse, turning then your glass,
whereby \ou intend to keep your continual watcli. and appoint such
course as you shall think good, according as the wind serveth you; and
from that time forwards contiiuially ( if your shij) be loose, under sail,
a liull or trie) do you at tlie end of every 4 glasses at the least (except
calm ) sound with your dipsin lead, and note diligently what depth you
find, and also the grdmid. I'.ut if it happen liy swiftness of the ship's
way, or otherwise, that mui cannot get ground, yet note what depth you
prove, and could find no ground (this note is to be oliserved all your
voyage, as well outwards as liomewards). Rut when you come upon any
coast, or do find any shoaled bank in the sea, you are then to use your
lead oftener, .is you shall think it requisite, noting diligently the order of
your deptlT, and the deeping and shohling. And so likewise do you note
the depths into harbours, rivers, etc.

And in keeping your dead reckoning, it is very necessary that you do
ni)te .it the end of every four glasses, what way the ship hath made (by
your liest ])roofs to be used) and how lier way hath l)een through the
water, considering withal for the sag of the sea, to leewards, accordingly
a'- you sliall finrl it grown: and also to note the depth, and what things
worth tin nming liapijcned in that time, with also the wind upon what
point you lind it then, and of wliat force or strength it is. and what sails
you bear.

But if \'ou shiiuld (Unit to note tliose things at the end of every four
glasses, T would not liavc you to let it slip any longer time, then to note it
diligently at the end nt every walcli. or eight glasses at the farthest.

Do }-ou diligently observe the latitude as often, and in as many places
as you may possilile, .and also the variation of the compass (especially
when you may l)e at shore upon any land) noting the same observations
truly, and the place and places where, and the time and times when you do
the same.

When you come to have si.ght of any coast or land wliatsoever, do you
presently set the same with }our sailing compass, how it bears off you,
noting your judgment how f;ir you think it from you, drawin,g also the
form of it in your book, how it appears unto you, notin.g diligently how the
highest or notablest part thereof beareth ot¥ you, and the extremes also
in sight of the same land at both ends, distinguishing them by letters. A, B,
C. etc. Afterwards when you have sailed i. 2, 3, or 4 glasses (at the most)
noting diligently what way your bark hath made, and upon what point of
the coinpass do you again set that first land seen, or the parts thereof, that
you first observed, if you can well perceive or discern them, and likewise
such other notable points or signs upon the land that you may then see
and could not perceive at the first time, distinguishing it also by letters
from the other, and drawing in your book tlie shape of the same land, as it
appeareth unto you, and so the third time, etc.

And also in passing alongst by any and every coast, do }ou draw the
manner of biting in of every Bay and entrance of every harbour or river's
mouth, with the lying out of every ])oint, or headland (unto which you may
give apt names at your pleasure ) and make some mark in drawing the
form and border of the same, where the high cliffs are and where low
land is. whether sand, hills, or woods, or whatsoever, not omitting to note
anything that may be sensible and apparent to you. which may serve to
any good purpose. If you carefully with great lieed and diligence note the
observations in your l)ook, as aforesaid, and afterwards make demonstra-
tions thereof in your plat, you shall thereby perceixe how far the land you
first saw, or the parts thereof ol)served, was then from you, and conse-
quently of all the rest ; and also how far the one part was from tlie other,
and u]>on what course or point of the compass the one lieth from the
other.

H>'nR()(;K.\IMlKK's i:»KPARTMKNT OF THE ADMIRALTY. 381

And when yiui come ujxm any coast where y<ni find floods and ebbs,
do you diligently note tlie time of tlie highest and lowest water in every
place, and the slake or still water of full sea, and low water, and also
which way the Hood doth nni, how the tides do set, how much water it
liietli. and what force the tide hath to drive a ship in one hour, or in the
whole tide, as near as you can judge it. and what difference in time you
find Iietween the running of the flood, and the ebb. And if you find upon
any coast the current to run always one way. do you also note the same
iluly. how it setteth in every ))lace. and observe what force it liath to
drive a ship in one hour. etc.

Item, as often and wheii as you ma\ conveniently come upon any land,
to make observation for the latitude and variation, etc., do you also (if you
may) with your instrument, for trying of distances observe the platform of
the place, and of as man\- things (worth the noting) as you may then
conveniently see from time to ihne. These orders if you diligently observe,
yoti may therel)y perfectly set down in the plats, that T have given you your
■whole travel, and description of your discovery, which is a thing that will
t>e chiefly expected at your hands. Hut withal you may not forget to note
as nmch as you can learn, understand or perceive of the manner of the
soil, or fruitfulness of every i)lace and country you shall come in. and of
the manner, shape, attire and disposition of the people, and of the commo-
dities they have, .and wJiat they most covet and desire of the commodities
you carry with )ou. It behoveth you to give trifling things unto such
people as you shall hai)pen to see, and to offer them all courtesy and
friendship yon may or can, to win their love and favour towards you, not
doing or offering them any wrong or hurt. And though you should be
offered wrong at their hands, yet not to revenge the same lightly, l)ut by
all means possible seek to win them yet always dealing wisely and with
such circumspection that you keep yourselves out of their dangers.

Tims 1 beseech God Almighty to bless you and prosper your voyage
witli good and happy success, and send you safely to return home again,
to the great joy and rejoicing of the adventurers with you. ;ind all \our
friends, and our whole countrv. Amen.

Al'l'l-:.\l iX II.

Paiiipicr's approach to the L ape of Good Hope.
l'o\a(je.\. I'ol. I J. p. 409.

Two days before I made the Cape of (j. Hope, my variation was 7 deg.
58 min. West. T was then in 43 deg. 2J min. East Longit. from C. Salva-
dor, being in Lat. 35 deg. ,30 min. This was the first of June. The second
of June I saw a large black fowl, with a whitish flat bill, fly past us, and
took great notice of it, because in the East-Tndia Waggoner, or Pilot-book,
there is mention nuidc of large fowds. as big as ravens, with white flat
bills and black feathers, that fly not above 30 leagues from the Cape, and
are looked on as a sign of one's being near it. My reckoning made me then
tlu'nk myself above 90 leagues from the Cape, according to the longitude
which the Cape hath in the common sea-charts ; so that 1 was in some
doulit whether these were the right fowls spoken of in the Waggoner, 01
wliether these fowls might not (ly farther off shore than is there men-
tioned ; or wliether, as it proved 1 might not be nearer the Cape than I rec-
koned myself to be, for I found, s(K)n after that I was not then above
^5 or 30 leagues at most from tiie Cape. Whether the fault were in the
charts laying down the Cape too much to the B^st from Brazil, or were
rather in our reckoning, i could not tell; but our reckonings are liable to
much uncertainties from steerage, log, currents, half-minute glasses, and
sometimes want of care, as in so h)ng a run cause often a difference of
^lany leagues in, the whole account.

T,8>2 11V1JK()(;K.\I>J11':k's DI-^PAKTMKNT of the ADMIRAL'J'V.

Many of our men that kept journals iniijuted it to the half-niinule
glasses, and indeed we had not a good ,ij;lnss in the ship hesicie the half-
watch or two-hour glasses. As for our half-minute glasses we tried them all
at several times, and we found those that we had used from Brazil as
nuich too short, as others we had used before were too long, wdiich might
well make great errors in those several reckonings. A ship ought there-
fore to have its glasses very exact ; and besides, an extraordinary care
ought to be used in heaving the log, for fear of giving too much stray-line
in ;i moderate gale: and also to stop (piickly in a brisk gale, for when a
ship runs 8, 9, or 10 knots, half a knot or a knot is soon run out. and
not heeded. But to prevent danger, when a man thinks himself near
land, the best way is to look out betimes and lie by in the night, for a
Commander may err easily himself, besides the errors of those under him.
tho" never so carefully eyed.

Another thing that stumbled me here vv.is the variation, which, at ibis
time, by the last ami)litu(le I had found to be but 7 deg. 58 niin. W.
whereas the variation at the Capv ( from which 1 found myself not 30
leagues distant) was then computed, and truly, about 11 deg. or more.
.'\nd yet a while after this, when I was got 10 leagues to the Eastward of
the Cape. T found the variation but 10 deg. 40 min. W., whereas T should
have been rather more than at the Cape. These things, T confess, did
puzzle me. Neither was 1 fully satished as to the exactness of the taking
the variation at sea; for in a great sea. which we often meet with, the
Compass will traverse witli the motion of the ship, besides the ship may
and will deviate somewhat in steering, even by the best Helmsman. And
then when you come to take an A/'innith, there is often some difference
between him that looks at the coni])ass. and tlu' man that takes the Alti-
tude height of the sun, and a small error in each, if the error of both
should be one way will make it wide fif any great exactness. But what was
mo.st shocking to me, T four.d that the variation did not always increase
or decrease in proportion to the degree of longitude East or West, as T
had a notion they might do to a certain number of degrees of variation
east or west, at such or such particular meridians. But finding in this
voyage that the difference of variation did not bear a regular jiroptniion
to the dift'erence of longitude, 1 was much pleased to see it thus observed
in a scheme shown me after my return home, wherein are represented the
several variations in the Atlantic Sea, on both sides of the luiuator : and
there, the line of no variation in that sea is not a meridian line, but goes
very oblique, as do tliose also which show the increase of variation on ea9h
side of it. in that drauglit there is so large an advance made as well
towards the accounting for those seemingly irregular increases and
decreases of variation towards the S.E. coast of .\merica, as towards the
fixing a general scheme or system of the variation everywhere, wdiich
would be of such great use in navigation, that I cannot but hope that the
ingenious author, Capt. llalley, who to his profound skill in ;dl theories of
these kinds, hath added and is adding continually personal experiments,
will e'er long oblige the world with a fu'ler discovery of the course of the
variation which hath hitherto been ;i si'crrt. h'or my jiart, 1 profess ni\self
un(iualified for offering at any thing of a general scheme; but since
matter of fact, and whatever increases the history of the variation, may
be of use towards the settling or confirming the theory of it, 1 shall here
once for all insert a Table of all the Variations 1 observed beyond the
Equator in this voyage, both in going out, and returning back; and what
errors there may be in it I sliall leave to be corrected by the observations
of others.

1 add his little i)ioliire ui the ."-^toniiy I'etrel. for the sheer
beauty of it : —

The petrel is a bird \-n>l nnich unlike a swallow but smaller, and with a
short tail. 'Tis all over l)lack, except a white si)ot on the rump. They

HVDROCRAIMIKk's l)i:rARTMF-:NT OF TUF". ADMIKALTV. 383

fly sweeping like swallows and very near llie water. They are not so
often seen in fair weather; being foul-weather birds, as our seamen call
them, and presaging a storm wlien they come about a ship, who for that
reason don't love to see tlieni. In a storm they will hover close under the
^liip's stern, in the wake of tlie sliip (as 'tis called) or the smoothness
which the ship's passing has made upon the sea. And tliere as they fly
(gently then) they pat the water alternately witli tlieir feet, as if they
walked upon it, tho' still upon tiiewing. And from lience the seamen give
ihem the name of " petrels." in allusion to St. Peter's walking upon the
Lake of Gennesaretli.

Appendix III.

James Cook was born in 1728, the son of a labourer, in the
Cleveland division of Yorkshire. Apprenticed first to a haber-
dasher at Staithes, he afterw^ards served as an apprentice on a
little ship called the True Love, of Whitby, in the North Sea coal
trade, rising to foremast hand, and then to mate.

In 1755 he joined the Navy, and, four years later, became
master, and served in various small shii)S of war on the North
.\merican .Stati(jn. He surveyed the St. Lawrence and the coast
of Newfoundland, and prepared a chart, from Quebec to the sea.
In 1763 he was appointed marine surveyor of the coast of New-
foundland and Labrador, and in i76<S Ijrought out a volume of
sailing directions which showed remarkable ability. As a result,
he was selected, in this year, to command the Endeavour, de-
spatched to observe the transit of V^enus in the South Seas, and
on this voyage he mapped the coast and harbours of Tahiti.

The excellent ciiart b.istd on Codk's survey was the <jnly guide in these
waters for over 100 years, and the accuracy of his positions was extra-
ordinary.

b>om the Fiji Islands he pnjcceded to New Zealand, and
surveyed 24,000 miles of coast in six and a half months.
Never has a coast been so well laid down by a first explorer.
He then proceeded to New South Wales, and carried out a run-
ning survey of the East Coast of Australia with the same minute-
ness and accuracy, returning home by way of Batavia and the
Cape. The whole of the work of this voyage was carried out
without chronometers, for the Endeavour carried none.

In 1772 he started on his second voyage, and, after touching
at the Cape, he crossed the Antarctic Circle, and proceeded to
New Zealand, proving that the alleged Southern Continent did
not exist. Thence he worked up and down across the South
Pacific, finding no land there also, and, turning North, he sailed
to Raster Island and on to the Marquesas, Tonga Islands, and
Tahiti. Thence to the New Hebrides,

Of wliich for some of tlie Islanfls Iiis cliart is still the onlv one in
existence and of remarkable accuracy. On several occasions up to 1893
Cook's recorded positions have saved the adojjtion of so-called amendments
wdiich would have been anything but amendments in reality.*

* C. R. Markham.

384 hvdk(.)GRAphi-:r's dkpartment of the admiralty.

Next he discovered New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, etc., and
}>roceeded via Cape Horn to the Cape of Good Hope,

From whicli lie returned home after a voyage of over 60,000 miles,
which left the main outlines of tlie Southern portions of the glohe sul)
itantially as they are known to-day

The ereatest tribute of. all to his seaiiian.ship and power of organ-
isation is that, during the whole of thi< voyage he lost only one
man.

In 1776 he started on his third voyage, and, sailing North
from New Zealand, discovered the Cook Archipelago, and re-
discovered the Sandwich Islands, first seen by the Spanish
Gaetano, in 1555, but concealed and forgotten. Thence he
reached the American coast, a little south of where Portland.
Oregon, now stands, and worked northwards, surveying as he
went on, through Behring Straits and up to latitude 70^ 41'.
where the ice stopped him. He exi)lored both shores of the
Straits, and then returned to llawaii. where he was killed on the
14th of February, 1779.

A Lunar Volcano. — In a bulletin of Harvard College
( )bservator}- attention has l)een called by I'rof. W. H. Pickering
to recently observed ])henomena in connection with the lunar
crater Einmart. The interior of the crater was very brilliant in
January, 191 3, but darkened considerably in March, the darkness
persisting until February, 1914, when it again attained the bright-
ness of twelve months previously, but not the brilliancy of
January, 1913. when it was the brightest area of its size then
visible on the moon. The crater is 25 miles in diameter, and its
interior easily observed. Ihe interior is full of brilliant detail,
constantl}- varying, not only from night to night, but also from
month to month.

DETP]RMlNAgAO DA LATlTliDE E l.ONiJlTUDE DO

PILAR DO INSTRUMENTO DE PASS A(i ENS DO

OBSERVATORIO CAMPOS RODRKa^ES.

Por Atgusto de Almeida Teixeira.

Este traballio na offereee novidade e se o apresentamos e so
por acharmos interessante conhecer-se a concordancia dos result-
ados obtidos pelas observacoes o-eodesicas ligadas com a triani;u-
lacao do Transvaal, e pelas observacoes astronomicas.

A parte mais valiosa d'este trabalho iiao pertence ao seu
apresentante. mas ao Sr. capitao-tenente da Armada Portuiz'uesa
Gagx) Coutinho. chefe de missao (|iie procedeu ao levantamento
i^eodesico dos districtos de Lourenco ^larijiies e Iiihambane. Este
official encontra-se actualmente nuraa nova missao para delimit-
acao da fronteira do Barotze, e nao sendo. por iss(>,-facil consulta-
lo, servimo-nos deiim sen trabalho pnblicado ha dois annos, de
onde transcrevemos o seguinte sobre a determinacao das eoorden-
adas do pilar do Instnimento de Passai>ens:

" Nao sendo possivel incluir este pilar na trian.uuhu'ao princi-
pal, por se nao avistar nenhinn dos pontos d'esta trianiiulaeao,
nem medir directamente a sna distancia a estacao geodesica do
Observatorio, installada na torre dos instrunientos meteorolooi-
cos, foi necessario recorrer a uma maneira indirecta, medindo
no terreno uma peqnena base de 48 metros, com precisao, e liuar
a estacao alta com o pilar j^or meio de uma triangulacao com
5 pontos, formando dois qiiadrilateros. O rii^-or da medicao e o
fecho dos trianjuiilos permittiram determinar a distancia entre
as estacoes geodesica e astronomica com tun erro provavel in-
ferior a nm millimetro, o que para o caso e)'a mais do que snffi- .
ciente. pois eada millessimo de segundo aiida por 80 millimetros.
D'este trabalho resultaram as seguintes ditferencas ciitrc^ as duas
estacoes :

Latitude — 1".495

Longitude + T'.(i47

" Pela red-" da triangulacao princi|)al da missao gcoch'sica
que liga a estacao geodesica do Observatorio com a fronteira. e (|uc
comprehende mais immediatamente 17 vertices, foi esta estai-ao
ligada com o marco da fronteira da Swa/ilandia. li»oy. cu.jas
coordenadas estao deterininadas pela triangulacao do Transvaal,
a (pial este vertice taml)em pertence. As medicrx's geodesicas.
nesta parte da triangulacao portuguesa, enla(;am os 17 pontos
com 94 direccoes, de modo ((ue so o calculo d'esta ligacao com-
prehenderia, ccmio se sabe, a resolucao i)elo.s minimos (juadrados.
de um sistema de 47 ecpuicdes a 94 incognitas, o ()ue era hxci*s-
sivamente trabalhoso. c nao nos compensa^'a. iiois uma grandc
precisao do residtado seria completamente iiiutil. visto (|ue :iao
era necessaria a posicao do Observatorio com uuia pi-ccisao

386 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

superior ao decimo de segundo de arco, ou sejam 3 metros oni
exteiisao linear.

" Esta parte do calculo sera comtudo feita qnando se empre-
hender a compensacao geral da rede. Por ag-ora contentamo nos
sem perda do iiidispensavel rigor, como se vera, com unia com-
pensacao provisoria, incomparavelmente mais rapida.

" A linha do Observatorio para Ipoy e cortada em Ipoy por
sete ontras direccoes differentes, tres das quaes, Kanghekane,
Estatiiene e M'Pondiihine, dao cada uma duas soliic5es inde-
peudentes. Resultam portanto uove valores differentes da dis-
tancia Observatorio-Ipoy, com pesos differentes e dependentes dos
senos dos angnlos que serviram para se chegar a deterniinar os
cruzamentos. A diviscio de 1000, numero arbitrario, pela somma
das differtneas logarithm icas correspondentes a um segundo de
erro nos angulos originaes, foi acceite como peso de cada um dos
referidos cruzamentos.

*' Duas maneiras podiamos seguir para procurar a distancia
mais provavel entre 0 ()bser\'atorio e Ipoy : uma, analytica ele-
mcntar, a media com pesos ; a outra era 0 estudo, graficamente, do
eruzameuto mais provavel, para o que me servi dos processes
geometricos elementares que tenho empregado nas triangulacoes
rypidas das fronteiras coloniaes.

" Os elementos para 0 calculo estao resumidos no quadro I.

" Pela solucao analytica, a distancia media, com pesos, e

76,828"\61 -b 0"\25 ;
a solucao geometrica deu um valor ligeiramente differente

76,828'".79
seTido portanto o valor mais provavel a acceitar

76,828^.70 4-. 0'".25

uao valendo a pena, por ser tral)alhoso, concluir 0 erro provavel
da solucao geometrica.

" Este valor da distancia funda-se na base da Manhica. que
foi medida uns 80 kilometros ao norte de Lourenco Marques e
cujo comprimento foi

12,090"\9009 rb l'""-l

sendo este comprimento provisorio, ponfue 0 comprimento
definitivo depende das comparacoes finaes dos fios de invar, com
que foi medida a base, as (piaes estao sendo feitas no Observatorio
luternacional de Pesos e I\ledidas de Sevres. Ila a recear no com-
primento medio dos fios de 24 metros um erro maximo de um
decimo cle millimetr!), a qual perfaria nos 76,829 metros um erro
possivel de 32 centimetros. Alem d'este erro ha ainda a temer,
no transporte per triangulaeao das distancias ate Lourenco
Marcpies, um erro maximo de 1/100,000. No final estes erros
perfazem um erro total inferior a

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES. 387

i l-".5
ou meio decimo de segundo de arco, o que foi acceite integral-
mente para erro provavel na lonoitnde.

'■' Concluidas no Observatorio estas observaeoes de distancias
a^iniuthaes, entre as quaes estava solidameute enlaeado o pharol
da luhaca, pmeedeu-se a repetidas observaeoes de azimuths de
estrellas circuinpolares proximas da digressao (e dentro de
limites taes que um seguudo de tempo nao introduzia no azimuth
erro superior a 1/5" de arco), em ligacao com o mesmo pharol,
aproveitando-se os periodos em que a sua luz era meuos intensa,
e portanto mais nitida no foco do oculo. 0 valor medio d'este
azimuth, correcto da aberraeao e reduzido aproximadamernte ao
polo medio, foi

271° 06' 45".2 -I- 0".32

" Da compensacao de direccoes observadas, feita em Lisboa
na Direccao dos Trabalhos Geodesicos pelo processo que foi usado
na compensacao da triangulacao fundamental de Portugal, con-
eluiu-se que o angulo entre a Inhaca e Ipoy foi

125° 24' 50".6 rk 0"M

" Combinando estes dois angulos, temos para a direccao
verdadeira mais provavel do Observatorio para Ipoy.

36° 31' 35".8d^0".72

azimuth contado do S por 0, como e costume em geodosia. 0
erro provavel -\- 0".72, a distancia de 77 kilometros, corresponde
a um desvio da direccao de 27 ccntimetros.

" Entrando agora com o azimuth e distancia acima calculados
no calculo, e adoptando a forma da terra de que se servem os
uorte-americanos no C^ast and Geodetic Survey (Clarke 1886),
obtem-se as seguintes diff erencas entre o Observatorio e Ipoy :

Latitude — 33' 23".570

Longitude +27' 31".657

' ' A corhbioiacao de todos os elementos calculados atraz com a
posicao de Ipoy, que me foi fornecida directamente em Pretoria
na Repartieao do Trigonometrical Surrey por Mr. H. E. Schoch,
Surveyor-General, esta resumida no quadro II."

A determinacao da longitude foi confirmada por observaeoes
de cidminagoes lunares feitas em Lourenco Marques pelo sub-
director do Observatorio Astronomico de Lisboa, Sr. major de
engenharia Frederico Oom, combinado com identicas observaeoes
simultaneas no Observatorio de Lisboa pelo Sr. major de
engenharia Teixeira Bastos, astronomo de 1.^ classe do mesmo
Observatorio. Encontrou-se uma pequena differenca sem
importancia, pois o ultimo limite de aproximaeao a que pode
pretender o processo das culminacoes lunares mesmo depois de
dois ou tres annos completos de observac5es da Lua, nao e
inferior a uno segundo de tempo. Nao podemos dar mais eso
clarecimentos sobre esta determinacao de longitude, porque a sua
''e.solucao foi feita no Observatorio de Lisboa.

388 LATITUDE AND LONCITUDE OF CAMPOS JsODRIGUES.

A latitude geodesiea foi eonfiniuida duas vezes por observa-
e5es astronomicas. primeira pelo Sr. eapitao-tenente Gago
Coutinho, e de pois por nos.

Sobre as observacoes do Sr. Gago Coutinho transerevemos
novamente o seguinte :

" Observacoes astronomicas de latitude. — Esta observa-
coes foram feitas com dois theodolites Troughton & Simms, de
mieroscopios e lunetas de 0'".33 montados alternadamente sobre
0 pilar do instrumento de passagens. Fizeraui-se quatro series de
observacoes, em quatro noites, utilizando-se em eada noite uma
posieao difPerente do circulo vertical, e nas duas ultimas noites
um theodolito differente do das duas primeiras noites.

' ' Cada unidade de peso resulta da media de duas observacoes
meridianas de estrellas, cujas coordenadas veem calculadas em
um dos tres almanachs astronomicos : Nautical Almanac, Berliner
JahrhucJt e Convaissance des Temps, sendo as suas distancias
zenithaes proximamente iguaes, e uma ao N e a outra ao S do
zenith, o que tinha por fim eliminar os erros do coeficiente de
refraccao, e todos os erros systematicos devidos aos instrumentos.

" Os resnltados d'estas observacoes estas resumidos no
((uadro III.

" Os valores extremos da latitude em 77 pares foram: 1".0
e 9". 6 ; o erro provavel de eada par cerca de -I- 1".05, devendo
assim o erro provavel da media dos 77 pares ser cerca de 7I- 0".12.

" A media das quatro noites. dando a cada media de uma
noite 0 niesmo f)eso, e

25° 58' 04".98 + 0.22

valor este (|ue foi o acceite, com a reduccao — 0".l ao [)olo medio "
(Albrecht).

Nota. — O Sr. Gago Coutinho menciona ([ue estas observacoes
!iao sao das mais precisas, entre as determimu-oes de latitude (jue
eifectuou em 25 vertices da triangulacao.

Nas nossas observacoes usamos o methodo do Ilorrebow-
Talcott, servindo-nos do instrumento de passagens do Observa-
torio que para este fim possue dois niveis muito perfeitos, e um
micrometre) de girar para servir em Assensao Recta ou
Declinacao. Este instrumento foi construido pela casa Bamberg,
de Berlim, tem o numero 2,836; o respectivo oculo tem 70 milli-
metros de abei'tura e ti5 centimetros de distancia focal, possuindo
oculares anq)litica'nd() 44 a 8(> vezes.

Todas as estrellas observadas pertencem ao " mesmo sys-
tema " usando-se o " Prelhnuinri) General Catalogue of 6,188
Stars for the epoch 1900, hij Lctvis Boss.''

Na reduccao para o anno, empregaram-se os elementos d'este
Catalogo, e para o dia os elementos do " Berliner JahrJmch.'"

LATITUDK AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES. 389

xV casa de observar era aberta com bastante antecedencia.
afim de evitar tanto (iiianto possivel as variaroes rapidas de tem-
peratiira.

Bisseetavam-se as estrellas com o fio movel em loo^ares
simetrieos do campo optieo antes e depois do " fio medio '' afim
de eliminar o defeito da ineliiiaeao do fio movel, (pie se nao
ponde determinar por nma vez por meio de observacMles de
estrollas. 0 vetieiilo d'este instrumento tern 15 fios dispostos
em tres ^rupos; procnron-se fazer a observaeao a meio da dis-
tancia entre os fios I-II e, simetricamente, XIV-XV, e do mesmo
2Tiodo IV-V e XI-XII. VI-VII e IX-X, desprezando-s-- qualquer
observaeao de que se nao fizesse a observaeao simetrica.

Na reduceao ao meridiano, iisou-se de nma tabella em {)artes
do micrometro, calcnlada segimdo a formula

h (152 sen 1' i2 tang 8) x ^^^i^

sendo 0". 78897 o valor de nma parte do micrometro em arco.
E claro qne se tomon para valor de i a media das distancias dos
dois fios, entre os quaes se fazia a observaeao, ao " fio medio.'"
Os dois niveis destinados a esta observaeao teem ]ior valor de
uma parte:

Nivel " A " ip — VMM .

Nivel'^B" ip =rl".l()10

A tal)ella respectiva esta calcnlada para se entrar com a
somma das differencas obtidas pela leitnra dos qnatro extremos
dos dois niveis

J^. (A + B) = 0". 15796

A tabella da correccao da refraccao ditfereneial obteve-se
empregando a fonnnla

1 (r — r') = 29" sen-^ Z sen 1' (Z' — Z")

No quadro IV vao os resnltados obtidos, somente qnanto ao"s
segundos, e os respectivos erros i)rovaveis das medias de cada par
e de cada dia. o erro provavel i)ara cada par de esti'cllas e,
finalmente, da media geral.

Os tres resnltados entre parenthesis foram rejeitatlos, porque
na occasiao da observaeao se anoton nao merecerem confianca,
ou devido a nuvens on a passarem as estrellas atraz de nm fio
do reticnlo, o que nuiito diflficultava bisseeta-las com o fio movel.

Alem dos erros acima mencionados, determinaram-se mais
OS segnintes :

39© LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

Erro provavel de declinagao para um par i 0.130

Erro provavel de declinacao para uma estrella .... 4z. 0.184

Erro provavel de observacao para um par +0.127

Erro provavel de observacao para uma estrella -1-0.179

For intermedio do Ex.'"° Sr. major de engenharia, Frederico
Oom, snl)-di rector do Observatorio Astronomico de Lisboa,
recebemos a nota da rediiccao ao polo media, que obsequiosamente
foi communicada pelo Instituto Geodesico de Potsdam pelos
residtados, ainda nao publicados, das observaedes internacionaes
da variaeao da latitude.

" Para Loureuco Marques, as reduccoes serao

1912— Jaueiro 23-26:

<f)Q^(f>= - 0".22
1912— Fevereiro 8-9 :

c/,o-c/>= -0'.17"

Applicando estas reduccoes, temos para valor da latitude
reduzida ao polo medio

1912— Janeiro 23 = - 25° 58' 5".52 + 0".049

24 = 9".52 -]- 0".046

25= 5".62 4z0".078

26 r= 5".43 i 0".049

1912— Fevereiro 8= 5".49i0".046

9= 5".40i0".062

Valor medio adoptado ])ara latitude do pilar do instruments
de passagens reduzido ao polo medio

25°58'05".50-b0".022 S.

Assim temos para coordenadas do instrumento de passagens:
longitude por observacoes geodesicas

32° 35' 39".38 d- 0".05

(coaifirmada como vimos por observacoes de culminacoes lunares)
Latitude por observacoes geodesicas :

25°58'06".06 S.

Latitude por observacoes astronomicas :
Distaiicias zenitaes meridianas (Gago Coutinho) :

25°58'04".98i0".20

JNlethodo ITorrebow-Talcott

25° 58'05".50i0".022

resultados satisfatoriamente concordantes.

latitude and longitude of campos rodrigues. 39i

(Translation.)

DETERMINATION OF THE LATITUDE AND LONGI-
TUDE OF THE PILLAR OF THE TRANSIT
INSTRUMENT AT THE CAMPOS RODRIGUES,
OBSERVATORY.

By AuGUSTO DE Almeida Teixeira.

No new matter is dealt with in this paper, and I am intro-
ducing it only on the plea of the interest attaching to the know-
ledge of the agreement existing between the results obtained from
the geodetic observations connected with the triangulation of the
Transvaal and those obtained from astronomical observations.

The most valuable part of this work is not due to myself,
but to Commander Gago Coutinho, of the Portuguese Navy,
head of the mission that undertook the geodetic survey of the
Districts of Lourengo Marques and Inhambane. This officer is
at present engaged in a new mission delimiting the Barotse
frontier, and as it would not, for that reason, be an easy matter
to consult him, I have been compelled to avail myself of one of
his works published two years ago, from which I transcribe the
following paragraphs on the determination of the co-ordinates of
the pillar of the transit instrument : —

" Seeing that it was impossible to include this pillar in the
main triangulation, as none of the points of this triangulation
could be sighted, and that its distance from the geodetic station
of the Observatory, which is installed in the tower of the
meteorological instruments, could not be measured direct, it
became necessary to resort to an indirect method, by measuring
with precision a small base of 48 metres on the ground, and join-
ing this high station with the pillar by m.eans of a triangulation
with five points, thus forming two quadrilaterals. The precision
of the measurements and the closing of the triangles made it
possible to determine the distance between the geodetic and
astronomical stations with a probable error of less than one
millimetre, which was more ^ than sufficient for the purpose,
seeing that each thousandth of a second is equivalent to about 30
millimetres. The following differences between the two stations
resulted from this work :

Latitude — i '.495

Longitude -f- i"-647

This station was connected with the beacon of the frontier of
Swazieland, at Ipoy, the co-ordinates of which are determined
by the triangulation of the Transvaal, to which this vertex also
belongs, and this connection was carried out through the network
of the main triangulation of the geodetic mission which joins the
geodetic station of the Observatory with the frontier, and which
comprises 17 vertices.

392 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

" The geodetic measurements, on this portion of the Portu-
guese triangulation, Hnk in the 17 points with 94 directions, so
that the calculation of this connection alone would comprise, as
is known, the resokition by the method of least squares of a
system of 47 equations with 94 unknown (quantities. This, how-
ever, would involve an excessive amount of labour, and would
not compensate us, seeing that great precision in the result would
be almost useless, as it was not necessary to determine the posi-
tion of the Observatory with a precision above one-tenth of a
second of arc, or three metres in linear extension.

" This part of the calculations will, however, be done when
the compensation for the general network is to be proceeded with.
For the present we are quite satisfied (without prejudice to the
indispensable accuracy as will be seen) with a provisional com-
pensation which is incomparably more rapid.

" The line from the Observatory to Ipoy is cut at Ipoy by
seven other different directions, three of which, Kanghekane,
Estatuene and M'Ponduhine, give two independent solutions
each.

" Nine dift'erent values result therefore for the distance
Observalory-I})oy, with different weights, and depending on the
sine of the angles which served to arrive at the determination of
the crossings. The division of 1,000 (an arbitrary number) by
the addition of the logarithmic differences corresponding to an
error of one second in the original angles was acce])ted as being
the weight of each of the crossings mentioned.

" We could have resorted to two methods in order to find out
the most probable distance between the Observatory and Ipoy :
the elementary analytical one. being the average with weights ;
the other being the graphic study of the most probable crossing,
for which I availed myself of the elementarv geometrical pro-
cesses which I have employed in rapid triangulations of colonial
frontiers.

" The data for the calculations are summarised in Table I.

" According to the analytic solution, the mean distance, with
weights, is :

76,828'".6i :t 0^.25 ;
the geometrical solution gave a slightly different value :

76,828"\79
the most probable value to acce])t being, therefore,
76.828'".7o-bo'".25;

it being hardly worth while, on account of the labour involved,
to ascertain the probable error of the geometrical solution.

" This value of the distance is founded on the base of Man-
hi(;a, which was measured about 80 kilometres North of
Lourenco Marcjues, and the length of which was

1 2, 090'" .9009 i I '"-I ;

this length being a provisional one, as the actual length depends

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES. 393

on the final comparisons of the invar wires, with which the base
was measured. These comparisons are being made at the

International Observatory of Weights and Measures of Sevres.
In the medium length of the wires, which were 24 metres long,
a maximum error of one-tenth of a millimetre may l)e found,
which would possibly bring the error in the 76,829 metres up to
;^2 centimetres. Besides this error, a maximum error of
1/100,000 may also be feared in the transport by triangulation
of the distances to Lourenqo Marques. In the end these errors
make up a total of less than

or half a tenth of second of arc, which has been taken as the
probable error in the longitude.

