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t«..ofiifii»»^^^

REPORT

OF THE

FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

South African Association

FOR THE ADVANCKMENT OF SCIENCE.

ERRATA.

Page T,yy, line i i : fi)r " Franct-s " read " Francis."

Page 379, line 13 from bottom: for *' when " read " whence.'"'

Page 3«S2. line 4: for "men" read "many."

line 9 from bottom : for " each " read " the."'

Page 383. line 23 : for " a compartment " read " the com-
partment."

Plate 12. opposite page 425: for Mctruastra pithyocnysa "
read " Metanastria pithy o cam pa."

"^

oxy

|uj LIBRARY Z^j

CAI'K TOWN : \'^

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

1918.

REPORT

OF THE

FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

South African Association

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

Y^ '^

STELLENBOSCH,
1917,

JULY 2-7.

CAPR TOVVX :

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION:

1918.

f^i *— '*.^\

luji LIBRARY No]

CON TENTS.

PAGE.

Ofmljcrs axl) Council ... ... ... ... ... i

Constitution OF THE AssociATKjx ... ... ... ... ii

Tables : Past Annual Meetings : —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local

Secretaries ... ... , . . ... ... xiii

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ... ... ... xv

Evening Discourses ... ... ... ... ... xviii

STHLLENBOSCH MEETING, 1917:—

General Meetings ... ... ... ... ... xix

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees ... ... xx

Proceedings of F'ifteenth Annual General Meeting of Members xxiii
Report of Cotmcil, 1916-17 ... ... ... ... xxviii

General Treasurer's Account, 1916-17 ... ... ... xxxiii

Tenth Award of the South Africa Aledal (^ Plate i) ... xxxvi

.\ssociATioN Library ... ... ... ... ... x.xxix

Address by the President of the Association : Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc,

M.LC.E., M.LMech.E. .. ... ... ... ... i

Address by the President of Section A: Prof. W. N. Roseveare^

M.A 33

Address by the President of Section B : Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D. 48
Address by the President of .Section C : J. Burtt-Davy, F.L-S.,

" F.R.G.S 64

Address by the President of Section D: Rev. B. P. J. Marchand,

B.A 83

Address by the President of Section E: Rev. N. Roberts 88

List of Papers read at the Sectional Meetings loi

Sea bamboo {Ecklonia huccinalis) as a source of potash: G. F.

Britten, B.A. {Plates 2-3) 105

A South African iron industry: prospects and possibilities'. Prof.

G. H. Stanley, A.R-S.M., M.LM.E., M.LM.M., F.LC 116

A green sun ^^Z

The geology of the neighbourhood of Stellenbosch : Prof. S. J.

Shand. D.Sc. Ph.D., FG.S. (P/a/^.y 4-5 and s'x text figures) 124

South African Geographical Society 136

An interesting case of insect mutualism : Rev. N. Abraham,

f.r.m.s. ... 137

Theories of Cosmogony 140

Parallax of the faint proper motion star near Alpha of Centaurus.

(Preliminary announcement): R. T. A. Tnnes, F.R.A.S..

. F.R.S.E. MI

On the effect of vegetation on the rainfall of South Africa : H.

Pealing, M.Sc M^

An old report on the copper field of Namaqualand : A. W. RnnFRS,

M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S - 146

The plant succc-^sion in the Thorn veld : Prof. J. W, Bews, M.A..

D.Sc. (Plates 6-g and tzvo text figures) .■ i->3

Einstein's theory of eravitation i"-

Markets : P. J. »u Toit t/-!

Electricity and agriculture _•_ • 17^

Xative ideas of cosmology: Rev. S. S. Dornan. M.A., F.G.S. .

F.R.G-S ^'^^

A. GORDON HOWITT . . . 188

Oriein and meaning of the name "Kottentot": Rev. Prof. J. du

Plessis. B.A.. B.D ■•• ^89

Rubber from carbide ^93

32475

iv COISTENTS.

PAGE.
The need and value of academic study of native philology and eth-
nology : Rev. W . A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt I9.|

Agricultural education in South Africa: A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D. 201

Agricultural education in Australia : C. P. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. 210

B. P. J. MARCHAND 231

R. H. LOUGHRIDGE 7. . . . . 233

F. W. Foerster, and some neglected factors in education : Rev. Prof.

J. I. Marais, B.A., D.D 234

Cannonading and rainfall ••. •• 242

A plea for vermian parasitological research, with reference to South '•

African domestic and native animals : C. S. Grobbelaar, M.A. 243
Natural enemies of the Argentine ant, Iridomyrmex huniilis Mayr, :

C. W. Mally. M.Sc, F.E.S.,_F.L.S 245

Note on the relation between mind and body: Prof. T. M. Forsyth^

M.A., D.Phil 249

The future of the Bantu people : W. Hay, J.P 252

National Gilds : a hint towards reconstruction : R. T. A. Innes,

F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E. (Precis) 259

Research grants 259

Some phases of applied entomology in South Africa : E. S. Cogan,

M.A.. Ph.D 260

Other universes than ours 262

Some notes on the colouration of reptiles and amphibians found near

Kimberley, C.P. : J. H. Power 263

National research in America 271

A suggested mechanism for the inheritance of acquired characters :

T. F. Dreyer. B.A., Ph.D 272

Horse chestnuts for munitions 277

Notes on the genus Mystropetalon Harv. (Balanophoracese) : R.

Marloth, M.A., Ph.D. (zvith one text figure) 278

Some suitable materials for paper-making: J. Leighton, F.R.H.S... 287

Potash from kelp in America 289

Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in New Zealand . . ._ 289

The proposals for a league of peace — British and American: Rev. R.

Balmforth (Abstract) 290

Distances of the Dark Nebulae 295

Parasitic protozoa in relation to the war: Prof. H. B. Fantham,

M.A., D.Sc. F.Z.S 297

Col. JAMES HYSLOP: D. C. Watt, M.D. (Plate 10) 312

Oxans 314

Sesuto etymology: Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt 315

The philosophical limits of science : Rev. S. R. Welch, B.A., D.D..

Ph.D 326

The wit and wisdom of the Bantu, as illustrated in their proverbial

sayings : J. McLaren, M.A 330

Entomological education in the United States : E. S. Cogan, M.A.,

Ph.D 345

The place of protein in nutrition: J. C. Ross, B.A., M.S., Ph.D.... 350

The scope of radiology: J. S. van der Lingen, B.A. (Abridged) . . . 354

Sugar cane wax 360

Sanscullotised literature in France : Prof. R D. Nauta 361

The war and the weather 375

P. D. HAHN : C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.LC. (Plate 11) t,77

Utilisation of tomato waste 384

Geographical distribution of the South African Bryophyta :

T. R. Sim 3^5

Ostrich leather 404

Water vapour in the sun 4^4

The volatile acidity of wine: Particularly that produced by pure

cultures of yeast: Prof. A. L Perold, B.A., Ph.D 405

Sulphate of ammonia 420

-CONTENTS. :V

• ■ ■. PAGE.

StenoKraphy as an aid to tlie phonetic an;i.lysis and comparison of

African languages : Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt 421

Hermaphroditism in ilctaiiastria ("ithyocaiiipa Cram.: F. W. Pi-:ttey,

B.A. (Plate 12) 4^3

The respiratory rectum of the Nymph of Mesogomphiis (Odonata) :

S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc. (with eislif text fif^urcs) 426

Problems in terrestrial physics that require the attention of South
African physicists : Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.,

A.M.T.E.E 433

Ctn-vilinear space 438

Plant toxins, a cause of infertility in soils: A South African

observation: A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S. (Plate 13) 439

Hay fever 442

Light-absorbing matter in space 442

Notes on fibre produced from some of the most useful indigenous

and exotic plants in the Cape Province: J. Leightox, F.R.H.S. 44.3
The movement towards a national system of technical education :

W. J. HoRNK. A.M. I.C.E., A.M.T.E.E 445

South African Museum 452

The respiratory organs of a Notonectid; S. G. Rich, AI.A., B.Sc... 455

South African ^[yxomycetes : Miss A. V. Duthie, M.A 456

The decimal system : Money, weights, and measures ; \V. J. Horne,

A.M.I.C.E., A.M.T.E.E. 462

Tonisation of gases and the absorption of X-rays : L. Simons. B.Sc.

( Title only ) 464

The plough: W. S. H. Cleghorne, B.Sc, A.M.I.Mech.E. (Title

only) 464

Mechanical refrigerators: li. W. Bull (Title only) 464

Simple expedients in experimental chemistry: Prof. B. de St. J.

VAN DER Riet, M.A., Ph.D. (Title only) ... 464

Note on a new genus of Copepoda from a fresh-water fish : Prof.

E. J. GoDDARD, B.A., D.Sc. (Title only) 464

A plea for greater attention to physiology in the teaching of zoology:

Prof. E. J. GoDDARD, B.A., D.Sc (Title only) 464

Description of a bacterium which oxidises arsenite to arsenate, and

of one which reduces arsenate to arsenite, isolated from a cattle-
dipping tank: H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. (Abstract) 465

The classilication and affinities of the Hirudinea : Prof. E. J Goduard,

B.A.. D.Sc (Title only) 467

Some field results of fertilising maize: J. F. W. Gathered (Title

only) . . . 467

The Hemichordata and their significance in relation to the Inverte-

brata and Chordata : Prof. E. J. Goddard, 13. A., D.Sc. (Title

only) 467

Note on the origin of Metamevism : Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.

( Title only) 467

The grain bug, or Stinkulieii (Blissus diplopterus Dist.) : C. W.

Mally, M.Sc, I\L.S.., F.E.S. (T///^ oH/i-) 467

TJnseed oil as an insecticide : C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

( Title only) 467

Our language and tlie native pupil : S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc 468

Grey College Herbarium 471

Upon the fate of arsenic after ingestion by and injection into live-
stock, and after absorption through the skin in dipping: H. H.

Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. (Abstract) 472

Nebulae and Nov^e 473

Note upon the analysis of soda-sulphur dips: B. J. ITill (Abstract) 474

Bantu mentality 476

Binet-Simon tests on Zulus : S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc 477

The grasses of the Eastern coast belt available for the manufacture

of paper: C. F. Juritz, M..A., D.Sc, F.T.C. (Title only) 482

VI <:o^E2iri.

PAGE.

The alleged arrest of mental development in the native: C. T. Loram,

M.A., LL.B.. Th.D. (Title only) .:. 482

Ancient Panama Canals 482

Experimental expression of the relationship between the content of a

foodstuf¥ in anti-neuritic hormone and the period of healthy

survival oi animals upon it: H. 11. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. (^Abstract) 48.?

Seaweed as fodder 484

Early man in America 484

Pomes .applanatus (Pers.) Wallr. in South Africa, and its effects

on the wood of Black Ironwood trees (Olca laiirif olia) . P. A.

VAN DER Byl. jNI.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. {Plates 14-17 and two text

figures) 485

Some factors in the replacement of the ancient East African Forest

by wooded pasture land: C. F. M. Swvnnerton, F.L.S. F.E.S.,

F.R.H.S. : 493

Note on tlie micro-titration of arsenic: H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

(Abstract) 518

The vitamine content of maize and maize milling products, and the

ambiguity of its correlation with the phosphoric oxide content :

H. H. Gkeen, D.Sc, F.C.S. (Abstract) 519

The suppling kiln as a mean of destroying insects boring in wood :

C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S. (Title only) 520

Opportunities for the selection and breeding of desirable strains of

beneficial insects: C. W. Mai.ly, M.Sc, IvL.S., F.E.S. (Title

only) 520

Note on anhydrous liquid hydrocyanic acid as a funiigant : C. W.

Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S.. F.E.S. 520

South x\frican shells 520

Some Central African folk-lore tales : Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A.,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S , 521

Nocardia cylindracea : a South African otomycosis : W. E. de Korte,

M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. (Title only) 524

Neglected assets of Empire: Afrs. Julia F. Solly (Title uuly) ... 524
An electric vehicle charging plant: J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.E.E.

(Plates 18-19) ■ 525

Ars Sophoclis interpretandi : with special reference to tlie Trachiniai :

H. G. ViLjOEN, B.A., D.Litt 527

Notes on Irving Fisher's theory of gold: A. Aiken (Title only) . . . 539
A plea for the classics in women's education : Miss K. M. Earle

(Title only) ^ 539

A preliminary note on dwarfs appearing in Gluyas Early (wheat)

hybrids: Prof. J. H. Neethling, M.Sc (with six text figures).. 540
Industrial development: K. Austin, M.Am.I.M.E. (Title only) ... 547
The ascent of sap in plants: Prof. H. A. Wa(,er, A.R.C.S. (Title

only) ... ... . . . _ ... 547

Variation in Ai^eratuin cony::oides (Family Composite) : S. G. Rich,

M.A., B.Sc. (Title only) 547

Some sense defects psychologically considered : Rev. F. C. Kolbe,

B. A., D.D. (with two text figures) ... 54^

Bantu place names in the Cape Province : Rev. J. R. L. Kingon,

U.A.,F.R.S.E.,F.h.S. (Title only) .^ 556

A key to the families and genera of spermatophyta in the Transvaal

and Orange Free State : J. Burtt-Davy. F.L.S., F.R.G.S. ... 556
The Woolly Aphis (Eriosonia lanigera) as a factor in apple culture:

C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S 556

Officers and Council. 1917-18 i

List of Members Hi

Index vxxiii

CONTENTS.

vn

LIST OF PLATES.

TIk- SiHith Africa Medal

Sea liamboo as a source of potash ...

Sea 1)amboo as a source of potash ...

The geology of the neighbourhood of Stellcnbosch

TItc geology of the neighbourhood of StelIen!)o^

The plant succession in tlie Thorn veld

The plant succession in the- Thorn veld

The i)lant succession in the Thorn veld

The plant succession in the Thorn veld

McfaiHisfria pith yarn iii/'

10. James ITvslnp

11. P. 1). Ilahn

12. Herniai)hroditisni in

13. Plant toxins

14. Pontes applainiliis

15. Pontes apphi'iatiis

16. Ponies applaiKittis

17. Pomes applaitiUus

18. An electric vehicle charging plant
IQ. An electric vehicle charging plant

To face

Page

xxxvi

106

107

124

123

154
15S

15'J
170
312
377
425
440

488
48Q
490
491

525
526

c^gTcT^

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1916-19/^^0

HONORARY PRESIDENT. / ' • I B O A

HIS MAJESTY THE KING. l^"^ L I g R 4

PRESIDENT.
Professor J. ORR, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., A[.I.Mech.E.

EX-PRESIDENT.
Professor L. CRAWFORD, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Prof. E. H. L. ScHWARz, A.R.C.S.

F G S
H. E.'WooD, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.
F. JuRiTZ, M.A., p.Scv, . F;I.C., | J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I. S., Commer-

A. H. Reid, F.R.I.B.A.. F.R.San.I
Professor W. N. Roskveare, M.A.

Agricultural Chemical Research Labo
ratory, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.

A. Walsh. P.O. Box 39, Cape Town

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

cial High School, Plein Street, Jo-
hannesburg.

H. Tucker, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street, Cape
Town. P.O. Box 1497. (Telegraphic Address: " Scientific")

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

I. CAPE PROVINCE.

Cape Peninsula.

A. J. Anderson, M.A., M.B., D.P.H.,

M.R.C.S.
Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.
Rev. W. Flint, D.D.
Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S.
R. W. Menmuir, A.M.I.C.E.

Grahamstown.
Prof. W. M. Macmillan, B.A.

Kimberlcy.
Miss M. Wilman.

Kingivilliamstown.
J. Leighton, F.R.H.S.

Middelburg.
H. Cooke, B.S.A.

Stellenbosch.

Rev. Prof. N. J. Brummer. M.A., B.D.
Prof. E. J. GoDDARD, B.A., D.Sc.
Prof. J. T. Morrison. M.A., B.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Miss B. Stoneman, D.Sc
L. Simons, B.Sc.
Prof. B. DE St. J. VAN der Riet, M.A.,

Ph.D.

II. TRANSVAAL.

Johannesburg.

T. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
W. A. Caldecott, B.A.. D.Sc, F.C.S.
P. Cazalet.

H. Fielden Bbiggs, M.D., L.D.S.,
F.C.S.

W. Ikgham, JsLI.C.E.. M.I.M.E
R. T. A. INNFS, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M..
MI.M.E., M.I.M.M., F.I.C.

Pretoria.

I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc. F.L.S.
F. E. Kantiiack, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.
Prof. D. F. DU ToiT Malherbe, M.A..

Ph.D.
Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

Potchefstroom.
E. Holmes Smith, B.Sc.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.

Bloemfontein.

Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil.
Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D.

IV. NATAL.
Durban.
M. S. Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

Maritsburg.

R. A. BuNTiNE, M.L.A., M.B., B.Ch.
Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc

V. RHODESIA.
Btilawayo.
Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A. F.G.S.

VI. MOZAMBIQUE.

S. Seruva.

Endowment Fund.

T. W. Jagger, F.S.S., M.L.A.
W. RifNciMAN, M.L.A.

A. D. R. TUGWELL.

TRUSTEES.

S.A. Medal Fund.

W. E. Gurney.

C. MURR.W, M..\.

W. Thomson. M.A.,
F.R.S.E.

B.Sc. LL.D.

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

South African Association for the
Advancement of Science.

[.'}s amended at the I'oiirtecnth Annual Meeting at Maritzburg. 1916.]

I.— OBJECTS.

The objects of the Association are: — To give a stronger
impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific enquiry; to
promote the intercourse of societies and individuals interested in
Science in different parts of South Africa; to obtain a more
general attention to the objects of pure and applied Science, and
the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

II.— MEMBERSHIP.

(rt) All persons interested in the objects of the Association
are eligible for Membership.

{h) Institutions. Societies, Government Departments and
Public Bodies are eligible as " Institutional Members."

(c) The Association shall consist of (a) Life Members, (b)
Ordinary Members (both of whom shall be included under the
term "Members"), (c) Institutional Members, and (d) Tem-
porary Members, elected for a session, hereinafter called " Asso-
ciates."

{d) Members, Institutional Members, and Associates shaH
be elected directly by the Council, but Associates may also be
eleqted by Local Committees. Members may also be elected by
a majority of the Members of Council resident in that centre at
which the next ensuing session is to be held.

{€) The Council shall have the power, by a two-thirds vote,
to remove the name of a member of any class whose Membership
is no longer desirable in ithe interests of the Association.

III.— PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

(a) Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publica-
tions issued by the Association.

(&) Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publica-
tions issued by the Association during the year of their admission,
and during the years in which they continue to pay, without inter-
mission, their Annual Subscription.

(c) Institutional Members shall receive gratuitously all
ordinary publications of the Association on the same conditions
as ordinary members ; and each Institutional Member shall be
entitled to send one representative to the Annual Session of the
Association.

tki\ili-:gi-:s of memmers and associates. hi

[d) Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Com-
mittee, but are not eligible to hold any other office, and thev are
not entitled to receive gratuitously the publications of the Asso-
ciation.

(e) Members and Institutional Members may purchase
from the Association (for the purpose of completing their sets)
any of the Annual Reports of the Association, at a price to be
fixed upon by the Council.

IV.— SUBSCRIPTIONS.

(a) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the
sum of Ten Pounds.

ib) Ordinary and Institutional Members shall pay, on elec-
tion, an Annual Subscription of One Pound. Subsequent
Annual Subscriptions shall be payable on the first day of July
in each year.

(c) An Ordinary Member may at any time become a Life
MemlDer by one payment of Ten Pounds in lieu of future Annual
Subscriptions. An Ordinary Member may, after ten years, pro-
vided that his subscriptions have been paid regularly without
intermission, become a Life Member by one payment of Five
Pounds in lieu of future Annual Subscriptions.

(d) The Subscription for Associates for a Session shall be
Ten Shillings.

v.— MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet in Session Annually. The place
of meeting shall be appointed by the Council as far in advance
as possible, and the arrangements for it shall be entrii.sted to t)i£
Local Committee, in conjunction with the Council,

VL— COUNCIL.

(a) The Management of the afifairs of the Association shall
be entrusted to a Council, five to form a quorum.

(b) The Council shall consist of the President, Retiring
President, four Vice-Presidents, two General Secretaries, the
General Treasurer, and the Editor of the publications of the
Association, together with one Member of Council for every
twenty Members of the Association.

(c) The President. Vice-Presidents, General Secretaries,
General Treasurer, and the Editor of the publications of the
Association shall be nominated at a meeting of Council not later
than two months previous to the Annual Session, and shall be
elected at the Annual General Meeting.

(d) Ordinary Members of Council to represent centres
having more than 20 Members shall, not later than one month
prior to the .\nnual Session of the Association, be elected by each
such Centre, in the proportion of one representative for everv
twenty Members. The Annual General Meeting shall elect other
Ordinary Members of Council, in number so as to give, together

IV CONSTITUTION. ^

with the Members of Council already elected by the Centres, in
all, one Member of Council for every twenty ]\Iembers of the
Association.

(e) The Council shall have the power to co-opt Members,
not exceeding five in number, from among the Members of the
Association resident in that Centre at which the next ensuing
Session is to be held.

(/) In the event of a vacancy occurring in the Council, or
among the Officers of the Association, in the intervals between
the Annual Sessions, or in the event of the Annual Meeting leav-
ing vacancies, the Council shall have the power to fill such
vacancies.

(g) During any Session of the Association the Council shall
meet at least twice, and the Council shall meet at least six times
during the year, in addition to such Meetings as may be necessary
during the Annual Session of the Association.

(h) The Council shall have the power to pay for the services
of Assistant General Secretaries, for such clerical assistance as it
may consider necessary, and for such assistance as may be needed
for the publication of the Association Report or Journal.

(i) The Council shall have power to frame Bye-laws to facili-
tate the practical working of the Association, so long as these
Bye-laws are not at variance with the Constitution.

\'II.— LOCAL AND RECEPTION COMMITTEES.

(a) A Local Committee shall be constituted for the Centre
at which the Annual Session is to be held, and shall consist of the
Members of the Council resident in that Centre, with such other
Members of the Association as the said Members of Council may
elect.

(b) The Local Committee shall form a Reception Committee
to assist in making arrangements for the reception and entertain-
ment of visitors. Such Reception Committee may include per
sons not necessarily JMembers or Associates of the Association.*

(c) The Local Committee shall be responsible for all ex-
penses in connection with the xA.nnual Session of the Association

VIIL— HEADQUARTERS.
The Headquarters of the Association shall be in Cape Town.

* The Reception Committee should make arrangements to provide : —

(i) A large hall for the delivery of the Presidential Address and evening
lectures.

(2) A large room to be used as a Reception Room for members and others,
at which all information regarding the Association can be obtained, and which
shall have attached to it two Secretaries' Offices, a Writing Room for members
and others, a Smoking Room, and Ladies' Room.

(3) Four rooms, each capable of accommodating about 30 or 40 people, to be
used as Sectional Meeting Rooms, and, if possible, to have rooms attached, or in
close proximity, for the purpose of holding meetings of Sectional Committees.

(4) Other requirements, such as office furniture, blackboards, window blinds
to darken sectional meeting rooms for Lantern lectures, notice boards, etc.

FINANCE. V

IX.— FINANCE.

(a) The Financial Year shall end on the 31st of May.

(b) All sums received for Lite Subscriptions and for
Entrance Fees shall be invested in the names of three Trustees
appointed by the Council, and only the interest arising from such
investment shall be applied to the uses of the Association, except
by resolution of a General INIeeting ; provided that any com-
position fee as a Life Member paid over to the Trustees of the
Endowment Fund after the 30th day of May, 1914, may, upon
the death of such Member, be repaid by the Trustees to the
General Account of the Association, if the Council shall so
decide.

(c) The Local Committee of the Centre in which the next
ensuing Session is to be held shall have the power to expend
money collected, or otherwise obtained in that Centre, other than
the subscriptions of Members. Such disbursements shall be
audited, and the financial statement and the surplus fimds for-
warded to the General Treasurer within one month after the
Annual vSession.

(d) All cheques shall be signed by the General Treasurer and
a General Secretary, or by such other person or persons as may
be authorised by the Council.

(e) Whenever the balance in the hands of the Treasurer
shall exceed the sum requisite for the probable or current ex-
penses of the Association, the Council shall invest the excess in
the names of the Trustees.

(/) On the request of the majority of the Members of
Council of any Centre in which two or more Members of Council
reside, the Council shall empower the local Members of Council
in that Centre to expend sums not exceeding in the aggregate 10
per centum of the amount of Annual Subscriptions raised in that
Centre.

(g) The whole of the accounts of the Association, i.e.,
the local as well as the general accounts, shall be audited annually
by an auditor appointed by the Council, and the balance-sheet
shall be submitted to the Council at the first meeting thereafter,
and be printed in the Annual Report of the Association.

X.— SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Scientific Work of the Association shall be transacted
under such sections as shall be constituted from time to time by
the Council, and the constitution of such Sections shall be pub-
lished in the Journal.

The Sections shall deal with the following Sciences and such
others as the Council ma}' add thereto from time to time : — Agri-
culture; Anthropology and Ethnology: Archaeology; Architec-
ture; Anatomy; Astronomy; Bacteriokrgy ; Botany; Chemistry;
Education ; Engineering ; Eugenics ; Geodesy and Surveying ;
Geography, Geology and Mineralogy ; Irrigation ; Mathematics ;
Mental .Science; Meteorology; Philology; Phvsics ; Physiology;

VI CONSTITUTION.

Political Economy; Sanitary Science; Sociology; Statistics,
ZooIog}^

XL— RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

(a) Grants may be made by the Association to Committees or
to individuals for the promotion of Scientific research.

(b) Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research shall primarily be considered by
the Sectional Committee dealing with the science specially con-
cerned, and if such proposal be approved, shall be referred to
the Council.

(c) A Sectional Committee may recommend to Council the
appointment of a Research Committee, composed of Members of
the Association, to conduct research or to administer a grant in
aid of research.

(d) In recommending the appointment of Research Com-
mittees, the Sectional Committee shall specifically name all Mem-
bers of such Committees ; and one of them, who has notified his
willingness to accept the office, shall be appointed to act as Secre-
tary. The number of Members appointed to serve on a Research
Committee shall be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working.

(e) All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees
shall be forwarded without delay to the Council for considera-
tion and decision.

(/) Research Committees shall be appointed for one vear
only, but if the work of a Research Committee cannot be com-
pleted in that year, application may be made, through a Sectional
Committee, at the next Annual Session for re-appointment, with
or without a grant — or a further grant — of money.

(g) Every Research Committee, and every individual, to
whom a grant had been made, shall present to the following
Annual Meeting a report of the progress which has been made,
together with a statement of the sums which have been expended.
Any balance shall be returned to the General Treasurer.

(Ii) In each Research Committee, the Secretary thereof shall
be the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such por-
tions of the sums granted as may from time to time be required.

XTI.— SPECIAL COMMITTEES.
The Council shall have power to appoint Special Committees
to deal with such subjects as it may approve, to draft regulations
for any such Committees, and to Aote money to assist the
Committees in their work.

XIIL— SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

(a) The Sectional Committees shall consist of a President,
two Vice-Presidents, two or more Secretaries, and such other
persons as the Council may consider necessary, who shall be
elected by the Council. Of the Secretaries, one shall act as
Recorder of the Section, and at least one shall be resident in the
Centre where the Annual Session is to be held.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Vll

{b ) From the time of their election, which shall take place as
soon as possible after the Session of the Association, they shall
form themselves into an organising Committee for the purpose
of obtaining information upon Papers likely to be submitted to
the Sections, and for the general furtherance of the work of the
Sectional Committees.

(c) The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to
their number from among the Members of the Association.

( d) The Committees of the several Sections shall determine
the acceptance of Papers before the beginning of the Session,
keeping the General Secretaries informed from time to time of
their work. It is therefore desirable, in order to give an oppor-
tunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several communi-
cations, that eacli author should prepare an Abstract of his Paper,
and he should send it, together with the original Paper, to the
Secretary of the Session before which it is to be read, so that it
may reach him at least a fortnight before the Session.

( c) Members may communicate to the Sections the Papers
of non-members.

(/) The Author of any Paper is at liberty to reserve his right
of property therein.

( g) The Sectional Committees shall meet not later than the
first day of the Session in the Rooms of their respective Sections,
and prepare the programme for their Sections and forward the
same to the General Secretaries for publication.

(h) The Council cannot guarantee the insertion of any
Report. Paper or Abstract in the Annual Volume unless it be
handed to the Secretary before the conclusion of the Session.

(i) The Sectional Committees shall report to the Council
what Reports. Papers or x\bstracts it is thought advisable to
print, but the final decision shall rest with the Coimcil.

XTV.— ALTERATION TO RULES.
Any, proposed alteration of the Rules —

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months

before the next Session of the Association.

b. Shall be duly considered by the Council and com-

municated by Circular to the Members of the
Association for their consideration, and dealt with
at the said Session of the Association.

During the interval between two Annual Sessions of the
Association, any alterations proposed to be made in the Rules shall
be valid if agreed to by two-thirds of the Members of Council.
Such alteration of Rules shall not be permanently incorporated in
the Constitution until approved Ijy the next Annual Meeting.

XV.— VOTING.

In voting for Members of Council, or on questions con-
nected with Alterations to Rules, absent Members may record
their vote in writing.

Vlll CONSTITUTION,

RULES FOR THE AWARD OF MEDALS.

A. The South Africa Medal.

L — Constitution of Committee.

(a) The Council of the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science shall, annually and within three months
after the close of the Annual Session, elect a Committee to be
called " the South Africa Medal Committee " on which, as far
as possible, every Section of the Association and each Province
of South Africa shall have fair representation.

{b) This Committee shall consist of eight Members elected
from amongst Council Members, together with four other Mem-
bers, selected from amongst Members of the Association who
are not on the Council.

(c) Each new Committee shall retain not less than four
members who have served on the previous Committee.

(d) The Chairman of the Committee shall be appointed
annually by the Council from amongst its Members.

(e) Any casual vacancy in the Committee shall be filled by
the Council.

IL — Duties,

(a) The duties of the Committee shall be to administer the
Income of the Fund and to award the Medal, raised in com-
memoration of the visit of the British Association to South
Africa in 1905, in accordance with the resolution of its Coimcil.

(b) This resolution reads as follows;- —

(i) That, in accordance with the wishes of subscribers,
the South Africa Medal Fund be invested in the names
of the Trustees appointed by the. South African
Association for the Advancenent of Science.

(2) That the Dies for the Medal be transferred to the
Association, to which, in its corporate capacity, the
administration of the Fund and the award of the
Medal shall be, and is hereby, entrusted, under the
conditions specified in the Report to the Medal Com-
mittee.

(c) The terms of conveyance are as follows: —

(i) That the Fund be devoted to the preparation of a
Die for a Medal, to be struck in Bronze, 2^ inches in
diameter ; and that the balance be invested and the
annual income held in trust.

(2) That the Medal and income of the Fund be awarded
by the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science for achievement and promise in
scientific research in South Africa.

(3) That, so far as circumstances admit, the award be
made annually.

(d) The British Association has expressed a desire that the
award shall be made only to those persons whose Scientific work
i*. likely to be usefully continued by them in the future.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 1,

Of Tr!£ \

The South Africa Medal.

SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. IX

III. — Awards.

(a) Any individual engaged in Scientific research in South
Africa shall be eligible to receive the award.

{b) The Medal and the available balance of one year's
income from the Fund shall be awarded to one candidate only in
each year (save in the case of joint research) ; to any candidate
once only ; and to no member of the Medal Committee.

(c) Nominations for the recipient of the award may be made
by any member of the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science, and shall be submitted to the Medal
Committee not later than six months after the close of the
Annual Session.

(d) The Medal Committee shall recommend the recipient
of the award to the Council, provided the recommendation is
carried by the vote of at least a majority of three-fourths of its
Members, voting verbally or by letter, and submitted to the
Council at least one month prior to the Annual Session for con-
firmation.

(e) The award shall be made by the full Council of the
South African Association for the Advancement of Science after
considering the recommendations of the Medal Committee, pro-
vided it is carried by the vote of a majority of its Members,
given in writing or verbally.

(/) The Council shall have the right to withhold the award
in any year, and to devote the funds rendered available thereby,
in a subsequent award or awards, provided the stipulation con-
tained in the second term of conveyance of the British Associa-
tion is adhered to.

(g) No alteration shall be made in these Rules except under
the condition specified in Chapter XIV. of the Associaition's Con-
stitution, reading: —

Any proposed alteration of the Rules — -

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months before

the next Session of the Association.

b. Shall be duly considered by the Council, and be com-

municated by circular to the iNIembers of the Associa-
tion for their consideration, and dealt with at the said
Session of the Association.

(h) Should a Member of the Medal Committee accept
nomination for the Award or be absent from South Africa at
any time within four months before the commencement of the
enstiing Annual Session, he will ipso facto forfeit his seat on the
Committee.

X CONSTITUTION.

B. The Goold- Adams Medals.

(a) The Medals shall be awarded on the joint results of the
Matriculation and University Senior Certificate Examinations
of the University of the Cape of Good Hope.

(b) One Medal shall be awarded to the student who has
taken the highest place in each of the seven Science subjects;
(i) Physics, (2) Chemistry, (3) Elementary Physical Science,
(4) Botany, (5) Zoolog}', (6) Elementary Natural Science, and
(y) Mathematics, as set forth in the University Matriculation
Examination and the University Senior Certificate Examination ;
and who is not over the prescribed age for Exhibitions at the
Matriculation Examination.

(c) The standard of marks shall be not less than 65 per
cent, of the maximum.

(d) The Medals shall be struck in bronze.

BYE-LAWS

I. By.e-laivs under zvhich the O.l'S. Philosophical Society was
incorporated, front 1st July. 1914. with the Soiitli African
Association for the Advancement of Science, with the desig-
nation of " The Oranffe Free State Branch " of the Associa-
tion.
I. The O.F.S. Philosophical Society to be incorporated with

the South African Association for the Advancement of Science,

this being the only course of procedure open under the existing

Constitution.
' 2. The title of the Society so incorporated to be " The

Orange Free State Branch of the South African Association for

the Advancement of Science.'"

3. All members of the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science resident in the Orange Free State will,
for purposes of these bye-laws, be considered members of the
Orange Free State Branch of the Association.

4. The local Committee of the Branch to consist of the
Council members of the Association for the Orange Free State,
together with such additional members as the Branch may elect
to serve on its local Committee.

5. Subscription notices to members of the Branch to be cir-
culated from the Head Office of the Association in Capetown,
and subscriptions to be paid to the General Treasurer of the
Association at Capetown, 10 per cent, thereof being remitted to
the Orange Free State Branch for local expenses. Subscriptions
of £1 per annum to entitle to membership of the Association as
a whole, as well as of the Orange Free State Branch.

6. All members at present on the books of the Orange Free
State Philosophical Society to be entitled to become members of
the Association, to receive its Journal, and to enjoy the full privi-
leges of membership, as soon as their subscription of £1 for the
financial year 191 4- 15 shall have been paid.

BVE-LAWS. XI

/. reapers read before the Orange Free State Branch may
either (i) be printed by title, abstract, or in extcnso, in the Jour-
nal of the Association for the current year, after reference to the
Presidents of the respective Sectional Committees, or (2) be read
at the next Annual Session of the Association (provided that
they have not been previously published in abstract or in extcnso),
and thereafter printed in the Association's Journal, suliject to
the ordinary conditions.

//. Byc-liiTK's for t/ir f/iiidaiicc of Sectional Officers.

1. The attention of all Sectional Officers is directed to
Chapter XIll. of the Association's Constitution, relating;- to the
Sectional Committees and their functions.

2. The President and Recorder (or Secretary) of a Section
shall have power durinj^ the Annual Session to act on l)ehalf
of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought
before the consideration of the whole Sectional Committee ; and
they shall report such action to the next meeting of the Sectional
Committee.

3. The ] 'resident of the Section, or, in his absence, one of
the two \'ice-Presidents, shall preside at all meetings of the
Section or of the Sectional Committee.

4. The IVesident of the Section is expected to pre|)are a
Presidential Address, which shall be delivered during the Annual
Session.

5. Prior to the commencement of the .Session, the Recorder
of each Section shall prepare a list of all papers notified to be
read during the Session, and shall also kee]) the Assistant Secre-
tary of the ,\ssociation informed (tf the titles and author-; of all
such i)apers. The Assistant Secretary sliall. on his i^art, kee])
the Recorder informed of all ]:)apers that nia>' 1)e notibed to him
direct.

6. When a proposal is made for the reading of a \m\)tr at a
joint meeting of Sections, the President, Recorder and Secretary
of each .Section shall ex officio attend a meeting convened bv
ci General .Secretary to consider the same.

7. During the continuance (if the Annual .Session, the Local
Secretar}' of each Section shall be re.s]>onsible 'for the punctual
transmission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme
of his Section for early ])ublication. and of any other recommen-
dations ado])ted by the Sectional Committee ; and shall, at the
close of the !-^ession, furnish the Assistant Secretary with a list,
showing which of the i)apers notified for reading befcjre the
.Section have Ijeen so read, and which have been taken as read,
and giving the dates in either case. He shall, at the same time,
indicate the recommendations of the Sectional Committee with
respect to each jjaper, i.e., whether it sliould l)e i)rinted in full, or
in abstract, or by title only.

8. Each Sectional Committee shall cause to be prepared a
record of the discussion on each paper read at its meetings ; and

Xll CONSTITUTION.

such record shall l)e attached to the paper and handed in with
the same in terms of Clause 1 1 of these instructions.

y. Each Sectional Committee shall, durinj^ the continuance
of the Annual Session, meet daily, unless otherwise determined,
to comi)lete the arranoements for tlie next day.

10. In deciding- on any recommendation regarding the
printing of or otherwise of a paper submitted to it, the Sectional
Committee shall consider only the merits of the paper, and not
the financial condition of the Association.

11. The Local Secretar}- of each Section shall, at the close
of each day, collect the j^apers that have been read and hand
them to the Assistant Secretary, together with a note explaining
the cause of absence of any paper not so handed over.

12. Sectional (Officers shall do their utmost to ensure jmnc-
tual commencement and termination c^f the Section's daily pro-
ceedings ; and, in drafting the programme for the next day, the
Committee shall endeavour to allot a specified time to the reading
and discussion of each paper, in order to |)revent other Sections
or the Association as a whole l)eing inconvenienced in conse-
((uence of delays.

III. — Bye-Ltncs for flic Affiliafion of Scieiifific ami Kljuircd
Societies.

Philosophical and Scientific Societies, and other Associations
of a kindred character ma}', on application to. and with the
approval of the Council, aftiliate with the South African Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science on the following condi-
tions : —

1. That as a Societ}- can only be affiliated on the approval
of the Cotmcil, ni) minimum of membership of such Society need
be specified.

2. That each Society shall pay the Association a miniminn
fee of ^5 for a strength of 50 members or less, and a further £1
for each additional 10 or portion of 10 members.

3. That such Society shall be entitled to one co|)y of the
South African Jolkxal of Science for each £\ paid to the
Association.

4. That such Societ}- may, if it has a strength of 50 mem-
bers, be reijresented on the Council of the Association h\ its
President or such other niemljer as may be nominated for the
purpose.

5. That all members of affiliated Societies may join the
Association as ordinary members, with full privileges, at a re-
duced annual suljscrijnion of 15s

6. That affiliated Societies shall be asked to take into con-
sideration the admission of members of the Association into their
Societies at a reduced subscription.

7. That papers contril)Uted to affiliated Societies mav. on
recommendation of both their own Council and that of the
Association., be printed in the Association's Journal of Science,
after wliich the authors shall be entitled to reprints on the usual
terms.

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, ETC.

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PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

XV

P rest doits and Secret artes of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Secretaries-

SECTION A.— ASTRONOMY. CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS,
METEOROLOGY AND PHYSICS.

Prof. P. D. Hahn, M.A.,

Ph.D.
J. R. Williams, M.I.M.M.,

M.Amer.I.M.E.
J. R. Sutton, M.A.

1903. Cape Town . .
190.1- Johannesburg*

1906- Kimberley
1907. Natalt - - -

1908- Grahamstown

Prof. L. Crawford.

W. Cullen. R. T. A. Innes.

E. N. Neville, F.R.S., | D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.C.S.
A. W. Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

W. Gasson. A. H. J. Bourne.
D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

D. Williams, G. S. Bishop.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, METEOROLOGY,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND

GEOGRAPHY.

Prof. W. A. D. Rudge, H. B. Austin, F. Masey.

M.A.
Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, A. H. Reid, F. Flowers.

F.R.S.E.
Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., | A. H. Reid, Rev. S. S. Dor-

ic»t)9- Bloemfontein

1910- Cape Town %

191 1- Bulawayo

! M.A., F.R.A.S.
1912. Port Elizabeth H. J. Holder, M.I.E.E.

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg

191 7. Stellenbosch

J. H. von Hafe.

Prof. A. Ogg, M.A., B.Sc,

Ph.D.
F. E. Kanthack, M.I.C.E.,

M.I.M.E.
Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc,

M.I.C.E.
Prof. W. N. Roseveare.
M.A.

nan-
A. H. Reid.
Prof. J. Orr, J. Vaz Gomes.

Prof. A. Brown. A. E. H. Din-
ham-Peren.

Prof. A. Brown, J. L. Soul-
ier.

Prof. A. Brown, P. Mesham.

Prof. A. Brown. L. Simons.

SECTION B.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY,
BOTANY, GEOGRAPHY. GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

1903. Cape Town .
1904- Johannesburg

1906- Kimberley

R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.

Prof. A. Dend

V.

G. S. Corstorphine, B.Sc, Dr. W. C. C. Pakes, W. H.

Ph.D., F.G.S.
Thos. Quentrall,

M.I.Mech.E., F.G.S.

Jollyman.
C. E. Addams, H. Simpson.

CHEMISTRY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY, ENGINEERING,
MINING AND ARCHITECTURE.

R. G. Kirkby, W. Paton.

1907- Natal ! C. W. Methven, M.I.C.E..

[ F.R.S.E., F.R.I.B.A.

1908- Grahamstown' Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,

A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

Prof. G. E. Cory, R. W.
Newman, J. Muller.

* Metallurgy added in 1904.

t Geography and Geodesy transferred to Section A and Chemistry and
Metallurgy to Section B, in 1907-

I Irrigation added in iqto r.nd Geography transferred to Section B.

XVI

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place-

Presidents.

Secretaries-

CHEMISTRY, BACTERIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY,
ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, SANITARY SCIENCE-

1909. Bloemfontein 1 C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, j Dr. G. Potts, A. Stead.

1 F.I.C. i

CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY AND

GEOGRAPHY-

igio- Cape Town . .

191 1. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg. . .
19x7. Stellenbosch . .

A. W. Rogers, M.A.,

Sc.D., F.G.S.
A. J. C. Molyneux.

F.G.S.. F.R.G.S.
Prof. B. de St. J. van der

Riet, M.A., Ph.D.
Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.,

D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
Prof. G. H. Stanley,

A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E.,

M.I.M.M., F.I.C.
H. Kynaston, M.A.,

F C S
Prof". J. A. Wilkinson, M.A.

F C S
Prof. M."m. Rindl, Ing.D.

J. G. Rose, G. F. Ayers.

J. G. Rose, G. N. Blackshaw.

J. G. Rose, J. E. Devlin.

Prof. G. H. Stanley, Capt. A.

Graga.
J. G. Rose, J. Parry.

Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. D.

F. du Toit Malherbe.
Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Pfof. J. W.

Bews.
Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. B. de
St. J. van der Riet.

SECTION C— AGRICULTURE, ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

1903- Cape Town . . I Sir Chas. Metcalfe. Bart., A. H. Reid.

M.I.C.E. :

1904- Johannesburg* ; Lieut.-Colonel Sir Percy G. S. Burt Andrews, E. J.

Girouard, K.C.M.G., ' Laschinger.
I D.S.O.

1906- Kimberley . . j S. J. Jennings, C.E., D. W. Greatbatch, W. New-

M.Amer.I.M.E., M.I.M.E. : digate-

BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE AND
FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE-

Lieut.-Colonel H. Watkins , W. A. Squire, A. M. Neilson,
- Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S. j Dr. J. E. Duerden.

Prof. S. Schonland, M.A., : Dr. J. Bruce Bays, W.
Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. Robertson, C. W. Mallv.

Dr. L. H. Gough.

Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, W. D. Severn, Dr. J. W. B.
! M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S. Gunning.

I F. Eyles, F.L.S., M.L.C. W. T. Saxton, H. G. Mundy.

F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S., W. T. Saxton, I. L. Drege.

F.R.M.S. ■

A. L. M. Bonn, C.E. I F. Flowers, Lieut. J. B.

'. Botelho.

Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, C. W. ^lally, W. J. Calder.

Ph.D. I

C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc, C. W. i\lally, A. K. Haagner.

F.E.S. I

I. B. Pole-Evans, M.A., 1 C. W. Mallv. Prof. E. Warren.

B.Sc, F.L.S. I

J. Burtt-Davv, F.L.S.. | C. W. Mallv, C. S. Grobhelaar.
F.R.G.S. . I

1907- Natal

1908- Grahamstown

1910- Cape Town t

1911- Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg.
7917. Stellenbosch . .

* Forestry added in 1904.

t Sanitary Science added in 1910.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

evil

Date and Place-

Presidents.

Secretaries.

SECTION D.— ARCHAEOLOGY, EDUCATION, MENTAL SCIENCE,
PHILOLOGY. POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle.

1903- Cape Town .

1904- Johannesburg

1906. Kimberley

Thos. Muir, C.M.G., M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

(Sir Percy Fitzpatrick,
M.L.A.), E. B. Sargant,
M.A. (Acting).

A. H. Watkins, M.D.,
M.R.C.S.

Howard Pirn, J. Robinson.

E. C. Lardner-Burke, E. W.

Mowbray.

ANTHROPOLOGY. ARCHEOLOGY, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION
ETHNOLOGY. HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOLOGY,
SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1907. Natal I R. D. Clark, M.A.

R. A. Gowthorpe, A. S.
Langley, E. A. Belcher.

ARCHEOLOGY, EDUCATION, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND
PHILOLOGY.

1908. Grahamstown ' E. G. Gane, M.A.

Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, W.
D. Neilson.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY. EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY
AND STATISTICS.

1909. Bloenifontein ! Hugh Gunn, M.A.

igio- Cape Town . .

iQii- Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

19x3. Lourengo
Marques

19 1 4. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

igi6. Maritzburg . .

G. C. Grant, Rev. W. A.
Norton.
Rev. W. Flint. D.D. G. B. Kipps, W. E. C. Clarke.

G. Duthie, M.A., F.R.S.E. G. B. Kipps, W. J. Shepherd.

W. A. W;!v, M.A.
J. A. Foote, F.G.S.

Prof. VV. Ritchie, M.A.

J. E. Adamson, M.A.

M. S. Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

G B. Kioos, E. G. Bryant.
H. Pirn,'}. Elvas.

Prof. R. D. Nauta, A. H. J.

Bourne.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, R. G. L.

Austin.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, Prof. O.

Waterhouse.

EDUCATION. HISTORY. MENTAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECO-
NOMY, GENERAL SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1917. Stellenbosch .. f Rev. B. P. T. Marchand,

B.A.

Prof. R. D. Nauta, Dr.
Bertha Stoneman.

SECTION E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, ECONOMICS,
SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1908- Grahamstown 1 W. Hammond Tooke. I Prof. A. S. Kidd.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE EDUCATION,
PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCIOLOGY.

T017. Stellenbosch .. I Rev. N. Roberts. 1 Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite

i I and Prof. J. J. Smith.

B

XV 111

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place-

Lecturer.

Subject of Discourse.

1903- Cape Town .

1904. Johannesburg
1906. Kimberley

1907. Maritzburg .
Durban . . . .

1908. Grahamstown

1909. Bloemfontein

Maseru . . . .

1910. Cape Town . .

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg . .
Durban.

19 1 7. Stellenbosch . .

Prof. W. S. Logeman,
B.A., L.H.C.

H. S. Hele-Shaw, LL.D.,

F.R.S., M.T.C.E.
Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A.,

D.Sc.
W. C. C. Pakes, L.R.C.P.,
M.R.C.S., D.P.H., F.I.C.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,
ERSE
Prof. R. B. Young^ M.A.',
B.Sc, F.R.S.E.. F.G.S.
Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

A Theiler, C.M.G.

C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc,

F.I.C.
W. Cullen.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E.

Prof. H. Bohle, M.I.E.E.

J. Brown, M.D., CM.,

F.R.C.S., L.R.C.S.E.
W. H. Logeman, M.A.
A. W. Roberts, D.Sc,

E.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A.,
D.Sc.
S. Seruya.

Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,
A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc,

F.G.S., M.I.M.M.
C. W. Mally, M.Sc,

F.E.S., F.L.S.
C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc,

F E.S
R. f. A.' Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E.
H. E. Wood, M.Sc,
F.R.Met.S.
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist,
M.A.. D.Sc, Ph.D.,
F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S.

The Ruins of Persepolis and
how the Inscriptions were
read.

Road Locomotion — Present
and Future.

The Electrical Aspect of
Chemistry.

The Immunisation against
Disease of Micro-organic
Origin.

Some Recent Problems in
Astronomy.

The Heroic Age of South
African Geology.

The History of the Eastern
Province.

Tropical and Sub-tropical
Diseases of South Africa :
their Causes and Propaga-
tion.

Celestial Chemistry.

Explosives : their Manufac •

ture and Use.
Astronomy.

The Conquest of the Air.
Electoral Reform — Propor-
tional Representation.
Tlie Gyroscope.
Imperial Astronomy.

Antarctica.

The history of Portuguese
conquest and discovery.

The Kimberley Mines, their
discovery, and their rela-
tion to other volcanic vents
in South Africa.

The gold bearing conglomer-
ates of the Witwatersrand.

The House fly under South
African conditions.

Scale Insects and their travels.

Astronomy.

Some unsolved problems of

Astronomy
Some marine animals of

South Africa.

XIX

genp:ral mep:tings at stellenbosch.

On Alonday, July 2. at 2.30 p.m., the Association was offi-
cially welcomed by His Worship the Mayor of Stellenbosch
(Councillor P. D. Cluver) in the Assembly Hall of the Education
Bnildin"-, N'ictoria CoUeee.

'^5<

At 8.15 p.m.. in the Conservatorium Hall, Prof. J. Orr.
B.Sc, M.I.C.E., AI.I.Mech.E., took the chair as President, and
delivered an address, for which see page i.

The President subsequenth ])resented the South Africa
Aledal to Prof. J. D. F. (Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc. Ph.D.. F.L.S.,
C.AI.Z.S. Eor the proceedings, see page xxx\i.

On 7^iirsdax, July 3, at 3 p.m.. Members of the Association
attended a reception held by His Worshi]) the Mayor of Stellen-
bosch, in the Hall of the Main Colleue Building, and sub.sequently
proceeded on short local trips to the farm of Mr. E. Lange,
Nooitgedacht, to Vlottenberg Distillery, to the Oude Molen Dis-
tillery, and to Winshaw's Grape Juice Works.

At 8.15 p.m., in the Conservatorium Hall, Mr. H. E. Wood,
Al.Sc, F.R.Met.S., delivered a discourse on " Some Un.solved
Problems of Astronomy," the President of the Association pre-
siding.

On IVcdiicsday. July 4, at 8.15 p.m.. Members of the Asso-
ciation attended a reception held by Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A.,
B.Sc, F.R.S.E., and the members of the Reception Committee,
in the Hall of the Main College Building.

At 3.30 ]).m. Members proceeded on excursions to the Gov-
ernment Trout Hatchery, Jonker's Hoek, and to the Government
-School of Agriculture, Elsenburg.

On Thursday, July 5, at 10.30 a.m.. tlie [""ifteenth Annual
General Meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the Education
Building. Victoria College, for Minutes of which see i:>age xxiii.

At 8.1 T p.m.. in the Conservatorium Hall. Prof. J. D. F.
Gilchrist. M.A.. D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.. deHvered a dis-
course on " Some Marine Animals of South Africa," the Presi-
dent of the Association presiding.

On Friday., July 6, at 9.15 a.m., and at 2 p.m., Members
proceeded on a visit to Lotirensford, the estate of Mr. J. W.
Jagger, F.S.S., M.L.A., and to the Cape Explosives Works at
Somerset West.

On Saturday, July 7. at 10 a.m.. Members proceeded on a
visit to Schcongezicht. the estate of the Right Hon. J. X. Merri-
man. P.C, LL.D.. M.L.A.

XX

OFFICERS OF LOCAL AND SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES, STELLENBOSCH, 1917

LOCAL COMMITTEE.

Chairman, Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E., Rev.
Prof. N. J. Brummer, M.A., 'B.D., Miss A. V. Duthie, M.A.,
Prof. E. J. Goddard, D.Sc, A. L Perold, B.A., Ph.D., L. Simons,
B.Sc, Miss B. Stoneman, D.Sc. Local Secretary;, Prof. B de
St. J. van der Riet, M.A., Ph.D.

RECEPTION COMMITTEE.

Chairman, His Worship the Mayor of Stellenbosch (Coun-
cillor P. D. Cluver) ; the Deputy Mayor (Councillor C. M.
Neethlino-) ; Councillors J. H. Classens, T. J. de Waal. C. F.
Hunt. J. J. C. Heynecke, J. D. Kri^e. C. G. Marais and J.
Rattrav; Right Hon. ]. X. Merriuian, P.C, LL.D., M.L.A,.
Hon. Sir Thos. W. Smartt. K.C.M.G.. L.R.C.S.I.. L.K.Q.C.P.I..
M.L.A., J. F .Joubert (C.C. and R.M.), Lord de Villiers, D. J.
Ackennan ( Reo^istrar, Victoria Colles^e ) , W. E. Barker, K.
Bairnsfather, H. Bairnsfather. D. Beyers, J. L. Beyers. A. M.
Bosnian, D. J. Bosman, Rev. D. S. Botha, M. ]. Burnard, G.
Chapman, A. H. Cluver, LL.B., F. A. Cluver." Ph.D.. LL.B.,
C. M. Cunnino^hani, A. B. de Villiers, A. F. de Villiers. W. B.
de Villiers, Wilhelm de Villiers, J. H. de Wet. J. P. de Wet,
W. E. Diimmer (Mayor of Somerset West). P. A. B. Faure,
W. Gilchrist, G. T- Gird. Rev. G. G.^lii^htlv. |. Gutsche. Ph.D.,
E. Hamlin. B.Sc. J. W. Jagger. F.S S.. M.L.A. . Prof. F. W.
Jannasch, W. John, G. J. Krige. W. J\. Krige. E. Lange, J. P.
Louw, M. L. Louw, Dr. ]. W. C. Macpherson. P. R. Malleson.
Rev. Prof. J. I. ^Tarais. D.D.. Rev. W. N. C. Marchant. A. F.
Markotter, B.A., A. H. Marnham, Rev. Prof. A. Moorrets, Jan
H. Morkel. Dr. ]. H. Neethling, I. M. Nel, Rev. Father " E.
O'Reilly, B. Perl. H. E. V. Pickstone. J. Rawbone. J. P. Roux.
J. W. H. Roux. P. J. Roux. R. Santhagens, J. E. Scholtz. I.
Tribolet, Prof. P. van Braam. E. B. van der Riet, [. G. van
Helsdingen. Dr. I. J. Versfeld. Rev. J. Weber. J. H. Wicht. W.
C. Winshaw. Hon. Secretary: H. J. Louw.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND IRRIGATION.

President, Prof. W. N. Roseveare, M.A. ; Vice-Presidents, S.
S. Hough, M.A.. F.R.S., and A. H. Reid, F.R.I. B.A., F.R.San. I.;
Members, P. Cazalet, Prof. L. Crawford. M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S.E.,
C. T. Gyde, A.M.I.C.E.. W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., R. T.
A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.. F. E. Kanthack. C.^I.G., M.I.C.F.,

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXI

Al.I.M.E., J. Lunt, D.Sc. F.I.C., R. W. Menmuir, A.M.I.C.E.,
Prof. I. T. Morrison, M.A.. B.Sc. F.R.S.E.,, Prof. A. Ogg. M.A.,
B.Sc.'Ph.D.. and Prof. J. Orr. B.Sc. M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. ;
Hon. Secretaries. IVof. A. Brown, ^l.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.
{Recorder) , and L. Simons. B.Sc.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOG'Y, METALLURGY,
MLNERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President, Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D. ; Vice-Presidents. H.
H. Green, D.Sc. F.C.S., and P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., B.Sc;
Members. W. A. Caldecott, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., F. Flowers,
F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., C. F. Jiiritz, M.A„ D.Sc, F.I.C., W. F.
Grant, B.Sc. I. Hntcheon, M.A., F.R.S.G.S.. Prof. D. F.du T.
Malherbe, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, A.R.C.S.,
F.G.S., Prof. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M.,
F.I.C., Prof. T. A. \Vilkinson, M.A., F.C.S., C. Williams, B.Sc,
A.R.C.S., Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.. D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.; Hon.
Secretaries, H. C. ]. Tietz, M.A., Ph.D. {Recorder), and Prof.

B. de St. ]. van der Riet. M.A., Ph.D.

Section C.— BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY. ZOOLOGY,
AGRICULTURE. FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HY-
GIENE, AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

President, J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S.. F.R.G.S. ; Vice-Presidents,
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A.. D.Sc, and A. Holm ; Members, Dr. A.
J. Anderson, M.A.. M.B., D.P.H., M.R.C.S.. Prof. ]. W. Bews,
M-.A.. D.Sc, H. Fielden Briggs, M.D., L.D.S., F.C.S., H. Cooke,
B.S.A.. I. B. Pole Evans. M.A., B.Sc. F.L.S.. F. W. FitzSimons,
F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.. Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.,
F.L.S., T. S. Henkel, Lt.-Col. J. Hvslop, D.S.O.. M.B.. CM., D.
Kehoe. M.R.C.V.S., C. E. Legat. T- Leighton, F.R.H.S., C. P.
Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S., A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D., E. P.
Philhps, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D., E.
Holmes Smith, B.Sc, A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S., Miss B. Stoneman,
D.Sc, P. A. van der Byl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Prof. H. A.
Wager. A.R.C.S.. Prof. E. Warren. D.Sc : Hon. Secretaries,

C. W. Mallv. M.Sc. F.L.S.. F.E.S. (Recorder), and C. S
Grobbelaar. M..\.

Section D.— EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE,
POLITICAL ECONOMY, GENERAL SOCIOLOGY,
AND STATISTICS.

President. Rev. B. P. J. Marchand, B.A. ; Vice-Presi-
dents, Prof. T. M. Forsvth, M.A., D.Phil., and Prof. R.
Leslie. M.A.. F.S.S.; Members, R. A. Buntine. M.L.A., M.B.,
B.Ch.. Rev. W. Flint. D.D.. J. A. Foote. F.G.S., F.E.I. S.. Prof.
W. A. Macfadven. M.A., LL.D., Rev. A. M. McGregor. M.A.,
B.D., Prof. W.'M. Macmillan. B.A., Rev. Prof. N. ]. Brummer.

Xxii OFFICERS t)F SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

M.A., B.D., B. M. Narbeth. B.Sc, F.C.S. ; Hun. Secretaries.
Prof. R. D. Nanta (Recorder), and Miss Bertha Stoneman, D.Sc.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCI-
OLOGY.

President. Rev. N. Roberts; Vice-Presidents, Rev. ]. R. I,.
Kingon, M.A!. F.L.S., and Rev. \\". A. Norton, B.A./B.Litt. ;
Members. S. G. Campbell. M.D., M.Ch., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.S.,
D.P.H., Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A.. F.G.S.. M. S. Evans, C.M.G..
F.Z.S.. S. Evans, W. Hav, J.P., C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D..
L. A. Peringuey, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Rev. C. Pettman, A. W".
Roberts, D.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., S. Seruya, Miss M. Wilman ;
Hun Secretaries. Revs. E. W. H. Musselwhite, B.A. (Recorder).
and Prof. I. 1. Smith. B.A.. LL.B.

XXlll

PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEENTH ANNUAL
GENERAL MEETING OF MEMBERS.

{Held III the Education Biiildiiuj, Victoria College. SteUeiibosch.
on Thursday, July 5, 1917.)

Present: Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc. M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. (Pre-
sident), in the chair; Prof. ]. W. Bews, Prof. A. Brown, J.
Burtt-Davy, F. W. P. Chiver, Prof. L. Crawford, Miss A.
\'. Duthie. D. F. dn Toit. P. J. du Toit, Prof. H. B.
Fantham. Pev. J. FitzHenry, Rev. Dr. W. Fhnt, Prof. T. M.
Forsyth. S. Garside, Prof. E. J. Goddard, Dr. H. H. Green.
C. S. Grohbelaar. L. D. Jones, Rev. Dr. F. C. Kolbe, Dr. J.
R. Leech, j. Leighton. Prof. R. Leshe, Dr. j. Lunt, Prof.
W. A. Macfadyen. Mrs. H. M. McKay, I. McLaren, P. R. Malle-
son, Mrs. B. M. Malleson. C. W. Mally. Rev. B. P. J. Marchand,
Prof. R. Marloth, }. Mitchell. Prof }. T. Morrison. Prof. C. E.
Moss, Rev. E. W. H. Mussel white, J. H. Neethlinor. Mrs. J. Orr.
Dr. A. I. Perold, A. H. Reid. S. G. Rich. Prof. M. M. Rindl.
Dr. A. W. Roberts, Rev. N. Roberts, J. W. A. Rose, Prof. W.
N. Roseveare. Prof. S. J. Shand, L. Simons, Hon. Sir T. W.
Smartt. Prof. J. J. Smith, Dr. Bertha Stoneman. IVIiss A. Town-
send. J. S. van der Lingen. Prof. C. D. van der Merwe, Dr.
H. G. Viljoen. Rev. Dr. S. R. Welch, and Miss M. Wilman ; J.
A. Foote and Dr. C. F. Juritz (General Secretaries), and H.
Tucker (Assistant (General Secretary).

Minutes. — The Minutes of the Fourteenth Annual General
Meeting, held at Pietermaritzburg on 6th July, 1916. and printed
on ])]). xxi to xx\i of the Report of the Pietermaritzburg
Session, were confirmed.

.\nnu.\l Report of Council. — The Annual Rei^ort of the
Council for 1916-17 having been suspended in the Vestibule since
4th July, was taken as read, and adopted on the motion of
Prof. Rindl (see p. xx\iii).

Ri-:i'oiri OF ("tKneral Tre.asurek and Statement of Ac-
counts I'OK 1916-17. — The General Treasurer's Report and the
audited Financial Statements for the year ended 31st May, 1917.
having been suspended in the Vestibule since 3rd July, were taken
as read, and adopted on the motion of Prof. Rindl (see p.
xxxiii ).

ELECTroN OF Offkeks for i(;i7-i(S. — The following Offi-
cers were elected for 191 7- iS- —

Prfsioent, Dr. C. F, |uritz, ALA.. F. I. C. ; Vice-Presidents
Mr. W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Mr. A. H. Reid, F.R.I.B.A.!
F.R.San. I., Prof. W. N. Roseveare. M.A., and Mr. H. E. Wood.
Al.Sc. F.R.Met.S. ; General Secretaries, Rev. W. Flint. D.D..
and Mr. J. A. Foote. F.G.S., F.E.T.S. ; General Treasurer.
Mr. .V. Walsh.

Election of Cocxcir. Me.mi:i-;rs vok kji7-i<S. — The follow-
ing were elected Members of Council for 1917-18 (the Retiring
President, Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.. being also
ex officio a Member of Council for the year) : —

XXIV PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING.

I. Cape Province. — (i) Ca/r Peninsula: Prof. A. Brown,
M.A., B.Sc, Prof. L. Crawford, M.A. D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Prof.
R. Leslie, M.A.. F.S.S., Mr. C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S.,
and Mr. R. W. Menmuir, A.M.I.C.E. (2) Kimberley: Miss
M. Wilman. (3) King William's Town: Mr. J. Leighton,
F.R.H.S. (4) Middclburg: Mr. A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S. (s)
Port Elisabeth: Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.L.S. (6) Stel-
lenbosch: Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., and
Prof. B. de St. J. van der Riet. M.A., Ph.D.

II. Transvaal. — (i) Witzvatcrsrand: Mr. ]. Burtt-Daw,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S.. Dr. W. A. Caldecott, B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., Mr.
P. Cazalet. Lieut.-Col. J. H. Dobson, D.S.O., M.Sc,
M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., A.M.I.C.E., Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A.,
D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S., Mr. R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.,
Mr. J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.E.E., Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Dr. A. J. Orenstein. Pro'f. G. H. Stanley,
A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E, M.I.M.M., F.I.C., Mr. H. A. Tnibshaw
and Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S. (2) Pretoria: Mr.
I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc. F.L.S. . Prof. W. A. Macfadven.
M.A.. LL.D., Prof. D. F. du Toit Malherbe, M.A., Ph.D., and
Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S. (3) Potchefstroom: Mr. E.
Holmes Smith, B.Sc.

III. Orange Free State (including Basutoland). — Prof. T.
F. Dreyer. B.A.. Ph.D., and Prof. M. A I. Rindl. Ing.D.

TV. Natal.— (I) Durban: .\lr. M. S. Evans. C.M.G.,
F.Z.S., and Dr. C. T. Loram, M.A.. LL.B. (2) Pietermaritc
burg: Mr. J. S. Henkel and iVof. E. Warren, D.Sc

V. Rhodesia. — Bulazvayo: Rev. S. S. Dornan. M..\.,
F.G.S.

VI. Mozambique. — Lourcnco Marques: Mr. S. Seruya.
Annual Session, 1918. — The President annomiced that an

invitation to the Association to hold its next Annual Session at
Johannesburg had been received from the Mayor of that city ;
and, on the motion of Rev. Dr. Flint, it was unanimously re-
solved to accept the invitation.

President for 1918-19, and Place of Meeting, 1919. — ■
The President explained that informal proposals under the first
head had been obtained, and would be dealt with by the incom-
ing Council, which would also deal with an invitation from the
Mayor of King William's Town for the Association to meet
there in 1919. It was hoped that it might be possible to extend
the Session to a visit to East London, so as to spend three days
at each town.

Alterations to Constitution.--( i ) Intermission of Sub-
scriptions.— In the absence, through indisposition, of Mr. Innes,
the following motion, of which he had given notice, was moved
by Mr. H. E. Wood, and seconded by Rev. Dr. Welch : —

That the following Rule he incorporated in the Constitntion, vis. '.

'The Council shall have power to intermit the payment of the annual

suhscription in the case of members of at least six years' slandinii who,

through misfortune, are unable to pay, and whose previous scientific

work, in the Council's opinion, justifies stich intermission.

PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XXV

The names of such " intermitted " members shall not be published,
but supplied from time to time to the General Treasurer.

After discussion, an amendment was i)roposed by Prof. J.
T. Morrison to the effect that, in Heu of amending the Constitu-
tion, the Council should be authorized at discretion, in individual
cases in which such a course was shewn to be justified, to suspend
the operation of the clause in Rule IV. {b) relating to payment of
the annual subscription. The amendment was put to the vote
and declared carried, and was then passed as a substantive
motion.

(2) Change of Headquarters.— \[v. Burtt-Davy moved: —

That "Johannesburg" be substituted for "Capetown" in Rule VIIl
of the Constitution.

The motion was seconded by Mr. H. E. Wood, the main
aigimient advanced being the preponderance in membership of
the Witwtatersrand centre, which entitled it to 12 Council Mem-
bers as against five members for the Cape Peninsula, and the
unreasonableness of the position that the latter could overrule
the views of the former.

After some discussion, during which it was pointed otit that
in any matter of importance brought forward by Witwatersrand
or any other centre, the views of the entire Cotincil, which
consisted of 45 Members, would be obtained; and further, that
the mover had given no details as to how it was proposed to
meet the practical difficulties resulting from the change of the
Headqtiarters, such as the performance of the Assistant Secre-
tary's duties, the editing (^f the Journal, and the removal of
the Association's Library, the motion was put to the vote and
declared lost, there being 1 1 votes in its favour and ,^7 against
it.

Affiliation of Kindred Societies. — Prof. L. Crawford de-
tailed the action taken by the Council dtu-ing the past year
in framing draft Rules in connection with the affiliation of Scien-
tific and kindred Societies, and submitting these Rtiles for com-
ment to the Natal Society for the Advancement of Science and
Art, which was the only Society which at jjresent sought affilia-
tion. It was then moved by him, seconded by Prof. W. N. Rose-
veare, and carried without opposition, that the Association should
adopt the following Rules, which should be printed with th.e
Constitution as Bye-Laws : — •

Philosophical and Scientific .Societies, and other Associations of a
kindred character may, on application to, and with the approval of the
Council, affiliate with the S.A. Associnlion fur flie Advancement of
Science on the following- conditions : —

1. That as a Society can only be affiliated on the approval of the
Council!, no minimum of Membership of such Society need be specified.

2. That each such Society shall pay the .Association a minimum fee
of £5 for a strength of 50 members or less, and a further £1 for each addi-
tional 10 or portion of 10 members.

3. That such Society shall be entitled to one copy of the South
African Journal of Science for each £r paid to the Association.

XX\I PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MKKTINC.

4. That such Society may. if it has a strength of 50 nienil'ers. !)e
represented on the Council of the Association 1)y its President or such

■ other Member as may be nominated for the purpose.

5. That all members of affiliated Societies may join the Association
as ordinary Members, with full privileges, at a reduced Annual Sub-
scription of 15s.

6. That afinliated Societies shall be asked to take into consideration
the admission of Members of the Association into their Societies at a
reduced subscription.

7. That papers contributed to affiliated Societies may, on recom-
mendation of both their own Covmcil and that of the Association, be
printed in the Association's Toi'rkal of Science, after which the authors
shall be entitled to reprints on the usual terms.

South African Fo.sstLS — Removal from Country. — Prof.
E. J. Goddard, after representing that a wholesale exportation of
fossil types to America and elsewhere was taking place, moved
the following resohition. which had been adopted by Section C".
The motion was seconded l)v Prof. Fantham, and carried nnani-
motisly : —

That this .Association views with alarm tiie exportation of such
' fossils and ethnological specimens as are types, or of such a kind as
should he retained in this country; and requests the Government to take
some steps towards regulating such exportation.

Federal Council of Technical Societies. — On the re-
commendation of the President, it was resolved to instruct the
incoming Council to consider the (|uestion of initiating a Federal
Council of Technical Societies

AIemorial to Sir David Gill. — The President explained
that a proposal to take steps to provide some memorial to Sir
David Gill, in view of his eminence as an astronoiner, his long
residence in South Africa, and his close connection with the
Association — of which he was the first President — had been
made by the Members of Council for the Witwatersrand centre
in 1916; but the Council had suggested that the time was
inopportune. He thought, hovve\er, that the matter should
not be longer deferred, and proposed that it be a recommenda-
tion to the incoming Council to move in the matter. It was re-
solved to adopt the President's proposal.

Fiftieth ANNIVERSAR^' of the Discover^' of Diamonds. —
The President having drawn attention to the fact that the j^resent
year was the fiftieth since the first discovery of diamonds in
South Africa, Mr. A. H. Reid gave a resume of the main facts
relatin.o- to the discovery of diainonds and the subsequent vast
developments of diamond-mining, and shewed how enormously
the diamond industry had benefitted South Africa and had led
to the development of its railways and its general prosperity ; and
he moved that the Association in Session should convey its
congratulations to the Mayor of Kiml)erle\' on the fiftieth anni-
versary of so auspicious an event. The motion was carried
unanimously.

Loval Address to His MAJEST^■ the Kinc;.-- ^-On the mo-
tion of the President, it was resolved unanimously that the Gov-
ernor-General be respectfully requested to transmit the follow-
ing message to His ^Majesty the King :^

l'R()CEEI)Ii\(;S (IF ANNUAL MEETING. XXVII

W'e. tlif nicnihers of the Soutli Africaii Association for tiie Advaiict-
meiil of Science, ;isscm))lcd at the fifteenth Annual Congress, at Stellen-
hosCh. desire to convey to His Majesty tlie King the assurance of our
lieartfelt loyalty and unswervinjy" devotion tn His Majesty's person and
Throne, and our confidence in a successful issue of the present struggle
for liherty.

Assistant (iENEUAL Secretary— Bonus to. — The F're-
sideiit referred appreciatively to the work done hy the Assistant
Cieneral Secretary, and moved that as jiresent circumstances did
not permit of an increase in the salary paid, a honns of £io ic-.
should he granted to him. This motion was carried tmanimously.

\'otes oe Thanks. — On the inotion of Mr. j. A. ?\jote,
it was unanimously resohed that the heart\ thanks of the Assf>-
ciation should he accorded to the following: —

( [ ) To His Worshij) the Ala\or and the Councilk. rs
of Stellenhosch, for the cordial welcome extended to the
Association, and for the Reception g-iven to the Memhers
at the Main College Building.

( 2 ) To the Local and Reception Committees, ami
especially to I*rofess(jrs Ahjrrison and Van der Riet and Mr.
Simons. for the excellent arrangements made for
the accommodation, comfort and enjoyment of the visitors
during the Session, and for the most agreeahle Rece])tioa
given to the Memhers in the Main College Building.

(3) To the Council of the X'ictoria College for their
kindness in placing the College Buildings at th.e disposal of
the Association as the Headquarters of the Session.

(4) To the Lady IVincipal and Coiumittee of " Ilar-
monie." for ])roviding accomiuodation for Memhers at that
institution, and for her unremitting efforts to secure their
comfort.

(5) To the Ladies of Stellenhosch for their kind hos-
pitality in connection with the jirovision of morning tea.

(6) To those gentlemen wh.o so kindly provided motor
cars for excursions.

(7) To the following gentlemen for receiving the As- •
sociation during excursions to places of interest, and for
hospitality extendeil to the members on these occasions: The
Right Hon. J. X. Merriman, M.L..\.. at Schoongezicht ;
Mr. J. W. Jagger, M.L.A.. at Lourensford ; ^\r. \V. C.
Winshaw , (irape Juice Works: Mr. R. Santha.uens,
Distillery, Stellenhosch; Mr. E. Lange, Nooitgedaclu ;
the Manager of the Jonkers Hoek Trout Hatcherv;
the Manager of the Lion Distillery: the Acting Manager of
the Cape Ex])losi\es \\'orks; and the Acting r^rinci])rd of
the Government School of Agriculture, Elsenbtu-g.

(8) To the local ( lolf Cluh, for extending the pri\ ileges
of Honorary Mcml)ershi|) to Members during the Sessi(^n,
and to the Tennis Cluljs for ]»lacing their courts at Mem-
bers' disi)osal.

(9) To the dail\- Press for iis aii]ircciativc references
to the proceedings of the Session.

XXVllI

REPORT OF THE COUXXTL FOR THE YEAR ENDED

30TH June, 191 7.

1. Obitltakv : Your Council desires to place on record its
sense of the great loss which this Association and the entire
Union has stistained in the ttntimelv decease of Prof. H. H. W.
Pearson. M.A.. Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.S.Af., a former Member
of Council and Past-President of Section C. Your Council also
regrets the death of Mr. M. White, M.A.. on active service in
German East Africa, and <,)f Sir William Thorne. Kt., Senator
the Hon. Sir Marshall Campbell, and Messrs. J. ^^^ Quinn. ).P.,
M.L.A., A. W. Wilson, and W. J. Davenport.'

2. Me.mberstiip : Th6 war conditions, on which comments
were made in the last two Annual Reports, are unfortunately
still maintained, but there has. nevertheless, been a gratifying
increase in the membership of the Association, which now ntim-
bers 128 more than a year ago. During the intervening twelve
months no less than 181 new members have been enrolled. On
the other hand the seven whose names have jt^st been men-
tioned have died, and 46 have either resigned or were removed
from the Members' Roll becatise of departure and unknown ad-
dress, or because their stibscri])tions have remained outstanding
for a number of years. In the list published on July ist, only
those new members' names appear who have already paid their
first year's stibscription.

The following is a comparative table, showing the number
of .Members on the roll on the two dates: —

Ca])e Province

Transvaal

Orange Free State

Natal

Rhotlesia

Basutoland

Mozambique ... '.

Swaziland

South-W^est Africa Protectorate

Abroad

Unknown

584 71-'

At present the number of Life Members is Si ; two have
died during the year, and 1 1 new Life Members have been added.

3. Report of the Pretoria Meeting, 1915: The twelfth
Annual Volume of the Transactions of the Association, compris-
ing the proceeding's at the Pretoria Session in 1915, has been com-
pleted in thirteen issues. The volume has now been bound in
uniformitv with those which preceded it. and consists in all of

:9io.

1917

202

203

-'3^'>

337

36

37

5'

'\3

20

r

18

17

LS

1

1

2

2

17

17

I

I

REPORT OF CUl'NClL. XXIX

806 pages ; in other words, it is the largest Annual Volume which
has yet been pulilished by the Association, notwithstanding tbe
fact that no less than 19 of the papers submitted at the Pretoria
Session were printed in it by title only. Three papers were
printed in brief abstract, one virtually in full, and 65 in extenso.

4. Report of the Maritzp,ukg Meetin(.. 1916: The war
conditions already referred to have delayed publication of the
current Volume to the same extent as in the case of its immediate
predecessor; the monthly issues are in consequence some three
months in arrear.

5. Costs of Publications: The unusually large number of
papers submitted at the Pretoria Session in 191 5 and at the
Alaritzburg Session in 1916 caused a considerable increase in the
bulk of the Association's volumes containing the Transactions at
these Sessions. This fact, coupled with the need for printing a
larger issue to meet the large increase in the Association's mem-
bership roll, and the increased cost of printing consequent u})on
war conditions, would have seriously straitened the Association
in respect of its finances had it not been for the generosity of
a mnnber of Johannesburg mining houses and Capetown finns,
which contributed a total of £195 is. towards the Association's
publication expenses. A further amount of £50 has been con-
tributed by the Witwatersrand Council of Education.

6. South Africa Medal and Grant, 191 7: The South
Africa Medal Committee, comprising Prof. L. Crawford (Chair-
man), Mr. J. Burtt-Davy, Prof. J- K. Duerden. Mr. R. T. A.
Innes, Dr. C. F. Juritz, Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, Sir Thomas Muir,
Kt.. Prof. J. Orr, Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, Sir Arnold Theiler,
K.C.M.G., Prof. E. Warren, and Miss Wilman, recommended
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.. F.L.S.. F.R.S.S.Af.,
C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology at the South African College,
Capetown, for the tenth award of the South Africa Medal, to-
gether with the Grant of £50, which has invariably been presented
along with the Medal. This reconnnendatii^n has been confirmed
by Council.

7. GooLD- Adams Medals, 1917. — The seventh series of
awards of the Goold-Adams Medals was made in connection with
the Matriculation and Senior Certificate Examinations of the
University of the Cape of Good Hope held last December. The
names of the recipients are as follows : —

Mathematics: Geofifrey William Smart, St. John's College,
Johannesburg.

Physics : Edward X^'ictor Kidger Tucker. South African
College High School. Capetown; Johannes du Plessis
Scholtz. Public School, Somerset West.

Chemistry: Llewellyn Spracklen, South African College
High School, Cajjetown-

Phvsical Science: Johann Christian Vogel, High School,
Durban.

Botany: Mildred Balmforth. Good Hoi>e Seminary, Cape-
town.

XXX Kia'OKT (IF COUNCIL.

8. Keseakch Grant Committee: Your Council has ap-
pointed the Rev. Dr. FHnt. Dr. C. F: Juritz, Mr. A. H. Reid, and
Prof. A. Brown as its representatives on the 1917 Cieneral Com-
mittee ten- Research (irants administered by the Council of the
Royal .Society of South Africa : and a j^rant of £50 was awarded
by this Committee to Mr. J. S. van der Ij'nt^cn, B.A.. for research
in Radiology.

9. Industrial Research Committee: ( )n the initiative of
the South African Institution of Engineers, a Central Committee
of Scientific and Technical Societies was constituted at Johan-
nesburg for the purpose of furthering Industrial Research. In
response to an invitation to nominate representatives on tliis
Committee, your Council resolved to delegate Mr. I. Burtt-Davy,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Mr. R. T. A. Innes. F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., and
Prof. John Orr, B.Sc, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., to rei>resent it.
The Department of Mines and Industries subse(]uently invited
this Central Committee to nominate members of a .Scientific and
Technical Committee which the C.overnment had decided to
establish for the purpose of advising it on scientific and technical
questions arising out of industrial development within tlie Unit)n.
Your Council sujjported the recommendation of the Central
Committee to the effect that Professors J. C. Beattie. John Orr,
R. B. Young, Dr. W. .\. Caldecott. and Messrs. Burtt-Davy. L.
Colquhoun and B. Price should b*; appointed as members of
the Government Committee. This recommendation wa> a(loi)ted
by the Government.

10. Memorial to thi: L.ate Rev. H. Bektholi): In com-
memoration of the labours of the late Rev. H. Berthoud, of tlie
Swiss Mis.sion, in the Zoutpansberg District of the Transvaal
Province — which included the preparation of a valuable map of
that region — it was proposed to give Mr. Berthoud's name to
the mountain hitherto known at Madzibangombe's Hill. Your
Council decided to communicate with the Surveyor-General of
the Transvaal on the subject, and to express the hope that the
proposal would be favourably entertained. This was d(jne in
due course, and your Council was informed that the mountain
would henceforth be known as " Monbertou."

11. Metric System, Decimal Coinage, and " Daylight
Saving.": At the Fourteenth Annual Meeting at Pietermaritz-
burg, resolutions dealing with these questions were passed at a
combined meeting of Sections, and. after confirmation by the
Council, were forwarded to the Government and other authori-
ties. In order to press forward these reforms, on the initiative
of the Council, a conference was held at Johannesburg on April
10, 1917, at which over 60 delegates were present, representing
34 Scientific and Technical Societies and Public Bodies in the
Union of South Africa and Rhodesia. The following resolutions
were passed : —

I. That the metric system of weights and measures he legahsed at as
early a date as possihle. for permissive use until the end nf the war, and
that its use hecome compulsory and exclusive after such time as may he
found practicable.

REPORT OF COUNCIL. XXxi

2. Tliat tlie Goveninieiit of the Union of Sontl: Africa should co-
operate with the Home Government and those of the other self-governing
Dominions with regard to the decimalisation of coinage.

3. That in view of the consideralile advantages to be gained by a
fuller use of daylight, the Government be requested to take into con-
sideration the desirability of advancing the time of the Union one hour
for six months of the year, from Septeml)er 30 till March 31st.

4. That copies of these resolutions be sent to His Excellency the
Governor-General, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Mines, and the
Industries Advisory Board, the High Commissioner for South Africa
(London), the British Colonial Secretary, the Decimal Association.
London, and the South .\frican Standards Committee.

5. That in order to make the metric system and it-- advantages more
generally kniwn in South .\frica, tiic following steps be taken : —

( a ) That popular lectures i)e given in the larger towns, explaining
the system and enumerating its advantages ; at which lectures
local members of Parliament be asked to preside.

(h) That Municipalities be circularised and asked to purchase
complete sets of commercial metric weights and measures.

((■) That a booklet, specially written for South .African use. be
])repared for free circulation or at a nominal ligure.

Resolutions (i), (2) and (3) were subsequently referred by
the delegates to their respective Societies and Public Bodies, with
the resuh that resolutions (i) and (2) were unanimously con-
firmed, while there were only two dissentients to resolution No.
(3). The resolutions have accordingly been sent to those men-
tioned in resolution No. (4).

12. Affiliation to British Association : Your Council
applied to the British Association for the Advancement <if Science
last August for admission to the privileges of an " Affiliated
Corresponding Society," in terms of Chapter XL, Section I., of
the British Association's Constitution. Your Council has not yet
received any reply.

13. Affiliation of Kindrrd Societies: In pursuance of
the principle approved at the Annual (jeneral Meeting held in
Maritzburg last year, your Council has considered the conditions
under which other Scientific and Kindred Societies should be
allowed to affiliate with this Association. The terms of affilia-
tion have been drafted and submitted to the various Societies
which had approached the Association with a view to affiliation.

14. Time of Year for Holding Annual Session : The
advisability of altering the time of year at which the Annual Ses-
sions of the Association are held was discussed at the last Annual
General Meeting, and referred to the CQuncil for cx)nsideration.
Your Council has considered it desirable to continue holding the
Annual Session during July as heretofore.

15. Printing of P.\pers Prior to Session : Your Council
has also, in accordance with instructions from the last Annual
General Meeting, considered the practicability of having the
papers notified for reading at the Annual Sessions, or resumes
of those papers, printed in advance, but has not adopted any
resolution, as it was found difficult to arrive at any ])ractical
conclusion.

XXXn REPORT OF COUNCIL.

i6. Conduct of Sectional Meetings: Consequent on the
resolution of the last Annual General Meeting, your Council has
drawn up a series of Bye-laws for the guidance of Sectional
Officers in the conduct of business in relation to the Annual
Session of the Association. These Bye-laws were communicated
to all the Sectional Officers in time for operation in connection
with the present Session, and have also been printed in the Circu-
lars recently issued to all Members of the x\ssociation.

17. The New Council: On the basis of Membership pro-
vided for in the Constitution of the Association, Section VI. (d).
the number of Members of Council assigned to the representation
of each centre during the ensuing twelve months should be dis-
tributed as follows : —

Cape Proz'iiice —

Cape Peninsula 4

Port Elizabeth i

Kimberley i

King William's Town i

Middelburg i

Stellenbosch , 2

Transvaal —

Witwatersrand 12

Pretoria 4

Potchefstroom i

Oraiu/c free State {luitli Basutnland) —

Bloemfontein 2

Natal—

Maritzburg 2

Durban 2

Rhodesia —

Bulawayo i

Mozambique —

Lourenco Marc|ues i

35

xxxni

REPORT OF THE HONORARY TREASURER FOR
THE YEAR ENDED MAY 31ST, 1917.

Ill preseiitiuo- the account of revenue and expenditure and
the audited balance-sheets for the year ending May 31st, 1917,
I beg to report as follows ; —

The year that has just closed has been an excellent one, so
far as the revenue of the Society is concerned, for, compared
with 1916, there has been an increase of £135 15s., made up of
interest, £29 3s. 4d., and subscriptions, £106 lis. 8d.

On the expenditure side the general expenses have amounted
to £253 13s. 5d., as against £242 os. 8d. in 1916; the difference
being practically accounted for by the increase in grants under
Rule 9 and the expenses of the Goold-Adams Medals.

But in the expenses in connection with the issue of the
Journal the nett debit for the year is £363 los. 3d., as against
£224 i8s. I id. for the preceding year, an increase of £138 us. 4d.,
and this, notwithstanding that there has been an increase of
£91 in the special contribution towards the publication expenses.

The great delay in the publishing of the monthly numbers
prevents any comparison with previous years, when the publi-
cation has been regular, but I would point out that the cost of
the Journal as shown does not include the special July number
or the ordinary numbers from February to May, inclusive.

The actual payments made on account of the Journal for
the year under review has been £621 17s. 3d., as compared with
payments for previous years : — •

£ s. d.

1916 357 1/ 9

1914 230 6 7

1912 426 14 5

£ s. d.

191.S •• 478 17 8

1913 (II months) 259 5 4

1911 256 19 II

The Endowment Fund has been increased by a sum of £90,
being the amount of Life Members' Composition for the year.

The Medal Fund balance now stands at £1,440 17s. 3d.

With the balance-sheet I enclose the trustees' statement as
to how the Endowment Fund and Medal Fund assets are in-
vested.

A. Walsh,

Treasurer.
June 2'jth, 1917.

GENERAL TREASURERS ACCOUNT.

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xxxvi

TENTH AWARD OF THE SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL

AND GRANT.

(Fund raised by Members of the British Associatian in
commemoration of their visit to South Africa in 1905.)

After the conclusion of the Presidential Address in the Hall
of the Conservatorium, on Monday, July 3, 191 7, the President,
Prof. J. Orr, handed the South Africa Medal and ( irant of £50 to
Prof. John Dow Fisher Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.,
G.M.Z.S. In making the presentation, the President said: —

Dr. Gilchrist studied Zoology at the Universities of Edin-
burgh, Munich and Zurich. Thereafter he specialized in Marine
Zoology, and carried out original work at the Naples and other
Marine Biological Stations. He was then for a time Assistant
in the Zoological Department of the University of Edinburgh,
after which he was, on the nomination of Sir John Murray and
Prof. MTntosh, F.R.S., appointed Marine Biologist to the Gov-
ernment of the Cape of Good Hope. On his recommendation,
a Marine Biological Survey was undertaken by the Cape Govern-
ment, and he was entrusted with the purchase and equipment of
a steam vessel, which he specially designed for this purp<;)se.
The results of this work, carried out under his direction, have
been of great scientific importance, and have been published
in a series of Reports to the Government, and in " Marine Inves-
tigations in South Africa," as well as in other scientific publica-
tions. At the request of the Government of Natal, the survey
was extended to Natal waters, in view of the results attained,
and further valuable information was secured. The large collec-
tions made have not yet been fully reported on, but over 450
genera and species of marine animals new to science have now
been described, besides many more new to the South African
seas.

On Dr. Gilchrist's recommendation, a Marine Biological
. Laboratory was built at St. James, in False Bay, in connection
with Marine Biological research, and further information with
reference to the habits of South African marine animals has
been obtained, particularly with regard to the eggs and earlv
stages of South African fishes, a subject hitherto entirely un-
investigated.

The practical results of this scientific work have been of
great importance to South Africa. Extensive new fishery areas,
particularly on the Agulhas Bank, have been discovered, and
these have been shewn to abound in fish, particularly soles, for-
merly a rarity in South Africa. The exploratory work has been
followed up by private enterprise, including a new trawling in-
dustry, and now representing a capital of over £150,000.

In the year 1905 Dr. Gilchrist was appointed to the post of
Professor of Zoology in the South African College, and has

SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. XXXVll

continued his research, chiefly in Marine Zoology. He has, how-
ever, extended his work, and, with the aid of a grant from the
British and South African Associations for the Advancement of
Science, has made a collection of fresh-water tishes of South
Africa. With this material, together with other specimens frotn
various museums in South Africa, he has, in conjunction with
the late Mr. W. Wardlaw Thompson, F.Z.S.. now completed a
fully illustrated monograph of the South African Fresh-Water
Fishes, many new and imrecorded species being added.

Dr. Gilchrist is an M.A. and D.Sc. of the University of
Edinburiih. Ph.D. of the University of Zurich, Corresponding
Member of the Zoological Society, London, and Honorary Mem-
ber of the Societe Centrale d'Agrictilture, Paris. He was Presi-
dent of the South African Philosophical Society, and took an
active part in the formation of the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science, of which he w-as the first Joint
Honorary Secretary, as also Joint Honorary Secretary of the
Organising Committee for the visit of the British Association
to South Africa in 1905.

He is author of " South African Zoology : a Text Book
for Zoological Students " ; of " Reports of the Cape Government
Biologist, 1 895- 1904 " ; editor and part author of the five volumes
of " Marine Investigations in South Africa " ; joint editor of
" Science in South Africa " ; translator of " Monism," by Prof.
Ernest Haeckel : and author of numerotis papers in scientific
ptiblications, of which the following is a list of the more im-
portant : —

Pallcal Complex oi DolabcUa. {Proc. Roy. Snc Ed.)

Torsion of the Molluscan Body. (Proc. Roy. Soc. Ed.)

Beitrage siir Kenntis der Anordung Correlation und Funktion der j\[an-

telorgane der Tectiliranchiata. (Jciiaisclic Zeitschrlft.)
On the Group of the Aplysiida?. with Description of a New Species. {Ann.

and Mac/. Xat. Hist.)
Note on the Minute Structure of the Nervous System of tlie Molhisca.

(Joitni. Li II II. Soc.)
The Genus Paraplvsia, with description of a New Species. ( Trans. .S. .Ifr.

Phil. Soc.)
New Forms of the 1 lemichordata from S. Africa. (Trans. S. Afr. Phil.

Soc.)
Catalogue of Fislies recorded from S. Africa. (Mar. Inv. in S. Africa. 1.)
Ohservatioiis on ilic Temperature and Salinity of the Sea around the

Cape Peninsula. (Mar. Inv. in S. Afr. 2.)
South African Fishes. (Mar. Inz'. in .S". Afr. 2.)
Currents on the Soutli African Coast. (Mar. Inv. in S. Africa. 2.)
The Development of South .African Fishes. (Mar. Inv. in S. Afr. 2

and 3.)
Description' of New South .African Fishes. (Mar. Inv. in S. Afr. 2.)
Description of New South .\frican Fishes. (Mar. Inv. in S. Afr. 3.)
Description of Fifteen New South African Fishes, with Notes on other

Species. (Mar. Inv. in S. Afr. 4.)
New Forms of the Hemichordata from S. Africa (Mar. Inv. in S. .4fr.

5.)
On Two New Species of Ptychodera. (Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 6.)
A Free-swimming Nauplioid .Stage in Paliniinis. (.Jonrn. Linn. Soc.)

XXXVlll SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL.

Observations on the Cape Ccp'talodisrns and some of its early stages.

{Ann. and Mag. Xat. Hist. 16.)
Review of the S. African Clupeiclf. ( Maiiiir Biolaiiisfs's Report. 1. )
Observations on the habits of some S. African l-'ishes. (Marine Biologist'. <;

Report. 2.)
Descriptions of Xew South African F"islies. (Marine Biologist's Report.

2.)

/;/ course of piihjicatiou —

Post-larval Stages of Jastis Lalandii. (.fonru. Linn. Soc.)

The Dovelui)ment of the Cape Cephalodisens. (Quart. Jonrn. Mic. Soe.)

Joint Papers with JV. JV. Thompson. F.ZS.. F.L.S.^

Descriptions of i*"ishes from the Coast of \atal. Parts 1-4. {.Inn. S.

Afr. Mus. 6-13. )
Descriptions of Three Xew Species of Fresh-Wau-r i-'ishes from South

Africa. (Ann. and Mag. Xat. Hist.)
The Cape Klip-Fishes. (Rept. S.A.A.A.Se.)
The Fresh- Water Fishes of South Africa. (Ann. .V. Afr. .Mns. 11. J

Professor Gilchrist expressed liis thanks in appropriate
terms, referring with gratification to his connection with the
Association durino' its early days.

Previous Recipients.

iyo8. Grahamsto-ccii. — Arnold Theiler, C.Al.G., V.M.D., Bac-
teriologist to the Transvaal Government. Pretoria.

1909. Blocmfontein. — Harry Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S,, of Sherwood,

Kenilworth, Cape Division.

1910. Capctoivn. — John Carrutliers Beattie. D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,

Professor of Physics. Soutli .\frican College,
Capetown.

1911. Buhnvayo. — Louis Peringuey, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S..

Director of the South African Museum, Capetown.

igi2. Port Elizabeth. — Alexander William Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., of Lovedale Observatory, C.P.

1913. Lourenco Marques. — Arthur William Rogers, M.A ,

Sc.D.. F.G.S., Assistant Director of the Union
Geological Survey, Capetown.

1914. Kimberley. — Prof. Rudolph Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Cape-

town.

191 5. Pretoria. — Charles Pugsley Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S ,

Chief of the Division of Entomology, Union De-
partment of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1916. Maritzburg. — Thomas Robertson Sim, F.L.S. , F.R.H.S..

formerly Conservator of Forests for Xatal.

XXXIX

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

The folhnviui;' publications are regularly filed at the office
of the Association. Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings,
St. George's Street, Capetown.

General Science.

Royal Society of Edinlmrgh : Proceedings.

Royal Society of South Africa: Transactions.

Royal Society of South Australia : Memoirs.

Royal Society of South Australia; Transactions.

Royal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.

Royal Society of Canada : l^roceedings and Transactions.

Royal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.

Royal Societ\- of Queensland: Proceedings.

Royal Dublin Society : Scientific Proceedings.

Royal Institution of Great Britain: Proceedings.

Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.

Royal Society of Arts : Journal.

Michigan Academy of Science : Reports.

Chicago Academy of Sciences;

Bulletins.

Special Publications.
Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei. Rome.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :

Handlingar.

o

Arsbok.
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam:

Proceedings of the Section of Sciences.

Verhandelingen.
Revista de la Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid.
B'ritish Association for the .Vdvancement of Science : Reports.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science:

Reports.
American Association for the Advancement of Science: Pro-
ceedings.
Indian Association f(ir the Cultivation of .'science:

Proceedings.

Reports.

Bulletins.
Atti della Societa Italiana ]jer il progresso delle Scienze.
Cambridge Philosophical Society;

Transactions.

Proceedings.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society :

Memoirs and Proceedings
American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
L'niversity of California:

Bulletins.

Memoirs.

Xl ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

University of Virginia : Philosophical Society Bulletins.

Tohoku Imperial University : Science Reports.

New York Academy of Sciences : Annals.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences : Proceedings.

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences : Transactions.

Medelanden fran K. Vetenskapsakademien Nobelinstitut.

California Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.

Academy of Science of St. Louis : Transactions.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadephia : Proceedings.

American Journal of Science.

Ohio Journal of Science.

Revue Generale des Sciences.

Archives Neerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles.

Annaes scientificos da Academia polytechnica do Porto.

Rhodesia Scientific Association : Proceedings.

Societe de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Geneve :

Memoires.

Comptes rendus.
Det Kongelige Norske Videnskapers Selskaps Skrifter.
Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs

Forhandlinger.
Istituto di geugrafia fisica e vulcanologica di Cantania :

Publicazioni.
Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
Imperial Institute : Bulletins.

New Zealand Institute: Transactions and Proceedings.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution ( United States

National Museum).
South African Museum :

Annals.

Annual Reports.
Transvaal Museum : Annals.
Natal Museum ; Annals.
Queensland Museum :

Annals.

Memoirs.
Field Museum of Natural History Publications.
University of Pennsylvania Museum Journal.
Bulletin of the Public IMuseum of Milwaukee.
Albany Museum :

Annual Reports.

Records.
Knowledge.
Science.

Chemistry, Metallurgy, and Geology.

Chemical, Metallurgical, and Mining Society of South Africa:

Journal.
Kungl. .Svenska Vetenskapsakademien : Arkiv f5r Kemi,

Mineralogi,, och Geologi.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY. xli

Geolog-ical Society of South Africa: Transactions.
Geological Society of Tokyo : Journal.
Geological Survey of New South Wales :

Reports.

Memoirs.

^lineral Resources.
Bulletins of the Geological Institution of the University of

Upsala.
Abstracts of Proceedings of the Geological Society, London.
Bulletins of the Wyoming State Geologist.
United States Geological Survey;

Bulletins.

Professional Papers.

Mineral Resources.

Annual Reports.
Florida State Geological Survey : Annual Reports.
Union of South Africa Mines Department: Annual Reports.
Canada Department of Mines :

Museum Bulletins. "

Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

Reports.
Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Geological Reports.
Geological Survey of Western Australia :

Annual Progress Reports.

Bulletins.
Jaumal of Industrial and Engineerinii' Chemistry.
Journal of Chemical Technology,
The Chemical News.
The Mineralogical Magazine
South African Association of Analytical Chemists: Proceedings.

Meteorology.

Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society.

Bulletins of the Mount W^eather Observatory.

United States Department of Agriculture: Monthly Weather

Review.
Observatorio Campos Rodrigues;

Relatorio.

Resumo mensal.
Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Meteorological Rejjorts.

Agriculture.

Annali della Regia Scuola superiore agricoltura di Portici.
International Institute of Agriculture, Rome.

Bulletin of Agricultural Statistics.

Bulletin of the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence and
of Plant Diseases,
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.

Bulletins.

xlii ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

Agricultural (Gazette of New South Wales.

Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, Science Bulletins.

United States Department of Agriculture Experiment Station

Record.
Journal of Agricultural Research.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal.

Biology and Physiology.

Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des naturalistes de Moscou.
Kungl. Svenska V'etenskapsakademien :

Arkiv for Botanik.

Arkiv for Zoologi.
Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany.
BiuUetin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society.
The Medical Journal of South Africa.
University of California: Puhlications in Botany.
Linnean Society of New South Wales : Proceedings.
Missouri Botanical (lardens.

Annual Reports.

Annals.
Bolus Herharium : Annals.
Smithsonian Institution (United States National Museum):

Contributions from the United States National

Herbarium.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew : Bulletins.
Union of South Africa: Re])orts of the Director of Veterinary

Research.
The Australian Zoologist.

Entomology.

Bulletin of Entomological Research.
Review of Applied Entomology.

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics.

Royal Astronomical Society :

Memoirs.

Monthly Notices.
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Harvard College Astronomical Observatory :

Circulars.

Annals.
Union Observatory Circulars.

Observatoire Royal de Belgique ; annuaire astronomique.
Bulletins of Khedivial Observatory, Helwan, Egypt.
Kodaikanal Observatory Bulletins.

Annual Reports of the Kodaikanal and Madras Observatories.
British Astronomical Association.

Journal.

Memoirs.
Lick Observatory Bulletinsi.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY. xHii

Nizamiali Obsersatorv Reports.
Astronomical Society of India;

Journal.

Monthly Notices.
United States Naval Observatory Publications.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.
Proceedings of the Western Australian Astronomical Society.
Kungl. Svenska X'etenskapsakademien : Arki\- for Matematik,

Astronomi och F3'sik.
Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.
Tohoku Mathematical Journal.
National Physical Laboratory. Middlesex :

Collected Researches.

Reports.
LIniversidad Nacional de la Plata;

Contribucion al estudio de las Ciencias hsicas y
matematicas.
Proceedings of the Pliysical .Society of London.

Edlcatiox. Political Economy and Sociology.

United Empire.

South Africa.

Ohio State University Bulletin.

International Institute of Agriculture, Rome: Bulletin of the

Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence.
Royal Dublin Society : Economic Proceedings.
Athenaeum subject index to Periodicals.

Geogr.mmlv, Oci:an(m;kai^hv and Hvdro<;kafhy.

Societa Italiana per il progressc) tielle Scienze : Comitate
talassografico :

Bolletinos.

Memorias.
The Geographical Journal.
The Geographical Review.

United States Geolojiical Survey; Water Supply Papers.
Egyptian Ministr}- of Finance: SiU'vey Department Papers.
Istituto di geogratia hsica e \ ulcanologica della R. Universita

di Catania : pubblicazioni.
United States Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic
Survey :

Special Publications.

Annual Reports.

Engineerinc.

Proceedings of the American Institute of Elect ricil Engineers.
Journal of the South African Institute of Engineers.
Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical

Engineers.
Proceedings of the South African Societv of Civil Engineers.

Xliv ASSOCIATIUX LIBRARY.

Technology.

Patents for Inventions : Abridgements of Specitications.
The Illustrated Official Patents Journal.

Anthropology and Ethnolociv.
Journal of the African Society.

.A.RCH.i:oL(JG'>'.

Bulletins of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia.

PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

BY

Professor JOHN ORR,
B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

PRESIDENT.

It is customary, in a presidential address, for the speaker
to select a subject bearing more particularly upon his own pro-
fessional work, but the questions of technical education and the
progress of engineering have been dealt with by me on other
occasions, and, apart from this, the alTairs of the Association,
and the abnormal times through which we are passing, provide
subjects of such importance that it is impossible to ignore them.

At this, the fifteenth annual meeting of the Association, it
may not be inappropriate to trace its progress and to give a
short account of the way in which the objects of the Association
have been fulfilled, recognising its shortcomings where such
exist; and to deal with its affairs from what may be regarded
as the material side.

2 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

In July, 1901, a meeting at Cape Town, called on the
initiative of Mr. T. Reunert, decided U{X)n an annual congress
of engineers. After further discussion, it was decided to enlarge
the scope and form an Association on the lines of the British
Association — i.e., that a congress should be held annually at
various centres, and that different sections should be formed to
cover the various branches of scientitic and technical knowledge.

The movement met with immediate success. Office-bearers
were elected in January, 1902, and although it was found im-
possible, owing to the disturbed state of the country, to hold a
congress, there were 268 " foundation " members on the roll
at the end of the financial year in June. The rapid growth of
the membership and the extension of the Association's work led
to the office work being divided — ^that in connection with the
Transvaal, Orange Free State and Natal being directed from
Johannesburg, while to Capetown were allocated Cape Colony,
Rhodesia, and the rest of South Africa. To Mr. Reunert and
Dr. Gilchrist (our medallist of this year), who undertook the
pioneer work as honorary secretaries at these respective centres,
must be accorded the unstinted praise of our Association.

The Association was fortunate in securing Sir David Gill.
H.M. Astronomer for the Cape, as its first President, and much
of the early success of the movement was undoubtedly due to his
sympathy and guidance. In his presidential address at the first
annual meeting at Cape Town in 1903, he made an earnest appeal
for the claims of science : " It is not onh' a source of intellectual
elevation and a high form of enjoyment to all who sufficiently
interest themselves in its pursuit, but it also lies at the foundation
of our civilisation and even of our existence." " And looking to
the future prospects of scientific progress in South Africa," he
continued, " I believe there is sound reason for the statement that
these prospects are very hopeful, and the present a particularly
suitable time for the inauguration of such an association as this."

Sir David Gill has passed away ; but none of us who knew
him can ever forget the lovable personality, geniality and
thoroughly genuine character of this great man of science. His
contributions to human knowledge have been great indeed, and
some may think that this is the most fitting and only monument
which a great man need have. Yet I think that this Association
should perpetuate his memory by the erection of a permanent
and visible memorial. A proposal was made by the Witwaters-
rand Council members during this year that the Association
should undertake the collection of funds for this purpose. The
matter is temporarily in abeyance, but I hope that at -the annual
meeting of members the proposal will be adopted, and Sir David's
life's work suitably commemorated.

At the first annual meeting 48 addresses and papers were
read, and the Cape Government of that day shewed its apprecia-
tion and sympathy with the movement by defraying the total
cost of printing the volume of proceedings. Would that the

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 3

Union Government shewed its appreciation in such a tangible
form!

It is clearly laid down that the first object of the x^ssociation
is " To give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction
to scientific enquiry." Inspired by this object, the local Com-
mittee at Johannesburg, shortly after its formation in May, 1902,
promoted a petition to Lord Milner, then High Commissioner for
South Africa and Governor of the Transvaal, urging the estab-
lishment of an Observatory. As a result, the Transvaal Obser-
vatory and Meteorological Department was organised in 1903 ;
in May, 1904, it was in full working order, and it was formally
opened in January, 1905. At this date, owing to the state of the
Transvaal finances, the Government was unwilling to spend
money on astronomy, but before Union was consummated a small
deputation of our members interviewed the Hon. Mr. Rissik,
at that time Transvaal Minister of Lands, and he conceded an
astronomical wing to the Observatory, and promised funds for
the provision of the most powerful refracting telescope in the
Southern Hemisphere. Unfortunately, the difficulties in the
manufacture of the object glass, and latterly the great war, have
delayed the completion of this telescope, but all the necessary
funds have been allocated for it. After Union took place the
(Tovemment decided that the Transvaal Meteorological Depart-
ment should be enlarged so as to embrace the whole of the
Union, and that its headcpiarters should be at Pretoria, whilst
the Transvaal Observatory should be renamed the Union Obser-
vatory, and devote its attention more especially to the astronomi-
cal side. This Association can point with pride to its work in
connection with the Union Observatory, which it can legiti-
mately claim as its ofi^spring, and equally can it claim the re-
flected glory of the scientific work and discoveries of that institu-
tion. During the career of the Transvaal Meteorological
Department weather forecasts were issued daily, for the first
time in South Africa, and this service has now become a per-
manent one.

The Association continued to progress materially to a
marked extent. On the last day of the first conference at Cape
town the membership stood at 765, including 41 associate mem-
bers, while there was a balance at the bank of ^£300. a very credit-
able position for such a young Society.

The next annual meeting, held at Johannesburg in April.
1904, under the presidency of Sir Charles Metcalfe, proved a
pronounced success. The total membership advanced to 1,073;
44 papers and addresses, many of great scientific and technical
importance, were read ; and through the generosity of the Trans-
vaal Government, which voted £400 for the purpose, and the
extraordinary liberality of the Mining Houses of Johannesburg,
which subscribed over £900, the Association was able to print all
these papers.

In the Constitution of the Association provision is made for
the appointment of research com.mittees, which have been a

D

4 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

prominent feature of the parent British Association. Although
the regulations governing such committees are detailed under
eight heads, it is disappointing to have to admit that no research
committee has ever been appointed. But provision is also made
for the award of grants to individuals, and at the Johannesburg
meeting -such grants in aid of research were made to:

Professor Pearson, South African College, £25 in aid of
research on IVehvitschia mirabilis;

J. Burtt-Davy, then botanist to the Transvaal (Government,
£50 to aid in the preparation of an annotated catalogue of the
flowering plants and ferns known to occur in the Transvaal ;
and

R. T. A. Innes, of the Meteorological Observatory, £25 in
aid of the work of preparing tables of the barometric pressures
over South Africa and adjacent regions.

Every credit must be given to the Association for its efforts
to assist the researches of its members in this way, and in con-
tinuation of this policy, in 1905, farther awards were made to:

Dr. Roberts, of Lovedale, £100, to aid him in his work on
variable stars ; and

Dr. Gilchrist, £100, with a promise of a further £50 during
1906, to aid in the investigation of the fresh-water fishes of
South Africa, including those of the Zambesi ;
and during 1906 the following further grants were made to:

Professor J. C. Beattie, South African College, £100, to aid
him in his work on the magnetic survey of South Africa ;

Professor Duerden, Rhodes' University College, £45, to aid
him in his investigation on tortoises ; and

J. Stuart Thompson, to aid him in a research of South
African Alcyonaria.

And then the shoe began to pinch. In the report of the
Council, in August, 1905, an appeal was made for the payment
of subscriptions on the ground that lack of funds i:)revented the
Council from " carrying out one of the main objects of the
Association, vis., the granting of money for original research
work.

In the report for the year ending July, 1908, the failure
to acknowledge this appeal led the Council to deliver a few-
valedictory remarks on the subject of grants-in-aid of research.

The Council regretted that, owing to the great falling off in
revenue, they were unable to authorise the completion of the
grant to Dr. Beattie, and he was thanked for liaving generously
waived his claim to the balance.

Mr. Burtt-Davy was informed that they were unable to
accede to his request for a grant-in-aid of £100 for three years
to assist him in having the botanical specimens in the Kew
Herbarium worked up.

Dr. Gilchrist was informed that, owing to financial reasons,
the Council regretted it was unable to fulfil its promise made to
him for a further grant, but thanked him for having generously
relinquished his claim on the funds of the Association.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 5

Fortunately, Dr. Roberts was able to complete the work of
20 years before the financial crisis arrived, but Dr. Duerden had
to be content with regrets that for financial reasons the Council
was unable to authorise payment of his grant, so that tortoises
would have to be investigated without the assistance of the Asso-
ciation.

Money must be found for a research fund if the x\ssocia-
tion is to justify its existence. Certain of our Cape Town
friends suffer from a super-sensitiveness, and consider it undig-
nified ior a Science Association to make an appeal for such a
sordid thing as money. Their Johannesburg- colleagues do not
share their modesty. It has only been by such appeals that the
Association has been kept from extinction during the past few
years. Those who acquire in a business capacity the fruits of
science, and make fortunes commercially from the efforts of
scientific men, should consider it an honour to be allowed to con-
tribute from their accumulated wealth.

The American Association for the Advancement of Science
has a permanent fund of nearly 100,000 dollars, the income from
which is appropriated to aid research. It was fotmded 70 3'ears
ago, and, with a total membership of nearly 11,000, its annual
meetings constitute the largest and most important gatherings
of scientific men held in any part of the world. And yet it docs
not hesitate to make direct appeals for members and money.

An appeal in connection with the New York meeting of
December, 19 16, says : " Contemporary history has made evident
to all the dominant ])]ace of science in modern life, and has, at
the same time, placed upon us the responsibility of leadership.
New York City may become the world's financial centre ; it is
even more important to us as a nation that the New York meet-
ing of the Association shall signalise the period at which our
comitry becomes the most fruitful centre of scientific research.
The applications of science, by doubling the length of life and
({uadrupling the productivity od labour, have made possible
universal education and ec|uality of opportunity. Science and
education ha\e given us democracy; it is the duty and privilege
of democracy to repay its debt by forwarding science and educa-
tion to a degree not hitherto known in the world's history."

" Science can only be stipported in a democracy as the result
of the organisation of scientific men. We cannot depend upon a
leisured class, as has been the case in luigland, nor upon govern-
mental organisation, as has been the case in Germany. Science,
with its applications, has given the world its vast wealth, but the
results of research, being for the benefit of all, and not, as a
rule, for an individual or group, must be paid for by society.
Scientific research is purchasable, but it must be supported by
endowments or by national. State, and municipal appropriations.
The career of the scientific man must l)e made attractive in order
that able men may follow it. Science requires recniits, and it
requires money. These are only to be obtained by impressing
the public, the press, and the Government with the supreme im-

O PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

ixjrtance of scientific research. One of the most efitective means
is the organisation of scientific men into associations for the pro-
motion of their interests, which are identical with the interests
of society as a whole."

During the past year I accompanied a deputation of Trans-
vaal members of Council, who waited upon the Minister of
Mines and Industries, with a view to obtaining an annual grant
from the Government, so as to place the finances of the Associa-
tion on a satisfactory basis. We were courteously and sympa-
thetically received, but no grant has so far been forthcoming.
We shall try again.

Now let us leave the painful subject of comparative failure
and resume the story of the Johannesburg meeting. In connec-
tion with this session, a small loan museum was organised, and
this proved so successful that the local Council members formed
a Committee, to which was added representatives of the various
scientific and technical societies and public bodies. The Associa-
tion gave £25 towards the initial expenses, and the Witwaters-
rand Council of Education subscribed iioo, but the movement
languished for want of funds, and the hopes of the Committee
have been doomed to disappointment. Government grants are
made to museums at Cape Town, Pretoria, Pietermaritzburg.
and Port Elizabeth, but Pretoria, which has a National
Museum, is only 35 miles from Johannesburg, and, as there is
more than one train a day, it may be thought that the needs of
the largest population and of the greatest city in the Union are
fully met. The Johannesburg- museum, which is mainly of a
gecviogical character, still exists, however, thanks to the gener-
osity of the municipality, and there is still some hope that it may
emerge as a technological museum vvorthy of the Rand.

The visit of the members of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science to South Africa in 1905 constituted an
epoch in the histor};- of our Association. Sectional meetings
of the South African Association were not held, these being
merged in those of the British Association. A handbook on
scientific work and progress in South Africa, entitled " Science
in South Africa," was published, under the editorship of Drs.
Flint and Gilchrist, in connection with this visit, the South
African Governments defraying the cost of publication, while
the work of the contributors was entirely voluntary.

Meetings, at which papers and addresses were read, were
held at various centres, and in the words of the British Associa-
tion President. Professor Darwin, " the total contribution to
science, especiallv as applicable to Africa, has proved to be of
considerable magnitude." The^ records of this historic meeting
are to be found in four handsome volumes, and it is pleasant to
record here the extreme liberality of the various South African
( rtivernments of that day. In addition to providing free railway
passes for the officials and visitors, a sum of i6,ooo was guaran-
teed towards the cost of their passages. In addition, the Trans-

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. J

vaal (lijvernment gave £400 towards the publication of the t\)ur
vohmies of procee(Hngs, but these were the days l^efore Union!

The visit of the British Association gave an impetus to eur
own, and the membership, on the 30th of June, 1905, reached
1,289.

One important outcome of the British Association's visit
was the institution of the South Africa Medal and Grant, the
funds for which were raised by that Association in commemora-
tion of its visit. The award is made for " achievement and ]>ro-
mise in scientific research in South Africa." Eight awards have
now been made, and it is interesting to note that the recipients
have included a bacteriologist, three botanists, a ]:)hysicist, a zoolo-
gist, an astnmomer, a geologist, and an entomologist, while the
ninth award will be made this evening to a distinguished
zoologist.

The high-water mark in the history of the Association was
reached in 1906 at the Kimberley meeting, when the meml^ership
totalled 1,322. If we trace its history from the membershi))
point of \iew, we tind the following: Pietermaritzburg and LXir-
ban meeting, 1907, 1,032 members; Grahamstown, 1908. 767;
Bloemfontein, 1909, 637; Cape Town, 1910. 693; Bulawayo,
1911, 719; Port Elizabeth, 1912, 673; Lourenco Marques. 1913,
594: Kimberley, 1914, 579; Pretoria. 191 5, 547; Pietermaritz-
burg, 1916, 584; while we have, at the conclusion of this meet-
ing at Stellenbosch, 740 members. The figures, together with
the number of papers read and printed in the journal, I have
shewn by curves, but I do not suggest that the number of pai)ers
read is a measure of the intellectual activity of the Association.
It is gratifying to find that the membership is now greater than
it has been since 1908, in spite of the abnormal times, but still
it is far from satisfactory, and shews a deplorable want of
.interest, which is seriously crippling the work of the Association.
Why, for example, should Grahamstown, a University centre,
and a recognised seat of learning, be able to produce only nine
members? It is absolutely necessary, if this Association is going
to continue its existence, that a policy of greater activity be in-
stituted and maintained. Every year we listen to the Honorary
Treasurer's lament ; we know that all honorary treasurers are
iprone to adopt a pessimistic attitude, and ours is no exception,
but let us gladden his heart by bringing in recruits. Onh^ new
members and their subscriptions will kee]) this Association alive.
We cannot live on doles. With a large and active membership,
we have greater justification in appealing as a right to the
Government for an annual subsidy. We cannot keep on appeal-
ing to the mining houses of Johannesburg to help us out of our
difficulties ; the Witwatersrand Council of Education, which has
been an excellent milch cow, has now run dry ; we cannot accept
the hospitality of Stellenbosch, and then ask the town to con-
tribute towards the cost of publication of our proceedings as we
have done with success elsewhere. Owing to financial embar-
rassment, the Association has had on manv occasions to remain

8

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

MEIMBEIRS.

R/^REIRS.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. Q

in the background instead of leading scientific thougln and move-
ment.

A crisis in the Association's financial affairs was reached in

1908, and to reduce administrative expenses it was decided at
the Bloemfontein meeting to centralise the offices at Cape Town,
and to publish the ])roceedings in a monthly journal. The Jour-
nal OF Science has served as a connecting link between the
members, but the hopes of a revenue from advertisements have
not been fulfilled ; in this respect the su]:)port of the commercial
community has been most disappointing.

Reference to the Constitution will show that provision is
made for the appointment of Standing Committees, and such
Committees to deal with education and anthropology were
formed in November, 1905. The object of the former was to
collect and collate statistics relating to education in South Africa.
A report was ])resented to the educational section at the Natal
meeting in 1907, but for some reason — probably financial — it was
not printed in the proceedings. It did not meet during igo8 ;
reference is made to it in 1909. It was announced at Cape Town
in 1910 that it was still in existence; at Bulawayo in 191 1 it was
lamented that no report had been received regarding it or any
other Committee for three years, and that is the last reference
I can find about it in our proceedings. It does not appear, how-
ever, to have been dissolved, and, now that education is so much
to the front, perhaps at this seat of learning we might resuscitate
it.

The Anthropological Committee was more fortunate. It
secured publicity in the proceedings for two short reports in
1907 and 1908, mainly, however, outlining its objects and aims.
In 19 1 3, nothing -further having been heard from the Committee,
the sum of £20, voted on its behalf by the Transvaal Govern-
ment in 190C), was awarded to Miss Tucker to assist in her
Anthropological research.

There is some mystery attaching to the standing committee
on Forestry ; its existence is announced in the annual report for

1909, but I ha\e been unable to find in the proceedings any trace
of the personnel, and no report has yet been received. It is
dealing with a subject of momentous importance to South Africa,
and its re])ort is keenly awaited.

The second object of the Association, as given in the Con-
stitution, is " to promote the intercourse of Societies and indi-
viduals in dift'erent parts of South Africa." In carrying out this
object, and in claiming the support of all interested in science
and its furtherance, the Assosciation is in the unique position
of — ( I ) rei)resenting all branches of science and technology; (2)
being geographically all eml)racing. its members hailing from
Cape Agulhas in the South to the Zambesi in the North, from
Mozambique in the East to Walfish Bay in the West; and. (3)
holding its annual meetings at all importanat centres of South
Africa, including Rhodesia and Mozambique, and so is in a

lo president's address.

favourable position to co-ordinate all interests. This is well
exemplified by the success which attended the Metric Conference,
held at Johannesburo^ in April of this year. It will be recollected
that certain resolutions dealin,^ with the adoption of the
Metric System, Decimal Coinage, and " Daylight Saving "
were passed last year at Pietermaritzburg on the initiative of the
Union Astronomer. After receiving the practicallv unanimous
support of the Council, they were forwarded to the Government
and public bodies specified. The Witwatersrand members felt
that in order to strengthen the hands of the Government, and
to have these very necessary reforms j)Ut into efifect, it would be
necessary to bring to bear the combined weight of opinion of the
various scientific and technical societies and public bodies in
South Africa. A conference was, therefore, organised, and was
attended by nearly 6o delegates, representing 34 societies and
public bodies from all parts of the Union, as well as Rhodesia.
The resolutions adopted are given in our annual rejDort, and need
not be repeated here.

They were referred for confirmation by the various Societies
represented, with the result that the first and second resolutions
dealing with the adoption of the Metric System and the Decimali-
sation of the Coinage, were unanimously adopted, while only
two Societies dissented from the third, advocating the fuller
use of daylight. I will not enter into the arguments; it is hoped
that a full report of the Conference will be published in the
Journal of Science.

Another resolution, which emanated from Natal, asked the
Association to take the following steps in order to make the
Metric System and its advantages more generally known in South
Africa :

( a ) That popular lectures be given in the larger towns ex-
jjlaining the system, and enumerating its advantages.
At the lectures the local member of the Legislative
Assembly should be asked to preside.

(b) That Municipalities be circularised and asked to pur-
chase complete sets of commercial metric weights and
measures for exhibition in their museums.

(c) That a booklet on the Metric System, specially written
for South Africa, be prepared for free circulation or
for sale at a nominal figure.

'f^^

Nothing has yet been done to }jut these resolutions into
force — the financial question has again intervened — but the
matter will be discussed at our annual meeting of members.

The question of the closer working of Scientific and Techni-
cal Societies is one which has been receiving considerable atten-
tion during the past few years, and certain proposals with regard
to the formation of a Federal Council of Scientific Societies will,
I understand, be brought up for discussion durinf;- our meetings.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. I I

A year ago a Bioard of Scientific Societies, consisting
initially of representatives of 2"] scientific (including technical)
societies, was formed in (ireat Britain, with the ohject of pro-
moting the co-operation of those engaged in pure and applied
science ; stipplying a means by which the scientific opinion of
the country ma}-, on matters relating to science, industry, and
education, find effective expression ; taking such action as may
be necessary to promote the application of science to industries
and to the service of the nation ; and discussing scientific ques-
tions in which international co-operation seems advisable. An
example of what can be done by co-operation is evidenced by
the Central Committtee of Scientific and Technical Societies,
formed at Johannesbiu-g in April of last year, which greatly
facilitated the formation of the Government Committee on Scien-
tific and Technical Research. Such co-operation seems eminently
desirable.

The question of a convocation week for all SoiUh African
Scientific and Technical Societies was mentioned at last year's
congress, but no decision was arrived at. The idea was intro-
duced at the Johannesburg meeting in 1904 ,when a conference
of librarians of South Africa was arranged. It may be that
South Africa is not sufficientlv developed for such a scheme,
but it may be useful to consider tor a moment the position of
America. There, 51 National Societies meet regularly or at
times with the Association for the Advancement of Science, the
work of which is organised in twelve sections, covering the
field of pure and applied science, and 30 of the Societies are
affiliated and have rei)resentation on the Council of the Associa-
tion. The principle of affiliation was accepted at our last annual
meetino', but the details have still to be agreed upon.

The third object of the Association is " to obtain a more
general attention to the objects of }>ure and applied science, and
the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress." To a limited extent this object has been
kept in view, with varying success. Several activities were men-
tioned by Mr. Reunert in his presi'iential address at Johannes-
burg; these included efforts to establish a Botanic Garden and
Arboretum for the Transvaal, to be managed purely as a ( jovern-
ment institution ; a Forestry School and a Militarv C(^llege for
South Africa ; the systematic collection or preservation of objects
of scientific or historic interest ; the encouragement of nature
study in schools; a scheme of University extension lectures;
and the preparation of a series of memoirs on men of science
and other Sotith African men of note. In 1907 an effort was
made to get the Transvaal (iovernment to establish a Standardis-
ing Laboratory, but without success. About the same time a
Committee dealt with the standardisation of weights and
measures in .^outh Africa.

Success attended the Association's efforts 10 establish a
National Botanic Garden, which was recommended at the Cape-

12 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

town meeting in 1910. Professor Pearson outlined a scheme in
his presidential address to Section C, and shortly afterwards it
was announced that Dr. Bolus had presented his valuable her-
barium. The Council re-affirmed, in May. 191 3, its resolution
that " such an institution would greatly advance the scientific
and economic study of the vegetation of South Africa," and it
was announced at the Lourenqo Marques meeting in that year
that Parliament had sanctioned the scheme.

In connection with the meteorite which was observed to
fall in the N'Kandhla district, Zululand. in August, 1912, and
which unfortunately has lieen lost to South Africa, a resolution
was passed at the 1913 meeting, asking the Government " to
pass legislation declaring that meteorites are Government pro-
perty, and that when found they should be delivered to the near-
est magistrate for transmission to the nearest museum under
Government control." The Secretary for the Interior, however,
replied that the proposal could only be considered if sufficient
reasons in support were sui)])lied. Dr. Juritz, who was present
at the joint meetings of the British and Australasian Associa-
tions in Australia in 1914, brought the question forward, and
the action of our Association was subsequently endorsed by the
Council of the British Association, which passed a resolution
" that in view of the fact tliat meteorites, which convey informa-
tion of world-wide importance, are sometimes disposed of pri-
vately, the Council be recjuested to take such steps as may initiate
international legislation on the matter." This resolution was
transmitted to the International Association of Academies, but
owinsr to the war, there the matter now rests. There is still the

....

risk that such invaluable relics may hnd then- way mto the
hands of foreign dealers, to be retailed in small slices at enormous
prices.

During the past year, c)n the initiative of Miss Wilman.
the Witwatersrand Council members pointed out tn the (x)vern-
ment the advisability of passing a law which would i)revent rare
fossils and ethnolo^ncal remains of national interest from leaving
South Africa, without the authority of the Minister of the In-
terior or -some responsible officer. It may be claimed by some
that such restrictions would not be in the general interests of
science, but similar regulations exist in .other countries, and
even Mexico prohibits the export o^ antiquities.

The reptilian fossil remains which have recently been re-
moved from South Africa are hous'^d in the American Museum
of Natural History, New York, and are fully described in the
American Museum Journal of December, 191 3, and April, 1914.
It is stated that from fifty to sixty types have been added to
the fifty-two types of Permian reptiles already in the American
Museum, and an invidious comparison is made with the British
and Capetown Museums. " It is so I'ich in types," it is claimed,
" that it rivals the British Museum collection, while from a
spectacular point of view, it surpasses that collection, as well

PRESIDENTS AnnKKSS. I 3

as the collection in the Capetown Museum, for ajiart from its
types, it has an unusually lars^e number of representative speci-
mens, and those in unusually perfect condition."

The matter was broujjht to the attention of the Minister of
the Interior at a time when there was >ome possibility of pre-
ventin<i^ the exportation of irrei)laceable fossils of great natiorial
interest, and pressure was brouc^ht to bear i)rivately on parlia-
mentarians of influence, but nothing has been done. It is now too
late to deal with the specimens referred to. but it is to be hoped
that the Government will realise the imp.irtance of retaining in
the future such relics for South Africa.

An event of considerable importance was the grant in ujo6
of £500 from the Witwatersrand Council of Edtication for the
purpose of University extension lectures, the administration of
this, and subseciuent grants being left unconditionally in the
hands of the Johannesburg members of Council. With this
generous assistance, series of lectures were delivered at the
principal towns of South A'frica during the four years from
1907 to 1910 by eminent authorities from Cireat Britain. It is
of interest to note that the lecturer for Tyo8 is now President
of the Board of Educati<in in thf' new British War Cabinet.
Unfc^rtunately. for various reasons, these lectures were dis-
continued in igio.

The Association has always been keenly interested in Uni-
versity education. At the Kimberley meeting in njo6. the ques-
tion was discussed at a joint meeting of sections, and it is pro-
posed at this Conference to raise the (|uestion of University
Education, with special reference to a memorandum on the
subject which has been prepared by the W'itwatersrand members.

In 1907 the Council made provision for the formation of
local branches, by which interest might be more fully main-
tained in the intervals between the annual sessions. Some of
the branches have been fairly active, and have arranged for
local papers and addresses. biU, on the whole, the scheme has
not met with much success. .\ few years ag(i the Johannes-
burg members of Council aureed to liold a conversazione in
honour of any distinguished scientist who might visit the Rand,
and in this way Sir Almroth Wright and Col. ( iorgas and his
staff have been honoured.

In order to arouse a greater interest in science amongst
students, the Council decided, in 1906. to inaugurate a prize
fund. Sir Hamilton Goold-.Adams, the President for that year,
generously provided a die, and live (ioold-.\dams medals are
now awardecl annually on the results of the Senior Certificate
and Matriculation Examinations hi science subjects.

At the hrst meeting of the Association. Professor Hahn
drew attention to the neglect of science teaching in schools. " It
is hardly credible," he said. " but nevertheless it is a fact,
that the Universit\- regulations allow this neglect of the studv

14 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

of science in this country, of which the future depends, in the
first ]>lace, upon the development of its natural resources, which
recjuire, alxjve all, a thorouq'h and comprehensive knowledoe C)f
science, which should be )jart and ])arcel of the education of
every South African." He was referrinq^ particularly to the
fact that science was an optional subject for the Matriculation
Examination of the University oi the Cape of uood Hope; it
was reinstated as a compulsory subject in 1909.

A pamphlet entitled " The Neglect of Science," which has
been widely circulated during the last year, gives a report of a
meeting, attended by a hundred and fifty of the most prominent
scientific and technical men in Great Britain. The object was
to urge upon the Government the necessity of a full recognition
of science in schools and ct>lleges and in the examinations ior
the Civil Service. Grave blunders, committed at the beginning
of the war through the absence of a scientific training on the
part of Ministers, were emphasised and. incidentall\-, the reten-
tions of Classics as a predominating subject was generall\- con-
demned. How engineers and manufacturers view this contro-
versial subject mav be gathered from the following remarks of
a writer in the technical i)ress when referring to after-war
problems : —

Reforms cutting <k-e]) into all [la.sl luliefs and ijrfjudicc^ will be
necessai'i'. Kdiication must be wider and be in closer touch with the actu-
alities of life. Xo longer must the phrase " a liberal education ' imply a
familiarity with dead languages and ;in ignorance of living ones, an ai)ility
to quote classic authors and an ignorance of the rudiments of science, a
familiarity with manners and etiquette and an ignorance of the ways in
which the masses toil and earn their daily bread. Older methods of
training must he discarded. The acquisition of knowledge must be a
means to an end. and that end increase in industrial eftlciencs'.

No one would, however, ^'uggest the total discarding or neglect
of cultural subjects, which are essential for the development of
all that is Ijest in character.

For a young and sparsely-]>opulated country such as ours,
we can scared}- sa)- that the Go\'ernment has neglected the
claims of science; the complaint will i)robably be that it has
not gone far enough. By 'his research work into animal diseases.
Sir :Vrnold Theiler, our President, of 1912, has rendered in-
valualjle ser\ ice to the jjastoral interests of this country. Yet a
few months ago he found it necessary to voice a strong j)lea
for an increased stalt of properly paid veterinary surgeons to
enable his work to be continued efficiently. Considering the
vast amouiu of the interests at stake and the rapid rate at which
the pastoral interests are developing in this country, which has
great ambitions in the direction of an im})ortant meat export
trade, it is surely a short-sighted |)olicy to stint a department
such as that of the Director of Veterinary Research, which has
saved such enormous sums to the n.ation by the ])re\ention of
animal diseases.

riiir (iovernment. I am afraid, has not alwa\s fnllv realised

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 15

in the past the powerful aid of science and scientific research in
,£feneral and inclustrial development It has heen following too
much the lead of Cireat Britain, and has been perhaps too much
inclined to regard the scientific departments of the Government
as not of primary imjjortance, since they are not immediately
productive in the commercial sense. The totally inadecjuate
salaries paid to the personnel of Government scientific depart-
ments is perhaps an indication of the place which their work
has occupied in the general ])lan of the nation. Only recently
a protest was made in connection with an advertisement for
a mycologist — who had to be a University graduate — at the
princely remuneration of £i8o per annum. Science may be its
own reward, but even the poor scientist must live.

Btit all this is going to be changed. Science has gained
immensely in ))restige since the war began. The conse(|uences
of the neglect of science and technical training have been brought
home to such an extent, that terrible as that conflict is, there can
be no question that it has served to vitalise, as nothing else could
have done, the British nation ; and, perhaps, the greatest lesson
of the war has been the realisation of the necessitv of greater
scientific methods in relation to industry. The appeals of scien-
tific and technical men, which have so often been disregarded
by apathetic, self-satisfied and conservative manufactttrers, pur-
'■uing rule-of-thumb and obsolete methods, and, by their inaction,
allowing .'^o often the fruits of British brains to be exploited in
Germany, would now appear to be falling on receptive ears,
and we welcome the pros])ecl of a new era for science and
scientific methods. We must realise that the whole fabric of
industry is based on science, and Governments are now recog-
nising it as their duty to embark on a more enlightened policy by
promoting scientific research on a national scale. It is for asso-
ciations such as this to see that the new ideals are maintained.

The Union (jovernment established, about a year ago, an
Industrial Advi.sory Board of business men, to which a technical
member was at a later date added. But as a result of the re-
presentations of the Central Committee of the Scientific and
Technical Societies of South Africa, on which this Association
was fully represented, the Government agreed in March of this
year to the apix)intment of a Scientific and Technical Research
Committee to assist the Industries Section of the Department of
Mines and Industries in providing for Industrial Research, co-
ordinating, as far as |x)ssible, all industrial investigation and
research in South Africa, and collecting and disseminating all
data obtained ; in co-operating with other Government Depart-
ments, and with similar departments in the United Kingdom
and Dominions to obtain information already available, so as to
avoid overlap])inci', to take ad\'antage of facilities for research
not available in this country, and to acquire and utilise in the
arts and manufactures knowledge already existent in countries
which are more highly developed industrially than South Af-

l6 I'KKSIDEXt's ADi»RESS.

rica ; in carrying out an economic survey of the natural resources
of South Africa, and in furnisliintj advice in reg'ard to the b€St
methods of utilising suoh resources ; in furnishing advice with
regard to the best method of attacking industrial problems ; in
inducing industrial improvements and facilitating and encour-
aging manufactures in suitable localities ; in co-ordinating various
industries to obtain the best combined results and exchanging
between user and manufacturer manufacturing improvements
and Dperating exj)erience ; and generally in advancing the work
of the Department on the sicentific and technical side.

The action of the Government in advertising for a technical
adviser, at a salary commensurate with the importance of the
position, is one which must l>e cordially welcomed as an indi-
cation that it realises the importance of the present movement.

The Scientific and Technical Committee held its first meeting-
at Capetown in A])ril of this year. The published list of fifty-
two subjects on which it is ])roposed to obtain the earliest and
fullest existing information irom the most competent authorities
available, gives some idea of the programme which the Com-
mittee has outlined apart from an indication of the latent po-
tentialities of the Union as a manufacturing country. Time
forbids detailed reference, but it vvill be observed that the in-
vestigation of raw materials and products from the agricultural
and pastoral industries, together with various valuable bye-
products, hitherto neglected, bulk largely amongst the subjects.

It is of some interest to note that all the ten members of
the Committee are members of our Association, and that five
are members of the Council.

The Union Government has followed the policv ad(j]Jted by
the British Government, whicli in July. 1915. formed a Com-
mittee of the Privy Council, and constituted an Advisory Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research. The first report of the
Advisory Council, issued last September, is worthy of the most
serious consideration ; it has been stated that a million sterling
])er annum is to be appropriated to promote its objects.

Referring to the absolute necessity of promoting and organ-
ising scientific research, with a view to its application to trade
and industry, the report says :

It needed the shock of the war to make the need m.inifest. Tlie out-
break of war found us unable to produce at home many essential materials
and articles. We were making less than a couple of dozen kinds of
optical glass out of over a hundred made by our enemies. We could
hardly make a tithe of the various dye-stuffs needed for our textile
industries, with an output of two hundred and tifty million sterling a
year. VVe were dependent on Germany for magnetos, for countless drugs
and pharmaceutical preparations, even for the tungsten used by our great
steel makers, and the zinc smelted from the ores which our own Empire
produced.

After reviewing, at considerable length, the position in
(ireat Britain with regard to technical education, facilities for
research, the general position with regard to industrial concerns

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 1/

and the attitude of such towards research, the Committee sum-
marises the conditions for the success of its work as : " First,
a larg'ely increased supply of competent researchers ; secondly,
a hearty spirit of co-operation amongst all concerned, men of
science, men of business, working men, professional and scientific
societies, universities and technical colleges, local authorities
and Government departments " " And neither condition will be
elTective without the other," it adds. The report shows that
before the war the output of the Universities was altogether in-
sufficient to meet even a moderate expansion in the demand for
research. The war has depleted them of their students and
teachers, and the view is expressed that the number of trained
research workers, who will be available at the end of the war,
will not suf^ce for the demand vv^hich they hope will then exist.

A Board of Education Committee, in a report issued last
July, declares that to stint education, study, or research, would
be the worst of all possible forms of economy, and that it is
certain unless more effort, more thought, and even more money
are spent upon education after the war than before, we shall not
regain or retain our place among the nations. On its recom-
mendation a huge sum has been set aside for scholarships, both
for secondary and university education, but stress is laid upon
the necessity of managers of industrv and commerce recognising
the value of scientific training in their advisers and as an impor-
tant qualification for directive posts.

While making it clear that research in pure science should
be as much their care as research in applied science, the British
Advisory Council decided to give science, in its application to
industry, precedence over pure science in their deliberations, and
that any effective encouragement of pure science must await the
return of peace.

" The Universities," the report says, " can and must be the
main sources of research in pure science, the discoveries of
which lie at the root of practical and technical application. Yet
Universities will not be able to do their fair share of this vital
service unless they can attract more students and larger funds.
. Unless our Universities are in a position to offer
appointments which carry with them real freedom from finan-
cial anxiety, it is certain that their teachers will not, because
they cannot, take the leading part which they should in tlie
national contributions to knowledge."

In discussing the important question as to whether the
Universities can undertake industrial research work, attention is
drawn to the research dejDartments, which have been established
by large American firms, and to the research institutes of Ger-
many, which ]3rovide for special investigations of a longer or
more elaborate kind than those which can be undertaken l)y
University students and teachers.

" The fact is," the rei)ort stated, " that althouR-h the Gemian
Universities and technical schools have been able in the past to

i8 president's address.

do much for the industries, l)ecause their professors have had
httle routine work to do in comparison with British standards,
the increasing complexity and leng-th of the research necessary
for modern scientific manufacture is makino^ it increasingly diffi-
cult for the Professor or the University laboratory to take a
dominating share in the advance." But the advantages of a
close co-operation between the industries and the Universities
are fully recognised. " In the first place, it will be easier to
attract the support of the trades if provision is made for train-
ing their higher stafif as well as for investigating their dil^culties.
In the next place, it ensures the continued contact of the research
worker with advanced students — an inestimable benefit in the
opinion of all the best authorities. Finally, it enables us to use
to the utmost advantage the very limited number of original
workers, available for either research or for teaching."

As to w^hether the functions of the Universities can be ex-
tended beyond that of providing trained research workers, to in-
include the industrial requirements of the research itself, the
Council maintains an open mind. " In some cases now^ before
us," it states, " it will probably be the best way of proceeding ;
in other cases, where a powerful industry and many complicated
problems are concerned, it may not."

Recently the Director of the National Physical Laboratory
has complained of the totally inadequate financial support re-
ceived from the Government. The present annual grant is
£7,000, but during the fifteen years of its existence, it has re-
ceived a total of only £59,000, as compared with £70,000 given
annually by the Germans to corresponding institutes at Berlin,
and the sum of £100,000 received every year by the Bureau of
Standards from the United States Government. I mention these
facts to show what research work costs ; it would be useless for
the Union Government to establish a similar institution, unless
it is prepared to supply it with funds on a most liberal .scale.

In view of the adverse criticism which has been frequently
made against British scientists and the comparisons which have
been made with the Germans, it is reassuring to find such an
important body as the British Advisory Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research expressing the opinion that : " Our
people have no reason to fear or envy the scientific pioneers
of other races. They have had, and will probably continue to
have, their 'full share of the outstanding minds to which each
century gives birth."

What has been done in technical education here goes to
prove that the South African born — including sons of Stellen-
bosch — are capable of occupying the highest technical positions
which this country can ofifer. South African trained engineers
are welcomed in the works and laboratories of leading European
and American firms. For example, the Cicneral Electric Com-
pany of Schenectady, U.S.A., spends over £100,000 every year
on research, and employs a stafif of 200 trained scientists in their

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. IQ

laboratories and test (lei)artnients At the present moment there
are live South African trained engineers undergoing a two years'
post-graduate course with that tirm — four from the South Afri-
can School of Mines and Technology and (Mie from the South
.Vfrican College — and. from authoritative information which I
have recei\ed. they are doing oxeedingly well.

It is not mv intentitjn to attemj)! to deal fully with the many
problems with which St)uth Africa teems, even those which
bear on the development of our great country. Unfortunately,
many of our problems have, for some reason or other, been con-
verted into political questions, and at this non-political gather-
ing, anything savouring (^f politics must be rigidly excluded.
Mr. Merriman has said that there is too much ])olitics in this
country; those who belong to no political party will. I think,
agree with him. Almost every man and woman in Sotith Africa
is a politician, and we send 41 lawyers to Parliament. One of
our members who combines the pa.stime of ardent sociology with
the ])rofessional pursuit of science, advocates government by
fitnction, according to which the only reason for sending a man,
or woman, to Parliament, would be special fitness as an expert
on some particular subject, or as a representative of some par^
ticular interest. Political cleavages are not doing this country
any good. Let the advice of the Administrator of the Orange
Free State be taken in the si)irit in wliich it has l)een offered:
" Last year." he is re])orted to have said, " the Unit)n imported
leather goods to an amount almost etpial to that which farmers
got for their wool. Whilst they were (|uarrelling about small
matters, thev were realh' forgetting the things that mattered.
Each vear grain to the value of f 1.500,000 was imi)orted,
although the South African climate was excellentlv suited for
grain production. When it was dry they prayed for rain, but,
when the rain came, millions of tons of water were allowed to
run to waste to the sea. . . . Euro]jeans were only com-
])aratively few in South Africa. Why, then, .should they con-
tinue ([uarrelling instead of developing their country?"

Apart from the native ciuestion, ctiorts to soKe wliicli have
recently .been made, the principal (|uestions ti])on which iniblic
attention is ])eing focussed. and which liaxe recentl\ l)een fre-
quently discussed in Parliament, are the necessity for the in-
creased production of food supplies within the Union and of the
raw materials required in the manufacture of articles of con-
sumption, so as to render South Africa more independent
economically ; the scientific and economic survey of the natural
resources and potentialities of the Union, in a serious effort to
ascertain what is available in the form of raw materials for active
industrial exploitation, so as to develoj) industries using these
raw materials instead of, as has been so much the practice in
the past, exporting them and repurchasing the manufactured
articles at greatly enhanced ])rices'; and incidentallx . what is of
the greatest national imi)ortance--the training of the young citi-

20 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

z©ns of this country to take their place as c(imi)etent workers in
these industries.

The report oi the Boer delegates, sent on a tour twelve years
ago, said: " The only thino- needed is energy, ])atient and i)ersis-
tent. Other colonies have heen visited by drought and famine,
frosts and hailstorms, l!Ut they have in a large measure conquered
or controlled these difficulties by the resolute will of the people.
encouraged by a wise, far-seeing Government. We look forward
confidently to the day when we shall not only produce sufficient
to support the whole of South Africa, but also take a proud
position in the markets of the world."

To a limited extent these hopes are beginning to be realised.
A close study of the latest Customs returns shew that South
Africa is ])assing through the importing to the exporting stage,
though they also shew that much is now imported which could,
without much difficulty, be produced in South Africa. It must
not l)e forgotten, however, that the war has had a wonderful
effect in stimulating the agricultural and i)astoral interests of this
country, by ])roviding iJroLection which no tariff wall cotild e\er
give, via., the prohibition of imports from oversea, and difficul-
ties connected with shipping, involving increased freight and in-
surance charges. But while we welcome earnest and sustained
efforts on the i>art of the agricultural and pastoral community to
make South .\frica more self-reliant as regards its food supplies,
there is at the moment the much higher and patriotic motive, of
assisting the Mother Country in consort with the other self-
governing Dominions, in the great struggle, by reducing the
demand on her raw materials, manufactures and foodstuffs,
while straining every effort to increase oitr exi^ortsto her. It is
the duty of every producer to realise his individual res|x>nsibility
in this matter.

Never has Soiuh Africa had such an ojiportunitx' as the
present, when the extraordinary increase in the consumption of
the essentials of life in FAiroi)e is accompanied by a decrease in
production. And it must be remembered that the demand for
such will not cease when peace is declared, since the world will
be faced with a shortage for years, so that a stimulation of effort
now, when such abnormal protection to agricultural products
exists, will give an impetus to agricultttre in this country, which
Avill be permanently felt. a])art from the building up of a large
export trade.

It is fashionable to decry the farmer for want of enterprise,
but critics should remember that farming in South Africa is to
a great extent a speculative venture. No one should complain
of any encouragement given by the (Government to agriculture,
for agricultm-e must become and must remain the staple industry
in this country. Fortunately. .South Africa does possess many
progressive farmers, and there are many indications of an im-
proving outlook. The great improvements which have taken
l)lace in stock and in agricultural produce have been clearly

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 21

shown at recent aorienltnral shows. But, unfortunately, there
are many exceptions. We re(|uire more up-to-date methods and
a greater ap])reciation, on the part of such, of the advantages
to be gained by the apphcation of science to agricukure.
Academic discussions in ParHament will not bring out the
])otentialities of the soil, which can only be achieved by concen-
tration of effort and persevering energy, directed by a policy of
enlightened scientific method. It would be useless to claim that
such a policy has been generally followed in this country. Agri-
culture here has undoubtedlv manv drawbacks, and the progress
of the farmer has been greatly hindered by drotight, flood, stock
disease and other causes, but how often do we hear that the
farmer will not avail himself of the helping- hand offered, and
take ad\ antage of the ex])ert assistance which the Government
]ilaces at his disposal? We have but to think of locust destruc-
tion and the eradication of scab in sheep.

The whole land abounds with examples of neglected oppor-
tunities. The Government has repeatedly made the statement
that it cannot start industries ; it can only give advice. And when
we consider for a moment what has been done through its Agri-
cultural and Lands Departments, unbiassed observers must admit
that advice has l)een showered upon the farmer in such profusion
that it has come to be a source of irritation to those engaged in
other industries, who accuse the agricultural interests of receiv-
ing undue preference. Frankly, we must admit that the farmer
in many instances has not made the most of his opportunities.
The recently issued reports of the Dominions Commission draw
attention to the way in wdiich Canada and Australia have been
developed into great producing and exporting countries — it
dwells on the wonderful external trade expansion of Canada,
which has increased 190 per cent, between the years 1900 and
T913— -and emphasises the need for greater population which, of
course, means throwing open the land to the newcomer. x\s
the member for Stellenbosch has somewhat caustically said, we
have *' stoep-isitters at one end and poor whites at the other, and
that state of aft'airs is not in the interests of the country. . . .
Here the farmer waited for an Act of Parliament, and then
often kicked at it." No one can object to the Government assist-
ing in every possible way those who are honestly endeavouring
to increase the productiveness of the country, and even to assist
financially the victims of misfortune, but the manifestation of
a spirit of greater self-reliance and progressiveness on the part
of many would be greatly welcomed by those who frec[uently
complain that there is too much pandering to the agricultural
interests. Unwillingness on the part of South Africans, by
nativity and ado])tion, to meet the situation and exert their
utmost endeavours in well-directed channels, can only lead to
the surrenderinu' O'f their o]Ji)ortunities to those more amply
qualified by energy and initiative.

The cry of the world is for greater production. The war

22 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

has taught ( ireat Britain a vakiable lesson with regard to neglect
of cultivation, which she is not likely to forget. There, the
grasslands have constituted 6y i)er cent, of the total area of
arable land as compared with Germany's 32 per cent., while the
tons of corn raised per 100 acres have been given as 15 and t,^,
respectively. We know that but a small percentage of the soil
of South Africa is arable, and that only a fraction of that has
yet been developed. We produce 40 per cent, of our wheat re-
quirements, and are already large exporters of maize, so that
the ])ossibilities of South Africa, as a cereal producing country,
may to some extent be realised. It is a hopeful sign that far-
mers are lieginning to venture further in new directions ; fruit
growing, especially that of citrus fruits, is (levelo])ing rapidly,
and a successful Ijeginning has iieen made with cotton growing
in the Transvaal. In 1(jt6 seed was purchased, mainly fn^m the
Department ui Ajiriculture, for 2,000 acres, and a yield of
100,000 to 150,000 pounds of cotton obtained. During the i^ast
sea.son seed for 6,000 acres w^as sold, and when one thinks of
the bye-i)roducts in the form of cotton-seed oil and fertilisers,
it is clearly seen how imi)ortant such an industry as cotton grow-
ing may become. In South Africa the Government is exj^ected
to do everything; so the cotton growers recently ap])roached the
De])artment of Alines and Industries with a view to Government
assistance being given for the establishment centrallv of the
necessary mechanical plant. Whether the (Government should
be exjjected to assist directly in this way is a moot point ; at any
rate, the cotton growers were referred to the Land Bank with
a view to obtaining a loan on co-operative lines. But the work
which -the Government is now doing — obtaining co-ordinated in-
(formation — is clearly a (rovernmental duty, which, it is tO' be
hoped, it will continue to do.

While the war has had the effect of stimulating, and in
some cases initiating, production, it has also served to draw
attention to products hitherto neglected, which could be used
as substitutes. But think how little has been done to manufac-
ture the valuable products from maize — -alcohol, starch, glucose,
dextrine, glycerine, corn oil, etc., apart from the valuable feed-
ing stuffs and other bye-products obtained from these industries.
At the last annual meeting of the S.A. Maize Growers" Associa-
tion the President comi)lained that practically nothing had been
done to develop maize products in this country, and urged the
appointment of a whole-time officer of the Agricultural Depart-
ment to devote his energies to the maize growing industry and
its many products. A new future is opened up for the maize
grower by the possibility of the extended use of alcohol for
power purposes. An investigation carried out two years ago
demon.strated the practicability of alcohol as a motor fuel, so
that now it is entirely a matter of commercial manufacture. In
America the greater ])art of the industrial alcohol )jroduced is
made from maize. A factory, costing over £50,000, is in course
of completion at Durban to produce alcohol from molasses, a

im<i-:sii)knt's aodrkss. 23

bye-product in suj^ar mainifactiire, hut, as that is hniitecl in
amount, recourse mttst he had at no distant date to maize or
otlier cereals, potatoes, etc. The agrimotor, of which hundreds
are now at work dav and night in ( ireat Britain and France,
is a product of the war, and witli chea]-) alcohol motor fuel,
derived from maize which he himself grows, to drive his
mechanical cultivators, who shall say that the lot of the farmer
of the future will not be a happy one? It will be seen that the
subject of maize — its products and bye-products — is receiving
the attention of tlie Scientific and Technical Committee.

There is abundant evidence that the country realises the need
of a more forward ])olicy with regard to the development of
agriculture and its allied industries. A deputation from the
South African National Union — an organisation which is doing
good work in encouraging the use of South African products —
recently waited upon the Minister of Agrictdture and indicated
the following as the directions in wdiich action was necessary
to stimulate productive expansion: the bringing of all sections
of the agricultural population in closer touch with the Depart-
ment of Agriculttire ; more roads, railways and bridges; pro-
vision for the collection of ]jroduce in areas situated at a dis-
tance from the railways ; mechanical cultivation by means of
cheap power ; and a greater yield per acre. In striving after a
greater yield per acre we are confronted with many of the im-
portant questions of the day : closer land settlement and greater
co-operation amongst the farmers, water conservation, irrigation,
afforestation, soil erosion, and the production and use of fer-
tilisers.

On closer land settlement hinge many South African pro-
blems ; in its train it brings increased employment, increased
production, and, as a conse(|uence, greater industrial expansion ;
while it is regarded as one of the favourite remedial measures
for the " j)Oor white " problem. The (jovernment has admitted
that land settlement : chcmes in the past have not pnn-ed the
success anticipated. Faikire has been attributed to the luisuita-
bilitv and lack of enterprise and energy on the part of the settler,
and to the unsuitability of the soil. The problem is admittedly
a very difficult one, accentuated by the usual lack of capital on
the part of the settler ; but difficulties have been experienced in
the initial stages in other countries, which have now successful
settlement schemes. Land settlement and irrigation schemes are
expensive undertakings, but the bold and welcome progressive
policv which has been decided upr.n must redotmd to the national
i>ood in the long run. In addition to total commitments of
nearlv one and three (|uarter millions, ])reviously approved, new
commitments of close on one million sterling have been accei:)ted
during the present session for irrigation projects.

We also want a \igorous afforestation ])olicy. Timber is
used as a material in ])ractically every industry, and its increas-
ing use has for .some vears caused no little anxiety as to the

24 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

world's supply ; certain varieties are even now practicall}' unob-
tainable. Attention is, therefore, being frequently drawn to the
value of afforestation as a State asset. But afforestation is of
national importance, apart from the value of the timber pro-
duced. It has served for some years as a means of alleviating
the poor white problem. It is a potent agent in the conservation
of water, which is of all the more importance in a country like
South Africa, so subject to periods of drought, and where soil
erosion is becoming a national problem. All over the countrx-
we can see large areas absolutely ruined by a network of huge
dongas, developed from small shuts, which originated probably
in a cattle track. The Railway De])artment has been blamed,
so have the (xovernment road contractors, the IrrigaticMi Dej^art-
ment has been accused of negligence, while the older inhabitants
blame the (jovernment and say that .soil erosion is entirely due
to the denudation of trees and vegetation without a policy of
replacement. The Minister of Lands blames the farmers! He
has said that the first stej) towards a remedy is " to rouse public
opinion and get the agriculturist interested in the matter." The
remedies are said to include filling up the small sluits when they
begin to form; increased affOrestation and grass ])lanting. which
assists in conserving the rainfall instead of allowing it to carry
millions of tons of valuable soil to the sea ; and, of course, dam
building and irrigation, which are claimed to herald the agricul-
tural salvation of South Africa. The (iovernment has repeatedly
stated that it is alive to the importance of aff'orestation, and the
Union can hardly be charged with negligence since 6,300 acres
were aff'orested in 1914, and although the acreage fell for
obvious rea.sons to 3,900 in 1915, and was slightly under 2,400 in
1916, to-day the total area of forest reserves under the Forestry
Department is over 1,000,000 morgen. The State cannot be
expected to do everything. Surely the farmer, who, in the
majority of cases, is the landowner, realises that it is in his own
interests, both from the water conservation and the other points
of view, to prosecute a vigorous scheme of aff'orestation, and.
much as the State might assist in fighting soil erosion, individual
eff'ort nuist be strenuously exerted, if the problem is going to be
solved.

These are subjects, which I am glad to say, are receivinu' the.
attention of the Scientific and Technical Committee.

The first work of this Committee has been to arrange for
a survey of the raw materials of the country, so as to ascertain
what is available for active industrial exploitation. The Govern-
ment is paving the way by investigation and research to she\v
the world what the prospects of industry are, but the Minister
of Mines and Industries has said that "the Government can only
see that general conditions as regards tariff' and legislation are
reasonable and representative."

It is claimed that a country Vvdiich imports annually thirty-
eight million i)Ounds worth of merchandise must have great

president's address. 25

inanufacturins^- ijossiljilities. liut uianutacturinu; industries have
languished in South Africa, and in(histrial faikires have heen
nianv. (hie to a' variety of causes. As one writer plaintively re-
marks, there has ])een "the usual dissii)ation of energies; the
usual record of a 'few successes and many failures; and the
usual discouragement, which seems the natural inheritance of the
few people who tr)- to hring South .\frica to a realisation of her
uniijue opi)ortunitiet."

Often enough the complaint is made that South Africa has
neglected her ojjportunities ; that she is only now beginning to
investigate her resources as regards the adequacy and suitability
of raw materials ; that, as compared with the other members of
the Commonwealth of Nations, she is onl\- now emere'ing- from
the stage of academic discussion, and is not yet able to put for-
ward co-ordinated schemes for industrial expansion and develop-
meiU, which can be expected to attract capital ; and capital is
wanted as in other countries. The history of manufacturing
countries proves that the industrial system has been built up
mainly by private enterprise, and we must look mainly to the
individual and the corporation to supply this capital. But all
young countries have had Government support in the form of
protection or bounties ; this may, however, be considered by
some to be a political t|uestion, and will not Ije discussed further
here.

The war has changed many conservative views, and reforms
have been introduced, which not so very long ago would have
been considered revolutionary. We have seen State control
accepted ungrudgingly in many enterprises hitherto considered
sacred to the capitalist, and we have also seen that an " indus-
trial miracle " can be accomplished wdien capital and labour
work in harmon}- under State control, and when the workers
realise the dangers of extremes in the doctrine of restriction of
outptit. It is therefore, perhaps, not too much to hope that our
Govermnent may take a share in opening u]) and developing
certain specific new industries by arranging directly for the
provision of capital. With the national resources known, every
effort must be made to induce a .flow of capital for industrial
purposes. On this point the ^linister of Mines and Industries
has said : " Efforts in the past ha\-e undoubtedly been half-
hearted, which w as exemplified l)y the saying that one could get
money for an_\' speculative mining proposition. Imt it was hard
to get for industrial undertakings,"

No industry can be welcomed as a permanent industry which
does not utilise the raw ])roducts of the country. In this con-
nection the absence of a " primary " iron and steel industry is
most keenly felt. All manufacturers using metal are de])endent
upon the imported article, and although machinery is now being
manufactured in South Africa, especially on the Rand, to an
extent hitherto considered impossible, this has largel\- been due
to the ])rotection offered by the war, and nnist necessarily be

26 president's address.

transient. The importance of the estabHshnient of an iron and
steel industry in South Africa transcends that of every other
industry ; South Africa can never hope to liccome a machinery
manufacturing' country witht)ut it. We have the raw materials
in coal and ore, but markets will liave to be created to kee]j such
an industry going continuously, as it must of necessity do. The
(xovernment can help by assisting in the initial stages, and it is
to be feared that without some direct special assistance, the pro-
spects are remote. But it can also help indirectly through the
railways. A guarantee of Government contracts, at any rate
in the initial stages, should surely induce a flow of cai)ital for
such an important national industry. A glance at the imports
for 1916 shews that, during that year, iron and steel to the value
of nearly one and a (|uarter millions sterling, and machinery to
the value of two and one-eighth juillions sterling, were imported
into the L'nion.

How colossal an iron and .steel industry may become is
shewn by the fact that the outi)ut of tlie United States Steel Cor-
poration reached in uji6 the huge total (-f nearly fifteen and
a half million tons.