" These observations of azimuth distances having been con-
cluded at the Observatory, amongst which the Inhaca lighthouse
was thoroughly intersected, repeated observations of the
azimuths of circumpolar stars in proximity to the greatest elonga-
tion were made (and within such limits that one second of time
would not introduce in the azimuth an error of more than
1" of arc) in connection with the same lighthouse, taking advan-
tage of the periods when its light was less intense, and therefore
more clear in the focus of the telescope. The mean value of
this azimuth, after correcting the alierration and approximate
reduction to the mean pole, was

27i°o6'45".2 -L-o". 32

" From the compensation of directions observed, made at the
Head Department of Geodetic Works in Lisbon by the process
which was used in the compensation of the fundamental triangu-
lation of Portugal, the conclusion was arrived at that the angle
between the Inhaca and Ipoy was

T25"24'5o".6 -bo".64

" By coml)ining these two angles, we get the following as the
most probable true direction f roni the Observatory to Ipoy : —

36°3i'35".8-ho".72

the azimuth being counted from South to West, as is customary
in geodesy. The probable error o",72, at the distance of yy
kilometres, corresponds to a deviation in direction of 2/ centi-
metres.

" Coming now to the calculation of the above calculated
azimuth and distance, and adopting the form of the Earth used
by the United States in the " Coast and Geodetic Survey "
(Clarke, 1366). the following differences are obtained between
the Observatory and Ipoy: —

Latitude - 33'23".57o

Longitude + 27'3i".657

394 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

" The combination of all above calculated data with the posi-
tion ot Ipoy, which was siipi)lied to me direct in Pretoria at the
Department of Trigonometrical Survey by Mr. H. E. Schoch,
Surveyor-General, is summarised in Table IL"

The determination of the longitude was confirmed by obser-
vations of lunar culminations made at Lourengo Marques by the
Sub-Director of the Astronomical Observatory of Lisbon, Major
Frederico Oom, of the Engineers, in combination with identical
and simultaneous observations made at the Lisbon Observatory
by Major Teixeira Bastos, of the Engineers, first-class
xA.stronomer of the said Observatory. A small, unimportant
difi^erence was found, as the last limit of approximation that may
be expected from the process of lunar culminations, even after
two or three whole years of observations of the Moon, is not
inferior to one second of time. T am unable to supply any
more information concerning this determination of longitude,
because its solution was obtained at the Lisbon Observatory.

The geodetic latitude was confirmed twice by astronomical
observations, first by Commander Gago Coutinho and then by
myself.

I again quote Commander ( iago Coutinho's remarks : —

" Astronomical Observations of Latitude. — These obser-
vations were made with two Troughton and Simms theodolites,
with microscopes and telescope of 33cm., alternately mounted on
the pillar of the transit instrument. Four series of observations
were made, during four nights, a dift'erent position of the vertical
circle being utilised on each night, and a different theodolite from
the one utilised during the first two nights was used during the
last two.

" Each unit of weight results from the average of the two
meridian observations of the stars, the co-ordinates of which
appear calculated in either of the three astronomical almanacs,
Nautical Almanac, Berliner Jahrbuch and Connaissance des
Temps, their zenith distances being approximately equal — one to
the North and the other to the South of the zenith — w^hich had
in view the elimination of the errors of the co-efiicient of re-
fraction, and all the systematic errors due to the instruments.

" The results of these observations were as shown in
Table IIL

" The extreme values of the latitude in yy pairs w^ere i".o and
9". 6; the probable error in each pair about rh ^".05. Thus the
probal)le error of the average of the yy pairs comes to about
dz:0".I2.

'' The average of four nights, allowing the same weight to the
average of one night, is

25°53'o4"-y<'^-lr.o".22

this value Ijcing accepted, with the reduction of — o"i to the
mean ])ole ( Albrecht)."

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES. 395

Note. — Commander Gago Coutinho mentions that these ob-
servations are not the most precise to be found amongst the de-
terminations of Latitude efifected by him on 25 vertices of trian-
gulation.

In my observations I employed the Horrebow-Talcott
method, availing myself of the transit instrument of the Ob-
servatory, which possesses two very perfect levels for this pur-
pose, and a revolving micrometer to serve in Right Ascension or
Declination. This instrument, which was made by A'lessrs. Bam-
berg, of Berlin, bears the number 2 :836 ; the telescope has an
opening of 70 millimetres and 65 centimetres of focal distance,
and possesses oculars which magnify from 44 to 86 times.

All the stars observed belong to the " same system," namely,
that of the "Preliminary General Catalogue of 6,183 Stars for
the Epoch 1900," by Lewis Boss.

Li the reduction for the year, the data supplied in this cata-
logue were used, and for. the day the data of the Berliner Jahr-
huch.

The observing room was opened with due precaution, in
order to avoid as much as possible rapid variations of tempera-
ture.

The stars were bisected with the movable thread at sym-
metrical points of the field of view on each side of the middle
thread, in order to eliminate the defect of inclination of the
movable thread, which could not be determined all at once
through the observations of the stars. The reticle of this in-
strument has 15 threads placed in three grou]>s ; I tried to make
the observation at half distance between the threads I — II and,
symmetrically, XIV — XV, and in the same way IV — V and
XI — XII, VI — VII and IX — ^X, neglecting any observations
which had not been made symmetrically.

In the reduction to the meridian, a table in parts of micro-
meter was employed and calculated according to the following
formula :

i (15^ sin 1" i^ tan S) x ^--1--

o". 78897 being the value of one part of the micrometer in arc.
Of course, I took as value for / the mean of the distances of the
two threads between which the observation to the middle thread
was being made. The two levels used in this observation have
the following values for one part :

" A " Level i}:) = i".3634

" B " Level ijo = i".i6io

The table is calculated to reckon with the total of the differ-
ences obtained by reading of the four extremes of the two levels :

3^g (A + B)=o".i5796

396 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

The table of corrections for differential refraction was ob-
tained by means of the formula

h (r — r') r= 29" sin- Z sin i' (Z' — Z")

The results obtained are given in Table I\'', which only men-
tions seconds; the respective probable errors of the averages of
each pair and each day. the probable error of each pair of stars
and, finally, of the general average, are also mentioned therein.

The three results shown in brackets were rejected. They
were not considered at the time of observation as worthy of con-
fidence, either on account of clouds, or owing to the passing of
the stars across the thread of the reticle, which made their bisec-
tion with the movable thread most difficult.

Besides the above-mentioned errors, the following were
further determined :

Probable error of declination for one pair d-o".i30

Probable error of declination for one star -bo". 184

Probable error of observation for one pair rko".i27

Probable error of observation for one star -to". 179

Through Major Frederic Oom, I received the following
reduction to the mean pole, kindly transmitted by the Geodetic
Institute of Potsdam, and obtained from the results, not yet jmb-
lished, of the international observations of the variation of
latitude.

" For Lourenco IMarques the reductions will be :
1912 — January 23rd-26th :

(j>^~4>=-0".22

1912 — February 8th-9th :

</)q-<^=-o".i7"

By the application of these reductions, we get the following
value of the latitude reduced to the mean pole:

1912— Tanuarv 23rd — 25° 58' 5". 52 -lzo".049

24th 5".52Hzo".046

25th 5"-62 -b o".o78

26th 5".43 -I- o"-049

1912— February 8th 5".49 4;o".046

9th 5". 40 -b o".o62

The mean value adopted for the latitude of the pillar of the
transit instrument reduced to the mean pole is :
25° 58' o5".5o -bo".022 S

Thus we have for co-ordinates of the transit instrument's
pillar :

LATITUDK AND L( JXCITrnK OF CA.Ml'OS RUDRIGUES. 39/

Longitude according to geodetic observations:
32" 35' 3(y'.3S ' o".o5

(confirmed, as we have seen, by ol)servations of lunar culmina-
tions).

Latitude by geodetic ol)servations :
-5' 5'^' oCi".o6 S
Latitude 1)y astronomical observations :
Zenith meridian distances { Gago Coutinho) :

2=,''' 38' 04". 98 -I- 0".20

Horrebow-Falcott Method :

25" 58' 05". 50 -I- 0".022
these results l)eing satisfactorily in agreement.

QUADRO 1.
TABLE 1.

Aiigulo de
cruzamento

Angle
of Crossing

Distancia
Distance

Peso
Weir/ht

Residue
Residue

M'Ponduhine

M'Ponduhine

Kanghekane

-50" 31
-50 31
+ 33 01
+ 33 01
-19 12
-59 39
-59 39
+ 53 43
+ 84 14

76,828'"05
29 50
27 -21
27 -76
27 -30

29 -44

30 -07

26 -84

27 -30

42

31

10

32

8

26

19

9

7

0'" 14

0 -89

1 -40

Kanghekane

0 85

Muguhene

1 -31

Estatuene

0 83

Estatuene

1 -46

Santaka

1 -77

Xamane e Xanine

1 31

398

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

CD
O

CO

CO

CO

CO

o

00

CO

cb
o

T— 1

CO

CO

I— 1

CO

00

CO

CO

0

CO

+

CO

+

CM

CO

CO

CM

CO

CO O CO iC T— I

CO t> oi cji o

CO LC t^ '^ CO

^ CO o
C7) CM -^

CM CO 00
CO CO 1/5

CO

IT)

CT3

o

00

C^l

CO

o

00

CM

:-§! :
• o - •

ac V

c o o
+3 ' . "^ .

> ?

"S £ o == > =

^ O c ?^ "c

~ ^ ; o oi

S^

:5o

M h 0) «

oj. - ^ -
be-

ts 3 p —

S o

"^ i c3 °

o^ o 5^

.So;

' on ^ ■>.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRKiUES.

399

'^

00

Tf

CO

? fc. ^ 1-

t^s

^^

CO

CSl

> 5 s--~

t« Q, I. a

> '^ <a o.

P5^-e

O

^-H

1— H

*-H

^1^1

+ 1

+ 1

+ 1

+ 1

o "^ «

S-Sg"^

W CL,°

00

00

o^

t>

~ 5

CSl

C-l

C-J

> *-

o

o

o

o

cS£|

+1

+1

+1

+1

e-8

t. (.

o-ftH

,_

(M

0-1

00

CM

t>

cc

cp

* a)

^

uo

ID

Tf

^

_o_-*j s

o

O

c

o

33 -*^ *~*

>i2^

00

^•-J

ID

o
z

o

Oi
Q
<

(y

ID

-a Si o. CO

tH 1> O ^

a '^ s "^

— — . (M

o

z

o

o^-t: !,

w

is"s1

CQ

Z;-^r= c

<:

o ^

H

-a

o

SO

o

O Oi o

i-i ^ , i-i

S :i S

N Q N

'^ -rg '^ "t? rt ->*

t<3 ~.

CO '"'^ CO ^ CO '~'^ -* ^

400

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE OF CAMPOS RODRIGUES.

V l>

; ^, cs e o

|(N !M 05

00 I/; o

O 1— t i-H

35 o o;

r-l LC t^

p-s^^ ?f.

0)

"^

O O O
+ , + '+'

O O O
+ I + I + I

oooooooooo
+I+I + I+. +1 + 1 + 1+1+ +1

00 05 05
■<*< CD "*

poo

o o o

+ 1+ +1

ecr-Hirj ir5CN^ot>«OiooOTHCO

iDCD'* iDi/^CDOiCDOOiOOOOC^

ooo , oooooooooo

(8 -* J S,

ooo
+ 1+ +1

oooooooooo
+ )+i + l + l+ +1+1+1 + 1 +

OCNO>(NCMOO-*t^CO

05l>CCCDrHCO'*CO^

o

COOO^OOtHOOO
':>i CM '^ CO ^ 00 cq CO

■?»"

ic ic ic lt; ic in

i/^

1/5

1/5

iC

iC

iC

1/5 lO -* 1/5 1/5

1/5

00 CO CO
1 op Oa ifi

lb

-"T 1/5 1/5

00 i-^ t-^ CO o r^

CO — H CO lO O 1/5

CC 1/5 -r 'O 1/5 1/5

^ 00

C^l CO

O 00 CD 05 -— CO
O <M CO CO CO CD

1/5 tf5 1/5 1/5 1/5 I C

>ss

X IT) O O -^ t^

05 CO I O ^ CO I --^

1/5 1/5 1/51/51/5

iC "-f

CO O -H CD ^^ 00 r-t

CO -H oi CO 00 p CO
in iC 1/5 1/5 -^ 1/5 iC

t^ '^ 00

t^ 00 CO

CD 05 00 05
t^ ^ 1 O ''t

r-< 00 CD

C^ CD CO

,-1 r>

O T

oi o CO

CD CM '-P

CD 1/5

rH 05

05

00

CM

1/51/5 1/5 >/5 1/5

.=s^

^ <U Q

CO 05 CM
05 >n CO

'-t in I> CD C35

CO CO I CO '^ O

ti/5CDl>.00050— iCNCO'^i/5CDt^00

IC

1

t

r^

-^

6

+ 1

Cd

(N

P

0

+ 1

P

CD
00

Li

r

1/5

6
+ 1

c

oj

c

CO

CN

CD

p

c

1 ;;

,^

1/5

+ 1

CD

c

CO

p

I

ih

1

0

+ 1

c

05

c

^^

Tj«

c

.N

P

*

1/5

0

+ 1

c

00

c

0

p

1 I

'.

,;^

,

in

-t-l

CD

1
c

0
CO

P

',

^

^

10

+ 1

05

c

0
CO

-r

p

{

U5

0
+ 1

(

>

s^

1?

:^

ce 1

•**

i=^

a*

> c

13

■? ^

u 3

■ s-'i

.^-c

*^ • s

■0) "O .» «

i ^ V

a

^

a:

ft^

' w

NOTICIA SOBRE CADASTRO GEOMETRICO E JURIDICO

DA PROPRIEDADE IMMOBILIARIA NA PROVINCIA

DE MOC^AMBIQUE.

Por Pedro Litis de Bellegarde da Sjlva.

Nao encerra novidade al^'unia scientifiea on administrativa
a materia snmniariamente tratada iiesta inemoria.

Sobre a propriedade particular imiiiobiliaria, ccmstituida
por concessao dos terrenos do Estado em Mocambique a Portu-
gueses e a estrangeiros, indicamos aqui os principios funda-
mentaes por que se regula a eonstituicao e regime do movimento
transaccional dos terrenos tendo por base o cadastro geometrico e
juridico, nao apresentando, pois. doutrina que desconheeam os
lidos na materia.

Por isso, a honra de ser admittida esta breve memoria a leitura
ou a publicaeao pela " South African Association for the
Advancement of Science " apenas pode justifiear-se pelo seu
relativo interesse noticioso, pois ((ue, deutro da vasta jurisdicao
administrativa portuguesa, applicada em terras da Europa e das
Buas colonias, apenas na provincia de Mocambique. e recente-
mente na de Angola, apparece por emquanto, o cadastro mathe-
matico e juridico estabelecido por lei e exemplificado em sens re-
snltados finaes em Mocambique.'

Atravez dos seculos e dos povos, a historia da propriedade.
terra tem, como a historia da humanidade a que esta estreita-
mente ligada, a sua evolucao propria.

Com interesse meramente historico apreseaita-nos e epoca
medieval a reaiascenca e aproximacoes com antigas praticas do
colleetivismo agrario no usufruto da terra. 0 s>\stema feudal,
diz Michelet, " era como uma religiao da terra," mas naquella
epoca o senhor feudal substituia a connniuiidade dos homens
livres ; entao havia os vassallos e o senhor da terra ! (pie a recebia
com solemnidades particulares.

' A organizacao dos servieos ^administrativos de Mocambique
decretada em 1907 permittm por um comeco de descentralizaqao
de poderes e de inieiativa conferida a« governador geral que este
pudesse, com probabilidade de attingir residtados praticos aia
administracao da Provincia, estudar por si e c(mi assistencia de
seu Conselho do (ioverno os principaes problenuis do governo
interno da coh)nia.

Foi no exercicio d'esta faculdade (|ue o governador geral.
Ex.'"" Sr. Alfredo Augusto Freire de Andrade, propoz a re-
modelacao do regime de concessao de terrenos, estabele-
cendo nesta reforma conjuntamente o cadastro geometrico e
juridico por base essencial do mesmo regime.

Impossivel e, nos limites d'esta nota, mencionar-se. quer
em geral e muito menos em especial, os capitulos de administracao
tratados raediante o pro undo estudo e inquerito d'aquelle

402 LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

A expansao da riqueza imniolMliaria, dependendo, sem
diivida, para a sua transaccao e commercio da fe puhlica ligada
ao proprio objecto das transacc^oes, conduz oiecessariamente a
jaecessidade de reconhecer iio iminovel as condieoes de sua exist-
encia civil, denunciando-se nao so os direitos do possuidor da
terra e os encargos que sobre a mesma pesam, como o conhecimento
da sua existencia esseuciahiieaite real, ou, o que e o mesmo, a
sua identificagao physica.

Taes sao os topieos do problema que desde epoca nao muito
antiquada tern preocupado a administragao de quasi todes os
paises.

A Revolucao Francesa, abalando radical e profundamente
a infiuencia das leis do regime feudal, apreseuta no seu decreto
de 9 messidor, anno III, a transicao do regime da terra para os
Hiodernos systemas de publicidade immobiliaria que tern
jior base o cadastro geometrico.

Naquella lei, impunha-se ao proprietario a obrigaeao de
declarar minuciosamente na Couservatoria a situacao, area e a

governador geral sobre a administracao de Mocambique — a si
uaeao politica e o balaneo da riqueza provincial e de suas forcas
productivas — o estudo da questao indigena dtntro da densissima
rede de plienomenos relacionados com o commercio da Metropole,
administracao e progresso da Provincia e dos proprios indigenas
— 0 equilibrio financciro e, em particular, a questao da Fazenda
como organismo — a administracao geral e a regional incluindo
o regime dos Prazos — o commercio, industria e agricultura ■ —
OS impostos e fontes de receita — o caminho de f erro atravez de
Gaza a Inharabane — as camaras municipaes — a debatida
([uestao dos vinbos — as medidas de fomento ja
aconselhadas, ja postas em pratica como a pharolagem
e muitas outras — a critica do modus vivendi ao tempo
em vigor, etc., etc. ; todas estas questoes de alta adminis-
tracao se encontram tratadas nos sens " Relatorious sobre
Mocambique ", repositorio monumental de doutrina que subsis-
tira, porventura, atravez do tempo sem impugnacao da sua
verdade essencial.

Produziu tal obra que reflecte profundo salier pratico dos
faetos e dos bomens, o funccionario que no conhecimento da
Provincia comecou por ajudar a conquista das terras de G-aza,
e depois a percorreu por innumeros e longos itinerarios de
service, que sabe de cor a geologia de Mocambique e os sens mais
interessantes phenomenos naturaes : que conhece a technica
de quasi todos os servicos provinciaes e que adquiriu a experiencia
do meio pelo contacto com oolonos de todas as proveniencias
sociaes, Portugueses e estrange] ros, e ate com indigenas.

Mas o direito romano, ao contrario, porem, das praticas re-
trogradas da epoca medieval, fora ja percursor do regime de
publicidade dos bens particulares, iniciando o registo publico
pelo qual os terceiros eram advertidos das mudancas da fortuna
particular prevenindo-os assim contra a fraude.

LAND RE(;iSTRATIf)N IN MOZAM lilOUIi. 403

ii;itiiri'/a da pai'cclla (1(» iiniiKiwl antes do acto da aliciuK.-ao da
terra on da liypotlicca, c sohrc csla ultima os I'cuislos piihlicos
forneciam iiina base iiiataeavel, [xwido ao abriyo de toda a
discussao os direitos do.s eredores hypotheearios.

E no det'urso dos dois ultiinos seeulos que o problema do
cadastro da terra, conio pro])riedade particular, tern eomeeo de
execueao seieiitiHca; mas, sob este [xvuto de vista, isto e, sob
o objectivo de organizar nm inveiitario geral da riqiieza
immobiliariji particular, a questao foi tratada com fins merameute
liseaes a identitlcacao geometrica parcellar e a classilicaeao do
valor das terras e de sen rendimento servia ao problema adminis-
trativo da pfrfquacdo do imposto predial e os limites dos predios
e elassificaeao d'estes demonstravam a materia eoUeetavel.
Esquecia-se, pois, a dontrina do sabio niagistrado Robernier e
a do illnstre g'eometra piemontez Ignacio Porro, cnjo ponto
dominante recae no principio da lig'acao do cadastro geometrico
com o registo publico nas conservatorias dos direitos e encargos
(pie se ligam (x pro])riedade immobiliaria.

Esta fundamental dontrina que tem a sua consagracao nos
cadastros modernos, que assumem o caracter perfeito do cadastro
geometrico juridico e fiscal, e confirmada pela expressao da
Tersant no congresso da propriedade, sessao de 10 de agosto de
1899, qnando disse : " o cadastro sera para cada propriedade urn
dorumenio unico de leitura facil,' contcndo a planta do immovel
c hrrvcs mevcocs do sev estodo juridico."

Sobre o desenvolvimento juridico e technico d'esta dontrina,
tao simples no enunciado e tao complexa na pratica, obra alguma
eneontrames inais completa sob a orieiitaeao citado do qae
a produzida pela grande connnissao extra-parlamentar do cadastro
da Franca em 1891, eonstituida pelos homens da mais selecta
competencia juridica naquelle pais e per eminentes geometros
profissionaes nos ramos de applicacao da geodesia e topographia
a medicao da terra.

Monsieur Rouvier, entao ministro das financas, expnnha a
connnissao extra-parlamentar a questao do cadastro sob os
seguintes (luesitos :

" La propriete doit etre determinee d'alxjrd pbysi([uement
puis juridiquement

La determination juridi([ue doit faire connaitre les droits
qui existent sur I'innneubles, princi!)aleme'nt le droit de propriete.
II y aura lieu d 'examiner si Ton doit adojjfer le systeme ayant
pour base une absolue et complete pnl)licite de la pro-
priete fonciere e de ses demenibrements et si Ton doit y ajouter
1' oblig'ation de la specialisation de tons les privileges et hy-
potheques. ' '

" Les effects de la determination physique et juridique de
rimmeuble doivent etre constatees dans un document publique et
authentique rV'.sf Ir fifrc de proi^'irh' (pielle sei'a la valeur (fe
ce titre? "

c

404 LAND RRGISTRATTON TN MOZAMBIQUE.

" ])e meine tonto modification dii droit de propriett' soit
a I'egard du titulaire soit en eo (|ui coiK-erne retejidue du
droit lui meme,, parait devoir etre notee tout a la fois sur le
titre e sur le livre foncier. De la resulte 1 'obligation de
determiner les formalites a prescire pour les inscriptions e les
transmissions des titres e a cette (piestion se rattaclie encore
I'etude de la creation de cedules hvpotlieeaires. "

" On ne devra pas perde de vue qne le but a atteindre eonsiste
a creer un titre foncier doait la valeur juridique incontestable en
assurant la facilite de transmissions, ainsi que la seeurite des
detentenrs du sol, des creanciers liypothecaires, permettra dt'
Jeter les bases du credit aoricole. "

Monsieur Poincarre na sessao de 2 de dezembro de 1890
tinha ja explicado, como relator da commissao de oreamento, que
o emprehendimento nao visava so a questao da pcrcquncuo no
imposto prediaL antes devia ser principalmente considerado sob
o alto ponto de vista dos services qiie o cadastro pode prestar
a propriedade, organizando sens titulos oode se consiirnem todos
OS actos relatives aos immoveis e cuja inscricao tenlia para to-
dos OS effeitos nm valor juridico incontestavel.

Atravez da discussao produzida entre as competencias que
formaram a s^rande commissao extra-parlamentar, cujo texto
se encontra nos oito grosses volumes que dao o (■o)nptercn(lu
verbal das sessoes, resultou, consubstancialmente o seguinte
parecer :

Sera organizado por commnna o livro predial, tendo por
unidade 0 predio. A primeira parte contera a

determinacao physica do imraovel conforme 0 cadastro geometrico
sempre em dia.

Contera a indicayao da area do i)redio do iiumero de
parcellas e das construceoes ali existentes.

A segunda parte contera :

1.° 0 oome dos proprietarios com indicacao das causas e
datas inscricoes dos actos juridicos que recaem na propriedade.

2.° As restriccoes e encargos.

3.° Os previlegios e hypothecas.

Organizar-se-ha um indice pessoal destinado a facilitar as
buscas.

Sob a parte geometrica propoe a commissao, apos o assunto
largamente discutido : " que se faea a identificacao geometrica
de cada predio, sendo por um lado, todos os marcos que limitem
OS predios e, por outros, todas as estacoes do levantamento,
dcicrminadas por coordenadas rectangularcs."

Eis aqui em sua maxima pureza os principios da tecbnica
geometrica do cadastro dos predios e das terras em geral e os
juridicos <|ue de facto teem presidido a confeccao dos cadastros
ma is perfeitos de actualidade. Comprehende-se todavia as
difPerencas regulamentares e que a adaptaeao de tal doutrina ao
cadastro da propriedade nos j)aises seculares seja tanto mais
facil (juanin sens codigos encerrem preceitos de ])ul)licidad(' nal

LAND UlU.lsrUAriON IN MOZAMUIQUE. 405

e do registo niais concordantes com as regras a que acabamos de
nos referir.

Assiiu siiccede com o codigo predial portugiies eujos
pi'incipios do registo predial justamente sao : a descrieao
separada dos predios eomo base essencialmeute real, e a
inscricao de todos os actos juridicos que recaem no propriedade;
a org-anizacao do cadastro geometrico podera, pois, realizar-
se sem contiicto com os prineipios essenciaes do nosso codigo.

Mr. Besson, na sua obra obra em que profundamente trata
do regime da propriedade desde sua origem pelo estudo historico
e critico sobre a publieidade das transmissoes immobilarias, divide
0 codigo predial da actualidade em tres grandes grupos. 0 do
regime francc's o do Livro Predial do yriipo (jennanico e o
australiano.

Classificam os competentes as leis prussianas de 1878 que
orgauizam o regime das transmissoes da propriedade pelo Livro
Predial, a legislacao typo do grupo germanico, assim como no
australiano o Keal prfjperfy aet, mais eonheeido por Acto Tor-
rens, emanaeao e aperfeieoamento do Livro Predial,
se considera o mais avaneado regime de publieidade e que melhor
realiza o credito e a facil transmissao dos seus immobiliarios.

Os principos da lei prussiana, relatives a publieidade absoluta
dos direitos reaes por meio da inscricao, a descrieao physica
dos predios feita pelo eadastro geometrico e a forea probatoria das
inscricoes como garantia dos que contratam sobre a terra na fe
das mesmas inscricoes, estabelecem na parte juridica analogias com
e lei portuguesa, a qual jNIr. Besson, autor ja citado, classifiea em
sua obra de legislacao comparada no grupo germanico, pondo
todavia em relevo os defeitos pelos quaes nossa lei se afasta da
legislacao modelar do Livro Predial prussiano.

Estas differencas consistem em nao ser obrigatorio pala
lei portuguesa o registo das transferencias para a sua validade
intcr-partes, e principalmente na identificacao dos predios nao
ter por base o cadastro geometrico e por conseguinte nao poderexis-
tir a ligaeao do cadastro com o registo da Conservatoria, o que
e fundameutalmente previsto na lei prussiana de 1872 pela qual se
dispoe, que toda a inscricao da propriedade seja oommunicada
ao cadastro e por sua vez este envie ao Grandhuchrichter os
documentos das alteracoes materiaes relativos aos inmioveis das
cireumscripcoes. D'esta forma, o cadastro e o registro publico
da propriedade contra pro vam-se e mutuamente se completam.

Parece, pois, que as alteracoes legislativas necessarias para
converter a lei portuguesa a feicao do regime typo do seu grupo,
apenas consistiriam : na organizacdo do eadastro na sua ligagdo
com a Conservatoria do registo predial e, emfim, na entrega de
um titulo aos proprietaries contendo a prova dos direitos e a
ideaitificacao parcellar do immovel.

Taes foram as bases a])resentadas pela Direccao da Agrimen-
sura S()l)re as qua(\s, soquindo-se a discussao e exame em
estacoes superiores. foi introduzido o eadastro g'eometrico e

4o6 LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

juridicn em nossa legislacao pelo decreto de 9 de julho de 190'J
qiiL' Ihe deu comeeo de execueao na Provincia de Moeain-
bique.

Qnanto ao registo obrigatorio, ja o mesmo tora estabelecido

por lei no Ultramar portugnes.

A organizaeao do cada-stro em (luahjuer pais, antes de sua
mera eonservaeao, importu larvo dispendio. As exigencias

technicas do problema traduzem-se na iieeessidade de recrutar
pessoal devidamente habilitado e adextrado em trabalhos da
especialidade que, sendo o pais desprovido ou (luasi desprovido
dos subsides geometrieos da suo descrieao, sao complexos e por
vezes difficeis.

Em nossa reeente visita a direccao dos servicos do cadastre
em Pretoria, reconhecemos a maneira executiva dos trabalhos
geometrieos em perfeita analogia e parellelo com o piano e regin^e
adotado em Mocambique. INIas os servicos na sede da Direeeao
sao ali commettidos a um pessoal permanente de trinta e cinco
pessoas entre director, sub-director, adjuntos. deserihadores,
calenladores e amanuenses.

Dependente d'este eentn) de services estavam em
exercicio no campo noventa geometros habilitados em Londres
ou pela T'niversidade do Oabo da Boa Ksperanca.

Sao estes funccionarios de categoria analoga a dos nossos
agri mensores ajuramentados.'

0 dispendio com as operaedes do cadastre a fazer por uma
so vez, antes de sua simples eonservaeao, tem preoccupado quasi
todes OS paises do mundo sem (|ue o saci'ificio dos gastos prejudi-
que a pratica do emprehendimimto.

E' eerto ([ue, para fins meramente tiscaes, para o elfeito do
imposto sobre a propriedade immobiliaria, muitos cadastres foram
mellior ou peer organizades ; mas o alto ponto de vista da
seguranea dos direitos de propriedade em niaos do possuidor e
da sua indiscutivel situa<'ao e area sobreleva aes interesses de
thesouro publico; de resto e evidente ([ue um perfeito cadastre
ge(nnetrico e juridico e ao mesmo tempo a base de regime fiscal
(jue melhor assegura a percquai^do tributaria.

Na Italia foram tae bem cemprehendidos os effeites da lei do
cadastre de 1886, que circumscricoes territeriaes houve que
adiantaram fuudes precises para os trabalhos do cadastro se
realizarem sem demora tias mesmas circumscripcees.

Xes paises neves da celonizaeao, onde interresses da-
es])eculacao ])or transferencias das terras coucedidas pelo Estade
demoram, em regra, a evidencia material da posse da terra pela
sua agricultura, a liquidacae dos direitos de propriedade e a
identificacae das terras, ainda c|ue ernuis, e um ponto da
maier importancia admiuistrativa e que so e cadastre pede
reselver.

Algures dizemos ja, que as diiflculdades successivamente
avobimadas ])ara evidenciar e estade da propriedade na coleni-
zac;ao inglcsa e que levaram Sir RoIxtI 'Poi'rens, registador geral ,

LAND Ri;(ilSTl<A'l"l()N IN i\I( )ZAI\r lUQUE. 4O7

;'i coiieeprao do systema conhecido por scmi iionie e ([ue eomeeoii
poi' introdnzir-se na Australia do Sul ; foi io'ualmente devido as
tlilli<ien(Mas de Maxwell, director dos fServieos da propriedade
em Sinjiapura, que o mesmo reiiime viji'ora nos estabeleeimputos
iiij^leses e, do mesmo modo na Aruelia, e Mr. Firman que, i)ara
desembaraear a terra dos .yraiides obstaculors que se oppunham
a sua moibilizacao, consegue a pratiea de um regime moldado iio
processo Torrens.

Tambem na colonia portuguesa de Moeambicpie, a legishi'-ao
sobre terrenos anterior a de 19()<), desprovida de medidas ten-
dentes a organizaeao tlo eadastro geometrieo e estranha a moderna
orientaeao sobre a garaiitia da seguranea dos direitos immobili-
arios, conduzin a difficuldades successivamente avolumadas e so
a lei de 1909 Ihe vem dar comeco de selucao.

Depende todavia do eqnililirio oreamental entre as despesas
da colonia, a distribuir por servicos nao meuos importantes, a
celeridade e os resultados eorrespoiidentes do eadastro que o
CJoverno Central cura de attender.

Com recursos apenas iniciaes, o servi(;o da agrimensura
exemplitica sens trabalbos do eadastro dentro do piano geral
eartographieo e no pareellar da identificacao geometrica dos
predios e segnranca dos direitos individuaes conforme os titulos
de propriedade, cuja estampa referente a um predios juntamos
a esta memoria.

TITULOS DA PROPRIEDADE

Na sua forma legal, eomprehendem quartro partes. Esta
ainda em projecto a quinta parte em via de discussao, relativa
a parte fiscal do imposto sobre a propriedade immobiliaria.

A primeira parte — alvara — e o documento legal da proprie-
dade assegurado pela sua validade em juizo.

A segunda parte eontem a identificacao material do predio
l)or sens limites e planta acompanhada de um diagramma
uumerico que traduz a mesma identificacao e a posicao absoluta
da parcella nas cartas do eadastro.

A terceira parte esclarece por simples extracto das iuscricoes
todos OS actos juridicos que recaem no predio.

A quarta parte destina-se ao endosso, on, o que e o mesmo, a
facile mobilizacao do predio por transferencia, mediante a
autorizacao do governador geral.

Taes direitos sao inicial e formalmente assegurados pelo
alvara, e a seguir, todas as mutacoes da propriedade. relativas a
transferencias, hypotheeas e mais encargos, privilegio.s e tudo o
mais que importa altera(;ao na existencia .jnridica da proprie-
dade, e consignado no titulo e bem como as altera(;oes ])hy.sicas de
area, sendo tal regime garantido pelas nnituas rchx-oes entre a
conservatoria do registo predial e a reparti(:a() do eadastro.

Portanto, os titulos de propriedade na provincia de Mocam-
I'Jique obedecem, segundo nos parece, a mais larga e moderna con-
cepcao do eadastro moderno no regime do Livro Predial.

408 LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

() titulo do predio e iim documento unico de leitura facil,
pelo qual qualqiier intere.ssado no conunercio das terras pode em
poueos minutos recoiihecer, a respeito do mesmo predio, todas as
eondicoes da sua existencia civil, a situaeao, area, encargos, etc.
Tal era a definieao theorica de Tersant a que ja nos referinios,
expressa no cono'resso de propriedade na sessao de 10 de agosto
de 1889.

Emfim, a qiiinta parte ainda em projecto, alem de interessar
I)articulariiiente ao Plstado na parte de sen cadastro fiscal, mostra
tanibem (jiiaes os encargos que pelo tributo sobre a terra pesam.
sen estado correaite de pau'amento, de encargos, e, porventnra, a
elassificacao das terras, rendiniento e o mais que interesse a parte
privativamentc fiscal no pt rcquaqdo do imiX)sto.

Vejamos agora suimnariainente no conjunto o projecto em
comec'O de execucao do cadastro geral dos terrenes.

A reuniao dos titulos prediaes constitue o Tombo Geral da
Propriedade, eomo resultante imraediata do cadastro geometrico.

Dos titulos entregues aos concessionarios e apos o registo na
Couservatoria dos direitos do proprietario dos do Estado, tira-se
uma copia authentica que fica faze'ndo parte do Tombo da Pro-
priedade archivado na Direccao da Agrimensura.