.V successful experimental j^laiit, constituting the first elec-
tric furnace in South .Africa, was erected by the Chamber of
Mines during the past year for making steel castings (shoes and
dies) 'from scrap metal, and the manufacture of bar iron, etc.,
from scrap metal has been carried on for some years in the
Transvaal. Such industries have been referred to as " bastard "
industries ; primary indu.stries utilising the raw materials are
essential. A start was made last month in electro-chemical in-
dustries, when a factory for the manufacture of carljide was
inaugurated on the Rand ; but electro-chemical industries in other
parts of the world rely mainly upon chea]) electricity derived
from water power, and it is of the utmost importance in the
industrial development of this country that the Government
should spare no expense in having- the water-]X)wer resources of
South Africa immediately investigated.

The great mistake in South Africa has been to look too much
to the mines. Just as the discovery of the diamond mines saved
the Cape Colony from dire financial distress, so we have the
President of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines saying, at the last
annual meeting of that body, that " the ])ros])erity. and. indeed,
the whole fabric, of the Union is largely l)ased on the mining
industry.'' 'But the mineral wealtli of the IVansvaal will not
last for ever — the gold mines are a diminishing asset. i'rans-
vaal dividends amounted in 1916 to over nine million pounds,
but the Rand cannot go on indefinitely contributing over 50 i)er
cent, of the total revenue of the Union. We have examples
from history to shew that, where enlightened action has pre-
vailed, the revenues derived ifrcjm mineral wealth, instead of
being utilised to lighten the burdens of the general taxpayer,
have, to a liberal extent, been de\oted to the general development

: I'RliSlDENT S ADDRKSS. 2/

of the country, and the estabhshment of industries to take the
place of the worked out mines, inchtding- of necessi'ty am]^le
provision for education and technical training and research.

The results of the industrial census now being compiled will
be awaited with much interest, since, for the first time, we shall
be put in possession of the details of the industrial activities of
the Union, apart from the alread}' pulilished statistics relating to
])ower. The recent conference of manufacturers at Cape Town,
described by the Minister of Mines and Industries as " the most
important conference that had ever been held in South Africa,"'
and at which a Chamber of Industries was formed, l)etokens an
admirable spirit of co-operation. It is also a hopeful sign oi
the recognition of the importance of new industries that some
of the larger towns in South Africa are offering special facilities
for the acquisition of factory sites and i)()wer and water at cost
price.

Every country is dependent to a greater cr less extent on
other countries for its raw materials, and we are all familiar
with the efforts which are now being made to make the Empire
self-supporting as regards raw materials for industries. South
Africa must benefit by its inclusion in this scheme ; for example,
the world's principal source of chrome ore, so valuable in special
steel making, is in Rhodesia, and the Prieska district is said to
possess the largest deposits of asbestos in the world.

One of the saddest features of modern industrialism has
been the cloud of suspicion and mistrust which has hung over
the relationships between emi)loyer and employee. The frank
and full recognition of trades unions by the mining employers
of the Rand and the adoption of the principle of the " round
table " conference, will, it is to be hoped, tend to the lasting
benefit of both parties, and result in increased industrial effi-
ciency to which nothing can contribute so much as a settled and
contented community. To eliminate or even to minimise indus-
trial warfare is a great achievement, which must add tremen-
dously to the stability of industrial enterprises. But disci])line
and loyalty to their Unions is essential on the i)art of the workers
if this new arrangement is going to bear the economic fruit anti-
cipated.

This dissipation of the feeling of estrangement is one indi-
cation of the wider and deeper sympathies which are being
engendered by the w-orld crisis. As a prominent South African
labour leader has said, the exi>eriences through which so manv
millions are now passing " are going to produce a feeling of
greater human sympathy between all men, which will enable
them to achieve their end — the happiness of their fellow beings
— with less rancour and bitterness."

The growing white population of this country makes agricul-
tural and industrial development imperative, but greater atten-
tion must also lie directed to the educational and technical e(|uip-

F

2S prcsiDknt's address.

ment of the youth. In his report for 1916, the Director of
Edtication for the Transvaal says ; " The need for a longer school
life for all pupils, whatever their destination may be, has been
urged on the ground that a higher standard of individual and
national efficiency will in future be imperatively necessary. Post
war problems and conditions are likely to impose a test severer
than anything we have known before. There will be no room
for slackers, and the daily output, whatever form it takes, will
have to be improved in quality and increased in quantity. The
productive power of the manhood and womanhood of the nation
will have to be materially advanced, if we are to shoulder the
burden which will be laid on us ; and the necessary tuning up of
the physical, mental and moral resources of the nation must be
sought, in the first place, in. longer and more effective training
for all in the schools."

Compulsory education was instituted in the Transvaal in
1907, and. under the Ordinance passed in igi6, the Administrator
has power, on the recommendation of a local authority, to raise
the age or standard of exemption (at present Standard V, or 15
years ) from compulsory attendance at school, and to provide for
compulsory attendance at continuation classes. A minimum of
two years after the conii)letion of the sixth standard is contem-
plated b}' the Director, which means on the average eight years'
schooling after the pupil has passed otit of the sub-standards or
grades. " We want." he says, " to kee]) these two years from
fourteen to sixteen so pregnant Avith possibilities, for school for
all pupils, and not see them given out to arresting and stunting
labour or aimless loafing." The movement on the Rand is a
strong one; let us all hope that it will meet with success. But
it must be accompanied by reforms in the curricula, making them
more vocational and specificall}' industrial. And the complete
organisation beyond the primary school course, suggested by the
Director, is — (i) general or high-school courses; (2) trades-
school courses; (3) school-farm courses; (4) commercial
courses; (5) domestic science cotirses ; (6) urban technical
courses; and (7) rural technical courses. The use of the word
" technical " in this case is to be deprecated ; such a school is
proposed for Johannesljurg, but what is meant is really a secon-
dary school in which mathematics and science receive special
attention. The trade school system in the Transvaal is now
established on a firm basis; it receives the sympathy and whole-
hearted support of the mine employers, and by a new arrange-
ment, a two years' course at the Trades School has become the
necessary preliminary to apprenticeship on the mines.

The mining industry continues to serve a useful purpose in
allaying the hardships of unemployment. It may be of" inteixst
to note that about 46 per cent, of the total white employees on
the mines are of South African birth ; and the percentage of the
white underground employees, who are South African bom, can-
not l>e less than 75 per cent. The establishment by the Govern-

PRESinEiN'T S ADDRESS. 29

nieiu, in conjunction with the Chamber of Mines, of Training^
Schools for Miners widens these avenues of employment, which,,
it is hoped, will be more and more taken advantage of. There
are now over 70 pupils in attendance at the two schools already
established ; the intention is to arrange for six schools, accommo-
dating- 600 pupils. The course is a two year one, and the pupils
can maintain themselves from the commencement. Much
has been heard about the dread scourge of phthisis, but condi-
tions have so vastly improved during the past few years that with
miners properly trained in these schools to observe carefully
])recautions for health and safety, it is, perhaps, not too much to
!say that now mining on the Rand presents no greater dangers
than many other occupations not usually considered dangerous.

The Minister of Mines has said: "In regard to Miners
Phthisis, whereas in the past miners going down the mines always
feared they would contract the disease, he was gratified to say
that that state of affairs had practically disappeared altogether,,
and miners need no longer have any fear." For those occupying
technical ])()sitions, the risk is, of course, very much less, and it
is a source of regret that more South Africans do not c|ualify
for the higher lucrative ])Ositions on the mines.

Reference must be made to the much-discussed " poor white "
problem. It is one of the greatest and most difficult problems in
South Africa, and as time goes on it grows in comj^lexity. Rut
it is of modern growth. Mr. Leslie, President of the Transvaal
Munici])al Association, who can s])eak with authority on this
question, said last year: "Thirty years ago. when I was in this
country, there were no i:)oor and there were no rich ; now there
are numbers of rich men and thousands of poor people." Com-
missions have been appointed and congresses have been held to
deal with this most baffling problem, and we must credit all
political parties with a genuine desire to remove this danger to
the State. In his illuminating report for 1916. the Director of
Education for the Transvaal refers to " jx)or whites" who have
"been " unable to survive the stress and strain of economic com-
petition." " This is a social difficulty evervwhere," he says,
" l)ut it is intensified here b}' the presence of the native. It is
lamentable enough under any . circumstances that a section of
the people shoukl Ije heli)less in the struggle for self-preserva-
tion; it is a national calamity, a canker in the social .organism,
when the sinking of that section coincides with the rising of the
coloured races. That is the danger here. Various remedies
have been put forward ; repatriation, relief works, labour colon-
ies and the like; and no doubt much can be done in the way of
amelioration by such measures. All refomiers, however,
have agreed that only by equipping the children of poor
whites, through education, with the weapons of skill and intelli-
gence, can eradication of the evil be hoped for. The skill and
intelligence which will enable the children to siicceed where their
parents have failed, will not be developed by schooling limited

30 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

to the primary and rudimentary stages. They will need at least
two additional years of vocational training. . . . They must l)e
launched strong, alert, acquisitive and disciplined for work in the
craft or calling they are to follow."

In view of this expression of opinion from such an author-
ative quarter, it is exceedingly disappointing to find the Minister
of Finance a few months ago admitting that " The history of the
Provinces during the past few years had heen the retardation,
embarrassment and starvation of education . . ." althougli
he added: " It is the first duty of Parliament to encourage edu-
cation."

This starvation process also extends to the primary school
teacher. It is gratifying to note that, in connection with the
•outstanding reforms in education, which are being intnxluced in
the United Kini^dom, the bulk of the three and a quarter million
sterling increase in educational expenditure is being devoted to
the increase of teachers" salaries.

The Administrator of the Cape Province stated at the Ije-
ginning of this year, that there were 24,000 white children in the
Cape Province not receiving school education. The corres])ond-
ing number for the Transvaal is 6,000, or 6.8 per cent, of the
European children of school age, while Natal is to be congratu-
lated in having a ])ercentage of only i. The two chief difficulties
given are distances and lack of accommodation. All authorities
unite in declaring that this absence of school facilities is simply
manufacturing " poor whites." At a Conference held at Krugers-
dorp, in January of this year, it was stated by a prominent minis-
ter of the Dutch Reformed Church that there were 80,000 poor
whites in the Union, of whom 10,000 are the heads of families,
the majority belonging to his denomination. Such an alarming
position must be faced, and faced immediately and resolutely.
The Cradock Conference, held last Octoljer, urged as remedies
mainly labour colonies, more irrigation, more and more suitable
education, and greater sympathy and co-o])eration on the part of
the landowner farmers.

According to a statement by the Minister of Lands, land
settlement operations have comj)rised since Union 3,900 settlers,
and about four and a third million morgen of land, having a
value of nearly two millions sterling, have been allotted, apart
from 730 settlers who have been placed in closer settlements
and in relief farms and labour colonies ; further, in connection
with the Government's land settlement schemes, over a million
sterling has been advanced in irrigation loans, and £400,000 si)ent
in irrigation works, while there are 205 farms at present available
for settlement, which, together with new areas, provide sufficient
land for some 2,000 settlers.

An unfortunate aspect is that many of the poor whites are
practically unemployable, owing to want of education, absence of
energy and indifference, the inevitable result of their misforttme,

r'RESIDENT S ALDRESS. 3 I

and it is simply courting disaster to think of converting them into
prosperous settlers ; but it is t)ur duty to try to save the younger
generation.

The settlement of " poor whites " in connection with affores-
tation is in acti^'e operation at George and French Hoek, where
provision has been made for lOO and 150 cottages respectivelv.
the ultimate object being to provide for 400 families. In addition,
4,200 poor whites are reported to be working on the railways.

There is an observable tendency to regard every child as
a State asset, and to devote more attention to its well-being. At
the recent Conference at Capetown of the Child Welfare Com-
mittee, the Adayor of this town, Mr. Cltiver, who presided, made
an eloquent and forcible appeal to give children a better start
in life. In the Transvaal the parent has been relieved of many
parental functions. There we ha\-e free education and free
books, and at the larger centres we have school clinics, free
medical inspection, including free dentistry and s])ectacles when
required, and free meals in necessitous cases. There the matter
rests at present.

Reference may also be made to the juvenile Advisory Boards,
formed about two years ago in the various large towns of tlie
Union to watch the career of the lads after leaving school, and
in an advisory capacity assist them into useful em])loyment. But
those interested in this movement must realise that it is impossible
for every boy leaving school to be converted into a skilled crafts-
man. A great proportion must spend their lives in unskilled, or
rather semi-skilled work. Education, especially if made more
practical and suitable, is of primary importance ; but that alone
will not solve the problem of the poor white and of unemployment.
Greater opportunities of employment are essential; the mines,
existing industries, land settlement, afforestation, etc., are not
sufficient. South Africa now meets its own requirements in
Portland cement ; the position must be extended in all directions.
A demand must be created for the " factory hand," and this is
one of South Africa's greatest needs.

For the third time in succession the memljers of this Asso-
ciation meet in freedom and in comfort, notwithstanding the
most terrible and devastating war which the world has ever
known. Our good fortune is due. it is tmnecessary for me to
say, to our membership in the Great Common weath of Nations.
I wall not attempt to deal with after-war problems, but may be
permitted to quote the words of the British Premier in his speech
at the Guildhall, three months ago: "When, after the war, re-
construction begins, I hope, trust and pray that we are not going
to dive into the pigeon-holes of any party for dust-laden prece-
dents or programmes. Let us think out the best methods for
ourselves in face of the searching facts of which we knew nothing
before the war. We are a thousand years older and wiser since
the war. . . ." "And." he continued, " in no part of the
sphere of statesmanship is ihere greater need for revised ideas

G

32 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

than in onr attitudes towards the great Commonwealth of Na-
tions kncnvn as the British Empire, which in the past we have
treated as a glorious abstraction. . . . We have decided that
in future it is the business of the British and Dominion statesman
to knit the Empire with closer bonds and in the interest of trade,
commerce, business and general intercourse."

And we echo the words of our King, the Honorary President
of this Association, when he says : —

'' The value of the Empire lies not in the greatness of its
strength alone, but in the several contributions that each of its
diverse parts, with varying circumstances and conditions, makes
to one general stock of knowledge and progress."

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND GEOGRAPHY.

President of the Section — Prof. W. N. Roseveare, M.A.

MONDAY, JULY 2.

The President delivered the following address : —

Mathematical Analysis and Science.

We need not enter on a discussion of the meaning of
'■ Science " generally — ^I will ask you to think rather in our
every-day terms of " the Sciences." By a Science of any specified
kind— Astronomy, Chemistry, Botany — we mean, I suppose, the
systematic study of a group of facts and phenomena connected
by some link of similarity. The aim of the system of study
must be, as Mach says, " the completest possible presentment
of facts ivlth the least possible expenditure of thought." The
various Sciences, as we know them, seem to have a regular law
of development : first, the bare collection of facts which present
some likeness or common tendency ; then, after the sifting out
of extraneous matter, the cumulative evidence of this body of
facts to some laws, some links of cause and effect, which distin-
guish one body of facts from others; next, the discovery and
clear logical statement of the laws ; and finallx-, the creation of
a symbolic language b}- which these laws are expressed with the
utmost brevity and economy of thought. By means of this
specialized shorthand, efifects can be prophesied from a given set
of causes; the continued collection of facts {i.e., making of ex-
periments ) serves to check the results, to suggest new ideas
(needing new symbols), and to confirm or reject ideas arising,
n(^t from experience, but from suggestive grouping or develop-
ment of the accepted symbols. To my mind, this Science lan-
guage, in all its various forms, is mathematics ; or, at least, it is
the form into which mathematics has developed, and in which it
will continue to develo]). From this point of view mathematics is
not a Science in itself, in so far as it does not originate in phy-
sical facts. All its attributes are those of language — the lan-
guage in which the only verb form is " is equal to." Like other
languages, it lends itself to literary development — to the use
of words as words, of forms as forms : this may be regarded as
its artistic side — Pure Mathematics. This development is often
regarded by the eager Scientist as futile, as waste of ingenuity,
yet. historically and logically, this artistic work is of the greatest
service to the scientific branch ; ingenious a priori combinations
of symbols, worked out without any aim at ulterior representa-
tion of facts, have repeatedly been found useful and suggestive
in scientific applications. Gill's tale of the voluminous pure
mathematical author, Sylvester, who " thanked God he had

34 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — -SECTION A.

never written anything of any use to anyone," is well known
to many here ; on the other hand, it is generally accepted that
mathematics coined for a special physical purpose are as a rule
incomplete, and only find their full development in the hands
of the detached pure mathematician untrammelled by the phy-
sical ideas which originated the symbolism.

Mathematics as the language of Science is also exempt
from the limitations attaching to its himible origin from counting
and elementary arithmetic. It is not limited to quantitatwc sen-
tences ; its symbols need not always represent numeral adjectives
or ratios. In fact, arithmetic with its practical processes (that
will not parse) is only a 'branch of the subject — a specialized
interpretation of the symbols. The symbols may be used
mathematically to connect any two ideas which can be said to be
" equal " or " equivalent," to make any statement connecting
cause and effect. From this point of view the main line c^f
mathematics begins with the use of the unknown (|uantity, the
solution of our friends the problems " think of a number," etc.
I think it is arguable that the solution of any mathe-
matical equation, whether algebraic or differential, depends on
the reversion of simple processes — e.g., subtraction, division,
square root, integration. This general process may be well
illustrated by the card trick in which the words one, two, three,
etc., are spelt, a card being shifted from top to bottom at each
letter, and the appropriate card thrown out at the end of each
word. I believe this trick is usually done with 13 cards, which
are previously arranged by the use of a mnemonic. To bring oft"
the trick with the whole 52 cards of a pack seems difficult ; but
there is an easy way of arranging the pack by sinijjl}- reversing
the spelling- operation and burying a card at the end of each
word.

The first Science to com})lete the stages of evolution sketched
at the beginning of this address was Mechanics, including
Astronomy. Aristotle (384 B.C.), the accepted founder of
" Science " in our civilization, stiff ered the inevitable fate of the
pioneer : for want of accumulated facts and from a wish to pro-
duce results, he generalized too rapidly, so bequeathing to
thinkers, in addition to his grand fundamental rules of experi-
ment and classification of facts, a body of unscientific axioms
which (as is the way with the dicta of a conspicuous genius in
the hands of less capable posterity) became dogmas, and thereby
clogged the wheels of Science, and concealed facts which we,
with the glorious superiority of the inheritors of an accumu-
lated estate, consider almost obvious. Such axioms were : " A
heavy body falls faster than a light one," " Perfect motion is
circular," " Nature is symmetrical." In a like manner, even
Newton tmconsciously kept English thinkers back for a century
while continental mathematicians made great advances : and
to-day, after two centuries, we are seeing new theories (which
have already produced promising first-fruits) suggested by
doubts of some of the foundations of the Newtonian philosophy:

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 35

these have to take the risk of heresy. We know that in New-
ton's case this binding down of posterity was against all his
instincts. He claimed to confine himself exclusively to " actual
facts " ; he disliked and avoided " hypotheses " : yet in " Corol-
laries to the great laws,'' on which have l^een built all our
Exact Sciences, he dropped into unguarded statements on
" absolute time '" and " space " and " motion," which have, per-
haps, hitherto ke])t us out of the very middle of the current of
truth.

The Science of Mechanics is founded on the following
events: Copernicus, a. quiet monk from East Prussia (147310
1545), published arguments which very gradually convinced the
thinking world that the Earth was a planet and moved round
the Sun.

Kepler, of Wurtemberg (1571 to 1630), after a lifetime of
guessing in twilight at the laws of motion of the planets, dis-
covered that (contrary to all the accepted Aristotelian theories)
the planets moved in ellipses with the Sun at one focus (not in
circles) and obeyed two other laws.

Galileo (1564-1642), Professor of Mathematics at Pisa
and Padua, in 1609 invented the telescope, and later the micro-
scope. He had to face the Inf|uisition for his " heretical '' views
on the Earth's motion. (He was a devout Catholic: the heresy
was not against Christianity, but against the ])revailing Aristote-
lian philosophy). He had to retract; and, broken in health and
later blind, he retired to Arcetri and worked out the laws of
motion. He had used the famous leaning tower of Pisa to
denionstrate that all l)odies fall at the same rate, the resistance
of the air explaining apparent anomalies ; but the end of his
life he devoted to the scientific formulation of the laws accord-
ing to which motion takes place. It seems strange that such a
task should be found undone at such a late date in civilization;
hut we must remember that printing only dates from 1455, that
the Arabic notations in arithmetic was not established in Europe
before 1300. and symbolical algebra not before 1600. (Galileo's;
greatest feat consisted in grasping and enunciating the law of
inertia — that the normal state of a free body is permanent
motion in a straight line with tmiform velocity. This was the
generalized result of his proof by means of inclined planes that
the velocity of a falling body is proportional to its time of falling,
and that in conseciuence the distance fallen is proportional to
the square of the time. He obtained this law with the help of
an informal axiom that a body canot be made, by moving down
and up inclined planes, to rise higher than its starting point.

Nezvton (not improbably "the finest intellect in history")
was lx)rn in the year of (ialileo's death (1642) ; he completed the
work begun by (jalileo by establishing the laws of motion in the
form in which we know them to-day. and bv them deduced
from Kei^ler's astronomical data the true motion of the solar
system and the law- of gravitation. But between Galileo and him
come two men to whom the Science of Mechanics owes much —

3^ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOiN A.

Descartes, of Brittany (1596-1650), and Huyghens, of the Ha.iiue
(1629-1695). Descartes considered that one of the chief ends
of philosophy was the complete mechanical explanation of
nature : and he was sanguine of being able to achieve his end.
He reasoned that all space must be occupied by matter imper-
ceptible to the senses, but a necessary vehicle for force and ligiit.
In the absence of experimental data, he could only reach his
ambition by generalizing on insufficient facts. If Newton's less
ambitious but more accurate work had not within 50 years cor-
rected Descarte's dreams, these might well have led Science
astray. Yet Descartes' theories on a space dominated b\- sys-
tems of vortices were the foundation of the cctlier on which the
chief modern developments have been built, and his happy intro-
duction into geometry of co-ordinates for expressing algebraically
the position of a point is essential to all accurate consideration
of space relations. Huyghens was the author of the wave theory
of light which Newton could not accept, but which is now fullv
established. Huygens also first perceived the principle of the
Conservation of Energy, which has become a most i)owerfui
weapon for dealing mathematically with the mysteries of physics.
This great principle, which has been (erroneously) c|uoted as a
greater triumph than the law of gravitation itself, is a striking
instance of the debt ofphysics to mathematics. Galileo obtained
the two well-known equations connecting velocity. dis])lacement
and time (v = ft and 5 = /4/i"). Now the elimination of t be-
tween these two equations is a step of the purest mathematics —
a step (juite independent of any physical meaning in the symbols.
The result i'- = 2 fs is born without a shred of physical meaning,
and from it follows, by adding the idea of mass, the following-
general result: " The increase in the value of ^ mass, (vel)- is
ecjual to the product of a force into the distance through which
it acts." Now this jumble of words has. to the non-mathematical
minil, or to the uninitiated, no conceivable bearing on practical
affairs. But we have a simple way of deceiving our non-
matliematical critics, and gaining their support to our conclusions.
We call a lump of symbols like " }/> mass, (z'el)-" and "force
X distance " by sweet-smelling words. Some genius i:)ro]xised
to call ^ mass. (z'el)~ "energy," and force X distance "work
done." Our equation then reads, " The ^'ain of (kinetic) energy
is equal to the work done (in any mechanical system)." Every-
one now agrees that this is intelligible, especially if he realizes
that " energy " means " the power of doing work." If words
less fascinating than " energy " and " work," such as " logar-
ithm," " momentum." " ergal," " entropy." had been coined, the
plain man would have kept aloof : and his mildest criticism
would have been, " You are talking in technical language : I can-
not follow vou." Now " energy " and " work " are as arbitrary
translations of the symbols, and as technical, as any of those I
have instanced. The " talking philosopher " has no more right
to appropriate this " equation of energy " as a " world law "
than the Binomial Theorem or other purely technical mathe-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 3/

matical result. The principle of the Conservation of Energy
means nothing more nor less than the equation of which it is a
happy translation : moreover, it establishes no reliable proposition
outside systems which are known to obey the elementary laws
of motion — i.e., the domain of the mechanical sciences. The
law seems often to be c|uoted by serious men as if it proved, " If
you do enough thinking (logically or illogically), you will reach
some \aluable result;" "if you talk persistently enough
you will get }Our way in the end." This question
of words suggests that the use of " logarithms " would
be much wider spread, and they woidd be much easier
to learn, if they had been called what they are, " in-
dices of ten." The choice of words makes, of course, little
difference to the ex])ert who has the idea safe : but the student
and the public suffer much from unnecessary technicality. Of
course, there is another point of view. If Galileo, in his tenta-
tive shots at the true laws of motion, had fixed his attention (as
]>ossibly Huyghens did) on the velocity acquired after a certain
distance fallen, instead of after a certain time, he would have
obtained " velocity varies as square root of distance," instead of
" velocity varies as time," and our energy equation would not
have appeared as secondary. But there is a wider view — that
the entity which the historic development of the subject has hit
on more or less accidentally, and which it has called " energy,"
is more "real," more fundamental, than the " mass " and
" acceleration " by which we have approached it. Thus, the whole
of dynamics in the case of one " degree of freedom " may be
foimded on what is, in the orthodox scheme, a derived proposi-
tion— viz., that in all motion a certain something, which we may
as well call " energy " (including now both ' kinetic " and
** potential "j, is constant. This simple statement does not
suffice when there is more than one " degree of freedom " : but
the " energy " can in this case be made the foundation of the
treatment necessary for the solution.

This use of energy represents, on the one hand, the modern
development of the Newtonian philosophy, and on the other a
certain desire to get beyond Newton. Newton's system has not
succeeded in explaining all the phenomena ; and recently the
conviction has grown that something more — or different — is
needed : a few accepted facts seem, after much patient work,
to be irreconcilable with the principles of that system. I will
venture to show shortly how Newton's scheme for two centuries
succeeded in explaining phenomenon after phenomenon, until
thinkers 'became confident that no new theory would be neces-
sary— that the Newtonian laws would ultimately explain every
fact in the universe. This confidence has only been shaken
within the last 40 years; it has at last seemed possible to prove
that one or two phenomena were distinctly contrary to those
laws.

Isaac Nc7vto)i (1642 to 1727), Professor of Mathematics at

3^ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

Cambridge, took up Galileo's work and first developed the laws
of motion, which he enunciated (in substance) as: —

1. (The law of inertia). A body moves in a straight line

with constant velocity unless interfered with.

2. The "change of quantity of motion " (mass X velocity)

varies as the " force " applied. [This law has been
changed by later thinkers to '" the rate of change

3. Action and reaction are equal and o])posite.

In these simple laws was embodied much original thought:
we have been educated on such lines that they seem to us straight-
forward and to a great extent obvious. But (i), the word
" mass " connotes a new idea, which the Iniman mind had not
grasi)ed before — this idea is entirely Newtonian. It implies that,
apart from ivcight ( wlu'ch is an old idea — iM-ehistoric). a bod}'
has a certain iinariablc property implied bv the words " (quantity
of stuff " or " matter." which has primarily nothing to do with
weight; the idea in Newton's mind seems to have been almost
as crudely objective as this: that matter consists of units of
stuff — "molecules," "atoms." if vou will — which are indivisible:
and bodies only differ from one another for motion purposes by
consisting of dift'erent numl)ers of these units, so that "ob-
viously" (dangerous word) each body has a "quantity of motion"
— say, 1,000 units moving each with 5 units of velocity implying
5 oco times as much motion as one unit moving with unit velocity.
Just as 1. 000 subscribers of £5 each may be regarded as 5.000
unit subscribers, or 1,000 men putting in 5 hours' work ^ 5,000
hours' work. This idea has 'become a commonplace to our civili-
zation ; but it is not fundamentally above criticism — it is one
I^K)int on which revolt is possible in the new era — as. for instance,
when the development of thought on the all-pervading" aether "
has led to the statement, " The mass of an electron must be re-
garded as wholly electric."

The second word and idea that attracts attention is " force."
The second law can be regarded as a definition of the word
" force " — i.e.. force is that asoect of the cause of motion which
reveals itself in the amount of the deviation from uniform velo-
city in a straight line. We can quite well build up a complete
system on this definition, resolvine to ignore all the ideas attach-
ins". before Newton's time, to the word force, ignoring our muscu-
lar sensations. In acquirin(? or in teaching^ the orthodox Science
of Mechanics, and. I imagine also, in other Sciences, the process
seems to consist largely of sifting out a ijreat mass of pre-
conceived ideas and choosin.e a mere thread of them as forming
the true conceotion. the rest being- expected to conform with this
scheme or being- rejected as illusions. Indeed, is not this the
essence of the idea of " Science "? and is not the aim of mathe-
matical treatment to get away from " common-sense " and the
senses senerallv on to a more trnstworthv olane of abstract,
abrost superhunian, reasoning? But in his third h.w and in the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 39

all-important corollary to his second law — that forces are iiidc-
pendent, do not interfere with one another when acting simul-
taneously— Newton seems to utilize our preconceptions of the
word " force."

The third law. which means, in plain language, that " the
intiuence experienced by A owing to the presence of B, is always
equal in amotmt, and opposite in direction to that ex])erienced
by B, owing to the presence of A," contains more material for
thought and even doubt than seems to be allowed for by the
best commentators. Mach says that this law is redundant, and
should be included tacitly in a definition of mass (which appar-
ently he would foiuid on an instinctive concejrtion of force).
This great assumjition is at the foundation of all Newtonian
reasoning, and is not, in the new schemes of Relativity and the
Quantum Theory, to be kept inviolate. It is not true of personal
emotions, as we know well. Is it inconceivable that the sun
should " attract "' the earth while the earth is passive towards
the sun ?

A third fundamental idea in the laws (and this is the side
on which they are regarded as vulnera'ble by the priests of Rela-
tivity ) is the tacit assumption of an absolute space and time in
the background — an absolute framework of reference. The
great second law, on which is founded the mass of analysis which
has borne the fruit of all our mechanical knowledge — our astrono-
mical basis of time and sjjace, our engineering, oiu- means of
transport, our electricity of all kinds, all our machinery, and
also our high explosives and half unsuspected powers of de-
struction— depends only on relative velocities ; for most of these
results the motion of the earth is of no account ; and for all, the
motion of the " universe " of heavenly bodies round us is negli-
gible : but in the more intimate probing into nature — into the
properties of a:ther, hght, gravitation — men have come right uj)
against this tacit assumj:)tion of an absolute frame of reference,
a conceivable origin and axes of space and time ; and some deci-
sion has to be made.

But to complete (uu- analysis of the history of the Newtonian
Ijhilosophy which, seldom though we realize it, represents much
of our present-day intellectual environment: is the ccther. we may
>;ay. of our accepted facts —

Newton, by what to-day seems the simplest possible sequence
of a few propositions, deduced from his laws a complete ex-
])lanation of the motion of the solar system. The riddle of the
ages, which Kei^ler had focussed so neatly, Newton was able
to answer in a few words— the sun attracts all the planets with
a force varying as the mass of each planet, and inversely as the
square of its distance : and the same is true of the planets and
their moons.

Hence, without nuich difficulty, the generalized Law of
("iravitation : " E\ery material particle in the universe attracts
every other material particle with a force varying as their two
masses and inversely as the s(|uare of their distance."

40 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

Why is this the great achievement of human thought 'f
Because it has been found to be true — i.e., every theoretical resuh
o'btained by logical deduction from it has " come off," has been
confirmed by experiment : as the telescopes, the micrometers and
the spectroscopes have increased in accuracy, every observation
has been found to converge to the results prophesied by the
Newtonian reasoning. The planet Neptune (undreamt of
before) was found where theory, w^orking on otherwise un-
accounted-for motions of Uranus, said it should be. Halley's
comet returned duly after 75 years, as theory jjrophesied it
w^ould: corrections in the time of its return in lyio which al-
lowed, by Newton's laws, for the delaying influences of Jupiter
and other todies, were confirmed by facts. Great bridges, dams,
warships, railways, bicycles, motor-cars, electric cal)les, wireless
telegraphy, and all the rest, have in practice done exactly what
Newton's laws led us to expect. We can safely put our money
on these laws. But there are exceptions. The elli])tic orbit
of Mercury changes its position with reference to the sun much
more rapidly than theory leads us to expect ; light, in passing
through crystals, seems strangely indifferent to the earth's mo-
tion ; and the phenomena of radiation and radio-activity are
not in harmony with the scheme that our theory has established
for aether-matter relations. Some reliable physicists have come
to the conclusion that some or all of these exceptions are finally
irreconcilable with Newtonian philosophy ; others do not yet
despair of reconciling them to the system ; but the heterodox
view is gaining ground.

In our reverence for our intellectual father Newton, we
may as well recognize that he had luck. Descartes' system, or the
Astrologers', or the Aristotelian, might ha\e been right : but they
were unfortunate in finding facts ultimately across their lines
of develo])ment instead of parallel to them.

The history of mechanics since Newton and Leibnitz died
may be practically summed up as the automatic working of the
machinery of " the Calculus " on Newton's laws. Poisson,
D'Alembert, Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, Legendle, (iaviss. Young,
Fresnel, Faraday, Stokes, Helmholtz. Thomson, Maxwell, and
the rest of the host, have been as poets speaking the language
of the calculus, and laying bare, not the passing passions and
emotions of humanity, but the secrets of nature, the founda-
tions of the universe.

One great name is absent from my list — that of Faraday.
He deserves mention by himself. His experimental and intel-
lectual work on electricity were marvellous, and give him rank as
one of the very greatest physicists; but he had no leanings
towards mathematics, and preferred thinking in " tubes and
lines of force," which he visualized as filling his space, to the
standard " potentials '' and energy functions. A striking tribute
to his ])owers has been recently paid by J. J. Thomson, who, able
mathematician as he is. has chosen in some of his work to recur
to Faradav's tube-of-force form of reasoning.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 4I

To mention one other fruitful idea contained in Newton's
Corollaries to his Laws — the misnamed " parallelogram " of
forces. This everyday j)rinci])le of mechanics is an immediate
deduction from the principle of the iiidcpouioicc of forces acting
simultaneously, and attempts to establish it on purely statical
principles are unsatisfactory. We realize it nowadays as having
its origin deeper even than the laws of force: it is the law of
addition of " vectors '" — that is, if AB, BC represent any two
" directed " quantities — any two similar conce])ts involving only
magnitude and direction in space — then the two combined (added
in the simplest sense) are rei)resented by the short-cut AC.

One word on the Calculus. Up to Newton's time, mathe-
matical analysis, such as it was — i.e., symbolical arithmetic and
algebra — lacked an essential qualilication for a language of
Science: it was essentially discrete; coiifiiiiilfx was inexpressible
by means of it. It has been aptly suggested that the Greeks,
subtle, powerful intellects as they were, expressed their clearest,
most scientific reasoning wholly in geometry ( leaving " analysis "
to be devised by the Hindoos and .\rabs), because of this lack
of continuity in analytical language. They loved numbers on
their own account, but as a separate subject of thought, uncon-
nected with space and time. When Newton, with that character-
istic reluctance of the highest minds to publicity, ultimately
consented to give his ideas to the world, he chose to present
it in the old Greek geometrical form, with all the beauty of a
complete picture, as contrasted with the business-like methods of
a tape machine. Yet it is sujjposed that he obtained his results
more as we do now, by the use_ of Descartes' co-ordinates and
the methods of the Calculus, which he himself invented. Thi^
preference of Newton's for geometrical presentation 'had a
curious result. His disciples in England clung to his prejudice :
and so, though possessing fine intellects like Maclaurin, had
little influence on the progress of Science, while Lagrange.
Laplace and Legendre, the great French trio, and Euler and
Gauss, filled a whole century with masterpieces of efifective
reasoning on the applications of the Law of Gravitation to the
solar system and the wider universe of matter.

The dominating idea of the Laws of Motion is " rate of
change." No one following this reasoning can fail to feel the
need of some simple symbolism to express this idea. Newton
did it by placing a dot over the symbol that expressed the chang-
ing thing; but he seems to have tised it only in a mechanical
.sense for change in time. Leibnitz, who invented the system
independently, seems to have approached it mathematically and
purely symbolically, with no special reference to time ; he and
his followers applied the idea to every mathematical expression
in their vocabulary — to every conceivable fuuction, as we say^ —
and so built up a mass of results, which were essential when
the mechanical reasoning took, as it must, the form of differen-
tial e(|uations needing the inverse process for their solution.

It has l)een said that " Nature expresses herself in differen-

42 I'RKSIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

tial c([uations : the details of human experience siippHes the
C(~)ns.tants."

'I^he only details of the develojjnient of the Calculus which
J will refer to in connection with Science are : —

(i.) The Potential. — A great many of the vectors (or
directed quantities)— forces, velocities, etc. — that crop up so
inevitabl\- in mechanical problems, were noticed to have one
strikin*;' (juality — the three components in space were the rates
of change in their directions of some mathematical expression
or function ; as the flow of heat in any direction depends on the
change in the direction of the ])oint of the stun of the mass of
every element of the attracting body divided b\- its distance
from the point. In general, the force exerted by any system
in an}- direction is the " gradient " or rate of change in that
direction of the potential energy. This quantity was happily
named by Green (a self-educated Nottingham miller) in 1828
the " potential " of the system. In every branch of Science it is
our most effective wea]ion of attack, and the equation

^ ^ V ^ ^ \^ ^ ^ V

K — r, 4- 7r-7, + K — 7i — 4 -rrp. connecting this ix>tential (V)
b x- 0 y o z-'

with the density (p) of matter electricity or heat, seems often
to sum up the position completely. This equation is due to
Laplace and Poisson.

(ii.) There are three purely mathematical propositions
known by the names of their discoverers, Stokes, (iauss, and
Green. Stokes' connects the value of a quantity round any closed
circuit with its value over any caf> having the circuit for boundary.
That of Gauss connects in the same way the values over a closed
surface with the values throughout the interior, and Green's
gives the value at any outside }X3int in terms of the values on
the surface and inside. These theorems make many experi-
mental results of apparent complexity mere logical consequences
of simpler facts. Though fairly complex in their origin, and far
removed from the intuitions of common sense, they are practi-
cally properties of geometrical space.

One cannot omit among the debts of science to mathematics
a theorem established by P'ourier in connection with the
theory of heat. From what is essentially nothing more
than an identity in elementary trigonometry. Fourier
evolved simply a formula, whose physical meaning is, that any
oscillatory or periodic motion consists of a series of simple wa^•e
motions whose periods are the submultiples of the main
period. In short, it extends the idea of " harmonics," .so familiar
to musicians, to all cases of j^eriodic motion. The well-known
principles of physical reasoning known as Conser^'ation of Angu-
lar Momentum, Conservation of Energy, Principle of Least
Action, D'Alembert's Princi])le, are only convenient summaries
of Newton's Laws, each, as it were, a sort of railhead in which
a host of results are summarized, and from which attacks on
new ])n)blems can -tart with cct.nomy of time and thioufjht. But,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 43

on the other hand, they may >onietimes bo regarded as expressing
physical truths whicli are more rea) and fundamental than the
simple princii)les from which they have been formed.

I pass now to what I fear must be a very incomplete sketch
ot the new " principle of relativity/" which is a theory of
mechanics ba>ed on ideas nor consistent with some of Xewton's
theory. We must hrst consider the growth of the modern con-
ceptic^n of an " sether " tilling al^ space. * lalileo suspected, and
tried to tind, a finite \elocity for light. Roemer ( 1644 to 1710),
followed 1)}- Bradlex- ( 169J to 1702J. by observations on the
eclipses of Jujnter's satellites, obtained a value accepted to-day
after a long series of laboratory and astronomical experiments
— 186.000 miles a second, or 3.10'' cm. per second.
Huyghens suggested the wave theory of light. Newton
rejected this on the ground of two or three definite
conflicts with experiment. He could not decide on anv satisfac-
tory theory, but suggested as i)ossible a certain scheme of semi-
material " Corpuscles " shot out by the sun and by everv other
source of light. This corjniscular theory, backed hv some ac-
cordance with Descartes' theory of a space ])lenum, wa-^ elabor-
ated and stereotyped b\' New-ton'< disciples. The wave theory
was ultimately established by the phenomena of " diffraction "
and "interference" (the haziness of the edges of shadows — the
corpuscular theory w^ould require clean-cut shadow edges ) ; and
by 1800 Young's and Fresnel's work had convinced the scientific
world that light was propagated by means of vibrations in the
front of a s])herical w'ave with the source as centre, the radius
as the "ray." and the vilirations in the tano'ent plane: colours
being vibrations of different period — the red (and heat) rays
of long ]>eriod, the blue, \iolet and chemical rays short : all
analogous to the theory of sound. excei)t that the vibrations must
be transverse (at right angles) to the ray. This sj^herical w^ave
was modified in a material medium into an ellipsoid. But this
theory, while ultimately ex])laining completely such phenomena
as reflection, refraction, i^olarization. diffraction, and disi)ersion,
involved thinkers in a big difficulty — the conception of some
medium which should con\ ey such vibrations through space.
The medium could not be fluid, because the vibrations were trans-
verse, needing some kind of friction between adjacent portions.
^luch labour was spent on the study of the mathematics of solid
and semi-solid elastic bodies which might satisfv the needs of
the " cether."

A serious difficulty w-as the interaction of rether and matter:
experiment clearly proved that the rether must penetrate matter;
matter must in some wa\- consist of stufl' (presumably
particles) differentiated in some j^ermanent way from the
lether foundation. -\nv such conce|)tion implies disconiinidty ;
and the wdiole body of mechanical science, with its indubitably
correct results, has been built up on the mathematics of con-
tinuitv. The theory of electricitv and magnetism, which
had more slowlv reached the sta<>e of mathematical treat-

44 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

ment, was found to ncetl this same <ether as a vehicle of trans-
mission. At length Clefk Maxwell (1831-1879), an exceptional
mathematician and experimenter combined, finally summed up
a mass of subtle work (of which Faraday's was chief) by
])roving that light consists of a comljination of electrical and
magnetic vibrations in the c'ether, the electric vibration Ijeing at
rig'ht angles to the magnetic. To explain this state of affairs
physically he had to de\ise an iether consisting of rotating tubes
(sort of vortices) conAexing the magnetic disturbance, surroimded
by particles, which are displaced by the tubular rotations, and
so give rise to electric currents, the resulting strain producing
electrostatic ])henomena. These conclusions rest on a set of fairly
simple differential equatirins, which describe the electro-magnetic
state of the aether.

Maxwell's model has not carried conviction, and has been
variously modified by later thinkers, the last form ]>eing known
as the electron theory, an electron l)eing a minute something
charged with electricit}-, sometimes bound up in the constitution
of the atoms of matter, sometimes conveying its charges through
matter* Lord Kehin, whose mathematical and experimental
genius threw light on every branch of physical science during
his long and strenuous life i 1824 to 1908), made many attempts
at a " model " of the fether, and at the end of his life confessed
to the unsatisfactory results of everyone's efforts, adding: " I
fear the electro-magnetic theory does not help us much." How-
ever, more recentlv Hertz confirmed Maxwell's theorv bv effect-
ing the reflection and refraction of electric and magnetic waves
experimentally, and showed that these waves obey the laws of
light in these resi)ects, and in interference, and in other respects :
so that to-day, though Maxwell's " model " is not considered to
represent the actual state of the aether, his ec|uations are accepted
universally. But one (|uestion has continually eluded discovery :
Does a mo\ ing body move relative to the c'ether, or does it carry
the ?ether with it in its course? Every experiment which is
exj)ected to show motion of the earth, e.g., relative to the aether,
gives a )iuU result; and yet theory seems to need such relative
motion. Three crucial experiments nill show the state of affairs,
and will introduce the new Principle of Relativity: —

E.vp. I. — Arago (1818) deduced from theory that since the
deviation of a ray of light by a prism depends on the ratio of
the velocity of light in space to its velocity in the material of
the ])rism, any motion of the prism ought to betray itself bv a
change of angle well within his powers of measurement. The
experiment showed no change whatever. Arago concluded that
the aether was dragged along by the earth. Fresnel showed that
there was another inter|)retation of the null result, viz., the prism
might carry the sether with it partially (so as to i)reserve the

*■' An election may be treated dynamically as a ri«id body : it?
motion of translation is electricity, and its rotatory motions arc nia',;-
netism."

PKESrDENTlAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 45

i^reater density of sther in its material). In definite figures
this would require the velocity of light in the i)rism to be in-
creased by V (1 M owing to the prism's velocity z' in the

direction of the light.

Exp. 2. — In 1 85 1, Fizeau tested Fresnel's explanation in
the following way. He passed part of a ray of light through one
of two parallel tubes of water; then reflected it back through the
other tube: another part of the ray was made to follow the
opposite course. Interference effects were produced.
He now gave the water in the tu'bes a velocity v, so
as to be against the one part of the ray and with the other. He
found a distinct change in the interference effects ; and hii
measurements showed that the effect of the velocity z' on the
velocity of the light in water agreed exactly with Fresnel's

theoretical result, z' ( i -)■

This result of Fizeau's, with the discovery of the alteration
of light by Bradley, seemed to ])oint definitely to the theory
of the c'ether iiot moving: matter must UKne through if and if
through uiaffcr, freely.

Exp. 3. — But in 1887, Michel>en and (with refinements)
Morley designed an experiment which should show the velocit}^
of the earth relation to the ?ether to the second order of the small
fraction z'/( velocity of light) (Fizeau's would only work to the
first order). By means of moving mirrors from which a ray of
light is reflected, a velocity of the earth relative to the sether
should betray itself in interference elTtects. if it is as great as
one-tenth of the earth's velocity in its orbit. The result of the
experiment was " no trace of any such effect " ; and repetition of
the experiment with modified ajiijarattis and greater refinement
in 1005 confirmed this "result.

Tluis the (unpalatable) fact of no relative motion of aether
and earth seemed to be established. Flowever, an alternative
explanation was (as usual) f(M-thcoming : an Irish physicist,
Fitzgerald, pointed out that the null result might implv (not a
stagnant ccther but ) a physical change in the apparatus due to the
motion : a contraction in the ratio V (i — v^ /c-)* in the direction
of motion would do. The conditions of the experiment showed
that this efl:'ect must be the same for all materials. In_ 189c;,
H. A. Lorentz. of Leyden (who, with our Larmor and Einstein
of Leipzig, is in the forefront of modern discussions of aether
and matter") hit independently on Fitzgerald's idea. He (and
Larmor subsequently to second order effects) working on the
electron theorv. of which Maxwell's electro-magnetic equations
are an accepted part, established the following results: (i.) If
the equations are satisfied by one system of electric charges at
rest in the ^ther, they are enually well satisfied bv a second
system of electric changes all moving with velocity v, pro-

*r = velocity of body, f = velocity of light.

4^ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION . A.

vided that all distances in the direction of r are supposed to
contract in the ratio V (i — v /€■"). (iij it this system at rest
is a material body, the second or moving system is a Dody moving
with velocity ( — v), whose bulk is that ot the tirst body modihed
by the above contraction.

1 lie logical conclusion is that if a body is (gradually) set
in motion trom rest m the aether, this " l^itzgerald contraction '
will take place automatically. The Newtonian *' rigid body ' is
not even approximately realized in nature, except when the
velocities are very small compared with that of light.

Experiments by Lord Rayleigh and by Brace, to see whether
such contraction caused, as would be expected, double refraction
of rays of light, gave no trace of such effect. Therefore the
contraction theory must assume other modifications to netitralize
optical effects. Other experiments on electrical and mechanical
■ lines also failed to give expected results of this contraction.

The problem became more and more involved.

At this stage Einstein suggested the " Principle of Rela-
tivity " as a new theory oi motion explaining these accumulated
difficulties.

In its first simple form it pustulated as a new fundamental
principle of physical reasoning that the velocity of light must
be equal and constant in all directions (in free rether) when
expressed by means of any of the infinite number of si)ace and
time frameworks between wiiich Newton's laws and experiment
have failed to distinguish. The main efifect of this new view
is to lead us to expect phenomena to be all relative to the
observer: the path of the same ray of light may be accurately
described by one oliserver as straight, by another (employing a
different framework) as circular. " Simultaneous " occurrences
at two places cannot be regarded as a simple conception ; nor can
the length of a material l)ody ; and, strangest result of all. ijravi-
tatioii. as the phenomenon which is independent of all physical
conditions (except what we call mass), api)ears inevitably in the
analysis as a mere attribute of space-time represented l)y the co-
efficients which specify the framework of the equations, and
which vary with the system of co-ordinates used. Our old
co-ordinates x, y, c, t of space and time become four independent
co-ordinates on efjual footing : and we work as for a four
dimensional space.

The mathematical theory for the simple case of uniform
velocity of the framework in a straight line was soon effected
in beautiful form by Minkowski, who introduces two forms of
"vectors" ( " 4-vector " and "6-vector"). the former corres-
ponding to the projections of a " straight line " on the four
axes, the latter to the projections of a " surface " on the six
axial planes. All, expressions that do not vary with a change
of co-ordinates are expressible in one of these forms. Einstein's
later developments have extended the Principle so that it postu-
lates that all laws of nature (not the velocity of light only) must
be " invariant " when the framework in 4-dimension space is

I'RESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 47

changed. It has been shown that all " confornial " transforma-
tions in Minkowski's four dimensional space-time leave the forms
of the accepted electro-magnetic equations unchanged — i.e., these
equations take a [Minkowski vector form.

At the end of 1915 Einstein completed his generalized
*' Relativity " work on the theory of gravitation. The old New-
tonian equations are greatly modified by the introduction of
factors involving the ratio z'/c. " Mass "' is no longer
simple. There is " rest mass " and " motion mass." The mathe-
matical work tends to be very complicated, being effected by
the theory of tensors (generalized vectors).

Newton's simple results appear as a first approximation :
fortunately, the effects of the next order of approximation on
the main results of solar system work is infinitesimal, except in
the one outstanding discrepancy — the acceleration of 43 seconds
per century in the orbit of ^lercury. The new theory accounts
completely for this phenomenon, which has been inexplicable
on the old theory. " Relativists " ( who are treated now with
much respect owing to their success in solving- this and other
hitherto " insoluble '' ]>roblems) claim that their theory will do
away with the theoretical necessity of an aether, and that " hence-
forth space and time will be reduced to mere shadows, and only
a sort of union of the tw'o will retain reality." The new light
on things has been com])ared to the enlightenment of dwellers on
a cloudy planet, from which the stars are invisible, by their
reaching- a conception of the rotation of their framework (the
planet), hitherto unsuspected.

Einstein's results may he summarized thus : Gravitation
appears in our mathematical work merely as conditioning the
framework: hence the elfect of a strong gravitational field is
equivalent to a change of co-ordinates (polar for Cartesian,
moving axes for fixed, etc. ) : hence in a str.ong gravitational
field light will appear not to travel in a straight line ; moreover,
light vibrations will be affected; the spectrum will be shifted to-
wards the red. These last two definite results can be tested by
observations. No opportunity of a crucial test has yet presented
itself; but at the next total eclipse (May 29, 1919) faint stars
will be photographed near the sun ; if Einstein is right these will
seem to be displaced as much as 1.7" from their usual positions
owing to their proximity to the sun. Thus the eclipse will
receive from physicists an attention even keener than usual ;
instead of interesting details as to the comi>ositi.)n of the sun,
the corona, the prominences, etc., the fate of a new intellectual
theory, a philosophical push towards Truth, the most ambi-
tiotis and promising since Newton, will be in the balance.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
ML\ERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President of the Section. — Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D.

TUESDAY, JULY 2>.

The President delivered the following addre.ss : —

Phytochemical Research.

The need for the chemical and physiological investigation
of the toxic and medicinal indigenous plants of South Africa has
been the subject of many papers and addresses during the last
two decades. These publications, by the late Prof. MacOwan,
by Dr. Juritz, Prof. Marloth, and others, so eloquently review
, the present position of the subject, and so ably marshal the
arguments in favour of undertaking such work, that I can add
nothing new. It might be well, however, to emphasise again the
fact that many thousands of head of stock succumb annually in
consequence of eating poisonous plants, and that in dozens of
cases of poisoning or suspected poisoning by plants, malicious or
unintentional, the Public Prosecutor either declines to take action,
or the accused is acquitted for lack of evidence of the toxic
nature of the plant or extract administered. Figures are, unfor-
tunately, not available at all, or not sufficiently accessible to the
])ublic. If statistics were collected, and if the widest publicity
were given through the medium of newspaper articles and lec-
tures, public interest might be aroused and a public opinion
created in connection with the question of scientific investiga-
tion. Much of our backwardness in the matter of scientific pro-
gress is due to the prevalent idea that research is only the hobby
of a few cranks. The recent decision of the Government to
afford official support and recognition to research, and to take
steps to ]>r(>mote the industrial development of the country,
again lends an enhanced interest to this problem, among many
others, and I have selected this subject for my address because
I feel that the time may now be opportune for making a few
positive suggestions as to how it may be successfully tackled, and
to point out the obstacles which beset the path of the investi-
gator who is thrown entirely upon his own resources. Fortu-
nately, much can be done with existing institutions, laboratories,
etc. ; an elaborate organisation, although desirable for the future.
is not necessary to make a beginning.

Much of the work done hitherto has been carried out by the
Imperial Institute. As the Dominions Royal Commission in its
recent report recommends that the research functions of the
Imperial Institute be limited to work for India, the Crown
Colonies, and the Protectorates, and that the Dominions should
concentrate on the development of their own research institu-
tions, it becomes incumbent upon us to take over responsibility,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 49

and that without delay. But even if the recommendations of the
Commission are not jjiven effect to, it should not be consistent
with our national pride as South Africans to let others do the
work and l)e content to reap the benefits. Moreover, even if we
are prepared to send the material overseas, the difficulty arises
that its constituents may undergo change in transit. Some plants
which are injurious when fresh produce no deleterious effects
when dried; e.g., feeding experiments have shown that Crota-
laria bnrkeana, the cause of stiff-sickness in cattle, produces the
disease only when fed in the fresh state.

The first step is the co-ordination of effort of those who
are actively interested in the problem. A considerable amount
of work is being done, and has been done, b}- individual effort,
but most of it is of an incomplete and unsystematic nature, and
naturally so, for the work involves the co-operation of the
botanist, the chemist, the medical man, the veterinary surgeon,
the farmer and the student of native laws and customs. There
are at least tw^enty men in the country whose names could be
mentioned in connection with work done in different directions
on the question of indigenous plants. For an individual with-
I Hit official status the problem of putting into eff'ect some efficient
scheme of co-operation involves insuperable difficulties. The
necessary correspondence absorbs far too much time, and there
is likely, moreover, to be a suspicion that he may want to exploit
his collaborators for his own ends. Only a recognised body can
properly arrange the distriljution of the work, and be a guarantee
that every collaborator gets his due share of the kudos.

A census of the work already accomplished "and the work
still to be done is a comparatively simple matter. Several com-
prehensive publications on the subject already exist, which I
attach at the end of my paper. I have made a systematic extract
of the majority of the stray references distributed through the
different agricultural journals of the Provinces of the Union,
and through other periodicals. The greater part of the w^ork
under this subhead would be the collecting and verifying of
hitherto unpublished information. There are hundreds of Dutch
and native remedies still unrecorded. The case of native medi-
cines in j^articular offers a wide field for the collector. We have
a fair amount of knowledge of the herbs used by the Zulus,
thanks to the labours of the Rev. A. T. Bryant, and many of
the plants used by the natives of the Eastern Province are in-
corporated in Andrew Smith's " South African Materia Medica,"
and the Annual Reports of Dr. Juritz, Senior Government
Analyst of the Cape Colony. But nothing has, to my knowledge,
been printed about the medicinal herbs used by the natives of
Basutoland and of Rhodesia.*

Evervlx)dy doing research work in this country is sadly
handicapped by the lack of reference literature. I have fre-

* After completing this paper T was informed that some notes on the
medicinal plants of Basutoland, by Dr. E. P. Phillips, will shortly be pub-
lished in the Annals of the South African Museum.

50 PKESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION I!.

quently been obliged to defer the continuation of or abandon an
investigation for lack of the relevant literature. There are. 't
is true, a large number of periodicals in the possession oif differ-
ent institutions and private individuals in the country, ibut to the
individual worker they are, to all intents and juirposes, inacces-
sible. Few people would care to entail the trouble and expense
involved in sending a large number of big volumes about, often
for the sake of a reference of a few lines. And few owners
would care to part with such books of reference, which are
often in constant use, for any length of time. I have made a
compilation from a large number of phytochemical publication^
of the periodicals most frequently referred to, which I append.
If 'funds are available for the purpose, those periodicals, dating
back, if possible, to their inception, should be incorporated in a
central library. I am discussing only the research in plant con-
stituents. When the question of making provision for physico-
chemical or mineralogical or technological research arises, the
list will 'have to be augmented. To make these periodicals avail-
able for every research chemist a librarian would have to be
appointed, with a chemical training and the necessary working
knowledge of the principal European languages, whose duty it
would be to make excerpts for all research workers desiring in-
formation on certain points. It may be argued that such a
scheme, if carried through for all experimental sciences, will
entail the necessity of appointing a large library staff. But the
actual amount of work required for each science will, for many
years to come, be so small that one man, provided he is properly
{|ualified, can cope with several subjects. Even if such a scheme
should be considered feasible, some considerable time must elapse
before it can be realised. Until then I would suggest that a cata-
logue of all chemical reference literature in the possession of
individuals be drawn up on the same lines as the existing cata-
logue of reference works in the Peninsula, issued by the South
African Library, and that the owners be approached to furnish
replies to enquiries in much the same way as should be done
by the Central Library, if such is created. As no individual or
institution is in possession of more than one or two periodicals,
the amount of work thrown on them would not be excessive.
In addition, a small retaining- fee might be paid to some South
African students studying any of the experimental sciences in
Europe or America, in return for making such abstracts as may
from time to time be required by research workers, or, better
still, it might be made a condition attaching to all Government
and University scholarships. With an equitable distribution of
the work, very little would fall on the shoulders of each student.
I have heard some very severe criticisms on the quality and
quantity of research work done in this country, but such criti-
cism comes from countries where research work is regarded as
one of the functions of educational establishments and of certain
Government departments. The daily routine and office duties
leave the Government analyst very little leisure, and the Pro-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 51

ifessor of Chemistry, who is expected to teach all the branches
of his science, physical, organic, inorganic, and technological
chemistry, and to deal practical!}' single-handed with all classes
from Intermediate to M.A., inclusive, and in addition take his
share in the administrative work of the College, needs to be
possessed of an unusual amount of energy if he is to do any
research in the leisure time he may have after fulfilling his other
duties. An occasional free hour or two sandwiched in between
routine work or teaching duties is of very little value for pro-
ductive research. Many of the operations are such that they
refjuire to be extended and supervised over many hours, and
cannot be discontinued at a moment's notice. Moreover, work
wb.ich is carried out piecemeal must lack continuity both in con-
ception and execution. The ecjuipment of many of the College
and Government laboratories is such that they could easily be
turned to good account in the prosecution of research work if
the stafi:'s could get some relief from the excessive amount of
work at present imposed upon them, and provided that that
relief is afforded in such a manner as to concentrate all the
routine oif teaching into several days, and leave one or more
entirely free days per week for research.

The idea underlying the present University syllabus, that
three years' systematic study of the stereotyped kind will pro-
duce a scientist, is fallacious, and the sooner we break with it
the Ijetter. At present we produce students who are veritable
encyclopaedias of knowledge, but who have only a very meagre
amount of manipulative skill, and practically no scientific initia-
tive or originality. The latitude left to every profes.sor under
the new University scheme as regards his syllabus and methods
of teaching will doubtless improve matters. But I feel that the
necessity for the inclusion of a verv small amount of experience
in the methods of research in the B.xA. syllabus should be offi-
cially recognised. I am not advocating anything so foolish as
that a complete piece of original research should be expected or
demanded ; that is a matter for the degree of D.Sc. But there
is a considerable amount of s]>adework attached to the investi-
gation of every problem which could very well be carried oiu
by undergraduates with considerable benefit to themselves and
to the progress otf the work. It is a conservative estimate to say
that half the publications in every chemical periodical in Europe
and America come from college or University laboratories. Very
often the author is only the intellectual father of the paper,
whilst the experimental work has been carried through by young
assistants or students.

A minute has recently been issued by the Department of
Mines and Industries in which an effort is made to enlist the
sympathy and co-operation of all scientific workers in the
Union in the problem of the organisation of research. But little
inducement is held out to participators. I hope I do not raise
a storm of indignation among my scientific friends for express-
ing materialistic views. To undertake research work without

5^ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

ulterior motives is highly commendable, when problems of
merely scientific interest are involved. But the majority of the
problems which the Department has in view, and which will
have to be solved when the new research scheme is inaugurated,
are not purely academic, and are bound to be of material benefit ;
and it is only reasonable that the men who do the brain work
should reap some of the benefit. Even the man who is animated
only by the highest scientific ideals will scarcely consent to sur-
render the results of years of patient labour and thought for
somebody else's immediate benefit, unless he be entirely devoid
of all business knowledge. In the case of the Government
analysts, it seems only reasonable that the successful participa-
tion in research work should bring with it prospects of more
rapid promotion. That would again be a stimulus to work
beyond office hours. Owners of private laboratories will see
nothing attractive in the scheme. Only professors and lecturers
will be aljle to enter whole-heartedly into the work, because to
them ])ublications of research work are. or should be. the best
testimonials when appl\-ing for new po.sts. I have digressed
somewhat from my immediate subject, but the question of
specialised research along certain lines, and the general question
of making ])rovision for research, are indissolubly bound U]i.
To return again to the question of plant investigation : a
complete examination may require anything up to 50 kg.
of material. Several enthusiastic friends of mine have supplied
me with sufficient quantities of Arctopus cchinatus. Monsonia
ovata, and Bnlbinc ahoidcs. But in view of the difficulty of
determining the most suitable season for collecting, of the need
of avoiding different species of the same genus being gathered
together, and of deciding which parts (roots or stems or leaves
and l>ranches) should he collected, it is imperative that the work
should be carried out under the supervision of a competent
botanist. I have, for exam])le. a parcel of Monsonia, which
reached me in a very dry and jxnvdery state, and with regard to
which 1 had considerable difficulty in deciding whether it was
the species ovata or biflora. Only in that way can material be
obtained, the identity of which is beyond doubt. There should,
however, be no difficulty in making the necessary provision. If
I am rightly informed, an officer of the Department of Agricul-
ture is at present collecting material for feeding tests to be
carried out at the Veterinary Research Laboratory at Onderste-
poort ; and a similar arrangement might be made for medicinal
and poisonous herbs when need arises.

The majority of the apparatus required are of a special type,
not likely to be found in the equipment of the ordinary chemical .
laboratory. For getting the material into a sufficiently fine
state of subdivision, a bone or maize crusher answers well. The
first treatment by continuous percolation with hot alcohol re-
quires an extractor with a capacity of approximately 50 litres.
In the case of materials which in the preliminarv investigation
are shown to contain alkaloids, a large conical percolator is

rKESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SKCTloN li. 53

reciuired. For the subseciuent distillation in steam, a cupper
vessel of about two gallons' cai)acif\r is needed. The distillate
and the residual aqueous liquid left in the distilling vessel have
to be repeatedly extracted with various organic solvents, and
for this purpose a mechanically-driven shaking machine must
be used. Some of the apparatus can, of cotirse, be improvised,
hut even so the purchase of the remainder is an item which can-
not be easily met out of the ordinary grants available for the
maintenance of college laboratories. In addition, many gallons
of organic solvents, alcohol, ether, chloroform, petroleum ether,
etc., are used in the numerous extraction processes. There are
several research grants in existence, the money for which is sup-
plied mainly by the Government. In order to deal efficiently
with the problem under discussion, the number of these grants
should be considerably increased. The administration of them
should, however, be left, as hitherto, in the hands of the Royal
Society of SotUh Africa, or it might perhaps be entrtisted to a
Committee of the Associated Scientitic Societies of the country.
A preliminary examination of a small ((uantity of material
(say 50 grams), according to the modified Dragendorff or Stas
Otto method, supplemented by micro-chemical tests on sections,
often gives a valuable orientation as to the presence or absence
of certain imjx>rtant constituents, such as alkaloids, glucosides,
or bitter principles, and may even afford a clue as to their nature.
It is impossible to lay down any general law applicable to the
treatment of every plant. But, except in the case of plants
proved in the preliminary investigation to contain an alkaloid,
the following method will, in most cases, lead to results. The
material is initially extracted by continuous percolation with hot
alc<:)hol, and, after the removal of the greater ])art of the
solvent, the extract is subjected to distillation in steam. The
distillate, containing essential oils and volatile acids ( formic,
acetic, propionic, benzoic), can in most cases be discarded. Tlie
aqueous liquid in the distillation flask is separated from the
resin, and the two treated se])arately with different solvent-^ or
precipitants. The aqueous liquid is usually extracted with ether
and amyl alcohol, occasionally also with chloroform, and is
finally precipitated with basic lead acetate. The resin is ex-
tracted in turn with ])etroleum ether, ether, chloroform, ethyl
acetate, and alcohol. Each of the extracts usually contain
several substances in solution which, in the case of solvents
immiscible with water, may be separated by shaking the extracts
wnth aqueous solutions of ammonium carbonate, alkali car-
bonate, or hydrates. The substances so obtained can usually
be purified bv crystallization or distillation, or both, or if the
substances are resinous, acid or alkaline, hydrolysis may result
in the formation of crystalline products. IMants ontaining
alkaloids may be subjected to a preliminary treatment with a
very dilute alcoholic or aqueous solution of a very weak acid
(tartaric), which will in most cases remove the alkaloid as a
salt.

54 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS— SECTION 15.

The original alcoholic extract will contain a very large
number of substances, many of which are of no interest from a
physiological point of view, such as carbohydrates, fats, oils and
waxes, phytosterols and phytosterolins ( ])h)-tosterol glucosides).
free acids, esters, essential oils and colouring matters. Flavonol
derivatives, such as k?empferol and (|uercetin, anthracjuinone
derivatives, as chrysophanol and emodin. glucosides, alkaloids,
bitter principles (amaroids). saponins, toxallnmiins. as ricin and
abrin, tannins and active resins, are usually the substances which
impart toxic or medicinal properties to the plants. With the
exception of a few grou])s which are always encountered at a
certain sta^e of the extraction j^rocess. it is impossible to i)redict
at which juncture each of these are likely to be isolated. Fats,
hydrocarbons and ifree alcohols are always found in the petro-
leum ether extract of the original resin ; essential oils are always
obtained in the distillate (^f the steam distillation process. But
the i)harmac(;logically and j^hysiologically interesting compounds
may be extracted by any one of the solvents previously referred
to. Saponins, for example, have been found in the ac|ueous
lif|uid as well as in the resin. For this reason it is desirable in
every case to carry out a com])lete investigation of the plant.
An additional difficulty lies in the fact that a very large number,
if not the majority, of the principles are resinous; and with our
im])erfect knowledge of the nature and composition of resins,
and in the absence of general methods of treatment, the ])ro-
blem becomes one of extraordinary intricacy. Moreover, with
the very large number of constituents in the original resin, with
■the many processes to which it is subjected and the inevitable
losses in purification, the amount of material obtained at each
.stage is small, imless a very considerable weight of the i)lant
material is employed initially. Often, by the time a substance
is obtained in a ])ure homogenous state, the total quantity avail-
able is less than a gram, and it re(|uires very careful and skilful
manipulation to make so small an amount suffice for complete
characterisation of an unknown compound, combustion, deter-
mination of melting-point or boiling-point, of molecular weight,
optical rotation, acetyl or benzoyl derivatives, physiological
tests, etc. A careful study of the literature on the chemistry
of other plants of the same species is often an excellent guide
as to how to proceed, or what to expect. For example, I identi-
fied daphnin in Lasiosiphon polyccphahis ( Januariesbosje). and
the same glucoside has been found to occur in two Furopean
species of the same order ( Thymelace?e ) , Daphne ]nc::;crcnm
and Daphne alpina.

Turning now to the physiological action of the plants, our
kowledge, although more advanced than with regard to the
chemistry of the constituents, is still sadly deficient. With
regard to ])lants eaten by stock, a number have, of course, been
known for a long time to be extremely poisonous, such as
.^langkop. Cape and Transvaal tulp, giftblaar, etc., and there
is no doubt about the sym])toms and post-mortem lesions. But

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — -SECTION C. 55

with regard to a very large iiuml)er (^f plants we bad. until a few
years back, no knowledge as to wbetber they were injurious or
innocuous. The Division for Veterinary Research, together
with the Division of Botany, have taken the matter in hand in
connection with botanical investigations into gal-lamziekte, and
have compiled a list of suspected plants, with which feeding and
drenching tests were carried out. 1 understand that experi-
ments are still in progress, and I have reason to believe that the
De]>artment for Veterinary Research would welcome the oppor-
tunity of carying out physiological tests with any ])ttre sub-
stances isolated from i)lants known or reputed to be injurious
to stock. With regard to plants, supposed to be of medicinal
value, very little published information alx:)ut authentic tests
hv medical men is a\ailable. Apart from buchu and aloes,
which are, of cotirse, official, I know only of the publication on
Monsonia, the dysentery cure, and the occurrence in it of an
oleo-resin, entericin.* And yet I am acquainted with several
medical men who. on the streno:th of actual experience, have
great faith in some of the native remedies. Possibly their disin-
clination to rush into print is due to fear of ostracism by their
colleagues for venturing to deviate from orthodox methods and
prescriptions.

In conse(|uence of the cessation of Continental supplies of
drugs o;f vegetable origin following on the outbreak of the pre-
sent war. attention was directed to other sources of supply in
the Dominions and Dependencies. As a profitable source of
atropine, or rather the isomeric hyoscyamine. the Datura
stramonium (stinkblaar) seems promising. The hyoscyamine
content of Hyoscyamus muticus is higher, it is true, than that
of Datura stramonium. Bitt according to analyses carried out
iit the Imperial Institute! stramonium of South African origin
is superior to that from India, Europe, and the Sudan. The
report refers only to a small number of samples, and there is no
evidence to show that these samples represent the best quality
obtainable here. The dilTerent parts of this country are so
ditterent witli regard to climate, soil, rainfall, and other essen-
tial conditions of plant gn^wth that plants display considerable
variations in their toxicity and the amount of active principles
they contain. Ornithogalum thyrsoidcs (the chinkerinchee) is
undoubtedly extremely poisonous in some districts, whilst in
others it is reported to be innocuous, and can be fed to animals
without evil effects, C rot on gratissimum. growing in Zululand.
is declared to 'be very poisonous, whilst in parts of South- West
Africa it is ai)parently a useful fodder plant. Similarly a syste-
matic search might reveal the fact that the hyoscyamine content
of the stinkblaar in some parts of the country is much higher
than that 0(f the specimens reported on. Present prices are
abnormal, and cannot be regarded as a criterion, but it seems

* Maberley. Lancet. 2 (1909), 1363.

t Bulletin r)f the Imperial Institute. 14 [l], 25.

56 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

quite feasible that with pre-war prices it might be a profitable
proposition to ctihivate stramonium. Moreover, bv cultivation
the yield might be considerably raised. The percentage of sugar
in the sugar beet, for example, has, by careful selection and cul-
tivation, been raised from 5 to between 16 and 20 per cent.
Other European medicinal plants, the dandelion and the fox-
glove, grow here without recjuiring any particular care, and
might be turned to profit. There are experiment stations and
agricultural schools and colleges distributed over the whole of
the country, and it would surely be a small matter to set aside
small plots on each for the experimental cultivation of some of
these medicinal herbs if a jjreliminary examinati(Mi seems to
hold out prospects of financial success. With regard to the two
indigenous plants or plant products which have become officinal,
aloes and Ijuchu, ste])s are desirable to improve the methods of
extraction and treatment. Aloe extract is still largely prepared
by the primitive method originally employed by the natives, with
the result that the quality is not uniform. With regard to Inichu
leaves also, more care is required in collecting, grading, and
packing'. Attempts have been made by shippers to mix the
medicinally valueless buchu substitute Emplcurum scrratultiin
with true buchu (Barosma befuliiia. B. scrrafifolia and B.
crenulata), with the result that the prices were prejudicially
affected, and our business prestige on the overseas market was
damaged. Carelessness in curing and packing, with the resul-
tant loss O'f volatile oil, leads to the same results. The question
of compulsory grading before shipping is an almost insignificant
matter as far as medicinal plants are concerned, btrt with regard
to other ex])orts it is a matter of considerable im])ortance, and
it is for that reason that I ctinsider myself justified in laying
stress on it here. Many of our products fetch lower prices on
the world's markets than do those from other Dominions, on
accotmt of the lack of uniformity of quality. A few extracts
from the annual report of the Trades Commissioner will serve
to substantiate my statement. Commenting on the quality and
condition of buchu, he says: " In 1910 large quantities of spur-
ious leaves were shipi>ed as buchu." " Dealers here allege that
the collectors of the leaves purposely include the stems and
woody parts."* And again with reference to wattle bark : " In
a ifew instances dealers complain of the want of knowledge of
some shippers m grading, want of care in protecting the bark
from the rain and the weather previous to shipment, with the
result that some of the bark arrived here in a wet and deterior-
ated condition. "t

He inserts a similar adverse criticism on the qualitx- of
mohair. To show the results achieved by careful grading, I
quote the following remarks from his report : " South African
maize has established a high reputation because of its good

* Annual Report of the Trade Coniniissioner for the year ending
Dec<Mnher 31, 191 T, p. 42.
t Loc. cit., p. 32.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 57

quality and its low percentage of moisture, and because it is
carefully and impartially graded by the Government graders at
the ports of shipment."* And again with regard to fruit : " The
inspection of fruit at the Cape Town Docks has, however, done
a great deal of good, inasmuch as it has deterred shippers from
forwarding varieties unsuitable for this market, and fruit which
is badly packed or out of condition. "f If careful supervision
at the port of shipment has done so much to enhance our busi-
ness reputation as far as the fruit and maize trade are con-
cerned, it seems desirable to extend suc'n super\isi(jn to all other
exports.

With regard to fodder plants, we depend largely upon the
somewhat unscientific and empirical method of leaving it to the
stock to determine what is wholesome and palatable in the way
of indigenous plants. There are hundreds of wild-growing
species of which we know very little more than their distribution
and habitat. Of only a small portion do we know the nutritious
value, and one would imagine that such knowledge wcjuld be of
the utmost benefit to stock- farmers, particularly in the ari.l
Karroo region, where stock is entirely dependent for its subsis-
tence on these wild shrubs. The whole question of the food
value of indigenous shrubs, the distinction between edible and
poisonous species of the same genus {Euphorbia), the tem-
porary protection and systematic cultivation, is so important that
the suggestion has been put forward to establish an experi-
ment station in the Karroo for the purpose. | The changes pro-
duced in fodder ])lants bv drought, w'ilting and withering, have
hitherto not received the attention they merit. Cyanogenesis in
many well-known stock foods under certain climatic and telluric
conditions is a well-known phenomenon, and has been observed
in Kaffir corn, beans and linseed, and fatal effects have also
been traced to the accumulation of potassium nitrate during
rainless periods in stunted and partly withered Kaffir corn.
Might not some of these observations in the case of well-known
fodder materials be a clue as to wdiere to look in the case of some
of the mysterious and unaccountable stock diseases. If it is
not prussic acid, it may be some other |X)ison developed under
conditions of drought. But mere speculation is valueless. Ex-
perimental data are required.

The suggestions which I have put forward for organising
phytochemical research may be briefly put as follows : —

( I ) The formation ()f a small Committee for the purpose
of distributing the work, co-ordinating the results of different
collaborators, of arranging for joint publications, etc.

(2) The establishment of a central reference library with
a staff of student abstractors, and, as a temporary measure, the

* Loc. fit., p. 24.
t Loc. cit., p. 54.

jR. Marloth : Prosidontial Addnss to tlic S.A.A.A.S., Kimberlev, 19T4.
p. 8.

58 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

compilation of a catalogue of relevant literature available in
the countn,^

(3) An increase of the number of research grants available.

(4) Such additions to the staffs of Government, University
and college laboratories, and such rearrangement of the work
and the time-tables as will give the officers in charge of these
laboratories a greater amount of leisure for the juirpose of
undertaking research work.

In conclusion, let me summarise some of the results that
might be expected from an investigation of our indigenous flora
systematically and thoroughly carried out. There are hundreds
of medicinal jjlants and herbs used in different parts of the
country. The striking and manifold virtues credited to them
are doubtless largely ascribable to ignorance, faith and super-
stition. I might mention, for example, the obstinate faith of
many people in Siithrrhunlia fructcscois as a cure for cancer.
But two of our indigenous plants and plant-products have iound
a place in the Pharmacopieia, aloes and buchu. Why should
there not be more in a flora with over 12,000 species of flower-
ing plants? Mousouia ovata and bifloni (the dysentery cures),
Bulhinc alooidcs. and others, have been tried by critical medical
men with encouraging results. With regard to the financial
aspect of the (|uestion, I might state that the value of the aloes
and buchu alone exported from the Union in 1913 was approxi-
mately £40,000. With regard to poisonous herbs administered
by native medicine-men, I beg to direct your attention to a sum-
mary of cases of poisoning and suspected poisoning by indi-
genous plants investigated in the Ca])e Government chemical
laboratories from 1899 to 1913-* Of 65 cases noted, the
majority of which were fatal, the result of the examination in
no less than 30 cases was negative or indefinite, and only in 17
cases was the identity of the plant established, and in some of
these cases with the reservation " |)Ossibly." In at least half the
cases the culprit must have been acquitted, and was free to con-
tinue his nefarious practice. In the majority of cases of poison-
ing of stock by plants we don't even know the symptoms, much
less an effective antidote, and in the absence of any definite
knowledge the farmer will fly to an aperient, where a sedative
may be necessary, and thereby aggravate the evil, or he will
apply other empirical cures which would seem to be worse than
the disease. As I have said before, there are no statistics for
the whole Union or for any Province. But a few records
taken from one of the Transvaal Agriciilfiiral Joiiruals will con-
vey some ideas as to the havoc wrought among cattle by such
virulent poisons as giftblaar: " ( )n the farm P>uff'elsdraai 48,
Pretoria District, nine newly-imjx^rted cattle died within about
24 hours, undoubtedly from eating giftblaar. A week later 25
imported cattle died on the farm Rietfontein 1,844, near Nyl-

* " The Urgency of a Definite Forward Movement in the Stndy of
the Active Principles of S.A Plant.s,'" Appendix. C. I-". Juritz. S.A.
Medical Record, Nov.. 191 5.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDKKSS SECTION 1!. 59

stroom, Waterber^ Distrkt. in about the same length of time
and the same cause." Turnino; now to stock diseases produced
by plants, I beheve that the cumulative vegetable poison theory
of lamziekte is still in favour, althouoh very little experimental
evidence has so far been adduced. Bait there are two cases
where the connection between poistmous ])lants and stock
diseases has been definitely established. ]\lolteno cattle disease
has been proved to be due to two alkaloids occurring in Soiecio
lafifoliiis. and stifif sickness is produced by Crofalaria burkeanu.
1 have no doubt that there may be a hitherto unsusjjected con-
nection between other stock diseases and plants. Feeding- tests
may establish such a connection, but even then the cure would
be a purely empirical one unless the principle were isolated and
examined. From that point <^f view the problem of plant inves-
tigation becomes a useful, I might almost say necessary, adjunct
to the valuable work carried • mt l)y the Department of Veterinary
Research. Time and again this ciuestion of plant inves-
tigation has been raised, but the appeal has always fallen on deaf
ears. This time, in view of the action contemplated, and the
steps already taken by the Government in the question of re-
search, the prospects are far more encouraging. But let us see
to it that the matter is not again allowed to sink into oblivion.

Appendix T.

Publicafiojis dealing 7^'ifli Smith African Poisonous and Medicinal

Plants.

1. Beifrage ::itr Kenntniss dcr clicniischcn Bcstandtheilc der
Frilchtc Ton Hyaenanche globosa Lamb., Rnphorbiaccae,
J. B. Henkel. Inaugural Dissertation: Jena. ( 1H57).

.1. Flora- Capensis Medics Pvodronuts. Pappe. .^rd ed. ( l86S^.

3. The Chemistry of South . Ifrican Plants and Plant Products.

R. Marloth, Presid. Address to Ca])e Chemical Society

Ci9i3)-

4. . / Contribution to Soutli African Materia Medica. A. Smith,

^rd ed. ( 1895 ).

5. Das Kapland. R. Marloth. lena 1 npS).

6. South .Ifrican P(^is<>niiiis Plants. J.. 11. Walsh. Ca]ietown

(1909V

7. Die Harrjniiintel 7'oii Sarcocaulon. Schulz, Inaugural Dis-

sertation: Potsdam (]C)o6).

8. Ac.RICrLTUKAL JotRN AL ol- THE CaPE OF ( iooD HOPE

Kaffir Beers, their initure and composition, ('. F.

Juritz, (1906) [Jan.l.
The Chemistry of S'>me Cegetable Products of South

Africa, R. Marloth. ( 1909") [June].

9. AORICL'LTI-R.VL JOfKNAL ol-" THE UnION OF SOUTM AfRICA

Preliminary Report on B^itanical Investigations into
Gal-Lam.ciekte. J. Burtt-Davy. 4 ("i. 2, 3. 5I.

60 I'KESIUENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

10. American Journal of Phar^iacy —

Chemical Examination of J.ippia Scaberrinia {"Beukcss
Boss"), Power and Tutin, 79 (1907) [Uct. j.

Clicimcal Ji.vaiiiiiialion of Iponioea Purpurea, Power aiul
Rogerson 1 1908) | June].

Chciiiical li.vaiiiijiatioii of the Root of Lasiosiphon
Aleissiien'anus, Ilogerson. (1911) [Feb.].

11. x-\nnalen der C"uj:.\iie — -

Analysis of the Oil of Osniitopsis asteriscoides, von
Grorup-Besanez. 89, No. 214.

12. Annals of the Natal (jovernment Ml'Seum —

Zulu Medicines and Medicine Men, Rev. A. T. Bryant.
2, (19C9J [i].

13. Annals of the South Ai-rra.\ Museum —

Flora of the Leribe Plateau; icith a discussion on the
relationshifs of the floras of Basutoland, the Kala-
hari, and the South-Easteni Regions: E. P. Phillips.
16, ( \[)iy }. in the press.

14. Apotlieker-Zeitung —

Uber die Aloe, Tschirch. ( 1901 ), No. 78.

15. Archiv fur ]^.\1'i:kimentelle J'athologie unu Pharma-

kologie —

L' niersnehuniten iiher Bui)hane disticha. Lewin. 68,
( 1912;.

16. Archiv der Phar.macie —

Some of the Coistituents of Catha edulis (bosjeinans
thee) Beitter, 239. ( Kpi ) \\j].

17. Berichte der J'hakmacktttischen Gesellsc haft —

Some Constituents of the seeds of Hyaenanche globosa
{ wolven ])()oniies). Peckolt. 15, Nos. 183 and 225
n905).

18. Bulletin of thi<. Lmim-.kial Lxstituti'- — ■

Examination of Chailletia cyniosa 1 ( 1903 j.
Imfestigation of vccielable drugs and poisonous plants, 13

( T9T5).
South African drin/s and poisonous plants, 14, (1916)

The Hyoscvamnie contoit of Datura stramonium 14
( 1916). |i]. 2^.

presidicntjai, addkl.ss sixtion b. 6l

19. Chemical News —

Some of the Coiistiliiciils of I'hysalis Peruviana {Cape
gooseberry), 102. 320.

20. Journal of the American Chemkal Society —

Cheiiiieal and PhysiohnjicaJ lixauiination of the Fruit of
Chailletia Toxicaria, Power and Tutin, 28. (1906)

[9].

21. Journal of the Chemical Society —

The Alkaloids of Senecio latifolius. Watt, (1909)
[March].

7 he eoJistitneiits of Withania soninifera, Power and
Salway (1911). |March].

The Constituents of the bulb of Buphane disticha, Tutin,
(1911) [June].

The Constituents of Cluytia siniilis. Tutin and Clewer,
(1912), [Nov.].

The Identifieatio)i of Ipuranol and some Allied Com-
pounds as Phytosterol Clueosides. Power and Sal-
way, (1913) [March].

The Volatile Oil from the Leai'es of Barosma venu.sta,
Goulding and Roberts, (1914J, [Nov.].

The Constilueuts of i>Juniex Ecklonianus, Tutin and
Clewer, 97, ( 1910) [t].

The I'olatile Oil from I he Tulnvs of Kaenipferia ethe-
lae, Goulding and Roberts, (1915) [March].

22. Journal of thi-: Socieia- oi- Chemical Industry —

Composition of the P'ruil and Seeds of Adansonia
digitata (Baobab), Pelly, ( 1913) [Aug.].

2^^. L,.\NCET —

Some of the Constituents of Monsonia ovata, J. Maber-
ley, (1909) [3] 13^^.

24. Mekcks Berichte —

The Constituents of T.eucadendron concinnuni. (1895).

23. Pharmaceutical Journal —

Cape Bush Tea (Cyclopia X^ogehi). Greenish, 11, CiSSi)

[Jan.].
Erythrnia Zeyheri. Holmes. 84, (1910).
On Catha eduhs. Stockman, 88, (1912), [676].
Chemical Examination of Diconia anomala, Tutin and

Naunton, 90, ( 1913) [694].
The Ethereal Oil of Barosnia venusta. Tutin and Jensen,

89, (1913). ....
Chemical Examitiation of (Irnithogalum thyrsoides,

Power and Eogerson. (1910) [March].

62 I'RESiUKXTlAL ADDRESS — SECTiUX U.

2.(j. Reports uf the Skmok Axalvst (Cape of Good Hope) — •

Trichilia Dregei ( 1899 j.

Rauwoltia natalensis (qiiiuinc tree) (1901J.

Acokanthera venenata (1902).

Biiphane disticha (^1903;.

Clivia nobilis ( 1904).

Polygonnni tonientosum var. glabrum (1904).

Haemanthus natalensis (1905).

Xanthoxyiuni capense {zvild cardanioii ) ( 1906).

Helichrysum sf>. { [908).

Haemanthus pnineeiis (1909).

Diniorphotheca sp. (bietoinv) (1910).

Aster hispidus ( Diplopappus asper) (1910).

Bowiea volul)ilis ( igio).

Melia azedarach (syringa) {lyio).

Knowltonia bracteata i 1910).

27. Reports of the AsscriATiox for tiii-: Advancement of

Science —

Notes on Crot^daria Burkeana and other Leyiiniiiions

Plants caitsinc/ Disease in Stock, J. Burtt-Davy,

(1910), 269.
Poisonous Properties of Mesembrianthemuni Mahoni, J.

Burtt-Davy ( 19 12). 193.
South African Plant Poisons and their 1 ni'estigation.

C. t. Juritz. (1914). 109.
Native Medicines, Rev. J. A. V7inter, (1914), 404.
Notes 0)1 the Chemistry of the .'Naras ( Acanthosicyos

horrida Hook). W. Versfeld and G. F. Britten

(1915). 232.
Some Notes on Rhodesian Native Poisons, Rev. S. S.
Dornan, ( \c)l(^) .

28. South African Medicai. Record —

The Urgencx of a Definite Forz{.'ard Movonent in the
Study of the Active Principles of South ^Ifrican
Plants, C. F. Juritz, ( 1915) [Nov.].

29. Transactions of the Royal Society —

Cyanogenesis in Plants, Dunstan and Henry, (1902).

Series A, 399.
The Nature and Origin of the Poison of Lotus arabicus.

Dunstan and Henry, ( 1901), Series B, 515.

30. Transactions of the South African Philosophical

Society —

The " .'Naras/' Acanthosicyos horrida. Hook. R. Mar-
loth, 5, (1886) [2], 229.

PKESIDKXTIAI. Ai-DRESS SFATiON 1). 63

On soiuc E.vpcriiiicnls -ivitli the Actii-r Pniiciplc of Me-
sembrianthemum tortitosum L.* T. Meiring, .9,
(1896) [I], 48.

Sonic Notes recjardiiiy South African Pharmacology,
C. F. Juritz, 16. (1905} [2], 11 1.

31. Tkansactions of the Royal Society of South Africa —

Note on the Occurrence of Daphnin In the .Irthrosolen
( Lasiosiphou polycephalus ) , AI. Hindi, (in the
press).

32. Transvaal AcKicrLTuuAL Journal —

On Dichapetalum cvniosuiiL ]■ Burtt-Davy, 8, (1910J,
626.

2,,}. Tropenpflanzer —

The Occurrence of an Alkaloid in Lrotalaria Pechiie-
liana (1902).

34. Kaffir Engllsii Dictionaries of Kropf. McLaren, and
others.

Appendix II.

List of Periodicals most frequently quoted in PhytocJieniical

Publications.

American juurnal of Pharmacy.

Apotheker Zeitung.

Archiv ftir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmaka-
logie.

Archiv der Pharmacie.

Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft.

Bulletin of the Imperial Institute.

Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de Paris.

Chemisches Centralblaat.

Comptes rendues de I'Academie des Sciences.

Journal of the American Chemical Society.

Journal of the Chemical Society.

Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie.

Journal fiir Praktische Chemie.

Liebig's Annalen der Chemie.

Pharmaceutical Journal.

Pharmaceutische Zeitschrift fiir Russland.

Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical .Associa-
tion.

Year-book of Pharmacy.

* Prof. Hartwich, of Zurich, has isolated an alkaloid, mesembrine,
from tliis plant ; not known where published.

Section C— BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY,
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HY-
GIENE AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

President of the Section : J. Burtt-Davv, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 4.

The President delivered the followins: address : —

t>

PROPOSAL FOR AN ORGANIZED BOTANICAL
SURVEY OF SOUTH AFRICA.*

Faced directly or indirectly with war conditions, civilized
countries are surveying their industrial resources to see wherein
they can use materials of local production to replace those for-
merly imported, but now obtainable only with difficulty if at
all. To attain the desired end such surveys must necessarily
cover the whole field, including agriculture, commerce, science,
arts and manufactures, from the finished product back to the
raw material, be it animal, vegetable or mineral.

The object of this paper is to call attention to the desira-
bility of including a botanical survey in a general survey of the
natural resources of the country, and to suggest ways and means
for carrying it out under existing conditions.

While it is true that a large part of the raw material of
commerce, of vegetable origin, is no longer obtained from the
wild plants of field or forest, but from strains improved by
selection or by cross-breeding, and carefully grown under culti-
vation, there is always the possibility of discovering new plants
of economic value in a country which has not been well explored
l)otanicalIy. This is particularly the case with such articles as
fodder plants for stock, fibre i)lants, dye and tan plants, oil seeds,
medicinal ])lants, rubbers and timbers.

But a still more important and useful purpose of a botani-
cal survey is the determination of the soil and climatic features
of a locality from the character and distribution of its native
vegetation. This branch of botanical science is of particular
importance in new and thinly settled countries, and may be the
means of saving the prospective settler from great financial loss,
and in some cases even from ruin.

What other Countries are Doing.

The public recognition of the practical value of the survey
of a country is not new. The Indian Government began such a
survey of India many years ago, employing trained scientific

* As originall}^ presented to the meetinpr, the address referred to a
biological sun'ey. Owing to requirements of space the author decided
to print only the main portion, which related to the botanical survey.

I'KliSlDIiNTlAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 05

reporters, including an economic botanist, and issued a valuable
series of reports, whicb were eventually compiled by Dr. George
Watt into the well-known " Dictionary of the Economic Pro-
ducts of India." The Indian survey included a wide range of
subjects 'from plants to minerals.

In the United States of America several of the States have
carried out surveys of their natural resources. The Federal
Government, also, has for many years maintained well
organized and staffed geological, biological and soil surveys.
Members of the staff of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
have published a condensed review of agriculture in the United
States in the form of a single volume, which is found of the
greatest use as a book of reference in other parts of the world.

Even Japan, one of the youngest of civilized nations, has
issued an account of the economic plants of her empire.

In Australia botanical surveys were carried out by the Gov-
ernments of Victoria, New South Wales and Oueen.sland, result-
ing in the publication O'f such useful works as Mueller's " Select
Extra-tropical Plants," which embodied not only the economic
plants of Victoria, but such as were known (or considered likely)
to be successful if introduced into cultivation. So valuable was
this work considered that it passed through at least nine editions
within the lifetime of its author. Mr. J. H. Maiden, F.R.S., of
New South Wales, also prepared and published a valuable hand-
book called " The Useful Plants of /Australia." These two books
have had a world-wide circulation, and have led to the systematic
introduction of Australian plants into cultivation in other coun-
tries, which have, greatly benefited thereby. Australia herself
also profited by the wide advertisement given to her products,
as well as by the sale of seeds of her economic plants. The
successful and profitable cultivation of the numerous species of
Eucalyptus in California and South Africa, and of wattles in
Natal, is directly traceable to these Australian Government sur-
veys.

A survey such as I advocate for South Africa cannot be
completed in a few months, even under more favourable condi-
tions as regards men and means than exist to-day. It involves
the patient, persistent work of several years and of many trained
specialists. To ask Government to embark on a vast and ex-
pensive scheme under present conditions would be unwise, to
say the least, and would certainly meet with refusal.

We have, however, a number of botanists on the staffs of
the various educational institutions scattered through the Union,
together with a few in Government service and a few in private
life. Some of these men have volunteered their services for a
botanical survey, and if others were also willing to take a share
of the work, and if the scheme were properly organized so as
to avoid overlapping and to cover the whole field, we should,
with a little financial assistance from Government, soon have
some valuable information at our disposal.

c

66 TRESinEXTI AI. ADDKKSS SKCTlOiN C.

SCOI'K

In preparing the following paper I have had to remember
that I am addressing not only botanists ; my botanical friends
must therefore pardon me if I have made some statements which
are to them so obvious as to seem unnecessary.

Let us consider for a moment the ground which a botanical
survey of the country should cover, \vith the two objects in
view, (i) increase of knowledge, and (2) its practical applica-
tion. The subject is so large that it is divided into several
branches, each of which is usually dealt with by one or more
specialists ; these are :—

Taxonomy and Morphology.

Geographical Distribution or Floristic Plant (Geography.

Ecology or Ecological Plant Geography.

Economic Botany.

Plant Pathology.

Physiology, Anatomy, Histology, and Cytology.

Genetics.

We will Ijriefly consider these in detail.

Taxonomy,

Taxonomy or Systematic Botany deals with the relationshi])s
of plants, their naming and classification. Before we can cata-
logue and describe intelligently the uses of plants, their ecological
and geographical distribution, their morphology, anatomy, his-
tology, cytology' or physiology, or, in fact, anything else about
them, we must have names by which to refer to them intelligibl}-.
and descriptions by which to identify them.

For this reason the collection and publication of descriptive
accounts of the plants comprising a flora is the first step towards
a knowledge of that flora. This essential work is, however, but
a means to an end, though unfortunately sometimes mistaken
for the end itself.

The preparation of a descriptive handbook or " Flora "
follows, for the use of students and those investigating other
branches of botanical science.

The Spermaphyta.

!Much work has already been done in the collection and
description of the elements of the native flora of South Africa.
The original descriptions of the species are widely scattered
through botanical literature, and the collection of them all in
one library would involve a heavy expenditure of time and
money ; in fact, it would now be well-nigh im|X)ssible to secure
all of them.

But we are indebted to the foresight of the Directors and
staft's, past and present, of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,*

* AkhouRh it was Prof. Harvey, of Dublin University, aided by Dr.
Sender, of Hamburg, who actually prepared the first three volumes of the
■' Flora Capensis," Harvey, " its principal author," states that it was Sir
William Hooker, Director of Kew, who " suggested " the work, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADM<ESS — SELTiUN C. 0/

which, aided by small grants Iroiii the Govcninicuts of the
Cape, i\atai ana tlie Transvaai, planned, organized and carried
out tlie hea\y task of gatliernig logetner ail the avadaDle uifor-
mation on the flora of South Africa and published the same in
the form of the " Flora Cai)ensis. This work is but one of a
series oi Colonial Floras (mcludmg those of British India, Aus-
tralia, Hong Kong, Mauritius and the Seychelles, JNew Zealand,
Tropical Atrica and South Africa), planned and carried out by
Kew, with a truly broadminded and Imperial policy. It is in-
structive to note that the preparation and publication of thai
classical work, the " Genera Plantarum " of Benthani and
Hooker, was undertaken as the hrst ste]) toward the preparation
ot these Colonial floras.

Lack of funds, and still more the lack of enough trained
men on the Kew staff, has delayed the completion of the " Flora
Capensis," but with dogged British pertinacity, in spite of delays,
drawbacks and difficulties, Kew has persevered in this work
until it is now near completion.

The *' Flora Capensis "' was commenced in i860, and is onl\
now Hearing completion. Up to the time of publication of the
third volume (1865) but little plant-collecting had been done in
the interior of South Africa, and there vvas scarcely any material
available from the Orange Free State or the Transvaal. The
first three volumes are therefore almost entirely out of date,
and are of comparatively little use to workers on the floras of
these two Provinces. Volume VI, comprising the large and im-
portant families sometimes grouped under the name " Petaloid
Aionocotyledons," is also badly in need of revision before it can
be of assistance to local workers. Not only so, but in every
group of plants Transvaal botanists are constantly meeting with
puzzling or undescribed S])ecies.

Though much has been accomplished, there is therefore
still a great deal of spade work to be done before
we can discuss our flora intelligently. The publication
of a revised edition of the " Flora Capensis " has been
suyofested, but it is scarcely likelv that this will be under-
taken ; apart from any question of cost, or of diffi-
culty in getting the work done, the book would be so cumbersome
and so expensive that it would not meet the needs of working
botanists and students ; owing to the price of such a large work,
not enough copies would be sold to cover cost of publication,
let alone cost of preparation ; the work would be unnecessarih-
cumbersome, including descriptions of so many plants found in
only one of the four Provinces of the Union. Our flora is too

" assisted in devising the plan on which it should be moulded ; he also
introduced the authors to many of tlie valued South African correspon-
dents ; and lastly, liis strong recommendation of the undertaking to Sir
George Grey was mainly instrumental in obtaining the grant from the
Colonial Parliament." When Harvey died in 1866. "practically nothing
available" relating to the succeeding volume was found among his papers;
" nor did his coadjutor. Dr. Sonder, who died in i88t, undertake anv
further ]Kirt in the work." It was Kew that gathered up the dropped
threads, and has brought the work practically to completion.

68 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C.

large and too varied for even the Spermaphyta to be adequately
treated in one comprehensive work.

A Series of Local Floras.

A better solution of the problem would be the preparation
and publication of han(ll)(>()ks to the local floras, designed to
cover approximate phyto-geographical regions rather than the
political, but unnatural. Provincial areas.

The exact delimitation of the areas should be decided by a
conference of local botanists, but as a basis for discussion L
would suggest the following six regions; —

I. The South-Western Coast Region, from the Oliphants
River to the Gamtoos River mouth, comprising mainly the region
of winter rainfall.

n. The Karroo Region (the " Central Region " of the
'' Flora Capensis "), including the Cape Midlands north to the
Orange River, and the Eastern Province from the Gamtoos to
the Kei.

III. The Eastern Region, the coastal belt from the Kei
River to Portuguese territory, and including the Transkeian
Territories, Pondoland, Griqualand Jiast, Natal and Zululand.

IV. The Transvaal Region^ including the Transvaal,
Orange Free State, Basutoland, Swaziland, Griqualand West
and British Bechuanaland.

V. The Western Region from the tropic to the Oliphants
River, including the South-W'est Protectorate and Great and
Little Namaqualand.

\'I. The Rhodesian Region, including Rhodesia, the
Bechuanaland I'rotectorate and Nyassaland.

I will anticipate criticism by pointing out that the limits of
these proposed Regional Floras do not necessarily coincide with
the boundaries of our imperfectly understood phyto-geographical
regions. We have to take into account the distribution of the
white i)o])ulation, and the sale and use of our Floras in the
schools. They do coincide pretty well with the regional classifica-
tion adopted in the " Flora Capensis." as defined in the Preface
to Volume VI ; but I have naturally added Swaziland to the
misnamed Kalahari Region, as its flora appears to me
to be more nearly continuous with that of the North-
Eastern Transvaal than with that of Natal and Zululand, from
which it is cut off by the Lubombo Mountains. I have also,
and I believe rightly, transferred to the Karroo Region
that portion of the " Coast Region " of the " Flora
Capensis " having a distinctly summer rainfall, and lying be-
tween the Gamtoos and Kei Rivers, containing, as it does, such
a large element of Karroo flora among the Zwartkops, Sundays,
and Fish Rivers ; even if this should be open to question from
the phyto-geographical point of view, it has an important practi-
cal bearing, inasmuch as it increases the utility and consequent
selling value of the '' Karroo Flora " (which could scarcely be
supported by the sparse Karroo population) by including the

I'KliSJDF.NTiAL ADL/KliSS — SECTION C. 69

populous towns, watering places, and educational centres of
iLast London, rort KlizaDetn, (_irahamr-,io\vn, Km_i;willianisto\vn
and Uitenhage.

If these liandbt)oks were issued at an early date, it wouUl
not be necessary to revise the volumes of the " Flora Capensis '*
above referred to. provided the authors had access to, or were
able to consuh b}- proxy, the collcctioris at Kew and the British
Museum.

A handbook to the flora of the Tran.-.vaal and adjacent terri-
tory (as included under the fourth head, above j is in course of
preparation by the writer of this i)a])er. A hrst instalment,
in the form of a key to the families, is v^ne of the papers offered
at this session of the Association.

Mrs. Bolus and the stalT of the Bolus Herbarium are at work
on a Flora of the Cape I'eninsula, and Miss Duthie on a Flora
of the Stellenbosch iJistrict. These are onlv small jxirtions of
the interesting region of winter rainfall. l)Ut let us hope that
these ladies will be willing, in the interests of science and the
public, to extend the scope of their respective b'loras.

In the j)reparation of these Regional Floras much time and
space could be saved by reducing the descriptions of families
and genera to the smallest limits compatible with clearness,
leaving the longer and fuller descriptions for monographs and
revisions, where they more properly belong. This could easily
be done if we had an up-to-date " Genera of South African
Plants " — a revised " Harvey's Genera '* — to which the student
could refer in case of doubt. Professor Moss, of the South
African School of Mines and Technology, has given me ]>erniis-
sion to announce that he has taken this work in hand.

Check Lists.

The preparation of the Regional Floras would also be
lireatlv facilitated and rendered more com])lete by the prelimin-
ary publication of " check-lists " for the several regions. These
check-lists would assist in defining more exactly the limits of the
several Floras, if they gave the known distribution of each
species. I would also suggest that a reference 1)e given to the
place of publication of the original description.

Lists more or less answering to this description have already
been prepared and published (or are in course of publication)
as follows : —

Natal and Zululand, bv Dr. ). Medlev Wood, A.L.S.

Kaffraria, by T. R. Sim, F.L.S.

Cape Peninsula, bv Dr. Bolus. F.L.S.. and Major Wollev-
Dod, F.L.S.

Transvaal and Swaziland. l)v [. Burtt-Davv. F.L.S., and
Mrs. Pott.

Transkei. by Miss Pegler.

Mashonaland, by F. S. Eyles, F.L.S.

Gazaland. by W. Swynnerton, F.L.S.

Namac|ualand. by the late Prof. Pearson, F.L.S.

Uitenhage and Port Elizabeth, by Prof Schonland. F.L.S.

70 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

We need such lists tor the Orange Free State. Basutoland,
the whole " Eastern Province '" area, the Cai)e Midlands. British
Bechuanaland, the Bechuanaland I'roiectorate and the S.W.
Protectorate, and parts of Rhodesia, especially the vicinity of
Bulawayo and the rest of Alatabeleland.

It will be noted that none of tiie published Lists covers
the entire area of any one of the six suggested Floral areas.
When these have been defined by the suggested conference of
Ixttanists, one of the first stej^s might be to revise and extend
them to cover the accepted areas.

The SroROPiivTA.

With reference to the less highly developed forms of plant-
life, Mr. T. R. Sim has given us a second edition of his " Pteri-
dophyta of South Africa," and is now engaged on a " Handbook
to the Bryophyta." Professor W^ager has recently pul)lished .i
check-list of the Mosses of South Africa.

Mr. Pole Evans and his staff in the Department of Agri-
culture, Pretoria, are at work on the mycology of South Africa,
especially in its relation to plant pathology.

Miss Duthie is engaged on the Myxomycetes.

The late Dr. Becker made a large collection of our Marine
Algae, but we need a descriptive account of them, for the guidance
of teachers and others interested in this attractive branch as well
as for the use of those who would utilize the kelps for industrial
purposes.

The Fresh-water Algje, Characese, Lichenes. Diatomacese,
and the Basidiomycetes and other gr>)ups of fungi, oft'er inviting
fields of research for those who are training in botany in our
universities and colleges.

'te*

(Jtiiek Lines of Survey Work.
Although so much remains to be done on the taxonomic
side, so much has already been accomi)lished that we are al)lc
to proceed with other lines of the surxey without too serious
hindrance from lack' of names. When, in the course of our
work we find an unnamed species of im]K')rtance, Ave can — if un-
Ijrepared to name it oin-selves — submit it to one of the larger
herbaria. Let us therefore consider, for a moment, the other
directions wdiich the survey should take.

The Economic Plant Survey.

The object of the Economic branch of the survey is to find
out the relations of our flora to mankind ; both the useful and
the injurious j)roperties of the species of which it is composed.
The folknving are some of the more inii)ortant <|uestions which
this branch of the survey is expected to answer: —

I. Pasture Plants.— -Which of the native grasses and other
plants are eaten bv livestcick? ^^^herc do they <xx-ur, and in
what nuantities? What is their relativ- feeding value? Which

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 7 1

are preferred by stock? Can they be cultivated artificially, and
i'f so, how should they be treated?

2. Poisonous Plants. — Their distribution, comi)osition, anti-
dotes and method of eradication.

These plants are being investigated by the Veterinary Re-
search Division of the Department of Agriculture, in collabora-
tion with the Division of Plant Pathology and Botany.

3. A^oxioits ll'ccds. — Their occurrence, mode of distribu-
tion, eradication, and preventive measures to be taken against
them. These are receiving attention at the hands of the De-
partment of Agriculture at Pretoria.

4. Medicinal Plants. — Their distril)ution, relative abundance,
properties, chemical composition, commercial value, and method
of propagation. These have already received some attention
from the late Rev. Andrew Smith, from Dr. Marloth, Dr. Juritz.
Dr. Rindl and the late Prof. Pears(^n. and successful efforts are
being made to propagate some of them at the National Botanic
Garden, Kirstenlx^sch.

5. Insecticides.

6. Cereals, vegetables, fruits and other plant products suit-
able for human food.

7. Oil seeds (yielding fixed oils).

8. Essential oils and perfumes.

9. Gums, resins, waxes and rubbers.

10. Saponaceous plants.

11. Fibre plants.

12. Tan plants.

13. Dye plants.

14. Timber trees.

15. Basket and other wicker-work materials.

16. Plants of use as fertilizers ( i.e., suitable for green-
manuring — ^nitrogen gatherers— or as sources of potash, lime,
etc.).

17. Ornamental ])lants suital)le for cultivation in gardens,
or for export as dried flowers.

In all of these cases we need io know, in addition to the
name of the plant and its relationships, its —

(a) Distribution.

(&) Relative abundance.

(c) Local uses and local names.

(d) Properties or com]>nsition
{e) Commercial valtie.

(/) Methods of propagation and cultivation.

Ig) Habitat.

(h) Any other facts about it likely to be of interest.

Farm, Garden, Orchard and Forest Crops.

x^n important part of the sur\e\' is the mapping of the
country in relation to the crops already grown therein, and the
possibility or desirability of extending those areas-
Supplementary to this, there should be prepared lists showing

7'

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

— (a) those crops known to be unsuited to the country, with
notes as to the reasons on which that conchision is based; {h)
crops not yet grown commercially, but considered worth trial,
with notes on the localities considered most likely to suit their
requirements.

Improvement by Breeding.

In connection with this branch, an important subject for
report would be the ix)ssibilities of improvement by breedin;:;
of our wild plants of economic value. To this should be added
a report on what has been done in other countries in the way
of improving cultivated crops, and the bearing this may ha\e
on our own development.

The Ecological Survey.

Another and very important line of surve}' work already
alluded to is that of the ecological distribution of our plants ;
that is to say, their relation to soil, temperature, rainfall, alti-
tude, and other factors which affect their distribution.

From the j^urely scientific point of view we want to know
precisely why, for instance, we find forests hanging to certain
parts of the eastern slope of the Drakensberg, and not to other
parts ; why the upper levels of the great central plateau are so
generally treeless, while the higher kopjes and hills often produce
trees and shrubs, and the bushveld, 1.500 t(i 2.000 feet lower, is
well covered with trees? Why do some ])1ants grow only on
saline ("brak") soils, some on limestone soils, and some on
sands, while others prefer clays?

We find .'^ome plants growing in the shallowest soil, overlying
rock, where they sometimes get practically no rain for four and
even five months, and if given excessive moisture, they die;
others, again, only grow where there is a constant and large
supply of moisture, and some will (^nly Hvl- in ])ermanent water.
On the other hand, we find .some species of aquatic plants
growing in ephemeral |X)ols and " pans," and remaining dormant
for five to seven months while the pools are dry; others, again,
remain dormant while their roots are submerged for five t(_>
seven months, and produce foliage and flowers only when X\\"
mud is ex])osed and drying off.

While the desire for knowledge urges us to study the causes
of facts, of which these are a few taken at random, the reasons
governing them may have an important bearing on agricultural
problems. The conditions under which a plant grows naturally,
suggest methods of treatment to be applied to it and to j)lants
of a like nature under cultivation. I do not mean to infer,
however, that plants should not be cultivated under conditions
different from those under which they grow in a wild state ; we
have many examples to prove the contrary. But the suggestions
taken from nature, if properly interpreted, should be of assis-
tance to the cultivator.

Ecology can be of great use in another wav, especially in
a new country. Carefully studied and correctly interpreted, the

I'RESIDEI^JTIAL AUbKESS — SECTlUA C. 73

native vegetation may be a valuable guide to the character of
the soil irom an agricultural and hortictiltural point of view.
My old Professor of Agriculture, the late Professor Hilgard,
was, I think, one of the hrst to apply this concept to agricultural
practice, and I was engaged with hnii for some time in carrying
out investigations on the relation of the vegetation to the alkali
soils of California. The relation between a soil and its type
of vegetation is especially marked in the case of brak soils, and
this fact f tirnishes a valuable warning to the prospective settler as
to soils to be avoided. On the South African High \'eld the
character of the grass becomes a guide to the character of the
pasturage as regards ' 'sweetness," which, again, in some dis-
tricts at least, appears to depend on the character of the soil.

In certain parts of the country the presence of subterranean
springs is indicated by the growth of a different type of vegeta-
tion; these moisture-indicators differ in different phytoger)gra[)hi-
cal regions. Where the Vaal-bosch ( Tarchoiiaiitlnts ) is a domin-
ant feature of the vegetation, we may expect to find lime near
the surface, sometimes in the form of a hardpan which renders
the soil tmsuitable for agriculture. Where the wild Seringa
{Burkea africana) occurs, we learn to look for the Gift-blaar,
Dichapetalum cymosum, so deadly to live-stock grazing in the
springtime. Grass-veld, the vegetation of which contains a con-
siderable admixture of plants other than GraminCcX, whether
they be Cyperaceae or Dicotyledoneae, not only does not furnish
so much grass as the typical grass-veld, but that which is
present is often much less nutritious ; it may be a paradise for
the botanist seeking for species, but to the grazier it is " sour."
Clay soils, black turfs, sandy soils, and (|uartzite and con-
glomerate soils each produce more or less distinctive types of
vegetation which future investigation may prove to have value
as soil indicators, especially where reconnaissances are being
made for the selection of ranching country, or country suitable
for closer settlement. In this connection it is well to note that
appearances are often deceptive, and that the most densely
grassed cotmtry dt)es not necessarily afford the best or mijst
nutritious grazing.

Rainfall. — So also with regard to rainfall. We know well
how the succulent vegetation of the true Karroo differs from
that of the Composite-Karroo, and that, again, from tlie fl<^ra
of the Grass-Steppe. But even in the Grass-veld of the high
plateau, we find a marked difference between the vegetation of
the ]\Iachadodorp-\'olksrust Zone with a rainfall of al)out 33
inches, and that oi the Middelburg-V'ereeniging Zone, with
approximately 2~ inches ; the flora of this beU differs, again,
from that of the belt Iving west of Klerksdorp with 18 to 20
inches, while — going still farther west of the Kimberley-Mafe-
king railway — we get a different type again before we reach
the true Kalahari. We know that the rainfall diminishes as we
proceed westward from the Drakensberg (excepting perhaps on
the high ridge of the Witwatersrand ), forming rainfall belts

74 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C.

ruug^hly parallel with the Drakensberg ; the change of vegetation
f<_)ilovvmg this variation m ranifall neeas to be caretuUy worked
Diit in order to correlate it with zones of crop production. For
instance, it would be useful to know ))recisely which rainfall
average is the lowest safe limit for the production of Maize;
we know this in a rough and ready way, but a more precise
knowledge might save thousands of i)Ounds to ]jersons intending
to take U]) farmin<;' in the neighbourhood of the border line.

Altitude. — Vegetation may in .some cases be a good guide
to altitude as it allects temi)erature and atmospheric moisture,
if due allowance is made for the compensating effects of latitude,
shelter from cold S.E. winds, etc. Thus the typical Bush-veld
vegetation north of Pretoria does not appear to climb above
approximately 3.800 feet ; exceptions are found in the case of
the sheltered North .slope of the Magaliesberg, and of Aleintjes
Kopje, Pretoria, while a few tyj)ically Bu.sh-veld species, such
as Chrxsophylliiiii uiagaHs-montannm and Landolpliia capeusis
occur at 5,700 feet on Houghton Ridge, Johannesburg, where
the flora assttmes a semi-Bush-veld facies.

Another interesting case is that of the grass Andropogon
ccresia-fonnis, which aj^pears to occur plentifully only above
(approximately) 5.000 feet, although I have found small patches
of it at about 4,900 feet, near Irene, and at Witkoj) on the
Vereeniging line.

Other grasses, such as the larger Tambookie grasses (species
of Cymhopogon) are characteristic of the lower Bu.sh-veld at
1.500 to 2,000 feet, but whether this is due to climatic conditions
associated with altitude, or to lack of adequate means of di.spersal.
needs investigation, for the advent of the railway on to the Hi^'h-
veld is resulting in the estal)lishment of colonies of at least one
species of Lowveld Tambookie at places like Breyten (5.8(So
feet), and above Pretoria (about 4.500 feet).

I merely mention these things in jjassing. as being a]:)parent
facts — suggestive of many others — which require more accurate
investigation to determine how far our native plants may be
used as guides to the character of the .'^oil. moisture, climate (tem-
];erature and rainfall), and altitude, and in connection with these
as crop indicators.

T have even heard old pros])ectors both here and in Califor-
nia claim that there are certain i)lants which indicate the occur-
rence of the rarer minerals (silver, gold and quicksilver) offer-
ing to point them out for a sum of money ; but T have never
spent anything on testing tlie theory

Geographical Distribution.

The geographical distribution of the component parts of
our flora is a fascinating and important subject. More than
one botanist has attempted to .sketch the distribution of the flora
of South Africa, but the most satisfactorv attemnt was that o\
the late Dr. Bolus in "' Science in South Africa." ))repared for
the guidance of the British Association visitors in 1905.

I'KKSlUilNTiAL ADURKSS SlXTlON C. 75

iVlaii}- systematists work .jui the geographical distribution
of their jjlants in connecti«m witli tne preparation of their
Check-hsts and Floras.

Dr. Phillips has been engaged in studying the distribution
of the flora ot the Basutoland Alountains. and is now working
on that of the higher mountains of tlie Western Province.

MoKl'lIOLOGN', PlIYSJOLtX^A', A.\.\TO.MV A.\l) tl 1 STi ilJ )GV.

An instructive line of study is that of the relation between
ecological factors and the form, structure and growth of plants.
The importance of this subject has been so fully recognized by
American botanists that they induced the Carnegie Institution
to establish antl maintain a laboratory in the great American
Desert (at Tuczon, Arizona), for the special purpose of investi-
gating these problems in relation to desert ])lants.

A useful piece of work from the point of view of both
lecturer and student of botany would be the collection and publi-
cation of lists of native South African ])lants suitable for the
illustration of various plant structures and adaptations^ — e.g.,
xerophily. seed dispersal, types of leaf-form, etc.

A study of the anatomy of otir native plants known or
believed to be poisonotis or of medicinal value is of great prac-
tical importance. At the present time many criminals, especially
among natives, go unjuniished because we are unable to identify
the pieces of bark or root used by them with criminal intent.
So also we are unable to identify roots of native plants used for
medicinal purposes.

Co-OrDT NATION OF ExiSTINT, SCIENTIFIC W'OKK.

To be successful and effective, scientific w^ork nul-^t be car-
ried out with a clear vision of the end to be attained. Unless
there is a carefully mapped progrannue there will be much wasted
effort, much repetition, much duplication of the work of others,
all involving waste of time, and tending towards general inefifi-
ciency. There is st^ much to be done in a new country, and
there are so few to do it, that duplication of efYort shotild be
1 educed to the bare minimum by co-ordinating scientific work
while leaving every worker free scope to exercise hi^ individu-
ality as regards detail.

In a thicklv poptdattd ctiinur\ . with a large niunber of well-
educated and leisured people, there may not be the same objec-
tion to as many working on the same subject as may care to do
so. But where workers are few and far between, there is no
legitimate excuse. We cannot — and do not wish to — prevent
the \oluntarv worker or the amateur scientist from taking up
any line of investigation he may choose ; but by presenting un-
totiched fields to his vision he may be attracted into them. And
under existing conditions Governments are not warranted in al-
lowing institutions under their control unnecessarily to duplicate
the work of one another, nor in allowing grants-in-aid to be

76 PK1£S1UKNT1AL ADDKESS SECTION C.

expended uii duplication of work, unless such is specitically
proved to be necessary- Having- accepted this principle, how
essential it is that Governments should see that it is carried
into effect while existing war conditions prevail !

This applies to botanical just as much as to other scientitic
work. It is a great pity that there should be a number of insti-
tutions strtiggling aloni;- with inadequate equipment and support,
each working on the same lines and endea^•ouring to cov-er the
whole field of investigation in Systematic, Geographical, Eco-
logical and other branches of botany, where each could accom-
plish so much more by concentrating on a single line of research.

At present 1 fear there is too much duplication of the work
being carried on by existing instittitions. colleges, musemns and
Government departments. It is as important from the point
of view of efficiency and economy of i)ul)lic funds that a definite
policy for a botanical sur\'ey should be laid down by agreement,
and that the same be conscientiously adhered to by the institu-
tions concerned, as it is to have a carefully defined policy for a
geological survey, irrigation programme, or for agricultural in-
vestigation. In the past, when i^ractically nothing had been
done, collections were welcomed from every part of the country,
and the chances of du])lication were more remote. We have
now reached a stage in our development when an organized
botanical survey is called for, in order to take stock of our
natural resources.

Means of Gark\'ing out the Survey.

A botanical sur\ey of .South Africa could be carried out
largely with the assistance of existing institutions, aided In'
small grants irun\ ( iovernment for tra\el and other specific
purposes, thus obviating, at least for the present, the necessity
for a large Go\ermncnt stait engaged purely on survey work,
which, however desirable it may seem to us, is wholly out of the
question under existing conditions. My object to-day is to
outline a workable scheme rather than an idealistic one.

The programme of such a survey should be broad enough
to deal with all of the branches previously enumerated. Let us
consider for a nionK-ni the treatment of each, as far as it con-
cerns our survey ; whether the plan here outlined cotild be carried
out in its entirety would de]>end on the co-operation of the in-
stitutions and workers referred to.

Prei'Akatiox of Region .\i. Floras.

For the i)re])aration of the suggested Regional Floras, good
collections are required from all parts of the country. These
specimens must be i)roi>erly dried, pressed, classified, mounted
and stored in herbaria accessible tt) workers. There should there-
fore be one good and well-ecjuipiied herbarium in each of the
six areas for which it is proposed to prepare handbooks. Her-
baria more or less representative of the local floras are in exis-
tence at Capetown, .^tcllenbosch. Grahamstown. Pretoria, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS— SKC'TU)N C

//

Durban, and I am happy to be able to state that a l)eginninjj
is being- made at Johannesburg.

Regional Herbaria.

The work of the local herbaria could be rendered more
effective if each restricted its in\ostigations to the flora of the
region in which it is situated, as defined by the proposed botanical
conference. It means a great waste of energy- for each her-
baritim to endeavour to make its collections completely repre-
sentative of the whole of Sottth Africa; every collection made
outside an area means the expenditure of time and money which
might be devoted to the increase of knowledge of its own region.
So. also, where two herbaria already exist in the same town,
as at Capetown and Pretoria, economy could be effected by a
nnitual agreement to avoid overlapping.

One of the functions of the Regional Herbaria should be
the naming of si)ecimens for collectors within the region con-
trolled l)y that particular herbarium, inchiding material sub-
mitted by (iovernment departments; for this latter a specific
subsidy might be asked from Government. By restricting the
scope of the herbarium to the plants of a given area
more room would, of course, be available for keeping a good
series of specimens showing the distribution and variation of
the species within the region, thus adding greatly to the value
of the collection. Types of species foimd within the region
should, as far as possible, be preserved in the Regional
Herbarium.

A Central Herbarii'm.

In addition to the Regional Herbaria, there should be, for
convenience of comparison or study, one herbaritmi containing
as far as {possible at least one typical rej^resentative of each
species known to occtu" in South Africa. It should be the duty
of this Central Herbarium to compare doubtful or critical mater-
ial for the other herbaria. This Central Herbarium should also
undertake to have its material critically compared with the types
existing in Euroj^ean Herbaria, so that it might become the
place of last resort — in South Africa — on questions of doubt.

One of the obviotis functions of the National Botanic Garden
at Kirstenbosc'h is to maintain such a National or Central Her-
barium. The Bolus Herbarium, with its large number of criti-
cally compared specimens, would form an excellent nucleus for
a central herbarium.

The Central Herbarium should, for some time to come,
maintain a thoroughly cjualified Systematist to compare critical
material with the types and other authentic material at Kew and
the British Museum, and to monograph the South African
inaterial deposited there, especially in those families dealt with
in Volumes I. II, HI and VI of the " Flora Capensis." He — or
she — should be not merely a student working for a degree, but a

yS I'UliSiUKNTJAl. ADlJkESS — SECTION C.

taxonomist of exi)erieiu"e and mature judgment. The expense
of maintaining such an officer should be borne out of the funds
contributed by the Government towards the Botanical Survey.

AlicTiions Suggested.

The survey which i have outlined covers a large field,
but 1 am convinced that we cannot afford to face the problem
with any less complete scheme. We mitst look at it not only in
its relation to other surveys of our natural resources, but espec-
ially in the relation of its several parts to each other and to
the whole. Unless we do this, our efforts will cease to be worthy
the name of a survey.

It is essential that we bring to l)ear on our subject every
available trained man, and all the e(|uipment which the country
possesses. We must co-ordinate otir eff'orts. Let us see what
are our available resources in this respect.

Men. — We have the Professors and their staffs at the Uni-
veirsity Colleges at Caj)etown, Stellenbosch, Wellington, Gra-
hamstown, Bloemfontein, Maritzburg, Pretoria and Johannes-
burg ; the Lecturers in Botany at the Government Schools of
Agriculture, and the Staff' oi the Division of Plant Pathology
and Botany of the Department of Agricultttre. There are also
a few independent workers. Dr. Marloth. Mr. T. R. Sim, Mr.
E. E. Galpin, Mr. Flanagan, Miss Pegler, Mr. Swynnerton, the
Ven. Archdeacon Rogers, Mr. F.yles, Mr. Frank Bolus, and the
writer.

Herbaria. — We have several fairly good herbaria in South
Africa — e.g., the Bolus Herbaritim at the S.x\. College, Cape-
town; the Herbaria of the South African Museum, Capetown,
and the Albany Museum, Grahamstown ; the Natal Government
Herbarium, Durban ; the Transvaal Museum Herbarium, Pre-
toria ; and the Herbarium of the Department of Agriculture.
Pretoria, including the recently acc|uired Galpin Herbaritim ; a
herbarium has also been started by Professor Moss at the S.A.
School of Mines and Technology, Johannesburg.

Libraries. — Good botanical libraries are essential to the
prosecution of botanical research. Reference libraries exist in
connection with the Bolus Herbarium, the Albany Museum, and
the Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, and smaller libraries
in connection with the other herbaria, and it is hoped that Johan-
nesburg will shortly be added to this list. Dr. Schonland has an
excellent private library at Grahamstown, containing many
volumes formerly belonging to the late Professor MacOwan.
Owing to the cost and scarcity of botanical works, an effort
should he made to develop one thoroughly good Central Botanical
Library ; the others might well be content with good working
collections, provided arrangements were made for the loan of
books and magazines from this Central Library, for stated
periods. Arrangements should be made for the Central Library

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS— SECTION C. 79

to furnish carefully prepared and cerrified extracts from, and
copies of original descriptions from, the rarer botanical works.

Co-ordination of Work.

With so many men and women, and so much equipment
available, we certainl}- ha\e the means at our dis])osal for carry-
ing out a botanical sur\ey on the lines I have indicated. I fee'l
sure that we are all anxious to do (3ur share, but we have been
working alone, often overlapphig one another, often wasting-
time for lack of the assistance that each might give the other
if he or she knew that it was needed. Our efforts have been to
some extent wasted because too individualistic, having no definite
relation to a wfll-i)lanned and well-organized scheme oi botani-
cal survey.

A Botanical Conference.

I have already suggested a Conference of botanists to dis-
cuss the ])hyto-geographical regions for the purpose of com-
pilation of local Floras. This Conference should also consider
the best means of conducting a botanical survev under existing
circumstances. The Conference might well ccjnstitute itself a
permanent Botanical Survey Advisory Council, with an Execu-
tive Committee authorized to approach the Government with
a definite programme (as laid down by the Council), and an
application for such funds as might be re(|uired to carry out its
programme. Sub-committees should have charge of separate
branches of the survey, and the Executive should consist of the
Chairman, and the convener of each Sub-committee. The Coun-
cil should be self-perpetuating, should elect its own Chairman
yearly, and should frame its own rules and methods of procedure.

Each member of the Council should take up some ]jart of
the work, however small, as he or she is best able, and endeav-
our to carry it through on the lines laid dov/n by the Conference.

The several branches of survey work should be sub-
divided, and the obviously fair way of distributing them would
be with relation to the geographical |X)sition of the workers,
somewhat as follows : —

Ecology. — This requires detailed work in each Province-

Western Provi^ice. — The Professor of Botany at the

S.A. College, Capetown.

Eastern Provi)ice. — The Professor of Botany a: the

Rhodes University College.

Orange Free State. — The Professor of Botany at the

Grey University College.

Natal. — The Professor of Botany at the Natal Univer-
sity College.

Traiis-i'aal. — Professor Aloss, who has >pecialized in

Ecology as well as in Taxo-

. nomv.

8o PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C.

The work of these investigators would be co-ordinated by
one of them, who would represent this branch of work on the
Executive Committee.

Economic Botany. — This branch would be subdi\ided by
subjects rather than by areas. Thus : —

Mycolog}' and Plant Pathology are being dealt with by the
several Mycologists of the Department of Agriculture.

Noxious Weeds, by the Herbarium Assistant of the same
Department.

Poisonous Plants are being collected by a field botanist allo-
cated to the staff of the Veterinary Research Laboratories.
Feeding tests are being carried out by the Veterinary Research
Officers, and the determinations are being made at the Herbarium
of the Department of Agriculture. This applies to plants pois-
onous to stock. Probably the same officers could deal with
plants poisonous to man, in conjunction with Dr. Rindl, of the
Grey University College, but an addition to the staff would
be required to study and classify the physical structure
of the roots and twigs which form such an important part of the
drugs used by kaffir witch-doctors and medicine-men. The
assistance of a cliemist should be secured to investigate their
chemical properties.

A Handbook of the Economic Plants of South Africa is an
urgently needed work at the present time. During the last four-
teen years I have collected a mass of valuable data on the subject,
which is now being put in 'book form.

Ph\siolog\ of Fann Crops. — This subject would probably
be dealt with at the several Government Schools of Agriculture.

Genetics and Plant Breeding would probably be taken up at
the National Botanic Garden, and also by the Colleges or De-
partments of Agriculture of the several Universities.

Taxonomy.

Check-Lists. — Each Provincial Institution should prepare a
check-list of the plants known to exist within the borders as-
signed to it, with brief but comijlete notes on the distribution
of the species within their limits, and reference to the place
of pul>lication, or of a good description, of the species-

Handbooks. — For the preparation of handbooks to the
regional floras, it might be desirable to place this in the hands
of one competent botanist, thus not only ensuring uniformity of
treatment, but saving duplication of descriptions where the same
genera or even species occur in more than one Province.

Handbook of the Genera. — A revision of the families and
genera of South African Spermaphyta is much needed as a
basis for the Regional Floras. This, as already noted, has been
undertaken by Professor Moss.

Where so much ground has to be covered, and there is so
much to be done, it is folly to delay matters bv waiting till
every rare species has been secured and every- locality has been
visited. The main object is to assist in the advanceinent of

PUESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 8l

science ; for this purpose a handbool>: carefully and accurately
prepared, if it covers most of the species of a flora, will be of
great assistance, even though many of the rarer forms are
omitted. To accomplish the best results in the shortest time,
therefore, I would suggest the adoption of two courses : The
collection of (i) the dominant, sub-dominant, and social mem-
bers of the vegetation in the allotted territory; (2) fairly com-
plete collections from selected localities which from their ,
topography, soil or climate suggest a rich and varied
flora. With regard to the first of these suggestions, I
have found that a reconnaissance, or sort of flying
survey, of the territor}^ under review enables one to divide the
region roughly into two or more distinct phyto-geographical
areas. 1 have adopted the plan of taking one locality (for con-
venience a single registered farm of, say, approximately ten
square miles in extent ) and collecting, as far as possible, every-
thing found growing upon it, including the cultivated i)lants.
This gives surprisingly interesting results.

Geographical Distribution.

A branch of botanical survey work which has proved most
fascinating has been the geographical distribution of species of
plants. This is of value in connection with our study of plant
ecology and phylogeny.

Although a good deal is now known of the floras of the
Eastern and Western Regions, Natal, the Orange Free State
and the Transvaal, there are large areas as yet almost unvisited.
Thanks to the energy of the late Professor Pearson, a former
President of this Section, we are now in possession of valuable
data from the hitherto but little known though very interesting
region of Namaqualand. ■ But we know surprisinglx- little of
the flora of the great Drakensberg Range ; Basutoland is almost
unknown ; the same may be said of that huge tract of country
from the Komatie River to the Limpo|x>, lying between the
Drakensberg and the Lebomlx) Mountains, and particularly that
great unsurveyed tract of Government land occupying the ex-
treme north-east corner of the Transvaal ; and the whole of
the Limpopo drainage basin falls into the same category. Very
little is known, either, of .Zululand, the Transkei, and the western
portion of the Kalahari. It may well be said that there is no
])ortion of South Africa — unless perhaps it is the Cape Penin-
sula— of the flora of which we can claim a fairly accurate
knowledge. Even such old collecting centres as Uitenhage are
yielding quite distinct ne\\ species, while Conrath's small col-
lection at jModderfontein. near Johannesburg, has yielded such
a number of unnamed though well-known forms as to suggest
that we may have long been in error in ascribing to Transvaal
species, names from the " Flora Capensis " which really
belong to species restricted in distribution to the Cape Province,
or in a few cases even to Europe.

D

82 presidential address section c.

Publications.

It is desirable for several reasons {e.g., to show Parliament
value for the money expended) that the results of the survey
work should be published from time to time, as the material
becomes available, in the form of " Memoirs of the Botanical
Survey of South Africa," rather than as separate publications
scattered through the Annals, Transactions, Proceedings, etc., of
various museums and societies. If the work is done by museum
"staffs, publication shcnild be paid for out of survey funds, and
full credit be given to the institution which has done the work.
Uniformity of pubHcation should be observed as far as possible
throughout the series of memoirs ; this might cause a little ob-
jection on behalf of men of contributing institutions whose form
of publication differed from that of the majority, but no
reasonable person would be likely to object to such an
obviously desirable arrangement.

Conclusions.

I trust I have made clear to you not only the importance,
but also the practicability, of conducting a botanical survey of
South Africa, even under existing conditions. I am deeply im-
pressed with the necessity for such a survey, and in order to
set the ball rolling in the direction of a practical effort, I am
arranging to bring before the Scientific and Technical Committee
of the Department of Mines and Industries a proposal to call a
Botanical Conference on the lines suggested here.

SECTION D. — EDUCATION. HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY, GENERAL
SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

President of the Section : Rev. B. P. J. Marchand, B.A,

THURSDAY. JULY 5.

The IVesident delivered the following" address : —

I propose to discuss — very briefly, seeing that I was called
upon to preside at the meetings of this Section at very short
notice — some points in reference to progress in educational
matters.

There are, one is glad to note, considerable and encouraging
movements in the direction of solving the problems connected
with (a) industrial instruction, with {b) bringing into school
the large numlter of children who are still outside, and with
(f) educating the public in the protection of child life.

In a paper read by Mr. W. J. Home at the Annual Session
of this Association in 191 5,* he advocated very strongly the
claims of vocational education. The National Advisory Board
for Technical Instruction has already done, and is doing, excel-
lent work in this direction. There are now in existence also the
Juvenile Advisory Boards established by Government in Cape-
town, Durban and Johannesburg. In Capetown this Board has
put itself into communication with the Cape Division School
Board, and cards are provided to the teachers at the different
schools for registering the pupiis who are anxious to be em-
ployed in a ];articular trade. Lists are also made out of the
pupils that are likely to leave school at the end of a term. In
this way employers and apprentices are brought into relation-
ship. An indenture form is being prepared by the Advisory
Board, on which, I may say, the trades are represented, and in
this form compulsory attendance at an evening school or con-
tinuation classes is a chief feature.

An endeavour is also made to include compulsory attendance
at day sch(X)ls for vocational or general instruction. Pressure
is also exerted to make compulsory day attendance at school a
feature in the agreement entered into by apprentices in the Gov-
ernment and City Council offices.

This year a beginning will be made with the erection of an
up-to-date Technical Institute, which will cost about £40,000,
on a most central site granted by the Corporation of Capetown.
The character of this Institute has not been finally settled, but
there is no doubt that it will take the form, more or less, of
a Trades School, at the outset at any rate.

At present there are in connection with the Cape School
Board five night schools, with an attendance of 386 pupils, and

*Rept. S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of Science, Pretoria (1915), 694-71

/•

84 PKESlDliNTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

two technical night schools, w itii an attendance of 556, while in
the ordinary day schools there are over 1,500 pupils who take a
ftill domestic science course, and over 2,000 that take woodwork.
It is felt, however, that night work is not altogether satisfactory,
and that all apprentices should attend day classes.

The only trade schools that we have as yet in the country
— if we except the trade schools in Johannesburg' — are confined
to institutions that deal with poor boys and girls whose board
is also provided for. These are enabled to kee]) going by con-
tributions from chtirches and private individuals.

The ciuestion as to whether trade schools as they have them
in Holland — which are attended by pupils before employment —
ought to be started throughout the tlnion has yet to be settled,
but a serious attempt is now made to adopt the system of
daylight continuation classes concurrently with employment.

But is there not needed something more? The State cati
provide trade schools an.d technical institutes for those who
have reached the compulsory school-going age. and a certain
standard. But do we not need further State supervision of
those who leave school at 15 with a limited education, and drift
into blind-alley occupations which offer an apparently good
wage, but leave them at 18 a drug in the market? Do we not
need " a com])ulsory extension of the age at which a boy or a
girl is allowed to drop all educational training and to plunge
into his or her life-work without any further supervision or
guidance"? Mr. Arnold Freeman pro])oses the following reme-
dies, and it will be well seriously to consider whether we oug'ht
to supply them: —

1. The statutory reduction of the hours of juvenile lalxiur.

2. Compulsory contintied education.

In the Report of the Committee on Industrial lulucation
presented to Parliament this year, we find several excellent sug-
gestions. Among them there is one on which more stress might
have been laid- — namely, the provision of rural schools of in-
dustry and school farms. I am strongly in favour of agricul
tural schools at suitable centres, and in connection with the
School Boards, and of a type much less elaborate than the fuUy-
ecfuipped and expensive schools at Elsenburg, Grootfontein and
Cedara. There is a great need of men as overseers on farms,
and it is to meet this need that such schools ought to be started.
An experiment has been made at Grootfontein with some 15
]>oor boys with this in view. And Mr. Thornton assured me
that the results were excellent. But Elsenburg and Grootfon-
tein offer an excellent op{>ortunity for the training of teachers
for such primary agricultural schools or school farms. xAnd
most stiitable centres would be the different irrigation settle-
ments that are increasing in the country, and where the number
of children is usually large. Such schools could also be opened
in the neighbourhood of large towns, where market-gardeninu'
and poultry-keeping are remunerative undertakings. There has

l'Ki:Sll)iiNTlAL ADUKliSS — SECTION D. 85

been considcral^le discussion as to the advisability of a uniform
elenientary school curriculum for the whole Union.

There is, 1 think, a ureat deal more to be said for more
flexibility in this res])ect. and for adapting the school course to
the environment of the ])U])ils with a special vocational bias,
from the lower standards upwards. To illustrate this point. A
school at the sea-coast, say at Alnizenberg. where there is a
marine station, could utilise the enxironment for interesting the
puj)ils in marine zoology. Another country school could easily
familiarize its pupils with the insects of the neighbourhood,
which have jjroved to be either beneficial or harmful. May 1
throw out the suggestion that our scientitic men should arrange
for a series of elementary text-books suitable for the lower
standards in our schools? Indeed, a great deal of elementary but
accurate information on local botany and zoology can be im-
parted through ordinary " school readers." Perhaps this Asso-
ciation might take this matter into consideration. We know
how much has already been achieved in botanical study through
the fact that most High Schools for Girls make a speciality of
botany in the Matriculation course. To-day we owe the excel-
lent work of lady experts in the (Government service and in
the University colleges to this fact.

But w'hy begin and end with botan}' ? Zoology others as
engrossing a sphere of investigation. Why should not a school
on the coabt take it up as regards marine animals? Take, again,
the question of the de\eIopment of electrical energy from water
|X)wer. There is no doubt of an enormous de\elopment in the
future along this line throughout the world. In the South of
France, owing to the shortness of coal during the present war,
numerous munition factories have spnmg up at the base of the
French Alps, and incredible quantities of shells are manufac-
tured by power derived from the glaciers, to which the French
point with pride as their " white coal." It may be argued that
in this country there is not much potential energy in our streams.
There are, however, districts where this is available, such as the
Knysna, the Transkei, the Stellenbosch, Paarl, Worcester dis-
tricts ; and there is the water power of every irrigation settle-
ment. There are portions of the Free State along the Drakens-
berg. and of Natal, and of the Northern Transvaal. There are
parts of Switzerland where small farmers have their own electric
installations : the same is the case, T believe, in Norwa}-. Is it
not ])ossi1>le that the school course at stich jjlaces shall bear
as much as ]x>ssible in this direction?

Closely connected with the c|uestion of industrial instruc-
tion is that of bri)igin(/ vz'cry child of school-going age into the
school. The task is not so sim])le even in the case of large
centres. Take this as the experience of the Cape Division School
Board. In 1906. when the Board came into existence, we found
6.754 children in the schools, and for the most part in unsuit-
able buildings : the average number of ]jupils for the quarter
ending Ueceml)er 31, 1<;|6, was 15.602. At the ])resent moment

86 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION D.

there are about i.ooo more, and nearly all the large schools are
overcrowded. We can barely keep j^ace with the normal growth
of the population. To overtake it and the large influx fnjm
without means more expendittire i>n l)uildings, heavier outlay
on equipment, and a continual increase in the number of scholars.
This, however, is mainly a question of money. But there is a
large number — some lo.ooo — of children of school-going age in
the Cape Province alone, not to speak of the other Provinces
of the Union, who are growing up without proper instruction.
How are we to reach these? In many cases the people live so
far apart that even farm schools are impossible, unless you ap-
point a teacher for every two or three children, which would
mean an enormous expenditure.

An attempt is now to be made to reach these children by
an offer of the Provincial Council (Cape) to provide grants of
ii8 per annum towards boarding such pttpils in hostels to be
provided by some local authority, say the Church, in the neigh-
bourhood of a suitable central school. The R,eix>rt of the Com-
mittee on Indu.strial Education (laid before Parliament this
year, 1917) goes perhaps a little further in its recommendation
of:—

" Provision of hostels and aid to those already existing,
for—

"(a) Indigent children attending all schools;

"(b) Country children attending town schools or central
schools ;

"(c) Indigent and other youn^;: people entering employment
and requiring stipervision."

The above Committee puts this " provision " under the
heading of " Government Action Required." That can only
mean that the Government shall bear the whole btn^den of such
hostels. What the Executive of the Cape Province pro|X)ses is
that some local authority shall undertake this work, the Govern-
ment aid being confined to assistance towards the rent
of the houses, an allowance towards the salary of the
Su])erintendent, and £18 ])er annum for each i)Upil boarded.
I agree with the latter proposal. A hostel ought to be a home,
and a home implies religious and moral control. The body that
undertakes to provide the hostel will regulate all that, and ob-
tains the right of full control of the inmates, on condition that
it finds any further funds for the upkeep of the hostel. It is
to be hoped that advantage will be taken of this, and every
effort made to gather in the children from the outlying districts,
where the parents are unable to afford sending them to a
boarding-school. It is the only practicable solution ; it will be
the most economical from the State point of view. It will give
the best results as far as the pupils are concerned, because they
will have the advantage of the large school and of a different
environment.

The Report above referred to contains other suggestions,
which may l)e commended or criticized, but time does not ]:)ermit

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 8/

nie to travei'se them. Some of the recommendations of the
Committee do not api)ly to the Cape Division School Board, as
what they recommend is already part of its policy.

Another movement which promises fruitful results is the
discussion of the problem of Child Life Protection. The Con-
ference which met in Capetown last March in connection with
the Capetown Society for the Protection of Child Life and the
Johannesburg' Children's Aid Society, proved how wide a field
lies before those who take an intelligent interest in the well-
being of the future citizen.

Siich subjects as the relation of the municipal authority to
the protection of child life and the physical and moral aspects
of the education of children, including medical inspection of
schools, provision for the feeble-minded or " retarded " child-
ren, and the feeding of school children, are eminently subjects
that ought to be scientifically studied, for they involve problems
of psychology, physiology and biology. I do not intend to go
into this to-day further than to call the earnest attention of
this Associatic-"' •♦nd especially of Section D, to this matter.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCI-
OLOGY.

President of the Section. — Rev. Noel Roberts.

THURSDAY, JULY 6.

The President delivered the following address : —

NATIVE EDUCATION, FROM AN ECONOMIC POINT

OF VIEW.

Twenty years ago IXidley Kidd prophesied that " When the
gold mines have been worked out at Johannesburg, it may be
found that our chief asset in South Africa consists of the Native
population."* Two decades have passed, and the gold mines
:.re still being worked ; but, whatever Kidd meant when he wrote
those words, there can be no doubt in the minds of thinking men
and women that the Native iwpulation is one of the greatest
assets of South Africa to-day. We are almost entirely depen-
dent upon the Bantu races for unskilled and domestic labour.
Banish the Bantu ,from South Africa, and we should be faced
with the alternative of importing cheap labour from India,
China, or elsewhere, or of closing down our mines — gold,
copper, tin and coal — our wattle, tea, and sugar plantations,
our tobacco and other industries, all of which depend, more or
less, upon the cheap lalwur provided l)y the Bantu races of this
count ry.f

The economic value of the Native, however, is not to be
gauged merely by his utility as a cheap form of unskilled labour.
The South African Natives undoubtedly possess many talents,
which, if rightly developed, might prove of inestimable value to
our country by increasing its production. They possess wonder-
ful gifts in the management of animals, and if scientifically
trained, should prove to be most successful breeders of cattle,
sheep, goats and poultry. If their natural g'ifts for husbandry
were directed into right channels, our export trade of beef and
mutton, of hides and wool, of cotton and tobacco, of cereals and
fruit, might be increased an hundredfold ; but South Africa, to-
day, is in danger of stagnation because South Africans persist
in the narrow view and allow the fear of competition to stifle
progress.

* " The Essential Kaffir," p. 408.

t All efforts to supplant native labour on the mines, in agriculture,
and in domestic service by the introduction of European unskilled
labourers, are doomed to failure since F.uropean immigrants soon become
conscious of their own superiority and their relation to the labour market,
and refuse to remain in mt-nial positions.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 89

The Native population of the Union in 19 16 was estimated
at 4,504,161,* or, say, 2,253,000 males. f the number of Natives
employed in the Transvaal Labour Districts in 191 5 was as
follows :$ Mines and Works, 228,279 ; other employ, 53,294 ;
making total of 281,573. I have not been aljle to get tlie hgures
for other parts of the Union, but we shall be well over the
mark if we estimate them at 218,427, making a round total of
half a million Natives employed in the Union. This leaves a
balance of about one and threerjuarter millions of male Natives
who are practically unemployed, for it must be remembered
that the greater part of the agricultural work is done by the
women. What an enormous difference it would make if the
latent energy represented by even half this number could be con-
verted into productive power ! And yet year follows year, and
nothing is done to develop such a valuable asset. The conver-
sion of this latent energ)- into producti\e power can only be
effected by education. §

The natural aspirations of the Bantu towards progress and
prosperity have always been seriously handicapped by the
ignorance of the masses, their want of method, the apparent
absence of any jx)wers of application, and by their ingrained
faith in witchcraft. Until we can improve the character of the
Natives, teach them the lesson of self-res])ect, con\ince them
of the value of steady work and of scientific method, and fill
each individual with the desire for progress, they will remain,
not merely an unproductive asset, but a stumbling-block to pro-
gress, because they occupy land and consume produce which
might be put to more prolitable use by others.

There are many difficulties, however, in the way of provid-
ing the necessary " education " which is to make the Native a
useful and productive meml)er nf the community.

The first is to be (found in race {prejudice, and the fear of
competition shewn by our own j>eople.

Race prejudice is due to several causes, among which we
may mention — (1) physical repulsion, which may be compared
to the feeling of the normal healthy man towards a dwarf,
hunchback or otherwise deformed person.

* Statistical Year Book of S.A. (1915-16) i.

t According to last Census returns (1904 and 191 1) males nnmhcred
slightly over 50 per cent, of total ])opulation.

J Statistical Year Book p. 2TI.

§ In order that my meaning may lie quite clear I must ask you to
consider what I mean bj- " education." 1 use this word in the broadest
sense possible to indicate not merely the formal training of body and mind
in our teaching institutions, but also the deeper impressions made on
character by the example of the ruling races and the spiritual influences of
religion. The native is being educated whether we send him to school
or not. The illicit liquor dealer, the prostitute, and the gambling den are
all playing their part in the education of the native to-day, and as long
as there is contact between the white and black races the process of
" education "' will go on, and the sooner we in South Africa realise this,
and set to work to control that process, the better it will be for the
natives themselves and fur the count rv as a whole.

go PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

(2) To natural attraction tozvards one's oion kind — "Us
s'asscmblent qui rcsemhlcnt." We see this every day in religion,
in politics, in trades unions, and in class distinctions and all the
problems of caste, as well as in racial prejudice.

(3) To the instinct of self-preservation. — This is the
natural legacy from a generation constantly threatened with
annihilation by savages.

A close study of the reports presented to the First Universal
Races Congress in London in 19 11 seems to jx)int to the fact that
race prejudice may be overcome in the course of time, but how-
ever little justification there may be for the existence of this
prejudice on moral or physical grounds, the fact remains that
to-day it is one of the most serious obstacles to the ui)lifting
and regeneration of the Bantu races of Africa.

Fear of competition is only a variation of the instinct of
self-preservation. It may be as well, however, to point out that
there are no really serious grounds on which fear of competi-
tion /from the natives can be based. The mental equipment of
the white man is so vastly superior to that of the Bantu that the
latter has about as much chance of success in the struggle for
progress as a man whose opj^onent is given fifty yards start in
a hundred yards race. Those who croak about the danger of
Natives ousting white men from their work seem to take it for
granted that as the Native progresses in efficiency the white
man will stand still. As a matter of fact, the progress of the
white man should l)e directly proportionate to the progress of
the lower race. It is true that the tortoise in the old fable won
the race, but it was only because the hare went to sleep ! The
argument that the development of the latent powers of the
Natives should- be retarded lest they should l>eat us in com])€ti-
tion appears to me to be an insult to the intelligence of the
white man.

Finally, it must l)e borne in mind that the progress and
prosperitv of a community or State are directly dependent on the
progress and prosperity of every section and individual of wdiich
it may be composed.

Another serious difficulty encountered by the advocate of
Native Education lies in the zvant of self-respect generally found
■ in the Native character. For centuries the negro races have
been taught, by bitter experience, that they are inferior to their
white-skinned masters. From childhood all opposition and self-
assertion have been crushed, and the effect upon the race may
be seen in the want of faith in his own inability shown by almost
every individual of Bantu origin. It is true that success engen-
ders' self-conceit in many individuals, but even in such cases
there is generally an undercurrent feeling of self-consciousness,
which in itself indicates weakness of moral fibre.

Now self -depreciation is a serious fault in any character,
and in the Bantu races it is largely responsible for the moral
depravity and the lack of initiative, application and stamina, of
which they are frequently accused. The fact that: tliis self-

rUESlDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 9 1

depreciation has been goino- on for centuries makes it doubly
difficult to cure : it has become part of the heritage of the Negro
race. It can be eradicated only by the exercise of great patience
and tact in all our dealings with natives. There will always be
the danger of individuals ^oing to extremes and ])ecoming in-
flated with ideas of self-importance, and though they generally
end by making themselves the laughing-stock of their own
])eople as well as of Europeans, for a time, at least, they seriously
hamper those who have the welfare of the Bantu at heart.
Infinite patience and tact, therefore, are essential (|ualifications
required b)' those who are in any way responsible for the educa-
tion and development of the Bantu races, if we are to teach them
the lesson of self-respect, and make them a real and living asset
to the community and the State.

The greatest difficulty of all is to be found in that faith in
witchcraft, which is instilled into the minds of Natives in
youth, and especially during the rites i)erformed on the attain-
ment of puberty. I have tried elsewhere* to show that witch-
craft forms the normal basis on which Native thought is built
up, in much the same way as Science is the foundation of life
and thought in our " Western "" civilization. The border-line
between Magic and Science is sometimes a very narrow one.
Take, for example, the well-known fact of Science that the
growing embryo is alYected by the environment or even by a
transitory m(x:)d of the mother, and compare this with the
classical example of Jacob's use of Magic for increasing his own
wealth at the expense of his father-in-law. t Such practices are
■<till of every-day occurrence among the " raw," untutored in-
liabitants of this land. No effort is -pared in their endeavour to
weave a protective web of witchcraft about the fields and flocks
and homes of family and tribe, and a very large part of life is
devoted to the observance of rites pertaining to the preservation
or enhancement of the fertile ]>owers of Nature.

In common with all believers in witchcraft, the South
African Bantu believe in a close interrelation between all the
reproductive powers of Nature. Thus the influence of a " fer-
tile " woman (that is. a woman who is the mother of a large
family) is re^jarded as " catching." in much the same way as we
look upon influenza, whooping-cough, or measles as "catching"
under certain conditions. These ])eople believe that not only
are other human beings susceptible to the influences of fertility
or sterility, but these conditions or powers may be transmitted
to animals and even to the vegetable world. Hence the growth
of " fertility rites," which have as their object the regulation
of the ifood supply and the increase of the power and wealth of
the family or tribe.

In most of the tribes of the Northern Transvaal there will

*" Bantu methods of Divination," Kept. S.A. Assn. for Adv. of
Science: Maritzburg (1916), .^97-408.
t Genesis xxx. 37-43.

92 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

be found a hut calleil the " Nfola oa Koina,"'^' which is at otice
the focus and the source of all the fertility rites of the tribe. It
is a sacred shrine and taboo to all uninitiated persons. The hut
itself is of phallic design, and consists of a central chamber en-
closed within an outer one. In the dark recesses of the outer-
chamber or passage are stored the dikomana or magic drums,!
which are consecrated by human sacrifice, and play a large part
in fertility and in war rites. These drums are regarded as the
earthly shrine of the tutelary spirit of the clan in much the
same way as the Ark was looked upon as the earthly tabernacle
of Jehovah by the Israelites. Beyond the drums is placed the
store of sacred seed, which I will describe presently. The
central chamber is separated from the outer one by a wall of
stone. All newly-married couples spend the first few niglits of
their wedded li\es within the sacred precincts of this hut, in
order that a numerous offspring of their union may be assured;
and it is used as a dormitory for girls during the rites which
are practised on attaining the age of j^uberty, with the same pur-
pose in view. The efi:"ect of the continuous use of the Ntloa
oa Koiita for this purpose, especially by those who subse(|uently
present the tribe with large families, is a reflex one, and th.e
efficacy of the building is reinforced. The interrelation of the
fertile powers of human beings and of the crops is illustrated by
the store of seed already mentioned. This consists of a hollow
vessel resembling one of the cylindrical seals used by the ancient
Babylonians in general shape, made of a composition of cow-
dung and beeswax, in which seed is stored in layers, separated in
at least one tribe ( Moletshie) by layers of human skin. At
sowing time each householder is given a ifew grains from this
store, which he mixes with the seed he is about to sow, in (uxler
that the fertility abst)rbed dtu-ing storage in the Kauma hut may
be imparted to the subsequent crop. Kidd's description of the
Zulu custom of cutting- up certain organs from the body of a
man and scattering them o\er the fields to ensure fertilitv is
another exam|)le of the same kind.! It would be possible to
enlarge U])on this subject for hours, l)Ut I think the few examples
T have quoted should suffice to make my point clear when 1 plead
that until faith in zvitchcraft is eradicated it 7cill never he possible
to educate the N'afiz'es in scientific methods of stock-farming^
and agriculture. At jjresent all the methods and practices of
civilized man are regarded as merely the superior magic of the
white man. Let us now consider what has been done for the
education of the Bantu in South Africa.

Hie first and most important fact(M- in their edvication is
found in the example set by n'hite men.

* This apparently corresponds witli tiie " Egbo " house of the Bantu
of Central and West Africa described by Ainaury Talbot: " In the Shadow
of the Bush."

t Described in "Bantu methods of Divination," RcM. S..I. Assn. for
Adv. of .Science. Marit/:l)urt; (1916), 397-408.

■| Kidd : "Savage Cliildlicod." Appendix C. p. 291.

PKi:SIDl£M-lAL ADDRESS SKCTIOX K. 93

I put this first as it affects practically the whole race. L'ro-
bably the earliest impression of the white man and his ways is
g'aiaed from the trader who establishes himself in the neighbour-
hood of the kraal. In many cases these traders are men of good
reputati(;n, and set an examj>le of ]>robity and integrity which
cannot be gainsaid. In a very large miml)er of cases, however,
the reverse is true. Far removed from the restraining influences
of public opinion, and living in a strange, moral atmosphere, the
downfall of the man's character is sure and ra])id. The curious
machin.ations of the Natives' minds while engaged in barter,
their unjust sus])icions of the trader when he is trving to deal
fairly with them, the ease with which they are deceived, their
false ideas of value, their want of logic in some things and their
unfailing log'ic in others, are bewildering at first, but in the
end the trader jjrofits by his superior intelligence, and wins a
fortune from his trade by means which, viewed in the light of
strict morality, are at least questionable. As a race we are
jiroud of our traditions of morality. We are jealous of the
purity of our stock. The maintenance of close relations with c^ne
of dark-skinned race spells social ostracism ; and no taunt stings
more (lee]>ly than the accusation of there being " a touch of the
tar-brush " in a man's nature. But. far removed from the eyes
of their fellows, and surrounded by unaccustomed temptations,
sooner or later most of these men fail in their obligations to their
race, and instead of preserving that attitude oif aloofness which
exalts them in the eyes of their fellow-men, white and black,
they sink to the level of the savages among whom they dwell.
The whole problem of the imdevelo]>ed races is most seriously
aft'ected by the bastard race which is growing up in South Africa
to-day as the result of the practice of concubinage by traders
and others in isolated regions. The cumidative effect of the
example of these scions of civilization is to lower the standard
at which the Bantu aims. The Native does not respect the
white man any the less, but the standard at which he aims is
lower, and this is bad for him on tlie principle that

" He who aims the sky shoots further far
Than he who means a tree.''

The consequence is that when he migrates to the towns in
search of employment, experience and wealth, his awakening is
often a very rude one. He finds he is not able to imitate the
white man who used to be his model at home. Any attempt at
familiar intercourse with a white woman may even endanger
his life. He soon discovers this, however, for he is an adapt-
able creature, and moulds himself to the ways of his employer,
but all the while he obserxes the habits of those around him,
and his education for good or for ill progresses. If he is en-
gaged on the mines, he probably learns to gamble and to drink.
Perhaps, in his ignorance, he may be convicted of a breach of
the strange Pass Laws, and finds himself in prison in company
with others more evil than himself, who teach him to regard

94 PRESIDENTIAL .\DDUI':SS SECTION E.

the white man's law as soniethinj:;- in it to be worshipped (as he
was taught to worship the law of the kraal), l)ut as something
to be overcome or evaded by ctmning and wile. In this way the
process of educating the Native is going on to-day till often
he becomes a nuisance to the State and a menace to society.

On the whole, therefore, it must be confessed that the
lessons learned from the example and environment of the white
man, and from contact with civilization, do not tend to uplift
the Native character, since few Natives have that power of dis-
crimination which comes from experience and from intimate
association with those oi higher ideals than themselves.

The influence of the white man and his civilization upon the
Bantu, however, is not always a ])aneful one. The result of the
work of the Native Affairs Departiiioil, for example, i- most
encouraging. As far as my personal observations have led me.
I cannot speak too highly of those engaged in thi.s branch of
State Administration. As a i^eneral rule, the exami)le set by
officials is a good one, and the paternal interest in the Bantu
people shown by them, coupled with the administration of im-
partial justice and firm discipline, is bound to bear good fruit
in the character of the people with whom they deal ; indeed,
results may be seen even to-day in the staunch loyalty of the
Chiefs and their real affection for the " Government " which
protects them.

The influence of a Government Department, however, is not
far-reaching enough to penetrate to the home life and religious
observances on which character is really moulded. This can
only be done by an appeal to the |)svchic and moral side of man's
nature, and such an appeal is outside the province of the Native
Attairs Department. The following extract from the Report oif
the Select Committee appointed to investigate the question of
" Assaults on White Women " points to the same conclusion :

The evidence of the effect of Christian teaching and education on
the character of natives is very strong. These unquestionably exercise
an enormous influence for good. Administrative action can go but a
short way in that direction. It is a universal complaint that the weakening
of tribal control is having a disastrous bearing on social and family Hfe.
The effect of the introduction of a civilised form of government results
necessarily in the discouragement of ceremonies and customs which,
though barbaric in European eyes, has important consequences in regard
to tribal, paternal and marital authority, and indirectly, on the moral
bearing of the coinmunity. In this evolution, the Commission is convinced
that the restraining and directing influence of the Christian religion and
education, if imparted on right lines, are absolutely essential. There is
abundant testimony of the benelit derived from these agencies, which
should receive the fullest possible encouragement in the interests of the
white as well as the black races.*

Testimony of the same kind is borne by those who were
responsible for the last " Code " of Native Education in the
Transvaal, and by numbers of experts who have examined the
question from an unbiassed point of view.