Depois, todas as inscricoes feitas nos titulos, em mao dos
possuidores, dos terrenos sao communicadas ao cadastro que
immediatamente as passa por copia aos titulos em arcliivo sys-
tematicamente arrumados. Por sua vez, o cadastro communica,
como ja dissemos, a Conservatoria todas as alteracoes que recaem
na parte physica dos predios. Assim se vcrificard a conservagdo
do cadastro jjelo qual a administragdo e os interessados podem
reconhecer dia a dia o estado corrente de cada predio por facil
exame.

Algumas centenas de titulos ja conferidos, apos a intro-
duccao do cadastro geometrico na lei de terrenos, demonstram, a
nosso ver, as qualidades do regime e correspondentemente re-
sultados previstos nas linhas theoricas que presidem a sua
organizacao ; mas f altariamos a verdade que acompanha esta
memoria, querendo persuadir que o aiosso regime vigora desde ja
em toda a extensissima proviucia de Mocambique como se fora
um organismo feito e completo em sens meios de accao.

Xao desconhecem os profissionaes que a solidez do regime
depende essencialmente dos trabalhos de numeroso pessoal con-
venientemente adextrado. e oste nao e facil nem rapidamerite
recrutavel.

No sinq)les extrato que segue, resumimos o piano geral dos
trabalhos geometricos para a organizacao das cartas do cadastro.

A triangulacao de primeira ordem a cujo comeco de exe-
cucao procedeu a ^lissao Oeodesica da Africa Oriental, presi-
dida pelo ca|)ilao-1ciiciit(' da. armada Sr. dago (\)ntinlio. col)]'('
o districto de Lourcnco Marques, uma parte das costas maritimas
de Gaza e Inhaml)ane, interessaudo para o interior uma parte de
territorio e exteude-se ainda numa estreita faixa ate ao Bazaruto.

LAND RF.GISTRATION IN MdZAM P.TOUK. 409

A l)ii'L'C(,;ao da ALii'iiuciisiira ublcVL' d'aquella, inissao scicii-
tilica OS (larlos rundainciitacs u'couraphieos, medidas dc bases, as
(lirci'cucs nnlu/idas ao cciitro dc todos os lados da triaiiiiulai-ao
(>l)s('r\'ad()s das estac-ocs ^cddesicas c coin estes elementos si' cn\-
cularaiu ralorcs provisoyios das cooi'deiiadas geogTaphicas e dis-
tanc'ias a ineridiaiia e a ])erpenidien]ar dos poiitos trigonoinetricos,
pai-a a reiiiao ahrangida pela trianiiiilaeao

Xo plauo ji'eral das cartas oru-aiiizam-se ostas separadamente
|)oi' districtos porque a falta de subsidios da triaiig-nlat;ao sreral
do pais importa este restriecrio.

Cada uma d'estas e dividida theorieainente em comparti-
mentos (quadrados de 40 kilometros de lado) formados por
linhas parallelas aos eixos geraes das cartas, meridiaiio eenfcral e
sua porpendieular iio i)oiito dc cnizamcuto d'arpiellc ni.eridiauo
com o parallelo medio.

Os compartimentos snbdividem-se em folhas para pnblicacao
na escala 1 : 25000 que, em regra, e a normal e sufficiente para
mostrar a posicao relativa das parcellas dos terrenos concedidos
e OS do Estado e nestes a sua divisao em hlocos destinados a
alieiiacao por aforamento on venda, e ainda, mediante service da
agricultiira, se mostrara a classificacao generica das terras. A
propriedade urbaiia das cidadcs, villas, povoaeoes e suburbios e a
extramameiite parcellada c e tratada em maior escala nas cartas
de detalhe.

A topographia parcellar dos predios e todo o seu contorno
perimetral definido por coordenadas rectangiilares referidas a
origem da triangnlacao local, eompleta-se nos titnlos pelas re-
spectivas ])laiitas c ideiitificacao inimerica como mostram os dia-
grammas.

Empregamos o systema de coordenadas rectagulares planas
ma is accommodado aos traballios parcellares do cadastro, dentro
dos limites de erro admissiveis para os pontos mais affastados da
origem dos eixos coordenados.

A pro.ieccao das cartas e tracada aio piano tangente ao ponto
central origem de eixos a (pie se referem todos pontos do levanta-
mento.

Para os calcnlos correntes da tran.smissao da posicao geo-
graphica, transformacao de coordfenadas, etc., adoptaram-se as
dimensoes de ellipsoide de Clarke que entram nos dados numeri-
cos de varias taboas commummente usadas na geodesia expedita.

A triangnlacao geodesica de l."* ordem, cobrindo o districto
de Lourenco ^Farques, pennittiu que o piano da carta do districto
se apoiasse naquella triangnlacao a que se ligam os trabalbos sub-
sidiaries e parcellares do esqueleto cadastral formada por tri-
angnlacao secundaria e travessas em parte do districto realizadas.

Nas regioes do districto de Inhambane e do antigo districto
de Gaza, igualmente cobertas pela triangnlacao geodesica e que
coincide aproximadamente com zonas territoriaes de maior pro-
cnra e movimento de terras, ignal criterio presidin ao projecto
das cartas e organizacao do esqueleto topographico.

Esta, porem, a maior parte da Provincia desprovida de tri-
angnlacao fundamental. Estes trabalhos importam despesas

4IO LAND RKGISTRATION IN MOZAMIUOUE.

iimito coiisideravcis ;i parte j;'i reali/ada iiiiportou em
120, 000. 000 ivis. Os li-ahallios dc cainpo sao de irrednetivel
leiitidao atravcz das diriicnldadcs dc toda a ordeiu que siirgem
poi* variedissiiiias circuiistaiicijus : a irde de ealeidos que sao pre-
eisos para ('oin])]et() acabanieiito do tral)allio em resultados
nnmericos e finaes ^asta muitos meses, e ate annos; por oiitro
lado, exio-encias adiniiiistrativas dos servieos da propriedade e sen
cadastro, discordaiites tla leiitidao dos trahalhos o-eodesicos de
1.^ ordem, alias os verdadeiramente fniidameutaes, remettem o
prolilema techuieo para o eampo da geodesia exjiedita e to]io-
uraj^liia iiiimerica cadastral.

Neste poiito de vista, iima das s()lui;oes sera a pratiea das
peqiieiias triaugnlaeoes indepeiideiites a ligar a todo o teiiq)0 a
triangulaeao geoilesiea, e eonforme o nosso piano de cartas parcel-
lares, sao as trianguhu.'des separadas dos compartimeiitos dis-
trictaes do cadastro ja referidos, as tpie antes de qnalquer outro
trabalho devem emprelicnder-se para snfficieute garantia da
rigidez do piano geometrieo. De facto, a identificacao da pro-
priedade uao esta apeuas garautida pelos marcos periphericos de
sen contorno perimetral ; e preeiso (pie a demarcacao geometrica
do pais a custa do Estado (|ue se mostra pelos sinaes materiaes
erg'uidos iios vertices de siias triangulacoes, seja conservada,
portpie da sua existencia e do conhecimento pelo ealculo da
posicao de sens vertices, depende a reconstituicao em todo o de-
eiirso do tempo das marcas da propriedade por qualquer causa
destruidas, mas cuja identificaciio e assegurada pelo diagrramma
(jue acompaaiha os titulos.

0 systema das triangulaenes iiidepeudentes e o inesiuo que
veriticamos realizar-se uo cadastro do Transvaal, onde a triang'u-
lacao de 1.^ ordem uao cobre todo o pais e sendo o piano g'eo-
metrico do cadastro bastante aproximado do nosso uo regime
teehnico e no resnltado final: o titulo da propriedade.

Se OS meios executivos sao naquella colouia, nossa viziuha,
uumerica e incomparavelmeute superiores aos nossos, a analoo'ia
ainda se mantem uas categorias do quadro permanente e na dos
geometros particulares, e facil sera de futuro chegarmos a com-
pleto parallelismo com aquelles importantes servieos, melhorando-
se o quadro permanente no que precisa ser melhorado, e criando
uma escola de instruccao theorica e pratiea de geometros par-_
tieulares do cadastro que, a julgar pelo movimento transaceionai
de propriedade, garantira sui^eiente remuneracao aos que se
liabiLitarem com os respectivos diplomas aos trabalhos do cadastro
geometrico.

Com o exposto, temos concluido o que em ntemoria e possivel
eondensar sobre o cadastro da propriedade immobiliaria de
]\Toeambique, cujo interesse, apeuas noticioso, repetimos, consiste
em ser privativa d'esta proviueia do TTltramar portugues a
pratiea de um regime que trata a propriedade sob as bases do
cadastro geometrico e juridico e cuja parte fiscal encontrara de
futuro no mesmo cadastro os necessarios elementos da mais
simples execucao.

'^g>3e]SgJ5c"'j)P^

Titulo de Concessao

K^:^^ ^iz

<7^^i'<Zi

Processo de concessao n.\.ZJJ.

Direccao dos Services da A^rimensura em ^x^^JiU^u^

em 4- d^z. n-ov-&vYt^2x.o Je 1912.

/^?i5?z^ .^/^-d'rt'z;? a que j<f ^^/-^ ,^^^^ iit^ao com o n° ^. ..

L <?^'^*<i>&4s^??^^^/2^$(? . ^ / t7

do cadasiro e descriffx) no Tombo Geral da.}roJ>riedade.

li

^yFi^

r\-\--r

ALVARA DE CONCESSAO

</€ !/7l.o<:<^cymS<^au-&-

.... .,/kzc^ iKzS^^ .<^*i^, ^(yc -m^M x^^4^ieu:Ac di. 2d d&- Ou,iu^ro -uSCirno-. €a-i?7>a/^ a^ ffo /& cCo
-n<ifiec^v!o fi/cocesso. aA:cAo^a<ic.c6o ■'t-cc- oU''i^cc^ aa^ (^ai^-^^^n-eo'i.o-nytix. c6e<i£cx^ /i/coty-i^^T.cc'a^ ,

'TTM/or' cie, -(/nf^a^^a.-i-CL cCo exe-tcciv, oU^ 6S a^n.'Ti.oo cte ^:^)icu3^, so^£ei^o, ?va,£u^cc£ cie^ dZr-r^^-c^a^

fia/c^ a^^!-i4^ ^tiu^, coii-^T^ ct^ a^e4» oce- ^SOO 0C>O0,~i>0OC>, co^nyz^f n^^^n-^^i.de- ca:<j45t-d<*i;<^<zi? co-n^^

97Za-7 <^i<-&c

o /it^j^en'ie- -ic-dootSo ^ma iKXji /t<}/~ ?n.<>fn- a<i^tyn.aaUi e- ^■i^ce', l:!i^^lO^^ o^/-eo'^.sCcuz^,.fe<Z''c<X' /t/ccyiMZ-'
/i/er2^co g'^n^jicozo n^>o ^X'm-oJ cto a^'ico'c^ f6^ a^ ^n^eti->fz^ ^z^-c^fn-e^z-

ffte^te- tcin£o, <? ^ro a.^n^<.ai a(e- oe^fe>zAj:^ e- sei^ 7-rtc£ r-ec^, cx>f-/-es-207icieot.^:&. a- /-e^ari£i!iZy aj-e<x^,

cCe- -tey-j-eyTzoC) -tzis' ii/i^^-cCo -^t^&yCcc ^r^o^c^zotkt- e^j;^^kxx-' odz-cO'ax'Co <zo ce^-T^y^z^-^TZti^t^ <rfc Codecs
a~s s-u^ao /^yce^cu/ioSe^} y^o- c^ixy&fn, yrye<Yiyec^o ai, /^i:^-a.e'n^>e, co-^Zi:»:}i-cio

■ri-iyii^vndi^ de^ /SfZ

■ <P . ■Sp:z:ie.Yyi^i<z^cCQc.-S<i'Pfii4'.

^cuss.)

cZc^r^e<:^ cte. 97?'<zx?'ix^4.^e-s

II FARTE

Calculo da superficie pelo conhecimento das coordenadas

5=1 (y + /) (x' -x'-) + {y'+y')ix'-x.>)+ ...{f+ y') (=c" - x')
5=4r(x' +x^) if -y) + (x^ 4- ^') (/_y) + . . . . (x" + x') (y-'-y)

CooflJsiBdas

SorJimas

Differences

1 ° alcuio

2° caloilo

Productos

Ponto

~—

" — '

^

'- ' p—

~

r—

X

y

XX

YY

XX

YY

+

-

+

-

. . /. .

. . . .QO Pf.

oo oo

..i . .

T. Sff^ .*7.

.-<■ fsz.st-

-. .39?*-7

* ■f-i^*:3,3.3.

.- f,0.3f,37

- . 33J,S^.

.-. .3.77.6^,

.zes^f3..<),3*A

't9i-3«oftZi7

. .3. .

* . fjr9 9(1 .

* . ^/£7 f*?

* . .sfii-*3

99.9e7.9.a^£

..+ ..

* .*43.f.7S.

* .fS?t..3f,

* 2 7S?fJ>.
f .3/779 *< .

f , er Of ,
.-. .ffi3^7.

.-. .9,3^,07.
T..>0Q*4.

.'fejf«yf99

'6t>3J36r9T9 .

. .5. -

'}9S.e*7,7t3.6.

i9S»U.0i^9_

.« . .

t ./<■«.? J.

.*,f9J9..3a _

* .H^*^7S.

.+. 3,9.69 3.7,

r. it99,97 ,

* , ,99 _J9 ,

fS3^39^/9,/9

ZZf*r735.Zet

-.' -

+ . S6e.ss.

*.29er,Q3.

*. .2if.S.«i

.* .-«'<'<?■«. .

+ 'SS, 79

- 7^37 ei^.

3.3f9SSZ.OZTg

t/S*^7iZ.S^3i

.1 ..

*. . 9*-..U..

.-. .s.if..ss.

.+. }3S.<>;6?.

* .^fs e.7.

.+. . ze.o.er.

- Vfz, *r.

+ e.3ff.7i.
+ ,7S3f 7,7.

.+ . PZ-i.^3 ,

* 679 7/

r. 3^.3.99.

3.9/3.307.3996.

Z9f^.339Zi

. .9.

-. .-?-?«.-?-? .

i-S9Z.'t7.3t7p
J!>Z.'.3^.f4*,7i

}t9.0fft79i^.
'3ioe7.1^/9yZ.

-to .

- .y£0c>..4-7.

* 97*^7 f4.

.+. .9*7 i 9, ,

- 7SS 3^

. .It. .

.-. ff^iOH .

.*. S7.2g,0.3. .

- .ZrrS.ff

f 70,993' 99

+ . 399,29,

- '^^70.

3779,;za,Stt>,t

*i*7'.'^0_739

- .«. .

r.^f.'f^.te. .

.* Sff^ QS.

- .*.7.Ae,-l*-

*7,07f3, 9f

*.f,ozz 99

- szsaz ,

ft fZ7 (70t(!^.

V993f93.Zr^

. .■" . .

- *fJ3,7i .

* s$4s sa

.-. f7<lJ7,».S.
- S77J,.iS

,*,f73,ro,9s;
t f,r9^q. 9$,
+ 9f03 9*-

*fff9f7,

.+. , 7,99,- S3, ,

9g 97

r. , . z.ss ,
jr. ,Z33 ri.

+ f303 7Z

r.-ifS.s.Oi/s_ .
r.'^gtZi'. .

.+ Sottas zs
* *.'(>pj>f.

S.97e,3t^Sf9

ZZ9^:i3zitr^

. ff

..fS..

+ .iif.ffi, <0.

-. fi^9r.f*^

+ 79.9,e, te.

+ ,.f3.7A.

f.77,',3,9f.

. 3!t979i^9i

'99az£7res9*-

If

*.i3.8g.S.S.
+ _ '3.3.7, <l

T .7,379 .3t.
7 .3S3.3 7*:

f ,S3,7ff)^f,
.+. 37^7.07.

-i3,9,i,3i-:
-.73i^-!'.2.*:

. 'f. .

i.9S!i 93.

Sa'>'.03i>.eA

33793,r79Zk2

fS

- -fzyi.fe

T . . .fir ft

- ZS.SiSr

* 73^3^7

+ rS7, ^7

+ i399 t^3

i09S,}Z97^7

..v..

- n.frr-.s.f.

- .3.*.*-3 .S.7 .

- . *9t 99.

- S9^ ft

+ . f99.3.S:

* . 397 PS.

39ti599999

- SZ*-^ JO

..«.

- ^?772J

- 7^t^ se

.-. 7f}Z.ffi.

-. . 9fZ97

t .73,7,99 .

.+. .S74 9i.

7aj7^f60.99S

<t'.3,'S76.9e9fi

.is. .

-.3.*:S>i:Se.

r.zzse.^z

r . 9fi9.*a.

- 71~70.Jtf

- 7674^ 0^

- va*- J!4

* ri^>~9i.

fID 7770Sii

. .2.*-. .

- S9e «

- S7*affi

- r9t?760

- -7.139 7*-

7. .t7 3e..

izssat-ui-.e

633'V6e*-9

..'...

ap, pp_ .

. . . po.o.o.

-. f3*'..3f.

-. . .379 rf ,

- . 93t.3.Z:

~..3.7o..m.

39fiJ/Z<73^£.

3C.9.3jZ*93-i

Somma .

Sii/63*f939J,

tS33fi9}9,'^ZP.

7ai039!>f'9i:

t7t9i07tJi9,6!'

Djfferenca

n9ei6.93t,i'i

^-~-\

\^ "H

Superficie recUlinea . . /^X2«<^4<?^J« .

Are* da zona de 10 ." tnXr* m oo«o«MS«a . . f3iT7^.7p»« .

Area total demarcada taaooia^ijjs

Area cultivada (aprox.^) M013Z.7336 ...

Area ocupada p lagoas (,a^Tox^)<>oooPoooo9 .so.o.'3ZJ'3-}6. ,

Area concedida por aforam«nto 1O0O0O000OO0

Diagramma para ideniificar a posicao e o contorno pemnetral do predio

Poiitos

Ijdos

Aziniufe dos lados

Angulos mlemos

Coordenadas '

1
1

£

\

Aestafio

A ongera

Mar-cos

X

y

-

X

Y

z

}

2(! sof ep

fOB.nee.j.
rerfiffz?
rozsn /f.
■rp6 S79 rs

7p6 J90.6S

rc>o,4^.9 2*^^

■'<3}i^z.6p

"^ TZ.fO. .

. .7337. ..

. .7^,9i. .

. . Z662 .

. . -ze.'f'S . .

.767.'i:. . .

(3p. \

((/^. ■ 1
V ■ 1

f2 \ .

10 n
J. .

.2 .
. 3
.A .

s

r

. 2-i .

. .3.-M.
. . *-rS.
. . 3-.S. .

f'Ci.'O.
. t*.0..9^.
*il-Z.09.
.*f6.70.

. 32*°.o7'.a'::

69.'SZ 39.".

. 3i6' (e:i.7.'.

.(S'Si-ZO"..

. 'or'oe:3.9::
. ^22'.22.7e:'.
. 3a-<!°.3P:-f'.':

J23'3(.'3S:.
. .3.20?3f.'it"
. .29ArH>:f.z.".

.ZSZ'7.('f9'.'.

. .Z7c'96yr.''.

. Z.S2°22.-fr".

. .fzf°03:9rr.

..'3P'.*fi'M"

. .f.o.3r}9'33':

..f2e°.39:r8:.
. .-j+if •« '.5.(. •;

. .2.80 ° 33. ^f-.-.

_ 23('39.\}2':.

..fa(:33\3py.
.89°2S.Z5"
39:39. pf-,'.

. .efiro4'.2j:.

. .'eis'fs '.'3 ■■

+ S328ff

*. 37y.es.
.+ 93S..o.r.
.4.. rM,,f^.
r. 30 39.
+ (P2.f,6^

+ .326 32.
+ .'f3f6.
.+. (6Z.'^

*.s2fg2
.+ . . i.».s. .

-23372.
T(303.74'.
rf(rj.S6
~.S3li,/3

- 393.33
-(39343.

- 33Z0i .
* 20(86.
-3.7^,03. ,

-ri-if92,.

.*. 7(Jt'. .
.*S2T3^. .

*3rozi .

.-. .1.73. .

.-. .a*( .

*.736.
.-. .0.37. .
f. .0,*9..
+ . 2PP. .
- OPf. .
-. . P. 63.
-..f«' .
+ 770 .
*..((2..
r. . 3(6. . .
t..i?(3.
+ . ?«- .
-. .079. .
+ ■?<?(?
+..(00 .

.+. . o./e . .
r- aaa .

-. .730 .
+ _ .f./p

;!it?r 07.
.20. (SS.ro.
20 2r$7r

.'9.0(3,7^.
79.3.33,27.
.20. (33 !?f

20 7r(^.
2r 322(9 .

.2(36S,4ia
22.33.7^3
.23 379 76.
.2*1- .9.39. 33 .

73.73^,99

2f<>*Zff(.

2.3. 6bO 93.
33 26839.
X(.S7</J£.
TZP.z? 76
72. 9.77. ft .
.27f.0S.O.?0. .
2t.'3.2fS.
2i-.293.S6 .
Z3ff6rez.
27. 63 fi, 92.

zo.gosf>p.

..iMJ'.'Sr'is.".

. .2.f^'(*:r9."
.. .-^('.73:37.':

. . re.2°03H".
.. f99°0''P.P"

+. (033.37.

T..f(Pf

*.*a^3z

+ .■('.3.9,37
T.Z3.3..7t

fi

. '.ze'.39:23.':

. . (3.2 '.Pf'-f3.".
.''3^°37'02"

. . (f2.°f*-33::
. . (e.2°fe.'pp."

. . fp3.°'hf:so.~.
. le.t.-n'Zf.

. . f03y?:qjt:".

. . 2Pl°JS'*iS.~.

. .Z3.3°3-'.'Z3.".

2*O.°32.0S".

. . zw.rn'.j.z::
. r3r°zo:*^:
. . .j.<^''39-s3:

. . r6.2'*^:s3.-.
. . (6C.'7}'39':

. . f76°.23:2f:.
.. .z8.'or36"..

T.37,2,*3

- .6(P7f.
T.3:*:Z29
.-. 31,8.2!}

.-rpfioe

.-.f.SS9S.7

- ZSf.3i
+ . .33:07.

- . /3fi.
* 2392,3.*.
*f3i'Jl.2/C.

T.ff(i-(

.-. S933f
-(P73 79.

- Z3f.9.3. .

+ ^i'.az .

i 12,3.6. 7^..

^(■i<r,90.

4. f J* 32.

rp3C!Z3..9i-.
fO*^?i-?M.

fp3,*r^(r^.

r.t3 799.6.0.
707 ZZ^.Si
/07 777 73
.(P3.0.2.*:?S
r0i^.37^..S7
703- -^2 S3
fOd 033 63.

.rp7e3z,3r

7P3.*'3S.9*^.
.(Of: 323 PP.

roe 627, (■f
rp9 /w (7

fp9.S.3f. (7.

. 7^:3.9 . .

. .7Z.7(. .
.. 7A47

.7?..
.W.-

.m.
H-
-M
■M
tm

Sft.i
isr.s

in.5 .

W7 4
-D .

i

J-

.to.
.rf.
.V.
V:

/♦
. '■}.
.f.s
.f.

. fS.
.19.
.2ff.
. it .
.22
.21.
.it.
.i£.
f .

. . 3:'0 .
. . <t>:'.f.

.. {'.rz

. .'2-f3.
. M-r^.
. ./■♦r«r

ti-.7t
. '.b.-.f7 .
. '7- 73 .

f3-/f.
. tJ-iP
. .20,27.
. 2>:-.2.2..
. .22.-23 .
- X3ri'f. .
. iit-.2.S

. 2f: r.

.'PJIZSQ
7073:f.f.
.*Z0,27.
.'/«<»«

. .3.3.3.30
(3.06.70.
.'77^.0^.
2<^.3,3.0.

'67J. '.P.
'iVP.iP

.379. fP
f.P.9Z.f^

9.29.0P
.3<2S..f*
(23a. ?^
73-(t.4*

9/^.99

a... %

. . 7*97

.r6b9.,.

. . . 7(30 . . .
.. 7(66...

. zjra. .

. .77.99

ri-77 .
. . .7,397 .

.76.69

.. .73.3.9...
. . .7:<^.}9 . . .
. . 737^. .

3.. J. A

703.79^39.
(.afi.^M,^.

. . .Z7.(P. .

£fTfic^UafTU&

<2Sr7^<

A -oa^

enti<c-eCo.

■-

1

II FARTED

'ONCESSAO PAILLARD

&c<z^ /■■ 50.000

N» t1 Impronaa N.jr,ional dc Mopatibicjuc \^v*

Ill . PJ^RT^:

Eitracto? das inscripcoes e avertianientos feitos na Consemtoria do Regislo Predial da oomar
de . ^Mcycewc^. 7/Ucy.u^- acerca do predio descnpto na II parte

Numero
de oitlein

X3B8Cx-ii>9oee

>V-v © x*"!? a rvie TT-to s

. . . /

£apc«r^f<'. ?IZa^vf(^^^,S .1^ a:^iii:3frt4t>e> ^cie- yS(?4^

<^4<l -^iR«?^?<3^«;<zj7..?i^,<:6*fc <zi2;,'fe^.ar,<««? fh^a7n.<}

. .?. .

-&«<^a;<s«!<5<7 -?%s;iE^*:«,ftj^^ <«is ^<^tUCiemdir-i> a^ X?.x^

<WJ ,*f«*»<re<«i? ^riu^uot^ .aia ^.-^wztz-ctZk^ .ScKSemn:' .

[L.=

•Ill ntii '■> .

/>

'^ei^ ^

Niimero
de opdem

'Ei:xi cLo s S.O s

O >:> s ex- V £*.<; c> e s

V. IPJ^FLTI^ emprojecto
Estado corrente dos encargos

/Z^

Classificacao

Co.'Urib'ji-
predial

EsU

Da

contribui-

9ao

predial

do do pagan
Dos fores

lento

Das
rendas

^

Observaijoes

(classe -

.19 . .

Terrenes ^' ,
- - i ordem . .

Construccoefi

1$

-

Observacdo. — A forma defmitiva d'esta V parte dependera da lei da
contribuicao predial. A importancia das rendas e foros sao expressas na
I. parte dos titulos.

J?exT. MojcKiz^c/i, .

BRIEF NOTES ON THJi EFFECTS OF (GEOMETRICAL
SURVEY AND LEG.VL REGISTRATION OF LAND
IN RELATION TO THE SECURITY OF RIGHTS
OVER IMMOVABLE PROPERTY AND ITS IDENTI-
FICATION.

By Pedro Luis de Bellegakde da Silva.

(Translation.)

The matter briefly dealt with in this ])aper contains no
scientitic or administrative novelty.

\\'ith reference to private immovable property, which is
constituted l)y the concessions of State land in Mozambitiue to
nationals and foreigners. I shall mention herein the fundamental
principles governing the coiistitution and system of land transac-
tions having for a basis the principles of (ieometrical .Purvey
and Registration of Land, but this does not imply any doctrines
unknown to those who are conversant with the subject.

For tliis reason, the reading of this brief paper before the
Congress of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science may only l)e justified by its com])arative " news
value." as within the vast Portuguese administrative jurisdiction
in luiroi'c and tlie colonies, only in the Province of Mozaml)i(|ue.
and inst recently in Angola, have mathematical and le<?"al Survey
and Registration Ijeen established by law. exem])lihc(l as to its
final results in Mozambique.'

Right through the centuries and generations the history of
landed property is on a par with the history of humanity with
which it is intimately connected, and possesses its own evolution.

With a merely historical interest, the medi?eval epoch shows
us 'the Renaissance and some approaches to old practices of
agrarian collectivism in the usufruct of land. The feudal system,
says Michelet, " was something like a religion of the lands."" but
in those times the feudal lord represented the community of free

' Tlie 1907 organization of the administrative services of the Pro-
vince of Mozambique, by granting a certain decentralization of powers
and initiative to the Governor-General permitted, with the probahihty of
attaining practical results in the Admifiistration, of his studying with the
assistance of the Government Council the principal problems of the internal
government of the Colony.

It was in terms of these powers that Governor Freire de .\ndrade
proposed the remodelling of the Land Concessions Law and established
in this reform the principles of Geometrical Survey and Registration as
its essential basis.

It would be impossible to mention, within the limits of these remarks,
not even generally and much less in detail, the chapters of administration
dealt with as a result of the deep study and enquiry made by that
Governor-General into the Administration of Mozambique : the political
situation and the inventory of the Provincial Wealth and productive
powers ; the study of the native question in its close connection witli he
most varied aspects of Home trade, administration, and progress of the
Province and of the natives themselves; the ir^ancial equilibrium, and.

412 LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

men : then there were the vassals and the lord of the land, who
received it with particular solemnity !

Roman Law, however, in opposition to the retrograde prac-
tices of the Middle Ages, had been the forerunner of the system
of publicitv as to private property, and initiated the IVivate
Register, through which third parties were informed of the
changes occurring in private fortunes, thus warning the people
against fraud.

1die expansion of immovable wealth, depending, no doubt,
in its transactions and trade, upon the public faith wdiich is bound
wath the object itself of such transactions, necessarily leads to
the necessity of recognising the conditions of civil existence of
immovables by announcing not only the rights of the holder and
the charges onerating the land, but the knowdedge of its essen-
tially real existence which amounts to physical identification.

Such are the topics of the problem which from not too dis-
tant a date has preoccupied the Administration of nearly every
country.

The French Revolution, which radically and profoundly
shook the influence of the laws of the feudal regime, produces
in its decree of the 9th Mcssidur, year III. the transition of the
land regime to the modern systems of. publicity as to immovable
I)ro])ertv, which have for a basis the Geometric Survey.

This law imposed upon the owner the obligation of stating
with the utmost detail the position, area, and nature of the hold-
ing at the Deeds Office before the land could be alienated or
hy])Othecated, and, as to mortgages, the ])ul)lic registers offered
an unassailable basis bv placing lieyond all discussion the rights
of mortgagers.

It is in the course of the last two centuries tha^ the ])roblem
of the registration of private property begins to be scientifically
carried out. From this standpoint, however — that is to say, with
the object in view of organising a general inventory of private

especially, the question of the Treasury as machinery ; general and dis-
trict Administration, including the " Prazos " system ; commerce, industry,
and agriculture ; taxes and sources nf revenue ; the railway through Gaza
to Inhambane; Municipal Administration; the debated question of wines:
measures of development either recommended or actually carried out,
such as the question of lighthouses and many others ; the critical study
of the Modus J'k'ciidi in force at the time, etc., etc. All these questions
of liigh administration are dealt with in his " Reports on ^Mozambique,"
which form a monumental repository of doctrines that will very likely
subsist throughout the ages without denial as to their essential truth.

This work which reflects a deep practical knowledge of facts and
men. was produced by that official who began his career in tlie Province
by assisting in the conquest of Gazaland, and later went through the
territory by long and innumerable itineraries — who knows by heart the
geological constitution of Mozambique and its most interesting natural
phenomena, who is acquainted with the technical side of nearly all the
Provincial services, and who acquired his experience by contact with colo-
nists of all social grades, Portuguese and foreign alike, and even with
the natives.

LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZA.M DiyUE. 413

immovable wealth — the question was dealt with for merely liscal
purposes ; the geometric identification of plots and the classifica-
tion of the value of land and the revenue it yields assisted in the
solution of the administrative problem of assessing the property
tax. while the boundaries and classification of properties showed
the taxable matter. The doctrine of the learned magistrate.
Robernier. and that of the distinguished Piedmontese geo-
metrician, Ignacio Porro, the main point of which lies in the
principle of the connection between the Geometrical Survey and
public registration in the Deeds Office of the rights and encum-
brances of immovable property, were thus forgotten.

This fundamental doctrine, which is now endorsed in the
surveys of the present day, and assumes the perfect character of
a legal and fiscal registration, is confirmed by Tersanst's words
at the Property Congress on the lOth August, 1899, when he
said : " Registration should consist for each property of one
single document, easy to read, and containing the plan of the
immovable property and brief references as to its legal status."

- As to the legal and technical aspect of this doctrine, so
simple in its enunciation, but so complex in actual practice, 1
have found nothing more complete than the work prepared by
the extra-Parliamentary (irand Commission of Land Registra-
tion in France in i8<;i, which was formed by men of the highest
judicial competence in that country and by eminent professional
geometricians and experts in the branches of the application of
geodesy and topography to the measurement of the ground.

Monsieur Rouvier, then Minister of Finance, put the ques-
tion to the extra- Parliamentary Commission under the following
points : —

La propriete doit etre detenninee d'aI)ord ph.vsiquement, puis juri-
diquement.

La determination juridique doit faire connaitre les droits qui existent
sur rimmeubles, principalement le droit de propriete. II v aura lieu
d'examiner si Ton droit adopter le systeme ayant pour base une absolue
et complete publicite de la propriete fonciere et de ses demembrements et
si Ton doit y ajouter I'obligation de la specialisation de tons les privileges
et hypotheques.

Les effects de la determination pbysique et juridique de rimmeuble
doivent etre constatees dans un document publique et authentique, c'cst Ic
fitrc de propriete quelle sera la valeur de ce titre?

De meme toute modification du droit de propriete soit a I'egard du
titulaire soit en ce qui concerne I'etendue du droit lui meme, parait devoir
etre notee tout a la fois sur le titre e sur le livre foncier. De la resultc
i'obligation de determiner les formalites a prescrire pour les inscriptions
e les tranmissions des titres e a cette question se rattache encore I'etude
de la creation de cedules hypothecaires.

On ne devra pas perdre de vue le but a atteindre consiste a creer un
titre foncier dont la valeur juridique incontestable en assurant la facilite
de transmissions, ainsi que la securite des dententeurs du sol, des crean-
ciers hypothecaires, pcrmettra de jeter les bases du credit agricole.

Monsieur Poincarre, in his position as reporter to the
Budget Commission, had already explained at the meeting of the

414 LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

211(1 ]3ecember, 1890, that the undertaking did not only affect the
question of the assessiiioit of the property tax, but should be
principally considered from the high standpoint of the services
that registration could render to property by organising its title
so as to record all acts relating to immovables, and to give their
registration an indisputable legal value.

From the discussion which took place among the most com-
petent persons who formed the extra- Parliamentary Grand
Commission, the text of which is to be found in the eight thick
volumes that give the eoiiipte-reudit of the meetings, the following
report resulted in substance :

The property Book shall be organized by communes, and
shall have as its unity the " property." The first i)art shall con-
tain the physical determination of the immovable always up to
date and according to the Geometrical Survey.

It shall mention the area of the property, the number of
holdings and existing buildings.

The second part shall contain :

1. The name of the proprietor, stating the reasons for and
dates of registration of all legal acts relating to the property;

2. Restrictions and encumbrances ;

3. Privileges and mortgages.

A personal index for the purpose of facilitating searches
shall be organized.

As to the geometrical i)art. and after the matter ha<l 'been
^v^dely discussed, the Commission ])roposed " that the geometncal
identification of each property be made, all beacons delimitating
the property and all surveying stations heiiia dctenu'uicd by rect-
angular co-ordinates."

Here we find in their utmost purity the geometrical princi-
ples of Property and Land Survey in general and the legal
principles which have guided the preparation of the most perfect
registers of the present times. One understands all the same the
divergencies that are to be found in different Regulations, also
that the adaptation of this doctrine to the registration of property
in secular countries should l)e so much easier when their legal
codes endorse precepts of real publicit}- and registration in agree- .
ment with the rules to w-hich we have just referred.

Such is the case with the Portuguese Property Code, the
principles of w^hich as regards registration of property are : —
separate description of ]jroperties as an essentially real l)asi'^ and
the recording of all legal acts respecting to ])roperty. The organ-
ization of the Geometrical Survey and Registration can, therefore.
be carried out without conflicting with the essential principles of
our code.

•> Mr. Besson in his work dealing with the ])ropert)- regime
from- its very origin makes a critical and historical study as to

LAND REGISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE. 415

the publicity of the transfer of immovables, ami divides the
]>roperty code of the present time into three large groups — The
French Regime. The Property Book of the Ceniiaii Croup, und
the Australian system.

Experts classify the Prussian laws of 1878, which organized
the system of transfer of property by means of the Property
Book, as the typical legislation of the (German Group, just as in
the case of the Australian Grouj). the " Real Property Act." better
known as the " Torrens' Act," and which is really an improve-
ment on the Property Book from which it originates, is considered
as the most advanced system of publicity and the one that l)est
])erniits of the realization of credit and easv transfer of immov-
ables.

The principles of the Prussian law relating to the absoltite
publicity of real rights by means of registration, to the physical
description of propertv by means of the Geometrical Survey,
and to the proof value of registers as a guarantee to those, enter-
ing into contracts in respect of land liy ])lacing their faith in
these registers, are analogous in their legal ])art to the Portuguese
law, which Mr. Besson, in his work on comparative legislation,
places in the German group, emphasising, however, the defects
on account of which our la\\s differ from the model Prussian
Property Book.

These differences are due to the fact that Portuguese law
does not make it conipulsor_\- to register all transfers before
giving them validitx' inter partes, and principally in the identi-
fication of property not having for a basis the Geometric Survey ;
consequently no relation can exist between the Survey Depart-
ment and the registration at the Deeds Office which is fundament-
ally foreseen in the Prussian law of 1872, which provides for
all registrations of property to be communicated to the Survey
Dej)artment, and on the other hand that the latter should send
to the Gnindbuchriehter the documents relating to material alter-
ations respecting immovables in the circumscriptions. Thus the
Survey Department and the Public registration of property
mutually check and complete each other.

It seems, therefore, that t4ie necessary legislative alterations
required to convert Portuguese law to the typical features of its
own group, would merely consist of the following organization
of Survey in its relation to the Deeds Office, and finallv in the
delivery of a title to the proprietor containing the proof of his
rights and the identification of the immovable.

Such were the bases presented b\' the Survevor General's
Department and, after discussion and examination at the higher
stations. Geometric Survey and legal Registration were intro-
duced in our legislation by decree of the 9th July, 1909, which
was put into execution in the Province of Mozambique.

As to compulsory registration, this had already been estab-
lished by law for the Portuguese oversea dominions.

4l6 LAND KF.CISTRATION IN MOZAMBIQUE.

The organization of a survey in any country, before its mere
maintenance, is a very expensive matter. The technical exigen-
cies of the problem are the necessity for recruiting an able and
trained staff of experts in this special work, and owing to the
practical absence of geometrical subsidies in the country this
becomes complex and sometimes very difficult.

In my recent visit to the Survey Department of the Trans-
vaal, I found that the system employed in geometrical work was
in ])erfect analogy and parallel to the methods adopted in
.Mozambique. But the services in the Head Department at Pre-
toria are in charge of a permanent stall' of thirty-tive ofncials,
including one Surveyor-* ieneral, one under-Surveyor-( ieneral,
assistants, draughtsmen, calculators, and clerks.

Su])ordinate to this Head Office there were ninety geometri-
cians of the London or Cape of ( lood Hope Universities doing
cam]) work. These officials occup\' a similar ])osition to that of
our sworn surveyors.

Hie initial exp'ense involved in the Survey operations besides
its mere upkeep, has preoccupied nearly all the nations of the
Avorld, but the ([uestion of monetary sacrifice has not prejudiced
tlie carrying out of the undertakiu'^'-.

It is true that for merely fiscal jnu-poses in the taxation of
immovable property, many Surveys have been organised, but
the high standpoint of the security of the rights over property in
the possession of the holder, and its uncjuestionable position and
area, far surj^asses the interests of the Public Treasury ; besides,
it is (|uite evident that a ])erfect Survey and legal Registration,
at once the basis of the fiscal system, is l)etter suited to assure
the taxation assessment.

The effects of the Land Registration law of iS8() were so
well understood in Italy that many territorial circumscriptions
advanced the funds re(|uired to permit of the work being carried
out without delay in those same circumscriptions.

In newlv settled countries where the interests of siieculation
on the transfer of lauds granted l)y the .State delay as a rule the
material evidence of the ])ossession of holder of the land ^vhich
would be afforded by its cultivation, the settlement of rights to
]:)roperty and the identification of the land, even when unoccupied,
is a Doint of the highest im]>ortance and which can only be solved
by the (xeometrical Cadastre.

[ have already stated that the ever-increasing difficulties
which i)revented the definition of the status of property in the
British colonies led Sir Roljert Torrens (Surveyor-General) to
conceive the system known by his own name and which was
first introduced in Southern Australia. It was also due to the
efforts of Mr. Maxwell, director of the Property Services at Sing-
apore, that the same system w^as adopted in British settlements,
and in Argelia, Mr. Firmau, in order to free landed ])roperty
from the great obstacles that ojiposed its mobilization, had a
system based on the Torrens' method instituted.

LAND RI-:(;iSTK.\ri(»N IN MOZAM IMOTK. 417

Siinilarl}- in the Portuguese Colony of .Moz;unl)i(|ne. lej^is-
lation relating to land previous to that of 1909 contained no pro
visions as to the organization of the geometrical cadastre and
ignored modern tendencies as to guaranteeing the securit)- of
immovaljle property, this leading to ever-increasing difhculties
which only began to be solved by the law of 1909.

Celerity . of the Survey Works and the resultant Ijenefits,
which the Central (jovernment is- trying to pay attention to,
depends, however, on the ecitiilibrium between the revenue and
the expenditure that must l)e distributed over other no less im-
portant services.

With its limited resources the Survey Services show their
work within the general cartographic plan and in the geometrical
identification and security of individual rights l)y a specimen
of the titles which is attached to this paper.

TITLES OF PROPERTY.

laken under their legal aspect, these comprise four parts.

A fifth part which relates to the branch of fiscal taxes on
immovable proverty is still to be discussed.

The first part — the " alvara " (ordinance) — is the legal
document of the property, and a guarantee for all ])urposes of
law.

The second part contains the material identification of the
propertv. through its lioundaries and the respective plant, accom-
panied bv a numbered diagram, interpreting the same identifica-
tion and the absolute ])Osition of the plot in the cadastral maps.

The third ])art will explain, by means of a mere extract from
the cadastral records, all legal acts afi^ecting the property.

The fourth part is reserved for the endorsement, or, which
is the same, to the eas}- mobilisation of the property 1iy transfer,
subject to the Governor ( ieneral's authorisation.

Such rights are initially and formally guaranteed by charter,
and after that, all changes of proprietorship relating to transfer,
mortgages and other burdens, ^privileges and anything else imply-
ing alteration in the legal existence of the proi)erty, is endorsed
on the title itself together with any physical alteration of the
area, this regime being guaranteed by the mutual relations
existing between the Deeds Of^ce and tTie Cadastral Of^ce.

I'roperty titles in the Province of Mozambique, therefore,
agree, in my oi)inion, with the broadest and most up-to-date
conception of a modern Cadastre under the " Property Book "
system.

The title of the projjerty here is a single document of easv
reading, showing in a few minutes to anyone who is interested
in the proj^erty in fjuestion, all the conditions of its civil exist-
ence, its situation, area, owners, etc.

4^'^ LAND RECISTKATIOX JN MOZAiVUiKjLF..

Such was the theoretical dehnition by Tersant. ah-eady
alhuled to, as expressed by him at the meetiiiiJ^ of the l'r.)])erty
Congress on the loth August, 1889.

Finally, the hfth part, .s7/7/ i)i project, besides its particular
interest to the State as regards fiscal records will also show the
onus of taxation weighing on the property, its account current
as to payment of liabilities, as well as the classification of lands,
revenue and all that may be of interest to the essentially fiscal
part in the assessment of taxes.

Let us now summarily examine, as a whole, the project of
the general cadastral records of lands, which is just coming into
execution.

The whole collection of the titles of property constitutes the
General Registry of Property, being the immediate resultant of
the geometrical records.

Following on registration at the Deeds Office of the rights of
the owner and those of the State, a certified copy is extracted from
the titles delivered to the respective concessionaires, and this is
filed to constitute a part of the Registr)' of IVoperty in the
archives of the ( ieneral Survey Department.

Afterwards, all endorsements made on the titles in the
possession of the holders of the ground, are reported to the Record
Office, when they are immediately copied into the other system-
aticall}- filed titles. On the other hand, the Record Office will
inform, as already explained, the Deeds Office of all alterations
materially aft'ecting the estates.

This zvill finis allow for the verification of the records,
euahiuui both the Ail iiiiiiistratioii and all interested parties to be
daily aajiiaiuted ivith the current state of the property.

Some hundreds of titles which have already been granted
since the introduction of the geometrical cadastre into the Land
Law, serve to demonstrate the merits of the system and, corrcs-
])ondingly, the foreseen results of the theoretical outlines under
which its organisation was undertaken ; but I should not be
telling the truth if 1 attempted to persuade the readers of this
paper that the system was already in force throughout the vast
Province of Mozambicjue.

Professionals are well aware of the fact that this system
essentially de|)ends on the labours of a numerous, trained staff,
whicli cannot be easily or rapidly recruited.

In the following simple extract, T resinne the General
plan of the Geometrical Work for the organisation of the
Cadastral Charts.

The tirst class triangulation initiated 1)y the Geometrical Mis-
sion of Fast Africa, led by Commander Gago Coutinho, of the
Portuguese Navy, covers the district of Lourenco Marques, a
jxirt of the sea coasts of Gazaland and Lihambane, intersects a
part of the territory towards the interior, and extends further in
a narrow stri]) up to Razaruto.

LAND Kl'lClSTRAI loX 1\ M( »XAM I'.KJL'K. 419

The Surveyor-Cieneral's Department obtained from that sci-
entific mission the fnndamental geographical data, the measure-
ments of bases, the directions reduced to the centre of all sides
of the triangulation olxserved from the geodetical station, and
with these elements the provisional values were calculated for
the geographical co-ordinates and distances to the meridian line
and to the trigonometrical points, for the region covered bv the
triangidation.

In the general plan of the charts, these are separateh- organ-
ised by districts, as the absence of subsidies for the general trian-
gulation of the country made this restriction com])ulsory.

Each one of these charts is theoretically divided into com-
partments (squares 40 kilometres wide) formed by lines parallel
to the central meridian, and its perpendicular to the crossing
point of that meridian with the medium parallel.

The compartments are subdivided into sheets for qualifica-
tion, in the scale of 1 : 25,000, which, as a rule, is considered
normal, and is sufificient to show the relative position of the plots
granted and Government lands, and ultimately their division into
blocks reserved for concession on ([uit-rental or alienation by
sale, and, furthermore, through the assistance of the Agricul-
tural Department, they will show the generic classification of
the lands.

Pro])erty in towns, villages, suburbs and other settlements
and all extremely sul)divided property is dealt with on a larger
scale in the detail charts.

The topography of each estate and all its perimetrical con-
tour, as defined by rectangular co-ordinates referred to the origin
of local triangulation, is completed on the titles by the respective
plants and numerical identification as shown by its diagrams.

We emplo}- the system of plane rectangular co-ordinates
which is more adaptable to the partial work of the cadastre,
within the limits of admissible error for the points most distant
from the origin of the co-ordinate axes.

The projection of the charts is traced on the plane tangent
to a central point being the origin of the axes to which all points
of survey refer.

For the current calculation of the transfer of the geo-
gra])hical position, transformation of co-ordinates, etc., the
dimensions of Clarke's ellipsoid were employed, these entering
in the numerical data of the various tables commonly used in
exjjedite geodesy.

The first-class geodetical triangulation, covering the District
of Lourenco Alarques, permitted of the plan of the district being
made according to that triangulation to which is joined the sub-
sidiary and partial work of the network formed by the secondary
triangulation and traverses in part executed in a portion of the
district.

420 LAND RKCISTKATION FN MoZAM lUOL'K.

In the regions of the district of Inhanibiine and of the old
district of ( iaza, Hkewise covered l)y the geodetical triangulation
and which approximately coincides with the territorial zones of
greater demand and movement of lands, the same judgment pre-
sided to the project of the charts and organisation of the topo-
graphical networks.

J he greater part of the Province, however, is not i)rovided
with fundamental triangulation. Work of this nature involves
considerable expense — the i)ortion which has l)een carried out
having already cost 120,000,000 reis. Field work is, unfortun-
ately, exceedingly slow, on accottnt of all kinds of difficulties aris-
ing from most varied circmnstances ; the network of calculations
required to complete the work, in so far as concerns the working
out of figures and final results, takes many months, and some-
times even years, to concltide ; on the other hand, the adminis-
trative requirements of the services of the Property Registration
Department, inconsistent with the slowness of geodetic work of
first class, which is really the fundamental one, remits the
technical iiroblem to the field of ex])edite geodesy and numerical
cadastral topography.

From this point of view, one of the solutions wotild be the
carrying out of small independent triangulations to be connected
at anv time with the geodetical triangulation ; and. according to
our ])lan of ])artial charts, triangulations are separated from the
district compartments of the ])reviously-mentioned records
which recjuire to be made liefore any other work is undertaken,
in order to guarantee the ])recision of the geometrical plan. In
fact, the identification of ])roperty is not merely guaranteed by
the peripherical beacons of its perimetral contour. It is neces-
sary to preserve the geometrical Survey of the country done at
the State's expense, and which is shown by material indications
erected on the vertices of its triangulations, because from the
knowledge by calculation of the i)osition of its vertices, depends
the reconstitution at any time of the property beacons obliterated
through any cause, and the identification of which is ensured by
the diagram accompanying the titles.

The s)stem of independent triangulation is the same which
I found in the Transvaal, where the first class triangulation. does
not cover all the country, the geometrical plan of the cadastral
records there being very similar to our technical system, and
having as a final result the title of property.

Althotigh the staff, etc., in our neighbouring colony, is
numerically and incomparably superior to ours, the analogy is still
to be found in the categories of the i)ermanent staff' and private
geometricians, and it will not be difficult in future to arrive at a
complete i)arallel with those important services, by im])roving
our permanent staff, wherever necessary, and by the creation of
a school for the theoretical instruction of private surveyors. This
school, judging 1)y the dealings which are taking place in landed

LAND KKC.ISTRAT ION IN .M( )ZA .M 1' lOl'K. 421

projjerty, will guarantee sufiicient reniuneralion to those obtain-
ing- the respective (li])lomas for ^geometrical survey work.

With the above, I have concluded all that is possiljle to con-
dense in a paper concerning the cadastre of immovable i^roperty
in Mozaml)i(|ue, the interest of which, as mere " news value,"
consists in the fact that a system which deals with property on
the basis of legal and geometrical surve\- and registration and
the fiscal ])art of which will in the future tind in the same
records the required data, is exclusive to this I'ortuguese Oversea
Province.

The Constitution of Nebulae.— At a recent

meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, Prof. I. W.
Nicholson, M.A., D.Sc, said that it is probal^le that the main
constituent of the i^lanetary nebuhe. and of others, such as the
great nebula in ( )rion, is an element, to which the name Xebulium
is assigned, with a i)recisely indicated atomic structure. It mav
not be strictly an element of the type found in the Periodic
Table, but must be regarded as an origin from which other
elements may spring. From his investigations Dr. Nicholsoii
infers that nebuL'e consist of ( i ) simple-ring systems, with
simple nuclei ; ( 2 ) the hrst products of an evolution of some
form from these systems; and (3) hydrogen and helitmi, the
simplest terrestrial elements. The chemical substance of the
nebulae, therefore, consists of the very beginnings of matter, and
spectrum of a nel)ula may be described as the spec-
trum of chaos. Whatever may occur with terrestrial atoms,
the electrons in a nebula are not held very firmly in the atoms,
and a continued interchange of electrons must be taking place,
with a necessary boml^ardment of atoms l)y free electrons, to
which the luminosity is probably due. The physical state of a
nebula must l)e analogous to that of a very exhausted \acumn
tube of enormous extent. Two days prior to Dr. Nicholson's
communication to the Royal Astronomical Society MM. Bourget.
Fabry, and Buisson published in Comptcs Reudns some results
of their in\estigations into the subject of the atomic weight of
nebulium and the temperature oi the ( )rion nebula. Referring
to the spectrum of the nebula, they say that the ver\- marked
double line 3726 — 3729 in the ultra-violet ])art of the sjiectrum
is not attributable to any known gas. From a calculation of the
limiting order of interference — a function of the atomic weight
and the absolute temperature — it is found that the atomic weight
of the unknown gas — nebulivmi — is a])out 3. The maximum
temperature of the luminous gas is a])OUt 15,000°. A strong
green ray, also due to an unknown gas, is emitted by a gas of
atomic weight greater than that of hydrogen, but less than that
of the gas emitting the ultra-violet ray. This is of interest in
view of the fact that, in Rydberg's recent classification of the
elements, there are two unknown elements between hydrogen
and helium whose atomic weights are respectively 2 and 3.

NOTES ON THE APPLICATION OF THE RADIO-TELE-
GRAPHIC SERVICE TO EXPEDITIOUS METHODS
( )F GEODETIC SURVEY.

B\ ['i;i)Ru Llms i)K Bi:llk(jaki)I£ da Silva.

( AI'.MRACT. )

The author suggests that, as the introduction of wireless
stations o\er the Province of Mozambique is likely to take place
in the near future, such stations will be of great use in enabling
the longitudes of secondary survey ]:)oints to be determined
rai)idl}" and with great accuracy.

At the ])resent time, owing to the practical ditiiculties intro-
duced 1)\" the rough nature and heavy alTorestation of portions
of the territor}', the existing methods of surveying cannot keep
pace Avith the demands for land measurements. However, the
erection of a distributing wireless station c.c/. in the vicinity of
the r)bservatory at Lourenco Marc|ues together with the posses-
sion of a ]iortable distributing and receiving wireless outfit, or
even of a small portable receiving outfit only, would enable the
Survev ! )e])artment to determine the longitudes of many points
throughout the Province. The determination of the precise
longitude of an\- |)oint recjuires two things, (i) a knowledge of
the local time, and ( ii ) a knowledge of the corresponding simul-
taneous local time at a point whose longitude is already known.
The first requirement is obtained by observations of stars with a
transit theodolite and presents no special difficulties anywhere.
The second part has hitherto presented many diffictilties, fre-
quently involving the transport of many delicate chronometers.
The introduction of wireless telegraphy will simplify this and
lead to nmch greater accuracy as all that is necessary is that the
.surveyors at the outstations should receive, through their wire-
less apparatus, signals from the clock at the Lourenco Marques
Obser\atory and so obtain at once with an accuracy approach-
ing i/icxDth of a second the difference between the simultaneous
local times at the two places. The method has already been fre-
quently utilized in Europe, thus the dift'erence of longittide
between L'aris and Bizerta has been determined with an accuracy
of between i/iooth and i/200th of a second. The author of
the paper hopes that in the near future these methods may be
actually employed in the Survey of the Province of Mozambique.

THE MEASURINC; OF AIR WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO COMPRESSORS.

Bv Carl janssen.

The measuring of large quantities of air, although of great
importance to mining and industrial firms using compressed air
for various purposes, has not been brought to a satisfactory-
state of accuracy until lately. The reasons for this are twofold:
firstly the great difficulties met with as soon as com])arati\ely
larger quantities of air had to be measured, and secondly, the
feature that the reciprocating compressor could work as a dis-
placement air meter of, at first sight, considerable accuracy, so
that the necessity for creating new methods of measuring air
was not felt to such an extent as to induce imi)r()vcment.

With recii)rocating comi)ressors il seemed sufticient to
count the re\olutions during a certain time and to find the
volumetric efficiency in order to determine the amount i:>f air
drawn into the machine — the volumetric efficiency l)eing defined
as the ratio of the length of suction line as sliown l)y the indi-
cator diagram and the total length of diagram.

This method howexer does not give the actual weight of
air .which is in the low pressure cylinder at the 1)eginning of
the com])ression stroke. With high power reciprocating com-
pressors the jacket cooling has \ery little influence on the air-
drawn into the machine. Its main purpose is to preyent the oil
vin tlie cylinder liner from carbonizing. The temperature of
the cylinder walls during the suction stroke is higher than the
t.em])erature of the entering air, so that the air will 1)e heated
during the suction stroke and the tem])erature of the air inside
the cvlinder at the ])eginning of the compression strolsc will,
therefore, be considerably diff'erent from the tem])eraturL- meas-
ured during the suction stroke at the compressor inlet fianye
or in the suction chamber. The density of the air inside the
cvlinder being, on account of its higher temperature, lower than
the density of the air outside the. compressor, the weight of air
calculated from the tem])erature in the suction chamber, is
therefore, too high, i.e.. the weight of air discharged by the
compressor must be smaller than the weight found from tlie
inlet temperature and the volumes determined from indicator
cards.

Assuming an atmospheric pressure of 12 lb. and an increase
i)f tem])erature from 75° F. to 8^° F., when the air is flowing
through the suction chaml^er and the port to the cylinder, we
find the weight of 1 cu. ft. of air to decrease from 0.060616. to
00595 lb. and the error resulting from this to be equal to i.8^f .
The wei'.iht of air actuallv drawn in will be further reduced

424 MEASURING OF AIR.

on its way through the compressor through leakages, condens-
ation of vapour, etc., so that the weight discharged by the
compressor differs still more from the weight calculated from
the temperature of the suction chamber. The consumer of
compressed air is only interested in the weight of air discharged
by his compressor. Although the indicator diagram shows the
volume of air discharged by the machine, it does not give any
means of determining the actual weight discharged, for the
same reason as above, i.e. that it is impossible to determine
the temperature during the discharge stroke. This tem])erature
is highest when the discharge valves open and will decrease
towards the end of the discharge stroke.

The difficulties of measuring air were increased as soon as
the rotary or turbo compressor appeared as a competitor of
the reciprocating compressor. The turbo compressor draws in
and discharges the air in one continuous flow and the only
means of measuring the output of a turbo-com]Dressor were
the methods known as nozzle or orifice measurements. These
methods have improved considerably since the turbo-compressor
has come forward and ways have been found to adapt these
methods also to reciprocating compressors.

The measuring of air through nozzles or orifices depends
on the exact measurement of the pressure, velocity, and temper-
ature of air, when flowing through the nozzle or orifice. ( )f
these measurements the measuring of pressure and velocity,
although simple at first sight, however, re(|uire great care, if
reliable results are to l)e oljtained at all. The difficulty of
observing and understanding hydro-dynamic phenomena, the
inaccuracy of the co-efficients of friction and of contraction
resulting therefrom. ha\e led to most varying justifications of
methods for measuring \elocity and pressure. Furthermore,
there exists a certain discrepancy regarding the definition of
pressure inside a flowing li((uid, which accentuates the above
mentioned difficulties.

In physics we decide since Daniel Bernouilli regarding the
pressure inside a liquid between, firstly, the hydrostatic pressure,
which is defined as the pressure existing between two particles
of the liquid when it is not moving, secondly, the hydro-dynamic
])ressure, which is defined as the pressure between two particles
of the liquid during motion.

Bernouilli's equation for motion of lic|uids is : —

dh + '^+^ = 0
g 7

— assuming absence of friction and whirls — , where
/; = height above datum level
c = velocity
/) rzn pressure

MEASURING OF AIR. 425

\\ ith horizontal flow and inconi[)rcssible liquids where h
and 7 are constant, we obtain after integrating

<-'' ^ P ^ ^

—- -r ~ = constant.

For compressible liquids where 7 / (/)) we hnd

Zg J 7

C' ^ f dp _

~r I — — constant

where the term / ' has to he integrated for the existing relation

y 7
between p and 7.

In these equations p is the hydrodynaniic pressure, accord-
ing to Bernouilli's definitions, and changes into the hydrostatic
pressure when the motion of the liquid ceases, in which case
c = 0.

It may be mentioned that the error resulting from tine
assumption of 7 constant for com[)ressible liquids is very small
under the conditions prexailing when air of a pressure such
as is used for running purposes is measured. Assuming for
example, 100 lb. absolute pressure and 650° F. absolute tem-
perature {i90.6°F.) for the air main and a drop of pressure
across the orifice of i lb. or 27.75 i"^^'' water column, which
is ample for exact readings, the density will decrease from
0.4155 lbs. to 0.4125 lbs. per cub. ft. with adiabatic expansion.

If 7 l)e taken to be constant the error is. therefore, 0.72%.

Contrary to Bernouilli's definitions three dift'erent pressuces
of a liquid in motion are usually defined in technics, i.e. the
static, the dynamic and the total pressure. The total pressure
is the pressure shown by a Pitot tube, bent parallel to and

towards the stream. The kinetic energ\- of the liquid '' ,

is defined as dynamic pressure and Ijy subtracting the d\namic
pressure from the total pressure, the static pressure is obtained,
which therefore is the same as the above defined hydrodynamic
pressure. Hence we have the equation

pt = pyt + /></

or pt = pst -^ y ■ —-

With the exception of the static pressure />.,/ (or
hydrodynamic pressure when using the first definitions given
above) this equation does not contain any pressures at all. The

term 7 . — represents the kinetic energy of the unitv of volume

i.e. the capacity to perform work resultmg trom the velocity
of the liquid. By inserting, for instance, a pitot tube into a stream
of water, where ^,,^^0, a certain amount of the liquid is

426 MEASURING OF AIR.

separated from the stream and forced to ])roduce work by
keeping tlie water level inside the pitot tube at a' certain
height above level of stream. The pressure pst represents
potential energy and pt therefore equals the sum of the poten-
tial and kinetic energy of the unit of volume i.e. the total ener^
of the liquid.

It will further be noticed that the dynamic pressure as defined
technically does not change into static pressure, when the motion
ceases, as should be logically expected.

The definitions given as used technically are, therefore, mis-
leading and when using them, care should be taken always
to remember their actual meaning.

If the pressure of a liquid, flowing through a pij-e. has
to be observed for the purpose of measuring, it is first of all
necessary to define exactly the point where the pressure has to
be measured and further, it has to be assumed for the puq)oses
of a test that the flow is stationary, i.e. is not a function of the
time. According to the first definitions given above, the pressure
so determined can l)e only the hydrodynanfic pressure, ;.t'. the
pressure which a gauge flowing with the licpiid would show
when passing the a])ovementioned ])oint. .\s all ])rol)lems of
measuring large quantities of air in technics only liave to deal
with air in motion, the static pressure as defined above according
to Bernouilli does not come into question at all, as this
<lefinition refers only to the jjressure of lifiuids when motionless.

When measuring the pressure, special attention must be given
to the manner in which the pressure is transferred fro;u the
stream of gas to the instrument recording the pressure.

C B

\

A '^^ *■ -A

!

— FIG 1 —

It is generally accepted that a connection as shown in Fig. i
gives the exact hydrodynamic pressure of the gas flowing through
pijie A A as long as no disturbances of tlie stream lines
occur; The down stream side B of the opening C, howe\er, is

MEASURING OF AIR.

427

bound to disturb tbe stream lines to a certain extent, wbich

can be expressed in percentage of the kinetic energy V. —

If the piping connecting C with the instrument has the same
diameter as C the error resulting from the disturbances will
be transferred to the instrument. Under the conditions under
which compressed air for mining purposes is generally trans-

mitted. the term V.y is very small in comparison with the hydrody-

namic pressure. If, for example, 20 lbs. per second of air of loolljs.
absolute pressure, 650'^ F., absolute temperature and a density

>j^*-

T

FIG.2

of 0.4155 111 licr cubic ft. are flowing through a 12 inch pipe
line, we find the velocity to be 61.3 ft. per second and the
kinetic energy 24.35 ^^^- P^^' s(j. ft. respectively, or 0.169 lbs. per
sq. in. The kinetic energy is therefore 0.168 % of the
hydrodynamic ]jressure and as the error can be only a small
percentage of the kinetic energy, it is negligible. Furthermore
it can be altogether done away with by providing as shown in
Fig. 2 round the pipe a circular space of such size that the
shocks due to the air striking the down stream edge of the
opening are comj^letely annihilated through eddies.

n

— FIG.3.—

With the exception of the pitot tube as shown in Fig. 3,

which gives the hydrodynamic pressure plus kinetic energy, all

connections, projecting into the stream lines for instance, such

as shown in Fig. 4. — give readings which are more or less

different from the actual pressure on account of disturbances of
the flow and should not be used.

428

MEASURING OF AIR.

The measuring of velocity depends on the measuring of two
different pressures on either side of an orifice or on the up-
stream side and in the throat of a venturi tube. From the
dift'erence of these two pressures, the drop across the instru-
ment— the velocity can be calculated and therefrom the weight
or volume of air passing.

— F\G.jft-. —

Regarding the calibrating of orifices or nozzles, special
reference has to be made to the calibration plant of the Central
Alining and Investment Corporation, erected at the Ferreira
Mines, a short description of which appeared in the Journal of
the Smith African Institution of r.n</inccrs (iott'> 10.

All temperatures should be measured by inserting the mer-
cury bulb direct into the stream. Thermometer pockets should
be avoided whenever possible. An arrangement as shown in
Fig. 5 has proved satisfactory for use with highly compressed

MEASURING OF AIR. 429

The theory generally given for measuring air through an
orfice is to equate the change in kinetic energy through the
orifice to the work done by the expansion of the gas from the
pressure p.^ existing on the upstream side of the orifice to the
pressure p., on the downstream side. If c is the coefficient of
contraction of the stream, this leads to the equation known as
the formula of Saint Venant

/c— 1 K— 1

^ R.r /c-i \pj ^^pj \

Avhere IV is the weight delivered per second.
a is the area of the orifice.
p^, p.^ are the up and downstream pressures.
g is the acceleration of gravity. . <

RT is the equivalent of pi' in the gas equation and '"1

K is the ratio of the specific heats.

The above equation is only correct, if the velocit)' of ap-
proach of the gas to the orifice is zero or can 1)e assumed to be
approximately zero. As the velocity in the discharge pipe
of a compressor cannot be neglected, the correct ec|uation has to
be deducted as follows : —

The equation of continuity is: ( W'eiglit ])er second) x
specific volume) = ( area of channel) x (velocity).

// u indicates velocity ' ■

jr zccight per second
a area of channel and orifice
2' 7'olnme
p pressure
K ratio of specific heats

and I and 2 are suffixes indicating respectively the upstream and
downstream side of the orifice, then the change in kinetic energy

is - — (ir — ii\ ) and the work of expansion is /^' v . dp.

In order to integrate this expression we assume an adiajjatic
expansion with the relation between p and 7- of

p . v'^ —- constant.
Hence

1 ^ , 1

2e V ■-• ' ' J p.

dp

or with W =1

l(„:-„;)-^^-;^l/>.^~'-*/«'}

430

MEASURING OF AIR.

Since the equation of continuity is now :

,, - ^V-v-^ W.v
Hj — //, — .

ir - tr = W' M -.

y a' a'

and

Hence

w-

i^-exai

But

e,)^

■^g

•>

AT— 1

(0 ' -A

p:

Hence

P\ . X'l

(1)

K~ I

w --=

1 - (--) (t)il

/>

(D

In this equation a^ is the measured area of the stream
approaching the orifice and c/._, is the contracted area of the stream
leaving the orifice.

H A is put for the u])stream area of the pipe instead of
a., and a for the measured area of the orifice and C the coefficient
of contraction, then a.^ =■ ca. and we ohtain in taking the square
roots of both sides :

W

v>-(fy(|:)^

w

2g^ K

1

(f)^ f(^-:)'^'^'}

This form of the equation introduces the correction term
for the velocity of approach and it is necessary to examine anv
])articular case to see whether the correction term is important
or not.

In order to reduce this equation to a form adapted to numer-
ical calculation we have p, --= p> + h where h is the pressure
drop across the orifice and

^ = 1 + /'

P'2 Pl

MRASUUlNG OF AIR. 431

Hence expanding- (1 -j- .v)" where

X — < 1

p^

and

we have

K-l

(f:) ' =^ +

p, 1.2

and

IC-\

^. _..

= '^ { 1 +
P^ ^

n-l U

+

1.2 p,
The square root of the product of these terms is

Multiplying by P^ \/ ~ . ~

tC 1 \ K i

3n— 1
and find the formula for calculating the weight of air passing
through the orifice to be :

This formula has been derived by Mr. G. AI. Clark of the
Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Coy. and the author for
the purposes of the test at the 215 Drill Turbo-Compressor,
referred to later on. This test has also been made jointly by
Mr. G. M. Clark and the avithor, whilst the test of the 75 brill
reciprocating compressor, also referred to later, has been made
jointly by Mr. H. Collens of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal
Power Coy., and the author.

Bv the use of this formula in the last form the numerical

calculations become (|uite simple. The final term , 1 ~f" 4 f

. 'pj>

5n~ 1

K

as well as the correction term for adiabatic exjjansion //'A

in the term introducing the velocity of approach may be fre-
quently neglected, ^^^^en using this simplified formula, it should

43- .MEASURING OF AIR.

be always remembered that it can only give correct results as
long as yr) is sufficiently small to allow the third and following
terms of the series used in deriving the formula to be neglected.

In the following the theoretical statements given before will
be applied to two Tests made on high power air compressors,
the one being an electrically driven turbo-compressor the other
one a steam driven reciprocating compressor.

1 ; .' (I.) TURBO COMPRESSOR TEST.

This test was made on June 9th, 1912, on the Pakorny and
AVittekind compressor at the Robinson Compressor Station of
the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Co. Ltd. The com-
pressor delivers approximately 20 lbs. of air per second or 21,500
cu. it. of free air per minute at a pressure of 9 atmospheres
absolute (128 lbs. abs. ) and recjuires 3,000 K.A\'. electric input
to the motors.

In order to secure that the Compressor was run at steady
loads during each test and to enable these loaas to be varied
\oluntarily, the section of the pipe line from Robinson Com-
])ressor Station westwards to the first valve pit at " X " (about
1,000 yards) was isolated and a cover removed from the water
collector about 300 yards from the Station. The discharge from
the Compressor was throttled at the valves near the Station to
secure the desired pressure on the machine and the whole dis-
charge took place noiselessly through the water collector.

The compressor was tested under ordinary working con-
ditions and was not cleaned or specially prepared in any way for
the test. It had been cleaned so far as the intercooler and jackets
were concerned on December nth, 191 t. Since that date it had
run on load for 2,600 hours and had been standing for 2,100
hours. It had been previously in use after erection for 1,100
hours out of 2,600 hours.