*- Report of Commission on Assaults on White Women, § 189.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 95

It is therefore to Christian Missions that we look for an
instrument which will enable us to build up the character of this
primitive race. As a close student of missionary methods, 1
would strongly emphasize the value of these reports. x\t the
same time, I feel that more stress should be laid on a danger
which is faintly indicated in the saving clause in the reix)rt just
quoted, namely, that it is absolutely essential that the Christian
religion should be imparted " on right lines." It is obviously
impossible for an individual to define ithe meaning of this clause,
for there would always be a tendency to interpret it in terms
of his own faith or experience. Having made this confession,
however, 1 feel it my duty to attempt the impossible on the
grounds that scientific and human progress are largely dependent
on the mistakes as well as the discoveries of earlier workers.
Hence, if I am right in any of my conclusions, they may be of
service to students of this difficult ])roblem, and if I am i:»roved
to be wrong I shall be the first to acknowledge it.

My observation of missionary methods, coupled with my
judgment of the mentality of the uncultured Bantu, has led me
to the conclusion that the work of the Christian missionary is
one which is highly specialized, and therefore recjuires very
special training, and until this fact is recognized by the Churches
the results of their work among the Bantu are bound to be dis-
appointing and more or less of a failure. In saying this I do
not for one moment wish to discredit the work which has been
done, and which is being done. .Almost without excej)tion the
men who are engaged in this noble work are men of the highest
character, and possess all tite personal (jualifications which are
needed in stich difficult and self-sacrificing work. The fault lies
with those in authority who are re.sponsil)le for the e([uipmenL
of their workers, and for the ideals which they set before them.
The great failure of missionary work among the Bantu lies in
the fact that its outlook has generally been bounded by the
limited horizon of the mission station, or the particular Qiurch
which that mission represents.

Side by side with this parochial spirit there is often a said
want of perspective, and a failure to tmderstand the conditions
of Native thought and life. Over and over again I have heard
young missionaries asking (luestions of Natives which revealed
a complete ignorance of the mental calibre of the black races.
This is not the fault of the individual missionary, for it takes
some time ifor a young worker straight from the intellectual
atmosphere of the University to realize that the plane of thought
to which the Native has attained is vastly inferior to his own.
It is just here that the danger lies, for the teacher naturally
presents to his pupils those aspects of religion which api:)eal most
strongly to his own nature, and when he finds that his converts
follow his " direction '" with all obedience and docility, he is
satisfied that his efi'orts are bearing good fruit.

The mere conformation to the externals of religion, how-
ever, is no criterion to the effect of that religion upon character.

(/) PKESIDF.XTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

This is true, of course, even of more cultured ]>eople, but among
men who have only reached the stage of development of the
Bantu of the present day the danger is intensified many-fold.

R. H. Nassau* is loud in his condemnation of the methods
of the early missionaries in West Africa, and describes the
results of " a Church which two hundred years ago had bap-
tized members by hundreds of thousands, with large churches,
hne cathedrals, schools, colleges, and political backing, and no
other iform of Christianity to compete with it. [and yet] shows
in Kongo to-day no results in the matters of civilization, educa-
tion, morality, or pure religion."

A close study of the methods and aims of South African
missionaries to-day has led me to the conclusion that the same
danger exists here, though perhaps not in the same degree, as
the conditions are somewhat different. Unless missionaries are
verv careful indeed, there will always be the danger of Native
converts regarding Christian rites and ceremonies as the charms
and practices of a sujjerior kind of magic. As long as Chris-
tianitv is regarded in this way Christianity cannot have the power
it otherwise would have in ujilifting and developing the charac-
ters of its converts.

In the course of a paper read before the Central Society for
Sacred Study in Johannesburg a few months ago, the writer
drew attention to this danger, and in the discussion which fol-
lowed, a striking confirmation of Nassau's testimony was
afforded by one who related his ]>ersonal experiences on the
Eastern borders of Rhodesia a few years ago. During a visit
into Portuguese territory he discovered the ruins of a large
church which had been built by one of the early Portuguese
pioneers, but the only other relics of Christianity he could find
were : —

(i) Portions of the wafers used in the celebration of the
Mass, which were worn by men of the tribe as charms,
and which were credited the i)ower of warding off
malaria.
(2) Small images of the Blessed Virgin, which sometimes
formed the sole adornment of the women, and which
were apparently used as fertility charms.

On the other hand, it is only fair to say that the work of
Christian missions in South Africa is not merely superficial.
The effect of Christianity upon the lives and characters of
thousands of Bantu converts is often marvellous in the extreme.

The high moral plane to which Native Christians sometimes
attain may be illustrated by the following incident : About four
years ago, while living in Pietersburg, I acted as agent for a
friend who left the district to take u\) work in Natal. ■ This
friend left a wagon with a Native blacksmith in one of the
locations a few miles from the towri, to be sold by him. Several
months elapsed, and no purchaser could be found, until one day
a Native came to me and offered eighteen pounds for it. I

* " Fetichism in West Africa," p. 211.

PRESIDENTIAr- ADDRESS— SECTION E. 97

accepted the offer and <(ave him a receipt for the money. A day
or two later the hlacksmith came to me in a great state of ex-
citement, as he said he had an offer of over twenty pounds for
the \vai;on. and he was evidently very disai>pointed when I
explained that, as ithe wagon had heen paid for. it was too late
to do anything. He was not content with this, however, but
went to the man who had bought the wagon and spoke to him
in such a way that the latter came to me the following day and
brought me ( 1 think it was) hve pounds, the dift'erence between
the price he had already ])aid and the i)rice which had after-
v,'ards been offered for the wagon. He exjylained that he knew
the original owner of the wagon was a poor man, and as a Chris-
tian he felt he could not allow him to lose by the transaction. I
explained that the deal was strirtl}' in accordance with business
principles, and that there could I)e no legal claim whatever upon
liim ; but he insisted tliat the moral claim existed, and paid the
extra money ho felt he owed. Surely tliis showed a higher sense
of moral obligation than most of us licre present to-day would
have shown, and 1 am absolutely convinced that it was the direct
result of Chri.stian teaching on that man's life!

I have tried to examine the whole pro1)lem of the uplifting
and development of the Bantu from as impartial a i)oint of view
as I can, and the conclusions to which I have come are in close
accord with those of Dr. Kelly Miller, who refers to the enor-
mous value of the Churcli in Iniildino' up the character of un-
developed races in the following terms: —

The Negro Church is not merely a religious institution, hut com-
prises all the complex features of the life of the pco])le. Tt furnishes the
only field in which tlie ncoro has shown initiative and executive energy on
a large scale. There is no other way to reach the masses of the race with
any heneficent ministrations except through the organisation th.'it these
Churches Iiavc estalilislied. Indeed, it is seriouslv to I)e questioned if any
hefated peo|)le in the present state of the southern negro can lie wisely
governed without the element of priest-craft .... Tf it were not
for the Church the great mass of the negro race would he wholly shut
off from any org.mised influence touching them with any sympathetic
intent. . Eliminate the Church and the m.isses of the jieople

would speedily lapse into a state of moral and social degeneration worse
than that from which they are slowly evohinir. Tlie ureal prolijem in the
uplift of the race must he approached through the jnilpit.'''

The relation of Christian Missions to the developiuent and
uplifting Oif the Rantti may be summarized as follows: —

1. Christianit\- undoubtedly exercises an enormous influence

for good uijon the character of the Natives.

2. In order to ensure eff'ective and permanent results from

Christianity —

(a) European luissionaries should be si)ecially
trained for the work. In addition to the usual
course, this training should include the study
of comparative ethnology, and the candidate

* Kelly Miller LL.D.. " Professional and Skilled Occupation " : .A.me-
rican Academy of Political and Social Science, .-Imuils. 49, T4-15.

98 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

should have a working knowledge of the prin-
ciples of magic, together with a clear under-
standing of the relation of magic to religion.

(b) Great care should be exercised in the presenta-
tation of any doctrine to ensure clear compre-
hension on the i)art of the hearers.

(c) Festina lenfe sliould always be the motto of
those engaged in the work of converting the
heathen.

Let us now consider

The Lines on which Native Education should be

Carried on.

They may be considered under three heads, 77*^., Physical.
Mental and Moral.

1. Phxtsical. — It is well to remember that the body is ever
foremost in the thought of the Native, as it is with the child, or
with the animal. His mind has not been cultivated, and his
desires generally seek expression in some ])hvsical wav. Before
the advent of the European, and the restraininji' influences of
civilization, he was able to let loose some of his exuberant si)irits
in other ways. He could hunt wild animals, he could raid his
neighbours and i)lunder their kraals, as long as he had the i)ower
to do so. But under present conditions his natural instincts, and
his desire for excitement and violent exercise, find inadequate
means of expression, and the result is bad for him.

Greater stress, therefore, should be laid upon games for the
Natives than has been done hitherto. Every Britisher knows
the value of boxing and football as a means for working ofif
feelings of this kind. The man who thirsts for the blood of
another feels fully avenged after a good bout with the " gloves,"
and football provides a valuable substitute for the game of w^ar.
Not only do games of this kind serve the purpose of healthy
recreation, but the laws by which they are governed educate
their devotees in the rules of justice and chivalry.

2. Mental. — Men of Bantu race are. as a rule, deficient in
those qualities which are required for inductive reasoning, and
though their powers of deduction are sometimes wonderfully
acute, their conclusions are often sadly discounted by careless-
ness and inaccuracy. The power to reason inductively is pro-
bably what we call a " gift," but it may be subjectively depen-
dent on the development of. the faculties through the exercise
of deductive reasoning powers. The faculty of reasoning deduc-
tively, on the other hand, may be develo])ed by training and
practice, and is largely dependent on the habitual accuracy of
the indi\idual.

If these premises are true, we are brought to the natural
conclusion that if we are to meet with any success in developing
the mental capacity of the South African Native, we must first
train them to be accurate in their reasoning, and, therefore, more
attention should be paid to the mathematical side of Bantu

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. '99

education, since mathematical studies tend to form habits of
accuracy in thouf^ht and judgment.

3. Moral Training. — 1 have ah-eady tried to show that these
people are ca])able of the highest moral development. On the
other hand, it is as well to point out a danger which is not
always seen by people who are not well acquainted with the
Native character. The real character is often hidden under a
heavy veneer of superficiality. In a very large number of cases
the real ideal that is aimed at is not " to be sinless," but '' not to
be knozvn to sin." This, of course, is a failing common to all
races, but it is especially true of the people we arc discussing.
The object we have to aim at, therefore, above all things, is to
secure purity of motive in all actions.

This high c|uality of character can only be attained, except
in rare cases, bv bringing good influences to bear during early
childhood, and by jealously guarding the character so formed
during the dangerous period of adolescence.

There is something particularly winsome in a Native child
who has been well brought u]j, and teachers in Native schools
are often amazed at the intelligence and *' promise " of boys and
girls of ten or twelve. This " promise," however, is rarely iful-
filled, and the time when progress is checked usually coincides
with the period of sexual adolescence. During this time the
wave of intellectual progress and development ebbs, and it is
followed by an overwhelming wave of sexualism which, in many
cases, takes entire po'ssession of their natures to the exclusion
of every other desire. This, then, is the time of life on which
we should concentrate our greatest efforts in our endeavour to
stem the tide of debasing influences, and use our utmost en-
deavour to strengthen the moral fibre of the character of each
individual.

How this can be done may be gathered from the cumidative
evidence of the history of nations, and the known effect of
Christianity upon the Bantu in our own time. In Christian
missions we have an instrument ready at hand by means of
which the moral character of the Biantu can be uplifted and
strengthened. F2very encouragement, therefore, should be given
to the Churches to enable them to carry on the work they are
doing in this direction wisely and well. If they have ifailed at
all during the past, it must be borne in mind that most of their
efforts have been made in the face of indifference, if not of
direct opposition on the part of the white people; and if they
have met with any success at all. it is rather to be wondered at
considering the difficulties they have had to overcome.

At the same time, it is well to remember that, had it not
been for the work of Christian missions, practically nothing
would have been done in the way of providing direct education
for the Natives by means of schools. Even now, according to
the Statistical Year Book for 1914-15, there is only one Govern-
ment " school for Native children " in the Transvaal, as com-
pared with 260 " aided schools," the greater number of which

100 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

have been established and financed by Christian missionary
bodies.

If Christian missions are able to do such good work among
the Native races of this country, it is obviously the duty of the
State to do everything in its power to support and encourage
them in that work. The fact that grants-in-aid are made to
mission schools may l)e taken as a proof that the Government
recognizes the existence of such an obligation. It only remains,
therefore, to see w'hether these grants-in-aid are adequate, and
whether the Government is really fulfilling its obligation to-
wards the Native races.

The cost of education in the South African Union is borne
by the Provincial Councils. The expenditure under this head
for Native Kducation, as far as I haA'e been able to get the
figures for last year, was as follows : —

Natal £21.587*

Orange Free State £4,858t

Transvaal ("Coloured") £29,126:!;

Ca])e Province £ioo,ooo§

This makes a total of £i35o7i.||

The total amount produced by direct taxation of the Bantu
last year was £863.731 4s. 3d-|| The direct benefit received from
the Ciovernment by the Natives may be roughly indicated by
adding the amounts voted to the administration of Justice
(Native Affairs Department) (£294.426). to the amount
devoted to Native Education (£135.571), making a total of
£429,997. If these figures are correct, the excess of revenue
from direct taxation over direct expenditure on the Natives last
year amounted to £433,734!

I am unfortunately not in the position at the present moment
to verify these figures, but I believe I am well within the mark'.

I am not here to-day as the representative of morality and
justice, but I mereh' (piote these figures to .show that the Govern-
ment can and should do far more than it is doing to-day in the
matter oif educating and develojiing one of its greatest assets,
the Bantu population.

The Native problem is acknowledged by all to be the most
difficult problem with which our statesmen are faced to-day, and
it is only by recognition of the principle that the progress and
prosperity of South Africa as a whole must dei)end on the pro-
gress and prosperity of cfcry section of the community tliat a
satisfactory solution can be found.

* Statistical Year Book of South Africa. 1915-16. p. .^o.^.

flbid.,\).s\2.

t This apparently includes '" coloured " as well as Bantu schools. I
believe the amount for "native" schools only amounted to £t8,ooo.

§ I have not been able to get the exact figure devoted to native
schools liy the Cape Provincial Council, l)ut 1 have been told In- one who
had seen the I'lgure tliat it was a1)out iiocooo.

II It is interesting to compare tliis figure with the amount of £2.241,797,
which is tlie sum spent on primary and secondary education in the four
Provinces (exclusive of expenses incurred by the Pul)bc Works Depart-
ment, etc.), during the same period!

T The total revenue from natives in 1910 was £1,419,904 3s. 3d.

LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL

MEETINGS.

Section A.— Astronomy. Matiiematics. Physics, Mlteoro-

LOGY, (iEODESV, SURVEYING, ENGINEERING, ARCHITEC-
TURE, AND iRRrf.ATION.

MONDAY. JULY 2.

1. Address by Prrif. W. N. Roskveare, M.A., President of the Section.

TUESDAY, JULY 3.

2. Tonisatidn of gases and the al)Sor])tion of X-ra\s: L. Simons, B.Sc.
.1. Paralla.v of the faint proper motion star near Alpha of Centaurus :

R. T. A. Inni:s. F.R. \.S., F.R.S.E.

WEDNESDAY. JULY 4.

4. Some problems in terrestrial physics that require attention from

South African phvsicists : Prof. J. T. Morrison, ]\I.A.. B.Sc,
F.R.S.E.

5. The scope of radiology : J. S. v.\n dek Lingen, B.A.

THURSDAY, JULY 5.

6. An electric \chicle charging plant: J. W. Kikkeanh. M..\m.I.rLE.

7. The ])lonoh: W. S. H. CeeV;hokne. l^Sc, .\.M.I.l\lechT':.

8. Mechanical refrigerators: \\. W. ]!l'el.

9. The effect of vegetation on the rainfall of .South Africa: 11. Pealing,

M.Sc.

.^ECTif)N !•). — C■|lE^^lSTK^•, (iKor.dCN, .Met \I.l.^■K(;^•, M 1 ,\ek.\logy,

.AND ( iloOGR.M'IIY.

TUESDAY, JULY 3.

T. Address by Prof. -M. M. Rindl, Ing.D . President of the Section.

2. The geology of the neiglihonrhood <if Stellcnhnscli : I'rof. S. J.

SnANt),"Ph.l).. n.Sc./p.G.S.

llliDMiSDAY. JULY 4.

3. Description (jf a ISaclcrimn wliich oxidises arsi.'nite ■ to arsenate, and

of one which reduces arsenate to arsenite. isi dated from a cattle-
dipping tank: II. H. Gkeen, D.Sc. 1'\C.S.

4. .An old report on the copper field of X'amaqualand : .\. W. Ro<;ek-s,

iM.A.. Sc.L)., F.G.S.

5. Note on the micro-titration of arsenic: H. H. Gkeex, D.Sc, F.C.S.

THURSDAY, JULY 5.

6. Note upon the analysis of soda-sulphur dips: 1>. J. }1ill.

7. Sea-bamboo (Ecklonia hucciiialis) as a source of jiotash : G. F.

Britten, B.;\.

8. Simple expedients in experinuntal chemistry : Prof. B. de St. J. VAN

DER RiET. M.A., Ph.D.
y. Experimental exi)ression of the relationship between the content of a
foodstuff in anti-neurn:c hormone and the period of healthy
survival of animals u]wn it: H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.
10. The vitamine cc>ntent of maize and maize milling products, and the
ambiguity of its relation with the pliosithnric oxide content: }I. H.
Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

l02 LIST OF PAPERS RE At) AT THE SECTIONAL MEETINGS.

11. On the fate nf arsenic after ingestion 1)\ livestock, and alter absorp-

tion through the skin in dipping: H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

12. The place of protein in nutrition : J. C. Ross, B.A., Ph.D.

13 A South African iron industry; prospects and possibihties : Prof. G.
H. Stanley, A.R.S.AI.. M.I.M.M.. .M.I.M.E.. F.T.C.

Section C. — Bacteriology, Botany, Zoology, A(iRicuLTURE,
Forestry. Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitary
Science.

TUESDAY, JULY 3-
T Intestinal protozoa in relation to the war: Prof. H. B. Fantham,
iM.A.. D.Sc. A.R.C.S.. I'.Z.S.

2. Blood protozoa in relation to the war: Prof. H. B. Fantham,

M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S.

3. Some suitable materials for paper-making : J. Leighton, F.R.H.S.

4. Note on a new genus of Copepoda from a fresh-water fish : Prof. E. J.

GoDDARU, B.A.. D.Sc.

5. A plea for Vermian Parasitological Research, with reference to

South African Domestic an.d Native Animals: C. S. Grobbelaar.
M.A.

6. A plea for greater attention to physiologry in the teaching of Zoology :

Prof. E. J. GonuARD. B.A.. D.Sc.

7. The classification and affinities of the iiirudinea: Prof. E. J. Goddakd,

B.A.. D.Sc.

8. Some field results of fertilising maize : J. F. W. Gatherer.

9. The Hemichorda and their significance in relation to the Invertebrata

and Chordata: Prof. E. J. Goddakd. B.A., D.Sc.

10. Note on the origin of Metamevism : Prof. E. J. Goddaud, B.A., D.Sc.

11. Some notes on the cotoration of reptiles and ampliibians found near

Kimberley, C.P. : J. H. Power.

12. Fames applanatus (Pers.) Wallr. in South Africa, and its effect on

the wood of Black Ironwood trees (Olea laurifolia) : P. A. van
der P>yl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

13. The sup])Iing-kiln as a means of destroying insects boring in wood:

C. W. Mally. AI.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

14. The grain bug or Stinkvlieg (Blissus diplopterus Dist.) : C. W.

Mally. M.Sc. F.L.S., F.E.S.

15. Linseed oil as an insecticide: C. \V. Mallv. M.Sc. F.L.S. , F.E.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 4.

16. Address b\ J. I'.i ktt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., President of the Section.

17. The ascent of sap in plants: Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

18. South .African Myxomycetes : Miss A. V. Duthie, M.A.

19. Variation in Ageratum coiiycoidcs (Family Cpmp®sit;e): S. Ci.

]i\cii, M.A.. B.Sc.

20. The plant succession in the Thorn Veld: Prof. T. W. P.ews. M.A..

D.Sc

21. Some factors in the replacement of the ancient East African forests

by wooded pasture land: C. F. M. Swynnerton, F.L.S., F.hlS.
F.R.H.S.

22. Geographical distribution of the South African Bryophyta : T. R.

SlM.

23. Notes on the crenus MvrstroPefalnu IJarv. (Balanophoraceai: Prof.

R. Makloth, M.A., "Ph.D.'

24. A key to the families and genera of Spermatophyta in the Transvaal

and Orange Free State: J. Burtt-Davv, 1<.L.S.. F.R.G.S.

THURSDAY, JULY 5.

25. A preliminary note on dwarfs appearing in Gluyas Early (Wheat)

hybrids :'j. PL .X'eethling, M.Sc

LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL MEETINGS. IO3

26. The volatile acidity of wine; particularly that produced by pure

cultures of yeast: A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D.

27. X'otes on anhydrous liquid hvdrocvanic acid as a fumigant : C. W.

Mallv, M.Sc, F.L..S.. F.'E.S.

28. Opportunities for the selection and hrcedin<i- of desirahle strains of

heneticiali insects: C. W. AIallv, M.Sc./F.L.S., F.E.S.
20. Natural enenn'es of the Argentine ant, Iridoiiivrnte.r JuDnilis Afnvr. :

C. W. Mau.y. Af.Sc. F.L.S.. F.E.S.
30. Notes of fibre produced from some of the most useful indigenous and

exotic plants in the Cape Province: J. LEuaTTON, F.R.H.S.

FRIDAY. JULY 6.

3T. PlaiU toxins, a cause of infertility in soils: a South African observa-
tion: A. Stead, R.Sc. F.C.S.

^2. Some phases of applied entomolojrv in South Africa : E. S. Cogax,
M.A., Ph.D.

33. .An interesting case of insect mutualism : Rev. N. Abraham. F.R.M.S,

3.1. Hermaphroditism in Mrfa)iastri(i pitlivocaiiipa Cram.: F. W. Pkttkv,

r..A.

35. The re>pirat(iry organs (>( a uolonectid: S. Ci. Ru h, M.A.. H..Sc.

^6. The respiratorv rectum of the nvniph of ^fc.'!Ogo^)lf^luls (Odonata) :

S. G. Ricii. M.A., B.Sc.
37. A suggested mechanism for the inheritance of acquired characters:

T. F. Drever, B.A., Ph.D.
?8. The woolly aphis (Eriosoiiia la)iiiiera) as a factor in apple culture:

C. W." AIau.v. M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S
^9. Xocardia cxlindricca: a South African Otomvcosis: W. E. dk Koktk.

M.B., "M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Section D. — Education, History, Mental Science, Political
Economy, General Sociology, axd St.xttstics.

TUESDAY, JULY 3.

T. .Sanscullotised literature in France: Prof. R. D. Nauta.

2. The proposals for a leajrue of peace — British and American : Rev. R.

Balmforth.

WEDNESDAY. JULY 4.

3. Neglected Imperial assets: Mrs. J. F. Sor.LV.

4. Ars Sophoclis interpretandi : with special reference to the Trachiniai :

H. G. ViL.TOE.v. B.A.. D.Litt.
=;. Noie on the relation between mind and bodv : Prof. T. Af. Forsyttt,
M,A„ D.Phil.

6. Notes on Irving Fisher's Theory of Gold: A. .\ikex.

7. National Gilds — a hint toward reconstruction : R. T. A. Innes,

F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S.

8. Agricultural education in South Africa: A. L Perolh. B.A., Ph.D.

THURSDAY, JUL)' 5.

9. Address by Rev. B. P. J. Marchand^ B.A., President of the Section.

10. Agricultural education in Australia: C. F. Juritz, M..A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

11. Some sense defects psychologically considered: Rev. F. C. Kolbe/

B.A., D.D.

12. F. \V. Foerster and some neglected factors in education: Rev. Prof.

J. I. Marais, B.A.. D.D.

13. The philosophic limits of science: Rev. S. R. Welch, B.A., D.D.,

Ph.D.

14. A ])lea for the classics in women's education : Miss K. M. Eari.e,

15. Industrial development: K. ArSTiN, M.Am.l.M.E.

104 LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL MEETINGS.

FRIDAY, JULY 6.

i6. The grasses of the Eastern Coast belt available ior the manufacture

of paper: C. F. Jukitz, M.A.. D.Sc., F.T.C.
17. The movement towards a national svstem of technical education; VV.

J. MoHNE. A..A1.T.C.E., AM.l.K.i'.
tS. The decimal svstem ; measures, weights, coinage : W. J. Hor.ne,

A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.E.E.

19. Entomological education in the United States: E. S. Cogan, M.A.,

Ph.D.

20. Markets : P. J. dti Toit.

Section \i. — Ant!ikoi'ol()(;\-, IvriiNoLocv. Native Imxjcation,
Philology, and Native Sociology.

TUESDAY, JULY 3.

T. Binet-Simon tests on Zulus: S. G. Run. M..\., li.Sc.

2. Our language and tin- native i)upil : S. (i. Ricn, AI. \., P.Sc.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 4.

3. Wit and wisdom of.thr llantn, as illustrated by their ])roverbial say-

ings : J. .M( 1,AKK\. \\.\.
^. The origin and meaning of the name " I U^ttentot " : Rev. Prof. J. DU
Plkssi.^, i;.a.. J',.D.

THURSDAY. JULY 5.

5. Address by Rev. X. Rokkrts, President of the Section.

6. Nativt ideas of cosmology: Rev. S. S. Dokn.xn, M.A., F.G.S.

7. The alleged arrest of mental development in the native: C. T.

LouA.M. M.A.. LL.P... Ph.D.
S. The future of the P)antu peojde : VV. \\.\\. ].V.

I- h' I DAY. JULY 6.

ij. i he need and value of an academic study of Xative Philology and
Ethnology: Rev. \V. .A. Xokton. P.A.,' B.Litt.

10. Stenography as an aid to the phonetic analysis and comparison of

Bantu languages : Rev. W. A. Xourox. B..\.. B.Litt.

11. Sesuto etymology: Rev. W. A. Nokton, B.A.. TS.Litt.

\2. Bantu place names in the Cape Province: Rev. |. R. L. Kini;on, M.^\..

F.L.S.
f3. Some Central African folk-lore tales: Rev. J. R. E. Kingon, ATA.,

/:

SEA BAMBOO (ECKLONfA BUCCINALIS) AS A
SOURCE OF POTASH.

By Gilbert Frederick Britten, B.A.

{Plates 2-3.)

During- the past few months the author has been engaged
in carrying- out laboratory experiments to determine whether
it was possible to establish in South Africa an industry for the
manufacture of a chemical which had hitherto been entirely
imported, and which there was reason to anticipate could be
more profitably made here. The results of these investigations
are not yet ready for publication, but I may mention that in the
search for raw materials I was led to a consideration of the
available sources of potash in South Africa, and of these I
determined to examine seaweed, and more particularly that
variety of seaweed which abounds in proximity to the shores
of the Cape Peninsula known as sea bamboo. The literature
upon the subject, regarded from a South African standpoint, is
not very informative. In 1908 Juritz* drew attention to the
possibility of seaweed as a source of potash, and quoted exten-
sively ifrom various European and American authorties, men-
tioning that in the Channel Islands

the practice obtains of allowing the seaweeds to dry near the shore,
and stacking- them, when dry, near the houses, to be used as fuel con-
stantly kept burning on the hearths. The ash thus obtained is sold at
about 6d. per bushel, and is applied to the soil at the rate of 2k tons per
acre when the wheat is sown. The ash thus applied is probably very
imperfectly burnt, but Golfier-Besseyre has found that many a seaweed
ash as obtained in practice, contains up to and over 50 per cent, of water-
soluble salts. These salts have yielded the following percentage results
upon analysis : —

Potassium sulphate 11 to 44

Potassium chloride 12 to 35

Sodium chloride 9 to 70

Sodium sulphate o to 35

Sodium carbonate o to 15

More recently, Lundie and Hallackf have undertaken the
analysis of several kinds of seaweeds growing adjacent to the
coast-line of the Cape Peninsula. The following table is taken
from their report: —

* '"The Utilisation of Seaweeds for Manurial Purposes and in other
Industries": Agric. Jouni. C.G H. (1908), 501.

t Rept. S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of Science, Capetown (1910) 186.

I06 SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

Organic Nitro-
Water. Substance, gen. Ash.

Sea grass (Enteromorpha intcstinalis) 77-44 17-64 .567 4.80

Algae (Ulva^ laciicca) 78.04 18.8 .35 3.16

Fucus palmatus* (" sea bamboo " ) ... 86.42 8.71 .071 4.87

The Ashe.s of these substances contained : —

Phosphoric
Lime. Potash. Oxide.

Sea grass 28.58 16.01 4.48

Algae (Sea Point) 28.96 11.34 5-57

Algse, 1st sample (False Bay) 19-87 — 6.9

Algae, 2nd sample (False Bay) 21.78 9.5 9.98

Fucus (Sea Point) 9.48 30.9 6.59

Fucus (False Bay) 7.16 44.31 3.87

The information so far available did not, however, disclose
exactly what was required, and this resulted in my carrying
out analyses to determine the nature and amount of the soluble
salts of the ash of the sea bamboo. Samples were selected from
various parts of the Cape Peninsula, two beins: obtained at dif-
ferent spots on the coast at Sea Point, one at Clifton-on-Sea, and
one at (Tamp's Bay. The analysis of these samples is as follows :

Table I., — Composition of Fresh Pi..\nt.

Lt-cality Sea Point. Clifton-on-Sea. Sea Point. Camps Bay.

Stems. Leaves. Stems. Leaves. Stems Leaves. Stems. Leaves.

Weight in grammes ... 691 647 745 2260 487 710 761 1430.5

Diameter of thickest por-
tions in millimetres ... 43 — 33\ — ::i3 — 38 —

38I
Tliickness of walls of
stems in millimetres .. 7.5 — 7-0 ] — 7.5 — 8.5 —

7-5l
Ratio Stems: Leaves ... 1.07:1 — -33:1 — .69:1 — -53 :i —

Moisture 87.20 81.26 86.18 82.67 85.39 83.59 86.48 81.38

Organic Matter 7.49 12.91 8.60 12.10 9.76 12.15 8.12 12.79

Ash 5.31 5-83 5-22 5.23 4.85 4.26 5.40 5.8.?

The samples were ashed, and upon analysis gave the following figures: —

Table IL — Composition of Ash.

Locality Sea Point. Clifton-on-Sea. Sea Point. Camps Bay.

Stems. Leaves. Stems. Leaves. Stems Leaves. Stems. Leaves.

Total soluble salts 84.78 83.13 87.30 82.59 84.80 84.03 86.94 82.01

Lime 5.76 6.28 5.06 5.58 5.25 5.75 S-65 7.13

Magnesia 3.59 5-05 3-25 4-62 3.67 5.00 3.68 5.26

Phosphoric oxide 1.04 1.51 1.22 2.28 1.09 1.56 1.25 3.27

* This refers to the same species as the title.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Sc^ENCE.

1917. Pl. 3.

Sea Baiilboo wasbotl up at Clifton-oii-Sea.

G. F. Britten.— Sea Bamboo as a Source of Potash,

SEA H AM !!()() AS A SOTKCK OF POTASH. IO7

The composition of the water-sokible portion is given in Table IIL

Table No. III. "'<

Composition uk Water- Soluble Portion, Calculated in Terms ok Whole Ash.

Locality Sea Point. Clifton-on-Sea. Sea Point. Camps Bay. Average.

Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves-
Lime 60 .26 .35 '.32 .53 .16 .61 .40 .52 .29

Magnesia 79 .13 .16 .16 .29 .16 .43 .28 .42 .18

Potash as K2O ... .37.45 25.38 39.63 25.32 36.58 25.62 39.98 25.44 38.41 25.44
Soda (calculated) as

XazO TI.14 20.99 11.64 -'O.60 12.17 21.21 II. 01 19.96 It. 49 20.69

Carbon dioxide ... 3.29 2.12 2.7J 1.87 2.70 1.16 3.16 2.60 2.98 1.94

Sulphuric oxide ... 3.61 7.92 4.45 8.29 4.58 8.55 4.44 9.04 4-27 8.45

?'?'''"^ 3469 33.30 35.58 33.02 34.32 34.67 35.30 30.85 34-97 32.96

Ratio —

Potash; Soda ... 3.36 r.21 3.40 r.24 3.00 1.21 3.63 1.27 3-35 '23

It will be seen that there are not ver}' great variations in
composition, and the conclusion to be drawn would appear to
be that the sea bamboo is fairly constant in composition. At
this point of the investigation, however, I was fortunate enough
to be able to visit Kommetje, a spot where the sea bamboo grows
more thickly than at any other place in the Cape Peninsula.
There was a heavy sea running at the time, and as the seaweed
was growing some distance away from the shore, it was out of
the question to take a sample from a growing plant. The beach
was, however, strewn in every direction, as far as one could
see, with immense quantities of this particular kind of seaweed,
and I decided to take what was at my disposal. I selected the
largest specimen of a plant evidently freshly washed up, and
cut a section from the stem, and took i^art of the leaves. Some
idea of the size may be gathered from the statement that the
stem was about 12 feet long, and at the thickest part measured
120 millimetres in diameter, while the walls of the stem were
15 mm. thick. There was no means of taking the whole plant,
so that no ratio between stem and leaves is given, nor are the
figures for the percentage of moisture and of ash considered
sufificiently reliable to be included. The composition of the ash
was as follows : —

In Percentages

Stems. Leaves.

Total soluble salts 92.08 78.69

Lime 3.10 8.30

Magnesia 2.08 5.78

Phosphoric oxide .47 2.66

I08 SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

Water-Soluble Portion :

Stems. Leaves.

Lime 76 23

Mag-nesia 40 .19

Potash 46.90 26.67

Soda (calculated) as Na.,0 7.90 17.62

Carbon dioxide 1-93 3-19

Sulphuric oxide 2.53 7.81

Chlorine 40-80 28.87

Ratio— K2O: Na.O 5.93 i-5i

It was apparent that the very considerable increase in the
amount of soluble salts in the stem could be explained in only
two ways : either the larg^er amount of potash was due to the
greater maturity of the plant, or the variety growing at Kom-
nietje yielded higher figures. To ascertain which of these views
was correct, a sample was taken at Clifton-on-Sea from the
stem only of a plant about 10 feet in length (exclusive of
leaves), the dimensions being, at the thickest portion, 80 mm.
in diameter, and walls 13.5 mm. thick, and at the thinnest por-
tion 20 mm. in diameter and solid. Five portions of this, about
six inches in length, were taken at equal intervals of the whole
length of the stem, and in addition the flat portion adjacent to
the leaves was taken as a sixth sample. The analysis of these
samples gave the following results.

Table j

\'o. IV.

Total

Diameter in

Weight

Percentage

Soluble Salts

Thickest Part.

in Grammes.

of Potash.

Per cent.

25 mm.

13-2

35-05

83.3

38 mm.

^2T,

44-91

91.2

45 mm-

167

46.01

91.8

63 mm.

319

45.66

92.8

80 mm.

472

43-81

93-4

—

152

35.65

88. T

(N.B. — The first sample contained the " hold- fast," which
may account for the low percentage of potash.)

The figures given above are sufficient to show that it is
not only at Kommetje that the plant reaches the condition of
higher potash content, but that evidently this increase in amount
is due to the greater maturity of the plant.

The hypothetical combination of the various bases and acid
radicles is given in Table VI.

SEA KA.MltOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

109

Table No. V]. — Combination of Basks and Acuj Radicles.

Locality

Calcium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate i
Potassium sulphate
Potassium chloride
Sodium chloride. .
Sodium carbonate

Total found

Total soluble salts

Sea Point.

Clifton

-on-Ser

I. Sea

Point.

Camp

5 Bay.

Average-

Stem. Leaves.

Stem. Leaves.

Stem.

Leaves.

Stem. I

-eaves.

Stem. Leaves.

I . 07 .46

.63

•57

• 94

-29

1.09

• 71

•93 51

I . 66 .27

-34

-34

.61

-34

.90

-59

.88 .39

7-85 17-23

9-68

18.07

9.96

18.60

9.66

19.66

9.29 18.39

52.64 25.47

54-43

24.66

49.46

24.68

55-10

23-49

52.93 24. 58

15.84 34-87

15-82

35-05

17.71

37-75

14.91

32.40

T6.07 35.02

4.70 4.29

5-57

3-47

4-75

2.05

5-32

4-77

5.09 3.64

83-76 82.59

86.57

82.16

83-43

83-71

86.98

81.62

85.19 82.. 53

84.78 83.13

87.30

82.59

84-80

84.03

86.94

82.01

85.96 82.94

Locabtv

The composition of the fresh seaweed has been calculated,
and the figures are given in Table No. VII.

Table No. VIT. — Composition of Fresh Sea weed.

Sea Point. Clifton-on-Sea. Sea Point. Camps Bay. Average-
Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves.

87.20 81.26 86.18 82.67 85

Moisture

Ash 5. 31 5.83 5.22 5.23

Lime 305 .366 .264 .292

Magnesia .191 .294 .170 .242

Phosphoric o.xide .055 .088 .064 .119

Potash I . 989 I . 480 2 . 069 I . 324

Soda (calculated) .692 1.224 .608 1.078

39 83-59 86.48 81.38 86.31 82.23

85 4.26 5.40 5.83 5-20 5-30

255 -245 -305 .416 .282 .330

178 .213 .199 .307 .185 .264

053 .066 .067 .191 .060 .116

574 I. 091 2.159 1.483 1-948 I-34S

590 .904 .505 1. 164 .621 i.fX)'.^

Calculated on the basis of the air-dry material, the following figures are obtained: —

Table No. VTIL — Composition of Aik-dry Material.

Locality Sea Point. Clifton-on-Sea. Sea Point. Camps Bay. Average.

Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves. Stem. Leaves.

Ash 41.48 31. II ZT.T7 30.18 33.20 25.96 39.94 31.31 38.10 29.64

Lime 2.38 1.95 1.91 1.68 1.75 1.49 2.26 2.23 2.08 1.84

Magnesia 1.49 1.57 1.23 1.39 1.22 1.30 1.47 1.65 1.35 T.48

Piiosphoric oxide.. .43 .47 .46 .69 .36 .40 .50 1.02 .44 .65

Potash 15. .54 7-90 14-97 764 10.77 6.65 15.97 796 14-3^ 7-54

Sofia 5.41 6.53 4.40 6.22 4.04 5.51 4.40 6.25 4. .56 6.15

For the sake of comparison I append (Table No. IX) the
composition of kelps from the Pacific littoral of the United
States of America. (" Economic Value of Pacific Coast Kelps."
Bull. 248. Univ. California, p. 199.)

no

SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

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112 SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

The following figures are taken from the publications of the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries (Leaflet No. 254, " Use
of Seaweed as Manure," p. 4) : —

Table XL — Fkesh and Dried Sea Weed.

Organic Nitro-
Water. Matter. gen. Potash.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Fresh Seaweed —

Laminaria digitata, stems

("Driftweed," "Tangle,"' etc.) 82.37 12.31 0.23 1.83

Laminaria digitata fronds 74-75 19-59 0.34 1.28

Fucus ■z'csiculosus | ("Wrack," | 68.17 25.29 0,38 .97

Fucus nodosus \ "Bladder 1-70.52 23.13 0.33 .78

Fucus serratus ( wrack," etc.)) 75.40 19.08 0.36 1.02

Dried Seaweed —

Laminaria digitata, stems — 64.03 1.31 10.49

Laminaria digitata, fronds — 77-28 1.30 5.25

Fucus vesiculosus — 79-71 i - 18 3.07

Fucus nodosus — 78.39 1.13 2.52

Fucus serratus — 77-56 1.50 4.18

Average Potash Content of Ash.

L. digitata. L. digitata. F. vesi- F. F.

(stems), (fronds), culosus. nodosus. serratus.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.

Potash in Ash 28.71 20.99 ^5-29 12.22 t8.6o

It will be seen by comparison with the tables above given
of seaweeds from the coast of America and those of the British
Isles that while our South African bamboo (Ecklonia buccinalis)
is on the whole lower in its potash content than the American
weeds, it is decidedly better in composition than any of the
analyses quoted from the leaflet of the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, especially as concerns the stem. The most noticeable
feature of the investigation has been the very marked contrast
between the constitution of the salts obtained from the stems of
the plant and the leaves, but this is not a matter for surprise, as
a similar result was obtained in the United States of America.
The principal plants of the American Pacific littoral are Macro-
cystis pyrifera and N&reocystis Inetkeana ; both of these grow
in huge groves sometimes hundreds of feet in length. The Eck-
lonia Inicc'malis, on the other hand, though not very much inferior
as a source of potash, is not at all similar to the American
weeds in appearance. At the present moment I am not aware
of any statistics being available as to the distribution of this
particular species of algae ; it is reported that it occurs at intervals
for some hundreds oi miles north of Capetown, but whether
this is so can be a.scertained only by a proper marine surv'ey
of our coasts.

Undoubtedly the chief use for the seaweed at the present
time would be as a fertiliser, and it is quite within the range

SEA BA.M1!:)(^ AS A SOUKClv t)F POTASH. II3

of possibility that in time the huge quantities of seaweed which
are at our disposal may be used not only to supply our own
needs in this respect, but to furnish raw materials for industries
at present dependent upon oversea supplies.

It is a question for practical investigation whether, when
used for fertilisation, it should be applied as harvested or after
being ashed. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, in the
leaflet quoted above, recommend its direct apphcation to land,
remarking that :

Seaweed contains about as nnich nitrogen as farniyaul manure, but.
as it is present as slow acting organic nitrogen, it is scarcely so valuable
as in average dung in which a certain proportion is present in the active
available form of soluble ammonia compounds. As the seaweed decays
rapidly in the soil, however, some of its nitrogen soon becomes available.
The amount of phosphate in seaweed is only about one-half or one-third
that of dung; on the other hand seaweed is on the average considerably
richer in potasli. It will be seen, therefore, that it is desirable as a rule to
supplement it with a phosphatic manure. Seaweed contains no fibre.
and, consequently, does not produce the black fibrous material character-
istic of the dung-heap ; in decomposing it forms soluble substances which
easily wash away. For the same reason it decomposes more complete!}'
than dung. It is even said to facilitate the decomposition of dung on light
soils and in dry districts, but there is no definite proof of this. A ton of
dung and seaweed would break down in the soil more quickly than a ton
of dung alone and would therefore have less of a drying effect if put on
late. The freedom of seaweed from weed seeds and from spores of
disease organisms is of considerable advantage on light soils where weeds
are common, or on soils liable to such diseases as finger-and-toe, the spores
of which can hardly be kept out of dung.

Experiments to test the manurial value of seaweed have been made
at Trondlijem, at the Rhode Island Experiment Station and by a few
workers in Great Britain. In Hendrick's trials seaweed proved fully as
effective as dung for early potatoes, so far as quantity of produce was
concerned, but it somewhat retarded ripening. On the other hand, sea-
weed and superphosphate proved l:'etter than dung and superphosphate.
It is, however, on such gross feeding crops as mangolds and the cabbage
tribe that seaweed would be expected to show its fulK st effects.

Reference has already been made to the fact that seaweed decomposes
more completely than dung, and is converted into soluble or gaseous sub-
stances. It should therefore not be allowed to rot in heaps by itself. l)Ui
should be put straight on to the land, or. if this is not practicable, mixed
with dung or other material which will absorb some of the decomposition
products. The value of a heap of seaweed is much lessened by exposure
to rain but exceptions to this rule may arise in the case of special garden
crops.

Juritz (loc. cit.) says: —

Nothing being thus, as a rule, gained by making compost with sea-
weeds or allowing them to ferment, the practice generally is to employ
such articles as a green manure by way of top-dressings, or to plough
^hem into the soil while fresh, rapid deca\ resulting in the production of
speedy effects on the crops; whvle, in consequence of their prolific growth.
each succeeding season is likely to place ready to h;ind a fresh su])ply of
seaweeds.

So rapid, indeed, is tlie growth of seaweed that at a spot on the
Scottish coast where all the growing seaweed had been removed, within
six months there was again :i thick .growth of ribbon kelp two feet, long,
and of ordinary kel)i six feel long.

114 SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH.

Cattle are declared to thrive excellently upon the grass resulting from
sea-manure and in Jersey particularly this fact is turned to account while
parsnips and turnips are cultivated hy its aid, sup'emented by cow manure;
for mangolds it is also largely used; to potatoes, however, it is said to
impart a disagreeal)le flavour. The practice is to plough the fresh seaweed
two or three inches into the soil in autumn (ir winter, following it up
in the spring by trench ploughing with 20 to 30 tons per acre of farm-
yard manure."

On the other hand, it is a matter open to grave doubt
whether it would be |>ossible to profitably apply the dried kelp
at any place necessitating transport for any great distance, which
would mean that the scope of its utility as a green manure would
be limited to those cultivated areas which are adjacent to the
coast where the kelp is obtained. The alternative method would
be to burn the weed at a low temperature, and either use it as
the ash or after leaching out and evaporation of the salts. It
is of interest to note that the trunk portion of the thallus dries
rapidly in warm weather to a hard brittle condition which would
lend itself to rapid incineration. During the process otf drying
a salt effloresces from the tnmk, which is apparently very much
simpler in composition than the salt obtained after ashing and
leadiing. I am indebted to Mr. E. V. Flack for having analysed
a small i>ortion of this efflorescence, which ga\'e the following
figures : —

Total soluble salts 82.56 per cent.

Chlorine 39-73 per cent.

Carbon dioxide Trace.

Sulphuric oxide Nil.

Potash 50.48 per cent.

Soda (calculated) 1.40 per cent.

Equivalent to 80 per cent, potassium chlor-
ide and 2.6 per cent, sodium chloride.

It will be obvious that if a method of ashing after drying
were adopted, it would be necessary to take precautions not to
exix)se the kelp to rain, and thus lose the valuable constituents.
Probably the best results in fertilization would be obtained by
admixture of the ash with superphosphate ; the immediate efifect
of this mixing with the superphosi)hate would be to cause a
reversion of a portion of the water-soluble jihosphoric oxide in
the latter, but this would not be very serious ; on the other hand,
the mixing w^ould prove beneficial in the end by neutralising sottie
of the free acid invariably found in superphosphate, which is
one of the chief reasons, if not the chief reason, for opposition
to the use of that fertilizer .alone on sour or acid soils. It
must be remembered, too, that the chief constituents of the ash
are the chlorides of potassium and sodium, which are regarded
as injurious for some crops, such as tobacco; generally speaking,
however. I do not anticipate that there will be any very great
objection to their use, as extended use has already been made
in this country of kainit, a fertilizer which contains similar salts,
though not nearly so rich in potash.

SEA BAMBOO AS A SOURCE OF POTASH. I 1 5

Another method of utilisation would be to destructively
distil the dried kelp in iron retorts on a large scale, the products
of distillation being acetic acid, acetone and ammonia, eventually
calcium acetate and sulphate of ammonia ; the charred residue
could then be lixiviated with hot water, and the salts obtained
by solar evaporation. This would have the advantage, too, of
rendering ^XDSsible the recovery of iodine from the mother liquor,
and would conserve the products of combustion, for which there
would be a market in South Africa.

The scope of this paper is purely that of a ])reliminary
investigation ; originally it was started from the point of view
of utility, but it has gone beyond that to the question of recog-
nising that the subject is one of intense interest from a scientihc
standpoint, and that the field for investigation is practically un-
limited. We have bordering on our coasts hundreds of different
varieties of seaweed about the composition of which we know
little or nothing. I have made no attempt in this paper to go
into the question oif the presence of iodine in sea bamboo, nor
have I made any determinations of the amount of protein. These,
with the problem of the composition of the organic matter — the
alguloses, etc., are sufficient to provide for a separate investiga-
tion, and I sincerely hope that I have said sufficient to induce
someone to take up this question and carry out the necessary
analyses.

Reverting to the subject of jxitash and its use as a manure,
1 need hardly remind you that, prior to the commencement of
hostilities, the potash market was practically controlled by Ger-
many, through her huge deposits at Stassfurt, and that the
United States of America found it beyond the question of
practical politics to utilise its extensive seaweed groves as a
.source of supply for its own needs, owing to the prohibitive
competitive prices at which Germany could supply pure salts.
Since then America has hopes of succeeding in exploiting its
own resources. New Zealand has also taken up the question, and
is at present carrying out experiments on the same subject.
Here in South Africa we have at our very doors large quantities
of a seaweed which yields fairly satisfactory quantities of potash.
Tt should be possible on a commercial basis to obtain from the
trunk iwrtion an ash containing not less than 33 per cent, of
potash, and from the leaves an ash containing not less
than 22 per cent, of jjotash. On the pre-war basis these
would be worth at least £8 a ton and £5 los. a ton
respectively. The most urgent need is first of all for
an exhaustive Marine Survey to ascertain the extent of
occurrence of the seaweed. The opportunity for making
the question a success comes at a moment when we are at the
parting of the ways ; iif we seize the opportunity now. we may
be successful ; if we wait until after the war. it may be too late.
.Shall we succeed?

In conclusion, I wish to express my thanks to the Govern-
ment Analyst at Cape Town for i)ermission to carry out the
analvtical work here recorded.

A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY: PROSPECJ'S

AND POSSIBILITIES.

By Prof. George Hardy Stanley, A.R.S.M.. M.I.M.E.,

M.I.M.M., E.I.C.

One of the greatest assets of any country is a stable iron
and steel industry, and all who have the welfare of South
Africa at heart must surely desire to see such an industry estab-
lished.

Obviously, one of the \-ery first considerations to be taken
into account in this connection is the value of iron and steel
imported, and reference to the x\nnual Statements of Trade and
Shipping for the Union shows that the total is verv large —
nearly 63/ millions sterling.

Taking the figures for 191 3 — the last year undisturbed Ij^
abnormal conditions due to the war — it is found that the follow-
ing are the figures relating to imported goods or materials wholly
or very largely composed of iron and steel :

i
Iron and steel, raw or partly manufactured 946.275
Hardware and cutlery and iron manufac-
tures, N.O.D 1,704,241

Fencing material 593,542

Machinery, except locomotives 2,842,597

Railway and tramway material 308,110

£6,394,76

■»

()f this total, roughly half a million sterling relates to
articles which are apparently quite outside the possibility of
South African manufacture for a long while ahead, but of the
remainder it is probable that a considerable portion could be
made here, if not with existing facilities, then at anv rate in
the near future.

Terrible as such an expression of opinion may ap])ear. it
is nevertheless the case that the war has not been an unmitigated
calamity so far as this country is concerned : many new indus-
tries have arisen, and have obtained a footing, with every pro-
spect, in many cases, of a successful future ; and undoubtedly
much more could and would have been done were it not for the
shortage and ver\- high prices of the raw material, caused also
by the war.

This is markedly the case in the engineering and allied
trades employing iron and steel, for almost without exception
foundries are short of pig-iron, and the present price is pro-
hibitive for the manufacture of many items for which there Ls
great demand.

If only pig-iron were available at reasonable price, the
quantity which could be ab.sorbed is without doubt several times

A SOUTH AFRICAN IKON INDUSTRY. 117

the pre-war imported figure for foundry purposes alone, and a
very much larger quantity is required after conversion to steel.

Turning' again to figures: the importations in 1913, of which
some part could be produced here, are as follows :

i

Machinery, agricultural • 209,212

mining 829,615

water-boring 37n3S3

N.O.D. and parts 937-599

Fencing material 593,542

Hardware and cutlery and N.O.D. (pipes,

plate, sheet) 1.704,241

Railway and tramway material, including

locomotives 308,1 10

Raw or partly manufactured iron and steel

(sections) 946,275

^5-565.947

The totals are obviously made up in very large part of 1
great variety of manufactured articles, which are the products
of specialized industries, which it would be impracticable for
various reasons to establish here, but to a varying extent in each
category we are either already manufacturing, or could manu-
facture in the country, and in the author's opinion it would not
be an unfair estimate of the possibilities if it were assumed that
goods to at least the following values could be locally ])roduced:

£

Machinery, agricultural 50.000

mining and water-boring 200.000

N.O.D. and spare parts 100,000

Fencing material, standards 60,000

Hardware — axles, springs, bolts, nuts and

rivets, stoves, etc 120,000

Rails, sleepers, etc 100.000

Raw and partly manufactured iron and steel 400.000

£1,030,000

Of the above total the major portion would be the product
of one or more iron and steel works, which would furnish raw
material for the remainder ; the annual production of such works
might be estimated to be as follows :

£
Raw and partly manufactured iron and steel 400,000

Fencing standards 60,000

Rails, sleepers, etc 100,000

Raw material for remaining industries ... 150,000

Say . . £700,000

Il8 A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY.

A large proportion would be steel, the remainder pig-iron.

In short, it is estimated that material to the value of rather
more than lo per cent, of the imported total may be produced
here.

It must be remembered, too, that these figures relate to
values (including packing, etc.), leaving oversea ports: the
value here is obviously considerably greater.

The annual value might safely, therefore, be increased to
i8oo,ooo, and if to this be added increase of price directly due
to the war, and which must, to some extent, persist for years
yet, the total may, without any undue optimism, be placed at a
round i 1,000,000. .

The mines alone are responsible for an enormous total : for
the same year, 19 13, the Annua] Report of the Government
Mining Engineer gives the following consumption of stores,
among others, by the mines of the Union :

Tons. Value.

Bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets . . . 2,394 ^57-309

Iron, castings 4,248 162,863

Iron, pig 500 4,900

Iron, bar and angle 4>8i9 79,504

Rails, crossings, and sleepers .... — 250,908

Shoes and dies 7,500 ^356^^

Steel, hand and rock drill (Trans-
vaal only) 5,633 162,729

Say . . . 40,000 and nearly £800,000

All these are comparatively simple manufactures, and could
be made here, and besides these it:ems, pipes and pipe fittings,
rock-drills and spares, and hand tools amount to nearly
£700,000 more, of which, undoubtedly, a portion could be so
made.

Added to this we have the requirements of the remainder
of the country, and particularly the very large railway require-
ment, so that the figure of i 1,000,000 yearly seems well within
the bounds of possibility.

Now, however, another phase of the question needs con-
sideration. Assuming that iron and steel can be made here,
would the selling price leave an attractive margin of profit?

There is no doubt that at present prices, if a works were
already in existence, very handsome profits would be reaHsed ;
but at pre-war prices — at least, for many of the lines, and par-
ticularly at or near importing ports — it would be extremely
doubtful under the existing fiscal arrangements.

It is true that prevailing trade conditions constitute a greater
protection for South African industries than anything a Govern-
ment would be likely to enforce, but capital is very nervous as
to the position after the war, and, for reasons stated later, it

A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY. II9

is after the war conditions which must be met, since only a very
small scale commencement could be made now.

It has already been mentioned, in accordance with the
general, though not universal, opinion, that high ])rices will ruk
for a long time after the conclusion of war ; and in view
of the great national importance of the industry, the Govern-
ment might adopt the suggestion embodied in Air. Kotze's
memorandum of 1909, and institute a 1x)unty scheme in conjunc-
tion with a guarantee of interest for a period of years on the
capital invested.

Under such conditions the industrv could be .started without
penalizing consumers, and with a reasonable certainty of secur-
ing a large proportion of the business.

In course of time the bulk of the inland requirement at
least in the lines mentioned could be met at remunerative prices,
and once established, a reasonable measure of protection would
ensure future stability, and particularly, if, at the same time
the rails required for the Government railways were supplied
under contract by the works, the amtnmt probably being between
30,000 and 40,000 tons.

A fuller consideration of the tinancial side of the position
would be out of place here, and some consideration may next
be given to the plant and materials required.

One or two large modern blast furnaces would be able to
produce sufficient pig-iron as a basis for the steel mainifacture
for a long time to come.

Most of their output would be converted to steel in basic
open hearth furnaces, the ]>roduct of which would constitute the
major portion of the works' output, but a onsiderable portion
would be further treated in electrical furnaces for the i)roductioii
of steel for special purposes, such as mining drills.

The obtaining of the requisite machinery for these various
branches would constitute the chief difficulty at the commence-
ment, and would appear to render a start scarcely possible till
after the war. unless it is prolonged to an extent at present con-
sidered impossible.

Apart from the machinery, all materials required are un-
doubtedly available or can be made in the c<wntry.

We have ores, fuels, fluxc^, refractory material, and other
structural material, though possibly some of the last-mentioned
might have to be imported.

It is generally supposed that we have iron ores in unlimited
amounts, but as a matter of' fact there is not much authentic
information available. One hears of big bodies of ore in various
localities, and sometimes analyses are given, though seldom of
representative samples. But usually there is no definite estimate
of available tonnage, and it is manifest that a very great deal of
work remains to be done in this direction.

However, there are at least two localities in which iron

120 A SOUTfi AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY.

ores occur in large and workable quantities, one being- the Pre-
toria district, and the other near Alaritzburg.

In the former place there are two beds of siliceous ore
A-arying in thickness from 4 to 20 feet, and extending for many
miles : one small range alone, south of Pretoria, which can be
mined by open-cut and adits, being estimated to contain over
4,000,000 tons of ore, assaying 45 j)er cent, or over in iron.

Analyses by the author are as follows : —

per ])er per per per

cent. cent. cent. cent. cent.

Silica (SiOa) ... 14.30 17.^3 22.1 17.44 21.96

Ferric oxide (FAJ 76.93 73.81 63.75 69.43 65.57

Alumina (AKO,) 7.20 7.31 10.41 7.38 6.54

Lime (CaO) . . . . undet. undet .62 .75 1.20

Magnesia (MgO) undet. undet. undet. .47 .44

Sulphur .03 .03 undet. .014 .014

Phosphorus .... .14 .17 undet. .17 .24

Tron 53.9 51.8 44.6 48.6 45.9

There is also a persistent bed of " clay-band " ore, which
outcrops for several miles. It is not so thick as the siliceous ore
— about two feet — but is richer in iron, assaying about 50 per
cent. An analysis by the author is as follows : —

per cent.

Silica 7.70

Ferric oxide 73-57

Alumina 7 94

Lime .45

Magnesia - .33

Sulphur .029

Phosphorus .52

Iron 51-5

By mixing this with the siliceous ore, the amount of lime-
stone flux required is very considerably reduced, and not more
than 15 per cent, to 25 per cent would be necessary.

Samples from the Maritzburg district assayed by the author
showed from 40 to 5r.5per cent. iron.

These occurrences" were reported on by Dr. Hatch, for the
Natal Government in 1909, and in his report* several analyses
are given which show that this ore is a hydrated hematite com-
paratively low in silica — usually about 5 to 10 per cent. — and
assaying 45 to 60 per cent. iron.

Little work had then been done in opening up the deposits,
and he was not convinced that workable quantities existed. I
am informed, however, that since his visit some prospecting work
has been done, and the beds found to exist over a large area, of
thickness from 2 to 5 feet, and outcropping for 30 miles.

*Rcport on Mines and Mineral Resources of Natal : F. H. Hatch
TroTo).

A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY.

121

The ores are rather phosphoric in character, containing
about .2 per cent, to .4 per cent, phosphorus.

With regard to flux, a non-sih<:eous hmestone is required,
and this is scarce in South Africa. However, two large deposits
are known which are stated to be capable of affording millions
of tons ; one, the best, being at Taungs, and the other near Pot-
gietersrust. The former contains about i per cent, of silica, and
the latter 1J/2 per cent., with very little magnesium carbonate in
cither case.

It would doubtless be possible also to utilize to some extent
the dolomite, which in places is sufficiently low in silica. Three
of the author's analyses show : —

per cent. per cent. per cent.

Silica . . 4.15 4.18 1.5

Ferric oxide, alumina . . 4.00 1.05 1.70

Lime 28.66 36.12 26.5

Alagnesia 18.10 i5-05 ^0.5

Fuel presents a greater problem ; expressed as percentage
it would be seen that nearly all the iron output of the world is
obtained by smelting with coke, and South Africa is deficient in
coking' coals.

Natal, however, certainly possesses a very considerable ton-
nage o'f coking coal, and has at present three coke producers.
Judged by oversea standards, the coke is perhaps not quite of
the best quality, but nevertheless it is quite good enough for
iron smelting. Some analyses by the author are as follows : —

per per per per j)er

cent. cent. cent. cent. cent.

Fixed carbon . . . 83.07 84.28 85.68 85.62 84.12

Ash 13.78 14.32 11.25 11.50 13.45

Sulphur 1.37 .79 1.59 1. 14 -7^

Cell volume . . , . 55 57 51 53 undet.
Specific gravity

(apparent) . . 1.06 .87 .80 .85 undet.
Compressive

strength .... 1,950 2,000 1,100 1,280 good

lbs. per lbs. per lbs. per lbs. per but

sq. inch. sci. inch sq. inch. sq. inch, undet.

The last is representative of the present product of one
plant, though probably on the average sulphur would be higher.
Cokes of no better quality are in use for iron-smelting elsewhere.

The coke output at present is small — not a quarter of the
demand of a prospective iron industry — and no by-products arc
obtained. The cost of production and price is therefore high.

There is but little coking coal in the Transvaal, and
it might not be j^ossible to coke it extensivel}- in
competition with Natal ; but in this direction also authentic in-

B

122 A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY.

formation is lacking, and a survey of Transvaal coals with
respect to their coking possibilities is badly needed.

There are, however, two alternative fuels available.
Although, as already stated, only a relatively very small amount
of iron is produced other than by coke-smelting, nevertheless,
there is a very considerable absolute tonnage smelted by charcoal
in Sweden, Austria and the United States, and by raw coal in
Scotland.

With respect to the first, a small amount of charcoal,
though of somewhat poor quality, is already produced in the
Transvaal, and would doubtless be obtainable in larger quantity
and lower price if required — it is at present cheaper than coke.

But in this connection Mr. Sim's paper on " The Natal
Wattle Industry "* gives food for thought. He estimated that
200,000 tons of wattle timber was burnt to waste per annum,
and this should be capable of furnishing 40,000 tons of charcoal
besides considerable by-products.

Under the special circumstances obtaining there — i.e.,
really utilisation of a waste product — charcoal should be very
cheaply produced, and enough would be available to keep a very
considerable iron industry in operation, since, roughly, one ton
of charcoal can produce one ton of iron. Charcoal iron, too,
is of the best quality and commands the highest price.

But even if charcoal is neglected there is still coal to fall
back u]x>n, and since the Transvaal coal is, as a rule, non-coking,
and not undul}- given to decrepitation, it should be ]>ossible to
use it as a blast-furnace fuel as in Scotland, though it may be
somewhat high in suli)hur.

It would ]>e by far the cheapest fuel, and there are certainly
millions of tons available.

Of course, the possibility of using it in this manner could
only be definitely settled by actual experiment, and that would
cost several thousand ]x^unds ; nevertheless, being a matter of
such great national imjx)rtance, it certainly merits Government
consideration.

It may be noted, too, that when coal is used in this manner in-
stead of coking- it first ; by-product plants can also be installed,
and tar and ammonium sulphate recovered, both being very much
in demand in South Africa. Indeed, in conjunction with basic
phosphate slag from the steel furnaces, the industry might be
also producing artificial fertilizers for the country's agricul-
turists.

Refractory materials may be dealt with very briefly. All
required firebrick, of whatever character, can be produced of
(juite satisfactory quality by existing works in the TransvaaU
all required material being locally obtainable.

Very much the same can be said of the structural materials,
of which cement and ironwork would constitute a large part.

*Rept. S.A. /^ssn. for Adv. of Sc, Maritzburg (1916), 279-301.

A SOUTH AFRICAN IRON INDUSTRY. I23

Cement is, of course, a local product, and structural ironwurk
is already produced to some extent.

Since, therefore, every reqtiisite, including a market,
appears to be at hand, sooner or later the industry must come
into existence. Indeed, without considering foundries, a be-
ginning has already been made in the Transvaal, where two
works are producing rails and other sections at the rate of
between i,ooo and 2,000 tons per month; several are making
crucible steel castings^ and one electric furnace is making stamp
battery shoes and dies to the extent of 60 tons per month.

All these, however, are working up scrap material, no pig
being yet produced, 1)ut the position as regards supplies is so
critical that it may have to be met by the erection of a small
plant, which there is little doubt could be constructed now. and
would, under existing circumstances, be profitably ojjerated.

In lyio Mr. Harbord reported to the Transvaal Govern-
ment on the possibility of manufacturing iron and steel in the
Transvaal.

His report, based on conditions then obtaining, was un-
favourable. Now, however, conditions have changed.

Iron ore and limestone are known to be available ; the fuel
difficulty can be overcome, and prices have risen enormously.

Moreover, the country, as a whole, in spite of all discourage-
ment, is forging ahead rapidly, with consequent increased
demand for iron and steel, and with every prospect of still more
rapid expansion after the war.

(Read. July 5, 1917). ■

A Green sun. — The Journal of the British Astronomical^
Association (27 (1917) [s] i/O) contains a short description of
the unifiue phenomenon of a green sim recently seen in .Surrev.
The setting sim emerged from behind a dark cumulo-nimbus
cloud, shining a bright green, and maintained this colour for five
minutes as it crossed a clear space between the cloud and a thick
haze on the horizon. So green was the radiance that the wet
roofs of the houses in the valley all shone with a green light.
The sk}' above the dark cloud was of an orange hue.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
OF STELLENBOSCH.

By Professor S. J. Shand.
{Plates 4-5 and six text figures.)

The geology of the Stellenbosch district was discussed very
briefly in the First Annual Report of the Geological Commission,
published in 1896, and it is depicted on a small scale in Sheet T
of the geological map of the Cape of Good Hope. The present
occasion seems appropriate for the presentation of the subject
hi somewhat greater detail, in order that the account may serve
as a guide to students of the University of Stellenbosch. The
writer has naturally paid much attention to local geology during
his six years of residence in Stellenbosch, and has mapped part
of the district on a large scale. There are certain points whose
inter()retation is not yet clear, and which can only be elucidated
by further mapping carried beyond the tract of country which
we may fairly call " the neighbourhood of Stellenbosch." Never-
theless, it should be possible, and it will perhaps be useful, to
submit a fuller account of the geology of our neighbourhood
than has yet appeared, laying stress on what is known and indi-
cating what is still obscure.

Five geological formations lie under our feet or heaped u])
in the mountains which surround us. One of these consists of
tiie steeply tilted slates and sandstones, to which the name of
the Mahnesbnry Series has been given ; these are, perhaps, the
oldest rocks exposed in the district. Less well known, because
less well exposed, are the greatly disturbed conglomerates and
sand.stones, which emerge with a north-westerly strike from the
mouth of Jonker's Hoek, and contiime across Ida's Valley to-
wards Elsenburg. To these rocks Rogers gave the provisional
name of the Freneh Hoek Series; the determination of their
age and their relation to the Malmesbury beds is the foremost
geological problem which this district presents. The granite
masses which penetrate the Malmesbury Series constitute our
third formation. Younger than any of these, and found only
on the tops of the mountains, for the most part above the 1,000-
feet level, is the Table Mountain Sandstone; and youngest of all,
flooring the valley in which we reside, is the thick Alluvium of
Eerste River.

The areas where these rocks are exposed, or throughout
which they may reasonably be inferred to extend, are indicated
on the accompanying map (Plate 5). An unfortunate circum-
stance, which introduces difficulties into what should otherwise
be a very simple piece of geological mapping, is that contacts
or junctions between the various formations are almost nowhere
exposed to view ; and consequently the boundary lines separating

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 4.

: v'.'. ', ^■^"':v'''''^:\' -V^^^^-SV: ; '. i\-> /; '^

■. V— ^ -.^^v,V. :';.•{::='•/;;•;; ix •-• \\/; ;

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. ' ■SNEEUIA/ KaP-..-:-- -■ ... ■-- — -■ ■

'.III •■.....•■

Physiographic .Map of the Xeighbourhood of Stellenbosch, showing
the headwaters of hierste River and the main roads. Surface relief indi-
cated by sketch contours. Scale i inch — i mile.

P^^^C

^^^^^^^^^M^^^^oo^o_^

Qt-ct I I c K\ Q r\0 r'\-i

S A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 5

CZJAIlo

■ T. M

EH Qra
^ Mai

)er/e5

Geological Map of the Neighbourhood of Stellcnbosch.
Scale \ inch = i mile.

Hrof. S. J. Shand— Geology of the Neighbourhood of Stellenbosch.

GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLEN BOSCH. 1 25

certain of these formations on the map are only approximately
correct.

Before proceeding to describe these geological formations in
greater detail, it will be desirable to refer to

The Physiographic Features of the District.

Stellenbosch lies in the narrow belt of foothills which fringe
the western escarpment of the Drakenstein Mountains, and
which, gradually dying out towards the west, merge into the
Coastal Plain or Cape Flats (see map, Plate 4). To the east
of us lies the almost sheer wall of the Drakenstein, with its pro-
jecting spurs to which we give the names of the Ban Hoek
Mountains and the Stellenbosch Mountains, and its island-like
outliers Simonsberg (to the north-east) and Helderberg (to the
south), which are just the detached ends of similat spurs. The
average height of these mountains is well over 3,000 feet, and
the following are the heights of some of the more prominent
peaks : —

Stellenbosch Mountains (trigonometrical beacon), 3,824 ft.

Sneeuw Kop (trigonometrical beacon), 5.21 1 ft.

Bootman's Kop, 2,965 ft.

Twin Peaks, Ban Hoek Range, 5,160 ft.

Helderberg (trigonometrical beacon), 3,724 ft.

Simonsberg, summit, 4.770 ft.

Simonsberg, Kanon Kop (trigonometrical beacon), 2,994ft.

Between the spurs the valleys are narrow and deeply incised.
The most noteworthy of them are French Hoek and Ban Hoek,
which open out at Draken.stein into the flat-bottomed valley of
the Berg River, and Jonker's Hoek, which debouches into the
Stellenbosch Valley. Between the valleys of Drakenstein and
Stellenbosch the high neck, known as Hels Hoogte. connects
Simonsberg with the Ban Hoek Mountains, and forms a divide
between the Berg River System, a branch of which, the Dwars
River, rises in Ban Hoek, and the Eerste River System. The
valleys among the foothills have gentler slopes than those in the
hard Table Mountain Sandstone. The largest of them are Ida's
Valley, north-east of Stellenbosch, and the valley of the Planken-
berg River to the north-west. Between these valleys is the long
ridge, which forms the northern boundary of the Stellenbosch
Flats; this ridge does not seem to possess any local name, and
we mav call it the Schoongezicht Ridge, from Mr. Merriman's
beautiful farm, which is l)C)unded by it. The wide, flat valley of
. the I'lankenberg River runs in a north-westerly direction to
Elsenburg, and is delimited by the Schoongezicht Ridge on one
hand, and by the Papegaaisberg Ridge, running from Papegaais-
berg up to Bottelary Hill, on the other hand.

The Stellenbosch X'alley, bounded on the south by Stellen-
bosch Mountain, on the east by Hels Hoogte, on the north by
the Schoongezicht Ridge, and on the west by the Papegaaisberg
Ridge, is shaped something Hke a starfish. One long arm of the

126 GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLENP.OSCH.

Star reaches south-east into Jonker's Hoek. Another arm points
eastward up Hels Hoogte. A third arm is represented by Ida's
Valley, coming down from the west flank of Simonsberg; and a
fourth is the Plankenberg^ Valley. The fifth arm of the star-
fish is the wide gap by which Eerste River makes its escape to
the west. The body of the starfish is formed by the Stellenbosch
Flats, and of its arms four are inlets and only one is a water-
outlet. Stellenbosch is therefore a hyd'-ographic junction of
some little importance.

The Development of the Eerste River System.

The course of Eerste River is peculiar : for the first ten
miles of its career it runs north-west, then changes its mind at
Stellenbosch and turns south-w^est ; south of Faure it again turns
abruptly to south-east before it escapes into False Bay. The
explanation of this eccentricity demands a mental excursion into
remote geological periods, for the birth of the river probably
followed close upon the heels of the movements of folding and
elevation, which enclosed the Karroo within its girdle of moun-
tains ; that is, the initiation of the river may date from late
Mesozoic time.

BCCTMANS KCP

vIONKEfiS HOCK

Fig. I.

Observe that Stellenbosch lies just about the point where
the N.-S. folds of the Cedarberg System swing round and be-
come the E.-W. folds of the Langberg System ; the strike of the
folds is therefore roughly N.W.-S.E. in this part of the country.
If Eerste River arose as a consequent stream, its original course
must have been roughly S.W.. as its middle course still is. Why
has it in its upper course assumed a direction at right angles to
this? The answer to this question is supplied by the geological
structure of Jonker's Hoek. Stand on the Flats and look to-
wards the mouth of the Hoek. On your right hand is Stellen-
bosch Mountain, on the left Bootman's Kop ; each of them the
end of one of the spurs which enclose the Hoek. The two
mountains have a similar architecture, each of them being com-
posed of a pyramid of Table Mountain Sandstone resting ujxin
a base of granite and old, tilted sediments. The lowest krantz
which you can see on the mountain-side marks the base of the
Sandstone: follow this horizon from west to east. On the west
side of Stellenbosch Mountain it lies some 1,320 feet above sea-
level ; on the east side, on account of the gentle north-eastward
inclination of the beds, it has declined to about 1,050 feet. Cross-
ing the valley to Bootman's Kop, the same horizon is found at
an elevation of 2,550 feet (see Fig. i). Go up Jonker's Hoek,

GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLENBOSCH. 12/

and you will find the Table Mountain Sandstone descending on
the west side ever nearer and nearer to the river, while on the
east side it hangs high up in the air. Here we are clearly on
the line of a fault, or it may be a monoclinal fold, along which
the rocks on the west side have been dropped down some 1,500
feet.

For further evidence, if any is required, of the existence of
a powerful dislocation along the line of Jonker's Hoek, one need
only look at anv of the small rock exposures in or about the
mouth of the valley. The granite has been sheared and crushed
along vertical planes with a N.W.-S.E. direction, and it is now
quite streaky in appearance ; the sedimentary rocks of the French
Hoek Series have suffered the same change to such an extent
that it is now very hard to recognize their original character ;
among them there occur bands of coarse conglomerate in which
the pebbles have been compressed and elongated. Whether the

/MOi/'^^^'

fslS

Fig. 2.

dislocation is to be called a fault or a monoclinal fold is a matter
of little importance : it is probable that there are many parallel
small faults rather than one great fault. Nevertheless, we shall
not be violating' any convention if we speak of the Jonker's Hoek
Fault, meaning thereby the whole aggregation of parallel faults
and shear-planes.

It is a matter of common observation that lines oi fault are
lines of relatively easy erosion ; hence the reason which imme-
diately suggests itself for the direction of the upper portion of
Eerste River is that the river discovered and folloived the line
of zveakness made by the Jonker's Hock Fault. We may sup-
pose the original consequent stream, with its S.W. direction, to
have cut its way back into the mountain mass of which Simons-
berg and the Stellenbosch and Ban Hoek Mountains are the
reninants, and eventually to have reached the line of fault

128 GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLKNBOSCH.

which crossed the backward prolongation of its course (see
Figs. 2, 3. 4). It then developed a "subsequent" tributary
along this line of least resistance, which, cutting down rapidly,
in the course of time gouged out Jonker's Hoek. Strictly speak-
ing, therefore, the stream which comes out of Jonker's Hoek is
a tributary of the older stream, whose true headwaters arise on
Hels Hoogte. Owing to more favourable geological conditions,
however, the subsequent has acquired greater importance than
the headwaters of the consequent. Seen from this new point of
view, the apparently eccentric behaviour of what we call Eerste
River is explained : the middle and lower portions ha\e roughly
their proper consequent direction, but the upper third has
developed from a subsequent, and therefore meets the main
trunk at a high angle.

■J-

Fig. 3-

The eastward bend of Eerste River just before it flows into
False Bay is a much younger development than the above : it has
been produced by the building of a bar or storm beach across
the mouth of the stream, which was therefore compelled to seek
a new outlet.

From consideration of the Eerste River System, we may
turn now to that of its principal deposit.

The Alluvium of Eerste River.

This deposit, which forms the flat floor of the Stellenbosch
Valley, consists of boulders, sand and silt with a distinct strati-
fication. Good sections of the deposit may be seen in the banks
of Eerste River itself, just below The Home; also among the
sand pits at the east end of the golf course, ami in the banks
of Kromme River in front of Mr. Garlick's farm, Glenelly.
The total thickness of the deposit does not seem to have been
proved anywhere, which is surprising in view of the activity of

GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLENBOSCH. I2y

prospectors throughout the (Hstrict, and the possibiHty that the
lowest beds may hold alhivial tin.

I have spoken of the valley Ixjttom as being flat : as a matter
of fact, the alknial fl(X>r is disposed in three well-marked
terraces, having the average elevations of lo. i(S, and 45 feet
respectively above present river level. The highest terrace is
found in the north-east corner of the Flats, where its margin
forms a prominent gravel ridge ( see map, Plate 3 )• 1 he second
terrace forms the central portion of the Flats, and its margin
can be traced from the mouth of Jonker's Hoek down to the
Football Ground, running nearly parallel to the Jonker's Hoek
Road and Van Riebeek Street. . The third terrace constitutes the
remaining, southern and western parts of the Flats : beneath this
terrace the river has entrenched itself to a depth of 20 feet in
places.

-l-ig. 4.

Elsewhere* I have described these terraces at some length.
and have tried to picture the conditions which led to the accumu-
lation of a thick dejxjsit of alluvium at this point in the course
of the river, and to the subsequent step-by-step removal of this
material with production of a terraced structure in the residue.
Briefly, the conclusions to which I was led are these : That the
formation of a deposit is to be ascribed to the confluence at one
spot of a number of torrential streams, all throwing their bur-
dens of sediment into Eerste River, and perhaps also to the
abrupt change of direction suffered by the river between the
points where it enters and leaves the Flats ; and that the subse-
quent partial removal of the deposit was induced by a general
elevation of this part of the country, whereby the gradient, and
hence the transporting power of the river were increased, and

* '" The Terraces of Eerste River at StiHenljoseli." Tiaiis. (,'ri>l. Soc
of S.Afr.. 16 (1913). 147.

130 (lEOLUGV OF THE NElGHBOUkilOOl) t)F STEELE. NP.OSC 11.

it was enabled to remove some of the material which it had for-
merly deposited.

The evidence of the terraces alone could hardly be accepted
as conclusive proof of elevation of the country, but it is con-
firmed by the existence of raised beaches and wave-cut terraces
at Sea Point (to the west), at Gordon's Bay (to the south), and
at Hermanns (to the south-east). Of these deposits the first
and third are well-known. The raised beach at Gordon's Bay
is small, and it will probably disai)pear altogether before long;
for this reason, and also because it falls within the limits of the
district now being described, a word about it will not be out
of place. It is to be found in the south-east angle of the Bay,
on the top of the rocky shelf which fringes the southern shore.
The deposit is cut through 1)y the road, and little of it is now
left, but at the roadside one can still see a few feet of shells and
sand — a typical beach deposit now lying- some 20 feet above high
water mark.

Fig. 5-

Besides these proofs of recent elevation, there is another
kind of evidence which points to a recent filfing of the country.
The south-east and north-west streams, which course down the
sides of the Stellenbosch and Ban Hoek Mountains and Simons-
berg, have this curious feature common to all of them, that
their north banks are much steeper than the south ones. This
feature is illustrated in Fig. 5. The meaning of this is unmis-
takable—it indicates that these streams have been shifting
laterallv northivards as well as cutting downwards. This phe-
nomenon can be seen quite clearly in Jonker's Hoek or from the
Helderberg road, and it does not seem explicable save on the
hypothesis of tilting.

The Table Mountain Sandstone

forms the rugged capping of all the mountains ; it does not dififer
in any way from the same formation as developed on Table
Mountain itself. The lowest visible krantz is always at or very
near to the base of the series, and beneath it the slopes are
smoothly rounded and covered with talus and vegetation : the

r;E()L()(i^ of the NEIGHBDUKHOOD of STELr^ENItoSCH.

I.v

underlving rocks are then either granite or soft sediments of the
Mahnesbury or Frencli Hoek Series. The actual foundation on
which the Sandstone hes can be seen at a few points ; thus round
the foot of the chfifs on Bootman's Kop the granite appears im-
mediately below the sandstone. The junction of the Table
Mountain Series with the eroded surface of the Malmesbury
Beds is seldom clearly visible, but in a kloof on the farm Niet-
Gegund. on the west side of Stellen'bo.sch. Mountain, this uncon-
formable junction is almost completely exposed. A sketch of
the junction is given in Fig. 6.

The lowest beds of the Table Mountain Series are often
brightly coloured, and contain much argillaceous matter ; refl and
brown shaly sandstones, just like those seen at the base of the
Lion's Head, occur in the lower hundred f^et of the series on
Bootman's Kop. Thin pebble-bands occur all through the series;
false-bedding is common, and rip])le-marks not unusual.

JjUih Cover'eoi

J/il//'i!' '" .^m:^

Fi.y. 6.

The dip of the beds is very low or nearly zero around Stel-
lenbosch. On Stellenbosch Mountain itself there is a very
gentle north-east dip, which increases further up Jonker's Hoek.
Only a few miles away, however, at French Hoek and Sir Lowry
Pass, the folding is already severe.

The (tkamtf.

of the neighbourhood occurs in three masses, or. rather,
three lobes of what is just one large batholith. There is nothing
whatever to indicate that the different lobes were not all in-
truded at one and the same time.

To the west is the large area of granite which stretches from
Bottelary Hill to Somerset West, and from Papegaaisberg,
nearly to Kuil's River. The granite is seen immediately one
crosses Plankenberg River by the road-bridge at Bosnian's Cross-
ing. It is a coarse, por])hyritic variety, indistinguishable in

132 GEOLO(;V (JF THE NEIGHBOUR HdOD OF STKLLKX i!( )S( II .

appearance from that of Table Motintain. Black micaceous
patches, representing altered slate inclusions, are fairly numer-
ous, and little pockets of black tourmaline are also found. Veins
of pegmatite and aplite are common, and some of these run out
some little distance into the slate. I have already described the
veins and inclusions of this granite mass* and need not refer
to them further.

The Malmesbury rocks, hardened and altered by contact t(^
chiastolite-hornfels. are exposed only a short distance up-stream
from the bridge, so at this point the granite margin can be fixed
with precision. From here the boundary runs in a north-
westerly direction towards Bottelary Hill, but it cannot be placer!
accurately on account of the thick overburden. Papegaaisberg
itself, save only the south-west side, and the whole ridge right
north to Koelenhof, consist entirely of Alalmesbury rocks, show-
ing evidence of contact alteration. South of Papegaaisberg the
contact disappears under the alluvium for half-a-mile, after which
the granite reappears in a long, low ridge to the west of the
Somerset Road. The granite in this ridge is of very variable
texture, and in part of rather fine grain, which suggests the
close proximitv of the contact surface. Malmesbury rocks are
not exposed here, however, nor are they to be seen luuil one
climbs up intt) some of the kloofs which descend from Stellen-
bosch Mountain. In these kloofs and on the lower slopes of the
mountain one gets occasional evidence of the continuation of a
belt of Malmesbury rocks along the west side of the mountain
as far as the Blaauwklip Stream ; beyond this, right into the
Hoek of Helderberg, only granite is exposed. The line of junc-
tion can therefore be laid down pretty accurately, although it is
not actually visible at any point.

This eastern margin of the granite oitght to possess an
especial interest, since the western margin is highly mineralized
at Kuil's River, and yields tinstone, wolfram and arsenopyrite.
The abundance of tourmaline veinules in the granite about Bos-
man's Crossing and at Vlottenberg show that there has been
active mineralization on the east side as well as the west. Some
veins of arsenical pyrites (according to an analysis by Dr. van
der Riet, the actual species is lollingite) occur in the ^iranite on
the farm Bonte River, at Helderberg, and molybdenite has also
been found there, but no tin. 1 note, however, as a jxiint of
some possible significance, that tourmaline f[uartzites of identical
character occur about the contact on the j>roperty of the Good
Hope Tin Mines at Kuil's River, and on Papegaaisberg. I have
not been able to find the rock in place on Papegaaisberg, but
boulders of it are abundant all down the south slope of the hill.
The rock is peculiar in appearance, consisting of angular frag-
ments oi white ([uartzite in a dense black base of minute tour-
maline needles. I have found lx)ulders of this rock as far to

* •' On Veins and Inclusions in tlie Stellenbosch Granite." Repi. S./1.
Ass. for Adv. of Sc. Port Elizabctli (1912). 247-251.

«

GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLFN BOSCH. I33

the north as the farm Nooitgedacht. so the tourmahnized zone
must be pretty extensive. The presence of tonrmahne is, of
course, no proof of the occurrence of tin, but it .e^ives an en-
couraging suggestion of it.

The western margin of this granite can be studied con-
veniently between Lynedoch and Eerste River Stations. The
marginal facies is non-]wrphyritic, and contains many small
pockets of tourmaline. Between it and the Malmesbury rocks
there is again a tourmaline zone, as is shown bv the occurrence
of boulders of quite coarse-grained tourmaline c(uartzite.

With the exceptions of these marginal facies and of the
aplite and pegmatite veins already mentioned, the granite hardly
varies at all in apj^earance or composition. It is throughout a
coarse, porphyritic biotite-granite with subordinate muscovite,
with microcline as the commonest felspar.

The second area of granite is bounded on the west by a
line which runs out from the north end of Stellenbosch Moun-
tain. The exact ]>osition of this line was determined at two
points — -one in a drain at the side of the vineyards of Coetsen-
burg, and the other in the bed of Kromme River, just below the
Co-operative Winery buildings. The boundary continues north-
wards into the Schoongezicht ridge, and is seen again in a kloof
north of the farm Cloetesdal, where some small apophyses are
thrown out into the slate. The eastern margin of this granite
tongue is hard to place, but the imperfect exposures on the top
and round the base of the ridge and on the Hels Hoogte road
indicate an approximately straight line running S.S.E. (mag-
netic) into Jonker's Hoek. The granite of this mass is on the
west side identical with that of Bosnian's Crossing, but in Jon-
ker's Hoek and opposite the mouth of the Hoek it has been
strongly sheared, and has. in consequence, become streaky, with
cataclastic structures. This shearing and destruction have
afifected not only the granite, but also the French Hoek sedi-
ments to the east of it, and on account of this and also of the
inadequate nature of the exposures the eastern margin of the
granite cannot be placed with precision.

About the northern end or apex of this mass, on the top
of the Schoongezicht ridge, boulders of cherty quartzite. contain-
ing tourmaline, are to be found, indicating again a mineralized
contact zone.

Near the top of the Hels Hoogte road, after traversing the
French Hoek beds at right angles to their strike, one meets again
an unsheared porphyritic granite, the margin of which runs
northwards towards Schoongezicht and southwards into Jon-
ker's Hoek. This, the third lobe of the batholith, is continuous
eastward to Drakenstein, and northwards towards Paarl : south-
wards it forms the floor of Ban Hoek and Jonker's Hoek, anu
eventually disa]:)pears beneath the Table Mountain Sandstone.
The fresh rock has precisely the same characters as the un-
sheared granite of the other lobes ; the western margin has been
affected by shearing movements along the Jonker's Hoek fault.

134 GEOLOGY- OF THE N l-IIG IIBOUK HOOD OF STECLENBoSC 1 1 .

There is little doubt that the second and third lobes coalesce in
Jonker's Hoek ; and the trend of the margins of the first and
second lobes (see the map) makes it certain that these, too, unite
under Stellenbosch Mountain. The three lobes therefore repre-
sent one single intrusion.

DoLERiTE Intrusions.

Many dolerite dykes cut the granite in some districts,
notably the Cape Peninsula and Somerset West. In the more
immediate neighbourhood of Stellenbosch I have only located
one. on the farm Muratie, near the north end of Simonsberg.
This dyke is many yards wide, but its margins are covered, so
the exact width could not be ascertained ; it cuts coarse porphy-
ritic granite. It is more interesting than dolerite dykes usually
are, on account of the presence in it of a quantity of xenocrysts
of quartz and felspar derived from the granite. The rock i>
light grey, of decimillimetre grain, and contains white spots up
to a centimetre in diameter, which ap])ear to be felspars derived
from the granite. Besides {>lagioclase and augite the rock con-
tains brown biotite and some interstitial (juartz. The felspar^
are rather unfresh, and their optical characters cannot l)e very
satisfactorily determined. The white spots are altered felspars,
filled with decomposition-prodticts ; their irregular shapes point
to their being xenocrysts, not phenocrysts. The larger frag-'
ments of quartz are, without any doubt, xenocrysts; each is
completely surrounded by a shell of aug'ite crystals, a phenome-
non which has been observed in other cases of reaction between
a magma and its xenocrysts. Taken all together, these features
suggest that there has been an appreciable amount of solution of
granite by the doleritic luaama.

The Malmesburv Series

is represented in the immediate neighbourhood of Stellenbosch
by a long tongue of slates and argillaceous sandstones, which has
been caught in between the western and central lobes of the
granite batholith.- These rocks decompose so easily that they
are generally hidden under a thick overburden, and it is hard
to form an idea of the normal composition of the series. On
the other side of the western granite mass, however, good sec-
tions of the Malmesbury beds are exposed in railway cuttings
between Lynedoch and Eerste River stations, and these sections
may be taken to be representative of the series. Just beyond the
granite margin, some two miles past Lynedoch station, there
appear in a cutting dark brown clayey rocks, dipping verticall}
and striking about magnetic north. They are very rotten, but
show spots of chiastolite, and are clearly decomjjosed shaly rocks.
They are cut by some interesting dykes of aplo-pegmatite, and
by quartz-tourmaline and ptire quartz veins. Further away the
rocks are fresher, and are best described as very cleavable
argillaceous sandstones, spotted by metamorphism. with occa-

GEOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF STELLEN 150SC H. I35

sional beds of hard brown quartzite, and here and there banded
cherty layers. The sandstones show distinct false-bedding and
split easily alonjr the main bedding-planes, and two sets of ver-
tical joints. Further towards Eerste River Station the outcrops
are of hard blue hornfels. without prominent bedding or joints,
with chiastolite s{X)ts which are most readily seen on cross frac-
tures. There are no beds in the whole succession that are really
entitled to be called slate, and few that are unequivocally sand-
stone, and the original deposit seems to have consisted of sandy
clays and fine clayey sandstones without any coarser deposits
whatever

Similar facies of the A'lalmesbury rocks can be seen on the
Stellenbosch side of the granite mass. The blue s})otted horn-
fels appears in the river bed on the south-east side of Papegaais-
berg. The brown, spotted sandstones are seen in jxior exposures
here and there on the top of the Papegaaisberg ridge, and on the
northern slopes of Stellenbosch Mountain. Spotted rocks, whicli
we may call slates, although they lack true slaty cleavage, appear
in the kloofs on the west side of Stellenbosch Mountain, and
boulders of spotted hornfels and sandstone (>ccur generally along
all the contact zones and help one to trace these on the surface.
The dip of the beds, where they can be seen in place, is always
more than 60°, and the strike is roughly parallel to the eastern
margin of the series as laid down on the accompanying geological
map (Plate 5).

The tourmalinized rocks of the contact zones liave already
been mentioned. It is not quite clear whether they belong to
the Malmesbury series or are to be regarded as the altered
margin of the granite itself.

The French Hoek Series.

The winding road which climbs from the Flats up to Hels
Hoogte begins and finishes its ascent in granite, but on the way
it cuts through a series of very decomposed and crushed sedi-
mentary rocks, which strike about 10° west of magnetic north.
These rocks, as well as the granite for some distance on either
side of them, have been caught and crushed in the zone of the
Jonker's Hoek Fault. For the greater part the rocks are slates
or phyllites, and they possess a well-developed cleavage, which
coincides with the stratification. Some beds, however, are
sheared grits or arkoses, and there is at least one band of greatly
crushed conglomerate with elongated and flattened pebbles. On
the hill tops north of the Hels Hoogte road, and again on the
top of the Schoongezicht ridge, conglomerates and grits reappear,
and they are well exposed in a deep kloof on the farm Onrust,
and again on Knor Hoek. The pebbles are often several inches
in diameter, and some have been flattened into discs, while others
have been elongated. Slicing these for the microscope gives one'
little assistance in identifying the pebbles, because the material
is crowded with decomj)osition-products. Some of the pebbles,

136 GEOLOGY OF THE NEIgAboUKIKX)!) OF STELLENBOSCH.

however, can be recognized as fine-grained sandstones, quartzites,
and vein quartz, and a few contain cjuartz grains in a dense base,
and may be decomposed quartz-porphyries. On the whole, the
difficulty of studying these rocks is due more to weathering and
inadequate exposures than to crushing.

These beds were included by Rogers in his French Hoek
Series, and he suggests their correlation with the Ibiquas or
Upper Nama beds. Their relation to the Malmesbury beds is,
in this neighbourhood at least, not clearly ascertainable. It will
be seen from the geological map that the central lobe of the
granite mass has Malmesbury beds on one side, French Hoek
beds on the other. Where this tongue of granite dies out the
two must come into contact. Just at that point, unfortunately,
all useful exposures cease, and one can only presume that the
strike of the Malmesbury beds swings round and becomes
parallel to that of the French Hoek beds. This is certainly the
case in the Malmesbury series a cou]>le of miles to the west, on
the top of the Papegaaisberg rid.u'e. There is no clear indication
of unconformity between the two series, but, on the other hand,
it would not be permissible definitely to assert their conformity:
the jx)int must remain open for the present. Personally, I think
the two series are conformable, or that the unconformity, if it
exists, is only a slight one like that between the Malmesbury
and the Ibiquas. I have already pointed out that a tourmalinized
contact zone exists on the east side of the granite tongue, to-
wards the French Hoek beds, and (although no French Hoek
rocks are exposed along the contact) this {X)ints to the granite
being intrusive towards the latter. For this reason it would,
perhaps, be more satisfactory to compare our conglomerate
series witli the Nieuwerust or Lower Nama than with the
Ibiquas or Upper Nama, for the latter is younger than the
granites intrusive in the ^Malmesbury Series. Further than this,
the evidence available in the neighbourhood of Stellenbosch does
not enable one to go.

South African Geographical Society.—

It was resolved, at what is reported to have been a large and
representative meeting held in the School of Mines, Johannes-
burg, on the 8th June, to establish a South African Geographical
Society. The chair was occupied by Princij^al G. S. Corstor-
phine, B.Sc, Ph.D., and an address on "^ Geography, its Field and
its Future,"' was given by Mr. J. Hutcheon, M.A., F.R.S.G.S.
In the course of his remarks Mr. Hutcheon explained that the ob-
jects of the proposed Society would be to raise the standard and
safeguard the interests of the subject and those teaching it, to
encourage geographical research in all its branches, and to arouse
in the general public more enthusiasm therein. In time the
Society would, it was hoped, grant a di|>lonia of fellowship. It
has been arranged to hold a series of popular lectures in connec-
tion with the newly formed institution.

AN INTERESTING CASE OF INSECT MUTUALISM.

By Rev. Nendick Abraham, F.R.M.S.

By the term "mutualism" as distinct from "commensalism" or
"parasitism," we mean such cases where two distinct and unrelated
creatures are found constantly in close association without any
cost or loss to either, though in some cases there may be some
gain to one of the partners derived by the connection.

I will now set forth a case of mutualism which came under
my notice while living in Durban, Natal. One of the partners
is deserving of some special attention for its own sake, and
though its habits are generally well known, I will refer to them,
as I have had opportunities for careful observations. The insect
belongs to the family Cercopidse, and is one of the " frog-
hoppers " or " spittle bugs," and is known to entomologists as
Ptyclus flavescens. There are several well-known species of
frog-hoppers in this country, such as Aphrophora grossa, com-
mon in peach trees. The insect I am to deal with is perhaps the
largest of the family, measuring over an inch in length. It is
found in Natal and neighbouring parts of this country. In com-
mon with other members related to it, it does not pass through
a complete metamorphosis. The only striking difference, apart
from size, between its infant and adult condition is that in the
latter it has acquired two pairs of wings. In its grub or nymph
stage the insect covers itself with a quantity of froth, which
(|uite hides the creature from sight. This froth is obtained and
manufactured in the following manner. The mouth-parts of
the frog-hoppers are iashioned into a long, sharp beak, which
is thrust into tender shoots of plants or soft bark of trees, and
is employed in sucking up the sap. If one of the grubs be re-
moved from its covering of froth and placed on a clear place on
a twig of the tree, it will be noticed that the beak will presently
be made to pierce the bark, and the sucking operation com-
menced. In a short time there will be a discharge of clear fluid
from the posterior end of the body, which will soon flow under
and over it. After the lapse of a little time the creature will
commence an active movement of its abdomen, or the hinder
segments of it. The movement is up and down, and from side
to side. With each downward stroke it carries into the fluid a
minute |X)rtion of air, which becomes entangled by the viscosity
of the fluid, and so forms a tiny bubble. A continuation of the
movements soon turns the fluid into a quantity of froth, which
completely covers the nymph. The sucking process continues,
and in the case before us such a surplus of fluid passes through
the body of the insects that it freely drops from the tree, as
though some secret power caused the tree to drip rain. This
fact is the ori»in of the fabled " rain-trees," which someone
proposed should be planted in desert places to make up for the
absence of rainfall. The truth is strance enough without the
need of exaggeration, as the following obsen'ations will prove.

138 INTERESTING CASE OF INSECT MUTUALISM.

One day I was making a rotnid of visits, and left the carriage
with my native boy while I made a call. It was a very hot
afternoon, such as are common in Durban (Natal) in summer.
On my return to the road, after my visit, I found the boy had
thoughtfully moved the carriage some distance along to take
advantage of the shade of a large " flat crown " tree. The boy
was standing at the horse's head half asleep. On reaching the
carriage, I found an interesting condition of affairs. The tree
had been " weeping " in consequence of several parties of frog-
hoppers inhabiting the branches. The cushions, splash-boards,
and floor of the conveyance were so w'ct that there had to be a
general clean-up before I could go on my way. A tree in the
Parsonage grounds began one day to " weep." Wishing to make
some observations, I set a vessel upon the ground where drops
were falling. As the tree was a high one, and the drops had
to fall from a considerable height, and the wind sometimes
swayed the branch, all the drops did not fall into the receptacle,
but after several hours I poured out the liquid which had been
caught, and found that it measured a full quart ; the liquid was
as dear as water, and of course consisted of the sap of the
tree, which had passed through the bodies of the insects. The
small amount of nutritive matter dissolved in the sap had been
retained in the bodies of the frog-hoppers, and the clear liquid,
slightly viscid, had been expelled. Five or six dozen of these
sap-suckers will fill a quart vessel in an hour and a half. The
most wonderful example I have as yet met with, as to the quan-
tity of liquid shed from a single company or batch of frog-
hoppers, came under my notice one very hot summer in Durban.
Out walking one day, I noticed a tree " w^eeping." The tree
is known as a "flat crown" (Albissia fastigiata). One branch
of this tree overhung the road. The groimd had a gentle slope,
so that when the liquid fell it was possible, if it fell in sufificient
quantities, to saturate the dry, hard, hot ground and then trickle
down the incline. Now, althouu'h evaporation was being carried
on to a great extent owing to the heat of the sun, the sap shed
from the tree, after passing through the bodies of the sap-
suckers, had saturated the ground and had made the road so
soft that the wheels of passing carts had churned up a miniature
swamp, or mud-patch, some five feet wide, with sap standing
like water after rain in the depressions made by the cart-wheels.
Nor was this all, for the sap was making its way down the
incline of the road just as a tiny spring of water would do.
I visited this tree two days after I had found it, and took with
me my camera and tape measure. I took two good pictures,
which I still have in my records, and measured the " swamp."
In its broadest part it was five feet, and in a narrow course
down the road it extended thirty-five "feet. Considering the
dryness of the surrounding ground and the heat of the sun, I
was surprised at the quantity of sap which must have been
pumped out of that one branch of the tree. The froth manu-
factured by these insects is no doubt to some extent a protection

INTERESTING CASE OF INSECT MUTUALISM. I39

to them from their enemies, but it is certainly a protection to
their soft bodies from the heat of the sun — a heat which these
nymphs could not survive except for the constant supply of
moisture which bathes their bodies and keeps them cool and
moist. As soon as the grub or nymph is ready to change into
the perfect insect it leaves the froth, which soon dries up, changes
its skin for the last time, comes into the possession of fully-
developed wings, and moves oiif to enjoy a larger life. The
adult insect is a little more than an inch in length. Its upper
wings, which are leathery in texture, are coloured yellow with
a few black spots or marks, but the colour and markings vary
in the same species.

But now I must mention the fact which justifies the heading
or title of this paper. On making a careful examination of a
batch of grubs covered with their froth, I noticed a number of
small maggot-like grubs, white in colour, and about one-eighth of
an inch in length, moving quickly over the moist bodies of the
large froth-bearers. The froth had to be removed with a brush
before these creatures could be seen. Their bodies were very
soft and delicate, and they seemed to be absolutely dependent
upon the froth secreted by their huge companions for their
safety and existence. But for the protecting froth the hot
sun would soon have dried them into dust. Sheltered in this
screen of bubbles they found nutriment and protection from
;birds, etc., but especially from the rays of the sun. But what
becomes of these little grubs, which are in no sense parasitic
upon the frog-hoppers, but only mutuals? When their com-
panions mature and fly away there will be no protecting iroth.
What then? So soon as the large insects are ready to leave
their larval state, or before that time, these tiny " guests " are
also ready to be independent of their protection. They pass into
the chrysalis stage, and fix to the bark of the tree by a secretion-
like varnish their tiny cocoons, which look like minute buds
belonging to the twig. These cocoons form ample protection to
the life within, and after a short time development takes place,
and from the cocoons emerge minute flies, which do not appear
to be in any way related to the parasitic flies which abound in
this country. Owing- to the loss of material I have not, how-
ever, identified these flies, but hope to do so when I get another
opportunity. I wish I could tell how the larvae of the little
fly are introduced to the frog-hoppers. Probably the parent
flies are attracted to the patches of froth and deposit their eggs
therein, but this is a point which needs to be observed. There
can be no doubt that the minute " guests " are entirely dependent
for their existence on the hospitality of the frog-hoppers. It
must also be noted that the period necessary for the develop-
ment of the larvae of the flies must be sufficiently brief to enable
them to complete the change into the pupae before their ho.sts
leave the larval stage. If this were not so, they would perish.
Taking these points into consideration, we have, I think, a case
of mutualism worthv of note and consideration.

I40 INTERESTING CASE OF INSECT MUTUALISM.

I may add that a few years ago Mr. S. L. Hinde came
across some of these large frog-hoppers in British East Africa,
which not only produced the mimic showers, but also in a very
remarkable way mimicked flowers. With their wings closed,
these adult insects cluster round the narrow leaves of the trees,
the tips of their closed wings touching the leaf, and the head
slightly away from it. In this position the group presents much
the appearance of a branch of broom in flower.

(Read, July 6. 1917.)

Theories of Cosmogony.— Until the beginning of

the present century the nebular hypothesis of Laplace held a
unique position as a tentative explanation of the origin of plane-
tary systems. The hypothesis had, it is true, been forced to
undergo many changes of detail, but its essential doctrine, that
increasing rotation was the primary cause of the birth of
satellites, remained almost undisputed. In recent years the
position of this hypothesis has been challenged by speculations
based ultimately upon the conception of tidal forces providing
the re(|uired tendency to separation, the most complete and
definite of these speculations being found in the planetesimal
hypothesis of Moulton and Chamberlain. Mr. J. H. Jeans,
M.A., F.R.S., recently read before the Royal Astronomical
Society a paper embodying the results of 'his mathematical inves-
tigation of the changes in a mass of matter as the tidal forces
acting on it continually increase. The paper is published
in the Society's Memoirs,'^ and in it the writer discusses
the tenability of the tidal theory of planetary evolution, arriving
at the following conclusions. The normal binary star formation
cannot be explained as the result of tidal action ; the genesis of
such systems must be ascribed to rotation. In regard to spiral
nebulae, 'however, there are certain features which can be ex-
plained in terms of tidal action, but on the whole it seems
impossible to reconcile this explanation with the known facts
of astronomy. The genesis of our own solar system may well
be attributed to tidal action, for the theory makes no impossible
or improbable demand here : at the same time, the origin which
seems most probable is not that of the planetesimal hypothesis.

*71 [I], 1-48.

PARALLAX OF THE FAINT PROPER MOTION STAR

NEAR ALPHA OF CENTAURUS. (PRELIMINARY

ANNOUNCEMENT.)

Bv R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.

The discovery with the bhnk-microscope of a star of the
loth magnitude (1900, R.A., I2h. 22m. 55s., Dec, 62° 15'. 2) with
a large proper motion was announced in Circular No. 30 of the
Union Observatory. As this faint star is moving across the
sky in much the same direction and with much the same angular
motion as a Centaurus, it was at once guessed that its distance
from the sun would also be of the same order, which means
that it would be one of the nearest stars to our system.

The first determination of its proper motion and the proper
motion of a Centaurus compared as follows:

Faint Star 4^.9 towards 289°

a Centaurus 3.68 ., 281

but this first determination was not very secure, and the sugges-
tion that its proper motion was identical with that of a Cen-
taurus was hazarded.

Observations to determine its parallax were started at the
Union Observatory by myself, and at the Cape Observatory by
Mr. Voute. My series will not be completed until the end of
August. Nevertheless, a weak and incomplete determination
may be of interest. So far, the Johannesburg observations yield
a proper motion of 3".9 a year, and a parallax of o".8o. It will
be seen that the proper motion is practically equal to that of
a Centaurus, whilst its parallax is somewhat larger (a Centaurus
o".75. Gill). Within the limits of error there is the chance
that the parallaxes are also identical. In any case the accordance
in both proper motion and parallax is sufficient to allow us to
say that the faint star is a member of the a Centaurus system,
and that it is perhaps the nearest star to our system.

In astronomical units (the mean distance of the Earth from
the sun) this star is roughly about 6,000 units distant from a Cen-
taurus and 250,000 units from the sun. Its light-emission is
of the order of 1/10,000 that of the .sun.

(Read, July 3, 1917.)

ON THE EFFECT OF VEGETATION ON THE
RAINFALL OF SOUTH AFRICA.

By H. Pealing. M.Sc.

This is a subject which has been hotly debated. On the
one hand a vast mass of evidence has been put forward that
large tracts in South Africa are drying up, pointing to a
diminishing rainfall ; on the other hand, it is maintained that
the moisture which is precipitated in South Africa comes from
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and is propelled there by forces
which operate outside the continent, and at great distances from
it, and therefore on an average the rainfall must lemain invari-
able from decade to decade.*

The writer proposes to examine a little more closely the
latter statement. The evidence regarding the desiccation of
many large tracts of South Africa is so overwhelming that few
dispute the fact.

South Africa may be divided into three rainfall areas —

(a) The winter rainfall area.

(b) The all-the-year-round rainfall area.

(c) The summer rainfall area.

The last area is the most important, and includes Natal, the
Transvaal, etc.

The source ai supply for the rainfall for this area is the
Indian Ocean. The winter rainfall is derived chiefly from the
Atlantic Ocean.

The writer hopes to shew that the amount of the summer
rainfall in a district far from the coast is dependent to a large
extent on the character and quantity of the vegetation of the
intervening coimtry.

The rain gauge is used to ascertain the amount of the rainfall.
This instrument is at best a crude one, and many circumstances
make its readings unreliable. The first difficulty with regard to
the rain gauge is that of location. It is usual to place a rain
gauge three to six feet from the ground, and at some distance
from trees and other sources of o'bstruction. When this procedure
is adopted the readings are disturbed and rendered unreliable
because of the presence of eddies-circling round the instru-
ment which are produced by the wind, which usually
has a high velocity when rain is falling. These eddies
give a corresponding motion to the raindrops falling into
them, and these drops consequently receive an outward
deflecting motion, and many which would otherwise fall
into the rain gauge fall outside of it. The following
experiment, an account of which is contained in Milham's
" Meteorology." will make this clear : Two similar rain gauges
were taken ; one was placed in the open three feet above the
level of the ground, and the other was placed about 200
feet above the ground as nmch in the open air as possible. It
was found " that the lower rain gauge caught nearly twice as

* Erosion and Rainfall : Senate Committee's Conclusion. 1914.

EFFFXT OF VEGETATION ON THE RAINFALL OF S.A. I43

much as the more elevated one. Now, if the rain gauge was
a perfectly accurate measurer of rainfall, you would expect the
upper gauge to register slightly more than the lower gauge, as
the drops get slightly less in size as they fall because of evapora-
tion, and the level of rain-bearing clouds is quite high, even
in winter. In fact, we should expect the amount of rainfall
to increase with elevation till the level of the rain-bearing
clouds was reached.

In the above experiment, the reason for the discrepancy is to
to be found in the increase in wind velocity with elevation. This
increases rapidly as you rise from the ground.

Now there is another circumstance besides the height of
the rain gauge above the ground, which would influence its read-
ings, and that is the character o^f the rainfall. Large raindrops
would not be deflected very much by the eddies, because in the
first place they fall through the eddies quicker than smaller
drops, and in the second place they expose less surface in pro-
portion to their weight than the smaller drops, to be acted on
by the eddies. The rain gauge, on this account, would have
very little error in registering the heavy rainfall, but would
considerably underestimate the drizzling, soaking rains. An ex-
treme case is that of snow : here the average density is very
small, and it is impossible to valuate the amount of the snowfall
by means of the rain gauge :

For these reasons the writer rejects the rain gauge as an
instrument for determining whether the amount of rainfall in
South x\frica has been undergoing an alteration — as the charac-
ter of the rainfall has undoubtedly altered over large tracts of
the country — a large portion of the rainfall being torrential
downpours where formerly gentle soaking rains were the rule.

If we except the Western Province, all portions of South
Africa have a considerable proportion of rainfall in summer.
Since the rainfall of the Western Province has not altered in
character during historical times, this portion will not be con-
sidered at all in this communication.

In summer the region in Central Africa at the equator, and
just south of it, is enormously heated, and a convectional rise
of the air there takes place on an enormous scale, and heavy
rainfall occurs in consequence. This convection and the large
humidity causes the pressure to be very low there, and conse-
quently air rushes from the south, where the pressure is much
greater, to take its place. Owing to the rotation of the earth,
this air is deflected towards the west, and forms the south-east
trade wind. Unfortunately for South Africa, the relative hu-
midity of this wind is not very high. The inland ])lateau of
South Africa is unduly heated in summer, and consequently the
wind, when forced to rise when leaving the ocean to enter it,
does not have its temperature lowered perceptibly, consequently,
as a general rule, no moisture is precipitated. .

The temperature of the inland plateau is probably warmer
than the moisture-laden air which starts from the Indian Ocean,

144 EFFECT OF VEGETATION ON THE RAINFALL OF S.A.

SO that, unless this air goes up very quickly, it will arrive in it
state of considerable dryness.

The rainfall there must be due to another cause, and that
is the considerable convectional rise we get there particularly
late in summer. Now, according to its latitude, the inland
plateau ought to be a region of descending currents of air, and
a very dry region such as the horse latitudes. There are two
reasons why that should not be the case in South Africa. In
the first place, the belts of high pressure at the horse latitudes
are comparatively shallow, and at an altitude of 4,000 feet have
disappeared entirely, so that at altitudes above that height the
pressure there is lower than that at higher latitudes at the same
height. The second reason, which is only operative in summer,
is the undue heating of the inland plateau, which causes a con-
vectional rise, and therefore a reduction in the pressure. That
is, monsoonal conditions are established. We may say that
generally the rainfall of the inland plateau is due to a convec-
tional rise there. Let us examine what the consequences of this
will be. When the air rises it cools at the rate of about 1.6° F.
for a rise of 300 feet if no heat is lost by radiation and if there
is no condensation. Consequently, if air continues to rise, a
point will be reached when its moisture will condense in the form
of a cloud.

To calculate the height at which the cloud would appear,
supposing the rise of the air to continue, you would need to
know the temperature of the air when it commenced to rise and
its dew-point then. The temperature at which the cloud con-
denses is not, of course, that dew-point, because the water
vapour is also expanded by a convectional rise. The approxi-
mate formula meteorologists use is : substract the difference
between the temperature of the air at the earth's .surface and
the dew-point there, and multiply by 300 and divide by 1.27.

When air is caused to rise by convection, it ceases to rise
as soon as its temperature has been lowered to that of the sur-
rounding air. As soon as that temperature is reached its vertical
velocity is zero, and it spreads out laterally. It is easy to see
that if the dew-point is comparatively low— that is, if the air
is comparatively dry to begin with — the whole convectional
circulation will take place below the cloud-forming level, and
consequently will give rise to no precipitation. If the convection
current should reach the cloud level, then moisture will be con-
densed, and in consequence of this the convection will be further
promoted, because — (a) the cloud will absorb the radiant heat
falling on it from both the sun and the earth, and this will raise
its temperature; (b) the latent heat is liberated on condensation,
and if the freezing-point is reached, further latent heat is
liberated.

It is easy to see that if the convection once reaches the
cloud level, it will, as a rule, go much higher. In the case of a
thunder cloud it may reach a height of Unw or five miles. The

EFFECT OF VEGETATION ON THE RAINFALL OF S.A. 145

writer is of the opinion that the vegetation of a country has a
very considerable effect on the number, extent, and intensity of
thunderstorms in summer. In the first place, it should be clearly
realized that vegetation puts a very considerable amount of
moisture into the atmosphere. It has been calculated that an
area covered with vegetation puts 25 per cent, more moisture
into the atmosphere than a free water surface in the same con-
ditions of wind velocity and temperature. Much depends on
the amount of vegetation and on the kind of vegetation.

Forest trees give an enormous amount, so much so that
trees are often planted to dry up marshy districts, which defy
every other means. Now let us consider the case of the inland
plateau of South Africa. The air which reaches there, travel-
ling from the ocean, must go over fairly large tracts of territory,
some from the north, some from the south-east. If this sur-
roimding tract of territor}^ is very arid, then this air will .y-ain
in temperature, but not in moisture content ; consequently it will
only be in exceptional circumstances that you will get a con-
vectional rise sufficient to give rain. If, on the other hand,
the surrounding tract is well covered with vegetation, then the
air going over it will not be so much heated, because the tem-
perature of the land will be less, and, what is more important,
it will gain a considerable amount of moisture, but not neces-
sarily an increase in relative humidity. When the inland plateau
is reached, the causes which give rise to convection need onh
be present to a feeble extent to produce rain, consequently wv
should expect that the num'ber of rainy days would be increased.
and this is confirmed by experience. Now it is the universal
experience that the rainfall is greatest near the coasts, which
first receive the wind, and that it gradually decreases as you go
inland. The effect of a country well covered with vegetation
is to make the decrease very gradual in deed — that is to say,
to bring oceanic conditions much nearer to inland places.

Consider the regions suitable for forest growth. The pre-
sence of forests allows the land to absorb readily the rainfall
which falls on it, and prevent the rapid run off to the sea
almost as soon as it has fallen. The forests afterwards slowly
transpire the moisture in the air, whence it is carried inland,
as a general rule, by the prevailing wind, and may again be
precipitated as rain there.

In conclusion, the writer urges that all suitable areas shoul.l
be planted with trees, and that the wholesale denudation of tht-
land, whether of trees, bush, or grass, should be discouraged
as much as possible. This policy would enable the forest dis-
tricts to make use of what rainfall the}- had, and to confer at
the same time a benefit to those inland. Not only would those
inland get a larger rainfall, it would come in a much more useful
manner, and would be more evenly distributed over the rainy
sea.son.

(Read, July 5, 191 7.)

AN OLD REPORT ON THE COPPER FIELD OF

NAMAQUALAND.

By Arthur William Rogers, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S.

When I was enquiring for early accounts of the copper-
bearing region of Namaqualand, Mr. Graham Botha, Keeper of
the Archives in Capetown, showed me the reix>rt which is printed
below. This report, of which there are three copies bound in
" Attestatien," Vol. i (1688-1698), was written by Friederich
Mathias van Werlinckhof, who went to Namaqualand with
Simon van der Stel in 1685. It may be the first report on a
mining venture ever written in South Africa.

Van der Stel's journal of the expedition does not mention
van Werlinckhof by name, but he is presumably the man re-
ferred to by van der Stel as " de berghopman." He was a
passing visitor at the Cape, and nothing further al)out him is
known to me.

The spot where prospecting was begun, " aan de Witte-
iDOomen, drie uiren van t' Fort," is evidently the place on the
Peninsula still known as " Silver Mine."

When the expedition reached Namaqualand, work was
started on a ridge formed by a dyke of diorite and norite in
the gneiss five miles east of the present village of Springljok.
The ridge is called Koper Berg to-day, but in spite of much
prospecting during the past 60 years it has not yet been found
to contain a payable mine. A spot on the ridge has " 1685 "
cut in it in old-fashioned characters, and it is said that van der
Stel's initials were there until some vandal obliterated them by
cutting his own on the place where they used to be. This spot
is apparently the place called " FI. V. R." in the Report.

There is, in the Library of the South African Museum, a
most interesting book of water-colour drawings of plants and
animals, done by someone connected with the expedition, and
on the first page of the book there are two sketches of scenery
on the copper field, one of which is a view of the Koper Berg
with van der Stel's camp in the foreground, and the other re-
presents a spot which I have not yet been able to identify.*

*T have to thank Dr. W. F. Purcell for showing me this book. It
has the title " Plants et Animalia in Promontorio Bonae Spei Africes ad
naturam delineata et colorata Ao 1692, in usum cons. Amsteled.. nee non
Rerlim Orientalium. Directoris Nicolai Witsen " ; and it is inscribed
" Dit Werk is voor mi> aan de Kaap gemaakt, N. Witsen, 1692."

The frontispiece is thus described : " A. A. Dit is de Coperberg,
door den E. Heer Commandeur Simon van der Stel, den 21 Octob :
1685, ondect, en ruij 10 mijlen verre personelijk gevisitecrt, en door-
gaens een gank en ader die von onder uijt den grond op, tot den top
van den berg klimt, en ten minsten van 8 tot 9 voeten, dog merendeels
van 2 3-3 roede breedte ganschelijk van cen coleur, en met Spaans-groen
uijtgeslagen bevonden. H. V. R. Een berg gansch en geheel uijt Coper-
ertz. van boven tot beneden toe, bevonden, dierhalven aldaer wel 18
voeten diep gegraven, en hand over hand rijcker mineral ten voorschijn
gekomen is."

THE COPPER FIELD OF NAMAQUALAND. I47

The mention of silver is difficult to understand ; so far as
1 know, that metal has only once been recorded amongst those
(copper, g"old, lead, antimony, molybdenum, iron and arsenic)
found in the fields ; and it is said, by A. Knop, to occur in
fahlerz (tetrahedrite). The word "missive," which I have
translated " pure metal," may perhaps be correctly so translated,
for native copper has been found in the surface rock of several
mines in the district, but more probably it refers to the metallic-
lookino; sulphides, bornite and chalcopyrite.

Attestatien, 1686 — 1698.

Alsoo de Heeren Majoris in "t vaderlant mij (^ndergesg', als
Ber<yhhopnian hebben aano-estelt niet alleen omme op de West
Cust van Suniatra de opzight op de Bergh Werken te nemen,
maar ook in 't passeren alhier an C'abo d' boa Esperanes te
doen een nauvvkeieri^ie Inquisitie naar soodanige mineralen, als
haar Ed er Hoog Acht beright is geworden in dies gewesten te
resideren. soo hebbe ter Ordre van Hoog Ed-b geb-n Heer van
Mijdreght, 't redirt sijn aanwesen alhier. exactelijck besightigt
alle wateren. kleijne rivieren en bergen, hier in 't District om de
Caap op ettelijcke mijlen gelegen. doch hebbende alhier ten
gerinsten niet connen vinden eenige metale of mineralen van
scout of silver, dan alleen een plaatse aan de Witteboomen. Drie
Uiren van 't Fort gelegen alwaar om de bequaamheijt van sijne
situatie ende abondantie van hout en water, een kleijn werck tot
een proef met de geringhste hende cleenste oncosten die mij
bedenkelijk sijn geweest begonnen heb. met ongewaar to man.
daar onder drie met mij hier aangelant, mitsgaders 7 slaven mij
on mijn versoek door den Ed. Heer Commandeur toegevoeght ;
zijnde drie mijne reeds geadvanceert tot up sestien vadem diepte,
alwaar sij bereids eenige goede Inditien ende kentekenen van
mineralen o])enbaren, alsoo den Ents van dien enigh coper dogh
seer weijnig silver is — houdens, sijnde bovendien gemelte Mijnen

There are further references to details in the sketch, but the above
are the most interesting, and they may be translated thus : " A. A.
This is the Copper Mountain d'scovered l)y His Excellency. Commander
Simon van der Stel. on October 21st, 1685, and explored by him person-
al'lv for some ro m.iles : and generally there is a dvke or vein which rises'
from below and reaches the too of the mountain ; it is at least 8 to g
feet wide, and for the most oart it is 2 to 3 roods wide; it is all one
colour, and is distinguished by its Spanish green mottling. H. V. R.
A h'll found to be entirely made of copper-ore from top to bottom;
at this place, therefore, a pit quite 18 feet deep was dug, and continuously
richer mineral came to sight."

The legend of the second sketch is ; " Een vlacte omtrent drie
mijlen Xoordwaarts van den Coperberg gelegen. in't midden van de-
welke een vlacke horizontale klip men gevonden heeft. uijt welkers poren
of gaetjes, 't Spaans-groen gelijksaam uitborreld en te voorschijn komt."
(" A flat place about three miles north of the Copper Mountain, in the
middle of it was found a flat rock, from the pores or holes of which
Spanish preen oozes out and appears more or less uniformly.")

Mr. Lloyd. Librarian of the S.A. Public Library, has shown me ji
somewhat similar book in his keeping, but a sketch of the hills in it is
less interesting than that of Koper Berg described abovf.

148 TIIH COPPER FIELD OF NAMAQUALANU.

niet subject om van eenigh water te connen werden belemmert
alsoo de naast aangelegen diepte van den bergh meer als 80
vadem nederschiet, sijnde vervolgens seer apparent dat self si
in den regentijt gemelte meijn door "t water niet veel sal g'incom-
modeert werden.

De goede gelegentheijt van welcke meijn, niij
geobligeert heeft in 't arbeijden te cuntinuerden omme als zijnde
een niuw werck to onderstaan wat voordelen sigh onder de hant
moghten comen te openbarde. sullens mede enige Ente tot U
Ed Hoogacht laten afgaan omme naar genomen preuve van de
apparentie van dien des te beijuamer te mogen oordelen. Verders
alsoo meergemelte Ho Ed H van Mijdreght den E H Com-
mandeur hadde geauthoriseert een Landtoght te doen omme te
onderstaan wat voordelen in dese gewesten omtrent 't ontdecken
van eenige mineralen voor de Ed Compi mogten komen te
resideren, ende mij bij die gelegentheijt aan bevolen hadde den
E. H. Commandeur in 't visiteren des op te doene mineralen
te adorateren ende mijne gevoelen daar omtrent op 't papier te
bringen ten obedientie van welcke ordres ende bevelen soo
hebben niet willen naarlaten gemelte landtoght nevens sijn E.
te onderstaan, gelijck dan op den 25st Augustig des afgeweken
jaars 1685, van de Caap de Goedehonp vertrocken sijn ende na
ongevaar een maand reijsens de Oliphants Rivier gepasseert
sijnde. soi) heeft den E Heer Commandeur van die plaats af
tot aan de Buffels revier toe, soodanig als 't daregister breder
sal komen uittewijsen sigh nevens mij onophoudelijk ende seer
nauw keurig g'informeert op de gelegentheijt den geberghten,
de selve seer exactelijck besightigende of oock eenige mineralen
mogten geven, ende op in t' passende bevonden hebben diverse
mineralen dogh als decxels van andere hooft-mineralen, de nogh
niet hex zijnde geen velcomentheijd ofte vaste adren hadde, ende
namals de E. H. Commandeur op alle rustplaatsen door sijne
bijhebbende Berghwerckens de gelegentheijt van die oorden, seer
nauwhebbende doen inspecteren en niet van merite opgedaan heb-
bende, het niet raadsaam was, dat E. H. Commandeur, sigh aan
diese bergen van geen meerde apparentie schijnende langer op-
hield, ende genegen om sijne reijse tot voldoeninge van sijn^-
E Oogwit naar den kooper Bergh voort te setten, eensdeels om
geen gebreck van water op onse te rugh reijs te hebben, ende
anderdeels om de goede apparentie daar \'an sign E. oordeelde
gemelte Cooperbergh te zijn nemende eghter verscheijde preu-
ven den gepasseerde bergh mineralen mede, omme de selve aan
de H. Majores tot een proef in 't vaderlant overtezenden, op
dat haar E. H. Achtb van de deieght van dien selver ende
met te beter kennisse zouden konnen oordeelen en welcken
Coperbergh wij eijndelijck naar veel moeijelijckheden en
sieckelens gecomen zijnde, soo heeft de E. H. Commandeur be-
nevens alle gelegentheden van dien met grooten ijver en moeijte
nauwkeurigh ondersoght, ende de bequaamste plaatsen afgesien
ende uijtgekosen hebbende, hebben wij ons wercke tot ondersoek
der mineralen begonnen in 't werck te stellen ende eerstelijk op

THE COPPER FIELD OF NAMAQUALAND. I49

sulke plaats die de H. Command-r de Naam gaf van H.V.R.
alwaar in 't Arbeijden bevonden hebben coper mineraal mit
Missive ingesprenckt, ende ter selve plaatsen nederdalende tot
op 3 vademen bevonden de selve hoe dieper hoe beter te zijn,
houdende de selve mineralen goet silver soodanigh als de proeven
van dien komen uijt te wijsen, soe dat mijne oordeels seecker
ende evident is, dat gemelte meijne hoe daar dieper in sal komen
nedertedalen rijcke en rijcker mineralen sal komen uijtteleveren
te meer om dat bet buijten alle twijssel is, dat de mineralia in
den beginne noijt volcomen sijn, ende hoe dieper leggen hoe
oock vaster solider ende rijcker bevonden werden, een musquet-
schoot van en ter zijden welcke meijn den E. H. Commandeur
met mijn advijs weder hebbende doen arbeijden. ende aldaar
een niuwe proef of anderhalf vadem gedaan hebben, soo hebben
bevonden die plaats zijnde aan en 1>equamen oort gelegen mede
uittelevern koper en silver van selvige soort als boven, dogh
wat rijcker van mineraal gelijk van Metaal, soo als uit de
proeven komt te blijken, ende wiert dese plaatse doen den E. H.
Commandeur genaamt met de naam S.M. sijnde dese plaats van
soo goede apparentie volgens de gedane proeven dat niet anders
connen oordeelen of sal in 't arbeijden, ende als men daar in
wat dieper sal nedergedaalt sijn, dat niet alleen seer goede
mineralen maar wellightlijk pur massive koper mo.2:hten komen
uijtteleveren, te meer dewijl 't begin van 't werck sigh ten eene-
maal daar toe schikt.

Wederom een of twee musquet schooten aan de anderzijden
van iiemelte eerste mijne de E. Heer Commandeur ten derde-
m.aalen doende arbeijden. hebben aldaar bevonden die meijne
mede te houden mineraal van de selve soorte als boven. ende
daar in nedergedaalt zijnde tot op t, ellen hebben geremarqueert
de selve van gelijke deightsaamheijt te zijn als de 2 boven-
genoemde, mede naar uijtwijs van de proeven daar van gemaackt,
ende wiert dese laatstegenaamt met de naam van S.V.S. omme
de goede constitutie van welcke mijnde ick absoluijt van ge-
voelen ben, dat indien men bet bergwerck daar aan komt voort
te setten de mineralen van tijd tot tijd rijcker ende beter sullen
bevonden werden, geconsideert den gemelten Bergh sigh m
lenghte en breete tot op ettelijke mijlen is uijtstreckende en
meest alle plaatsen mineraal houdt. als mede op sommige over-
vloedig van water voor menschen en beesten versien is, gelijk
sulx benevens den E. H. Commandeur in 't besightige persoon-
lijk bevonden heb. Zijnde verders dien ganschen landstreecke
doorgaans beset met sout en sulphur, een seker kenteken 't selve
in mineraal en rijk is, gelijk 00k volgens getuijgenis van alle
experte Bergwerckers vast gestelt word, dat alle mineralen door
de natuirlijke warmte ende 2 voorsz ; specien sout en sulphur
werden gegenereert ende gecoaguleert, verders alhier aan Cabo
d' Boa Esperance niet voorgevallen zijnde 't geen mijne kunst
ende Wetenschap concerneert, soo verklare dit bovenstaande te
sijn mijn rapport ende wedervaren, gedaan in 't Casteel de Goede
Hoop den 18 Maart 1686.

(Siind.) Friederich Mathias van Werlinckhof

150 tpie copper field of namaqualand.

Translation.

The Directors at home appointed me Chief Mining Engin-
eer, not only to take over the supervision of mining operations
on the West Coast of Sumatra, but also, in passing the Cape of
Good Hope, to make close enquiry into such minerals as the
Governor has reports of as existing in this region. There were
also the instructions of the Lord of Mydrecht, given when he
was here, to report precisely on all waters, streams and hills
in the district within a few miles of the Cape. However, not
the least trace of gold or silver could be found here ; at one
place only, near the Witteboomen, three hours from the Fort,
where, on account of the convenience of its sittiation and abun-
dance of wood and water, small operations were commenced as
a test at the least possible expense, with about ten men, three of
whom I brought with me from home, together with seven slaves
supplied at my request by the Commander. The mine was al-
ready sixteen fathoms deep, where there were some good indi-
cations of minerals exposed. These contained copper and a
very little silver. Moreover, the above mine is not likely to be
hindered by water, as a kloof near by has a depth of more than
80 fathoms ; this clearly shows that even in the rainy season
the mine will not be inconvenienced by water. The favourable
conditions at this mine induced me to continue the work, it being
a new venture, so that I could judge what profit might be
anticipated ; I will send your Excellency some samples, in order
that from the results of tests you may form a better judgment.

Further, the said Lord of Mydrecht authorised the Com-
mander to make a journey in order to ascertain what profit
could be found in the country in the way of minerals before the
Honourable Company takes it over, and he authorised me to
assist the Commander in exploring the minerals, and to give my
opinion in writing in obedience to those orders.

So, being unwilling to delay the said expedition with the
Commander, we left the Cape of Good Hope on 25th Augtist last
year, 1685, and, after about a month's journey, crossed the
Oliphant's River ; from that place to the Buffel's River, as will
appear in more detail in the diary, the Commander was all the
time ifully informed by me of the nature of the rocks, which
were closely examined to see if they held minerals, and on the
way various minerals were found capping other minerals, which
were, however, neither good nor pure, nor were they in distinct
veins. Thereafter the Commander prospected at all the resting-
places and examined closely into the possibilities of the locali-
ties, but nothing of value resulted. It was not advisable for
the Commander to delay further amongst these hills, which gave
no apparent indications, as he intended to push forward and
reach his aim in the Copper Mountains, in the first place in order
to avoid scarcity of water on the return journey, and secondly,
after forming an opinion on the Copper Mountains, to take
back with him actual and various proofs of the minerals in the
country passed through, so that they could be tested b}' the

THE COPPER ElELD OE N AM AyUALANI). J5I

Directors at home. In order that the Commander might get
better knowledge of the Copper Mountains, we eventually reached
them after much trouble and delay. The Commander, with
great zeal, and taking advantage of all the circumstances, in-
vestigated closely a part of the region, and choosing the best
places, we began to work on the spot for the search for minerals,
especially at a certain spot named by the Commander H.V.R..
where in working we found co]>per ore with pure metal dis-
seminated through it. At this place we sunk to a depth of three
fathoms, finding better ore the deeper we went, holding the
same minerals and real silver so far as tests could be made,
so that, in my opinion, it is certain and obvious that the deeper
one goes the richer and richer the minerals will be, the more
so because the fact is beyond all dispute that the minerals first
found were not perfect, but the deeper they lay, the harder, more
compact, and richer they were found to be. A gunshot to one
.<-ide of this mine the Commander had further work done by my
advice, and here a new trial a fathom and a half deep was
made ; we found that the S'ix>t was a favourable one, and from
it were produced copper and silver of the same kind as described
above, yet it was richer in mineral and metal, as appeared from
the tests; this ])lace was designated S.M. by the Commander.
According to the trials made, this place is of such promising
appearance that no other opinion can be held than that in work-
ing there the deeper one were to sink, not alone very good min-
erals, but probably pure massive copper, would be (obtained, the
more so since the work has ])r()gressed more and more favour-
ably from its commencement.

Again, at one or two gunshots' distance on the other side
of the said mine, the Commander had a third trial made, and
there found a mine holding minerals of the same kind as before,
and after sinking three ells, we noticed the same good indications
as in the two above-mentioned places, according to the trend
of the evidence got there ; this last spot was indicated by the
name S.V.S. I am entirely convinced of the favourable charac-
ter of these mines ; in the event of mining operations being con-
tinued, richer and richer, and better, minerals will be found, for
the hills concerned extend several miles in length and breadth,
and hold minerals almo.'^t everywhere, and in some places water
for man and beast is plentiful, as the Commander found on
personal inspection.

Further, salt and sulphur are distributed through the whole
region, a certain indication that it is rich in minerals; and it is
also firmly settled, on the evidence of all expert mining- men,
that all minerals are regenerated and coagulated from the afore-
said salt and sulphur by means of natural heat. Further, it
cannot be that here at the Cape of Good Hope there are no
mines of interest in the arts and sciences.

T declare the above to be my report and experience, at the
Castle of the Cape of Good Hope, this i8th day of March.
i6c%.

Friederich Mathias van Werlinckhof.

J 52 THE COPPER FIELD OF NAM AQUALAND.

In conclusion, I wish to thank Mr. Botha for help in copy-
ing the original, and Mr. T. B. Herold for correcting some pas-
sages which I had not clearly understood.

{Read, July 4, 19 17.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

South African Institute of Engineers.— Saturday, June 30th: B.
Price, M.I.E.E., A.M.I.C.E.. Past President, in the chair. — " Notes on the
support of the underground ivovkings in the mines of the Rand'":
P. Cazalet. Methods of work, which have been suitable in the past

for the support of hanging walls, are so no longer on many mines, (i)
because the workings of adjoining mines are practically assuming the
character of continuous excavations, at most only partially supported over
long distances, and (2) on account of the increasing depth of the work-
ings. Sand-liUing had been introduced with the greatest benefit, but on
a large scale only in a few mines, and that sand-filling alone will suffice is
unlikely. Four methods of supporting hanging wall therefore remain,
viz., (i) the packing or stowage of waste rock, (2) the square set method
of timbering, (3) the use of round timber for props, stalls, and pigstyes,
(4) the packing of ore actually broken at stope faces. The last rnethod
is, in the author's experience, the only one whicli entirely meets the re-
quirements.— "Systematic packing underground at the Ferreira Deep
Mine" : G. Hildick-Smith and R. Selby. The nature of the hang-
ing wall, originally a naturally strong quartzite. had completely changed
throughout the mine, and had become very broken and dangerous, causing
stopes to cave and shafts to give trouble. The mine had been saved by
resorting to systematic packing, in conjunction with the removal of pillars,
which were replaced by packs. The various methods of packing found
to be most efficient were described and illustrated.

Saturday, July 14th: G. M. Clark, M.A., A.iM.I.C.E., President, in the
chair. — "Suction gas production from South African bituminous coals":
F C. Sturrock. and E. J. Way. The authors gave an account
of some of their experiences met with, and some of the results obtained
in the practical application of South African fuels to one of the latest gas
producers of the suction type. Some of the principal difficulties that
have had to be overcome in connection with diflferent makes of bituminous
plants were discussed, and the improvements which their experience had
suggested to the authors were referred to — " Notes on tests of timber
pigstyes": H. C. Hilton. In the Transvaal gold mines the natural
pillar has to a large extent been displaced by timber stopes in the form of
pigstyes,, and the latter, if unfilled, appear inefficient, (i) because of the
small proportion of the timber that is called upon to withstand any strain,
and (2) because those parts which take the strain carry it in the direction
in which timber is weakest. The tests described by the author were made
in order to ascertain the correctness of these assumptions, and the most
efficient form of pigstye.

Saturday, nth August: G. M. Clark, M.A., A.M.I.CE-, President, in
the chair. — Presidential Address : G. M. Clark. The address dealt
largely with the subject of education as it affects engineers. Tech-
nical education was specially referred to, and free education in the higher
stages, as well as in the lower, advocated. The relationships and func-
tions of an Institution of Engineers were also shortly discussed. —
" Furt'er notes on the collapse and recovery of the Central Shaft at the
Bantjes Consolidated Mines." G. Hildick-Smifh. A description of the
methods used in reclaiming three compartments of a collapsed shaft, with
statements of costs.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE IHORN VELD.

By Prof. John Willia.m Bkws, M.A., D.Sc.

{Plates 6-9 and tivo text figures.)

Introduction.

Tree Steppe or Tree Veld (grass-land with scattered trees)
is one of the most extensive, if not the most extensive, of the
types of vegetation in the whole Continent of Africa. The
species composing it vary in different regions, dependent on
differences, chiefly in climate, but partly also and more locally
in dififerences in soil conditions. Practically all the dry river-
valleys on the eastern side of South Africa are filled with Tree
Veld, in which species of acacia are dominant. The Protea Veld
is more of a mountainous type, and extends through Rhodesia.
In Rhodesia, also, there are many other types, such as Baobab
Veld, with the baobab [Adansonia digitata) dominant. The
Bush Veld of the Transvaal is a combretaceous-leguminous type
with TenninaJia, Comhretum, Burkea, etc. The mopane {Copai-
fera mopane) is dominant in much of the Tree Veld of Angola
and South-Central Africa, while Baobab Veld extends right up
to the Congo. Practically the w^hole of SouthXentral Africa is
Tree Veld, interrupted only by patches of eastern forest on the
slopes of the mountains of the eastern side. In the tropics, the
great Congo forest and the belt of dense forest which extends
through the Cameroons, along West Africa, to I>iberia, covers a
very extensive area, but north of this and south of the Sahara
we again get Tree Steppe very similar to that occurring in South
and South-Central Africa. In many parts of the tropics and
sub-tropics, various ])alms (Hyplucne ventricosa, H. thchaica, or
dum ])alm, Borassus flabcUifer, etc.) are dominant in Tree Veld.
It will be seen, therefore, that any study of the development
of such a type as the Thorn Veld must have a very wide import-
ance. The area studied in detail was the Thorn Veld in the
vicinity of Pietermaritzburg, es])ecially the district around Bisley
and Foxhill. In the neighbourhood of a town, the influence of
man nuist always be reckoned with, to a more than usual extent.
It is now some 70 or 80 years since Pietermaritzburg was
founded, and at first for many years the thorn trees of the Thorn
Veld were the chief source of firewood, being much more acces-
sible than the forest trees in the Bush. This led to extensive
destruction of timber, and great areas were denuded of trees.
In the last 20 years, however, wattle cultivation on an extensive
scale has been undertaken to the north of the town. After the
bark of the wattle tree is stripped, the wood is sold largely as
firewood, and this supply has taken the place of the thorn-trees.
The Thorn Veld, therefore, is again extending, and that fairly

154 THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD.

rapidly, and excellent opportnnities for studying the succession
are afforded.

Type of Grassland Invaded.

The soil varies within certain limits. It is mostly of the
hard-baked type, badly aerated, but rich in chemical salts. The
iron it contains exists as the protoxide (FeO). About a foot
below the surface ironstone gravel (limonite) is frequent, and
nodules of an impure magnesian limestone. There is a certain
amount of organic matter in the soil, more than in the High-Veld
soils, consequently it is dark in colour. In places it is shallow,
but the numerous dongas (see Plate 6 b) show that it often
reaches a depth of several feet, and below the soil the shale is
often loose and broken. Where the veld is unchanged, the Low-
Veld variety of Anthistiria imberbis is completely dominant, but
there is usually a considerable admixture of other sjiccies of
grasses — Andropogon hiriiis, A. sclweiiantliits, var. versicolor,
A. aniplectens, A. perfusits, A. aiictiis, A. schireiisis, A. pUtrino-
dis, A. appendiculatiis, Aristida angustata, A. junciformis, Era-
grostis curvula, E. chalcantha, E. brizoides, Cynodon dactylon,
Tristachya lencothrix, Sporobolus iiidicits, Chloris petrcca, C.
pycnothrix, Imperata arnndinacca, Paiiiciiui spp., Digitaria spp..
El en sine indica.

Scattered through the grasses there are numerous associated
plants, of which the commonest are: — Dicoiiia argyrophylla, Cor-
chorus asplenifolius, Hypoxis laiifolia, Abittilou souneritianum,
Sida longipes, Hermannia sp.. Maker uia grandistipida, Lasio-
siphon linifolins, Crotalaria distaiis, C. globifera, and other
species, Indigofera spp., Leucas martinicensis, Ocimiim sp.,01den-
landia (Hedyotis) amatymbica. Acalypha sp., Laefiica capensis,
Hclichrysiim spp., Asclepias spp., Gasanea longiscapa, Alo^
saponaria, Scilla spp. There are, of course, a great many others :
a complete list would run to several hundred. Gr,\ss fires and
grazing by stock have a great effect on this veld, the general
tendency being for the Anthistiria to give way to other species of
grasses, such as Sporobolus indicns.

Bases of Colonization.

The banks of the streams and the numerous deep ravines
serve as bases of colonization for the numerous species which,
given an opportunity, invade the veld. In such sheltered situa-
tions grass fires have little effect, nor, owing to their inaccessa-
bility, are they much disturbed by man. The various animals,
including birds, which act as agents of distribution, congregate in
such places, so that seeds are brought from a distance, and in
new areas of grassland tree-growth is first established in the
ravines.

Good historical evidence from the residents near Bisley
proves that, 20 or 30 years ago, the thorn-trees in this neighbour-
hood were confined to the bottom of the valley near the stream.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 6.

(a). Acacia arabica var. kraiissiana growing near nest of 1 cnnes

trincrv'ms.

•,■.<:- >«~^>?T

y-'-^ii

..^'

(&). Donga showing root system of Acacia arabica var. kraiissiaiia.

Prof. J. W. Bews.— Plant Succession in the Thorn Veld.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD. 1 55

At the present time, the stream-bank and ravine vegetation at
Bisley is made up of the following species, named ronghly in the
order of their abundance: — Acacia arabica, var. kraussiana,
Celastriis bit.vifoliits, Hippobromiis alata, Ehretia Iwttcntotica,
Jasminnni muliipartituni, Jasniinum sp. {gerrardi?) Elccodendron
(cthiopicitm, Zizyphiis imtcrouata, Grewia caffra, Acacia caffra,
A. horrida, Randia rudis, Xanthuxylon capcnse, Coinbrctmn
krattssii, C. salicifolia, Nitxia oppositifolia, Royena pallcns,
Pavetta hinccolata, P. sp. [obovata?), Cussonia spicata, Helinns
ovata, Gymnosporia {Celastriis) spp., Brachylcrua discolor,
Dovyalis (Aberia) frisfis, Azinia tctracantha, Euclea undulata,
E. lauccolata, Calpurnia sp., Rhus, two or three species.

Climbing over these we have various lianes, of which the
woody Dalbergia obovata may be mentioned first. Species of
Vitis (Cissus) are also common — (Vifis cnneifolia, V. cirrhosa).
Clematis bracchiata. Asparagus sp., Dalechanipia capensis, and
the succulent Sarcostcmma viminalis also occur. The under-
growth is rich in herbaceous forms — e.g., Sansexnera thyrsiflora,
Lippia asperifolia, Barleria obtusa, S cilia sp., Rubus rigidus,
I ernonia corynibosa, Melasiua sp., Kalanchoe rotiindifolia, Cya-
fhula sp. Near the stream-bed vlei grasses. Setaria intberbis,
Pemiisetuiu uiiisefum, Cy perns spp., and many others occur.
Reference will be made later to species which are more or less
confined to the stream-banks ( species of Salix, Ficus, etc.), but
at this j)oint emphasis must be laid on the fact that all the Thorn
Veld species are found in such situations. The chief imj>ortance
of the type lies in the fact that the species are close at hand, and
can easily be distributed through the neighbouring grass-land.
Careful attention has been paid to the means of distribution
and to the requirements of each species. Only very few appear
to be able to act as pioneers in the invasion. If we desire an
expressive South African term, we may call them " Voortrek-
kers." \\'hen such pioneers have established themselves, they
alier the conditions in the Grass Veld, and pre])are the way for
other species to follow them. The methods by which this is
brought about forms the most interesting part of our investiga-
tion. In the Thorn Veld every stage of it can be seen clearly,
but a similar succession of events can be seen in many other plant
communities in South Africa.

The Invasion of Grass-Land by Trees — Pioneer Species.
— The chief and only important pioneer species in the Bisley
district is Acaeia arabica, var. kraussiana. Acacia horrida,
Celastrus buxifolius, Vangncria infausta and others also act as
" voortrekkers," but at Bisley these species are of little import-
ance, compared with Acacia arabica. It is obvious that as
full a knowledge as possible of this chief pioneer, as regards its
life-history, habits, and requirements, is desirable. It begins its
growth as a straggling, thorny, irregularly-branched young tree.
Gradually it assumes the umbrella form, and is usually more
densely leafy than the majority of acacias. Its stipular thorns

156

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN TME TH(JRN VELD.

are well developed, and whatever view be taken of the origin of
thorns,* it cannot be doubted that its foliage is thereby protected
against grazing animals. It fruits profusely, and the long in-
dehiscent pods hang down below the branches well away from
the thorns. The pods ripen irregularly, and some of the seeds
may be ripe while the rest of the pod is green and succulent.
Insects sometimes enter the pods and destroy the majority of
the seeds, but sucli seeds as do ripen are \ery hard and resistant.
It is the succulent pod itself, and not the seeds, that is the
chief attraction for animals, and herbivorous mammals as well
as birds may be the agencies for distribution, though in the
case of the ^former probably only very few of the seeds remain
undigested. I Goats are particularly fond of the pods, and fatten
quickly when fed on them. The passage of the seeds through
the animal's body assists in germination, helping to soften the
verv hard seed-coat. Otherwise seeds of acacias, it is found.

"TgiMagnl-'

Fig'. 1. — DiatiTiiiii illustrating root system of .h'aciti arahica

var. krattssiana.

do iKJt germinate readily unless they have been first immersed
in boiling water to soften the seed-coat. The seedlings a])pear
usually singly through the grass, and not in clumps, but taking
into consideration the fact that few of the seeds ripen and
many are attacked by insects, while others may lie ungerminated,
it is not difftcult to understand why only single seedlings appear.
For the first year or two the seedlings suffer from grass-fires,
though it is surprising how much they will stand. A young

*See Bews, J. W., '"The Growth Forms of Natal Plants," Trans.
Roy. Soc. S.A. ( 1916.)

t Since the ahove was written this point has been further investigated.
Mr. T. R. Sim kindly collected a large quantity of the ripe pods and for-
warded them to Mr. Pole Evans, who arranged with Sir Arnold Theiler
for feeding tests to he carried out in the Department of Veterinary
Research Numerous samples of seeds were returned to us which had
passed through the bodies of herbivores uninjured. My colleaa;ue, Dr.
Denison, has made a preliminary chemical analysis of the empty dry pods.
Thev are very rich in carbohydrate ^probably sugars V

THK I'LANT SUCCKSSION IN THE THORN VELD-

157

plant may be scorched right to the top, yet new growth soon
appears, and a year later it is little the worse. The root-system
may be seen exposed where new dongas form, close to thorn
trees. ( See Plate 6 b. ) The main tap-root is vigorous in its
growth, and descends as deeply as the soil permits, and often
reaches a depth of many feet. It makes its way even through
the shale as far as possible. The thorn-tree is thus rendered
independent of atmospheric precipitation during the long dry
season. In addition, however, to the main tap-root, there are
usually a number oi large side-roots, which spread out hori-
zontally for great distances near the surface of the soil. These
utilize such water as does not penetrate to any depth. The
general appearance of the root system is illustrated in Fig. i.
The most important thing with regard to a pioneer species such
as Acacia arabica is that it must be able to establish itself with
no further shade or protection from the beginning than what
is afforded by the surrounding grasses. Pioneer species can
nexer at any stage of their life-history be ombrophilous, or at
any rate, they are always less so than the species that follow

3

4

'I .V- r

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic representation of different stages in the Thorn

Veld succession.

them. The critical period for the pioneer must be the earliest
stage of the seedling, before its root has penetrated down to
the deeper subterranean sources of water. Probably the later-
ally extended branch-roots which are near the surface help it
to tide over this period by utilizing surface water. It must
also be able to resist grass-fires

For the first six years the tree is straggling in growth
and has little effect on the grass around it ; but as soon as it
begins to assume the umbrella form it throws enough shade to
change the nature of the undergrowth. (Fig. 2, Stage 4.) At
first the grasses grow taller, being to a certain extent etiolated.
The soil becomes moister and earthworms more active. Their
castings undoubtedly play an important part in changing the
soil conditions and preparing a suitable seed-bed. Very often
the white ant (termite) commences operations, if indeed it
was not present before the seedling thorn tree, for, as will be
pointed out later, seeds of all the species are apt to be dis-

58 THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD.

tributed and to germinate on or around white-ants' nests. The
excavations of termites have also an important effect on the soil.
The nests are (frequently afterwards deserted and occasionally
the burrowings of the aard-vark or ant-bear. ( Orcytcropus
afcr) leads to considerable disturbance of the soil, and provides
further shade and shelter for young seedlings. As well as the
white ants, true ants are frequently present in great numbers,
and their effect on the soil in many places is most important
of all. An early stage, at the time when the overhanging acacia
is from 6 to 10 years old, is shown by the presence of such
plants as the following: The grasses Andropogon pertusits.
Sporobolus indiciis, Aristida angitstata; Lantana salvifolia.
Llppm asperifolia, Teucrinm capense, Acalypha sp., Lcpidium
sp., Ocimum sp., Lcucas martiiiicciisis, Vernonia sp., together
with any of the other associated ])lants of the veld, but other
invaders from the stream-bank and ravine flora soon make their
appearance.

Species which follow the Pioneers (Fig. 2, Stages 5-8).

Of the species which follow the pioneers (subsequent
species) at Bisley, the earliest arrivals are jasmines {Jasminum
multipartitum and /. gerrardi?). Their small fleshy drupes are
readil}^ eaten by birds. With them we get Raiidia nidis, which
has a small black berry. This species, according to Sim, in
some parts of the Fish River scrub forms a large part of the
Bush vegetation. Another early arrival is Ehretia hotteiitotica .
its fruit is an orange-red drupe, which is eaten by the natives.
Hippobromtis alata, with a black. Jiuljjy ifruit, is common at an
early stage ; it spreads by root-suckers, and young ])lants of it
appear all round the parent tree. Eiiclca iindidata (the guarri).
a species which is dominant over wide stretches of the Little
Karroo, sometimes appears under the thorn-trees among the
first, but another species of Euclea (E. lanceolata) is more
frequent. The Eucleas have berries, known as " guarri besjes,"
which are eaten by the natives. The wild grapes, especially
Vifis cirrhosa and V. cuneifolia, are usually early arrivals. The
large tuberous swellings on their roots are characteristic.
Species of Solanum are also frequent. Cclastrns buxifolius, as
mentioned above, is sometimes itself a pioneer species ; at other
times it takes its place among the species which establish them-
selves in the shade of the thorn-trees. It has a capsule with
two or three arillate seeds. Zicyphus uincronata, the " wait-a-
bit '" thorn, which has numerous fleshy, dark-red, globose fruits,
is another widespread species of the Thorn V^eld. It is often
among the first invaders, but to establish itself it requires fairly
deep soil or open rocky situations- The cabbage tree, Cussonia
spicafa. the fleshy fruits of which are eaten by birds, and the
seeds of which do not seem to germinate readily unless thev
have been eaten, is another characteristic Thorn Veld species.
Species of Rhus are very numerous. They have one-seeded

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

191/. PL. 7.

(a) Base of Colonization in a Ra\ine.

^'..?---

-s^

7/) Invasion of the grass veld bv Thorn Trees.

Prof. J. W. Bews,— Plant Succession in the Thorn Veld

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 8.

(a) Subsequent species growin,^- up underneath the Pioneer Acacia.

vw- •.;?

^J

(b) Further stage in succession. The Pioneer Acacia lieing killed b}-

subsequent species.

Prof. J. W. Bews.— Plant Succession in the Thorn Veld.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD. 1 59

drupes. Azima tetracantha, a somewhat rarer species, was no-
ticed once or twice : it has a globose berry.

The fruits of all those earlier invaders have been noted
because it is significant that they are all of the fleshy type which
are eaten by animals, and especially by birds. These are the agents
of distribution, and wind-distribution seems to play a very un-
important part in the establishing of the Thorn Veld as a vege-
tation type. The lower branches of the thorn-tree, bare of
spines and shaded by the spreading overhead canopy, are the
favourite resting-places for birds. They feed in the stream-
bank bush, and such species of that bush as have fruits that are
eaten are naturally the first to be distributed throug:h the Thorn
Veld. Afterwards other species arrive, the majority of them
also distributed by birds and other animals, though some of
them are not: Dalbergia obovata (woody liane), Calpurnia sp.,
Chilianthus arhoreus, Vangueria infausta, Sclerocarya caffra,
Harpcphyllum caff rum (Kafir plum), Combretum kraussii,
Pavetta lanccolata, P. sp., Xanfhoxylon capense, Gymnosporia,
(Cclastrus) sp., EUcodcndron (rthiopicum, Grczvia caffra,
Roycna paUcus, R. spp.. Plumbago capensis (liane), Brachylcena
discolor .

The young plants of the various species named grow up
through the herbaceous and shrubby species which form the
preliminary stage, and soon a tangled growth results (see plate
8). The soil is loosened, and a certain amount of humus even
collects ; other herbaceous species appear, such as Sanseviera
thyrsiflora, Kala)ichoc rotundifolia, Barleria obfusa. Asparagus
spp.. Scilla sp., and a parasitic species of Melasma.

Further Stages in the Succession

Very soon the si>ecies which began under the thorn-tree
grow up through it. At a fairly early stage it is common to
find Cclastrus or Ehretia towering above it (Fig 2, Stage 8).
The lianes, such as Vitis cuncifoUa, V. cirrhosa, Asparagus spp..
sometimes spread all over the top of it. and the thorn-tree may
ultimately be killed. On the other band, where herbivorous
animals are abundant, unprotected species are kept down as a
result oif grazing', and even old thorn-trees have no undergrowth
whatever. In this case the succession is limited, and the Thorn
Veld remains as pure acacia veld. The thorn-trees themselves,
however, grow closer and closer together, especially if the
grazing prevents grass-fires, and ultimately we get pure thorn-
thickets. The more natural succession is seen where grazing
animals are not abundant or are excluded by areas being fenced
in.. The clumps which grow round pioneer thorn-trees at first
are scattered, as the pioneers themselves were, but the inter-
vening areas are colonized by more thorn-trees, which, in turn,
produce clumps, and soon a stage is reached where the branches
of separate thorn-trees touch. By this time many other species
of trees have arrived, and they are not all distributed by animals.
.\ new struggle commences, and the climax type is the succulent

ibo THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THOKN VELD.

or thorny scrub, which is so characteristic of many river valleys
in Natal. There are present very much dwarfed forest species,
such as Ptcvroxylon utile, Elccodcndroii croceum, Scolopia
seyheri, Schotia latifolia, Toddalia lanceolata, Claiisena in-
cequalis, Xanthoxylon capense, and woody lianes {Dalhergia
obovata), as well as a number of succulent or semi-succulent
lianes, such as Sarcostemma viniinalis, Dregia floribunda, Rio-
cretixM sp., Capparis spp.. Secamone sp., Ceropegia sp., Cissam-
pclos sp., Senecio sp. It should be noted that over most of the
Thorn Veld the pioneer acacias remain the dominant species in
the climax stage. Reference to the list which follows, however,
will show that other species are locally dominant, and. as men-
tioned above, in many cases 'the pioneer thorn-tree is killed by
the species which follow it. Within the Thorn Veld, therefore,
the succession tends to be towards the mesophytic. But whether
the thorn scrub should be considered a more mesophytic type
than the grass-land which it replaces is, of course, another
matter. Grassland, however xerophytic it be, is not the climatic
type suited to the valleys, which are very hot, and have a long,
dry period in winter, but where there is a sufficient supply of
water at a certain depth — too deep for grass roots to reach it.
Schimper's basic distinction between grass-land and wood-land
climates here appears to be a ver}- sound one. As we pass from
the higher veld of the hills and upper plateaus to the Low Veld
of the valleys, we pass from a grass-land climate, which is
locally (on the south-eastern slopes) a mesophytic forest climate,
first of all, to a climatic area which produces a Low Veld type
of grass-land with the tufted, low-growing variety of anthistiria
dominant, and finally to Thorn Veld and thorny scrub, a xero-
phytic type adapted to withstanding long periods of drought
and intense heat.

List of Thorn Veld Species.

The following list includes the more important and charac-
teristic species of trees, shrubs, and lianes found in the Thorn
Veld and thorny scrub. The symbols denoting frequency of
species are those in general use : —

d. = dominant, l.d. = locally dominant, l.s.d. ■= locally sub-
dominant, a = abundant, l.a. = locally abundant, f = frequent,
1 = local, o = occasional, r = rare, v.r. = very rare.

Ranunculacese —

Clematis brachiata l.a.

Menispermaceae —

Cissampelos burchelliana f.

Capparideae —

Cadaba natalensis

o.

Capparis

albitrunca

l.a.

,, juncea

o.

!*

zeyheri

l.a.

Niebuhria triphylla

o.

»•

gueinzii

l.a.

Boscia cafifra

o.

?1

citrifolia

l.a.

)t

corymbifera

l.f.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD.

i6i

Bixineae —

Scolopia zeyheri
Dovyalis caffra
Aberia tristis

Pittosporeae —

Pittosporum viridi-

f. Trimeria alnifolia
o. „ trinervis

f. Kig^gelaria africana

Erythroxylon monog}-

num l.f.

Rutaceae —

Toddalia lanceolata l.f.
Clausena inaequalis f.

Ochnaceae —

Ochna arborea

Burseraceae —

Commiphora harveyi. o.

Meliaceae —

Ekebergia capensis l.f.

Olacineas —

Cassinopsis tini folia v.r.

Celastrineae —

Cassine capensis f.

Elseodendron croceum f.

„ kraussia-

num f.
„ sphsrophyl-

lum f.

Putterlickia verrucosa f.

„ pyracantha f.
Rhamneae —

Zizyphus mucronata l.a.
Rhamnus prinoides o.

Xanthoxylon capense

l.f. ( )chna atropur|)urea

l.f.

l.f.

o.

florum l.f.

Portulacaceae —

Portulacaria afra. l.s.d.

Sterculiacese —

Dombeya rotundi folia o.

Dombeya natalensis

o

Tiliaceae —

Grewia caffra a.
„ lasiocarpa l.f.

Grewia flava

„ occidentalis

l.a
f

Lineae —

l.f.

l.f.

Commiphora caryaefolia o.

Celastrus undata

f.

J3

capitata

o.

')

albata

l.f.

>f

angularis

l.f.

>J

acuminata

r.

)>

buxifolius

a

Scutia

commersoni

l.d

Helinus ovata

f,

I 62

illE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD.