The compressor was started up about 7. a.m. running lightly
loaded for an hour, after which normal load was put on. The
first set of measurements commenced at 10.05 ^•^'^"'- The first
test was run for an hour, the second, third and fourth for 40
minutes each and the fifth and last test for 30 minutes. Between
the second and third tests there was an interval of one hour and
a half during which time the machine was kept running at full
load. The readings taken on each test show the extent to which
the conditions were steady.

All instruments were specially calibrated before the test.
Measurements of air pressure were made whenever possible by
means of water or mercury manometers, but in the cases of the
highest pressures, where spring controlled gauges had to 'be used,
these were carefully compared with a standard gauge that had
itself been calibrated with a dead-weight tester.

MKASfRING OF A IK. 433

Measurements of temperature were in all cases made with
ordinary mercury in glass thermometers and these have not been
standardised — no exceptionally high temperatures occur in this
work — but there can be no gross errors as most tem^K-ratures
were taken in duplicate.

The amount of air passing through the compressor was
measured on the intake as well as on the discharge side. As the
compressor has two low pressure cylinders, working in parallel,
two oritices of the same design had to be used for the intake
side. These orifices are very similar to the upstream portion of
a Venturi tube. By comparison with the standard capacity
meter at Ferreira Mines the coefficient of contraction for \ enturi
tubes was found to be 0.985 and, therefore, this coeiiicient has
been taken as the most probable value for this type of orifices.

The value of A for the intake orifices has been taken as
infinity though the floor level was only about 2' 6" below the
mouth of the orifice and there was a wall about 15" from the
hne joining the centres of the two orifices.

It may be considered correct to treat the orifices as though
they were situated in free space.

Besides having a proper approach for the air to these orifices,
it is also necessary to have an unintierrupted discharge on the
downstream side of the orifice.

The arrangement of the butterfly valve in the downstream
side of these orifices is not ideal, and involves a certain inter-
ference in the stream lines which showed in the readings of the
water columns which were used for measuring the drop of
pressure across the intake orifices.

On account of the comparatively large area of the intake
pipes, four water manometers were used for each orifice.

Although tihese four manometers were arranged symmetric-
ally with regard to the orifice they could not be symmetrical with
regard to the butterfly valve 'and this want of symmetry was
reflected in the readings of the water columns.

The four water columns at each orifice were of slightly
difl'erent height, so that it would have been necessary to use four
observers per orifice in order to obtain a correct observation.
It was, however, not feasible to put four observers to each orifice
and the dit^culty was overcome in the following way.

The four pipes were fixed on a board close together and the
observer found the a\erage height of the four water columns by
means of a glass plate on which a dark line was cut, by following
closely the movement of the water columns.

434 MEASURING OF AIR.

Some control observations made occasionally by measuring-
the height of the four water columns separately, proved this
method to give correct results.

The diameters of these orifices were measured with micro-
meter gauges on four diameters by two oibservers and the means
were taken.

On H.P. side 10.635 inches: Area 88.831 sq. inches
On M.P. side 10.642 inches : Area 88.948 sq. inches.
Hence with the value of c. := 0.985 A =: infinity.
Efiuivalent area H.P. side = 87.50 sq. inches.

M.P. side =: 87.61 sq. inches.

As the orifices were used under conditions of atmospheric
temperature and calibrated under similar conditions, there are
no temperature corrections to be applied to the areas.

The orifice used on the discharge side of the Compressor
was a plate orifice. It is a most important detail that the pres-
sure connections should l^e in the dead spaces, as should the
pressure pipes be in the stream lines, entirely erroneous readings
must result. This orifice was situated in a pipe 12I/8 inches
diameter and had an uninterrupted approach of more than 12
feet or 16 orifice diameters. On the downstream side there was
a straight run of 5 orifice diameters before reaching a right angle
bend in the pipe line and the conditions of use of this orifice are
therefore correct. As this orifice is used at a temperature of
80 °C to 90° C, it was calibrated with micrometer gauges both
at atmospheric temperature and also 85 °C. The two sets of
observations agreed when reduced to the same temperature using
the usual coefficient of expansion of brass the metal of which
the orifice was constructed. For this orifice we have at 85 °C.
D = 12.125 inches: A = ii5-4 sq. inches
d = 9005 (at 85°C) : a = 63.69 sq. inches
For the coefficient of contraction of this orifice a comparison
has been made of the orifice against the standard displacement
meter belonging to the Central Mining and Investment Corpora-
tion which g-ave the value as 0.675.

Hence for the equivalent area of this orifice we have
a = 63.69 c = 0.675 ca = 42.99

A = 115.4 ca/A = 03726 {ca/ AY -- 0.138S

Vl-ica/AY = V 0.8612 = 0.9280

and ca/ \' I — (ca/A)' = 46.33 sq. inches.
This calculation of the equivalent area assumes the term

ip-Jpi )k^ to be unity. It will be shown later in the Report

that the eft'ect of the difterence from unity is nearly negligil)le.

A matter of considerable importance in all compressor tests
is the humidity of the atmosphere, for the thermal transferences
at the dififerent stages are dej^endent upon it.

MEASURING OF AIR.

435

The following Tables i (a) to i (e) give the details of the
observations and reduction of the Hygrometer readings. These
reductions have been made by aid of the tables pul)lishcd by the
Smithsonian Institution. An Assman Hygrometer was used,
which draws a current of air over the wet and dry bulbs at a
uniform velocity. The upper portion of the tables gives the
observations and the lower portion the reduction. Table I (f)
gives the Summary.

For the purpose of determining the mean temperature of the
intake air, the readings of the dry bulb of the Assman Hygrometer
have been taken in preference to those of the Thermometer
attached to the Barometer. These latter readings would be too
high on account of the proximity of the instrument to the observ-
ers and to the electric lights used for reading the instruments.

REDUCTION OF HYGROMETER READINGS.

TABLE I

(a).

Test

Time

Barom.

f" of

Dr\

Wet

No.

T 1

Bar.

Bulb

Bulb

a.m.

inches.

F.

°C.

°C.

I

10.05

—

—

i5^4

8.9 •

.10

24.S90

—

14.8

5^8

•15

.8qo

—

16.1

5-2

.20

.890

—

14.8

5-0

•25

.890

62.0

16.0

—

•30

.890

2

16.1

5-4

•35

.890

.6

16.0

5-3

.40

.890

.8

16.2

5^3

•45

.892

.8

16.1

5^4

•50

.894

63.0

17.0

5^8

•55

.894

.1

16.5

5^5

11.00

.894

•4

16.9

6.2

over

test

•05

.894

.8

i7^5

5-8

Averages

^

24.892

62.6

16.1

5-8

Temp. CO

rrection
Barometer.

- 0.076

Corrected

24.816

Dry Bulb°F. = 61.0 = /
Wet Bulb°F. = 42.4 = t^

t - t, °F. = 18.6
Pressure of saturated aqueous vapour {t^) ^ 0.270 =: /^
0.0003676 (t — t^) (1+ (t~t^) / 1571) =0.172:=/,
\'apour pressure (/^ — /., ) = 0.098 = /

Pressure of saturated vapour ( / ) = 0.536 = F

Relative Humidity. ==18.3 = f/F

436

MEASURING OF AIR.

TABLE I

(b)

Test

Time

Baroiu.

r of

Dry

Wet

No.

a.m.

Inches.

Bar.

Bulb

Bulb

F.

"C.

"C.

IL

1 1. 20

24.894

634

17.8

6.5

•25

.894

54-0

18.0

6.2

•30

.S92

65.0

18.2

6.2

•35

.892

.2

17.8

6.0

.40

.890

.6

17.8

6.0

■45

.890

.8

18.2

6.2

•50

.892

66.0

18.2

G.o

•55

.892

•3

18.2

6.0

12.00

.892

•3

18.2

6.1

Avei-ages over test

24.892

65-3

18.0

6.1

Temp, correction

- 0.083

Corrected Barometer

24.809

Dry Bulb°F. = 64.4=:/

Wet Bulb°F. = 43.0=^1

/ - /, = 21.4

Pressure of saturated aqueous vapour ( /, ) = 0.277 = /
0.0003675 (t—t^) (1+ (t — t,) / 1571) ==0.199-/2

Vapour pressure (/i — /s) = 0.078 = /

Pressure of .saturated vapour (/) = 0.604 = F

Relative Humidity. = 12.9^ = f/F

TABLE I (c)

Test

Time

Barom.

t" of

Dry
Bulb

Wet
Bulb

No.

p.m.

Inches.

Bar.

"C.

^C.

Ill

1-35

24.884

68.3

20.2

—

.40

.884

68.8

20.4

6.6

•45

.884

69.4

20.2

6.6

•50

.884

69.8

20.2

6.6

•55

.884

69.9

20.6

6.8

2.00

.884

70.0

20.8

7.0

•05

.884

.0

20.8

7.0

.10

.884

•4

20.8

7.0

over

test

•15

.884

•4

20.6

6.8

Averages

24.884

69.7

20.5

6.8

Temp, coi

■rection
Barometer.

- 0.092

Corrected

24.792

MEASURING OF AIR.

437

Dry Bulb'F.

— 68.

9 = /

Wet Bulb°F.

= 44^

2=:t,

t -

-fi

= 24.

7

Pressure of saturated

aqueous

vapour

it:)

= 0.289 = /\

0.000367 B [t — tj^) (

1+ (t-

- ^1) / I

571)

= 0.230 = /,

Wapour pressure (/i -

-f.)

= 0.0:

9 = t

Pressure of saturated

vapour

it)

= 0.705 = t

Relative Humidity.

= 8.4% = f/F

T

ABLE I

(d)

Test

Time

Barom.

f of
Bar.

Drv
Bulb

Wtt
Bulb

No.

p.m.

Inches.

F.

"C.

°C'

IV

2.25

24.884

70.2

21.0

7.2

•30

.884

70.2

20.8

6.8

•35

.884

70.2

20.8

6.8

.40

.884

70.2

21.0

7.0

45

.884

70.4

20.8

6.8

•50

.88 s

70.4

20.6

6.8

•55

.88s

70.3

20.8

6.8

3.00

•855

70.3

20.8

7.0

■05

.885

70.3

20.6

6.8

Averages over test

24.884

70-3

20.8

6.9

Temp, correction

— 0.094

Corrected Barometer

24.790

Pressure of saturated
0.000367 B (t — t^) {
Vapour pressure (/^ -
Pressure of saturated vapour
Relative Humidity.

Dry Bulb°F. = 69.4 = ^

Wet Bulb°F. = 44-4 = ^

^ — fi = 25.0

aqueous vapour ( f ^ ) = 0.292 = /^

1 + it-t,) / 1571) = 0.233 = /2

- f.,) = 0.059 = /

t) = 0.717 = F

= 8.2% =fF

TABLE I (e)

Test
No.

Time Barom.
p.m. Inches.

r of Drv Wet

Bar. Bulb Buld

F. ''C. "C.

V

•15

24.88 s

70.0

20.8

6.8

.20

.886

70.0

20.6

6.6

•2S

.886

70.0

20.8

6.6

•.30

.888

70.0

20.8

6.8

•35

.888

69.8

20.6

7.0

.40

.890

69.8

20.6

6.8

•45

.890

70.0

20.4

6.8

43^ MEASURING OF AIR.

x'\verages over test 24.888 70.0 20.7 6.8

Temp, correction —0.093

Corrected Barometer 24.795

Dry Bulb°F. = 69.3 = f
Wet Bulb°F. = 44.2 = t^
t-t, = 25.1
Pressure of saturated a(|ueous vapour (t^) 1= 0.289 == /^
0.000367 B (t ~ t,) (1 + [t -t,) / 1 57 1) = 0.233 = /.,
A'apour pressure [f.—f^) =0.057 = /

Pressure of saturated vapour (/) ^ 0.715 = F

Relative Plumidity. = 8.0% = f/F

Note: In tables I (a) to I (e) all pressures are in inches
of mercury under standard value of gravity.

TABLE 1(f)

Test

No.

Table.

Bar.

Dry

Bulb
t "C.

Hunnditw

inches.

I

I (a)

24.816

16.1

18.3%

0.098

II

I (b)

24.809

18.0

12.9%

0.078

III

I (c)

24.792

20.5

8.4%

0.059

IV

I (d)

24.790

20.8

8.2%

0.059

V

I (ej

24-795

20.7

8.0%

0.057

In order to reduce pressures to standard value of gravity the
following standard constants have been accepted.

I inch Hg. column at 32°F. = 0.491 Ibs./sq. in. under stand-
ard value of gravity g = 32.17 ft./sec.-

The local value oi g = 3-2.1 1 ft./sec."

Hence i inch Hg. coku-nn = 0.491 X 32.1 1/32. 17

:= 0.490 lbs/s(|.in. at 32° F.

Absolute temperature = 459-4 + ^°F.

The above Table I ( f ) reduces to

TABLE II.

Test

Barometer

Air

Temperature

f

No.

Ibs/sq.in.

°F.

°F.(abs)

Lbs/sq.in.

I

12.160

61.0

520.4

0.048

II

12.156

64.4

523-^"^

0.038

III

12.148

68.9

528.3

0.029

IV

^ 12.147

69-4

528.8

0.029

V

12.150

69-3

528.7

0.028

From the foregoing data and from No. 28 of Smithsonian
Tables the weight of moisture present in the air taken in by
the Compressor has been calculated and the results are stated
in Table III.

MEASURING OF AIR. 439

TABLE III.

H'eifjht of moisture present.
Test Humidity Grs/cu.ft. Lbs/cu.ft.

I

18.3

1.093

0.000156

II

12.9

0.858

0.000126

III

8.4

0.647

0.000092

IV

8.2

0.642

0.000092

V

8.0

o.hJ4

0.000089

In order to calctilate the w^eight of dry air ])er cul)ic foot,
it must be remembered tliat the atmospheric i)ressure is made
up of the pressure due to the ch-y air /^liis that of the water
vapour present and that it is only the former that can be applied
to the state equation of dry air. For this calculation the follow-
ing physical constants have been taken :

Weight of I cubic foot of dry air at 32° F. is 0.08073 lbs.
under a pressure of 14.696 pounds per scjuare inch and the
standard value of gravity.

Hence the weight of i cub. ft. -— 2.699 P ^■

wdiere p is the pressure of the dry air in Ibs/sq inch.

and 7" the absolute temperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

TABLE I\'.
}J'ei(jht of -tcorking air.

Test

No.

P-
pa - f

Ta

Weight of

drv air
2.699 PIT.

Weight

of

moisture.

Total

weight of

working air.

I

II

HI

IV

V

12.102
12.118
12.119
1 2. II 8
12.122

5-20.4
523-8
528.3
528.8

528.7

0.06276
0.06244
0.06191
0.06185
0.06188

0.000 T 6
0.00013
0.00009
0.00009
0.00009

0,06202
0.06257
0.06200
0.06194
0.06197

In the second column of the above Taljle pa is the observed
barometric pressure (see Table 11) and / is the i)artial pressure
due to the water vapour (Table II).

The correct value of R in the state equation of pz' = R.T.
can now be calctdated. In English measures : —

p = 14.696 Ibs/sq.in. = 14,696 X 144 Ibs/sq.ft.

T = 491.4

and since the weight of a cub. ft. of dry air =: 0.08073

pounds
z' = 1/0.08073 L^nbic feet per pound.

Hence R = 14.696 X 144 49^-4 X 0.08073 — 53.36)

44^ MEASURING OF AIR.

Also R can be found from the thennodynamical equation

R — J (cp~Cr)

J =: mechanical equivalent of heat =: //ii ft. lbs.
Cp = spec, heat at const, temp. . = 0.2374

Cv = „ V „ vol. = 0.1688

Hence R = 778 (0.2374 — 0.1688) = 53.37

The value for R for dry air may be taken as 53.36. For
unsaturated water vapour as it occurs in air the value of R may
be taken as 85.6.

For a mixture of dry air and water vapour the constant R
must be calculated from the weight of each constituent present
per cubic foot.

Thus if there are A pounds of dry air for which R =!
53.36 and B pounds of water vapour for which R ^ 85.6 the
value oi R for the mixture is

(A + B) R = 53.36.^ + 85.65

or R = 53.36 4- 32.24 B/A -(- smaller terms, since the
ratio of B/A is already a small fraction.

Hence the value of R to use for the air taken in by the
Compressor is

TABLE V (a).

Test No.

A.

B. S2

.24i^/4.

R

I

0.06276

0.00016

0.082

5344

H

0.06244

0.00013

0.067

5343

HI

0.06194

0.00009

0.047

5341

IV

0.06185

0.00009

0.047

5341

\"

0.06188

0.00009

0.047

5341

Since the humidity is so low, there is no condensation of
water in the intercooler and the weights of air and water have
the same ratio to each other on the delivery side and on the
intake side of the compressor; hence the same value of R is to
be used for all the orifices.

In a somewhat similar manner to that used for finding the
value of R for a mixture of dry air and water vapour, the
values of the two specific heats — via that at constant pressure
and that at constant volume — can be found for a mixture.

The values of the specific heats of dry air have already
been given for the calculation of R.
Cp = 0.2374

Cv = 0.1688 Cp I Cv = 1.4064

whilst for the specific heat of water vapour one may take
Cp = 0.48

Cv = 0.37 Cp I Cv = 1.3

MEASURING OF AIR.

441

To find the specific heat of a mixture of A pounds of dry
air and B pounds of water vapour

{A + 5) cp = 0.2374 A + 0.48 B
(A -\- B) cv = 0.1688 A + 0.37 B

c, = 0.2374 + 0.24 B/A
Cv = 0.1688 + 0.20 B/A

«• =C> / Cr = 1.4064 — 0.24 B/A

Another exi)ression that occurs in orifice calculations is

«— 1 . . .,

and the value of the rate of change of this quantity is.

half the rate of change of k.

Hen I,

1

= 0.2890 — 0.12 B/A

The values of these constants for each test are given in
Ta])le \\ (b).

TABT.E V (b).

Test
No.

B 0.J4BM

Cv

1 (3//-1)
- . recip.

I (negative )

(negative)

I .06276 .00016 .0006 1.4058 .2887 .03347 29.88

II .06244 .00013 .0005 1.4059 .2888 .03346 29.94

III .06191 .00009 .0003 1. 4061 .2889 .03333 30.00

IV .06185 .00009 .0003 1. 4061 .2889 -03333 30.00

\" .06188 .00009 -0003 1. 406 1 .2889 .03333 30.00

The reciprocal of the value of (yi — i)/4 where
n ={fc — i)/k: occurs in the formula for calculating the weight
of air delivered through an orifice.

The following Tables Via to VIg give the observations of
the temperatures at inlet and discharge of compressor and at
orifice.

The observations are given as observed whether read in
Centigrade or Fahrenheit and the averages are stated in both
svstems.

TEMPERATURES

TABLE VI (a)

Test
No.

Time

Inlet

air

H.P.

Disch.

a.m.

Bar.

Hyg.

Disch.

Orifice

°F.

°C.

°C.

°C.

10.05

—

154

89.0

86.5

.10

—

14.8

89.0

87.0

•15

—

16.1

89-5

87.2

.20

—

14.8

90.0

87.S

.25

62.0

16.0

90.0

88.0

•30

62.2

16.0

90.0

88.0

•35

62.6

16. 1

90.0

88.0

44^.

MEASURING OF AIR.

40

62.8

16.2

90.0

88.0

■45

62.8

16.1

90.0

88.3

•50

63.0

17.0

91.0

88.0

•55

63.1

16.5

91.0

8S.5

11.00

63-4 •

16.9

90-5

88.5

■05

63.8

17-5

90.0

88.0

Average C°

17.0

16.1

90.0

87.8

F°

62.6

61.0

J 94.0

1 90.0

TEMPERATURES.

TABLE VI (b)

Tcsi

l^inie

Inlet

air

H.P.

iJisch.

No.

a.m.

Bar.

Hvg.

Disch.

( )ritice

°F.

°C.

X.

'C.

II

11.20

634

17.8

9-2.5

90.S

•25

64.4

18.0

93-0

91.0

■30

65.0

18.2

93 •©

<^I.O

•35

65.2

17.8

93.0

91.0

.40

65.6

17.8

92.5

91.0

•45

65.8

18.2

92.5

9 1 .0

•50

66.0

t8.2

93 •o

91.2

•55

66.3

18.2

93 -o

91.8

12.00

.. 66.3

18.2

93-0

92.0

A\era^e °C

18.5

18.0

92.8

91.2

°F

^\5.3

^^•4

199.0

196.2

TEMPERATURES.
TABLES VI (c).

Test
No.

Time
p.m.

Inlet
Bar.
°F.

air I LP. Disch.
Hvg. Di.sch. Orifice
°C. °C. °C.

Ill

1-35
.40

•45
•50

•55
2.00

■05
.10

•15

68.3
68.8
69.4
69.8
69.9
70.0
70.0
70.4
70.4

20.2
20.4
20.2
20.2
20.6
20.8
20.8
20.8
20.6

92,0

92.5
93^o
93^o
93 -o

93 -o
92.0
92.0
92.0

90-5
90-5
90.8
91.0
91^.0
91.0

90-5
90.2
90.0

Average °C.
°F.

20.9

20.5

68. <)

92.5
i(j8.5

90.6

195.1

MEASURING OF AIR.

443

TEMPERATURES.

TABLE VI (d)

Test

Time

Inlet

air

H.P.

Disch.

No.

p.m.

Bar.

Hyg.

Disch.

Oritice

°F.

°C.

°C.

°C.

IV

2.25

70.2

21.0

89^5

88.0

•30

70.2

20.8

89.0

87.6

•35

70.2

20.8

89.0

«7-3

-

.40

70.2

21.0

89.0

87.2

•45

70.4

20.8

89.0

87.2

•50

70.4

20.6

89.0

87.1

•55

70.3

20.8

80.0

87.1

3.00

70.3

20.8

89.0

87.0

•05

70-3

20.6

89.0

87.0

Average °C.

21.3

20.8

89.1

87^3

°F.

70.3

69.4

192.4

1 89. 1

TEMPERATURES.

TAI'.LI

: VI (ej

Test

Time

Inlet

air

H.P.

Disch.

No.

p.m.

Bar.

Hyg.

Disch.

Orifice

°F.

°C.

84.0

°C.

V

3^15

70.0

20.8

83.2

.20

70.0

20.6

83-5

82.5

•25

70.0

20.8

83.0

82.0

•30

70.0

20.8

83.0

81.8

•35

69.8

20.6

83.0

81.5

.40

69.8

20.6

83.0

81.4

•45

70.0

20.4

83.0

81.3

Average °C.

21. 1

20.7

83-2

81.5

°F.

7(j.o

^'9-3

18 1. 8

178.6

SUMMARY.
TABLE VI (f)

Test

Inlet

air

H.P.

Disch.

rge

No.

Bar.

Hyg.

Disch.

Orifice

FAHRENHEIT.

I

62.6

61.0

194.0

1 90.0

II

65^3

64.4

199.0

196.2

III

69.7

68.9

198.5

195- 1

IV

70.3

fK).4

192.4

189.1

\'

70.0

^'9-3

181.8

178.6

444 MEASURING OF AIR.

SUMMARY.
TABLE VI (g)

Test Inlet air H.P. Discharge

No. Bar. Hyg. Disch. Orifice

CENTIGRADE.

I

II

III

IV

\'

17.0

16.I

90.0

87.8

18.5

18.0

92.8

91.2

20.9

20.5

92-5

90.6

21.3

20.8

89.1

87-3

21. 1

20.7

83.2

81.5

The reductions of the readings of the ^nanometers and pres-
sure gauges are tabulated according to the nature of the gauge
used for observing the pressures. These were : —

(i) Water gauges read in ni.ni.

{2) Spring Pressure gauges.

For the reduction of the readings we have taken : —

I inch =^ 25.40 m.m.
Local g =32.11 ft. /sec-

Standard g =32.17

27.69 inches water = 1 ll)/s(i.in. at standard g & 32°F.
2774 V ,. = V M local g & \,

27-79 V. „ = v. ,, „ g & 70° F.

Average temperature of manometers = 70°F.

By this means all the pressures are reduced to the standard
value of gravity.

Tables VII (a) to VII (f) give the reduction of the observ-
ations of the water gauges used for measuring the drop across
the orifices. As has already been stated two were on the L.P.
intakes and one on the H.P. discharge.

The differences observed between the readings of the two
manometers on the L.P. intake on the H.P. and M.P. sides is
due to the dift'erent setting of the butterfly valve regulating the
admission of air to the two sides of the Compressor.

The readings on the discharge H.P. orifice were taken
independently by t^vo observers on the top and bottom of the
U manometer.

Table VII (f) gives the Summary of these readings reduced
to pounds per scp inch.

MEASURING OF AIR. 4^5

TABLE Vila. Test No. I.

Time

L.i'.

Intake

11. P.

Disciiarge.

H.P.

M.P.

Top

Bottom

m.m.

m.m.

Inches

10.05

225

306

27.7

27.6

.10

220

303

27.8

27.8

•15

218

303

27-3

27-3

.20

2,2,2

307

27.9

27.9

•25

222

305

27.4

27.4

.30

220

306

27.4

27.6

•35

221

304

27.4

27.4

.40

221

303

27.4

27-4

•45

223

307

27.7

27.7

•50

222

307

27-5

27-5

•55

223

306

27.6

27.7

11.00

221

305

27.6

27.7

•05

ge

218

298

27.4

27-5

Avera

221

305

27-55

27-58

Zero

m.m.

li

135

Total

2C)6

440

Total

inches

1 1 .65

1 7-3-'

27-57

TABLE \TIb. Test No. II.

Time

L.P.

Intake

H.P.

Discharge.

H.P.

M.P.

Top

Bottom

m.m.

m.m.

Inches

11.20

308

314

30.5

30.8

•25

365

313

30-4

31.0

•30

368

314

30-4

30.8

•35

364

31-0

30.2

30.6

.40

3(^7

316

30-3

30-7

•45

370

318

30.4

30.8

•50

372

3L?

31.0

31-4

•55

371

319

30.6

31.0

12.00

age

375

322

30.7

31.2

Aver,

369

3LS

30-50

30.92

Zero

m.

m.

75

137

^0.71

Total

444

452

Total

nic

Mies

17.48

17.80

446

MEASURING OF AIR.

TABLE VIIc. Test No. III.

Time

L.P.

Intake

H.P.

Discharge.

H.P.

M.P.

Top

Bottom

m.m.

m.m.

Inches

1-35

293

286

31.8

32.6

.40

295

286

32.4

33-0

•45

296

285 .

32.0

32.6

■50

299

291

32.3

32.8

•55

297

290

31-9

32.4

2.00

296

288

32.0

32.8

■05

293

283

32.0

32.6

.10

289

279

31.8

32.6

•15

286

27i

3^4

32.0

Average

294

285

31-96

32.60

Zero

77

138

= ' Total

m.m.

371

423

Total

inches

14.O1

iG.f^^

3

2.2?^

TABLE VI Id. Test No. IV.

Time

L.P.

Intake

H.P.
Top

Discharge.

H.P.

M.P.

Bottom

m.m.

m.m.

Inches

2.25

142

285

28.4

28.8

•30

154

280

28.8

29.2

.35

145

284

28.3

28.8

.40

154

278

28. s

29.0

•45

144

284

28.0

28.7

•50

144

287

28.2

28.6

•55

146

289

28.1

28.6

3.00

140

28^

28.0

28.8

•05

ge

142

283

284

27.8
28.2:

28.8

i Avera

146

5 28.81

Zero

75

140

Total

m.m.

221

424

Total

inches

8.70

16.69

-

8.52

MEASURING OF AIR.

447

TABLE Vn

(e) Test

No. \

Time

L.i\

Intake

H.P.

Discharoe

H.P.

M.P.

Top

Bottom

m.m.

m.m.

Inches.

3-15

57

■255

25.2

25-7

.20

5«

253

25.0

25^4

■25

56

256

24.9

25-4

•30

57

258

25-3

25^8

•35

56

258

25-t

25.6

.40

57

258

25-5

25.8

•45

^ge

57
57

257

25.2

25.6

Aver

^57

25-17

25.61

Zero

74

140

Total m.m. 131 397
Total Inches 5.16 15.63

■5.39

TABLE \1I. (f)
Stimmarv of Pressure Drops across Orifices.

Test

L.P.

Intake

H.P. Orifice

H.P.

M.P.

Ibs'sq.in.

I

0.419

0.623

0.992

II

0.629

0.640

1. 105

III

0.526

0.599

1. 162

IV

0.313

0.601

1.026

V

0.186

0.562

0.914

The pressures at the discharge orifice have been measured
with a standard spring pressure gauge, which was compared
with a dead weight (Crosby) tester. It is presumed that these
dead weights (masses) give the correct pressure at the standard
value of g and, therefore, the indicators of such an instrument
have to be corrected by multiplying by the ratio of local g and
standard g.

Tables VIII a to VTII e give the statement of the observ-
ations and the reduction to pounds per sq. inch absolute at
the standard value of g. The pressure at the terminus of the
compressor and at the orifice would in the ordinary working
only differ by a small amount. On the test part of the regula-
tion was done at the valve between the two, so that by dropping
the density of the air at the orifice, nearly the same orifice head
was dbtained at all loads.

448

MEASURING OF AIR.

TABLE VIII. (a)
Test No. I.

Time

Terminus

Orifice

a.m.

Ibs/sq.in.

Ibs/sq.in.

10.05

109.5

103-75

.10

109.5

io3^5

■15

109.5

104.0

.20

II 0.0

104.25

•25

IIO.O

104.25

•30

IIO.O

104.5

•35

1 1 0.0

104.25

•40

109.5

104.0

■45

IIO.O

104.25

•50

I lO.O

104^75

•55

IIO.O

104-75

II 00

IIO.O

104.25

•05

109.0

104.0

Average

109.8

104.2

Absolute

1 18.0

Corr.

— 0.4

— 0.4

T.bs/sq. in al)s.

1 1 7.6

103.8

TABLE VIIL (b)
Test No. IL

Time
a.m.

11.20

•25
•30
•35
.40

•45
•50

•55
12.00

Average
Absolute
Corr.

Lbs/sq. in. abs.

Terminus
Ibs/sq.in.

Orifice
Ibs/sq.in.

III.O

1 16.0

1 12.0

116.5

1 12.0

1 16.5

III.5

1 16.0

III.O

T16.0

1 12.0

116.25

1 12.0

116.75

1 12.0

117.0

1 12.0

116.75

III. 7

116.4

120.0

- 0.4

— 0.4

1 19.6

1 16.0

MEASURING OF AIR.

449

TABLE VIIL (c)
Test No. in.

Time

Terminus

Orifice

p.m.

lbs/sq. in.

lbs/sq. in.

1-35

II7-5

97.0

.40

II7-5

96.75

•45

1 18.0

97.0

-50

1 18.0

97-25

•55

II 8.0

97-5

2.CX3

II7-5

97-0

-05

II 7.0

96.5

.10

1 16.5

96.5

•15

1 16.0

95-25

Average

1 17-3

96.8

Absolute

125-3

Corr.

- 0.4

- 0.4

Lbs/sq. in. abs.

125.7

96.4

TABLE VIIL (d)

Test

No. IV.

Time

Terminus

Orifice

p.m.

lbs/sq. in.

Ibs/sq.in.

2.25

IIO.O

85-25

-30

Iio.o

85-25

-35

IIO.O

85-75

.40

IIO.O

86.0

-45

109.9

85-25

•50

IIO.O

85.5

-55

109.8

85.0

3.00

109.5

85.0

•05

109.5

85-25

Average

109.9

854

Absolute

II8.5

Corr.

- 0.4

- 0.4

Lbs/sq. inch

II8.I

85.0

450 MEASURING OF AIR.

TABLE VIII. (e)
Test No. V.

Time

Terminus

Orifice

p.m.

Ibs/sq.in.

Ibs/sq.in.

3-15

68.5

76.0

.20

69.0

76.0

•25

69.0

76.0

•30

68.5

76.0

•35

68.5

76.0

.40

69.0

76.0

•45

68.2

76.0

Average

68.5

76.0

x'Vbsolute

//•3

Corr.

- 0.3

- 0.3

Lbs sq. inch

77.0

7S-7

TABLE IX.
Summary of Absolute Pressures.

I. II. III. IV. V.

Barometers 12.160 12.156 12.148 12.147 12.150

After orifice

H.P. Side 11-74^ ^•527 11.622 11.834 11.964

After orifice

M.P. Side 11-537 ii-5i6 11.549 11.546 11.588

H.P. Discharge 117.6 119.6 125.7 118.1 77.0

At orifice

pipe line (p.) 103.8 116.0 96.4 85.0 75.7

\A'e have now all the data for calculating the weight of air
taken into the compressor as measured on the inlet orifices.
Tables X (a) and X (b) give the data collected from the other
Tables and the calculation of the weight per second from the
formula of ]iage 431.

Table X (c) gives the summary of the total weight for
each test measured in this manner.

mi-:asuring of air. 451

TABLE X

(a).

Il.r. SIDE.

Test

f{a).

</■

R.

h.

P2

r.

m.

I.

87.50

32.17

53-44

0.419

11-741

520.4

9-32

II

87.50

3-2.17

53-43

0.629

11-527

523-^

11.28

III

87.50

32.17

53-41

0.526

11.622

528.3

10.31

R'

87.30

32.17

53-41

0.313

11.834

528.8

8.03

V.

87.50

32.17

5341

0.186

I I .964

528.7

6.23

TABLE X

(b).

M.P. SIDE

Test

/(>^;-

</-

R.

h.

P.

T.

ni.

I

87.62

32.17

53-44

0.623

11-537

520.4

11.27

II

87.62

32.17

53-43

0.640

II. 516

523-8

11.38

III

87.62

32.17

53-41

0.599

11-549

528.3

10.98

IV

87.62

32.17

53-41

0.601

11.546

528.8

10.99

V

87.62

32.17

53-41

0.562

11.588

-,2^.7

TO.66

TABLE X (c).

SUMIMARY WEIGHT OF AIR TAKEN IN.

Test No. H.P. side M.P. side Total

I

II

III

IV

V

From the measurements taken on the orifice on the dis-
charge from the compressor, Table XI is compiled and this gives
the result of the calculation of the weight delivered per second
from the formula of page 43 f.

TABLE XI
WEIGHT OF AIR DELIVERED.

9-32
11.28

11.27
11.38

20.59 lbs/sec,
22.66

10.31

10.98

21.29

8.03

6.23

10.99

10.66

19.02
16.89

Test

/(a)

g

R

P.

h

T

W

I

46-33

32-

17

53-44

103.8

0.992

649.4

20.24

II

46-33

32

•17

53-43

1 16.0

1. 105

655.6

22.47

III

46.33

32

-17

5341

96.4

T.162

654-5

21.04

IV

46.33

32

•17

5341

85.0

1.026

648.5

18.65

\'

46.33

32

-17

5341

75-7

0.914

638.0

16.75

452 MEASURING OF AIR.

As no condensed water vapour was taken from the inter-
cooler during the test the same values of R and K are used here
as for calculating the air taken in.

In the calculation of the weight of air taken in, it wasi
shown that the term {,pjp-i_)'/'^ could have no influence on
the result as A is infinite and ca/A is zero. This is not the
case on the discharge side where the value of {ca/A)- is 0.1388.
Table XI(a) gives the value of [p-Jp\)'/'^ for the discharge
orifice. The resulting value of the equivalent area, /(«)• is
given in Table XI (b) which also gives the weight of air
delivered given in Table XI corrected for the new value of the
equivalent area ; it is seen that this correction is only i part
in 1,000.