Ampelidese —

Vitis cirrhosa

La.

Vitis, man} other species

f.

„ cuneifolia

La.

Sapindacese —

Ptseroxylon utile

0.

Hippobromus alata

a.

Schmidelia erosa

Lf.

Dodonaea thunbergiana

La.

„ monophylla

o.

Melianthus spp.,

La,

Pappea capeiisis

o.

Bersama lucens

0

Anacardiacese —

Rhus discolor

Lf

Rhus, other species

f,

,, glaucescens

f.

Smodingium argutum

La.

„ tomentosa

a.

Odina caffra

Lf.

,, obovata

a.

Sclerocarya caff'ra

La,

,, villosa

a.

Leguminoseae —

Indigofera spp.,

Lf.

Crotalaria spp.,

Lf

Psoralea pinnata

Lf.

Albizzia fastigiata

La,

Milletia caffra

La.

Dichrostachys nutans

La,

Dalbergia obovata

La.

Cassia obovata

Lf,

]^>ythrina tomentosa

Lf.

„ occidentalis

Lf,

„ humiana

o.

„ tomentosa

Lf

„ acantho-

carpa

v.r

Acacia arabica var. Kraus-

caffra

La

siana

d

Calpurnia spp.,

Lf

„ caffra

l.d

Elephantorrhiza bur-

„ gerrardi

1

chellii

1.

,, horrida

d

Schotia brachypetala

f.

hirtella

f

latifolia

f.

pennata

Lf.

speciosa

Lf.

other species

f,

Rosaceae —

Rubus rigidus

f.

Cliffortia strobilifera

1

Hamamelideae —

Myrothamnus flabelli-

folius

l.d.

Rhizophorese —

Cassipourea verticillata

. 1.

Combretaceas —

Combretum apiculatum

o.

Combretum gueinzii

o.

erythrophyl-

kraussii

f.

lum

o.

salici folium

Lf.

glutinosum

o.

riparium

o.

Lythrariae —

Heteropyxis natalen-

sis

v.r.

TilE I'LAMT SUCCESSION JN T H K TilOKN VKIA).

163

Samydaceae —

Homalium rufescens

Umbellifereae —

Heteromorpha arbores-
cens

Araliaceae —

Cussonia spicata

a.

Cussonia umbellifera

l.a.

„ paniculata

0.

Rubiaceae —

Randia rudis

a.

Plectronia spinosa

l.f

Kraussia lanceolata

1.

„ ventosa

If

Gardenia g-lobosa

0.

„ ciliata

l.a

Alberta magna

r.

„ gueinzii

l.f

Vangueria infausta

0.

„ paiiciflora

l.a

„ lasiantha

0.

„ mundtii

l.f

„ venosa

0.

Pavetta caffra

f

„ cafifra

0.

,. lanceolata

f

o.

l.f.

l.a.

Compositse —

Vernon ia corymbosa l.f.
Tarchonanthiis camphor-

atus
Senecio spp..

Plumbaginege —

Plumbago capensis

Myrsineae —

Msesa rufescens

Sapotaceae —

Sideroxylon inerme

Ebenaceae —

Royena cordata
,, hirsuta
,, villosa
pallens
,, pubescens

Oleaceae —

Jasminum multipar-

Brachylsena discolor f.

„ elliptica o.

Osteospermum moniliferum o.

1. Myrsine melanophleus

l.a. Mimusops obovata

o.
o.
o.
f.
o.

o.

Royena lycioides

l.a.

Euclea daphnoides

f.

„ lanceolata

f

undulatr.

l.a

titum
aucum
fferrardi

glaucum

Apocynaceae —

Carissa arduina
Rauwolfia natalensis

a.
f.
f.

f.
l.a.

Jasminum streptopus f.

Olea verrucosa l.a.

.Schrebera alata r.

Acokanthera venenata l.a.

Voacanga dregei l.a.

164

THE PLANT SUCCESSI(3N IN THK THORN VELD.

Aiclepiadaceae —

Sarcosteniiiia aphylluni f. Ceropegia spp.,

Saracosteninia viniinale f. Riocreuxia sp.,

Dregea floribunda a. Secamone sp.,

Loganiaceae —

Nuxia congesta
Buddleia salviaefolia
Strychnos spinosa

Boragineae^

Ehretia hottentotica

Solanacese —

Solanum spp.. a

Scrophulariaceae —

Bowkeria spp., o

Bignoniaceae —

Rhig-ozum trichotomuiii l.a.

l.f. Chilianthiis oleaceus
f. „ lobulatus

l.f. ,, dyssophyllus

a. Cordia caffra

a Lvciuni hirsutum

Verbenacese —

\'itex mooiensis

Labiatse —

Leonotis leonurus

Phytolaccaceae —

Phytolacca octandra

Proteaceae —

Faurea saligiia

o. Vitex obovata
f.

f. Phytolacca stri ra
l.d.

Thymelaceae-

Dais cotiiii folia
Peddiea africana
Lasiosiphon meisneria-
nus o.

o. Lasiosiphon linifolius
f. Lasiosiphon kraussii

f. Viscuni spp.,

Loranthaceae —

Loranthus spp.,

Santalaceae —

Osyridocar])us natalensis o. Colpoon compressum

Euphorbiaceae —

Euphorbia tirucalli l.d. Securinega verrucosa

„ grandidens l.d. Cluytia pulchella

„ tetragona l.d. Bridelia micrantha

Cyclostemon argutus o. Ricinus communis
Dalechampia capensis f. Excoecaria cafTra

Excoecaria africana

l.a.
l.f.
l.f.

l.a.

l.d.
l.a.

1.

f.
l.a.
la.

Till". I'LAM SL'CCKS.SIO.V IN THE THOKN \EM). 1 63

Urticaceae —

Ficus capeusis l.f. Celtis kraussiaiia o.

Ficus natalensis l.f. Trema bracteolata a.

Salicineae —

Salix capeusis l.d. Salix woodii O.

Palmae —

Phcenix reclinata l.f.

Liliaceae —

Asparagus spp., f. Kehnia reticulata o.

Aloe spjx, f. to d.

Cycadacege —

Encephalartos alten-

steinii l.f.

Variations ix the Thorn Veld — Sub-Formations.

As is to be expected, the very great area occupied by Thorn
Veld or Thorn Scrub at its climax stage is not a uniform habi-
tat. There are many local variations throughout it. and the
following separate types should be recognised.

(1) Thorn Veld tozvards the Coast. — The Thorn area at
lower altitudes towards the coast is free from frost in winter,
and several of the species included in the above list only occur
in such frost-free localities. This sub-type, therefore, is deter-
mined by a climatic variation. The following are the specie-^
referred to: —

Erythroxylon uwnogynum, Dodonaea thu)ibcr<jiana. Ber-
saiiia Incens, Sclerocarya caffra, Milletia caffra, Alhlssia fas-
tigiata, Dichrostachys nutans, Cassipourea vcrticillata, Hetero py-
xis natalensis, Ho)naliuni rufescens. Citssonia umhellifera,
Kraussia lanceolata, Strychnos spinosa, Cordin caffra, Cyclo-
stenion argutus, Brldelia micrantha, Exca'caria caffra, E. afr\-
cana, Phxnix reclinata. The plant succession on the coast also
dift'ers in detail, though it is essentially similar to that described
above. Many variations in the succession, of course, can be
seen in almost every different locality. It depends upon what
species are abundant in the neigh lx)urhood (in the areas which
serve as bases for colonization).

(2) Rocky Places. — Here the soil conditions are nmch
more irregidar than over the rest of the Thorn Veld. The rocks
and stones consen^e moisture, and shelter is provided for seed-
lings. Such places are also more frequented by birds and other
animals, and consequently seeds are more likely to be brought
there. Almost any of the Thorn V^eld species may be found in
such situations, but some are particularly characteristic of them,
and are rarely found elsewhere. The aloes are often pioneers,
and may remain dominant. The speckboom (Portulaearia afra)

1 66 THE PLANT SUCCESSION JN THE THt)RN VELD.

is another characteristic species, often dominant or sub-
dominant. Myrothamnus flahcllifolius is dominant in cer-
tain locahties. Over steep, rocky slopes the euphorbias
are dominant in many of the main river-valleys. Other typical
rocky species are: Acacia caffra, var. rupestris, Encephalarto^
altensteinii. Olea verrucosa, Celasfriis albatus, Maesa ntfescciis,
Plectronia ciliata, Carissa arduina. Not only are the other
Thorn Veld species present as well as those species named, but
there is also much greater variation in the succession in rocky
places. This may be explained by the fact that in the open veld
the number of pioneers is restricted, because there is no shade
or shelter for the seedlings, and only a few are able to establish
themselves under such conditions. In rocky places, however,
there is a certain amount of shelter provided until the young
plants have reached a moi;e or less permanent water supply, and
they are also protected from grass fires. More mesophytie
species, therefore, in this case are able to act as pioneers.

(3) Moist Spots and Stream-banks. — As mentioned above,
the ravines and stream-banks are areas where the Thorn Veld
species are first distributed and enabled to establish themselves,
and such areas serve as bases for the colonization of the rest
of the veld. Once more, any of the Thornveld species may be
found in such situations, but there are a number of species which
do not leave it or do not occur, except rarely, elsewhere. These,
named roughly in the order of their importance, are : Sali.v
capensis, S. woodii, Fiats capcnsis, F. natalensis, Eugenia cor-
data. Acacia caffra, Rauzvolfia uataloisis. Comhretmn salici-
foliiim, Trema bracteolata, Pittospormn viridiflonim, Rhus
mminalis, Royena pallens, Macaranga capensis, Greivia lasio-
carpa, Melianthus spp., Cliffortia strobilifera, Trimeria alnifolia.
T. trincrvis, BurchelUa capensis, Voacanga drcgcl, Psoralea
pinnata, Bowkeria triphylla, Gnidia ovalifoUa, Ocliiia atropur-
piirea, Excoecaria africana, Myrica ccthiopica, Hypericum
lanceolatum, Dissotis eximia. In many places, however, the
stream-banks are free irom bush, and are fringed by various
grasses, reeds and sedges, Phragmites, Sctaria, Eriantlius, Typha,
Cyperus, etc.

The above types are all so distinct that they might very
well be considered separate formations. Further research will
doubtless bring to light other distinct types depending on local
variations in climate or in soil conditions. It was noted above
that other species besides Acacia arabica often acted as pion-
eers. Taking the Thorn Veld as a whole, the essentially similar
Acacia horrida is more frequently the chief pioneer and the
dominant species. It is not so easy to explain the differences
between types dominated by such closely allied species. They
do not seem to be determined by any clearly marked variations
in the habitat, though further research may demonstrate this to
be the case. It is probable that the factors controlling seed-
dispersal are of considerable importance in this connection.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD. 1 6/

/

Undergrowth in the Thorn Veld.

The herbaceous undergrowth in Thorn Veld and Thorn
Scrub is not luxuriant, but it includes a large number of species
which occur more or less sporadicall}^ Some of the more char-
acteristic ones have already been mentioned. The species vary
considerably in different parts of the country. There are a
number of ferns — e.g.. Chcilanthcs hirta, Doryopteris concolor,
Pellaa viridis with var. glauca, Aspleniiim cuneatum, A. furca-
tiim, Dryopteris hcrgiana. Ceterach cordatitm. Moliria caffrormn,
Ophioglossum vulgatum (occasional), with Adiantmn capillis-
vencris and Dryopieris thclypteris in wet places, Pclhca Jiastata
on stones, and Dryopteris athamantica in ant-bear holes. The
numerous bulbous plants are more characteristic of the open
veld, but many of the veld species occasionally occur under the
thorn-trees — e.g., species of Scilla, Oruithogalum, Driniia, Al-
buca, Urginca, Tritonia, etc. Species of Asparagus are also
characteristic of open veld as well as under thorn-trees, but
they, on the whole, ])refer the latter situation. Sanseviera
thyrsiflora (Hgemodoracese) is a very characteristic species
among the undergrowth. Among the Dicotyledons various
Labiatse — e.g., Ocinium spp., Orthosiphon spp., Leucas spp. —
are common. There are several Acanthaceae which are frequent,
Barleria obtiisa, species of Peristrophe, Hypa^stes, Justicia, Iso-
glossa, etc. Verbenacese are represented by Lantana sahi folia.
Lippia asperifolia, and others. Some of the parasitic Scro-

phulariace?e, such as Melasma, Harveya, are occasionally found.
The various climbing Asclepiads already referred to are quite
a feature in places. Dregea floribunda, Sarcostemma viminalis,
Ceropegia spp., and Riocrenxia tornlosa are among the com-
monest. The stem succulent, Hnernia hystrix, also occurs,
though it is more characteristic of open veld, sometimes covering
the nests of Tenncs laterieiiis. Species of Crassula are common
in rocky places. Poly gala spp. are occasional. The very large
number of species belonging to the Orders Leguminosege and
Compositse so abundant in the open veld are not common under
the thorn trees. They prefer full sunlight.

Seed Dispersal in the Thorn Veld.

As already pointed out, wind plays a very unimportant part
in the dispersal of the Thorn Veld species. This, indeed, applies
generally to all forest species in South Africa. There are not
very many Compositse in the Thorn Veld, and even among
them some — e.g., Osteospermum — are not distributed by wind.
The species of Combrefuin have winged fruits, but they are not
carried very far from the parent tree. In the few cases where
the seeds or fruits are carried by the wind it is possible that
the very numerous large spiders' webs (Argiope sp.) which are
such a common feature of the Thoni Veld, stretching between
the branches of the thorn-trees or between separate trees, may
play an important part in catching such seeds. They would

1 68 THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THOKN VELD.

thus be deposited ultimately below the thorn trees like the seeds
which are carried by birds.

Of the species included in the list given above, about 60
per cent, have fruits which are fleshy, and are obviously distri-
buted by birds and other animals. The remainder have dry
fruits, but the seeds of many are eaten, and presumably some
are not digested. Others (e.g.. Plumbago capensis) are carried
on the coats of animals. Various water birds, such as the
ducks, teals, herons, storks, cranes, bitterns, as well as snipe,
plover, etc., feed in the colonization areas where the seeds of
the various species have fallen on to the mud by the side of the
water. These birds fly from one area to another, and carry
seeds or fruits adhering to their feet or bills. As to the feeding
habits of the birds and other animals of South Africa, while
various general observations have been made, little in the way
of detail is known. This is unfortunate, because there arc
many points in which the ecology of animals and plants should
be connected, and the complete story of the succession in none
of our plant communities will be thoroughly understood until
this connection is demonstrated. Among the birds of South
Africa, the Columbcc (pigeons), of w'hich there are about a
dozen species, feed mostly on the fruits of trees, and are of
j)rime importance in connection with the dispersal of seeds.
Some of them are very fond of acacia pods. There are also
about a dozen dift'erent kinds of starling, which eat fruits and
seeds as well as grubs, beetles, termites, etc. Other birds which
are important as distributing agents are the orioles, the thick-
billed weaver bird (Aiiiblyospi::a alhifroiis), bulbuls (three or
four kinds), one or tw^o of the thrushes, the bush black ca])
{Lioptiliis nigricapilhis), the mouse birds, the trumpeter horn-
bill (Bycauistes hucinator) and other hornbills, the barbets and
tinker birds, the Knysna plantain-eater or lourie {Turacus cory-
thaiv), and two other louries and the parrots. These are all
fruit-eaters. The great host of weaver birds, waxbills, finches,
widow birds, buntings, seed-eaters, canaries, larks, etc., eat small
fruits and seeds as well as insects, but they are not of so much
importance.

Among the mammals, the fruit bats, which are common,
are, as the name implies, fruit-eaters, and it is important to
note that they often carry the fruit away with them to feed on
it at their leisure. The squirrels are also very important ; not
only do they eat berries and fruits, but they collect and bury
stores of nuts, some of which remain and germinate. Sclater*
states that the chief food of the vervet (Cercopithecits lalandii)
is the gum and fruits of acacias. The baboon (Papio porcarius)
is omnivorous, and eats fruits amongst other things. The
lemur or bush baby (Galago moholi) lives on pulpy fruits and
insects. The bush pig (Potamocharrus chxropotamus) eats
roots and fruits. The duiker, springbok, kudu, eland, inyala,
bushbok and other antelopes eat fruits as well as grass and

*Sclater, W. L.. "The Fauna of South Africa— Mammals " (1901).

THE PLANT SUCrKSSION IN lUK TUORX XELD. 1 6Q

shoots, and doubtless sometimes are agents in distribution.
Sclater {loc. cit.) describes 36 species of South African ante-
lope, but many of them, though formerly abundant, are now-
rare or almost extinct. The African elephant, now in South
Africa confined to the Addo scrub, must formerly have been
an important agent. Its food consists of leaves and twigs, wild
fruits and roots, seldom grass. The Cape gerbille {Gerhillus
afer) is very common, and portions of the veld may be riddled
with its burrows. Its food consists of bulbs and seeds. The
rats, of which the commonest is apparently a brown variety of
the black rat (AIiis rattus) are omnivorous, and may be of im-
]>ortance. Ants (true ants, not termites) are very abundant in
the Thorn Veld, and apart from their effect on the soil, some
of them store seeds which they may bring from a considerable
distance. Plants, the seeds of which have special adaptations
for dispersal by ants, such as a brightly-coloured caruncle con-
taining oily food-material (elaiosome). are known as myrme-
cochorous plants. Sernander * has written a monoiiraph of
European myrmecochorous plants, reviewed by Weiss in the
Nezv Pliytologisf, 1908. \'Veiss+ has also described the dispersal
of the seeds of the gorse and the broom by ants. I have made
a number of preliminary experiments by placing seeds of various
plants near a nest of the ant Tctramorimn squainiferum. In
the nests of this ant collections of seeds are found stored in
special chambers. Grass seeds predominate. When ten seeds
of the grass Paspalnm scrohiculatum were placed near a nest,
they were all removed in about nine minutes. Other grass seeds
were also readily carried away. The order of ijreference was
then determined by placing eight different kinds of seeds (six
of each), and observing how many were left at intervals of 15
minutes. The experiment was repeated several times and at
diff'erent nests. Other experiments with different sets of seeds
were also carried out. The following seeds were observed to
be carried away readily: Paspaluw scrohiculatum, Phalaris
aruudiuacca. Hibiscus trionum, Teucrium riparium, Abutilou
sonncritianuni, Argemonc mexicarm, Sida rhoynbifolia, Nicandra
physaloidcs. hidigofcra sp.. Datura stratnomuni. Sonchus sp.
K\en fairly large seeds like Cassia occidentalis were taken,
sometimes two ants co-operating to remove one seed. Small
seeds, on the other hand — e.g., Amarantus retroflexus, Chenopo-
dium botrys, Plantago major, Rumex obtusifolius — were not
touched. On examining those various seeds under the micro-
scope, in the majority no special elaiosomes or other adaptation
could be distinguished. However, in Hibiscus trionum there
are little tufts of hairs, some of them glandular, dotted over
the surface of the seed. In Teucrium. the whole surface of the
seed is covered with glandular hairs, which microchemical tests

* Sernander, R , " Entwurf einer monographic der Europaische
myrmecochoren." KuiisL S'zynska Vetenskapsakademicns Handlingar
<i9o6).

t Weiss, F. E.. New Phyfologist. 8, f,^], (rgog).

B

170 THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD.

showed to be rich in proteids and oils. These seeds, therefore
may possibly be considered as myrmecochorous like those de-
scribed by Sernander, but, if so, the ants did not seem to show
any very marked preference for them. Other seeds were carried
away as readily.

Experiments were also carried out with another smaller
species of Tetramorium. This species removes the husks from
the grass seeds and throws the former outside its nest in little
heaps. These preliminary investigations are sufficient to show
that ants are important agents for seed dispersal in the veld of
South Africa. Further experiments on the subject are in pro-
gress.

The Importance oe Termites.

According to Fuller, " in Natal and the Transvaal it is no
exaggeration to say that the soil is riddled from end to end
of the country with termite tunnellings through which an in-
conceivable host of insects constantly passes to and fro."* In
two small areas of Pietermaritzburg (784 sq. yards each) he
reported finding 14 and 16 nests respectively, the homes of six
different species, an observation based solely upon surface in-
dications ; while at Pretoria, while excavations for the founda-
tions of Government buildings were being made, it was found
that the soil was inhabited by eig'ht species. " To a depth of
four to five feet it was riddled with their galleries, and not a
cubic yard existed which did not contain one or more cavities
belonging to one species or another." The white ants form
nests varying in form and position according to the species.
They are not all mound-builders, and the juvenile nests even
of the species that are, are often moimdless. Apart from the
extremely important effects on the soil conditions, which doubt-
less has a good deal to do with preparing the way for tree
growth, and the effect also on the vegetation itself (both grasses
and trees) there are various biological agencies other than the
white ants themselves which are brought into operation. The
mounds of Termes nataleusis, T. latericius, T. vulgaris, and
especially Eutermes trinervins, are conspicuous features of the
landscape. The outer parts of the mounds are carefully closed
by cemented pellicles to exclude enemies. As long as the nest
is inhabited these mounds are increased in size and repaired
against the effect of denudation. Birds flying over the veld
naturally alight on such mounds. They scatter seeds which roll
down or are washed down over the outside of the mound and
find a suitable germinating ground among the fringe of grasses
which surround the mound, or they may germinate on the
mound itself. This doubtless explains why a primary clump of
Thorn Veld species is so often established on the site of an
old termites' nest. The succession here differs, therefore, some-
what ifrom that outlined in the first part of this paper, but it

*Fuller. Claude. " Ob.servations on Some South African Termites,"
Ann. Nat. Mus.,S [2], (igie^).

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 9.

*^J»-.ii

•^*U-

^m.

.^^-..i^-

-'i

1

Grassveld with nests of Tcniics tr'tiierviiis.

The estahhshninit uf Thorn Thickets.

Prof. J. W. Bews —Plant Succession in the Thorn Veld.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN THE THORN VELD. 171

will be seen that it is essentially similar. The pioneer species
are the same as those represented in the early stages, as de-
scribed above, their fruits being" such as are eaten by birds.

Summary and Conclusions.

Since Tree Veld is such an extensive and important type
in South Africa, as well as in the continent as a whole, the de-
tailed investigation of the plant succession in such a type is
of the greatest importance. The species of trees, shrubs and
lianes composing the Thorn Veld first establish themselves in
the ravines and near the stream-banks, where the birds and other
animals which serve chiefly as distributing agents first bring
the seeds. Such areas serve as bases of colonization for the
intervening areas.

The acacias, especially/^ rac/a horrida and A. arabica, var.
kraussiana, are the chief pioneer species. They are shown to
be well adapted to establishing themselves with no shade, shelter
or protection against grass fires.

After they have prepared the way, a great many other
species follow them, and after germinating in the seed-bed
prepared for them by the activity of earthworms, termites and
ants underneath the thorn-tree, they grow up in the shade.

Various stages have been traced, and ultimately the subse-
quent species may kill the pioneer. As a rule, however, the
thorn-trees remain dominant in what is, at present, over the
largest areas, the final stage (Thorn Scrub).

A list of over 230 species of trees, shrubs, and lianes be-
longing to the Thorn Veld is given with symbols denoting fre-
({uency, and the undergrowth is also described.

Three important sub-formations are distinguished, viz.,
Thorn Veld towards the coast, the Thorn \''eld of Rocky Placci
and the Stream-bank type in the Thorn Veld area, but it is
pointed out that these might very well be considered as separate
formations.

The question of seed-dispersal is discussed at length. Wind
distribution plays a relatively unimportant part. The chief
agents of dispersal are birds, but for species with capsular
fruits and small seeds, ants, which are very abundant in the
Thorn Veld area, are also important in connection with dis-
persal. The influence of white ants (Teniiites) on the plant
succession is also discussed.

In conclusion, I must express my thanks to Mr. T. R. Sim,
who is always ready to put at my disposal his unrivalled know-
ledge of the distribution of species in South Africa, and also to
Mr. J. S. Henkel for many helpful suggestions.

Explanation of Plates.

Plate 6, a. — Acacia arabica var. kraussiana. growing near a nest of
Tcrmes trincrvius. Note the umbrella form. The undergrowth has
here been kept down by goat grazing.

172 THE I'LANT SUCCESSION TN IllK THORN VELD,

Plate 6, b. — Donga showing the root system of Acacia arabica. var.
kraiissiaiia. The main taproot descends to the deeper water supplies.
Large lateral roots spread out along the surface.

Plate 7, a. — Base of colonization in a ravine. For full list of species
occurring here, sec p. 3.

Plate 7 /'• — Invasion of the grass veld by thorn trees. Note the
presence of termites' nests and young thorn trees in the foreground.
The base of colonization extends across the middle background.

Plate 8, a. — Subsequent species growing up underneath tlie pioneer
acacia. Randia rudis. Ehretia hotteiifofica. Celastms buxifolins, Hippo-
bromus alata. Hnclea lanceolata. Jasiuumni iiiultipartifiiiii. J. gcrravdi
and a climbing asparagus over the top.

Plate 8, b. — Further stage in succession. The pioneer acacia being
killed by the subsequent species. Elceodendron ccthiopicuni, Hippobromus
alata. Celastrus buxifolius, Asparagus sp., Rhus sp., Asimn tetracantha.
Randia rudis, Euclea lanceolata. Jasminum gerrardi, with Sauseviera
thyrsiflora and Hncrnia hystrix abundant as undergrowth.

Plate 9, ((. — Thorn thicket. Acacia arabica, var. kraussiana. domin-
ant. Acacia horrida also present. The foreground shows the succession
from grass veld.

Plate 9, b. — Grass veld with nests of Tcrnies trincr^'ius. Early
spring condition. This was formerly Tliorn \'eld. but the trees have
l)een cut down for firewood.

(Read. July 4. 1917. )

EINSTEIN'S Theory of Gravitation. — Sir F. W.

Dy.son* observes that, according to Einstein's theory, a ray of
light grazing the sun's limb should be deflected. Photographs
taken ])y Davidson with the astrographic e(|uatorial, on the
occasion of the .solar eclipse of 1905, have been examined, but
the results were not sufficiently accordant, and it is suggested
that special arrangements should be made to ol)tain photographs
during the eclipse of May 29th, 1919, for the critical analysis
of the effect. A list of stars available for instruments of the
astrographic type has been prepared, together with the computed
displacement that shottld be shown if the theor}' be correct.

* Roy. Astroii. Soe., .1/..^'. 77, 445-4.17, March. 1917.

Markets.

By Pjktkr J(jHANNEs Du Toir.

IMie term " market " is usually regarded in a vague general
way. leading one to conclude that markets are selling places which
can absorb without limit any i^roducts which might be raised.
That would be the case if one of the two ])arties who make a
market possible, the seller, were content to let the buyer have his
|)roduce at the buyer's own price. But since the seller desires to
live, his requirements for continuing his existence obviously call
for a return for his labour which, as far as he is able by his intel-
ligence, physical exertion or other means to make it so, .will at
least suffice for that purpose. Markets are, therefore, selling
])laces limited by the prices which the buyer is jjrepared or able
to pay and which the seller at the same time is prepared or able
to accept. The extent to which the buyer is likely to meet the
seller determines the extent to which the seller will meet the
buyer, that is, to which the seller will grow a product which the
buyer requires. The farmer will produce according to the mar-
ket he has. He will not and cannot reasonably be expected to
l)roduce more, because he cannot in justice to himself and his
dependents produce at a loss, or even at a less profit than that
which he may deem to be a fair return for his ex])enditure of
labour, of money, of implements, of seed and so forth. (Greater
market must therefore precede increased production.

The farmer has to include in his expenditure the cost of
obtaining his • equirements for i)roducing and the cost of placing
on the market what he has produced. Length of railways and
of roads, distan.cc from a railway line, bad roads, absence of
necessary bridges, mountainous country — all add to the cost of
production ; and since each ])roducer has to comj^ete with others
in his own market, th(^-;e disadvantages determine the extent to
which he will produce a particular commodity and the nature
of the commodities which he will grow. It may, for example,
not pay him to grow more wheat than he requires for his own
use : he may not be able to ])lace a surplus above his require-
ments in successful competition with other growers of wheat.
The same causes may operate in favour of his deciding on stock-
raising in preference to agriculture. As these disabilities dis-
api)ear or are lessened, he might find it more profitable to alter
his farming ])ractice by combining extensive agriculture with
stock-raising, or even giving the former the chief place in his
operations. In other words, the conditions under which he lives
may, by being altered, such as by the building of railways, or by
education, or by the discovery of minerals and the building up of
an industrial centre near by, influence profoundly his farming
practice. But the economic structure on which his operations
are based mu^^t be changed before he can suffer a departure from
those operations themselves. I,et us take the cattle industry.

174 MARKETS.

The construction of a railway line may for a considerable dis-
tance along that line become an active force in inducing the
production of dairy products rather than of beef.

The farmer having decided what he will produce in his own
interests and to his best advantage — and if his decision is not
made with care and discretion he will go under — the extent to
which he can sell at a price which he may deem remunerative
determines, as already indicated, the extent to which he will
produce. The wine industry in South xA.frica has been practi-
cally stationary for twenty-five years and more. It often suffers
severe barometric changes of price in the same year- The
wine farmer's market being limited, he produces what experience
has taught him to be sufficient to maintain the selling price at an
average level of £4 to £5 })er leaguer. Climatic conditions niav
vary the quantity produced from a half to a full crop. If the
yield is a full one, there is over-production, and the price for
distilling wine drops to £3 and £3 los. per leaguer. If the yield
is a small one, the jjrice soars to £6 or even to £8. An ex])ort
trade to a large market would steady prices, allow of the pro-
ducer investing with confidence because he could calculate his
probable return ])er acre, and stinuilate greater production.
There is no clearer illustration than is to be found in the ostrich
feather industry as to the effect of a market contracting. A
sudden change of fashion abroad, followed by the European War,
precipitated a catastrophe. The i)rice fell from £2 i/s. gd. per
pound at the end of 1913 to £1 i6s. 6d. in IQ14, 15s. 8d. in
1915, and £1 IS. 6d. in 1916. The number of ostriches was
746,657 in 1911, and 399,028 in 1916, and serious thought is
being given to a proposal that exportation should be prohibited
for a period or curtailed in order to create a scarcity in the
American and European markets and force up prices. Another
example — one fresh in the minds of South Africans. OwMug
to the greater demand created by the European War for meat,
prices, already on the up-grade before the war. increased to an
extent which made South Africa's entry into the European
market a success far sooner than would otherwise have been the
case. The greater demand for cattle naturally increased their
price- Probable conditions after the war encourage the belief
that the market will continue to be active. Attention is there-
fore immediately given to improving the beef breeds of cattle
in this country, to feeding and to greater production.

Fruit and maize cultivation increased rapidly with the open-
ing up of oversea markets.

The extent to which the farmer will produce being deter-
mined by market considerations, the most profitable market for
him is the one which is reached most cheaply and in which de-
mand exceeds or at least equals supply. As soon as supplv
exceeds demand in the local market. ])roduce begins to be trans-
ferred to the next nearest market in which the opposite condition
(demand exceeding supply) obtains. And for the same reason
the best market may recede until it has to be found thousands of

MARKKTS. 175

miles away. The wheat growers of Mahnesbury first supj)hed
the village of Malmesbury, next Capetown and afterwards Kini-
berley, Bloemfontein, and Johannesburg. The maize grower of
Krmelo first supplied the village of Ermelo, then Johannesburg,
and latterly the United Kingdom and other European countries.
It may be of greatest advantage to a country to market one
product within its borders and another beyond them. Again,
a more advantageous market might be found nearer than the
present most profitable one. The United States of America
exported meat to the United Kingdom until its own demand
absorbed the whole of its supply and more.

The distance of a market from the producer de])ends on de-
mand as afi:'ected by the cost of reaching that market. This cost
is paid wholly by the consumer if the demand exceeds or is equal
to the supply ; but if the supply exceeds the demand the cost will
be paid partly by the producer and partly by the consumer, or
wholly by the producer, according to the extent to which supply
exceeds demand. It is therefore to the advantage of the i^ro-
ducer that such cost is as low as possible. Take the case of
maize. The railway rate for export maize is los. per ton, and
in normal times the freight rate to England is also los. per ton.
A reduction of either of these rates or both will benefit the pro-
ducer to the extent of that reduction, if the demand remain the
same ; and if that demand were in South Africa, the ])roducer
would rea[) the advantage of the elimination of freight and a few
minor charges.

It is more profitable to a country to have a market which
stimulates greater production than to have one which does not ;
it is still more profitable to a country to have that market within
its borders than outside them. An internal market is under the
control of the country itself; and if the products of that country
compete with those of other countries they dq so under the most
advantageous conditions. On the other hand, if they compete
in a foreign market, transport charges to the centre of demand
may be greater ; import duties may be imposed ; climatic condi-
tions may be adverse ; and even other considerations may militate
against the producer's interests.

There are agricultural products which the country can or
does raise in excess of its requirements. The production and
marketing of such commodities undergo a circular evolution.
When production and local consumption balance, prices are
stationary. When production tends to exceed local consump-
tion, and prices in consequence recede, an external market is
looked for. From an external market follow enhanced prices ;
from enhanced prices follows improvement in methods of pro-
duction ; from this improvement, greater production from the
same area ; from such greater production, the same return from
a smaller area and the farming of smaller holdings ; from smaller
holdings, increase in producing po])nlation, or clo;-.t:r setilemont;
from closer settlement, lessening of the cost of production ; from
cheaper production, the absorption of a larger consuming popula-

1 76 MARKETS.

tion ; from a larger consuming population, greater local demand ;
and so on until there is effected a gradual transfer of the sale
of the product from the external to the internal market, and ulti-
mately the balancing of production and consumption once more.
So the economic position which obtained before exportation
began is returned to, but there have l^een gained improved
methods, greater production and a larger population, and there-
fore a stronger State.

(Read, July 6, 1917.)

Electricity and Agriculture. — In the course

of a paper on " Atmospheric Electricity" in the Quarterly Journal
of the Royal Meteorological Society * Lieut. C. D. Stewart, R.E..
B.Sc, F.R.Met.S., refers to experiments recently undertaken by
Blackman and Jorgensen with a view to further investigation of
the i)OSsibility of atfecting the growth of crops b}- altering the
atmospheric electrical conditions. Two acres of ground were
used, one of which was under the influence of the electric dis-
charge, the second being left unelectrified. The former was elec-
tritied by 21 parallel wires, seven feet above ground and about
4j4 yards apart. The electric discharge was commenced a day
after the crop appeared above ground, and one month later the
plants receiving the discharge were deeper green in colour and
considerably taller than those in the unelectritied area. About six
weeks later the plants in the latter area averaged 20 inches in
height, while those in the electrified area were 12 inches higher.
Eventually the electrified acre yielded a crop of 2,6^^ lbs. of grain
and 4,924 of straw, while from the unelectrified area only
1,764 lbs. of grain and 2,619 lbs. of straw wre obtained. The
electric discharge, moreover, leaves a very pronounced residual
effect. During the season following the api)lication crops of
grass and clover on the previously electrified lands were found to
be much heavier than those on lands that had never had an electric
discharge. "Although the results are quite definite from the point
of view of the crop, nothing is known about the manner in which
the discharge acts. It is not even known with certainty what is
the most suitable strength of current to use. Why electricity
should aflfect the growth of the crops at all is still (|uite unknown."

* ( 1917) 43, 409-43T.

NATIVR IDEAS OF COSMOLOGY.

By Rev. Samuel S. Dornax, M.A., F.G.S.. F.R.G.S.

Theories of cosmology are held to he indicative of a fairly
advanced stage of thought, and also of considerahle knowledge of
the natural world. While this is true as a: general rule, there are
notable exceptions. We have elaborate cosmological theories
amongst the Babylonians, Fgyjjtians, and Indians, whose thinking,
especially that of the latter, was of a high order. In a still greater
degree this may be asserted of the (ireeks, though probably their
ideas came from the East, as the theories of cosmogony enun-
ciated by Hesiod, and later by ( )vid, bear a strong resemblance to
the Indian. But we have similar cosmological tlieories amongst
such widely separated peoi)les as the Mexicans, Zulus, and Poly-
nesians, who, compared to the Greeks or Babylonians, would be
classed as barbarians. However widely separated the people who
liold these theories may be. from a geographical jxjint of view,
their explanations, when closely examined, have several features
in common. Not that these resemblances prove derivation from
one parent story, but simply that primitive peoples of similar
environment think much alike. The idea of creation among the
Babylonians was in reality a contest between terrible demons,
and the actual fact of creation was merely an ei)isode in that great
contest. The gods themselves were but glorified demons, and
retained traces of their demoniacal origin long after they had
been elevated to supreme power. They only gradually emerged
from the demoniacal stage as the consciousness of their wor-
shippers deepened. More and more s])iritual attributes became
attached to them as time went on. We see such a process in the
pantheon of the Greeks, and in the ( )ld Testament there is an
immeasurable difference between the apprehension of God in the
mind of the j^rophet Isaiah and that disclosed in the Book of
Genesis.

In the case of the Greeks, as late as the time of Pindar, we
find the gods accused of cannibalism, and the poet refuses to
repeat the slander.* This proves that the Greeks themselves were
barbarians and very probably cannibals at no great distance of
time from Pindar's day, and that Zeus and other gods had not
even then lost all trace of their demoniacal origin. Amongst the
Mexicans human sacrifice and cannibalism were common, and
had a religious signification. The gods enjoined the practice,
and the Mexicans could not understand why the .Spanish con-
querors looked upon the ]:)ractice with such horror. Cannibalism
as a religious rite is probably not long extinct in South Africa.
\\'here it exists to-day in West Africa and Congoland it has a
distinctly religious meaning. Cannibalism w^as found in Basuto-
land about 80 years ago, but it was not definitely connected with
religion. The people had been driven to it by war and privation.

* Pindar : " Olympian Odes," I.

1/8 NATIVK IDliAS OF COSMOLOr.V.

The custom of slaying great numbers of young people at the death
of a chief or of one of his near relations — as, for example, at the
death of Chaka's mother — may be a relic of cannibal feasts.

The peoples amongst whom such practices prevailed had in
some cases fairly elaborate theories of creation, and the gods
themselves who took part in or, indeed, performed the act of
creation were little else than glorified demons. They were beings
of limited powers, and of like jiassions to the worshippers, and
so we find theories of creation everywhere contain a large anthro-
pomorphic element. The worshippers conceived of the gods as
manufacturing a world as they would have manufactured it them-
selves. Often the process is ascribed to magical powers. This
was so amongst the Egyptians and Babylonians. One character-
istic that ancient theories of cosmogony had in common was that
the primordial stuff out of which the universe was made co-
existed with the gods from eternity. Where it came from or how
it originated they did not profess to explain. Apparently they
were unable to conceive of creation out of nothing. It was a
formless fluid waste, and out it was formed an orderly universe.

The natives of South Africa have their accounts of the
creation, and they start in much the same manner that others have
started. Creation by word alone is, so far as I am aware,
unknown. They did not go so far back as the Babylonians or
others. They were not so ])hilosophically consistent. Looking
at their explanations from the standpoint of their mental attain-
ments, they do not seem so crude at all. No doubt they were
equally as reasonable and as satisfactory to themselves as any
of the other explanations. If less picturesque, they are at any
rate simple. They do not relate contests of gods or demons.
They do not go back to the origin of the visible universe. They
assume that such a thing existed, and begin with the creation of
man. Thus they are ncjt interested in searching for ultimate
causes, and while imbued with the universality of spirits, they
had not advanced before the advent of Euro])eans to the concep-
tion of one Supreme Author and Ruler of the Universe, much
less of a multitude of such deities. They have spirits in plenty,
but they are not gods. They are malevolent enough, but their
malevolence is not cosmic, it is tribal or individual, and the imme-
diate aim of the worshippers is to avert this from themselves. As
one of the legends of creation that I shall give later on seems
to contradict the statement regarding one Supreme Being ; all
that need be said is that the exception proves the rule. This
legend is peculiarly interesting from that point of view, and also
raises the question of its derivalion from an outside source. The
Creation stories current amongst the natives of South Africa do
not seem to me to have any religious or even mythological bearings.
They are not the i)roperty of any priestly caste. They do not
figure in the religious observances of the people. Some of them
have certain magical implications, Ijut they do not seem to have
any connection with demonology as such. The natives do not
specifically ascribe the creation of the world to demons, though

NATIVK IDEAS OF COSMOLOGY'. 179

much of their reHgion is demonology. Neither is there any
patticvilar trace amongst them of the sort of diiahsm that is said
to prevail amongst the Hottentots, though the Kaffir name for
God, Utixo, is a Hottentot word. Amongst the Hottentots Tsuni-
Hgoam is the good god, who gives men ahundance of sheep and
cattle, collects the clouds, and causes the rain. He made all
things, and all good things come from him. He lives m a beautiful
heaven, all red, while his enemy, Gaunab, lives in a dark heaven,
all black. They made war upon each other, and Tsuni-||goam
killed Gaunab.* Here we have the old conflict of light with
darkness, which is quite unknown amongst the Bantu legends
of creation. If the commonly-received explanation of the origin
of the Hottentots be right, this dualism must have had its origin
in the far North-East of Africa, and is not indigenous.

I shall now give some of the leading stories of the Creation as
current amongst the Bantu peoples of this country. They are
all, with the one exception noted above, curiously alike. The
Basuto version of the origin of man is as follows : —

Both men and the animals came out of the bowels of the earth by
an immense hole, the opening of which was in a cavern, and the animals
appeared first. Another tradition, more generally received among the
Basutos, is that man sprang up in a marshy place where reeds were
growing.f

A Bushman from the Northern Kalahari narrated to me a
fuller form of this legend, which he stated he had often heard
amongst the Bechuanas. " In the beginning of things, the animals
came out in this way, at least, so the Bechuanas say. Near
Sechele' town there is a big hole called Loowe, which goes down
into the ground a long, long way. It is so deep that if you take a
stone, and let it drop down the hole, you can hear it falling for a
great while, but you never hear it striking the bottom. In this big
hole the animals and men were together at the time. But the
hole became far too small for them, and they were constantly
quarrelling for want of room; each one wanted to get near the
entrance, so that he might have a little light. At last they got
so angry with each other that the men began to drive out the
animals, and they drove them out backwards. Now at the mouth
of the cave there was a marsh full of reeds, and the groitnd was
very soft, so that the animals made much sjjoor, and the place
was quite cttt up with their tracks. The animals were afraid,
and kept trying to get into the cave the first night. By and by
they all wandered away. After a while the men began to be many
in the cavern, and they, too, fell to t|uarrelling, and so they drove
each other out, and when they were going out, they destroyed the
spoor of the animals, so that you cannot see their tracks now,
bitt only the tracks of the men. If you go to Loowe, you will see
that what I tell you is true." A Bechuana teacher, an intelligent
man, related to me another version of the same tale. " Near
Linchwe's town is a big cave, very deep. No man has ever seen

* Hahn ; "' Tsuni-||goam, the Supreme Being of the Klmi-Khoi," 4:).
t Casalis : " The Basutos,"' 240.

l8o NATIVE IDEAS f)F COS>f()L()GV.

the bottom of it, and out of it came tlie animals and men. because
it became far too small for all of them. The animals came out in
great numbers first. There were elands, and spriuijbucks, and
ele]^hants, and many other kinds, some of which we do not see
now in the land. They made much spoor, and they stayed about
the entrance of the cave for a long time. The men then caiitiously
came out themselves, and in doing so they destroyed the spoor of
the animals so that vou oidv see their own tracks now. You can
only see the tracks of the men at the mouth of the cave.'*
Sometimes an addition is made to the tale in this way : " When
the men first were in the cavern they used to hold tij) with their
hands the roof, to prevent it falling upon them, and v\hen thev
left the cave they used to hold up the sky with their hands
to prevent it falling u]X)n them like the rcx^f in the cave. But
by-and-by they got very tired of holding up their hands, and
they let them fall down, and so jjeople never hold U]) the sk\-
now with their hands, as the\' find it will not fall down."

Molfat gives a short form of the Sechuana legend as
follows : —

Modinio (God), as well as man. with all the different species of
animals, came out of a hole in a cave in the Rakone country, where, say
they, their footsteps are still in the indurated rock, wlu'ch was at that time
sand. Tn one of Mr. flamilton's early journeys, he records that a native
had informed him that the footsteps of Modinio were distinguished hv
bein^ without toes.*

Amongst the Basutos the location of this cave is at a place
called Ntsuanatsatsi, on or near the Vaal River, where there
are three hills close together, but I never met anybody who
knew exactly where the place was. Ntsuanatsatsi simply means
sun-rising or east, and is the name of the place where the
Basutos say they originated themselves. It is therefore very
probably a legendary place. Similarly the Bechuanas speak of
the cave being in the Bakone country towards Lake Ngami, or
at Linchwe's town, or at Sechele's town, but none of my in-
formants had ever seen the place for themselves, so I suspect
it is equally as mythical as Ntsuanatsatsi. This tale is very wide-
spread, for a similar one to it occurs amongst the Akikuyu of
British East .Africa:

Once there was a great hole with water in it ; the water was deep
in the centre and shallow at the sides. A man and his wife lived in the
shallow water. Then they came out of the water on to the dry land.
and journeyed to the Kikuyu country, which was all forest, and had
many children.!

It may be asked is the big hole with its water a remnant
of the watery chaos in other cosmogonies. I asked the narrators
of the Bechuana stories how the aniiuals and man originated in
the cavern, or who made them and ])iit them there, or what they
were made of. But they could not exactly say, and thought it
must have been Modimo ((Tod) who made them. Neither could

* Moffat : " Missionary Labours and Scenes in South .\frica,'' 262.
t Routledge : " With a Prehistoric People." 3Hx

NATivj:: ji)i:as uf ( (js-Mologv. i8i

they tell whether they were always with Modimo. Of course,
where natives have been under Christian influence> for any
length of time, they unhesitatingly say it was Alodimo who made
•nerything. '1 hus when studying the book of Genesis upon one
•>ccasion with a class of young men. one of them said to me that
»hey had a tale of the origin of the world something like that
jjiven in Genesis, and then he related to me the following : " In
the beginning Modimo made all things, and he made men and
women out of reeds, and gave them the animals of the world
to feed upon, and they had many children, who became the na-
tions." 1 asked him if the old people spoke of Modimo in the
sense of Creator, but he was not sure. Modimo has the same
root as ledimo, a canniljal, but whether there is any connection
between the words I cannot say. 1 have seen no satisfactory
derivation of it yet. The idea of water occurs in other cosmo-
gonies such as in the Arapaho and Wyandot mythologies of North
America, but these stories do not mention any great hole. In con-
nection with the statement of Moffat that the feet of .Modimo
were distinguished from the others, by the absence of toes, I
may mention that a coloured man resident in Basutoland told
me that he had discovered a number of human footprints in
rock, not far from where I resided at the time. J had the
curiosity to ride over to the place, and found that the said foot-
])rints were natural depressions in Molteno sandstone, due to
weathering. Some of them looked not unlike the impression of
a human foot without toes, and I am inclined to think that a
similar discovery was the origin of the Bechuana tale. At Morija,
Tsikuane, Qalo, and other places in Basutoland, there are slabs of
sandstone and mudstone detached from the cliff's, mostly belong-
ing to the Red Beds of the Stormberg System, containing the
tracks of dinosaurs and theromorphous reptiles, some of them
(jf large size. These are fairly numerous, and in the minds of
primitive people such as the Basutos, would be just such as
would give local colour and verisimilitude to this part of a crea-
ti(^n story.

A friend of mine who knows the nati\es well has sugj4:ested
that the reeds, stones and cave may have a phallic meaning,
but I confess I cannot see any traces of such in any of the creation
myths that I have heard. It is quite possible to argue in such
a way, but I ne\er heard the natives^ suggest such an explanation.

The Zulu traditions as given by Calloway are somewhat
similar-

Unkulunkulu is no longer known. It was he who was the first man-
He broke off in the beginning. . . . We hear it said that Unkulnnknhi
broke off the nations from Uhlanga ; they say he is the Uhlanga from
whicli all men broke off. The old men say that Unkulunkulu is ; he made
the first men. the ancients of long ago; the ancients of long ago died;
there remained those that had been begotten by them, sons, by whom we
hear that there were ancients of long ago who knew the breaking-off of

the w'orld What 1 have heard is that man sprang from

Cnkulunkulu, as if he made them, because he existed (before them). . .
W^e have heard it said that Unkulunkulu sprang from a bed of reeds.

l82 NATIVE IDEAS OF ( DSMOLOGV.

There first appeared a man. vvlio was followed by a wotnan — both are
named Unkiilunknlu. All things as well as Unkulunkulu sprang from a
bed of reeds, everything, both animals and corn, everything coming into
being with Unkulunkulu. . . . The earth was in existence first before
Unkulunkulu existed as yet. Fie had his origin from the earth in a bed
of reeds. ... Here sprang up a man and a woman. . • The
name of both was Unkulunkulu. . . . On the day the first man was
created he said as to what happened then in the bed of reeds, that they
did not see their own creation. When he and his wife first saw, they
found themselves crouching in a lied of reeds, and saw no one who had
created them.*

It will be ol>served that these account.^, for I have combitied
several for brevity, are quite confused as to w'hether Unkulunkulu
was before the Creation, or was contemporary with it, or part of
it. Some of the narrators seem to think that the earth existed
before Unkulunkulu, and that he was the first human pair. I
think this is ])robably the prevailing opinion in the minds
of the natives. Such an idea is not confined to the
Bantu, but occurs amongst the North American Indians,,
where people were supposed to have existed in heaven
before God and the Devil. Similar confusion exists
in the minds of the Namaquas regarding Tstini-||goam.
I have several times asked natives this question. Since Unkulun-
kulu came out of the same hole with the animals, was he always
there? Did he made the animals himself? My in-
formants were always confused and cuald not tell. The answer
I usually got was : " We do not know, the old people never
told us." It may be inferred that the natives do not associate
either eternity or omnipotence with Unkulunkulu. There is.
moreover no trace in their accounts of the Creation of a struggle
between the powers of light and darkness, or of good and evik
I have also put this question : Did Unkulunktilu live in the
darkness with the animals in the cave? My informants could not
tell. I have also asked how he made the animals. One intelligent
native told me he was sure that Unkulunkulu luust have had
some powerful medicine. This probably' represents the average
native's opinion of the matter, if he thinks at all. It also im-
ports the element of magic into creation, as among the Egyptians
and other peoples, thus showing that it is a primitive explana-
tion of the origin of the world- I cannot see much indication of
ancestor worship in the Zulu accounts, although the origin of
things is pushed no further back than the creation of one of their
own ancestors.

Amongst the natives of Nyasaland and Central Africa, the
accounts of creation are generally similar to those given above.

Man, or at least the father of those Central African tribes, sprang
from a hole in a rock, from which the lower animals came also. Around
this hole were abundant footprints of all kinds of animals. It was closed
by the people of Mulungu, and is now a desert place towards the north
(Kumpoto). Subsequently to the appearance of man, many changes
occurred specially for his benefit. Thus the mist was sent to keep the

* Callaway: "The Religious System of tlie Amazulu." r ct seq.

NATIVE IDEAS OF COSMOLOGY. I 83

sun from burning up the crops, an arrangement that would readily com-
mend itself to these philosophical children of the tropics.*

At first there were no people, but God and the beasts. There was a
chameleon, and he wove his fish trap; when he had woven it, he went out
to snare in the river. The day after he went to take it out, and he found
fishes therein. He took his fishes to the village to eat them. Again in
the morning he went early and found others liad entered the trap, and
eaten the fishes, and he said: "To-day 1 have had bad luck. 1 just found
that the otters had eaten my fishes. I do not know to-morrow whether
I shall find they have eaten them again."' Then he departed to the village,
empty, without fishes, and he went to sleep. When it was dawn, he
went early again, and found man, male and female, entered into tlie
trap. He said : " To-day have entered things that are unknown. I
wonder whether 1 should take them." Mulungu (God) was staying down
here before he went away to heaven. And he said : " Father, behold
what I have brought to-day." And he (God) said:. "Place them there;
they will grow.'' Man then grew, both male and female. But his
father said. "' Gather the people together, and call your master.'' And God
was called, and he came and said : " Now, chameleon, where have you
brought these from?" He said: " But they have entered my trap." Then
God said, " Wait till 1 call my people," and he went away and called all
the beasts Qf the earth and the Iiirds. They assembled. When they
came, their master said : " We have called for tliose curious beings
that the chameleon went to briniJ: in his trap," and all the beasts said :
"We have heard,"t . . . . '

People came from Kapilimitya (an unsteady soft stone). 1 hen-
came forth two, a man and a woman, and they married and had children.
There was seen another man, who was sick, being a leper, who had come
from Kapilimitya. The sick man sent the woman to draw water, then
He opened a bag and took out maize and millet. On this earth there was
no grass, and he said, " You two may sleep in a cave." The sick man
died, and the other man put an ofifering on the ground, saying, " You
have left us here, now give us grass." So grass grew and trees ; and
his children grew and had children; hence the tril)e of the Yao.|

We have here three different and to .some extent conflict-
ing accounts of the Creation, and of the relation of God to it.
It is also clear that Mulungu is a limited being, jttst as amongst
the Zulus, and does not possess omnipotence or eternity. The
tale of the chameleon and the fish-trap introdtices the magical
element. The Chameleon in many Bantu folk-tales is accused
of bringing a lying message to men regarding death, and hence
of introducing mortality into the world. This tale may be in-
tended to bring out his wncked conduct in deceiving mankind.
The location of the place of origin is no more definite amongst
the Yao than amongst the Bfechuanas, Basutos or Zulus.

The Damara legend of Creation substitutes a great tree
for a great hole, but in essential features it is the same as the
others. " The natives in these parts have a strange tale of a
rock in which the tracks of all the animals indigenous to this
country are distinctly visible, moreover that man and beast lived
there in great amity ; but one day, from some cause, their deity
appeared and dispersed them. ... The Damaras and Bech-
uanas have nearly the same notion as to their origin. Thus the
latter believe that the founders of their nation and the animals

*Macdonald: '' Africana," 1, 74.
t Ibid. 1 295.
tibid. 1, 280.

184 NATIVE IDEAS OF COSMOUH'.N'.

of the country emerged from a cave, and the former declare that
they sprang from a tree. When men and beasts first burst from
the parent tree — so runs the tradition — all was enveloped in pro-
found darkness. A Damara then lit a fire, which so frightened the
zebra, the girafi:e, the gnu and every other beast now found
wild in the country, that they all fled from the presence of man,
whilst the domestic animals, such as the ox, the sheep, and the
dog, collected fearlessly round the blazing brands.

The tree from which the Damaras are descended is to be
seen, they say, at a place called Omaruru. But somehow there
must be more than one parent tree, for both in going and coming,
we met with Omumborumbongas, all of which the natives
treated with filial afifection"* (ialton gives a somewhat similar
account in his Travels in South Africa, but says that men have
also a special origin or " eanda," and that there are some six
or seven of these " eandas," each with its own peculiar rite.
Amongst the Nandif of iBritish East Africa, men and women
are supposed to have sprung from the leg of an Ndorobo, a
race of hunting savages similar to the Bushmen of South
Africa. The Damaras are no more definite in the location of
the parent tree than are the Bechuanas or Yao. with respect to
their great hole. The darkness in these stories is reminiscent
of the Babylonian myth, and raises the c|uestion, is there any
connection between them? This will Ije discussed later when
considering the derivation of these stories.

I now give a legend of Creation common amongst the
Abenanzwa of Southern Rhodesia, who are a remnant of the
old Varoswe, whose ancestors claim to have built Zimbabwe and
other similar ruins, and who have many curious and interesting
customs peculiar to themselves. This account stands on quite a
different plane to those given above, and is strangely like that
given in the Ijook of Genesis. It runs as follows : —

In the beginning God created the earth and the waters. He saw
that the world was bare-looking, and so created the trees, grass, and
plants to hide the nakedness. He rested awhile, content, but later on said :
"This world of mine is still empty.'' He then took clay and fashioned
beasts, birds, and lishes, and breathing into them, gave them life. He again
rested for awhile, and then said : " My world is still not complete. 1 will
make creatures in my own image, and I will call them my children."

God then took clay and fashioned woman, and after breathing life
into her, fashioned man and gave him life also. Man, animals, birds,
and tishes he fashioned in pairs, male and female, that they might multiply
and increase. After this he created no more.:!:

Mr. Hemans. who collected this tale from the Abenanzwa,
informed me that he had taken the greatest pains to arrive at
the truth, that he had cross-examined many natives, with the
object of discoverinif if they had any other explanations, but
found none. I may add Mr. Hemans' comment on the religious

*Andersson: "Lake Ngami," 22 r, ^27.
t Hollis : " The Nandi," 97.

t Hemans : " History of the .Kbenanzwa Tribe," Proc. Khod. Sc. Assoc-
12. [2] 107 et seq.

NATIVK IDEAS OF eOSMOLOCV. 185

beliefs of the Abenanzwa tribe. They are exceedingly interest-
ing in themselves.

The Abenanzwa believe in a single beneficent Supreme Being, who
rewards men for their good actions and punishes them for their evil
deeds. .\fter death their spirit leaves the liody. and goes to the Mhmo
(God) in heaven.' Thus all people meet after death, and continue to live
indefinitely in heaven. They have no idea of the life hereafter except
that it will be a pleasant state of existence. They worship and pray
to the spirits of their ancestors. if they have been leading good lives,
they believe that the spirits will intercede for them with the Mlimo for
the granting of their prayers.

They have not, nor at any time during the history of the tribe have
they had, "priests," who conduct religious ceremonies. . . They

do not believe in the existence of evil spirits as such, but they do believe
that the spirit of one who was their enemy before death will, if possible,
do them harm. • . The religion of the Abenanzwa is thus a

monotheism of a simple and rational kmd, unmixed with anything in the
nature of superstition, and far removed from myths and nature worship.
There is a sense of devotion and dependence on a Superior Being.

It has certainly not been taught by white men, as the Abenanzwa have
been isolated for the last 100 years (there have never been any mission-
aries among them), and it cannot have been handed down by their fore-
fathers from the teachings of the Portuguese Roman Catholic Fathers of
old, as there exists no trace of any Christian influence.

It does not come from the blast, where nature worship prevails,
neither is it Christianity from the West, nor is it Arabic (Mohammedan-
ism), as not only do the .Xlienanzvva ))elieve that the spirit of a woman
exists after death equally with that of a man, but in their story of the
creation the woman was made first, which is quite opposed to Moham-
medan ideas.

.Vlthough ni\- knowledge of the Abenanzwa is not nearly
so intimate as that of Mr. Hemans, I venture to offer the fol-
lowing observations on these paragraphs. ^Ir. Hemans states
that this legend of Creation conld not have bsen derived from
the Roman Catholic Fathers, for the Abenanzwa have been iso-
lated for the last lOO years, and show no trace of Christian
influence at the present time. While 1 am on the whole disposed
to aiiree with him, it must be remembered that deri\-ation from
this source is not impossible. The Abenanzwa, accordnig to their
own statements, migrated from the neighbourhood of Zim'babwe
about 150 years ago. The\ came by way of Selukwe, and would
thus be within reach of the early Portuguese missionaries- The
early Dominican and Jesuit missionaries travelled over a large
part of Eastern Rhodesia, as far west as Bulawayo at least, and
although little or no traces now remain of their influence, still it is
conceivable that the upper classes of the old Varoswe may have
imbibed a considerable amount of their teaching, and have re-
tained it till to-day, even in distorted and mutilated form. The
old missionaries concentrated their efforts on the upper classes,
and we read in the old I'ortuguese chronicles that they made
strenuous efforts to convert the King of Alocaranga. Thus some
of their teaching must have remained with the people. I agree
with what Mr. Hemans has said regarding Mohammedanism. I
have not discovered for myself any signs of old Moslem propa-

l86 NATIVK IDEAS OF GOSMOLOGV.

ganda anywhere in the country, and have not heard of any from
others with better opportunities of obtaining information than I
have. There may have been some going on amongst the mari-
time tribes, ever since the Arabs began creeping down the coast,
but it never penetrated the hinterland to any extent. I do not
think that Mohanmiedans, certainly the more intelligent of them,
would deny the immortality of women, as Mr. Heinans seems
to believe. This opinion seems to be unfounded. The mere
fact that the obligations of religion rest equally upon women
as well as men, proves that, they have souls entitling them to
entrance to Paradise. Mr. Hemans also writes of the elevation
and purity of the Abenanzwa belief. I think he is mistaken to
some extent in this. I have not found such individuals as I
have examined in the matter of religious belief so far above the
ordinary natives of the country. They are certainly supersti-
tious to some extent. We shall now consider shortly the deriva-
tion of these ideas of cosmogony. With the exception of the
story current among the Abenanzwa, the others have a fairly
close resemblance to each other, and are evidently different forms
of one original story. The water and the darkness are features
common to other cosmogonic myths of America as well as Asia-
Do their indicate, for exatuple, any connection with Egypt in
the remote past? This raises the question of the origin of the
Bantu themselves. It will be remembered that at the joint meet-
ing of the British and South African Associations for the Ad-
vancement of Science in 1905, two papers were read on the
" Racial Affinity of the Hottentots," by Prof. F. von Luschan,
and on the " Language of the Hottentots," by Prof. Carl Mein-
hof.* These writers gave strong reasons, both morphologically
and linguistically, for thinking that the Hottentots were Hamites,
and that their language was Hamitic. That being so, it was
probable that they originated in the north or north-east of Africa.
Dr. Theal, in his " Yellow and Black-skinned People of South
Africa," places the origin of the Hottentots in Somaliland very
probably as the result of a cross between Hamites (Egyptians)
and Bus'hwomen.f Meinhof and von Luschan further showed
that the Hottentot and Bushman languages were originally cjuite
distinct, that while Hottentot was Hamitic, Bushman belonged
to the isolating class of languages with its nearest analogues in
the isolating negro languages of the western Sudan. My own
investigations into some of the Bushman tongues of
the northern Kalahari have, however, led me to the
conclusion that originally there was some relationship
between the Hottentot and Bushman languages. Von
Luschan showed that there were other Hamitic tribes in
East Africa, such as the Warunda, Wahyma, and Masai, for-

* Addresses and Papers, Rrit. and S.A. Assocs. for x\dv. of Sc. (iqo5).
3. iri-129.
t P. 60.

NATIVE IDEAS OK COSMOLOGY. iS/

merly classed as negroes, while Meinhof stated that certain
tribes, the Wahwa and Wasendani, had clicks in their langaiiges
like the Hottentots. How many of these clicks and what they
were he does not say. This is interesting of itself, and shows
the extent of former Hamitic occupation, and the probable line
of advance of the Hottentots. From the Masai, Capt. Merker
collected a number of legends relating to the origin of the world,
the deluge, the fall of man and others, astonishingly like those
related in the b(X)k of Cienesis. The Masai account of the Crea-
tion runs as follows : —

In the beginning the earth was a waste and barren wilderness, in
vvhicli there dwelt a dragon alone. Then God came down from heaven,
fouglit with the dragon, and vanquished it. From the dragon's blood,
which was water, the barren, rocky wilderness was made fertile, and the
spot where the struggle between God and the dragon took place was called
Paradise. Thereafter God created all things — sun, moon, stars, plants,
and beasts, and finally two human beings. The man was sent down from
heaven and was called Maitunibe, and the woman. Uaitergorob, sprang
from the bosom of the earth. God led them into Paradise, where they
led an untroui)led existence. They were allowed to eat of all the fruits
of the garden, with one exception, called ol oilai. Often God visited
tliem by climl)ing down a ladder. One day, however, he could not find
them, but at last discovered them crouching in some bushes- He inquired
what they were afraid of, and the man replied that they had eaten the
forbidden fruit. He said his wife had given it to him. The woman
answered that she had done it at the suggestion of the serpent. God was
;uigry. and sent the morning star. Rilegen, to drive them out of Paradise.*

1 have considerably condensed this account, and it is only
fair to add that suspicion has b^^en thnnvn U]xin
its accuracy. Several ethnologists and travellers deny that the
Masai are Hamites, or that these stories are indigenous. Sir
Harry Johnston says the Masai are Nilotic negroes, and Hollis,
in his book on the Masai, makes 110 mention of any such tradi-
tions- I understand that he takes the view that they are mutil-
ated Christian teaching. However this may be, Captain Merker
is in error in describing them as Semites. Hamites they possibly
are. But what has the Hamitic question to do with the origin
of Bantu Creation myths? The ordinary theory of the deriva-
tion of the Bantu peoples is that they originated somewhere
west of the Victoria Nyanza. through some negro tribe marrying
women of Hamitic type. In that case their language would have
been modified by the Hamites, and they would possibly have
obtained some of their traditions of Creation from these people.
That these is a foreign strain in some of the Bantu seems very
probable. Is it Hamitic? I am not thinking of recent Semitic
intermingling, such as has been going on along the coast for a
long time. Take the old Varoswe of Rhodesia. There are two
distinct types found among these people. One tall and slight,
with fine straight features, and the other short, abnormally broad
and negroid. The former have thin lips, thin noses and flat nos-
trils. These characteristics may be Hamitic. I do not think

* Merker : '' Die Masai — -Kthnographische Monographie eines Ost-
afrikanischcn Semitenvolkes." Berlin (1904).

l88 NATIVE IDEAS OF COSMOLOGY.

they are Semitic. Speke, in his " Journal of the Discovery of
the Nile " speaks of the Abyssinian characteristics of the Wa-
huma, and we know that the Gallas and old Abyssinians are
Hamites. The Abenanzwa may thus very well be a mixed rem-
nant of the old Hamitic stock. Semite and Hamite are very
closely related, both in blood and lang^uage. and very probably
had the same or similar legends of Creation. If so, the Aben-
anzwa could have derived their like the Masai in this way, and
their account is nearest to the original of any in South Africa.
The Bantu would thus have carried away fron^. their primeval
home these legends, in a more or less complete form. One knows
how readily such legends get distorted in the course of ages-
Hence the very crude stories that we have to-day are remnants
and fragments of a much larger body of legendary lore. Of
course it may be argued that there is no connection between
Bantu and Hamite in regard to derivation of folk-lore, and that
the Bantu ideas of cosmology are purely their own, however
crude and primitive they may appear. They are thus an index
to the mentality of the people. I confess that this view has a
greater attraction for me than the other. However the problem
of original derivation may be, the Bantu stories are all different
forms of one original, and their very crtidity ix>ints to a great
antiquity. They are thus truly primitive, and give us some light
as to how their ancestors thought upon such thinas as the origin
of the world and of man in the remote past.

(Read. July 5, 1917.)

A. Gordon HoWITT.^ — The death in action is announced
of another member of the South African Association for the
\dvancement of Science, Capt. Alan Gordon Howitt, of the East
Surrey Regiment, having lost his life in battle m the 5th August.
He was at one time a student at the Agricultural College, Aber-
deen, and took his B.Sc. degree in Agriculture there some eight
years ago. He subsequently joined the German potash syndicate
in Berlin, and shortly afterwards came to South Africa as the
Syndicate's representative in this country. During his short
residence here he frequently contributed articles on the fertiliza-
tion of the soil to the local agricultural magazines. W'hen war
broke out he proceeded to German South-^^'est Africa in the
ranks of the Capetown Highlanders, and during that campaign
received his commission as second lieutenant. On the conclusion
of operations in South-West Africa Lieut. Howitt proceeded to
England to join the Imperial forces, and soon won a reputation
for exceptional courage. For a special act of bravery he had quite
recently been awarded the Military Cross, and was promoted
directly from the position of second lieutenant to that of captain.

ORIGIN AxND MEANINCi OF THE NAME
" HOTTENTOT."

By Rev. Prof. Johannes du Plessis, B.A., B.D.

The Bushmen, the Hottentots and the Kaffirs are the names
under which we know the three great famihes of natives with
whom the earHest colonists came in contact. The first name
explains itself, the last is without doubt the Arabic kafir (un-
believer), and was bestowed upon the Bantu tribes of the east
coast by the Mohammedan traders. But the name Hottentot
is still wrapped in considerable obscurity, and the derivations
hitherto proposed have not been wholly satisfactory. In deal-
ing with the explanations that have been ofifered of the origin of
the name, there are some which I think we are safe in rejecting,
some which are certainly possible, and one which I venture to
suggest as highly probable.

I. Rejected Explanations.

In the " Transactions of the Philological Society " for i860,
H. Wedgwood threw out the suggestion that the word Hottentot
meant originally a stammerer. " When we enquire how the
Dutch would naturally represent the sound of stammering, we
find that they make use of the verbs hateren and tatereii, Ixith
obviously imitative." He also quotes from the dictionary of
Hexham ( 1647) to show that hateren meant to stutter, and
tateren, to speak with a shrill noise.

Danby P. Fry, in the volume of the " Transactions " quoted
above, says that in a Dutch and German dictionary published by
Kramer in 1719, he found the word Hortentot in the -ense of a
stammerer, " and this," he adds, " may be the word referred to
by Dapper." He also adduces the authority of Judge Water-
meyer, whose words are : "Dapper asserts that a word like
Hottentot was a word in ordinary use in Holland in his day to
signify stammerer. . . . Dutchmen themselves would not
believe it to have been a word in use in Holland before it was
applied to the South African natives, but for the conclusive evi-
dence of such a passage as this in Dapper."

Dr. Theophilus PTahn, again, in his " Tsuni-Goam," sup-
plies us with another suggested derivation. " On account of
their curious language, abounding in harsh faucal sounds and
clicks, the Dutch called them Hottentots. Hottentot, or Hiitten-
tiit, means in Frisian or Low German a quack ; and therefore the
old Dutchmen, who were so much puzzled and did not know
what to make of such an unheard-of language, more akin to the
chat of a parrot than to human speech, called it Hottentot, i.e.,
mere gibberish" (p. 2). In support of this view he quotes the
Idiotieon Hamburgensc ( 1755) : " Hiittentuth, Schimpfwort auf
einen unniitzen Artzt, welcher beim gemeinen Mann heisset :
* Doctor Hiittentiith, die den Liiden dat water besiiht ' " (p. 32).

190 ORIGIN AND MEANING OF iMAME " HOTTENTOT.'^

I feel that I, for my part, cannot accept these ingenious
explanations. My first objection is this, that the men who were
the earliest visitors to our shores were not learned philologists,
who could put words like haieren and tateren together and coin
a new word; nor would it occur to them to apply to the dirty
and thievish natives a name that was opprobiously used to desig-
nate a quack. They were rough sailors, who would be likely
to designate a strange people by some striking characteristic of
custom or speech, and most probably in some imitative term.
My other objection to the proposed explanations is that they
place the cart before the horse ; in other words, they explain
the more ancient by the more recent, instead of vice versa.
Hortentot in the sense of a stammerer, and Hottentot in the
sense of a quack, are not the origin of the name as applied to
the Cape natives, but are to be explained from the latter. In
the second quarter of the seventeenth century the word Hotten-
tot must have been quite a well-known designation for the Cape
strandloopers, since van Riebeeck, in his " Dagverhaal," con-
stantly uses it without explanation. The dictionary of Kramer,
on the other hand, and the Idioticon Hamburgense were only
published in the eighteenth century. The conclusion is plain,
that the word Hottentot had by that time become so common that
it was used to designate a stammerer in Holland and a quack
in Germany ; just as to-day it is used as a schimpzvoord, or term
of oppro'bium, in Cape Dutch.

Let me now pass to the

n. Possible Explanations.

The French missionary, Arbousset, travelling through Cen-
tral South Africa in 1836, says of the language of the Hotten-
tots that it is harsh and broken, and uttered with strong aspira-
tions from the chest. " C'est comme si Ton n'entendait jamais
que hot en tot. Aussi n'est-ce pas sans raison qu'on a dit d'eux
qu'ils gloussent comme les dindons." ("Relation d'un Voyage,"
p. 480.) This is, of course, nothing but the old onomatopoetic
derivation that we find very commonly in the books of the ear-
liest travellers.

Wouter Schouten, who visited the Cape in 1658 on his way

to the East Indies, says in his '' Reys-togten "* that the Hottentots

are

Wilde menschen, die haer langs strant met heele troepen aen ons
vertoonden. Deze worden Hottentotten. wegens haer klokkende spraek,
die naer het gelnyt der kalkoense hanen gelijkt, hij ons en 00k andere
natien genoemt. .... Zij worden van wegens haer vvildheyt en klok-
kende spraek, die al hakkelende ver iiyt de keel schijnt voort te komen,
gewoonelijk Hottentotten genoemt."

The language of Dapper on this ((uestion deserves to be
quoted in full, for upon his remarks not a few theories have been
built, for w^hich (to my mind) Dapper cannot be legitimately
appealed to as authority. His " Afrika," which appeared in 1688,.
has the following upon the speech of the Hottentots : —

' .3rd ed.. 1, 8, and 2, 182.

0KK;IN and MKANlNc; (JF NAME " HOTTENTOT.'," lyi

Hun sprake gaet geduurigh met klokken als de kalkucnsche lianen,
klappendc of klatzende over het ander woort op hiin niond, gelijk of men
/.ijn duim kuipte, zoo dat hun mont bijna gaet als een ratel, slaende en
klatzende met de tonge overluit : zijnde elk woort een hijzcMidere klats.
Zommige woorden weten zij niet dan met heel zwaere moeite te uiten, en
schijnen die als van achteren uit de kele op te halen, gelijk een kalkoensche
haen ; of als de liiiden in Duitslant aen d'Alpen doen. die door het drinken
van sneeu-water kropzwellen aen den hals krijgen : vvaerover d'onzen hen
ten opmerke van deze iiclemmerin^- en ongehoorde hakkeling van tale den
naem van Hottentots gegeven heblien. gelijk dat woort in dien zin
gemeenlijk schimps-gewijze tegen ieniant die in het uiten zijner woorden
hakkelt en stamelt liier tc lande gebruikt wort. Zij noemen nu ook zich
zelfs met den naem van Hottentot, en zingen bij d'onzen al danzendc
Hottentot brokzva, Hottentot brokiva : waer mede zij willen zeggen, gcef
Hottentot een brok broot" (p. 652).

The question here is what Dapper really means by the sen-
tence "gelijk dat woort in dien zin gemeenlijk schimps-gewijze
. . . hier te lande gebruikt wort." Does he mean that, since
the word Hottentot was known in Holland as a term of oppor-
bium for stutterers, it was applied to the Cape natives on account
of their clacking speech, or does he mean that the word Hotten-
tot, connoting as it did a clacking speech, was in like manner
("gelijk") applied to stutterers in Holland? I am of opinion
that the conjunction " gelijk " in the sentence quoted does not
give a reason, but merely introduces an illustration. x\nd I am
upheld in this view by Dapper's own admission, confirmed among
others by Kolbe, that the Hottentots originally called themselves
by that name, or in some manner made use of a name or ex-
pression resembling the word Hottentot. So that, though I do
not wholly reject the oiiomatopoetic explanation, I venture to
submit evidence for a more

HI. Probai'.le Explanation.

Before I produce my evidence I wish to call particular at-
tention to the fact that in the Dagverhaal of van Riebeeck, the
Cape natives are consistently called Ottcntoos or Hotfcntoos.
the singular being Oftcutoo or Hottcnto. In only one place have
I found Hottentot as the designation of a single individual
(namely in Jan van Harwarden's Journal, February, 1658), and
this spelling is so rare that I suspect a misprint. Moodie lias
the following footnote {Record, p. 331) : —

About this period (September. 167,^) the present termination of this
word {i.e., Hottentot) began to take the place of the former (Hovtentoo)
— evidently from the necessity of introducing consonanis to form the
Dutcli feminine Hottentottin.

Here, then, we have important evidence, which takes the
lx)ttom out of the theories of onomatopoetic derivation : the
original form of the name was not Hottentot, but Hottentoo.

There is. however, one piece of evidence which points in
the direction of an earlier form ending in t. Sir Thomas Herbert
visited Table Bay in 1626, and he has the following sentence:
" Only upon their feet (he is speaking of the natives) have they
a sole or piece of leather tied with a little strap, which while

ig2 ORICIN AND MEANINC OF NAMF. " HOTTENTOT.

these Haften-fotcs were in our company their hands held, their
feet having thereby the greater liberty to steal." This seems
to be decisive for the early use of the consonantal ending. Btit
is it? My copy of Herbert is "the Third Edition, further en-
larged— London, printed in the yeare 1677." I have not had
access to a First Edition, but I should not be at all surprised to
find that the " Halfcntotcs " only appeared upon the scene in
later editions, when the word itself in the newer etymology had
already found a footing.*

Now with reference to the origin of the name, I shall quote
a sentence or two from travellers during' the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries. Pere Tachard, in " A Voyage to
Siam," undertaken in 1685, says: "The first nation in the lan-
guage of the country is called Songuas (i.e., Son-quas). The
Europeans call those people Hottentots, perhaps because they
have always that word in their mouth when they meet strangers "
{op. cit., p. 68). The Re\-. J. Ovington, who was here in 1689.
says: "They retain the vulgar name of Hotaiitofs, because
of their constant repetition of that word in their hobling dances."
(" A \\>yage to Suratt," p. 489.) William Dampier called at the
Cape in 1691, and gives the following account of the name
Hottentot: —

The natural inhahitants i)f the Cape are the Hodinadods, as they
are commonly called, which is a corruption of the word Holtentot: for
this is the name hy which they call to one another, either in their dances
or on any occasion, as if every one of them had this for his name. The
word prohahly hath some signification or other in their language, what-
ever it is.t

To the same effect, Francis Leguat ( 1698) : ". . . the
natives of that Province, whom the Hollanders called Hotten-
tots, because they often hear them ])r()ni)unce that word " ( " Vov-
age to the East Indies," p. 22(->) ; and Captain Beeckman ( 1704) :
they are called by that name from their fre(|tient repe-
titions of the word in their dancings" (quoted in Mendelssohn,
1. p. 108).

To the evidence already adduced may be added that of
Kolbe, who, in his accotint of the Hottentots, leans upon and is
backed by the far more powerftil authority of the learned Secre-
tary Grevenbroek. Kolbe, then, after quoting Tachard, refers
to the opinion of Mercklin in his " Oost-indische Reisbeschrij-
ving," who says of the Hottentots " dat zij. vrolijk zijnde, ge-
stadig op en neer springen, en het woord Hottentot daarbij
zingen . . . weshalve zij ook van de Hollanders in "t ge-
meen Hottentotten genaamd worden " ( Kolbe, " Naauwkeurige
P>eschrijving," 1, 415)

We see then that the earliest evidence strongly favours the
supposition that the name Hottentot was not a term imposed upon
the Cape natives, but a term derived from them ; and that the
word had some connection with their ceremonial dances, and

* This I have since found to be the case. In the first edition ni ] lerhert
the natives are not called by any ])roper name at all.
t" Voyage round the World." 7th ed., 1, 539.

OKIGIN -WND MEANING UF iNAME " HOTTENTOT." 193

perhaps also with the greetings they employed towards each
other and towards strangers.

1 must now return to van Riebeeck's Dagverliaal — that still
unexplored mine of information on the first ten years of the
Settlement. On the /th September, 1655. Corporal Willem Mul-
ler proceeded on an exploratory tour inland, accompanied by the
Hottentot interpreter Harry. .\t a spot which cannot have been
very far from Capetown, in the direction of the Cape Flats, they
observed something which drew their attention, viz., " a strange
proceeding of the Hottentot women, on the side of the path,
where a great stone lay. These women went together each with
a green branch in her hand, laid down upon their faces on the
stone, speaking some words which we did not understand. We
asked them what it meant, on which they said Heffc hie, and
pointed above, as if they would say, ' It is an offering to Ciod ' "'
(translation iby Moodie, Record, p. /2).

Dr. Theophilus Hahn at once seized upon the importance of
this little bit of information, and made the following comment
on it : " As will be seen from the sequel of this chapter, the
word Heffe hie is only a distortion of Heitsi-eibib, and the form
*>f worship described here at the cairn is nothing else but the
Heitsi-eibib worship as it is ])ractised to-day all over Great Nama-
(jualand, etc." (" 'rsuni-( loam." ]). 36). I wish, however, to take
the ste]) which Dr. ?Tahn stoi)ped short of. and to suggest that
Hcttc hie was the expression which the early settlers heard so
constantly from the natives, and from which they nicknamed
them Hottentoos. I grant that the resemblance of Hoticntot to
Hetfc-hie is not philolo^ically perfect, but if we remember that
the last " t " is an addition of later date, and that the early sailors
<lid not profess to give an exact reproduction of the native word,
but only to coin a word tjiat resembled it. the similarity must
be admitted to be sufficiently close. At an}' rate, the proposed
identifica.tion meets three conditions of the problem which, if
we are to believe the words of the old travellers, must necessarily
be observed: (a) the name Hottentot must be showai to be de-
rived from, and not imposed upon, the natives of the Cape; (b)
it must be a word that was uttered in connection with their cere-
monial religitnts dances ; and ( c ) it must be a word which could
be employed in friendly greetings. These conditions are all ful-
filled in the proposed derivation from Heffe hie.

(Read. July 4, 1917.)

Rubber from Carbide. — The Journal of industrial
and linyinecring Chonisfry"^- draws attention to the present im-
portance to Germany of the manufacture of acetone with a view
to the production of synthetic rubber. vSome of the largest Ger-
man firms have been occupied with this problem, and there are
now firms in Germany ])r<)ducing 10 to 50 tons of calcium car-
bide per day in order to c<mvert the acetylene into acetic acid
and acetone] the latter being intended chiefly for the production
of synthetic rubber.

* ( 1017) 9 [toI. 084-

THE NEED AND VALUE OF ACADEMIC STUDY
OF NATIVE PHILOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

By the Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

The School of Oriental Studies was recently opened in
London by the King-Emperor. Here is an extract from the
speech of His Majesty : —

" If the school happily succeeds in imparting to the jmpils,
sent out as teachers of unselfish government and civilised com-
merce, a clearer comprehension of the thoughts and lives of the
diverse races of the East, the good effects of that success will
extend far beyond the immediate and tangible results."

These words may certainly be applied to ourselves in Africa,
where we need indeed, as a nation, all the help we can get from
the sciences.

Enormous strides have doubtless been made in the application
of science to the more material side of our civilisation, but how
backward we are still in the endowment of research, in the
intelligence dei)artments of our work, both in war and peace.

I need not labour the proof of this statement. Constantly
we read in the war news that the greatest bravery was shown.
but there was something lacking in the staff work. Of cotirse,
it is ea.sy to say this. Unfortunately it is also hard to deny it. It
is not the fault of the staff officers so much as the fault of the
whole trend of English intellectual life, and want of thoroughness
on the intellectual side of our public education.

Let me quote some words from " The Great \\'ar " on the
lack of sufficiently high explosives at the Dardanelles.

" This condition of affairs was due to the fact that our mili-
tary authorities before the war broke out were unable to get as
good a fuse for high explosive shells as the Germans possessed.
Either through a total failure of the scientific intellect of our
Empire, or through the neglect by the Government to put the
problem of high explosive shells into the hands of men of science
capable of solving it. our shell remained inferior to both the
French and German shell."

I add one more quotation : " It is time England emerged out
of the old insular order of ideas into one of greater intellectual
grandeur and more universal concern to mankind." This lesson in
man)' ways is being learned.

It is strange that this insularity should toitch us in this
sub-continent ; but as a missionary and a citizen of .South Africa,
I for one cannot but deplore in particular the amazing want in
the past of scientific interest in that great asset of the Union,
the native races, llie old fallacies are repeated year after year,
the old grumbles day after day, but any real grappling with the
problems of race which go deep down into our social polity are
few and far between indeed.

And no wonder- — for with the multitude of academic estab-

STUDY OF NATIVE PHILOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY. I95

lishments with which South Africa is blessed, we have nothing,
practically, in the way of endowment of research into matters
native ; and while a certain number of men are vaguely known as
successful with groups of natives, there are very few serious
students in South Africa adequately equi])ped philologically and
ethnologically, who can guide us to anything like a wide view of
the Bantu races, notwithstanding the fact that their
coherence in the main invites workable generalisations. I
see that now.* after being talked about for 70 years, a
chair of Bantu Philology is being advertised in connection with
the new Cape University. This is a healthy sign of change in this
respect.

Unfortunately, it is not alone the State which is to blame
in this neglect of research into native matters — a study which in
the past { and possibly in the future ) would have amply repaid us
for any outlay it had cost by the avoidance of misunderstandings
and outbreaks.

But missions as well, though in their poverty they
may rightly look for aid. on the academic side, to South
African Universities ; have not done, and are not doing,
what they might. It is not necessary that every mis-
sionary should be a linguist, but it is necessary that he should
study the tongue of his people, because it is the best index to their
psychology. At present I fear that a large number of us mis-
sionary clergy cannot even read intelligibly in the native tongues.
Boards of Missions have recommended examination in them, but
this seems often to be a dead letter.

As an example of the ill-effect of this neglect of language
study, I may mention that in some of our books the third article
of the Creed is still translated as though the Holy Spirit were the
Mother of Christ, while the most extraordinary mistakes are
made through interpreters, of which T could give, startling
examples. Let me illustrate these remarks from my own expe-
rience. I listened to a dignitary of the Church deliver an excellent
sermon on the married state, which was interpreted into Sesuio.
The text was " Bear ye one another's burdens " ; the interpreter
said, "Preserve one another (bolokana)." "It is the duty of
the man to bear the burden of the wife" — interpreted " to pre-
serve the wife (boloka)." "And it is the duty of the wife to
bear the burden of the husband."' Now, the interpreter could not
think it the duty of the wife to keep an eye on her husband, and
his mistake dawned upon him: "It is the duty of the wife to
carry the parcel of her man on her head " (ho roala liphahlo tsa
monna oa hae!). Here you had. not the Christian mutuality
which was the point of the sermon, but the age-long relation of
the native man and wife: the man keeping his eye on the women-
folk behind, toiling along with his impedimenta. I mentioned
this to the preacher afterwards, and it seemed to cause him some
of that " agony of mind "' of which Dr. Moffat speaks when he

* This was in Tul\ . A new _\tar ha? come, and no appointment lias
yet be-"'! made.

196 STUDY OF NATIVE PHILOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

says : — " Trusting to an ignorant and unqualified interpreter is
attended with consequences, not only ludicrous, but dangerous to
the very objects which lies nearest the missionary's heart. Since
acquiring the language" (Secoana, in his case) "I have had
opportunities of discovering this with my own ears, by hearing
sentences translated, which at one moment were calculated to
excite no more than a smile*, while others would j)roduce intense
agony of mind, from their bordering on blasphemy, and which
the interpreter gave as the w^ord of God."

But it is not only training in philological studies that is neces-
sary. The life and customs of the natives need much deeper and
systematic study, the pigeon holes of which should be provided,
and the elements acquired, before the worker ends his academic
training in England or elsewhere. Many a fatal mistake, not
only in dealing with individuals, but also of general policy, might
have been avoided by a grounding in ethnology and comparative
religion. This last is now receiving attention in theological and
missionary colleges, t and one is glad to find that a mission working
on the Rand sends up some of its men for a training in phonetics,
the science which is the doorkee})er to modern philology. But
almost everything remains to be done; I speak of scientific pre-
paration.

We need, then, a fuller use of all that science can contribute
to our work, and especially (surely) in the highly technical busi-
ness of missions to heathen, whose languages and customs, so
remote from our own — though much allied to those of Bible times
— demand all the consideration the Church can afford them, and
all the encouragements to adequate scientific study which we,
both in State and Church, at jM-esent so generally neglect.

I always feel tliat we should increasingly decline the services
of untrained men, just as we would those of a non-first-aider in
.an accident. Some seem to think that religious zeal makes up
for training, but it will not be those who are fated to sufifer the
experiments of such practitioners- I also hope to see our students
boycott those missions wliich require no adequate training, and
probably will not fail to waste their labour

For the encouragement of such studies provision should be
made. South Africa is teeming with University Colleges, sup-
ported by the State, but I submit that no University is worthy
of that august name which does not make provision for the study

* One is reiniii(k-cl of tlic Xatal lady who left out the chck of mna-
aaiida. and wa.s brought, not the eggs, hut tlie heads of her fowls.

t As a writer has written in "'The East and the West," in regard u<
the work of missions : " Xo man can talk reasonably on religious questions
with other men until lie knows their religion. How can he stand before
the people and speak to them in a brother's tone about their religious life,
unless he knov.'s what they believe? It is impossible to form a reasonable
estimate of the influence of a religion and its value for those who follow it
without careful -;tudy. In conversation and in addresses the man without
knowledge says a hundred unintelligent things which wound his audience
without his realising it." Native religion is largely folk-custom, which
tiierefore needs stiulv, witli the help of comparative ethnolog\ .

STUDY OF NATIVE rHlLOLOGV AND ETHNOLOG^. 1L)J

of the people within its own part of the world and their psycho-
logy (as exhibited chiefly in their langnagesj.

Something has been done from the ecclesiastical side to
overlook the linguistic progress, in the narrowest sense, of our
missionaries. This should have been done long ago, and it is
but the minimum still. Little indeed is done to aid the training,
and almost nothing is known of the scientihc side of Bantu
languages comparatively, in spite of the interminable talk of our
synods and conferences. What is wanted is study, and there-
fore specialists, not talk of the promiscuotisly interested — or
uninterested. But the scientists have little right to blame, for
they also have done nothing in the matter ( and it is also their
business), in spite of interminable talk in science congresses,
and even Parliament, about the necessity of research.

I complain of us ecclesiastics more especially, because while
laymen think it only becoming to offer the homage of lip-
service to the need of research, the clergy is apt to regard these
interests as idiosyncracies of the few of tiieir number who have
any appreciation of the importance of them. They do not realise
that they are a necessary condition of eft'ective work with the
more primitive peoples. Even among civilised peoples closely
allied it must be so. How would a Frenchman fare who should
preach to English folk without a working knowledge of luiglish
customs, habits, or langtiage? Or how would an Englishman so
situated fare with Dutchmen? Little research, is needed here,
but with a psychology so remote as that of our natives, it is
otherwise.

Of course, those who propose (so obvious yet, as it seems j
so strange a view, must expect neglect and some derision. In
my early days in De"\'onshire, the pioneer diggers in Kent's
cavern were considered mild lunatics; yet thev were the })ioneers
of modern English ethnology. Even Livingstone was asked
why he left the preaching of the Gospel and devoted himself to
exploration. He answered that the end of the geographical
problem was the beginning of the evangelistic opportunity.

We need now an explorer of another kind, who shall re-read,
in the originals, the old Arabic, Portuguese, Dutch, and English
geographers and travellers, in the light of what is now known
from native sources.''

South Africa should have chairs of Bantu Philology and
Ethnology (dealing with folk-lore and customs, tribal history,
wandering of peoples, music, star-names, etc.), because she
alone can do justice to these subjects. What should we think
if India had done no research on Indian ethnology or pliilology.
or America on her failing red men, or (shall we say) South
Africa on her special botany or geology. But these sciences fill
pockets. So also would better understanding of the native, if
only men would see far enoi;gh, or Governments beyond the next
election. It might be said that these are more important,

* I may illustrate from a pasi^age in Mas'udy, where the French trans-
lation makes him give wakliinc as the " Zeng "' name for chiefs. This i.s
doubtless a misreading ((/<;/ for fc. differing by a dot) for Swahili u\ifalmc.

ig8 STUDY OF NATIVE PHILOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

but the Bantu languages are considered by the students
of them to be likely to throw great light on general
philology, and Bantu folk custom is highly developed. At present
the study of them is largely left to Germans, and their books are
published by their Government. We have published almost nothing
but translations of Meinhof , because there is no public ; nor will
there be one, until the Universities take up the work which is
done in Germany by the Kolonial Institut and the Orientalisches
Seminar. With the long-belated London School of Languages, we
are at last waking up. That school has a reader in Swahili, etc. ;
Africa itself has nothing. Surely she can afford one Chair for
all sciences connected with the major part of her population !

Here are some of the lines of research which tirgently need
doing, for every month some old man dies, with whom also dies
all reliable information about some branch of native lore or
history : —

(a) Native philology proper: comparative phonetics (the
basis of all) , comparative vocabularies and etymology,
comparative syntax, and general grammar. ;

{b) Grouping of dialects; a work largely phonetic, and at
present very problematic- The field is open for South
African workers.

(c) Relation of Bantu to Hamitic, especially the Hottentot

on the South and Masai on the North ; to Sudanese
languages on the North-East ; and to Bushman and
other pigmy dialets.

(d) Special lines of research leading to the solution of
ethnological, prehistorical, historical, and social ques-
tions ; e.g., star-names, native music and poetry, tribal
and local and family history (e.g., of chiefs); such
subjects have the widest bearing on general ethnology
and the special folk-wanderings of Africa.

(e) Native psychology, which mainly can be learned through

language only, and is so valuable a guide in the admin-
istration of native areas, Union natives, native educa-
tion, mission work, etc. Our native troubles have
largely come about through our not understanding the
psychology of the people- We cannot rule or use a
people, not to say educate them, if we do not know
their psychology. Study of peoples' languages and
customs would have saved many a punitive expedi-
tion.* In Nigeria, as I heard from an official, the
Government discouraged mission work till an ethnolo-
gist should be found for it, and I am not at all sure

* Cf. Cape Times, July i, 1917, on Mandume, in the North of S.W.
Africa : Natives recognise no artificial boundary lines ruled on the map
by the white men, dividing a tribe. Here was another instance of an
arbitrary boundary created between the Portuguese and Germans without
reference to ethnological considerations — one of the most fruitful sources
of trouble in Africa since the advent of civilised governments. Mandume
could never fully appreciate the restrictions preventing him from going
across the border to punish some wrongdoer, or some refractory headman
intriguing against him.

STUDY OV NATIVE I'HILOUXiV AND ETHNOLOGY. I99

they were not right. The Navy gives a bonus for
languages, and the Indian Civil Service encouraged
these studies; why not South Africa?

In the way of language teaching we need—

(a) Advanced lectures, stating problems and needs, and

summarising results ; these for the learned and for the
scientific guidance of legislators and administrators.
These would not touch party politics, for that would
spoil the essentially unbiassed search for truth, which
should characterize academic work, but would never-
theless help legislators as agricultural science helps
farmers.*

(b) Popular lectures and University extension lectures, cal-

culated to enlighten public opinion about native
matters, like Meinhof's lectures at the Kolonial Institut
of Hamburg,
(f) Teaching of students of two sorts — (i) those wishing
to study this branch of philology, either for its great
assistance to general philology, or for the light it
throws on South African problems. f This will gradu-
ally raise up a South African school of the philology of
her peoples of the lower culture, still living and grow-
ing; (ii) those wishing to learn individual native
languages, e.g., administrators, doctors, missionaries,
students of native lore and custom (now greatly on
the increase), traders, and others.

I heard the other day of a railway constructor who could find
no one to guide him to the tongues of his boys at railhead.

For this purpose we need to have a few selected specimens
of native tribes, and instruments to phonograph their speech and
singing, i.e.^ a phonetic laboratory, as again at Hamburg. One
who knows the native would not find this expensive ; they would
be his houseboys, glad to speak their languages for the behoof
of his pupils rather than do house-work ; natives not educated
are better usually for this work. Teaching should be given by
means of the living voice of these natives, but only a comparative
phonetic student of Bantu can successfully teach thus.lj: Cape-
town, with its port and docks and location, is a very good centre
for this work, and might become, for philological purposes at
least, a Hamburg of South Africa. The Government and mis-

* Governments which have no time nor money for ethnological
research, should have lived in the day when farmers never dreamed that
chemical research could affect them.

t E.g., philology reveals much about the fauna and flora of early
Africa.

X While the teaching of languages is being revolutionized in Europe
by the use of phonetic method, it is deeply disappointing to be greeted by
some missionary to-day with the Suto greeting (for example) pronounced
" Dumeyla moreyna," whereas anyone with a careful ear can discover
that the " e's " of " Lumela Morena " are broad. How we should laugh at
a man who said :" Let me tail you something: there is a lion roe-ring in
the back yard." Yet we expect our poor natives to undersjand our con-
tinual and worse nn'stakes.

200 STUDY OF NATIVE PHILOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

sionary societies could be asked to draw the attention of their
agents to such a language school, and a bonus should be given
by them for knowledge of native dialects and lore. Ciovernment
should also afford facilities for travel to some research worker in
Bantu. A man phonetically and philologically equipped can do
in a few weeks an immense amount of work froin some native
centre.

A South African University is alone ca]>able of studying this
branch of philology, growingly recognised by the few experts
as most important for general philology (owing to the unity of
the group, the unex])ectedly logical character of the grammar,
and the surprising conhrmation often given to the hypotheses of
Aryan philology), not to mention its enormous importance for
the due consideration of practical native problems. The hind-
rance of the war does not apply to this sj^ecially South African
subject; it rather heljis by gathering contingents drawn from
various tribes. The science is new to English and Dutch-speaking
people, as to most, and we have a splendid opportvmity for
developing studies which have hitherto been almost a monopoly
of Germany and her Colonies, as shown in the use she has made
of her native material in East Africa-
Work at King's College, London, and at Cambridge and
C^xford, has been done in these subjects ; and it is absurd to have a
University in South Africa which ignores the language and
custom of five-sixths of her population, while it has, for example,
(very rightly) a Chair of Hebrew. The delay due to the war
is the opportunity of getting this subject its due place while there
is still time. The neglect of Bushman relics, and of the treasures
of folk-lore which explain them, is felt by many as a
permanent disgrace to South A-frica, and a failure to
pay her imique contribution to the interpretation of
primitive art, and to the philology of a most interesting
group of dying languages ; but the Bantu, and their lan-
guage and psychology, form a living, instant and most
practical problem, to the solution of which we, alone able, are
contributing very little scientifically, or perhaps otherwise ! We
need no mere scientists to deal with it, but those in living touch
with the native. On the other hand we do not want mere
administrators or missionaries, even if they may know several
languages, but those who will exhibit the laws of development
and correlation of those tongues with one another, and with the
lives and customs of the people ; and we need, under the guidance
of specialists, more and more enlightened co-operation between
different workers in Government administration and missions of
all denominations in the various fields, to provide material for
scientific research and to apply the result to the best advantage of
religion and of the State.

In connection with this paper, may I be allowed, by way of
illustrating its statements, to refer to my former papers before
this section : — Puberty Rites, Early Geography, Bantu Philology
and Primitive Life. Star-names, and Music and Folk Custom
(all 1909), Study of African Languages (1914), Melodies
(1915), Place Names (1916)?

AGRICULTLRAL EUL'LATION IX SOUTH AFRICA.

Bv Prof. .ViiRAiiAM IzAK Perold. B.A.. Ph.D.

Historical. — It was in the year 1887 that the first courses
of instruction in Agriculture were given in South Africa. The}'
were given by the late Professor Blersch, at the School of Agri-
culture and Viticulture at Stellenbosch, with the assistance of
the Victoria College atithorities, who also initiated the scheme.
Professor Blersch's untimely death in 1897 meant a great loss
to the teaching of this subject. He had then practically com-
pleted his " Handbook of Agriculture for South Africa," which
was ptililished after his death in 1906 by Mr. J. H. Overman, of
the Government School of Agricvdture at Somerset East, now
no longer in existence. This posthumous work of the much-
regretted pioneer in the teaching of Agriculture in South Africa
should prove of great value to farmers and students of agricul-
ture alike. Unfortunately, and I use this word advisedly, the
Cape Government removed the seat of this Agricultural School
to Elsenburg early in 1898, thereby separating the teaching of
agriculture from the higher education ofifered in the different
Arts and Science Departments of the Victoria College. This
step would probably never have been taken if it had not been
for the unfortunate fact, that the Agricultural School was then
under the control of the Agricultural Department. wSubsequently
the Elsenburti' School of Agrictdture was handed over to the
Education Department, but was later on again transferred to
the Agricultural Department, where it has remained ever since.
Why this was done I cannot say, but I consider it was a wrong
step to take. Had Elsenburg remained under the Edttcation
Department we should by now probably have found more agri-
culture taught in our primary and secondary schools than is
unfortunately the case at the present time.

Under the Crown Colony Administration in the Transvaal
subsequent to the Anglo-Boer war. a first-class School of Agri-
culture and Experiment Farm was founded at Potchefstroom,
and very ably organized by Mr. Alex. Holm, now Under Secre-
tary for Agriculture ( Education) . Before Union a second
School of Agriculture was establisiied in the Cape Colony at
Grootfontein, near Middelburg. Also at Cedara, in Natal, a
similar school had been established, and just prior to Union
the Orange Free State Government decided to establish such a
school in the Orange Free State. At the date of Union there
consequently existed the four Schools of Agriculture at Cedara,
Elsenburg. Grootfontein, and Potchefstroom. Since Union a
fifth Agricultural School has been established at Glen, near
Bloemfontein. At present, therefore, we have five such schools,
although the one at Glen is not yet in full working order.

The latest development in our agricultural education has
been the founding of the two Agricultural Faculties at Stellen-

A

202 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

bosch and Pretoria respectively. 1 hese will be integral parts of
the Victoria College (the future University of Stellenbosch)
and the Transvaal University College, under the future Univer-
sity of South Africa. The year 1917. therefore, saw the final
steps taken for the teaching of Higher A.uriculture in South
Africa. This brings my brief historical sketch right up to date,
so that I shall now turn to the next phase of my subject.

Present Facilities. — The subject of Agriculture is practically
not to be found in the curricula of our primary and secondary
schools. A litte Nature Study and Agricultural Science are
taught here and there, but that is all. The present facilities for
the teaching of Agriculture in the Union are therefore practi-
cally only such as are offered at the above-named Schools of
Agriculture, which are at the same time also Experiment Farms.
Here the following courses of instruction are offered: —

(i) Diploma Course, covering two years, with .Standard
VII as standard of admission ;

(2) Honours Diploma Course, which is an extension of the
Diploma Course 'by a third year, and is open only to Senior
Certificate and Matriculated men who have done well in
their Diploma Course ;

(3) One Year Course, with Standard VI as standard of admis-
sion, and previous f arminu' exi)erience ;

(4) Short Courses, during the winter vacation (consisting of
two courses, each lasting 2-2^ weeks), and at Elsenburg an
additional Short Course on Wine-making in January, lasting
one week.

To these short courses both ladies and gentlemen are ad-
mitted, whilst only men are admitted to the other courses. Since
the beginning of this year, however, the long courses for men
have been discontinued at the Cedara School of Agriculture,
and a course for ladies substituted, lasting four and a half
months. This course is given twice every year. As about 40
ladies entered for the first course, which has now terminated,
it proves that this innovation met with the success it deserved
and fulfilled a much-felt want.

Details may be obtained from the Principals of the different
schools, but I propose giving here .some information which should
be generally useful.

The instruction at each school covers practically every
branch of farming in the Union, and every student must take
the full course, except in the Honours Diploma Course, where
the students can choose one major and two minor subjects. The
subjects of Viticulture and Wine-making are taught only at
Elsenburg. The elements of Viticulture only are given at the
other schools under Horticulture. The subjects of instruction at
these schools are : Animal and Field Husbandry ; Elementary
Botany, Chemistry, Geology, and Zoology; Agricultural Botany.
Chemistry, and Zoology ; Veterinary Science ; Entomologv' :
Poultrv Husbandry; Dairying; Agricultural Engineer-

AGRKIJLTUKAI. i:])U( ATION IN SOUTH AFRICA. 203

ing and Building Construction ; Agricultural Law and Eco-
nomics ; Horticulture ; Viticulture and Wine-making ( at Elsen-
'burg onlx). Further Carpentry, (ieneral Blacksmithing and
Horse-shoeing, and Harnessmaking are taught as iiurcly prac-
tical subjects.

The instruction is both practical and theoretical, more than
half the student's time being devoted to practical work. The only
exception is in case of the one-year men. who get mainly theo-
retical instruction. They mtist take most of the lectures of the
first and the second year men. and get only a relatively small
amount of practical instruction, as they are supposed to be well
accjuainted with ])ractical farming when starting on their course.
These courses of instruction are eminently suitable to those of
our future farmers who do not wish to carry their studies in the
secondary school to the Matriculation or Senior Certificate exami-
nation with a view to taking a somewhat similar course at one of
the newly- founded Agricultural Faculties mentioned above.

I have some criticisms to offer on the courses of instruction
as at ])resent gi\en in our Agricultural Schools, but these I shall
bring forward towards the end of this paper. With reference to
the Short Courses of instruction given at our Agricultiu'al Schools
I wish to state that the subjects for each course are so chosen as
to serve best the grain and stock farmers in the tirst course, and
the wine and fruit farmers in the second course, certain subjects
being given in both courses. These courses are excellent for
those already farming who cannot get away from their farms for
more than 2-4 weeks at a time. Further, they offer an excellent
0])])ortunity to teachers and the general public for getting an
insight into the principles and practice of farming in South
Africa. For this reason one of these courses (usually the second)
is always so arranged as to fall in the vacation of our public
schools. These courses are much better ])atronised than the one
and two years courses, and they are becoming more popular year
by year.

To the above I must add that the lecturers at these schools
do much extension work to educate the outside public h\ means
of correspondence, lectures, demonstrations, and ])ersonal visits.
All these schools are fairly well equipped, have fairly coiuplete
and well-trained staffs, and stand under the able and energetic
departmental control of Mr. Alex. Holm, the Under Secretary
for Agriculture (Education).

Present and Future Needs. — In a country like South Africa,
where ^Agriculture is the main industry of its people — I say this
without forgetting or underrating the importance and usefulness
of our great mining industry — properly trained agriculturists, and
many of them, are a primary need. In a country like our own.
where long droughts and numbers of dangerous stock-diseases
are to be counted amongst the farmer's more or less permanent
enemies, this becomes all the more imperative. Whilst farming
is the oldest profession of man, it is bound also to last as long
as men will live upon our planet, and it will always continue to

204 AGRICIJLTURAI. i:i)U('ATI()N IN Sr)UTII AFRICA.

exercise a great attraction on large numbers of men and women
in every well-regulated, society. There is certainly no more
healthy calling than that of the farmer, and we should make
it our business as a nation to strengthen the hands of tillers of
our soil and rearers of our flocks. This we can do with con-
fidence only when we shall have made sure that our boys and girls
receive the proper education in our primary, secondary, and
agricultural schools, that will fit them for their future work on
the land. In order to accomplish this, we shall require properly
(|ualified teachers of agriculture, in addition to a thorough
reformation of or revolution in our present system of ])rimary
and secondarv education.

The sooner we realise the importance and absolute necessity
of a suitable and thorough training for our future farmers the
better. We live in an age of keen competition in nearly all
branches of human activity, and also the farmer's struggle for
existence cannot be maintained with success unless he is properly
equipped with all that he needs. If you were to ask me. What
ire the most im]x")rtant re(|uirements that our farmjers need?
I would summarise my reply in the following brief terms : a
keen interest in farming, a good character, lots of common sense,
self-reliance, willingness to work, and, last but not least, a
thorough and suitable general and agricultural education. Given
these, caj)ital becomes of minor importance in beginning the
farmer's career, and without these capital will neither last nor
accumulate.

If we do not properly traiji our own men and women, many
of them will be replaced by jiroperly trained i)eo|)le coming across
the seas, and our own people, thus replaced, will swell the ranks
of the already dangerously large number of poor whites in our
glorious South Africa, where man was not meant to want or
starve. I labour this point somewhat, because T realise its awful
seriousness to us of the present generation.

Co-operation is the salvation of the small farmer, but only
when it is built on the two i)illars of self-reliance and mutual
trust. These again, and particularly the latter, are utoic generally
found amongst properly educated men who can think for them-
selves and realise their position, than amongst those who can only
take a personal and short-sighted view of their situation. For
promoting co-operation amongst our farmers the watchword
therefore again is suitable education, and enough of it.

I have already mentioned the urgent need of properly trained
teachers of agriculture. These can now be trained at our Agri-
cultural Faculties.

In conclusion I wish to oflfer some

Criticisms .\nd Suggestions

with reference to the foregoing.

Our primary and secondary education must be so altered as
to suit the requirements of t^ie pupils for their 1)attle of life. As

AGRICUL'nf<Ar. r.Dl-CATION TN SOUTH AFRICA. 205

most of our children in the i)rimary schoiols now leave school
after Standard IV-VJ. the school curriculum should he so
arranged as to make the very best use of their short stay at school
with the above object in view. Some simple talks and practical
demonstrations on agricultural subjects should be introduced at
an early stage in every school. It is not merely for the sake of
the positive knowledge thus imparted to the pupils that I would
like to see this introduced, but also because of the interest
in farming it will awaken in the minds even of children who do
not come from a fanu. In a sheep area I would commence by
giving a demonstration with a sheep, pointing out and naming
the different parts of the body, telling my pupils that we eat the
meat and use the wool in luaking our woollen blankets and
clothes ; further, that the wool helps to keep the body of the sheep
warm when sleeping in the open just as woollen clothes help to
keep our bodies warm, etc., etc. In a similar manner dilTerent
animals and plants of agricultural importance can thus be
prominently brought to the notice of young children, and the
information given about these can be amplified and varied as the
higher classes are reached. Gradually such agricultural opera-
tions as irrigation, digging. ])loughing, etc., can be introduced
with practical demonstrations, and this will naturally lead to
talks about the ditferent classes of soils, which will be followed
by talks on the origin of these s(m1s.

Attached to each school there should be a school garden,
where |)upils can cultivate individual small plots and plant seeds,
etc. This work should graduall)' lead to the production of salad
plants, i)otatoes, etc. The use of farmyard manure should be
explained in a simple manner. The advantages of weeding and
keeping the soil loose on the surface (2-3 in.) should be demon-
strated by actual plots. In this way children can gain a consider-
able amount of most useful knowledge whilst still young, and will
develop both their powers of observation and a keen interest in
Nature.

In our secondary schools these elements should be carried a
little further. Agriculture as a subject should then be taught, and
those branches of the subject more particularly dealt with which
are practised in the neighbourhood. Under this subject should be
included the elements of geology, chemistry, botany, soil manage-
ment, and crop production, the rearing of stock and a short
description of the common breeds. Such crops and breeds should
be so chosen as to represent particularly those most commonly
entering the farming practice of the district or neighbouring dis-
tricts. The elements of meteorology should be included in the
subject of physical geogra])hy. The course in agriculture as out-
lined above might seem too ambitious for a secondary school to
undertake. This, however, will not be the case if the teacher
understands what is aimed at. Thus he should not aim at com-
pleteness, but rather select certain outstanding topics and treat
these in a very clear and simple manner, going just suffncientlv

206 ACiKllULTURAL El)l( ATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

into his subject to make it intcrestiiii^- to the pupils and to give
them some useful information.

He should invariably give practical demonstrations to illus-
trate his instruction, using live ])lants and animals in preference
to photographs or preserved specimens wherever ])ossible. He
should further use simple and clear language-, which should be
the mother tongue of his pupils, and .always bear in mind the
tremendous help the pupil's eye and hand can render him in
teaching so eminently practical a subject as agricttlture.

If the ctu^ricula of otir primary and secondary schools are
recast on sotinder edticational lines than are at present followed,
sufficient time will be available to devote 3-5 hours per week to
the teaching of this most useful stibject.

In order best to carry otit my j^roj^osals, either of the
recommendations made by the " Commission on Elementar}1
Education," appointed by the Orange Free State Provincial
Authorities in 1914. and printed on pages 6 and 24 of tlieir
recently published report, should be adopted. These recom-
mendations read as follows : —

" Further, as soon as practicable, a number of schools of a
purely secondary nature should be established at various centres
throughout the State, none other than such schools being allowed
to do secondary work" ( Majority Re])ort, on p. 6 of the Rei)ort).
and " In ptu\suance of what has been already stated with regard to
secondary schools and the secondary divisions of primary schools,
we tirge that the primary and secondary departments of such
schools be entirely separated, each with its own distinct staff"
(Minority Report on page 24 of the Rei)ort).

If this were done, distinct courses in agriculture could be
given in the primary and secondary schools respectively to suit the
two classes of students concerned. As the above report has a
good deal to say about the teaching of agriculture in the priman.
and secondary schools. I wish to recommend everyone to read
it very careftilly.

I shall no doubt be asked where we arc to find the teachers
capable of giving the above instrtiction. My reply to that is that
we have to train them. In our training schools we have to intro-
duce the subject of agrictilture as defined above, and make it a
compulsory subject for thejnen at least. The instruction should
consist of two distinct courses according as it will be needed
for teaching in a primary or in a secondary school. Once the
two are separated, the correct course can be laid down as a
subject in the qualifying examination.

In the cases of Pretoria and Stellenbosch J would suggest
that the stafifs of the ' ew Agricultural Faculties give the necessary
instrttction to the students who undergo training for teachers at
these centres. In i ase of other training centres special teachers
for agriculture should be appointed or other arrangements made.
In order to allow the present teachers to qualify in this subject,
facilities should be granted to those who wish to take up the

a(;rr'ultural kducation in south afktca. 207

study of agriculture for following the short courses or the one
year course given at the agricultiural schools or the two years
diploma course given at one of the agricultural schools or
faculties. Special leave and bonuses should be provided to
encourage teachers to c|ualify in agriculture. Such teachers might
-subsecjuently be given special bonuses as further encouragement.
No elYort and money should be spared in order to make a success
of the teaching of agriculture in our primary and secondary
schools, as this is a matter of vital importance to our future
existence and welfare as a nation.

Before concluding this pajier 1 wish to ofifer a few criticisms
on the present system of agricultural education followed at our
Agricultural Schools. Having been Princi])al of the Elsenburg
School of Agriculture for nearly five years, I can speak on this
subject with some confidence. \\'hilst I wish to draw attention to
the fine organisation to-day existing at our agricultural schools
for teaching the various agricultural subjects and carrying on a
great deal of valuable investigational and experimental work, and
whilst I make bold to say that the good work done at these schools
is not nearly a])preciated to the extent it deserves, although unmis-
takable and encouraging signs are noticeable in this direction, I
have to admit that a considerable change of policy is necessary
in order to make these schools fulfil to best advantage the func-
tions they are intended to perform. Their great and sole object
is to train future farmers and to impart agricultural knowledge
to those already on the land.

The standard of admission to-day is our ])ul)lic school Stan-
dard Vl or \TI, as the case may be. Some students of course
have ])assed their Matriculation or Senior Certificate Examination
when they commence their trainin.g at these schools. The instruc-
tion given is on the whole fairly advanced, so that the Standard
\''II boy cannot nearly take in all that is given in the form of
lectures. The Matriculation or Senior Certificate man can do so.
and i)racticallv always becomes the best student. This is the weak
])oint which needs immediate attention.

Since Agricultural b'aculties have now been created at two
of oui- [Jmversity Colleges, most of the Matriculation or Senior
Certificate men will ])refer to take their diploma course at these
faculties, and the agricultural schools will get almost exclusively
Standard Ml men. I might just state here, that I am of opinion
that the Matriculation or Senior Certificate man, who has not
already acquired some knowledge of farming, would do better by
gonig to the agricultural school than by taking the course at the
Agricultural Faculty, whereas with such knowledge he should
certainly give preference to the course at the University Faculty.

To revert to the agricultural schools, I venture to suggest
that the training should, if ])ossible, be made still more practical.
It certainly should be made simpler, omitting a number of some-
what advanced topics and theories, a knowledge of which is not
essential to the sticcess of the future farmer. The more elemen-

2o8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

tary facts and essential points should be driven home with force
and lucidity until every student has digested them.

In order to illustrate my point, 1 might give the following as
an example. Supposing a certain plant disease is dealt with,
then I would suggest that, instead of describing in detail the
organism causing it and showing the student what it looks like
under the microscope, etc., he should rather be told //; detail
about the species and varieties of plants liable to get the disease,
the ]:)articular sites and localities as well as the weather conditions
favourable and unfavourable to it, the etTects it has on the i)lants
attacked and the best times and means known for combatting it.
As for identification of the disease. 1 would make him use his
organs of sense, particularly his eyes without further aid, except
in a few cases where the help of a lens might be called in.

In other words, I would train him to diagnose macroscopic-
ally and not microscopcically. as very few farmers will ever
possess, much less use, a microscope. Doubtful cases could
always be submitted to (jovernment or otlier experts.

I do not maintain that many of the things I would like to see
taught to the student are omitted at present, but by introducing
too much advanced work too little time is left to drive home
the more practical aspects of the question until the student has
thoroughly grasped the main and essential facts.

The courses of instruction at these schools should therefore
be made a little less ainbltioits, when it will be found that this
seeming loss will in reality be a direct gain to the student himself.
His training will be more useful and will better serve to j^repare
him for his future work on the farm than the present system
has been capable of doing. It is thoroiicjhness more than com-
pleteness that should be aimed at. The subject matter taught
in the various courses should be reduced, whilst the essential
matters should be expanded and made clear by constant reference
to actual farming practice.

It must further be borne in mind that a Standard VII boy
has no great command of language, and consequently clear and
simpte language should be used in lectures to make sure that the
whole class can intelligently follow the lecturer. This becomes
all the more imperative, where, as at jM'esent ha|)])ens in nearly
every case, half the class are taught through the medium of a
language not their mother tongue. This will have to be altered
soon, as a gross injustice is at present being perpetrated ui)on
one section of the community. Had the standard of general
education in this case been Matriculation and not Standard \TL
matters would not have been quite so bad, although this would not
yet make the present practice a just one.

As far as I can see, the remedy lies in either appointing
duplicate lecturers for every subject, or thoroughly bilingual lec-
turers who can give their instruction throtigh both official lan-
guages. They will then give their lectures in Dutch to that section

AGRICULTURAL KDUCATTON IN SOL'TH AFRICA. 209

of the class whose mother tongue is Dutch, and in EngHsh to
those whose mother tongue is EngHsh. Of these two alternatives
I would give preference to the latter, if the lectures are suffi-
ciently curtailed to make the scheme workable.

The only other solution will be that approximately half the
lectures are given in one and half in the other official language.
This presuj^poses a knowledge of both official languages as a
condition of admission to the school. Once both these languages
are properly and sufficiently taught in all our public schools, such
an arrangement might be practicable. At the present ttime I am
afraid this will not be the case imless boys whose mother tongue
is English first spend a year on a Dutch farm and take pains to
learn Dutch properly. Incidentally, it will acquaint them with
farming and farm life, and thus serve a double purpose. Where
necessary, the Dutch boy should similarly take steps to get a
j^roper knowledge of English, although this is not the case at
present generally met with in South Africa. This third and last
solution of the language difficulty has much to recommend it, and
is no doubt the most practical and sensible solution of the ques-
tion, although I admit that from a pedadogic point of view it may
be assailable. We shall no doubt before long see which solution
will be adopted in South Africa.

About our higher agricultural education at the Agricultural
Faculties, I shall not say much, as they are now only being started.
There are four main things which I hope they will do.

Firstly, they should train men with some farming experience
who have i)assed the Matriculation or Senior Certificate Exami-
nation to Ijecome farmers. Most of their students will at the
outset probably belong to this grotip. After two years' study
they can be awarded a Diploma in Agriculttu^e upon satisfactorily
passing the necessary tests. We shall thus get some farmers
who will have enjoyed the privileges of a University education,
which will enable all the better to fill their places as farmers
and as members of the community, particularly as members of
public bodies, such as School Boards, Divisional and Provincial
Councils, and last, but not least. Parliament.

Secondly, they should provide the necessary agricultural
training for our teachers as outlined above.

Thirdly, they should provide Degree Coitrses for the more
ambitious students who wish to take their degree in agriculture,
and become teachers of this subject or experts in some branch
of it.

Finally, they should stimulate and actively forward research
in the difi:'erent branches of agriculture. In the couse of time I
hope to see all these functions worthily performed by these Facul-
ties for the welfare of the whole coimtry, when the money now
spent will return to us with more than compound interest.

(Read. July 4. 1917.)

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

By CijARLES Frederick Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

Taking advantage of the facilities afiforded by the meeting
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
appointed to be held in the chief cities of Australia during
August. 1914, the writer joined the overseas party on board the
s.s. Euripides, left Table Bay on the 20th July, and reached the
first Australian port of call, Albany, on the 4th August, when the
winter season in the great continejit of the south was just be-
ginning to draw to its close.

The winter in thc^se parts of Australia where that season
is usually rainy had been a dry one, but, in spite of that dis-
advantage, there was, to South African eyes, a freshness and
verdure about the country's meadow-lands that seemed to tell
of a more lavish distribution of Nature's bounties than South
Africa's veld as a rule experiences ; indeed, the park-like ap-
pearance of the tields round about Angaston (South Australia)
made it difficult for some members of the party to realise that
they were 12,000 miles distant from Surrey-

The annual meetings of the British Association are usually
characterised by excursions to \ arious places of scientitic interest.
Especially is such the case when those meetings are held in one
or other of the overseas Dominions of the British Empire. In
Australia almost every branch of science offered for inspection
features no\el to the great majority of the visitors, and so there
were primary excursions to the great mining centres, as well as
to places of interest, variously, to geologists, botanists, anthro-
pologists, etc.

Wherever it was possible to do so. the writer selected an
excursion agricultural in its bearinj's, opining that thereby a
greater benefit might be conveyed to South Africa than by the
mere inspection of some of the striking natural beauties of
Australia, or by becoming personall}' accjuainted with that coun-
try's mining industries. Suc'n an ins])ection or acquaintance
would after all prove of little more than personal interest, while
in agricultural matters South Africa is not so far advanced as to
be beyond the possibility of learning a great deal from the sister
Dominion of the South, much to her own benefit.

It therefore became practicable for me to visit some of the
institutions in Australia where agricultural education is carried
on and to inspect, amongst others, at least one ex]:)eriment sta-
tion where a series of investigations is in operation that are of no
less vital interest to South Africa than a proper system of im-
parting both theoretical and ])ractical knowledge of agriculture.
With that particular station and its functions — I refer to the
prickly pear investigational work at Dulacca — I have specially
dealt with elsewhere.*

* C. F. Juritz: " Tlie Prickly Pear Prohle-n in Australia" (l9';5).
pp. 14.

.\(;ri(. ii/rrRAi. k[)l-cati(»x in .\rsTH.\i,iA. 2it

Western Australia.

'Sly stay in Western Australia was much too short to permit
of any personal insight into that State's system of ag^ricultural
education, hut I know that a chair of Agriculture has been pro-
vided in the University of Western Australia, by the generosity
of the Chancellor, Sir Winthrop Hackett, and this to some
extent compensates for the fact that Western Australia differs
from the other Australian States in not possessing an Agricul-
tural College. I also gathered that, at the larger centres, boys
in the primary schools receive instruction in manual training,
and girls in cookery and domestic economy, and that, wherever
liossible, the practice of agriculture is inculcated by means of
school gardens. The schools oi ^^^estern Australia do not con-
fine themselves to the ordinary curriculum, but make a point
of imparting knowledge of such subjects as carpentrv. horti-
culture, and others whicli tend to ht tlie children to become
useful settlers on the land.

South Australia.

Rose7vorfhy College.

In South Australia, the University of Adelaide, in con-
junction with the Government Agricultural College, makes pro-
vision for a course whereby students are enabled to obtain the
degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture. Part of this course is taken
at the University, and ]:)art at the Agricultural College. Thi>
college, situated at Roseworth\-. is affiliated to the University,
and thus affords to students an alternative to the Technical
School at Perth. Western Australia, which is likewise affiliated
to the South Australian University of .\delaide. Tlie teaching
at Roseworthy in agriculture, \iticulture, etc.. is accepted as
part of the University course for B.Sc. in Agriculture ; and so.
too. the teaching at Perth in chemistry, physics, mathematics,
etc., is accepted as part of the Adelaide University course for
the ordinary B.Sc. degree. By co-operation (^f the University
and the Forest Department, arrangements exist for the success-
ful training of foresters. The Forest Department issues a pro-
spectus of courses of training, and it is possible to obtain the
imiversity degree of B.Sc. in the subject of Forestry.

It was my privilege thoroughly to inspect not onh- the
actual University buildinars at Adelaide, with their e(|uipment.
but also those of the Covernment Agricultural College at Rose-
worthy. The Roseworthy College, which was founded in 1883
for the twofold purpose of training young men in the practice
of agriculture, horticulttire and viticulture, and of condticting
experiments with a \ie\v to the advancement of rural industrie.s
in South Australia, is situated on a wide level plain, thirty
miles north of Adelaide, and about eight miles from Gawler,
a small South Australian engineering town. The college lands
extend over some 2,000 acres. The writer visited this institu-
tion in company witli about 20 other niMTiters of the British

212 AOklCirLTUkAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

Association, including Dr. A. Lauder, of the Edinburgh and
East of Scotland College of Agriculture, and Air. J. Golding.
F.I.C., of University College, Reading, Recorder of the Agri-
cultural Section of the British Association.

The road to the college traverses extensive cultivated grain
lands, which had in their original condition presented that re-
semblance to a park that I have already referred to. The land.^
were scattered over with trees, such as the Alallee Box
{Eucalyptus loiu/ifolia) and a species of Callitris or native
pine. The former is used largely as firewood, and it is said
that there is no other tree better fitted to serve that object.
The poorer lands are thickl}' covered with a weed known as
" stinkwort," wiiile the Mallee Box flourishes on limestone
areas, and the Callitris principally on the sandhills.

It is interesting to note that a larger number of old Rose-
worthians occupy professional positions in other Australian
States than alumni of any other Australian institution. Many
others who have received their agricultural training at Rose-
worthy are now amongst the most prosperous farmers in South
Australia. The present ])rinci]>al of Rosew^orthy College, who
had only just taken up his charge there, is Mr. W. J. Colebatch.
B.Sc, M.R.C.V.S., late manager of Kybybolite Experimental
Farm, and Superintendent of Agriculture in the south-east of
the State. Mr. Colebatch is himself an old pupil of Roseworthy,
and was its gold medallist in 1898, and, according to the Hon.
T. Pascoe, M.L.C., Minister of Agriculture, his appointment
marks the first occasion in the history of Australia on which a
former student of a college has risen to be its principal.

The former j^rincipal of Roseworthy was Air. A. J. Perkins,
who was api^ointed a lecturer there in 1893, became principal in
1904. and had just been promoted to the post of Director of
Agriculture for the State of South Australia, in place of Mr.
W. Lowrie, M.A., B.Sc.

In the Commonwealth, unlike South Africa, each State has
its own Agricultural Department ; and, when discussing the
merits of the respective systems, one detected, now and again,
latent fears that substitution of one Commonw^ealth Department
for those of the dift'erent States might not prove an unalloyed
advaiitage for those States which possess the most efticient de-
partments under tiieir j)resent system.

Both Air. Perkins and Air. Colebatch spontaneously and
emphatically expressed the view that the system of instruction
adopted at Roseworthy is not a system artificially imposed on
the coimtry. but one that has been developed along the lines of
the country's manifested needs. Sounder views there cannot be.

In some countries, systems of short courses are favoured
in connection with institutions whose aim is to provide agricul-
tin-al education. Of at least one type of short course the South
Australian Director of Agriculture expressed unf|ualified dis-
approval. The staft'. he said, has no time for anything except the
legitimate work of the College, namely, to fit the students to take

A(;ki(lltl'KAi, i:i)i(\ri()\ ix ai'stk \i.i.\. 213

up farming operations. Now farmers sometimes expect their
sons, after completing their agricuUural college course, to bo
thorough!}- proficient, for example, in all the blacksmith work
required on their farms. All such ideas Mr. Perkins strongly
discourages at every opportunity, holding, as he does, that the
students should not endeavour to become in any sense specialists,
but that they should receive just the instruction which they need
— and a little beyond — in each actual branch of science or art,
for the main purpose for which the College exists.

In discussing the subject of practical field work, Air. Cole-
batch expressed the opinion that the cultivated land of an agricul-
tural college should never be less than 20 acres per student in-
structed; so that 1,000 acres — the area now under actual cultiva-
tion at Roseworthy — should just suffice for its 50 students, if all
are to do sufficient manual lai30ur to give them all-round practical
experience. A strong point is made of the students becoming
practically acquainted with all branches of manual labour re-
quired on the farm.

The curriculum at Roseworthy Agricultural College is as
follows : —

First year: Agriculture, Chemistry, Book-keeping, V'eterin-
ary anatomv. Phvsics, Botanv, Mathematics, and Eng
lis'h.

Second year : Agriculture, Viticulture, Fruit culture, Chemis-
try, Surveying, Dairying, Veterinary physiology. Phy-
sics, and Wool-classing.

Third year: Agriculture, Viticulture, Fruit culture, Chemis-
try, Surveying, Dairying, Veterinary science, Avicul-
ture, and Wool-classing.

Entomology and zoology, it will be seen, do not enter into
the curriculum.

The fees are £30 per annum, and arrangements may be made
for special six months' courses in dairying and aviculture. Par-
ticular attention is devoted to " diversified farming "' ; and, in
addition, valuable experiments are carried on in livestock breed-
intr, |x)ultry and dairy farming.

Of all the lands connected with Roseworthy College, about
50 acres are under vines, but by far the greater area is devoted
to cereal cultivation — and not umiaturally, for 92 per cent, of
the cultivated land in the surrounding districts is under cereals.
In the Roseworthy district 20 bushels of wheat per acre, or two
and a quarter tons of hay, represent average yields, but it is held
that, with 15 inches of rain well distributed over the growing
period (April to November), 30 busltels of wheat, or three and
a quarter tons of hay, are ix)ssible. On the College wheat-lands,
where cultivation has been carried on for the last 50 years, the
soil, in common with all lands in the vicinity, lacks phosphates.

This year, for the first time, the crops were found to be
affected with a white rust or mildew (thought to be Erysiphe
(jramhris). The exact nature of this mildew had not been ascer-

214 .\(;KR'LLTL'kAL KDLa'ATlON IX AUSTKAi.IA.

tallied, we were told, because the State had only one mycologist,.
and he is stationed at Adelaide. At the time of our visit experi-
ments for the extirpation of this pest were being tried with
sulphur, Bordeaux-mixture, etc.

The wheat-lands receive superphosphate at the rate of 80 lb.
per acre, i.e., i:)nly sufficient for the immediate season. These
lands are in part surrounded by eucalyptus, and the stunting
effects of the trees on the wheat-fields was strikingly manifest
wherever they grew in close proximity to the cereals. Millets,
it is said, do not thrive on the farm lands.

Considerable interest was manifested by the visiting party
in the newly-erected shed containing appliances for grading
wheat, the whole series being driven by a small petrol engine.
These appliances include a hand thrasher for small quantitie;^
of grain, capable of taking about one-third of a sheaf.

The rotation frequently adopted in the district is said to be :
(I) Self-sown grass herbage, (2) bare fallow — the land being
kept broken by cultivators — and (3) wheat. This system, how-
ever, is regarded, not without evident reason, as not getting
enough out of the land.

The Roseworthy rainfall averages seventeen inches, and the
lands are irrigated from the Barossa, sixteen miles away, the
whole district being reticulated with water-leadings. The only
method of irrigation used all over the farm is that of revolving
s])rinklers. Flood irrigation is impracticable on account of the
expense, which would render it unprofitable. The cost of water
is sixj^ence ])er 1,000 gallons, exclusive of water-rates. The
sprinkling system, however, is found to yield good returns. .\s
an instance of this we were informed that a herd of 2-^ cow.s
was entirely maintained on four acres of Egyptian clover from
July to October, both months inclusive, the clover being cut
five times per annum, with constant irrigation, except during
the wet winters, when irrigation is used only to start the crops.
Brack efflorescences occur on the farm, chiefly in the form of
magnesium chloride, until irrigation drives the salts down.

Nitrogen manuring (Chili saltpetre, etc.) is stated to have
failed in yielding sufficient crop-increase to make such manuring
profitable. It was not on the occasion of my visit to Rose-
worthy that I heard this statement for the first time in South
Australia. On the contrary, it was frequently reiterated in my
hearing, both before and after that visit, not only in that State,
but also in other parts of the Australian continent ; indeed, the
South Australian Government's " Handbook of South .Australia,'*
issued in 1908, states (page 270) tiiat —

In a<ldition to the absence vi excessive rains. South Au.stnifian
farmers have a great advantage over their European competitors in that
the addition of nitrogenous mamires is unnecessary for cereal growing.
The soil is sclf-nitrogcmitiiig.* The nitrogen-producing bacteria tlirive
wonderfully in the warmer and drier conditions of this State.

* Italics in the original.

ACRRULTL'RAL EDL'CNTTON IN Al'STKALlA. 215

Air. A. D. Hall, in the course of his address at Brisbane,
on the 28th August, on the subject of " Tropical x\griculture,"
observed that he, too, had heard this remarkable assertion, but
had not come across sufficient evidence in support of it.

On the Roseworthy lands, as well as throughout South Aus-
tralia, phosphatic manures are generally employed. Super-
phosphates, more largely made locally than imported, are
prepared from phosphate rock brought from Christmas Island,
and may be procured at a cost below £4 per ton. It is said
that the quantities of superphosphate which find most favour
vary from 40 lb. to i cwt. per acre.

I was not able to gain much information regarding the physi-
cal or chemical composition of the soils, either at Roseworthy,
or elsewhere in South Australia, but the few soil analyses that
I had the opportunity of studying there showed healthy propor-
tions of potash and lime, though their phosphate-content was
open to improvement. No geolo^jical or agricultural survey of
South Australian soils has yet been undertaken. The value of
land, we were informed, was, in spite of bad seasons, £g los.
per acre in the vicinity of Roseworthy, and near Roseworthy
Railway Station has realized about in.

The farm pedigree stock at Roseworthy comprises horses
and horned cattle, as well as Southdown and Alerino shee]). The
horned cattle number 45, being all Australian-bred Jerseys. 16
of these were in milk at the time of our visit, and the fat-content
of the milk averages from 4J/2 to 5 per cent. Cheese is not made
at the institution.

Roseworthy does not stock Dutch cattle, nor, in fact, have
there been large importations of cattle from Holland into any
])ortion of South Australia, the most famous breeds of horned
stock in the State being the Angas stud of Shorthorns and Here-
fords, bred from the late Mr. J. H. Angas's imports many years
ago, and the " Mount Crawford " herd, bred from i)urchases
made in Jersey by Mr. A. J. Murray.

Roseworthy College maintains a small yard of poultry
(White Leghorns), but solely for the institution's private use.

Farmers' Bureaux.

Mr. Perkins' disapproval of the short-course system has
already been remarked upon, but that is far from indicating any
disposition to withhold from the man who has actually taken up
the vocation of a farmer all possible means of adding to his
stock of knowdedge. On the contrary, the Department, by means
of its Bureau system, does all in its power to aid the farmer.

This Bureau system was inaugurated in South Australia
25 years ago, but has been under thorough organization only
during the last three years. The Agricultural Bureau of South
Australia now numbers 4,000 members, and possesses 135
branches ; while its operations have brought about a feeling, not
only of mutual confidence but also of friendship, between the
farmers individually and collectively, and the Department of

2l6 AC.KKULTURAL EDUCATION lx\ AUSTRALIA.

Agriculture. New South Wales is endeavouriuLi' to organise its
farmers along" similar lines, while Queensland and Western Aus-
tralia were making inquiries with a view to initiating organisa-
tions o^ like character.

Under this Bureau system, the farmers of the State are
grouped into a numher of separate " Branches," each of which
meets monthly for comparing notes, reading papers, and discus-
sion. The papers, together with the Secretary's notes of the
discussion, are subsequently edited, and published in the State's
Journal of Agriculture. The Branches also conduct field ex-
periments for the Department, and maintain demonstration-plots
on their own account. Each branch has its own honorary secre-
tary, and all the Branches are under the general control of a
Board, which is also the general Advisory Board to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

At the monthly meetings of the Branches, the scientific and
technical experts of the Department attend, and lecture if re-
quired ; but in some Branches it has become unnecessary to de-
pend ujx^n the departmental experts for lectures, for in those
localities all the lectures have for soma years been delivered by
the farmers themselves. These lectures, too, are afterwards
edited, and published, together with the reports of the proceed-
ings of the Branch, in the Journal of Agriculture of South
A ustralia.

The July, 1914, issue of that Journal contains the sum-
marized reports of meetings independently held by no less than
75 difl:'erent Branches ; in the September issue 94 meetin<,'s were
similarly reported, and in the October issue 57. And these, it
must be remembered, differ widely from South African Agri-
cultural Congresses, in that they are far from being primarily
business meetings, but in almost every case there were lectures,
papers, or discussions on different phases of farm practice.

It is the ])ublication of reports like these that renders the
South .Vustralian Journal of Agriculture readable to farmers,
which it would not be if the Journal consisted of the more tech-
nical matter which is, under the system in vogue there, assigned
to the South Australian Agricultural Year-Book.

In connection with the Bureau meetings, what is called the
" Question-box system " may be mentioned. There are many
points on which go-ahead farmers are constantly desiring ex-
planations : all they have to do is to write their inquiries on
shps of paper and drop them in the Branch's question-box. At
the meeting, the papers are opened and the questions discussed,
those who have experience on the particular point communicat-
ing their views for the benefit of those who lack. If the question
happens to be one which only one of the Department's experts
can answer, it is forwarded for that purpose to the Department
of Agriculture, and if, at any time, a farmer belonging to one
or other of the Branches desires to avail himself of the services
of such an expert — who, by the way, would not be stationed
at Roseworthy. but in the offices of the Department at Adelaide

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATLON TN AUSTRAL[A. 21/

— all he has to do is to put his in(|uiries through the mediiun
of the question-box, or to communicate with the Secretary of
his Branch, who- then passes the request on to the Secretary of
the Associated Board. The latter, a permanent official of the
Agricultural Department, thereupon communicates the desire to
that particidar sub-department whose proper function it is to
deal with it.

In addition to their monthly meetings, above referred to,
all the Branches in the State meet unitedly in Congress once
every year, and on such occasions the Government presents two
delegates from each Branch with free railway tickets. More-
over, when agricultural shows take place at Roseworthy, farmers
are given not only free railway return tickets, but are in addition
provided gratis with a luncheon at Roseworthy. and a drive of
inspection roiuid the farm.

"' Homestead meetings " constitute an important feature of
some Branches. ^lembers journey to the homestead of one of
their number by invitation, and there inspect crops, livestock,
and machinery ; business is also transacted, and a social hour is
spent. The mutual value of such excursions to host and visitors
need not be further emphasised to those who have attended our
Dry-farming or Irrigation Congresses. Some Branches arrange
field-trials of implements, from time to time, when the assem-
bled farmers have opportunities of judging the merits of various
makes and patterns.

Another development of the homestead meetings is the in-
stitution of competitions: for instance, there was a pruning
competition at Clare in June, 1914, under the auspices of the
Clare Branch of the Agricultural Bureau. There were eight
classes, viz., apricots, apples, ])eaches, currants, sultanas and wine-
grapes, as well as two for youths under 15. This has since
further developed into a gold medal championship competition
which is to last over three years, the respective competitors
handling the same tree year after year.

Finally, experiments in manuring, cultivation methods, crop-
rotation, etc.. are carried out by members of the Bureau, on a
1)roperly organized plan, on behalf of the Department, which
keeps careful records of all that is accomplished and publishes
the results. There is, in fact, a special Experimental and De-
monstration Plots Committee of the Agricultural Bureau of
South Australia whose particular function is to organise these
tests in the field.

South Australian Experimental Farms.

An important function in South Australia's system of agri-
cultural education is vested in the experimental farms. As in
the United States of America, these farms may or may not be
connected with the establishments for agricultural education ;
but it is of value to remember that there is a definite distinction
between the agricultural colleges and the experiment stations.

An indication was given above of the manner in which co-

2l8 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

operation between the farming community and the Agricultura!
Department has been estabHshed in South Austraha, but this co-
operation may be said to be double-headed : not only does the
Bureau system facilitate the spontaneous performance of plot-
experiments by the farmers for the Department, but conversely
the system of experimental farms enables farmers to see analog-
ous plot-experiments conducted for them by the Department.

The experimental farms carry out two classes of work,
namely: i. Demonstration work on private farms, that is to
say, operations the results of which can be ])redicted before-
hand by the departmental experts, but are intended to be of the
nafure of direct instruction to the farmers; and (2) experimen-
tal work on State farms, the results of which cannot be fore-
seen, even by the technical officers of the Department. The re-
sults of this latter class of work may be shortly described as
Nature's answers to the questions put to her by the investigator,
while in the former class the worker aims at passing on to the
farmer the answers which either he, or other investigators before
him, had previously elicited from Nature by their experiments.

South Au.stralia being so largely a cereal-growing State,
the work of the experimental farms conforms closely to the
exigencies of grain-culture. Hitherto this work has embraced
six sections, namely: (i) Wheat variety tests. (2) complete
z's. incomplete manurial tests,, (3) hay tests, (4) feeding-off
experiments, (5) potato experiments, and (6) fodder crops.

In addition to the experimental farm directly connected with
Roseworthy College, there is a farm of 2,300 acres at Kybybolite,
on the Victorian border, where the Superintendent of Agricul-
ture for the south-eastern part of the State has his headquarters,
£!nd where general experiments dealing with the special agricul-
tural conditions of that district are conducted. Turretfield is
primarily a seed-wheat station of 1,600 acres, but 30 acres of
alluvial land are devoted to irrigation problems on the Para
River. South of the Murray River, where the rainfall averages
only 10 to 12 inches per annum, there is an experimental farm
of 4j6oo acres at Veitch's Well, and at Booborowie is another
seed-wheat station, specially designed to serve the northern dis-
tricts, and utilised at the same time as a training farm on which
town boys, in particular, may be converted into efficient farm-
hands, and, if they manifest sufficient thrift, are directed into the
way of ultimately farming blocks of land on their own account.

Victoria.

Werrihee Central Research Farm.

In the State of Victoria, a large party visited the Werribee
Experimental Farm, adjacent to the railway line near Werribee
Station. This Central Research Farm, as it is officially styled,
was acquired by the Department of Agriculture of Victoria from
the Closer Settlement Board in July, 1912, and is only 18 miles
from Melbourne, the farmstead itself being about one mile from

AGRICULTURAL EDITCATION IN AUSTRALIA. 219

Werribee railway station. The farm possesses comparatively good
lands, as well as definitely poor soil. Of the 1,167 acres, which
constitute the farm lands, alx)ut 837 are poor or fair clays or
stony loams; the remainder is fair to good red volcanic loam
overlying clay. Of the latter 2,000 acres are irrigable.

On arrival at the farm gates, a halt was made, and all
gathered round one of the large drags which had conveyed us
thither, and from which a few words of welcome to the State
of Victoria, and particularly to Werribee Central Research farm,
were then addressed to us by the State Minister of Aiiriculture,
Mr. W. J. Hutchinson, who had accompanied the party from
Melbourne. The Director of the Research Station explained
the purpose of the wheat investigations which constitute the
principal work of the Station. At present, he said, the varieties
of wheatr" cultivated in Australia are not sufficiently drought-
resistant, and so endeavours are being made to obtain drought-
resistant wheats, by importing these, not from humid climates,
like Europe, whence the wheat cultivated in Australia was orig-
inally imported, but from the driest possible countries ; and then
it is sought either to acclimatize the wheat so imported, or by
cross-breeding, to set about procuring grain suited to the coun-
try's special conditions.

In addition to research work and investigation experiments,
the Werribee farm undertakes practical demonstrations in agri-
cukure and livestock luisbandry. Of the investigations the
chief heads are: —

{a) Improvement of wheat and other cereals, grasses, and
economic plants, by selection, stud-breeding, and hy-
bridising ;

(b) Soil renovation, fertilising, and tillage methods;

(f) Rotation of crops, and improved cropping practices;

(d) Irrigation practices, drainage and aeration of soils;

(e) Improvement of natural pastures, and trials of artificial

grassing with exotic and native grasses ;

(/) The breeding and feeding of livestock, improvement of
milk-yields, and production of standard export types
of lambs;

ig) Research concerning soil-moisture, temperature, bio-
logical conditions, and nitrification processes, and the
nutrition of plants ;

ill) Meteorological observations relating to agriculture.

Broadly speaking, all these investigations may be grouped
under the three heads of dry-farming investigations, irrigation
investigations and livestock investigations.

The dry-farming experimental work is carried on in nine
sections. These are: (i) Permanent rotation tests, (2) cereal
experiment fields, (3) grass seeding trials, (4) top-dressing of
natural pastures, (5) legumes for soil-renovation, (6) top-
dressing of cereals with nitrates, (7) pot experiments, (8) modes
and depths of ploughing, (9) bulk wheats for seed

22p AGRICULTURAL KDUCATJON IN AUS'1RALL\.

It is impossible to refer to these experiments with anything
Hke detail in a paper such as this, but it may sufifice to say that,
as the farm was so recently acquired, much pioneering work
had to be done in each case in order to get the various experi-
mental plots set going. For instance, the permanent rotation
tests comprise ten different systems of rotation, and these again
are divided amongst 26 half-acre plots, but in every one of these
the earliest sowing took ])lace during the 19 13 season, so that
obviously there had been no time for any results.

The ibulk of the farm lands, as already indicated, is poor;
oats have been grown on the land for nearly 30 years without a
rest, and the lands are evidently worn out. The soil is floury
after dry cultivation, sets hard on drying after rain, and is
plainly deficient in humus. Two methods of supplying this
deficiency in the quickest ]>ossible manner are being investigated :
these are the feeding off and the ploughing in of ,u'reen-crops.

The irrigation experiments are carried on in two sections,
one being devoted to forage-crops and grasses, and the other to
lucerne fields. The latter is sub-divided into five sub-sections hav-
ing reference respectively to the efiicacy of various to])-dressings
on established lucerne, soil liming and inoculation trials, fertiliser
trials, lucerne variety and seeding tests, etc.

In this connection it was of interest to learn that a 15-acre
pk)t. sown with lucerne two years ago, and flood-irrigated from
a wide concrete canal, yielded a croj) of six and a half tons of
lucerne per acre over its entire area, and sufficed to feed 850
sheep for eight days. The irrigation-canal leads by gravitation
from an elevated circular tank of reinforced concrete, to which
the water is pumped up from the Werribee River, about a quar-
ter of a mile away.

The meteorological observations taken at Werribee comprise
records of rainfall, loss by evajjoration, simshine records, earth
temperature, etc. The temperature of the soil during the summer
months averages ()0 deg. F.. and to this fact was ascribed the
nitrogen activity of the soil, and the common experience, here,
as in South Australia, that the artificial su])ply oi nitrogen is un-
necessary. The annual rainfall of the station averages 19.5
inches, and a thoroughly representative sample of every fall of
rain is collected and regular!)' analysed.

While the farm livestock was being inspected by the visit-
ing party, Dr. S. S. Cameron, Chief Veterinary Officer of the
Victorian Department of x\griculture, said that 12 head of red
hornless cattle had recently been imported, and that only one
of these had since been found to average less than 600 gallons
of milk per annum. Endeavours are being made to establish
a breed of cows which will be not only hornless, but also good
milkers and good meat-producers ; and the Red- Poll cattle that
con.stitute the dairy herd on the farm have proved in every
case to put on flesh rapidly as soon as the lactation period comes
to an end.

The Werribee Red-Poll herd now consists of 22 cows and

AGRICULTURAL EOUCATION IN AUSTRALIA. 221

six heifers, and from these the following averages have been
obtained :—

)ays ill
milk.

Gallons
of milk
yielded.

Fat
percentage.

Estimated
yield of
butter.

283
302

428

4-5^
4.48

3,i7 lb-
218 lb.

22 Cows

6 Heifers . . . .

In connection with the breeding of sheep, investigations are
in progress, by mating cross-bred Riverina ewes, of uniform
type and quality, with Lincoln, Border-Leicester, English-Leices-
ter, Shropshire, Southdown, and Dorset-Horn rams, to discover
the most suitable type of ram for the breeding of export lambs.

The horses working on the farm are all Clydesdales. There
are no special s,tud-mares, but a Clydesdale stallion has recently
been procured.

At the conclusion of a most interesting and instructive day,
Mr. A. D. Hall, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Director of the world-
renowned station at Rothamsted, proposed a vote of thanks on
behalf of the visitors. In the course of his remarks he alluded
to the fact that he had been connected with the oldest experiment
station in the world, founded over 70 years ago; and when he
saw this beautifully laid-out station of Werribee, established only
two years ago, he began to realize how rapidly things move in
Australia. The work that had been begun at Rothamsted more
than 70 years ago was only now yielding its results, and some
time must necessarily elapse ere the results of the work which
had been so well planned, and is being so well carried out at
Werribee, could appear. He therefore counselled patience,
especially as he considered that at least five years should be
devoted to any individual experiment in order to secure a satis-
factory test.

Other Victorian Experimental Farms.

In addition to Werrrbee, ,the State of Victoria possesses
three other agricultural experimental farms of similar type, viz.,
at Rutherglen, Wyuna, and Bamawm. Rutherglen Viticultural
College, as its official designation implies, is charged in addition
with experimental work connected with viticulture, and, in par-
ticular, with the raising of phylloxera-resistant vines. Wyuna
is an irrigation farm of 22,500 acres, one half of which is tim-
bered with box and occasional Murray pines.

Werribee and the other three farms just named, it must be
understood, are not agricultural colleges like Roseworthy in
South Australia; their oljject is not the direct training of intend-
ing farmers, nor is it that of attaining financially profitable re-
sults by their farming operations ; their whole function is that
of conferring on the agricultural industry of Victoria the bene-
fits of modern scientific advances, by the prosecution of investi-
gations and trials, under practical and accurately-recorded con-
ditions. In other words, the State of Victoria, like South Aus-

222 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

tralia, clearly recognizes the difference between an experiment
station and an agricultural school or college.

But in Victoria, as in South Australia, and as in the United
States of America, one may also find both the distinct functions
performed at one institution. Such an institution is the Agri-
cultural College and Experimental Farm at Dookie. It is much
larger than Roseworthy. extending over some 6,000 acres, and
accommodates cSo students. At Longerenong. near Horsham,
there is another college and farm, accommodating 40 students.
At Melbourne University there is a School of Agriculture, pre-
^jded over by a professor of agriculture, but not furnished with
an" exptT.'""^^"^^' i^^xca. Moreover, the Education Department
of Victoria has established a number of agricultural high schools,
or, as they are described, -"SvCond^ry schools with an agricutural
bias " ; and every primary school in the State has its special
garden and experimental plot, as it is called. These plots are,
of course, not strictly " experimental " ; they are demonstrational.
Experimental they may be only from the child's view-point,
that is, they are intended to demonstrate to him, by his own
personal experience, agricultural facts already well-known tc
Science ; they are in no sense of the word of an investigational
or research character. One cannot, in view of the confusion
often apparent in the mind of the general dealer, emphasise
these distinctions sufficiently strongly.

Agricultural Training In Victoria.

The full scheme of agricultural education in the State of
Victoria comprises the following activities : —

1. Agriculture at the State schools.

2. Agricultural high schools.

3. Lectures and demonstrations to farmers.

4. Farmers' classes.

5. Agricultural colleges.

6. Demonstration and experimental farms.

7. University course in agriculture.

8. Livestock Institute and veterinary course.

The necessary equipment to carry out this scheme is pro-
vided by means of four classes of institutions: —

( a) Primary schools and agricultural high schools, con-

trolled by the Education Department.

(b) The Dookie and Longerenong Colleges, controlled by a

" Council of .Vgricultural Education.'"*
ic) The Werribee Experimental Farm, controlled by the

Department of Agriculture.
{d) The Agricultural School of Melbourne University.

In addition there is the Department of Irrigation, with its
own special functions and activities.

* In all the Australian States, Victoria alone excepted, the agricultura!
colleges are under the direct control of the respective Departments of
Agriculture.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA. 223

What everyone interested in the future of South African
agriculture should realise in t'his connection, is that in Victoria
no effort is spared to enlist the child's ideas and inclinations on
behalf of agricultural pursuits, from the very earliest age pos-
sible.

The Victorian Department of Education conitrols 2,000
primary schools, with their plots and gardens. Of these schools,
700 have regular courses in agriculture and Nature-study, and
before leaving the primary school, the pupil is taught the signifi-
cance of schoolroom and plot experiments of an elementary char-
acter, with plants and crops.

Next comes the agricultural high school. Ten schools of
this type are dotted about the State of Victoria, and each one
has its own laboratories and a farm varying in extent from
20 to 85 acres. At these schools, one-third of the students' time
is given to agricultural and other science, inclusive of agricul-
tural chemistry, botany, zoology, farm carpentry, etc., and one-
third to practical farm-work. The object of these farms, let
me remark here too, is purely demonstrative.

From the agricultural high school the student passes to one
of the colleges whose establishment was authorized under the
Victorian Act of i(S84. The two colleges already named have
been instituted in order to produce young farmers efficient in
every branch of agricultural industry. For this, Dookie pre-
scribes a three-year and Longerenong a two-year course. The
colleges also carry on experiments in wheat-breeding, fodder-
growing, and in connection with horticulture, viticulture, and
livestock.

Of higher grade than Dookie and Longerenong Colleges is
the University School of Agriculture. Here a four-years' course
of lectures, laboratory and field work leads up to the degree of
B.Sc. A shorter course of three years may be taken, on the
satisfactory conclusion of which the University grants the student
a diploma of agriculture.

The whole of this series of ascending grades of agricultural
education is under the ultimate control of the Victorian Depart-
ment of Public Education ; but instruction of a more directly
])ractical character is arranged l)y the Department of Agricul-
ture for those who are alread}' engaged in farming.

This purpose is served by what are called Agricultural and
Pastoral Societies, more or less analogous in their nature and
functions to the Branches of the Agriculttiral Bureau of South
Australia. There are over one hundred of these societies in
Victoria. The Department of Agriculture arranges classes and
courses of lantern-lectures for any society that may express a
desire for these, and that guarantees a minimum attendance of
30 at the classes, or of 15 at the lantern-courses. In addition,
fhe Department gives a bonus of £10 to each Society that con-
stitutes a class, and £5 to each one arranging a lantern-course,
in order to stimulate societies to efforts of this kind.

A school of horticulture is carried on by the Department at

224 AGRICULTURAL KDUCATIOX FN AUSTRALLA.

Burnley, three miles from Melbourne, where tuition may be ob-
tained in fruit drying and preserving, and other branches of hor-
ticulture, as well as in the less cognate subjects of apiculture and
poultry farming.

In the Heytesbury Forest large areas of grass-tree country
occur, and an experimental farm of 1.200 acres was established
there in 1906. for experiments in reclamation, with a view to
closer settlement. In Ballarat East, a small farm of no acres
was establis'hed at Mount Xavier, under the supervision of the
Principal of Ballarat District Orphanage, which adjoins the
farm.

In order to provide suitable teachers to take agricultural
subjects in the primary and secondary schools, courses of lec-
tures on practical agriculture, accompanied by weekly demonstra-
tions of agricultural principles, are given at the Teachers' Train-
ing College. For farmers, agricultural lectures and demonstra-
tions are held in all parts of the State ; and the farmers' classes
])re\iously referred to generally last a fortnight, and consist of
lectures, field demonstrations, and lantern discourses.

The chemical, botanical, entomological, and other branches
of the Agricultural Department have their headquarters at Mel-
bourne, and the officers in charge of each are advisory towards
farmers collectively and as individuals, and at the same time
carry on research and investigation connected with their par-
ticular branches, administering also such statutes as the Artificial
Manures Act (of which the chemist is in charge), the Vegeta-
tion Diseases Acts, etc.

Incidentally it was of interest to notice that the ch.'niical
laboratories of the Agricultural Department also carry on the
work required under the Excise Tariff Act. the Wine .Adultera-
tion Act, the Pure Foods Act, the Amended Poisons \:^t. and
the Commerce Act.

New South Wales.

Its Model Educational Sy.slnii.

New South Wales has been indicated as the one State of
the Commonwealth which surmounts all the others in the t^xtent,
the complexity, and the ambition of its educational system. It
is in New South Wales also that agricultural education forms,
along with the trades school, the domestic school, and *^he ccm-
mercial school, a definite and integral part of the general systen?
of public education, a system beginning with the kindergarten,
and leading up continuously to the University. More than that.
Prof. Francis Anderson, of Sydney University, expects* that the
ideas and correlated system of the New South Wales scheme will
in time prevail throughovit the Commonwealth.

A brief outline of the general scheme of education in the

* " Educational Policy and Development " ; in tlie Federal Handbook
of the Commonwealth of Australia (1914). 528.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA. 225

State of New South Wales will serve to show just where agri-
cultural education fits into the scheme.

In New South Wales, then, the educational system com-
mences with a two-years course in the kindergarten. This is
followed by a six-years primary school course, at the end of
which, prior to admission to higher courses, a qualifying certi-
ficate is required in proof of completion of the full primary
course. For further instruction the young student may choose,
broadly, between three two-year courses, namely, ( i ) the evening
continuation school, (2) the superior public school, and (3) the
first two-years course of the High School. Of these three, each
of the first two again offers three choices ; these are, in botli
classes (i.e-, in evening continuation as well as in superior public
schools), (a) junior technical schools, (/;) commercial schools,
and (c) domestic schoofs for girls. For the high-school course
above referred to there is a choice between (a) the district school,
(b) the intermediate high school, and (c) the high school.

Each of the three sets of two-year courses finishes up with a
certificate following on naturally from the particular course
taken ; the student may thus acquire either a continuation school
certificate, or a superior public school certificate or an inter-
mediate certificate.

Further vistas now open before him. If he has a continua-
tion school certificate, he may choose between entering the cen-
tral technical college (which is the channel of entrance either
to the trades school or the advanced domestic school,
or the advanced evening school: if he has the inter-
mediate certificate, two alternatives are likewise open,
he may either continue in the high school for the third
and fourth-year courses, or — and this is where agricultural train-
ing finds its niche — he may proceed to Hawkesbury Agrictiltural
College.

After completing either the high school course or the four-
years' agricultural course at Hawkesbury, the student receives a
leaving certificate, and may then either proceed direct to Sydney
University, or, if he wishes, first pass through a teachers' college
or the advanced courses at the technical college, and thence a way
is opened by which he, too. may ultimately enter the University.

It remains to be added that the principle of free education
prevails throughout the greater part of the above scheme, fees
being" charged only in the highest grades, while liberal provision
is made for bursaries and scholarships.

Hawkesbury College.

In New South Wales, as in Victoria, a chair of Agriculture
has been established at the University, to which Hawkesburv
Agricultural College has been affiliated. Sydney University has,
moreover, a chair of Veterinary Science, and so, although diffi-
culties have been experienced in the past in obtaining men for
investigational work in coimection with the 15 experiment and
demonstration farms under the Agricultural Department's con-

226 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

trol in various parts of New South Wales, the University instruc-
tion now definitely established is expected to lessen the difficul-
ties in the future.

Hawkesbury College is 38 miles from Sydney, and affords
intending farmers a three-years course in the science and practice
of agriculture, leading up to a diploma.

Here, too, the authorities of the Department and the staff
of the College expressly disclaim any idea of turning out ex-
perts. They consider the latter to be the function of the Univer-
sity. It was quite amusing to notice how, almost at the outset of
each visit, this disclaimer was made by one or other member
of the staff' of every institution visited in the different States. At
Hawkesbury, in the unavoidable absence of the principal, the
verv large party of visitors was welcomed by Mr. Cuthbert Potts,
B.A., Lecturer in Chemistry and Physics, and in his address of
welcome Mr. Potts made it plain that the College did not con-
cern itself in the training of scientists, 'but aimed at training
practical farmers. The institution trains students for the man-
agement of mixed farms, irrigation farms, dairy, wheat, piggery,
and poultrv farms, orchards and vineyards. There is another
section of the College which prepares students for posts as dairy-
factory managers, butter-makers, cheesemakers, milk-testers, and
inspectors.

The student may get his three-years course at Hawkesbury,
and then go for a specialized pur]X)se either to Wagga-Wagga or
Bathurst, institutions to which reference will be made later on.
Hawkesbury College, where the teaching is in general more ad-
vanced than at those two institutions, can accommodate 200
students. The main building is cjuadrangular in plan, lighted
throughout electrically. In the students' quarters — a two-storied
brick building^ — each student has a separate room. I noticed that
many of the walls of the Hawkesbury main and out-buildings are
covered with a creeping ficus {F. repcns). It needs pruning
twice or thrice in the course of a year, but compensates for thi^
trouble by yielding a good supply of edible figs.

Of Hawkesbury's three-year course the first year is devoted
to elementary instruction, and the last two years to practical
agriculture. Thrcughout this whole course the instruction given
is general in it> character. There is also a separate two-years
dairy course*, and students may take both the general and the
dairy course within a period of four years. Hawkesbury further-
more provides short courses for older men who wish to specialise.

There were 185 students in residence at the College just
before the war, but by the time our visit took place many had
volunteered for active service and left.

The daily round of instruction at Hawkesbury commences
at exactly the same hours as if the students were already en-
gaged in their profession of farming, i.e., those occupied in field-

* The full official title of the institution is " Hawkesbury Agricultural
College, Dairy School, and Experiment Farm."

ACRUULTL'RAL KDLCATION IX AUSTRALIA. 227

Work begin at 7 a.m.. and the students doing- dairy work com-
mence in two batches, the earlier at 4.30 a.m., and the later at
5.30. The lectures start at 8.30.

Amongst the subjects taught are carpentry, wheelwright's
work, saddlery, butchery, engineering, blacksmithing, jam-
making, etc. We inspected a number of excellently-made metal
implements, turned out by the students, of such a miscellaneous
nature as horseshoes, chisels, plough-stays, punches, steel span-
ners, gate-hooks and binges, cultivator tines, etc. Complete set
of harness are also made, including both the metal and the
leather work.

A visit was paid to the poultry runs, where we noticed a
very large number of egg-laying competition pens. In the com-
|;etitions outsiders participate. Of course, the institution has,
in addition, its own stock of |)oultry, and pure-bred varieties of
table and laying fowls, ducks, turkeys, and geese are to be
seen. There are, moreover, about one dozen ostriches on the
farm, the sight of which reminded me of a remark made by an
Australian gentleman during the course of an excellently illus-
trated lantern-lecture on " Australia and its industries.'' delivered
by him on board the Rnrlpidcs on the outward voyage. South
Africa, he said, guarded her ostriches very carefully, and strictly
prohibited their export ; but there were means of circumventing
those ])rohibitions, and in proof hereof a fine slide of Australian-
bred ostriches was shown. These birds, it vx^as hinted, might
have been exported from Africa through ports other than those
of the Union.

Connected with the Hawkesbury ostrich-camp and fowl-run
is an incubator-house, where close on i.ooo f(^wl-eggs and several
■ostrich-eggs w'cre seen in course of incubation. r)ne chicken-
house ( brooder ) contained 300 young chicks : another of the
same size was nearing comjiletion alongside. Both of these
are heated bv means of hot air-])i])es leading from a coke fur-
nace.

With regard to cattle and stock generally, we were informed
that only pedigree stock is kej)t on the farm. Hawkesbury
College is the largest stud-j)ig breeder in Australia, and we in-
spected a very fine collection of stud boars and pedigree pigs —
about 400 in all. In 1913 about £2,000 worth of stud pigs
was sold from the farm. The institution breeds all its own
jjigs. but imports some from time to time to give suf^cient
variety of strain. About three weeks i)rior to our visit, two
Poland-Chinas had been imported from the United States of
America, and five pigs of various breeds from England.

Of larger-sized stock, the College has 90 head of cattle
and about 130 horses. The breeding, rearing, feeding, and
management of draught-stock are amongst the chief features
of the college course. Ponies, light horses, and buggy horses
are also bred. The cows are both hand and machine milked.

Practically the only kind of cheese made on the farm is
Cheddar. Its rate of production is one j^ound by weight of

228 A(;RICLrLTURAL KDL'CATION IN AUSTRALIA.

cheese from lo lb. of milk. Butter is j)rocluced at the rate of
one pound by weight from 25 lb. of milk.

There is. in connection with the college, a well-equipped
stock lecture-theatre, chiefly used for short courses by the
veterinary surgeon. It is so arranged that, without arjy difficulty,
typical cattle may be brought right into the hall, in front of the
lecturer, and their various points indicated. Last year 117 far-
mers attended a short course of this kind.

A large .silo has been erected on the farm for providing the'
stock with food. In this connection, maize has been found to
be very profitable if cut up into chaff. The maize-chaff is mixed
with sorghiun, and the mixture is blown up to the top of the
silo by an air-blast. The mixture of maize and sorghum then
falls down in an even distribution for storage. This system of
silage — the only system that is said to pay — is turned out at 4s.
per ton, and the silage is fed to the milch cattle, mixed with
hay, etc., as it does not answer when fed alone.

The only breed of sheep kept is Romney-Marsh, used for
the production of stud animals.

The soil round about Hawkesbury is a poor sandstone, with
a layer of iron-stone gravel, on an average, about two feet below
the surface, and growing .sour grass (Iridaceae). The grounds
about the College extend over nearly 3.500 acres, of which about
1,000 acres are cultivated. There is a fully-stocked orchard,
with an evaporator and cannery, and practical instruction is
given in fruit-gfowing, preserving, packing, and also in market-
gardening. There is, moreover, a farm of 116 acres of alluvial
soil on the banks of the Hawkesbury River, and from that water-
way, said to be " the most picturesque in the world," a complete
irrigation system is here carried out ; and students are taught
along the lines of various aspects of intensive cultivation. Near
Hawd<esbury College is a large concrete elevated water-tank,
containing river-water for irrigation. This river-water, on
account of the clay in suspension, is not always fit for potable
purposes, and so, for drinking, rain-water has to be used.

On our departure from the institution, Mr. Potts, in reply-
ing to a vote of thanks, reverted to what he had said at the out-
set, that Hawkesbury was teaching only practical agriculture,
but that it was hoped to teach the science of agriculture in
another 20, 30 or 50 years. The institution does not undertake
botanical or entomological determinations, or chemical analyses,
for farmers : these services may be done at Hawkesbury. but
the authorities do not favour such a course, work of that kind
being performed by the departmental experts stationed at Syd-
ney. The State's chemical, entomological, botanical, veterinary.
and dairying problems, says Prof. R. D. Watt.* are
studied by these experts, who spend part of their time at their
headquarters in the Agricultural Department in Sydney, and
part in travelling round the country and giving the farmers the

* Briti.'^h .Association Handbook of New South Wales (1914"). 213.

AGRldLTCKAI. I-IDL'CATION IX Al'STRALlA. 221)

benefit of their researches. The agricuhural districts are covered
by a network of experiments on private farms, superintended by
district inspectors.

Other N.S.W. Institutions.

Alkision was made above to the 15 different experiment
farms, other than Hawkesbury, which the New South Wales
Department possesses. Two of these are, hke Hawkesbury,
teachino^ institutions, but locally specialised. They are Bathurst
and Wag-ga-W'agga. Their main objects are to demonstrate
the most economic and effective systems of producing and
harvesting crops, and of determining the suitability of crops for
the areas represented by these two farms. They also devote
themsehes to studying the improvement of cereals, and the pro-
duction of highest-quality seed-wheat.

Wagga-Wagga, which comprises 3,300 acres, whereof i,203
are used for mixed farming. 100 for fruit-culture, and the
balance for grazing, can accommodate 60 resident students.
Bathurst, which is 145 miles west of Sydney, accommodates 34
for a two-year course, and utilises its whole area of 610 acres
for cropping and grazinu' ; in addition to which it rejoices in the
possession of an irrigation plant in full work, for 16 acres of
the farm-lands lie on the rich alluvial deposits of the Macquarie
River, from which the water is pumped by a Blake pump of a
capacity of 14,000 gallons per hour. Both flooding and furrow
systems of irrigation are practised; the former for lucerne, the
latter for drilled crops, such as maize, potatoes and vegetables.

To a South African it is instructive to learn tliat at Bathurst,
as in other parts of Australia, experiments have })roved that the
principal plant-food which the .soil lacks is phosphatic material
in an availaljle form, and here, as elsewhere, it is said that appli-
cations of nitrogenous manure have not given returns commen-
surate with the outlay. It is likewise interesting to be informed
tliat Cape barley is largely grown for green-fodder purposes,
making an excellent winter growth, and the skinless barley,
although (|uick in growth, does not witlistand the cold of winter
as well as Cape barley.*

Eighty acres are under lucerne at Bathurst, six to seven
cuttings being obtained yearly on the irrigation area, aggregating
seven tons of hay per acre. The students at Bathurst, if bona-
fide residents of New South Wales, are charged a fee of £15
per annum, receiving free instruction during the second year if
their work and conduct have been satisfactory during the first.
Extra-State students ])ay £25 per annum during the first year,
with the same concession for their second year; and if they

* The manager of Kybybolite Experimental I'arni (South Australia),
in his report for the year 1912-r,^, says that the barley-crop grown on :\
50-acre block, though not sown until tlie first week of August, returned
a heavier yield than had ever been grown on the farm before. The variety
was Cape or six-rowed barky, and two bushels per acre were drilled in
with 1} cwt. mineral-superphosphate. The soil is as poor as any on the
fnrm. ironstone nodules being right on the surface.

230 A(;KKI'LTL'RAL education in AUSTKALI/I

should, within twelve months of the completion of their course,.
prove satisfactorily that they have permanently settled in New
South Wales, £10 out of their first year's fees is refunded to
them.

Queensland,

Its Colleges and Experiment Stations.

In the State of Queensland the teaching^ of horticulture,,
arboriculture, and elementary agriculture, in all State schools,,
is encouraged by the Department of Public Instruction, prizes
being awarded for the best-kept school-gardens, and for the
best experimental agricultural work carried out by the scholars ;
and the Agricultural College at Gatton, also under State control,,
accomplishes valuable service in the training of the young men
of the country for the farming profession, and for practical
experimental work in agriculture. Here scientific farmint>' and
dairying are taught, and stud-stock are kept, from which dairy-
men and others in search of first-class stock may be supplied.

The State, moreover, owns some half-a-dozen farms of
mixed type, situated in widely-separated districts. It is the ftmc-
.tion of these farms to ascertain by experiment which crops and
methods of cultivation are the most suited to local conditions.
The information thus gained is made available to the farmers
round about. At two oi these farms a])prentices are taken.*

At Cairns, in the Kamerunga State Nursery, tropical j^ro-
ducts are tested and propagated ; at Mackay there is a sugar
experiment station, and at Yeerongpilly, on the South-coast
line, experiments in connection with the prevention and treat-
ment of outbreaks of disease in stock are pursued.

All these institutions are under the direct supervision of the
Department of Agriculture. By means of all its State farms,
specialised as well as more generalised, the Queensland Govern-
ment seeks to demonstrate iti a practical maner what the land
is capable of producing profitably.

In Central Queensland, that extensive area of almost limit-
less possibilities, the bulk of whose 136 million acres is devoted
to the raising of sheep, cattle, and horses, there are two State
farms, one at Warren, 18 miles from Rockhampton, and the
other — in the Emerald district — at Gindie, 178 miles from Rock-
hampton. The Warren farm is relatively small, comprising only
about 1,000 acres, of which less than 200 are under cultivation.
It is intended, as soon as possible, to establish classes in general
agriculture here for a limited number of students.

The Gindie farm is about ten times the size of that at War-
ren, but only a small extent — about 100 acres — is under crops,
mostly wheat, one of the chief features of the farm being the
breeding of stock. There are 1,000 Merino sheep at Gindie, with
a small stud of the Hazeldine strain, and 500 grade beef-Short-
horns. Both these farms have reinforced-concrete silos of 100

* Vide "Our First Half-century: A Review of Queensland Progress."
(1909), 128, 129.

AGKR L'LTL'KAL KDUCATION IN AUSTKALIA. 23I

tans capacity, the silage at Warren consisting of chaffed panicum
and green maize-stalks, and at Gindie of chaffed green maize-
stalks and sorghum.

Northern Queensland has only one farm — at Kairi, near
Atherton — for its 158 million acres; but in Southern Queensland,
with an area of 135 million acres, there is one such farm at Her-
mitage, near Warwick, on the famous Darling Downs, and
another at Roma, in the south-western part of the State. On
all of these farms experiments are made with a view to dis-
cover the best methods of fertilising suited to the surrounding
country. Here may also be mentioned the prickly-pear experi-
mental station at 13ulacca, which I have described more fullv
elsewhere.

General Summary.

To summarise briefly : .\gricultural Colleges exist in all the
States except Western Australia, and the curricula of these col-
leges are drawn up wath the well-dehned purpose of turning out
men who will go on the land. In almost every State, instruction
classes are available for those already actively engaged in farm-
ing, but the scattered population is the cause of these classes
not being up to the United States standard. If there is one thing
more than another that strikes the visitor to the Australian agri-
cultural educational institutions, it is their thoroughly practical
character : farmers, and not quasi-scientists are what they aim
at evolving. Equally satisfactory is the fact that the bulk of
the students come from the mercantile and professional classes.

{Read, July ■^th, 1917.)

B. P. J. MarcHAND. — The announcement of the
demise, at his residence, " Clairvaux," Rondebosch, C.P., on the
5th October, 1917, of the Rev. Bernard P. J. Marchand, B.A.,
Commissioner of the Dutch Reformed Church of the Cape Pro-
vince, and President of Section D of the South African Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, caused considerable sur-
prise as well as sorrow throughout South Africa. Mr. Marchand
was apparently in the best of health when he attended the
annual session of the Association at Stellenbosch in July, and
delivered his presidential address ; in fact, his death followed on
an illness of only a few days' duration.

The cause of education had always appealed to Mr.
Marchand, and, in addition to having been chairman of the
Girls" High School at Rondebosch, he had, at the time of his
decease, just completed his term of office as chairman of the
School Board of the Cape Division.

Bernard Marchand, who, needless to say, was of Huguenot
stock, was born at Wellington. C.P., in 1853, and received his
education there and in the Stellenbosch gymnasium. He headed
the list at what would now be called the matriculation examina-
tion of the Cape of Good Hope University, and subsequently
entered the South African College, where he graduated in 1873,

2^2 B. P. j. ^r ARCH AND.

and was awarded the institution's g^old medal in 1874. At tliat
time the High School associated with the College had just been
established, and Air. Marchand, for a short while after his
graduation, occupied the post of assistant master. During a
series of services, conducted by the late Rev. Dr. Andrew
Murray, Mr. Marchand decided to enter the Church, and, re-
linquishing his studies for the M.A. degree of the Cape Univer-
sity, he proceeded to New College, Edinburgh, where he was in
due course licensed as a minister of the Free Church of Scot-
land. Those were the days when the proceedings before the
ecclesiastical courts against the late Prof. Robertson Smith
aroused considerable interest, and Mr. Marchand's own pro-
fessor and friend, A. B. Davidson, was summoned before the
Presbytery. Marchand was prominent amongst the students
who accorded him an o\ation on his reappearance in the class-
room after his acquittal.

Marchand's interests, while in Juiinburg'h, were not con-
fined to theology and theological controversy, but he also took
the B.Sc. course, working under the well-known Prof. Crum
Brown, and continuing the chemical studies which he had com-
menced under the late Prof. Roderick Noble, when at the
South x\frican College. He used to recount with satisfaction
the share that he had in the isolation of the alkaloid betaine.
These chemical studies were subsef[uently rotmded off in the
University of Berlin. Before returning to South Africa in 1882
Mr. Marchand married Miss Lockhart, of Edinburgh, and there
were two children of this marriage, one of whom. Dr. B. de
Coligny Marchand, now occupies the post of chemist in the
Department of Agriculture at Pretoria.

Shortly after his return to this country Mr. Marchand
transferred to the ministry of the Dutch Reformed Church.
After two years spent as assistant minister of Mossel Bay, he
was ordained to his first indejjendent charge at Knysna in 1884,
and remained there seven years. It was there that he first gave
evidence of his deep interest in educational matters, and the fruits
of his untiring labours in that district in the cause of education still
remain in several district schools, established, through his instrti-
mentality, amongst the poorer sections of his congregation.

In 1891 the Dutch Reformed congregation at Rondebosch
was established, and Mr. Marchand invited to undertake pastoral
charge thereof. The position was accepted, and held during
five years, at the close of which period the responsible post of
Commissioner of the Church for the Cape Province was oft'ered
Mr. Marchand by the Synod.

Into the building up of the congre^jation at Rondebosch
Mr. Marchand entered with great enthusiasm, and here again
the cause of education was strongly pressed, resulting in the
establishment of a flourishing High School for Girls.

After relinquishing pastoral work in i8g6, and not content
with the weighty responsibilities of his new post, Mr. Marchand
undertook the editorship of the official organ of the Dutch
Church, and discharged these added duties for several years.

K. U. LOUGHRIUGE. 233

No mention has, however, yet been made in this memoir
of what is rightly regarded as l\'lr. Marchand's Hfe-work — the
Labonr Colony at Kakamas, on the Orange River. A descriptive
outline of certain phases of the work there appeared in a pre-
vious volume.* For services rendered to Church and State the
name of Mr. Marchand will be long and gratefully associated
with that of Kakamas. What is commonly known as the " poor
white " problem had for many years been becoming increasingly
urgent, and the eminently business capacity which Mr. Marchand
possessed, in conjunction with his other qualifications, made
him specially fitted to deal with it. The conviction had forced
itself on him that it was the plain duty of the Church to uplift
the fallen and the sinking, and so he initiated the project which
has since proved so successful. He had visited, in Euro})e,
institutions in character analogous to that which subsequently
arose on the banks of the Orange River, and he reiterated his
views and urged his pleas before successive Synods of the
Dutch Church of the Cape Colony until at length he won through
in 1897, brought the church to undertake the social scheme on
which he had set his heart, and thus was begun the work which
has since expanded beyond all expectations, and with the assis-
tance of Government and warm approval of all parties, has met
with a measure of success worthy of all the admiration bestowed
on the foresight and ]:)ersistence of its originator.

His last visit to the now flourishing colony took place barely
a month before his death, the occasion being the dedication of
the newly-erected church at Marchand. To the cost of erecting
this building he had personally contributed £200. and he had
naturally been invited to deliver the inatigural sermon in this
connection. As long as Kakamas, with all its ramifications and
activities, endures, so long will the name and work of Bernard
Marchand have a monument in South Africa.

R. H. LOUGHRIDGE. — The death is announced of Dr.
Robert H. Loughridge, emeritus professor of agricviltural chem-
istry in the University of California. The name of Dr. Lough-
ridge had a world-wide association with that of the late Prof.
E. W. Hilgard as a pioneer research worker in soil chemistry.
Their connection began half a century ago at the University of
Mississippi, where Loughridge was at first the pupil and after-
wards the colleague of Hilgard. From 1885 to 1890 he occupied
the chair of agricultural chemistry in the University of South
Carolina. He then again became Hilgard's colleague in the Uni-
versity of California, and shared in the classical researches which
made Hilgard famous as one of the world's premier soil chemists
and physicists, particularly in the study of the reclamation of
brack lands, the problem of maintaining and augmenting soil
nitrogen, and the aoplication of analytical methods to ascertain
the reserve stores of plant food in soils.

*"An Irrigation Settlement": Rept. S.J. Assoc, for Adv. of Sc.
)»r;intzbnrg ('1916), 327-334.
C

W. FOERSTER, AND SOME NEGLECTED FACTORS

IN EDUCATION.

By Rev. Prof. J. I. Marais. B.A.. D.D.

Theories of education are in our day " thick as leaves in
Valonibrosa." They are often bewildering in their antagonisms.
If systems are an index of progress, the 19th century has made
immense strides towards perfection. Yet as one studies the
various theories : —

Cycle and epicycle scribbled o'er,
a longing arises for someone to unify, and something that will
make for perfection and finality. Aristotle fitly closes the second
hook of his " Metaphysics " with this quotation from the " Ihad":

OvK a'^aOov iroXvKOLpavir^' el? KOipavo^ ecrrtw.*

It is the " many masters " who should be eliminated ; it is the
" one " we would gladly welcome.

When, therefore, I invite attention to the views of a modern
educationist, not so well known as he ought to be, I trust the
reader will not turn away in despair.

A word about the man, by way of introduction. F. W.
Foerster, German by birth and training, son of a well-known
Berlin astronomer, forced, after imprisonment for political
opinions too freely expressed, to make Switzerland his home,
attached himself to the University of Zurich, and made his
influence felt both extensively and intensively, so that he has
become to a large circle of admiring students their educational
guide, philosopher, and friend. Research in sociology and
pedagogy occupied his time and attention. A journey to England
and America to study these and kindred topics gave him greater
insight, a wider outlook, greater weight in the utterance of his
opinions. Add to this a charming personality, a style clear and
luminous, convictions which are profound, and one can imder-
stand how his influence has spread beyond his native land.

His theories may be discussed from more than one point of
view. Let me confine myself to the main theme; and this will
open the way for bringing into prominence some forgotten factors
in Education.

Foerster's starting-point is to be found in the never-ending,
oft-recurring, still-beginning question. " What is Education ? To
that question his answer is both positive and negative.

It is }wt intellectualistic on the one hand ; it is ethical on the
other.

In this he does not stand alone. From the days of Aristotle
stress has been laid upon the ethical training of the child as the
true aim of the teacher. Three things, according to the Stagirite,
are necessary to form a really good man — natural disposition,
habit (in its moral aspect) and instruction, the highest aim of all
being likeness to God.

• Many masters are not a good thitig : let there be but one.

FOKKSTKK, AND NEGLl-X'TKD FACTORS IN EDUCATION. 235

Other educationists have dweh upon the same topic, and have
warned us against a hard intellectuahsm in the training of our
children. A mere insistence upon the three R's will lead to
nowhere or else to a fourth R. Rascaldom, as Florence Nig-htin-
gale is supposed to have said.

Formally treated, as they too often have been, they are not the ele-
ments of an education at all, but merely instruments which have not seldom
been put to ill use in later life. . • . The bare acquisition of the
three R's is comparable to the starving birds' possession within its stomach
of bits of grit and sand swallowed to aid in digestion, but witli no food
for the instruments of digestion to work upon.

In that curious book, "A Domine's Log," by A. S. Neill,
certain home-truths are held up which confirm what has just been
said: " The three R's spell futility." " Education," he continues,
" should aim at bringing up a new nation, a generation that will be
better than the old. The present system is to produce the same
kind of man as we see to-day."

Much has been said of our own educational system. In the
manifesto issued by the so-called Nationalist party in South
Africa that system is condemned in the most merciless way pos-
sible. Stress is laid on a thorough system of education suited to
the circumstances and character of the people — words which
might mean everything, but also mean nothing. Vocational teach-
ing is insisted upon ; provision should be made for technical,
industrial, commercial, and agricultural education ; our schools
are to be dominated by the ideals of Christian patriotism — a pro-
gramme excellent on paper, but if worked out in detail, bristling
with difficulties and not free from danger to the child as well as
the community.

When Bishop (jrundtvig undertook his educational crusade
in Demark, he did not insist on all the particulars mentioned in
the manifesto alluded to above. His one aim was not to impart
information on all possible subjects — dc omnibus rebus ct quibus-
dam aliis — but to train the man. the youth, the child, to discipline
the mind, to call forth the dormant energies of the soul. And he
succeeded. The value of mental training was recognized by the
Danish peasant. He was roused from spiritual lethargy to mental
activity, and applied his new-found energies to the economic and
agricultural elevation of his country. And he, too, succeeded !

By ethical training Foerster does not mean the mere incul-
cation of ethical principles in a dry, formal, didactic way, not an
educational or ethical Code Napoleon which will open the way to
an educational or ethical paradise.

Foerster insists first of all upon the proper attitude to be
assumed by the educator towards the child. The man's life must
tell ; character is to impress character, for education is a clash
of personalities, on the one side impressing, on the other side
impressionable. A teacher who does not recognize the tenderness
of a child's soul fails miserably in the end. Common sense is the
most uncommon thing in ordinary training, sanctified comrhon
sense an unheard-of luxurv. It has been well said :

236 FOKRSTER, AND NEGLICCTKD FACTORS IN i:DUtATION.

Many educationists suffer shipwreck not through lack uf knowledge,
but through lack of knowledge of human nature, lack of knowledge of
the child's soul. Many a man is a failure in society or in the kingdom of
God, because in youth he was roughly handled, as a piano on which
fists have been banging in order to beat out a tune.

By ethical training, therefore, i.s meant the development of
the whole man — body, .soul, and spirit. And in man the centre of
all activity is the will. Kant's opening sentence in his " Meta-
physic of Ethics " is : " There is nothing in the world which can
be termed absolutely and altogether good, a good will alone ex-
cepted." And Foerster insists u])on the formation of the will in
the child. He combats very strongly, in language glowing with
fervour, the views of those who. like Mrs. Stetson, sneer at the
great significance of obedience in the early training of the child.
While this American educationist maintains that self-suppression,
the habit of bowing before authority, eventually leads to filling
the world with a number of spiritless, will-less beings, the sport of
every tyrant who insists upon obedience to hiniiself and himself
alone, Foerster declares that strong personalities at all times
have been those who m early years have learnt to obey. For
obedience teaches man to lift himself above the natural tendencies
of his will. To speak of the autonomy of the will means the
possession of the " auto," but not the '* nomy " ; an inflated self,
not self-legislation ; obstinacy, which is will stiffened, hardened,
useless, dead. Again and again Foerster returns to this point :

The so-called "individual" will (he says) is the greatest hindrance to
the development of the personality, because it is in the highest degree
exposed to external influences and the stimulus of passing events. The
struggle against this " peripheric will " is a means of strengthening the
"central will," the real initiative in personality.

This so-called ''individualism '" he combats elsewhere in
one of his most interesting books, " Autoritat und Freiheit."
Take a few sentences at random : —

Der Individualismus bedeutet nichts anders als die Herrschaft des
absoluten Dilettantismus. . . . Ihr redet von der Autonomic des
Individums halit ilir denn auch schon einmal ueber seine Kompetenz nach-
gedacht? . . . Comte bezeichnet den Individualismus als die
"abendlandische Krankheit" an der die Europaische Kulltir noch zugrunde
gehen muss.

The primary lesson, therefore, is " obedience " : the object,
the training of the will.

It is interesting to note that another great German Educa-
tionist, the late Prof. Paitlsen, of Berlin, gives expression to
similar views : —

Three imperatives stand out as guideposts to all true education :
Learn to obey. Learn to apply yourself. Learn to suppress and overcome
desires.

He, too, insists on the training of the will. He warns against
excessive physical training, so characteristic of the modern
school, and quotes an old maxim slightly altered to suit the case :

Qui proficit in physicis et deficit in moril)Us, plus deficit quam pro-
ficit.

FOERSTER, ANn NKCLECTED FACTORS IN EDUCATION. 237

1 might quote largely from Foerster's " Jtigendlehre " upon
this point, but I refrain. The main theme might be summed up in
one ]5hrase : " Nicht Moralpredigt, sondern Lebenskunde."

The mere knowledge of ethical principles cannot call forth
the deeper ethical action, because the fundamental elements in
character cannot be set to v.xrk by mere " abstract knowledge."

To attain that object two things are necessary — let me call
them the two R's. By this 1 mean Reverence and Religion.

The human soul, the child's soul, is a sensitive plant —
" Maxima debetur pucro Reverentia." It cannot be roughly
handled. The teacher who does not himself bow in reverence
before the altar of the child's soul will never gain the respect of
the child. Goethe, in " W'ilhelm Meister," insisted upon a three-
fold reverence — reverence for what is above us. what is on the
level with us, what is beneath us. If these are to be inculcated,
the teacher himself must inspire reverence. Not what he does
tells, but what he is. Iron sharpens iron ; character forms char-
acter.

And here the question of pimishment comes in. Foerster
combats the views of Herbert Spencer on this point. The latter
maintains that punishment ought to be the natural result of wrong
deeds on the part of the child. For instance, if a child is always
late, let him suffer by being left at home; if he lies, never believe
what he says; if disobedient, let the natural result of disobedience
be experienced by him.

Is it not clear that the task of parents as servants and exponents of
nature is to see that their children experience the natural consequences of
their deeds, and not to remove them?

This theory is superficial and dangerous. It has no moral
effect. It is based on the error of considering outward nature
as the standard of human life, whereas the inner life remains
utichanged. Such ptinishment embitters but does not improve.
Spencer's own definition of education as the " unfolding of our
individualities to the full in all directions," " shrieks against his
creed '' of punishment. There is need for constant adjustment
in one's views of edtication ; need for a " moving equilibrium," as
Herbert Spencer has put it. On this qtiestion of ptmishment and
of kindred questions there is a strong revolt in ottr day. " My
education was interrupted by my schooling," said Bernard Shaw
— nomen omen.

" Whatever else the current system of education may do to
the child, there is one thing which it cannot fail to do him — to
blight his mental growth," saws Mr. Holmes, certainly no mean
authority.

The brutalizing effect of cor]xjral punishment is being gener-
ally accepted. " Spare the rod, spoil the child " is a maxim as
anti(}uated as it is untrtie. The rod of Holy Scripttire — the virga
disciplina' of the Vulgate — is something entirely^ different from
the ordinary interpretation of the term. It is the education
towards self-conquest, sacrifice, restraint, and surrender — not a

238 FOERSTKR. AND NECLl-XTI-lI) FACTORS IN FIMHATION.

rod for the back in the hands, of arbitrary and often vindictive
authority.

As an instance in point, let ns take the question of lying.
Conventional lying is universal, aiid books of casuistry have been
written on the subject. Foerster does not consider it right to
take the lying of children too tragically at the outset. The com-
mand to speak the truth is not clear to the child's mind at once,
nor is it supported by his strong natural instincts. The real ques-
tion for the educationist ought to be : where is the weak point in
the child's character of which lying is the outcome? To punish
would be easy ; but punishment in the child's mind spells brutal
force — brut It in fuUnen — which has to be resisted, like a guerilla
war, in secret. Nothing has been gained ; we have suppressed a
symptom, but left the weakness of character of which it is the
outcome untouched. Most children's lies are lies of fancy, or
rather of phantasy ; but of course there are others. Hence the
motive in each case must be laid bare, and the counteracting
influence be applied. Stanley Hall has classified lies according to
their origin: Fancy lies (outcome of strong imagination), coura-
geous lies, selfish lies, pathological lies ; to which Foerster adds
nervous lies.

Can punishment cure the child's nature? Herbert Spencer
may speak of unfolding our individualities to the full, and the
Montessori system may be defined as " steps in the direction of
.self-realization," or, in Dr. Montessori's own words, "the develop-
ment of energies latent in the depths of the human soul." But
more than this is needed. The true teacher cannot develop with-
out removing what hampers the child : self-realisation may yield
a stinuilus to exertion, but it must remove obstacles which retard
the proper exertion of all the faculties of the human mind.
Because this is not done or not properly done in the ordinary
school we hear the despairing cry of earnest men : " Is there any-
where in the world to be found a school where in the place of a
mere one-sided training of the understanding we might find an
education, a harmonious culture of the whole being?"

There are other problems which Fcjerster handles with great
tact and delicacy, but Math a firm grasp of principles. The sex
problem claims attention. And first of all we have the question of
co-education. Foerster warns strongly against the camcradcric
occasioned by constant intercourse in class or lecture room, which
certainly does not improve the relations between the sexes. Prof.
Sachs, of Columbia, considers the difficulty of trainng a dozen
boys with such a variety of temperament, character, gifts, inclina-
tions as great enough without complicating the problem b\-
introducing a number of girls, with their physical and psychical
peculiarities, on the scene. Foerster is emphatic on this point :

Young girls who for years have been sul:)ject to this camaraderie are
apt to take over the pleasures, the views, the manners, and even the jargon
of the other sex, thereby losing that fine sense of delicacy, of womanliness,
and consequently their best influence on the npposite sex.

FOERSTKK. AND N KtiLKCTllD FACTORS J N EDUCATION. 239

Vom ^ladchen reisst sich stolz der Knabe,
says Schiller ; that utterance has not lost its force in our time.
A modest reticence in speech, a modest retirement into the inner
self, will bear fruit in later life. The gradual removal of all land-
marks, the delimitation of established borders, leads to disastrous
results.

Our sex problem is a pressing one. Is the school and college
to bear a hand in solving that problem ? W'e have revolutionized
our system of Higher Education. W'e are to have three Univer-
sities, compared b}- a highly-placed official to " the three pink pills
for pale people." But the problem which to my mind lies at the
back of every other educational question is that of sex.

Let it be remembered that the modern child breathes in a
different atmosphere from that of his forefathers. Nothing is
fixed and stable in our day : reverence for authority is practical!}'
gone ; everything is submitted to criticism ; self-restraint is under-
mined ; appreciation of what is highest, purest, holiest, seems to
vanish. ( )ur magazines, periodicals, bioscopes, display pictures,
represent scenes which would have made our mothers blush. The
night side of life and thought is the theme of many a novel — not
the light side, or the right side. Sex problems are freely dis-
cussed in print, and form the theme of discussion in the play-
ground. The purest soul is contaminated by breathing in an
atmosphere radically impure. The training in what is evil and
immoral goes on without restraint outside the school room. Those
who have investigated the matter are appalled at the results. The
age of puberty is most critical in the life of our youth, the time
when,

Standing with reluctant feet,

Where the brook and river meet,

Womanliood and childhood tleet —

the age between ii, and 15, the most formative age in a boy's or
a girl's life, characteristically described by Stanley Hall in his
Adolescence." New wants arise and new desires, the senses are
keenly active, and the imagination is apt to run riot in what is
sensual. In many cases sexual passion sweeps the youth along in
a path which ends in degradation, demoralization, disease. The
percentage is high of those who fall a victim to sexual temptation.
Bavinck, in a work which lias recently appeared, maintains that,
according to some doctors, 95 to 98, according to others, 75 to 80
per cent, of boys, and 25 to 30 per cent, of girls, fall a victim to
sexual evil in some form or other. On the handling of this ques-
tion Foerster gives lielpful advice. I cannot enlarge on this very
delicate problem. I have stated it without entering into unneces-
sary particulars.

Lessons in hygiene and physiology wisely taught and
applied, individual guidance, all these are helpful. But as Foerster
says : —

Unfortunately of late a highly dangerous dilettantism has made itself
master of this problem. The hard intellectualism of a former century
fotmd the chief remedy in imparting information, as though the real cause

240 FOEKSTEK, AND NEGLECTED FACTORS IN EDUCATION.

of sexual confusion and demoralisation lay in a lack of knowledge. As
though the problem were one of knowledge instead of one of power and
resistance.

And at this point the question of religion in school is dis-
cussed.

Now it cannot be denied, as Du Bois Reymond has asserted :

that the newest development in natural science has its origin largely in
Christianity. The terrible earnestness of this religion gave mankind
in. the course of ages that melancliolic tendency, delving in the lowest
strata of our being, which made it better adapted for earnest investiga-
tion, than the frivolous desire for life so characteristic of paganism. Thus
inspiring man with an earnest desire after pure knowledge, Christianity
furnished natural science what for a long period of time it had withheld.

It is the ethical power of Christianity which acted so benefi-
cially in the region of science : that deep patience, that careftilness,
that earnestness and perseverance in detail, and that scrupulous-
ness and anxiety to enter into a question for its own sake — all
these Paganism had no conception of ; they are the ripe fruit of
the culture of conscience through Christianity.

If these thitikers are right, there should be room for religion,
" Life has either got to be religious," says Mr. Wells, in one of
his last books, "Mr. Britling," " or it goes to pieces."

Now it stands to reason that religion cannot be taught at

school as it is taught in a German gymnasium. Mr. Holmes is

right when he says : —

The idea of holding formal examination in religious knowledge seems
scarcely less ridiculous than the idea of holding a formal examination in
unselfishness, and brotherly love. The test of religious knowledge is
necessarily practical and vital, not formal and mechanical.

The driving force in an engine does not consist in an elaborate
system of valves an of pistons, all of which must be carefully
tabulated. A knowledge of all the valves and pistons does not
account for that driving power, the steam. Nor does a knowledge
of various theories as to generation of steam or heat as an
element in the production of steam helj) us to realize the power
in that driving force which sets the engine in motion.

Foerster, in one of his works, quotes Jeremias Gotthelf, who
says : —

I knew the Ten Commandments. Hut what help do they give, when
the soul is not known in its weakness and strength, life in its corruption
and evil tendencies? The names of virtues and vices may be known,
but they must be known in life in one's own soul. We need a geography
of the heart, as we need a geography of Spitzbergen, and the doctrine and
history of the soul seems to me as important as a knowledge of the geo-
graphical strata or of primeval mountain ranges and the history of the
three sons of Noah. The child comes to know the visible and the tan-
gible, but to the realm of spirit the key is withheld, viz.. the knowledge of
his own soul.

Foerster's views on this point are not narrow, sectarian, do^
matic, one-sided. But he insists on the inculcation of revereno.-
as an element in modern education. And what is reverence but
religion writ large? Again and again Foerster returns to this
point. Like Ligthart, in Holland, who lately passed from us, he
insists on the teacher being in life and thought and act an expo-

FOERSTER, AND NKdLECTED FACTORS IN EDUCATION. 24I

nent of that reverence. The true teacher must ask, not, What
shall I do? but. What must I be? Character-former on the
on the part of the teacher ; character-reflecting on the part of the
taught. I could quote passage after passage to emphasize this.

Character is unity. How can a young man unite love and power,
humility and strength, love of truth and pity, independence and sacrifice,
without the help of Him who alone has combined the apparently unihable
contradictions in a powerful will? Merely ethical pedagogics without
religion tears hinnanity asunder instead of centralizing and leading man
to unity.

Holmes, an authority one cannot easily disregard, looks at
the matter from the same point of view. He maintains that a
child may be "mighty in the Scriptures " and yet possess no
knowledge of God, because his religious sense has not yet been
awakened; just as a child may have a knowledge of all the rules
of arithmetic and yet be unable to solve a single problem, because
his arithmetical sense is dormant and his knowledge of the subject
non-existent. What is needed is an awakening, not of the sense
of duty to God, but devotion to God and love to (^od, without
which religion is vain.

These are points of view which must be taken into account
when the question of religion is discussed.

I am aware that Rousseau, in the fourth book of his " Emile,"
has strongly vetoed religious training in schools. To examine his
views here and now would be out of place. Surtice it to say that
neutrality on this vital question is a principle which, if rigidly
applied in the home and school, would make all teaching abso-
lutely impossible. No teacher is neutral regarding the rules of
grammar and arithmetic, in the teaching of history and geography,
in the great ethical principles of right and wrong, duty and
obedience.

In this connection I may be i)ermitted to draw attention to
a notable utterance in a bulletin recently issued by the Association
of American Colleges. The assertion is made that —

there is no more intrinsic reason for excluding the Bible and the literatum
of the Old and New Testaments from tlie subjects of study in Colleges
and Universities than there is for throwino out the works of Tennyson.^
Browning, and Shakespeare,

and that — •

the Christian Church has more profoundly inlluenced American civiliza-
tion, and the Christian ideals have had more to do with the evolution of
American life, than any of the secular civilizations of the old world.

The exclusion, therefore, of religious sttbjects from the curricu-
lum means —

an irreparable loss to culture, a calamity to human progress, and the degra-
dation of htmian life.

Our educational ])roblem becomes complicated when we con-
sider how alarmingly cities have grown of late years. As Riehl
has said — no mean authority forsooth —

■' Europa wird krank an der Monstrositat seiner Grossstadte.'"

With the growth of cities schools keep pace. But the growth
in size is not growth in efficiency, in formative power. Cities

242 FOKRSTKK, AND N KllLKCTEl) FACTORS IN KDUCATK )N.

naturally become centres of culture, centres of science, and art,

and commerce, and industries. They ofier facilities which the

country does not |)ossess. But there is wisdom in the remark of

Ratzel :

" So lange es Grossstadte i>iel)t sind sie im L'ehel und iin Giiten iliren
Landern vorausgeschritten.''

There are depths of darkness amid the brilliance of intellec-
tual light.

The very excess of light is darkness visible. There is a ten-
dency in all countries for the ])oor to migrate to the larger centres
of population. livery country has its "poor white " problem. In
cities the housing of the poor is a disgrace to the community.
Even in Holland — a country known for its industry and thrift—
the condition is appalling. Fifteen per cent, of the ]-)0])ulation —
I quote Bavinck — occupied houses with one room; 2y per cent,
houses with two rooms. .\nd in these families have to live com-
prising from 12 to 14 ])ersons. The young are driven to the
streets with all their attractions and all their allurements to evil.
Let the school be as good as we can have it, these counter-attrac-
tions become sources of evil and a danger to the community. The
result is that criminality among the young increases to an alarming
extent. I do not quite quote statistics, nor do I enlarge. The
problem is a serious one even in South Africa.

With much to admire in Foerster's theories, there is nuich
from which I dissent. My object is gained if others are led to
study Foerster for themselves.

( Read. July 5. 1917. j

Cannonading and Rainfall. — The view that heavy
artillery discharges exert a direct influence on the precipitation of
atmospheric moisture has not hitherto found much support on
the part of meteorologists. The unprecedented intensity and
continuity of cannonading in Europe during the last three years
has, however, again given some ])rominence to the idea, and it
has been discussed in recent issues of Comptes rcndus* Des-
landres holds that cannonading electrifies and ionises the atmo-
sphere to an extent which apparentl}' influences rainfall, though
not to the same extent as the great atmospheric currents and
depressions ; positive conclusions cannot, however, be arrived at
without careful consideration of all contributing factors, espe-
cially the degree of ionisation of the air and the intensity and
character of the electric field. Lemoine's comment on this state-
ment of opinion is that if continuous artillery fire exerts any
influence whatever on rainfall it can only be in respect of light
rains. Sebert, on the cither hand, reioins in efifect that even if
intense cannonading has no direct efl:'ect on moisture precipita-
tion it may cause atmospheric disturbances which in turn may
induce heavy and prolonged rains. He commends the problem
to careful investigation by meteorological bureaux and agricul-
tural exi)eriment stations.

*164 (T9T7) [T7l 61.V615. [tI^I 663-660.

A PLEA FOR VERMIAN PAR.VSITOLOGICAL RE-
SEARCH, WITH REFERENCE TO SOUTH AFRICAN
DOMESTIC AND NATIVE ANIMALS.

By CoERT Smit Grobbelaar, M.A.

One of the main objects of this paper is to draw attention
to our ignorance of the nature and Hfe-histories of the numerous
parasitic worms of South Africa, in the hope that I may enhst
sym])athetic co-operation with respect to the collection of ma-
terial that will serve as a basis for systematic investigation.
One engaged in University teaching labours under great difficul-
ties owing to the inaccessibility to most of the representatives of
these vermian parasites ; and. as I have for some time past
taken a special interest in the Flatworm parasites, more par-
ticularly the Trematodes, I am anxious to get all the assistance
possible. Many of the forms are definitely known to be of great
economic importance, and possibly many unknown forms are
equally important. There is, therefore, a necessity for a com-
plete survey of the South African forms, not merely in domes-
ticated but also in all our native animals.

Naturally such a general investigation must, as has been the
case in the past, be carried out within the walls of a University
or University College, since purely Governmental institutions
are merely called upon to investigate the cause of some wide-
spread or disastrous epidemic, and hence, the broad scientific
l>urview of the group remains untouched. Further, it is to the
Uni\ersity that w^e must look for stich comprehensive inves-
tigations, and, in turn, the University investigator with limited
time at his disposal for research work mtist look to otitside
scientific men for help in collecting. Our purely Governmental
institutions — and here I have more particularly in mind our
Agricultural Colleges — have with respect to vermian jjarasito-
logy to the present day confined themselves, and will in all pro-
bability in future confine themselves, to the instruction and circu-
lation only of such work as has been done by the University
scientific investigator.

At this stage of the educational life of South .\frica we
are about to emerge on University lines, and have every reason
to believe that more attention will be paid in the training of
students to original work, especially in their later years. We
may, therefore, reasonably hope to have within the various Uni-
versities a band of young workers who can do much towards elu-
cidating manv problems amongst which j^arasitism should rank
foremost in importance.

At the present day the number of known forms is very
limited. Among Trematodes and Cestrodes the only recorded
forms are : —

nistomiini laiiccolatitni. Bilharzia hcrmaiohia, Tcciiia solium,
T. saginata, T. cxpansa. T. ciDiurtis. T. echlnococciis, T.

ca)inium.*

Taken from Gilchrist's " South African Zoology.

244 VERMIAN PARASITOLOC.ICAL RESliAKCH.

The life-history of none of these has, as far as I know, been
investigated, and even in cases which are specifically identical
with other forms whose life-history has been worked out in
some other part of the world, the life-history is consequently un-
known in South Africa. It may be pointed out that much time
may be saved and success more assured if data are collected
from direct observation with respect to locality, specific hosts.
and the systems, digestive, venous, or reproductive, wherein such
parasites appear. Such interest can only be stimulated on the
initiative of scientific men in South Africa.

It is needless to point out in detail the importance of para-
sitic worms from the hy^^ienic and economic standpoints, but
it may, nevertheless, be noted that the occurrence of
Bilharzia in children within the Union is of sufficient importance
to justify the compulsory teaching of such and allied forms in
the schools of the country. The early acquaintance with Zoology
and all-important Parasitology would further stimulate a desire
for a fuller and more com]:)lete knowledge of human and animal
vermian ])arasites and their life-histories.

But a detailed knowledge of the South African forms is of
interest beyond its relation to hygiene and economy, namely, its
importance morphologically. Less is known of the South Afri-
can representatives than of those of any other part of the civilized
world. And this is due to our common failing in deciding that
anythin^i- is only of economic importance when it has disastrous
effects, and then only deserving of Governmental assistance. A
morphological knowledge of the group must at least help on
purelv scientific grounds towards the elucidation of these groups
as Zoological entities. Furthermore, a comparative and some-
what complete morphological knowledge, particularly in the case
of our wild native animals, will be of much value in connection
with distributional problems, and assist us in working out the
physiological relations between host and parasite. The existence
of a wild fauna offers, indeed, splendid opportunities for the
solution of such problems.

Although my main object is to stimulate interest and enlist
co-operators and collectors, one's interest in the investigation
of the group compels one to complain of the serious dearth of
literature under which one has to labour. Let us hope that this
serious drawback will receive the full attention from our new
Universities at the earliest possible stage.

\n conclusion, for the guidance of those who are sufficiently
interested to afford me assistance in the getting of specimens.
I wish to state that Trematodes occur in practically all organs
of the body, and may be killed to best advantage in a hot satur-
ated aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate, thence, after about
15 minutes, transferred to 70 per cent, alcohol. If such re-
agents are not procurable, a 8-10 per cent, aqueous solution of
formalin may be used for killing and preserving.

(Read. July 3, 191 7.)

NATURAL ENEMIKS OF THE ARGENTINE ANT
IRIDOMYRMEX HUMILIS MAYR.

By Charles William Mallv, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S.

The excessive abundance of the Argentine ant, [ridomyrmex
humilis Mayr.. in the south-western portion of the Cape Pro-
vince. Union of South Africa, attracts a great deal of attention
din-ing the summer months, and not infrequently the question of
controlling it b\' means of natural enemies is raised. It may be
as well, therefore, to give a brief summary of what is known in
regard to its natural enemies, and to make suggestions with a
view to stimulating observation on tlie subject in countries where
it occurs.

In his studies of this ant in the southern United States, Mr.
\\ ilmon Newell came to the conclusion that it was an introduced
species, and that the available evidence pointed to Argentina as
the place where the species originated, and he therefore proposed
the popular name " Argentine Ant." In regard to nattiral
enemies. Mr. Newell found that, in the southern United States,

the Argentine ant is remarkably free from natural enemies, and very few
of these have been noted during the course of our investigations, while
even these few are of little importance. No true parasites of this ant
have been observed, and apparently the only enemies are predatory
ones.

■ An immature specimen of the cockroach. Thyrsocera cincta
Burm.. was observed by Mr. Harper Dean to capttu^e and eat
workers of this ant. and later on Newell observed the same habit
in individuals of this species- Newell also records " a jumping
spider" (Attidte) and variotis species of the cobweb-weavers
(Theridiidse) as enemies of the ant. The latter were troublesome
in connection with artificial colonies of the ants kept for the
purpose of observation. Theridium tepidarinntrn being the most
abundant ; but none of these spiders were observed to attack the
ants in otitdoor colonies. Amongst birds. Mr. G. A. Rtmner
observed an English sparrow picking up Argentine ant workers.
Newell often observed the flicker, or yellow-hammer. Colaptes
auratits, " industriously digging up shallow ant nests in lawns
and grass plots." and he considers it " the most im]x>rtant natural
enemy which this ant has in the Sotith."

That the natural enemies above referred to are of little tise
is shown by the fact that in the opening paragraph of the report
by Messrs. Newell and Barber.* from which the above qtiotations
are made, the Argentine ant is designated as " the first among
the Formicid?e to attain the front rank among injurious insects
in the United States."

Following Newell's conclusicMi that this ant originated in
Argentina, Mr. Chas. P. Lounsbury, while Government Entomo-
logist for the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, made inquiry

*Bull. 122, Bureau of Entomology. U.S. Dept- of Agri., Washington.
D.C. (I9T3)

246 NATURAL ENEMIES UF THE ARGENTINE ANT.

through correspondents in South America in regard to its natural
enemies, but no definite information was obtained.

With one exception, the official entomological records in
South Africa contain no reference to natural enemies of the
Argentine ant. On one occasion the writer, while examining a
nest of this ant in the Botanic Gardens, Kingwilliamstown, Cape
Province, observed a fly pick up two ant larvre in succession, suck
out the juice and void the larval skins. In the ordinary course
the only chance a fly would have of devouring the larv?e would be
when a nest of ants was accidentally broken open or turned out in
the process of cultivation. But the worker ants are so quick to
secrete the larvae and pup^e that the fly would in all probability go
away hungry, for it seems very unlikely that it would be able to
rob a worker ant in the act of transporting a larva. The writer
has not observed any other instances of the Argentine ant being
attacked in any stage.

Although practically immune from attack, the Argentine ant
in its turn is very aggressive, and successfully attacks quite a list
of insects, including injuriotis as well as beneficial s])ecies. In
the Cape Peninsula it has maintained its reputation for intoler-
ance towards other species of ants. In areas overrun by the
Argentine ant the writer has not found any other ant except
an occasional colony of Dorylus helvolus- On the outskirts of
the infested area native species of ants are to be found. If the
native species disappear as the Argentine ant increases, and if the
latter continues to spread and to thrive in widely separated
localities, then South Africa shotild gradually become a one-ant
country. This suggests that, if Argentina is the ])lace of origin.
South America should be a one-ant country witliin the limits of
the ant's life zone, unless counterbalancing forces exist.

In a lecture before the Divisional Council of Stellenbosch in
Fel)ruary, 191 5, the writer suggested that, in the absence of true
parasites or diseases, the fact that on the whole /. hiiiiiilis was
not counted a serious pest in its native home could be explained
on the theory that in South America there are counterbalancing
species of ants — i.e., species that are as strong numerically and
individually and as sagacious in battle as the Argentine ant. The
fact that in the countries where it has only recently become
established it drives out the indigenous ants, whereas in its native
country other ants persist, suggests that it has been accustomed
to meeting stronger opposition in its original home than the
opposition it finds in other countries. Furthermore, the fact
that in certain parts of South America /. humU'is is a more serious
pest than in others could be accounted for by the absence of one
or more of the controlling species.

In the writer's opinion, based on observations on this species
from the economic standpoint in South Africa for several years,
whatever may be the explanation for the difi'erence in the ant's
behaviour in South America as compared to that in the countries
where it has become established, so far as can be determined,
during the last 25 years, the respective Governments of these

NATURAL i:Xi:.M]l'.S < "F T 1 1 K AKCENTl-NE ANT. 2\J

latter countries should uiake every effort to determine the facts in
the case with a view to introducing any natural agencies which
mature investigations proved to be advisable.

{Read, July 5. 191 7.)

•R.WSACTIOXS OF SOCIETIES.

South African Sociktv ok Civil Engineers. — Wednesday, July nth:
R. W. Alenmuir, :M.I.C.E., President, in the chair.—" The Problem of
sewage disposal, with special reference to South Africa": H. C. Kirby.
The first portion of the paper was devoted to showing how the sewage
disposal problem in England arose from the necessity of protecting rivers
from pollution. In the second portion the author reviewed the larger
and municipal schemes which exist in South Africa to-day, including those
at Johannesburg, Wynberg. RIoemfontein. Alaritzburg. Queenstown. and
Pretoria. The following suggestions respecting sewage disposal in South
Africa were made: — (i) The septic tank system is unsuitable, and pre-
liminary treatment on sedimentation principles more efficacious; (2)
filtration and purification are necessary generally only in cases of appli-
cation to and absorption by land; (3) purification of sewage containing
night-soil is practically impossible, resulting in failure both at the works
and on the land; (4)" night-soil should ]>e absolutely excluded in default
of ample land area. — " Preliminary route survey of the profosed north-
south Transcontinental railway. Australia ": X. Chalmers. An account
of the investigations and survey undertaken in connection with a pro-
jected railway, 1.060 miles in length, intended to link up the Port Augusta
Oodnadatta line (478 miles long) in South Australia, witli the Port
Darwin-Pine Creek railway ( 167 nn'les long) in the Northern Territory.

South African Institute of Electrical Engineers.— Thursday.
July 19th: W. H. Perrow, M.l.ME.. President, in the chair. — " Elcctriftca-
tioii of the Chicago. Milzvaukee. and St. Paul RaHrvay" : J. W. Kirkland.
This electric railway system is the largest and most important existing
application of electricity to main line railway operation ; it employs the
highest direct current voltage hitherto practically applied; it employs,
for the first time successfully, and on a large scale, regenerative braking.
The total length of railway already electrically equipped is 582 miles.
Before electrification two Mallet steam locomotives of 278 tons weight
could not handle on the mountain sections trailing loads of more than
2,000 tons ; now two electric locomotives of 282 tons can handle 3,000 tons,
and at a much greater speed. The power is all purchased from the Mon-
tana Power Company, which has 13 hydro-electric powder stations in
operation. Details of power demand and cost were given, and the manner
in which speed is controlled when descending heavy grades was described.
After referring to the equipment and the system of overhead construction,
the author, in conclusion, enumerated thirteen advantages inherent in
electrification.

Thursday, August i6th : W. H. Perrow, M.I.E.E., President, in the
cbsiir.—" Electrification of the Chicago. Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway
(Part II) ": J. W. Kirkland. The mechanical features of the 42 loco-
motives employed on the line were described, and the data given relating
to the motors with which these locomotives are equipped. An exhaustive
account of the control equipment was also given. A typical sub-station
was described, and suggestions at some length were made for the electrifi-
cation of the 125 miles of railway connecting Durban with Mooi River on
the Natal railways.

Thursday, October i8th ; W. H. Perrow, M.I.E.E., President, in the
chair.— "T^r/av protective devices": C. J. Monk. The various types of
relays used on the Rand Mines Power Supply Company and the Victoria
Falls and Transvaal Power Company system were described, with details
of their operating characteristics, and the results achieved with these auto-
matic devices.

248 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Thursday. Xovember 15th: Prof. W. Buchanan. B.Sc. A.R.C.S..
M.I.E.E., Past President, in the chair.—" Ovenvinding and controlling
devices for zvinding engines": H. Newbery. In view of the fact that
no ei^cient device existed for tlie control of winding engines so as to
prevent the frequent accidents resulting from overwinds, the author
devised a scheme, when a new electric hoist was being installed on one of
the Rand mines, to prevent sucli accidents. The device had been installed
only in part, but this had lieeii in use for four months and had given
satisfactory results.

South Afric.vn Society of Civil Engineers. — Wednesday, August
8th : Prof. A. E. Snape. M.Sc, A.M.I.C.E., Past President, in the chair.—
•' The Maraishurg Irrigation Scheme " : J. F. Weedon. A description of
irrigation operations on the banks of the Vlekpoort River, a tributary of
the Tarka River. The canals have a total length of 17.4 miles and the
total cost of the work amounted to i22,ooo. — "Setting out straight earthen
embankments u'ith the theodolite " : G. T. Ritchie. The idea to be
aimed at tlieoretically in using this method is to set up the theodolite with
the axis of the telescope in the line formed by the intersection of the
two slopes of the cmliankment produced.

Wednesday, September uth: Prof. A. E. Snape. M.Sc. A.M.I.C.E..
Past President, in the chair. — "Equivalent grades': J. D. Shannon.
Many engine sections on the older South African railways include short
lengths which are much more diflicult for the haulage of loads than the
rest of the section, and it is consequently necessary to reduce the loads on
those short lengths. It may become economical to improve these more
difficult portions in order that the same load may be liauled tli rough the
entire section. The author discussed the problem of determining what
the new gradient on the improved lengths, properly compensated for curva-
ture, should be.

NEW BOOKS.

Young, Prof. R. B. — •" I'lie Banket: a study of the auriferous conglom-
erates of the IVitwatersrand and the associated rocks." 8vo. pp.
XV, 125. lllus. London: Gurney and Jackson, 1917. 8s. 6d. net.

Forbes, George. — "David Gill ■' Man and Astronomer. Memories of
Sir David Gill, K,C.B., H.M. Astronomer at the Cape of Good
Hope." 8vo. ; pp. xi, 418. London: John Murray, 1916; 12s. net.

Jollie, Ethel C. — " The future of Rhodesia." 8vo ; pp. 24. Bulawayo, 3d.

Whittall, W. •• JVith Botha and Smuts in Africa." 8,1 x '5! in.

pp. 280, ]\Iaps and ports. London : Cassell and Co., 1917. 6s.
net.

Stirke, D. E. C. and A. W. Thomas. " .•/ coni/^rehensive vocabulary
of Sikololo-Silui-.Simbunda." 7 >i 5 in. pp. 40. London: J.
Bale, Sons and Danielsson, iyi6.

Walker. H. F. B. "A doctor's diary in Damaraland." 9 x s\ '"•
pp. 208. fllus. London: E. Arnold, 1917- 7s. 6d. net.

Plaatje, Sol. T. " Xative life in South Africa, before and since the
European War and the Boer rebellion." 7^ x 5 in. pp. .35.^.
ports. London: P. S. King and Son, [1917] .^s. 6d.

NOTE ON THE RELATION BETWEEN MIND AND

BODY.

By Prof. Thomas M. Forsyth^ M.A., D.Phil.

At the Pretoria meeting of the Association in 191 5 an inter-
esting paper was read in Section D on " The Relation of Body
and Mind." The paper was written by the Right Rev. Dr.
Chandler, Bishop of Bloenifontein,* and was originally delivered
as the Presidential Address to the Orange Free State Branch of
the Association. During the discussion that followed this ad-
dress, I made some remarks on the subject which I have always
wanted to elaborate a little.

The Bishop's conclusion was that, instead of a complete dual-
ism of body and mind, or a complete unification of them without
due distinction, whether in terms of materialism or of mentalism,
we must substitute the conception that mind and body are related
to each other as the whole and the parts, or as life and mechanism,
and that each is moulded or modified through its union with the
other. It is with a view to the furtiier elucidation of this concep-
tion, especially the aspect of it that is expressed in terms of the
distinction between life and mechanism, that the following brief
note has been written.

The conception of interaction or mutual influence 1)etween
mind and body, so long as these are regarded as utterly disparate
realities, is, when thought out, seen to be a meaningless assertion.
Yet recent psycholog>^ tends to return to interactionism in some
form as the only possible solution of the problem.

Materialism — the theory that material processes condition
consciousness but are not themselves modified or influenced by
anything else than material process, and that consciousness is only
a spectator of events and not an actor in them — fails to explain
adequately the place of interest, selection, purpose, endeavour in
the individual life. Mentalism or psychism — the theory that mat-
ter is only an appearance to mind — fails to explain sufficiently the
difference between mind and matter, and how matter limits the
manifestation of mind and the action of mind upon mind.
Lastly, psychophysical parallelism — the theory that mind and Ijody
are aspects, subjective and objective, or inner and outer, of the
same reality — leaves the two aspects, the inward feeling and
striving and the outward mechanical process, side by side with
each other without uniting them in terms of actual experience.
Each of these theories is doubtless part of the truth, and with
sufficient supplementation would yield the whole truth. But

already we seem able, by utilizing results and conceptions that
are prominent in a good deal of present-day psychology and phil-
osophy, to get a mode of statement that combines in some mea-
sure the truth of all of them, and at the same time gives inter-
actionism a real meaning.

*Rept. S-A. Ass. for Adv. of Sc. : Pretoria ( 1915), 280.
A

250 XOTE ON THE RELATION BETWEEN MIND AND BODY.

The function of philosophy is to explain or interpret the
facts of actual experience, of which common sense gives the
practical signiticance without clear and definite articulation. If,
then, we begin with actual experience, with what is known by way
of acquaintance or immediate awareness, what we find is an in-
dividual l^eing with purposes, interests, endeavours, acting in re-
lation to others through the medium of a body or mechanism.
The nature and working of this mechanism condition and limit
the activities of the individual being, and mind or consciousness
manifests itself in awareness and feeling that appreciate and give
meaning or significance to the conditions under which the life of
the individual proceeds. But, on the other hand, the bodily
mechanism is in turn continuously modified with every efl^'ort that
is made, ever}^ course of action that is chosQii, every habit that
is acquired, every potentiality that is realized. And the modi-
fication or development thus effected in the bodily organism as the
outcome of past experience becomes the basis of further activit}'
or future experience. The conclusion that is suggested is that
the distinction between mind and 'Ijody is nothing hut the distinc-
tion between efi:ort and habit, i.e., between spontaneity, initiative,
selection on the one hand, and routine or mechanical action on the
other hand. These are the two poles or the two phases of the
actual life-experience of the individual, and therefore they are
the two aspects of the reality which is just the living being itself.
In our everyday or common-sense attitude we never think of our-
selves or of others save as mind and body together, existing in the
most intimate union with each other. Accordingly, when we
philosophise, if we are to be in accord with common sense, we
must be able to interpret mind and body — the consciousness and
the mechanism — as a duality in unity, the twofold manifestation
of the real, i.e., the individual being acting and suiTering in rela-
tion to other individual beings. The individual being is mani-
fested as mind or consciousness and body or mechanism, because
the organism consists of the tendencies, habits, aptitudes, mechan-
ized modes of action that are the means or organs or instruments
through which determinate impressions and influences are per-
manentl}^ possible ; while consciousness is the selective interest
and attention discriminating the features and apprehending the
character of the conditions under which life proceeds, and by
accentuating here or there in a measure controls these conditions
with a view to the development of life. Psychology shows this
clearly when it says that consciousness is manifested only on the
basis of organized habits and in the interest of a control of
material conditions to which habitual action is inadequate ; or, in
other words, that the function of consciousness in the economy of
life is the formation of habits of action by selective attention and
effort, and the supplementation of habit, when necessary, by fur-
ther attention and efli'ort.

In short, the body is literally the incchanism of habit, tendency,
avenues of impression, lines of action, which the individual being
has evolved in its struggle towards self-realization, towards fuller

NOTE ON THE RELA'IKJN iiETv\EE:, MINI) AND lAjUY. 2^i

life, fuller adjustment, i.c-, towards completer relations with other
beings similarly striving towards perfected experience. And
each further achievement gets embedded, as psychology shows, in
the bodily organization, i.e., develops further the mechanism that
makes fuller experience permanently possible. That is why only
a tine bodily organization, a fine mechanism of tendencies, capaci-
ties, susceptibilities of feeling and impression, can be the vehicle
of the manifestation of a fine soul — " a spirit finely touched to
fine issues." As the soul or the individual nature develops, there-
fore, the body develops, and conversely the development of the
body, which is its organ or instrument of experience, makes per-
manently possible the further development of the soul.

Materialism is able to show that body conditions mind,
because the body is the mechanism of tendency and aptitude
which constitutes the conditions of the manifestation of mind.
Psychism is able to show that body or matter is not anything
fundamentally different from mind. Ijut is mind itself in disguise,
becatise the body is consciousness become mechanized through
habit and so made crass enough to be visible, tangible, etc., i.e.,
to be the constant or permanent medium of communication and
mutual influence between one individual being and others. Paral-
lelism is able to show that body and nnnd together form one
reality, because habit and effort, automatism and spontaneity,
mechanized action and selective attention are the two phases of
the actual life-experience. Lastly, interactionism is true not as
meaning- causal action between two wholly disparate things, but
because life is the mutual influence of individual beings through
the mechanism of acquired tendency and aptitude, and there is
continuous development of individual experience through the de-
velopment of the bodily organization and of the bodily organiza-
tion through every manifestation of individual activity. To
quote, in conclusion, a sentence from alreadv published work
of my own :

The body or organism, in distinction from the mind or consciousness,
means, in the actual life process of the individual, those dispositions and
habits and impulses, with their legacy from the past and potentiality for
the future, which form the basis of present effort — the stuff or material
of which our life is to be shaped, expressive at once of our limitations
and our opportunities.

Thus there are not body and mind as two dift'erent things. There
is an individual being, whose life is partly habit, automatism,
mechanized modes of impression and influence, and partly eft'ort,
attention, initiative moukling, developing, transforming its own
organ or instrument of fuller life.

(Read. July 4, 1917).

THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOPLE.

By William Hay, J.P.

When the Rev. Wilham Shaw, then Superintendent of Wes-
leyan Missions, about the year 1846, proposed to start from
Grahamstown and visit the missionaries in Kaffirland. he asked
the Governor, who then happened to be in that town, if he had
any message for any of the chiefs who would be met on the
journey. Sir Harry Smith repHed : " No, Mr. Shaw, no message ;
but civihze those people, Mr. Shaw; civilize them." Mr. Shaw
enquired. "Your Excellency, what is your idea of civilization?"
and the Governor answered, " Oh, I don't know, Mr. Shaw —
teach them to sit on chairs.

We use the word " civilization " so freely now that we fail
to appreciate the Governor's difficulty.

We understand what civilization is when we do not discuss
its derivation, or seek its meaning where exact definitions are
required. It is the condition under which we live ; under which
the best of us live and move. It is the environment of European
life in its best cities : the manners and moods of people who have
had visions of the highest and strive to attain an unexpressable
ideal. It has been generally held that it is the life that now
results from centuries of strenuous effort-a mysterious something
which has moulded father and son, for many generations, and
which cannot be attained by any race except by such slow growth
as is illustrated in the oak in one of our streets, the stalactite in
the Cango cave. Until a few years ago a European would have
scorned the idea that any worthy to bear that name could be other
than perfect men and women. He may have occasionally sung.

Where is one that, born of woman, altogether can escape
From the lower world within him. moods of tiger, or of ape?

but he would also have claimed to be the best of his race; and
worthy, because of his virtues — of his civilization, to occupy
the highest places in the world.

There has to be some modification of these claims in these
modern days : —

Tf dynamite and revolver leave you courage to be wise :

When was age so crammed witli menace, madness? written, spoken lies?

We cannot help asking anywhere, everywhere, are we really
■civilized?

Have we grown at last beyond the passions of llie primal clan?

We may ask by the light of burning cities and the orgies of
war if what we regard as our attainments — inherited and accjuired
— did require a thousand years to grow to perfection, and hesitate
to say these can never be acquired by tribes who do not devote
ages to their cultivation.

The position is of special interest to us, the white people of
South Africa, where a comparatively small number of. very
slowly increasing men and women of European descent are living
among millions of virile, and more rapidly increasing, natives.

THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOFLE. 253

We have regarded these people as separated from us by eons
of civilization ; folk who may imitate us in several small ways,
but who are so far removed from us as East is from West ; so far
as to be rightly regarded as racially inferior ; as those who will
always be the governed; as our hewers of wood and drawers of
water ; as those who are ever to do manual labour and respect
their betters, allowing us to rest where it is always afternoon, and
sing,—

Why should we toil alone ;

We only toil who are the first of things ?

\Miy should we only toil, the roof and crown of things?''

I propose using the short time you are prepared to listen to
me now in looking at the present position of the native — the
Bantu people as they are called — and enquiring as to their future
]^osition in otu" national life. The great mass is barbarian ; let
that be freely admitted. They do not " sit on chairs " ; like the
residents of a far off isle, they have no manners, their customs are
nasty. In the mass they have hardly touched the border of what
we call " civilisation." They are willing to labour for us, but
they do not desire to be of us. They are prepared to take our
money for valuable service rendered, but they prefer their own
society and their own manner of living to anything we can invite
them to. We white men, on our part, say " So may it ever be."
x\nd yet in the short time that Europeans have been in this
country ; in the much shorter period within which a few mission-
aries and others have influenced them, the}- have produced a few
outstanding men of ability — men who, if civilization means the
doing of certain things, can do those things as well as white men
can. Allow me to mention three or four of these natives.

First, the Rev. Tiyo Soga, whom I first met in 1857. His
father and mother were barbarians. He himself began his boy
life in a sheepskin. He lived among heathen people. He also
lived near a missionary — one whom his father respected, whose
teaching his mother accepted. Let it be said to the credit of
old Soga that he was the first Kaffir who " whistled between the
stilts of a plough '' ; the first of his race who utilized the waters
of the running brook for agricultural purposes. But he was a
heathen — a blanket, or skin-clothed, Kaffir. The boy secured the
attention of the Missionary Brownlee, who began his education,
subsequently continued at Lovedale. When war broke out his
mother fied with him, and every day gathered sneezewood and
chopped it up so that at night, by the flame of the fire, the boy
might continue to read and learn his book. In due course he pro-
ceeded to Scotland, and was the first Bantu enrolled as a student
in the University of Glasgow. He proceeded to divinity studies,
and was duly licensed and ordained. In 1857 he commenced his
labours among his own people, dying in 1871. He was the equal
of most European ministers as a preacher ; he was one of the
ablest of missionaries ; his translation work was of the best kind ;
he had all the manners of an English gentleman. His biographer,
writing of his death, says : " The report of it announced the
departure from this world of a man of great moral and spiritual

254 THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU TEOPLE.

worth. All men who understood him felt that death had created
a blank which never could be filled.'' Mr. Chalmers, who knew
him intimately, adds : " Other Kaffn- preachers may arise ; some
more eloquent, others more brilliant, but at its best civilization can
never produce another Tiyo Soga." It produced him ; and his
civilization was that of only one generation. What Bantu blood
might have further developed we are prevented from ascertain-
ing, because he married a European woman ; and his children —
who were men and women of considerable ability, may have
acquired something from their mother.

Let me mention a second name — Solomon Plaatje, whose
parents were Baralongs, and who is now quite a young man.

He attended the Lutheran School at Pniel, and rose to be a
teacher there. At i6 he became a letter-carrier in the Kimberley
Post Office, where he learnt languages in his spare time, and
passed the Cape Civil Service Examination in typewriting, Dutch,
and native languages, heading the list of successful candidates in
each subject. He went to Mafeking as interpreter ; was there
during the siege, and did the work of a confidential clerk to the
magistrate. The war over, he became an editor, and is now, I
believe, conducting a newspaper at Kimberley. He is one of a small
deputation of natives that went to England in connection witli the
Native Land Act of 1913, and while there he wrote and published
a book entitled " Native Life in South Africa."

A book may be regarded from two points of view : its subject
matter may interest us, or we may study its language and style.
This book is a polemic : a strong — indeed, a very strong statement
of the grievances Sol. Plaatje considers the natives have against
the Government and Parliament of this country. As such it
cannot interest a scientific association. But the style in which it
is written may be worthy of attention, and I think it is. I confess
it is difficult to separate the style from the matter, and am
reminded of the story of a man, during the present war, in Dublin
Avho asked another man on the street how he could get to the
infirmary. The answer he received was: "Shout three cheers for
the Kaiser, and you will be there in ten minutes." There are
many portions of this book which, if read in Capetown or
Stellenbosch, would secure the carrying of the reader quickly
to the hospital. But here is an extract which may be quoted as
illustrative of the writer's familiarity with the English language,
of his ability to express himself in that language.

" A noteworthy occasion in connection with the cam]:)aign
was our visit to the Southall Brotherhood on Sunday, Alarch 14th.
We can hardly forget the day. It was on Crocus Sunda\-. when
thousands of Londoners went to Hampton Court in crowds to
see the crocus bulbs in bloom. It was a glorious day, and we
remembered it as the second day in 191 5 on which the European
sun shone through a cloudless sky from sunrise to sunset. Thou-
sands of people attended at Hyde Park to witness the church
parade, and still more thousands took advantage of the glorious
s]:)ring day, after a strenuous winter, to flock to Epping Forest and
other popular resorts."

THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOPLE. 2=^^

Whatever may be the subject matter Plaatje deals with he
knows how to use the EngHsh language with propriety, a language
by no means easy to use. He has also made a collection of
Sechuana Proverbs and their European equivalents, which
deserves the commendation it has received in England. He is
also the author, or joint author, of some educational w^orks. He
is a native one remove from barbarianism, and his life is yet
before him. He has had the good sense to marry one of his own
race, and if there is anything in heredity, we may see some clever
people in that family.

The third man I mention is J. Tengo-Jabavu, the well-known
journalist of Kingwilliamstown, with whom I was closely asso-
ciated when I lived there. Jabavu is a Fingoe, and comes of
parents who lived the ordinary native life. He attended school
at Somerset East and Heakltown. and was the first Bantu to
matriculate at the Cape University. His family was not well oft',
and to get further education he went to Lovedale, where, among
other duties, he edited a small Kaffir paper published by the Mis-
sion. Dr. Stewart considered he made it too political, so they
separated, he going to Kingwilliamstown, where a small com-
mittee enabled him to start the well-known paper luivo. jabavu
has never written book or pamphlet ; he is just a journalist and
politician. He is thoughly acquainted with the British Constitu-
tion, and the leading ideas of the men who have made the P2mpire,
especially of those who have ruled it for the last half century. He
has been a keen South African politician all his life, and secured
the esteem of our leading statesmen long ago. As a journalist,
he lias exercised very great influence, as a Avriter of pure sound
English he has few equals. He married a woman of his own
people, and one of his sons is a man who will probably do greater
things for the native race than his father has been able to attempt.
I refer to Professor Don Jabavu, one of the educational staft" of
the newdy-founded Native College at Fort Hare. As this boy
could not be educated in the Colony because of his colour, his
father sent him to Enlgand, where he took his B.A. degree with
Honours at London University — the first Bantu to attain to this
distinction. He continued his education subsequently at Birming-
ham University, learnt the business of a printer, did work as a
journalist, took some teacher's certificates. He went to America
and associated himself with Booker Washington, to understand
the methods of this successful administrator. Thus equipped,
he is now serving his countr}- in a most usefid way.

If these men are merel>- sports — a few diamonds found in
what is only " blue ground," there is no necessity for devoting
much attention to them. But if they are the advance guard of
the whole race on the march to civilization, then we have to
consider our relationship to such a race.

Let it be remembered that there are not just these men — -
half-a-dozen or so, and then a mass of savages. \ verv large
number of the race follows close upon their heels, and are peoi>le
who would be called civilized if they were white. I
might mention Dr. Rubasana — though his degree may be only

2^6 THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOPLE.

something honorary obtained in America. He has this to his
credit, that he has sat in a Provincial Council. There is the Rev.
John Dube, conductor of an Industrial Mission and President of
the Native Congress, to Avhich the Government has, I am told,
more than once sent an official representative. There are a few
barristers and attorneys. I know of one native who wished to be
articled to a Capetown attoriiey, but this not seeming; desirable,
the lawyer advised him to go to England and study for the bar.
The native did so, and having been " called " in England, had to
be admitted to the Courts here. He then took advantage of the
Colonial law, disrobed himself, and became a solicitor; thus, in a
roundabout, but clever way obtaining exactly what he started
out to secure.

No native has followed Soga in studying at a British Univer-
sity, but there are a large number of men in most Christian
churches who are fully ordained ministers, and as such are doing
their work in a creditable way. Taken altogether — and remem-
bering that the man \^'ho has not seen Europe is very poorly
equipped as a preacher — these men, and their wives, are a very
influential class in this country. In this conection it will be
remembered how Macaulay, in the first chapter of his History,
calls attention to the influence exercised in England by the equality
of both Saxon and Norman priests insisted upon then by the
Church. The like equality is recognized now in Church Councils
and Synods here. Then, we must remember the respectable
•number of both men and women who have obtained teachers*
certificates, and are doing excellent work ; themselves " civilized,"
they are civilizing the children of their race. Thanks chiefl}- to
missionary institutions, there are now a considerable number of
tradesmen; and it is only just, I think, to recognize the larger
number of servants in various capacities and of intelligent mine
workers, and farmers — black men who are closely following the
example and instruction of civilized Europeans. Fifty years ago,
when I was a young man, there was not a sheep in the Transkei ;
now there are thousands, producing some of the best wool grown
in South Africa. That the mass of natives is not yet leavened
Ave know ; we must admit that as a whole they are content to be
what their forbears have been for many generations. But there is
evidence — strong and sufficient to justify the statement — that the
Bantu people can become one of the " civilized" races of the
world ; indeed, that many have already attained to this civilization.

That being so, the method of our dealing with these people
is of importance: to ourselves, and also to them. They are not
all born to be wood-cutters and water-carriers. They are not
barred by physical or mental conditions from benefiting from our
instruction, and following our example. They may or may not
have as many brain convolutions and depressions as Europeans —
too few brains have yet been compared of those who enjoyed
equality of education and o'f opportunity to determine that. So far
oin- administration of their affairs has been at best paternal, and
bv "rule of thumb." What was ordered they did ; what was

THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOPLE. 257

given them they accepted. They could keep silence in two, and
three, and even four languages !

A Basuto native not long ago told his missionary that he had
now solved the mystery of the two races. He said. " God once
built an oven, took some clay, moulded it, and set it in the oven
to bake. The result was a white man ; who asked God to give
nim something ; and God, pleased with his work, said, ' I give
you everything.'' Then God made a second, who came. out of the
oven black; he also asked God for a gift. God said, ' I am sorry
1 cannot. I have given everything to the white man.' The black
man replied. ' This is a hard thing, to live in the world with
nothing ' ; and so God, after some consideration, said, ' There is
one thing I kept back from the white man, and I give it to you.
You are to have contentment.' ''

But now this contentment, this docility, is being stirred up in
various ways ; by our influence, our teaching, our justice and
injustice, and the generally quiet, persistent influence of their
own leaders. Once the chief's word was law ; once the magis-
trate spoke and none dared disobey. Once the white missionary
was the guide, adviser, and friend, whom it was found wise to
follow. Once the English lawyer was the only person to be con-
sulted in connection with land and life. But now the natives are
being — slowly but surely — influenced by their own native leaders,
and the newspapers Avhich everyone may read in his own tongue.
These point out from time to time what they regard as " the
wrongs of the Kaffir nation." and. at least, show that they can add
considerably to the difficulties of the Minister for Native Affairs.
He formerly carried on his administration in an easy-going Kaflir
way — at best by a series of compromises. He has now to face a
people who have been coached into a knowledge of their griev-
ances by men of their own race, who are not always careful to
see that they fairly teach facts. In connection with recent legisla-
tion, there is an illustration. In a book published by a native
the statement is made that in European areas within the Union
76.302.503 morgen of land feed 560,000 whites, and certain stock ;
while in native areas, 7.356.590 morgen feed 1,500,000 blacks,
with their stock ; and it is claimed that the whole land should be
reapportioned pro rata to population, because the whole area once
belonged to the Bantu race. There is a science of history. The'
records are clear that in the Western Province area no Bantu
ever lived. It was the home of Bushmen and Hottentots. In vast
areas in the Colony, the Free State, and the Transvaal no Bantus
ever resided. A\'hen the white men first entered and took posses-
sion thev were occupied by none but vast herds of game and by
wild beasts. The native land difficulty is not all due to European
land hunger, but also to the large increase in the number of the
native people. It is this increase, coupled with the unsuitability
of the country and its conditions for European settlers, that is the
real difficultv ; it is because some Europeans think the natives are
l)eing persuaded by their natural leaders to seek a wider place
in the sun that there are Land IJills. with tlieir hastily drawn and
unscientific conditions. The natives are much keener politicians.

258 THE FUTURE OF THE BANTU PEOPLE.

than the white people are. When the five volumes of the Native
Commission of 1913-15 were i)ublished, at something like six
guineas, some frontier natives brought the money to their member
of Parliament and requested him to procure copies for them. He
called their attention to the size of the books, and to the length
of time it would take any one man to read them, so that to pass
them round meant reading until doomsday. They replied : "They
had considered all this: the nights were long; one could read while
many listened ; thus they would all know what had been said by
witnesses ; what had been proposed by the Commissioners." No
white people have ever taken so keen an interest in the doing of
Government. It is evidence that these Bantus have ability, and
are alive to their own interests. And are not all the happenings of
the present time proofs that they are dissatisfied with the gift of
" contentment " ; that they are intelligent enough to know that
they have rights, and are entitled to justice; that they, and all
men, were born equal — at least with the right to equality of oppor-
tunity to make the best of life.

The party politician has his own panacea for all these difii-
culties ; but here we are not of these men. Our mission is the
advancement of science, by which we mean, so far as natives are
concerned, that to rule them rightly we must take all the facts of
their life, and of ours, into careful consideration ; and as carefully
set forth the general principles drawn from all those facts upon
which they are to remain a part of the body ])olitic, and continue
to march along the road of progress until the race acquires all
that is implied in the word " civilization."

I have said — I say again — if the few advanced natives are
only sports, not to be accounted for, not likely to be followed by
others we need not trouble ourselves Avith the native problems.
We may hold that white people are here to improve the Bantu
people, and be content to leave this to some other coming — and
perha})s far-ofl:" time, when something will have to be done. But
if these people are now attaining to civilization ; if they are nozv
showing that they have the ability to rapidly acquire all the arts
and graces and powers of civilized life; if they are displaying
intelligence and practical ability of a high order, then upon us ot
this present generation is laid the duty of seeing that they receive
the example and assistance, we who march in "the foremost files
of time " have to give. These native people will have to carry
the lamp of civilization to the natives of Central Africa. How
they will carry it, and indeed the kind of lamp they carry, A\ill
largely depend upon us.

General Smuts has recently informed an English audience
that the natives are being governed in terms of Christian morality,
which indicates a sufficiently high ideal, if it be not a present
attainment ; and it will satisfy most of us as being the most scien-
tific plan that could be devised. But let us remember that ideal
has as one of its constituent parts the simple statement that neither
science nor Christian morality can be satisfied if colour receives
more attention from those who govern than character does.

(Read, July 5, 1917.)

NATIONAL GILDS: A HL\T TOWARDS
RECONSTRUCTION.

By R. T. A. Innks. F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

{Precis.)

The author takes as his texts Mr. Lloyd George's injunction
to " Think out new ways, think out new methods, think out even
new ways of deahng- ^ith old problems and get a really new
world," and President \\'ilson's words. '* Congress has provided
that the "' Nation shall be classified for service in order to place
men in tliat position which shall best serve the common good.
The significance of such a ste]) cannot be overestimated ; it is a
new thing in history and a landmark in our progress."

He urges that scientific men, by their training and critical
attitude of mind, are not only fitted to, but should, take an active
part in the policies of reconstruction. He asserts that society
is gravitating towards either a " servile State " or state composed
of " National Gilds." to the latter of which his own preference

IS given.

It is suggested that a Census of Requirements should be
made annually, and that production should first of all be bent on
the supply of all the requirements of the community in the way
of food, housing, clothing, sanitation, etc., etc. ; and that a state
arranged on such a logical principle will evade or shelve the
trouble between Ca])ital and Labour.

Research Grants. — The following grants in aid of
research have been awarded by the Council of the Royal Society
of South Africa: — To Prof. M. Rindl, (irey University College,
Bloemfontein, £35 for the chemical investigation of some toxic
and medicinal South African i)lants ; to Mr. J. S. van der Lingen,
South African College. Capetown, £40 for continuation of
researches in radiology ; to Prof. L T. Morrison, A'ictoria College,
Stellenbosch, iioo for investigation of earth-tides; to Prof. S. J.
Shand, \'ictoria College, Stellenbosch, £35 for a study of the
alkaline igneous rocks of the Transvaal ; to Prof. G. Potts, Grey
University College, Bloemfontein, £25 for a botanical survey of
certain areas of the Orange Free State; to Mr. K. H. Barnard,
South x\frican Museum. Ca])etown, £32 los. for the collection of
terrestrial and fresh-water Crustacea ; and to Prof. J. \\'. Bews,
Natal University College, Maritzburg, £32 los. for research on
the plant successio:! in the grass veld of South Africa.

SO^IE PHASES OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY IN

SOUTH AFRICA.

By Eric S. Cogan, M.A., Ph.D.

In his presidential address before the American Association
of Economic Entomologists, Dr. C. G. Hewitt stated that '' the
activities of injurious insects, which furnish the problems of
applied entomology, are more pronounced in countries where,
for various reasons, the stability of the physical and biological
environment is changed. This affords a reply to a question,
(jften asked, namely, why entomologists are faced with more
problems in newer countries, such as our own, than in older
countries." On this quotation I would ask you to dwell for
a few minutes and consider its applicability to South 'Africa.
We are economically a young countr}^ which is rapidly asserting
itself in the agricultural world; our resources along agricultural
lines are being consistently tapped, and we are well on the road
to becoming second to none in respect to fruit culture and the
production of grain and other crops. Our system of agriculture,
unlike that of the older European countries, calls for extensive
rather than intensive methods, and our problems in applied en-
tomology are such as require attention from various sources.
Our insect problems are diverse and numerous, and call for
initiative, adaptabilit}' and perseverance on the part of the en-
tomologist. The agricultural as well as, perhaps, the social
development of the country is based to some extent on his
activities. I do not aim to present all the many phases of applied
entomology, but I wish to draw your attention to what appear
to me to be important factors in the work.

The entomologist of to-day is not the old-time " naturalist,''
whose business it was to find the insect, study its life-history,
and discover the vulnerable point in that life-history with a
view to controlling the pest. Nor is he the systematist, whose
sole aim was to collect insects and classif}^ them. Applied
entomology brings him into close relationship with the life of
the people, with their interests and their habits. As Professor
Herrick has well said, " we are fortunate in being associated
with a phase of scientific work that is in accord with the modern
trend of ideas and with the demands of the age. That is, we
are engaged in a practical, economic and applied phase of the
science."

South Africa offers a wonderful field in applied entomology,
a field that is fraught with vast possibilities. We have made a
good beginning, and bid fair to accomplish more in the future.
We have a limited number of workers in a large field over a
great stretch of country with varying geographical conditions,
so that it would seem desirable that the training of the entomo-
logist he l)road and fundamental, not only along the lines of
his particular science, but along those of the closelv related

SOME PHASES OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA. 261

sciences of botany and bacteriology. An intimate acquaintance
with conditions is, of course, necessary.

The science of applied entomology has made such rapid
strides during the last two decades, and so many new phases
opened for investigation, that one's chances of developing par-
ticular lines are boundless. Hewitt has written very effectively
on insect behaviour as a factor in applied entomology, and here
we have an example of what possibilities there are in developing
this line of attack . The response of the Mediterranean fruit fly
to a poisoned bait is but one instance of the factor, and opens up
a great future in insect control.

We are accustomed to the use of certain chemicals and
compounds in our control work, but we must ever be on the
alert for new substitutes, which should be cheaper, and if possi-
ble, more efficient. Here the phase of applied entomology
touches the chemist more than the entomologist, but it is the
latter who sees the " end-point."

The exact effect of insecticides, sprays, etc., on the plants
and trees is something we know little about ; the reaction of the
plant to the stimulus and stimuli calculated to produce desirable
reactions are points worthy of our consideration.

Resistant varieties and disease-resisting plants is a subject
which the entomologist must ever keep in the limelight. The
use of northern spy stocks for apples against woolly aphis is
but one example of what I mean to convey.

The question of parasites and parasitism is now, of course,
quite an important one in its bearing on economic entomology.
Last year Mr. Mally told us some facts about this phase. We
realize more and more 'each day the great part played by the
enemies of our injurious insects. Nor is it at home that we
must confine our search for these friendly insects ; the ex-
perience of other countries has taught us the value of going
abroad for parasites and predators. Parasitic fungi, bacteria or
other disease-causing agents liable to aft'ect our insect enemies
constitute an important subject in themselves.

Ecology, or the interrelationship of animals and plants, is a
subject which has come into prominence recently. And it is
one which it behoves us to take into consideration.

We have in our midst some injurious insects which have
come from other shores — a natural result of international com-
merce. Many of these are recognized troubles in their '' native
or adopted " lands, and have been the subject of much study.
But the fact of their having been investigated elsewhere need
not deter us from working on them here. Environmental and
other conditions account in many instances for great divergence
in the activities of insects. As well known as is the codling-moth
in the United States, it is still a constant subject for investiga-
tion on the part of eminent entomologists.

However, it is in the realm of humanity that the entomo-
logist can find ample opportunity for his activities. I refer
now to the role which insects play in their relationship to man

262 SOME PHASES OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

and domestic animals. In South Africa we are faced with -i
great number and variet}^ of insect-borne diseases, many of
which are obviously tropical in origin. The development of our
civilization in this sub-continent is closely related with the ad-
vance' of our knowledge of insects and disease. An eminent
American entomologist once remarked to me " that the reclama-
tion of Central Africa was a problem which the entomologist
must solve." We now know a great deal about medical en-
tomology, l)ut we are far from a satisfactory solution of all our
troubles, and it is this phase of applied entomology which I
consider most important so far as our country is concerned. In
conclusion, I shall again quote Professor Hernick : " I have
been keenly sensible of the influence of the malarial mosquitoes
on the energy, efficiency and accomplishment of a people. And
the men now engaged in studying this problem will find them-
selves ingratiated into the lives of the people about them, and
will add to the prestige of our profession among the people
of this country.''

(Read, July 6, 1917.)

Other Universes than Ours. — The possibility

of spiral nebulae, and particularh- the great nebula in Andromeda,
being independent universes, at vast distances from our galaxy,
has often been discussed. Strength has been lent to this view
by recently published measurements of the proper motion of the
Andromeda nebula, according to which there has been no appre-
ciable displacement for the last 80 years. It now appears, ac-
cording to observations of Slipher and others, that the nebula
is approaching our system at the rate of over 700 miles per
second. From this it is inferred that the distance of the nebula
must 'be immensely great, possibly even greater than that esti-
mated by Herschel. Prof. Bohlin's view Avas that this nebula
Avas only 19 light years distant from our system.

SOME NOTES ON THE COLOURATION OF REPTILES
AND AMPHIBIANS FOUND NEAR KIMBERLEY, C.P.

By I. H. Power.

The colouration of an animal may generall}' be explained
in terms of one or more of those well-known principles included
under the expressions " warning colouration," " protective re-
semblance." " alluring colouration," etc. So far as I can ascer-
tain, these ]jrincii)les have been established mainly from studies
on insects, birds, and mammals, wdiilst the colouration of rep-
tiles, with few exceptions, has been neglected. In this paper
I endeavour to offer a rational explanation of the colouration of
some of the reptiles found in the neighbourhood of Kimberley.
It must be understood that the colouration of a particular reptile
may not be fully explained in terms of any one principle, and,
indeed, we must be prepared to find several principles illustrated
in the same animal.

The most prevalent type of colouration amongst reptiles is
protective, the colours of the animal harmonizing with those of
its surroundings. Along with this, or replacing it, we commonly
find colours which serve quite an opposite puipose, tending to
make the animal conspicuous in its natural surroundings. These
may frequently be described as " courtship colours," for they are
specially characteristic of adults during the breeding period, and
may enable the opposite sexes of a species to recognize each other.

In his book on the " Colours of Animals," Prof. Poulton
says that :

Courtship colours rarel}- usurp the whole surface of the body ; they in-
clude everything that is most beautiful in nature, and are carefully con-
cealed when the animal is at rest, while, on the other hand, warning colours
can be distinguished l)y the subordination of every other feature to that of
conspicuousness. Crude patterns and startling, strongly contrasted

colours are eminently characteristic of a warning appeanmce.

One of the commonest lizards of Kimberley, called Ac/ama
acitleota, sjiends the winter on the open veld, where it lies in bur-
rows, under stones or tins, or in deserted termite heaps. At that
season of the year it is i:)rotectively coloured to a high degree.
The colours of the dorsal surface harmonize well with the pre-
vailing colours of the surroundings, and are modified as those of
the environment may change in different localities. On the other
hand, in sunnner it Ijecomes arboreal in habit, and is a A-erv con-
spicuous, gay-coloured object on the thorn-trees in the neighbour-
hood of Kimberley. In the case of the male, the shoulders, sides,
and breast become a brick-red, and the throat a deep-blue, border-
ing on black, about the beginning of the breeding season. These
coknu's diminish somewhat in intensity towards the end of the
breeding season, and finally disappear altogether.

A closely related lizard, Agaiiia afra, is confined to rocky
habitats, being found on the kopjes, where it sits on the dark
stones. In this species also, the colours of the dorsal surface

-264 COLOURATION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.

assimilate closely with those of the stones of the immediate
neighbourhood. It never climbs trees, but the male assumes
most brilliant colours during the breeding season, more especially
on the ventral surface. The ventral surface of the adult male is
•ornamented with a bright ultra-marine blue, extending from chin
to vent : this is very changeal)le, and in a captured specimen may
give place to a dull mud colour in a few minutes. There is also
a deep lemon colour bordered with pin^ple and red in the inguinal
region : this remains permanent during the breeding season.

Another lizard, Zonurus polysonus, inhabits the same kopjes,
and the same individual may occupy a particular rock crevice for
many months, never venturing far therefrom. It may also be
found on small ridges, but only where the vicinity offers rocks or
stones with suitable hiding-places. The dorsal colouration again
is entirely protective, but unlike the Agamas, is not capable of
modification — at least, not during a short space of time — and
experiments with varying light and temperature have prodviced no
responsive change in the dorsal colovn-s. This fact may be con-
nected with the extremely sedentary habit of the animal : amongst
the black rocks which it frequents, the shining black of its coat
harmonizes perfectly.

The ventral colours of this creatvu^e are very different. The
whole ventral surface of Zonnnts polyzonus from chin to vent is
brilliant red, and the rich red colours are possessed by adults
of both sexes throughout the year. The reptile may often be
seen perched on the top of a rock, sitting as erect as the length of
his forelimbs will permit, and thus displaying to best advantage
his flaming vest. It is noteworthv that on the approach of danger
iDoth the Agama and Zonurus hide their bright ventral colours by
pressing the body against the rock or other object on which the
animal may be resting. This sufificiently indicates that the bright
ventral colours cannot have a warning significance.

The young of Zononis polysoiiits clo not develop a red col-
ouration on the ventral surface until the second or third rear.

Some light is thrown on the efficiency of the life-preserving
mechanisms possessed by animals through a comparison of their
birthrates, the total population of a species being assumed as
constant.

From examination of a large mmiber of females I have found
that Zonnriis polysomis produces only from one to four young,
generally two, at a time, while the Agamas lay from fourteen to
seventeen eggs at a time : in the latter case, however, there is no
doubt some mortality amongst the eggs.

In the " Origin of Species,'" page 83, Darwin says :

The real importance of a large number of eggs or young is to make uy>
for much destruction at some period of life ; and this period in the great
majority of cases is an early one.

Regarding this as a truism, it Avould appear at first sight sur-
prising that Zonurus, which does not possess the power of colour
change, has less mortality than the Agama and certain of the
skinks which can thus adapt themselves ; yet the fact is that

COLOURATION OF REPTILES AND AMrillBIANS. 265

Zonurus polyzomts adheres so strictly to the same environment
that it has no need for such a property. The common skink,
Mabiiia trivittata, which can change from quite a sombre colour
to a light reddish brown according to the colour of the surround-
ings, produces ten young at a time. It would appear that
Zonurus can have few enemies that really count outside snakes,
and these, at least in the Kimberley neighbourhood, are not plenti-
ful. In any case, the habit of sitting on a rock just over the
narrow cleft which forms their retreat gives them a chance of
disappearing at the first sign of danger. If the snake were small
enough to enter the cleft it could seize only the tail, which is
turned over to shield the body, and this v^^ould break off, leaving
the lizard unharmed. Birds of prey seldom or nev^er see the
bright-coloured ventral side, and the dark, almost black, dorsal
colour renders them invisible against tlie similarly coloured rock
when viewed from above.

Again, some hawks used to roost on a building in Kimberley
at one time, and in searching their droppings I found the remains
of several Againas and skinks; no fragment of a Zonurus was
found, yet I have no reason for suspecting that Zonurus is dis-
tasteful to birds of prey.

Whilst the dorsal colouration of these rock-dwelling or ter-
restrial kinds is almost always protective, that of the arboreal
Agamas is apparently not so : it seems to belong to the type
known as

Alluring or Pseudepisematic Colox^ration.

When the colours of an animal imitate those of some other object
in order to attract its prey, it exhibits what was termed " alluring
colouration " by the late Mr. Wallace, " pseudepisematic colours "
by Prof. Poulton.

About November, 1906, tlie butterfly Callidryas florella ^vas
very plentiful on the veld near Kimberley. and large numbers of
them were to be seen hovering over the tops of the grass and
bushes. I noticed that under certain bushes numbers of wings
and portions of wings of the above-mentioned butterfly were col-
lected. I did not at the time realize the full meaning of this
and did not identify the responsible foe, but I now strongly sus-
pect that it must have been Agania aciilcata, although it may have
been a bird.

However, six years later I was fortunate enough to make
the following interesting observation. One sunny afternoon in
November, 191 2, I was admiring a fine male A. aculeata display-
ing his beautiful head and chest on a thorn-bush. Perched there
motionless, he looked like an attractive flower with the outer
petals of brick red, the inner ones a blue cluster in the centre. As
I gazed admiringly at him a butterfly, to my utter amazement,
deliberately landed on the tip of his snout, and before I could
realize what was happening he had swallowed the insect, discard-
ing the wings — probably because they are such dusty and un-
satisfactory things to eat.

266 COLOURATION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.

When I was able to collect my thoughts, I examined the
ground beneath the tree for further evidence, in the shape of
butterflies' wings, but found none. Of course, they could have
been easily carried away by the wind or by ants.

Recognition (Episematic) Colours.

Mr. A. R. Wallace believed that one of the chief jjurposes of
sexual colouring is to enable the sexes to recognize their kind, and
thus avoid the evils of infertile crosses. This I believe is a very
important factor in the colours of our Agamas and Zoniiriis.
\^ery often I have seen A. aculcata on stones fringing the kopjes
which form the retreat of A. atra, and on a few^ occasions I have
seen A. atra on stones right in the domain of A. aculcata. Now
A. atra and .i. aculcata are rather closely allied species, and the
fact that they are normally topographically separated may ])er-
■haps mean that only in this way can they permanently maintain
their specific entities. If this be so. it is obvious that distinctive
colouration may be of great importance in preventing inter-
crossing by venturesome individuals which inay happen to over-
step the boundary line between the two areas.

No direct proof of this explanation can be presented, but
having witnessed the display of a male Zoiiurus and the approach
of a female to him from a distance, it is difficult to avoid the con-
clusion that the brilliant red colours of that lizard serve for recog-
nition purposes ; it should Ije mentioned, however, that the females
are coloured like the males, Ijut not so brilliantly. In this species
the males and females live strictly apart, the intervening distance
between their respective retreats being sometimes as much as sixty
or seventy yards : in such cases it is probable that the sexes need
a means of distinguishing their kind from a distance, more
especially as they live in such close companionship with Agaiiia
atra. The corresponding blue in the males of the latter have in
all probability the same meaning. Supposing these colours did
not exist, then either sex of Agama or Zonurus in search of a
partner would be very often disappointed, as the manner of sit-
ting on the tops of the rocks is identical in both. And since they
orientate with the sun, the colour is seen from all points in the
course of a day.

Mr. Wallace,* in dealing with colours which are an indication
of sexual maturity, made the following genera! statement :- —

I see in the need of outward markings, whether for purposes of recog-
nition or as preventing inter-crossing between incipient species, a sufificient
cause for all such conspicuous indications of specific diversity as are found
pervading the whole vast world of life.

Variable Protective (Procrvptic) Resemblance.

It would appear that the power to change their colour to suit
the surroundings is much more common among the reptiles and
amphibians than is generally supposed.

*World of Life, 165.

COLOURATiUN OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. 26/

When we look at certain lizards and frogs, apart from their
surroundings, we find it diHicult to realize that such variegated
objects can be anything but conspicuous, but as a matter of fact
these ver}- markings Avhich we would consider as detrimental to
concealment only help \o make the possessor all the more secure.
To those who see the creatures only in museums this general
likeness to the surroundings is not evident. The conceahr:fnt
brouglit about by general protective resemblance can onh' be ap-
preciated by studying nature in its natural haunts. Referring
to this matter, Prof.Poulton, on page 24, " Colours of Animals,"
says : " We cannot api)rcciate the meaning of the colours of many
animals apart from their surroundings, because we do not com-
prehend the complicated artistic effect of the latter."

The variability in colouration displayed by Aoaiiia nculcata
in response to dift'erent surroundings is really remarkable.

A male and female of this species may occupy the same tree,
Init I have never noticed two of the same sex so situated. The
male on such occasions goes right to the top of the tree, facing
the sun. The colour dorsally is then very varied, some specimens
being very light with various marblings, while others, on the con-
trary, are dull, possibly in sympathy with the lights and shades
beneath and around. 1 have never noticed the female go to the
topiuost branches of a tree, she seems to content herself with re-
maining in the deeper shadows. She is then a very dark brown
dorsally with slaty-blue patches here and there, having dark
longitudinal vcrmiculations ventrally. It is noteworthy that

when the colours of either sex are dark dorsally, the Avhole ventral
surface is covered with these dark vermiculations.

On the ground even a greater range of colour is exhibited,
inasnmch as all dorsal markings ma}' become obliterated in favour
of a very dark brown or a light yellow ( females evidently do not
po5sess the power of |)roducing" this latter colour), although
ventrally the shoulders and chest are a brick red and the throat a
deep blue, almost black. The dorsal surface of the female ma}-
be either dark browm, dull uniform grey, or different shades of
reddish brown, with various markings and marblings accord-
ing to the environment.

When on the ground the adults often remain quite motion-
less until they are in danger of being trod upon ; their colour is
so much in accordance with the prevailing colours of the sur-
roundings, that an average passer-by would fail to notice them
if they did not move. On such occasions the intensity of the
ground colour and super-imposed light markings may vary con-
siderably according to the lightness or darkness of the sur-
roundings.

This chameleonic power of colour adjustment seems to be
common to most of the Agamas. During the summer of 1908
I was fortunate enough to come upon a vivid green female
A. Iiispida in a field of young lucerne near Somerset Strand.
The creature harmonized so perfectly with the bright green of the
surroundings that, had it not moved from my feet, I should cer-

268 COLOURATION OF REPTILES AXD AM I'll IIUANS.

tainly not have seen it. Another female found on the roadside
at the same phice was greyish brown with yellow patches on the
dorsal line and on the sides. No two creatures could differ
more completely in colour than these two females. A male
A. hispida observed on a hill at Somerset West the same year was
a varied green and olive ; this specimen would have escaped ob-
servation also had it not been in my path. When it did move,
as in the case of the two females, it was but for a few feet, and
then it became motionless. I noticed that if my attention were
taken from them for a moment I had some difficulty in locating
them again.

I have never known A. aculcata to turn green ; probably the
aridness of its terrestrial habitat has something to do with it.

A rapid and very localized change of coloiu% not found in
other lizards, is exhibited by the females of Agama aciileata, but
is unknown in the males. \Mien teased she sometimes exhibits
scarlet blotches on the back at each side of the vertebral line; in
these blotches the colour extends even to the tips of the scales. I
noticed that these appear when the creature meets with a violent
death, especially if the head be crushed, and that bearing females
produce them very easily. They are perhaps calculated to have
a terrifying effect on attacking foes, as presumably is the case
when chameleons suddenly change colour on alarm.

The male Agaiiia atra can make itself perfectly black dor-
sally with or without a white vertebral streak, to suit the rock on
which it sits. It may also assume a light pink dotted with ocelli.
The range of colour possessed by the female is similar, and in
addition she is sometimes covered with red blotches, as in the
female A. aculcata, though of a deeper red; the ground colour of
the body on such occasions is a lemon doited over with ocelli.

I have frequently watched specimens of the frog Rana
fuscigiila, which were light green adorned with a light vertebral
line, leaving the water on the edge of a dam. The pale green
ground broken by the dorsal streak harmonized so effectually
with the soft green shadows, the reflections of the trees, and
with the faded willow leaves on the side, that if I had not actually
seen them leave the water it would be almost impossible to
find them. They seem to fade awa}- and become lost in the
colour of the surrotmdings, and if the attention is distracted for
a moment it would be some time before their exact position could
be located again. These same specimens, when put in a box,
became a uniform brown or sepia. Others, again, are often
spotted with dark brown according to the light and shade of the
surroundings.

Another striking example of variable adaptive colouration is
found in Xciiopus lu-x'is. Specimens taken from dark, deep wells
are uniform black dorsally ; those in shallow pools, where the
surroundings are bright, are usually a light sand colour; while
those in dams overhung by trees where the water is fairl}- clear
are spotted and marbled in sympathy whh the light and shade.

The snake Psaiiiniophis fiircafiis furnishes a good example of

COLOURATiON OF REPTILES AND AMrJilBlANS. 269

" protective colouration.'' The median and lateral stripes so
harmonize with the grass that often I have watched a specimen
disappear in a tuft, but failed to find it again. The long slender
body helps to give effect to the stripes ; one sometimes catches a
ghmpse of the white under-surface, and the beast is gone as
completely as if it sank into the earth. It should be mentioned
that this snake is very swift, and its colouration is permanent.

Experiments Bp:aring on the Colour Meciianls^e in
Reptiles and Amphibians.

The following simple experiments were performed in the
hope of obtaining some data relating to the colour mechamsm:
some of them, unfortunately, are inconclusive.

I put an adult male A. aculeata, of a dark brown ground
colour dotted here and there with darker patches, into a fairly
small tin box, the lid of which was close-fitting and overlapped
the sides, so that light was entirely eliminated- This I exposed
to the direct rays of the sun, and in 35 minutes the colour had
changed to a cream ground with light brown patches and lighter
vermiculations ; the scales on the sides of the head green. 1 then
removed him to an ice-chest, and in ten minutes he Avas a uniform
reddish brown, with variously coloured scales on the vertebral
line. In five minutes more he seemed quite paralysed and in a
torpid state ! The vertebral crest was erected about a quarter
of an inch when the creature was first exposed to the heat, and
remained so even in the ice-chest. Agama atra, when suljjected
to the same drastic treatment, acted in a similar way, becoming
light when exposed to great heat and dark when subjected to
cold.* The blue, however, of the ventral side did not change.

It is doubtful if these changes were entirely due to tem-
perature, for when the heat became intense in the box the lizard
always struggled to get out ; hence there may have been a certain
amount of nervous excitement. Certainly there was no ques-
tion of light; the lid was so tight-fitting that I doubt if a |)hoto-
graphic plate, inserted for the same period and under the same
conditions, would have been affected.

Assuming that the colour of the animals is due to the
presence of pigment cells in the skin, and that the degree of
contraction or expansion of the individual cells determines the
depth of the general colour, it is probable that external heat
and cold are amongst the factors which modify the sha])es of
those cells.

I prepared three boxes lined with white, green, and brick-
red paper, respectively. These I fitted with glass slides of the
same colours. I put both species of Agama for half aii hour into
each box, taking care that they received reflected light only.
The results were negative. I regret that circumstances did not
allow me to continue the experiment for a much longer period.

When male specimens of A. aculeata are put into a bottle

*TeiTiperature in ice-chest 2° C-, in box 40° C.

2/0 COLOURATION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS.

containino- cyanide of i)Otassiuni they become a uniform yellow,
all markings being completely obliterated, within a few minutes.
A male specimen taken on the veld at midday on December i6th
was this colour. After spending a short time in a box with
some lichen it had become a very dull l)rown with darker and
lighter marks, and a light vertebral streak. In trying to make it
produce its original yellow, I applied an electric current to various
parts of the bod}-, and, on the following day, put it into a trough
where the water was fairly deep. These experiments produced the
same results : in both cases all marks became obliterated on the
top of the head, which became pale green or yellow, the body
assumed a reddish brown hue Avith various lighter vermiculations ;
while the most striking change of all was a broad vivid bluish-
green line down the centre of the back and half-way down
the tail. The colour of this line was most pro-
nounced in places where there is a dark bar on the tail and a
dark patch on the back ordinarily. This green vertebral line was
also produced by allowing the water from a tap to flow down the
centre of the back. A male A. atra, when subjected to the same
treatment, became a dark pink, while the head and half-way down
the back became a ])ur]jle colour.

The effect of the foregoing stimulus is more or less general,
for instance, an electric current applied at the extremity of the
tail may produce colour effect in the head, etc. Allowing water
to run from a tap on the head of the specimen seems, however,
to produce a more or less local effect.

Two (|uite black specimens of Xeiioptts hcvis, one of which
was blind, were put into a white-enamelled trough in which there
was about six inches of water. The surface of the water was
covered with thin, white paper; in less than 12 hours the non-
lilind speciment was a light yellow, while the other remained a
uniform black.

The physiological mechanism by means of which such a
change takes place is described by Prof. Poulton''' in the follow-
ing way : —

Certain kinds of reflected liglit act as specific stimuli to tlie eye of
the animal, and dilTering nervous impulses pass from this organ along the
optic nerve to the brain. The brain, being thus indirectly stimulated in a
peculiar manner by various kinds of reflected light, originates different im-
pulses, which pass from it along the nerves distributed to the skin, and
cause varying states of concentration of the pigment cells.

In page 8 of his book the same author remarks :

In some cases of colour in animals the chinks between the layers of
tissue are kept open by films of less powerfully refractive liquids. When
the tissue becomes dry the films evaporate and the colour disappears. We
must suppose that the denser layers come together, obliterating the chinks
and excluding the air; otherwise the colours would be more brilliant than
ever, because the refractive power of air is even more than that of liquids.

After reading the foregoing I removed the ejjidermis of a
female J. eculcata on which scarlet blotches were j^resent. This
I dried and i)ut awav in a book for a few weeks; at the end of

*The Colours of Animals.

COLOURATION OF Ri'.i'TILKS AND AMPUIEIANS. 2/1

that time 1 put it into water and fotind that directly it was wet
the scarlet patches, which had completely faded, reappeared.
These scarlet patches, therefore, are not due to the presence of
actual pigments, but to the infiltration of liquid between layers of
tissue which normally are in close contact. The sudden ap])ear-
ance of these spots on alarm is a kind of blushing in which appar-
ently colourless lymph and not blood is concerned.

In conclusion, I must express my grateful thanks to Mr.
John Hewitt, for his kind advice and help in the arrangement of
this paper : without his assistance these notes would not have
l)een published.

National Research in America. — Major R. A.

Millikan, \'ice-Chairman of the United States National Research
Cotmcil. has issued a condensed statement reviewing the
Council's activities. Much o'f this work has been allocated to
various committees. The physics committee has delegated to a
number of groups over 20 large problems, some of which, in-
cluding the location of aircraft by sound, and the development
of improved methods for measuring muzzle-velocities, have now
been solved ; the chemistry committee has perfected an
elaborate organization for handling all chemical problems arising
in the army and navy ; the psychology committee has formu-
lated a vast programme for the selection of officers for the army
and the classification of drafted men ; the medical committee
has engaged many medical men in medical research problems
and in the sanitary work of the army ; the engineering committee
has perfected devices for protecting ships from submarines. (Jn
the recommendation of the nitrate committee the Government
is spending large sums on the erection of a nitrate plant ; the
gas warfare committee has had 120 chemists working for six
months on the problems of gas warfare ; the optical glass com-
mittee has developed the production of optical glass in six months
from nothing to 20,000 pounds a month, and in two months
more this figure will increase two to three-fold ; the psychiatry-
committee has established a laboratory for studying shell-shock,
and the foreign service committee has saved months in putting
the United States abreast of the European situation regarding
modern scientific methods in warfare.

A SUGGESTED MECHANISM FOR THE INHERITANCE
OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

By Thomas F. Dreyer^ B.A., Ph.D.

A great deal of courage is required to express open doubt
as to the truth of Weismann's theory of germinal continuity —
a theory which is upheld by the majority of present-day zoolog-
ists. Respect for its originator and admiration of his devotion
to his work to some extent restrains criticism by a younger
generation, but doubts as to the correctness of the theory have
been and are frequently expressed.

The acceptance of Weismann's theory is one of the greatest
stumbling-blocks to the Lamarckian, and it is essential that every-
one who is interested in the subject should constantly bear in
mind in how far it is supported by observed fact.

Such support is difficult to find, and far from ciunincing: — •

1. The fact that any particular individual tends to resemble
its parents is most simply explained by assuming a genninal con-
tinuity; the apparently sim]:)lest explanation is, however, not
necessarily more correct than any other. The one most likely
to be true will be not the simplest, but the one Avhich is most
strongly supported by other observed facts.

2. The germ cells are, in a few cases, segregated from the
somatic cells at a very early stage of segmentation of the ovum.
On the other hand, in manv groups- — c.c]., in the Vertebrata —
the germ cells are segregated at a very late stage of develop-
ment. Further, the cells from which other tissues are derived
may also be segregated from the rest of the segmenting ovum
at a very early stage; but will anyone on that account speak of
the continuity of such tissues?

3. It has been more or less proved that the chromosomes are
continuous for successive o-enerations, and the analogv- between
the divisions of the maturing germ-cell chromosomes and the
distribution of mendelian factors seem to indicate that the
chromosomes are the hereditary substances. Also the fact that
the hereditary influences of the father and mother are equal
•points to the chromosomes as the carriers of these influences,
since it is supposed that they are the only substances received
by the progeny in equal proportions from the two parents. That
the chromatin is a possible candidate for such a role cannot be
denied, but it is not the only candidate. In cell-division the
linin is also apparently exactly divided, and in the genesis of the
germ cells it is quite possible that equal amounts of linin are con-
tained in the large ovum with its difl^use linin and the small
spermatozoon with its condensed linin in the form of a " head-
piece," metachondria, etc. .

INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. ^-J }^

Anyway, the consensus of opinion is strongly against Weis-
mann's assumption that the chromosomes of different tissues of
any particular animal differ from each other. It seems to be
more or less proved that the chromatin in any animal does not
vary; and if this view is correct, then we must assume that an
ovum differs from other cells, in that its cytoplasmic constituents
are different.

But if the specitic nature of the ovum is to be found in
the non-chromatic part of the ovtim, then either the ovum must
contain some other substance, continuous in the same way as
the chromatin, in virtue of which the specific substance is formed
in the ovum ; or the specific substance must be formed in the
ovum as a result of its position in the whole body. That is, the
continuity of the chromatin is not a sufficient phenomenon, since
we must necessarily assume a second substance which may be
continuous or formed anew in each generation.

That the second necessary substance is of vital importance
is indicated in the case of ova with little or no regulatory power
— e.g., in the eggs of ctenophores in which slicing of any por-
tions of the ovum results in the absence in the adult of the por-
tions sliced.

And if at least two substances are necessary for develop-
ment, of one of which it is impossible to say whether it is con-
tinuous or not, how can one say that the hereditary substance is
continuous ?

From the al30ve it will be seen that the case in favour of
germinal continuity is not particularly strongly supported by
facts. It is, however, still further weakened b}'' definite ex-
perimental evidence. For example, the slicing experiments on
ctenophorean ova indicate that the " factors " for the adult char-
acters are present in the cytoplasm and not in the nucleus.
Further, the experiments of Nageli on alpine plants brought to
Munich, Schmankewitsch's experiments on brine-shrimps, the
experiments of Standfuss and of Fischer on pupa; of butter-
flies, and 'Birown-Secjuard's experiments on guinea-])igs. all show
that the germ-plasm is not a C(^ntinuous substance, isolated in
the soma. Experiments of this kind are usually dismissed with
laboured explanations in terms of Weismann's theory ; but any-
one who is prepared to dismiss from his mind any ideas as to
the theoretical impossibility of acquired characters being here-
ditary must acknowledge that the experiments are convincing.
The scope of this paper is not such as to allow a discussion of
all the cases mentioned, but a few words on one of them,
viz., those on butterfly pupae, may be allowed. The germinal
discs and gonads in such cases are already present before pupa-
tion. If, now the application of heat or cold to the pupa should
change the characters of the imago, then, the changes not l:)eing
of the nature of secondary sexual characters, these changes must
be acquired characters — l.e-, characters acquired by the soma
under direct stimulation of the environment. And if, as actually
happened, these changes reappeared in some of the next genera-

274 INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

tion reared under normal conditions, then the changes must be
definitely hereditary. It is claimed that the altered conditions
acted directly on the germ-plasm, which then altered the soma ;
such an argument is inadmissable, since the two substances are
already segregated at the time when the experiments com-
menced.

There is. moreover, a most important theoretical oljjection to
the theory of germinal continuity — one which Weismann has
already pointed out — viz., the difficulty of explaining why the
germ-plasm should alternate between periods of germ-cell for-
mation and periods of soma formation. Weismann established
a theory as to the nature of polar body extrusions to account
for this cyclical development, but he had to abandon his theory
when it Avas demonstrated that spermatozoa passed through an
homologous process.

It may also be added that the theor}- of germinal continuity
is quite devoid of experimental proof. I am not aware that
anyone has already pointed out in what manner such jjroof may
be given, but it seems to me that the truth or otherwise of the
theory should be capable of demonstration. If, for example,
an organism be brought under new conditions and it ac(|uire
new characters which are not 'hereditary, will the hereditary
characters appearing at some later stage be in the same direc-
tion as the acquired character, or will they be unconnected with
such characters? We should expect that a certain environment
acting on the soma will result in something different from what
AA'Ould he produced by the action of that same environment on
a different substance, viz., the (jcnn- plasm. Has such proof
been advanced? On the contrary, apart from sudden mutations,
not referable to changes in the environment, it is always the
acc|uired character Avhich later on is found to be fixed in the race
{vide experiments mentioned above).

It may perhaps be thought that the occurrence of mutations
in nature is a case such as is called for above ; that an animal
or plant living under certain conditions varies about a mean
as a result of the interaction between the environment and the
soma, but that such animals or plants occasionally throw sports
Avhich may be considered to be the result of the interaction of
the environment and the germ-plasm. To such a view one must
answer that occurrences in nature cannot be adduced in i:)lace
of controlled experiments, since we know too little about the
varying conditions in the former case ; that mutations apj^arently
only dift'er from fluctuations in that they result from early inter-
ference with normal development; that the necessary experi-
ments should be made on successive generations at the same stage
of development.

But if we are to suppose that the substance or substances in
virtue of which development takes place is not continuous — that
is, that it is formed an.ew for each generation — how are we to
imagine that it occurs?

The germ-cells are without doubt highly differentiated cells.

INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. 2/5

Weismann ascribes their specific character to the nature of the
germ-plasm, which he believes to be the chromatin. At present
we believe that the chromatin is not specific for different tissues,
and we must look for the characteristic substance in the other
cell-constituents, viz., the linin, cell-sap or the yolk.

Of these four bodies, two, viz., the chromatin and the yolk,
are discontinuous, whereas the other two, namely, ,the linin and
the lymph, are continuous throughout any particular animal.

If, now, we should accept the theory that acquired charac-
ters may be hereditary, it seems obvious that the mechanism for
the process must be sought in the linin or the lymph. In this
connection one is at once reminded of Nageli's theory if one
imagines the continuous linin network to be his idioplasm. The
theory seems to be supported in that the linin is, in cell division,
divided up between the daughter cells just as the chromatin is
divided ; the results c^f mendelian experiments are therefore ex-
plained ec^ually well, whether we take linin or chromatin to be
the carriers of the mendelian characters, except that sex seems
to be a character carried by chromatin. But when we attempt
to form a conception of the manner in which a change in the
peripheral linin may be passed on to the centre, and appear
again at the same peripheral point in the next generation, we
are faced by a blank wall, for such a conception is ([uite im-
possible of achievement. The linin substance is therefore not
suitable as a possible carrier of acquired characters. The other
continuous substance — the lymph — must also be discarded, since
it has no definite structure — it circulates, and therefore offers no
explanation of the localization problem.

Neither is the body for which we are looking chromatin ;
for histologists claim that the chromosomes are definite entities
more or less invariable through successive generations. At least,
we have no proof that they are differentiated anew in each
generation, which should be the case for bodies " carrying "
acquired characters.

There remains, then, yolk, and in the case of this substance
it is possible to elaborate a very plausible theory as to how ac-
quired characters may be inherited. This theory might be appro-
priately be called :

The Metabolic Products Theory of Heredity.

We know that the various tissues of the body are charac-
terized by very diff'erent metabolic products The metabolic
product of the ovum is the yolk, and the yolk of diff'erent groups
of animals is very variable in consistency, taste, etc., so that it is
a ]wssil>le assumption to make that the yolk in each species is
specific.

There must be at least two factors in the deposition of yolk,
viz., some body in the ovum to act as a catalyser for the syn-
thesis of the yolk, and secondly, compounds capable of being
combined to form yolk, in the lymph.

This catalysing substance or enzyme can be accepted to be

276 INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

the chromatin, the enzyme nature of which has heen empha-
sized by several modern biologists — e.g., by Loeb. The enzyme
need, for any one animal, not be different in the different tissues
— in ontogeny there are no indications that the chromatin is dif-
ferentially divided in the way postulated by Weismann ; in fact,
Korschelt u. Heider ( " Entwickelungsgeschichte der Wirbellosen
Thiere") say that this assumption of Weismann is one of the
strongest objections against his theory. Let us therefore assume
that the chromatin in all the tissues is the same substance through-
out, and that it is an enzyme.

When we, then, consider the linin, we are absolutely forced
to decide that it is the substance which must be labelled living.
Living organisms are characterised as being sensitive — the organs
of sense are invariably free projections of linin threads, in the
form of cilia, flagella, rhabdomes or hairs. Living organisms
are characterised as contractile ; the contractile substance, the
myofibrillK, is again linin, somewhat modified apparently in com-
position. Absorption of substances in solution by living organ-
isms dift'ers from osmosis in the highly selective way in which
it occurs — the absorptive surface is invariably formed by the
thickened free ends of the linin threads. A highly characteristic
phenomenon of animal life is the nervous processes — these are
all resultants of changes taking ])lace in specialised linin fibres,
the neurofibrillfe. The linin, then, is the unstable, the protean,
living substance which is synthesised by the enzyme chromatin
whenever the lymph in the neighbourhood of it contains the
necessary constituents.

The lymph is a watery fluid containing various substances
formed as a result of the metabolism of the different tissues ;
these substances will naturally be integral fragments of the living
molecules from which they have been derived, so that they will
vary among themselves in the same respects as the parent tissues
differ from each other. Besides these there are in the lymph
also those substances obtained as food through the alimentary
canal.

In giving the foregoing sketch of the structure of the living
substance — i.e., of chromatin, linin and lymph — I have simply
given expression to the results of modern histological research ;
but if I am to elaborate my theory, I must now make an as-
sumption for which there is as yet no support whatever, viz.,
that the yolk found in all ova is a combination of the radicals
derived from the various tissues. That this is not a wildly im-
probable assumption is indicated by the apparently specific nature
of the yolk of different animals and by the extreme complexity
of the yolk molecules.

If we review the various kinds of tissues, it is clear that
they differ in their linin ; the linin of nerve cells apparently
dift'ers from the linin of muscle cells in that it is able to select
from the lymph specific radicals. This ability of the linin of
different tissues to " select " radicals is not merely a function
of their position, for embryological research has clearly shown

INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS. 2'J'J

that it is due to differential division of some cell constitaent.
This constituent cannot be either chromatin or lymph, and must
be the linin. We must therefore suppose that the linin of the
ovum is, in segmentation, divided differentially in the way
sketched by W'eismann for his germ-plasm.

But what is the linin of the ovum? When we consider that
the distinctive character of each tissue is a linin compound, and
that the yolk is the distinctive character of the ovum ; that,
moreover, fibrillas are mostly absent from ova, we must con-
clude that the yolk is a linin compound of the ovum.

The further course of events I imagine to be as follows :
The yolk, like all linin compounds, is irritable, and continually
some of it will be deprived of certain radicals and rise alcove
the heavier unaltered yolk, so that the first horizontal division
will be a differential division. After gastrulation the stimula-
tion of the inner cell-layer will be different, and another kind
of radical will be split off' from the yolk. This process will
'be continued until all the tissues have been formed and come
into function. As soon as this happens the lymph will contain
all the radicals necessary for the formation of yolk, and those
cells, which, on account of their ancestry — i.e., which have, during
the process of differentiation, retained certain necessary radicals,
will now select the lymph radicals required, and build up the
same 3^olk compound as was present in the previous generation of
germ cells.

Imagine an ovum with yolk L A B C . . . . X Y Z. Let
this give rise to the tissues L A, LB, L C, etc. Let the func-
tioning of the tissue L A set free the radical A in the lymph,
whilst the enzyme chromatin, in the presence of other L A, re-
builds more L A from food radicals in the lymph. Let L G be
the linin of the germ cells, and let L G, if the necessary radicals
are available, be able to build up L A B C . . . . X Y Z again.
Now suppose the environment change'^ m such a wav that the
tissue L A. becomes changed to L(A+a) ; then the functioning
of that tissue will set free in the lymph ( A + a), and the gerni-ccU
linin, L G, will now build up a new kind of yolk, L(A+,a)B C
. . . . X Y Z. In development, this yolk will no more form the
previous tissue L A, but the new one L(A+ a) — i.e., the acquired
character ( + a) — has become hereditary.

( Read, July 6, 191 7.)

Horse Chestnuts for Munitions. — The services

of children are now being utilised in Great Britain for the col-
lection of horse chestnuts intended to be used in the preparation
of munitions. According to present indications, the Ministry
of Munitions will receive at least 25,000 tons of nuts, repre-
senting about one-eighth of the country's total crop for the
season. Every ton of nuts thus gathered means the saving of
half a ton of grain.

XUTES ON THE GENUS MY STROP ETALON HAR\'.
( BALANOPHORACE.E) .

By Rudolf Marloth, M.A., Ph.D.

{IV Uh one text figure.)

The Balanophorace^e (order Santalales) form a family of
root parasites of about 40 species, which occur in various parts of
the world. The}- are all very remarkable i)lants. with regard to
their general appearance as well as their tioral strticture, and
the representatives of the various countries differ from each
other very considerably in both respects. There are two genera
in SotUh Africa, viz., Sarcophyte in the Eastern Province ( 5^.
sanguinca) and Mystropetaloii in the West.

When Harvey established the gentis Alystro petal on in 1839
he distinguished two species, naming them ilf. Thowii and M.
Polemanni. In 1913 Professor Harvey-Gibson (Liverpool) gave
a full account of the genus, together with an exhaustive study
of the anatomy and morphology of the underground as well as the
aerial organs of the plants. As, however, the specimens which he
had received from Mrs. Julia F. Solly (Knorhoek. near Sir
Lowry's Pass) did not qtiite agree with the descri])tions and illus-
trations of the two species as published by Harvey, and as no type
specimens of Harvey's appear to exist (there are none in Harvey's
herbarium at Dublin, nor in the Government herbarivtm at Cape-
town), the author established a third species, naming it M. SoUyi.

Since then specimens of Mysiropetalon were repeatedly sent
here by correspondents who wanted to have them named. It was
during the attempts to do so that I realized the unsatisfactory con-
dition of otu- knowledge of the morphological characters of these
plants and the desirability of further investigation.

In the recently published second part of Voltuiie \', Section
II of the " Flora Capensis " (1915), C. H. Wright (p. 214) selects
two characters in which, according to their authors, the three
species most prominently differ from each other, viz.. the shape
of the anterior bract of the male flower and the shape and margin
of the female perianth, thus obtaining the following combinations :

1. Male bra'ct oblong; perianth subglobose, shortly trilobed
{M. Thomii).

2. Bract spathulate; perianth tubular, trifid (J/. Pole-
manni.).

3. Bract spathulate ; perianth subglobose or campanulate,
mtiltifid (M. Sollyi.).

The fourth combination, viz., " Bract oblong; perianth tubu-
lar," has not been described or named as yet, but it so hajjpens
that just this form has been figured in Marloth, " Flora of S.A."
Tab. 40, as M. Thomii. If the other three combinations are speci-
fically distinct, then the fourth one would have to be recognised
as well, and, following the example of the other cases, to be named

GENUS MVS'rROPET.lLON IIARV. ( UALA Nol' I loKAClCK) . 2/9

after its discoverer. As will be seen further on, I do not intend to
do that.

Harvey-Ciibson arranges the floral characters of the three
species in a tabular statement which I venture to reproduce.
Before doing- so, however, I should like to refer to some of the
points of comparison in iJarvey-Gibson's table, as this will sim-
plify matters and save repetitions later on.

Point 3. The Anterior Lobe of the Perianth of the Male
Flower. — In young buds of all specimens examined I found the
three lobes nearly of equal length and the perianth tube straight
(at that stage the three segments form a tube). When the time
of opening api)roaches, the claws of the two posterior lobes
lengthen more rapidly tlian that of the anterior one, thus pro-
duc'ng the downward curving of the flower. The tension between
the two longer and the one shorter segment becomes hnally so
great that the segments separate ; the blades of the two upper
segments generally remain comiected, while the free lower seg-
ment curves back. Naturally this lobe is shorter than the two
others, but the difference in length varies in the same spike. No
specific distinction can be based on this feature of the i)lant.

Point 4. Lamina of tlie Perianth Lobes of the Male Flower.
— A distinction is drawn by Harvey between " slightly concave "
(M. Thoinii) and "very concave'" (M. Polemanni) . In all the
specimens examined, including Bolus, No. 7465, which has been
named M. PolenuDiiii at Kew, I found the lamina " slightly con-
cave " or just " concave," and Harvey's specimen, on which it
was " very concave," was just a slightly different form. Such
differences cannot have specific value when other characters vary
much more.

Point 5. The Pollen. — Harvey describes the pollen grains of
both species as possessing " fluted angles," and figures them thus
for M. Polemanni. On none of my specimens (I may have
examined at least 50 from different localities, all in a fresh condi-
tion), were the angles fluted. Judging, however, from the outline
of the grains as figured by Harvey, it appears that these had
undergone considerable shrivelling and contraction (perhaps by
desiccation or by the action of strong alcohol), and that the edges
had become furrowed during this process.

By staining the fresh grains I have found that the rounded
edges of the cubical grains (this is the most common shape)
contain two parallel strands, and in some shrivelled grains I have
observed a slight depression along the edges. Under the circvun-
stances one feels compelled to discard Harvey's figiu-e and to
look upon Harvey-Gibson's Fig. 6a, and Marloth, Tab. 40, Fig. 6,
as more correct.

Point 10. The Shape of the Oz'ary. — This is said to be either
ovoid or oblong. Both shapes occur fairly often on the same
plant.

Point II. The Stigma is described as "discoid," or "not
swollen," and for M. Sollyi as " trilobed." All the plants which I
have examined when in anthesis (before any male flower opens)

280 GE^US MVSTROPETALON HARV. ( liALA XOPHORACE.E j .

had a more or less capitate and trilobed stigma. On plants with
open male flowers the female ])erianth and style are always
shrivelled up, and the stigma may appear, even after soaking in
boiling water. " not swollen."

By excluding these five points from the statement of the charac-
ters as given by Harvey-Gibson one obtains the following reduced
table : —

M. Polciiia

inn.

M. Sollxi.

I

I.

'7

thirds length of an-
terior.

M. Tlioiuii.

Male Flower —

Anterior bract oblong. Spathulate. Spathulate.

Posterior bracts, two- Spathulate, half Spathulate, quarter

the length. ( /';/ my material

half to tzvo-
thirds. )
IJ. Female Flower —

6. Anterior bract oblong.

(Harvey shows it
rather broadly cane-
ate).

7. Posterior bracts much Spathulate, equal Spathulate, shorter

Spathulate (in Spathulate, lance-
fig.) olate.

longer than anterior

stage.

to anterior (/»
stage).

8. Perianth subglobose or Tubular,
ellipsoid.

Perianth margin tri-
lobed.

Markedly trifid.

than anterior.

btit not when in

fruit. )

Subglobose or
c a m panulate
(or tubular,
two diam.)

Multifid.

TTL-

12.

To these characters we mav add from Harvev (" Flora

Cap." in—

Flower bright
carmine.
Bract orange.

Male flowers dark
red or brownish ; an-
terior bract of nearly
equal breadth through
out. Bract orange.

Note. — The words in italics are added here.

It will be a convenience to the reader to have the results of
my observations arranged in a similar wa}". The material
examined consisted of —

1. Fresh plants gathered at various times or sent by corre-

spondents from various localities (Baths at Caledon ;
Steenbras Valley; Sir Lowry's Pass).

2. Bolus's specimen, No. 7,465 (a medium-sized plant, but

there is also a smaller one on the sheet). This was
distributed as M. Tlwinii. but renamed M. Polemanni
. at Kew.

3. The co-type of Harvey-Gibson's specimens of M. Sollyi.

GENUS MYSTROPETALON HARV. (RALANOPliOR.<dE'.E j . iSl"

When the two plants collected by Mrs: Solly were prc^served
in formaldehyde by Dr. Froembling for transmission to England,
he sliced them lengthways, one-half of each being sent away and
the other piece of each kept here. These two counterparts were
kindly placed at my disposal. The results are: —

A (co-type of M.

Sollyi).

I. Spatluilate.

B (Herb. M.)

Spathulate, with broad
or narrow claw.

2. X'ariable. half to A])out half.

two-thirds.
6. Oblong, or lanceo- Oblong.

late.
ya. { Flower of young Shorter.

plant). Bracteoles

shorter than bract.
7&.( Older plant, with Longer.

male flowers open)

equal.

8. Subglobose or cam- Campanulate or sub-

panulate, or tub- globose,
lar, up to 2 X as
long as wide.

9. Uniformly denticu- Tritid.

late, but some also
with three deeper
indentations.

C. {Herb. M.)

Spathulate, or

broadly cuneate,
or elongate-ob-
ovate.

About half.

Lanceolate.
Much shorter.

Much longer.

Subglobose.

Tripartite, seg-
ments truncate
and finely denti-
culate.

D. Bolus, No. 7465,
and Mario til.
Tab. 40.

1 . Elongate-obovate or

spathulate.

2. Half.

6. Lanceolate.

ya. Shorter

yb. Equal or longer

8. Tubular.

9. Three triangular or

linear or narrow
and acute teeth.

E [Herb. M.).
Spathulate.

Half to one-third.
Oblong.

Shorter.
Equal.
Shortly tubular

F (Herb. M.).

Broadly spathulate
or elongate-obo-
vate.

Two-thirds.

Oblong or lanceo-
late.

Shorter.

Longer.

Tubular (length 2

(length i^ diam.). diam.).
Trifid. Trilobed, the teeth

' bifitl.

282 GENUS MYSTROPETALOX HARV. ( liALANOPlK )KACi:.7: I .

'J'he^e six sj)eciniens would represent : —

A. — A combination of M. Soiiyi with M. I'lioiiiii and i/.

rclciiianni.
h—M ^oliyi. ])\\{ with the female i)erianth of .1/. Thoiiii:.
C. — M. 1' ho III i i 'dnd M. Sollyi.

I^. — M. Pdcmaiiiii, but the male bract partl\- of .1/. Huuuii.
E. — M . Poleinaiiiii, btit the female perianth nuich sliorter.
F. — ilf. Polenioniii, bitt teeth of female jierianth ditterent.

It will be seen that not a single plant, even not the co-type of
AI. Sollyi, entirely agrees with one of the three diagnoses given,
and that if the three species as published are to be maintained, our
specimens would represent six other species.

My sttidy of the variotts specimens mentioned and of a good
many others had brought me to the conclusion that there was only
one species, but as Harvey's original publication was not acces-
sible to me here,* I had to wait until I obtained copies of his
illtistrations. W'hen these arrived, I fotmd my views fully con-
firmed, for M. TJiomii and M. Polcmanni, as figured by Harvey,
merely represent two extreme forms of the species. This was in

1915-

In March, 1916, Dr. W. Purcell spent some time at Caledon,

and kindly undertook to make some ftn"ther observations on the

biology of the plant.

This induced him to examine a considerable number of s])eci-
mens in order to ascertain their correct specific name, btit finding
some diffictilty, he brotight me his notes, when I showed him my
notes and the conclusions I had come to.

How elaborate and detailed Dr. Purcell's observations are
will be seen from the notes on two of the specimens, which we
insert here w'ith his kind permission : —

No. 201 (collected March 15, 1916).

Leaves. — The uppermost: glabrous on up])er side, channelled
with a prominent midrib, convex on the lower side, the
apex very obttise. the surface hairy, margin ciliate.

Male Flozver. (Open). — Anterior bract generally more or
less spathulate, with a broad claw, sometimes almost
broadly linear, and then scarcely wider at the apex than
in the middle (in the buds sometimes with a narrow
claw), about half the length of the perianth, the pos-
terior bracts about half or two-thirds as long as the
anterior.

Female Flower. — Bloom over,, but the anterior bract still
longer than the others, varying from broadly linear

* The " Annals of Nat. History " are not the same publication as the
"Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.," although so quoted by Eichlcr (De Can-
dolle's "Prodomus"). Tlic latter title appears for the lirst time in 1841,
this journal being the continuation of the " Magazine of Nat. History."
The "Annals of Nat. Hist," in which Harvey published his descriptions in
1839, are not represented in the South African Public Library.

GENUS MYSTROPETALON IIAKV. (RALANOPHORACE.li ) . 283

(oblong) with a broad, very obtuse apex to lanceolate
and an obtuse apex, ciliated at the margin and densely
hairy on the lower side, especially at apex and along the
broad nn'drib. Perianth usually subellipsoid or oblong
or cylindrical.

(These characters would make this to be M.TIioiiiii and M.
Sollyi. )

No. 205.

Leaves. — Similar to No. 201, but mostlty glabrous on the
lower side.

Male Flower (Buds). — The lowest with the anterior bract
spathulate and two-thirds the length of the perianth, the
posterior bracts nearly two-thirds the length of the ante-
rior.

Female Flower (in anthesis). — Anterior bract broadly linear
or nearl}' oblong or subspathulate, with a broader apex.
Perianth shortly oblong (nearly 2 X diam.) to subglo-
bose or subcampanulate, the lower lobe curving out-
wards, rarely quite globose, and as long as wide (includ-
ing the lobes). The tube of the perianth as long as or
shorter than its width ; the lovv^er lobe longer than the
other two, equalling or much shorter than the tube, all
generally much broader at their base than long, some-
times obsolete. The lobes sometimes entire, but gener-
ally truncate and dentate or crenate ; in very short-lobed
forms the perianth may appear obliquely truncate and
multi-crenate. (This would be M. Sollyi, but the |)eri-
anth is sometimes distinctly tubular, the margin not
rarely trifid, the teeth entire. )

Dr. PrnxeH's other specimens gave equally variable results,
hence from his observations, as well as from my own, one nmst
draw the conclusion that there is only one species of Mystrope-
talon known, and that the dififerences observed do not even justify
the establishing of two or more varieties — one can only spealc of
forms.

When I had written out these notes and began to ])repare the
references to literature. I noticed in the recent part of the " Flora
Capensis " (Vol. V., Sect. II, 215) that Eichler had treated the
genus in one of the later volumes of De Candolle's " Prodomus,"
viz., vol. xvii, 125 (1873). On looking up his elaborate account
I fomid that he had surmised the identity of the two species, as
all the material at his disposal agreed more or less whh M.
Thomii. Eichler says :

" The distinctions drawn between the two species with
regard to the bracts are hardly borne out by Harvey's own
figures, and the remaining differences are not quite constant,
hence there is probably only one species."

284 GENUS MYSTROPETALON H ARV. . .( l!ALANOPIIORACE.Ti) .

pn

'■Vv-»'V\A^

12

15

13

XT'

14

MYSTROPETALOX THOMII HARV.

-'. Bud of male flower, with bracts.

2. Male flower, open, with bracts.

3. Female flower, with bracts.

4. The same, without bracts. ("Figs, r-4 from Marlotli. loc. cit.)

5. Female flower of M. Thomii, as drawn by Harvey.
6 and 7. Perianth of same (by Harvey).

8. Perianth of female flower of Harvey's .1/. Poleinanni.

9. Another form of female perianth.

10. Female flower of M. Soflyi (as drawn by Harvej'-Gibson).

11. Bracts of female flower in the fruiting stage.

I2-t8. Various forms of the margin of the perianth of the female flower.

GENtJS ' MYSTROFETALON ITAKV. (rALANOPHORACE.T-:) . 285

The questien arises, what is to be the name of the species ?
Ecklon and Zeyher distributed the plant as Balanophora cafensis
before Harvey had j)nbHshed his names, but as the authors did
not attach any description to their chstribution this name is not
vaHd.

In 1849 P''esl (Prague) examined a plant which consisted
only of the fruiting part of the spike, and considered the plant to
be dioecious. On the strength of his observation he thought it to
be generically distinct from Myslropctaloii and named it Ble-
pharochlaviyo capcnsis, adopting Zeyher's specific MSS. name.
Eichler {loc. cli., 125) surmises that the withered male portion of
Presl's plant liad fallen ofif, and thus deceived the author. This
need not have been the case, for several good-sized and fully deve-
loped specimens in my herbarium are entirely female, the apex
being acute, and not rounded and ol)tuse as in normal i^lants.

Under the circumstances the species must l)ear one of Harvey's
names, and as M. Tlwuiii stands first, we have to adopt this, the
other two names becoming" synomyms.

As the morphology and anatomy of thallus and shoot have
been fully dealt with by Harvey-Gibson, and as a detailed descrip-
tion of leaves and flowers is contained in the preceeding pages,
there is no need for giving a full description of the species here,
but I take this opportunity to add a few remarks in order to fill
up some gaps in former accounts.

^wa^om3'.-Harvey-Gibson speaks of a peculiar brown granular
deposit found in the tissues of all the organs of the plant, and
names this substance " mystrin." Having never noticed this
substance in the cells on former occasions (fresh material;, it
occurred to me that this so-called mystrin nu"ght have been j^ro-
duced by the preserving fluid (formaldehyde). This surmise was
foimd to be correct, for the contents of the cells of fresh plants
(shoot, leaves, bracts) are colourless, and the cell walls yellow or
brown. By placing pieces of the plant into dilute formaldehyde,
one coagtilates the protoplasm of the cells, and this becomes dark
brown in course of time. On the other hand, the cells of the fresh
plant, as well-dried pieces or pieces preserved in alcohol show
ntnnerous starch grains similar to those of wheat, bttt much
smaller and with a large nucleus.

Male Flower. — Colour. — There are nearly always three
colours i)resent. The claws are generally yellow, the base of the
spoon-shaped blades is carmine, and the blade itself dark claret
colour. Occasionally the carmine colotir extends to the claws, and
such plants look nuich darker ; in other cases the claws are yellow^
but the blade itself is carmine, the tip only being darker — such
plants appear much brighter.

Pollen. — This is always white and hmipy, the grains cubical,
but usually mixed with some pentagonal, or hexagonal, and more
rarely also tetrahedral grains.

.'eutale Flower. — Anterior bract. At flowering time always

286 GENUS MY.Ti'ROPETALON HARV. (bALANOPHORACE^.) .

longer than the other two, in shape narrow-oblong or lanceolate.
At the fruiting stage the bracteoles mostly considerably larger
than the anterior bract, but in flowers which were not fertilized
they may remain shorter or become of equal length only.

Perianth. — This is the most variable part of the flowers. It
is either globose or campanulate, or shortly-tubular or tubular
and cylindrical — its margin is either quite entire or finely denticu-
late, or slightly trilobed with the lobes truncate and entire or
denticulate, or it is distinctly trifid. the teeth being shortly trian-
gular and entire or bifid, or the lobes are lanceolate-acuminate,
or linear, and varying in length, forming one-eighth of the peri-
anth to half or two-thirds ; the anterior lobe of the tubular forms
is generally a little larger and recurved, wliile the other two are
erect.

Biology. — Flowers with a peculiar scent (not carrion-like),
secreting an ample supply of nectar, thereby attracting bees, flies,
and sunbirds (Nectarinia).

The fruitlets (pseudonuts) are carried by ants into their
underground nests for the sake of the oleiferous receptacle
(elaiosome).

Literature.

A nearly complete bibliography is given by Harvey-Gibson
on page 153 of his paijer. For our purpose it will be sufficient to
quote some of these i)ul)lications and add two others.

1. Harvey, \A\ H. — ( )n two s])ecies of a new South African

genus of the order RJiizanthecc of Blume. — Annals of
Nat. Hist., Vol n. No. 12, Tab. XIX and XX (1839).

2. Harvey, W. H. — " Flora Capensis," Vol. II, 573 (1862).

3. Wright, C. H.— In " Flora Capensis," Vol. V., Sect. II,

214 (I9I5)-

4. Presl, Carolus Bor. — " Epimelise Botanicse," Pragae, 24 S-

246 (1849).

5. Eichler, A. \A'.— In De Candolle's "Prodonms," XVII,

125 (1873)-

6. Harvey-Gibson, R. J. — Observations on the morphology

and anatomy of the genus Mystropetalon Harv. — Trans.
Linn. Soc. VTII, Part 4 (December, 1913).

7. Marloth, R.— The Flora of South Africa. Vol. I, Tab. 40,

(^913).

{Read July 4, 1917.)

SOME SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR PAPER-MAKING.

By James Leighton, F.R.H.S.

The present is a fitting- time to direct our attention to new
sources of supply of suitable material for the manufacture of
paper. The great scarcity of all kinds of paper is felt, and
prices have advanced from 200 per cent, to 600 per cent., ac-
cording to kinds required.

^lany of our indigenous and exotic plants are capable of
producing a good quality of paper, but we need to give our at-
tention only to those kinds that are of suitable qualitv and easily
obtainable in quantity.

In the early days of the industry, ]:)aper was made from rags,
worn-out garments, cuttings and waste from looms. Later it
became necessary to find other sources of supply, of which straw,
disentegrated wood and the Esparto (or Alfa Grass) of Spain
and North Africa are the chief. England uses very largely the
Esparto Grass, which grass is not used at all in America, where
about y$ per cent, of the pulp used is obtained from wood. The
tinest grades of paper are still made from flax and cotton, but
this auKjunts only to about 5 per cent, of the total. Plant fibre
when pure is a white semi-opaque suljstance, insoluble in all
ordinar}' solvents and chemically known as cellulose, the formula
being C,.Hi,jO- : that is. six equivalents of carbon, ten of hydro-
gen, and five of oxygen are united together to form the sub-
stance known by that name. These proportions are constant,
although the physical characteristics may difl:'er widely. Before
the cellulose can be made available for 'the manufacture of paper,
it must first be freed from its combination with the non-cellulose
constituents with which it is united to form the jjlant structure.
Cotton as well as the filiform silky bracts of the involucre of
Txpha are examples of pure cellulose. We are fortunate in hav-
ing large supplies of suitable material in the form of Tambookie
Grasses capable of making the larger lines of paper in daily use.
These grasses have been thoroughly examined by the Imperial
Institute and pronounced to be about ec|ual to the well-known
Esparto Grass.

I am indebted to Dr. A. Schulz, of Durban, for various sam-
ples of wrapping paper made from different species of Tam-
bookie Grasses obtained from various parts of South Africa, but
all species having the same characteristics. Bertrams, Limited,
of Edinl)urgh, who have prepared these samples, pronounce them
" Excellent," and state that " lliere is no doubt that this ma-
terial will ]n-oduce a reasonably strong jiaper without the assist-
ance of any stronger materials."

They state, however, that 'Tt must be kept in mind that pulp
made from any grass such as Tambookie cannot produce a strong
wrai^ping paper to com})are with ])aper made from hemp or the
like." They state that "■ the fibres in Tambookie are verv similar

288 SUITABLE MATERIALS FOR PAPER-MAKING.

to those ill Esparto, and Esparto will not make what is termed
a strong paper, but it does make a paper of a high quality.'.'
The samples were all made without the addition of any colouring
and show the material colour of the pulp. I believe one of the
grasses submitted to Bertrams was Andropogon Jiirfus L, a grass
common throughout the country and growing to a height of from
two to three feet.

Andropogon nardus L. var. uiarginains, Hack, a rigid coarse
grass, growing in dense tufts to a height of five or six feet, com-
mon on patches adjoining the forest and on flat, damp hill-tops
and moist places. Stock do not eat this grass, but it is in much
demand as a thatch, and if properly used with last 20 years. As
its name implies, it is pleasantly scented. The lemon grass of
India is a species of Andropogon. ?\'Ir. Jas. Simpson, of Port
Elizabeth, a practical papermaker, has kindly prepared paper
from a sample of this grass, which he pronounced to be first of
a number of good samples prepared by him. The menu cards
used at the last Port Elizabeth Agricultural Show Dinner were
made from this grass.

Cyperus textilis (common near rivers and wet localities
throughout the country) is capable of producing a very strong
paper, and would prove of great value for mixing with grass
pulp when an extra strong paper is required.

Another species of Cyperus, C. hcxangularc is probablv
not inferior to the last-named species as a pulp-producing plant.
This species grows in less moist places and more in the open than
the C. textilis, but it is usually a close neighbour. Like the
former species, five or ten per cent, of this fibre will do much
to strengthen the grass pulp.

Sansevieria thyrsiflora, a liliaceous plant fairly common as
an underbush throughout the Eastern Province, is capable of
producing a very fine paper, but it is of more value as a cordage
and will be dealt with under that heading. The Plantain pro-
duces a fine fibre suitable for the production of a strong paper.
The plant can be grown in many ])laces where the less hardy
Banana would not thrive.

Fleurya pcduncnlaris, a precumbent Nettle common in
moist places, makes a fine paper, but it is not found in great
quantities.

Agave americana has been introduced all over the country,
and there are large quantities now ready for use for producing
paper pulp. Mealie cob husks are of increasing value for paper-
making, and the centre of the cobs from which the mealies have
been separated, is used for the manufacture of celluloid and as a
material from which a kind of linoleum is prepared.

With so much valuable material at hand it should not be
difficult to supply a mill with pulp for the production of wrap-
ping papers and a bleached paper for newspapers.

Some suitable centre should be selected near the source of
supply, where pure water is plentiful and, if sufficient for motive

SUITABLE -MATERIALS FOR PAPER-MAKING. 289

power it would be desirable, otherwise the mill should be erected
where fuel is plentiful at some convenient centre.

In India a superior chemical paper made from local raw
material has, owing to its cheapness, ousted the foreign inferior
article out of the market. With the abundant supply of excellent
material at its disposal. South Africa should not stand behind
India in this respect, but should retain at least half of the large
sum of over £400,000 annually spent in the import of paper into
the Union.

The Audropogon nardus will produce close on 50 per cent.
of pulp. Pulp requires the addition of about 10 per cent, of
extra stuff, clay, size, etc., to mak-e it into paper.

I have dealt with but a few of the species of grasses and
other plants which might be utilized for the purpose of paper
production, but doubtless these are many other plants that will
prove of value for this purpose, especially among the Alonocotyle-
dons, and with such a plentiful supply of raw material it remains
to be seen whether South Africa will utilize its resources and
supply an industry which would be beneficial to commerce a? well
as a valuable asset to the country.

Read, July 3, 1917.)

Potash from Kelp in America. — It is stated that
kelp is now being harvested by one concern near San Diego in
California in quantity sufficient to supply three times the amount
of potash annually imported from Ciermany before the war. A
second plant of equal capacity has been established in the same
vicinity, and a smaller j)lant lias also been installed by the Govern-
ment. Every working day 1,500 tons of cut kelp are conveyed by
ship to a crushing mill. A sticky, gelatinous mass results, contain-
ing about 80 per cent, of water, and can be pumped through a
six-inch pipe to barges and thence to digestive tanks, of 50,000
capacity each. The material is subsequently put through pro-
cesses of evaporation.

Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen in New

Zealand. — The Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (65,
/S^), states that at the instance of the National Efficiency
Board, New Zealand Government, a project for preparing ni-
trates from the air by the agency of some of the large falls in
the south-western soiuids of New Zealand is imder consideration.
One of the simplest propositions is the utilisation of the Bowen
Falls, from which, it is estimated, energy could 'be produced at
the rate of one-fiftieth of a penny per unit. The Chief Electrical
Engineer to the New Zealand Post and Telegraph Dei^artment
doubts whether there is a more favoured spot in the w^rld than
Bowen Falls, and considers that nowhere in German}', Norway
and Italy can electricity be generated more cheaply.

THE PROPOSALS FOR A LEAGUE OF PEACE-
BRITISH AND AMERICAN.

By Rev. Ramsden Balmforth.

{Abstract.)

There is a considerable body of thoughtful opinion in every
country which is looking forward to some form of international
organization for the settlement of disputes between nations by
peaceful means. Indeed, if the present war does not issue in
some such organization, the immense sacrifices which have been
made during the last three years will have been made largely in
vain, and we, or rather humanity, will have suffered virtual
defeat. Before the war, this idea of the pacific settlement of
disputes by an appeal to the 'best reason and judgment of the
world had taken deep root in the minds of far-seeing statesmen
like Mr. ( iladstone ; and, since the war began, Mr. Asquith, Sir
Edward Grey, Mr. Balfour, President Wilson, Chancellor Beth-
mann-IIollweg, and eminent Russian and French statesmen have
explicitly declared themselves in favour of it. The Allies, in
their reply to President Wilson's Note, in January, 1917, declare
" that they associate themselves whole-heartedly with the plan
of creating a League of Nations to ensure peace and justice
throughout the world." The idea, therefore, is not Utopian.
Its realisation has come within the range of ])ractical politics.
As a result of this growing body of opinion two .societies have
been formed : one in the United States, called " The League to
Enforce Peace "; the other in Great Britain, called " The League
of Nations Society." The programme of the American Society
is as follows : —

" We believe it to be desirable for the United States to join
a League of Nations binding the signatories to the following- :

"First: All justiciable questions arising between the signa-
tory powers, n()t settled by negotiation, shall, subject to the
limitations of treaties, be submitted to a judicial tribunal for
hearing and judgment, both upon the merits and upon anv issue
as to its jurisdiction of the question. .

*' Second : All other questions arising between the signatories
and not settled by negotiation shall be submitted to a council of
conciliation for hearing, consideration, and recommendation.

"TJiird: The signatory powers shall jointly use forthwith
both their economic and military forces against any one of their
number that goes to war, or commits acts of hostility, against
another of the signatories before any question arising shall be
submitted as provided in the foregoing.

" Fourth : Conferences between the signatory powers shall
be held from time to time to formulate and codifv rules of inter-

PROPOSALS FOR A LEAGUE OF PEACE. 29 1

national law, which, unless some signatory shall signify its
dissent within a stated period, shall thereafter govern in the
decisions of the Judicial Tribunal mentioned in iVrticle i."

The programme of the English Society is very similar to
this, with one important difference, which is this: The American
League proposes only to use armed force against any one of the
signatory Powers, if such Power goes to war before the ques-
tion in dispute shall have been submitted to the Judicial Tribunal
or to a Council of Conciliation. It does not contemplate or
authorize the use of force in order to compel the acceptance or
observance of the judgment of the Tribunal or the Council.
There mav l)e good reasons for this. I have never heard of the
judgment of an International Arbitration Court being flouted,,
and it may be thought by the promoters of the League that the
reasoned judgment of the highest Judicial Tribunal in the world,
registering, as it were, the judgment of mankind, will carry such
overwhelming weight and authority as to ensure observance.
The British Society, however, goes a step further. It binds the
signatory Powers to accept, and. if necessary, enforce, the judg-
ments of the Judicial Tribunal, but not the awards of the
Council of Inquiry and Conciliation.

It is necessary, therefore, to bear clearly in mind the dif-
ference between the Judicial Tribunal and the Council of
Enquiry and Conciliation, and the different sorts of cases which
would be referred to them. The former would deal with what
are termed justiciable disputes — that is, disputes which arise out
of divergent interpretations of International Law or of the
various treaties made Ijetween nations. The latter would deal
with what are termed non-justiciable questions — that is, ques-
tions not covered by treaties or by International Law ; such ques-
tions, for example, as the exclusion of Japanese or Chinese
immigrants from Australia or America. Such questions are. of
course, much more inflammable than justiciable questions, and
it is just these which would test most severely the influence and
atithority of a League of Peace.

It should be emphasized that the pressure which might be
exercised by the League on any recalcitrant nation which re-
fused to abide by the decisions of the Judicial Tribunal need
not necessarily take the shape of armed force. The ]:)rohibition
of jxDStal and telegraphic communication ; the proliibition of
banking and stock exchange transactions in connection with
such State ; the prohibition of certain specified imports to, or
exports from, the recalcitrant State ; the laying of an embargo
on all ships within the jurisdiction of such State ; the payment
of all debts due to the citizens or to the Government of such
State to some duly constituted International Bureau until such
time as a settlement had been arrived at — these and many other
measures might be taken, and so render armed intervention un-
necessary. But such intervention is an emergency Avhich would
have to be provided for and would take the form of an Inter-
national Police force, acting, of course, not in the interests of any

292 PROPOSALS FOR A, LEAGUE OF PEACE.

one nation, but in the interests of the whole of the League, and
virtually, presumably, of the whole world.

The advantages of such a League would be: first, that
ample time would be given for investigation, consideration, and
discussion in any dispute that might arise. We should not be
rushed into war as Europe was rushed in 19 14. Second, both
the larger and the smaller nations of the world would have a
greater feeling of security than they have ever enjoyed before.
Third, the League would probably develop into a body for the
peaceful revision of treaties and the better development of In-
ternational Law, thus providing the means for growth, change,
and development, without which permanent peace is impossible.
Fourth, as the feeling of mutual trust spread, and fear was un-
dermined and destroyed, there would be an immense reduction
in the expenditure on armaments. Fifth, and perhaps most im-
portant of all, such a League would define once and for all
the meaning of the term " aggression." At present, in every
war, each belligerent always charges the other Avith being the
aggressor, and every belligerent government publishes Blue books
to prove that it is innocent of the horrid deed. Once get this
League of Peace in being, and the aggressor is defined once and
for ever— it would be the Power which refuses to put its dis-
putes to the judgment of the appointed representatives of the
collective reason of the world — i.e., to a World Court speciall}-
appointed for the impartial consideration of such disputes.

These proposals to establish a League of Peace have been
criticized and attacked by two sets of extremists — the extreme
militarists and the extreme pacifists. The extreme militarists
criticize them from the stand}X)int of State power and State
morality, and a rather crude and superficial interpretation of the
theory of the survival of the fittest applied to nations and peo-
ples— an interpretation which Darwin, Spencer, Huxley, and
most of the great evolutionists would repudiate. Humanity is at
a turning-point. We stand at the crossroads between the old
Machiavellian State-craft, with its theory of .State-power, and
a new order, with new forms of w^orld-government based on " the
paramount of authority of right reason." That is the alterna-
tive. It means either a descent into what is w^orse than brute
savagery, with all the forces of science and intellect harnessed
to that end, or an advance towards those forms of organization
which will make for survival towards a higher type of life.

The extreme pacifists criticize the proposed League of
Peace on the religious ground that all war and all preparation
for war is wrong. Those who hold this view — Buddha, St.
Francis, George Fox, Tolstoi, and many others — -are among the
salt of the earth, and their attitude of mind should not only be
respected but encouraged, for the more people there are in every
nation who have religious objections to war. the less likely are
we to have war. No system of ethics can justify the negation
of morality, the mass judgments, the brute methods of con-
troversy, and the sacrifice of the innocent for the misdeeds of

PRCM'OSALS FOR A LEAGUE DF PEACE. 2y3

the guilty \\-hich war involves. The League of Peace would be
a st€p-on the road to the abolition of these things by stibstituting
reason and law for brute force. Compulsory militarism and
compulsory schemes of defence must always- split on the rock
of religious or conscientious objection to the militar}^ oath and
its meaning. Even despotic Riissia dare not suppress Tolstoi.