TABLE XI (a).

Test

P2

h

I-Pojp,

^pjp^y/x^

I

103.8

0

•992

.0095

.9865

II

II 6.0

I

.105

.0095

.9865

III

96.4

I.

.162

.0120

.9829

IV

85.0

I,

.026

.0121

.9828

V

7S-7

0,

.914

.0121

.9828

TABLE XI(b).

Test

(P:

.. /'J-V'

K

/(fl)

Weight corrected

I

.9865

46.27

20.21

II

.9865

46.27

22.44

III

.9829

46.25

21.00

IV

.9828

46.25

18.62

V

.9828

46.25

16.72

We are now in a position to compare the " Weight of air
tjaken in " of Table X measured with a pair of shaped orifices
with air at low pressure with the " Weight of air delivered " of
Table XIII measured with a single plate orifice with air at
high pressure. This comparison is given in Table XI\'.

TABLE XIV.

Test No. Air taken in Air sent out Diff. Mean Weight,
lbs/sec. lbs/sec lbs/sec.

I

20.59

20.21

+ 0.38

20.40

II

22.66

22.44

+ 0.22

22.55

III

21.29

21.00

+ 0.29

21.15

IV

19.02

18.62

+ 0.40

18.82

V

16.89

16.72

+ 0.17

16.81

Totals 100.45 98-99 146 99-73

MEASURING OF AIR. 453

111 comparing these measurements, it is to be remembere'd
that the reading of the Barometer is the only one common to
both sides and that even this enters very ditlcrently in tlie two
calculations.

It is to be remembered that the quantity of air taken in
should be greater than the quantity sent out l)y the leakage
from the glands of the compressor. Moreover there is a
slight uncertainty as to the effect of the butterfly valve on the
down stream side of the orifice. On the discharge side of
the compressor there is some evidence that the coefficient 0.675
used for the plate orifice should be increased by al:)Out Vi per
cent., had this been done the agreement would have been even
closer than it is now. From this test can be concluded :

(i) that in a well designed turbo com])ressor the leakage
through the labyrinth glands is a negligible cjuantity being less
than the deviation of the measured quantities. Xo leakage was
observed at any of the glands or flanges.

(2) that when the tests are properly conducted and ori-
fices used with the necessary precautions, the measurement at
low (normal atmospheric) pressure and of the same quantity
of air at high (deli\ery) pressure agree.

(3) thati the order of agreement, i.e.. the certaintv with
which air can be measured, is as high as with electric measure-
ments.

II. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR TEST.

The test has been made on May nth, 1913, on No. 3
Pakorny and W'ittekind Compressor of the Brakpan Com-
pressor Station. The compressor delivers 7.500 cu. ft. of free
air per minute at a pressure of 90 lbs, gauge when running
with 75 revolutions per minute.

The air discharged by the compressor was measured l>y a
Venturi tube, which had been arranged on the downstream
side of the large station air receiver. (See fig. No. 5. ) The capa-
ci.ty of this receiver is 1080 cu. ft. or 57 times the capacity of
the H.P. air cylinder. Its size was sufiicient to stop com-
pletely the fluctuations of pressure, due to the intermititent^
discharge of the compressor, so that ]>erfectly steady readings
were obtained at the Venturi tube.

A throttle valve was arranged between recei\er and
Venturi tube in order to regulate the pressure at the engine
terminus. After passing the Venturi tube the air is throttled
down to atmospheric pressure b}- four orifices arranged in
series.

The test was made under ordinary working conditions.
No special preparations were made except that the intercooler
was boiled out three weeks before the test and slight readjust-

454

MEASURING OF AIR.

ments were made on the steam valve gear, llie compressor
had been in commission since May i<;i2, and the a\erage
running hours worked out al)out i8 hrs per diem.

The compressor was started up at 4 a.m. and was running
under normal load conditions until the first test (No. 2) was
made. The pressure gauges and thermometers used in the test
were all carefully caHbrated. The i-*esults of four dififerent
tests i.e.. Nos. 2, 4, 5 and 6 are dealt with in the following.^
No. I test is omitted as this was a steam consumption test onh\
made at a previous day, whilst No. 3 test did not give any
reliable results owing to the unstable conditions that existed
during the test and which were due to the attempt to run the
compressor with blocked governor.

In the following calculations the same standard constants
have been used and the same reductions have been made as
under the turbo compressor test.

Furthermore in order to simplify matters and to avoid
repetitions the arrangement and marking of tables correspond
as much as possible to this test.

The following tables I (a) and (b) give the details of
barometer and hygrometer observations and reduction and
Table I (c) gi^'es the summary.

TABLE I (a).

Barometer and Hygrometer Readings.

r of

Dry

Wet

Barom.

Barom.

Bulb.

Bulb.

Test No.

Time.

Inches.

F.

°C.

°C.

II

10.55 a.m.

^

_

_

II. 10

25.020

71.0

19.9

11.4

11.25

25.016

72.0

20.4

12.2

11.40

25-015

71-5

19.9

II-5

11.50

25.015

73-5

21.4

12.4

11-55
^e over test

—

—

—

* '

Avera£

25.016

72.0

20.4

11.9

Temp.

corrections
ted Barometer

— 0.098

Correc

24.9 1 S

MEASURING OF AIR. 455

iV

2.00 p.m.

—

—

—

—

-

2.05

24.980

76.0

22.2

II

•7

2.15

24-975

76.8

22.2

12

.2

2.25

24.970

76.8

22.3

12

.0

2.30
ge over test

—

—

—

—

A vera

24-975

76.5

22.2

12

.0

Temp.

correction
:ted Barometer

— 0.108

Correc

24.867

V

2.50

_

_

2-55

24.974

77.8

23.2 ■

12

.8

3-5

24.968

76.8

23.2

13

•4

3-15

24.968

76.0

22.4

12

•4

3.20
ge o\er test

—

—

—

—

A^•era;

24.970

76.9

22.9

12

•9

Temp.

correction

— 0.109

Corrected I'.aroiiieter

24.S61

\T

3-35

_

_

_

_

345

24.965

73-5

21.9

12

.2

4.00

24.960

72-5

21.4

II

.1

4-5

ge o\er test

24.960

72.2

21. 1

II

.0

Averai

24.962 ■

']2.y

21-5

II

■4

Temp.

correction

— 0.099

Correc

■ted Barometer

24.863

TABLE I (b).
Reduction of Hygrometer Readings.

Test No. ■ II IV V \l

Dry Bulb °C.
Wet Bulb X.
Dry Bulb °F. {t)
Wet Bulb °F. (t.,)

(t-t,)
Pressure of saturated
aqueous vajjour t-^(f.^)
0.000367 B it — t-i)

^ 1571 ' '-^

20.4

22.2

22.9

21-5

1 1.9

12.0

12.9

II.4

68.7

72.0

73-2

70.7

534

53-6

55-2

52.5

15-3

18.4

18.0

18.2

0.408

0.41 1

0-435

0.395

0.142

0.171

0.167

0.169

456

MEASURING OF AIR.

Vapour Pressure

(A -f.)=f

Pressure of saturated

0.266

0.240

0.268

0.226

vapour t (F).

0.700

0.783

0.816

0.750

Rel. Humidity ^ in %

38.0

30.7

32-8

30.7

TABLE I (c)

Test
No.

Barometer
inches

Dry Bulb

Humidity

/
inches

n

IV

\^

VI

24.918
24.867
24.861
24.863

20.4
2.2.2.
22.9

21.5

38.0

30.7
32.8

30.7

0.266
0.240
0.268
0.226

The Table I (c) reduces for standard \aluc of graxity to
TABLE II.

Test Barometer Air Tcmjierature f

No. pa Ibs/sq.in. ^F. °F(abs) Ibs/sq.inch

II

12.210

68.7

32>^.l

0.130

IV

12.184

72.0

531-4

0.118

\'

12.182

73-2

532.6

0.1 31

\T

12.183

7'-'-'J

530. 1

0.1 1 1

From these data and from No. 28 of Smithsonian tallies we

hnd the weight of moisture present as per Table HI. The weights

of working air are given in table IV and the values of R. « and

4

-^ , for each Test are calculated in table V (a) and (b).

.)n — 1

Test

11
IV
V
Yl

TABLE HI.
JVc'uiht of moisture present.

Humidity

38.0

30-7
32.8

30.7

Grs/cu.ft.

2.908
2.612
2.899
2.;o6

Ibs/cu.ft.

0.000415
0.000373
0.000414
0.000358

MEASURING OF AIR. 457

TABLE IV

J'f^eif/hf of working air.

Test

W'eig-ht of

Weight c

>f Total

No.

P=Pa-f

T„

dry air.

Moisture

Weight of

2.699-f

working air.

II

12.080

528.1

0.06176

0.00042

0.06216

IV

12.066

5314

0.06129

0.00037

0.06166

V

12.051

532.6

0.06108

0.00041

0.06149

VI

12.072

530.1

0.06148

0.00036

0.06184

TABLE V (a).

\'ahie of R for air taken in l)y the comj^ressor.

^ = 53.36 + 32.24^
-/ ^ weic^ht of dry air, B = weight of moistin-e.

Te.<t

A

B

32.34^

R

II

I\"
\'

\T

0.06176
0.06129
0.06108
0.06148

0.00042
0,00037
0.00041
0.00036

0.2193
0.1946
0.2164
0.1890

53-5-^

53-55
53-5'^
53-55

TABLE

: V (h:i.
. 4

Vakie of k and ^
K = 1.4064 — 0.24^

Test

No.

4

A B 0.24. « K -^ 3n—\

(negatiye)

11 0.06176 0.00042 0.0016 1.4048 0.2882 29.55

IX' 0.06129 0.00037 0.0015 I -4049 0.2883 29.61

\' 0.06108 0.00041 0.0016 1.4048 0.2882 29.55

M 0.06148 0.00036 0.0014 1.4050 0.2884 29.68

The tables VI (a) to VI (e) giye the obseryations of fihe
temperatures of atmosphere, at L.P. inlet, H.P. discharge and at
yenturi.

458

MEASURING OF AIR.

TABLE VI (a

Test

Time

Hygr.

L.P. Inlet

H.P. Dis.

\^enturi

No.

°C.

X.

X.

X.

II

10.55 a.m.

—

26.7

141.0

94.0

11.00

—

27.0

141.0

94.0

•05

—

27.2

141.0

94.0

.10

19.9

27^3

141.0

94.0

•15

—

27^3

140.8

94-5

.20

—

27.4

140.8

95 -o

•25

20.4

27^5

140.8

95-0

•30

—

27^5

140.8

95 -o

•35

—

27.6

140.8

95.0

.40

19.9

28.0

140.8

95-5

•45

—

28.3

140.8

95^3

•50

21.4

29.0

140.8

95-2

"•55
ages

—

29.2

140.8

____95^5_

Aver

20.4

27.7

140.9

94.8

Corr

TABLE

VI (b)^

- 0.8

94.0

Test

Time

Hygr.

L.L. Inlet

H.P. Dis.

A'enturi

No.

°C.

°C.

X.

X.

IV

2.00 p.m

—

31.0

1 56.0

108.0

.05

22.2

30.8

156.3

108.5

.10

—

30.8

157-0

109.0

•15

22.2

31.0

I57-0

109.0

.20

—

31^1

1572

IIO.O

•25

23-3

31.0

157^4

IIO.O

2.30
iges

—

31.0

158.0

II 1. 0

Averj

22.2

31.0

157^0

109.4

Corre

ction

TABLE VI (c).

— 0.8

108.6

Test

Time

Hygr.

L.P. Inlet

H.P. Dis.

\'enturi

No.

°C.

°C.

X.

X.

V

2.50 p.m.

—

31.0

141.0

104.0

•55

23.2

31.2

141.0

102.3

3.00

—

31.0

140.8

lOI.O

•05

23.2

31.0

140.7

99^5

.10

—

31.0

140.7

98-5

•15

22.4

30.8

140.6

97-5

3.20
iges

22.9

31.0

140.5

97.0

Axevi

31.0

140.8

1 00.0

Correction

- 0.8

99.2

MEASURINf; OF ATR.

459

TAI'.I. I'-

\l (d).

Test

Time

ll ygr.

I.T'. Inlet

II. 1'. Dis.

N'enturi

No.

°C.

"C.

C.

"C.

Vi

3-35 P-iii-

—

304

i28.->

03 ^>

.40

—

3^-3

i2,S.5

ij2.S

•45

21.9

30.2

[2S,2

92.0

•50

—

30.0

1 28.0

91.0

■55

—

30.0

I25.I

91.0

4.00

21.4

30.0

124.8

90.0

4-05
ges

21. 1

30.0

124.8

90.0

Avera

^1-5

30.1

126.8

91.4

Correc.

iion

- 0.8

A'

lABLE Vi (ej,
SUMMARY

90.6

Test

llygr.

L.P. Inlet

H.P. Dis.

Venturi

CENTIGRADE

II

20.4

27.7

140.9

94.0

IV

22.2

31.0

157-0

108.6

V

22.9

31.0

140.8

99.2

VI

21-5

30.1

faiirI':nheit

126.8

90.6

II

68.7

82.0

-^85.5

201.2

IV

72.0

87.8

314.6

227.4

V

73-2

87.8

285.4

210.6

VI

70.7

86.2

260.2

I95-I

Tal:)le VII gi\cs llic drop of pressure across the Venturi
measured in inclics water column and the reduction to Ibs'sq. in.
and standard gravity and temperature.

TABLE \TI

I'ciifuri head Jiicasiirrd by zcaf.:v gauge.

Test No.

II.

IV.

\'

VI.

Time

lead

Time Mead

rime

lead

Time Head

a.m.

inch

l).m. inch

p.m.

inch

p.m. inch

10.55

8.6

2.00 9.45-

2.50

9.8

3-35 9-3

11.00

8.6

■05 9-5

■55

97

•40 9-4

•05

8.6

.TO 9.5

3.00

975

•45 9-4

.TO

8.r)

•15 9-5

•05

975

.50 9.4

■E5

8.6

.20 9.5

.\o

07

•55 9-15

,20

8.6

.-^5 9-5

•15

97

4.00 9.3

460

MEASURING OF AIR.

•25

8.6

•30

8.6

•35

8.6

.40

8.6

•45

8.6

■50

8.6

11-55

•^•5

Average

8.592

Correction -\-

0.26

230 9-5

3.20 9.7 4.05 9.3

9-493

9.729

9.321

8.852

Ibs/sq. in.

0.3186

0.3416

0.3501

0-3354

Table VIII gives the pressures at engine terminus and at ven-
turi in lbs. ]ier sq. inch corrected for the standard value of g.

TABLE Vni.
Pressures at Compressor Terminus and Ventiiri.

Test No. II.

Test No.

IV.

Time

Terminus

X'enturi

Time

Terminus Venturi

a.m.

gauge.

abs.

]).m.

gauge

abs.

10.55

73

66.0 .

. 2.00

90

71.0

11.00

73

66.0 .

• .05

91

71^5

•05

73

66.0 .

.10

90

71^3

.10

73

65^7 •

• -15

90

70.8

•15

73

65-7 •

.20

90

71-3

.20

73

6b. 0 .

-25

90

71-5

•-5

73

66.0 .

• 2.30

90

71-3

■3-^

73

r)6.o .

—

—

—

-35

73

66.0 .

—

—

—

.40

73

66.0 .

—

— -

—

•45

73

66.0 .

—

—

—

•50

73

66.0 .

—

—

—

1 1^55

73

64.5 •

—

—

Average ....

• 73-0

65.8

90.1

71.2

Correction . .

1.2

0.1

1

1.2
91-3

0.1

74.2

65-9

71-3

Test No. V.

"'est No.

VI.

Time.

Terminus

X'enturi

Time.

Term in u

s Venturi

a.m.

gauge.

abs.

p.m.

gauge.

abs.

2.50

59

71.8 .

• 3-35

56

68. S

•55

59

71.0 .

.40

55

68.5

3.00

59

71.0 .

■45

56

69.0

•05

59

71.0 .

• -50

56

68.8

AriL\SirkING f)F ATR. 461

.10
3.20

58

58
58

71.0 .
71.0 .
71.0 .

• -55
4.00

•. 4-05

55

55
55

554
0.8

67.5
67.0
67.6

Averag"e

Correction . . . .

58.6
0.6

71. 1
o.r

71.2

68.1
0.1

59-2

56.2

68.2

TABLE IX

Sitjiniiary of absolute pressures in Ibs/sq. iiieh.

Test No.

II.

IV.

V.

VI.

Barometer

12.210

12.184

12.182

12.18^

Engine terminus

86.41

103.48

7^-^^

68. ^58

Venturi

65.90

71-31

71.20

68.15

Drop across Venturi

0.3186

0.3416

0.3501

0.3354

\'enturi throat ( />., )

^^.58

70 Q7

70.85

67.81

As stated before the compressor has a suction capacity of
7,500 cu.ft./min. at 75 revolutions per minute, liable X gives the
a\erage numiber of revolutions per minute for the ditferent tests
and from these the weights of air drawn per sec. are calculated.

The temperature measured in the suction chamber of the
L.P. Cylinder is taken far this calculation as being the tempera-
ture inside the cylinder at the Ijeginning of the compression stroke-
although as ])ointe(l out l)efore, these temperatures cannot be
equal. By special indicator cards, taken with a very weak spring
during the tests, it was proved that the pressure inside the cylinder
at the beginning of the compression stroke is equal to the baro-
metric pressure and this pressure is therefore used for the pur-
poses of Table X.

TABLE X.

Weight of air taken /;;.
Test IL IV . V^ Vl"

Revs, per min. 71.45 76.80 77.54 75.14

Cu. ft. of air drawn in per min. 71.45 76.80 77.54 75-14
Temperature at L.P. suction

chamber °F. 82.0 87.8 87.8 86.2

Absolute Temperature °F. 541.4 547-2 547.2 S45.6

Stm. pressure 12.21 12.18 12.18 12.18

lbs of air per sec. 7.25 7.693 7.768 7.55

462 MEASURING OF ATR.

The dimensions of the Venturi were found by careful cali
Ijration with micrometer gauges to be :

Upstream (Hameter : 9.9323 inches : A = 77.48 sq. inches
Throat diameter: 6.5003 inches: a = 33-i85 sq. inches

The coefficient of contraction was taken as 0.99 instead of
0.985 as given for the inlet nozzles of tihe turl)o com])ressor test
because the Venturi had been designed for a capacity consider-
ably larger than that of the comi:)ressor under test.

We can now comi)ilc taljlc XI which gi\es the result of the
calculation of the weight of air delivered per second.

TABLE XI

IJ'ciylit of

air delivered.

Test

TI.

IV.

V.

VI.

g

32.17

32.17

?<2-^7

32.17

R

53-58

53-55

53-58

53-55

K

1.4048

1 .4049

1 .4048

1 .4050

Pi

65.90

71-31

71.20

68.15

P2

65-58

70.97

70.85

67.81

h

0.3186

0.3416

0.3501

0.3354

T

660.6

686.8

670.0

654-5

W

7.062

7-464

7.642

7-405

The same values of R and /\' are used here as found for
air of atmospheric pressure as no condensed w'ater vapour was
taken from the intercooler during the test.

Table XII gives a comparison of the air taken in with the
air discharged in reference to the pressure at engine terminus.

TABLE XII

Test II IV V VI

Gauge Pressure at

engme terminus

74-2

91-3

59-2

56.2

Air taken in

7-25

7-693

7-768

7-550

Air sent out

7.062

7.464

7.642

7-405

Difference in ';'(

2.59

2.98

1.62

1.92

As mentioned before, the heating up of the air when flowing
into the c\lindcr may introduce an error into the comparison of
air taken in and air snit oul. ft is inleresling to find out what
increase- in leniiierature from suction cluunber to inside of cylinder
is necessar\ in order to explain the abo\-e discrepancies between
the measurements at air inlet and air discharge.

MEAStTRTNG OF AIR. 4^3

From the weights of air sent out as given in table XII we
can find the temperatures which, when existing at the beginning
of compression stroke inside the cyHnder, woukl make the weights
of air taken in equal to the weights of air sent out for the differ-
ent tests. These figures are given in table XII (a) which shows
also the temperatures of atmosphere. By comparing the actual
increase of temperature from atmosphere to suction cham])er with
the hypothetical increase of temperatures from suction chamber
to inside cylinder it stands to reason that the discrepancies as per
table XII are not only due to leakage but also to the heating up
of the air when entering the L.I', cylinder.

TABLE XII (a)

Test II IV V \l

Temperatures in Centigrade.

Atmosphere 20.4 22.2 22.e) 21.5

Suction Chamber 2"/."/ 31.0 31.0 30.1

Cylinder 35.8 40.2 35.9 35.9

Temperatures i)i Fahrenheit.

Atmosphere 68.7 72.0 73.2 70.7

Suction Chamber 82.0 87.8 87.0 86.2

Cylinder ^/'>■^ >*^'44 9^^-S <K' 5

TK.VNSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

SocTH .Afkica.v Institutkix of Encixki-r.^. — Saturday, May gth : VV.
J. Crilcler, Pre.sident. in the chair. — '" 'I'lic primihlc of siiirlarity. and its
appticdion in nuicliiiic design '" : W. Alexander. The author is not aware
of any paper or work on machine design in which the relations hetween
(Hfferent-sized engines of similar type are adequately e.xplained. It was
therefore sought to rectify this defect, .\mongst the points of similarity
discussed were conditions producing the same stress intensities in corre-
sponding parts of machines, centrifugal whirling, speed regulators, lubrica-
tion, centrifugal pumps, turbines, and automobile engines, etc.

South .-Xfkuwx Society of Civil Exctxf.krs. — Wednesday. May i.Uh:
F. O. Stephens, M.T.C.E.. Presideht, in the chair. — "Rail-way signalliim in
South Africa'': E. Dutton. The fundamental differences in working
between English and South African single line railways were pointed out,
the important requirements for signalling on single line systems, such as
that characterising ])ractically the whole South African mileage, were
stated and discussed, and tlie distinguishing features of the signalling
adopted as standard by the South African Railway .Administration were
described and illustrated. — "' TIic desfruction by Hoods of bridges on the
.\atal coast lines, and the erection of temporary structures" : J.Macken-
zie. During March, 1913, great floods caused the destruction of several
railway bridges on the Natal coast lines, over an area extending along
the whole Natal coast from the Pondoland border to a hundred miles into
Zululand. Details of structure of six bridges so destroyed were given,
togetlier with descriptions of four of the temporary bridges subsequently
erected.

464 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

RovAL Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, May 20th : L. Perin-
guey, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S., President, in the chair.^" Pliosphorcscctit bac-
teria from the sea round Robben Island": Dr. H. Bayon. Pure cultures
were exhibited, showing various degrees of kuninosity. The identification
of the bacteria not being completed, exhibitor was not ready to state that
these vibrios differed sufficiently from the micro-organisms observed in
other parts of the world, to allow the classification of a separate variety.
Attention was brought to the various conditions under whicii these bac-
teria lost and acquired again their luminous properties, both in relation to
special media and aerobic conditions. — " A trypanosome and hccmogrc-
garinc from the mole shark (scilliorhinus edwardsii.)'' : Dr. H. Bayon
Microscopical specimens of these two new blood parasites were exhibited,
and their life-cycle and transmission through an intermediate host (prob-
ably of the nature of a leech) were explained.- — "Properties of Pfaffians
and their analogues in determinants " : Dr. T. Muir. — " The secular varia-
tion of the magnetic elements in South Africa during the period 1900-1913.
Prof. J. C. Beattie. The annual changes in the magnetic declination
vary from an average decrease of 1.5' of westerly declination at
Mauritius during 1900- 1909 — a change which has turned into an increase
of 1.4' per year between 1907- 1909 — to a decrease of 14' per year in the
neighl)ourhood of Durban ; from the latter place the decrease becomes
less a.s we go in a north-westerly direction and attains a value of 5' at
Laonda ; the decrease as we go west or south-west is also quite;
definite, tliough not so great, and at Capetown has the value of 8'. It
appears also that the absolute value of the decrease is increasing all over
South i\frica at the present time. A compa'rison of the results given
with those of the American and British Admiralty declination charts for
approximately the same epoch shows no continuity between the land
values of the secular change and those over the sea, the high values over
the land find no place over the sea except in the case of the result
obtained from the Gauss and Carnegie observations. The greatest annual
change of dip is found in the south-western part of the continent in the
neighbourhood of Capetown ; it amounts to an increase of southerly dip
of 8' per year. The line of no change passes through Madagascar, east
of that there is a decrease of southerly dip. The annual change in the
horizontal intensity shows a decrease in absolute magnitude towards the
north ; over the greater part of the Union it has a value of from 80 ry to
100 y yearly, and is a decrease.

tiTLE PAGE AND INDEX.

The Index to V-'oluine X is in course of ])reparation, and will
l)C forwarded to Members and Subscribers in due course, with
the 'I'itle Page, Contents and Report. At the same time particu-
lars with regard to arrangements for binding the volume will be
announced.

4^5
THE SANITARY STATE OF THE STOCK OF THE
LOURENCO MARQUES DISTRICT.

By Lieut. J. B. Botelho.

{Not printed.)

A DECIMAL COINAGE FOR SOUTH AFRICA.

By Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., LL.

D.

(Not printed.)

ON EXTRANEOUS EDUCATION.

By H. L. Lake,

(Not printed.)

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1913-1914.

A

HONORARY PRESIDENT.

HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
Tiofessor K. MARLOTH, M.A., Ph.D.
EX-PRESIDENT.

W. ROBERTS. D.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Dr. W. Johnson, L.R.C.P.. L.R.C.S.,

Professor of Pure Mathematics, P.loemfontein.

South African College, Cape Town. A. F. Williams, B.Sc, General Man-

S. Evans. Johannesburg. ager, De Beers Consolidated Mines,

Ltd., Kiniberley.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES,
C. F. JuRiTZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C, i H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.Soc, Union
Government Analytical Laboratory, Observatory, Johannesburg.

Cape Town. |

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
A. Walsh, P.O. Box 39, Cape Town.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
H. Tucker, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street, Cape
'" ~ ~ 1497- (Telegraphic Address: " Scientific")

Town. P.O. Box

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

I. CAPE PROVINCE.

Cape Peninsula.
A. J. Anderso.n, M.A., M.B., D.P.H.,

M.R.C.S.
Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E
Rev. W. Flint, D.D.
Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, M.A., Sc D.,

F.L.S.
A. H. Reid, F.R.I. B. a., F.R.San. J

Grahamstown.
Prof. E. H. L. ScHWARZ, A.R.C.S.. F.G.S.

Kingwilliamstown.
F. .\. O. Pym.

Kiniberley.
A. H. J. Bourne. M.A.
W. Gasson, F.C.S.
Major F. S. Lynch, J. P.
F. Oats, F.G.S.
A. H. Watkins, M.D., M.R.C.S.,

M.L.A.
Miss M. Wilman.

Port Elisabeth.
W. A. Way, M.A.

Queenstown.

E. E. Galpin, F.L.S.

Stcllenbosch.

Prof. B. DE St. J. VAN DER RiET, M.A.,

Ph.D.

II. TRANSVAAL.

Johannesburg.
P. Caealet.
W. Cullen, M.I.M.M.

F. Flowers, C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S.

R. T. A. I.VNES, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

T. MoiR. U.A., D.Sc.
Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E.
Prof.. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M..
M.T.M.E., M.I.M.M., F.I.C.

Pretoria.

J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
F. E. Kanthack, A.M.I.C.E.
Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

Poll lief stroom.
F. G. Tyeks. 11. a.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.

Bloemfontein.

Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D.
A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S.

IV. NATAL.

Durban.
A. McKenzie, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S.

Pietermaritsburg.
Dr. J. Hyslop, D.S.O., M.B., CM.

V. RHODESIA.

^ Bulawjyo.

Rev. S. S. DoRNAN, M.A., F.G.S.

Salisbury.
F. Eyles, F.L.S., M.L.C

S.

NT. MOZAMBIQUE.

Seruya.

TRUSTEES.
II. M. Arderne.

Prof. J. C. Bkattif. D.Sc, F.R.S T
A. D. R. TuGWEix.

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

1ST JULY, 1914

* Indicates Foundation Members i30th June. 1902)

t Indicates Life Members.

Names of PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION

arc Primed in THICK CAPITALS.

Names of Memi'.kks ok Council for the 1914 Session are printed

in Small Capitai,s.
Names of Members whose nddres>es are incomplete or not known

are printed in italics.

Members arc rcqitcstid to notify the Aisistaiit General Secretary (P.O Box i-fg'j,
i^ape Town) of any changes in ahlress, or additions ivhich may be necessary
as soon as possible.

Year of

Election.

1902. ta-Ababrelton. Koljert. F.R.ll.S., F.R.MS., F.S.S.. Royal

Institute, Northumberland A\enue, London, W.C.
1902. *Aburrow, Cliarles, P.O. Box 534, Johannesburg.
1905. Adanison, John E., M.A., Education Department, Pretoria.
1904. Aiken, Alexander, P.O. Box 2636, Johannesburg.

1904. x\ins\vorth, Herbert, P.O. Box 1553, Johannesburg.

1905. Albu, Sir George, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.
1914. Alderson, Ernest Cecil, De Beers Office, Kimberley.

191 3. Alexander, William, A.M.I.C.E., A.R.T.C, South African

School of Mines and Technology, P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.
1910. Andrrson. Alfrkd Jasi'kk. M.A.. M.B., D.P.H., M.R.C.S.,
City Hall, Ca]:)eto\vn.

1902. *Andrews. (]. S. Burt. M.I.C.E.. M.I.Mech.E., M.S.A.,

P.( ). Box 1049, Johannesburg.

1914. Angus, Da\ id, P.O. Box 230, Kiml)erley.
1914. Anstey. Norman, P.O. Box 1003, Johannesburg.

1903. Arnold, Dr. F., P.O. Box 211, Pretoria.

1908. Arnott, William, Gas Works, Port l^lizabeth. Cape.

1904. Auret, A. A., P.O. Box 838, Johannesburg.

1910. A\ers, Gilbert. F., Dynamite Factory. Modderfontein,
Transvaal.

1913. Bachmaim, Carl. D\namite b'actory. Modderfontein,

Transvaal.
iQof). Bailey, Sir Abe, Kt., I'.(). Box 50. Johannesburg.
1902. *Baker, Herbert, F.R.I.B.A., Exploration Buildings

O65-8), P.O. Box 4959. Johannesburg.

IV LIST OF MEMBERS.

}'eur of
Election.

1903. Balmforth, Rev. Ramsden, " Shirley," 6, Stephen Street,

Capetown.
igj3. Barboza, Joao Taniagnini de Souza, Engineer. Inhambane,

Province of Mozambique.
191 1. Harratt, Gaston Frederick Sharpe, Benibezaan, Queque,

Southern Rhodesia.
191 1. Barratt, Rowland Lorraine. Benil)czaan, (Jueque. Southern

Rhodesia.
1909. Barrett, \V. H., Traffic Manager, S.A. Railways, Bloem-
fontein.

1905. jBasto, H. E. Alberto Celestine Eerreira Pinto, Governor

of Manica and Sofala Province. Beira, Portuguese

East Africa.
1909. Baumann, Gustav, Surveyor, Bloenifontein.
191 1. Baxter, E. C, Customs, Bulawayo.
1903. Baxter, William. M.A.. South African College School

Capetown.
1902. *Beattie, John Carruthers, D.Sc. F".R.S.E. (Pres. A.,

1910), Professor of Physics, .South African College

C'apetown.

19 1 3. Beerstecher, Leonard, P.O. Box 2888, Johannesburg.

1906. Bester, Arthur Edward, F.R.H.S., x\gricultural Depart

ment. Potchefstroom, Transvaal.
191 1. Bevan, Llewellyn Edward Williams. M.R.C.V'.S.. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1909. Biebuyck, M. F., P.O. Box 137. Bloemfontein.

1910. Bisset, James, M.LC.E., M.R.San.L, Beau^eigh, Kenil-

worth. Cape Di\-ision.

1905. Blackshaw, George N.. B.Sc. F.C.S.. Analytical Labora-

tory, Department of Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.
1904. Bleloch, W. E., P.O. Box 3692, Johanneslmrg.

1914. Blomefield, Mrs. Catherine, 66. x\nstey's Buildings,

Johanncs])urg.

1906. Bohie, Hermann, M.LE.E., Corporation Professor of Elec-

trotechnics, South African College, Capetown.
19TT. Bolus, Charles Arthur, 20, Steytler's Buildings, P.O. Box

232, Johannesburg.
190^. jBolus, Mrs. F.. B.A., .Sherwood, Kenilworth, near Cape-
town.
1913. Bonn, Adalbert L. M.. C.E. (Pros. C. 1013), I'-O. Box 204.

Lourenco Marques.
1OT3. Botelho, Lieut. Jono Baptista, Chief ^'eterinary Officer,

Depc'rtment of Agriculture, Lourenco Marques.
1912. Bourke, Dr. W.. fTan(^ver, C.P.
1906. Bourne. A. 11. [. .M.A.. Prmcipal, High Schools, Kim-

berlev. Cape.
TO13. Bracht, O'^-cnr. P O Box 134, Port Elizabeth.

LIST OF MEMBERS. V

Year of
Election.

1902. *Brame, Charles Dimond Horatio, A.M.I.C.E., Devon Pen,

Holmdene, Transvaal.
1904. Brammer, Charles, Germiston, Transvaal.
1912. Brauns. JrJ. j. C. E., M.D., Ph.D., M.A., Willowmore, C.P.

1912. Brauns, Mrs. PI., U'illowmore, C.P.

1904. Brayshaw, B. \V., P.O. Box 171, Johannesburg.
1907. Brayshaw, Edmund, P.O. Box 171, Johannesburg.

1914. Brierly, James D., Department of Agi'iculture, Bloemfon-

tein.
1910. Brill, J., Litt.D., L.H.D., Ph.Th.M., Lorothwana, 65, Park

Road, Bloemfontein.

1905. Brincker, J. C. H., c/o The Montague Co-operative Wines,

Ltd., Montagu, C.P.
1914. Brinton, Arthur Greene, F.R.C.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
F.R.S.M., P.O. 5852, Johannesburg.

1910. Britten, Gilbert Frederick, B.A., Government Chemical

Laboratory, Capetown.

191 1. Bromehead, Geoffrey N., Town Clerk, Bulawayo.

1902. *Brooks, Edwin James Dewdney, C.E., Resident Engineer,

Waterworks, Umtata. Cape.

1903. Brown, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc, Professor of Applied

Mathematics, South African College, Capetown.
1914. Brown, Rev. Plolman, P.O. Box 82, Bulawavo, Rhodesia.
1910. Brown, John, M D., CM., F.R.C.S., L.R'C.S.E., Avond

Rust, Barry Avenue. Rosebank, Cape.

1907. Brown. Wilham Bridgman. M.A., Grifhtlnille, Queens-

town, Cape.

1913. Browne. Rowland, P.. A.M.LC.E.. P.O. Box 432, Lourenco

Marques.

1908. Browne, Right Rev. W. Gore, Bishop of Kimberley,

Bishop's Garth, Kimberley.

1909. Brownlee. John Innes. M.B.. C.M., Alexandra Road. King-

will iamstown. Cape.

1912. Brummer. Rev. Prof. N. J., M.A., B.D., Victoria College,

Stellenbosch, Cai)c.
1907. Brune, Rev. RicharcK P.O. Box 41, Kimberley, Cape.
1912. Bryant. Edward Godfrey. B.A., B.vSc. Grey Institute,

Port Elizabeth.

1902. *Buchan. James. Assistant Resident Engineer, Rh(^des

Buildings. Bulawayo.
1905. Burroughs, Herbert John, c'o Drawing Office. Engineer-in-
Chief's Department. South African Railways.
Johannesburg.

1903. Caldecott. W. A.. B.A.. D.Sc, F.C.S., P.O. Box 67,

Johannesburg.

1914. Calder, William J., B.A., 30, Milner Street, Kimberley.

1910. Cameron, Rt. Rev. William Mouatt, M.A., D.D., Coad-

jutor Bishop of Capetown, 61, Burg Street, Captown.

VI LIST OF MKMlihRi.

Year of
Election.

1902. *tCampbeI], Allan McDowell Mcl.eod, B.A., Resident

Engineer, South African Railways, Bandolier Kop,

Transvaal.
1908. Carlson, K. A., Forestry Division. Department of x\gri-

culture, Bloenifontein.
1913. Carvalho, Jose J. d'A., Chief of Naval Services, P.O. Box

262, Louren(;o Marques.
1910. Cattell, E. J., Chamber of Commerce, Capetown.

1903. yCAZALET. PERC^■. c/ o Rand Mines, Ltd., The Corner

House, Johanunesburg.
1906. f Champion, Ivor Ed-a'ard (address waiitcd).

191 3. Charters, R. H., M.LC.E., Professor of Civil Engineering,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1383, Johannesburg.
1903. Clark, Jolw, M.A., LL.D., Arderne Professor of English
Language and Literature, Soutli African College, Cape-
town.

1902. *Clarke, W. E. C, M.A., ■/■/■/. Church Street h^, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1903. Cohen, Walter P., F.R.P.S., Hon. Sec, Johannesburg P^ield

and Naturalists' Club, P.O. Box 68, Johannesburg.

1908. Collie, J., Craigwan, 775, Schoeman Street, Arcadia, Pre-

toria,
1904 Collins. Ernest A. E.. 66. Pritchard Street. P.O. Box '/2;^,
Johannesburg.

1914. Collins. Louis N. P... P.( ). Box /Zt,, Johannesburg.

1906. Collins. M. R., Irrigation Department. 1\( ). liox 399. Pre-
toria.

1904. Cooper, Fred \\\. Public Library, Port Elizabeth, Cape.
1914. Cory, George E., M.A.. Professor of Chemistry and Metal-

lurgv, Rhodes Universitv College. Grahamstown.
[904. tCoutts.' John Morton Sim. M.D.. L.R. C.P.. D.P.H.,

M.R.C.S. Britstown, C.P.
1902. *Cox. Walter Hubert. Royal ( )l:)servatory. near Cai)etown.

1909. Crawford. David Chambers. M.A.. B.Sc. B.Sc.Agr.,,

Elsenburg. Mulder's Vlei. Caj^e.

1902. *Crawf()rd, Lawrenck. M.xA... D.Sc. E.R.S.E. ( \*ice-

President). Professor of Pure Mathematics. South
African College, Capetown.

1903. tCuLLEN, William, M.LM.M. (General Secretary,

1905-1908). Dynamite Factory. Modderfontein, Trans-
vaal.
1903. Currie. O. J.. M.B.. M.R.C.S.. Claremont. near Capetown.

191 3. Da Silva. Colonel Pedro Luiz de Bellegarde, .Surveyor-
General of Mozambi(|ue, P.O. Box 288. Lourengo
Ma roues.

T905. Dale. LIu]>ert. P.O. Box 632. Johannc^biir?-.

T903. Dalrym])le. LTon. W.. P.O. Box 2927. Johannesburg.

LIST OF MKMIiKRS. Vtt

Year of
Election.

1913. Damaiit, E. L., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

191 3. Daniel John, Armley House, 30, Plein Street, Johannes-

burg.

1910. Davenport, William John, P.O. Box 1049, [ohanne.sburg.
1903. Davies, j. Hubert, ■M.I.E.E.. M.I.Mech.E., A.M.I.C.E.,

P.O. Box 1386, Johannesburg.
1903. Davis, Frederick H., B.Sc, M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 1934,
Johannesburg.

1903. jDavy, Joseph Burtt, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Burttholm,

Vereeniging, Transvaal.

1914. De Kock, Dr. S. M., P.O. Box 321, Bloemfontein.

1913. Delbridge, Wni. J., A. R.I. B. A., P.O. Box 120, Capetown.

1913. DinhamPeren, A. E. H., De Beers Consolidated Mines,
Ltd., Kimberley.

1904. Dobson, Professor J. H., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1903. Dodds. William John, M.D., D.Sc. Glencoila, Bella-

houston. Glasgow, Scotland.

1909. Dodt, J. J., National Museum, Bloemfontein.

191 1. DoRN.\N, Rev. Samuel S., M.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 510,

Bulawayo.

1913. Drake, John Bernard, M.A., 82, Fourth Street, Boksburg

North, Transvaal.

1914. Drake. Wilfred, B.Sc, 55, Robinson Street, Beaconsfield,

Kimberley.

1908. Drege, Isaac Louis, P.O. Box 148, Port Elizabeth, Cape.
1914. Dreyer, P., Civil Commissioner, Civil Commissioner's

Office, Kimberley.

1906. Druce, P. M., M.A., 'Hie College, Potchefstroom, Trans-
vaal.

1902. *Drury, Edward Guy Dru, M.D., B.S., D.P.H., Grahams-
town, Cape.

19 1 3. Du Toit, Professor A. E., Transvaal University College,
Pretoria.

1906. Duerden, James E., M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of
Zoology, Rhodes University College, Grahamstown,
Cape.

1913. Duirs, M. \\'., P.n. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1910. Duncan, A., P.O. Box 12 [4, Johannesburg.

1904. Duncan, Patrick, C.M.G., Sauer's Buildings, Johannesburg.

1909. 13unkerton, E. B., c/'o Messrs. Lennon, Ltd., W'est Street,

P.O. Box 266, Durban. Natal.

1910. Dunn, William J., 48, Corrie Street, Jeppestown, [ohannes-

burg.

191 1. tDuthie, George, M.A., F.R.S.E. ( Pres. D. 1911), Director

of Education. Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1912. Dwyer. E. W., B.A., Forest Department, Port Elizabeth.

Vm LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1904. Eaton, \\'illiai-n Arthur, 74, St. George's Street, Capetown.

1909. Edwards, Charles J., c/o Messrs. Heynes Mathew & Co.,

P.O. Box 242, Capetown.
1914. Edwards. Miss, St. ^Michael's Home, Bloemfontein.
1914. Elsdon-Dew. WilHam, M.I.E.E., F.Am.I.E.E., P.O. Box

4563, Johannesburg.

1910. tEngelenlmrg, Dr. F. W, Editor, De Volksstem. Pretoria.
1910. Erskine, J. K., F.C.S., Willowdene, near Johannesburg.

1905. Evans, Iltyd Buller Pole, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., Chief of the

Division of Plant Pathology, Department of Agricul
ture, P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.
1905. Evans, Maurice Smethurst, Plillcrest, Berea, Durban,
Natal.

1905. Evans, Samuel ( A'ice-President), 79, Nuggett Street,

Johannesburg.
19 14. Eveieigh, Rev. William, 28, Gladstone Avenue, Kimberley.
1914. Ewing, Sydney E. J., M.I.E.E.. M.S.A.LE.E., P.O. Box 3,

Brakpan, Transvaal.

1906. EvLEs, Frederick, F.L.S., M.L.C.. ( Pres. C, 1911). Um-

sasa Farm, P.O. Mazoe, Rhodesia.

1914. Falck, D G. A., 100, Zastron Street, Bloemfontein.
1905. Farrar, Edward, P.O. Box 1242, Jahonnesburg.

1904. Farrar, Sir George, Bart., P.O. Box 305, Johannesburg.
1914. Farrow, Frederick D.. M.Sc, Rhodes University College,

Grahamstown.

1905. Feetham, Richard, Sauer's Buildings, c/o Loveday and

Market Streets, Johannesburg.
1904. Ferguson, E. W., P.O. Box 1066, Johannesburg.
1913. Fischer, Christian Ludwig, B.A., Maritzlnirg College

School, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
1913. FitzHenrv, Rev. J., Bedford, C.P.
1912. FitzSimons, F. W., F.Z.S., FR.M.S. (Pres. C. 1912),

Director, Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth.
1902. *Flack, Rev. Francis Walter, M.A., The Rectory, Uiten-

hage. Cape.
1902. Flanagan, Henry George. F.L.S., Prospect Farm, Komgha,

Ca])c.
1902. *Fltnt, Rev. William. D.D. (Pres. D, 1910), Wolmunster

Park, Rosebank, near Capetown.
1902. ^'Flowers. Frank, C.E., F.R.G.S.. F.R.A.S., P.O. Box

1878, Johannesburg.
1909. Fogarty, Rev. N. W., Director, (jO\ernment Industrial

School, Maseru, Basutoland.

LIST OF MEMBERS. tX

Year of
Election.

1907. FuoTE, J. A., F.G.S., F.E.l.S. (Pres. 13. 1913). (iovern-
ment School, Troyeville, Transvaal.

1913. Foote. Mrs. J. A., 12, Beelaerts Street, Troyeville, Johan-
nesburg.

1913. Foote, Miss N., 12, Beelaerts Street, Troyeville, Johannes-

burg.

1914. Ford, Thurston J., Secretary, De Beers Benefit Society,

Kimberley.

1914. Forsyth, Thomas M., M.A., D.Phil., Professor of Philo-
sophy, Grey University College, Bloemfontein.

1914. Forsyth, Mrs. T. M., yy. King Edward Road, Bloemfon-
tein.

1905. F'rames, P. R., P.O. Box 148, Johannesburg.

1906. fFrankenstein, Miss Adelia, B.A., 9, Knight Street, Kim-

berley, Cape.
1902. Fremantle, Henry Eardley Stephen, M.A., F.S.S., M.L.A.,
Bedwell Cottage, Rosebank, Cape.

1913. Frew, John, P.O. Box i, Johannesburg.

1904. Friel. Dr. Alfred R., P.( ). Box 4299, Johannesburg.

1912. Friel, R., M.A.. M.D., P.O. Box 144, Potchefstroom,

Transvaal.

1914. Frood, Dr. T. M., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1902. *Fuhr, Harry A., A.M.I.C.E., Public Works Department,

Kingwilliamstown, Cape.

1913. Fuller, Right Rev. John Latimer, M.A.. Bishop of Le-

bombo, P.O. Box 120, Lourengo Marques.
1904. Fuller, W. H., Chairman, Public Library, East London,
Cape.

1907. Gairdner, Dr. J. F"rancis R.. 754, Church Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1903. Galpin, Ernest Edward. F.L.S., c/o National Bank of ■

South Africa, Ltd., Queenstown, Cape.
1913. Garbutt. Henry William, F.R.A.I., J.P., P.O. Box 181,

Bulawayo, Rhodesia.
1902. *Gasson, William, F.C.S., Dutoitspan Road, Kimberley,

Cape.

1904. Gellatly, John T. B., M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 37, Bethulie,

Orange Free State.

1911. Gib]:)S. Alfred Ernest, P.O. Box 85, Johannesburg.
1913. Gibson, F. W., P.O. Box 1231, Johannesburg.

1912. Gibson, Harry, J. P., F.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1653, 85, St.

George's Street, Capetown.

1902. *Gilchrist, John Dow Fisher, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.,

(General Secretary. 1903-1908), Professor of
Zoology, South African College, Capetown.

1903. Gilchrist, W., ]\LS.A., Mariendahl, Mulder's Vlei, Cape.

B

X LIST t)F MI':.\11!1£K.S.

Year of
Election.

1902. *Gille.spie, John, A.M.I.C.E., Railway Construction, by
Clanwilliam, C.P.

1910. Ginsberg, Franz, M.P.C., P.O. Box 3, KingwilHanLstown,

Cape.

1912. Goddard, Ernest James, B.A., D.Sc, Professor of Zoology,

Victoria College, Stellenbosch, Cape.

1913. Goddard, Mrs. E. J., Stellenbosch, C.P.

1902. fGodfirey, Robert, M.A., Pirie Mission Station, King-

williamstown, Cape.

1911. Goetz, Rev. E., S.J., M.A., F.R.A.S. ( Pres. A, 191 1 J,

The Observatory, Bulawayo.
1904. Goffe, Edward, Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1913. Gomez, Jose Vaz Monteiro, B.Eng., Assistant Electrical

Engineer of Ports and Railways, P.O. Box 252, Lou-
rengo Marques.

1914. Goodman, Simon L., F.I.O., P.O. Box 5802, Johannesburg.

1904. Gorges, Edmond Howard Lacam, M.V.O., Secretary for

the Interior, Pretoria.

191 3. Graga, Capt. Alberto C. de F., Sub-Chef e de Estado Major,

Quartel General, Lourengo Marques.
1908. Grant, Charles C, M.A., Education Department, Bloem
fontein.

1914. Grant, William F., B.Sc, South African College High

School, Capetown.
1907. Gray, Charles Joseph, Mines Department, !'.(). Box 401,

Pretoria.
1907. Gray, James, F.I.C., P.O. Box 5254, Johannesburg.

1906. Grimmer, Irvine Rowell, Assistant General Manager, De

Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Kimberley, C.P.

1912. Gubbins, lohn Gaspard, B.A., Ottos Hoop, Transvaal.

1913. Gundry, Philip G., B.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of

Physics, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
191 1. Guradze, Dr. Franz, Vice-Consul for Germany, German
Consulate, Capetown.

1905. fGutsche, Phillipp, M.D., \^illa Torrita, Kingwilliamstown,

Cape.

1903. Gyde, Chnrles J., Puljlic Works De])artment, Capetown.

1904. Haagner, Alwyn K., F.Z.S., Zoological Gardens, Pretoria.
1904. jHaarhoff, Daniel Johannes, J. P., Market Street, Kim-
berley, Cape.

1902. * HAHN, PAUL DANIEL, M.A., Ph.D., (PRESIDENT,
191 1, Pres. A, 1903), Jamison Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy, South African College, Capetown.

1904. Hall, Arthur Lewis, B.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey, P.O.
Box 401, Pretoria.

1907. Hall, Carl, A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S., 28, Club Arcade, Durban,

Natal.

LIST UF MEMBERS. Xt

}'ear of
Elcct'.oii.

1910. Halm. Jacob K. E.. Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Royal Observatory,

Cape.
1907. Hammer, A.. 441. ihirger Street, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

1902. *Plancock, 11., A.M.LC.E., P.O. Box 192, Klerksdorp,

TransNaal.

1903. jHancock, Strangman, M.Amer.I.M.E., Kennel Holt,

Cranbrook, Kent, England.

1904. Harries, W. M., P.O. Pox 2189, Johannesburg.

1905. Harris, Lionel, M.E., B.Sc., 113, .Sivewright Avenue,

Doornfontein, P.O. Box 131 1, Johannesburg.
19 14. Harrison, Frederick, 4, Elsmere Street, Kimberley.
1914. Harvey, Sidney F., P.O. Box 1386, Johannesburg.
1905. Hatchard, John George, F.R.A.S., 3, Harvey Road, Bloem-

fontein.
1907. Henderson, Rev. James, M.A., Lovedale, Cape.
1914. Henderson, Miss J., c /o Dr. J. B. H. Ruthven, P.O. Box

6253, Johannesburg.
1902. *Henkel, John Spurgeon, Conservator of Forests, Knysna,

Cape.

1904. Herdman, G. W., M.A., M.I.C.E., Public Works Depart-

ment, Pretoria.
1912. Heugh, George William, P.O. Box 161 1, Johannesburg.

191 1. Hewetson, W. M., M.B., D.P.H., J.P., Wankie, Southern

Rhodesia.
1909. Hewitt, John, B.A., Director of the Albany Museum,
Grahamstown, Cape.

1905. Heymami, Alexander, M.Ph., M.Ch., M.A., P.O. Box 3427,

Johannesburg.

1909. Heymans, Dr. (t. M. A., 702, Church Street, Arcadia,

I^retoria.
1905. Hintrager, Dr. O. R., Windhuk, German South-West
Africa.

1912. Hohmann, E., M.D., Western Road, Port Elizabeth.
1914. Holdsworth, W. J.. P.O. Box 1737, Johannesburg.

1913. Holgate, V. G., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1905. Holm. Alexander, Department of Agriculture, P.C). Box
434, Pretoria.

1905. Honnold, W. L., P.O. Box 2269, Johannesburg.

1902. *Home, William James, A.M.I.E.E., Education Depart-
ment, Pretoria.

1905. Hosking. Charles. Town Engineer's Office, P.O. Box 106,
Krugersdorp, Transvaal.

1902. *Hough, Sydney Samuel, M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal,
Royal Observatory, near Capetown.

1914. Howitt, A. Gordon, B.Sc, Civil Service Club, Capetown.

1910. Hughes. George Robert, Under-Secretary for Eands, Pre-

toria.

Xll LIST OF MI-:\[P.F.RS.

}'car of
Election.

1905. fl-lumphrey, William Alvara, P].A., Ph.D., F.G.S.. P.O.
Box 401, Pretoria.

1912. Hunt, Donald Rolfe, Siib-Xative Commissioner, Secocoeni

land, 2'ia Lydenburg. Transvaal.
191 1. Hurtzig, G., Gwelo, Rhodesia.

1904. HYSLOP, JAMES, D.S.O., M.B., CM. (PRESIDENT,

1907). Government As}']um, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

1913. Hntcheon, James, ALA., F.R.G.S., Rosedale, South Afri-

can College School, Cai)eto\vn.

i(;i3. Imperial Government of (ierman South-West Africa,
Windhuk, German South-West Africa.

1913. Ingham, William, AI.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Chief Engineer's

Office, Rand Water Board, P.O. Box 1703, Johannes-
burg.

1907. Innes, Hon. Justice Sir James Rose-, K.C.M.G., B.A..
LL.B., High Court of Appeal, Capetown.

i(>02. ^Innks. Rohert Thorburn Avton, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
(General Secretary, 1909-1912), Union Observatory,
Johannesburg.

1905. Innes, Mrs. R. 1 . A., LInion ( )bservatory, Johannesburg.
1008. Institute of Government Land Surveyors, Cape of Good

Hope Savings Bank Buildings, Capetow^n.
1904. Irvine, Dr. L. G., P.O. Box 320, Johannesburg.

1914. Jacot, Edouard, B.A., Lecturer in Physics, South African

College, Capetown.

1904. Jagger, J. W., F.S.S., M.L.A., P.O. Box 258, Capetown.

ir)03. Jameson, Rt. Hon. Sir Leander Starr, Bart., C.B., M.D.,
L.R.C.S., L.S.A., c/o British South Africa Co., 2,
London Wall Buildings, London, E.C., England.

191 1. Jarvis, E. M., Jelf Estate, Umtali, Rhodesia.

1910. Jeffrey, John, Standard Bank, P.O. Box 57, Capetown.
1903. Jennings, Hennen, 2221, Massachusetts Avenue, Wash-
ington, U.S.A.

1913. Jensen, Axel Emil, 36, Maddison Square, Jeppestown,

Johannesburg.
1903. Jeppe, J., P.O. Box 311, Johannesburg.

1912. Johnson, Miss Alta, New Street, Wellington, C.P.

1903. Johnson, Edward H., P.O. Box 134, East Rand, Johannes-
burg.

1912. Johnson, George Lindsay, M.A., M.D., 5 and 6, Castle
Mansions, Eloff Street, Johannesburg.

1909. Johnson, W., L.R.C.P.. t..R.C.S. (A^'ice-President). 3,
Link Road, Bloemfontein.

1914. Johnson, W. S., M.A., Professor of English, Grey Univer-

sity College, Bloemfontein.

LIST OK mi:mi5i:k.s. xm

Year of
Elect 1.0 11.

191 1. Jones, Ernest Hope, Control and Audit Office, Pretoria.

191 3. Jordaan, David J. M., Principal, Normal Training Centre,

Normal College, Heidelberg, Transvaal.

191 1. joLibert, M. J., B.Sc.Agr., Department of Agriculture,

Bloemfontein.

1905. Junod. Rev. Henri A., P.O. Box 21, Lourengo Marques.

1903. JuRiTZ, Charles Frkderick, M.A., D.Sc, F.LC. (General
Secretary, 1910-1914, Pres. B, 1909), Government
Analyst, Government Chemical Laboratory, Depart-
ment of the Interior, Capetown.

1912. Juritz. Walter Daniel Christian, B.A., A.M.I.E.E., A'illa

^farina. Beach Road, Sea Point, Capetown.

1907. Kanthack, Frances Edgar, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Director
of Irrigation, P.O. Box 444, Pretoria.

1902. Kaufmann, Siegmund, M.D., Middelburg, C.P.

191 2. Kehoe, D., M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1903. Kent, Professor Thomas Parkes, M.A., South African

College, Capetown.

1914. Kelly, Rev. A. D., M.A., Cathedral Cottage, Bloemfontein.

1905. King, Austin, Director of Mines, Macequege, Portuguese

East Africa.

1904. King, R. P. II., P.O. Box 365, Johannesburg.

1914. Kingon, Rev. John Robert Lewis, M.A., F.L.S., Somer-
ville, Inxu Drift, via Maclear, East Griqualand'.

191 3. Kipping, Vernon, 316, Minnaar Street, Pretoria.

1913. Kirkland, John Wilkinson, M.Am.I.E.E., President,

S.A.I.E.E., P.O. Box 1905, Johannesburg.
1907. Kirkman, John, Esperanza, Natal.

1906. Kirkman, Hon. Thomas, Croftlands, Esperanza, Natal.

1904. Kisch, C. H. M., P.O. Box 668, Johannesburg.

1905. Kitching, Charles McGowan, B.A., M.D., B.S., 6, Hof

Street, Capetown.
1902. *"fKnapp, Arthur 1)., Chikondi Estate, Neno Post Office,
British Central Africa.

1902. Kolbe, Rev. Frederick Charles. B.A., D.D., St. Mary's

Presbytery, Capetown.

1903. Kotze, Robert W. N., B.A., P.O. Box 1132, New Law

Courts. Johannesburg.
1903. Kynaston, Id., M.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 401, Pretoria.

191 1. Lake, Henry Lawrence, Government School, Dynamite
Factory, Modderfontein, Transvaal.

1913. Landau, Nathan, P.O. Box 1382, Johannesburg.

1914. Lange, Hon. Justice Johannes H., LL.B., Judge's Cham-

bers, Kimberley.
1913. Lansley, William (i., P.C). Box 1485, corner Main and
Donelly Streets, Kenilworth, Johannesburg.

.VIZ' LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1903. Laschinger, E. J., B.A., P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

1903. Lavenstein, L. H., P.O. Box 4480, Johannesburg.

191 1. Lawn, James Gunson, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., F.G.S.,
Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Co., Ltd., P.O.
Box 231, Johannesburg.

1910. Leask, Tom., Jun., P.O. Box 3, Klerksdorp, Transvaal.

1904. Leech, Dr. John Richard, " Greystones," Sn- Lowry's Pass,

C.P.

1904. Leeds, R. Q., P.O. Box 928, Johannesburg.
1903. Legat, C. E., P.O. Box 434, iVetoria.

1907. Lehfeldt, Robert A., B.A., D.Sc. ((jeneral Treasurer,

1909-1910J, Professor of Physics, South African
School of Mines and Technology, P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

1908. Leighton, James, F.R.ILS.. P.( ). Box 86, Kingvvilliams-

town. Cape.
1908. Leiter, Miss Susan B., M.A.. Huguenot College, VVelling-

ton. Cape.
1914. Leith, Miss A. M., B.A., Eunice High School, Bloemfon-

tein.

1902. *Lenz, Otto, P.O. Box 92, Johannesl)urg.

1903. Leslie, T. N., C.E., F.G.S., P.O. Box 27^, Vereeniging,

Transvaal.
1908. Leviseur, M., Bloemfontein.
1903. Lewis, Leon, P.O. Box 617, Johannesburg.

1905. Lewis Mrs. Helen R.. P.O. Box 617, Johannesburg.

1910. Littlewood, E. T., M.A.. B.Sc, Boys' High School. Wyn-

berg, Cape.
1903. Logeman, William H., M.A., Professor of Physics, Grey

University College, Bloemfontein.

1902. *Logeman, Professor \\'illiam Syl)ran(l, L.H.C., B.A.,

South African College, Capetown.

1903. Lorentz, Henri, P.( )., Box 55, Johannesjjurg.
1903. Loubser, M. M., Port Elizabeth, Cape.

1902. Lounsbury, Charles Pugsley, B.Sc, F.E.S., Chief of the

Division of Entomology. De])artmcnt of Agriculture,

Pretoria.
1905. Lucas. J. C. P.O. Box 537, Johannesburg.
1902. *Lunt, Joseph, D.Sc, F.LC, Royal Oliservatory, near

Capetown.
1914. Lyle, James, M.A., Grey College School, Bloemfontein.
1902. *Lynch. Major F. S., J. P., Kimberley Waterworks Co.,

Ltd., Kimberley, Ca])e.

1908. Maasdorp, Hon. Justice Sir Andries F.. 40, Elizabeth

Street, Bloemfontein.
T905. McArthur. Duncan Cam])bell, AT.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.. District

Surgeon, ClannMlliam, C.P.

LJST OF MEMiJKKS. XV

Year of
Election.

1905. McCallum, William, P.O. Box 4889, Johannesburg.

1909. Macdonald, G., M.A., Normal Training College, Bloemfon-

tein.

1902. *McEvven, T. S., A.M.I. C.E., South African Railways,

Capetown.

1908. Macfadyen, William Alli.son, M.A., LL.l)., Professor of

Philosophy, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1909. MoFeggans, Alexander, Umtata, Cape.

1910. McGaw, James, P.O. Box 4280, Johannesburg.

1914. McGregor, Rev. Andrew Murray, M.A., B.D., Blomme-

stem, Three Anchor Bay, Capetown.
1910. Macgregor J. C, Government Secretary, Bechuanaland

Protectorate, Mafeking, CP.

191 2. Macintosh, William, " Jutland," Park Drive, Port Ehza-

beth.

1913. Mackay, James Dalziel Dougall, Standard Bank of S.A.,

Ltd., P.O. Box 40, Capetown

1904. McK':nzie, Archiuald, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S., Glen Lyon,

Berea, Durban, Natal.

1903. ]\Iackinlay, Andrew Grieve, C.E., M.S.L, District Engineer,

South African Raib.vays, Ladysmith, Natal.

1905. McLaren, W. A., P.O. Box 1209, Johannesburg.

1914. Macmillan, William M., B.A., West Hill, Grahamstown.
1902. *Macmuldrow, W. G. P., P.O. Box 95, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1913. Macpherson, H. W., P.O. Box 4252, Johanneslnn-g.

1908. Macrae, H. J., P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg.

1905. Madge, Captain Charles A., P.C). Box 4303, Johannesburg.

1914. Maitland, A. Gibb, Government Geologist of Western Aus-

tralia, Bon Accord, 3, \"entnor Terrace, Perth, South

Australia.
1910. Malan, Hon. Frangois Stephanus, B.A., LL.B., M.L.A.,

P.O. Box 450, Pretoria.
1912. jMalherbe, D. F. du Toit, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of

Chemistry, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
1914. Malherbe, D. F., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Modern Lan

guages, P.O. Box 424, Bloemfontein.

1904. Malherbe, H.L., P.O. Box 208, Pretoria.

1902. Mally, Charles William, ALSc, Division of Entomology,
Department of Agriculture, Capetown.

1909. Marchand, Rev. Bernard P. J., B.A., Clairvaux, Ronde-

bosch. Cape.

1914. Mardall, W. H.. Johannesburg Consolidated Livestment
Co., Johannesburg.

1904. Marks, Samuel, Hatherley Buildings. P.O. Box 379, Pre-
toria.

1914. Marlotli, Mrs. Marion M., Ellerborn, 7, Park Road, Cape-
town.

XVI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1902. *Marloth, Professor Rudolf, M.A., Ph.D. (President,

Pres. B, 1903}, P.O. Box 359, Capetown.
1907. Marriott, William PIdward, Benvie, P.O. York, Natal.

1904. Marshall, W. S., P.O. Box 3055, Johannesburg.

1905. Martini, j. D., P. (J. Box 34, Beira, Portuguese East Africa.
1913. Martins, P. van der Merwe, B.A., Education Department,

Volksrust, Transvaal.

1912. Mathew, George Porter, M.A., M.D., B.S., L.R.C.P.,

F.R.C.S., 45, Western Road, Port Elizabeth.
191 1. Maufe, Herbert Brantwood, B.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 168,
Bulawayo.

1913. Maury, Carlotta j., I Mi.!)., Huguenot College, Wellington,

Cape.

1902. Melle, G. j. McCarthy, M.B., CM., Robertson, Cape.

1903. Mellor, Edward T., D.Sc, F.G.S., (jeological ."survey ( )ftice,

P.O. Box 401, Pretoriri.

1902. *Menmuir, R. W., A.M.I.C.E., National Mutual Buildings,

Church Square. Ca])etown.

1914. Mesham, Paul, M.Sc, Natal University College, Pieter-

niaritzluu'g. Natal.

I902.*tMETCALFE, Sir CHARLES, Bart., M.LC.E. (PRESI-
DENT, 1904 Pres. C, T903), 21, Pall Mall, Eondon, S.W.,
England.

1905. Miller, Allister M.. The .Swazilanfl Corporation, Ltd.,
Mbabane, Swaziland.

191 1. Miolee, Willem Frederik, Consul for the Netherlands, P.O.

Box 362, Bulawayo.

1910. Moffat. Henry Alford, B..^., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Norwich

Union Buildings. .St. George's Street. Capetown.

1912. Moll, Dr. A. M.. Kerk and Eloff Streets. Johannesburg.

1904. Molyneux, A. J. C. ?\G.S., E.R.C.S., (Pres. B, 1911),

P.O. Box 526, Bulawavo, Rhodesia.

1903. Morice, Advocate George T., B.A., K.C., P.O. Box 1275,

Pretoria.

1912. Mortimer, Dr. \\'., M.R.C.S., Potchefstroom. Transvaal.
1902. *MUIR,THOMAS,C" M.G., M.A., EL.D., E.R.S., F.R.S.E..

(President, 1910), Education Department, Capetown.

191 3. Munro, James, P.O. Box 19, Lourengo Marques.

1904. Murrav. "George Alfred Everett, M.D., E.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

P.O. Box 10=;. Johannesburg.
1913. Murrav, Myles T., ?\l.Sc., P.O. Box 1176. Johannesburg.

1911. Musselwhite. Rev. E. W. H.. B.A.. Zonnebloem College,

Capetown.

1910. Nauta, Prof. Renicus D , South African College. Capetown.

1905. Neilson. A. M.. Manager, .Safco Fertilizers Co.. Umbilo.

Natal.
jgid. Newhall. Percy M.. B Sc. P.O. Box 48^, Johanneslmrg.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XZ-H

Year of
Elccti-OH.

1913. Nicholas, Samuel ]., P.O. Box 829, Johannesburg.
1902. ^Nicholson, Colonel George Taylor, M.I.C.E., Resident
Engineer Docks, Capetown.

1904. Nixon, Edward John. AER.C.S., E.R.C.P., P.O. Box ^j,

Heidelberg, Transvaal.
1910. Noaks, E., M.A., ' The Croft," Morgenrood Road, Wyii-

berg, Cape.
1902. Nobbs, Eric Arthur, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.R.H.S., Director of

Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1913. Nicol, John, Ai.R.C.V.S., Government Veterinary Sur-

geon, Kingwilliamstown.

1905. fOats, Francis, F.G.S., Director, De Beers Consolidated

Mines, Ltd., Kimberley, Cape Province.
1908. O'Connor, James, Railway Hotel and Stores, Ashton, Cape.

1907. Ogg, Alexander, M.A., P>.Sc.. Ph.D., (Pres. A) Professor

of Physics and Applied Mathematics, Rhodes Univer-
sity College, Grahamstown, Cape.
1904. O'Reilly, James Paul, P.O. Box 53, Johannesburg.

1914. Orford. Rev. Canon Horace W., M.A., Ficksburg, Orange

Free State.

1906. Orpen, Joseph ]\lillerd, Mon Asile, 43, St. Mark's Ro:.d,

East London.

1902. *Orr, John, B.Sc, M.LC.E., Professor of Engineering,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P. (J.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1913. Orr, Mrs. J. c/o Professor Orr, P.O. Box 1176, Johannes-

bttrg.

1904. Osborn, Philip B., P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1905. fPaisley, William, M.B., B.Ch., P.O. Box 127, Queens-

town, Cape.

1908. Palmer, W. Jarvis. B.Sc. A., P.O. Box 2567, Johannesburg
190S. Papenfus, TL R.. K.C., P.O. Box 5155, Johannesburg.

1903. Park, Sir Maitland TL, Kt., M.A., 'TJ..D., i Montrose

Avenue, Orangez^icht, Capetown.

1914. Parry. John, P.O. Box 220, Kimberley.

1912. Paterson, Mrs. T. \"., Redhouse, near Port Elizabeth.

1902. *tPattrick. C. B., A. M.LC.E., 6 Cotte.'^loe, Auckland Park,

Johannesburp-.

1903. Payne. All)ert E., AJ^J.S.M., P.O. Box 15. Langlaagte,

Trans^•aal.

1913. Pe.4rson. Henrv FL\R()Ln Welch, M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S.

(Pres. C. iC)io). Bolus Professor of Botany, South

African College. Capetown.
1913. Pepulim, Dr. D., P.O. Box 704, Lourenco Marques.
1913. Perez, Manoel A. Jr., Chief Assistant. Observatorio Cam-

i)Os Ro'lrie'uez. T,ourenco Mnr^'ue^.

XVtn LIST OF MKMr.ERS.

i'car of
Election.

1907. I'ennguey, Louis, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Director South

African Museum, Capetown.
1910. fPerold, Abraham i., B.A., Ph.D., Principal, Government

School of Agriculture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, Cape.
1912. Perrins, George Richard, " Grange," 106, Cape Road,

Port Elizabeth.
1905. Petersen Carl Olief, P.O. Box 4938, Johannesburg.

1904. Pettman, Rev. Charles, W'esleyan Parsonage, Chapel

Street, Kimberley, Cape Province.

1912. Pickstone. Harry Ernest X'ictor, Lekkerwijn, Groot

Orakenstein, Cape Province.
1903. I'im, Howard, B.A., F.C.A. (General Treasurer, 1906-

1907). P.O. Box 1331, Johannesburg.
1914. Pooley, John, F.S.A.A., F.R.C.I., P.O. Box 189, Kimberley.