The smaller nations of the world would have a direct in-
terest in promoting and supporting such a League, and though
they may not have a voice in framing the terms of peace, that
is no reason why the\' should not have a voice in the framing of
the terms which will make peace more secure in the future.
After the Crimean War, and also after the Rnsso-
Turkish War, non-belligerents as wel^ as belligerents were
admitted to the Peace Conference, and there is no
reason wliy the same course should not be followed
at the close of the present war, especially on those points which
concern the safety of all nations from aggression, and the crea-
tion of the machinery and the organization necessary for securing
the obserAance of the common will.

Four important considerations emerge from this discussion.
First, that the proposed League nmst not be a static body pre-
scribing a rigid and inelastic scheme. It must provide for the
development of nations, otherwise it will make the same fatal
mistake as that made by the Holy Alliance. It is probable that
it will develop into an International Council for the revision of
treaties, the development of International Law, and for the dis-
cussion of such questions as affect the relations of States and
peoples to each other, and the obstacles which stand in the way
of the natural and legitimate expansion of peoples. There is a
strong tendency towards Internationalism everywhere, as is
shown by the fact that while, in 1874, there were only 54 inter-
national organizations in existence, in 1914 there were 494.

Second, the formation of the League will probably lead to
a reduction and limitation of armaments, which have become a
crushing burden everywhere. Such limitation, in proportion to
population and territory, will probably become an arbitrable
issue.

Third, the question has been raised as to whether Germany
should be admitted as a member of such a League. It is a signi-
ficant fact that the founders of both the American and British
societies declare themselves strongly against the exclusion of
German}-. Her exclusion would mean two rival Leagues, with
endless intrigues and rivalries everywhere — the discredited
Balance of power over again. In looking towards the future we
have to separate the German people from the German militar-
ists. We must look both for a renovated Germany and a reno-
vated Europe.

Fourth, what eii'ect is the proposed League of Peace likely
to have Oiu the relation of native and Uncivilized peoples to the
civilized nations of the world? That question is of -speeiaF
interest to us in Soutl-, Africa, for we have not only otfr- owir

294 PROPOSALS FOR A LEAGUE OF PEACE.

native peoples to consider, but those vast aggregations of un-
civilized natives in Central, West, and East Africa. I believe
that a League of Peace would have a very decided influence for
_good in this matter, for it would set itself, by means of special
commissions, to work out what I may call a code of Interna-
tional Law or justice which might be applied throughout the
length and breadth of European-controlled Africa. Every
student of native policy knows that neither the individual pioneer
nor the pioneer commercial Company is to be trusted to deal out
justice to aboriginal natives. The early history of America, of
Australia, of South .Vfrica, and recent revelations in Putamay**,
the Congo, and German South-West Africa, afford overwhelm-
ing evidence of this. Hence it is of vital importance to us that
we should have a uniform European or International code of
justice on which the natives of Africa might reh' and to which
they could appeal. It is essential that we should get the edu-
cated native throughout the whole of Euro-Africa on our side,
and we can only do this by making .the standard of justice uni-
form, by making it high, and by welcoming, as far as possible,
the educated native into Advisory Coimcils. From this it would
not be a long step to a Euro-African inter-State Council and
arbitral Court of Appeal. If South, East, West, and Central
Africa are not to follow the terrible example of Europe, it is
essential that we win the confidence of the native races, and
that the missionary, the teacher, and the magistrate should be the
advance guard, not of the bayonet, the bomb, and the whiskey
barrel, but of the spirit as well as of the precepts of the New
Testament and the Golden Rule. In this connection, I might
remind you that International Conferences have already done
much to remove the horrors of the African slave trade, and to
ameliorate the treatment of native races in the various parts of
Africa which are controlled by European Governments.

We have seen, then, that the germ of the idea behind the
League of Peace is already in being. Not only that— it is at
work. Already, some 20 treaties, embodying the second article
of the proposed League, that is, that all disputed qitestions not
settled by negotiation shall be submitted to a Council of Inquiry
.and Conciliation for hearing, consideration, and recommendation,
are in force. They have been signed since the beginning of the
present war. The next step is a Permanent International Coun-
cil, with adequate sanctions for maintaining peace, and wath the
necessary deliberative bodies through which the public opinion
of the various nations of the world can find expression on moot
questions of national expansion and development as they affect
this or that section of mankind. I do not conceal from myself
the bafifling complexity and intricacy of the task which lies before
the statesmen of the world— of the national, racial, religious,
political, military, economic, and commercial problems which are
involved. To some people they will appear so baffling that they
will throw up their hands in despair. But I would remind you, not
-only of the frightful alternative, but of the responsibility which

PROPOSALS FOR A LEAGUE OF PEACE, 295

lies upon each one of us at this hour. For it does seem to me
that any man who, by voice or act, would endanger even an
attempt to appeal to the reason of the world, and who would
thereby help to continue the monstrous agonies and cruelties of
the present order — such a man, I say, hardly seems to me to
realize his resix^nsibilities as a human being. Either civilization
must make an end of war, or war will make an end of our
civilization, and a new race will arise, with stronger brains and
larger hearts, to carry forward the higher develoj^nient of
humanity.

{Finally reccifcd. August 3, 1917.)

Distances of the Dark Nebulae. — R. F. Sanford,
in Lick Obscn'otory Bulletin No. 297, discusses some relations of
the s})iral nebuhe to the Milky Way. Amongst these relations is the
distribution of spiral nel)uke in space. That dark nebuke exist
is evident from the occurrence of " Coal Sacks " and other dark
" holes " — patches devoid of stars in the very densest ])arts of the
Milky ^^'ay. It may be assumed that the apparent density of the
Milk}' Way structure is a function of the depth from Avhich the
stars of the galaxy are sending their light, hence the region of
the northern Coal Sack is one in which the system of light-giving
stars is comparatively near to us, and it follows that the obstruct-
ing matter, coal sack, or dark nebula, must be nearer still, and lies
well inside the galactic structure. The Milky Way, moreover, is
not a regular cloud belt across the sky, but is intersected by a ver}''
network of dark, irregular lanes. It is evident that to some extent
at least this network consists of obstructing matter analogous in
character to the dark nebulse.

TRAXS.\CTIOXS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, August T5th : Prof. L.
Crawford, M.A., D..Sc., F.R.S.E.. in the chair. — "Note on the resolvabUity
of the minors of a coinponnd deterniinant" : Sir Thomas Muir. — "The
Sfcctra of the Mixed Phthaleins and of the Sulphone-plitlialeins " : Dr. J.
Moir. The spectra of 18 mixed phthaleins, containing- two different plienol
residues, were described, and the laws governing the coloiir elucidated.
The method is an excellent analytical one for identifying phenols and
amines and their ethers and derivatives. The spectra of five sulphone-
phthaleins made from saccharin were also described, as well as six more
new derivatives of ordinary phenolphthalein. A new general formula
for the coloured suhstan.ces was put forward. — " Kiniherley Diamonds:
especially Cleai'o.i^e Diamonds" : Dr. J. R. Sutton. A general and statis-
tical account of the diamonds produced in the mines under the control of
the De Beers Company at Kimberley. The outstanding differences in size,
colour, and type, between the yields of the different mines were described.
The author advanced a view that many diamonds have been naturally
broken by the unequal expansion of themselves and mineral inclusions. It
appears that brown diamonds have shown a particular disposition to come
up broken from the deeper levels of the Wesselton mine, but the author
doubts the common assertion that brown or smoky diamonds are njarkedlv

2g6 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

liable to spontaneous fracture.— " Oy/ the Phaucyoi^amic Flora of the Divi-
sions of Vitenhage and Port Elizabeth " : Prof. S. Schonland. There are
2.290 species recorded, of which 98 are considered by the author not to be
native.- Thev are distributed over 128 natural orders and 712 genera.
Thefe are, however, still large tracts of this area unexplored. Most
of the locahties quoted are contained in about 600 square miles, while the
total area is about 2,500 square miles ; much of the remaining tract is,
however, covered by fairly uniform karroid succulent vegetation.—"/!
Lunar Period in the Rates of Evaporation and Rainfall. Dr. J. R.
Sutton. The author called attention to the possibility of a lunar influence
governing the evaporation from a water surface, and a lunar period in the
incidence of rainfall. As a result of hourly observations of evaporation
and rainfall during the 120 lunar months from August. 1899, to April,
1909. rainfall has its maximum frequency about the time of moonrise, and
its minimum just after moonset ; the rate of evaporation has a maximum
and minimum, respectively, shortly after the moon passes the meridian
above and below the horizon.

Wednesday, September 26th : L. A. Peringuey. D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S.,
President, in the chair. — ''Note on the Abnonnal Development of the
Genital Organs of Jasus Lalandii." W. von Bonde. The author recorded
a peculiar abnormality in a male Cape Crawfish. Three distinct genital
apertures were developed, two normalh". and a third abnormally, the
latter occurring on the fourth walking leg of the right side. — " On the
Colour-Octahedron as a Complexity : being suggestions towards a mathe-
matics of Colour": Dr. G H. Malan. Developing certain ideas of
Meinong. who contends that the possibility of representing certain well-
known facts in connection with colour-psychology by a diagram in the
form of an octahedron rests on the presence of certain a priori relations
incidental to the very nature of colour itself, the author examined Afein-
nong's contention critically in the light of modern mathematical logic.
]\Ieinong's theory, though true in its intention, is seriously at fault in its
practical conception of an a priori science of colour, because of the ignor-
ance of its author of the principles of mathematics as revealed by recent
researches of mathematicians. A more exact discrimination between the
standpoints of empirical psychology and mathematical science is necessi-
tated.— "A List of South African Fungi": Miss A. M. Bottomley-
A systematic compilation, with indexes of all the South African fungi in
the Government Mycological Herbarium. 276 genera and 800 named
species were recorded.

Wednesday, October T7th: A. J. Anderson, M.A.. M.?,., D.P.H.,
M.R.C.S.. Vice-President, in the chair. — " Spectrum phenomena in the
Chromium Compounds" : Dr. J. Moir. It has been found that although
aqiieous solutions of the chromium salts do not show any narrow charac-
teristic bands in the spectrum, yet when anyhydrous (or nearlv anhydrous)
solutions are used, the spectrum is crossed by narrow bands in the red
similar to what are seen in the ruby or emerald spectrum. The solutions
of chromium oxide in concentrated sulphuric and in fused metaphosphoric
acid have been investigated and the bands measured: they are very similar
to those seen in the emerald, but not absolutely identical ; whilst the bands
of the ruby, although similar in arrangement, are displaced into a region
of lower frequency. Both gem colours are due to chromium, but the
vil)rations are differently loaded (silica and beryllia against alumina). —
''Derivatives of the unknotvn ortho-para-phenolphthalein." — Dr. J. Moir,
Phthaleins in which one of the hydroxyl-groups is ortho- and the other
para- to the central carbon have been prepared from para-substituted
phenols with oxybenzoylhenzoic acid. They are like the common phtha-
leins, but their absorption-bands are broad, although in much the same
position. An attempt to make o-/'-phenolphthalein itself gave a produc*
very closely resembling common phenolphthalein, and a similar substance
was obtained by dehydrating oxybenzoylhenzoic acid alone with sulphuric
acid. Tliey are, nevertheless, probably not identical with common phenol-
phthalein. " Phenolphthaleinoxime " is not an oxime. but is the /'-oxyanil
of oxybenzophenonecarboxylic acid. Common phenolphthalein in normal
alkali is colourless when cold, but becomes pink on warming.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR.

By H. B. Fantham. M.A.. D.Sc, F.Z.S.,
Professor of Zoology, University College, Johannesburg.

(With 23 Text- figures.)

Filth, famine, and disease follow in the wake of war. These
three inimical agencies in previous wars have, proportionately,
taken heavier tolls of life than in the present war, owing both to
the measures taken to ensure greater general cleanliness, to pre-
ventive inoculation, and to the great strides in the exact diagnosis
of many maladies that previously were confused, the result being
more appropriate and rapid treatment.

Wherever large bodies of men are massed together on ground
that has been or is being fought over, unsanitary conditions arise.

These conditions may be due to the inevitable paucity or lack
of conveniences for cleanliness, or may result from the action of
the guns in turning up old graveyards, cesspits and the like, and
by forming craters, some deep, some shallow, wherein the
breeding of insects transmitting certain diseases can go on almost
without limitation. Many of the epidemic diseases that may arise
among the military forces can be roughly classified as intestinal
and blood maladies, and the actual causal agents are mostly
minute, bacteria and protozoa being among the chief.

Intestinal ailments have been prevalent in certain war zones,
especially those in or near the tropics. Preventive inoculations
against typhoid, paratyphoid A, paratyphoid B. and cholera have
had marked success in reducing the number of cases of such
diseases almost to a minimum. The various dysenteries and diar-
rhoeas, however, have caused much trouble. Some of these tnala-
dies have been due to the .Shiga and Flexner bacilli. Others have
been caused by Protozoa, including Entauia^ha, histolytica, the
agent of amoebic dysentery ; various flagellate Protozoa, such as
Giardia (Lamblia) intestinalis, Chilomastix (Telramitus) mesnili,
Trichouionas honiinis, Cercomonas hominis, and C. parva; sporo-
zoan parasites, such as Isospora bigemina and Eimeria stiedce;
and Ciliata, such as Balantidium coli.

The protozoal parasites of the blood include the causal agents
of human malaria and relapsing fever, as well as trypanosomes
that produce sleeping sickness in man and nagana in animals.

As this paper was read before a joint meeting of all the
sections of the Association, the various technical terms are
reduced to a minimum, and brief explanations are given of most
of those used.

Intestinal Protozoa.

During the war, I have personally examined many thousands
of diarrhoeic and dysenteric stools from soldiers who contracted
disease in Egypt, Gallipoli, Salonika, Mesopotamia, West Africa,
Fast Africa, and Flanders. In the dysenteries of protozoal origin,

298

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR.

one or more of the parasites named as occurring- in the intestine
were present, there beinis:- both single and multiple infections,
while there was a periodicity in the appearance of the different
parasites in the successive stools of the same patient.

Some of these intestinal Protozoa may now be briefly consi-
dered : —

Intestinal Entamcebae.

The best known of the protozoal dysenteries is that due to
Entantccha histolytica. This organism, which is polymorphic, is
the excitant of amoebic dysentery. Its life-history, as now
accepted, has been elucidated more particularly by Darling, and
by James and Deeks in the Panama Canal Zone, while its suc-
cessful treatment by emetine has been brought forward chiefly by
Rogers and by Vedder.

Entama'ba histolytica, sometimes called with doubtful accu-
racy Endam<£ha dysenteria:, is found in freshly voided stools that
are usually blood-stained and contain strings of mucus. The enta-

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

moebae when active show pseudopodia. at first chiefly composed of
ectoplasm. The endoplasm often contains ingested red blood-
corpuscles and other debris. The nucleus in large trophozoites
(or growing, feeding amoebre) may be seen with difficulty, but in
the form of the organism that used to be termed E. tetragena
the nucleus may show a karyosome and a centriole (Fig. i). The
entamoeba multiplies by binary fission, and occasionally by multiple
fission or schizogony, when four merozoites or daughter forms
are produced. Encystment occurs, and the round cysts finally
produced measure about io/a* to 15/1 in diameter, though strains
with small cysts about 7/a to io/a in diameter are known. The
mature cysts contain four nuclei, as well as darkly staining masses
variously known as chromidial, chromatoid, crystalloidal, or side-
rophile bodies (Fig. 2). The quadri-nucleate cyst is charac-
teristic, and is the infective stage. When the cyst is hardly mature

* I M denotes i micron, or i^?nT millimetre.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA JN RKLATIO?,' TO TlfE WAR. 299

and has only one nucleus, thai stnicture is relatively large, heing
as much as 5/a in dianiater.

In cases of relapse, or those that have remained witiioiit
treatment for a long time, a generation of smaller trophozoites
is associated with or replaces the larger ones, and these small
parasites tend to lie on or near the surface of the intestinal
mucosa. The smaller forms are the senile or pre-cyst generation
of Darling. The small entam»:eb?e were described separately by
Elmassian in 1909 as EntanKvba miunfa. the parasites being
obtained from a case of chronic dysentery in Paraguay. It is
interesting to remark that in subacute cases of amoebic dysentery,
with much mucus in the stools, but not much blood, the parasites
seen are of the type formerly described separately as Entanio'ba
tetragena.

A patient showing acute symptoms of dysentery is not neces-
sarily infective to others, for he is often merely harbouring the
large trophozoites of E. histolytica, which, by animal experiments,
have been shown usually to be non-infective when fed by the
mottth. The stools of convalescent and recovered patients may
still contain cysts, and so such persons may act as carriers of the
disease. Natives in tropical countries may act as carriers. Erit(p-
mocba histolytica is transmitted from man to man in the encysted
condition. Food and water contaminated with infected excrement
are common sources of infection, and dust contaminated with
f?ecal material may be infective. It has also been proved that
various flies can transfer the cysts of E. histolytica from place
to place. Flies feed on infected human excrement, and then visit
fruit, vegetables, nu"lk. etc., intended for human consumption.
The cysts of the eniamueba pass unharmed through the alimentary
canals of the insects and pass out with their excrement on to
the surface of human food, which is a source of infection to
persons partaking thereof.

It may be mentioned that rats can serve as reservoirs of
amoebic dysentery, as well as the human carriers already men-
tioned.

Ulcers due to Entauuvha histolytica occur in the large intes-
tine. The entamoebce may invade the liver, producing abscesses
in that organ. The subcutaneous injection of 10 to 12 grains of
emetine, in daily doses of i grain, will usually be foimd effica-
cious in anueobic dysentery, though the minuta form of the
parasite may be relatively resistant thereto. Emetine bismuthous
iodide by the mouth, in doses of 3 grains per day for 12 days, has
also given good results, as well as emetine hydrochloride by the
mouth.

The dysentery-producing entamoebre must be distinguished
from Entamoeba coli, a parasite which may be found in the ali-
mentary tracts of healthy persons. E. coli divides by binary
fission or sometimes by schizogony into eight daughter forms.
The cysts contain eight nuclei when mature (Fig. 3). They
measiu-e about 15/1 to 20/x in diameter, and may reach up to
30/i, and so are slightly larger than those of E.histolytica. The

300

PARASITIC PROT(»ZOA IN KPXATION TO THE WAR.

cyst wall of E. coli is often thicker than that of E. histolytica.
Chroniidial or chromatoid blocks are seldom present in the cysts
of E. coli, but if present, they frequently have pointed ends. Red
blood-corpuscles are rarely, if ever, ingested by the trophozoites
of E. coli.

It has recently been claimed that another non-pathogenic
species, E. nana, may occur in the human^ intestine. Its tropho-
zoite is small and vacuolated, containing ingested bacteria, and it
has a distinctive nuclear structure. Its cysts when mature are
usually quadrinucleate, being oval or sometimes spherical, and
measuring S^tt to iO/>t by y^i. to 8u Chromatoid bodies are said to
be absent from the cysts.

Free-living amceb?e of the Umax group may also be foimd
occasionallv in human stools.

Fig. 3.

Vv*. 4.

Intestinal Flagellates.

The Mastigophora found in stools have already been men-
tioned, and may now be briefly described.

TrichoiHOiias hominis or 7". intcstiiialis, as found in the
human intestine is pear-shaped, with three free flagella at the
blunt or anterior end. There is also a lateral flagellum attached
to the body by an undulating membrane, and an axial rod running
towards the pointed end of the body from near the anteriorly
placed nucleus (Fig. 4). The flagellate measures about io,u to
^5/* t)y 5/A to lOfjL. Rounded contracted forms may be found in
the faeces. Similar trichomonads occur in rodents, such as rats,
mice, and rabbits, and also in cats. Possibly rats and mice act
as reservoirs of the parasites. Trichomonads may also be water-
borne. Mello Leitao (1913) found T. hominis in cases of rela-
tively benign dysentery in Rio de Janeiro. Escomel (1913) found
152 cases of dysentery in Peru solely due to trichomonads. Tri-
chomonas was found by Fantham and Porter in some patients
from Gallipoli, while in certain cases at Suez this flagellate was
the cause of diarrhoea. With regard to treatment, the use of tur-

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN KKLATION TO THE WAR.

301

pentine. thynio) and calotiiel, methylene blue, and iodine enemata
have been recommended. Proph3daxis is directed to the pre-
vention of contamination of food or water supplies by infected
material, by possible insect carriers and b^rodents. and to the
isolation of human parasite carriers. Allied forms, referred to
the genera Tcira- and Pcnta-tricliomonas, may also occur in
stools.

Chilomasti.v {Tetmniitiis) nicsnili is pear-shaped and is
allied to Trichonioiias. but it i)ossesses a large cytostonie. or cell-
mouth, hence its former name of Macrostoma mcsnili. Three
anterior flagella are present, and a fourth one (perhaps attached
to an undulating membrane) vibrates in the cytostome (Fig. 5).
An axial rod or axostyle is absent. The parasite may measure 14//
by 7ja. Encystment occurs with the production of oval and lemon-
shaped cysts, "jix to lO/t long. (Figs. 6, 7). Tetramitus was found
in cases of diarrhoea among patients from .'Salonika. Gallipoli, and

Fig.

Eg}pt, especially from the hrst-named area. It has also been
found by Fantham and Porter in patients from German East
Africa. Pure infections have been seen, and mixed infections of
ChUomastix and Trichomonas have occurred in cases of persistent
diarrhoea. As regards treatment, iodine irrigations have been
tried, but ChUomastix is not easily eliminated.

Giardia- (Laiiihlia) iiitcslinalis exhibits bilateral symmetry.
Eight flagella. arranged in four pairs, are present. The axostyle
may be double, and two karyosomatic nuclei occur. A concave
sucking disc or cytostome is found on the under surface of the
parasite, and serves to attach it to the epithelial cells of the duode-
num or other part of the small intestine. Two parabasal granules,
situated usually about the middle of the axostyle, are noticed
(Fig. 8). The organism is from lOfi to 2i,u long, and 5/u, to
12//, broad. Multiplication by binary longitudinal and by multiple
fission occurs. Resistant cvsts are produced. These contain four

302

PARASITIC PRf/rOZOA IN KI:L ATION TO THE WAR.

nuclei, the remains of the axostyle and the parabasal bodies. (Fig.
9). The cysts serve to spread the parasite. Giardia was found
by Fantham and Porter to be very common in cases from Galll-
poli, 471 stools out of 3,800 examined by them in three months
containing this protozoon, while on 137 occasions it wa.s the o-ily
protozoon present. The stools were sometimes of peculiar colours
and consistencies, were often l)Uiky and diarrhoeic \n character,
and contained mucus. By enumerative methods it was found
that there was a greater uniformity of distribution of cysts in a
diarrhoeic stool than in a semi-solid or formed one. The number
of encysted parasites in a bulky stool was calculated by Porter to
be 14,400,000,000, the bulk of the stool being 950 c.c. In a stool
of average volume, the number was 324,000,000, the bulk being
150 c.c. while in a small stool of 50 c.c. bulk. 10,000.000 were

Fig. 9.

Fiji. S.

found. As each cyst. ])roduced from a suctorial flagellate form, is
resistant, efforts should be made to attack the flagellate form,
which is probably most numerous in the small intestine when cysts
are few in the faeces. The periodicity in the appearance of the
maximum crops of cysts varies slightly in different cases, the
period being about a fortnight in some and a little less in others.
There is a variation from day to day in the numbers of parasites
seen in the stools.

It has been shown experimentally by Fantham and Porter
that Giardia of human origin is pathogenic to kittens and to mice.
Parasite-free animals, fed with contaminated food, became ema-
ciated, sufl'ered from either persistent or recurrent diarrhoea, and
in most cases died. Erosion of the intestin.al cells by the Giardia
occurred, and blood and shed epithelial cells were found in the

PARASITTC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR. 3O3

faeces. Sections of the intestine showed epithehal erosion and
ulcerative conditions. Similar apjiearances were found in human
intestines examined post morfeiii. Rats, mice, and cats can act
as reservoirs of the disease. By contaminating the food or drink
of man with their excrement, they may propagate lanibliasis.
Mathis and others have found lanibliasis among patients whose
homes were infesied with rodents. Healthy human carriers are
also known. Bismuth salicylate was found elfective in reducing
the number of ])arasites, the cysts disappearing in some cases.
The virulence of diiferent strains of Giordia varies, and the cysts
can remain infective for at least three months.

Prozvazekia have been seen in human stools in various parts
of the world. Several species have been diiTerentiated, but on
slight differences which are really only variations. The flagellates
have an anterior flagellum and a lateral trailing flagellum. There
is a large blepharoplast internally, near the anterior end, in the
neighbourhood of a slight depression or cytostome.

Cercomonas hominis and C. parva occurred in some of the
dysenteric stools examined by me. They were not very common

l-tg. 10.

The parasites each had one flagellum anteriorly, and another
flagellum passed posteriorly over the body ; their nucleus was
distinct and their movements were active.

The complete elimination of the above-mentioned intestinal
flagellates from the body appears to be difficult, and the treatments
brieflv mentioned have not been particularly successful.

Intestinal Spiroch^.tes.

Spirochccta eurygyrata occurred in the stools of various
patients, many of whom suffered from intestinal disturbances.
Much morphological variation due to growth and division was
found. Spirocha-ta eurygyrata has tapering ends, measures up to
15/i. long, and is about 0.25/x broad. It contains a diff'use nucleus,
consisting of chromatinic granules (Fig. 10.) The number of
coils or waves is variable, de])ending on the rate of movement and
thickness of the organism. The formation of coccoid bodies was
seen. The number of spirochretes in a stool varies from day to

304

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR.

day. The more fluid the stool the greater was the number of
parasites in my experience.

Intestinal Sporozoa.

Two genera of intestinal Coccidia have been found to occur
among military patients. The organisms are Isospora bigemina
(var. ho minis) and Eimeria stiedcs, and the former was the more
common. Most of the patients liecame infected with the parasites
in Salonika, Egypt, or Gallipoli.

Isospora bigemina is a parasite of cats and dogs, and in these
animals the jejunum and ileum are most frequently infected. In
cases where I experimentally infected clean kittens with Isospora
of human origin, the jejunum and ileum showed most inflamma-
tion, the condition resembling that in man. Both schizogony
(asexual multiplication) and gametogony (production of sexual
forms) occur in the intestinal epithelium, and the submucosa may
become involved. The oocysts are oval and relatively frail in
appearance. They vary from 22)ix to 33/* long by i i/x, to
15/X broad in human fseces. Each oocyst produces two sporo-
blasts, each of which slowly gives rise to four sporozoites (Fig.

Fig. 11.

II ), a large residual mass being present in each sporocyst. Kittens
may act as reservoirs of Isospora. Oocysts found naturally in
cats may be larger and somewhat thicker walled than those in
man, the human parasite perhaps being a distinct species or al
least a new variety, for which the name ho minis is proposed.

Eimeria stiedce, sometimes still referred to under its old name
of Coccidiiini oviforme, is normally a parasite of the duodenum of
rabbits and hares. As it also infects the livers of these animals
and forms oocysts there, the eating of imperfectly cooked rabbit
livers may be one source 'of infection. Green foodstuffs contami-
nated by rabbit excrement are also infective. The oocysts are
oval, varying in length from 24/x, to 49/* , and in breadth from
12^ to 28ju. Each oocyst produces four oval sporoblasts which
become sporocysts, and each sporocyst gives rise to two sporo-
zoites (Fig. 12). The oocysts and spores serve for the infection of
new hosts. This parasite was not often seen in the Eastern war
zones.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RI^LATION TO THE WAR.

305

Coccidiosis in birds has been successfully treated by Fantham
with catechu, and this drug might be tried in cases of human
intestinal coccidiosis. Emetine may possibly be of service.

Intestinal Ciliates.

Balantidiiim coll is the chief causal agent of ciliate dysentery,
The parasite is relatively large, with an oval body, 6o/a to lOOfx
(or even 200/>t) long by 5o,a to jo^u broad. There is a funnel-
shaped cytostome or cell-mouth at one pole (Fig. 13). The

Fig. 13.

organism has a niacronucleus. a micronucleus. and two contractile
vacuoles. A cytopyge or cell-anus is also present. Occasionally
ingested red l)lood-corpuscles are found in the endoplasm. The
parasites form round cysts.

A smaller species, Balaiifidiinu minutitm, is also known.
These parasites were occasionally found last year ( 1916) on the
Macedonian front.

Balanti<ha occur in the large intestine of man, and in the
rectum of the domestic pig. The parasites are able to penetrate
the iniestinal walls of man an_d give rise to ulcers, though these
are rare in pigs. Epidemics have also been recorded in monkeys.

Cases of balantidiasis occur in various parts of the world,
especially among swineherds, farm hands dealing with pigs, pork
butchers and persons engaged in similar occupations. Personal
cleanliness of such people is, then, of the greatest im|X)rtance,

306 PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO i HE WAR.

while pig's should be confined, and not allowed to run in yards
and dwellings. In 1915. when in England, I wrote: " As swine-
herding is an important occupation in Serbia, the possibility of
balantidial dysentery among troops operating in that country
must be borne in mind." Afterwards, in 1916, I foimd a few
such cases in Macedonia.

With regard to treatment, thymol has been well recom-
mended.

Blood Protozoa.

Protozoa, parasitic in the blood, have caused much illness
among soldiers in certain theatres of war. I personally had
much experience in the diagnosis of blood parasites, especially
malaria, not only in England, but in Egypt, Salonika, and Malta,
and still more recently in South Africa. The organisms respon-
sible for malaria and relapsing fever, as well as trypanosomes
that may infect man and transport animals, are included among
the blood parasites or H^emoprotozoa.

Insects serve as the chief transmitters of protozoal diseases
of the blood. Thus, the various forms of malaria are carried
from man to man by certain mosquitos belonging to the Anophe-

Fig. 14. Fig. 15.

Hnse. Lice are responsible for the transmission of some forms
of relapsing fever, while ticks (which belong to the Arachnida,
another group of the Arthropoda) are responsible for the
spread of other forms of human spirochsetosis.

Blood Flagellates.

The parasites of the two forms of human sleeping sickness,
Trypanosoma gambiensc and T. rhodesiensc (with a posterior
nucleus in some of its stout forms), are transmitted by tsetse
flies, Glossina palpalis and G. morsitans respectively. T. brucei,
the causal agent of nagana, which is often fatal to transport
animals, is transmitted by G. morsitans.

Trypanosomes, whether of man or animals, possess an elon-
gate, snake-like or sinuous body. There is a principal nucleus,
and a second chromatin body, usually 'barlike, the blepharoplast.
The blepharoplast is at the posterior end of the body, and from
its vicinity a single flagellum arises, which passes over the body
and forms the edge of the locomotor organ, the undulating
membrane, bevond which the flagellum is continued for a varying
distance as a free flagellum (Fig. 14). Trypanosomes multiply

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR. 307

by loiigitucliiial tission, and consequently thinner and thicker forms
are found. Some of the stotit forms of T. rhodesiense have the
nucleus posterior, that is, near the blunt non-flagellar end of the
Ixjdy (I'ig. 15). As before mentioned, sleeping sickness is
spread by tsetse flies. At the same time note must be made of
natural reservoirs of human and animal trypanosomes. It has
been shown that various antelopes and other big game harbour
the trypanosomes of Rhodesian sleeping sickness, but are un-
aiit'ected thereby. The infection in the antelopes may not be a
very heavy one, but the bii;' game act as reservoirs whence
Glossincc can acquire trypanosomes that may be transmitted to
man with fatal results, thotigh fortunately the blood serum of
many persons is fatal to T. rhodesiense. Trypanosomiasis may
be controlled by various organic preparations of arsenic and anti-
mony, such as atoxyl, tartar emetic, etc.

Other protozoal diseases which may be encountered by the
Forces in India and Mesopotamia are due to the various species
of Lcishmania (such as L. donovani and L. tropiea), the causal

Fig. )7.

Fig. 10.

agents of kala-azar and of Oriental sore. The leishmaniases are
probably transmitted by insects, such as bugs, fleas, lice, mos-
quitos and sand flies, in which the Leishmania may pass through
a herpetomonad stage (Fig. 16). The non-flagellate, oval form
or Leishman-Donovan body, is the stage of the parasite com-
monly found in man (Fig. 17). Leishmaniases may be success-
fully treated by intravenous injections of tartar emetic.

The detection of these parasites and others of a similar
nature necessitates microscopical examination by highly trained
workers.

Blood Spirochetes.

The chief relapsing fevers are due to two principal
spirochajtes or varieties thereof. African tick fever is due to
Spiroclucta duttoni, and is transmitted 'by the tick Ornithodorus
monbata and allied species. European relapsing fever is due to
Spiroch'sta rccurrentis. and is transmitted by body lice. Each
spirocha^te has a sinuous elongate body, with a diffuse nucleus
of minute chromatin granules (compare Fig. 10). 6". duttoni in
human blood measures 12// to 16 /i, long, is 0.25 /t to 0.5 /x broad,
and has j)ointed ends. S. recurrentis varies from y fj. to 19 /x in

308 PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR.

length, being commonly about 12 fi or 13 /a. It is 0.25 /x broad
Multiplication of these parasites in the blood occurs by binary
lission.

Within the gut lumen and haemocoelic or body fluid of the
tick, Ornithodorus moubata, the spirochretes {S. dnitoni) break
up into a series of minute chromatinic granules known as coccoid
1/odies. Some of these granules pass into the thick white Mal-
pighian secretion, which is voided as excrement at the end of a
tick's meal of human blood. The Malpighian secretion is
diluted with the coxal fluid, and so is able to enter the wound
caused by the tick bite. The coccoid bodies thus received, to-
gether with some sinuous forms, develop into spirochsetes in
man. Coccoid bodies and perhaps some spirochaetes pass with
the haemocoelic fluid into the ovaries of the tick, infect the ova,
and the young ticks are born infected, and so are capable of pro-
ducing infection in man when they feed.

Spirochccta recurrentis in the louse breaks up similarly to 5".
ditftoni, but the mode of infection of man by way of the louse
diifers slightly. The irritation due to louse bites causes scratch-
ing and rubbing, and the lice are crushed on to the .skin. The
slight abrasion is quite sufficient to j^ermit the entry of the para-
site. Rubbing the eyes with contaminated fingers can produce
infection. Louse bite alone is not infective. Hereditary infec-
tion of lice with S. recurrentis or its varieties also occurs.

Spirochccta icterohivmorrhagi(e. a small organism, is respon-
sible for the febrile condition known as Weil's disease, " infec-
tious jaundice " or Mediterranean yellow fever, cases of which
have been found on most of the war fronts. The parasite is
found with difficulty in the circulating blood, but is much more
easily recognized by examination of the livers of sub-inoculated
animals such as guinea-pigs. Rats may act as natural reservoirs.
Trench nephritis is also stated by some to be due to a spirochaete.

Salvarsan or arseno-benzol and its modifications are effec-
tive in the treatment of spirocha^toses.

Blood Sporozoa.

The various malarial parasites are the principal .Sporozoa
found in the blood of man. The life-cycle of the malarial para-
sites is accomplished in two different hosts, man and certain
mosquitoes. In maiL the asexual development or multiple fis-
sion of the i)arasite occurs inside the red corpuscles of the blood,
and the succe>sive formations of asexual daughter parasites or
merozoites produce the attacks of fever. When the reaction of
man on the parasite causes the production of sexual forms, and
these are ingested by certain .A.nopheline mosquitos, the females
of which alone are aljle to suck blood, the sexual development
is completed in the body of the insect host, with the final pro-
duction of crowds of sporozoites or infective germs, that are
capable of infecting man. Should a parasitized female mosquito
suck the blood of man, tiie sporozoites are injected into the blood

PARASITIC PROTOZOA JN RliLATlOJS TO THE WAR,

309

along with the drop of sahva that accompanies the inthrustinj>-
of the insect's proboscis.

Three species of malarial parasites are usually recognized.

Plasmodium vivax, the parasite of the so-called benign or
simple tertian malaria, causes intermittent attacks of fever every
48 hours. Its trophozoite, at first ring-like (Fig. 18), is fragile
or flimsy in appearance and amteboid in shape. When fully
grown, it causes enlargement of the host erythrocyte or red
blood-corpuscle, in which SchiitTner's dots may be seen (Fig.
19). It multiplies in the circulating blood, giving rise to 15 to
20 merozoites (Figs. 20, 21 ). It produces somewhat fine pigment
granules, and has spherical gametocytes or sexual forms.

Plasmodium malaricc. the parasite of quartan malaria, is a
smaller organism, and does not cause enlargement of its host
corpuscle. It is somewhat compact with dense chromatin, and
forms dark, coarse pigment. It multiplies in the circulating
blood with the production of six to t>velve merozoites. Attacks
of fever occur every 72 hours.

Fig. IS.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

Laverania malaricc or Plasmodium falciparum is the parasite
of malignant tertian, subtertian or pernicious malaria. It usually
multiplies asexually in the internal organs, forming up to 32
merozoites. It has characteristic crescent-shaped gametocytes or
sexual forms (Figs. 22, 23). Coarse stippling, known as
Maurer's dots, may occur in the host erythrocyte. This parasite
is more severe in its efifects than the other malaria-producing
organisms, and the blocking of the minute capillaries of the brain
bv a sudden increase in numbers of the parasite is responsible

310

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR.

for the cerebral forms of malaria, which may have serious or
fatal consequences.

It is well known that malaria was usually considered to be
amenable to treatment with quinine. This dru.s^ is capable of
destroyin<T the asexual generations or merozoites in the blood, but
the crescentic sexual forms of the malignant tertian parasites are
often resistant to quinine. Recently it has been found that intra-
venous injections of tartar emetic were effective in destroying
crescentic gametocytes in man. I'he treatment has been tried on
a few cases in various places, and has recently been practised in
Johannesburg at the Wanderers' Hospital by Orenstein and
Watkins-Pitchford with excellent results. In the Balkan war
zone there was much malaria in certain valleys and low-lying
ground, and quinine-resistant strains of parasites occurred. Cere-
bral malaria also was relatively common. Anopheline mosquitoes
occurred in the neighbourhoods, and there is little doubt that
some of the native population served as reservoirs of the para-
sites.

Were there no Anophelines (which mosquitos are character-
ized by having spotted wings) there would be no malaria, since
the sexual cycle of the parasites is only completed in the body of
the female insect. The vniion of the malarial gametes (male
and female parasites) in the lumen of the mosquito's stomach,
with the production of a motile zygote or ookinete, is followed
by the passage of the latter through the wall of the insect's
stomach and encystment on the outside thereof. Enormous
multiplicative activity takes place within the oocyst, and results
in the formation of many sporozoites, which ultimately find their

Fig. 22.

way to the salivary glands of the insect, whence they are inocu-
lated into man with the saliva when the insect next feeds.

Anti-malarial campaigns take two forms: one against mos-
quitos, the other against the parasite in r-ic human host. Quinine
and organic salts of arsenic or antimony attack most of the forms
of the parasite in man. The main anti-mosquito measures in-
clude drainage of swamps and unnecessarv pools, removal of all
useless receptacles capable of containing water in which mos-
quitos may 'breed, the screening of all household receptacles,
and periodic oiling of water surfaces that cannot be screened.
The use of a mosquito net of fine mesh when sleeping is essen-

PARASITIC PROTOZOA IN RELATION TO THE WAR. 3II

tial. European houses should be situated well away from native
quarters, as native children can act as reservoirs of malarial
parasites, they themselves being relatively immune from their
effects. Former sufferers from malaria, who are still subject to
relapses, may be responsible for new malarial outbreaks, if they
live in districts where transmitting ;\nophelines occur.

In this paper, the importance of parasite carriers and reser-
voir hosts as potential dangers has been frequently mentioned.
But the very existence of such parasite carriers has also a re-
assuring side, in that il indicates that pathogenic properties among
parasitic Protozoa may work themselves out — in other words,
that non-pathogenic strains may be produced in time. This is
due to the gradual establishment of a mutual tolerance between
the host and the parasite, whereby they live in harmony with one
another. It is obviously to the disadvantage of the parasite to
bring about the premature death of its host, and therebv shorten
its own existence. Mutual tolerance, relative immunity and the
gradual production of non-])athogenic strains all afford illus-
trations of the Balance of Nature.

Figs. T, 2. — Uniamaha histolytica. Fig. i. Trophozoite showing nucleus

with karyosome and centriole. and two ingested red blood-corpuscles.

X 1..SOO. Fig 2, Typical cyst with four nuclei and chrnmatoid body.

X 2,000.
Fig- 3- — Entamoeba coli. Typical cyst with eight nuclei. X 2,000. »

Fig. 4. — Trichomonas hominis. Flagellate form. X 2,000.
Figs. 5 to 7. — Chilomastix mesnili. Fig. 5, Flagellate form. Fig. 6, Oval

cyst. Fig. 7. Lemon-shaped cyst. X 2,500.
Figs. 8, 9. — Giardia intesti)ialis. Fig. 8. Flagellate form. Fig. 9. Cyst.

X 2,500.
Fig. ID. — Spirochceta curygyrata. Motile form with diffuse nucleus.

X 3,000.
Fig. II. — Isospora hominis. Oocyst containing two sporocysts, each

containing four sporo^oitc.s. X t,ooo.
Fig. 12. — Eimeria sticdcr. Oocyst containing four sporocysts, each with

two sporozoites. X t.ooo.
Fig. 13. — BalantidiuDi coli. — Ciliate form. X 1,000.
Fig. 14. — Trypanosoma gainbicnse. Flagellate form. X 2.000.
Fig. 15. — Trypanosoma rhodesiense. Flagellate form with posterior

nucleus. X 2,000.
Figs. 16, 17. — Leishmania donovani. Fig. 16, Herpetomonad stage. Fig.

17, Non-tiagellate stage or Leishman-Donovan body. X 1,500.
Figs. 18 to 21. — Plasmodium vivax. — Fig. r8. Young ring form within red

blood-corpuscle. F'ig. 19. Amoeboid parasite showing pigment

Fig. 20, Multiplying form or schizont. Fig. 21, Cluster or rosette of

merozoites within the red blood-corpuscle X 3,ooo.
Figs. 22. 23. — Laverania malarice. Cre.scent-shaped gametocytes. Fig. 22,
Male gametocyte. Fig. 22,, Female gametocyte. X 3.000.

{Read July 3, 1917.)

Col. JAMES HYSLOP,

D.S.O., V.D., M.B, CM.., S.A-M.C.
(Born yd March, 1856; Died stii October, 1917).

The death of Colonel James Hyslop occurred at Pieter-
maritzburg on the 5th day of October, 19x7, after an illness of
about two months' duration.

From the beginning of the present war tJhe deceased had
been on active service, first as Assistant Director of Medical
Services at Pietermaritzburg. then Deputy Director at Durban,
where, owing to the strain of overwork, his constitution gave
way, and he was consequently released from military service
in- August, 1917, an invalid.

James Hyslop's career was both varied and interesting ; his
activities were manifold, and his sympathies wide.

He was born in 1856 at Kirkcudbright, Scotland, his father
being Mr. Thomas Hyslop, of Woodpark, Kirkcudbrightshire.
He was educated at Hutton Hall and at Edinburgh University,
where he was a pupil of Sir Wyville Thompson, of Lord Lister,
and temporarily of Huxley. He graduated in medicine at Edin-
burgh in 1879, subsequently specializing in mental diseases at
Berlin, Vienna, and Munich ; and he held an appointment as
Assistant at Morningside Asylum, near Edinburgh, under the
eminent authority Clouston, prior to his coming to Maritzburg
as Medical Superintendent of the Natal Government Asylum
(now known as the Mental Hospital) in 1882. He held the
latter position with distinction until his retiral in 1914.

On arriving in Maritzburg 'he found the asylum a small
building-, containing 71 patients, and perched on a bare hillside.
The inmates were, in the light of modern methods, comparatively
neglected ; but Hyslop set to w'ork, and in course of time the
patients were provided with comforts and amusements, the
accommodation was expanded, and the grounds assumed the
appearance of a cultivated and well-planted demesne, until when
he retired his charge had become one of the show places of the
town, with alas ! about ten times more patients than when he
took over 32 years before. Mention might be made here of the
long and able assistance rendered to Colonel Hyslop by Head
Attendant Davidson, one of the landmarks of the institution.

At an early age of 17 Hyslop's martial instincts led him
to join the volunteer movement in Scotland, and he was, with
only one short break on his arrival in South Africa, in military
service until his death.

At the outbreak of the last Boer war, Hyslop was
a Lieutenant-Colonel and O.C, of the Natal Medical Corps, and
was with our forces besieged in Ladysmith. For his excellent
services in that campaign he was rewarded with the D.S.O.

Unfortunately, a short time before the siege was raised, he
contracted enteric, which left him with a somewhat impaired
constitution. On his recovery he took up his military duties in
Maritzburir with his accustomed enthusiasm- As an evidence of

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 10.

JAMES HYSLOP.

COL. JAMES liVSLt)!'. .^13

\hc iraditional British spirit of the man, it was a satisfaction
lo him to know that he never once, during the whole Icnj^th of
the siege, took refuge in a (Uig-out.

Colonel llyslo)) next saw active se^rvice in the Native Rebel-
lion and the taking of Dinizulu. lie was speciaWy mentioned in
<lespatches for services rendered during this campaigii.

While mental and militarv work were the two leading occu-
pations of his career, the Cok>nel took the keenest interest in
medical ])olitics and medical affairs generally. He was President
of the Natal Aledical Council from its origin in 1896 until his
<leath, and for many years he was 1 'resident of the now defunct
Natal Health Board, and was a member of the Government
Commission on Plague. Me was also an active and prominent
memljer of the old Pietermaritzburg Medical Society, and of the
iocal branch of the British Medical Association, of both of
which he was elected I'resident more than once, and he was a
<lelegate to the animal meeting of the Association in Belfast in
i<)0(j. In 191 1 he was Medical C)fficer in charge of the .South
African Coronation Contingent.

In the formation of the South African Committee oi tlic
British Medical Asst>ciation he was one of the leading spirits,
and was elected a member by his branch.

As a host and orgain'zer he shone conspicuously when Presi-
dent of the South African Mechcal Congress, held in Pieter-
maritzburg in 1905. and when IM'esident of the South African
Association for the Advancement of Science on the occasion of
its session in the same town two years later. His presidential
address (vn the latter occasion was an admirable resume of the
advances luade by ai)i)lied science in general and by medical and
'-urgical science in particular. The affairs of the Association
liave had his wanuest supi)ort as a local rej^resentative on the
subsequent Councils of that body. The University of the Cape
O'f Good Hope also liad him as a member of its Council-

In the city of his adoption he identified himself with many
societies, having for their object the good of the town and the
elevation of its ])eople. Among these societies the following-
may be mentioned : The Botanical Society, the ITorticultural
Society, and the Natal Societ\-. ( f each of which he had been a
President.

Although ihe wrote many fugiti\e {>apers, only one work
claiius him as its author, " An Investigation into the .Anatomy
of the Central Nervous System."

Leading a life of strenuous endeavour as he did, he had
little time for mere amusement, but he loved a good play, and
the local theatre saw him not seldom.

In his younger days he greatly enjoyed a day's shcx^ttng,
and latterly he occasionally snatched an afternoon at golf or an
evening at bridge, both of which gamc^ he played " as well as
a gentleman should."

He .w^as the soul of generosity and hospitality, and many
ihere are who will remember with ])leasure the good times spent

V.

314 COL. JAMES ll\SL()l'.

in his company. His first wife was at one with him there, and
endeared herself to all; while his second wife, Lady Steel, widow
of a former Lord Provost of Ediaiburgh, sup{X)rted the tradi-
tions of his house and shed the lustre of her charming per-
sonality over all.

The Colonel iiiid the true di])lomaitic spirit. He instinct ivel\
kaiew how to gild the i)ill and dissipate oi>position ; whilst his
enthusiastic nature, tempered by a full measure of Caledonian
caution, was of the greatest advantage in all his undertakings.

The admiration of his ifriends found a fitting chmax when
they presented him with his jx^rtrait, executed by the well-known
Edinburgh artist, Fiddes Watt.

He was a persona grata in Government circles; and he
deserved well of his country, not only for his long, exemplary
and meritorious services, but by reason of the sacrifice of health
and life in the ])resent great struggle, .\lthough he died not vn
the turmoil of the front where he would have chosen to be, had
health and age |)ernfitted. yet he did ihis duty well like the gallant
soldier that he was. and South Africa and the h'mpire arc the
richer for his honouraljlc and distinguished career.

D. C. W.

OXANS- — Hr. C. Scott Garrett, in a recent issue of Science
Progress,^' calls attention to what he calls " one of the most im-
portant advances which have been made in the domain of
inorganic chemistry of recent years." The reference is to a
series of investigations made by A. i'. Lidov with regard t(j the
reactivity of carbon, the results of which have been printed
. in the Reports of the Kharkov Technol()gical Institute. f By
aid of a catahst he claims to have succeeded in getting carbon
to enter iiUo slow combination at the ordinary- icniperatiu'e. At
first a-monocyanogen and /J-monocyanogen are formed, and
these afterward give rise to a-oxan (OCN ) and /i^-oxan (ONC)
by the addition of oxygen. These oxans exhil)it an atialogy to car-
bon dioxide, and so Lidov was led to search for them wherever
carbon dioxide occurs in nature, i.e., in the air, in natural waters,
and in mineral carbonates. He found the density of the carbon
dioxide from calcite to be considerably lower than theorv re-
quires for CO^, while the gas from marble and dense limestones
was higher than, and that from chalk and aragonite approxi-
mately equal, to the theoretical value. The low density of the
calcite gas is due, it is suggested, to the j)resence of (|uantities
of a-oxan, calcite itself consisting largely of calcium oxanate. ]f
it be indeed the fact that calcite contains nitrogen, then agricul-
tural lime from that source will be specially useful as a fertilizer,
and at the same time a new vista would open up in connection
with the problem of the fixation of atmo.spheric nitrogen.

*(i9!7). 12 [45], 25-27. .

■\Joitrii. Soc. Chem. liid. (1916), 35 [24], 1260.

SES UTU ET Y M ( )L( )G Y.

Spkcimi-.n (Sesuto) Etymological Dictionary.

By Rev. William Alfred Norton, B.A.. B.Litt.

This paper does not profess to be a working dictionary for
beginners, it is submitted to the indulgent criticism: of Suto
scholars, and its method proposed to Bantuists as an apparatus
philologiciis for dealing with the several languages and dialects
(the former are said to number i8->. the latter 119), with a view
to comi)arison. The mere saving of space in reference would be
an enormous booiL similar to that ctmferred on classical criticism
by its now familiar apparatus.

The main princi])les, then, of my scheme are as follows: — •

1. The iieed of complete etymological arrangement, includ-
ing the derivative noinis. in .Suto. corrcs])onding to those of
Bryant and of KropF in Zulu-Kaffir respectively. This had been
done in (ierman by luidemann, l)ut not yet, so far as I. know,
in English. Endemann's great work has. of course, been in-
valuable, but he is not i)rimarily concerned with .South Suto.
with which 1 am most familiar. .\ly honoured friend, M.
Dieterlen. has most kindly allriwed me to make use of his labours
on this dialect, and 1 have also to thank the p;itience of a native
collea.uue (the Kev. X. Eeballo) and ])upi!s.

2. The princijjle so admiral)l\- worked out by i^ndemann of
the significance, even in Bantu, of tone, wliicli 1 have exhibited
by acute and grave accents for u]) and down tone res])ectively.
The same phenomenon ap])eai-s, not only vn other African
groups, especially the West African, and (as is well known)
in Chinese, 1)Ut also in English, and indeed in nearly all language.
Thus a school teacher cries, "'.Stand!" but " Sil '." W'e say to
a dog. " (let U])!" but " Lie down!" .So i'li Suto aka is to hover,
but i)/i'(/, lo lie, in the still lower sense of deceit: ala is to spread
below, but apa is to spread above (ep.. '" .S])read it there," but
"He spreaderh out the Jiearens" (lo-api in Chwana). Ripa is
to hide, and Jipa to dig in the earth. Inn Epa is to call. So
hOka (with broad ()) is solemn praise — in alarming contrast, as
missionaries know to their cost, with boka [q.v.), often spelt
without difference. Bopa is to sulk or (g) lower; both, again,
in tone and vowel distinct, except in si)elling. irom bopa, to moiild.
Again, ana is solemnly to swear (rememl)er the " tone " of
Hamlet's father's ghost), and ellka is to betray, but eka (with
shut e) is to wave (brandish), and Ekela to add. To return to
homelier levels. Eta rei:)resents " foot-slog." the humdrum of
native tra\el (not the romance of our rapid " travel " dc luxe],
and bota, the dull if soothing job of smoothing mud-plaster. 1
venture to commend this parallelism between these Suto tones
and our English ones to the notice of general ]ihilology. I ha\e
stated elsewhere that Bantu ])hilology, in coming itself to light,
tends to throw light in turn on general philological problems.
This extraordinary ])sychological permanence of tone, and pre-

:^lO SKSUTO KTVMOLOGY.

lixisteiicc, as it were, to all confusion of tongues, will shew tlK)So
who can agree that any good thing can come from the study
of things African how valuahle a stimulant such study is likely
to he in view of the whole science.

1 have gone on the principle that the tone of the stem
word runs through the derivatives. 1 am quite aware that there
are exceptions, hut they would take us too far to discuss at ])re-
sent. We shall, however, tlo well to suspect the affiliation, how-
ever likely seeming, when the tone differs, and this accouius for
a numher of the notes of interrogation with which 1 have he-
sprinkled the vocahulary. Ohserve that the up tone is the normal,
representing a straightforward idea; thus bOna, see! .Students
of Suto, at least, will fmd no real difficulty in following my
scheme of i)resentment, if they will rememher that our full p )int
stands for the stem i^'ord at the head of each para^rapli ; a
double full ])()int for the last-mentioned verhal derh"j1h-e. wlicn
there is any doiiht which is referred to.

.Single and dotihle hyphens change the final a of tlie stem-
verh or last verhal deri\ati\e respective!}' into the flexion inniie-
dately following the h\])heri.

This notation may puzzle for a few moments, hut i> easily
learned, and has the advantage of exhihiting ahout a -eventh of
the .Suto vocahles (with their meaning when not fairlv oh\iou>
fn_)m the etvmo!og\- indicated) \\:i") ii ihe S| .'ici' of \\\r-v ' v
pages. .Study of these will reveal not only the extraordinary
logical ciiaracter of these Bantu tongues, liul a wealth of (|ual'ni
ajjtness of expression in the derivatives. For example, take the
variations of bOpa, bea, bata. etsa, fahhi, or ala (cp. noale for
circumcision girl with the Xorthern use otf alofja and the (/alo
dances in Bondei). .Again, liow neatly beolu. to shave, connects
with bea. to place, of which il is the iiri'ersitire form — to ])til
your hair away! And how natural (alas!) is the coime.-tion
between ho I'etlia. to cudgel, heat, and lebe'tlie, strong drink. iUit
this a])])ears to he only in North .Sesuto : in I'asutoland (shall we
say?) there is no such connection whatevei'.

X.B.— As D does not occur in true Suto. and C is not used,

excei)t in the compound sound re])resented hy Mahille

hy cli (of which I |)ostpone the treatment), the alphahet

pa.sses, as will he noted, from B (double-Vipped) to R.

X. Xosa. Z, Zulu. Chw, Secoana.

I), Found in \lahille's Suto-English Dictionary, revised hy 1 L.

Dieterlen (not in E).
E, Found in Endemann's " Worterbuch der Sotho-spraclu- "

(not in D).
. means — repeat the stem-verb; - modify final vowel as given;
..repeat last derivative verb; --modifies its final vowel.
The 1110, bo, ho, le, se jirefixes are represented by their initials;

so also the no form of the first prefix. The chief iiotm

endings are in -i (active) and -o (passive). Derivative

nouns are bracketed. A\ and other vowels when repeated

are omitted from the veH>al derivative endings. Thus from

SESUTO ETYMOLOGY. 317

aha: { fi . : k-() ) ; -is (ni-i; h-O) : . .11 (y ) ; -ell . . /; -efts -olh

mean: {noalui; kaliO ) : aliisa (utoahisi; boahisO) : ahisaini

ahisanya; aliclla ahcUaua ahclctsa aholoha.
i) and E are broad \\)\vels. The verbal ending -eh is intrans.,

-oh and -ol inversitive ; -_v (producing sil)ilants) causative;

-el relative ; . ;; reciprocal.
Grave and acute accents mean lnw :md liigh tone, especial^' on

the stem syllable, and are mostly j:)reserved throughout the

derivatives.
N. stands for the dialect of the Northern Transvaal.

A.

N.B. — The noun class without syllabic prefix begins with k. n
is the sound of ucj in sing, as in Chw. (not as in Spanish).
Topographical exigencies prevent a better symbol.
tS = ts aspirated.
aba, deal om {I.iia broad flat dish D: l-)ixa)ia small pot with wide
opening. indi\idual ; k-0 ; s-() : s-i cheerful giver, .s". ) : -el
deal out to {iii-i: iii-oa sharer; s-() share; k-0 contribu-
tion) : -ol take away share (ma. one's lot) : abaka deal with
both hands.

S-d is a pit dug to unearth a jackal.
aho, settle (Pi. year, minimum settling time to get in harvesl ;
b-O building; l-O home; s-l good builder, s-() something
built. li-O building material; k-0) :-o// break up ; olh make
room : -ell settle long ; . . ;/ be at peace, settled : -elfsa shelter
(k-0 sunshade): -is let settle peaceably, make ])rosper(ms
{k-0 peace, kh-o competition); ..11 live near [k-O living'
in peace).
[ahla, open:] -olh become open D; neuter-pass, -oh and .»/ be
open ( w-o opening ; /. silly yawner) ; - -el gape at ; . mis gape :
-el slap: -ol judge (;;/-/, k-O). discern, conclude, lit.
separate; - -el condemn I). ac((uii K. !
(/-//(;, go tiredly.
\a-ka)na. be astonished X] -el interfere: -efs interru[)t. Cf.

okamela. oka.
oka. tell lies ( /.. s-B dissembler; (ra) ii-o, 2nd son born after
death of ist; (ra)n-oane daughter do.); -el lie for a pur-
pose (///-/) : -efs belie; ik . . be a hy])ocrite [m-i). make (One-
self tell lies for a ])urpose.
aka. hover, kiss (m-i; b. and s-i sens. obsc. ; b-o. j-o. haste; ka
j... at once; s-o moment; k-0 kiss); recipr. .n: .ny
reckon ! (k-O, brooding, reflection) ; .rets include (k-0 sum-
mary), e.g. lefu le ..ii. i)lague, all-including 'death.' -of
haste (k-(^} : -ol to eat nice food (s-o, <'.//., new grass) in
its season (iii-o), get fat.
dkha. swing, brandish: .rets come forward to catch: -ol throw

up, recook joala dregs.
ala, spread iin-o bedding; s. warrit)r's crest, flesh under the knee
1); i'l-e circumcision girl; ma-ali blood, with bo-m . . . iiiatle,
inabe good and ill luck) :-el ])lace stones under meat in pot.
or a|)ron of ^kin (kallane) imtler a child: . /// l)rood. sit.

3l8 SESUTO ETYMOLOGY.

approach, defend: . .is set (hen) : -oh go to pasture, spread-
ing over it, -os to herd ( k-0 ) : -ol collect bedding, run away
(so ' ])ursuit,' a dance): -im lend (ui-ifioa borrower): .fs
be level ; .mets ix)or out all at once.

For ahifii and joala, see ela measure.

dnia, touch (k-0): .ny compare: -oh, take away. ..ii, rcHeve,
answer, each other (both make k-0 robbery) : - -cl, receive
burden, etc. (k-0, reception as guest, adoption) : -ol, loose.

an-au-ya, exchange (reciprocal termination -ana reduplicated).

diui-fa, N become man}-; so ./.

ana, swear, establish by calling on a greater (h-c reflection. J-o
plan, k-0 oath) : . ;; remember each other; antSa take oalh.

dneha, spread to dry; aucla spread on; anctsa cans.; \k. bask D.

anya, suck, cf. haina to milk, and nya-nya: -cs suckle (;//-/);
-ets milk into one's mouth (also used of a big calf).

Le- ' Aoa' (' Xo ' ) is a N.Alosuto.

dpa (grip) be in distress, think nnich, talk of.

{Iclo-i cream, cirrus clouds) : .ra put on (esp. neck E) {'nn-0 .
fj-O ) ; -ol(l) uncover; -olots scatter; -es clothe: -oli be
clear, bare; -eloa of cloud l)reaking through.

\dra to open swelling:]

.ha answer, be open to caller's will; .-cl answer from distance:
-ol ..II (y) divide, separate, (k.O portion); -oh, anibela
breathe in vapour (inhale medicine ui-o), cf. Ora: athamch
warm oneself (m. where sun falls through opening, gentle
warmth of morning sun). From araha: k-0 k-clO.

cita multiply, S(^ -oloh, n. faia; -olos expand, tr. ; -is (k-0).

For (b) atanicla sec B.

afla make pros[)erous. strong (ina. strength. /». f(^lly ! .s\ palm of
hand) : -ch l)e ])rosperous.

B.

N.B. — The ])refixless class sharpens initial B to P.

Initial ino-h contracts into ;;;;;; written '>;/.

haka, let go, let stand, excite. ( /. cause, occasion, of time; .v.
room), so -cits -el give room, l-c is hemj). l.lla medicine for
ix>lygamists.

(ba)baila, avoid saying what should be said D (walk painfully).

baba-tsa, Z. -aa (move on high) l)e astonished ( p-0) , Cf. babala
N. be passionate (p-i bushbuck, D p.).

haba, hurt, l)e bitter, sick ( ';;;-i : ';;/. cattle sickness, /. and bo-batsi
nettle, p-o sickness, p-i and pabcla spot in eye, p-i roasted
corn): pass, be frost/'/^ten (l-O frostj: -cl burn (-<•/> be
hard, bark a stick, N. ; so S.Suto s-i scurf) : -w make bitter,
cause frost; .scl hurt.

hahi, count, so read (by ])()inting to letters), but in ZX bhala is
to write (p-0 ; 'ni. I. s\K)i of colour ; p. scar on leg of one who
sits too near the fire, a small thing) : -cl promise {p-(an)O).
In some dialects ( /. is the new m(K>n). .;n is used of the new
moon's a[)})earance as a strip of colour. (/. is also dry

* Seam of a curtain ; hut now, way of putting on dress.
t Trinkets, especially on neck (originally).

SESUTO ETYMOLOGY. 3^9

flats, cf.) balla to liave drought (/.). -is dry in sun, l{pali)2
waste veld. Balola is to be bitter, cf. Chw. balcla feel
choking in throat; balolla slander openly {p-{an)o denying
relationship --mutually): halloa choke in nose: balolia be
full (in belly), p-0. Balla is also to put lathes (l-O, p-0)
on a home i I ebali is a mark on face, place over door E,
lehalcoa, gums), Baballa (p-0), care for, reckon for, is per-
haps connected.

^nianc is X'uni-bauc liiihtning, cp. {panya)2 to blink.

hapa, stitch or weave through, Z. bamba (ma. neighbourhood) :
.n(y) be (put) over against: ./ wrestle, play (p-i, p-o) :
--is drill (p-0 also play; .// make game of : r/>. .ts sell
{'m-i trader, p-0 trade), -ol peg down skin, spread net;
neut. pass, -oh.

Ihita ( for X. haihda), congeal, (of water) freeze.

bdta, smite flat [1-0 floor, l-c vegetable; j-. groper. hoofless beast
like dog, cat, with dim.: l-ooa place, (luarter): .// lie flat
{s-i sentrvj : [.iita in N means lie prone, hence | /., heat,
.;/v run beast unmercifullv ('I'cntrc a trnu\ cf. .)ii), throw
to ground: .ol run z'cry fast: -ell hit wound on head; -ol
hammer spear, etc., to sharpen, -cli plaster a wall ; -ololi fall
oft' do. ; -cl trample earth floor, se-bafolo is a place
beaten hard. cf. pafaolo. Pafolo is a hard stone to sharpen
millstones.

Ho re ' hatha' \ is to arrive suddenly: mab .is feet turned out.

hdtla. seek (p-0. .m-o edge. c.y.. of l)ayonet ; /. open forum) -.-is
hel}) seek ; - -/.y seek carefullw

-be, bad: /. famine; //. ox given in condolence to sick chief, or
slain for buriers, ./ become angry {p-0 violence) ; .fel
(s-l hotheail ) ; fis(an) &c. .fol act violently; . .k speak
angrily.

bea, place (lua-o, where a thing is placed; s-0 something
placed to bewitch, drug, target, prize: p-0 placing: peo seed,
has both vowels shut): .;; unite, . ny arrange (hair, etc.);
-hell have ])atience ; -cits engage yt)ung bride : -oil -olts /unlade.
LebliJilO is a fool, 'Mei is one wdio gives land from the
chief, -is to race-horses (p-0, l-O): //^rt? do homage (b-O),
L-oaiia a true man; -ol. shave ('m-l. I.), be., also (s-o
razor, i.q. lehare ).
oeha, report, esp. death (p-O. p-i, 'in-O. s-0 oft'ering to chief

in kind, esp. corn, on rei)ort of councillor's death).
hlika, cut flesh in strips (also to master, tame), Pllkauli crack on
lips ; ' niekeloa flesh on ox-ribs ; le-bEkO nose spoon,
se-bEkaell Ijodkin : bRkEnya glitter. IpEka fight against
feeling. Sc-bEka ox killed for sale.
heka, bring home bride: .r(o)a to coui)le. of ram> and he-goats

(and female ).
beta boil (ma. dandyism; p-0 heart; le-hele male antelope):
bchclO, haste, a quail; .el be anxious, doubtful, ignorant
(P--0).

320 SESUTO IITVMOLOCY

bela, drive home : . nya revenge.

For Ic-hElE, v. tsoala. LebElE is Kalircorn. 'Melc is l)ody
{mob . . ), seb.. . is self, but 'inElE is teat, leibElE )2 manna-
corn, wild plant with edible grape.

bElElia, take on back, lie in i p-i, p-O) : -is helj) delivery, so in-i
ip-O) mid\vife(ry) : beUlsa lade i p. packbeast, p-()
burden ) .

besa ( ? from bcia). roast, make tire, 'ui-i cook: s-O hearth; l-c
milk; {'M . April): {besa) 2 be very hot, run slowly; -dets
put more fuel under {'m-O smoke medicine, piece of meat
cut off roast on fire).

bEuya, glimmer, (l.nE ornament), bE.iitSa polish.

le-bEpa, jxjtsherd, clan.

bEra, talk foolishly {l.nE). Also hEbEra. ?-eh overcooked,
spoilt. Cf. bEclia si)eak nuich (b-c chatterbox), perola be
loud, etc.

beta, choke, ra\ish (')u-oaiic surprise attack: s-e liver, endm-ance,
P-O drowning j, .pelo take cotirage : ./; icrcstle: -ellcts coerce,
cf. pE.ta ])inch. (bEta)2 C7/r<.'. murmur {b-E. <uitpoured
blcKid ; l-E spleen). BKtlia in X i^ to cudgel. ? hence /-/T
.strong beer.

betsa, strike, throw (.v. weai)on ; p-{aii )(). e.g.. a duel ; 'lu-i guard,
s-i good shot). ? l-O crack.

betla, hew (cr/. tsi'la, s. block, '/;/-/' carpenter).

bEba, be (juict:, shoot far, -el wander round; -is make light, help
oneself, -ol diminish, (s-E^ abscess, /;-£ lightness. Also b-O ) .

bo-bl, wasp, nia-bife ragged speech. ';;///(/ i^ath.

bitsa, call ( 1-0 name ; j-. ( magic ) plant ; p-O assembly ) : -oft
make nameless, dishonour: bilctsa {p-O invitation):

bilictsa, cover, brood.

se-bilO, antimony, pllo and du])l. black powder.

bilika. roll, writhe: so.)i{x)[ Bilolia eddv, ferment, cau>. in-.w:
bitolia emerge; bitoloha retch. ('mUl bill great multitude).

bina. sing, dance ('m-0 song, s-i singer) : -tSa play instrument.

bipa, smother, hide (b-o {s-clo) hole (for Kafircorn) ; s-o cur-
tain) :

bipa. spring U]), swell ('iii-O swelling; /-/'belly-fat; ina-bipjoa
ifermentiui!' Kafircorn) : -el blow uj), pass, be stoppeil up.

(bit la N) make stone-heap grave (/.).

le-bo, in. (brak) earth; j-. inside of animal, cf. bopa.

boca return { ina-0 people coming back; 'm.nE crab; .s-. thresh-
ing floor; 'moi. perennial grass \l{b)b0ea fleece, hair. /.
siiHgle hair, not of head], also /. in N. — W. wind, but in
S. — N.. whence Basuto came; p. flat treeless country, ( ?)
Kalahari; (b)boi(f) fear. .fis. frighten. 'iiioifO fright 1.
BOiba be fuddled.?

boela (rel. of preceding), pass, become rich: boclla turn l)ack
and back Cin-i yearly calving cow) : boclan(y)a(p-0 re-
conciliation) : boelctsa fetch back (/. one who practices a
thing) : boctsa bring back, enrich (";;/-/ appeaser). Biisa
make turn, rule {'m-(is)\. 'in -iioa. 'iii-o. 'ui.prlo medicine

SILSUTU ETYMOLOCA'. .V^l

against weariness): -(cDcls {ik with // ) brini^- back: -oloh

get undone again, cans, -olos also to avenge oneself ('in-i) :

biisctsana give back to one another.
boha, wane, humble oneself: (Ic-biiba cattle-disease; Ic-bobo

kindness) -el shew do. -orana remain still, siiiver : -osei.

-othcha smile, -ol mo-Aw {s. yellow wasp).
bochoha. to peel after a burn [sc-bochc stone, etc., with holes j.
bOfa bind, iuspau (I. pack-beast), /-/: grass-band. 'm-O u'irth.

also s-0): /■/>., bof{el)aua recip. : -cU intens. -oil outsi>an.

- -is helj) in this; refl., and of -ollcl, and recip. of last.
boha, look at, admire {s-oli watchman). ? boliola bark.
se-bOhO ab.scess in neck. (^E).
bOka, praise, thanks {s-o totem, cry). ..not be able to liold

up {l-O-O s])eakin,i:' with a big voice, awkw^ardness ).
boka^ rake, be in straits Ijetween two things {'m. feast, meeting,

k'am . . . the whole lot ; s-n sweet fattening urass ; 'm-o

chaff) : commit forn. ('///-/). -ots handle, e.g., snuff. Phoka

fan (s-i) cf. foka. -ell rake together. Scboko i> a worm.
bOla, rot (iiia-E feni. pudenda; s-it foul carcase, b-ii cf. Ic-bOUa

great damage).
bolaea, kill {'m-i; s-i also vampire, s-0 w-eapon, sc-bolaoa dead

beast, le-bolE dead thing).
bol{cl)a, speak of; with //, tell to. Bi'ia talk (p-O). -is (p-0\,

..II (p-0) -«'/(/) plead for. But bit{h)a skin.
b6l{o)la go out [to rites, war. journe\ | [l-O circumcision. ';/(-/

one taking part in it).
le-bolu, dewlap, cf. poii-nama. Chw., and Z. imbo:'it inner liji

ediie, ?.s'. . . nmip, cp. s(bclc)~.
boloka, keep ( 'iii-oa ward ; s-clO , b . . . . place of kee]:)ing, grave i.
se-bono rump, anus. A' iiin-biiini.

bOna see {l-B lamp; s-O \ ision i -rl inosali Imtk at wcnnan im-
purely, bonya smile (l-O).
bOpa. sulk with tight, growl; so -ololi.
bopa, mould ('///-/ 'in-iioa, 'm-O manner; s-i mould(er), oven:

/-() bank; iiio-b6(it) soil, cp. Icbii brackland, ? scbii cowgut

s-cl() form, mother! p... womb).
bOra, be thin.

bora, lie down {l-o dung lieap ) ; . /;/ lie flat.
bOta, smoothe a wall (/., .s\ l)ig heap, 'm. mass, l-c a l).'il ; 'r'rnotc

larch; 'inofoboto heaj) of earth, also sc(boto)2.
botlia. lie (e)f cows after feK>d), cp. phiitha.
biila, open {s-0 foul wounds), -itl blow ( /sc-bitbi(laiia nuisket ) :

--el, i.(|. biilsocla {s-0 l)ellow<. ';// . leting) ; iiloli get blown

up.
buretsa crush instantly ( lonomatop .).
boiilela be jealous ((^f tlie man); -is cans. Cuckn, > bitba H,

bitbu E.
bittsoa ( Viiila) Ije made to open, ripen {l.pelc. ist fruits, 'm-eki

strong leting).
uiiitla hare: ci). .botlaiia small, and Icb . . . calf unweam-d.

\22 SKSL'TO KTVNrr)r.()<;v.

E.

N.B. — Pretixless mmns take K like the A's.

As pron. has up tone; as affirmative, down i me. Both !ihut.

rba. swinji', rock (/. dove), .mahlo hecoine dizzy, -is dazzle, -iH
\va\e.

t'bola peel, (.n), -c'l peel, -ots finish ott new pot; eboha get
peeled.

eEna, 3rd pers. pron. [cua self, b. relatives, 5"?*.'. cnyewe).

[EfEla, guard) s-0 what lasts, scEfo hauberk.

ehi-ee in songs, a refrain.

eisa, despise

eka, cut the navel string ( ;/;. comrade, E).

Eka, betray, trick (w. jugglery, m-i, m-o deception), .11, -is, ik..

eka, brandish, -el carry on the hand, move, ebb (of flood).

Ekela {Okehi), Eketsa add, ik ;;..: -eh increase, ekelletsa

add to. -ets give more to, . n .

{e)Ela, run clear, or become .so {m-i water-furrow, line, j--? beam
of light or wisdom; -is make shine, dilute (cf. ma-etsi,
metsi water), -elloa is {Ela)2 meditate deeply, e.g. of a
dying man, cf. m-oane sick-fancies: l-mic fringed skin of
warriors, cf. se-ala? { El)Eletsa advise (;;;-/. s-o reflec-
tion) : -eh be advisable; -» recipr.

Ela to measure; .tlhoko give thought ;;/. mass, s-o quantity, i-E
proverb ).

eliinola yawn, Z. ."^amnla.

Ema stand (/. horde, .y. word, standing, congregation : but seema
is from ima) \ .halo mount (;/?. nasi one standing alone:
l-o stature, s-0 b-0 also) ; -is --ets, ik . . place before one-
self -el. . .11 agree, -ell oppose, , .thoko stand aside, . .n
fight; .el insist on, ik-el excuse self (ni-i, b-Oj.

Emara conceive, ef. ania: -is, -el soon after childbirth; .matSe-
hotiy while unmarried. Emola is the beginning of emara,
-oh go from behind pregnant.

Ena be rich (MoEno). entSa. (Rut nio-emi younger brother
V.S.) Z. be thick with bushes; ( ea na).

eo is the pron., eO the adv. " there " hOna, l)Ut subs. pron. eOna.

Epa dig, -el bury (m.khuti hartebeest-buU, from action of fore-
feet ; m-o mine) -oil root out, -el, ik. . dig- out for self.

Epa sing, call together, (.s-. pitsO chief).

Eph(f)ola rescue burning meat, help; .;;,• ik.: ephoha recover.

Eta, tra-i'el {i-o ; m-i : m-o child's skin-hair, sinew thread, m.
broken pot) -is rioetsi take bride to groom; .mot ho pele,
' prevent ' ; -el visit. . . ;; ; -ell pele ])recede : - -ets pele send on
before ; so with one /; ik. . pele push in front.

Jitha, reel. cthimola sneeze, ( m-o cottony plant, which makes
sneeze).

Etla? (m.. m-o care, m-o also custom) ; -oh he scattered.

etsa make [likej. treat ( rom Eld?) {m. libe sinner. m-E mane);
.;( do to one another («i..best man, bridesmaid) ; k., - -is
j^retend. -is teach, imitate, - -11 : -eh be practicable, -ets(n),

SKSUTO HTVMOLoC.y. 323

-oil, undo, .-ell undoable ; -oloh liable to come uiulotie,
.halo happen, X: .hats, etselletsa cahiminate. .;/. ik.

V.

N.B. — The PVeiixIess class changes F into I'll.

fa give away, not mere ii{a)-ea (/. inheritance; ui-lio-Ioli
Triller, pi. inc.. sc-fo-ntoanc, strong person --*' making
war "; s.hatlio muniticent ; ipUa ; -is give out cattle (;;/a. .)
to keep, - -cfs; .11 be generous (m- -E yellow wood tree ), - -v
-miss ; .iitS make miss, betray ; . noil retake gift, if^hrlla feed.

fafa give away, carelessly, lie or be light ; -oh grow tall, {fafola
one well set up. sprain oneself), //. string of beads, thin con-
gregation.

fd{le)? indeed (lit. there)?

[fafara, i.q. fcfcra winnow | : -cis go here and there cjuicklv.

|;V fafdla, l)ecome light | fafatsa sprinkle {l..iic showti" i.q.
lefai).

fafiella. patch up thatch.

falia, pour into, i.q., X faka stuff [ui-0 viaticum, .s-. l)ead) : -oil
take down, Z. pakitla (castrate horned cattle).

fahla, dazzle (/. twins, triplet: [Sc-Aoa. in pi. lungs |, consump-
tion) ; .n offend each other (m.. olive tree) ; .-eh l)e scandal-
ized (s-0 'face) ; -ol remove trouble from eye or heart,
.crush grain on mill, ho re. add little more water in i>ot.
..rain slightly, .hanya hold several spears, sticks. .ts
speak badly to D, but \l weep, stamp half -ripe corn, wet
half-ground do. -ohets bless by rubbing with sehok<K e.g.,
with lion's skin, in the case of ihe lion clan. -i>loh to get
open ears, eyes; -oil imstoj), open.

fdkd. ti> set in {s-0 hail?)

fdla scrajxj (s. unburnt big corn pot made of nuid and mist,
s.hohOhO Venus), /-/" erasion, s-i scraper (of ox hide), s-o
iron scraper: also phako. fatsa ache (/. S]>linter, cf. mofacha
a scar), .n .tsa exterminate, pour out I)Iood, b\- flux, or
abortion in ist m<)nth.

fald threaten (/. i.q. X ipliala vagabond).

The following are ob.servations I venture to make, in supple-
ment to the Mabille-Dieterleu dictionary, and largely suggested

by pjidemami : —

faliineha, watch (A. l>link) ? connected with fdla.'^

* Other derivatives l-oa a bird, -iineh watch (N. blink), -ol
be loud (of a horn). To the glee of the French missionaries
in Basutoland, Meinhof has translated letSoala barbc/ as
Barhier, and derived from fala by his rules of phonetic chan,2:e.
1 venture to think, however, that tfie word is really so connected,
.the ' antenna?,' from which the fish takes its name, scraping
the ooze as truly as a barber does the face. If so, the German
scholar's philology was l)etter than his eyesight, and the quaint
mistake, while shewing ignorance of the ]>articular idioin. winild
testify to the surctiess of his i)liilo!ouical svstem.

3-24 Sr':SUTO ETYM()LO<iY.

fdiiiola (01). />//... l)lurtj >i)rca(l nostrils, which -oh (go oiu <>u

both sides).
fdnya, perceiAe amiss; . .hesitate D. Some see a connection witli

the previous word, for the sense organs have to make effort

when their \V(.rk is (hfficiilt. Rut -eh is Z. phanyckha hang

( -k)ose, phaphama). Ph . . . is to roam or overflow D, cp.

phenya seek excrywhere.
fdpa wind sonu-tliing rountl { in Jiloh.o. head band, crown; m-o

sphce. IJ; s-O rings, binchng, cp. lerapo) : .n recipr. quarrel.

be cross {s--o is tlie Cross); -oh go out, lose way, (/'.

where one leaves the road E) ; o/ unwind, neut, -olh.
fdphd. praise, rp. ipha)2lhti cartss. F.ut lefjpha. a (|uarter of a

lown.
fara, hold child in lap (/..v, sprig of corn, crooked thing, e.q..

horn D; l-n cleft, and .\-(* pharii i), s-o groin or fork of tree

E), cp. ph . . . ( .;/; (S; . // also s(|uat ) . .ai)pear from several

directions at once; ..v be dispersed D.
fata hollow out {s. s-Jl nek E, lu-e ox killed for hunger; but

lefdfd digging-stick, and .v-E tree, c]). -ol split oflf, and

fdfsa chi]), /// . s])ike in ganie-])it.
lePatla ' Baldhead ' (the coni]>iler's native name), b. baldness.

s. forehead, are coimected with Z. phaiidla ex|X)se.
j'a-lSe, though now used with ])retix /..is really an adverbial

]>hrase " on-ground." and certainly will not translate

"world" (as in the Suto .\icene Creed), which is, of

course, aeon. O.ll z<'er-ehi i.e. inan-anc

fihla. arrive but .' liidc. I:>ut /. emuich is from fihihhi rub in
pieces.

f'nui. knot {s-e _\oung calabash, used for a bottle E) ; -yel ripen,
or sit sideways on the ground, /z. ])ress out udder.

fofa fly (/-/: " flutterer," red-breast; l)ut s-i (|uick mover), ?-onel
smell. 1) ha^ the same word for "become weak" (but
EfO/a) and -or shake otT dtist (/. .crumbs), etc. -ofh is to
grope {I - - o dark, cp. s-u blind, whence fouf ala., etc.). Is -o
lukewarm cr)nnected ?

fohla, stri]) (l-o bit of b(M)ty, m-o-o much do, but /. with broad
O dry, barren cow) -el build with poles. But -()/,s- is Z.
phuhluza strike hard, so Suto .k.

fohola, skim D (s-e beam or cord to hang on ).

foka, sprinkle, <-.//. of witchdoctor, blow (s. fan, /;/ . tare, but
/. very tall gras> ; /-/ loose sand), cp. (fokho)2 fokhotsa
throw up much earth or water I), l)ut !•' says J\o re f . . . is
to be weak, e.g. of earth. 1 have no light to throw, .el is to
sway i'U walk. -()/ is to be weak (so 1 with E a^iainst U).
-ol ( 7/;- - / weakling, /- / - hemlock, /- - oli millij^edc, /;;- -o or
foko weakness).

Distinguish fola eat (but graze is fiila: b-o meadow, ph. vale,
pasture) whence (l-o-o business, cp. pola thresh, and our
idiom "threshing out"), and fOla get cool or well {l-i
pumpkin), whence ? -el string (beads), -ol un-striiig'. -ots

miscarry {s..na still-born) and ? {f0la)2 listen N.
{phOfOLO is a soft-footed beast,, cp. scfoit(a) dumb

ma'n) : and further /;//(/ shoot with bow.
fotna; fonoka. -sets, -thcts; fopha : v.D.
Distinguish again fOra i)lait (/— O tuft) cp. pliOtha {? lephoto

=: Icnaka horn) and ? -ol (with shut oV D) screw out, e.g.,

tootih, with fora graze well, E /();-(/ deceive, D fotha steal
(/.. thief, /- -0 c(X)ked maize, tn- -da hurried beer), - - ol

pluck, lio re (fotho)2 vcH^t out, .s-. . herb mixed with snuf¥.
? cp. fOrOla rub otif, S(5 ph . . . (and with /// ifor r) E. and \. .

purify oneself after a death D.
fosa miss {b-i error, b-() misunderstanding) e.g., giving milk,

of cow.
fotela D add, i'^ encircle (s-i) arm1)and).
fuaiiia D.
fitba, !be red {-clii), prob. orig. KUVA breathe {s. breast, I.

asthma), so blush ( ina-e dawn).
fiifa (I. jealousy), -ehel of the woman, -it! transpire, sputter

(lefilo milk-froth, sefiili water fowl, Icfi'ila l^ood, inofufiitso

sweat ), cp. -unlets,
fiiklia, etc. D. -ittla dig, eat greedily.
l)i>tinguish ////;/(/ be fault\- L), and lia\c riches I {t-O. contrast

/. /). poverty!) from fihua stri]) off tibre. . ;; fmd, - -eli be

pcx>r through cireitiustatiees.
{fiinya)j work in hurry- Perha]:»s pull oneself together, N.

sliiiiiia means knij) ? cp. Xosa fiiiia seek. .Suto nt)ia bunt

lice !
fiipa. purse lips (/-// corn heap. cp. pliiipii a-utheap D), -iili l)!oom

(-US) : .;- clench, etc. -irti seek; also -itfs.
fi'tra i-ittla) hollow out ( /'-r backyard ) : . // turn the back u|Km

forsake.
fiisa, of slight lightning stroke, Z. catch.

futa { ka ) put in mouth at once, ? .liaii. .in: -itli go out to light.
fiiflia l)low {iii-ii, b-ii heat, bor. . .() lukewarmness, iii-O billows.

s-o forge), -uiital have heat [b- -0, ui-uinela).
fufla, halt! .m sit down, fall.
fittsa. resemble X. fii::a (s-i hip bone) : . .very poor man. so ;;;. iia;

cp- .iieh become such) ; -oil undo, e.g. thatch, from Z. fiiciila,

real Sut(^ connate nitlolla. -oel mix pap with milk, etc.

{in- -0).

A more careful invesligation of the tones, and of the dialec-
tical meaning of similar words, would probably clear up the
etymologies and decide whether or not they are connected. The
coinpletion, however, of such a work takes a very long time, and
T thought it better t<^ submit my notes, so far as they have gone,
at present.

It will be observed that all clicked words, as non-Bantu, are
omitted, as also words from Ivnglish and Dutch.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIMITS OF SCIENCIi

By Rev. Sidm-v Read Welcei, B.A.. D.D., Ph.D.

The word " science " is used here in the jx^pular sense of
knowledge that can l)e verified by tangible proof.

In a wider sense ])hik)Sophy is also science; and this is ad-
mitted by the usage oi some scientific societies and jjeriodicals.
Without debating about names we may say, that both science
and philosophy are knowledge : and by knowledge I mean a
psychical state in whicii somehow the nature of objective reality
is conveyed to our minds.

Some scientists deny that philosophy can really solve any
problem; and that its ettorts to deal witn ultimate causes ha\ e
been a vain and unprofitable undertaking. These ma}^ be c*)unter-
balanced, and to use a jjarliamentary phrase " paired " by the
extreme left wing of ])hdosophers, who hold that all scientific
knowledge is tentative and uncertain ; that even mathematics i^
based on a few shaky conventions ; and that no amount of present
consensus, on the part of scientists, can go bail for the future
teaching of science.

But to-day the large body of both scientists and philosoi)lun>
agree in thinking that both science and ])hilosophy have con-
tributed in various ways to the sum of human knowledge.

Philosophy may roughly 'be taken to include the conclu-
sions that deal with the principles and processes common to all
sound knowledge. Aristotle believed that in his day the level
of pure thought had reached its high-water mark in Socrate^,
who accustomed men to express general conceptions in defini-
tions arrived at partly by analogy and partly by induction.

To-day, after many changes of fashion, logic, metaphysic>
and portions of modern psychology may be said, together, to
constitute the realm of ]>hilosophy. They provide the body of
general principles that act as a useful corrective and restraint
on the particular work of all the sciences.

It is in this sense that I projxjse to speak of the philosophical
limits of science. For the whole of purely human knowledge
is not so much the sum of philosophy and science, as their pro-
duct. They interpenetrate one another completely, and are not
mere results that exist side by side.

Hence if we choose to represent the restilts of science up to
date, as a complex quantity within brackets, we may represent
philosophy as an x otitside the bracket. Upon the value of .r
will depend the value of the whole, and thus the value of .r
limits the total. Thus philosophical speculation on the assum]>-
tians of science may be said to limit and qualify the human
value of the whole wealth of scientific attainment.

I do not lose sight of the fact that the action of philosophy
and science is mutual. Science, by its assured results, has re-
strained many of the vagaries of philosophy. But that is not
my theme at present. I am looking at the boundaries "between
philosophy and science from the other side of the fence.

Tin-: I'lIILOSOIMl J(, AL LIMITS OK SCIENCE. ;i,2J

The hrst limit of science on the pliilosophical >i(le is to be
found in metaphysics. This tests all the underlying- assumi)tions
of science. No science can, by its own methods, assure us of
the value of its own postulates. Even the axioms of Whitehead
and Russell's Principia are amenalile to further analysis by the,
metaphysician.

This analysis ha.s sometimes been extravagant, as was the
case with Le Roy, the mathematician, physicist and meta])hysi-
cian. lie contended that the foundations of science were too
shaky to admit of assured knowledge. .Ml that we could arrive
at is a number of useful rules for the guidance of life. (liven
human life on this i)lanet the so-called laws of nature were
useful conventions to be noted. For the intellect distorts all
that it touches. In his system imr x comc^ periliously near to
zero.

Yet the sense-data, the particles, |K)ints and instants, which
are taken for granted by the mathematician and the physicist,
need to be ex])lained in some coherent way. if science is not to
be built \xy>on sand. The. ideas which they suggest are full of
apparent contradictions and intellectual (lit¥iculties, whicli are
outside the purview of pure science.

Then take the belief that buoys up many scientists, and is
a fundamental ])rinci])le with them in {)ractice : that the laws
of nature are fixed and so discoverable. The idea occurs sponta-
neously to most investigators, who deal habitually with natural
phenomena. They become im]>resse(l with their recurrence ac-
cording to law. But if this idea is anything more than an in-
stinct, there must be some explanation of the wild jiaradoxes
which it seems to entail.

My |X)int is that whatever view we take of these funda-
mental facts and ]>rinciples, and of others like tliem, becomes
a system (more or less ample) of metaph\sics. which nuist in-
fluence and to some extent limit our knowledge. \\\ this wa}'
science becomes something more interesting and informative
than a game o^f chess.

Logic is another branch of philosoj)hy whose restraining
influence is, or ought to be felt in every department of science.
If it did nothing else but clear the ground of a great deal of
rubbish, its effect would be beneficial. Its claims are in no
danger of being denied to-day ; for there is a school of thinkers
who would reduce all philosophy to logic.

At any rat,e. it analyses and valuates the intellectual tools
of science, the mental processes by which science is conducted.
In so doing it shows the limitations of these tools.

Induction, for example, is often called the " new organ " of
scientific results. But how can its scoi>e and validity be justi-
fied? What are the conditions of its valid exercise? On these
points there has been a bewildering discussion among the logi-
cians. It may be said that logic itself is discredited when it
gives a hesitating verdict al)out the value of ])rocesses that the
average man uses without hesitation. Tyi)es of logical theorv

3^8 THK I'HILOSOI'HICAL LIMITS OF SCIF.NCK.

may be discredited in this way, if they are over fastidi(nis in
dealine: witli plain facts. But the remoter applications of in
duction are not ])lain facts, nor is the process on which they
are based clear. It certainly impresses one with the limitations
of the mental instrument that science is compelled to use.

And in the history of science we have many instances of
the pitfalls that the over-confident meet in the use of induction.
There is the, enonucus structure of inferences (hat have been
built ui)on the skulls of some pre-historic men. We had the
.V rays which shone brig^htly enough in some scientific treatises
for a year or so, and then went out. There are tlie many atomic
theories and those about the ether. Logic marks clearly the
limits between hypothesis and law or fact, and limits the results
of research accordingly.

Philosoi)hy also creates a habit of mind, which helps to
correct and so to limit the elTects of specialization, which is
one of the iiuellectual dangers of scientific practice. There is
a body of systematized common-sense, which is the outcome of
the best philosophical si)eculation. This forms a check on the
liabits engendered b\- the s])ecialist work in confined areas of
research.

Evolutionism is a case in point. It may be defined as the
endeavour to extend to the whole universe in all its jjarts the
law of evolution, which has been discovered to ol)tain in certain
departments of biology.

For a feneration or two. evolutionism was the received
opinion among scientists, and it had become almost a dogmatic
tradition. The law of evolution has been found a useful
formula to explain and illustrate many processes in future, not
formerly well understood. But evolutionism, when analysed
by later scientists in the light of general knowledge, has seemed
t(^ many a rather hasty generalization from some special ascer-
tained facts.

Philosophy is capable of performing another useful function
in delineating the frontiers of the various sciences. As the
frontiers are changing pretty constantly, this work is ever being
done anew. New maps of the scientific territory are usefully
drawn from time to time.

The history of these classifications is also a history of the
encroachments of one science upon the ground of another or of
others. Philosophy devises a kind of law of nations, not quite
as elastic as its prototype, yet variable enough, and taking
account of the general advance of knowledge.

At the end of last century biology furnished a notable
example of the need of these delimitations. There was a ten-
dency to push its methods into physics, the social sciences and
even psychology. A fair number of scientists seemed inclined
to return to the position of the sixteenth-century philosopher
Cadran, who said : " not only do the stones live, but they fall
ill,- grow old and. die."

THE PHILOSOPHICAL LIMITS OF SCIENCE. 329

As a reaction against all this, th<;re was a cry that science
had become bankrupt. That was a philosophical exaggeration.
The credit of science was never, in fact, better. Some scientists
and especially biologists, had made promises and prophecies
that had signally failed. It wais only their vain hopes that had
collapsed, because they had given their science too much credit.

The movement culminated in about 1905 ; and the result
was to define more clearly the limits of biology. By helping
to keep it within its natural boundaries, philosophical discus-
sion had rendered it a distinct service. A French biologist
(Grasset, Les Limites de la Biologie p. 179) writing as a
philosopher, maintains that philosophic liberalism consists in
saying to all sciences : " Do not issue from your natural limits,
and your domain will be respected. Do not encroach and you
will not be invaded."

Finally, philosophy establishes the existence of other planes
of thought, useful or pleasant, where scientific processes alone
are insufficient. Some of these may be called higher planes,
some lower, and some collateral. There are literature, for
example, economics, theology, and ethics. To deal with these
topics only by the scientific method. would be to destroy them.

In the case of ethics the resultant evils and falsity have
been brought rather sadly before us through the War. Science,
unlimited by ethical considerations, does not make for truth or
happiness or the common welfare. In literature we may in-
stance Zola, who was touched by the ultra-cientific desire for
method. What he has done best is the inspiration of his art;
the worst is partly the result of a wooden eftort to suliordinate
literature to science.

There are important branches of our mental activity which
have their own methods, entirely different from those of ex-
perimental science. But they are the only valid way in these
spheres ; and it would be illiberal to hold that they are not
methods of knowledge, because they are not the ways of natural
science.

These considerations will help, 1 hope, to set forth some of
the reasons for muttial respect between philosophy and science.

Each has threatened to absorb the other at different times.
The extreme philosophic view is that which claims all reality
to be mind. The extreme scientific view excludes all but matter
from the realm of the real. The attitude of scientific despair
gives it all up as hopelessly insoluble.

The human attitude would seem to consist in recognising
these two realities, and in endeavouring to delimit their boun-
daries.

{Finally received, February 4th, 1918.)

THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE BANTU AS ILLUS-
TRATED IN THEIR PROVERBIAL SAYINGS.

By James McLaren, M.A.

By the Bantu we mean the numerous and virile dark race
which forms, perhaps, 99 percent, of the native population of South
and Central Africa, from the Cape of Good Hope to 5° North
of the equator. They number in round figures about 100 millions,
and speak nearly 200 languages, besides dialects ; biit all these
languages have an essentia 11 v similar structure, and show a close
family likeness to one another.

The forms to which Bantu literature was mainly confined
until recently were those of the folk-tale or fable, the praise-song
or eulogy, and the problem or maxim. To these have been added
recently, among the tribes which have come into closest contact
with Europeans, translations, news])aper compositions, mostly of
an ephemeral character, and tentative eft'orts at the writing of
short stories and poems.

The neglect of Bantu literature in the past has been almost
absolute. The farmers were too much occupied with the constant
struggle against famine and flood and the numerous diseases tliat
affect stock in a warm climate, or against the aborigines them-
selves, to give much attention to their literature, even when they
could speak their language. The commercial and mining classes
were too bu.sy gathering the gold and diamonds in which Africa
is so prolific to look for tlie nuggets of thought which have been
concentrating through the centuries or the sparkling gems that
have been struck out in the eloquence of some native orator, and
have been treasured up in the memory of succeeding generations.
It has been left to a missionary here and there, or a teacher in some
missionary institute, or a Government official with literary tastes,
to make some eft'ort to collect and exhibit them.

In work of this kind men of German race have in recent
years taken the preponderating part. Bleek, Kro])f. Seidel, Ende-
mann, Meinhof are leading names. Now that the activities of
the Germans in Africa are curtailed to a large extent, whether
temporarily or permanently, there is all the more need for other
workeis to bestir themselves in the study of these numerous lan-
guages, and in the collection and recording and translation of that
literature which throws almost the only light that is available on
the history of the southern half of the Dark Continent in bygone
ages. The opportunity is rapidly passing. It is a remarkable and
a disquieting fact that there should be chairs of l^antu, or at least
African, languages, in Hamburg and Berlin, and none in Britain
or British Africa. Africa is 80 years behind Asia in the study of
its languages and literature ; in other words, as much was kno\vn
of the languages of India in 1837 as is known of African lan-
guages to-day. The only way to deal with, the matter is by the
foundation of a Chair of Bantu Languages and Literature,
equipped with adequate resources for purposes of research, some-
where in the Union ; and, in view of the location of the invaluable

THE WIT AND WISDOM Oi" THE liANTU. 33I

Grey Collection in the South African Library, preferably in
Capetown.

In dealing with the very extensive subject that 1 have named,
I shall confine myself to proverbs selected from the four Bantu
languages chiefly spoken in the Union, namely, the Sechuana and
Sesuto of the centre, and the Zulu and Kafifir of the East. I
prefer the name Kaffir to Xosa, because the word Xosa is
invariably mispronounced in every single letter by people who do
not speak the language, because the Xosa tribe forms only one-
fourth of the peo])le who speak the language, and because Kallir
corresponds to Kaffraria, the well-known designation of the
district in which the Kaffirs mainly reside.

A few Kaffir proverbs were long ago collected by Dr. Theal
and embodied in his " Kaffir Folk-lore." The first edition of Dr.
Kropf's " Kaffir Dictionary " contained nearly 200. These were
brought together l)y Mr. Bud'Mbelle in his " Kaffir Scholar's
Companion." Dr. Rubu.sana, in his valuable compendium of
Kaffir literature, " Zemk' Tnkom) Alagwalandini," gives a hun-
dred, mostly new, with detailed explanation of a few of them.
Bryant's " Zulu-English Dictionary '' contains 200 or 300 i)ro-
verbs with translations and English parallels. The Rev. E.
Jacottet, in his " Contes des Bassoutos." gives about 60 Sesuto
proverbs with their equivalents in French, and several more are
to be found in Aiabille's " Sesuto Vocabulary," and in Miss Mar-
tin's " Basuto Folk-lcre." Jacottet refers to a collection of a
thousand Sesuto proverbs which had been made by a native
teacher. Azarias Sekese. and published at Morija, but without
translation. A translation wil'. no d jubt appear when the
" Treasury of Basuto L(^re " is continued, as continued it must
be, in the interests of many branches of science. I^'inally, Mr.
.Solomon Plaatje, editor of a Sechuana ])aper. has brought out
a large and most valuable collection of " Sechuana Proverbs,"
with iranslation into English, and parallels in half-a-dozen Euro-
pear languages.

" A proverb," says Chambers, " is a short familiar saying
expressing a familiar truth." " A proverb," says Murray, " is a
short pithy saying in general use." According to Cervantes,
" proverbs are short sentences 'founded on long experience."

The proverb should be short ; it should be pithy, like the
egg in the Scotch conundrum : " A wee, wee hoose, and it's a'
fu' o' meat." It should be striking in form, so as to be easily
remembered. It usually consists of two balanced members ; and
alliteration or rhyme or some other similarity in sound is a very
common feature. It should strike the intelligence by its truth
as much as the ear l)y its sound. It is a bit of concentrated
thought on some aspect of life, a crystallized opinion, a gem
from the mine of human experience.

It is only quite recently that the importance of a considera-
tion of popular i)roverbs and maxims in their bearing on the
study of the sciences of psychcjlogy and ethics has been pointed
out. In Dr. Alexander F. Shand's recent book. " The Founda-

^]^2 THK WIT AND WISDOM OK THE BANTU.

tioiis of Character,"" probably the most important contribution to
ethical science made for many years, he 'l)ases his results largely
on the wisdom of the people as expressed in their literature, and
comments strongly on the neglect by philosophers hitherto of
the wisdom of life emljodied in i>o])ular fables, maxims, and
proverbs. There is little doubt that the shortest route to a know-
ledge of the Bantu psychology and the Bantu ethics is through
the study df their proverbs on the one hand, and their folk-
lore and fables on the other.

What most strikes one on glancing at a collection of these
proverbs is how human the Bantu peoples are ! There is an
immense difference between the Bantu in their native state and
ourselves in colour, features, food, houses, habits and institu-
tions, but a quite wonderful similarity in judgments and con-
clusions, ideas and opinions, on life and death, youth and age,
and the various instincts, emotions, sentiments, desires and aims
by which man is affected or swayed, as well as on the qualities
which determine his success or failure in life. They commend
the same virtues, urge to the same efforts, stigmatize the same
.vices, and satirize the same follies that our European proverbs do.

Government by phrases or formuliei so prominent nowa-
days, is as old as time immemorial with the Bantu. After the
subject has been laid down, understood and discussed, the
" word," the " phrase," that will best sum up the opinion of
the assembly is sought, and is usually found in some analogy
with animate or inanimate nature, of which the native people
are close observers, then stated by the chief or the spokesman
of the assembly, and the matter is settled.

For convenience of treatment, 1 have arranged the proverbs
into groups dealing with allied subjects, as Man and Woman,
Parent and Child, Hunger and Hospitality, Wisdom and Folly,
Life and Death, and so on.*

On Man and Woman.

There are two words for man in Kaffir, iitduda and iirnntu;
man as the male or husband, and man as the human being. The
word Bantu is the jylural of the latter, and means just human
beings. And the word for virtue in the Bantu languages is
ubuntu, just manliness, all that becomes a man. .So the Zulu
says: Ngitanda umiintu ongumuntii, 1 like a man who is a man
(a man who is manly) ; we came to men who were not men (to
human beings who were not humane). The word <for character
is isimilo, what one has grown to, or isitunsi, the shadow one
casts. Aka)wsimilo, he has no growth, they say ; or akanasitunsi,
he has no shadow, by which they mean, he has no character, no
standing, no self-respect. Uyasihluba isilunsi ngokxi'ensa njalo,
you are stripping off your shadow by doing that, they say (yoti
are losing your good name). One without character is iliskwa

* Most of the Kaffir and Zulu proverbs are given in the original as well
as in translation; the Sesuto and Sechuana proverbs in translation only.

THE WIT AND WISDOM OK TTIK I'.ANTU. 333

lomhlnsi zvamanqina, a misfortune to the shank-soup — a dish
o^reatly prized — (he is a disg'racc to the family). On the other
hand, ndisaya kiiba ngmnntu, I shall still be a man, is uttered
with deep feeling by one who is recovering^ health after severe
illness or status after a fall, or happiness — ^as through a second
marriage — after bereavement.

And what of Woman ? You can't eat the eyes of a woman as
you can those of an ox (" Beauty is skin-deep'"). Not her face
but her heart is comely (" She's better than she's bonny"). A
woman is a mimosa tree that yields gum all day long, say the
Kaffirs, who are as fond of chewing-gum as the Yankees. The
real home is the women's courtyard (" The hand that rocks the
cradle rules the world"). He has not married a woman — she
is a man, is the highest possible commendation. Then the other
side: "A man's Yes is Yes, but a woman's Yes is often No."
ZiyaV abantu, ziye ehantzvini, they refuse people, yet they go to
people (Though they jilt one they will wed another; there are
few old maids in Kaffirland). Women's gossip breeds civil wars,
they say; or a woman will set kraals a-quarrelling {" Cherche2
la femme"). You know the great ground hornbill or bromvogel
that stalks across the veld in the Eastern Districts (looking for
rain, the natives say). Well, the female l)ird, according to the
Zulus, says, in a high, |:)iping voice; ngiyanttika, ngiyaninku, ngiya
kwabct'U (" I am going off, I am going off, I am going to my
people"). " Hamba. hamba," responds the male iu a deep bass,
kade itsitslio (" (to then, go then; you have been saying that for
a long time ").

Of love they have not niuch to say. Marriages v\ith them
are, or used to be, mainly marriages for convenience, and were
arranged mostly by parents and guardians. Of lovers, friends, or
things that are inseparable, they say ; vgiimti ncxolo, it's the tree
and the Ijark ; lugwayi ncntlaba, it's the tobacco and the aloes
(which were always mixed to make snuff) ; ngumtya netmiga, it's
the riem and the pail (the riem for tying the cow's legs and
the ]:)ail for milking her into). Akusoka liiigrnasici. there is
no suitor without some defect ; akungcrjc lirigciiasiyiko, there is
no handsomest fellow without some blemish, they say ; but they
say also; there is no raven so bad but some would love it. Ingxm
idla nganiabala ayo. the. leopard shows off by its spots ("Look
your best when you go a-courting '"). The bridegroom's bottle
goes round freely (courtship is an expensive business). The
monkey's son-in-law eats what the monkey eats (It is well to
keep in with the old folk). Happy is she who has a daughter,
for a boy is the scni of his mother-in-law —

•' My son is my son till he get him a wife ;
My daughter's my daughter all the days of her life.'"

On Parent and 'Child.

Ukzi'anda kzvaliiva ngwntakati, family increase is forbidden
by the wizard, is said by way of compliment to the father of a

334 THE WIT AND WISDOM (iK VUV. i'.ANTU.

fine, large, healthy family — there has evidently been no wizard
about here. (There are no silly, selfish decadents and no empty
cradles m Kaffirland.) They have many sayings illustrating the
resemblances due to heredity: Uiiwiindla uzek' indicia, the hare
keeps to the path the old hare made ("Like father, like son").
Wamfusa, kasliiva iiaciiba. he resembled his father to the last
leaf — i.e., in every single feature. Lihluma csiqivijii ikikizela, the
shoot grows from the old stock. Injalo yapunia cdunjini, its
like came out of the Kaffir-potato ("He's a chii) of the old
block"). Isinkonyana sHandcla otiina, the calves go after {i.e.,
take after) thcir mothers. IValandcla uynnhvana ainabeka, the
child went after the dowry cattle (i.e., took after its mother's
side of the house, to which the dowry cattle went). They have
not failed to notice that acquired characters are not always
transmitted. The good milker does not reproduce herself (The
daughter is very unlike her fine mother). Umtati zoaaal' miilota,
the sneeze wood begat only ashes (A worthy father has often a
worthless son). The Bantu are affectionate, even indulgent,
parents, but disci])line must be maintained : Uya kukolwa yeyo-
kivosa, eyoknpeka iiiu/akayidli, you will be content with the roast
meat, you won't wait for the boiled, is a warnin^i' to a naughty
boy. Another is : uktihlwa kiiya kttkiibiita, the dusk will rake you
in; or, wolibamba, iiiigatslioiii; catch it (the sun) — don't let it go
down (When the darkness comes on you'll have to come home,
and you'll catch it — in another sense — then).

On Self and Others.

Egotism is a human characteristic that is by no means un-
knovv'u among the Bantu, and it is mercilessly satirized by citing
instances of its like in the meanest creatures. " I and my rhino-
ceros," said the tick-bird, according to the Basuto (Ego et rex
mens, said Cardinal Wolsey). "The monkey does not see the
bump on its own forehead," says one tribe ; " The monkey does
not see its own hollow cheeks," says another. There is no httle
coney but boasts itself. Even the field-mouse thinks itself great.
There is no wild beast but roars in its own den. Even the
civet-cat — the little black-and-white striped muishond — roars at
its own hole. (" Every cock," as we say, " crows on its own
dunghill.") Akiiko ndlovu isindwa iigumboko zvayo, no elephant
feels the weight of its own trunk. Akuko qaqa liziv' ukunuka,
no civet feels its own bad smell. (No one adnnts his own failure
or is conscious of his own defects.) There is no commoner ob-
ject by the side of every stream yoti cross in Kafifirland than the
comical-looking paddavanger or hammerhead, which the Kaffirs
call Qimngqoshe, and the Zulus Tekzvane. Well, the Tekwane,
looking into the river as it always does, and pluming its feathers,
says to itself, according to the Zulus, Ngangimulile, Tekwane,
ngonizva yilokii luuokii, " I, Tekwane. would be qtiite nice-looking
if 1 weren't si)oiled by this and by that."

And how ready we are to excuse ourselves : Ukuzensa
akunjengakKCuziwa, doing it to oneself is not like having it

THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE BANTU. 335

done to one. ( )r : iJur ulcers don't hurt when it is ourselves
that rub them. How ready we are to do ourselves more than
justice: Ukiicisikela eiiqafeni, to cut off for ourselves from the
fat part ; and to think that all our s^eese are swans: When a man
speaks of gcx^d milkers you may be sure he means his own goats.
Of others they have not much to say, but they appreciate
friendship: A ring makes a sound when it strikes another ("As
iron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the face of his
friend "). It is good to grow at the toes (It is well to have many
friends, by whose support one grows or prospers). One born
without blood-relatives is no better than a heap cA meat (on the
battle-field, that is, for he has none to rescue him as others have
when the enemy presses hard). Strangers surprise each other,
they say (" When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug-of-
war"). And when one is found to be favouring strangers at
the expense of relatives, they say: Uzipcmbel' emoyeni. You are
kindling your tire in the wind (instead of on the hearth: much
good it will do you there!).

Os HUNOEK AND HoSl'ITALlTV.

Hunger has an inconvenient way of forcin-i itself on the
attention of poor people that the Bantu have not failed to com-
ment on: The hand never loses its way to the mouth (Hunger
asserts its claims). Usegolcla impukauL\ he is snatching at a
fly already (he is so hungry). Andikanyc udosulc itmlofiio zvam
namhla-njc, 1 have never wiped my mouth to-day (i.e., never
tasted a mouthful of food). IsisH somhamhi kasingakanani.
shiijapaiiil^ili kodii^'a, a tra\eller's stomach is not so big, but it is
in front (^and therefore important and clamorous). Hence the
sacredness of hospitality: Unyauro alniiampunilo, alunamehlo,
lnyi'mpumpute-iijc. liiya kitkutwala lapo ungazani noinntu, the
fcK>t has no no:-e. it has no eyes, it is only a blind thing groping
its way ; it will carry you where you know^ nobod}' ( Don't be
inhospitable ; your steps will bring you some day among strangers,
where you will be glad of hospitality; they may even bring you
to the place of the very man who now asks hospitality of you).
Of the churl they say: Ndafika kzvanja-yof itndilo, I came to the
place of Dog-warming-himself-at-the-Fire.

Of Greed and Giving and Gratitude.

Unumkakh he has a throat, means he is very greedy. Uyavuza
amatc, he leaks saliva (his mouth waters like a dog's in prospect
of a meal). Ku.velhve e-Xnkivanc, they have slaughtered at
Xukwane, you'll get big helpings there, is said of one asking
too much. "Give me! give me!" only makes hungrier (The
beggar's wallet never gets tilled). You'll drain the fountain
(You'll kill the goose that lays the golden eggs).

Ikaba abayisengayo, the cow kicks its milkers (The beggar
has to bear many a rebuff). Uxam ivapusilc, the leguaan or
monitor ( which is said to be a most affectionate nurse to its
young) has gone dry (Von have outstayed your v/elcome).

33^ THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE HANTU.

Lukwek'a'e hvexwili. he is the scab of a wild dog. (He is an
incorrigible beggar.

Ukupa kuzlhekela, giving is laying by (or, as Scripttu-c has
it: "There is that scattereth ;i.id yet increaseth "). Givean-
Ox is not a fool (A gift appeascth wrath). The ox stops the
assegai (The vanquished chief sends an ox to the victor, and
thereuix>n peace is concluded). Ubnhelc hufiin obunye, a kind-
ness wants another one (" One good turn deserves another ").

If liberality is thus commended, meanness is bitterly satirized:
Kokzvabanye mvayi-mvayi, kokivako roqo, for another's you itch,
itch, as regards your own you draw in your hand. Giving is fair
play, being stingy is making yourself notorious. The mouth that
does not eat puts by for that which does. If you are too smart
to pay the doctor, you had better be too smart to get sick,
Kancitshani! ubopa inja nesinkuni, just think! he is so stingy
that he ties his dog to the firewood (lest it should snatch a
scrap).

Gratitude has been defined as an acknowdedgment of past
favours and a lively sense of favours yet to come. All this
and more is pithily expressed in what is perhaps the best-known
of all the Kaffir sayings : Ungadhnva nangomso, don't be tired
even to-morrow. The natural gratitude of the native for the
smallest favours is indicated 1)} the way in which he receives
your donation or reward, even if it is only the ubiquitous tickey,
namely, by holding up both hands to take it. " You have taken
the wedge from between n\y teeth," means : " You have relieved
me from great embarrassment." Ingratitude is condemned in
sayings like these : The dog I brought up now bites me. Musa
ukupa izmtsehva njenja-Batwa. Dont pull up the gourds like
the Bushnien (after drinking out of the calabashes ; i.e., don'v
speak ill of a benefactor). Thanks are not rendered to those wht^
can hear them (We often remember our indebtedness too late).

On Hatred and its Associates.

Of Hatred and its associates. Anger, Envy, Malice, Cruelty,
Jealousy, the Bantu speak in many proverbs : Inyosi sinobusi,
the bees have honey, they say, when one flies suddenly into a
passion ; the fcees have honey, and so are easily excited. Nga-
lutinfa ukuni lombangandlala, I touched a log of the flare-up
tree, is said of a very irritable person. Of an angry man they
say : Usibekele, He is overcast, like the sky on a doudy day ; or,
He has got his mane up (He is bristling with wrath). Induku
itshaya imviki, the stick hits the warder oft", indicates that resis-
tance increases anger. Ukumtshisela ibudle, to burn the porridge-
stick for him, is to make it very un])leasant for one. Ukubeka
ximntn ncnyoka, to look at a man as at a snake, is to look at him
with deadly hatred. " They beat each other with a live snake ''
means that they are at daggers drawn. Tambo lenyoka, hlab'
omsondayo, lihlaba libolile, bone of a snake, stab him whom thou
hatest, stab though rotten, is a deadly curse. Impi yakzva-Ma-
bomva-bulawe, it is the army of Kill-him-at-Sight, is an expres-

THE WIT AND WISDCJM UF THE J'.ANTU. S37

sion of morfai enmitv. Enmitv is also expressed by sayings like:
"' They ( the cattle ) don't eat on the same ridge," or " They don*t
take fire from each other's hearths " (as people were glad to do
before the coming of lucifer matches). Ubodf esanibesa, he
loathes while he clothes, indicates outward friendliness but in-
ward hate. The proverb for cruelty is : Ixama litohvc nga-Batzva,
rhe hartebeest has been arrowed by the Bushmen (i.e., the man
has fallen into cruel, merciless hands). Cruelty to animals is
discouraged by the words that a child must say if he has killed

a frog: Mkoiii warn, itngafi . . . 7vofi "Frog of

mine, don't do so " (drawing in the arm), " do so " (stretching it
out). If he doesn't say so, his arm will shrivel up, so he is told.

Feuds were kept uj) in Africa in old days as long and as bit-
terly as in Europe : Though a snake is dead, a bone of it will
pierce a man to death, is said of the recrudescence of an old feud.
Umlandu ubanjwa y'mkume, the quarrel is taken up by the centi-
pede ( which comes out of the old log when struck, i.e., the father's
feiid is taken up by the son). Family quarrels are reprobated:
Umbango uviif emlotcni, the strife blazes up in the family ash-
pit. Induku ayinamsi, the stick has no kraal (Where there is
constant quarrelling at home, no 'family flourishes).

Of malice tbey say : Ulunya lubiz olunye, a malicious act
calls for another (Malice begets malice). Of envy: He who
gets rich late has a hard hill to climb (The upstart has great envy
to surmount). Umona zvasemlungivini ubandez icityiva, ungali-
qabi, the white man's envy forbids us the red clay, though he
doesn't paint himself. Of jealousy : Jealousy was cooked in a
pot with a stone ; the stone got soft, but jealousy remained hard.

Anger and hatred may often be avoided if warning is taken
in time, and the Bantu have many proverl)s expressive of threat
and warning : Ukasel' eziko, you are creeping to the fireplace
(You are going into danger). Udlala iigegeja kusihva, you are
playing with the hoe on a fast-day (You are doing what is for-
bidden and dangennis). Uya kuva into embi eyaviwa ngu-Hili
wasemabalini, You will get what I lib of the fables got (Hili
of the fables was always playing tricks on people, but he came
to a bad end}. You are going to tread on my tail, and the fur
will come otr, reminds us of a well-known Irish saying. JVod'
iifunyanwe, sesiineiloiils, abanzi. You will be cavight in the
storm ; big drops are falling already. And sternest of all : Ikan-
jana lake lingakelwa ongnso ngelanga, the field-mice may be
building in liis linlc >knl] ere long ( I'll do 'for him if he doesn't
take carej .

On Crime and Punishment.

The thief is the one that is caught, say the Kaffirs. Caught ifi
the act, say we. They are very fond of casting the blame
of their ill-deed on others : He hid himself behind me, they
say. The thief has splashed the other man's face with the milk, is
said of one trying to transfer guilt from himself. lutslmba
isulele ixiegiiitHinsha. the genet \viv>ed itself otl on the l)ush

33<^ TH>: WIT AND WISDOM UF THE ItANTU.

skrike (its neif^hlu)ur in the thicket). Or: "Am I your door-
mat, then, to have the niiul always wii)ed olT on me?"

But justice is usually done : Uxamu tihainb' udwala, the
leg'uaan clings to the bare rock ( The man is plainly guilty ; he
hasn't a leg to stand on). Let the harts of the summer heat
pant facing- each other (Gnifront the accu-er and the accused:
let us hear both sides and then judge). And punishment follows
crime with fair certainty: A crime does not rot, they say (" Mur-
der will out"). The trap catches even when covered with cob-
webs (Vengeance comes at last). The brand returns to its
kindler (" fie is hoist with his own petard "). Okzvamuva kudlul'
okzvamandulo, the retribution transcends the injury. Of a richly
deserved castigation we say, " I'll beat you, and I don't care
who sees me," but the Zulu goes one better and says: Ngiya
kukiishaya, ngibuyc ngiocela ugwayi kuyihlo, " I shall strike you,
and then go and ask a pinch of snuiT from your father." The
Bantu opinion in regard to the respective liability of em])loyer
and agent is shown in these two sayings : " .\ messenger has no
(fault." and, "If you are sent to insult the King {i.e., the big
chief), do so" (It is the sender who is responsible).

On Power and Possession.

-As the last section has brought us to the chief and his court-
yard, let us see what the Bantu have to say about Power and
Possession. The sayings indicate an autocratic rather than a
democratic rule: Uma inkosi iknlnma avimdoda atidisc indlehc, if
the chief speaks, the people make silent their ears. When the
chief has promised you a beast, you can build yourself a kraal
(the smile of the great). Isitukutuku senja sipelel oboyeni, the
sweat of a dog ends iri its hair (The ixK:)r man must swallow his
wrath: the frown of the great), l.idume ladla umitnga, it thun-
dered, and the lightning struck a mimosa tree ('Jlie chief killed
a man in his wrath: the mimosa, being resinous, is peculiarly
liable to be struck by lightning). Ibi^elo ladla ikondekasi, the
summons killed the she-l)alK)on ( A summons to the Great Place
coo often means death). Um:^ungnhi nbopa ivomilc, the monkey-
rope ties fast though dry (A man may still be powerful, though
old and wizened). Dcda, mhlangela, cndazveni yeuyzvagi, mun-
goose, get out of the way of the genet (Make way for your
betters). There is not room for two bulls in one kraal, they say ;
or: An ox doesn't kick in two kraals (A chief may be great in
his own tribe, but have no authority elsewhere).

About possession they say : We eat with the possessor o'f
the knife, we give nothing to the cook. Ohlab' eyakc kalelwa,
who slaughters, his own, is not forbidden (A man can do what
he likes with his own). Kiibangzva umtulzva nemamba yitii?
Does one contend for a medlar with a mamba? (Have you the
audacity to claim what 1 hold?). Ongena siqepu sentlabati iiya
kuhlafitna cgijiina, he who hasn't a bit of ground must eat his
bite as he runs along ( He hasn't a spot where he can eat his
dinner in comfort;. The white man is like the ant-bear; he

TJlt'; WIT AND WISDOM nl" TH1-; P.ANTU. 339

throws the ground behind him (All the Kaffir wars meant loss of
land to the Kaffirs). Umhiaba yinkosi, the land is King.

On Efficiency and its Conditions.

Efficiency is one of our watchwords nowadays, and the
Bantu have a good deal to say on this subject, and the prompti-
tude, patience, perseverance, and self-help that are its essential
conditions.

A small swarm of bees makes honey; in a big one they
hinder each other ("Too many cooks spoil the liroth"'). The
Bushman shoots with a blunt arrowy but he kills (It's not the
arrow but the poison). You have tied your dog to a ragwort
(You have taken inetfectual measures). They know the value
of concentration of etfort : Ungepate mpukn nibili, enyc iya
knpunyuka, don't carry two mice under your arm ; one will slip
out. Don't straighten two wands in the fire at once; one of
them will burn. Don't shear two sheep at once ; one of them may
bite you (Do one thing at a time, and do it well). The ostrich
is handling the porridge-stick (Everything is topsy-turvy; you
can't do anything with incompetent helpers).

One of the conditions of efficiency is promptitude : Ungafiiki
uganc kona, don't go and marry there (Don't delay). Amaqotya-
zana angalaliyo endlclcni, they are smart little girls who do not
sleep on the road. Miss Betrothed to So-and-So was married by
Mr. Come-early. Isigzvaca silind' indnkii, the quail waits for the
stick. Intcndclc clisuka muva likohca izagila, the partridge that
gets up last gets plenty of knocks. Libunjiva, liseva, the clay
is worked while it is fresh. (" Make hay while the sun shines.")
Ukusa akufiki kahini uknm kuvusa unintu, the dawn doesn't come
twice to waken a man ('"Take time by the forelock") Him
that wakes me while it is still dark, I like by daylight (Being
aroused very early in not always pleasant, but early starts make
easy stages).

Indolence is the worst foe to efficiency, as Labour is its best
friend: Ngumka-Sele, he is a frog's wife (a laggard, one always
behind). Uyinxozva yamanzi, he is a bag of water (a useless
loafer). Ktikzva-Nkomo-isengiv' ilele, it's the place of Cow-
milked-lying-down (a village of desperately lazy people). Esihle-
liyo sidl' nknhlala, csipilayo sesitzvctwayo, the one that sits en-
joys its ease, but the one that thrives is the one that kee]>s moving.
His seat will stick to him, like the one Kenkeni carried on his
back, is said of one who is too lazy to shift his kraal to a clean
piece of ground.

Labour is the lot of all : Even among the Boers a man must
work for his living, say the Basuto. Robes go from their wearers
to their weavers ; or : necklaces go from their wearers to their
workers. The labourer is worthy of his hire, we are told. So
think- the Bantu, too : The milker gets the last — and richest —
milk. Don't get cross with the cook ; meat always shrinks in
the boiling. Sometimes labour is hard : Inkombo imbizva emat-
yeni kubc-Lungu, a beast is dug out of the rocks at the white

34^ THE WIT AND WISDOM Of' Tfli: HANTlJ.

inau's (You have to work for your waj^es there). And it is
sometimes labour lost : Yek' nkivenz' amandla esambane, Alas ■
for the mighty exertions of the ant-l)ear. Or : We laugh at the
ant-bear, who digs a hole and doesn't lie in it, but leaves it for
the ferns and porcupines.

One of the elements of Efficiency is Patience. SoyiceV
ivutiive, we will ask for the food when it is ready (Wait and
see). The fly keeps brushing against the sore; the goat keeps
rubbing against the door-screen, (both waiting their chance). Im-
bewu ihlalcla ihlanga layo, the seed waits for its own seed-bed
('* Everything comes to him who waits "). Sova, siugasetnoyeni,
we shall hear, we are in the wind ( Patience : we shall s(X)n laiow
all about it).

Another is Perseverance : Umzingisi, akanashzva, the one
who sticks at it has no ill-forttme. Jsiciba s'whva ngodondolo, th.e
deep ix)ol is fathomed Iw the long stick (" Try, try, try again ").
Yo^ iyikote, yivutele, the fire will catch the sticks by-and-by,
keep blowing. Among ourselves the workman spits on his hands
to take a fresh grip. Kananiafc, say the Zulus, he has no spittle
(He has no perseverance).

Another main element of efficiency and success is Self-help:
Success depends on the will (where there's a will there's a way "),
is the antithesis of: he moves along with the dust-cloud, (he
lloats with the stream). Akuko mpukatic inqakulela cuye, no fl\'
catches for another. Two cocks don't help each other to scratch.
Lions don't lend each other teeth. A bird does not build its
nest with another bird's down. No pheasant scratches the ground
for another, or if she does it is for her young one. Iinbila yasivela '
umsila ngokityalcsela, the rock-rabbit went without a tail through
vending for it (instead of going himself, when tails were given
out at the Creation). Kubi itkutcngehva ngomiinyc. kiihle
unmntu esifiklscJc, it is bad to be bought for by another, it is
best to make a thing arrive for oneself ("If you want a thing well
done, do it yourself"). "Save me! save me!" is slow succour
(" Heaven helps them that help themselves").

Of Wisdom and Folly.

Wisdom does not dwell in a single house (No one has a
monO()<:»ly of common sense). Wisdom killed the wise man (" A
little learning is a dangerous thing"). Wallposa ilicivi ladla
ngokuqina, he threw the word and it sttick firmly (His words
struck home ; the words of the wise are as goads, as nails firmly
fixed, says Solomon). One doesn't lean over the brink of blue
waters (Keej) back from the edge of the precipice"). Don't be
in too great a hurry to answer the summons ("Look before
you leap"). The second count has bettered the first (" Second
thoughts are best "). The wise dam suckles her young standing
up (" Ready, aye ready"). It is the craft}^ one whose locusts
are roasted last (when everybody is surfeited). It is possible to
be too clever : Cunning eats up its owner ( It kills the man who
makes too 'much use of it). Akuko qili larjikota ouhlaiia, no

THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE BANTU. 34I

cleverest fellow ever licked his own back (they say of one whose
attempts are far beyond his achievements). If the clever doctor
does not cure you, ^o to one less clever. Of a particularly smart,
intelligent man they say : His thoughts are at his finger-tips
('■ He has all his wits about him "), and of a very discreet person,
" Mr. Fearful's cattle have come safe through, while Mr. Great-
heart's have died " ('* Discretion is the better part of valour ").
Folly is most conspicuous when it takes the form of sebf-
injury or self-destruction: You are poking a wasps' nest. You
are throwing sand on a snake's back. You have introduced a
crocodile into your home (all warnings against imprudence).
Mgadhi inkomo y(7S0Jz>.'ini, I ate a beast of the honeycomb,
i.e., a bee, means I got myself into a \'ery hot place. Isinyosi
zidl' nju waso, the bees eat their own nectar (" He stews in his
own juice"). U-Zenzile kakalckua, ukalehva u-Jmnekile, Did-
it-by-Himself is not sympathized with, the one sympathized with
is Overtaken-by-Accident. Yek' ukufa kwokusenza, they say —
Alas ! for the death of one's own making ! Udle ukudla,
kwamdla, he devoured the Katfir-beer and it devoured him, they
say of the drunkard ; and to a drunk man stumbling up against
one he says : Musa ukuqttba imbuzi ngakimi, Don't drive your
goats over me. No greater fool than the busybody, of whom
they say : Nguye ini umasi wezabantu (indaba), esake simkohlile?
Is he the man then that knows all about other people's (business
and mismanages his own? Ukaulela inkazim sly a kiisela, you
meet monkeys on their way to drink (,you interfere where you
are not wanted). He enters the thing on the slant (He inter-
feres in a matter with which he is not acquainted). Folly is
best dealt with in youth : Bend the tree while it is young, they
say (As the twig is bent, the tree's inclined). Umti -wozaV
isilima, the tree will beget a crook (if it is not set right in time).
Uxam wakohva ngamantintinti, the leguaan was persuaded — to
leave the eggs alone — by the whacks he got (a rod for the fool's
back).

(JN SPEliCl) AND SlLKNCl:;.

rhe Bantu are great talkers, and have much to say on talk
and on the tongue: IVandc ngomlomo-nje, he has grown big in
the mouth only. {Vox et prccterea nihil) The mouth has no
lid to cover it, or: The tongue has no bonds (The tongue is an
unruly member), [nkomo enomlomo ayinamasi, a cow with a
tongue has no milk (Much cry and little wool, as we say). Lu~
luhlu luka-Qinisani, it's the squad of Mr. Keep-at-it (who urge
others to work and do nothing themselves). The tongue, how-
ever, has its uses: Utnlomo nsihlyangu sokuzivikela, the tongue
is a shield to defend oneself with, or: The tongue is a man's
tail-switch to drive away the flies (i.e-, his weapon to defend
himself from annoyance). The best remedy for a dispute is to
discuss it (Let him have his say ; don't sit upon the safety-
valve), Uviitelwe Pakati njengez'atala, he is ripe inside like a
water-melon (he is bursting to speak). But one cannot be

342 THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE I'.ANTU.

allowed to do all the talking: Allow me to beat you on the
mouth, they say (Allow me to niterrui)t you).

Secrecy is all-important. Ndifuna nkitkiiluma indlebe, I
want to bite you on the ear (a word in your ear). They are skin-
ning a mouse, or: They are skinning a flea, is said of men in
closes confab, or doing something on the quiet (One cannot very
well skin an ox on the quiet). Silence is golden: Umiitit asinf
isityand' igila, man isn't a thing that cuts his own windpipe (A
man doesn't vent bis own secrets, he doesn't incriminate himself).

The Bantu are as eager for news as ever were the Athenians ;
Isindaba aziucitsJi-iva, kazimabcle, one doesn't stint news, they
say: it isn't corn, hjida Icndlcbc aligcwale, let the ear-calabash
be filled (Tell us the whole story). Zinquuyivc amakaiida,
siyekwc, their heads are cut ofif and they are left, may be the
reply (I have told you the main facts, no need to go into details),

On Truth and Falsehood.

A cow is not milked on the ground where there is a pail
("Good wine needs no bush; the truth needs no armour").
But the truth is often not believed : iDibiici ingacal' inkoma
nomlungu atung' isicoco, the goat will bring forth an ox a)id
the white man wear a head-ring (before I believe that). Tina
sibamb' clenfulo, we hold by the lizard's story, [i.e.. by what we
were told first. At the creation of man, u-Nkulunkulu despatched
the chameleon to tell men that they were to live for ever, and
later on he sent the lizard to tell them that they were to die.
The chameleon wasted his time eating the little red kxvebazana
berries on the way, so the lizard arrived first and told his story,
and when the chameleon arrived nobody would believe him, and
so men are mortal). The truth is often denied, and denied with
a strong asseveration and gesticulation : Ukanyele Zi'alala ngom-
hlaiM, he denied it till he lay on his back; ukaiiyclc iikiima ngo-
bontsi, he denied it standing- on tiptoe ; upikc zvabuqusa ngesilevu
pantsi, he contradicted the statement till his beard swept the
ground. The truth is often exaggerated: BabiJi' ibiba, babik'
ibtizi they report a field-mouse, then they report a rat (so fhe
story grows in the telling). Didn't you say that it (the pig)
was as big as a bull ? Wens' escnyoka, he makes a snake story
of it. The tongue gets to the place where they count how many
skins went to the making of the kaross (or, as we say, where the
angler told how many fish he had caught). Your words over-
lap (You contradict yourself).

On Fidelity and Treachery.

Inja ayilum' umniniyo, a dog does not bite his master.
Angiyi kubuyela onuva, anginjengomgqigqo, 1 am not like the
reversing' waltz, there will be no going back with me. Yandifaka
ekwapini^ he put me in his armpit (He took me under his pro-
tection). In the brave man's house there is weeping, in tlie
coward's there is none (They are afraid even to weep for their
dead).

THE WIT AND WISDDM OK THE i:ANTU. 343

Lunyawo hvcmfcnc, it is the baboon's (foot (He shows the
cloven hoof). Ukaka kampctu, he is a shield reversed (a turn-
coat and traitor). Ungumsonto onyikiny\ki, he is a wet thread,
which rucks and will not go into the holes pierced for it (he is
thoroughly unreliable), liitsica-nibulala. one who helps and
kills, or: Uyikot' eyixatida, he licks the wound while tearing it
open (He is a false friend, a wolk in sheep's clothing. Umvundla
ozikundla aihili, a hare with two holes to its lair ; intlolela yom-
biiii, a spy for both sides ; a needle pointed at both ends ( One who
runs with the hare and hunts with ihe hounds).

On Sorrow and Consolation.

Sihlcsi'emansiiii. we are sitting in the water (in discomfort
and anxiety). Uhlesiwe ilahle cmhlana, he has a live coal sitting
on his back (He is in great concern). Ukiifa kiventUziyo ngum-
szvangedzva, the dying of the heart is a thing unshared (The
heart knoweth its own bitterness). The water has dried up
first in the pot and then in the ladle, is a saying that indicates
utter failure. That you should come to see an old vulture with
his neck plucked like me, expresses utter misery. I am a stump,
a pollarded tree, is said of one bereft of wife and children.

But there is consolation : Leave the spilt ])orridge and keep
what you have (There is no use in crying over spilt milk). The
good t^uinea-fowl cries v.diile it shuffles along ( Don't sit down and
give way to grief, kee]) moving' and put things right). Sorrow
will roll away like the morning mists before thhe sun. Umhlaba
kawunoni, the earth does not get fat, however many are buried
in it ('* O grave! where is thy victory?"). We have come to
console you; we have come to bring you out of the forest; akii-
hlanga luugehlanga, there has not happened (now) what has
not happened (before). (Death is the common lot.) And there
is the courage of despair. Ake silahle amatunga, let us throw
away our milkpails — though milk is the staff of life to the Bantu
(Let us burn our boats; let us make a last desperate effort).

On Life and Death.

Life is full of vicissitudes, it has many ups and downs:
Ukuhatuba kiizaV iiiduiia, kiiaaV intsikasi, the course of nature
brings forth now a tine male, now a poor female ( Do not expect
a lot of unmixed blessedness). Ukzvenza kiiya euiuva. kuye
pambili, action goes riow back, now forward (Time and chance
happen to all). Iiidlala itata osemnyango impose emsano, oscm-
sano impose emnyango, misfortune takes the one at the door and
throws him on the dais, and flings the one on the dais to the
door. The game ivill appear on the side of the inexperienced
hunter. I know him, the lucky fellow, he's as lucky as a wolf
(Throw him into the Nile, and he"ll come up with a tish in his
mouth ) .

And life and its joys are transitory: Akuko ukonga indubid'
ingeti, there is no ragwort that blooms and does not wither.

344 THE WIT AND WISDOM OF THE P.ANTU.

Uhlangcne nembila cicitakala, he came upon the conies as they
were dispersing (He did not long enjoy his good fortune). A
man falls with his shadow (Sic transit gloria mundi). Whence we
come is far away, whither we go is near (Our days are drawing
in). The bull does not bellow at the second ascent (Our dancing
days are done).

Itshoba lanquma, the tail- brush stiffened : itshoba lalala iim^
bete, the tail-brush lay on the dew ; Iwahlansa usehva, the cala-
bash threw up its contents; ucilo idahle intete, the tinkie has let
•^o the grasshopper, are all expressions for the article of death.
Ngongubo ziy' eweni, his garments are off to the precipice;
sekubekzve intlamvunje, a branch has already been laid over him,
are said of one as good as dead. There is a plan, they say, for
dealing with everything but death. Death has many petticoats
(There are many ways of dying). Incibi yamansi if a ngamansi,
eyesikali if a sikali, the waterman dies by water, and the spearman
by the spear. FJokuf alityeli, the hour of death gives no warn-
ing. Death is in the fold of our mantle. Death is always a new
thing. Akuko mnmngo ungenaliba, there is no hillside without its
grave. The leopard dies with his spots (the chief with his policy
and plans and renown). Lento umntu iyemka- nok' ibongzvayo,
this thing man departs, however celebrated he is. It is the known
tree that is felled ( It is the prominent man that is marked for
denunciation and death). A man is admired after his death
{De mortiiis nil nisi bonum). Ngiza kiimlandula Msila, I have
come to excuse Mzila (Mortuus est). Awu! Maswana usele!
Alas! iMazwana has remained behind (dead on the field of
honour).

(Finally received, July 27, 1917.)

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES

Chejmical, Metallurgical and Mining Society of_ South Africa.-—
Saturday, September 15th : G. Hildick-Smith, B.Sc, President, in the chair,
— Presidential address : G. Hildick-Smith. The address, at the outset,
referred to the want of co-ordination and systematic research work in all
branches of industry in the British Empire, and went on to apply this,
as a general axiom, in particular to the underground work on the mines.
Reference was made, in the first place, to the essentials for carrying on a
research department, and then to the branches of work which such a
department could profitably undertake. — '"A logarithmic calculator": D. R.
Robinson. A description of an instrument, essentially a circular slide
rule, introduced in several survey offices on the Rand over a year ago,
for the purpose of reducing planimeter readings of mine plans to tonnages
and areas on the dip.

NEW BOOKS.

Young, F. B. — "Marching on Tanga (zvith General Smuts in East

Africa)." 8 X S in., pp. xii, 265; map, illus. London: W. Collins,

Sons & Co., Ltd. 1917. 6s.
Du Pleesis, Rev. Prof. J. — " Thrice through the Dark Continent."

9X6 in., pp. viii, 350. Maps and illus. London : Longmans & Co,

1917. 14s. net.
Loram, Dr. C. T.— " The Education of the South African Native." pp.

XX, 3.40. London : Longmans & Co, 1917

ENTOMOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED

STATES.

By Eric S. Cogan, M.A., Ph.D.

America now justly and rightly enjoys the title of being the
home of applied entomology. While it seems but a short space
of time since rhe first pioneer efforts at insect control were com-
menced, yet our knowledge of the subject has advanced steadily,
and in the main along general and specialized lines, till it has
reached its present pro^x^rtions. Founded on the excellent work
of Say, Harris, Fitch, Le Baron, Walsh, Riley, and Lintner,
the study of entomology has progressed, and to this progress the
educational institutions have contributed no small portion. The
advance of our knowledge of agriculture, with its specialized
methods and its many phases which require scientific research
and ardent investigation, has created a demand for trained
entomologists, and to meet the requirement, the universities and
colleges have instituted special courses of instruction. The
amazingly rapid development of the agricultural resources of
the L^nited States has created the necessity for trained men to
cope with the many diverse insect problems of the land. Apart
from agriculture, our knowledge of the role which insects play
in the transmission of disease has almost made it imperative that
some attention be paid to the training of men to deal with such
problems, which affect the health of man so closely. So that
it is no wonder that one finds to-day in the American universities
experienced teachers and investigators, with well-equipped
laboratories, giving- of their knowledge to the coming generation.

It is not within the scope of this paper to deal at length with
the educational methods or the system of education in the
American universities, but the aim is to present some idea of the
courses given and where they are best obtained, together with
some of the opportunities for learning, which are offered. But
before doing so, it will perhaps be 'better to explain that in the
main universities and colleges in the United States may be
roughly divided into two sections, viz.. the State universities and
the privately endowed schools. Each State maintains at least one
university, and sometimes more, as is the case in Ohio, where
there are four, and it is at these State universities Avhere one
finds the great attention paid to the study oi agriculture and
agricultural sciences. Generally working in co-operation with
the State university is the State experiment station, and fre-
quently the two are in one. The privately endowed universities
on the whole do not devote as much attention to agriculture,
although a great deal of scientific research along agricultural
lines is accomplished Avithin their walls.

For purposes of discussion we may divide the universities of
the States, with respect to entomological education, into three
groups. Under the first group we may consider: Massachusetts

A

346 ENTOMOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

Agricultural Colle.ye. Amherst, Mass. ; Cornell University.
Ithaca, New York ; Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio ;
University of California, Berkeley, California ; and Illinois State
University, Urbana, Illinois. The second group would include
the universities of Wisconsin, Kansas, Indiana, Purdue, Michi-
gan, Iowa, Colorado, Minnesota, State University of Pennsyl-
vania, Harvard University, and several others, while the third
group would include many of the agricultural colleges of the
Southern States, and those schools where entomology is taught
in the general agricultural curriculum.

In group I we hnd some of the foremost universities in the
United States distributed from the east to the west coast. And
it is from these schools that the United States Bureau of Ento-
mology and the many State experiment stations draw their
investigators and workers. Some years ago Dr. Howard, Chief
of the United States Bureau, showed in a ])a])er that these five
schools provided by far the greater numl)er of entomologists at
work in the country. Besides, these schools have supplied, and
are supplying, a great number of teachers in the field of ento-
mology.

Being a truly agricultural science, entomoloyy naturally will
be found in the curriculum of the agricultural college of the
university. In the Ohio State University at least one course in
economic entomology is required 'before graduation from the
College of Agriculture, and the same is doubtless true of the
other members of the first group. Undergraduate work extends
over a period of four years, and during that time the student
has ample opportunity to specialize in whatever field he may
wish. Should he choose entomology as his prospective field, then
his first year's work would be that prescribed for the College
of Agriculture, and 'his courses of study would include elemen-
tary zoology ( as the fundamental preliminary training) , botany,
chemistry, etc., along with his language, etc. In his second
or sophomore year he would be able to take courses in ento-
mology, apiculture, evolution, horticulture, and perhaps an ele-
mentary course in plant pathology. The third or junior year
is generally regarded as the time for specialization to begin, and
it is here that the student will have " found 'himself," and will
be in a position to decide further wdiat branch he wishes to pur-
sue. Courses in advanced entomology, economic entomology,
taxonom}-. invertebrate morphology, bacteriology, and plant
pathology would take his attention. Thus, by the end of the
third year, he will 'have had a broad fundamental training in his
science, as well as those closely related, and he ought to be in
a position at the beginning of his senior year to take up a minor
research problem under the immediate guidance of an instructor
or professor. His prescribed courses for the last year would
include invertebrate embryology, medical entomology, genetics,
animal reactions, entomological literature, together with a
seminar each week. In case of a seminar, each student is
assigned a subject generally, on some recent advance in ento-

ENTOM()L()c;iCAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 347

mology, and it is his duty to prepare and present a paper em-
bodyino; his readings before the whole class and the faculty mem-
bers. An excellent opportunity is thus afforded in preparation
and presentation, because criticisms and questions are always
part of the programme.

While in the main the above outline wovdd indicate the
general plan for the student, it must by no means be construed
as the only plan, for each university has its own particular
method, and in some the methods of giving and allotting courses
would differ. Where facilities are offered, additional courses
may be obtained in diseases of insects, ac|uatic entomology, etc.

During the long summer recess many students of entomology
spend their vacations in the employ of the United States
Bureau of Entomology or the State experiment stations. Here
ample opportunity for field work and experience are obtained,
and it is indeed surprising to see the difference which a sum-
mer's work will have in a student's outlook on his subject. As
it is to the United States Bureau of Entomology and the State
experiment stations that the majority of student entomologists
look for future em])loyment, it is only natural that a few sum-
mers spent in the work are of inestimable value.

Again, the summer vacation may be spent in supplementary
study either at the Summer School of the University or at one
of the field laboratories, on the great lakes, or at the coast. The
Avriter recalls with great pleasure a summer spent at the Lake
Laboratory on the shore of Lake Erie.

In the majority of the universities of the first group the
courses outlined are generally similar. Especial attention is
everywhere given to training in laboratory work and technique.
One lecture a week would be supplemented with at least two or
three hours in the laboratory. During his last year a student,
if he shows fhe ability, may 'be appointed a student-assistant in
the laboratory in which he would be required to aid in laborator>-
demonstrations under the direction of the instructor. Thus,
when he receives his degree, the student will have had a broad,
lil)eral training, which should fit him for work almost imme-
diately.

Examinations are held at the end of each semester (roughly,
four and a half months), of which there are two a year, and on
the sum of the four years' standing, the student receives his
degree. As the degree given is that of Bachelor of Science in
Agriculture, the diploma will state the subject specialised in.
On the other hand, a student reading for the B.A. may similarly
specialize.

Advanced or graduate work in all the universities is ad-
ministered under the Graduate School, and the work leads to
the degrees of M.A., M.S., and Ph.D. It is, however, absolutely
necessary that a student 'have ample preliminary training in his
subject before entering on graduate study, and failing this he
may be required to supplement his regular work with additional
courses. For the desrree of ALA. one vear whollv devoted to

34<^ ENTOMOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES.

graduate study is required ; a satisfactory thesis must be pre-
sented in the major subject, and one or two minor subjects must
be taken. Final written and oral examinations, coAcring both
the major and minor subjects, are given before the degree is
awarded. A student majoring in entomology is most generally
advised to select as his minors one or two of the following:—
B'acteriology, plant pathology, horticulture. If his undergraduate
work has led to the degree of B.A., then the master's degree
generally conferred would be the M.A. ; if it has led to a B.S.A.,
then the M.S. would be the advanced degree. However, this
order of arrangement may be changed if circumstances necessi-
tate. The courses given during graduate work are all advanced,
and aim to give the student a broad outlook on his science.

For the degree of Ph.D. not less than three years of
graduate work or two years wholl}- devoted to graduate study
after receiving the master's degree are required. A major sub-
ject and one or two minors may be taken, the latter to be in
subjects related to the major. Research and extensive readings,
reviews of current literature, familiarity with contemporary
workers, their methods and results, play the most important part
in this work, and the student must familiarise himself with the
history of his subject. He must show a reading knowledge of
both French and German, to enable him to use these languages
for reference or other purposes. His dissertation must embody
a contribution to our knowledge of the subject, and must be pub-
lished at least before one year has elapsed from the time of its
acceptance. Written and oral examinations covering everv phase
of the major and minor subjects are given.

While it is not absolutely necessary that a student spend
the whole of his graduate study in the university, some indepen-
dent workers continue in the Bureau of Entomology or in the
State experiment stations, and their work is directed by the pro-
fessor in charge of the candidate. Thus it is possible for men to
gain advanced degrees without materially affecting their posi-
tions.

For graduate work in entomology, as well as in many other
subjects, scholarships are offered, and enable many students to
pursue advanced work. These scholarships are of the nature
of teaching scholarships, when the student spends half" his time
in study and the other half teaching elementary classes, for
which he receives a certain remuneration ; or a straight scholar-
ship, which gives to the student a stipend without requiring him
to teach, but devote his whole time to study. Such scholarshijis
do a great deal towards encouraging worthy students to go for-
ward in their studies.

Thus far I have outlined the courses of instruction with
some comments on other phases of entomological education, but
I catmot proceed any farther without mentioning something
about the relationship between student and teacher. In ad-
vanced work especially, the conferences, consultations, and asso-
ciations with their professors play an exceedingly imn^irtant

ExNTOMOLOGlCAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 349

part in a student's work, and it is here, I think, that graduate
work in any university finds its greatest asset. I well remember
an eminent Professor of Anatomy telling me of the great stimulus
it was to him to come into contact with the keen, ambitious
student, and to watch the development of the man in his work.
The same told me of a conference w4th a student regarding
selection of a problem for the Doctor's Dissertation. The
student, young and inexperienced, had decided on a certain
problem which he considered would meet his requirements, but
on coming to discuss it with his teacher, the student was amazed
to find his problem dismembered and reduced to a fraction of its
original size. Here the timely advice and direction of the
teacher saved the student nnich disappointment, which would
inevitably have followed his working on too great a task.

Students at American universities have a great many oppor-
tunities on the outside for gaining information. Numerous
scientific societies and clubs give them scope for exchange of
ideas. Thus at the five schools mentioned in the first group,
as well as in many of the others, there are respectively a Bio-
logical Club and Natural History Society, w^hich encourage
students to present papers, besides being instrumental in bringing
famous sijeakers, lecturers and experts to deliver addresses.
The Society uf Sigma XI, to which one is elected on the basis of
ability to undertake original scientific investigation, holds out
on honour which the student regards with much envy.

I have dwelt mainly on the five universities of the first
group with regard solely to their entomology. The schools of the
second group do prepare students most thoroughly in entomo-
logical work, but they have not yet given the especial attention
to it that the members of the first group have. A great many
students will graduate from these colleges and repair to the
schools of the first group for their advanced studies. Of the
third grou]3 I shall not say much beyond that it includes those
schools and colleges where entomology is taught in the general
curriculum in the Agricultural College or the College of Arts
and Science. Students at colleges in both this and second group
do specialize, but as a general rule they are isolated examnles.
and i>raceecl ultimately to the larger universities for their final
training.

In conclusion, I would say that the advantages and benefits
to be derived by the student of entomology in the American
universities are boundless. There is opportunity everywhere,
and the student can well spend the time to the greatest advan-
-tage.

(Read, July 6, 1917.) '

THE PLACE OF PROTEIN IN NUTRITION.

By John Carl Ross, B.A., M.S., Ph.D.

Only fifty or sixty years back the farmer had no means
whatever to guide him in choosing^ rations for his stock. He
fed his animals as he had seen others do before him, Ijut had
no notion of what it was that aiourished the animals, why one
feed was better than another, and so forth. The middle of last
century may be said to mark the beginning- of animal nutrition
as a science, and since then its development has been remark-
ably rapid, especially during the last few years.

But as our knowledge of animal nutrition has advanced,
apparently innumerable new j^roblems have presented them-
selves. Thus, we have been accustomed to judging the value of
a feed largely on its " nutritive ratio," which expresses the rela-
tion 'between digestible carboliydrates + digestible fat, expressed
in terms oif carbohydrate and digestible i)rotein. Different
digestible carbohydrates and fats ijrobably do not differ much
in nutritive value. But it is not true, as was thought until quite
recently, that one protein is as valuable as another for the main-
tenance and growth of farm animals. It is now we'll kiiown
that proteins differ, and may differ markedly, as regards their
nutritive value. For example, if we feed to an animal the pro-
tein casein, which is obtained from milk, supplemented with the
other necessary non-'uitrogenous nutrients, we obtain good
growth and fattening. But if we substitute g'liadin, one of the
proteins of wheat, for the casein, no growth is produced, though
the ration suffices for maintenance. If we use zein, one of the
proteins of maize, neither growth nor maintenance will be
obtained, and the animal will decline in weight more or less
rapidly.

Researches during comparatively recent years have shown
that proteins are built up essentially of large numbers of sinij^ler
compounds, called amino-acids. At least 17 amino-acids are
known to have a rather wide distribution among the different
])roteins, and a few others ha\e been identified in isolated in-
stances. It has been definitelv established that the differences
in nutritive value of proteins are due to differences k\ their
amino-acid content. It is obvious, then, that the nutritive value
of the proteins of ifeeding-stuff's for farm animals can be deter-
mined only by thorough and extensive studies of the amino-
acids which constitute the proteins.

This Oldens a new and almost unlimited field of study. The
investigator in animal nutrition to-day is being confronted with
the problem of determining the ])recise nutritive value of each
of the many amino-acids occurring naturally in feeding-stuffs.
Already significant results have been obtained. For example, we
are now reasonably sure that the amino-acid " tryptophane " is
essential for maintenance, and the amino-acid " lysine '" essen-

THE PLACE OF PROTEIN IN NUTRITION. 35I

tial for growth. Casein contains both in sufficient quantity for
maintenance and growth ; g-hadin of wheat contains tryptophane,
but very httle lysine, and thus will not produce growth, though
it suffices for niaintenaaice ; zein of maize contains neither trypto-
phane nor lysine, and therefore suffices for neither growth nor
maintenance. On the other hand, when zein is su])plemented
with tryptophane, maiiitenance is secured ; upon the fm-ther
addition of lysine, fairly rapid growth is secured. Even normal
growth has been obtained with zein when further supplemented
with " arginine." another amiiio-acid in which it is markedly
deficient.

Feeding experiments have led us to the conclusion that the
so-called " protein requirement " of animals is simply a require-
ment for definite amino-acids, and varies for different proteins
in strict accordance with their amino-acid make-uj). The pro-
tein casein is comparatively deficient in the amino-acid " cys-
tine," and it is found experimentaMy that the minimum
requirement of casein supplemented with a little cystine is lower
than that of pure casein. Incidentally, this iiidicates the impor-
tance of cystine as a protein constituent.

In order to obtain a better knowledge of the nutritive value
of the proteins of feeding-stufifs, three important lines of investi-
gation sitogest themselves. These are : first, a quantitative supply
of the amino-acids of feeding-stufi:"s ; second, feeding experi-
ments on the substitution of protein in rations by definite mix-
tures of the ami'no-acids occurring in feeding-stufl:'s ; and third,
feeding experiments to determine the nutritive value and relative
efficiency of the proteins of feeding-sttiffs.

Determinations of the amino-acid content of isolated pro-
teins, such as have frequently been made in the past, are not of
great {practical imjiortance to problems of live-stock feeding — •
the feeding-stufifs themselves must be studied. It is impossible
as yet to isolate quantitatively in a pure state the proteins of any
vegetable tissue ; furthermore, the nutritive value of a feed so
far as the nitrogen is concerned rests upon its total amino-acid
content derived from both proteins and pre-existing free amino-
acids, amides, etc., and not solely upon the amino-acids combined
in proteiai form. Moreover, practical animal husbandry men
have always to deal with the natural mixtures of proteins, or,
better, amino-acids as they occur in our ordinary feeding-stuffs.
It seems quite evident, then, that it will be necessary to deter-
mine the total amino-acids of feeding-stufYs directly. It is more
than probable ifrom recent work carried out in America that
the method of Van Slyke for the analysis of proteins by deter-
mination of the chemical groups characteristic of the amino-
acids can be applied with a fair degree of success to the direct
analysis of the nitrogen of feeding-stufifs. The method of Van
Slyke is incomplete, since it does not give an insight into the
amotmt of each amino-acid present in the protein or the feeding-
stufif; but it is undoubtedly the best method available at present,
and tliere is little doubt that the results obtained from the u^e

Tf^Z THE PLACE OF PROTEIN IN NUTRITION.

of this method will be of considerable value in the interpretation
of the results of feeding^ experiments.

Feeding definite mixtures of amino-acids in place of pro-
tein is a line olf investigation which will perhaps throw more
light upon the nutritive value of the proteins of feeding-stuffs
than any other. It has been shown that the animal organism
can be maintained in equilibrium, and even normal growth
secured, when the nitrogenous requirements are covered by pre-
parations obtained by completely hydrolysing protein material^
when presuma'bly only amino-acids (and small amoimts of
amides) are present. By completely removing- certain amino-
acids from the mixture of the products of protein hydrolysis
and determining the nutritive value of the residual mixture of
amino-acids it can be clearly demonstrated whether or not the
amino-acids removed are indispensable to maintenance or growth,
or both.

Other workers have used as a sole source of nitrogen in
rations isolated and carefully purified proteins obtained from a
wide variety of sources, and have shown that different proteins
have different values in nutrition. Those differences have been
traced very successfully to differences in the amino-acid con-
tent.

B}' these methods the significance of several of the amino-
acids ha\e been made evident. It is an unfortunate fact that
amino-acids are very expensive and otherwise difficult to obtain
in quantity, so that it is out of the question to attempt to feed
amino-acid mixtures to farm animals.

Most df our present knowledge of the role of amino-acids
in nutrition has been obtained from the results of feeding experi-
ments with small animals, usually mice or rats, in which isolated
proteins or definite amino-acid mixtures were used as the sole
source of nitrogen. Such results are of fundamental impor-
tance in revealing the character of the chemical processes in-
volved in nutrition, but are not necessarily fully applicable to
farm animals.

The third line of investigation suggested, namely, feeding
experiments to determine the nutritive value and relative effi-
ciency of the proteins of feeding-stuff's, will i)robably appeal to
the practical animal husbandry man more than the previous two.
Practical animal husbandry men must always deal with the
natural mixtures of proteins as they occur in ordinary feeding-
stuff's. Moreover, we can use farm animals for this work, as
there need be no special expense involved in the preparation of
the rations beyond the ordinary market cost of the feeds, and
no question olf the applicability of the results obtained to prac-
tical stock-feeding. Of course, this line of work is closely re-
lated to the previous two suggestions, and would yield a greater
measure of success, the greater the progress attained in the other
two directions, since the object would be to interpret the results
of the feeding experiments in terms of the amino-acid content
of the rations fed, if it be possible to do so.

THE PLACE OF PROTEIN IN NUTRITION. 35;^

It is impossible, as yet, to outline in detail final plans for
feeding- experiments with the natural mixtures of amino-acids
as they occur in ordinary feeding-stuffs in order to demonstrate
the relative efficiency of the amino-acids for maintenance and
growth until further data have been secured from the researches
of the first two divisions. In such experiments the necessity
for exactly controlled conditions is obvious, and cannot be over
emphasized. Recent ex])eriments indicate clearly that in re-
stricted but natural rations certain accessory compounds which
the animal organism cannot synthesise may be absent, or in
some cases it is possible that toxic materials may be present
to exert a slow but detrimental eft'ect. Further, it has been
showai in the case of swine that unknown If actors operative in
the normal environment of this species, such as soil-rooting and
natural water, are r)f considerable importance, and may aft'ect
its nutrition. The importance of the mineral side of a ration
has also been well estal)lished. Fiu'ther, the researches of the
last few years have clearly demonstrated that nutrition experi-
ments of short duration, even when accompanied by elaborate
chemical and physiological analysis and examinations, gi\e but
little, if any, insight into the value of a feed for long-continued,
•normal and healtjiy growth.

In view of these considerations it would seem that the first
tiling to Ije accomplished is to select some one standard ration,
and demonstrate beyond a doubt that this ration under exactly
controlled conditions will produce normal growth for a long
time, say, six to teai months.

It is not my intention to suggest detailed plans for such
an experiment. Init if the above conditions can be obtained, we
shall have an excellent standard ui)on which to base future work.
Further, direct experimental evidence will be obtained that this
ration contains all the necessary food nutrients, and all the
essential com])oimds like vitamines. lipoids, etc., retjuired for
the maintenance, the growth, and the fattening of the particular
animals used ; also, that this ration does not contain toxic
materials that exert a detrimental influence on growth.

Such studies mark the beginning elf a new era in the chemis-
try and i)hysiolog'y of nutrition. Our rapidly increasing evi-
dence on the nutritive fimctions of the amino-acids will no dottbt
be helpful in the interpretation of past and future feeding ex-
periments. Is it not possible that in the near futtu-e we shall
calculate balanced rations from their amino-acid content that
will be most efficient for maintenance, growth, and fattening of
farm animals? Undoubtedly the practical and economic impor-
tance of modern nutrition investigations will be aj^preciated by
the general public oidy when the findings make possible a better
economic and nutritive valuation of feeding-stuft"s. An eminent
authority has said: " It is perhaps not too Utopian to expect that
the day mav arrive when amino-acid concentrates may serve to
render perfect the mixture of proteins in a fodder like maize."

( Read. Jiilx T, igi7.)

THE SCOPE OF RADIOLOGY.

By Jan Stephanus van der Lingen, B.A.

{Abridged.)

Radiology is the study of the physical, chemical and physio-
logical properties of all kinds of radiations. In order that we
may form some idea of the origin of radiations, it will be neces-
sary to consider very briefly the constitution of matter.