1905. Pott, Mrs. R., P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1905. Potts, George, M.Sc, Ph.D., ( Pres. C), Professor of

Botany, Grey University College, Bloemfontein.
1902. *Price, Sir Thomas R., K.C.M.G., P.O. Box 1038. Johan-
nesburg.

19 1 3. Provay, Giuseppe, Chief Electrical Engineer of Harbours

and Railways, P.O. Box 1479, Lourengo Marques.
1910. Purcell, Williani Frederick, M.A., Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., Berg-
vliet, Diep River, Cape Division.

1906. PvM, Frank Arthur Oaklev. Public Museum, P.O. Box

51, Kingwilliamstown, Cape.

1902

1903

1903

1906

1002

1909
1914
1902

1905
1907

1903
T913
19T3

Quinan, Kenneth B., Chemist anrl Engineer, Cnpe E.xplo-

si\e Works, Somerset West, Cape.
Quinn. J. \Y., J. P., ]M.1>.A., P.O. Box 1454. Johannesburg.

Rattray, George, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.G.S.. Selborne College,

East London, Cape.
Reid, Alexander William, M.D., CM., Medical Officer of

Health, Kimberlev. Cape.
*Reid, Arthur Henry, F.R.LB.A., F.R.San.L, P.O. Box

120, Capetown.
Reid. F. Murray, Morija, Basutoland.
Reid, Walter, F.R.LB.A., P.O. Box 746, Johannesburg.
*REUNERT, THEODORE, M.LC.E., MJ.M.E., (PRESI-
DENT, 1905), P.( ). Box 92, Johaimesburg.
Reunert, Mrs. Theodore, P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
Renter, Rev. Fritz L., Medigen, P.O. Duivel's Kloof, via

Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
tReyersbach, Louis J., c/o Messrs. Wernher, Beit & Co., i,

London \\'all Buildings, London, E.C.
Reyneke. Andries Adriaan Louw, B.A., Wilgenhof, Stel-

lenbosch. Cape Pro\ince.
Reyneke Rev. Jacobus C, De Pastorie, Cradock.

LIST OF MEMBERS. X%X

Year of
Election.

1904. Richardson, Sidne}' W'illiain Franklin, M.B., B.S., B.Sc,

L.R.C.P., F.R.'C.S., 2, Wale Street, Capetown.

1909. Rindl, Max, Ing.D., Professor of Chemistry, Grey Univer-
sity College, Bloemfontein.

1903. Ritchie, William, M.A., ( Pres. D), I'rofessor of Latin and
Classical Philosophy, South African College, Cape-
town.

1903. Robb, A. Moir, M.A., Normal College, Pretoria.

1902. *ROBERTS, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

l^\R..S.h^. (Pres. .V 190S: Pricsident, 1913), Lovedale,
Cape Province.
1914. Roberts, John Lloyd, P.O. Box 577, Kimberley.

191 3. Roberts, Rev. Noel, The Vicarage, Pietersburg, N. Trans-

vaal.

1914. Roberts. Thomas S., P.O. Box ^^2, Kimberley.

1909. Robertson, C.C., M.F., c/o Forest Department, Pretoria.
1906. Robertson, John. P.O. Box 138, Bloemfontein.

1903. Robson, T. Conyers, Salisbury Buildings, Von Brandis

Square, Johannesburg.
1902. Rogers, Arthur William, M.A., Sc.D., F.(i.S. (Pres. B

1910), South African Museum, Capetown.
1902. *Rose, James Wilmot Andreas. M.I.C.E., Patrys Vlei

Farm, Stellenbosch.

1905. jRose, John George, F.C.S., Government Chemical Labor-

atory, Ca])etown.

1913. Rosenthal, R., P.O. Box 1537,- Johannesburg.

1912. Roseveare. W\N.. M.A.. Profes.sor of Mathematics, Natal

Universitv College, Pietermaritzburs^.

1914. Ross, John, P.O. Box 636, Kimberley.

1003. Rouliot, Ci., 37 bis, Rue de \'illeiust, Paris, France.

1902. *Runciman, William, M.L.A.., Simonstown, Cape.

1903. .Saner, C. B., A.I.M.E., E^.O. Box ^t^, Krugersdorp, Trans-

vaal.

191 3. Santa Barbara, Juv-,enal F1v?s. Postmaster-General of

Mozambif|ue, General Post Office. Lourenco Marques.
1902. *Scaife, Thoiuas Earle, M.LC.E., P.O. Box 23, Irrigation
Department, Capetown.

1904. Schlesinger, Dr. J., P.O. Box 1829. lohannesburg.

1902. *Sch(">nland. Selmar, M.A., Ph.D., F.f..S.. C.M.Z.S., (Pres.

C. 1908). Professor of Botany, Rhodes University

College. Grahamstown. Cape.
1913. School of AsT-riculture. Cedara, Natal.
1913. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Glen,

Orange Free State.
1913. v^chool of Agriculture and Experimental Station, Groot-
fontein, IVIiddelburg, Cape Province.

XX LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Elect' on.

1913. School of Agriculture. Elsenburg. Mulder's Vlei, Cape

Province.

191 3. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Potchef-

stroom, Transvaal.
IQ14. Schreiner. Hon. Senator \\'illi-'m Philip, M.A., M.L.,

South African Chambers, Capetown.
1903. Schumacher, R. W.. P.O. Box 149, Johannesburg.

1902. ScHWARZ, Ernest H. L., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., (Pres. B. and

C, 1908), Professor of Geology, Rhodes University
College, Grahamstown, Cai)e

1905. Sellar, John Nicol, ]\1.L.A., P.O. Box 3102, Johannesburg.
1912. Seruya. Salomon. \^ice-Consul for Portugal, P.O. Box

5633. Johannesbtirg.
Tqi2. Shand. Samuel Tames. Ph.D.. D.Sc. Professor of Ceologv,
Victoria College. Stellenliosch, Cape.

1903. Shanks, Robert, lo. Graf Street. Tnha'Tcsburg.

1902. *Shores. T. W.. C.M.G.. ^LLCE.. Rutland. Scottsville.

Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

191 1. Simons, ."^tefanus Johannes Biesman, B.A., Leiden House,

Census Street, Capetown.

1909. Sloley. Sir Herbert, K.C.M.G., Resident Commissioner,

Maseru, Basutoland.

1914. Small. \\'illiim M.. M A.. Professor of Latin, Rhodes Uni-

versitv ColleP'e, Grahamstown.
T902. *Smartt. Hon. Sir Thomas William, K.C.M.G., L.R.C.S.L,
L.K.O.C.P.T. M.L.A.. Glen Bnn, Stellenbosch. Cape.

1906. Smith. Frank Braybrooke Secretary for Agriculture,

Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1912. Smith, George William, A.M.LC.F... tt, Constitution Hill,

Port Elizabeth.

1903. Smith, James, M.A., Normal College, Capetown.
1906. Smuts C, P.O. Box 1088, johanne.sburg.

1905. Smuts, Hon. Jan C, B.A., LL.B., Minister of Finance, P.O.

Box 1081, Pretoria.
1914. Smyth, Right Rev. Bishop William E. M.A.. ^l.B.. c/o

V.nglish Church House, 61. Burg Street, Capetown.
1903. Solly. Mrs. Julia F., Knor Hoek, Sir Lowry's Pass, Cape.
1903. Solomon, Hon. Justice Sir W. T^., Jligh Court of Appeal.

Capetown.
1908. Somerville. A. J.. ^T.A.. College JJouse, GraalT-Reniet,

Cape.

1910. fSoutter, John I^yalK Arcadia. Pretoria.

1911. Speck, Frederick, Temple Court, l':ioH' St Toh-mneslmrg.

1913. Spencer, George Ross, L.D.S., Pul)lic Library Buildings,

Kingwilliamstown.
-1906. fSpencer, Dr. Henry Alexander, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Mid-
delburg, Transvaal.

LIST OF MKMr.KRS. XXt

]'car of
Elcct'ou.

1905. Sperrvn. Arthur James, |.F\, P.O. Box i. I'>mclo, Trans-
\aal.

1903. Spilhaus. William, c/'o Messrs. \\\ S]Mlhaus & Co., Strand

Street, Capetown.

1913. StatTord, Miss Susan. M.A., Huguenot College, Wellington,
Cape Province.

1910. Stainthorpe, Thomas William, A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 399,
Pretoria.

1905. Stallard, C. V.. K.C., P.( ). Box 5156, Johannesburg.

1905. Stanlkv, CrKoRCK Hakdv, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M.,
F.I.C., ( Pres. B). Professor of Metallurgy and Assay-
ing, South African School of Mines and Technology,
P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1905. Starkey. Samuel, Assistant General Manager's Office. Sys-
tem C. South African Railways. Johannesburg.

1904. Stead, Arthur. B.Sc, F.C.S.. School of Agriculture,

Grootfontein. Middelburg, Cape Province.

1912. Stead, William Godly Stockdale, P.O. Box 307, Port Eliza-

beth.

1908. Steedman, Miss E. C, M.A., Gando Earm, Gwelo, South-

ern Rhodesia.

191 3. Stephen. Alexander, M.A., P.C). E5ox 51, Volksrust, Trans-

vaal.

1903. Stevens, J. 1)., P.O. Box 1782, Johannesburg.

1909. Stewart, (J. A., City Engineer, Bloemfontein.

1905. Strollreither. G. D., M.E., P.O.. Box 11 56, Johannesburg.

1905. Stoneman. Miss Bertha. D.Sc, Huguenot College, Welling-

ton, Cape Province.
1902. *Stott. Clement H.. F.G.S.. M.S.A.. P.O. Box 7, Pieter-

maritzburg. Natal.
1004. Struben, A. M. A.. A.M.I.C.E.. P.O. Box 1228. Pretoria.

1906. Stuart. Tames. Native Affairs Department. Pietermaritz-

burg, Natal.

1906. Stucke. W. H.. P.O. Box 2271, Johannesburg.

1907. Sutton. Hon. Sir Cieorge Morris, K.C.M.G., Eair Eell,

Howick. Natal.

1904. Syfret, S. B.. B.A., ^l.B., B.C., Main Road, Mowbray, near

Capetown.

1905. tTannahill. Thomas Eindlay. M.D.\ CM.. D.P.H., Queens-

town. Cape.

1913. Tasker. Percival S., A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 204. Lourenqo
Marques.

1909. Teasdale, Miss Emma L., Government School, Maraisburg,
Transvaal.

1913. Teixeira, Lieut. Augusto D'Almeida, Observatorio Cam-
pos Rodrigues, Lourenqo Marques.

xxn LIST OF mi:miiers.

}'ear of
Elect: oil.

1906. 'J'ennant, Sydney IJennison, P.O. Box 132, Ermelo, Trans-
vaal.

1904. *THEILER,Sir ARNOLD,K.C.M.G., D.Sc. (PRESIDENT,
1912), Director of \'eterinary Research, P.O. Box
593, Pretoria.

1903. Thomas, W'ahvyn, B.C., M.B.. B.A., 2, Greenham X'illas,
Annandale Street. Capetown.

1902. *Thompson, William W'ardlaw, F.Z.S., Kimberley Cottage,
Kalk Bay, Cape.

1913. Thomson, Samuel C. A., P.( ). Box 228, Johannesburg.

1902. Thomson. W illiam, M.A., B.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Univer-

sity Offices. Queen \'ictoria Street, Capetown.

1903. Thorne, Sir William, Kt., Capetown.

1910. Thornton, Russel William, Principal, Government School
of Agriculture, Grootfontein, Middelburg, Cape.

1903. Teitz, Heinrich C. J.. M.A., Ph.D., Buona \lsta, Burham
Road, ( )bser\atory Road, near Capetown.

1908. Tooke, W. Hammand ( Pres. F 1908), I'.O. Box 30, Gra-

hamstown. Cape.

1902. *Townsend, Stephen Frank, CM. Rhodesia Railways, Ltd.,

Bulawavo, Rhodesia.
1910. Traill, David, M.A., M.B.. Ch.M., B.Sc, Railway Medical

Officer, Beaufort W^est, Cape.
1910. Trollip, W. L., Office of the Hon. the Administrator of

the Cape Province. Capetown.
1906. Troup, James Macdonald, M.B.. Ch.B., L.S.A., 230, Esse-

len Street, Simnyside, Pretoria.

1903. Tucker, W^illiam Kidger, C.Al.G., P.O. Box 9, Johannes-

burg.

1902. *Tudhope, Alfred Dryden, AI.LC.E., Office of the Assist-

ant General Manager of Railwavs, Ca])etown.
1906. TvF.RS, F. G., M.A.. the College, P.O. Box 93, Potchef-
stroom, Trans\'aal.

1912. Van der Lingen, Jan Stephanus, B.A., P.O. Box 59, Kroon-

stad. Orange Free State.

1909. Van der Merwe, C. P., Division of luitomology. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1910. Van der Riet, Bf.rthault de St. Jeax. M.A., Ph.D.,

(Pres. B, 1912), Professor of Chemistry. X'ictoria Col-
lege, Stellenbosch, Cape.

1904. Van der Sterr, W. C, P.O. Box 1066, Johannesburg.

1913. Van Riel, Miss Johanna M., Huguenot College, \A'elling-

ton. Cape Province.

1903. Vaughan, J. A., P.O. Box 1132, Johannesburg.

1913. Von Hafe, Joao Henrique (Pres. A, i')i3), Director of
Railways, Lourengo Marques.

LIST OF MKMI'.ERS. XXill

Year of
Election.

1903. Von Lindequist, His Excellency Baron, Kurfurtendomm,
225, II Berlin, \\., Germany.

1903. Von Uppell, Otto Karl Adolf, Department of Lands, Pre-
toria.

1912. Wager, Hur.\ce Athelstan, A.R.C.S., Professor of

Botany and Zoology, Transvaal University College,
Pretoria.

1913. Wahl, R. Owen, Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Mid-

delburg. Cape Province.

1912. Walker, James. M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593. I'retoria.
1902. Walker, Rev. Thomas, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Professor of

Mental and Moral Philosophy, Victoria College. Stel-

lenbosch. Cape.
1902. *Waller, A. H., A.M.I.C.K., F.R.Met.Soc. Assistant

Engineer, Beira and Mashonaland Railways, Beira.
1902. *Walsii, Albert (General Treasurer, 1910-14), P.O.

Box 39, Capetown.

1913. Walsh, Lionel Henry, Bracklev, Kenilworth, Cape.

1914. Wark, Rev. David, M.A., The Manse, Woodley Street,

Kiniberley.

1907. Warren, Ernest, D.Sc, Professor of Zoology, Natal Uni-
versity College, Pietermaritzburg, Natal

1906. Watermeyer, Frederick Stephanus, P.O. Box 973, Pretoria.

1902. *Watkins. Arnold Hirst, M.D., M.R.C.S., M.L.A.,
(Pres. D, 1906), Ingle Nook, Kimberlev.

1906. Watkins-Pitchford, Wilfred. M,D.. F.R.C.S., D.P.H., Gov-
ernment Laboratories, Johannesburg.

1914. Watson, Thomas H., IM.S.A.I.E.E., P.O. Box 1719, Cape-
town.

1906. Watt, Dugald Campl)c!l, M.D., 131, Pietermaritzburg St.,
Pietermaritzburg. Natal.

1912. Way, William Archer, M.A. (Pres. D, 1912), Grey
Institute, Port Elizabeth.

1914. Webb, George A., A.I.E.E., M. S.A.I. M.E., M.S.A.I.E.E.,
M.S.A., P.O. Box 3136, Johannesburg.

1902. *Webb, H. H., M.I.M.M., 8, Old Jewry, London, E.G.
1911. Welch, Rev. Sidney Read, B.A., D.D., Ph.D., St. Mary's,

Bouquet Street. Capetown.

1903. Wessels, Hon. Justice Sir J. W., B.A., LL.B., Pretoria.
1902. White, Miss Francis M., Trescoe, Cornwall Place, Wyn-

berg, near Capetown.
1902. *White, Franklin, M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 617, Sydney, New

South Wales.
1910. White, H. A., Roodepoort Central Deep, P.O. Box J14.

Roodepoort, Transvaal.
1902. White, Miss Henrietta Mary, B.xA.., Trescoe, Cornwali

Place, Wynberg, near Capetown.

.r.YlV LIST OF MEMBERS.

)'car of
Election. *'

1905. White, Maurice, M.x\., Education Department, Volksrust,

Transvaal.
iy02. *White-Cooper, William, M.A., F.R.I. B.A., P.O. Box 11,

Cradock, Cape Province.

1905. Whitton, James Reid. Principal, Normal College, Cape-

town.

1909. Whitworth, Walter S.. Kotifyfontein Diamond Mine,

( )rang-e Free State.

1910. Wiener, Ludwig, F.R.G.S.. Riebeek Street, P.O. Box 365,

Capetown.

1904. Wilhelm, A. R. A., M.B., CM., Barkly East, Cape.
it>04. Wilkinson, J. A., M.A., F.C.S.. Professor of Chemistry,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.

Box 1 176, Johannesburg.
1910. Wille. Friedrich Adolf, M.D., Ch.B., D.P.H., 11. Derby

Road, Bertrams, Johannesburg.
1912. Willet, J. A., Laurence Street, Port Elizabeth.
1912. Willey, E. A., L.D.S., Potchefstroom, Transvaal.
1902. *WiLLiAMS, Alpheus Fuller. B.Sc, (Vice-President),

Mining Engineer, De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd.,

Kimberley, Cape.

1912. Williams, Cornelius. B.Sc. A.R.C.S., Government School

of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.
1902. Williams, Prof. D., B.Sc, Rhodes University College, Gra-
hamstown. Cape.

1902. * WILLIAMS, GARDNER F., M.A., LL.D. (PRESIDENT,

1906), 2201, R. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
igo3. \A'iLMAN, Miss M., McGregor Memorial Museum, Kim-
berlev. Cape.

1903. fW^ilson,' Arthur Marius, M.D., B.S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.,

Jesmond House, Hof Street, Capetown.

1909. Wilson. Alfred William, P.O. Box 24, Langlaagte, Trans-
vaal.

1909. Windram, James Thomas, P.O. Box 3547, Johannesburg.

1913. Winscom, Miss L. E., c/o Mrs. Kempe, Schmidt Street,

Observatory, Johannesburg.
1 91 2. W^inter, Rev. Johannes August, Onverwacht, P. O. Seku-

kuni. District Lydenburg, Transvaal.
1903. fW^interton, Albert Wyle, F.C.S., Lemoenfontein, near

Beaufort West, Cape.

1906. Wood, H. E., M.Sc. F.R.Met.S. (General Secretary

1913-1914), Union Observatory. Johannesburg.

1905. fWood, James, M.A. P.O. Box 2, Kingwilliamstown, Cape.
1903. Wood, John, P.O. Box 363, East London, Cape.

TQ07. Wood, John Medley, D.Sc, Botanic Gardens, Durban,
Natal.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXV

Year of
Election.

1904. Young, Professor Robert B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
(Pres. B, 1913), P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1910. Young, T., M.A., Boys' High School, Sea Point, Cape.

1911. Zealley. Arthur E. V., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Bulawayo.

INDEX.

PAGE.

Address l)y the President nf the Association (Dr. \. \V. Roberts') I

'- Section .\ (J. M. von Hate) ... \i

-Section W (Prof. R. I'.. Young) ... 17

Section C (A. L. M. Bonn) ... 24

— ■ Section T) (J. A. Foote) ... ... 28

Admiralty. British, The liydroora]iher"s department (11. Pirn) ... .37T
Africa and South America. li\i)othetical land rmites between ( C. J.

Maury ) ... ... ... ... ... 92

. Early Portuguese discoveries and exploration in (S. Seruya) 67

■ , Soutli, Chemical composition of rain in (Dr. C. F. Juritz ) . . . 170

. Distribution of reptiles and amphibians in (J. Hewitt) 238

, South-East, The conditi<Mi of natives of, in the sixteenth cen-
tury ( Rev. II. A. Junod ) ... ... ■ ■ ■ 137

African insects ... ... ... ... ... ... 22;!

Agricultural science ... ... ... ... ... 122

Air. The measuring of, witli special reference to compressors (C.

janssen) ... ... ... ... ... 423

Amphibian ])oison... ... ... ... ... ... 86

Amphil)ians and reptiles in South .Vfrica, Distribution and characters

of (J. Hewitt) ... ... ... ... ... 2Z^

.\nnual Meeting, Proceedings at ... ... ... ... -x

Anthropological research ... ... ... ... .... 255

Bantu, The, Phallus cult amongst (Rev. J. ,\. Winter) ... ... 133

Bapetli of Eastern Transvaal, The. Phallus cult amongst (Rev. J. .A..

Winter) ... ... ... ... ... i33

Bonn (.A. L. M.), Presidential address to Section C ... ... 24

Books, New ... ... ... 66, 98, 130, 162, 226, 258, 370

BoTELHO (Lieut. J. B.), The sanitary state of the stock of the

Lourenqo Marques District ... ... ... 465

British .Admiralty, The Hvdrographer's Department of (H. Pim ) . . . 371

Broom, Dr. R. ' . . . ... ... .•■ ... ••■ 113

Cancer, Etiology of ... ... ... ... ... T04

Campos Rodrigues Observatory, Latitude and Longitude of (.A. de

.Vlmeida Teixeira ) " ... ... ... ... 385

Chemical composition of rain in the Lnion of Soulh .\frica (Dr. C.

V. Juritz) ... ... ... ... ... I/O

Climate, The, of Lourenqo .Marcpies. data for the study of {.\. de

Almeida Teixeira ) ... ... ... ... 284

Climatic change and volcanic dust ... ... ... ... 286

Coffee growing. Notes on ( 1'. de .Meirelles ) . . . ... ... 114

Coinage, A decimal, for South .\frica (Prof. W. .\. Macfadyen) ... 465

Comet, Delavan's ... . ■ . . . . . ■ ... 169

, Westphal's ... - ■ . . . ■ • • ■ . . • 53

Compressors. The measuring i^i air with special reference to (C.

Janssen ) ... . - • • . ... ... 4-3

Cosniogonic hypotheses ( R. T. .A. Innes) ... ... ... 227

Council and Officers, I9i2-i9r3 ... ... ... ... i

., Report of ... ... ... ... • . • xili

Cure for sleejiing sickness ... ... ... ... ... 63

INDEX.

Da Silva (P. L. de B.). Brief notes on the effects of geometrical
survey and legal registration of land in relation to the
security of rights over immovable property and its iden-
tification ... ... ... ... ... 40T

Xotes on the application of the radio-tele-
graphic service to e.xpeditious methods of geodetic survey 422

Davknport (W. J.). The relation of sewage flow to water supply... 222

De Meirelles (F.), Notes on coffee growing ... ... ... 1 r4

Decimal Coinage, A. for South .Africa (Prof. W. .\. ]\Iacfadyen) . . . 465

Delavan's comet ... ... ... ... ... ... i6g

Diamond Fields, The South .African ... ... ... ... 224

Dianisidine, Quinonoid oxidation products of (Dr. J. Moir) . . . 163

Dicoma anomala ... ... ... ... ... ... 50

Discontinuity between allied species of reptiles and ampliibians f J.

'Hewitt ) ... ... ... ... ... 238

Discoveries and exploration in Africa, Early Portuguese (S. Seruya) 67
Distribution and characters of rei)tiles and amphibians in South

Africa ( J. Hewitt ) ... ... ... ... 238

Dust, Volcanic, and climatic change . . ... ... ... 86

Economic plants. South .African ... ... ... ... 283

Education, Extraneous ( H. L. Lake).. ... ... ... 465

Electrical Congress, Tnternaticnal ... ... ... ... 221

Etiology of Cancer ... ... ... ... ... 104

EvAN.s, (S), Healtli conditions on the Isthmus of Panama ... 99

Evening discourses ... ... ... ... ... vi

Exploration in .Africa, Early Portuguese ( S. Seruya) ... ... 67

Flowers (F.), A plea for the exact measurement of r.iinfall ... 81

FooTE (J. A.), Presidential address io Section C ... ... 28

Galactic coordinates ( K. T. .A. innes) ... ... ... 44

Geodetic survey. Application of the radio-telegraphic service to (P.

L.'de B. da Silva) ... ... ... ... ^22

Gill, Sir David ... ... ... ... ... ... \9S

Healtli conditions on tlie Istlnnus of Panama (S. Evans) . ... QQ

Hely-Hutchinson, Sir W. F... ... ... ... ... 7,7

Hewitt (J.). Notes on the distril)uti()n and characters of reptiles and
amphibians in South .Africa, considered in relation to
tiie problem of discontinuity between closely allied

species ... ... ... ... ... 238

High Scliools. The relation of, to the University Technical College

( W. J. Home) ... ... ... ... 54

History of early Portuguese discovery and exploration in .Africa (S.

Seruya ) ... ... ... ... ... 67

HoRNE (W. J.), The relation of High Schools to the I'niversity

Technical College ... ... ... ... 54

The trades school in tlie Transvaal ... ... .^45

Hough (S. S.), Sir David Gill ... ... ... ... i95

Hydrographic department, The. of the British .Admiralty (H. Pirn) t,7\

Hydrophobia, Microlje of . . . ... ... . . ... 80

Indo-German cognates. Estranged, The humour of ( Rev. W. A.

Norton ) ... ... ... ... ... 259

Ingham (W.), A few notes on water divining. . . ... ... 203

Innes (R. T. A.). Cosmogonic hypotheses ... ... ... 227

Star positions and galactic coordinates ... 44

Insects, African ... ... ... ... ... ... 221

International Electrical Congress ... ... ... ... 221

NDEX. .lM-/.r

Janssen (C), The measuring of air, with special reference to com-
pressors ... ... ... ... ... 423

Jub(EO[>sis caffra Hecc. (Prof. R. Marloth) ... ... ... 42

Junod, Rev. H. .\., on tlie psychic hfe of the Thonga tribe . . . 125
JuNOD (Rev. H. .\.) . The condition of the natives of South-East
Africa in the sixteenth century, according to the early

Portuguese documents ... ... ... ... I37

JuRiTZ (Dr. C. F. ) , Chemical composition of rain in tlie L'nion of

South Africa ... ... ... ... ... 170

L.vKE ( H. L.), On extraneous education ... ... ... 465

Land, Registration and survcv of, in Mo7.ambii|uo ( P. I., de P>. da

Silva) . .'. ... ... ... ... 401

routes between South .America and Africa (Dr. C. J. Maury) 92

Latitude and longitude of Campos Rodrigues Observatory ( \. de

Almeida Teixeira") ... ... ... ... 3^5

Library of the Association... ... ... ... ... xxv

Lightning conductors at St. Paul's Cathedral... ... ... 86

Local Committee. Lourenqo Marques.. ... ... ... viii

Lourenco Marques, A new oil-yielding tree from ... ... 43

, Climate of (A. de Almeida Teixeira l ... 284

district. Sanitary state of the stock of ( Lieut. J. B.

Botclho ) "... ... ... ... 465

. (ieneral Meetings at ... ... ... vii

, Local and Sectional Committees ... ... viii

Lunar Volcano, A. ... ... ... ... ... 384

M.\CFADYEN (Prof. W. A.), A decimal coinage for South .-\frica... 465

Maize production ... ... ... ... •• ■ ... 1:93

Marloth (Prof. R. ), Jubcrnpsis caffra Becc : a new genus of Palmae

from Pondoland ... ... ... ■ . • 42

Maury (Dr. C. J.). The bearing of recent discoveries of early Ter-.

tiary shells, near Trinidad Island and in Brazil, on

liypotlietical land routes between South .America and

.\frica ... ... ... ... . ■ ■ 92

Measuring of air, 'I'lie, with special reference to compressors (C.

Janssen ) ... ... ... ■ • ■ ... 4^3

Medal, South Africa ... ... ... ... .-- xxi

Members, List of . . . ... ... ... ... ... «*

Meteorite, A. from XTvandh.la district, Zululand ( Prof. G H.

Stanley ) ... ... . . ■• • . . . T05

, The Winburg ... ... ... ... ... 253

Microbe of hvdrophobia ... ... • . ■ . ... 80

Milk. Synthetic ... ... ... ... ... ■ ■ ■ 136

MoiR (Dr. J.L Quinonoid oxidation products of dianisidine, and

thei'- polymerisation ... ... ... ... 163

Mozambique. Production of sugar in (J. Munro) ... ... 206

, Survey and registration of land in (P. L. de B. da Silva) 401

Munro (J.), Production of sugar in the Province of iMozambique. . 206

N'Kandhla District, Zululand, .\ meteorite from (Prof. G. H.

Stanley) ... ... •■• .. • ■ ■•• io5

Natives of South-East Africa, The condition of, in the sixteenth cen-
tury (Rev. H. A. Junod) ... ... ... i.?7

Nebulae, The constitution of.. ... ... ■■• •.• 4-t

Norton- (Rev. W. A.), The humour of estranged Tndc-German cog-
nates ... ... - • . • • . ■ ■ • 159

Officers and Council, 1012-191,-^ ... ... ■ • . • • . '

. IQT3-T914 ... . • • • • • • • • . '

of former vears ... ... ■ . • - • • • ■ '^

.VXS INDEX.

PAGE.

Oil-yielding- tree, A new, from Lourc-nqn Marques ... ... 43

Oxidation products of dianisidine (Dr. J. ]\Ioir) ... ... 163

Palmae. A new genus of, from Pondoland (Prof. R. Marloth) ... 42

Panama, Health conditions of ( S. Evans) ... ... ... 99

Papers read at the Sectional Meetings ... ... ... 35

Past Annual Meetings ... ... ... ... ... ii

Phallus cult, The. amongst the Bantu (Rev. J. .\. Winter) ... 133

PiM (H.), The hydrographer's department > if the P)ritish Admiralty 371

Plants, Economic, South African ... ... ... ... 28;^

Planula, Development of the. in a certain species of Phtintdaria

( Prof. E. Warren ) ... ... ... ... Sj

Plumiilaria. Development of the planula in ( Prof. li. Warren ) . . . 87

Poison, .Amphiljian ... ... ... ... ... 86

Pondoland, A new genus of Palm;ie from (Prof. R. ^larlotli") ... 42
Portuguese discoveries and exploration in Africa, History of ( S.

Seruya) ... ... ... ... ... 67

documents on the natives of South-East Africa in the

sixteenth century (Rev. J. .A. Winter) ... ... 137

Psychic life of the Thonga tril)e. The, Rev. H. A. Junod on ... 125

Quinonoid oxidation products of dianisidine. and their polvmerisation

(Dr. J. .Moir)... ... ... .". . ... 163

Radiotelegraphic investigation ... ... ... ... 253

Radiotelegrapliy, .Application (if, td expeditious methods f)f geodetic

survey ( P. L. de P.. da Silva ) ... ... ... 422

Rain. Chemical composition of, in the Union of Soutli .\frica (Dr.

C. F. Juritz) ... ... ... ... ... 170

Rainfall, A i)lea for the exact measurement of (F. Plowers) ... 81

Reception Committee, Lourenqo Marques ... ... ... viii

Registration and survey of land in Mozaml)ique (P. L. de I', da

Silva) ' ... ... ... ... ... 401

Reptiles and aniphil)ians in South Africa, Distrihntion and cliaracters

of (J. Hewitt) ... ... ... ... 238

Research and utilitarianism... ... ... ... ... 50

, Anthropological ... ... ... ... ... 255

Roberts (Dr. A. W.), Presidential address ... ... ... i

Rogers, Dr. .'\. W., Aw:ird of South Africa Medal to . . . ... xxi

Root knot in the tomato (Prof. H. A. Wager) ... ... 51

St. Paul's Cathedral, Lightning conductors at . . . ... ... 86

Sanitarv state of the stock of the Lourenqo Marques district (Lieut.

J. B. Botelho)... ... ... ... ... 465

Sectional Committees, Lourengo ^larcpies ... ... ... viii

Meetings, List of papers read at ... ... ... 35

officers at past meetings ... ... ... ... iv

Seruya (S. ), History of early Portuguese discoveries and explora-
tion in Africa ... ... ... ... ... 67

Sewage How, The relation of, to water supply (W. J. Davenport).. 222

Sleeping sickness. Cure for... ... ... ... ... 63

South Africa, A decimal coinage for (Prof. W. A. Macfadyeu ) ... 465

, Chemical composition of rain in (Dr. C. F. Juritz) . . . 170

, Distribution of reptiles and amphibians in (J. Hewitt) 238

Medal ... ... ... ... ... xxi

South African Diamond Fields, The.. ... ... ... 224

Economic plants ... ... ... ... 2S3

South .Anierica and x\frica, Hypotlietical land routes between (Dr.

C. J. Maury)... ... ... ... . . 92

INDEX. XXXI

PAGE.
Soiith-East Africa, The condition of the natives of, in the sixteenth

century (Rev. H. A. Junod) ... ... ... 137

St.^nley (Prof. G. H.), On a meteorite from N'Kandhla District,

Ziiluland ... ... ... ... ... 105

Star positions and galactic coordinates (R. T. A. Innes) ... ... 44

Stock of the Lourenqo Marques District, Sanitarv state of ( Lieut.

J. B. Botelho)... ... ..." ... ... 465

Sugar, Production of, in the Province of Mozambique (J. Munro) 206
Survey and registration of land in Mozambique (P. L. de B. da Silva) 401
-i geodetic. Application of the radio-telegraphic service to (P.

L. de H. da Silva ) ... ... ... ... 422

Synthetic milk ... ... ... ... ... ... 136

Teixeira (A. de Almeida), Data for the study of the climate of

LourenQo Marques ... ... ... ... 284

Determinations of the latitude and

longitude of the pillar of the transit instrument at the

Campos Rodrigues Observatory ... ... ... 385

Thonga tril)e. The, Psychic life of (Rev. H. A. Junod) ... ... 125

Tomato, The, Root knot in (Prof. H. A. Wager) ... ... 51

Trades School, The. in the Transvaal (W. J. Home) ... ... 345

Transactions of Societies ... ... 63. 96, 128, 162, 225, 257, 369, 463

Transvaal, Eastern, The Bapedi vA (Rev. J. A. Winter).. ... 133

.The Trades School in the (W. J. Home) ... ... 345

Treasurer's Report, 1912-1913 ... ... ... ... xvii

University Technical College. The, Relation of High Schools to (W.

J. Home) ... ... ... ... ... 54

Utilitarianism and research.. ... ... ... ... 50

Volcanic dust and climatic change ... ... ... ... 86

V^olcano, A lunar.. ... ... ... ... ... 384

VoN Hake (J. H.), Presidential address to Section A ... ... 12

Wager (Prof. H. A.). Root knot in the tomato ... ... x,i

Warren (Prof. E.), On the development of the planula in a certain

species of Phimularia ...
Water divining, A few notes on ( W. Ingham) ...

supply, The relation of sewage flow to, ( W. J. Davenport)

87
203

Westphal's comet

Wiijburg meteorite. The

Winter (Rev. J. A.), The Pliallus cult amongst the Bantu; particu

larly the Bapedi of the Eastern Transvaal.. ... 133

53
253

Young (Prof. R. B.), Presidential address to Section B... ... 17

Zululand, A meteorite from ( Prof. G. H. Stanley) . . ... 105

MBL WHOI Library - Serials

5 WHSE 00056

inr>U!^i^iv