Matter, on being subdivided, yields the fundamental unit —
the molecules of the particular chemical compound. These mole-
cules are built up of similar atoms or an assemblage of certain
groups of different kinds of atoms. The properties of the mole-
cules depend upon the arrangement and properties of the atoms.

Atoms, again, are built up of constellations of electrified
units, which we name corpuscles. These corpuscles gyrate round
certain centres of force within the atom, and thus we mav
imagine the atom to represent a miniature universe with its
planets and fixed stars. From this we see that the properties
of the atom depend upon the corpuscular constellations. Should
these constellations be changed, the chemical properties will
also be changed, hence the \ari(ius elements rejjresent ])articular
constellations of corpuscles.

When energy is communicated to the corpuscles, their
speeds will undergo a change, and this change in speed must be
balanced by the forces which keep the corpuscles in their orbits.
If the ;forces do not balance the new speed, the corpuscles
will fly oft' from the former orbits and become the comets of tliis
micro-cosmos.

In the radio-active substances we have an instance of these
comets.

The difference in our analogy is that these comets are large,
and thus disturb the equilibrium of the planetary system of the
atom. The debris of the original atom probably tends to re-
establish ec|uilibrium. The re-established system will be dif-
ferent from the former, hence a new atom is born. Thi^ atnrn
is probably not in harmony with its neighbours, and consequently
must part company. As an instance of this we have helium, a
])roduct olf radio-active matter. Thus alchemy does exist, but
Nature alone, thus far, in her laboratories performs these trans-
mutations.

These emitted corpuscles, which we have mentioned lioforc.
form the corpuscular radiations. The gyrating corpuscles in
the atom may, under certain conditions, set up periodic pulses in
the surrounding medium, and thus cause light to be emitted,
which is ])ro]jagated in the form of wave motion.

The properties of these radiations will depend ujx)n the
frequency of the pulsation caused by the cor])uscle. The light
emitted is thus characterized by its wave-lengths — that is, the
distance which each component part of this wave motion pa^^^es
over between two consecutive pulses.

THE SCOPE OF R.\DIOLOGV. 355

A ray of visible light falling obliquely on tiie surface of a
prism of glass or quartz is deviated from its original path, and
this deviation is different for different kinds of lig'ht ; hence,
when composite light falls on the i^rism, the constituent parts
will be deviated in definite directions, and form a series of
colours on the receiving screen. This series of colours or of
bright lines is called the spectrum of the light.

Iif a bar of metal is gradually heated and its s])ectrum
observed, the following phenomenon is seen : Initially no visible
light appears, but heat is radiated — that is, invisible light is given
■off'. Subsequently the metal begins to glow, and a dark red liiiht
is seen in the spectrum. As the heating is continued, the follow-
ing additional colours appear consecutively : Orange, yellow,
green, blue, and finall\- violet, where the visil)le s])ectrum ends.

The visible region of the spectrum forms only a small frac-
tion of the complete s|)ectrum of radiations. This region extends
from the wave-length 0.0008 millimetre — ^the red end — to
wave-length 0.0003 millimetre — the violet end. Beyond
the red end, we have the long wave-length heat rays (0.06
millimetre), and the Hertzian or electro-magnetic rays (10,000
metres). Beyond the violet end, we have the short actinic
(Schumann) rays (o.oooi millimetre), and the A^-rays
(o.ooooooooT millimetre).

From what has been said about the radiations given oft'
l)y an incandescent solid, we notice that the short wave-lengths
appear at a higher temperature than the long wave-lengths ;
hence, by observing the spectra of stars, we may form some idea
of the temperature of the stars, and by comijaring tlie spectra
we may construct a celestial thermometer.

The spectrum of an incandescent solid is one continuous
band of colour, whereas an incandescent gas generally gives a
spectrum of definite bright lines only, and these lines give us a
clue to the nature of tlip .o^as.

These bright lines are replaced by dark lines in the spec-
trum if the light ivom an incandescent solid jjasses through a
layer of the same gas at a lower temperatin^e ; thus the dark
lines in the snectra of stars indicate the presence of definite
gases between the observer and the star. Hence the tempera-
ture and constitution of a star are revealed in its spectrum.
When the source of light moves relatively to the observer, the
waves of light are compressed or expanded, hence there is an
apparent change in the wave-lengths; conse(|uently the "shift
of the lines" indicates the direction of motion of the source;
thus the temperature, constitution, and motion of celestial bodies
are shown in tlie si^'X'tra.

Just as a gas has a definite absorption spectrum under
definite conditions, so, too, li(|uids selectively absorb definite
radiations when light is transmitted through them. The energy
of the radiations which are abs(ubed may l)e used to cause new
radiations. An instance of this is fluorescence.

This selective absorption is met with in the ]:)igments of

T,S() THE SCOPE OF RADIOLOGY.

plants and animals. The colour of a plant is frenerally due to-
the presence of certain pigments. These pigments absorb cer-
tain radiations of the incident light and reflect or scatter back
the remainder. The scattered light determines the surface
colour of the bod}'. The energy of the absorbed radiations is
generally utilized by Nature to promote growth. The radiations
of the red end of the spectrum are those usually employed to
promote metabolism, whereas the action of the radiations of the
violet end is katabolic. The green colouring matter in plants —
chlorophyll — absorbs the blue rays of light, and converts them
into beneficial red rays. The action cif pigments in plants is
further demonstrated in the case of seaweeds. At the surface
they are green, and the colour gradually changes with the depths
at which they are found ; thus they finally de^'elol■) to red. Sun-
light, as it passes through the water, is gradually absorbed, the
red rays heing absorbed more readily than the blue rays ; hence
the latter penetrate to the greater de})ths. At this depth we
find only the red seaweeds. The pigment in these plants con-
verts the destructive 1)1 ue rays into beneficial orange and red rays.

Both in plants and animals the pigments protect the under-
lying tissues from destructive rays; thus sunljurn. which is caused
Ijy the -hort, that is blue, rays is generall}' followed by pigmenta-
tion. The continual ex])osure to the action of the sun possil:)lv
caused the ft)rmation of melanins, the colouring matter in the
skin of the coloured races. This pigmentation forms a protec-
tion ; thus the negro or kaffir has a better chance of existence in
his birthday suit than a white man, when both are exi)osed to
excessive solar radiations.

It has been found that Avhite cows, fed on buck-hay and
exposed to the sun's rays, get a rash, whereas coloured cows do
not suffer from the ra;|h on account of the protective pigments.
Artificial colouring of a white cow acts in the same manner.
Another detrimental effect of blue rays is that they cause pitting
in the skin of a smail-pox patient, hence the patient is ])laced
where only red rays will reach him ; but it has been found that
the blue rays as well as the red rays are beneficial in the cases
of certain skin diseases. It may be that the beneficial effect
caused bv the blue ravs is the result of pigmentation combined
with the formation of antitoxins, hence the good results obtained
by " sun-bath cures." When indulging in a sim-bath the head
should ])e protected, because the yellow-green rays cause sun-
stroke.

From what has been said above, it follows that it is advisable
to wear vellow-green or \\'hite headgear, as these colours absorb
or scatter, respectively, the injurious rays.

Speaking of the effect of actinic ravs in the case of skin
diseases brings us to the bactericidal action of these ravs. W'e
have already i)ointed (Utt that, in the case of plants, blue ravs
destroy life, whereas the red encourage growth. In general the
effect of these ravs on bacteria is analogous with that on ])lants.
We all know that stagnant water is apt to be the stronghold of

THE SCOPE OF RADIOLOGY. 357

disease-bearitio- l)acteria, yet few of us care to enquire how
Nature protects us in this case. The so'lar heat dries the pools,
unfortunately heat also encourag^es the growth of bacteria. At
the same time, the blue rays come to our aid ; they kill off the
bacteria in a short time, and also penetrate to a greater depth
than the red (heat) rays.

In experiments with actinic rays of mercury lamps it was
found that the dangerous bacteria of cholera, typhoid, and
dysentery were killed in less t/lian 20 seconds, whereas the harm-
less yeast bacteria lived after 300 seconds.

From what has been said, it will readily be seen that ex-
posed pools are less dangerous than those hidden in sheltered
places. The latter receive heat from the earth by conduction,
and are at the same time screened from the actinic rays.

This bactericidal action of the actinic rays is applied in
modern waterworks to sterilize the water.

Actinic rays produce 'hydrogen peroxide — a good oxidizer —
when they pass through water, but it is not the effect of this
action which is princii^ally responsible for this sterilization.

Thus far we have considered radiations whose wave-lengths
lie between the values 0.0008 millimetre and o.oooi millimetre.
Let us now consider A'-rays, which lie far beyond this region
with o.ooooooooi milimetre. A''-rays are characterized by the
following general jjroperties : —

(a) Penetrating effect ;

( b ) Photographic and chemical effect ;

(c) Fluorescent effect ;

(d) Ionizing effect ;

(c) Physiological effect; and
(/) Optical properties.

These pro])erties will be better understood when we consider
briefly the origin of A^-rays.

Under certain conditions A-rays are produced as the result
of the bombardment of solids by corpuscles moving at a very
high speed. The energy which these corpuscles impart to the
solid sets the electrons vibrating in a definilte manner, con-
sequently the character of the radiation will be determined by
the constitution of the target and the energy of the bombarding
corpuscle, which may cause some or all of the C(^rpuscles of the
solid to give off" their characteristic radiations.

(a) Penetrating Effect.

Substances which are opaque to ordinary light are more or
less transparent to these rays. Targets of high atomic weight
generally produce rays which are more penetrating, ceteris pan-
bus, than targets of lower atomic weight, and dense substances
are generally less transparent than substances of low density.
This readily explains that it is easy to obtain a photograph of
the bones and the opacjue parts of a body.

;i5<'^ the scope of radiology.

(/') Photographic and Chemical Effect.

The chemical action of these rays upon a ])hotographic
plate depends principally upon two things — the penetrability of
the rays and the current sent through the tube. The more pene-
tratinjEj- rays are less efifective than the weaker, softer or less
i:»enetratino- rays. When the hardness of the rays remains the
same, the photographic effect is augmented by increasing the
current through the tube, so much so that it is possible to obtain
a " snapshot '" of the moving parts of the body, such as the
heart, etc. In this connection it is worthy of note that the emul-
sions, of which tlie film is made, play an important part. The
more absorljent the emulsion is, the more satisfactory would it
be for obtaining skiagrams of bodies.

The hardness of these rays is classified according to arbi-
trary scales of i^enetrability, usually the penetrability relative to
thicknesses of aluminium. This enables the radiographer to
standardize the radiations ref|uired for the diagnosis for dif-
ferent parts of the body.

Besides the chemical action on a photographic plate — these
rays also produce precipitating and other chemical effects, e.g.,
iodine is precipitated from its solution in chloroform, and
ammonium oxalate-mercury bichloride mixture i:)recipitates
calomel. Barium, magnesium, and potassium platino-cyanides
change colour due to de-hydration.

These chemical eft'ects enable one to measure the quantity
of the radiation, thus pastilles and emulsions on paper or jilates
are used to determine the dosage given to a patient.

(r) Fluorescent Effect.

Certain comi>ounds of uranium and alkali salts, and also
alkali earth metals, emit light when X-rays fall on them. The
intensity of tlie fluorescent light varies inversely as the sc|uare
of the distance of the .substance from the target of the tube.
This effect is ap])lied in screens for localising foreign bodies,
thus ob\-iating the necessity of photographing the affected parts.
This method, however, leaves no record for future reference.

(d) Ionising Effect.

When a gas is ex])osed to the action of these rays it breaks
up into electrically charged particles or ions ; that is to say, the
gas becomes ionised, and in that condition conducts electricity.
The amount of ionisation produced in a given time depends upon
the nature of the gas, its pressure, the potential difference across
the tube, the inverse scjuare of the distance from the target of
the tube, and the penetrability of the rays, but it seems to be
independent of the temperature of the gas. This principle is
utilised es])ecially bv phvsicists for making quantitive measure-
ments.

Beifore going on to the physiological eff'ect, we shall say a
few words about secondary ravs. When X-ravs fall on sub-

THE SCOP]: OF KADIOLOCV. 359

Stances, they cause those substances to emit certain radiations.
Such rays are called " secondary." These rays have properties,
which dei)end upon the nature of the substance from which the\-
originate, and these substances or radiators are classified into
g;roups according' to their atomic weights. If the radiajtor be a
chemical compound, the secondary radiations depend upon the
chemical constitution of the radiator — e.g., the secondary radia-
tions from salts consist oi two parts — (i) homogeneous radia-
tions. ha\ing the same penetrability as those from the metal; (2)
scattered primary radiations, considerably more penetrating than
the homogeneous radiations. The latter are due to the acid
radical.

}\ the metal occur in the acid radical, it merely acts in con-
jtmction with the rest of the radical.

The characteristic radiation of a substance is only emitted
when the primary radiation has sufficient energy to bring it into-
play.

{c) l'I[^■SIOLo(;ICAL Effect.

The action of yY-rays causes nuclear changes in cells. These
changes are generally of a degenerati\e character. Experiments
on ova show that under certain conditions cell division is re-
tarded, and ifrequently the fcetus is a monster.

When pregnant female rats are irradiated the young are
less virile than the controls, and they rarely live for one month.
In a])pearance. too. they are smaller than the normal young. In
three cases under our observation the females were sterile for a
period of seven months. During this period they behaved like
normal rats. One (female (white rat), which was treated fre-
quently from the first signs of pregnancy, gave birth to eleven
abnormally small 'black rats. They all died within five weeks
after birth. A similar pigmentation has been recorded in the
case of butterflies.

Thus far rodent ulcers, sarcomata, carcinomata, lichen and
leukaemia (in which the white blood corpuscles are killed oft' by
irradiation) have been sticcessfully treated with X-rays.

In this connection we may point otit that .Y-ray therapeutics
can only be successfully practised when the characteristic radia-
tions for certain treatments are definitely specified, and not
merely the dosa.f;e re(|tnred; hence it is essential that the medical
radiologist should have a thorough knowledge of the physics of
radiology.

(/) Optical Properties.

We have already seen that the intensity of the radiation
follows an inverse square law, the same as in ordinary optics.
The eft'ect of these radiations on a selenium cell (variation of
resistance) also follows the optical law.. Moreover, in IQ12, von
Laue showed that these radiations cause interference ])atterns
wdien they arc transmitted through crystals, consequently the
A" — the unknown quantity — has been eliminated, so that we may

360 SUGAR CANE WAX.

now classify Rontgen rays under the oeneral heading of wave-
motions.

This discovery enables one to determine the lattices of crys-
tals as well as the distance between the atoms in the lattice of
the crystal. Furthermore, by observing the variation in the
intensity of the spots with variation of temperature one can esti-
mate the kinetic energy of .the atom at any stated temperature.
The appearance of the spots, again, indicates whether the lattice
of the crystal is ideal or flawed, and also whether the crystal is
in the transition stage.

This method may be applied practically in testing and grad-
ing diamonds and precious stones.

Radio-active Substances.

Radio-active substances emit electrically charged i)articles,
w liich constitute the so-called corpuscular radiations, as well as
radiations after the nature of Rontgen rays, but the wave-lengths
of the former are at the utmost one-thousandth part of the
shortest known X-ray. These radiations, both ethereal and
corpuscular, cause similar efifects to X-rays.

In the application of radio-therapy, the corpuscular radia-
tions probably functionate as the originators of a definite type
of X-ray.

In general the emanation from a radio-active substance
accelerates y-rowth in plants.

The bactericidal action of the rays is similar to that of
ultra-violet light, only the time of exposure must be longer.

Medicallv, the advantage of the emanation i'; that it may
be absorbed by a fluid, and then injected into a strictly localised
region. For this purpose licjuid paraffin ma}'^ be used on account
of its high coefficient of absorption and its high viscosity, which
causes it to remain for a considerable time at the infected area
when it is injected.

(Read, July 4. 191 7.)

Sugar Cane Wax.-" A considerable amount of atten-
tion," says the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, "has V>een
given in recent years to the recover}' of wax from the waste pro-
duced in the extraction of sugar from the sugar-cane, and it is
satisfactory to find that this industry has now been started on a
small scale in Natal. Samples of the first consignment of Natal
sugar-cane wax shipped to this country have been examined at the
Imperial Institute, and have been found to be of good rjuality,
quite equal to that of the first trial samples made and examined.
Sugar-cane wax is now becoming better known on the market,
and could be used as a substitute for the better known Carnuba
wax in the manufacture of gramophone records, polishes, candles,
-etc."

SANSCULOTTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

By Prof. Renicus Dowe Nauta.

The fraction of the eighteenth century French literature
which it is my intention to consider in the present paper is the
period during which a series of preparatory and partial revolts
culminated in the final outbreak of the Revolution. I shall have
to discard all regular and ordinary literature, boiling down my
remarks to what might be called glimpses at French literature as
sansculottized during the great social upheaval. I shall equally
be debarred from drawing into the circle of my considerations
any of the literary lions of the pre-revolutionary eighteenth,
century; nor even shall I dwell upon the works of poets like
Marie- Joseph and Andre Chenier, the latter of whom fell a victim
to the guillotine ; Lebrun, the French Pindarus ; Ducis, the trans-
lator ( !?) of Shakespeare; Vergniand, the lyric; or on those of
Pixerecourt, the originator of the modern French melodrama;
Beaumarchais, the greatest of the dramatists of the time, author
of the exquisitely witty twin-comedies " Le Barbier de Seville "
and " Le Mariage de Figaro " ; Mirabeau and Barnave, the
orators ; Chamfort and Rivarol, the moraliiLts ; Volney and
Dupuis, the philosophers. I intend confining myself to a few
outstanding and well-defined types : Hebert, Marat, Robespierre,
Danton, Camille-Desmoulins. To show the corroding influence
of the revolutionary neurosis on their mentality, and the various
consequences accruing from it for their surroundings, will be mv
chief endeavour.

Buffon, in his famous " Discours," writes " Le style c'est
I'homme " ; and if any corroborative detail should be required to
confirm the truth of this maxim, we have only to look for it in
the literature of the great Revolution. The language of the
people, that of the political leaders and zealots, as well as that of
the journalists and orators of the time, is steeped in the most
lurid hues ; it is highly emotive everyw^here, and representative of
the various temperaments of each and everybody. Some brand-
ish the whip of satire wath never-flagging skill and energ}- of
grasp ; others pontificate in a most solemn manner, like so many
divining augurs ; others, again, give iree scope to the most impet-
uous, the most fiery inspirations of their genius. It is through the
medium of their words and the style of their writings that we are
best enabled to judge the men of those times ; it is b}^ mentally
resuscitating the sessions of their assemblies and the meetings of
their clubs, by perusing the numberless journals, circulars,
gazettes, and placards which were daily scattered broadcast over
Paris with a sonorous, rustling flutter, that we succeed in under-
standing their most unimaginable decrees, their most extravagant
incongruities, and that, after emerging from this mass of motley
rubbish, we feel competent to realize the hugeness of the achieve-
ments of the Convention.

B

362 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATUKl'. IN FRANCE.

King Demos declines speaking anything else but the language
of Billingsgate. What is the good of polite manners, of choice
expressions, of severely strict syntax ? All this is offensive in his
nostrils and smacking of aristocracy. Perfect equality requires
that one should express oneself without ceremony, and call a
spade a sj^ade, and that nothing remind one of bygone times of
abject slavery, when one was forced to refine upon one's speech
so as to please and flatter the great. And since it has appeared
that his roaring oaths do agonize and sting the fair ci-devant to
the quick, he makes it a point to raise his voice and bespangle his
style with (|uite a number of those gems from the gutter. The
picturescjue is not precluded ; far from it. When French stoops
to be trivial, it becomes only so much the more flowery and para-
bolic and figurative. The figures are of the spiciest and the most
indecorous— there is no doubt about that ; but the)^ are as a rule
extremely droll and funny, with a ring in them that reminds one
of the guft'aw of Rabelais. The "esprit gaulois." cornered by Mrs.
Grundy and whisked out of the drawing-rooms, where, not so
very long ago, it was looked upon with genial complacency, had
taken refuge with the people. And what a host of quaint meta-
phors do we find in the mouths of the sansculottes ! The horrid
tumbril of the scaft'old becomes with them the " vis-a-vis de
Maitre Sanson " ; or " le carrosse a trente-six portieres " ; the guil-
lotine receives the speaking name of " le rasoir national " ; they
even hurl their pitiless jokes at the woeful cortege of the con-
demned victims as they pass by, and shout : " lis vont mettre la
tete a la fenetre," " lis vont faire la bascule," " Les voila en route
pour essa}'er la cravate a Capet," " Eternuer dan-; la sac," " De-
mander I'heure au vasistas," etc., etc.

One man, of all others, bestirs himself to deal out and dis-
seminate this semi-argot, of which the French populace are so
fcnid. That man is Hebert, the editoi of a scurrilous pap^^r
called Lc Pcrc Diichcsnc. His contributions to this publication
were mostly sketches from real life and i)ortraits after nature.
He studies his models on the wharf and in the market-places, as
]\h^liere had studied his marquises at the Court, his medical
characters in the boudoirs, his scholars in the haunts of learning,
The paper became notoriously popular to a marvellous extent.
Its " Lettres bougrement patriotic|ues," a title of which as a mild
translation, this might be given, " Confoundedly Patriotic
Letters," littered most ostentatiously everybody's table, even
those of the most fervid royalists, whom they served as certifi-
cates for public-spirited civism. Tt was incontestably a stroke of
genius in Hebert to create this original press, which was destined
to ere long get the whip-hand over public opinion. There is no
doubt but that it was greatly instrumental in bringing about
the condemnation of Louis XVL and later on that of the Giron-
dins. whom Hebert used to style " ces crai:)auds du Marais." It
w^as sufificient that the Perc Diich.csiie burst into a passion — and
this happened fairly often — to forthwith see a movement set on
foot in favour of the measures which it either demanded or advo-

SANSCULLOTISKD LITERATURE IN FRANCE. 36,^

catecl. \\'hile fawning upon demagogy it enabled the jjeople by
its lucid exposes to grasp the most abstruse political propositions,
and it is not impossible that the day will coiue when it will be
universally recognised that wit, originality, and eloquence — may
be the oily c/rmtiiie eloquence of the Revolution — once centred in
Hebert and in his abominable Pcre Duchesne. Nevertheless, this
Hebert remains the most repulsively odious figure in the galerie
of revolutionaries. The memory of even Marat does not ap])ear
so deeply stigmatized and so infamous as Hebert's. This is so
because, with Hebert, everything is organized hypocrisy, frigid
perfidy, and deliberate calculation. Well, we may be able to
forgive a good deal of violence, but we cannot possibly condone
tartufery. Hebert was an eloquent person, a fop and buck about
town, and thoroughly well educated. For him the Revolution was
not a means, but an end. H he had been born in the lower strata
of the people, whose vile language he handled so deftly, we should
not have had to upbraid him for having usurped their argot. But
he was a refined aristocrat, and had nothing in common with his
proletarian partisans. We may fairly cotui)are him with those
politicians who, on canvassing and on ])olling days, after shakings
and squeezing the blackened hands of mechanics, rush to the
washhandstand to soap off the smut. And yet as late as 1789
this Hebert was still a good man, inspired with the very best of
feelings. Letters which he wrote to his mother and sisters in
these days prove this to the full. W'hat has made him odious
to us is his political tergiversation and his time-serving defections.
This infuriated caterer for the guillotine was once a militant
Royalist, as may be seen from several comj^limentary snatches of
poetry dedicated to the Queen, and from his lamentation on
an occasion of an indisj^osition of Louis XVI : " Alack-
aday, my pleasure is gone ; my wine is like worm-
wood, my pipe is rank in my mouth ! My king, my
good, kinds king is ill ! Frenchmen ! if you have tears,
prepare to shed them now with me." A few months later on this
same beloved King became with him the ogre, the fuddled soaker,
the churl, the swine, the cuckold Ca]:)et ; and the adorable Queen
the she-wolf, the tigress, the frivolous, spoony Austrian monkey!
Indeed, it may be said that Hebert dived to the bottom of the
well of infamy during his campaign against Marie-Antoinette,
whom he persecuted with the ferocity of a hyena. The origin
of the Pcre Duchesne is a curious one. This uncouth type had
been a character well known among the theatre-going public.
Some years before, in a popular farce, a certain potter and
furnace-maker had been shown up on the stage who could not say
three w^ords without rapping out a shocking oath or other bad
language. The groundlings in the pit and the angels in the gallery
had been highly anuised at the performance, and the silhou-
ette of this old fogey, whose name on the cast was Pcre Duchesne,
had remained popular as the incarnation of the sound common
sense and the inveterate ignoble coarseness of the mob. Ever
since 1789 his name had occasionally adorned political i)amphlets.

364 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

And did Lc Pcrc Duchesne disappear along with liis patron
Hebert? By no means; in every troublous period in France he
resuscitates, and just before the present war he was rendering
yeoman service to the modern anarchists, under the name of Le
Pcre Peinard — Old Father Drudge.

It is difficult to separate another contemporary paper,
Marat's Ami dii Peuple, from Hebert's Pere Duchesne. But for
a few exceptions they followed both the same line of politics,
and if it must be acknowledged that they were not written in the
same language and the same style, still, to the core they vvere
the same. And yet, however odious and loathsome iVIarat may
be, he does not deserve the same reprobation as his fellow-pam-
phleteer Hebert. What widely divergent psychology ])laces these
two neurotics at the opposite poles of the Revolution ! The onft
with his Pcre Duchesne, the grotesquely sinister otTspring of Jack
Pudding, whose foot has slipped on clotted gore ; the other with
his Ami du Peuple, an ideologist of unbounded conceit and
vanity, terrible jealousy, and morbid temperament, tottering on
the brink of Bedlam, in which he is going to founder. In the
series of historical neurotics and lunatics Marat ought to occup>'
the place of honour. Does he not himself acknowledge that he
is in the grip of the delirium of virtue? But his delirium is the
rage of persecution. Everywhere he sees none but scamps and
scoundrels rebelling against the native country — that is to say,
against him — and with indefatigable obstinacy, he claims their
heads. He loves to proclaim himself a martyr of the Revolution;
he revels in boasting of the sacrifice he is constantly making of
his dear health and his life; and in reality, he is one of those rare
champions who shirked the danger and hid themselves in the
hour of peril ! He keeps on raving about the ungrateful, frivolous
ralible, for whose sakes he is sacrificing himself, and invariably,
like the ogre of the fairy-tale, who claims his daily prey, L'A)ui
du Peuple demands the holocaust of anti-revolutionists — now 600
heads, now 10,000, now 20,000. Michelet, the great French his-
torian, who has gone to the trouble of counting these homicidal
claims, mentions a total of 270,000 ! Lamartine was kind enough
to see in him " Texpression permanente de la colere du peuple."
This diagnosis holds no water. Marat's case is barely and simply
pathological, and a clinical one for the lunacy ward. Misfortune,
or the irony of fate, has willed that the Revolution should take
him seriously, instead of relegating him to the padded cell or
pinioni'ng him in a straight waistcoat. It is astonishing,
iDesides, that the people did not get sick and tired of his uniformly
monotonous and desperately prosy prose, when, without a shade
of variety, he keeps doggedly harping upon the same string.
Michelet expresses this characteristic beautifully when he says
that Marat was like the irritating tinkle of a bell, one and the
same bell that is being tolled incessantly and without a second's
interruption. As for literary quality, in the Ami dti Pettple we
find the riff-rafif lingo and style replaced by a language which,
if not noble, is at least grammatically correct. This he has in
common with the majority of the writers of his time, who, as a

SANSCULLOTISED LITEKATURI': TN FRANCE. 365

rule, were not keen on revolutionizing- syntax, and who were not
afraid of being- taken for aristocrats on account of their language
being academic.

Through an unforeseen antithesis — the history of the Revolu-
tion is replete with antitheses — the parliamentary style is diame-
trically opposed to the language of the people. On the platform
no triviality, no outrageous coarseness, no blasphemy. The
orators are like so many '* heavy fathers " expressing themselves
in accordance with the all but exaggerated rules of rhetoric.
Several among them being members of the Bar. they make it a
point of honour to carry the palm of victory in those tournaments
Avith the tongiie that are held daily at meetings and clubs. Robes-
pierre is the typical representative of these academic orators,
whose wearying emphasis stands out in cruel contrast with the
violence of their politics.

At the festivities of prairial (20th May-i8th June),
rliis jx)ntiff of the .Supreme Being Vvas simply perfect as
a jx)ntiff ; for such he was throughout his life. His
speeches are homilies, his colleagues the catechumens,
whom it was his task to convert. Virtue is his hobby.
He does not deliver his harangues ex lUiproviso. He carefully
■writes them down in the quiet seclusion of the study ; he never
takes liberties with the classical division of his addresses, and the
se(|uence of exordium, proposition, proof, refutation, and perora-
tion is conscientiously adhered to. To state it plainly, he has not
a single one of the qualities of the political orator, w-hose fiery
and spontaneous eloquence electrifies the mob. and who gets his
inspiration on the spur of the circumstances. He was a senti-
mentalist, who had strayed into the whirl of the revolutionary
cyclone. \\'ithout this cyclone Robespierre would in all prob-
ability have become a scrupulous barrister, a devotee of literature,
whose mystic propensities would have found ample scope and
gratifications in J. J. Rousseau's writings. As a youth he was a
member of the Rosati Club at Arras, a club of young men united
by the bonds of friendship and l:)y a taste for poetry, roses and
wine, who went in for philosophy — that is to say, who were
following the movements set on foot by Rousseau and Voltaire.
The majority of them sacrificed on the altar of the Muses, and
so did Robespierre. Quite a posy of nice little pieces of poetry
did he write, redolent with rustic country odours as Jean Jacques
loved them, or scented with the perfume of old-fashioned
amorous courtshi]). What a distance there lies between these
innocent times and the da}' when he gave his absolution to Pro-
vidence for the perennial rule of crime and tyranny on earth, or
when he professed to make France the ornament of the universe \
Of a liervous and bilious temperament, this Utopian visionary,
who firmly believed in the actual jn-icticability of Rousseau's
" Contrat Social," and yet swerved so far away from his master,
was probably more than anybody else smitten with the circum-
ambient neurosis. This originally trusty and straightforward
mind — his addresses in the Legislative Assembly are available to

366 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

testify to this character — has grackially sHd and deflected towards
an aim which was diametrically oi)]>osed to the object he had in
view at his starting-point. How true this is may be seen from
the fact that in the opening days of the Revolution he strenuously
moved the abolition of capital punishment. A\'hen Jacobin dic-
tator, he has never been shunted along this wrong track con-
sciously luit he was logically bound to go on towards terrorism,
which is, and for ever remains, his work. He was a sharply out-
lined revolutionary type, and had many imitators. His mysticism,
his religiousness, the ideal of lofty morality that he believed
himself called upon to incarnat", all this he has in common with a
host of politicians who were all more or less disciples of Rous-
seau. Rousseau himself, however, would have disowned the
slightest share in the Revolution at the very first drop of blood
shed in its course !

Next to Robespierre, we invariably think of Danton. As an
orator Danton is the incarratJDn of the French spirit. His
eloquence was of a lively, passionate, thrilling, though sometimes
incorrect, character, and flowed from the purest of sources. He
refused to follow the fashion then rife among ]:)olitical orators,
who, hypnotized by the constant contemplation of ancient history,
could not address a meeting without duly alluding to Athens and
Marathon, Lacedsemon and tlie Thermopylje, Cato and the
Gracchi. He is also free from the blame of bad taste that has to
be laid so frequently at the door of his contemporaries, whether
orators or journalists, republicans or monarchists, Montagnards
or Girondins. With him no fustian, no overstrained, too florid
images, no turgidity, no inopportune mysticism, but sound and
limpid language, marking the brisk time of the march of the Revo-
lution, or sometimes roaring like thunder in the hour of danger ;
a language which made the heroic enthusiasm of deep-rooted
faith in the destiny of the native country ring out freely beyond
the walls of the Convention. It would be easy to give samjile
upon sami^le of prose run mad in the mouths of all the political
orators of the time. I have been able to discover only one passage
of Danton's that is open to ridicule, and for curiosity's sake I will
quote it : " Je me suis retranche dans la citadelle de la raiscju ; j'en
sortirai avec le canon de la verite et je pulveriserai les
scelerats qui ont voulu m'accuser." History keeps Danton and his
lieutenant, Camille-Desmoulin, together. There is something
in the latter's speeches that makes one inclined to believe that he
was as brilliant an orator as he was a smart and clever journalist.
He was not, being a stammerer. Besides, it is not as an apostle
but as a writer that he exercised his greatest influence, and as
such only his name has come down to posterity. As an author,
he is chiefly known as the editor of the " Revolutions de France
et de Brabant, and of the " Vieux Cordelier." He was the wit of
the Revolution. Michelet playfully calls him " le polisson de
genie aux plaisanteries mortelles "' ; de Montseignat alludes to
him as the " gamin de Paris du j'uirnalisme." His pet foible was
to sacrifice everybody and everything to his pleasure of being

SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE. 36/

satirical, and as a pamphleteer he wielded the whip of satire
with elegant ease. He frequently made Paris split with laiiohter
by the macaronic fancies-rafter the manner of Juvenal — which
he popped off against ^those wdiom he wished to stigmatize. The
first to be the target of his caustic sallies were the royal family ;
then came the turn of the aristocrats ; then those who were the
first to show fright at the progress of the Revolutit>n ; then those
w'ho wanted to check the revolutionary movement. In his turn
Camille put in the last straw that broke the back of the opposi-
tion, when the King was to Ibe sent to the guillotine, and finally,
be attacked the Girondins. When be was informed that they
had been sentenced to death, he swooned, exclaiming : " It is my
book that is the cause of their death!" At a glance
he now ])roved the abyss which was yawning at his
ifeet, and into which so many good Republicans had already
been engulfed, driven into it by that delirium of persecution
which had laid hold of the least demented among them. Was it
si-ncere remorse for having provoked the downfall of the Giron-
dins? Was it a pro])hetic vision of the fate awaiting him? or
Avas it that he loathed his own unwarrantable cruelties, that, in
•conjunction with Souberbielle and Danton, made him resolve
to check the terrorists? Whatsoever it may have been, the shells
fell from his eyes when it was too late to mend. " I feel some-
times," said Camille, "as if I could turn my pen into a dagger
and stab the wretches ? But let them beware ! My ink is more
indelible than their blood; it will stain for immortality!" " W^ell,
then, if this be so, begin to-morrow," replied Danton. " It was
you who started the Revolution ; it is your duty to put on the
Ijrakes." But the sinister wheel was revolving with too great
I'elocity to obe}- any brakes, and on the 9th thermidor it crushed
the reckless demagogue who had set it going. Let us now leave
the orators and journalists, and see what became of dramatic
literature.

It says somewhere that the drama is a harbinger of the
evolution of ideas and the jjioneer of social emancipation, but
that, whenever a political tempest breaks loose, it is carried
along and tossed hither and thither by the terrible violence of
the blast. Excellent for the purpose of justifying theoretical
reform, the drama is incapable of controlling the practical appli-
cation oif the same ; it is powerless against the unavoidable
excesses accruing from a revolution, and unable to act as the
moderating brake that is indispensable for securing the stability
of equilibrium. It is kept in subjection by the events, and when
no longer able to hold the leadership, it stoops to follow in the
wake of triumphant demagogy. The history of the drama dur-
ing the revolutionary |)eri()d is a typical illustration of this
theory. In proportion as the various political ])hases are develo])-
ing, and the rule of liberty, progressively established, graduallv
(legenerates first into despotism and then into terrorism, dramatic
art shows a retrogression which daih' becomes more and more
noticeable, and finallv results in a most lamentable bankrujjtcv.

^6S SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

Was this not exactly the opposite of what was naturally
to be expected? In the face of the astounded world, the men of
'89 and "93 had proclaimed the principles of renewed society ; and
in the soil of France, waging as she was the epic struggle for
liberty against combined royalty, the mysterious flower called
" patriotism " germinated. What more inspiring subject could
there be for a poet than the glorious deeds of a new-born
repulDlic? What purer source for an artist to drink from than
the one that was to regenerate the world and mankind? Alas,
art also had to obey the law of antithesis, the law that proved so
cruel and pitiless tow'ards French genius. The effect of the
Revolution on French literature was of a ihighly destructive
nature. Alany years before the outbreak proper, the barriers,
which in the preceding century had been so carefully erected,
had already been shaken and hauled down ; a breeze of levellism
had risen and mixed U]) pell-mell what formerly was jealously
kept asunder. The drama, for example, instead of remaining
w:hat it then was, a work of objective and serene art. was turned
into an implement of action and political propaganda. It is no
longer the noble entertainment and diversion of a would-be
elite : it must now be an enjoyment and an object-lesson accessible
to all and everybody. Consequently, the authors, in order to
please imagination of the audience, and stir their feelings, must
cast about for appropriate novel subjects and expedients. This
meant nothing less than a revolution in the history of the
drama: a revolution not easily accomplished, for a host of deep-
rooted prejudices, much ruffled self-love, hostile criticism, and,,
above all, the spirit df the times, had to be taken into account.
Of course, this new popular drama did not supersede o'ld tragedy
at one fell sw^oop. Around tragedy, wbich itself had badly fallen
into the sear, into the yellow leaf, but which was not yet dead,
all sorts of bold novelties gradually arose : as, for instance, the
amusing comedies of La Chaussee ; the bourgeois dramas started
by Diderot ; the anodyne, virtuous harlequinades of Florian ;
and quite a torrent of comic, historical, pastoral operas, panto-
mimes and marionets, pieces full of childish fancies and of
blatantly edifying morality, as some of the silly titles clearly
show—" Le Voleur converti par la Dame Secourable." " Le
Pardon imprevu de la Niece maiheureuse." etc. However, tO'
make the popular drama rise victorious above these first pitiful
and feckless attempts, a decisive, critical attempt was necessary.
And that event arrived : it was the Revolution. In the average
handbook on the history of French literature, it says that the
period from 1789- 1827, the year in which appeared the preface
of V. Hugo's " Cromwell," is, as far as the drama is concerned,
a period of barrenness, a mere blank. We get under the impres-
sion that, between the last tragedies of Voltaire and Ducis and the
publication of the first pieces of V. Hugo aaid A. Dumas, no
drama whatever existed except a few tame, soporific and colour-
less tragedies by Chenier and Luce de Lancival, and some paltry,
ludicrous comedies i)v Ivtienne and Colin D'Harleville. This is

SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE. 369,

far from correct. At no time dramatic life was more active ;
however, \vc must not look for any productions in the superior,
official styles. But in the lower regions of the popular styles we
find a teeming growth of pieces, which are frantically applauded
by a thorough])' plebeian puiblic, who, not craving for refined,
artistic enjoyment, only want opportunities for giving free scope
to their imagination, and for ventilating their feelings. This
kind of public had been in existence ever since the last years
of the " ancien regime," when it made itself gratefully vnstru-
mental in securing success to the dramatic productions of
Diderot. Alercier, and Florian. During the Revolution this
pu'blic, emancipated by the " Declarations of the Rights of Man."
comes rushing in crowds to the theatres, where it eagerly tries
to find the realization of its dreams and the gratification of its
i'ustincts. For their benefit, additional playhouses arose. By
the side of the venerable Comedie Frangaise — the House of
Moliere — theatres like Les Italiens, La Foire, Les Varietes,
L'Ambigu, Les Grands Danseurs, Les Beaujolais, were started.
After the decree of 13th January, 1791, on the strength of which
the Constituante gave entire " liberty with regard to theatricals,
playhouses sprang up like mushrooms, and we find " Le Theatre
de la Nation, that of La Republique, Les Gaietes, Le Vaudeville
started into life. And what are the pieces like, destined tO' shine
oil all these new stages, especially those of the Boulevard? They
are specimens of the genuine plebeian drama — I mean the melo-
drama and the vaudeville, which is nothing but a melodrama i'li
the lighter comic vein. Unfortunately, among the numberless
dramas staged between 1790-99, there are scarcely any which it
is worth our while to record. And yet never were dramatists
more prolific than in those years. But what store we may set
by these gawky productions is amply shown from the scathing
contemp<:)rary criticisms. And yet these burlesque and hideous
pieces, showing up. after the ignoble taste olf the day, the ex-
aggerations exhibited in the streets, the excesses perpetrated by
the coiTunittees and clubs, were daily applauded by a delirious
public. Next to these, and equally scurrilous, was the anti-
clerical drama- The Revolution had sanctioned the overthrow
of the Roman Catholic ifaith, and with the worship of this.
" Deesse de la Raison," all priests were pounced upon. The
" Supreme Being '" had no use for " calotins " in surplices and
stoles. These distressing scrawls have one characteristic in com-
mon with the former, and that is monstrously bad taste. Then
there were a third and better sort, the patriotic and republican
apotheosis. Society was in the grip of a mystic kind of enthu-
siasm, and this state df mind was reflected in a disastrous manner
on the stage. L^sually the latest feat of arms was represented — -
the taking of Toulon, the Siege of Lille, and others. Talma, the
great actor of Napoleonic memory. ad\ocated a return to
antiquity, and thus Miltiades. Manlius, Torquatus, Mucins,
Scajvola. Brutus, e fiifti quanfi. could now be seen strutting the
boards. ^^^^rtbless as these stunted epopees may have been, they

370 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

were at any rate a school for civism to the pubhc, and succeeded
in steering clear of hideousness. They were equally devoid of
the aesthetic element as the two preceding ones, but literary
beauty was neither required nor expected. To prove this we
need only quote a fourth class of sansculottized dramas, which
were nothing but ruthless and unwarrantable travesties of the
works of the great classical dramatists. One of them is an at-
tempt at foul murder of Racine's " Athalie," in which some scenes
have been mixed up with dislocated shreds of Moliere's '' Malade
imaginaire '' and " Don Juan." and which the public greeted with
outbursts of all but uncontrollable merriment. It would be un-
fair not to mention the theatre of the opposition, which was a
^ood deal superior. How could it be otherwise ? The French are
naturally oppositionists^ — frondeurs, as they call it — and. which-
soever their political regimen, they will always display a much
stronger proclivity to disparaging their rulers than to currying
favour with them. This is quite complimentary to the Frencli ;
for if, at any time, it is a manifestation of pluck to challenge
and harrow the party in power on the boards, in the days of the
Revolution such pluck was sheer heroism. Laya and Neuf-
chateau, the former with his " Ami des Lois," the latter with his
"Pamela," dared to- put the cause o'f liberty before the aristocratic
public of the " Comedie Frangaise." In the " Ami des Lois,"
Robespierre was impersonated by the character of Nomophagus
or Laweater, and Marat by that of Duricrane or Flint)>ate, and
both get very hard truths hurled at their heads. The usual
public of this theatre consisted of lukewarm revolutionists, and
they encouraged on the sly the efforts of certain actors, who,
after cutting themselves adrift from Talma. Dugazon, and the
other patriotic colleagues, did not shrink from organizing a
systematic opposition to the new regimen. The performances
of both these pieces gave rise to such tumultuous scenes in the
house that the " Comedie Frangaise " printed at the foot of the
programmes : " By order of the municipality, the public are in-
formed that it is strictly forbidden to bring sticks, cudgels,
swords, or any other weapons." Better than any argument, this
notification proves that the theatre, like the clubs, had been trans-
formed into the cockpit of the parties. This was, however, not
the fault of these pieces.. What the public wanted was to deal
blows anyhow and regardless of what the actors were perform-
ing on the stage.

" L'Ami des Lois " and " Pamela " were decidedly superior
to the numberless pieces of the time. They were not tinctured
with the extravagant mysticism that characterizes the revolu-
tionary mind ; they do not preach any new gospel, whether that
of Reason, of the Native Country, or of Liberty. Their sensible
language was not the language of either sectarians or rowdies.
Revolutionary fanaticism as shown on the other side was not a
whit better than the inquisition of the Middle Ages : the disciples
of Rousseau and the successors of the encyclop?edists, badly guided
and insufficiently emancipated as they were, made a calamitous

SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE. 37I

application of the principles and maxims of their respective
masters. What may ha\e been the cause of this bankruptcy of
the dramatic art durino- the Revolution? Its cause seems to be
narrowly connected, tirst with the conditions claimed by the
public, and secondly with the interference of the rulers with
theatrical affairs. Public opinion and censors were here respon-
sible for this prostration of the drama, of which only the power-
ful influence of the romantic movement has been able to cure it.
The spectators were no longer the placid ladies and g-entlemen
of yore, who used to come to the theatre to spend a couple of
enjoyable hours and for a relaxation of the daily routine of
business. With the Revolution politics entered the theatre as it
did everywhere, and ere long it completel}- bossed the place. It
became an obsession. The citizens forcibly connected everything
with the revolutionary principle ; the words of the " Declaration
of Rights "' were dinning in their ears like the burden of a war-
chant. They were on the verge of the rage of persecution.
Anyone who evoked the slightest remembrance of the tone, the
.spirit, the manners and customs of the and en regime of " former
thraldom " became suspect. We have seen before how firmly
this same form of insanity had gripped the caterers for the guillo-
tine- The sansculottes prick up their ears at the first word the}^
do not like; they rise, shout, bawl, order to actor to retract his
words, and only settle down again when what they call justice
has been done and the principle is once more safe. The busts
of Marat and Lcpeletier, those glorious (!) victims (!), Avho
fell under the knives of monstrous assassins, are i)ut on the
proscenium. The name of the theatre, which was an aristocratic
one, is changed into that of " Theatre des Sansculottes." At the
same time, the " Comite du Salut public " ordered that on cer-
tain days of the month free performances should be given for
the beaiefit of the people. None but the genuine patriots, wear-
ing a certain l^adge, were to be admitted. Thus the Revolution
revived the ancient Roman pan cm ct circcnscs! Besides, censors
dominated the theatres, who gradually succeeded in republicaniz-
ing and sanscullottizing Corneille, Racine, Aloliere, and eveii
Voltaire, who were unscrupulously mutilated and disfigured.
Sometimes these censors vetoed entirely the ])erformance of a
certain piece. Among others, Beaumarchais' " Alariage de
Figaro " became the victim of their evidently thoughtless ostra-
cism. The fact is hardly credible, since the Revolution ought to
liave honoured this comedy as the prophetic harl)inger of the
•new idea ! Beaumarchais' name occurs on the eve of the Revo-
lution, and is important both from a point of view of literature,
and as a sign of the coming storm. His " Figaro "' is one of the
great creations in French comedy, and a lineal descendant of
" Panurge '' and " Scapin." In the " Mariage de Figaro " the
hero is simply the mouthpiece of the author's second-hand revo-
lutionary ideas. So this amazing prohibition is a proof that
the revolutionary neurosis was complicated with a conspicuous
perversion of the critical sense. From its opening to its closing

3/2 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

scene the " Mariage " puts the vanity of human greatness on the
pillory, and levels a Spanish grandee down to being the absolute
equal ojf a mere barber. O lippi et tonsores!

To conclude. I should like to say a few words a'bout the
poetry of the Revolution. As a rule, the poetry of a given
l)eriod symbolizes fairly well the character of that period, and
reflects more or less faithfully the mentality of society. Under
the Sun King, poetry is of a solemn cast, and gracefully moves
along in stately strains to the formal rhythm of its alexandrines.
Under Louis XV. and de Poinpadour. it babbles and chatters
merrily and ])reitily, playing its waggish quips and cranks in the
salons, the reditits, the riiellcs, and alcoves. With Marie Antoi-
nette it affects almost virginal candour and tmadorned sim-
plicity. It is then the heyday of little white and. woolly lambs,
with pink and light blue ribbons. Jean Jacques imposes the senti-
mentalism of his " Nouvelle Heloi'se," and the educational prin-
ciples of his " Emile," which subsequently suggest to Mme. de
Genlis her dull and tedious twaddle, and to the Abbe Baithe-
lemy the soporific peregrinations of his young Anacharsis. Con-
temporarily, again, a goody-goody kind of descriptive garden
pnetrv bucis forth in the flat and unprofitable " Georgics " of the
gentle Delille. Practically all this means already revolution of the
salons, of the manners, olf the fashions. Philosophy supersedes
the frivolous, sappy tittle-tattle, of which our modern flirting
societies remind us sometimes. The time is almost ripe for a
sweei)ing change in regimen, in manners and morals. As early
as 1783 Pebrun-Pindare had published an " Ode," in which he
demands tlie demolition of the Bastille. Lesser poets began to
forestall new times. They sang the unpleasantness of royalty,
but not daring to lay the fault on Louis XVI, they made-
Frederick II. of Prussia their scapegoat. Louis XVI. did not
hear Lebrun's categorical appeal, and on the 14th of July. 1789,
the mol) took the matter in hand, with the result we all know.
Since then the ])0])ular Muse had no end of the choicest ])abu-
lum to feed on. and this 14th of July was sung and celebrated
and solemnized in a hundred various strains. There was no
revolutionary event, however small, of which poetry did not
make its prey. It assumed all manner of forms; it was epic,
lyrical, and didactic at the same time ; it was original, extrava-
gant, fantastical, eccentric- Sublimity in it walked hand in hand
with ])latitude. In one inspiration rises to the very ])innacles
of Parnassus; in another it grovels in the dust like a whipped
dog. One versifex of the time ji'ot it into his head to write :

" La libei'te d'ecrire enfante le genie !"

and hundreds of petty prosy gradgrinds, deeming themselves
suddenly gifted with the divine afflatus, set to work and became
in their own eyes as many Pindaruses. The national and civic
festivities especially gave rise to sheer torrents of poetry, and
the feast of the Federation inspired a swarming host of trouba-
dours. On this memorable occasion no fewer than 4,200 ix)ems

SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE. g73

were comjjosed ! Need I mentio'ii that, with the exception of a
few happy hues and some ideas worthy of the Muse, there is
absokitely nothing- to be found in this farrago but the traditional
banality oif topical verse ? In the meantime, after the success
achieved by his " Charles IX.," Marie Jos. Chenier. the official
poet of the Revolution, had finished his famous anthem, " Le
chant du Depart " ; Lebrun, Mercier, Neufchateau and Laharpe
had rhymed, more or less felicitously, a number of odes, some
of which are very fine, others most silly and insipid. It is
generally Ijclieved that the song which first fired revolutionary
enthusiasm into a paroxysm was that well-known dithyrami^ of
Rouget de I'Isle, " The Marseillaise." This is not tiuite correct.
It was another poem, entitled " Le Salut de la Prance," that
did it. This piece was composed by Roy in 1791. after an
aria of one of the operas of Dalayrac. Its popularity was in-
stantaneous and immense, probably on account of its simple
and easy harmony. In 1792, on the eve of the declaration of
war, the Mayor of Strasburg ordered one of the oflicers of
the town, one Rouget de ITsle, to compose a chant with which
to rouse the martial enthusiasm of the soldiers during their
march to the field of battle. Rouget set to work, and in one
single night composed what lie entitled " Chant de guerre de
r armee du Rhin." It had a marvellous success. The battalion
of Barbaroux took it ifor its national anthem, and so it became
the anthem of the " Marseillais." :\t Marseilles it was sung in
public 'by one Mireur, one of the fcderes, and published the next
morning in the papers. From Marseilles its fiery stanzas
promptly crossed over to Paris, wihere it was forthwith received
as the first war chant of the Republic* It has been frequentlv
contended that Rouget is not tlie author of the " Marseillaise,"
and what the various critics w^anted especially to deny him was
the honour of having composed the tune, which is incmitestably
more original than the lines. The Ciermans ha\e claimed the
merit of it, alleging that it w-as plagiarized from the musical
works of one Holtzmann, a ( lerman precentor ! ! Others as-
serted that it was taken from an oratorio by one Grison- But
really and truly, the entire work, music and words, is by Rouget
and by nobody else. Out of his luunerous poems, poor fellow,
this is the only successful one, 'but then it is his. In our modern
eyes, it now incarnates the republican ideal ; the author meant to
make it chiefly a national anthem and a war chant. However, to
be merely such, it is too much impregnated with the shibb':>leth
of the Revolution, and abounds too much in expressions antl
words, fancied by the orators and hotspurs, who believed in the
powertful charm of the word over the enthusiasm of the mob;
words like " bondage " and " fetters," " despots " and " thralls,"
'■ tyrants " and " bloodthirsty tigers."! I" spite of its blemishes,
in spite of its rather bombastic style and thick metaphor, this

* Think here of what has happened to " It's a lonsf way to Tipperary."
t How well does it fit in the frame of the present war !

374 SANSCULLOTISED LITERATURE IN FRANCE.

])oem soiretimc^- verges on the sublime ; take for instance, tlli>
stanza : —

" Anie.ur sacre de la patrie

Coaiduis, sotitiens nos bras vengeurs
Liberie, liberte cherie
Combats avec tes defenseurs !"

Or this, which is so appropriate in our days :

" Entendez-vous dans nos campagnes
^lugir ces feroces soldats?
lis viennent jusf|ue dans vos bras
Egorger vos fils, vos compagnes ! . . •"

As for the tune of the " Marseillaise," it is extremely
original. The opening bars sound like the echo of the ste]) o'f
soldiers charging at quick time, and this impression becomes
gradually more accentuated as the Hoes roll on ; and when the
burden in its sim])le grandeur rings out Hke the report of a big
gun, the soul of the " d. )ux rays de France " and of the Republic
vibrate in unison with these high-sounding notes. Rouget is

the only poet that has produced a masterpiece, directly due to
the powerful blast of the Re\"olution. This does not take away
a whit from the fame of Andre Chenier. who was really a great
poet, which RoUiret was certainly not, but who owes his glory
not to his revolutionary jjoetry, but to his incomparable
" Elegies."' To conclude, we find still some of that specifically
plebian poetry which, without caring about any rules or regula-
tions, is enthusiastic, satirical, and sometimes rich in lucky hits.
It 13 the typically French ditty, the " chanson." In b>ance, even
nowadays, every feeling is ventilated, everything is rendered and
voiced in " chansons." There appeared chansons on the Con-
stitution, en the civic oath, on the rights of women, on the king,
on the new calendar ; even the scurvy Pere Duchesne resuscitated
singing his " chansons bougrement patrioticjues," full of lively
picturesqueness and unexpected images. Neither Marat nor
Ro'bespierre have escaped the tricks, sleig'hts, and arrows of the
popular Muse. The chanson pounced upon everybody and every-
thing; even under the hatchet of the guillotine, sarcastic refrains
were hissed forth. The poetical inheritance of the Revolution
that has come down to us is immense in 'bulk, A-ariegated in
substance, and trifling in its intrinsic value. It seems that pow^er-
ful, social shocks tend to dull and disconcert the inspiration of
the poets, in the same manner as the Iformidable voice of the
tempest drowns the chirp of the cricket.

" L'esprit gouverne, et la matiere est orouvernee," says
Thiers in one of those lapidary sentences of his, in which he
meant to sum up his co'nception of philosophy. An assertion
as dogmatic as this may find a place in a treatise on pure psy-
chology ; in a history of the French Revolution, it seems to be
singularly out of season. It is a conclusion diametrically o])-
posed to the one which Thiers vsnuld have arrived at if he had

SANSCULLOTISi-ZD LITEUATURE IN FRANCE. T,7 -t

en(iea\<)ure(l to define the psychological, or. rather, the psycho-
pathological, element of society between the years 1789-93. If
he had instituted an inquiry into the mentality of that societ_\-
and determined the factors of its actions, he would have agreed
that man has only a mere illusory power over the course of
revolutionary events, to which he has to suhmit without beir,;.^"
able to either control or direct them- Never, in literature as
well as in everything else, the spirit was less of a ruler and more
of a slave to inexorable and inevitable laws than during the-
■period of the Revolution, when society was suffering on one
hand a notable diminution of its intellectual faculties, and in the
other manifested an appalliaig exaltation of the i^rimitive in-
stincts, by which it was kept tossing to and fro on the lumpy
sea cuf violent and reckless passions and impulses. Summing up
now, we may say that the eft'ect of the Revolutions on French
literature was absolutel}' annihilating. The reading ])uhlic had
for tW(T centuries running practically consisted of the Parisian
" beau monde." With the destruction of jjolite society, no
'educated reading public was left. It is true that the literary
output during the Revolution is immense, but it consists almost
entii'ely of pretentious rubbish, intended to appeal to an excited
mob full of vague ideas as to the exalted virtues of antique repub-
licaiis and the abject vices of antique and modern monarchs.
It may seem strange that so momentous a i^eriod should have
been so barren in literature, but one of the most strikinu- features
of the French Revolution is the almost ludicrous disparity be-
tween the greatness of its movements and the littleness of its
men.*

( Read, July 3. 19 17.)

The War and the Weather.— The writer of the
" Notes " in the Journal of the British Astronomical Associa-
tion A replying to a criticism by Mr. W. Campbell, of the theory
that artillery firing aft'ects the weather, says, " Probably Mr..
Campbell has not been in the close vicinity of a modern Ix^mbard-
ment, or he would realise that the disturbance of the atmosphere
is considerable. Is it not probable that electric action is set up
by the concussions of the firing, by the passage of the projectiles,
and by the bursting shells ? If the atmosphere is near the point
of saturation it is likely that precipitation will follow, but if not,
the disturbance mav travel awav until it arrives into a resfion of
fa\ourable conditions, and there upsets the balance. It is pretty
well understood that bad earthquakes are (followed by immediate
heavy rain."

* Ernest Weekle3\ " French Literature."

t 28 ( 19(7), 77.

3/6 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Chemical, Metallurgical, and Mining Society of South Africa. —
Saturday, September 29th : G. Hildick-Smith, B.Sc, President, in the
■chair. — '" Electric furnace manufacture of shoes and dies on the IVitu^rters-
rand": Prof. G. H. Stanley. About 7,500 tons of stamp battery .shoes
and dies are required annually for the purposes of gold milling on the
Rand. A connnittee was appointed two years ago to consider the possi-
bility of manufacturing these articles locally. The report favoured a
method of melting the large existing accumulations of old shoes and dies,
amounting to several thousands of tons, in electric induction furnaces.
A description was given of the subsequent installation of the plant and
its operation and costs thereof, of the method of pouring and ca.sting,
and of the products turned out.—" Electric steel-niclfi}!;^ f^Jaiit " : Prof.
W. Buchanan. A description, from an engineering standpoint, of the
plant used on the Rand for the production of shoes and dies, particular
reference being made to certain special features of the design and con-
struction."

Saturday, October 20th: G. Hildick-Smith, B.Sc ( President ).—" T/;t'
application of diaphragm pumps to metallurgical zvork " : L. Pj. Barnes.
The principal use of the pumps in metallurgical operations has been in
counter-current decantation plants for controlling Dorr thickeners and
transferring pulp between tliem. A thicker and more consistent underflow
can be secured by means of it than by any other means liitherto tried.

Saturday, November r7th : G. Hildick-Smith, P>.Sc. (President), in the
•chair. — "Fertilisers" : A. Baguley. The author discussed fertilisers in
their relation to other factors contributing to increased soil productivity,
and as a means of supplying the soil with essential plant-food constituents ;
the need of care to be exercised in certain respects lest fertilisers should
bring about infertility was pointed out, and the sources and sjjecial
functions of the various classes of fertilisers and of their several consti-
tuents explained. — "A uezv method of determining copper.'': Dr. J.
Moir. A quick process of obtaining the metal or ore in a condition
suitable for determining the copper was descril^ed. To the copper si ilution
so obtained excess of sodium thiosulphate is added, and potassium sulpho-
cyanide, and the solution is titrated back with iodine.

Saturday, February i6th : H. A. White (Vice-president) in the chair.
--" Notes on an underground spring of zmter containing manganese and
lithium " : J. Watson. The water was derived from an underground
spring on the east drive of the City and Suburban Mine, Witwatersrand.
It contained 178 parts of inorganic solids per 100,000, whereof 4.44 con-
sisted of inanganous oxide and .23 of lithium. — " The manufacture 'of
^rude sodium manganate for use on the mines": F. Warten'weiler. In
view of the shortage of easily soluble oxidisers, this compound was
prepared in order to replace the nearly pure potassium permanganate
formerly used on the Rand Mines. It was prepared from pyrolusite" from
the Pretoria district, containing 40 per cent, of manganese, by heating
I part of the ore in a furnace with 1.44 of caustic soda. N() attempts
were made to prepare a refined product, as the crude manganate can be
substituted on the mines for all services for which formerlv the refined
potassium permanganate was used. It is more solul)le than bleaching
powder, and easier to handle and control. When once dissolved, and
converted to permanganate by dilution with water, it is comparativelv
rstable.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. II

PAUL DANIEL HAHN.

PAUL DANIEL HAHN,

M.A., I'li.l).

(Born Jamury 5. iS4(j, Died March 9. iyi8.)

The Uiiixersity of the Ca])e of (iood Hope was incor-
])()rate(l l)y Act of I'arhament in 1873; on the 2nd April. 1918,
it will be resolved into three separate Universities. During
the 45 years of the j^arent university's existence its afTairs were
administered by seven successive Councils, and of the 31 mem-
l)ers of the hrst Council. l*aul Daniel Hahn alone survived to
< )ccupy a seat on the seventh.

Prof. Hahn was a South African by birth ; he was born
while his father, the late Rew J. S. Hahn. of the Rhenish Mis-
sion, was stationed at Bethany, (ireat Naniaqualand : the mission
station is referred to in Frances Calton's " Narrative of an
Kx|)lorer in Tropical South Africa." .Vbout 1853 his parents
returned to Cierman\-. and so it happened that young'Hahn recei\ed
his early education in the (iymnasium of Soest, in Westphalia.

In 1870 he passed his " Abiturienten '* examination, and pro-
ceeded to the L'nixersity of llalle, where he studied chemistry.
])hysics. mineralogy, ancl mathematics, and subsequentlv acted as
assistant to Prof, (iirard. In March. 1874, he .g^raduated as
Master of Arts and Doctor o;f Philosophy, his thesis for the
doctorate comprisinjj^ two ])apers. which were subsec|uently pub-
lished in the Proceedin_s;s of the " Xaturwissenschaftlichen
tjesellschaft " of llalle, 1875. The pai)ers were entitled re-
spectively '■ The ])hos))horescence of minerals " and " The chemi-
cal constitution of natural silicates." During these years Hahn'>
studies were mainly devoted to the physics and chemistry of
minerals, and much original investigation was carried on by
him. Of this ])eriod a monument remains in the magnificent
collection of minerals — many of them South African — wdiich he
gathered together in the course of a long and strentious scientific
career, without doubt the finest private collection in the country.

In October, 1874, Dr. Hahn passed the examination whereby
he ever afterwards set most store — the " Staats Examen " {fro
facilitate doccndi). which gave him the right of lecturing in any
German university. A month later he proceeded to London and
to Edinburgh for further study, and. in a remarkably short space
of time, not only ifamiliarized himself with the English system
()f chemical nomenclature, 1>ut also widened his knowledge by
gaining a close practical acquaintance with British methods of
scientific work and research, and generally with imiversity institu-
tions in the United Kingdom. An incident is related of him
during his stay in Edinburgh which reveals the iimate kindliness
of his nature. W'hile attending a football match he witnessed
a fatal accident on the playing field ; this produced in him such
a revulsion of feeling that he ever afterwards felt a dislike for
the game.

378 !'• 1^*- IIMIN.

Se])teniber. J 875. found Ur. Jlahn back in Suiitli Africa, and
within four months of his return he had assumed the chair of
chemistry at the South African Colleg^e ; his ap])'iintment was, in
fact, made on his 27th l)irthday. Hahn's assumj^tion of that
chair, hke his regretted xacation thereof through death, was
ahnost coincident with a radical change in the echicational system
olf Soutli Africa: the University of the Cajje of ( iood Hope had
just received its charter, and had replaced the old Board of
Examiners ; Prof. Roderick Noljle, Professor of Chemistry at the
South African College, had beeii elected by the newly-formed
convocatioi) as a member of the University Cotnicil. l)ut had died
after a little more than a year's tenure of the latter ofhce. and so
it came about that I^rof. Hahn. a few months after his return to
South ;\frica, was elected a meiubcr of the first Council of
tiie Cape of Good Hope University. On each subsequent occa-
sion he had 'been re-elected, and had therefore at the time of his
death held his seat on the Uni\ersity Council continuously for 42
years. His occupancy of the chair of chemistry at the South
Aifrican College has thus spanned practically the entire period
of existence of the Cape of Good Hope University, from near
the start to the finish. For zy years Prof. Hahn remained the
sole direct representative of chemical science on the Coiuicil of tb.e
University, until he was joined, in 1903, by Mr. J. Martin, at
that time Professor of Chemistry at the Diocesan College,
Rondebosch.

P'of. Hah'i began his work in connection with the Soiuli
African College in a tiny room called a laboratory by barest
courtesy, and from the very start his lectures were characterised
by three outstanding qualities, systeiuatic arrangeiuent of subject,
lucidity of explanation, painstaking attention to detail. In atldi-
tion. he ever evinced the utmost patience with any student who
failed to grasp some point in either a \erl)a] exi)osition or a
practical experiment, and never shrank from a step-by-ste]>
repetition of any obscure phase in a lectin-e, or of some involved
calculation. These were the qualities that made Hahn's lectures
so attractive and successful. A former student of his. who
afterwards " sat under " the late Sir William Ramsay, the
eminent discoverer of argon and the other inert gases in the
atmosphere, said that although Ramsay excelled as a manipula-
tor in exj^eriments of extreme delicacy, he could not touch Hahn
as a lecturer. The latter's gift of infusing a charm into his
subject was rarely equalled, even when his audience consisted
of boys three years below matriculation stage, to whom the
educational system of the seventies and eighties compelled him
to lecture. fJe possessed a special knack of imparting to students
exactly the mental ]jal)ulum suited to their particular capacit\-.
Once when he found an enthusiastic young student endeavouring
to supplement the notes of his lectures by studying a treatise in
advance of his years, Hahn told tiie boy that "milk from two
cows at the same time is not good for a child."

Hahn had not occupied his chair many years ere his person-

1'. D. MA I IX. 379

ality — t'\er remarkable — and ix-rsuasive ]jo\vers drew a substan-
tial en(l(n\ment from !\frs. Jamieson. and the outcome was a new
chemical laboratory at the Collej^e. which was opened on the ist
June, ]88i. Hahn himself assumino; the title of Jamieson Pro-
fessor of Chemistry. Thus satisfied, for the time, as re.gfarded
his own re(|uirements. 1 1 aim sou_^ht for wider fields of action. He
began uroins^ the erection of physical laboratories, and, accom-
panied hv I'rof. C. 1^. T.ewis. to whom the sug'i^estion of the tour
was due, xisited Kimherle\- a.id bihannesl)tTr_<j^ for the purpose of
sup])lementin|^ the amount the\- had already collected in Caj)etown
for the proposed buildin_L;s. At Kimberley they were gratified
by the receipt of l,^oo from .Mr. Khodes towards the scheme.
At both centres they met with hearty support, and were .back i'li
Ca])eto\vn within a fortnight with their task accom])li.'^hed, and
the sum of £5,500 secured for the building and equi}>ment of the
existing Physics Laboratory of the ."-^oiuh .\frican College.

B\- this time other fields of acti\ ity had begun to be worked..
Hahn loved to encourage any movement that in his opi'nion tendefl
to the advancement of S(~)uth .Africa (it was one of hi>
favoiu'ite sayings that there is only one Table Aloimtain in the
world, and only one Capetown in South Africa), and the two
directions in which he saw openings for such advancement re-
lated to mines and to agricultiu'e. He was ever indefatigable in
exertion, and for many \ears after his aj)i)ointment as Professor
he habitually travelled about the country during vacation time.
often witli ninnbers of his studeiUs. the development of the
economic resources of the country, especially of agriculture and
more particularly of viticulture and tobacco-growing, claiming his
chief attention ; students and farmers were alike instructed during
these excursions, not onl\- by Prof. Hahn himself, but by mutual
intercourse. Thus the agricultural trend of ]3r. HahnVs
sympathies began to make itself felt in the country's affairs: he
served on more than one Government Commission to enquire
into the condition and possible imimnement of colonial viti-
cultm-e. and in 1882. when Fliyllo.vcra 7'aslafri.v threatened to
destroy the country's \ineyards. he was associated with the late
Hon. j. 11. Hofmeyr in ac(|uiring ( Iroot Constantia for the Gov-
ernment as a model viticultural farm, and as a nursery for
American \ines. when the demided \ineyards might be recon-
stituted with suitable cuttings.

C^n more than one occasion, wlien the necessity arose for
obtaining the serxices of an expert to deal with emergencies of the
above character, the (it)vernmein appealed to Dr. Hahn for
advice, and thus he had a considerable share first in the in-
auguration of agricultural instruction at Victoria College, Stellen-
bosch, and subse(|uently in the establishment of the Cape Colony
-Vgricultural Department. Throughout his life he continued to
manifest this keen interest in the agricultural progress of South
Africa, and the recent establishment of agricultural faculties at
the Pretoria and Stelleubosch Colleges was neither more nor less
than Dr. Hahn had advised.

I'. J). HA UN.

Another outconu' of llalm's enero\' is the South African
School of AHnes and 'rechnolo^g^y at Johannesburg. In the
South African College Un'tou Annual for Decemlver i6th. 1890, h.e
wrote a len.s^thy^ article uro^in,e^ the establishment of a School of
Mines in South Africa, and setting' forth in detail the value of
such an institution for the country. .Some three years earlier
the Witvvatersrand area had Ijeg-un to be developed, and an
increasi'iio- number of a])plicants for instruction in the chemistry
0i metallurgy and assayin<j^ had i)resente(l themselves at the
South African College. All this while the fact that the mining-
industry of South Africa was wholly dependent oii foreign
mining engineers was being strongly borne in upon Hahn. With
his usual ])ersistency he ]>ressed the need U))on (iovernmeiit and
upon all influential persons with whom he caiue into contact, until
at length a working scheme was put forward with a course of
instruction originally divided between the South .\frican College
and two Schools of IVlines. one at Kimberlcv and one at Johan-
nesburg. The present South African School of Mines and
Technolog}- at b>li^iwie.sburg is the lineal descendant of those.

Up to this tiiue T'rof. Flahn had been the sole analytical and
C(-nsulting chemist in the country, and not only (iovernment
chemical work of all kinds, but also that emanating from ])rivate
persons, had converged to his lalKM"atory. It was on his recom-
mendation that Government chemical laboratories were estab-
lished in Capetown, one in the (ieological Surveyor's office and
the other in the Agricultural Department; one of Haha's ■|)U])ils.
the late Mr. J. C. Watermeyer, was ap])ointed to the charge of
the former, and another pupil, Mr. S.B.Morgenrood. to the latter.
After a few years the two laboratories were amalgamated under
Dr. C. F. Juritz. also a j^upil of Mahn's. while (four years later
the chemico-legal and toxicological work which Hahn had until
then continued to ]>erform for the (iovernment was likewise
taken over by the (iovernment's own la1)<)ratory, which had by
that time been thoroughly organized and e(|uippe(l.

About this pericKl Hahn's ])o])ularity as an extra-mural
lecturer on chemistry at the ( lood Hope Seminary (Ciirls' High
School) led to an ajyplication on the \rAr{ of two yoimg ladies
to be admitted to the College chemistry classes. Quick to
recognise this innovation as a step in advance, he moved in the
matter in the College Senate, with the result that to-day ladies
form a most important section not rtnly of the Chemistry Depart-
ment, but of all the College faculties and classes. And now
this same i)opularity began to manifest itself in another direction.
The old laboratory building became much too small ; classes num-
bering often over 100 students each, and sometimes exceeding
130, were inconveniently cramped in the lecture theatre and the
practical work t>f students ham])ered in the lalx^ratory proper,
a-nd so, twenty years after its erection, the building had to be
more than doubled in size. Another i)eriod of thirteen years
has since passed, and the need of ex})ansion has once again been
felt. To provide the re(|uisite accommodation the old College

r. I). II Aiix. .V*^!^

Flail lias just been iMiuippcd as an additional lal)i »ratnr\-. hiil the
old jirofessor's chair knows him 'iin more.

( )utstandin|U" alike in i)hysi(|ue, in personality, and in energy,
and never failing;- in cheerv o])tiniisni. Hahn sustained the burden
of teaching;- a coTistanth' increasiuij number of students unaided
for 2X \ears. ( )nl\- tjion did he admit the neei\ i;if assistance,
and Dr. 11. Tietz. another of his former ])upils. was ai)])ointed
as an additional lecturer. This appointment, coincident with
the eiilargiuii- of the laboratorv, enabled llalvn thenceforth to
confine his lectures to inorii^anic, applied, and agricultural chem
istry. This change, too, enabled Hahn to revisit b>uroi)e, after
a lapse of exactly tliirt>- years, and he took the op])ortunity at th(>
>ame lime to attend the International Congress (»f Applied
Chemistry in Rome in 1906. fie had previously, in recognition
of his l<»ng and devoted services in the cause of education, and
more p^articularly in aiding the progress of science, bet'U awarded
the title of "Royal Prussian IVofessor " 1)\- the < lerman Minis-
ter of Ivlucation.

One of the latest achievements of Prof. Hahn's energy i-
associated with the comixu-atively recent inaugtu-ation of a
.Medical School in connection with the South .\frican College.

-Vmongst the other extra-colle^iate movemeiUs for ])raclical
editcation in which he co-o])erated may be mentioned the Sotttli
African School df Forestry established by the Cape (Govern-
ment. He took a ]>r()minent ])art in drafting its syllabuses, and
in this connection instituted special chemistr\ courses at the
.^■'iith A I rican College.

Hahn »vas a passionate lover of music, both vocal and. i?'-
stntmental, and was an enthusiastic and active supi)orter of the
classical chamber concerts that used to be held in Caixjtown ,1
few years ago. He was also for some years a member of the
Music Committee of tb.e Cape of Good Hope University, and
founded a nmsical s<^ciety amongst the South African College
student-.

The generation ih.at knew Prof. Hahn in the zenitli of his
activity has long ago passed beyond the years of studenlliood.
for it had been his boast that he had taught fathers and son'-.
but hoped to retai'i his chair until he had taught the grand-ons
To that generation his versatility had been a matter of connnon
knowledge. In the earlier years of his tenure of office he user!
to lecture not onlv on chemistry, organic, inorganic, agrictil
tural and analytical, but likewise (Mi mineralogy, metallurgx .
and physics. The wide range of his scientific knowledge i-
shown by the immense diversity of subjects on which he wa>
often asked to advise or report. Before his assimiption of office
chemistry had been practically unknown in South Africa, and it
is not too much to say that with his advent there dawned for the
whole country an era of fuller realization of the value, not
alcne of chemistry, but also of science in general — an era of
more intimate acc|uaintance with the nature of science, of fuller

^^S2 i\ I). HAD x.

understanding of its function>, of more thoruug'h perceptioi
of the best methods oif turnin"- those functions to account.

Hahn seldom wrote, he seldom spoke in public, liut he pos-
sessed the faculty of ini])ressing the men students wlio ])assed
under his hands — the}' nmsi have aggrcoated some thousands —
with an indelible sense cf the importance of chemical science for
a nation, and this sense has stimulated the scientitic s])ir!t in
adolescent South Africa as ito other agency could ha\e done, for
:o .all his former students Malin was the outstanding link be-
tween them and their alma iiiatcr, and their scattering over the
length and breadth of South Africa meant spreading far and
wide the infiuence of the College laboraton,-, an influence that
transcended the limits of chemistry, and even of science in its
widest connotation. For exam])le : one of the virtues tliat he
ever strove to inculcate, both b\- precept and example, was
punctualitv. " The sun lias ne\er once caught me in bed," he
often said, and duriiig \ery many years he never missed a >ingle
lecture. Two bells, with an interval of live minutes between
them, used to call the sttidents lo their respective classes; I iahn
invariably k)cked the door r.if his lecture theatre on the stn^ke of
the second bell and straightway connnenced Uy lecture. On
one occasion it happened that when the second bell was struck
only one boy — now one of the most distinguished metallurgists on
the Rand — had taken his seat on the l)enches, but. true to hi>
principles, Hahn at once locked the door and delivered the e'Utire
lecture which he had ])repared. inchisive of careftiUy thought-out
experiments, to this st)litary student, in exactly the >ame way as
he would have done had the whole of his large class been present.

Reference has been made abo\c to llahn's great capacity
for taking pains with his students. At o'lie time his class for one
■ )f the highest degrees then at the disposal of the University
consisted of a single student. This one student was regularly
lectured to on all brandies of chemistry — the lectures might more
properly be called chemical discourses — and often they were given
after college hours in the study at " York House " ; 1)Ook alfter
book on every branch of chemistr\-, in English, in French, in
German, was lent to this student, with the important jjassages
specially marked; and beyond all this, the student was required
to deliver a course of experimental lectures in inorganic chem-
istry, the audience consisting of the Professor alojne. Fvery
|)ossible helj) was given bv the latter va ijreparing the re(|uisite
experiments for each lecture, but when the time for delivery of
each lecture arrived the Professor was suddenl\- transformed
into an intelligent, questioning student, ostensibly ignorant of
the subject, and keenly athirst ifor information at e\erv point.
This brings out not only llahn's eftorts to lead his students to
independence of thought, but also his way of rousing entluisiasni
amongst them for act|uiring and propagating chemical know-
ledge. He could never divest himself of the consciousness, even
after the lapse of years, that they had once been his students;
ihis had a twofold out-working. It follows as a matter of

1'. J). IIAII .\. 383

course that lie maintained an interest in the siiljsequent careers
of all his old students, and to those who visited him in after
years lie was invarial)l\- hos])itality itself. Two incidents
illustrate another aspect of the same characteristic. During the
McArthur-Forrest case — one (tf South Africa's causes cHchrcs
— Hahn was being cross-examined by one of his former students
— ^by that time a distinguished barrister, to-day an eminent judge.
■'But, Professor Hahn." urged counsel, "is not ferrocyanide
o'f potash a cyanide?" "' ^lr. X,"' replied Hahn. in a tone of
re])roach, " I tlid not teach \ou that." On another occasion,
Hahn. giving evidence Ijefore a (iovernment Commission, was
under cross-examination by another obi student, also a l)arrister,
who to-day occupies a seat on the bench. Counsel had re-
freshed his memor\- from his old college notes and i)roceeded to
ask Hahn whether marsh gas ]>()ssessed an odour like that of
coal gas. " IVIr. Y. you omitted the little word ' not ' when
you took down these notes," came the instant rejoinder.

Hahn's whole nature was regular and methodical, and thi?
largely ccntributed to !<eei) him fresh and y;;ning in looks until
the (fatal malady grii)pe(l him. Once when travelling from the
North he met a student of years before, and the two were iix
intimate conversation for a lengthy pdriod of the journey,
during which a stranger to both entered a compartment. At
length the (|Uondam student had to alight; when the train moved
on again the stranger, who in silence had been an interested spec-
tator of the parting, turned to Hahn and said : " May I ask,
v/as that your father?" " No. my impil." was the characteris-
tically terse rei)ly.

Untiring to the last as a worker, he wished, shortly before
the end came, and he was too ill to walk, to drive down to^ the
College in order to su])erintend the preparations for the session
which eventually (jpened on the day after the funeral. He
was dissuaded from this, but he succeeded in comi)leting for the
Government Scientific and Technical Comiuittee a report wdiich,
in view of war conditions, he had been asked to prepare on
tartaric acid and the i)ossibility of manuifacturing it locally. This
rejxjrt was sent in within a fortnight Ix'fore his death, and will,
it is mider.stood. be published >hortly. All who are interested
in the new University of Capetown are .ulad to know that the
Prince of Wales has consented to he nominated as its first Chan-
cellor, but few have hitherto been aware that it was at Prof
Hahn's suggestion that His l\o\al Highness had been a])proached.

( )ne of the most ])romineni features in Hahn's character was
an unswer\ing insistence that re\-erence and res])ect should be
l>aid wherever clue. The College once employed as janitor an
elderly sergeant named Bassett. who had seen service in the
Crimea, and on State occasion> wore a (loul)lc row of military
medals. One of the severest \erhal castigaiion> ever adminis-
tered by Hahn — and he could Ije \ery severe on c)ccasion — fell
to the lot of a student w h» jni he had overheard speaking dis-
lespectfuUy to the janitor, the student being sternly achuonished

384 !'■ I). IIAII X.

never a^ain to treat witli anxthins^^ hut the utmost re.s])ect one
who had g^one through so many critical experiences.

Hahn was for years known as the " Father " of the South
African Colletie. for the simple reason that he had served longest
on the professional staff, l)ut the title also rested on a sounder
foundation : apart from his relation to his classes collectively,
he made a s])ecial point of getting to know all he cimld alx)Ut
each student as an individual. This characteristic went far to
account for the personal attacliment of his jKist students: when
any student, past or present, was in difficulty of any kind,
either by reason of some misdeed, trifling or serious, or through
no fault of his own. Hahn would take him into his sanctum
and deal ver\- frankly and ])aternally with him, and there are
men to-da\' who have admitted that they owe their old Professor
more than they could ever rejiay, and that not so much for the
chemistrv as the moral lessons which he had imprinted on them
during times of crisis.

Prof. Hahn was twice ('resident of the Cape Chemical
Society: in 1903 he was President of Section A c-i the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science, and in
191 1, at its Bulawayo meeting. President of the whole .Vssocia-
tioii. He was also a member of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, an honorary member of the Chemical.
Metallurgical and Mining .Society of South Africa, aaid a mem-
1>er of the South African .Association of Analytical Chemists.
He likewise held the position of an extra-Academical lecturer of
the Universities (^f Kdinburgh, Aberdeen, (xla-sgow, and St. An-
drew's. Several of his former pupils have filled jniblic posi-
tions requiring a knowledge of chemistry, and all of these without
exception have realised to the full their deep indebtedness t<»
Hahn for the very careful instruction which laid the foundation
of many a career of usefulness and of value to South Africa.

C. F. I.

Utilisation of Tomato Waste.— T he Unit e d

States Department of Agriculture has published a Bulletin
(No. 632) on the utilization of waste tomato seeds and skins, by
F. Rabak, chemical biologist for drug-plant and poisonous-ijlant
investigations. The oil from the seeds should find ready disposal
as an edible or soap oil. or, after proper treatment, as a drying
oil for paint and varnish pur}X)ses. The meal possesses valuable
qualities as a stock food, and in view of the shortage of fatty oils,
as well as in the interests of iood con.servation, tomato refuse ma\
be considered as an available source for the manufacture of oil
and cake. It was suggested that the utilization of this material
should be considered as an econonn'o uu-aNure of both agricultural
and industrial importance.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRlKf TK )N OF THE SOUTH
AFRICAN BRYOPHYTA.

Bv Thomas Robkktson Si.m.

Introduction.

Till lately all that was known concerning- the South African
Bryophyta had heen learned from the specimens sent to Ein'ope
by a few collectors, each interested in his own localitx'. excei)i
Ecklon. Drege, and Rehmann, who travelled more wideK.
Ecklon's and Drege's plants were comi)arativel\ few in num])er.
and were dealt with long ago, before l)ryology l>ecame an exact
<cience ; Rehmann's collections, on the othei' hand, suffered from
"he hair-splitting, over-exactitude of Muller during his later
/ears, and also (from Rehmann's own inexactitude, the conse-
quence being that we have inherited an enc^rmous number of
species founded on single scraps hid away in European herbaria,
nearly half of which have been named in these herbaria or in
e.vsi-ccatw, but have never been published, while of those pub-
lished the earlier are not easily either confirmed in or excluded
from nioderii classification, while the more recent were described
from herbarium specimens or scraps instead of from field ex-
perience, and are in far too many cases synonymous, but stil!
remain imadjiisted, or they were placed generically when generic
characters had not been seen, and re(|uired rearrangement latei'.
the final result being an unduly long list of specific name-
credited to South Africa which has to be worked down bv
gradual elimination of such as cannot stand as good di'-tinc;
species.

This has rendered any general review of the South African
Bryophyta exceedingly difficult, since in the majority of instance'-
only one en- a few localities are recorded for any species, how-
ever common, wdiile a rare species, if recognized as such by the
collect<jrs. was usually represented from each locality in which
it was found. This ])articularly affects our knowledge < 'f tlu-
Transvaal species, since Rehmann, collecting for sale distribu-
tion, collected for two years in the Cape Peninsula, Knysna and
Natal, before proceeding to the Transvaal, and then collected
mostly such species as he had not previously distributed, the
result being that his exsiccafcc tell us much concerning the rare
species of the Transvaal, and almost nothing concerning the com-
mon ones.

It has fallen to my lot, after .^o years" residence in ami
travel through many parts of South Africa, during the whole
of wdiich ])eriod the Bryojjhyta have been of constant interest
to me, to ibe now in a jxisition to make certain general observa-
tions which may be useful to others.

In doing so. T wish to deal more with locality associations
than with individual si)ecies, and to leave out of account the
en<>rmous number of names having single recoi'd>. which may {tv

3'^^> S.A. BRN()I"1[YTA.

nmy not prove di.slinct. and which niav "V mav not ^liow wide
distribution on fuller knowdedg'e.

The number, as also the relative proportion, of endemic
-pecies cannot be satisfactorily discussed until the aihove dottbt-
ful factors are cleared up, nor is it advisable meaiUime to deal
ni detail with the many forms so closely related to exotics as to
be practically the local representatives of these species, but
])OSS,essed of certain minor characters, pre->ent locally and al)sent
elsewhere.

I have, in a |)re\'ious paper to this .Vssociation,* pointed
out. in relatitvn to the Hepaticae, the almost cosmoyxilitan
distribution (under suitable conditions of climate and moisture)
of all ;the larger orders and genera of that group, and that it
reall}- depends on how wide or narrow a view one takes of what
co'ustitutes a species, whether the distribution is world-wide or
almost parochial ; and as relationship, together with ]>resumably
recent and still unstable local variation, exists there in many
' 'r most cases, I have, in dealing with the general geographical
ilistribution in the ])resent pai)er, referred more j^articularly to
the mosses, though the He]>atic?e are also used in the sul)sefjuent
discussion.

I would. h(»we\er, repeat here that some tropical genera of
liepaticcC have not so far been recorded from South Aifrica,
and that there is a scarcity of certain conduplicate-leaved, cold-
region forms (Scapania. Lophosia. etc.). which forms may still
be found in our mountain streams.

(lEiXKKAL (iKOta-tAlMlU AL Dl STRTBUTTO^T.

The relation of South .Vfrican Bryophyta to that of other
•))arts of the world takes the followinu' aspects:—

(A) Cos.Moi'OLiTAx Forms, more or less frequent; in sint-
jhle localities on each Continent. — In regard to orders and
genera, most oif the larger groups are represented, except as
restricted under (B) and (C). But in regard to identical species,
the number is so small that the following list may include most
■ >f them : —

Polytrichntn connniine. Bryunt argenteuin.

Polytrichum iitniperinnni. Bryum capiUare.

Ceratodon pitrpnreurn. Bryum torquescens.

iirinimia apocarpa. Hedwigla eillata.

Tortula muralis. Leptodon Sinitliil.

I'Veisiei- viridula. Stereodon cuprcssifonnis.

fhtnaria hygrometrica. Sphagnum (as a genus j.

Mniobryitin albicans. Dumorticra hirsiifa.

Mninm rostratnm. Riccia fluitans.

Rlccia natans.

* " HepatictT." Rept. S.A. Assn. for Ach-. of Science, Pretoria (1915),
426-447-

Absent if n>ni Sciiili \nuM-ica. i)reseiit elsfwhere : —

<.ir{iiniiia campestris. lincalypta ciliata (rare in South

Gruumia pulvinata. Africa).

Torfula niralls. Encalypia •I'lthjaris ( rare in

Sotitli Africa).

.Vb.seiu fi-(>ni Australa.->ia. ])rc.Ncnt elsewhere: —

fortcUa cacspitosit. . Inlifricliia ciirtipciidiila i vdvc in

Lcucobryitin glanciim. South Africa).

(B) NoRTiiEKX Tn i'l:, c.vtcndu}(i throuijli Africa to South
Africa. — The rehitionsliip of the majority of South African
mosses is distinctly of this Xorthern type, which, with certain
local limitations, occupies the whole of the Northern Hemisphere,
and extends scvuthward throughout Africa. Thus the relation-
ship of African s]>ecies with those of Eurojie. Asia, and North
America is greater than that between those of North and South
\merica. or between tho-c of the Northern continent■^ and .\us-
iralasia.

Of the Northern type all the larger families and order- are
represented, some by identical species, most by more or less
closely related specie-. Tetraphidales and Huxbaumiales.
Meesiacea\ and Aulacomniacea- are absent; S]jlachnaceie and
Fontinalaccce are almost absent ; Bl'mda is absent, while it is well
represented 'both in the Northern and elsewhere in the Southern
Hemispheres; Dicraiiuiii and Uloia are very ])Oorly rt^presented,
\vhile Campylopus and I'issidens liave very many s])ecies each.
It would iui(lul>' lengthen this paper were I to name the genera
forming thi> welbknown Northern type, but the following arc
some of its >pecie.-> which 'jxtendeij Sotith : —

Andrewa rupcstris. Pliiloiiotis finitaiia.

Archidiuiii alteriiifolittni. Bryiim a!pi)iiiiiii ( />'. :c/7;//.v// ).

roi/o)iatuiii aloides. Bryiiiii caiiariciisc.

Scclania cccsia. Bryiiin liiclinatuin.

Ocfobleplianiiii albidiiiit. Bryum imiralc.

Conioiiiitriiim jiilianititi. Rhodobryinii roseiiiii.

(.jririunia coiiiinutLita. Pteroyoniitin f/racilc.

Gyrozveisia tenuis. Hcrpetineuron Toccinc.

Pliascuni cuspidafuiii. Pleuropns scriccus.

Barbula I'incalis. Lindbcr(/ia (as a genus ).
( )rtholriclutiii uffiitc.

Although all these except Liiidbcrifia occwr in Funvipe, ir
does not ai:)pear that distincii\ el\ Etiropean species are more
prevalent that those more widely distributed in the North; nor
is it the ca.se that specie^ belonging to the warmer part.- of the
Northern llenn'sphere ha\e -])read southward unaccompanied
by other- from the colder temi)erate regions, though these latter
often occupy aljnne or >til)al])ine positions.

_ (,C,) Southern Tvl'e. — Intermixed throughout South
.\frica, and to a considerable extent through l^ropical -\fric.'i

3<^!^ S.A. r.KMJlMl^TA.

with the species of the Northern type ah-eady mentioned, are a
very considerable numl)er of species l)elonging to (jcncra which
either entirely or mostly helong to the Southern Hemisphere,
and are either absent or ]j(x:)rly re])resented north of the ecjuator
elsewhere than in Africa.

It seems strange indeed, but is the case, that most of these
Southern (jeiicra are represented alike in South America, .Vus-
tralasia, and Africa, indicating that at an earlier period some
ineans of transport or some land connection existed.

Among such (jcncra are : —

Psilopilimi. (ti(jasfcr>ni:iit. J-abronia.

Arch idinm. Cioiiioiii itriiiiii. Dhnerodon tinm .

Holomitrhini. liiisficliia. HeUcodont'mm.

Dicraiioloiua. Hartraiiiidiila. Rigodiiiiii.

Lcitcolonia. (ilyf^liocarf^iis. Hookeriopsis.

Ptyclioiititriitiii. I'rciifclia. CallicostelUi.

Hyopliila. Orthodoufiiiiii. Cyclodictyoii.

Ltpfodoutliiiii. llaplodoiitiiini. Sqitamidiuin.

TriqiictrcUa. HracliyinoiiiDii. Calyptotliccium.

Syrrhopodon. Rliacocarpiis. Porothaynnium,

Sclilotliciniia. Pnunodo)i. Sciaruiniiiin.

Macroinitriiiiit. /'orsstriciiiia. Catatjoiiiiiiii.

Common to Africa and South America, luit absent from
Australasia : —

PiloirlchcUa. Porofricliinit. Microthainniuii

Common to Australasia and A;frica. Ijut absent from Soulh
America. TrachyphyUitui.

Identical species represented in Africa as well as in other
parts of the Southern Hemisphere, but not elsewhere, include: —

Aiuircica siibitlata,

Plenridinm nervosum,

AoiKjstra'ntia jiilacca.

Barbula pUifcra,

Rh izuyuninm spin ifo nn c,

Ditrichnm strict um (Hk.f.c^W. ) Hpe.,

Ditric/utin flcxifolinin (Ilk.) Hpe..

and e)thers.

A very marked deviation from the usual distribution of the
SoiUhern type occurs in regard to several Pleurocar]x>us ficnera.
including Papillaria, Stcreophyllnni, Ploribundaria, Eriopus,
Airobryopsis, Prythrodonthim, Hypo pterygium, etc., which in
habit only South America, Africa, and liast Asia, crossing the
equator in a diagonal line, but not extending to North America.
Kurope, or Australasia. In this latter connection the most

notable absentee from South Africa is the genus Calympcrcs.
which is known' oidy from, but is well represented in. South
America, Africa, African Islands and I'^ast Asia; in Africa ii

s.A. liRvoi'in r\. 389

has many species extending;- as far south a> Madao^ascar and \n-
.t;ola, Imt none have yel been reported frLini South Africa-

(D) African Spfaies. — It has already been shown that the
African moss flora is composed of a considerable admixture of
plants of the distinctively Northern type with ])lants of the dis-
tinctively Southern type, and just as tlie Northern type has ex-
tended southv\ard throughout .\frica. si) the Southern type has
extended northward as far as the C'ameroons and Abyssinia.

It is remarkal)le, houever. tliat Africa, though it has \er}-
mail} endemic specie>, has \ery few endemic (/ciuva. the onl}'
ones which occur io me as Ijelonging to South Africa being
Wardia and Ischyrodon, endemic to South Africa, and Rcuaitldia
and C'o!cocluctiiiii! common to South and Central Africa.

Although man\' non-endemic species are widely distributed in
-Africa, the number of African endemic species known to be
ctmimon to South Africa and other ])arts of Africa or its islands
is still comparatively small: no doubt this will chanye consider-
ably as the limitations of the species are better known, and as tlie
Rryophyta of Africa are further studied.

Among such s])ecies known meantime are : —

Fogonatum siiiiciisc. Prioiiodoii Rcluiianni.

PolyfricJiiiiii armatiun. Rauia ahbrcviaia,

SchistoniitriiDii acufifoliitin , Porotliaiiniiimi pcutucfonnc.

Lcf'todonfiitin cpinu'tafiini. Rciropothcciitni rcgiilarc.

Macroiiiiti'iiiiii Drcijci, I 'csiciilaria spliacrocarpn.

Cryphtva c.vif/iia. Xcckrra ! 'alciiti)iiaiia,

lu-podiiuii c/rossircfc. Hypoptcrxf/ium lariciniiiii.

I'lrpodiinn Hainiiiu/foiu, Rhacopiluiii cupciisc.

Rcnauldla Hoclniclli. Rhodohryum iimbraciilnni.
f'rachyiiicniiiiii pulchntm.

(K) South Afrtcan Spfciks. — Although what constitutes
a f/c)ius is alwavs open to debate, the only two (jciicia 1 think of
meantime as endemic to Smith .Vfrica are Ischyrodon and
IFardia. Isclixrodon is closelv related to Fabronia and to other
South African members of Fabroniacccc \ but IFardia h\(/ro-
mctn'ca Harv. is one of the remarkable imzzles in geograi)hical
Ixitany. It occurs only on and in the neighbourhood of Table
Mountain, wdiere it is abundant on rocks in running streams, and
l^elongs to the aquatic family Foiitinalacecc, which is well repre-
sented in many parts of the Northern Hemisj^here, extending as
far south as Algeria and Abyssinia, but, except Wardia, the
only member of the famil\ known from the Southern Hemi
sphere is one very different plant from Venezuela. When aiu.
how these two plants originated is even more difficult to co'ii-
jecture than is the history of most others.

Of South African endemic species, as meantime accepted
(in comparative ignorance oi many of them), the list is enorm-
ous, but there can be no doul)t but that many will eventually be
sunk as synonyms, or merged as forms or varieties i'nto nK>re
widely distributed .species. This process is going on slowly.

39^ >-'^- i'.m(ii'ii> r A.

and iini>t contintic to do so. parth' throug'h the diffit-'ulty of
getting at the original types, parti) through the small number
of fbryologists who know South iVfrican species and also exotic
species sufficiently well to determine the limitations of each
species. Meantime additional ^peciics are beiiig discovered,
some new. others already known elsewhere.

The greatest difficulties in regard to distinctively South
African species are that hundreds of them have been named and
distributed without dcscripti(Mis 'ha\ ing been ]:»ublished ; that
many have been named in ijrixate herbaria or in letters withotu
haxiny been either ]Hiblished or distributed; and that in his later
years C". Aluller described as new many which were identical with
earlier ])ublished species. These difficulties 1 am trying to re-
move in ni) " flanclbook of the Bryophyla o^ South Africa." now
in c<Hirse of ]>roduction. Of the 171 i/ciicra oi mosses therein
described, iiito wbich are distributed the 875 mosses enumerated
in my Check List {1915) as having been (rightly or wrongly)
credited to South Africa, and included meantime as a basis for
further stud\. nine (/ciicra are regarded as doubtfully South
African, viz. :—

Poh'trichadclpliHs. I'almicUa.

Bracliydoiifiiiiii. Lcpiostouunii,

Dniminoiuiia. Cyatlioplionim,

SplacliiiKiit. Acrocladiinn.
Aniblyodoii.

jh (fcucra lia\e no known .^ouii: African endemic sjiecies,
\z. : — -

Andrcica. Mniohryiitii,

Distichiitin, Anfitrichia,

Rhahdo7i'cisia, tlomaJothccuiin .

Schisf(>)iiifriinii, Pleura pus.

Octoblcphannu. Anomudon.

Alo'ma^ Herpctincuroii.

Gyrowcisia, florih itiida via .

Encalypta. TrachyphyUnm ,

while the remaining [46 genera have !^pecies claimed to be en-
demic to South Africa, many of these f/cnera being represented
in .'^outh Alrica only by such endemic species, while others have
also species known from elsewhere.

Ainony: the larger (/encra which each have manv endemic
species are : —

SphagintiiK Uyincuostominii Bracli\in,ii'nnfi,

i ampylopits. Svrrhopodon. Wcbcra.

Jhssidnis. Ortliotnchuur. Br\iim,

(.rimmw, Macromitrinut Fabroiiia.

fortula. Schlothcimia. RhxnchostiUjinni,

Barbiila, Rntosthodon. RhvnchositeqieUai

J ortclla. Baiirainia. Phiqiothccium,

rrichosloinitiii. Clyplwcarpns Rliaphidoxfrf/i'iim.

Philonotis.

S.A. J:K\i)IM[\ r A. 7^L)l

thus showing- that huih the Niorthern 1_v]>i' and the Soiiiheni type
have suffered consideralble modification throus^di residence in
South Africa. But many of these so-called endemic si)ecies are
so closely related to (^ne another and to exotic species as to sug-
gest that they are the South African representatives of these
exotics, either habitually or occasionally subject to modification
'by local surroundings, and that numerous specimens and fuller
knowledge in growth may demonstrate that many are either
synonyms, varieties or forms, and that the distribution of the
Sipecies iiUo whicli the}- are included is thereljy greater than is at
present known. Also, it is abm-idaiitly evident that much has yec
to 'be learned regarding the local distribution of exery si:)ecies.

(F) Exotic I.waoers. — It seems prol)al)le that at least two
species are recent arrivals, imported along witli garden plants.
viz., Lcptobryitm pyrifonnc (L), which occurs in several places
in greenhouses or gardens, and ])ropagates rapidly apart from
sexual reproduction by rhizomatous tubers, and Liiinilaria cni-
ciata, which also occurs iii similar localities, always barren. l)Ut
propagates freel}- b\- gemmae. 'Both these are known as in-
vaders in various other countries ; both niay 'be transported for
weeks as j^ractically invisible resting-buds (tubers and Licmn-i.ne) :
and though both have been collected once or twice a])paren-'>.
wild in Africa, llie doubt as to their being indigenous is liardly
dispelled- There may l)e other naturalized exotics, but I am not
aware of them.

Soi'ni Ai'-RicAX Distribution.

I. The regional (hstribution of the Bryoph)ta throughout
South .\frica does not corres}>ond (juite with that of the higher
plants, as usuall\ described ; at least, there is not yet sufficieiit
evidence that such is the case. But. for the Bryophyta, certain
geographical regions may Ije outlined as follows: —

DiSTRtBUTiON Genekai. IN SUITABLE LOCALITIES. — This in-
cludes some of all types from xerophytes to hydrophytes, and
from each class of situation, and many of the cosmopolitan
species already memioned, as well as other common mosses,
among which may be menti(^ned: —

.v. In forest conditions: —

Lcptodon. Brathythcciuut. Mctzcjer'ui.

Ncckcra, Rha/^hidosfC(/iit)ii. Anciira.

Entodon. llypoptcryghiiu. Radnla,

Thiikiluni . Macromitriiiin . Plagiocliila.

Stercodoii. Khodohryinii. FruUania.

Porothamniitm, Lcitcoloma, Madotlieca,

Pilot rich cUa , Mnium , Ptycholcjciinca .

Papillaria, Atrichum, Eu-lcjcunca.

Pseiidolcskea, Ditmortiera,

y

3<)-' s.A. I'.moi'iivTA.

II. In iitlicr tlian forest conditions: — -

Foiyti'ichmn. fortiila, Riccia,

Pogonatiim. funaria, Blyffla,

Trcinafodoii. Bryinn. Kanfio.

Ditrichnm, Ptych oiii il riii ni , C 'cphaiosia .

Campylopiis. Physcoiiiitriiiiii. Fossonibroiiia.

J'issidciis, Barfraniichila. J'iinbrioria.

IVeisia, Fahronia. Marchantia,
PhUonoiis,

and from wet situations Spluu/iiuiii and A)itli()iCros.

II. Soi'T II -Western Region. — This region, as is well
l>;nown. differs in respect of climate (it has winter rains and
dry summers), from the rest of South Africa. The higher
plants characteristic of it are of a distinct schlerophyllous type,
including' a large numher of cricoid and other species which
occur in this region and nowhere else. It is interesting, there-
fore, to fnid that in addition to other Rryophyta this region has a
fair number of species common in it,.l)ut not known from else-
where, among which may he mentioned: —

li'ardia hyf/roiiicfrica. Rliacocorpiis, -icvciai sps-

I'issidciis pi II III OS us. Dicraiio!oiiia,

Fissidcns liiicalis, fJndlgiiia,

Dicranmn tahidare, Jamcsoniclla culorata.

Rhacomitrlinn iiicaiiiiiii, Rliizogoiihim vaUis-iirathT,

1 scliyrodou, 2 s])S.. Marchaiina tahnlaris,

i'olcoclKctiiiiii, 2 sps. Schistocliila (data.

These intermingle freely with the more generally distributed
species.

III. Eastern Region. — This region extends from Knysna
to Zululand, and from the ridge of the central escarpment on
the Drakensberg to the Indian Ocean, and has a rainfall of 20
to 30 inches per annum in most places. Inn up to 100 inches in
^ome forest and mountavn localities.

It includes most of the forests of South Africa, as also
most of the mountains, and is favoured in most localities with
more humid conditions than other parts of South Africa ; con-
sequently in it the Bryophvta, and especially the e]>ii)hytic forest
types are well represented.

The variations of humidity, altitude, aspect, shade, vegeta-
tion and surface ai*e. however, \-erv marked and very rapid ;
from these causes a total change in the tv))e of moss-vegetation
often occurs within a few yards, and each side retains its
character as long- as conditions remain unaltered, usually in
accordance \\ith the higher veq-etation of the locality.

In fhis region the brvoi)hvtic species of each of the other
regions intermingle, except such s|)ecies as are i>eculiar to each
of these; it has ccnsequentlv a very large numlxn" of such widely
distributed species, in addition to what are peculiar to itself.

Many species onlv once collected have not yet been found
elsewhere, but that is ]>robably not always due to absence else-

S.A. HKNOl'HVTA. 393

where; tliere are, however, fewer conmiun species which are
absent elsewhere than is the case in the other regions; in other
words, its special conditions are less marked, and reflect them-
selves less in the flora than is the case in these other resjions,

AnioHij common forms may be mentioned: —

A. in forest coiuhtions ;

RhacopUuui.

Ploribuudaria.

Breutelia.

RhaphidostCiiiuut.

Ilypoptrryf/imti.

Macromitrium.

Microtlnnu Ilium,

luitodou.

Schlotheimia.

Thuidium.

Neck era.

Fissidens.

Pscudoleskea.

Aerohryop.s-is.

Rhisogouium

sp'mi-

Pleura pus.

PilotrichcUa.

forme.

Pap ilia rill.

Campylopus.

Dumortiera.

Ptycholcjcunca.

Madotheea.

Plagiochila,
Radula.

\\- In other tl

han forest conditions :

Trematodon.

Ptycliomilrium.

Mareliaiiiia W

'ilmsU

Lcucoloma.

Physcomitrium.

Fimbriaria,

Ditricliuiii.

/'uiiaria.

Plafjiochasma.

/

Campylopus.

Praehyiueiiium.

Riceia.

Fissidciis.

Br yum.

Frullania.

Hymcu(>st(>)iiutu.

Polyiriclium.

Nardia.

JVeisia.

Fabrouia.

Aufhoceros.

Hyophihi.

I'huidium (siii;ill

S])S. I •

In this as well as in the South-Western region certain species
or forms are said to be more or less constantly maritime, but
the elasticity of these is not (fully known yel, and such a name
as Hcd-ivigidium maritimum (CM.) Far. is rather a mi,snomer
for a moss found near Lydenburg, a hundred miles or more
inland.

IV. Western and Centkal Rk(,io.\. — This extends from
the main watershed on the Drakensberg to the .\tlantic, embrac-
ing the Orange Free State, the Karroo, Namaqualand, and
Bechuanaland, all more or less flat and arid, devoid of forest,
and with rainfall usually less than 20 inches per annum — in some
parts less than an average of fi\e inches per anmmi.

The West African Protectorate and the Western Transvaal
mostly belong here also. The species found in this region are
peculiarly xerophytic, and able to endure in some condition long
periods of extreme drought, even though more or less hygro-
phytic, where opportunity occurs elsewhere.

Of genera i>eculiar to this class of locality may be men-
tioned : —

Gigaspcrnium. Targionia.

Goniomitrium. Grimaldia.

B

394 ^-'^- I'KVOIMIVTA.

and others which occur include: —

Dldymodon afcr. Psciidolcskca clavirantCit.

lintosthodon Bcr<jiaiius. Griminia licklonn.

Weisia. s])s. Pabrouia f'ilifera.

Hymoiiostoinum, sps. Stercodon ciiprcssifonnis.

Physcoiiiitriiim, sps- Cainpylof^iis iiaiio-tcna.w

J ortiila iiiuralis. Piccia. several si)s.

Portiila l^iUfcra. Pla</i<>chasiiia.

Pissidciis, several small sjis. Finihriaria.

Bryiim. several S])s. J'ossoiiihroiiia.

J^tychoiiiitritiiii crispafnm. Ccplialozia.
Piychoinitriitm ciinillatifoliiim. Lophocolca.

Forests are absent. Sphagnum is absent, few pleurocarpous
mosses are present, few foliose Hepaticre are present, trees are
scarce, and consecjuentK- e])iphytes are few, and the usual habi-
tats of the Bryo])hyta in this region are either where moisture
and shade are obtainal)le under cover of rocks, or oai the banks
rising from water-pools. The conditions prevailing are not
favourable, consecpientK tlie few s])ecies ])resent are ]H'culiar
and interesting.

V- Northern Rkoion. — This region includes the I'.aslern
and Northern Transvaal, the ]\)rtuguese I'last African Trovince,
.Swaziland and Soutli Rhodesia, almost all tropical, and all
draining intc) the Indian ( )cean north of Natal.

Coastward it is composed of xerophilous leguminous open
forest, very poor in Bryophyta : westward it includes the high
dry prairies of Rhodesia, poor in f'ryophyla. except in the few
wooded valleys, but between the coast belt and the prairies
there extend the mountain ranges separating the Transvaal and
[■Rhodesia from Portuguese East Africa, forest-clad on their
eastern s1o];l-s. which are still unexplored for Bryophyla; but
as the\- are known to contain many ferns, they may be assumed
to contain man_\' mosses and liverworts also.

From Bar'berton and Pretoria m^rthward. including the
Woodbush. -jtecies occur which ha\e not been found further
south, but which have relations northward. .\mong these are:

Lct^iodontium. I'liiiaria, several StcrcoplixUum.

Rhachithcc'ium. species. several si)ecits.

Tracliyfliylluin. U'cbcra. -everal Prxthrodout'uitu.

Lcvicrclla. s])ecies. Rania.

l.iudbcriiia. lirfodinui. several Rigodiiini.

I'xirhubt. several species. Ifrrbrrta.

si)ecies.

Among the most common mosses in the forests, as also ;n
the open country, are those common in the Eastern region ; one
of the marked features, however, is that Rhacopilum. which, in
the Eastern region is usually a .sub-epiphytal tforest species, and
<^ften fertile, is here present in many open streams as wide mals
on stones frequently submerged, and is seldom fertile.

S.A. JJRY'OPHYTA. 395

Sphagnum is preseiil in open swamps, thoug:h rare;
ei)iphytes are al)undant iu the forests and forest-clumps; meso-
{)hytes like Atrichum andro(iyini}H, Microfhajmiium pscudo-
rcptans, Thiiidium promontoril, Rhodobryum rosenm, and R.
iimbraculum are common where there is forest shade, and
Macroinitrimii sps. and Brachymcninm pulchnim are abundant
on trees apart from the forest. But in this regit)n, more than
in any of the others, much has still to 1>e added to our know-
ledge of the Bryophyta, and collectors should note that speci-
mens are desired.

V'l. MoUiXTAix Regions. ~-()n the tops of the mountains
at elevations of 5,000 to 10,000 feet in Natal, Basutoland. and
Orange Free State, and at gradually reduced altitudes southward
to about 3,000 feet at Table Mountain, species which are of a
distinctly alpine type occur freely, and tisually either corres])ond
with or are closely related to alpine species of other coimtries.
Owing to the rigorous nature of the habitat these species are
often more or less in complete ix>ssession. forming wide, flat
mats on nearly bare nKk, and a large proportion of them have
hair-pointed lea^■es, hyaline in many cases. Fructilica-
tion is rare- or usually absent in many oif these species; still, in
their own habitat these are well represented, asexual rei)roduc-
tion by detached Ijuds or branches taking ])lace in several and
I'ossiblv in most cases.

Among these alpine fi:)rnis are: — •

CanipylopHS. Brytiin ol/'ininii L'lurioiidantlius liir-
Rhacomitrium. (Wilmsi't). tcllns.

Grimmla. Bryiiiii svntricliioidcs. AongstrcDnia.

Andrecea. Hryuiii afro-alpinuiii. Polytriclinni.

Gymnostoiniim. Bryiini oranicuni. Pogonatiim.

Zygodon. Bryitm argcntctiiii. PsUopiliim.

BreittcUa. SicUinia cawia. Corsiiiia.

Hedwigia. Pilrichiiiii. J'iinbriaria,

Anihoccros.

And in wet ])laces or along streams occur: —

Sphagmiiii. Bryuiii. P'issidens.

Pli iloiiotis. Hygroa m blystegin ni . Coiiom itn'ii m .

Bartrainidula. Drepanocladus. Blyttia.

Preiitatodoii. Amblystcgium ripar- MarcJianiia.

P. iistich ia . in m . Symph ogyn a .

Mnimn. Leucobryitiii. Riccia fliiitans, etc.

And on Table Mountain Schistochila alafa (the only South
African representative of the large Northern family Scapinia-
ceae), and Jamcsontclla colorata.

Systematic Distribution.

It may be of interest briefly to state the South African repre-
sentation of the orders into which the Bryophyta of the world
are arranged, as some are entirely absent. These absences are

396 S.A. HRYOPHYTA.

not difficult to explain, the climatic conditions being unfavotir-
bble.

The latest and apparently the most satisfactory classifica-
tion is that given in Cavers' " Inter-relationship of the Bryo-
phyta " (1911). following which we find the representation tc
be: —

I. Sph.erocarpales.— -Represented only by one species of

Riella, only once seen.

II. Marchantiales. — Well represented, but Monocleacese and

Cleveaceie are absent.

III. JuNGERMANNiALES. — Well represented, the most notable
feature being that the large family Scapaniaceae is repre-
sented b}' one species only, and that confined to the SAV.
region, so far as is known.

IV. Anthocerotales. — Well represented by Anthoccros. Den-
droccros has not yet been found, though known from /Vfrica
and its islands. South America, and Australasia. Notothylas
and Mcgaccros are absent.

V. Sphagnales. — Present but rare in the moister and fully

exposed localities ; most frequent on Table . Mountain ;
absent ifrom the Karroo and from all forests.

VI. Andre.1£.\le.s. — Represented by t)ne or two species, very
rare; found only on mountain rocks.

\TI. Tetraphidales. — ^Absent from Africa; known only from
the Northern Hemisphere, New Zealand, and Samoa.

VIII. Poia'TRICHALes. — Well represented, and through the
laminated leaves well suited for exposed ])Ut showery
localities.

IX. BuxBAUMiALEs. — Abseut from Africa exce])t Madeira),
known o'nly from Northern Hemisphere and East Indies,
and one species in each of New Guinea, Tasmania, Peru.
South-Eastern' Brazil, and Viti Island.

X. Eu-Brvales. — Well represented by most of the temperate

and sub-tropical families. Some absentees have already been
referred to. Permanent marshes being almost absent,
swamp mosses are few, and through uai suitable climatic
conditions Splachnacea?e is almost absent.

Ecology of South African Bryophyta.

From the ecological standjx)int there is |)resent much of
great interest in the South African Bryophyta. The following
tyi^es occur: —

I. Pioneer Species Colonizing New Ground. — Almost
all the Bryophyta may be ipioneers, but in difi'erent degrees, some
species, and especially under certain conditions, being the earliest
colonizing species of plants, while others may sometimes be so.
but probably more often follow blue-green Algse and Lichens
Intimately connected with the behaviour of each species in this
respect is the nature of the nidus required by its spores in order
to germinate aaid to develop into plants; in some (as in Funaria )

S.A. r.RYOPHYTA. ^ijy

the sterilized suiiface left b\- a forest hre sails fur immediate
geranination and maintenanee ; in others {Fissidcns Wageri,
etc.), newly cut, moist, earth-banks meet the requirement. In
the larger number of cases .\lga? are ])resent first, and probably
regulate the constant presence of a aiecessary moisture-film to
induce germination and to maintain early life; lithophytes pro-
bably require lichens, even to keep the Alg?e from being dried
off; while in the case of all hydrophytes the constant presence
of water in some quantity is essential. In each case the pre-
sence of Bryophyta eventually forms a humus, in which, if sur-
rounding conditions allow it to accummulate, higher plants may
be able to live where formerl)- they could not do so.

Conditions and sites suitable for pioneers include: —

A. Disturbed Ground, such as ditch and river baaiks, rail-
way and road cuttings, cultivated land, dry stream beds, etc. : —

1. In shade, either of dxerhanging trees or of the banks

themselves.
These include :

Fissidcns (minute species). Tretnatodon.

Entosthadon. Polytrichum.

Haplodo n Hum . Br achy th edit m .

Ditrichum. Etc.

2. /;; similar localities, but extending also into full exposure,

so long as the soil contiiuies more or less moist, as it
usuallv does in vertical cuttings, or sloping banks :

Pogonatnm. Funaria. Fossombronia.

Polytrichum. Archidium. A^otoscyphus.

Anomobryum. Pleuridium. Cephalozia.

Bryum. Riccia. Kantia.

Phascum. Blyftia. Etc.

3. On flat open land :

Phascum. Hy m eit us to m am. B r\ urn .

Entosthodon. Weisa. Brachythecium.

Fissidcns. Campylopus (small Riccia.

Ditrichum. sps.). Kantia.

Pleuridium.

B._ After Forest of Wattle Plantation Fires. — The
huge forest fires which occasionally occur, and the plantation
fires which form a necessary process in wattle culture, are
quickl}' and almost invariably followed 'by a dense growth of
Funaria hygrometrica. Species of Entosthodon and Ditrichum
appear later on the soil ; Rhaphidostegium appears oil the tree-
stumps as soon as they begin to decay; Rhodobryum, Atrichum,
Pogonatum, Campylopus, Bryum, and Fossombronia come soon
if the soil is moist, while iif the soil is dry only Campylopus and
Rhaphidostegium become established bef<ire forest regrowth
alters the conditions again.

39'^ S.A. I'.KVOPllVTA.

C. Ox Mol'XTAlN Sl^MMITS WD DENUDED k()( KS J.I.Si:-
W]IEKE.

Rhaconiitriuni. Zyyodoii. Criuiinia,

Campylopus, Polytrichum. Bryum ari/eiilcitiit,

Andrewa, Pogonatum, Hcdi^ngidituu.

and other genera already mentioned as belonging to the Moun-
tain Regions, and which will be referred to again later.

But apart from the mountains, and sometimes even near
the sea (as at ^Niurchison Flats. Natal ), flat, bare rocks Ijecome
gradually encroached upon by masses of : —

Hymenostomum. Tortula. Kantia.

IVeisia. Brachytlicciuiu. Riccia.

Campylopus ( dwarf Pscudoleskea. Blytha.

sps.). Cephalocia. Fiiiibriaria.

Brymn argentenm. Etc.

D. In and near Flow j no ."^ikeams. — Usuall\ as clionv.i-
phytes anchored in cracks Of the rock, thougli often extending

outward as saturated lithophytes.

1. 0)1 the Drakensherg and other high mountains :

Philonotis. Amhlystegium. Scehviia.

Bartramidnhi. Hygroaniblystegiiini. Blyttia.

Brent a! ill. Drepanoehidus. JUmbriaria.

Bryum. Fissi-dens. Aneura.

Jiustichia Gvmnosfoinuiu Anthoeerus.

Vac.

2. On Talkie Mountain ilic fi allowing aad other i/enera
occur :

IVardia, Rhaeotnitrinni. Sehistoehila,

Rhacoearpus, Leueolonia, Marehantia.

Dicranum, Campyh>pns. Anenva.

Dicranoloma, fissidens. Etc..

and have species endemic to tiiat locality in this class of situa-
tion, and Sphagnum and Chanondantlins arc more frc(|uent thert-
than elsewhere, on moist or wet rocks.

3. /;; streams :<'hieh are noi mountain streams, e.vposed:

Fissidens. Bryum. Trematodon.

Conomitriuni. Philonotis. Symphogyna.

Hyophita. Fntosthodo)i. Riccia fluitans.

Hymenostomum. Rhaeopihim. - Fossombronia.

Etc.

4. /;; shaded forest streams:

Fissidens. Microthamnium. Mnium.

Hyophila. Floribundaria. Aneura.

Entodou. Porothamnium. Dumortiera.

fhitidium. Stereodon. Marehantia.

Etc.

s.A. iiin iH'in 'J A. y)i)

5- Siihiiirrard . cillirr rcf/iilarly ar frc(jucutl\' :

J'issidciis. Hryum. .liiviira.

Cononiitriitm, Amblystcci'nim. Diiiiiorlicra.

Hyophila. W'ardia. Marchaiitia.

Milium. J'^iclla. Possoiiibrotiic.

Etc.

E. As l^pipjn TKS ON Tree Stems. — Althongli a very large
|>roiK>rtion of the Rryophyta (frequently (K'cur as epiphytes
on tree stems, many of these are rather sticcrssioii /slants folloAV-
i'lig nj) and taking advantage of the pioneer work done by a
small number oif s])ecies. Among the ])ioneers are: —

Macromiiyium. BracliYiiiriiiiiin. h'niUaiiia,

fabrunia. Tortula. Madnilicca.

Rhaphidostciiium. Barbiila. Radiila.

Orthotrichuih. ]\liacot'ilnn\. /'lof/iocliila.

Other e})iphytes succeeding or accompanying these will lie
mentioned under the Qiniax Types.

F. OiN Walls, Stones. Cement Work, Ivn . — This is the
favourite haunt of these genera :

Tortula. Hryuiii. .Stcrcodoii.

ToricUa. Hrachyinciiiuui. Rliyncliostef/iinii.

Barhitla. Barfraiiiia. Brack ythcr'ni in.

Wcisia. Macrotititriiiin. Etc-

Many other (jcncra api)ear after humus has been formed
by these, if the walls remain moderately damp. If very dry no
Bryophyta aj q lear.

II. Cli.\l\x Tvi'ES. — While almost all the Bryoi>hyta nia\
be pioneers on occasion some are also able to establish them-
selves as relatively permanent inhabitants, and thus remain as
long as favourable conditions continue. Notable among these
are :

1. Xeroi'Uvtic AssocL'\tions. — These are fit to endure per-
manently the arid conditions of the Western and Midland
Region, or of the fully exposed localities in the Eastern RegioiL
and in the Northern Region. These conditions seldom become
moister. and often become drier ; still, the species forming these
associations survive, or contimte to appear.

These associations include all the species already mentioned
ajs belonging to the W'estern and Midland Region, and in the
Ea.stern and Northern Regions it includes species of :

JVeisia. Fissidcns. Riccia.

Hyinenostoiintin. Pfyrfwinitrinin. Fimbriaria.

Trkhostoinitm. Brachythcciuin. Kanfla.

Cainpyhpus, Rhynchosict/iuni.

2. MESoimvTic AssocL\TioNs. — Between the xerophyiic
tvpe and the hygrophilous type comes the mesophytic type.

400 S.A. r.R^'OPTIYTA.

unable to endure extreme drought, and still seldom connected
with quite wet conditions. The ]>lanis composing this type live
on the soil, or on humus, rmd ])refer it to be usually moist, but
never continuously wet. Through the seasonal extremes to
which South Africa is subject the ]>roper conditions for this type
usually exist as forest carpet rather than under full ex|>osure
to sunshine, although there are s])ecies of Polytrichum, Pogona-
tum, DitrichuMi, Fissidens, Bryiiiii, Anomohryum, Brachythe-
cium, Trematodoii, etc-, which ])refer sunshine.

Among the 'forest genera n\ this type may be mentioned:

Atrichwn. Bryuin. Sterodoii,

Rhodobrymii. Mtiiitm. Thuidinui.

Fusi'dens. Campylopiis. Eiitodoii.

Dicranella. Rhaphidosteqium. Redivigia.

Funaria. Pseiidolcskea. Kaiitia.

Lcucoloma. Microthaninium. Plagiochila.

It is frequently the case that species of these genera occur
separately, forming monotypic associations, but it is also the
case that miscellaneous mixtures occur, containing many species.
In this association the permanency of the grouping depends
mostly upon continuous regularity of the forest cover; if it be-
come either more dense or more o])en the balance is tipset, and
some species gradually give place to others.

Hygrophilous Associations. — The most marked but the
least common hygrophilous association in South .\frica is that
composed of Sphagnum, which usually occupies a saturated posi-
tion on rock, or on mud overlying rock, where the rock itself
prevents the escape, except b}' oxcrtiow, of a slowly meanderinjL''
stream fully exposed to sunshine. This is often a m(;vnoty])ic
association, though Bartramiditla. Philonotis, Bryuni, Campy-
lopus, Blyttia, Symphogyua, Notoscyphus, and various grasses
or similar plants, occasionally become part of it, and as it raises
itself into drier conditions Antlweeros, Leucobryum, Mniuin,
etc., come in. followed later by certain phanerogams.

Climatic and physical conditions seldom favour in South
Africa the formation of extensive Sphagnum moors or bogs
like those of Europe, consequently Sphagnum is rare, and
Meesiacese and Aulacomniacea^ probably absent.

Ricch fhiitans and R. natans are both amphibious, and
have forms which float in slow i)ools. unattached to the soil, as
well as different land forms.

But hvgrophilous associations are connected with every
stream, and some of the species alreadv mentioned as pioneers
under varying conditions become the climax type in a stream as
long as the conditions remain unaltered.

.\ submerged bed of Aiieura. Duniortiera, IVardia, Cotio-
miirium or Hyophila mav last for a very long period without
effecting anv further colonization, and saturated cushions of
Philonotis. Fissidens. H\aroamhl\steginm, Campxlopus. Bryum,
Marchantia. etc.. frequently remain almost submerged for many
years, their only apparent object beino- to expose a saturated

S.A. URYOPHYTA. 4OI

surface to the atmosphere instead of a dry rock. Rhacopilum
does so ill the Eastern Transvaal streams, and many t)ther species
are more or less constantly associated with water.

4. Efii'inTJC Associations. — These occur either on bark
or on stones, or on both ; sometimes even on tree leaves or upon
other mosses imder forest or swamp conditions. The pioneer
species usually start on the slime of Alg-^e or lichens, but often
arrive at a condition of permanent occupation which lasts as
long as the suitable condition lasts, and then when the forest is
opened out and forest regrowth begins, these species again
resume pioneer service on the regrowth-

But in addition to llie naturally pioneer species (some of
which have already lieen mentioned), many other succession
species appear after a time, sometimes as true epi])hytes, more
frequently as mesophytes living on the hunuis formed by the
decay cif earlier generations. Some are even so inde])endent of'
attachment that they continue to live and flourish if detached
from their anchorage, and hang upon branches m moist forest;
some, again, are so nearly parasitic that it is only upon living
wood that they continue to grow, while others li\e easily as
epiphytes either on living or dead wood, or on stones, or humus,
-■ometimes e.Ktending even on to soil.

During the whole of the permanent occupation by these
Bryophyta the}' are of immense advantage in the economy of
nature in the direction of forming humus and of acting as a
surface sponge into which available moisture is accepted and
retained until wanted by changed hygrometric conditions, and
even in those which hang loosely, and consequently form no
sponge, the abihty to absorb and retain moisture inider imbri-
cated leaves or in other similar situations has much to do with
the i)ermanentlv cool and moist condition usually prevalent
inside a forest. It must not be lost sight oi, however, that
these epiphytes have often to undergo periods of intense drought,
and that the_\' must possess water-retaining arrangements capable
of collectine and enduring moistttre to an unusual degree.

Examples of the types mentioned include : —

A. Usuall\' pioneers ; afterwards climax type : —

1. Leaf parasites (i.e., living on living leaves) : — Micro-

lejeiiiiea. Radn!a. Pntllauia.

2. Bark parasites (i.e., li\ing on living bark, and often as

isolated plants or patches on bark ifully exposed to
sunshine, and frequently hi^h up the trees, or on
trees awav altogether from forest conditions.

Fabroiiia, Orthotriehnm, Fritllania,

Maeroiiiitniiin sps. Radula, etc.

3. Ei'ii'UM'Ks ox Living Bryophyta: —

Ell- lej'e u nea, F in i b ria r ia ,

Mct::geria, Kantia,

Radula. Ceplialocia,

Fnillaiiia Rcklonii, Lepido.da, etc.

402 S.A. I'.KMirilN TA.

4. J^i'i I'ln 'I Ks <).\ Lixi.xc (IK l)i:\i) WOod, ok mn llr.Mts ok

Stones : —

Bracliymoinim pulchnDii I'oihila.

Macromitniini, Barbnla.

Pscitdolcskca. Madothcca.

RJiafyliidostcgiiim, Fnillania, etc.

B. USUALLN' SUCCESSIMX Sl'KtlliS. lORMIX*. (UMAX TN IM-.,

while conditions remain unaltered : —

5- Ox Tree Stems, whether eivixc. or dead, ok nx
HuMi's coxxKCTFj) WITH Stumps: —

i'atnf^ylopiis. Dosyiiiitriiiiii. Thii'diitm,

Lciicoloiiia, Hedi^'icjia. Plcitropiis,

Rartramia, Cryphcra. Rhaphidosfcifiiiin.

Torfula. Forsstrociiiia. Ptxcholcjcnnca.

Barbnla, Rcnaiildia. Madothcca.

Rliicogonliiiii . Stcrcodon . fnillania,

Mninm, Porotnchnm, Eu-lcjeunca.

Brynm, Ncckcra, Metsgcrla,

Schlotltciniia. Pr'ionodon. Phif/iocliila. v\c.

Lcncobrynin. Radnla.

(). ()x Tki:f. Stems or ox Stom-s. hk iiaxoin*. a> di
tached Air-plaxts: —

Pilotrichclla, PapUlaria Alctzyeria,

Acrobryopsis, Rracliynicnnini. etc. MacroHiltrium,

7. r^suATJA' ox Stones ok AccrMri.ArEi) Hi'mt's: —

Fissidcns. Hypoptcryyinin . Cyclodicfyon,

Lcptodon. Ptycliouiitrinni. Hookcriopsis,

Entodon. Trichostowttni, Pscndolcskca,

RhacopUn m , Microtli a ni n in ni . Dim crodon t nini .

Thnidinm, Ectropoilicciinn. Hcdti^'-iciidinin. etc.

Poroihamninni, VcsicnJaria,

FJoril'iindaria. Uookcria,

5. Alpixe AssociATioxs. — While mosl of the Aljjinc
species are pioneers in the estal)lishniciit of plant communities
on practically bare rock, the exigencies of climate ( includinj^- a
daily thunderstorm during certain months, nightly mists or dews
almost throughout the year, greai intensity of light, extreme
rarification of the atmosphere which brings about complete
dessication within a few hours, and severe wind and winter
'concMtiions ) almost preclude ;the possibility of a ])er|maneni
phanerogamic ti(jra, and though SckufincUa nipcstris and sev-
eral small l)ulbs usually join the association, it must take a very
long time indeed to estal)lish even a grass-veld on a solid trap
or a l)urned sandstone rock; conse(|uently it often happens that
the pioneer Bryoi>hyta have come to stay, and eventuall_\- form
the final stage in plant-succession for that locality, as matterl
lithophytes. All the Bryophyta already mentioned as belong-
ino- 10 the Mountain T^eo'ions share in this tondencv, tbougb

S.A. I'.KVOl'll N TA. 403

some arc considcrabU restricted iby their water re(juireineiu.
Genera wlricli j)ermanently inhabit the drier rock surfaces in-
clude : —

Audrccca. CaiHpylof>iis, Polytr'uli 11 111,

Rhacomltrium, Bryiim { aiyciifntiii ) , Ptyclwuiifriiini .

Gnmniia, Zygodon,

while somew hat nioister rock margins have also : —

Bartramidula, Aongstrivinia, Bryum alpinum,

Pogonatitm. Scelania, Bryitjii afro-alpiinnii.

D if rich II HI, Trcinaiudon^ etc.

a truly wonderful mixture sometimes lveint{ found on our
frequently snow-clad mountain summits of sj^ecies separately
re]>resenting the hig^hest UKamtain tyi)es of luiro])e. Asia. NorMi
Y^merica, South j\inerica, New Zealand. Tristan d'Acunha.
Abyssinia, and Central Africa, all healthy and \igorous <'n\
these respective mountain -summits, though al)>e!U or almost
absent elsewhere.

(iKNEKAi- Conclusion s.
What has 'oeen said leads us to these general conc".u>iun^ : —
South Africa is rich in >i.ecies of Bryophyta. many endemic;
biU i)oor in endemic genera.

South Afr"ca appears lo be ihc conimcn meetiTig-grounci
of Northern tyi)es. Southern types, and another diagonal tyjx;-.
in additi<m to whatever may belong to Africa and its islands, or
be endemic t<j South Africa.

This common meeting-ground is \ cry })roi)ounced, and \er\
remarkable among the comparati\'ely few species inhal)iti']ig tlu
mountain sunmiits.

These facts indicate jirobable former land connections wher^-
no such c<^nnections have existed for a very long time past, thai
long period accounting for s])ecific variation after the generic
characters of the mosses and the main divisions of the Hepatica-
had become fairly well fixed-

The aggressic)n of climatic conditions, regulated by the hugi
more or less arid area, over tlie smaller and retrogressive humid
area.s. accounts ifor the wide distriibution in suitable but aiow
seiparated sjjots. of many cosmopolitan and other species, which
are unable to survive in the arid or semi-arid inter\ening and
adjoining tracts. The I'Lastern Region. conse(|Uently. has a rich
and varied bryojihytic flora.

( )ai account of aridity iJr^ophyta are few. scarce and
peculiar west of the main escarpment.

'l"ro])ical conditions bring tropical species as far south a-
these conditions extend.

The S<mth-\\'est region is more specialized than tlu
others, a- also i^ the case in regard to its higher flora, indical-

4^)4 S.A. r.RVOPHYTA.

ing the ]>resence of some relationship distinct from that of the
other reg-ions, or else an extraordiiiary environment influence.

The distribution of the systematic orders is (juite in ac-
cordance with the climatic conditions.

South Africa lia\ing been subjected continuously through
ages to erosion, the Bryophyta perform very im{>ortant pioneer
duty in connection with the reclothing- of new surfaces, leading
up to higher vegetation where that is practicable, or forming the
ultimate stage of plant-succession Avhere severe conditions so
direct.

In the ultimate stage of plant-succession elsewhere (i.e.,
where forest exists), the Bryophyta are a most important factor
in retaining humidity, and thereby preventing forest retrogres-
sion from going on more rapidly.

Spores are locally air-carried and ubiquitous ; as soon as
favourable conditions ]:)resent themselves they germinate, but it
is very remarkalile how every species is absent (from all except
its own habitat, probabl}' through absence of these '' favourable
conditions " at some earl}- stage, under circumstances of which
we are still totally ignorant.

After huge forest fires and after artificial in^terference
with the soil surface Bryophyta rapidly prepare the way for the
next stable vegetation.

The influence of the chemical contents and physical con-
dition of the soil or rock formation on distribution of Bryophyta
has not been noted sufficiently to lead to any classification or
general remarks in that respect.

(Read, July 4, T917).

Ostrich Leather. — A tanned ostrich skin sent to the
Union Trades Commissioner in London some time ago was sub-
mitted by him to one of ithe most expert fancy leather tanners in
the United Kingdom. The latter reix>rted that, in his opinion, the
most likely purpose that such leather could serve would be for
dressing-case work or travelling bags. A suitable shade of green
was suggested as a colour, or else some of the art shades or saddle
brown. Another i)ossible use was for furniture covering.

Water Vapour in the Sun. — Prof. A. Fowler,

F.R.S., of the Imj)erial College of Science and Technology, in a
paper recently read by him !)efore the Royal Society, showed that
the band A .^064, usually attributed to water xapour, is quite
strongly represented in the solar spectrum, and accounts for at
least 150 lines previously unidentified.

THE VOLATILE ACIDLrY OF WINE: PARTICULARLY
THAT PR(,)DUCED BY PURE CULTURES OF YEAST.

By Prof. Ai5RAH.\M Izak Pekold, B.A., Ph.D.

Introduction.

Whilst I do not for a moment deny that the bulk of the
volatile acid.s found in wines containing a high volatile acidity
must be ascribed to the action of bacteria, I hojje to show in the
course of this paper that appreciable, and even very considerable,
amounts of volatile acids are and can he (formed by pure cultures
of yeast. I shall first give a brief review of such literature on
this subject as was accessible to me. after which I shall g'wQ a
resume of some investigations on this subject made in the
Qinological Institute at Elsenburg. My assistant, .Mr. Franeois
Fevrier, B.A., carried out the practical part of these investiga-
tions under my su})ervision, for which I wish here to tender him
my heartiest thanks. These investigations were undertaken

partly on account of their purely scientific interest, and partly on
account of the light they might shed on the question of the vola-
tile acidity m our wines looked at innw a commercial standpoint
I shall revert to this as]>ect of my suliject at a later stage.

Historical Review.

Pasteur (1)* and Bechamp (2j tirst show^ed that acetic acid
is formed during the alcoholic femientation of grape-juice or
must when working with pure cultures of elliptic (wi'ue) yeast.
Duclaux (4), in coni])aring this formation of acetic acid
with that of alcohol during the same fermentation, points out
that, whilst they both have the sugar as their source, the sugaf
need merely enter the yeast cell to meet the zymase which decom-
poses it into alcohol and carbon dioxide, whereas the volatile acids
are the products of secretion or excretion of protoplasmic activ-
ity. He continues : " lis sont le produit d'une action vitale,
aumeme titre que I'alcool est le produit d'une action diastasique."
He showed that, even when no sugar is present, yeast left by
itself will slowly produce some volatile acid at the expense of it«!
cell contents. He further showed that more volatile acid is.
formed in the presence of large numbers of yeast cells after the
sugar has been fermented out than before this happens. He also
states that more volatile acid is formed under conditions that are
unfavourable.

Biiclmer and Meisenheimer (5) showed that acetic acid,
together with verv small (pumtities of higliL-r fatty acids, was
always formed during a fermentation without yeast cells. This
proves that acetic acid is a true ])roduct of fermentati(jn. They

* This number — and subsequent similar numbers further on — appended
to the name of the authority quoted, refers ic tlic l>iliIio<rraphy at tlie end
of this paper.

4o6 ACIDITY (IF WIXE.

assume the presence of a particular enzyme, " j^lucacetase " in the
juice of the (crushed) pressed yeast, which decomposes the sugar
into acetic acid. (I would ix)int out here that i molecule of a
hexose could give 3 molecules of acetic acid. ) In view of the
above. Duclaux's explanation about the formation of volatile acid
by yeast will have to be modified in so far as to admit that, whilst
some volatile acid may be formed as he explained, a considerable
amount, if not most, is formed through the action of some enzyme,
such as the above supposed glucacetase, which is present in the
yeast cell. This will explain most olf the observations subse-
quently made, and which will be dealt with as we pnx^eed.
VVindisch (7), in referring to investigations made on this subject
by Bechamp, Thylman and Hilger, Kayser. Carles, Becker. Haas,
Rocques, and Reisch, states that the sum total of their conclu-
sions amounts to the following' :

Different yeasts form, under otherwise identical conditions, different
amounts of volatile acid, the heer yeasts forming less than the wine or
elHplic and pastorianus yeasts. High temperatures, admission of air, and
a lengthy fermentation increase the volatile acids formed. The concentra-
tion of the fermenting liquid has nn influence. [Suhsequent work has
certainl}' disjjroved this! — A. I. P.I The liisrher the lixed aci(h'ty of
the must is. the lower is the volatile acid formed.

He further states that Reisch (6) found that
the volatile acids rapidly form until nearly half the
-ugar is fermented out, when their formation soon
proceeds much more slowl\ , and stops altogether when half the
sugar has fermented out. Windisch then further states that,
when wine matures, the volatile acidity usually increases ; that
micro-organisms are no doubt mainly responsible for this,
although an oxidation of the alcohol, apart from an\' organisms,
iloes not seem out of the (|uestion ; further, that a wine's volatile
acidity sometimes decreases during maturation.

R. von der Heide (9) in 1907 ])ublished the results of his in-
Aestigations on abnormal anKuints of volatile acid formed in
sweet musts by different yeasts. In his first .series of experi-
ments with one wine yeast (Steinberg. 1893) he used a must with
the same composition in every case excepting that the sugar rose
from 12 to 43 per cent, in the dififerent bottles. After two
tnotnhs the fermentation was over, and the yeast cells were nearly
all free from glycogen. The wines were now analyzed for
alcohol and volatile acid, and the following were the results ob-
tained :

No. of Bottle

I
2

4

Original Sugar

Volatile

Alcohol

Concentration.

Acid.

by weight

Per cent.

Per mille.

Per cent.

12

0.43

6

14

0.50

7

16

0.6s

8

18

0.75

9

20

0.7.S

10

22

0.92

10.89

ACID] 'I' \ <>l- WINK. 407

Xo. of Bottle.

Original Sugar

\'olati1e

Alcohol

Concentration.

Acid.

by weight.

Per cent

Per niille.

Per cent.

7

^4

1.17

T I . H)

8

2()

1-55

10.52

9

2<S

1-93

9.92

10

30

1 .96

10.52

II

3.^

2.19

^■3S

12

4"

2.f)5

8.35

13

43

2.74

8.42

er inille.

Per mille.

Per mille

1 AK>

0.64

0.69

2 . 12

1.56

1 . 98

.5- ir

1.78

2.0<)

Here the volatile acidity --teadil} rose with the sugar concen-
tration of the must, nt)twithstanding the fact that the alcohol
formed got less when 24 per cent, sugar was passed. In order
to check these results similar experiments were made with the
same and other yeasts with sugar concentrations of 20, 35. and 50
l)er cent. respecti\ely. Here, as well as in the preceding' experi-
ments, the bottles containing' the experimental must were steril-
ized with cotton-wool plugs, and these were replaced by sulphuric
acid air-seals only wdien the yeast had grown so far as to render
the must turbid. The following are some of the results thus
iil)tained :

Sugar Concentration. Steinberg, 1893. Piesport. Bordeaux.

\'olatile Acid. Volatile Acid. Volatile Acid.

20

35
50

These results ifully contirni the first o-ik-s. whilst they clearly
bring out the fact that different \east> form different amounts oif
volatile acid. Von der Heide furtlier showed that when experi-
menting with small c|uantitie> of must mure volatile acid is formed
than when the quantity of must is increased.

In 1912 Osterwalder i)ublishe(l the results of .some \ery ini-
l^ortant experiments he had conducted cm the formation of volatile
acid by pure cultures of wine yeast. Me worked with a number
of different wine yeasts which he had isolated and cultivated in
pure cultures, and included a standard wine yeast, Steinberg 3.
for the sake of comparison. In his first set of experiments he
l^lugged all his 'lx)ttles with cotton-woul and kept tliem at the
temperature (winter) of the room, which was about 16 tleg. C
Half were filled with the juice of the Theiler pear, and half with
Sicilian grai)e-juice. Here I shall consider only the latter. He
inoculated with active {Aire cultures on the 8th October, 1910. and
analyzed one lot on the 25th February, 191 1, and the remainder on
the ist April, 191 1. On the whole the results obtained on these
two dates were practically the same, showing that no appreciable
amount of volatile acid was either formed or destroyed after the
2!;th Februarv, when the exnerniie.nt bnd lri>;t<>d four and ;i ha'f

40;^ ACIDTTN OF WINE.

months. The following extract from the tignres given for th^
analyses made oai the 25th February, 191 1 (fermentation of
grape-juice), will show the great differences between the amount^
of volatile acid formed bv the different yeasts :

Yeast.

Total Acid

as

Volatile Acid as

Tartaric Acid.

Acetic Acid.

Sitten 3

5.92 gr

. per

lit.

1 .81 gr. per lit

Dezaley 2

6.15

do.

1 . 70 do.

Siders 5 (Pendant)

4-95

do.

1 . 22 do.

Neuenburg 2 (Pinot)

4-50

do.

0.93 do.

Siders 4 ( Dole

4-57

do.

0 . 76 do.

Chardonnay i

4.42

do.

0.31 do.

Steinberg 3

2>-^V

do.

0.19 do.

In most cases a strong new growth df yeast cells was ob-
served overlying the lees as a flocculent layer, which had taken
place after the fermentation was over. Osterwalder ascribes the
abnormal amounts of volatile acid formed to this pronounced
subsequent growth of yeast cells.

He then commenced a new series of experiments with two of
the above yeasts that had formed much volatile acid, namely.
Siders 5 (Pendant) and Neuenburg 2 (Pinot), and with two that
had formed very little volatile acid,, namely, Chardonnay and
Steinberg 3. Half the bottles were closed with perforated corks
having concentrated sulphuric acid air-seals, whereby the air was
cut off, whilst the other half were closed with plugs of cotton-
wool having a piece of paper tied over them, whereby the air was
given fairly free access. The bottles were inoculated on the 12th
i\pril. 191 1, and kept in a cupboard at summer air temperature.
The wines were analyzed towards the end of May, 191 1, when
the fermentations were over. The original must contained per
litre: 162.24 gr. invert, sugar, 2.96 per cent, total acid (as tar-
taric acid), 0.20 per mille volatile acid (as acetic acid). Fur-
ther analyses were made in August and October respectively.
The following are some of the results obtaiaied :

(i) Where the air was excluded (concentrated sulphuric acid
air-seal), the volatile acidity in the case oif the four yeasts
above mentioned was as below :

Date of Siders 5 Neuenburg Chardonnay Steinber<i

Analysis. (Pendant). 2 (Pinot). i 3

Per mille. Per mille. Per mille. Per mille.
30 May— 14 June 0.36 0.66 0.48 0.67

30/5/1 r 30/.SA1 14/6/1T .3/.S/11
8 August, 191 1 0.66 0.56 0.60 0.67

17 Octoiber, 1911 0.60 0.56 0.70 0.64

On the whole the volatile acidities here found are not high,
and on the 17th October they did not differ very materially. The
first two even show lower values than the last two.

\i 11)11 ■^ IF w 1 \i'. 40<)

(2) Wlifii the air had access thi<iu_^h ilie coUon-wodl phigs, the
Nolatile aciih'ty in tlie case of the same four yeasts was as

li >11( i\\ > :

Date of

Sider> 3

XetienbtiriLi-

Ch

ardonna

;\ Sieinberq^

.\nalysi>.

( FeiKhim 1

. 2 { Pinot ).

r

3

Per niille.

IVrmille.

Pe

r niille.

Permille.

-\?

May, nji 1

O.dl

0 . 64

0.47

0.36

4

Au^tlSt. M)l I

0.(J1

0 . 67

0.42

0.42

4

October. l(;l 1

1 . 2( )

0-93

0.41

0.31

Here we see

a totally different i)icturt

In the

ease of the

tirst two yeasts the volatile acidity increased strongly- from the
23rd May to the 4th October, whereas in the case of the last twt>
there was a sli_2;ht decrease. The alcoholic fermentation was
much more vigorous where air i^ot access than where it was ex-
cluded.

For every determination a dilTerent bottle was used, and in
every case the wine contained only 2 to 3 ^v. sugar per litre,
except in the case of Chardonnay 1 (with air excluded), where
the wine still contained 10 to 34 gr. sugar per litre.

The following are .some of the autlKjr's conclusions : —

( I ) After the fermentation l)y pure yeast with access to the
air on and in the lees a renewed growth of yeast takes
place.

(2 ) In such cases up to al)out i .8 per mille volatile acid (as
acetic acidj can lie formed in the course of 4 to 3
months in wine kept in small \ essels at the temperature
(j'f the room.

(3) A small amount of this volatile acid is formed duriaig the

fermentation, l)Ut the ])ulk of it is subse(|uently formed.

(4) As this formation of \olatile acid sul)se<|uent to the

fermentation ■synchronises witli the new growth of
yeast on the lees, t]ii-> latti'r must be regarded as causintr
the great increase in tlie \-olatik' acidit\- of the wine.

In 11J13 \'on der I leide and Scliwenk (14) published the re-
sults of their work on the \'olatile acidity formed l)y 3'east din'in^'-
the re fermentation of wine. They tested the effect of the num-
bers of yeast cells brougln into the wine, as well as that of the
alcohol and sugar i^resent in the wine at the time of inoculation.

Three series of experiments were conducted where, respec-
tively 0.672. 25.12. and 489,600 million yeast cells were intro-
duced into I litre of the experimental sterile li(|uid. Under
each yeast concentration there were four groui)s of three exjjeri-
ments. A ])ure wine was evaporated //; vacuo to one-tenth its
original \olume. wlien it was l)roug]u l)ack to its original volume
by adding water and pure alcohol . Tlie latter was added in four
different amount> to give four different li(|uids for the experi-
meiUs of groups i, 2, 3. 4, which liad to contain respectivelv
3. 4, 3 and () gr. alcohol ])er roo c.c. In the case of each group
three dilYerent amounts of sugar were added to test its influence,

41<^* AClDiTV OF WINli.

SO that there were 12 different experiments for each yeast con-
centration. After ten weeks the fermentations were over, and
the H(|uids above the lees were quite clear. Each of the 36
sami)les of lees, taken one from each of the T,h bottles when the
analyses were made, was perfectly ])ure and free from bacteria or
Mycodcrma vini. In every case the alcohol and volatile acid
were now determined. The original experimental licjuid con-
tained o. I per mille volatile acid. Below are given the results for
the three yeast concentrations in groups i and 4 {i.e., where 3 and
f) gr. alcohol ijer 100 c.s. li(|uid were present at beginniuii' of ex-
periments) and for sugar concentrations i, 2 and 3:

Tst Series. 2nd Series. 3r(l Series.

1st Group.
Alcoliol gr. per

100 CO 6.,u ''^.4'j 10.4a 6._'[ S.4_' 10.14 6.34 S._'8 lO.S*)

Volatile acid, gr.

per litre o.jj o.3(> 0.31 0.35 0.4J 0.54 0.3.' 0.43 0.56

4141 Group.
Alcohol, gr. per

100 c.c. ('-9^ 8.84 10. (X' (^-My '^■77 10. Sj (i-^c, 9-4- 10. (j()

V'^olatile acid, gr.

per litre 0.26 0.31 0.40 O.27 0.31 0.40 0.20 0.3,^ 0.44

From these data we conclude tiiat :

(1) Although the dift'erences are not great, it will still be
noticed that in all three series, on comparing the corresjxjuding
ti^ures of groups i and 4 in each vertical column, the volatile
acidity in group 4 is in e\ery case api)reciabl\' lower than in
group I. This means that more volatile acid was formed where
the initial alcoholic strength of the liquid was lowest.

(2) The increasing amounts of yeast cells introduced, when
Inoculating series i, 2, 3, had no influence on the volatile acid,
formed.

(3) As the sugar concentration in the original exijcrimental
liquid rose (columns i, 2, 3 above), so the alcohol and the
volatile acid in the fermented li(|uid rose. This is in keeping
with general exi)erience.

In actual cellar ])ractice conclusion (2) ;il)o\c does not hold
good. By adding more active yeast cells of a i)ure culture to^
a wine that got stuck, we get a wine with less volatile acid than^
when only a relatively small number of yeast cells is introduced.
Here we are not working under sterile conditions ; hence the
explanation is that the laruer number <)f yeast cells can keep
down the development of acetic and oilier I)acteria, and tints
hel]) to keep the volatile acid low.

New Experiments.

I. Pcnncntatioiis conducted zvilli Pure Cultures of />ifj'erei!f
Yeasts and Different Concentrations of Sugar in the Must.

A. Experiments with Must of 27.9^ /> a///"*///. —Sterilized
must of 22.5"^ j-ialling was eva|)orated on a waterbath till it had

5 6

I I

-'7

28 .32

9.74 8.40

8.4<^ 9

ACIDITY OF WINE. 4II

a strength of 27.9° Ballino-. In nine half-litre bottles 400 c.c.
of this must was placecl. closed with perforated corks and con-
centrated sulphuric acid air-seals, and then sterilized for an hour
in a steam jacket. This was done in all subsequent experiments.
The bottles were inoculated on 27th October. 1916, with two-
days'-old cultures of the followinu' yeasts: GFT i, JJM i. JJM
-• JJ^i r>< JJ^[ ^^' t^JJ I- (jreen i. Green 2, Green 3. The tem-
perature in the thermostat was kept at about 25° C. On the
20th November the fermentation was over in every case, and
rafter the 24th November the loss in weig-ht of the bottles was,
very slight. The bottles were now analyzed. The results are
embodied in

Table I.

r.FT JJM JJM JJ^r TJ^^ PJJ (incn.i.rcon.Grccn.

r I 2

Loss in weiglii in

gr ... 30 40 ,51 J2 27 2!< .3^ 33 31

Alcohol in wine, as

volume per cent. 9.15 -8. So ').,'>i2 9.74 8.40 8.48 9.78 9.32 to. 18
Volatile acid, as

gr. acetic acid

per litre 2.15 2.26 1.68 1.68 2.21 2.24 1.87 1.94 i-f/'

These fermentations were incomplete, so that the wine was
still sweet. The \-olatile acid was very high, there being- con-
siderable dilterences between the different yeasts. The initial
volatile acidity was very low, l)eing about 0.1 per mille.

B. Expei^intcnts zvith Must of 25.0° Balling. — Sterilized
must was slightly evaf^orated to a concentration of 25° Balling.
The ex])eriment was otherwise as before. The temperature of
the thermostat ran from 22-2<S° C, being most of the time near
25° C. The bottles were inoculated on 20th January, 1917.
with the same yeasts as alxjve, and in addition HeA.,, HaB.., PBg.
The experimental must used contained 0.14 ))er mille volatile
acid at the beginning of the exjjeriment. ' The ifermentations
were over by the 15th February, but, owing to there being njo»
gas, the analyses could not be made until two weeks later..
Meanwhile the 1x)ttles were kej)t corked. The following results
were obtained :

Tabic II.

GFT I JJM I JJM 2 JJM 5 JJ^r 6 PJJ i

Loss in weight in gr 39 42 44 45 3^ .>')

Alcohol, in wine, as volume

per cent _. . 14.01 14.20 15. lO 12.69 i5-07 T2.97

Volatile acid, as gr. acetic acid,

per litre 1.54 i..=^o 1.24 1.27 1.72 f.68

Green. Green. Green. HeA3 HaB3 PB 2

I 2 3

Loss in weight, in gr 4r :i6 41 43 ,]6 Ti6

.Alcohol, in wine, as volume

percent. ... ... 13.72 J2.69 13.53 13.91 12.32 12.05

V'olatile acid, as gr. acetic acid,

per litre 1.52 1.58 1.52 1.64 0.94 1.22

412 A^■Jl)lT^ OK wixi;.

The fermentations here were fairly complete. The volatile
acidity was much less (some 25 per cent.) than in Table 1. The
same yeasts which gave the lowest volatile acidities in Table I.
namely JJM 2, and JjM 5. were also the lowest in this experi-
ment.

C. H.vpcriiiiriits with Dc-siilphitcd Musi of 24.7' Balling. —
A must which for nearl\' a year had been kept from fermenting
by adding a lar<ie ([uantity of potassium meta-bisulphite was
heated on a water-bath to expel the sulphur dioxide. Whe-it
nearly all was driven oft" the must was brought to 24.7'' Ballii-.g
by adding water. The Ixittles were hlled, closed, and sterilized
as before. They were inoculated on December 18th, igiC). with
the same yeasts as in lA, with the addition of HaC^^. The tem-
perature was that of the room (20-26° C), and the fermenta-
tion was rather irregular. On the 16th January, J 917, the fer-
mentation was over, and the analytical determinations were
made. The original volatile acidit\- of the must used was 0.51
per mille. and the free and combined S( )^ were res])ecti\ely 13
and 127 mg. i)er litre.

Tabic HI.

GFT JjM Jl.\l JJ.\i .ij.M

I [256

Loss in neigiil. in i>r 21 21 26 32 20

Alcohol, in wine, as volnnu- ])cr

cent 71''^ 7-1''^ ■'^■.^1 ')-74 7-5"

Volatile acid, as ,ur. acetic acid.

per litre i .92 1 .93 1 .66 1 . 5(1 \ .98

PJj (ireeii. (irecn. (irc-en. II;A

I I -' .^ ?>

Loss in weight, in gr. 28 .36 ,^ 1 27 2X

Alcohol, in wine, as volume per

cent .S.N I 10.70 10.09 9-'.^ N.56

Volatile acid, as gr. acetic acid.

I)er litre i .97 1.71 1 .67 i .76 i .64

Again, in this case the same two yeasts. JJM 2 antl JJM 5.
as in Tables I and II, gave the lowest volatile acid, if we except
the new yeast IlaC... The relative positions occupied bv these
yeasts with regard to the volatile acid formed in all three ex])eri-
ments are very .similar, .so that they give the same general im-
pression. It was expected that the small amount of sulj^hurou.-
acid would exert a hindering eft'ect on the alcoholic fermentation,
and cause a relatively higher amount uf volatile acid to be
formed. The above results fully confirmed my exj^ectations.
The hindering factor in the fir.st exi:)eriment was the great con-
centration of sugar.

11. fcniuvitatioiis with one Pure Culture (HuB.,) and Different
Alusts at Different Temperatures.

Sterilized must was slightly diluted and concentratetl to
give three musts with respectively 20" B.. 23.3° B.. and 27° B.

ACii>!T\ (>|- wjm:. 413

Six I)(>ttles of each concentration were i)re])ared. Further
" moskonfijt " (tira[)e syrup) of 81.9^ B. was dihtted to 23.4° T*>,
and 12.6' B. res|)ectiN'ely. We shall indicate these five experi-
mental liqtiids in the order ahove given iby the letters P, Q, K.
S, '\\ .As each experiment was run in duplicate the two bottles
will ])e indicated by I'l and P2, etc. The orioinal volatile
acidities of P. Q. R. S, T were respecti^el^ o.jo i)er mille,
0.23 ])er mille. o. u) ])cv mille, 0.35 per mille. o. iS ])er mille.

A. Fcniioitatioiis al 23' C". — The bottles were tilled, closed,
antl sterilized as before. They were inoculated with an active
imre culture of HaB.. on April 23rd, 1917. The final weights
were taken on loth May, 1917. when the main fermentation was
over. The alcohol and volatile acid were then determined.

Tahic ir.

r I V 2 Q i Q 2 R I

Loss in wei.nlu. in s.;!" 35 .>4 .v ''•ot. 37

Iirokcn.

Alcohol, in vulunic. i)cr cent. ... 11..1-' 11.311 i2.^() ,. i2.,]2

A'olatik' acid, as gr. acetic acid.

per litre 0.71; o./u ii<^ .. 1.23

Total acid, as .yr. tartaric acid.

per litre (». 1 6.3 7.8 ., 8. t

R J .Si S _' 1" r T 2

T.oss in weight, in gr 3(1 ,?_■ ,^j i)S iS

.McohoJ. in volume, per cent. ... 12.60 ii.14 10. 71) '''•3- '^■47
\'oIatile acid, as gr. acetic acid.

per litre i.j; 1 00 o.ijS 0.36 0.38

i'otal acid, as ,gr. tartaric acid.

per litre 7.9 6.0 5.3 4.2 4.2;

B. fcniiciihilioiis at 30 C — ^The bottles were inoculated ou
3rd A])ril, i()i/, and the main fermentation was over on the I7ti!
-April, when the analyses were made.

Table r.
Pi V2 Qt O2 Ri R2

lx)ss in weight in or. 3.S 38 ^^y 38 36 35

.Vlcohol in volume

percent n.(»S ii.50 12.05 i^-77 'T.30 11.86

\V>latile acid as gr.

acetic acid per

litre 0.70 0.71 0.91 0.93 1. 19 1.20

Total acid as gr.

tartaric acid

per litre .... 5.3 3.5 ^).4 ().3 6.5 6.5"

C. Fermentations at 35"('. — The bottles were inoculated on
]9th March. 1917, and on 3rd April, 1917, the main fermentation
was over, when the anahses were made.

414 ACIDITY OF \VIXI>.

Tabic I

7.

Pi

P2

(J I

y-'

\< 1

k _>

Loss in weight in gr.

33

3-'

33

30

3^

31

Alcoliol in Aulunie

per cent. .

• ■ •

I coy

lO.OlJ

10.35

fo.35

9-57

9-57

Volatile acid as

gr.

acetic acid

per

litre . . . .

0.74

0.73

o.<j.S

0.95

1.18

1. 18

Total acid as

gr.

tartaric

acid

])er litre . .

. .

5-3

.1.5

(\.2

^^•4

7-.S

7-2

D. fermentations ai 40 C. — The bottles were inoculated <»n
13th June, 1917, and the fermentation, which was slow and
feeble, was over on 23rd June. 1917, when the analyses were
made. Only one bottle was taken for each concentration of
the must, and the loss in weight of the bottles was not recorded.

Table I'll.

P Q R

Alcohol in volume per cent 3.33 5.55 4.88

Volatile acid as gr. acetic acid per litre . . 0.70 0.84 0.90
Total acid as gr. tartaric acid per litre . . 3.4 ^>.4 7-2

'J^ie wines were still very sweet when analyzed.

III. Experiment io determine at which Stage of the J'crmenfa-
thn the P''olatile Acid is Formed.

A bottle containing 400 c.c. of must at 22.5'' ©ailing wa>
inoculated with a pure culture of HaB.. and kept in the thermo-
stat at 40° C. The (fermentation was feeble. The volatile acidity
three days after the fermentation conmienced was 0.94 per cent.,
the next day it was still 0.94 per cent., and 10 days after the fer-
mentation had commenced it was o.(/) j^er cent. This shows that
the bulk of the vola'tile acid formed by the yeast was formed
during the early and stormy v)art of the fermentation.

Discussion of Results.

In order to be able better to compare the amounts of vola-
tile acid formed in the different experiments, I shall now re-
group the results in one table, giving the actual amounts of
volatile acid formed, as well as the amount of volatile acid
formed per 100 volume per cent, alcohol formed at the same time.
In the case of the duplicates in Tables I\' to \'I the mean
values are given.

Ai iMIT\ (ir WIN I

41;

Veast.

Table 1 :

(^FT I
JJM 1
JJM 2
JJM 5
JJM 6
PJJ I
Green i
Green 2
Green 3

Table II :

GFT

JJM

JJM

JJM

JJM

PJJ

Green 1
Green 2
Green ^
HeA, ■
HaB..
PB, . .

ra1)le 111 :

GFT I
JJM 1
JJM 2
JJM
JJM
PJJ I
Green i
Green 2
(jreen 3
HaC.

5
6

Table IV

P ..

Q ••
R ..

S ..
T ..

Tabic

111.

Volatile Acid
Formed, per

Alcohol

Volatile

100 Volume

Formed

Acid

\i&r Cent.

in Volunu'.

Formed.

Alcohol

l)cr Cent.

])er Millc.

Formed.

y-i5

2.05

22.40

8.89

2.16

24.30

9-32

1.58

16.95

9-74

1..S8

16.22

8.40

2. II

25.12

8.48

2.14

25.24

978

1-77

18.11

9-32

1.84

19.74

10.18

1.86

18.27

T4.01

1.40

9.99

14.20

1-36

9-.S9

15.16

l.IO

7.26

12.69

I -13

8.90

I.S-07

1..S8

10.49

12.97

1-54

1 1. 10

^?>-7^

1.38

10.06

12.69

1.44

11-34

1 3 •.S3

1.38

10.20

r3-9i

1.50

10.78

12.32

0.89

7.22

1 2.05

T.08

8.96

7.18

r.41

19.64

7.18

1.44

20.01

8.31

i-i.S

13.84

9-74

1.68

11.09

7-50

1.47

19.60

8.81

1.46

16.57

10.70

1.20

11.22

10.09

1. 16

11.50

9-i.S

t-25

13.66

8.56

I-T3

13.20

11.41

0-59

.S.I7

12.59

0.95

7-.S5

12.51

1.05

8.39

ro.97

0.64

.S-9I

6.40

0.69

2.97

4l^> ACIDITN i>V WINlv.

\'olatiIe Acid
Formed, per
Alcohol Volatile roo Volume

Formed Acid per Cent,

in \^:)lume. Formed, Alcohol

Veast. per Cent. ])er Mille. Formed.

Table V:

1' 11-59 o-sr 4.36

Q 11.91 0.69 5.79

R 11.68 i.oi 8.61

Table VI:

P 10.09 O-.S-^J .S-30

Q 10.35 0.72 6.96

R 9-57 0.99 10.35

Table VII: '

J" .S-3o 0.50 9.38

Q ^-55 0.61 10.99

R 4.8S 0.71 14.55

On comparing tiiej^e results, it will lie seen, considering
Tables I. to III. as a group, that the highest amounts of volatile
acid were ifound in Table 1. where the sugar concentration was
highest. This is in complete agreement with the results above
quoted from R. \'on der Heide's experiments on the same subject.
Further, we notice that in Table II. the highest amounts of alcohol
were formed, whereas in Table III., where a must of practically
the same sugar concentration was used, very much less alcohol
was formed owing to the ])rcsence of some sulphur dioxide,
which, under the conditions of the exi)eriment. prevented the
fermentations from going very far. The amotmts of volatile
acid here formed do not differ nmch, on the whole, from those
given in Table II., l)Ut owing to the nmch smaller amounts of
alcohol formed in the former case, the amounts of volatile acid
formed in conijiarison with the corresi)on<ling amotmts of alcohol
formed are nmch bigger than those given in Taljlc 1 1. Thus the
liindering effect oif the sul])hur dio.xide on the alcoliolic fermenta-
tion, and the conseqtient increase in the amount of \olatile acid
formed, is clearly shown on comi)aring the last vertical column
of Tables II. and III. This, again, is in ])erfect agreement with
Duclaux's assertion, (|Uoted earh- in lhi^ ])aper. that when yeast
grows and lives under adverse circumstances it forms more vola-
tile acid than would be the case under more favourable condi-
tions.

Coming to Tables IV. to \'ll., we do not fmd \ery high
\olatile acidities, as the 3'east used in these ex])eriments, namely
HaB... is not one that tends to form nuich volatile acid. In
Table II., where it was compared with 11 other yeasts, it formed
the smallest amount of volatile acid, even in comparison with the
alcohol formed. Still, on comparing tlie results enumerated in

ACIDITY OF WIXE. 4J7

Tables 1\ . to \'II., wc notice how in every case the volatile ucid
formed rises with the sii<>ar concentration of the must. This
still holds jyood when we consider the amounts of volatile acid
formed in comparison wiih ihe corresponding- amounts of alcohol
formed in each case. ll wc now consider tlie influence of lem-
]>erature. we find that, whil^i iliere is on the whole not nuich dif-
ference between the results obtained at 25 dej^. and 30 deg'. C.
respectixely. there is a decided drop in the amounts cA alcohol
formed at 35 de^. i... whilst the volatile, acid formed still remained
about the same as before. .\i 40 deg. C. the fermentation was in
every case very feeble, so ihat oidy about half as nuich alcohol
was formed as at 35 deg. C wliilst the \olatile acid formed,
thougb less than at 35 deg'. C. lias not diminished to any lar^e
extent. -The obvious result i> thai the largest amounts of \-olatile
acid in ci>mparison with the alcoln)! were formed at 40 deg. C.
Ih'iuc a high tcmf^crattirr (hcyoiui 35 (leg. C.) during llic fcr-
mcniatiou causes the yeasi to fomi very cousiderahle uniouiits of
:'olatile acid in cojnfarisoii xc///; the aleoliol formed at the same
time. .\s was found in exiterimeni 111., the bulk of the \olatile
acid formed by yeast is formed in the early ( >tormy ) part of the
fermentati<^n. This a.yree^ wiih llie tindinos of Reisch (Uioied
al)()ve. The " moskonfijt " doc- not seem to ha\-e an\' >|)ecial in-
fluence in exi»eriment 11. A., where it was used.

S0MI-: I'rAC rU'AI. C'oNSIL)KR.\riONS.

Apart from the scienlihc inieresi attached to the sultjcci of
the \<>latile acidity of wine, it i> also of great practical imi)onance
and \a!ue to those engaged in ihe making, mani])ulation, and sale
of wine. One question th;u could be i)Ui from this i)ractical
l)oint of view is leh.ether tlie amount of volatile acid found in a
:^'iiie bx chemical analysis is any criterion as to its state of sound-
ness. In this countrv certain rule-- have been laid down b\ the
Western l'ro\ince .\gricidiura] Society as to the maxinuuu
amounts oi volatile acid that are allowed in show wines. h'ur-
ther. most wine merchants oi the Western Province regard wines
with hig'her volatile aciditie> than these as (jnlv fit for distillation,
or at any rate as im>otnid, and will onl\- bu\- them at the price
l)aid for distilling wine. 'Ihe facts that have ])een ])rought to
light in this paper show clcarl\- that the vi^latile acidit\ of a wine
may be due to various causes. In an\- case, under certain cir
cumstauce^, a fermentation with i)urc wine yeast can i)roduce a
iiigh volatile acidit\- in a wine without any action t)f acetic or
other bacteria coming into i)la} at all. Now, if the volatile
acidity is mainly due to yeast and not to ])acteria. it will not in-
crease to any dangerous extent as the w ine mature-, and need not
be taken as such a dangerous indication as to the wine's -oundne^s.
If, however, it is due mainly to the action of acetic or other harm-
ful bacteria, it should certainly be taken as a wannng with regard
to the future treatment of >uch a wine. We therefore need
more than a mere chemical determination of the \olatile acidity
of ;i wine in order to lie able to sa\- dctinitelx in e\'er\- case

4i8 Ac'iDii \ Mj- wiNi:.

whether the wine is sound or unsound. A bacteriological exam-
ination and tasting by a connoisseur should be added to the chemi-
cal determination of the volatile acidity of a wine.

With regard to the \alue of fastiiuj, Mathieu (11) points out
that the volatile acids influence both the bouquet and the ta'^te of
a wine. He says further :

A connoisseur can soon icll \vlutlRr a (lisoasocl wine suffers Ironi
an acetic fermentation, or " tourne " ( act-tic and propionic acid), or rancid-
ness (butyric acid). If the wine contains carlxm dioxide, the volatile acid
will seem more on tasting' that it is in realit\. Tliis is very noticeal)le
before and after imprei-natint; a wine wiih carl)on dioxide. On tastinii,
the impression obtained about the volatile acid dep>nd>- ri))on —

( 1 ) The amount of volatile acid present ;

(2) The nature of the volatile acids;

(3) Certain other constituents of the wine, of whicli alcohol and

saccharine substances tend to (Hminisli or cover it, whilst
the fixed acids and carbonic acid tend to cxa,a:gcrate it.

Hence tasting alone is not sufficient. Chemical analysis alone Avill not
do ciilier. lloth coinl)incd must he used. Tasting will show: ia) Whether
the wine is perfectly sound: (/') whetlier its soundness is douhtful ;
(r) whetlier it lias decidedly gone wrong, .\nalysis will discover ;iny
deception under (a), decide (h), or conlirm (<). if a comparison is made
between the wine in question with sound wines of the same nature. // is
not possible to hiy doicii definite limits far llic roIcitHc acidity as a means
of dcterniiniir^ the soundness of all %i.'ines. (The italics are mine. —
A. ]. P.) In douhtful cases a comparison should he nvide with sound
wines of the same class.

Wortmann (8) also points out how alcohol and stigar cover
the volatile acidity on tasting, hut differs from Mathieu, where he
ascribes a covering efifect to a high total acidity of a wine, whilst
the latter maintains that it tends to magni fy the impression gained
alxHU the volatile acidity of the wine on tasting. Worttiiann
points out how easily a fairly low volatile acidity is noticeable on
tasting a thin and light wine. i ie therefore recommends that.
in douhtful cases, the wine be somewhat diltited with water so
as to be able to detect the volatile acids more easily.

We shall now briefly consider what limits of volatile acidity
in -ii'iiies have been proposed by different people to classify wines
as sound or unsound according to this criterion. Mathieti (11)
states that, in wines with a normal taste, the volatile acidity varies
from 0.21 to 1 .22 per mille, according to districts, years and age.
Possetto (3) quotes 2 to 2.5 per cent, as general limits for the
volatile acidity of wine. l^ottger (lOj states the following:
"The free 'Vereinigung bayrischer Vertreter der angew^andten
Chemie ' in 1897 adopted the following standards for the volatile
acidity of wines, on the pro]x>sal of W. Moslinger:

((/) As normal are to be considered a volatile acidity of 0.9
per mille for (jerman white wines and 1.2 per mille for
German red wines.

ih) As no more normal, but not yet to be condemned, are
German white wines with a volatile acidity between o.O
per mille. and i .2 per mille., and German red wines with
a volatile acidity betweeti i .2 and i .6 per mille.

.\CTDITV ol' WINE. 41 «)

ic) German whilr and red wines witli more tlian 1 . j \)Cy
niille. and 1.6 per mille. volatile acidity re.s])ectively
should not be sold for consumjition. even if tasting' dis-
closes nothing abnormal.

( d) A wine is to be condemned as unlit for consumption
if its volatile acidity exceeds 1.2 mille and 1.6 per
mille. in the case of white and red wines respectively,
and if tastinq con'ohoratcs fJiis (the italics are mine. —
A. I. P.).

{e) German ' Edelweine ' (liqueur wines i and wines which
have matured for over 10 years in wood are exempted
from (a), {b), (c) above. Their volatile acidity must
be specially judged in each case."

He ftirther states that the United States' " Standards of
Purity for Food Products " ])ut 1 .2 per mille and j .4 ])er milk
as the maxima of volatile acid for white and red wine respec-
tively. Wortmann (8) considers that white wines with o.Q per
tnille to 1.2 per mille volatile acid and red wines with 1.2 |xt
mille to 1.6 per mille volatile acid should be regarded as diseased.
He further states that according to the (lerman " Xahrungsmii-
telgesetz "' ( F<3ods Act) white wines with over 1 .2 per mille vola-
tile acid and red wines with over 1.6 per mille volatile acid are
regarded as diseased, and not fit for consumption if the tasting
also proves them conclusively and without a dottbt to be diseased
(** verdorben "). This means that in the case of liqueur wine-
the limits allowed will be somewhat higher than aboAe stated, a-
the sugar will largely cover the volatile acids.

From the aljove it will be clear that, in laying down limit-
for volatile acidity in sound wines, differences should be made
l>etween white and reil. dry and sweet, light and strong, young
and old wines ; the higher limit being fixed always in the second
case. But in addition to this the decision, in cases of any doul)i,
■should always be confirmed by tasting.

For South Africa I would, from personal local experience,
favour some such limits as were proposed by Moslinger in 1897
as f|Uoted above ifrotu Rottger.

In conclusion. I would just mention that the volatile acids in
sound wines are. according to Babo and Mach (12), mainly acetic
acid together with smaller quantities of butyric, capronic, car-
prylic. ]>elargonic, lactic, and formic (usually minute quantities
onlyj acids. In the case of diseased wines also i)ro]:)ionic and
valeric acids occur amongst the volatile acids.

BrULIOGRAPHY.

(1) Pasteur, " Memoir e sur la fermentation alcoolique.'"
Annales dc Clihitic cf de Physique, 58 (1859).

(2) Bechamp. " Sur I' acide acetique dans la fermentatioji
alcoolique. "Co/n/'/ri- rcndns, 56, 1/39. T086, I2y ; et tome 57. 96

(1863).

(3) Possetto, " La Chimica del \ mo." (1897), Tonno 202.

4^0 .\CIDITV OF WIXE.

(4j Duclaux. " Traite de Micruhii •logic." 3. 413-417 ( lyoo)

(5) E. Biichner u J. Meisenheimer. Bcr. Dciitsch. Chem.
<iescllsi-liaft, 37 (1904), 417; 38, 620.

(6) Reisch, " Zur Entstehung von E,s*sigsaure 1)ei der alko-
holi.schen (iarung-," ZcntraWlatt f. Baki. ( 1905 ). 14, 572.

(7) K. Windisch. " Die Cliemischen \"or^-ange l)eini Werden
lies Weines " (1905). 57-62.

(8) Wortmann, " Die Wissenschaftlichen ( irundlagen der
W'einbereitung und der Kellerwirtschaft " ( 1905 ). 25(>.

(9) R. von der Heide, " Ueber die Bildung abnornier
Alengen Fliichtiiier Saure (lurch die Hefe in zuckkerreichen \er-
gorenen Mosten," Jahresbericht der Eeliranstalt (ieisenbeini a.
Rb. ( 1907). 254.

(10) Rottger, " Nahrungsmittelcbemie." 3e AuH. M907),
662.

(11) L. Matbieu, " L'Acidite volatile et les (lualites
marcbandes des vins." Coiiiples Reiidiis, 3e Rartie. ( )e!iologie. pp.
169-172 of tbe Deuxieme Congres international de Sucrerie et
des Industries de Fermentation, beld at Paris, 6-iotb April.
J(>o8.

(12) i5al)0 u. Alacb, " Handliucb (le> Wi^nibauc^ und der
Kellerwirtschaft," 4e Auti. 2 (19TO). 66.

(13) A. Osterwalder. "Ueber die Bildung fliichtiger Saure
durcb die Hefe nach der Garung bei Luftzutritt." Centralblatt f.
I'.akt. (1912), 32. 481-498.

( 14) C. von der Heide u. K. Scliwcnk. " Leber die Bildung
\i)n fliichtigen Sauren durcli Hefe bei der I'nigarung von
W'einen," Landw. Jahrbucher 45 (]()I3). 117-120.

{Read, July 5. 1917.)

Sulphate of Ammonia. — 'rbe South Apican Journal
oj Industries states that (^ver 250 tons of sulphate of ammonia a-re
now being manufactured niontlily at X'ryheid, Natal, and tbe out-
]»ut will i)robal)ly increase to 350 tons by the end of 1918.
Anthracitic coal is being used, and so there are no tar products of
any. importance. Tbe coal is treated in Mond Producers, and is
rjitirely gasified. The ammonia is washed out of the gas. which,
with the exception of a portion used for boiler firing, is blown to
waste. Sulphuric acid is also being manufactured from pyrites
"btained from the Rand, but tbe full capacity of the ])lant — 400
ions Dcr niontli — ha> not ^•ct I)een reached.

STEN()(.k.\IMn AS AN AID T(J THE PHONETIC
ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON OF AFRICAN
LAN(iCA(ii-:S.

Hy \\v\ . W'l 1,1.1 AM Ai.KKKi) Norton, B.A., IM-iti.
( IJ'ifh fii'o text fi(/iirrs.}

Often in hearing oases of discipline 1 ha\e felt the need of
a system ojf shorthand. .\t last 1 evolved, on much the same
princi]3les as those of Pitman and others ( th<.)u_<;fh none of these
are a])j)licable completely to the languages we are considering), a
system which should suit the Bantu languages. The result was
rather interesting to my natives. In otu" Clnn-ch Coiuicils thev
might he inclined at tirst to complain, seeing me scril)l)le when
1 should he attending to their remarks, but when they chal-
lenged my version of these. I could read out the \ ery words the\
Iiad said, and coinince them that I was doing them onl\- too much
justice.

It was in the ( iale llill>. o])posite .\mani ( "' Peace"), the
lovely Botanical Station the Cermans had founded, and which
stands not far from the Panga line, some 30 or 40 miles tip. and
some 17 miles from ()ur English mission statinn. This latter
had been there before the (Germans' arrixal, but had been left,
with our usual insular l)lindness the wrong side uf the Ixumdary.*
The \'ista of broken i)reciijice and i)almy forest stretched
away to the sea, and framed the Island of Pemba. standing
leagues off in the Indian ( )cean. 1 sat actually shivering, one
winter's day." 4 cleg, south of the e(|uator. and took down
evidence given l)efore one of mv colleagues in Bondei, a dialed
I did not know, in this same shorthand. I was surprised to i\n(\
that ni}- friend was al)le to recall the evidence, when I spelt out
my phonetic signs in ordinary letters. With this introduction
the system adopted presumes t(j make its humble salaams. It
it should be of any use to missionaries, soldiers, doctors, traders
and others, who have to do with native tribes, it will give me
nuich jdeasure.

F'R-. I gives the alphabet, arranged phonetically. The
small circle is S as usual, but, c<^mpressed to a slojjing oval, is
the HI of Suto-Zulu-Xosa, the Welsh LI, written i)y Aleinhof.
in .some of his books, as a modified S. Thickened, it will be
tbe kaffir Dl.

The sU>pe marked * is left free f(jr Swahili Tli
and its flat (thickened). In the Southern langua.ues. which have
not this (doubtfully Bantu) sound, it is free for the Q palatal
click.

* When shall we learn to .study native conditions ? The Germans havo
done so with great effect. \\'itness the u.sc they made of their natives in
!he East African canipaijiii.

422

STKNijGRAPHV AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES.

The converse of F, sometimes used in Pitman for R, is
used in my system for the C. or dental click in Zulu-Kaffir;
while the other R is used by me for the X, or lateral click, in the
>ame dialects, but remains R in Suto, etc.

Combined letters are made half size. Cf. the small tick for
Tl, composed of half T and half L, and the nasalized sounds nT
and mP.

ni, . X

ra.)^v^l

X^ENfTAL

j.^ 1 V-. =.. ij. (X c ^ _y

1/VTjLML ^ -V^

Doubled letters are twice as large, except in the case of N
and M, which are thickened,, leaving the doubling to represent
two N's or two M's separated l)y a vowel.

Tlikkening usually voices a letter, as in Pitman, but this
does not apply to the already voiced nasals.

The (ispirate may usually be omitted in combination with
sharps, as it is in the common siK'lling of Swahili and 7ai1u-

STENOGKAPllV AND AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 423

Katir; nor are the Kaffir sliarps distinguished from the Suto,
as strictly they should be (as also the two kinds o!f B).

Cerebral letters are not distinguished from the dental, l)Ut
D is used for the cerebral L in Suto. which is now usually pro-
nounced D.

It is obvious that a practical shorthand method for hurried
use must dispense with the finer distinctions required in a com-
plete phonetic alphabet. The most that can be ref|uired from
it is that it shall be along |)honetic lines. That my system is
so is clear from the figures. That it is workable 1 have found
101 practice.

There is little to be added. Though . is lu/ in sing, yet when
followed by k or g, it takes the ordinary half-;/ hook, as given:
otherwise it would hardly be visible. It is the same in English,
as well as Bantu, longhand ; we write ink, not iiigk. This nasal .
is attached to the conscyuants of the adjacent syllables, and is
thus distinguished from .(A), which always stands alone. The
z'oivets, imless initial, are usually omitted, as in Pitman and
Arabic, etc. ; but dipthongs should be inserted.

When adjacent consonants cross, a syllabic H is understcx)d
between them (as fclielo, against fala in Suto). The small
cross for H is thickened for stronger 'fricative gutturals like the
Dutch g = Xosa r Zulu h/i.

Fig. 2 gives examples, illustrating graphically the philo-
logical closeness of remote Bantu dialects. I add the Dutch, as
well as the English, in some cases, to show how much closer are
remote Bantu than 'neiglvlxmr Low-Dutch languages. The
Bantu illustrations run thus: —

I

4

Swahili

8

2

5

Xosa

9 ( Zulu )

3

6

Suto

/

U nao khuku ngapi ?
U nenkuku ezingapi na?
U na le khoho tse kae na?
You have fowls, how many?
(Hoe veel hoenders bet jij?)

4. Nipe mimi, usiwape wale.

5. Ndipe mna, ungabapi aba.

6. Mpe una, usebafe bale.

Give to me, don't give to them.
(Geef ver me, geef nie ver hullie nie.)

7. Ke tla ba ruta.

8. Ni ta wa fundisha.

9. Ngi zo ba fundisa.
I will them teach.

424 sTK.XdCK Ai'in \\i) \Mv'!i w i.A \ ( ;r .\i ,i:s.

7 (Siuo) illustrates the rrccnli-ioity of the C' in>. mams of
IIh- central dialects of South Africa. S ami g the constancy of
the coastal dialects. Suto has R for Z-X. F, and T for nD.

1 beii" ^"' acknowledge, a-- u>ua!. the hel]) of Meinhof. and
also the standard works in Kaftir. a^ those of .Mr. .\Kd.aren.
Also, in this case, of the great <\steni of I'itman.

rRA.\S.\C TIO.VS tM' SOCII'-'III'IS.

St)UTii Ai'KU \N 1 N'STin Ti().\ III' K xt,i m:i:k>. — Satunlax. <)ct(.l)or 13th:
(i. M. Clark. M.A.. .\.:\1.I.C.I£.. Presi(knt, in the clinir.— •• The fdctor of
safety of 'ivirc ropes used for wiiidin;^ in mine shnfis " : J. .A. Yaughan.
Tlie sni)ject wa.s mathematically iiivesii,natc<l l>y xhv aid nf graphic
(lia.urarns, and sinipk' funmil;',- ni" -;il\t\ soiiglil.

.Saturda}. December 8th: (i. M. Ciark. .M..\.. .\.A[. J.C.I'... I'nsideiu.
in ilie chair. — " Deseriplioii of Uie ivorks of White's Soiitli .Ifriena
Cement Conif^aiiy " : J I. Campbell. The works are situated at Venters-
hurg Road. Orange Free Stale. The description included the power plant,
laboratory, repair shop, limestone quarry, aeiial ropeway, wet mill, mixer,
kiln plant, coal plant, cement mill, and silos. The consumption of water
on the works is approximateh 65.(100 gallons per 2\ hours. ol)tained from
lin' conii)any's concrete dam at Rict.spruit.

.Saturday. January- 12th, G. M. (/lark. M.A.. M.l.C.i''., I'resident, in
the chair. — "A liquid sheedoiiieter " . W. Alexander. The type of
.speedometer described was found to ftvercmu- tlie objections usually
attaching to those i:)f the revolving nuiss type. The instrument ctwsists
of an imjieller. a casing, an accurate means of measuring liipiid pressure
nr hc'.'id. and .-i li(|ni(l reserv(>ir.

( ;eoi.o(;u .\i. .SuciEiv (IK Sori 'I .\kkic.\. — Tuesday. December iiStii :
J. J. Ciarrard. Vice-President, in ilie chair. — " Xote on n remarkable
oeeii'-renee of ehroniiitni toiinnaline and rutile in ilie Barberton District '' :
A. L. Hall. A \ery peculiar association of green chroniium tourmaline,
witli i)ink rutile occurs in the neighliourhood of X'oordkaap. nine miles
north of Harlierton : apparently a rock of this mmsnal comliination has
not previously been recorded. Tlu' antlior procei-ded tn dc^cribt- in detail
the occurrence recorded by him.

ChK.MIi \I., MlT-M.l.rUCK AI.. A.\|i .VilNIN(i SoCll-m- OK SoCT)! A)-UICA. — •

Saturday. March 16th: (1. Ilildick Smith, President, in the chair. — " 77/c
estimation of injurious dust in mine air hy the A'o/rt- Konimcter" : J.
Innes. I he ki>ni'.n(_ter is a simple uiechanical arrangement for causing
a known (pianlity of air to impinge at a high velocity through a line nozzle
on to the surface of a glass slide thinly coated with vaseline. The spot
so formed is pregerved by means of a cover-glass, and the muubcr (^f
particles coimted under a n)icroscope by means of a specially ruled glass.

S.A. Assn. for AdV. OF Science.

1917. Pl 12.

Female.

lierniaphrudilt

Male.

F. W. Petty.— Hermaphroditism in metruastha pithyojnyha.

HERMAI^HRODITISM IX METANASTRIA
PITHYOCAMPA CRAM.

Hv Franklin William I^-.tti-.n'. i>..\.

{Plate 12.)

Younjj; le|)i(lo])ter()US larvcC were found in a cluster feeding'
on the leaves of an oak-tree at Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, Cape
Province, in .\])ril, KjiT).

The transformation into the ccx'oon staj^e did not occur
until the 1st of December. Six moths emeri^ed several weeks
later. ( )n spreadini"- the wings of the moths for museum speci-
mens, the writer noticed that in one specimen the right w'ing's
were larger than the left. Closer examination revealed the
fact that it was a case of longitudinal herma])hroditism. the
smaller wings (left side) Ijeing characteristic f(»r the male, and
i.lu' larger (right side) ifor the female. The left antenna was
characteristic f(jr the male, and the right one for the female,
l^ven the alxlomen was divided sexually into riu'ht and left
halves, as exidenced l)y the greater i>ul)escence and the darker
colour characteristic of the male.

A male moth was found attached caudally to the herma-
i:)hro(litic insect apparently in the act oi copulation.

Fols(jm states tliat " the phenomenon of hermaphroditisni
(Occurs only as an extremely rare abnormality amo'ng insects.
Speyer estimated that in Fepidoj^tera only one individual in
,^o,ooo is ]iermai)hroditic. Bertkau (i88(;) listed 335 herma-
Ijhroditic arthropods, of which <S were crustaceans, 2 spiders. 2
Orthoptera, <S iJiptera, i) Coleoptcra. 51 I lymcnoptera, and 255
[.e])ido]jtera. The large ])roportion of Lepidoptera is due in
great measure to the fact that they are collected oftener than
other insects (excepting possibly Coleoptera ) . and that sexual
dimorphism is so ])revalent in the order that hermaphrodites are
easily recognized. The most common kind of hermaphroditism
is that in which one side is male and the other female. . . . In
other instances the antero-posterior kind may occur, as when
the fore-wdngs are of one sex, and the hind-wings of the other ;
rareh^ the characters of the two sexes are intermingled.
Hemaphn^ditic insects are such rarities that very few of them
have been sacrificed to the dissecting needle in order to deter-
mine whether the phenomenon involves the primary organ as
well as the secondary sexual characters. When dissections have
been made it has been found usually that hermaphroditism diies
extend to the reproductive organs themselves. Thus a butterfly,
with male wings on the right side and female wings on the left,
would have a testis on the ri^iht side of the abdomen and an
ovar}' on the left side."

(Read, July 6, 19 17.)

A

RI-:SfMk.\T()RY Riari'M ()l< the NYMIMI ()\'
Mli S ( ) (; 0 M Pin S ( ( ) D( ) N .\ T A ) .

By Stki'iii:i\ (Iottjikil Rrcii. ALA.

iJJ'ltli r if/lit text fif/itrcs.)

AIcso(/o)iif'liiis, represented l)y two s])ecies and a lar^e niim-
her of indi\iduals, is a familiar draji^onfly of South Afriea. The
aduh is a medium-sized orreen and black dragonfly, with clear
\vin,2^s. It is not to be confused with Hcmianax and Acshna,
the larger qrecn draq'onflies that are rarely seen to alisi'ht.
Mcso(jouipliits, like all CicmiphiiKe which I have observed, is \erv
much t^iven to the hal)it of resting on warm rocks in the sun.
The males are at once recognizable from all other dragonflies l)v
the enlarged terminal i)ortion of the slim abdomen.

The nymph of this genus is, .so far as I can tell, unde-
scribed. My specimens are taken from a part of the Amanzim-
toti river in Natal, in which the only adult Gomphinje found are
the twii sj)ecies (vf M csof/oinf^hus. The nym]')h runs out accord-

J-it-. I.
(Lal)ium extt-iuk-d. )
A. Antcun.'V'
L. Labium.

J.ai)ii:i'

uig to the key>
.\ortli American
Oph'iOijoinf^luis.

f

or

of Xeedham, 1901. and Rous-eau, k^ck;,
and luiropean species in thi-> >ub-familv to
This genu>. ho\ve\er. is not known in tin-
h'thiojiian region. ])Ut is in adult characters the closest i<i Mcso-
(/cxuphus. 1 have therefore no hesitation in identif\'ing thi>
nvmph without waiting for bred s])ecimens to mature.

Like all (]omi)hina\ this flat nym])h is a burrower in sandy
or muddy bottoms. It there lies in wait for ]M'ey, only its anal
breathing \alve and the tips oif the eves and antenucC in view.
It catches its prey, like all Odonate nvmf)hs. by shooting; out the
long, jointed, arm-like labitnn.

In 1914 and 1913 the i)resent writer studied the res[)iratory
organs of 21 genera of Odonata re])resented in North iVmerica,
including the genera LaiitJius, Couifihus. and Ophiof/oiiiphiis.
closely allied to Mcsogoiiipliiis. In a ])reviotis i)aper* J have
published a brief summary of my results so far as they apply to
our South African genera of Odonata. In that article I added to

* Rc'pt. .S.A. .\ssoc. for Adv. of ScioHoe. Maritzhurg (1916L 600-60J.

RESPIRATION OF MnSOGOMPHUS-

427

my North American work studies of several Somh African
( )donata. I there discussed a Gomjjhine nymph, which I took to
])e Mcsogoiuphiis. Later work has shown me that this identifica-
lion was not correct, and that the nymph in question was most
prohably Podogompluis. Having, liowever. material which is
almost surely Mesogomphus, I studied it, and have embodied the
results in this paper.

The nymphs of all the Anisoptera, or dragonflies proj^er,
breathe by a means of a highly specialized respiratorv rectum.
The rectum is provided with tracheal gills, from which the
oxygen dissolved in the water passes by diffusion into the
tracheae of the insect. The gills are curious in that they are not
l)lood-gills as in most aquatic animals, but i)urely tracheal gills.
The exchange is not of dissolved gases between water and blood,

Fig. 2. — Dorsal View.

but uf oxyiicn inwards and carbon dioxide outwards. l)etween
tlie water and the air in the tracheae.

Figure i shows the nymph in question.

h'igure 2 shows the appearance of the caudal part of the
abdomen with the dorsal wall removed. The large tracheal
trunks. DD, correspond to the dorsal tracheae of most insects,
but are much enlarged. As in many nymphs of Odonata, the
fat-body is in the specimens which I studied, closely adherent to
the tracheal trunks. From these trunks there pass to the rectum
the many small branches, BBB. These divide and re-divide as
the\' ])ass to the rectum. The dorsal trunks loop back into a
similar pair of ventral trunks, likewise an enlarged form of the
usual trachere otf the insect body. At the point where they loop

4-'

'S

RESPIRATION OF MESOGOMFH[-S-

hack, the lateral tracheae, likewise a normal structure and here
in no wise enlarged, join the dorsals. VV are the ventral trunks,
and LI the laterals.

At this point there is g-iven off a special trach;e, the jxistdor-
sal, on each side. This passes back to the caudahnost part of the
digestive tract raid to the caudal appendages. The postdorsals
are shown as PD in Figure 2.

The distribution of trachese is similar as regards the
branches from the ventral trunks. There is a ]>()stventral also
on each side, passing to the caudal end of the rectum. See,
figure 3.

The enlarged hollow organ, R, is the rectum or gill chamber.
It lies in the seventh to ninth somites of the abdomen. The la^t
abdominal somite is occupied hy a plain canal, the anal canal,
AC, which is not respirat(jry.

V 'I V

Fig. 3. — Ventral View.

It must be noted that the dorsal trunks are larger ilian the
ventrals, and have many more branches. In both trunks there
arise branaches on both sides of the trunk. The larger size and
greater branching of the dorsal trunks is explained b\' the fact
that branches from them pass io two-thirds of the area of the
rectum, while only the ventral third is connected t" tlie ventral
trunks.

Figure 4, a cross-section of the rectum and trunks, shoA\ •-
this distribution plainly.

The outside of the rectum has upon it six dark longitudinal
lines, along which the tracheal branches enter it. These lines
are the bases of the gill-folds within the rectum, and their neck-
lace-like character is caused by the occurrence of bases for
definite gills within the rectum. Between the rows of gill-bases

RKSriKATluX UF MBSOGOMPIILS-

429

are longitudinal bands of muscle, M. Figure 4 shows these
details.

It we ()))en the rectum, we shall find within it a mass of
thin white filmy folds. There are six longitudinal folds, which lie
loosel}-, and are much folded upon themselves. They appear in
cross-section in Figure 5. FF. Arranged alternately along eacti
side of the longitudinal folds, at the base of these, are 20 of
what I may call buttress folds, adopting the terminology from
another genus. These leaf-like folds, BF, which are of tlie
shape shown in figtire 5. hang loose within the rectum.

D

GrB M G.B

iM.y. 4,— Dt'tail ^f Fig. 2.

Fis.

-Cross-Section.

All the folds are respiratory organs. They are all filled
with a network of repeatedly-branching tracheoles, which be-
come finer and finer as they approach the edge of the folds.
Near the edge they form an immense number of recurving
loops. These loops are not blind, but lead back again into the
larger tracheal branches. Sadones, 1895, has shown that for
other species of dragon-flies these loops are actually imbedded
in the epithelium of the folds or gills ; and I have reason to think

430

RESPIRATION OF MESCX.OM rjl I \s.

that this is true for all species. Figure 6 sliovvs the ifolds and
their tracheation, and Figure 7 a l)it of the margin of a fold,
with its tracheal loops. In Figure 5 the buttress folds appeal-.

In the base of each buttress fold, where it joins the longi-
tudinal fold, is a bit of fatty tissue, F. This feature 1 liave
found in all genera studied by me, save one. Likewise, there is
on the cei)halic side of the gill a tough "cushion," (". of thick
epithelium. This also is a constant feature. I am not aware
that the function of these parts is known.

The buttress folds are not set at right angles to the longi-
tudinal folds, but are skewed cephalad. They hang in the
rectum with their points directed cephalad.

i'li.

The respiratory rectum, with its delicate i>arts. is not freeh'
open to the water at all times. Hidden under the five terminal
appendages of the abdomen is a valve oif three membranous
folds, which may be closed at will by the animal. I have seen
the nymi)h of LiheUula open and close this valve coiuinucnisly
and rapidly when in water with particles of dirt in it.

The respiratory rectum is connected in Mesogoiuphns as in
all Aeshnidre, with the anus by a canal. AC. occupyiui;' the tenth
abdominal somite. In the sixth somite a broad band of muscle
passes over the intestine, and appears to act as a valve to keep
the water oiu of the digestive part of the alimentar\- canal. In
specimens of various genera I have found thi^ band c]ami)e(l
down hard on to the intestine.

K!:S!MK;.\TI(i,\ o/ \IES<)(.0M/'III ^■

4;^'

The res])irat()ry rectum serves also as a swimming (jrgan.
Ilv ejecting its contents suddenly, the nymi)]i ijroj^els itself fur-
ward in a jerk\ fasliion. This may easily be seen in the nvmiih
of any dragon-tly. if i)Ut into clear water and disturbed.

Jl is ■-omewhat interesting to compare tliis rectum of Mesu-
cjouipJius with that of other dragon-fly nymphs. Except for
details of di<tributi(^n of the tracheal branches, there is no great
difference Ijetwccn the external ai)])earance of the rectum in all
the species of dragon-fly tlius far studied. Tlie Ij'bellulid;c lad.
the anal canal : their rectum narrows al)ru])tly to the valve.

The differences between the nym])hs of dift'erent species an,:
found in the cliaracter of the gills. The accepted genera seem
to agree with the \ariations in gill-character.

In the .Aeshnidce. we lind much variation in gills. Tlie
(jomphinie have, in the main, gills (|uite different fn^tu those
of Mesoi/onipluis. Hagcnius. iioinpluts. and Ophiogoniphits,
genera of luu'opc and North America. ha\e. instead of fol<K.

c-

tufts of villi tilled with l(,)op> of tracheae. Lanthus, of Xorlli
America, has folds almost identical with those of Mcso(jomphits.
Kis. i<;i,^. rejjorts iov ■ (ioinphits piilcliellus of luirope and
for Oiiyc/iof/onip/ius a combination form, with \illi on the crests
of the folds. This, however, 1 did not find in the North
American species of (jouipliiis, which I studied; nor have ])re-
vious workers ifotmd it. In the Aeshninse there is also^ varia-
tion, Acshiia. Basiacshna, Boycria, have folds much like Mcsr-
(jompluts has, but with much enlarged buttress folds, which are
true buttresses for the main folds. Anax had villi. Ijut thev
are short and on the crest of small longitudinal folds. Cordjdc-
(jaslcr, the one genus of the ( )ordulegasterin;e. has folds like
Aeslina. This is rejjorted for several Xeai"ctic s])ecies by dif-
feren.t workers.

The Libellilud;e I have discussed in my ])revious ])a]xM'.
Figure 8 shows a gill of Ortlicfruiii sp. found in the
Amanzimtoti River. There are from 200 to 360 gills in tlie
recttnn, the nimiber \arying with the species. Earlier writers.

43-2 RESPIRATION OF MESOGOMPII i'S-

>uch as Oustalet, 1869, and ewu Scott. 1905, asserted that therr
were fifty thousand ^ills in a Lil)elluhd rectum. M\ i-ount>
reduce this somewhat.

I mig'ht add that the greatest numlx-r nf re^piratf ir\ i)art>
— fields, g-ills, or vilh — in any form i> 4,800, the numher of vilh
in Ophiogoinj^hus. C'(»imtino- all the folds, we i;et onl\- 24O for
Mcso()Oiii/^liiis. Anas has ahout 1.900 villi, and the other forms
with villi a like number. The forms with folds never show over
300 folds.

A point of special interest in the case of Mesogompluis is
that its gill-folds are apparently the most primitive form of gill
found in dragon-flies. With this as a centre, we can proceed
to all the ifoniis of gill. One line, with slight change in form
of buttress fold, leads to Auax, 1 ia Aeslimi. and Corditlcijaster.
[ndependentlv there seeiu to ha\e arisen at two points on this
line of evolution villi. The \illi of Goiiipliiis and Hiu/ciiiiis are
>o different from those of Anas that we may safel}' consider
them as mori^holcjgically dissimilar. ''^ Another line, leading from
Mcsof/oiiipliits, leads directly to the Lil)ellulidce, by supi)ression
of the huigitudinal folds. When we consider that the experts
Mil dragon-flies, such as Needham, Ris, etc., hold that the dom-
phime are the starting'-point for the e\-olution u\ the more
^pecialised forms, we see this statement conflrmed. The rec-
n\u of the nymi:)h of Mesofjoiiiplnis gives tis the most primitive
K-novvn form of that part as a respiratory organ.

(Read July 7, 1917.)

"R.WSACTIONS UV SOCIEII KS.

SuCTH .\fric.\x rxsTiTUTK OF Kij'XTRUAi. ExciXEKKS. — Thursday,
February 2isl: Prof. J. H. Dob^on, D.S.O., M.Sc, M.Eng., M.I.Mech.E..
VI.I.E.E., A.M.r.C.E., President, in the chair.— " T/r Industrio! Awaken-
ing of -the ik'iir: Soiifli .Ifriaiii drvdopmenl '' ( ['residential address):
Prof. J. Fl. Dobson. Attention was drawn, in the first i.>art of the
:iddress, to the industrial research and investigation undertaken in Great
P.ritain during the v)friod since the outbreak of \v;u', particularly in con-
nection witii the Fuel Researcli IJoard and the Coal Conservation
Connnittee. Ihe eft'ect of war conchiions on South Africa was then
referred to, and the compensating advantages, resulting in improvement
in internal trade and the birth of new industries witliin the Union, were
pointed out. Allusion was made in particular to the country's coal
resources, to certain possibiHties of water power, and scb.enies of power
supply and distribution, to the question of liquid fuel, to the prol)lcin of
transport and the prospects of some base metal industries.

South African Institltiox of Excixfkks.— Saturday, March yth :
G. M. Clark, M.A., AI.I.C.E., President, in the chair. — "A short note on
types of induction motors": T. W. Kirkland. The paper described
briefly the leading features of various tj-pes of induction motors, and
directed attention to their relative advantages and disadvantages.

* See Ris, 1913.

PROBLEAIS L\ TERRESTRIAL PEIYSICS THAT RE-
QUIRE THE ATTENTION OF SOUTH AFRICAN
PHYSICISTS.

By Prof. ToHX Tonn .Morkisox. M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.,

A.MJ.E.E.

There are severril ])riil)lems of world-wide interest in terres-
trial phvsics for tlie inx-estig^ation of which Sotith Afriea is
specially well fitted hy lier ,o'e'"'STa])hical situation and climatic
conditions. In regard tn snnie of these it nia\' even be said that
no general .solution is likely without the co-o]ieration of scientific
men in South Africa. The organization, or at least the encour-
agement, of such researches seems a matter which lies jx-culiarly
within the province nf this Association, and I ha\e accordingly
\entured to call attention to one or two of them.

I. The first ([uestion to which 1 should like to direct atten-
tion as speciallv suitable for research in South .\frica is the
determination of the intensit\- of solar radiation at the outer
limits of the earth's atmos])here, the so-called " solar constant."
This is probably the most important datum in meteorological
phvsics. Its accurate determination is an essential for any
reasoned discussion of the distrilnuion ui temperature. i)ressm-c
and movement in the atmosphere. It has a profound bearing on
solar and i)lanetary physics, as well as on the study of the gen-
eral conditions of life on the earth.

It has been the subject of in\estigation by many i)hysicists
in Europe and America, notably 1))- Langley and his successors;
l)Ut its value is still the subject of dispute, owing chiefly to dif-
ferences in the e.stimates of the loss the radiant energy suffers
in its passage through the atmosphere. The ([itestion has recently
entered on a still more interesting phase, through the observa-
tions of Abbot, Fowle, and j'dudich,* the Mount Wilson ob-
servers, who believe that thev have shown the radiation itself to
fluctuate considerabK within the course even of a few weeks,
quite independently of the state of the earth's atmosphere. This
observation, if contirmed. would obviotisly l)e a discover}' of
great importance, alike in solar and in terrestrial ])hysic>. It
can hardly be satisfactorily either u])held or disproved, excejtt
by a succession of observations made simultaneously at stations
w'idely separated on the earth's suface. so that it may be deter-
mined whether the observed variations arise from local atmos-
pheric changes not duly allowed for, or are world-wide in
character.

For observations of solar radiation, a first recpiisite is the
reduction of atmo.^pheric absorption and scattering to the lowest
l)OSsible point. For this purpose, the observing station (if there
is only one) should be high, its climate should be dry, and it

* C. (i. AI)t)oi. I'hvsicai l\'i-viezi'. Vol. VI, Ser. 2, pp. 504. .^05.

434 ri:Ki<i:siKiAL i'liNsics.

should I)c siluattxl near the trollies, so that the midday height
of the sun should be as great as ])ossible. in all these respects
South .\frica is well situated, and observations made on one of
the highest peaks in the Drakensberg. simultaneous'ly. if possi-
l)le, with similar observations ai other stations at lower levels,
would be of the utmost \alue. The observations should, if jjossi-
ble, include determinations of total radiation and also of the
intensities of special wave-lengths, selected to test the general
.absorption .and -c.atlering and also the selection a])sor])tion of the
atmosphere.

2. The research just suggested involves another, which is
important on its own account, namely, the ([uantity of radiant
energy absorbed, scattered and radiated at various levels in the
atmosphere. This continually varying indux and efflux of
energy is the ])rime factor in determining the temi)erature and
movements of the \arious layers. It is fairly clear that the
lower turbulent layer, with its roughly adiabatic distribution of
temperature, receives its lu-at luostly from the ground by con-
duction. con\ection, and n-Hection. while the Ujjper, serener, iso-
thermal laver has its temperature maintained by the daily influx
;m«l nightly efflux of radiant energy. But there is still nuich
to be (lone ere an\- ])recise summary can be luade of the relative
proportions and absolute magnitudes of the different i)rocesses at
work. There arc indications, too. that the division of the
atmosphere into two layers is not (|uite a full account of the
whole phenomenon.

3. The third line of research which I wish to suggest is an
extensiye one, l)Ut it is also one in which it is high time thai
South Africa should ]jlay the ])art for which it is so obvious!;,
htted — I mean, the investigation of the temperature, pressure,
and movements of the atmos])here. and es])ecially of the upper
atmosp'here. by modern methods, including cajitive kites and
balloons and ballons-sondes fitted with measuring instruments.
The two circumstances that make a special call on .South African
physicists in this matter are the comparative simplicity of the
South African climate and its i)osition near latitude 30^ .S. In
dealing with ])henomena so complex as those presented to us
by the atmos])here, the advantages <if simplicity are so obviou<
that the point need not be laboured. As regards the im])ortance
of latitude 30° S.. that ap|)ears to arise essentially from the facv
that that ])arallel divides the surface of the .Southern Hemi---
phere into two ecpial areas, so that the jiarallel appears to be the
main dividing line between trade winds and anti-trades as re-
gards horizontal mo\ement, and between the great upward
equatorial and the great downward i)olar trend of the air. The
yearly shift oif the sr.n in the sky may be regarded, however, as
roughly carrying the whole meteorological system with it. so
that we in .South Africa are well within the e(|uatorial belt in
summer and well within the polar l)elt in winter. We are thus
in a ])ositioii to ex])lore both regions with facility, and are able,
as it were, ti) draw a north and south \ertical section thrrniirh

TFKKI^SrklAI. I'llNSHS. 4,^5

two of the most interesting and characteristic jnirts of the
atmos])here. Hitherto, so far as I am aware, nothini^- has been
(lone in Sonth Africa excei)t tlie ordinary routine surface obser-
vations of rainfall, barometer, wind, wet and dry bull) thermo-
meter, and the very valual)le surface work of Air. Sutton ai
Kimberlew 1 doubt whether we even know the ordinar\- c\cl. mic
tracks in the lower atmos])here. There is therefore a \ery wide
and o])en field for observation and discussion in this branch of
meteorological jjliysics. a held likely, when cultivated, to yield
a rich harvest 'jf important results.

4. The comparative simj^ilicity of the South African climate
suggests the possible fruitfulne^s. here if anywhere, of another
line c(f research which has fascinated many investigators — 1 mean
the enquiry into possi:ble periodicities in atmospheric climatic
conditions. Mr. D. C. Hutchins devoted a good deal of atten
tion to the (|uestion of the periodicity of rainfall, and 1 lia\c
made some analyses, l)y I'ourier's method, of the rainfall ai the
Royal ( )l)servatory. Cai)et(jwn. of which I read a ])reliminar\
account before the .Soiuh African Philosophical Societv a good
many years ago. . The results reached may i)erha])s be regarded
as at least justifying the expenditure of some more labour, more
es]>ecially a^ a good deal has lately been done to shorten the
necessaril\- lengthy time needed to carry out the com|)Utation.> bv
the contrivance of harmonic analyzers and other counting de-
vices. 1 have just had constructed a single working model of a
harmonic analyzer on what 1 think is a ne\v principle, and hope
to attack the (|uestion ot rainfall periodicitx' with its liel]).

5. riiere i> one more held of geo])hysical research in wlnCh
international co-operation is essemial, and for which, 1 think, lite
evennos of otir coast-hnes gi\es u> special natural facilities,
namely, the investigation of ocean and earth tides. In regard
to the former the (-l)servations (if Forel have made us realize
more fully than ever bef(^re that each ocean has its own par-
ticular type and am])litude of forced tidal oscillations. The cal-
culation of the tides even in an isolated ocean of sim],)le t\])e
ha-^ hitherto prtn-ed itself beyoud the ])owers of our anahsis.-
and it seems tmlikelv that we shall e\er be able to account b\
mathematical methods for the tides in the actual oceans, with.
their intercommtmications, although d\namical reasoning is or
great importance in indicating the directions which observational
work should follow. There is therefore room for much work
on the classic lines laid down by I'^orel. For this purpose tick-
records would be needed at points well distributed along the
coasts of the chief oceans. A tide-recording machine at I'on
Nolloth or Swako])mund w(Aild be hel])ful in the study of the
tides of the Atlantic; one at Cajjc Agulhas, or other similarb.-
placed ])oint on the South Coast would be essential in the ;uial\ -
sis of the tides of the Antarctic oceanic belt, while one well U|)
the Kast Coast would help in regard to the Indian Ocean.

To turn to earth-ii(le>, I should like personally lo be alilo
to re])eat in .South Aifrica tlie recent ])rilliantly conceived an<l

43'> TliKkllSTlUAL IMIVSICS.

executed measurements of IMichelson'^ on the tidal oscillations
of a pair of short undergTound horizontal canals. These measure-
ments seem, of all hitherto made, to be most likely to lead
:o a trustworthy determination of earth-tides, and of earth rijg;id-
ity ; but it is essential that they should be re])eated at various
places and under a variety of local circumstances. As is well
known, the total effect observed arises from about six diiterent
though connected causes which have to be disentangled, and it
:s hig'hly desirable that the measurements should be made at
places well removed from the coast, so as to give the earth-
tide as nmch relative prominence as possible. Geoloi^jical sim-
])licit}' of underground stratihcatiDU is also desirable. Both of
these conditions can, I imagine, be tolerably well fulfilled towards
the central parts of the Uninn. Unfortunatel}-, the method i>
expensive in respect both of time and money. On the other hand,
in regard to the mathematical and astronomical collaboration that
wotild be necessary, we might, 1 think, confidently rely on the
])ractical sympathy of one of our members, the Astronomer
Royal, universally recognized as the g-reatest living authority on
:hc subject.

The programme of research 1 have taken leave to suggest
may api^ear at once too ambitious and too j^artiak .\s regards
-■he latter ctMidition. 1 ha\e sim])ly noted a few things in which
I hajjpen to be personally interested. As reg'ards the former,
I l)eHeve that well-considered organization oi our available work-
tr<. inside and outside of the universities, on lines mutually agreed
• m. would enable us to attain results of no small importance. I
cannot think of any better method of setting such an oro^anization
on foot than through the formation of a Meteorological anrl Geo-
physical Committee of this section, for the direct business of
org^anization of research. Such a committee would meet an-
nually at the meetino- of this Association, to consider the jn'o-
gress of the previous year, ma]) out future work, get in touch
with fresh workers, and endeavour to secure the necessary tinan-
cial help from the State and from private benefactors.

If the suggestion should i>rove fruitftil in regard to the
particular researches 1 have taken leave to note as desiralile, it
mi^ght readily be extended to the work of other sections. ( )nly,
T think it would be well that the available scientific strength of
any one section should not be dissipated on too many sul)jects
at the same time.

(Read July 4, 1917.)

Discussion.

Mr. J. S. VAN DER LiNGEN : As a former pupil of Prof.
Morrison's, I gladly pay a tribute to the inspiration which he
gave to his classes. It was at his instigation that I started
certain work connected with the colour of the sky and allied

* A. A. Aficholson. '' Ripidity of !*"arth." Journal of Cjcnlflf;y. 22 [2!,
97-1.?"-

TKkKi:STKlAI. I'lUSICS. ^i,'

l)heiii)niena. As early as kjck; a theory of ihe origin of the
colour of the sky was athanced, and accordins^ to it. selective
reflection must lake i)lace in the upper atmosi)here, the s])ectra of
the reflected lii^^lit havini^ a inaxininm intensitx in the nei^h])our-
hood of H.

Nicholson lias actually observed an emission line under cer-
tain conditions. ( )ur observations U]) to the ))resent ha\e not vet
conflrmed this result.

Prof. A. Brou x : The thanks of the Section and of the
Association are due to Trof. Morrison for his intere-^ling and
timely pai)er. He did well to point out the peculiar -^uitabilil)-
of South Africa for work on solar radiation. A point of prac-
tical im]>ortance in thi> connection is that the work could natur-
ally be co-ordinated with the problem of obtainint^- i)ower direci
from the sun's radiant enerij}'. ( )nly a ((ualihed success has
attended efl'orts \n other countries, and the problem i< rejs^arded
rather as one for tlie futin-c, when the inaccessil)ilitv of fuel
reserves may make the use oit sim-|Kiwer a soimder economii-
proposition. It i> a matter for investigation whether even now
this source t)f ]jower might not be protitabK- tai)]ied in i)arts of
Africa, where fuel is not easil\" a\ailable and sunlight is intense
and Continuous.*

Meteorology is always with us; and so far the ])ractical
results of the science have been disa])|)ointing. The farmer stil!
asks in vain for a reasonal)le forecast of the date of beginning
and the time-distril)Ution of the .seasonal rains. A difference of
three weeks in the date of commencement uiay rtiin a croj) — cj/.,
oi mealies — whereas a rough previous knowledge of the date
would enable the farmer to adjust his time of sowing so as to get
the full benefit of rain available. There are striking local dif-
ferences of distril)Ution in areas nearly contiguous, and the
collection and examination of data for a limited district might
lead to ])ractical conclusions.

The (|uestions of e\ ajjoration and percolation as leading to
loss of im]jounded water are already receiving atteiuion.t

The field of geo])hvsics suggests wide possibilities. The
work of Sutton should be meutioned in connection with small
motions of the earth's crust. Some work also has been done on
earthquakes, and in certain places in South Africa seismological
records are avai]al)le. Some interesting (juestions arise out of
Prof. .\. Young's in\ estigations into tidal phenomena in luider-
ground water. J A jxissible ex))lanation is the yielding of the
earth's crust under the pressure of ocean tides, accompanied In
the s(|ueezing out of underground water where it has access to

* Intiham. Presidential Address. Proc. S.A. Inst, of /iin/iiiccrs. Aug.,

1915-

t A. D Lewis: "Run ot'f and Reservoir losses at Van Wyk's Vlei." —
Proc. S.A. Soc. C.E. (1915), 5. A. H. Hallis : "Railway water supplies,
with special reference to Vryburg-Bulawayo Section." I'roc. S..I. .Soc.
C.i/:.\ (igi6). 206.

tTraiis. R.S. S. .Ifrici-. ( 191,1 ». 3 li], Oi.

43^^ Ti':RKi:s'rKi.\i. piivsics.

the air. This g-ives a point of contact with Alichelson's work
referred to hy Prof. Morrison, and offers an encouraging' field
tor South African investigation.

The whole (|uestion of underground water is of special im-
portance. In Australia this has heen realized, where it has heen
the suhject of many reports, and is still under investigation. In
tracing the source of water, the temperature at emergence may
furnish a clue; and this leads to prohlems in the passage of
heat along these water chaimels.

The determination of the heat conductivity of the various
rocks should be carried out systematically, and the temperature
gradient downwards found for different places. There are ob-
vious practical issues in connection with the cooling of deep-
level mines in addition to the scientific imi)ortance of ha\ing geo-
physical constants collated for dift'erent parts of the earth.

Of rather a different kind is the problem of the motion of
sand on land. Practical engineers have dealt with this f|tiestion
from time to time, in order to ])revent the devastation of special
districts, lilsewhere observations have been made on the rate
and mode of travel af sand-dunes. On the rii)i>le formation in
sand a good deal of descriptive work has been done, and recently
the importance of the subject in connection with pakeontolo^y
has given a further stimulus in this direction.'''

(Received Novcinber '^tli. i<;i7).

Curvilinear Space.— Dr. de Sitter, of Groningen. in
a ])ai)er on " lunstein's Theory of ( iravitation," has drawn atten-
tion to some curious consequences of the assumption of cur\ ilinear
space. One of these is the theoretical existence of a point where
the ordinarx" conce})tion of three dimensions in space and one in
time is reduced to s|)ace only, with no time at all. This can only
refer to an epoch before the beginning or after the end of eternity.
Another — somewliat paradoxical — result, i^ that for a suitable
\alue of the curvature of s])ace. light from the l)ack of the sun
shotild be faintly visible at the opposite point of the sky.

* E. M. Kindle: "Recent and Fossil Rijiple Marks." — Canada. Dcpt. of
Mine.s. Geological Survey, ]\Tuscuni I'ulktin. \o. 25.

PLANT TOXINS. A CAUS1<: OF INFERTILITY IN
SOILS: A SOUTH AFRICAN OBSERVATION.

By Aktiuk Stead. B.Sc. 1'\C.S.

(Plate 13.)

The husbatulnian has ever been ])ersi.stent in liis l)eHef that
a croi) may poison the hmd for itself, so that when the same
crop is ojrown year after year on the same land the yields will
become .a^raduaily less, and finally dwindle to 'nothin<j.

He has always beliexed in the rotation oif cro])s. by which
he ima.^ined decline in \ields was i^revented because the one
crop was not only not injured b}' the poisons of the other, but
actualh" had some j^ower to destroy the ]X)isons of the other.

Ideas of this kind were crystallized l)y De Candolle in an
hypothesis enunciated at the be.s^inning nf last century and
favourablv commented on 1)\- Liebii^-. who wrote. al)out i<S4o:

I )i.- Candolle sui)])0.m.'S tiiat tlu' rnots ni plants nnhine sniumo matter
.»f ever\- kind from tlie soil, and thus necessarily aliS(jrl) a number of
Hihstances which arc not adai)tcd to tlic pnrpnses of nutriticn. anfl must
;ul)se(iuently be expelled by the roots and rettirned to the soil as excre-
ments. Xow as excrements cannot be assimilated liy tlie ))l;mt which
ejected them, tiie more of these matters which the soil contains, the more
im fertile must it be for plants of the same species. Tliese cxcrcmentitioiis
/natters ma\', however, still I)e capable of assimilaliim liy annthcr kind of
plant which would thus rcnioNc them from the soil and render it again
fertile for the lirst. And if the [)lants last tirown also expel sulistances
from their rc)ots which, can be approju'iati'd as fond by th^' former, they
ixill impi-o\c tile soil in two wny,."

Certainly De Candolle's hypothesis must, in the li.nht of his
time, be considered as an inoenious and ])lausil)Ie attein];t at ex-
])lainin;.)^ certain well-known facts cinniected with the rotation
of croj)s. For instance, in i'.nglatul cloxer cannot be jijrown two
\ears in successioti. while it leads to a considerable improve-
ment i;i the followini;- wheat cro)). Further, how may t)ne
explain the fact tliat certain ])lants i^rov,- better in association
than apart ?

(1. C. Daubenv'^' inxestioated De Candolle's hypothesis by
i^rowing" t8 ditfereni crt)i)s under conditions of rotation as well
as otherwise. Me obtained declinitii"- yields iti all cases, while
there were matiy cases where the croi)s were orrown in rotation
in which the decline in yields was not so marked.

De Candolle and Daui)env were ignorant of the effect of
tillafje o])erations in increasint;^ the output of the soil in ])lant
food and in conser\injj^ rainfall in tlie soil; neither did they
know that the benefit of clover to wheat consisted in the former
addinir intro_(^'en to the soil which, in bnii^iand. is the dominant
food for the wheat cro]); nor did the\' ai)pear to know that bv
.i.n'owiim' crops in rotation weeds, insect i)ests and diseases were
ke])t under better control.

/'////. Trans. ( 1^15).

44^ PLANT TdXIX-^.

-Ml the more were these things unknuwn and unsuspected
by the early farmer, as, indeed, thev are unsuspected hv the
more simple of our own farmers to-day. which the follt)\vin.5^
will serve to illustrate. At a lecture at \\'itlsOt> ( .StormheriJ^ i
the writer was asked what " kracht " (virtue) the ix)tato cro].-
put into the s^round. it heino- common experience in the district
that the ^\heat cro]) which followed potatoe- was \er\- much
l)ettcr than the wheat crop which followed wheat or other cereal.
The confident replv was that tlu' " krachr "' cmi'-isted in i)lent\'
of hard work, a view that was readiiv accepted by the meeting-,
because, said the\, " we plou<4h only once for wheat, but nian\
times for the i)otato, which. nuireo\er, is kept free from weecK
all through the season by periodic sct>fflin.s^s. If itii- were not
done, we should get no ])otatoes."

\\'ith increasing knowledge theories such a^^ l)e Candolle's
gave way to the view that, provided all other conditions are
satisfactory ( \ iz.. air and moisttire >upply, root nxim. tem])era-
ture, etc.). the vield of cro])- is determined by the i)lant-food
supply.

This \ iew ap])ears to ha\e been iniiversall\ held vuitil rather
more than a dozen \ear> ago, when Witney and Lamerr)n. of the
American Bureau of Soils, startled the world by reviving l^e
Candolle's hypc^thesis. They ga\e it out that the infertilitv of
soils could not be due to a lack of plant- food, because the soil-
water (on which plants feed) contained the same amount of
plant-food, whether the soil be a rich or a jjoor one. The\
stated, moreover, that while the water extracts of good soils were
suitable, water culture solutions of poor >oils were not.
and, furthermore, that these latter proved better culture media
in proportion as they were diliued with distilled water. On such
considerations they argtted that the infertility of soils must be
due to the presence of toxins, and not to any stiortage of food.
Thus, in Farmer's Bulletin 257, Whitney stated: —

There is aiiotlier way in which iht.- UTulity of ihc soil c.m In iii.iin-
tained. viz., hy arranging a sjsleni vi rotation and .^revving cacl^ year a
crop that is not injured hy the excreta of the preceding crop; ilien. when
the time coines round for the first crop to ])c planted again, llie soil lias Iiad
anipk- lime to dispose of the sewage re'^ulting from the growtli of the
plant two or three years hefore.

The resemblance to De Landolle .- hypothesi- is verv .il)\ious.

Again :

I should say that the soil ought to take care of the excrenu-nt of
plants. Whether it does this through the agency of l)acteria. whether it
is due to the ahnormal absorptive power of the soil or to direct oxidation.
.we do not know. Take a notural soil, a prairie sod; the sauitary i-oiidi-
tious in that soil are almost perfect. (The italicising is the writer's.)

Further :

Apparently these small amounts of fertilizers which wc add to tin-
soil have their effect upon these toxic substances and render the s^)il sweet
and more healthful for growing plants. We believe that it is tlirough this
means that our fertilizers act rather than throtigh the supplying of plant-
food to the plant.

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I'l, \.\T TdNINS. 441

The writer coiihl |)roceed to deal with the vast amount of
evidence jnit forward In- Hopkins. Kin<i, Hall. Hilgard and
Russell to rel)ut this theory of Whitney and Cameron's; but
since his intentinn was to only outline the theory so that the
hearing- of what is presently to follow will he aj^parent, the reader
IS sim|:)ly referred to the writings of those authorities.

To come to the observation which it is desired to ])\'dcc on
record, the writer was, some time a,<ii\ enqao^ed in soil survey
work on the farm Ziunmielkfontein. in the i^'dliot District, when
he came across a virgin land that had refused to give a crop of
oats the first year it was under cultivation, and maize the second
year, excei)t where it w-as manured. The soil was an acid, grey
sandy loam, and o<i a tyjje that is known thronghout the district
for its poverty. Similar soils usually give out after about three
years' crop]>ing, l)ui they resjxjnd well to phosi)hatic manuring
wdiether applied as superphosphate, basic slag or bone meal.

Knowing the soil to be po<^r. the farmer sowed it, in the tirs-t
instance, to <:)ats. As has already been stated, no crop was
reai>ed.

The farmer then thought he would experiment. He
accordingly planted the land the next year with maize in three
w'ays, i-c, without any manure, with lime, and wdth bonemeal.
Unfortunately the farmer kept no records of quantities; but the
amounts of fertilizer ajjplied would itrobaldy l)e about 300 lbs.
per acre of lime aiul 200 to 250 ll)s. of rather coarse bonemeal
per acre.

Where nothing was a])i)lied, the crop was an absolute
failure : likewise where lime was ai)plied. In both ca.ses the
plants urew to an average height of about 18 inches. Here and
there a plant tried to jn-oduce a cob: l)Ut none of them bore any
grain.

Where. ht)wever, bonemeal was a])plied the plants grew
to an average of 5 feet in height, a:id bore rather small cobs,
wdiich were well covered with grain. It should be stated that
both lime and bonemeal were applied through the planter.

The failure of the lime to eltect any improvement whatever
W'Ould seem to show that the acidity of the soil was not the
principal limiting (factor ; wdiile the action of the Ijonemeal. taken
in conjunction with the experience of the district that any kind
of phosphate would give increased vields on this type of soil,
would make it ap])ear tolerably certain that the bonemeal acted
through its pho.sphoric acid, and not through its nitrogen. The
analysis of this soil showed that it was deficient in nothing
except carbonate of calcium and phosphoric oxide. Of the
former it contained a mere trace, of the latter 0.035 pcr cent,
only, wdiich also furnishes further evidence that the bonemeal
acted through furnishing phos])horus as a i)lant-food.

Attached hereto is a photograph ( ['late 10) which the writer
took of a portion of the held when the crop was ripe but un-
touched. Ooi the left-hand side, wdiere the man is standing,

B

44- i'l -^^ T TOXIXS.

lime was sown. It will be noticed that there is no crop worth
speaking about.

To the rio^ht of the man there is a single drill c>f much
Ivetter growth, then one of stunted growth, and then a block
showing ifair growth. These were the mealies which received
bonemeal. The stunted row. however, received no bonemeal
owing, the farmer explained, to the fact that the fertilizer
attachment of the planter had become choked. Throughout the
good |)atch there were other stunted rows due to the same cause.
These, while testifying to the uniformity' of the soil, afforded an
excellent, although accidental, series of controls.

It would be interesting to learn whether an\' cases similar
to this have been noted elsewhere. /Vnyhow, this solitary case
\vould seem to afford an illustration of the untenableness of
Whitney and Cameron's toxin theory-.

(Read. July 6. njJ/. )

Hay Fever. — rhe Medical Journal of South Africa
remarks that a short time ago correspondence appeared in the
l)ress tending to incriminate the pepper tree {Schiinis uioUc)
as being the cause of hay fever. It has been asserted that hay
fever can Ije caused only by the pollen of those plants which
depend upon the wind for its distribution. In other countries the
hay fever of early simimcr is associated with the flowering of the
grasses, and of late summer mainly with the flowering of certain
of the Composita;. It seems possible that the pollen of Cosmos
and of the maize plant may ibe effective in South Africa, but in
the United States of America, where the sul)ject ha> ])een exten-
six'ely in\-estigated, the onlv tree implicated has been the cotton
wood.

Light- ABSORBING Matter in Space.— Aliout

fighleen m<»nth-^ agcj Barnartl discovered abcau the star
.\o\a I'ersei a nebulosity of fan-shaped ajjpearance. .\b)re
recent ])hotographs show, in addition, a sharplx-detined
continuous ring of nebulosity, of which the central poin^
is the nova. (ireat ex])anding rings were ])ho'tographed
around this new star at its original outburst in 1901. and
W. W. Campbell, of Lick ( )bservatory. in his presidential address
to the American Association for the Advancement O'f Science,
explained the phenomena of tem])orary stars by the theory that a
dark star, travelling ra])i(Il\ through ,s])ace. has met with resist-
ance, such as a great neljula or cloud of particles. The rushing
of the dark star into and through this resisting medium would
cause a great wave of light to go out from the moving body, and
this, fallin<^ on non-luminous materials, would make a ring of
nebulosity, visible by refiectit)n. From the abo\e anfl other facts
Campbell infers the existence of a stU])endous amount of obstruct-
ing material >cattered throughout our stellar system.

N()T1':S ox . FIBRI-: l'kODUC]{L) I'RO.M SOME OF

TH]-: MOST USEFUL LNDIGENOUS AND EXOTIC

PLANTS LX THE CAPE PROVINCE.

Bv LvMES Leighton, F.R.H.S.

Present CDiuliiions are causino^ a ^reat scarcity of all kinds
•)f cordao^e. and my object in this ])ai)er is to direct attention to
ihe vast wealth cif raw material at hand awaiting- develoi^ment.
and capable of at least sn])i>lyino- ouv own iieeds.

Many of these tibres may be i)rei)ared l)y rating in the same
wa}^ as flax, and with a little training, natives would soon become
exi>ert at this work. There is an abundance of fibre-producing
plants, obtainable at nuiny i)laces throughout the cmuitrv, while
Hax, hemj), Aijavc, 1-ourcroya, Phoniiiiiiii, and other i)lants may
he cultivated.

I shall first deal with some of our indigenous plants.
Cyf^cnts tc.vtilis. i)roduces a strong, useful fibre capable of
l)eing made into ropes and strong' cord. It is commonly found
near the margins of rivers and m wet places, where it grows to
a height of about six feet.

Cypcnis hcxanf/iilarc is another valual)le rush, thriving in
less moist places than the former.

SaiJsericria thyrsifloro, a liliaceous plant, allied to Phor-
miiiiii. is a stemless perennial plant w'ith thick fibrous leaves.
sword-shaj>ed, and sheathed at base. This i^lant is common in
the shade of Ijushes and dry places througli.mt the Eastern
Province. vS". Giiiiiiciisis produces the bowstring hemp. The
fibre of our species is of a very fine qualitx'. capable of being'
made into string and thread. This plant mav prove worthv of
cultivation.

I'leiirya pcdimciilaris. a nettle, common in tlie Buft'alo
Valley. ])roducing strong procumbent stems 8 to 12 feet in length,
yields a good fibre, somewhat like Urtica nir'ca. the China :grass.
Mak'csiniui capoisc, a tall malvaceous shrub common on the
margin of cultivated lands, has a very strong fibrous bark.

1 shall now deal with >ome of the exotics that have become
acclimatized. A(/az'e Americana and its variegated form is well
estaljlishcd. and in many cases it has grown into dense masses.
It is a hardy species thrivinti- iii dry places, where few other
])lants could exist. The fibre is strong, and suitable ifor the
manufacture of ropes. The fibre is best obtained by passing
the thick, succulent leaves through heavy rollers. The pulp
thus extracted may be mixed with meal or dry hay. and tised
for feeding stock. Mixed with ley ash, it is used in the manu-
facture of soap capable of lathering in salt water as well as in
fresh.

Phoniiiuni teua.v, New Zealand flax, a genus of Liliacese with
one variable s])ecies. confined to New Zealand and Norfolk
Island, is a tufted plant with sword-shaped leaves growing in
opposite rows and clasping each other at the base, (iiven good

444 xi)ri:s ox fii'.ki'.s.

ground and j^lenty of moisture the leaves may be grown to a
leaigth of <S or lo feet, but its usual length is from 4 to 6 feet.
It is used l)y the natives of New Zealand for making a coarse,
rough clothing, as well as string, mats, etc. The presence of a
viscid, gummy matter in the leaves has hitherto rendered the
cost of preparation too greet, Init that difficulty has now been
overcome, and the future of this plant seems to be i)romising.
Without manipulation narrow s-tripes of the leaves may be used
ill the garden to rei:)lace string. Irrigation would be re(|uired
for its successful cultivation.

Now that Manilla heni]) cannot l)e im|xjrted, an effort should
be made to replace it with the fibre of the plantain Miisa para-
disiaca. a closely allied s])ecies df Miisa Icxtilis. This is capable
of ])roducing a hemp not inferior to that i:)lant. The i)]antain is
more hardy than the banana, grc^ws much taller, and can be
grown even where a few degrees of frost is experienced. I'lants
mature in three vears. when the fruit may be harvested and the
roUed-up leaf-stems removed and treated for its tibre.

Yoirng plants are produced annually from the underground
stems, so that an annual supi)ly of mature plants are maintained
without rei)lanting.

I am convinced that a hemi) can 1)e pre|>ared from this ])lant
to take the place of Manilla, which has hitherto been almost the
only fibre that can be used in the self-binding reaper. All avail-
able jdants ought to be turned to account. This is (vnlv an im-
perfectly prepared sample, but it will suffice to show it> length
of fibre and strength.

Mauritius hemp. Fourcroya (/i(/aiitca, is used in the ]\Iauri-
tius and elsewhere : like Sisal hemp, the large fleshy leaves arc
cut after the third year, rotted in water and l^eaten out. This
plant is not so hardy as the Amepican aloe, l)ut it will grow well
without irrigation, producing leaves to feet in length that will
yield an abundance of useful fibre.

Stcrcitlia dircrsifolia, an Australian tree, usually planted for
ornament, has a thick bark containing a large (|uantity of very
strong fibre of commercial value. It is a fjuick-growing tree,
and can be easily propagated from seed or cuttings, growing
freely from large limbs like the wdld fig. and when cut down a
young- growth springs up rapidly from the old stumps.

The inner bark of the young trees is easily removed in
ribbon-like strips, and may be used as a bast, Init the whole of
the bark in the older trees contains good fibre. Several Indian
species yield a cordage, and Stcrcitlia tragacantlia, of Sierra
Leone, yields the gum of that name.

There are many other good fibre-producing plants that I
have not mentioned, but those dealt with will suffice to show the
wonderful possibilities that lie in this direction, i)roviding
material for the establishment of an industry capable of employ-
ing a large amount of labour, and supidving our own needs as
well as exporting a large surplus.

[Read, July 5, lyi/.)

THi<: .\i()\i-:MJL\ r j-owarus a national s^'S'^EM
OF technical edccation.

I'.v \\'iLLiAM Lames Horne. A.M.LC-E.. A.ALLEJ^

A system of technical education for South Africa should
be considered in relation to tive outstaiulin"' features i)eculiar
to this country: — (?) The i)roximity of an overwhelming native
pO])ulation ; (//) the existence of larg-e and industrious coloured
communities; (i-ii) the fact that the bulk (^f the white jxjpula-
tion are nc^n-industrial from a manufacturing and a mining
\)oint of \ie\v, l)eing, in the rural areas, mainly breeders of ^hee])
and of h-ansport cattle with a limited agriculture; and, in the
urban areas, largely importers and st<ire-keeping merchants ;
{k') the existence of a large and growing ]30or white group,
composed, for its greater part, of the descendants of the original
pasture-farm holders; and (i') that there is observable in the
30uth of this country an early adolescence coui^ded with a lesser
educational attainment at a higher age as compared with the
)outh of Europe.

'idle ]>resence of the native ])rovides a kind of perjietual
bo\-. or juvenile, of adult physi((ue who, by his numbers and
])h\sical strength, occupies those o]ienings in industry through
which the white youth would enter as a learner. .\n(»ther

effect of native laljour is that it has set up what has been called
the " kaffir standard '" ; one result of this being that the South
African in charge of a group of native workers is. unless he
has been under LAiropean standards, limited at his best t(~» the
best which, in his experience, natives are capable of floing: this
result h reflected in the reports of the Lligh Commissioner in
our exports in fruit and meat to the London market. An-
other result is an unwitting' self-sufficiency on the part of the
South African overseer; we have had to be content with the
native standard of efficient performance as sufficient, until we
ha\e come to the ifalse conclusion that what is good enough for
lis, tile masters in this country, shoidd be good enough for tlie
inhabitants in any other.

The fact that the great bulk of the ])eople are non-industrial
as a type is traceable, hut is not wholly due. to a readv and
inexhaustiljle reserve of native labour of a certain low standard
of efficiencv. Lulustrialism. whether it be rural or vu-han in
nature, demands a mode of life greatly diff'ering from that
experienced by a people wdiose forebears merely administered a
pasture stock-farm, orchards, or \ineyards with a plentiful sttji-
plv of coloured labour; the change inxoKed is that from the
freedom of an overseer of semi-//;;skilled labour to that of a
directed skilled worker contimiously applying himself between
definite hours for the greater and best part of the day. _ Such
regulation of action as this new industrialism demands for its
efficient ])erformance. implies a large amount of restriction tipon

44'^^> iia II X K Ai. !:i)i( Ariox.

the personal ifreedoni of the erstwiiiie trekker aiul hunter.
Changes stich as these in a people can l)e Ijrought a1)out onl\
gradually and under the stress of circumstances of a cuni-
petitive nature, but these changes can l)e hastened by a system
of technical education which does not demanil too long' a
scholastic leaj) from the younger people. It is largely because
these changes in the peoj^le are not keeping pace with the in-
creasing comjjetition to li\e vn this country that we have th-
poor- white problem.

Our industries such as we have are manned, al anv rate
when skilled dexterity and knowledge based u[)on length of
experience are required, by overseas men to a very great extent.
Certain of our industries are staffed, in the lesser skilled ranks
at least, by coloured me-n. It is evident all over South Africa
that the coloured peo])le are not content witli tlie kind of lal)(tur
usually performed by the aljoriginal native, and that tliey ha\e
worked their way to the rank of skilled artisan; in this si)here
thousands of them find C(,;nstant em]>loymem al considera]>l\-
high rates of pay. Very few of them, howt-ver. can be classed
as thorough and reliable tradesmen; tiieir methods are sli])-
shod, and their kiKjwiedge oi the craft the\ ha\e come to prac-
tise is limited. Nevertheless, they are gradually l^ecoming
more prohcient, and they are entering seriously into competition
with the white artisan, who usually retires from the field in
the 'face cjf the low wage for which these coloured ]>eople. with
their cheaper methods of living, arc pre]j>ared to work. Of
recent years there has been a marked intiux of coloured people
to the more northern towns of tlie Lnitni. and particularh of
the Transvaal, due, undoubtedly, to an increasing demand for
cheaper lab<jur in maiiufacluring industries recently estab-
lished. The industries in which the ccjloured man has obtained
a considerable footi'ug are; the leather-working trades, in which
it is usual to find op.e while foreman with a dozen oi" s. > col-
oured assistants as stitchers, snickers, etc. ; in the furniture-
making business, in which the\- are u>uallv engaged to assemble
American inijxjrted goods, and in box-making — thev speedih
learn the use of tools, and there is now more than one furniiun,-
factory in South Africa in which the employes are all coloured
people; in soap-boilini; and in sugar-refining the Eurafrican and
the .\siatic find readv employment; in the jjrintino;- trade, tt)o,
the coloured element is well established; in the Ijuilding trade,
in the more southern half of the Union the coloured carpenter,
the coloured painter, and the Malay plasterer with his coloured
learners are all well known — it is but a matter of time when
they take their places in the Transvaal; their scouts are there
already- The openings, therefore, for our own white youth
would appear few even if he were suitable ; he has, however,
the advantcige of being on the spot, and the thing to do is to
train hhn for that skilled employn.ient which alone is suited to
the white man as overlord of this country. Actually the opeii-
inofs for white vouths are more- numerous (ban the\- .-eem, and

■n:(iiM(.M. i:i)i( Aiiox. 447

niucli more numerous, nwing to tiic iiresent war, tliaii ilu-y
lia\e hitherto l)oen.

'J he training re.juired must raise tlie wliite worker abo\ c
tlie h'mitation? of the coloured: it must produce in him the
initiative to achance beyond the standard practice of hi^ ])re-
decessors, to do more intricate work in liis trade and to (h^ it
well, to devise new methods and new tools — in other words, to
break new ground. It is in these finer things that the bulk oi
the coloured i)eople usually fail, tliey are good imitators but
poor originators. A system of technical education t(i effed
this must do more than merely instruct in methods that havv
obtained in the past; it must use these methods to educate to
improvement in iiresent methods with tuitii^n in the latest ad-
vancements taking ])lace in other countries. .Manx highlx
])laced educationists think and say thrit there must be a complete
system of primary school education, of which every child of
school-going age is taking advantage, before consideration can
be gi\t;i to technical education; others wotild limit technical
education to those who have com])lete(l the full primary school
course or to those who can ac([uire a so-called preliminary
technical certificate the subjects for which are not technical.""^'
and require a ])reparation eqtial to that gi\en in Form 11. or
Form 111. of a Transvaal High Schi;ol. Koth attitudes appear
to me to be based itpon a mistaken idea of the value of uni-
formity— that children must all learn the same things in the same
wa_\- howe\er n.nich their intelligence may differ one from the
other — that it is their duty to climl) what is called the educa-
tional ladder by the rungs, and that they may not '" shin " up
the sides cif that ladder. Neither attitude appears to recognise
that a system n\ teclmical education beginning with tools ami
materials in the workshop will lead to the ac(|uirement of a
general education on the part if the inipil. together with i
desire for more knowdedge of the theoretics of the craft. F2ach
would ap])ear to C(-':idemn the intelligence because it cannot ac-
(|uire a certain standard in the(~)retica] subiects of wdiich it can-
not see the ])ractical application, of which it cannot " see th.c
use." Because there is an early adolescence cou]:)led vvitli a
retarded general education, compared with European standards,
appears to me to be one of the very reasons why a special system
of technical education is necessary for this country.

The h\c retardations — the native poimlation, Ihe coloured
conimunitv, the absence of industrialism in previtjus times, the
|'>oor-\\ hite ))roblem, antl the earl\- adolescence with a lower
averao"e standard of general education — show that a system of
technical education to be suitable for the bulk oi the yr>ung
people in this country nntst depart largelv from any European

'''The subjects of examination for tlie Preliniinarv Teclinical Certiti-
■ate of the Xational Advisory Board for 'i'eclinical lidncation. Union of
South .\frica. are: — (i) civics, (ii) one of tlie offici;'! lan^uayes, (iii)
mathematics, (iv) technical (h'awing-. and ( v) e\peri;nental science or
mannal training, with the recommendation thai experimental science he
takc-n in place of manual training.

44'^ TI-:C(I XUAl, EDUfATlUN.

system in which the same or similar conditiinis have nut ob-
tained. The system for this conntry is that which begins in
the workshop with trade practice in tools and materials, together
with some edncation at the classroom desk in drawing, theoretics,
and the sul)jects of a general edncation — all closely related to
industry and suited to the advancement of the pupil. F.\idencc
is not wantinu' cif the insufficiency of the system which places
desk instruction in theoretics in the forefront with some prac-
tical workshop instruction, explicit or assumed, in the nebulous
i)ackground. Here is what the sub-committee of engineers,
appointed by the Transvaal Chamber of Alines to consider the
training of apprentices, have to say : —

Technical education during apprenUccsliip . . • Xu lixcd curriculum
for class work to be set. but eacb boy to be treated according to iiis
requirements and capacity for absorljing knowledge. Tbe classes to ])e
made more attractive and more suitalile for tbe trades the apprentices are
learning. . . . The princi])al point we wish to emphasize is that, in our
opinion, the afternoon and evening classes are conducted on a scale vvJiicb
is generall}- far above the intelligent appreciation of the apprentice. We
would prefer to see a ditferent series of lectures arranged for the aii])ren-
lice more applicable to his general training.

In our opinion much more .l ood would he <]ii!H' b\ appealing to a
ooy's intelligence through his eyes rather than through bis ears, and to
drum into a boy higher mathematics and ilu' theory of heal, and similar
^ui»jects. is only to make him tired lo death of the continuation classes.
If he takes no interest in them it is no use holding them, and we vveiuld
propose . . . laying out a mori_' attraclivt- scheme of . . . class work.

It is not only in this countr}' that com])laint is made of the
clas.^room instruction in technical theoretics; thus the Man-
chester Engineers' Club, when considering the best means of
organizing the British engineering industry, formulated this
resolution, among others: —

That the instruction of apprentices in part-tinie classes be reformed,
so as to relate it more closeU to the apprentices' ev-'ry-da^ work.

Similar (ptotations could be gi\en from tlie Annual ke])ort
for 1915 of the Department of Agriculture and Technical In-
struction in Ireland. What these extracts indicate is that
technical instruction at the desk is useless for its purpcjse when
divorced from the practice iii the industry to which it relates;
once it has become abstract it is " above the heads" of the ap-
prentices. The system of technical education which will cor-
rect this is that in wdiich the practice of the industry comes first
and the discussion, calculation and deduction of the underlying
principles comes second. For this to be possible there mu.st be
the closest correlation betw^eeti the practical or worksho]) in-
.sitruction in the industry and the classroom instruction in
theoretical subjects. It is impossible to correlate the work of an
apprentice in the connnercial btisiness with the theoretical in-
struction; it is also impossible to retard the instruction in
theoretics to suit the nature and amount of the commercial out-
put in the business. It is in the first two or three >ears of the
apprenticeship that these difficulties of correlation occur; later,
^liere is little difficttltv in suitinu- the instruction in theoretics to

Ti:iH N M AI. ICDlt AIIU-N. 449

the rc(|niremc;n^ of the iii<lu-try. proxided the i)Ui)il is coninicr-
ciaily employed uncrc the whole practice c/f the industry is ex-
)>erienced. Therefore. fi>r the first two or three years, a trade
workshop at the ^^chool is (•<-ential. Hie accepted name of the
institution that emboches the^e principles is the " Specialized
1 rade School": when ni'>re than one trade work-^hop is in-
cluded, we have the " trades school " — the type that has lieen
established in the 1 rans\aal. These shotild be carefttlly dis-
tinouished from the tyi)e known as the " junior technical school,"'
in whicli desk studies jjredominatc and the workshop is a merely
minor incident in the curriculum and of the manual training
kind.

There is an(_»ther type of vocational school, the industrial
school; one or two of them are penal, the majority of them are
not. They are the preventatives against the expansion of the
jXKjr white problem. They have been defined " as intended to
de\elop a general handiness " ; this is one of these easy-going
exi)ressicv.is that may mean jtist what \on will ; South Africa has
had too many of these phrases, which may mean anvthing or
nothing, and it is time to know where we stand, in technical
education at any rate. As a matter o,f fact, these schools teach
trades, and do not teach them Ijadl}' as far as the teaching goes,
The}' are, however, not sufficiently nuxlern ; the extent of the
trade teaching is too limilcd. and i-- not sufficiently intensive.
rhe\' have to increase an inade(|u;ite grant. 1)\- contracting for
and competing in the oi)en market: this is educationally tui-
>oimd. Father Tozzi, the head of the Salesian School in Ca])e-
!own, })tits it well when he says:

We must rememlier that a trades scIkimI is u<<[ a shop. In i.tlier words,
it is the pupil vvlio is being considered all lluuugli. and n^t tlie market
value of his work at any given in.onienl. as is a])l to he tlu- case in regard
to apprentices in ordinary \vorksho))s. As an example, the boys in an
industrial institution who are learning tailoring sometimes make suits for
the inmates, although the great Inilk ni the clothing is bought ready-made
tieeause it is cheaper to do so; but tiiey are not called upon to do the
.latching fy/ 'he institution, which they nn'giit l)e. if economy, am! not their
>\\u skill and future prospects, were tile main consideration.

The point I want to emphasize ends at the second sentence ;
the rest of the quotation illustrates another common and mis-
taken attitude towards iiulustrial schools. These schools nuHt
be adef|Uately liuanced and under efficient inspection, raiS'^d to
modern sufficiency if ifor no other reason than that there are
-iiniiar instiiuticns dotted about t'.ic country giving similar in-
struction to the native and the half-caste, such as the Native
Mission in Tigerkloof. the Trapijist Abinastery in Natal, where
trades are taught irresijecti\e of colour, and the technical school
for half-castes in the ]'ro\ince of M(jzambi(|ue. Another type
•if industrial school much re(|uired is the school farm. The
c.d_\- nue I know of is the W'j-inn Schi-.l <. f Agrn-ulture :i1 Mooi
River, Xatal. d'hat. ho\\e\-er. is a fee-])aying school for the
sons of farmers. It is significant that no one wonld stiggest
reaching agriculture withtnu. a farm, yet it has ])cen proj)o>ed to

45'' 'I'-* " -^ I' ^1- i-i>i'* \ iioN.

j,nvc tc'clmical instruction related io trades without ado(|uatel\
ef|ui])])ed worksho])?. In the country districts we re(|uire central
dairyiui^. held cultivation, and orchard sclio(.):s — not class-rooms,
hut actual farm huildin^s and helds — with i)ermanent or travel
lino" skilled instructors according- to the numher and (len-;itv f>t
I he populatiDU.

For i^irls, we need the domestic science (,)r housecraft sch(H>l.
since employment in factories, as in Europe, is impossihie for
them owinj); to the ;presence of the half-caste, the Levantine,
and the Asiatic female. Here attain the school house is the
workshop: you would not tell a i^irl liow cooking mi,i;!it l)e done
for invalids without makiiii,' her cook ; neither w.ould you de-
scrihe to her how a o^arment might lie cut out and as.semhled
without seeing that she cuts out and stitches real stuff. The
commercial schools for hoth >exes are lirndy estahlished, chieflx
hecause the coiumercia! connuunity know more dehniteK what
the\ want than i> usual with niosl other industrial communities;
also the\ are pre])ared to ^tate their re(|uirements in syllahu-
form. The Association> i)\ ("hamljers of Commerce of Souin
Africa e>tal;lished a serie> of commercial certificates examina-
li^ns reduced from those of the London Chamher of Com-
merce hoth iii numliers of suhjects and >cope of ^yllalnis — a
■-nt+icient]_v >larlling cnimeniary on the standard of educariona!
attainment in this country. Mere alst^i is the schoolhouse the
workshop; }ou teach tvj)ewriting with real macliines, not loy^:
the nearer your hooks in the ])ook-keeping class a]iproach the
tools of the Count ing-hou-e, the more efhcit :U i-^ the instruction.

1 ha\e nienti(. ned these tyi)es of vocational schi;o]s to .--how
that lhe\' all re(|uire and use the " worksho]) " as an essential
]tart of the instruction, on the princijile lliat /// brcak'nui iic:<
cdiirall(UiaI (/round, the praitlcal \^'ork sliDiild cciiic firsi. and
flic discussion, calculation and deduction of undcrlyinf/ h.rin-
cif^lcs should conic second. It is the trades school, and not the
junior technical school, which ap])lies this jjrinciple in teaching
the future worker in the constructive trades. If We are t'
treat our own tin, iron, manganese and antimony ores instead
of shipping them to Europe, it is the ex-trades school ijuiiil whw
will l)uild the furnaces and make them work; and tliis will he
hecause he has heen taught to huild furnaces, to use them, and
to handle the raw material in htilk, in>tead of being talked to
from a highh' coloured diagram and being shown small (|uan
tities of the raw material and its jjroducts in a chemical lab:)ra-
tory. There may be some who object to trades schools on the
gromid that the only fit and ]iroper place for a bov to he'jin t(.
learn his trade is in a commercial workshop. If that is so.
whv are there specialized trade day schools in London, such a->
the Stanlev School of Engineering; Trades, the Brixton Sch.ool
of Building, the Bolt Court ."school of Thoto-I^rocess Work and
EneraNin.o"? Whv are aijprentices not taken in the gunsmith
trade in Birmingham, and wh\ are boy> re(|uireil to learn their
trade on three afternoons a week in the ( itni>niiths' .School

11. (II .\ H \i. i;i)i( Aiinx. 45 I

under tin- joint contrn] cf tlie Association of Master ( "inn-maker>,
the (itm Workers' I'nioii. and tlie (iuardiai.s of the Proof
House? Win are lliere conipletelx' ef|uipi)ed workshops for the
instruction of ap|)ren'tices in tlie hrass antl iron-workiny trades
in Manchester? Why did the Merchant Coni|)an\- of lulinburwh
move the School Hoard of that town to the erection and e(|uip-
meiit of \vorks]io])s for the instruction of ai)i)rentices in the trades
rehited to en^ineerinij;". the tailoring; 1 rade, and i)rintino;? And
why did they ]in)pose to ])ut in force the clauses of the Compul-
sory |{(Uicaiion (Scotland) Act of igotS, enabling- them to limit
juvenile emplo\-ment to ihe forenoons, st) that a])i)rentices mio;hi
attend for trade in>lrucli->n in the afternoons? W'h\- were tlu-
W'ilmerdinii- School of lndu>trial Arts and the Lick School of
iVIachiner\- 'j'rades es'ta])lished in i!^04. in San Francisco, "to
teach hoys trades tirtinu' them to make a livino; with their hands,
with little study and plenty of work?" Why was the Xew \nvk
Trade .^chool fotmded hv Colonel Auchmut\- in iSSi nnder the
guidance of all the trades unions in that cit\ ? What caused
Holland to estal)lish trades schools in 1S57. and \\h\ ha> she
fort\-lour of these institutions lo-daw in addtfiiui to the n>ua!
junior and senior technical schools and exening classes? W ha;
caused Prussia to follow suit in 1S74. and to make them com-
])ulsory schools for all aptjrentices ? \\'h\ was Ker>che;isteiner
em])owered to establish trades >chtiok all o\er Sotith (iermanv'r
Why have Austria, h'rance. Switzerland and Sweden dune the
same? Whv did the Canadian Commission on Technical luluca-
tion reconmiend a < ierman system of trades schools and not the
English system of technical classes? W'h\- ha\e Au>tra:ia and
New Zealand established day and evenin!4 trades classes a> dis-
tinct from technical theory classes? The answer will be found
in a recent ntimber of I:ii(/iiiccriiig. in which the unscientific a^nd
haphazard method of training aijpreuitices in man\ large indus-
trial works of ail kinds was roundlv contlenmed. That refers to
Great Britain; for the mine workshops on the Rand, the follow-
ing from the reijort (if the sub-connnittee of Engineers av)i)ointed
by the Fransxrial Chamber ni Mine-; < >n training apprentices :

Tliere was usuallv no attempt to jiive a regular course uf training;
in the sliujjs, with tlie result that most of the apprentices nnly eariie<I
on a sort of " skilkd ]al)onr " wirk — thus l)ecouiinu'' an e\il. not onlv t< >
the emphwer. inn to themselves: . . . ineonipk-leh trained apprentices,
when out of tlieir time, could not compete witli the liest n* the skilled
tradesmen witose training liad heen "t a superior kind. . The

apprentices do not appreciate the true meaning of discipline, and. in many
cases, tliey are looked upon as a sort of necessary evil
an entirely wrong stan(Jpoini to take in view of tlie f.iei tliat the apprentice
of to-day hecouies the tradesman of to-morrow. . . . The attendance of
evening classes was looked on rather as a duty In- tlie apprentice, with
k-ery little appreciation of the good he would obtain from such training.

The result is that the Chamber o'f Mines has decided to gi\c
preference on all luines in future to trades school pu])ils by mean-
of a shortened apprenticeship, coupled with increased wages ; this
decision being arrived at after an exhaustive enf|uiry bv the sub-
comnn'ttee, in which they pointed out that two years at the trades

45-2 TECHMtAL EDUCATIOX.

school \\as of threat advantage l)oth to the employer and to the

])oy.

One tear expressed in connection with trades schools is the
over-prodnction of skilled workers. J ])artially dealt with that
]X)int in a l)re^•ious paper.* Mr. Beveri(lo-e, in his book on " Un-
employment," shows that dit^culty is lar<j^ely due to want of fluid-
ity in groups of workers, and was overcome in (iermaiiy by their
system of labour exchano'es, which he was afterwards appointed
to organize in England. It is conceivable that this fluidity will
be artificially increased after the war l)y the enemy Central
Powers; the possibility is established 1)\- the organization of the
International Workers of the World. It behoves vis to see that
our young men receive a skilled training fitting them for im-
mediate and continuous employment, so liiat there mav l)e as few
openings as possible in the future for foreigners oi enemy origin.

I submit that tlie trades school system of technical education,
which starts in the trade worksho]) and leads to the class-room
and the laborator)', is the system required in tiii> countr\- ; that
it is superior to the system of the so-called junior technical school,
with its technical instruction at the desk, which ca:i end only in a
desire for ofiice work and a disinclination for that skilled manual
lal^HU' necessary to the dexclopment of oin- resources by our-
■-eh es.

( Read. July T), nyiy).

South African Museum. — In the kej^ort of the South
.\frican Mu.seum for the year 1917, several additions to the
exhibits of Karroo rejitiles are noted. One of these is a partial
skeleton in a slal) of a new s|)ecies of Dinosaur, and another is
the skull of a large undescribed Dincjcephalian allied to Titano-
sitcliiis. Other additions are an almost complete skeleton of Proly-
sti'osaiints iiafalciisis, a skull and lower jaw of Dicynodon
Tvhaitsi. tlie carpus of a species of Parcisanrus. a skull and lower
jaw of a species of fimbn'tliosaitnis, and skulls of Parcia^<;aiinis
hoiiihidciis. and of a species of Stnithioccf^haliis. A skull of
Glaiiosnchus niacrof^s. and the cast of a skull of Lvcosaiinis have
])een mounted.

I'roofs of the co-existence in South Africa of man with
extinct animals in the shape of sti)ne implements, found together
with remains o>f the now extinct animals and others which he
slew for food are now exhibited together with \'ouchers s]K)wing
evidence of still greater anticjuity.

Three panels of Bushman paintings have been added, as well
as sex'cral paintings on single stones, obtained in the rock shelters
of the littoral, and executed by Strand-loopers.

* "

Practical Education.'' Rcpf. S..!. for Adi\ of SC. Pretoria,
! IQ15 ), 694.

THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS OE A NOToNliCTlD.

B\- Stki'uen (tOttiieil Rich. M.A.

//'//// tico text figures.

In the Annals of the luitomolos^ical S(X'iety of .\nierica for
December, lyi^), Mr. ]. R. de la Torre Bueno has imblished an
interestincr article on the A<[uatic Heniiptera. In the course of
this article, Mr. Bneno says:

riu-ro arc tlirrc main iiums of respiratory apparatus among llic water-
(hvellcrs. which may he called the dorsal reservoir and pile, the anal lube,
and the abdontiual ehannel types. The tracheal systems as such are prac-
tically identical in all three forms of air supply. The CorixidcT. Belosto-
mida\ and .X'aucorid.e ha\e '.he dorsal reservoir: the Xotonectidre the
ahdnniiun! channel; and tlic Xepid;e the tnhe type.

He g'oes on to describe the three types in detail.

The rather meagre description which Mr. Buen<:» gives of
the abdominal channel type of air supply, found in the Notonec-
t'ulx, suggested t<:) me that it might l)e well to undertake the study
of this feature. In the .\manzimtoti River, Natal, I was able
to secure a good sujjply of Notonectid material, which, how-
ever. I have thus far not been able to identify.

Eigure i shows the ventral aspect of the abdomen of my
material. Mr. Bueno's description, which I (|uote in full, will
here apply :

It (the abdominal chaimel ) is, however, extremely simple. The
abdomen is keeled down the middle, and from this keel spring outwardly
towards the sides of the body elastic ;md fairly stiff .ind close-.yrowinp: long

454 ()R<;a\s <»i-" a xotonixtid.

liairs, wliicli niCL-t >iinilar liairs ari--iiiK I'rdin the cor.nc-^i'uni edgy. I la re
is tlir.s formed a rhannel on each side of the ahdomen which is filled with
air. and in wliich the spiracles are placed. The insects hang in the water
abdomen up. witli its extremity just piercmg the surface film. In most
species tliere are tliree tufts of hair, which spread out on the surface,
leavirig an open, water-free spot in the middle which is the |)oint where
the ccnmection is made between tlie alidominal reservoirs and the atmos-
phere. When totally sul)merged. the opening closes in some way not well
explained so far. altliough tlie writer believes that the three tufts men-
tioned lap over, and in some manner serve to obstruct the entrance of
water into the channels. In any case these channels act as storage
reservoirs when the insect is in its element. The hairs are not set so
near together as to touch, but they are sufficiently close to form an aqueous
t'dm at a tension between them wdiich acts to retain the air in the chambers,
and at the same time to keep w.nter out. Very little seems to be known in
regard to their intern.nl respiratory system. It might seem, though, tliat it
should be- simjile. 'j^lu- iiym])lis are not diUercnl from tla- ;idult-' in this
ada])talion.

In my Figure i. K is the keel hearing laterally projecting
hairs. P the pleurite or connexi\iuni. S the spiracles, and CH
the channel. The hairs are sho\vn on one side only.

In my material the keel hecomes very flat as it proceeds
towards the head, and on the hasal somites of the ahdomen is
liardly reco,unisable as a keel. It is only on the two terminal

somites that it is a true keel. The hairs on it, while longer than
tliose on the pleurite. are much fewer, and appear to play a small
role in maintaining the air in the channel.

1 found a rather interesting prolongation of the channel
forwai'ds. As shown in my figure, the channel swerves distally
around the coxa of the hind limb. MTC. It ijasses forward
beneath a caudal prolongation of the meso.tlK)racis scutellum,
MSC. Near the coxa oi the mesothoracic limbs, MC, is a
spiracle undei* this jilate. I failed to find more than one thoracic
spiracle. I have indicated the swerving part of the channel
as CH.

The channel which jjasses around the hind coxa also com-
municates with the space beneath the wings. FW and HW. In
life there is always a shiny film of air under the basal part of
the wings; this air does not extend very far caudally. This
would appear to form a supplementary reservoir of air. The
hairs on the distal edge of the mesotiioracic scutellum form a
seal again.st water over the point where the channel reaches the
edge of the wings. The hairs on the caudal part of the scutel-

()k(,.\ \S ( il' A Nd roM-.CTID. 455

!uni, as shown in llic tigurc, foi'iii ihc water-seal o\uv the swerv-
in,2^ part of the channel.

The mechanism for obtainint^ air and for sealing the open-
ing;-, at the caudal end of the animal, appeared verv clearlx in my
material. 1 he wings extend a short distance beyond the li]) of
the abdomen. in life they are the only parts whicli project
abo\e the surface when the animal hangs head dow nwards. I hey
are at this point closely ai)])ressed to the abdomen. 1 therefore
l)elie\-e that no air enters the reserxoir l)eneath them at this
point. The hairs on the keel and the i)leurite. jmlled outwards
by the surface tension of the water as (listnr])e(l when the wing-
tips emerge. lea\e ])etween them two hole>, one for each channel,
ihrough which air enters.

The sealing of the oi)enings takes place autoniaticalb' when
the animal leaves the surface. 'I'here i- no more surface tension
to hold the hairs ai)art. They are elastic and fly back to their
natural position tiat against the body, closing the air-channel.

It will be noted that only one of the tufts of hair is on the
keel ; the other two are on the plein-ite on each side. My b'igure 2
shows in a diagrammatic \\a\- the arrangement of i)arts at the
end of the abdomen, 'ihe two channels and the keel, as well as
the tufts (..f hair, appear clearlw The abl)re\iations are the
same as in the other figui"e.

1 have dissected the internal breathing organs of this
animal, and find nothing unusual to report. The tracheation is
exactly as in most other 1 lemiptera. The usual principal tracheic
are there, and without modifications ot' an\- sort.

{ Read. July 6. 1917.)

'RA\S.\C"'l"i()XS ()!•■ .soc !!•: ri''S.

.Siirni Aku!c.\x S()cn-:Tv (U- (.'i\ii, F.m.i xki-jo. — i'rui'. A. !•'.. .Snajjc.
15. Sc. M.I.C.E.. I'rist President, in the rliair. — " So/isbi'ry [Soiillicni
Rhodi'sia) zvatcr -lyorks" : Pruf. R. II. Charters. .\ detailed description
1)1 various features (^f the works was i^iven, under the heads of Slora.tie
Reservoir, h'ilters. Gravitation Main. Service Reservoir. Higli-level 'I'ank.
and Distrihution Svsteni. 'I he entire cost of the works was i58..?04. —
" l.isscs in diiiiis by ubsorf^tioi: in inUind siih-tropical .if ricii " : A. il.
Wallis. The author submitted sucli evidence as wa.s av.-iihihlc to show
tlial the region referred to has heen gra(hiall_\ lieconiing more arid, and
urged tliat efforts should be made to retain in the country, hy the construc-
tion of dams, the large .f|uantities of rain that ultimatch run unconscrved
to the sea. The author proceeded to discuss the losses sustaineil li\
dams through evaporation and percolation. — " Snnir rxi^criincnfs on the
rate of czaporalion of zi-ater tinongli films d' nil": Dr. J. R. Sutton.
The experiments were undertaken in order lo test the validity of the
suggestion that has l)ecn made <^>v. \arious occasions t'.iat tlie enorm(^us
loss by evaporation from Soui.'; African, waters might be sto])ped I»v
keeping a lilm of oil on the surface of the water. It appeared that at best
one gallon of kerosene would save no inore than 100 gallons of water,
and as on the table-land of South .Africa one gallon of kerosene is worth
500 to 1,000 gallons of water, it would not pay to use oil for the purpose
of retarding evaporation. I'rom a pliysical point of view there is consider-
able interest in tiie fact that water can eva!)orate through a skin of oil
as much as .02 of an inch thick. The oil nrobalily acts as a sort of
' irah.im's membrane.

SOUTH AFRICAN M YXOMYCETES.

By AucisTA \'era Dutiite^ M.A.

riic chief ol)ject uf this brief paper is to draw alteiition to
the South African representatives of this group, and by so doinj^
to interest members of the .Association in their collection. J
shall thereifore luake no attempt li> ji^ive a detailed account of
■the life-history of any sjiecies, nor refer to the many interestinji
mor{)holooical, cytolosjical and lihysiological problems connected
with the group which call for further investigation. But since
many forms are not readily recognizable as Myxomycctes by
laymen or botanists who are solely interested in Higher Plants,
perhaps I mav be excused if. preliminarily, I outline the general
characters.

The -Myxomycetes. or Alycetozoa (as they are fre(|ueutly
termed), are lowly (Organisms which in their vegetative or plas-
modial >tatc reseml)le certain of the lower animals; while their
fruclilications and walled->|)ores, .so admirably stiited to wind
distribution, are >uggesii\'e rather of the fungi within the veget-
able kingdom.

The naktMJ mass of proiophism formin<..;' the ))lasmo(lium is
ustially fotmd in decayed wodiI, on the underside of rotting
leaves or stems, or in the soil humus itself. The ]>lasmudiiuu of
Badhamia utriciihiris, which was noted in Africa for ilie lirst
time in njif), is excei)tional in that it feeds on tlie fructihcations
of living fungi.

The extent and consistence of the plasmodiuiu may var\
within wide limits. In colotu' it is usually white, yellow, or
pink, and it fre(|uently changes in tint as it emerges |)rior to
fructification.

In the great majorit}- of .\I} .xomycetes the s])ores are formed
in the interior of sporangia, plasmodiocarps or a^thalia. The
individual sp(jrangia are usually small and \ery fragile, and
often of great beatity. Many of them contain an elaborate sys-
tem of solid or tulmlar threads — the capillitium — which is of use
in spore distribtition. The sporangia vary ntuch in regard to
shape, colour, nature (^f wall, and character of capillitium (when
present).

The cethalia are cushion-like structures, consisting of densely
aggregated and confluent sporangia or plasmo(Hocarps. In
Reticularia and J'ulhjo they may be 6 cm. and 20 cm. across
respectivelv. Both these genera are abundant in the Stellen-
bosch district, and .specimens of their .ethalia are among the
exhibits.

In L rralioiiiyxa — one of the commonest Sotith African
iforms — the oval spores are borne on the outer surface of mem-
braneous sporophores.

The group is Ijy no means a large one. It comprises some
49 genera and about 260 species. The largest genus is Pliy-
sanim, with 58 species. Pidcrma comes next with 17, while no
fewer than 2"/ genera are re])resented by only a single species
each.

S.A. MVXOMYCKTIiS. 457

The MyxDmycetes (in the restricted sense) are of no
economic importance. This fact, combined with the small size
of the fructifications of most s])ecies and the delicate or evanes-
cent nature of the sporangial walls, doubtless accounts for the
neglect of the grouj) by collectors of the South African fauna
and fiora.

W'elwitsch. in 1S55, made a small collecti(jn of forms in
Angola. Some 22 species have been collected from time to time
in the Cape l'ro\ince and Natal, and sent to luu-ope. 3ilany of
these are now at Kew or in the British Museum.

Kalchbrenner jniblished in Grcvillca. in 1882, a list of i^
species collected 1)\ MacOwan and \\'ood. Most of MacOwan's
specimens ap])ear to have been gathered in the neighbourhood
of Somerset luist. while Wocd's were from Natal. A part of
MacOwan's collection is now in Dr. Schondland's ])ossession.

Mr. Pole Evans has been good enough to allow me to ex-
amine the 14 si^ecies l)elonging Xo the Mxcological Herbarium at
Pretoria.

So ifar as I have Ijeen able to ascertain, there are n.o other
collections of any size in any of the nui:-eums or herbaria in the
countrw

?il\- own collection, a part of which is now exhibited, in-
cludes 16 species not hitherto recorded from Africa, in addition
to 24 s])ecies and \arieties apparentlx- new to South Africa,
making a total of 40 new reccirds from South Africa. With
the excei)tion of a few specimens sent by friends in Natal and
Clanwilliam. luost of these species have been found in the
Knysna and Stellenljosch districts.

The following list, which contains 24 genera and y2< -"pecies
and varieties, is. T think, a com])lete record of the species so
far known from South Africa, and I must here express mv
indebtedness to Miss Lister, of the British Museum, for her
kind assistance in the determination cif the species — an invaluable
hel]) in the absence of type collections and literature.

Ccratiouiyxa fniticidosa (Macbr. ).

C. fnificiilosa var. flcxitosa (Lister).

(". fntliciilosa var. porioidcs (Lister).

Badliaiiiia iitriciikvis (Berk.).

B. affinis (Rost).

P/iysanini incUciiiii (Mass.).

P. coiitpacfiiiii (Lister).

P. iiiufabilc ( Lister).

P. II If deaf mil ( Rex).

P- roseitm (Berk, and Br.).

P. pcuctralc ( Rex).

P. flovicomum (Berk.).

P. aiiriscalpiHin (Cooke).

P. viridc ( Pers. ).

P. viridc \ar. aiiraiilimn (Lister).

P. piisiUitm (Lister).

P. nutans (Pers.).

45<^ S--'*'- mvxomvci-:tes.

F. iiataiis \ar. IciicopluciDii (Lister).
P. ciiwrcKiii (Pers.) ?
P. zmuiiii ( Somm. ).
P. siiiiiosuni (Weinm. ).
P. bogoriciisc (Racib.).
P. Icucopus ( Link).
P. didcnnoides (Rost.)-
P. cifr^niim ( Schum. ) ?
Tyichainphora pezicoidca (Jungh.).
Piilifjo scpfica (Gmelin).
Lcocarpus fragilis ( Rost.).
Cratcriiiiii anrcuiii (Rost-).

C. iiiiiiiitiiin ( Fries).

Didcnna hcmispliericiDii (H(_)rneni).

D. eft us inn { Morg. ).

P). subdictyospenniDii (Lister).

Diachcca Icucopoda (Rost.).

Didyuiiimi difforuic (Duby).

D. iiigrlpcs ( Fries).

/). nif/rlpes var. xaiitliopns (Lister).

D. sqitaiiiiilosiiiii (Fries).

D. iiu'laiiospscniniiii (Alacbr.).

Miialai/o spoiif/iosa (Morgan)-

Stciiioiiitis splciidciis (l^ost.).

S. splciidcns var. Webbcri (Lister).

5". iierbatica ( Peck).

.S". fcrnigiiica ( Fbrenl).).

S. 'fiisca (Roth).

Comalricha nigra (Schroet.).

C. long a ( IVck).

C. typhoid cs ( l^ost).

Lainprodcnna scintillaiis (AbirganL

Cribraria argillacca (l^ers.).

C. tcncUa ( Schrad. ).

C. iiitricala (Schrad.).

Dictydiitin canccUaiitm (Macbr.).

Dictxdia-tliaHiiin phinibciim { Rost.).

Tubifcra fcrruginosa ((imelin).

Reticularia Lycoperdon (Bull.).

Lycogala cpidendrum (Fries).

L. flax'O-fuscnm (Rost.).

Trichia affinis ( de Bary).

T. persiniilis (Karst.).

7\ Botrytis (Pers.).

T. scabra ( Post.).

Hcniiiricliia clavata (Rost.).

H. Scrpula (Post.).

Arcyria denudata (Sheldon).

A. incarnafa ( Pers.).

A. insiguis ( K. and C.)

A. cincrca ( Pers.).

s.A. mvxo.m\ci:ti:s. 459

A. /"oinifoniiis (Rest.).
A. imfaiis ( ( 'jvcv. ).
A. Oersted I a (Rost.).
Pcrirlucna coriicalis ( Rost.).
P. dcf^rcssa (Lil)j.

Apart from the ])ossil)ility of obtainins; new species in South
Africa, or of addins: to the number of African representatives
of those ah-eady recognized, it is of interest to record the i^eo-
o^raphical distril)ution of forms and their relative frecjuency
throughout the country, and the extent and direction ni variation
in indivickial species.

One of the most abundant and widely distributed species
noted thus far is Pliysanmi vernuiu, which differs in its darker
s]^ore-colour from the closely related P. cinereiim. Gatherings
of this species from numerous localities in the rrans\aal are
]jreserved in the Pretoria Herbarium. I have recently received
it from Rhodesia, while in the Knysna district it appears in
great abundance a few days after stunmer rain, covering
])atches of living grass five or more inches in diameter with a
greyish mould-like growth.

In March. 1916, the same species was observed growing on
turf within the College Scptare, as many as nine large patches
being scattered over an area of some sixteen square feeL Per-
haps the most variable sj^ecies 'found in South Africa is Phy-
santiii luiifabilc. A f(M'm of this frcnn Pretoria with

stalked cylindrical sporangia, another from Knysna with sessile
sporangia, and a third with exi)anded plasmodiocarjjs, are ex-
hibited side by side.

Man}- of the specimens of Rcticidaria lycoperdon collected
in the Knysna district develop from a white i^lasmodium which
rapidlv changes to flesh-])ink. The small fragile ?ethalia with
cop])er-colGured surface walls are \erv different in a])pearance
from the large silver-grey fruit bodies with smooth cortex which
are so abundant on pine-stumps in the Stellenbosch district and
at Kirstenbosch.

J am glad of this opportunitv of enlistinj^' the helj) of
students and general collectors in vari(^us parts of the Union,
and shall lie grateful for any speciiuens that may be sent to me
from time to time, as well as for notes as to habitat, colour o'f
Plasmodium, etc.

While deca\-ing vegetation in native forest forms i)erhaps
the best collecting ground for the fructifications, they are found
on old logs. bark, the underside or broken ends of fallen
branches, near the surface of heaps of straw and dead leaves,
and not intre(|uent!\' on li\ing moss, seedlings, etc. The warm
moist atmcjsphere of a greenhouse seems Sj^ecially favourable ;
representatives of six genera have apjieared in the plant-house on
the College Scpiare.

The si)ecimens shuuld be well dried before l)eing packed,
as they are lial)le to mould. If they are to be ke])t for anv

4^0 s.A. :.J^'X(.)M\■ci•:Tl■:^.

time it is well to use ])lent_v of na])thalene to pre\"ent destruc-
tion by insects. The sporangia travel fairly well if they are first
wrapped in crumpled pajjer and then ])acked closely in a tin or
box.

Specimens ma}- be sent liv samjile ]>t»t: and I shall be
ha])py to refund the cost of i:)ostaoe.

( Read. J Illy 4, 1917).

TR-WSACTIOXS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal Society cf Socth .-Vfkp.a. — Wcdncsdav, April 17th: Prof.
J. D. F. Gir.CHkisT. M..\.. Ph. I).. D.Sc. F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S.. Pre.'^ident. in
the chair. — " Liiniiih'sify in a Soitffi African carthivorni. ami its oriiiiii " :
Prof. J. D. I'". Gilchrist Eumir.oiis earthworms are fdund on the
slopes of Table Monntain. Tlic luminosity proceeds from a discharge
from the mouth and anus, which consists of cells heaYily laden with
inclusions of different kinds. The smaller mclusi' ns C( insist of a
substance allied to fat, by the oxidation of which the light is produced.
The cells arise from the body cavity, and arc discharged into the anterior
and posterior parts of the alimentary canal by dehnite cfjmmunications
between the ciclum and alimentary tract. — " Xutc mi the adjitiiatc of
Bccoitt's ciiniiuaiil of tivo lunary qiiantics " : .Sir '!". Muir. — On the
qencra Dit'locyslis and Broonicia " : I. P.. Pole Evans and Miss A. ^I.
Bottomley. Some specimens of Diplocystis ha\e recently Iieen obtained
by tlie authors from Portuguese East Africa, and this is the lirst recorded
African occurrence of the genus. The African material is not identical
with that from Cuba, and the auth<irs descril)e it as Diplocystis Junodii.
n.sp. — "South African Perisporiacccc, II: Rciisional notes": Dr. Ethel AI.
Doidge. A revision, due to work on a number of fresh collections, of
a ])re\ious conmumication on the subject Iiy the author. — " Frcsh-ivater
snails as a cause of parasitic diseases " : Dr. F. G. Cawston. Tbic author
describes a number of snails collected by him from various districts in
South Africa, and found to l)e infested with the cercarial stages of trema-
tode worms. — "Colour and cheniical constitution. Part If: The remain-
ing plifhalcins" : Dr. J. Moir. The author described the absorption
spectra of complex phthaleins, partly duplex compounds of the phenol-
anthol type, and partly of a new class ie.;^.. tliymol-naphtho! ) derived
from thvmol-benzoic acid.

THE DECIMAL SYSTEM; MONEY, WEIGHTS AND

MEASURES.

By William James Horne, A.MT.C.E.

I have nothing- new to add upon the subject; there has
Already been a paper ujxon it from Mr. R. T. A. Innes.* Since
Mr. Innes" paper, others have appeared; namely; the resolutions
;idopted by the National Advisory Board for Technical Educa-
tion.t based upon a memorandum prepared by Professor Bohle, a
lecture l)y Mr. H. Allcock, g-iven at the Institution of Civil En-
gineers, London,! and the Conference arranged at Johannesburg§
bv the Witwatersrand Centre of the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science. The following: remarks are
not wholly original ; I have summarised various opinions in order
to arouse discussion.

The advantages of the introduction of a decimal system
would concern (a) education and {b) commerce. The educa-
tional advantages of the chang-e would not be likely to weiuh so
heavily with Government as the commercial advantages might.
It appears desirable, therefore, that the Institute of Bankers and
the Association of Chambers of Commerce olf South Africa
should take indej^endent action in addition to combining with the
Association as they have done. The decimal system is most
useful to those countries that have manufactures which they
desire to export to countries already jx^ssessing a decimal system ;
the best time for the introduction of or change to a decimal
system in such a country is 'before that country is about
to manufacture for ex]X)rt. The change should be made, there-
fore, in South Africa now.

Coinage.

The system of decimalising the coinage detailed by Mr.
Innes is that which has been agreed upon as suitable for
the British currency. Foreigners have difficulty in estimating
the value of our coins in terms of theirs when visiting Great
Britain and those Overseas Dominions using- the coinage of the
Royal Mint ; we have practically no difficulty in estimating the
value of our coins in terms of theirs when theirs is a decimal
system. The proposed change would therefore give greater con-
fidence to those purchasing from us. In addition to the simpli-
fied ruling of account ]x)oks and ledgers that would result, errors
in adding and striking a balance would be less liable to occur,
such as that elusive ten shillings difference between the two sides
olf the balance sheet.

The time appears opportune to press the point, as the ques-
tion of opening a Union Mint was raised not long ago. By

*Rept. S.A.A.A.S. (1916), Maritzburg.

t Sixth meetina: of the Board at Capetown, ist March, 1916.
t The Times Engineering Supplement, March 30th, 1917.
§ Chamber of Mines, Johannesburg. April, T917.

462 THE DECIMAL SYSTEM.

eliminating- the half-crown and coining a new tickey to the value
of 2.4d. (of the present copper coinage) and issuing five to the
shilling (or half -florin) the public would be gradually prepared
for the complete adoption of a decimal coinage.

In addition to the countries mentioned by Mr. In.yham at the
Johannesburg Conference, Mr. Allcock mentions in his London
lecture Canada, Newfoundland, Egypt, the Straits Settle-
ments, Ceylon, British East Africa and Uganda. It may, how-
ever, be pointed out that the German mark, with its nickel sub-
divisions, circulates in the British South West African Protec-
torate (late German South-West Africa), while in German East
Africa the rupee (15 to the i=:is. 4d.) circulates; the Germans
sub-divided the rupee into 100 hellers; the natives, however, ad-
hered to the " anna " (penny) of 16 to the rupee, each anna equal
to. 4 pice (=: farthing). In Biritish East Africa, Uganda, and
Zanzibar 'both Indian and English coins circulate. India would
aj^pear to be the difficulty in the way of the adoption of a decimal
coinage for the Overseas Dominions. It was not a simple matter
for Sir Guilford Molesworth when he introduced the present
decimal coinage into Ceylon ; it took the reform party five >'ears
to educate the people through a Decimal Association, but when
the change was made no difficulty was experienced with the new
coinage. In view of the diversity in units of monetary vakte
employed by different countries, and of external influences such
as fluctuation in the rate of exchange, it is clear that a universal
system of coinage for all the countries of the world is unattain-
able, since such fluctuations would prevent international coins of
the same face value having always the same actual value. Such
influences, however, do not afTect

Weights .^nd Measures.

The rapid adoption of the metric system in all countries,
except Great Britain and the Dominions, has limited the choice
to one between the British Imperial system and the International
Metric System. The advantages of the metric system is that
it is an international language based upon a scientific system
which itself has the advantages of a decimal relation between
units, a very simple relation between the units of length, area,
volume and weight, together with a simple and self -defining
series of names for these units.

It is the change in the unit of length which presents serious
difficulty. The change to the kilogram as the unit of weight
could be easily effected ; but its adoption alone would not jirovide
the very great flexibility and simplicity in calculation which the
complete system allows. The greatest trouble and exj^ense

would occur in the engineering and transportation industries.
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the firm of
Sellars (comparable with Whitworth in England) decided against
the adoption of the metric svstem and decided to adhere to the
English inch as the unit of length. Sir Archibald Denny
suggested that, since the metre is 39.37 inches, it would provide

THE DKCI.MAL SVSTF.M. 463

the necessary flexibility if the metre ^^•ere increased to 40 inches
in length. This would, involve a chang-e in the metric standard
of leno-th throug-hotit 45 countries. The alternative would be
for the Engineering Standards Committee to compile sufficiently
equivalent metric sections owing to the impossibility of useful
conversion from the present standard sections in inch units to
the metric system . With reference to the cost of the trans-
]>ortation industry, Mr. Aspinall, manager of the Lancashire and
Yorkshire Railway, estimates that the cost merely of re-tareing
from 1.400,000 to 1,600,000 wagons in use would be £400.000,
without counting the cost of regraduating weighing machines,
gas and water meters, etc.

Few people realises that the Navy uses a decimal system
of lengths, thus : —

The fathom=:i/iooo of a nautical mile (Definition).
TOO fathoms:=i cable's length.
10 cables =1 nautical mile. •'

=:i,ooo fathoms.

There are two measures of capacity, the " liquid "' and the
' dry."' Many liquids are actually sold by weight, and every
l>urchaser can demand to have his or her " dry " purchases
weighed by the seller ; as a matter of fact wheat, mealies, bran,
beans, etc., are always sold in South Africa by weight. The
sale of potatoes by the bucket — mentioned by Professor Bohle —
is illesi'al. like sale by muid and schepel. as the only legal standards
of capacity in South Africa are the bushel and gallon, (juart and
pint.

Engineers are by no means unanimous on the change to the
metric standard of length, not because it would not be as easy to
calculate, but because of the cost of re-standardising rolled sec-
tions, bars and shafts, drills and screw threads in order to give
even metric sizes to these; to this also would have to be con-
sidered the cost of carrying stocks of both inch and metric
standards during the transitional period. The change, there-
fore, could only be spread o\er a number of years, a beginning
being made with the redesigning of sections, etc., bv the En-
g^ineering Standards Committee.

The Government of India, by the Weights and Measures
Act of 1871, adopted the metric system, but it was never put in
force and is a dead letter. In 1897 the use of metric weiglits
and measures was permitted by law in Cireat Britain; in IQ07
Lord Belhaven's Metric Bill was rejected. Some nine or ten
years ago the use of the metric system in the Union was permit-
ted by law. Permissive use side by side with existing- systems
will not bring- the better system into tise as long as one accepted
way of getting extra profits is to confuse the purchaser; conse-
quently only an Act legalising the metric system will protect the
public ifrom petty depredations. The f|uestion of the change
will not be decided by sentimental or educational reasons, but by
the cost to the commercial and. the manufacturing communities.

464 THE DECIMAL SYSTEM.

and that itself will be decided by whether our internal or our ex-
ternal trade is the more important.

Bihliography- — " An Enquiry into and an Ex]ilanation of
Decimal Coinage and the Metric System of Weights and
Measures," 3rd ed., by Edwyn Anthony. Publishers : Rout-
ledge, at 2s. 6d. 1906."

( F-^cad July 6, 1917. )

lOXISATlON OF GASES AND THE ABSORrTION OF

X-RAYS.

By Lewis Simons, B.Sc.

(Not printed.)

THE PLOUGH.

Bv William Shaw Hamilton Cleghorne, B.Sc,

A.M.LMech.E.

{Not printed.)

MECHANICAL REFRIGERATORS.

By Henry Walter Bull.

(Not printed.)

SIMPLE EXPEDIENTS IN EXPERIMENTAL
CHEMISTRY.

Bv Prof. Berthault de St. Jean van der Riet, M.A.. l^h.D.

(Not printed.)

NOTE ON A NEW GENUS OF COPEPODA FROM A
FRESH-WATER FISH.

By Prof. Ernest James Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.

(Not printed.)

A PLEA FOR GREATER ATTENTION TO PHYSIOLOGY
IN THE TEACHING OF ZOOLOGY.

Bv Prof. Fj'.nest Tames Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.

{Not printed.)

JJl-:SCRli'TION OF A BACTERIUM WHICH OXIDIZES
ARSENITE TO ARSENATE, AND OF ONE WHICH
REDUCES ARSENATE TO ARSENITE, ISOLATED
FROM A CATTLE-DIPPING TANK.

By Henrv Hamilton Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

{Abstract.)

{Printed in Annwal Report of the Director of Veterinary
Research, Pretoria.)

By means of a combination of enriching and plating methods
a number of arsenic-resistant organisms have been isolated from
the cattle-dipping tank at Onderstepoort.

Oxidizing 0 rganism.—T\\\s appears to be a new organism,
and has been provisionally named Bacterium arseno.vydans.
According to the classification system of the Society of Ameri-
can Bacteriologists it woidd have the group number 212.3331033.
It is the causal organism in deterioration of arsenical dips, and
so far as has been ascertained, it appears to be the only one to
which rapid oxidation is to be ascribed. Its dimensions are
variable, usually i /x to 3 /a in length and o. 3 /* to 0.6 /x w- breadth,
slender forms predominating. Involution forms are larger, and
vary considerably in size and shape. It stains well with ordin-
ary stains, shows a beaded structtire. and is gram-negative. It
is generally non-motile, although motile forms which readily lose
their motility ha^'e been observed.

Apart from its its denitrifying activity and its power to
oxidize arsenite to arsenate, its characteristics are rather nega-
tive. Apart (from the negative characters indicated by the j^roup
number it does not produce alkalinity in milk media, produces
neither indol nor sulphuretted hydrogen, nor any characteristic
odour in bouillon. It grows either poorly or not at all in
synthetic media, such as Uchinsky's. Giltay's or Cohn's. (Growth
on agar is slow, but g(H)d : on gelatine, ]:)oor, and ma\- fail : <)n
alkalinized potato, slow and uncertain, but may be good; in
organic media, such as bouillon, pe])tone. hay infusion, is good,
but slow. Plate cultures on agar, and agar slopes, are not unlike
those of coli except that growth is slower and more comjjact. It
is easily differentiated from most of the commoner organisms,
especially those of the coli gr(~)up, by its high tolerance for
arsenite and its capacity to oxidize this to arsenate. The limit
of tolerance is about i per cent. Xs.X),,. as arsenite and oxidation
can proceed slowly in concentrations as high as 0.8 ])er cent.
The rate of oxidation, tmder suitable conditions, increases as the
concentration of arsenite decreases. At 0.2 per cent. As.,03,
oxidation, after light inoculation, may be complete in five or six
days. Oxidation proceeds best in a faintly alkaline medium,
being inhibited by very slight acidity and rapidly coming to a

466 DESCRIPTION OF A BACTERIUM.

Standstill in neutral media unless the buffer effect is sufficient to
absorb the change in H ion concentration accompanying- the
transformation of alkaline arsenite into neutral or acid arsenate.
The reaction limits are approximately assessed as

Ph 6.8 to Ph 10.

Although the organism does not grow under anaerobic
conditions in bouillon, it does so readily in presence of nitrate.
Arsenate, however, cannot take the place of nitrate, and although
arsenite is so vigorously oxidized to arsenate under aerobic con-
ditions, the reverse change of reduction is not effected under
anaerobic conditions.

The organism is physiologically very active, and relati\ely
small numbers are capable of converting larse amounts of ar-
senite into arsenate, even in mineral media containing only very
small amounts of organic matter.

Reducing Organisni. — This organism, which reduces arsen-
ate to arsenite with great rajjidity, under suitable conditions, is
a vigorously motile bacterium with the grou]) number
222.2331033. It appears to belong to the colon-typhoid family,
from other members of which it can however be easilv differen-
tiated by its high resistance to arsenite and its out-
standing capacity to reduce arsenate to arsenite. It has
been named Bacterium arsenreduccns. It has peritrichic
flagella, usually four to eight in number. It is a poly-
morphic, rod-shaped organism, usually about 2 /x in length by
about 0.4 /x in breadth, but it may vary from i /i, to 6/x in
length and 0.3 to 0.6 fx in l)readth. Disposition to chain forma-
tion is marked, and old bouillon cultures may show as many as
TO or 20 rods in one long motile chain. It stains well with all
ordinary stains and is gram-negative. Occasionally bipolar

staining may be observed. Litmus milk is rendered slightly
alkaline, but no coagulation or {proteolysis occurs.

Althoufirh o-rowth under anaerobic conditions is moderate,
aerobic growth is much better, and in suitable media complete
reduction of 0.2 per cent, arsenate can occur in 48 hours even
on free exposure to air in li<|uid layers only i cm. deep. The
organism can tolerate up to i per cent. As.^Q., as arsenite, and
arsenate reduction may proceed almost to this limit.

In mixed cultures with the oxidising organism reduction of
arsenate or oxidation of arsenite can be made to proceed at will
by simply varying the composition of the medium. In attenu-
ated media bufferized with potassium phosphate, oxidation
occurs. On enriching the medium by the addition of glycerine,
glucose, or fresh stable manure, the reducing organism out-
friultiplies the oxidizing organism and reduction occurs. The
significance of this is discussed in relation to dipping tanks in the
field and the frequency of their use.

Other Arsenic-Resistant Organhtns. — A number of other
organisms, which neither reduce arsenate nor oxidize arsenite,

DESCRIPTION OF A BACTERIUM. 467

have also been isolated from the dipping tank. x'Xmongst these
are members o:f the pittidum g^roup. one of which, B. fluoresccns
non-Uquefaclens, can grow freely in concentrations up to i per
cent. AsoO.^ as arsenite.

{Read, July 5. 1917.)

THE CLASSIFICATION AND AFFINITIES OF THE

HIRUDINEA.

By Prof. Ernest James Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.

(Not printed.)

SOME FIELD RESULTS OF FERTILISING MAIZE.

Bv John Frederick William Gatherer.

(Printed in " Agricultural Journal of South Africa,'

August, 191 7.)

THE HEMICHORDATA AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE
IN RELATION TO THE INVERTFjB)RATA AND

CHORDATA.

By Prof. Ernest James Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.

{Not printed.)

NOTE ON THE ORIGIN OF METAMEVTS^I.

By Prof. Ernest James Goddard, B.A.. D.Sc.

{Not printed.)

THE GRAIN BUG OR STINKVLIEG {BLISSUS
DIPLOPTERUS DIST.)

By Charles William Mallv, M.Sc, F.L.S.. F.E.S.

{Not printed.)

LINSEED OIL AS AN INSECTICIDE.

By Charles William Mallv. M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

(Not printed.)

OUR LANGUAGE AND THE NATIVE PUPIL.

By Stephen Gottheil Rich" M.A.

This paper aims to clear ground for posifive construction
in the matter of teaching the Enghsh language to native pupils.
It is thus preliminary in its nature. Furthermore, it is based
on work among Zulus only, and therefore may fail to take into
consideration conditions among other native peoples. It rests
mainly on observations and experiments made since February.
1916, at the Atnanzimtoti Institute, Natal.

How early should we begin teaching English?

In the practising school attached to the Amanzimtoti Insti-
tute, a thorough-going scheme of oral lessons in English for
all classes was begun in 191 5. The i'ufants of 1915, now in
Standard I, have, as a result of this, a command of English
practically equal to that of the average native pupil who comes
from the day-schools to Standard V of the Institute. In March
last, T was able to give nature-study lessons, entirely in English,
to the children of Standard II in the practising school.

A more imi>ortant result is that these children are remark-
ably free from the usual native errors. At so young an age it
is impossible to teach a language by means of translation. A
direct method, with objects, actions and commands, had to be
used. The happy result has been that the usual errors due to
literal translation of Zulu idiom are avoided. It is an exceptional
teacher who can avoid the use — and the abuse — of translation
when teaching pupils who are old enough to translate.

Observations have indicated to me that these young children,
thus taught, are really bilingual. They do not simply think in
Zulu and translate. They think in Fjiglish when using Eng-
lish. I adduce as principal evidence of this their facilitv within
the limits of their vocabularies — a facility impossible under like
conditions iif they translated.

I would therefore urge that English be made a prominent
feature of the infant-class work. As a guide to the time to be
devoted to the subject, I may state that at Amanzimtoti it has
received the same amount of time as reading.

My colleague. Mr. Frank Ostermann, and I have watched
with .some care the time and difficulty involved in correcting
in Standard V and upwards the errors of those who learned
English in the usual way. In our first year Teachers' Training
classes, which follow Standard VI, we have worked half a year
at eliminating some eight or nine commoii errors. Our success
here, as with similar work with Standard V last year, has not
been unduly gratifying. We find that the habits of speech
learned vounger persist unless a most disjjroportionate amount
of time is given to their correction. The follow/n-^; sentences
illustrate the types of error in question :

" My coat makes me to be warm."

" A bov saw a lizard which lie caught if."

(»L'R LANGUAGE AND THE NATIVE i'Li'lL. 40y

" The ntotoviyana is a locust that is smelling."

" I am too hungry." [Too for z'ery.)

" He use to do it " for *' He does it." (Misuse in present

tense of auxihary, which is past tense only.)
"The cow is the animal which is useful." (Misuse of

article.)
" Thet shesh ease thee new one aaav ours." (Mispronoun-

ciation of short vowels, of sound of itr, of cli,

" Shesh" r:r church.)

The small children who learned English in the practising
school do not make these errors. Their speech-centres and vocal
organs have not yet become set to Zulu intonation and idiom.
The advantage here is pateait.

From the discussion of when to teach English, let us ])ass
to the question of what the method and content should be.

Our results have been most promisinji' with oral work as
the great staple of instruction. Reading aloud does not appear
to be an effective means of gaining power in English. In my
own class of first-year Teachers" Training students, those who
pronounce correctly when reading still fail, in two-thirds of the
cases, to transfer this correctness into their speech. The same
was true of our second-year Teachers' Training class and our
Standard V, in 1916.

We have had much success in the use of a modified form
of reading, however. On small sheets we printed specially com-
posed sentences, each containiiig as many cases of possible error
as we could include. We drilled students on these sentences.
Some of the sentences were :

A girl sees an angel.

Put the sheep into the ship.

One of the boys was Charles.

We used sentences on the blackboard as well as groups of
confusing words :

That bat is like a bird.

It — eat.

Of— off.

Ship- — chip — sheep — cheap.

Bat — 1)et — bit — but.

Bad— bed— bird.

Then — than.

Wherein our advantage over reading consisted, was in the
immense amount of practice or drill on exactly the words which
caused difficulty.

This device is, of course, more useful for the correction of
errors than for original teachin^i' of words. It has, however,
been useful in the lower standards as a variant on ordinarv oral
drill.

The oral language-lesson itself must be chosen carefully.
Our surest as well as swiftest results were secured bv the use

470 t)UK LANGUAGE AND THE NATIVE PL'IML.

of action-lessons. The teacher put a block on the desk, sayi'ng,
" I put the block on the desk." She then commanded the
children to do the same. She asked what had been done. She
made the children correct each other's mistakes in action or
explanation. She corrected errors as soon as made.

All excellent means which I have used successfully is an
adaptation of the great enemy word, " Verboten." When an
error in using a word or phrase became prevalent, we gave oral
and written lessons in which the use of the word or phrase in
question was totally or nearly totally prohibited. For example,
Standard V had oral composition about a locust, previously
studied in nature-study, with the aim of seeing who could use
the word " and " the fewest times. In a higher class we pro-
hibited the words " too "" and " by " entirely, in compositions,
for a whole quarter ; we allowed " and " only twice in a page.
There have been gratifying results from a similar prohibition
of the present participle in all its uses.

This device is most excellent in securing ease and flexibility
of language. Its use makes the i)upils discover and practise
improved forms of expression.

I pass now to a matter which may offend some persons.
I refer to the effect of the extensive use of the Bible in the
Sichools for natives. We have heard much of our Bible as a
" well of pure English undefiled."' But the plain fact is that
it is no such thing as far as natives are concerned. It is a well
of archaisms that are to-day errors. Let me be specific. In
Psalm 23 is the phrase, " Thou makest me to lie down in green
pastures." In contemporary usa^'e the word " to " after make
is erroneous. The subjunctive mood is used perhaps four times
as much in the Bible as in the best current writing. In the third
pers<in singular this creates permanent confusion : many natives
form an unbreakable habit of saying, " he have," " he sing."
etc.. on all occasions. In current usage the future tense is.
" I shall go. you will go. he will go, we shall go," etc. In the
Bible, " I will go " is regularly used for the simple future tense,
instead of for the expression of detertnination. The use of " thou
shall " and " he shall " in frequent commands in the Bible fur-
ther muddles matters. The results (^f this antique usage are
that hardly one native who finishes Standard VI can use the
correct modern forms for the future tense. The use of antique
phrases, such as " believe on," and obsolete past tenses such
as " bare," " drave," leads to further confusion. The unsyste-
matic punctuation of the Bible, the lack of c|UOtation marks, and
the overuse of the word " and " are further stumbling-blocks.

This is not advocacy of the withdrawal of this book of
ethics from native schools. I do. however, ask for the use of
any one of the many good modern-speech versions. If the
Bible be worth using, let us use it in the most advantageous
'form. The alleged literary merits of the older versions do not
enter into this question.

,.\ decided waste of time is found in the present forms of

OUR LANGUAGE AXi) TliJ': XATIVl': I'UJ'IL. 4/1

instruclii)n in l-^nglish i:raniniar. h is not clear, for example,
what purpose is served by teaching natives the details of par-
sing', the kinds of i)r()nouns, the sexen different uses of the
objective case, etc. It would >cem far more effectixe to use this
time for drill in correct usage and pronounciati(m. The gram-
mar usually taught is notorious for not ha\iiig an\- effect in
preventing errors in speech and writing.

The following tentative outline for instruction in grammar
is based on a short survey to show what parts of grammar have
actually been useful to the students at Anianzimtoti in the last
year and a half.

1. Drill on the conjugation of the verb. The progres-
sive and emphatic forms should be omitted because they
are abused if known.

2. Drill in simple analysis of sentences.

3. Practice in recognizinig clauses and their uses. Much
practice in writing sentences with given kinds of clauses
in conversion of sentences.

4. Practice in the use of the difficult pronouns: relative
and interogative.

5. Thorough drill in punctuation.

6. The sequence of tenses, with much drill in indirect
discourse. Indirect (|uestions must be thc^roughly taught.

7. Drill in correct uses of pre]>ositions.

Finall}'. I W'ish to revert to the matter of pronunciation.
At -Vmanzimtoti there are English, Sct)tch, American, Dutch,
and Colonial members of the teaching staff'. To prevent the
studeTits from acquiring from any of us peculiarities of speech
not correct in this country, we have given special attention to
instruction in pronunciation.

We found it necessary to drill extensively on all the short
vowels, and on a few commoii words such as " a," " the," " of,"
which were made so long by the students that they were nearly
unrecognizable. We found extensive drill necessary on the
vowel-sound in bird, church. The students seemed totally unable
to get this sound until we told them to " stick out their lips like
Hottentots." The sound of ch was the only difficult consonant.
We exaggerated each point slightly ; after the inevitable slipping-
back. we secured correct i>ronunciation.

I wish to urge on all who educate iiatives the necessity of
teaching pronunciation mo.st careifully and systematically.

{Read, July 3, lyi/.)

Grey College Herbarium.— Mr. J. Burtt-Davy
]X)ints out that in his presidential address before Section C, at the
Stellenbosch meeting,* he omitted to mention the herbarium of
plants oif the Orange Free State, de}xisited at the Grey Univer-
sity College, Bloemfontein. This herbarium contains .some 3.000
sheets.

* Sec this volume. ))p. 64-82.

UPON THE FATE OF ARSENIC AFTER INGESTION
BY, AND INJECTION INTO, LIVE-STOCK. AND
AFTER ABSORPTION THROUGH THE SKIN IN
DIPPING.

B}- Henry Hamilton Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

{Abstract.)

{Prhitcd ill Ainiiial Report of the Director of i'ctcrinary

Research, Pretoria. )

Experiments have been carried ont on sheep, horses, and
cattle, the bulk of the data being derived from experimental
work on the administration of arsenite in the treatment of wire-
worm {Hcenioiicliiis contortiis) in sheep. Numerous protocols
are presented to show the distribution of arsenic in the stomach
system and intestinal tract at various intervals after dosing,
and the rate oif elimination in urine and fceces is dealt with in
considerable detail. The distributicjn of arsenic in the ditterent
compartments of the stomach of the sheep depends upon the
path taken in swallowing. If the animal takes material volun-
tarily, as in the form of a lick, the greater proportion passes into
the rumen, and thence slowly through the abomasum into the
intestine. If the animal is forcibly dosed, as with a si)ot)n. the
path is more arbitrary, and a considerable portion may pass
direct to the abomasum. from which it is more rapidly passed
on into the intestine. Duration of sojourn of arsenic in the
stomach system is discussed.

Rate of absorption and elimination of soluble arsenic is
rapid, and the path of elimination of either arsenite or arsenate
of sodium is chiefly b}- the kidneys, about four-tifths of the dose
appearing in the urine, and only one-fifth (or less) in the fjeces.
With arsenious oxide })owder. absorption is slow, and the relative-
proportions eliminated in faeces and urine are reversed.

After administering soluble arsenite by the mouth. 25-45
per cent, of the dose may be eliminated in the urine within 24
hours, and as much as 60 per cent, within 48 hours. By the
fourth day the rate of elimination falls to a few per cent, of the
dose, and thereafter there is a gradually decreasing output,
which tails off to a fraction of a milligram per day after eight
or nine days. Traces of arsenic, however, are frequently detec-
table for another week or two, but the amount is too small ti»
be of any physiological consequence. In the faeces the maximum
output usually occurs in the third day. and 'by the seventh or
eighth day the solid excreta are practically arsenic- free.

When soluble arsenite is injected straight into the blood-
stream the path of elimination is almost wholly through thc
urine. the amount entering the gastro-hepatic circulation being

FATE OF ARSENIC AFTER INGESTION UV LIVESTOCK. 473

very small. Elimination begins at once, and several per cent,
'/if the injected amount may appear within half an hour. As
much as 70 per cent, ma}' appear within 24 hours, the amount
then rajiidly tailin^j- off until at the end of five or six days over
ijo per cent, may have been recovered. I'^urther elimination
is gradual and trifling in daily amoimt.

After injection into the blood-stream the concentration of
arsenic in the blood falls with extraordinary rapidity by tem-
porary distribution over the tissues. The rapidity and nature
of this distribution is discussed.

The data for horses and cattle are more limited, largely
owing to the greater experimental difficidties presented by the
collection of faeces and urine of large animals. With the horse,
however, the absorjition of soluble arsenic seems to be less com-
plete, and a larger ])ro]x:)rtion of any gi\en (l(ise appears in the
faeces.

The amount of arsenic eliminated by cattle and horses after
dipping in arsenical tanks is very small, and the currentlv
accepted data are shown to be erroneous. Currently accei)ted
data for arsenic retained in the skin of dii>ped animals are also
shown to be much too high. The bearing of these ])()ints on
the modus operandi of tick destruction is discussed.

The quantity of arsenic to be ex])ected in organs such as
the liver in cases of arsenical intoxication, is considered, and
the difficulties of diagnosing arsenical poisoning in stock in
S(".uth Africa are discussed.

( Read. J Illy 5, IQ17.)

NEBULiE AND NOYJE — Dr. \'. M. Slipher contributed
some time ago to the Proceedings of the American Philosophical
Society a paper on Nebul;e, in the course of which he remarked
that it has for a long time been suggested that the spiral nebulae
are stellar systems seen at great distances. This is the so-called
" island universe " theory, which regards our stellar s\stem and
the Milky Way as a great spiral nel)u]a wliich we see from within.
This theory, Dr. Slipher considers, gains in favour l)y reason
of the spectrographic observations conducted at the Lowell
Observatory since 1912, but he thinks that, if our solar system
evolved from a nebula, as was long believed, it was probably not
one of this class of spirals. In the course of some notes on
\ariable stars contributed to the Report of the Council of the
Royal Astronomical Society,* the Rev. T. E. R. Phillips declares
that it is unthinkable that the apparent relationship between Novae
and spiral nebulae in so many instances can be fortuitous. The
Novae must almost certainly be In the nebulae, and this circum-
stance, taken in conjunction with the well-known clustering of
Novae in our galaxy towards the galactic plane, seems highlv
significant, and gives striking supjwrt to the theor\- that the
spirals are '' island universes."

* .'[fniifhiy ynficcs (lQt8). 78 U^. .^"Q.

NOTE ON THE ANALYSIS OF SODA-SULLTJ UK

DIPS.

By Bertka:\i Juseptt Hill.

{Abstract.)

Several soda-sulpluir concentrates are now on the Soiitlt
African market, sold primarily for use as sheep-dip in the
eradication of scab. One of these, indeed, has been marketed
as a lime-sulphur dip although calcium is practically absent.
Since sodium polysulphide is just as valuable as calcium poh -
sulphide (if not more so) in the treatment of scab, nothing is to
be gained by such confusion of sijeciticati(Mi.

In the analysis of soda-sulphur dips, the direct iodine titra-
tion method, largely used in the United States for lime-sulphur
concentrates, is not applicable. In this process the " mono-
sulphur efjuivalent," or " l)ase in combination with sul])hur as
sulphide," is determined by runnin^^' in iodine luitil the yelKn\
colour of ])olysulphide is completely discharged, and thiosuli^hate
then determined by continuing the titration to starch end-point.
In dealing with soda-sulphur concentrates a certain amount of
sodium carbonate is always presem, and although this is not
directly registered to iodine, it has the effect of raising and ob-
scuring the reading for "" monosulphur equivalent." If b\
chance any free caustic soda is ])resent. Ijoth iodine readings ma}"
be vitiated. In calculating monosul]>hur ecjuivalent against
total sulphide sulphur, in order to determine the nature of the
polysidphides present., an erroneottsly narrow ratio may then be
obtained, and this may lead to tmjust suspicion that the harm-
less higher polysulphides are admixed with depilatory mono-
sulphide. It is therefore maintained that the older method O'f
determining monosulphide equivalent by titration Avith ammonia-
cal zinc, and subsequent determination of thiosulphate in the
filtrate by iodine titrati<:^n, gives more reliable results. An
ordinary acid titration to methyl orange should also be carried
oiu in order to obtain a rough indication of the amount of car-
bonate present. If acid titration is higher than zinc titration,
the difference is usually to be attrilnued to carbonate, although
theoretically it might be hydroxide. If the zinc titration is
higher than the acid titration, hvdrosulphide is indicated. If
the two titrations are the same, it indicates that all the titratablc
base is in combination with sulphur, or that carbonate is in
equilibrium with hydrosulphide.

Carbonate, hydroxide, a,nd polysulphide (tetra or penta i
can co-exist together in solution without immediate interaction
A little carbonate is therefore of no consequence in a freshly-
made dip, but it is considered at least possible that on prolonged
storage slow reaction with polysul|)hide may take place with pos-

NOTE OM THE ANALYSIS OF SODA-SULT H UK DJ PS. 475

sible formation of depilaU)ry hytlrosulphide. This point, how-
ever, has not yet been specificiall}' investigated. In the event
of appreciable amotnits of depilatory lower sulphide being pres-
ent, the ratio of monostilphur equivalent to total sulphide sulphur
will of course be umisualh^ narrow. In well-made soda-sulphur
dips this ratio usually lies between i : 4 and i : 5, i.e., a mixttu^e
of tetrasulphide and pentasulphide is indicated. If the ratio
is much narrower than i : 4 the dip should be viewed with
sus|)icion, and tested by steeping washed wool in it at tank dilu-
tion, and then subjecting the fibre to microscopic examination
for depilatory action.

In reporting upon the efficacy of a soda-sulphur concentrate
in relation to the eradication of scab, the content of polysuli>hide
sulphur should be made the basis of calculation. Other con-
stituents, such as thiosulphate, are of negligible parasiticidal im-
portance, and need not be considered in evaluation. The dilu-
tion recommended for tank strength should be such that the
polysulphide does not fall below 0.6 to 0.7 per cent.

The following sample analyses illustrate the composition of
four dififerent concentrates : —

Grams per 100 c.c.

A.

B.

C.

D.

Total Soda, Na^O . . . .

12.90

17-95

1 1 . 50

17-15

Sulphur Total

^3-5^

31-15

16 45

23.40

Sulphur as Thiosulphate

2.04

7-35

6-75

6.42

Sulphur as Sulphite and

Sulphate

•74

-31

•25

.36

Sulphur as Sulphide and

Polysulphide . . . .

20.80

23-49

9-45

16.62

Monosulphur Equivalent

4.62

5- II

2.20

5-70

Ratio M.E. : S.S

1:4-5

I 14. 6

I :4-3

I :2.9

Dilution for Tank Use re-

commended by the

vendors

1 :30

I :40

1:30

1:50

Hence Concentration of

Polysulphide Sulphur

at Tank Strength . .

.69

•59

•32

•33

Samples A and B are permissible, sample B being practi-
cally on the 0.6 per cent, limit for polysulphide sulphur (re-
garded as the minimum for efficiency in the treatment of scab),
and sample A being well above it and equivalent to a well-
prepared home-made dip. From the analysis B is stiggested as
being manufactured from cattstic soda and sulphur, while A, in
which the thiosulphate is very low, is suggested as being derived
by reduction of sodium sulphate. Sample C would also be per-
missible if used at twice the strength recommended by the ven-
dors. There is no evidence of admixture with depilatory lower
sulphide, but the tank concentration only works out at half the
strenj^th regarded as necessary. It could not. therefore, be
relied upon to cure scab if used according to the specified direc-

4/6 NOTE ON THE ANALYSIS OF SODA-SL'LP HUR DIPS

tiuns. Incidentally the projjortion uf the total sulphur which is
present as ineffective thiosulphate is unusually high.

Sample D cannot be regarded as permissible. The poly-
sulphide ratio of I 12.9 suggests admixture with lower, possibly
depilatory, sulphides, and, indeed, on comparing zinc titration
with acid titration, evidence of the presence of a considerable
amount of hydrosulphide was obtained. The tank dilution re-
commended also gives only half the strength of polysulphide
sulphur regarded as a reliable minimum, and in view of the
narrow ])olysulphide ratio, it might not be safe to dip at higher
concentrations. The exact extent of damage to skin or fleece,
which might result from its use, would be difficult to assess with
out an actual dipping trial, but from a manufacturing point of
view sample D is an inferior article, and there is no reasonable
justihcation for its presence on the market.

{Read, July 5, 191 7.)

Bantu Mentality. — In a recent issue of Science
Progress* Mr. A. G. Thacker discusses an essay on the mental
development of the South African Native, contributed by the
Rev. A. T. Bryant to the Eugenics Reviezv.'\ Mr. Bryant thinks
that up to the time of puberty the Bantu boy is rather in advance
cif the European boy, but that subsequently not only does arrest
of mental development occur in the Bantu, but there is even
retrogression. In the female Bantu, both youthful and adult,
Mr. Bryant could not find any inferiority compared with the
European female. In this connection Mr. Thacker makes the
following comments: "If the Bantu woman be really the mental
equal of the white woman, is she not in advance of her own
Uicn? Further, if the average of the Bantu women is equal to
the average of European women, it is very possible, though not a
necessary consequence, that the range of variation in the females
cif the two races is equally great. Now it v/ill not be disputed
that the mental powers of a considerable minority of white women
— probably about 10 per cent. — are. even in those departments,
such as ratiocination, which, as Romanes pointed out long ago,
con.stitute the special masculine province, annreciablv superior to
the powers of the average white man, whilst a small minority of
women soar far above the ordinary man. Are we to believe
that the Bantu nations have possessed intellects such as these?
It may be so; the intellects mny have existed, and have yet been
unable to make themseh-es felt owin-^- to adverse social conditions.
The idea must not be scouted merely because to most of us it
haDpens to be unexpected."'

* (igryV 12. 2,^0.
■r (1917). 9 [t].

BINET-SIMON TESTS ON ZULUS.

By Stephen Gottheil Rich, M.A.

The results reported in this paper were gathered by Mr.
H. Redfern Loades, then of Durban, and now of Uitenhaije, and
the present writer, in May and Novemiber, 191 6. The actual
testing is mainly Mr. Loade's work, but the collation of results is
mine. The conclusions are in the main mine, and do not repre-
sent adequately Mr. Loades' views.

We undertook this work without knowledge of the work then
ill hand by Lispector C. T. Loram, Ph.D., which was so interest-
ing a feature of the meetings at Maritzburg- in 1916. We had the
pleasure of seeing some of Dr. Loram's results before they were
read at Maritzburg, and were benefitted by a comparison of aims
and methods.

Those who are familiar with mental tests know of the scale
oi tests elaborated by Binet. of Paris, some dozen years ago, and
later improved by Simon. Cioddard. an American, has pro-
duced the standard version of them for English-speaking sub-
jects. We have taken the 191 1 Goddard revision as our start-
ing i)oint. As in the case of Binet and all his co-workers, we
have not tried to secure results of value for comparative psychol-
ogy cif different races, but have kept within the limitations set by
our method. Our results, based as they are on relatively few
subjects, should not be taken as in the least degree final, but rather
as a starting point for more thorough work. I hope to have the
l^rivilege of presenting further results in 1918.

The specific aim of the Binet-Simon system of tests is to
provide means for the detection of cases of arrested and pre-
cocious mental development. It is a means for identifying the
various psychological groups, and nothing more. The method
consists of giving the subjects questions to ask and problems to
solve, which have proved correct for the normal person of each
age. The person who solves all the problems set ifor a child
of ten years, and who is unable to do those for a child of eleven,
is thus assigned the " mental age " of ten years. If the person is
fifteen years old he shoAvs a retardation df five years; if he is
nine he shows an advance of one year.

Our material was chosen from the students of the Amanzim-
toti Institute and the Adams Practising School, both situated at
Adams Mission Station, Natal. Our material ranged from 6.2
to 22 years in age. We chose, out of the 170 pupils at our
command, those that appeared to us and their teachers as most
typical.

One valid objection to our tests is that the subjects were
not living under typical native conditions, but all had more or less
influence from European teachers. This we hojie to correct by
extending our tests to " raw "" natives in the future.*

* See The Pedagogical Sciniiiary. September, 1017, pp. 373-383. for
detailed schedules of our results, for the pictures used, etc.

4/8 BINET-S1M(JN TESTS ON ZULUS.

I shall not recount all the (luestions and ])roblems used, but
run through the list briefly, with various comments.

So far as possible, we have simply translated the tests into
Zulu. I shall not here g-ive the Zulu text of every cjuestion, nor
of many.

The Binet-Simon series of tests begins with tests for " Age .V
and proceeds by steps of a year to " 12 years.'' There are also
" 15 Years " and " Adult " tests.

Age 3. Here we simply translate three of Binet's tests:
"Where is your nose? your mouth? your eyes?" "Repeat
6, 4." " What do you see in this picture?" (pictures of a man
on a park bench, a man with a cart, etc.) In |>lace of repeating
the sentence used in the Goddard revision, we gave Zulu sen-
tences of an equal number of syllables. In ])lace of asking the
family name, we put. " What is your (father's name?''

Age 4. We simply translated the tests similar to those trans-
lated for Age 3. For one test, in which a key. a knife, and a
penn}' are to he recognised, we substituted three objects more
familiar: a mutsha, a native i3ot, and l^eads. We tried the Binet
objects, but found them too difficult.

Age 5. Here we simply translated the directions, using
Binet's tests pickino' out the heavier object, copying a s(|uare.
counting pennies, putting together a pattern. We substituted
for Binet's sentence to be repeated a Zulu one of the same number
of syllables.

Age 6. Here we translated all the tests. For one. where the
prettier face w^as to be selected, we had ])repared drawings of
native faces, but found Binet's European faces equally satisfac-
tory. For the directions — " take this key from the chair, shut
the door," etc., in the tests of obeying commands, we foimd it
wise to substitute a spoon for a key as being more familiar.

Age 7. Here we also translated most of the tests: finding
things missing in a picture, such as that of a figure without arms :
counting pennies, telling what is seen in pictures, naming colours,
copying a rhombus. On the last test (for this age, in which the
subject repeats five figures, we had to make an enlarged time
allowance of ten seconds instead of three seconds becajuse the
Zulu numerals are very long words.

Age 8. Here we had to make some changes. Binet asks
for three pairs of differences, which seemed very unfamiliar to
the children. We put in such as " What is the dift'erence between
an ox and a fowl?" On repeating figures we had again to in-
crease the time allowance as for Age 7. For naming the days
of the week, which proved impossible for nearly all subjects up to
a much later age, we found it good to substitute the naming of
seven parts of an ox. The test of making change we had to
omit, as being one with objects unfamiliar to most subjects. We
did not succeed in finding a substitute.

Age 9. Here we found it necessary to omit all the tests.
The test of making change was omitted for reasons just given.
The test of defining things — a hand, etc. — had to be omitted. a<

UINET-SIMON TESTS ON ZULUS. 479

in every case the subjects did it no better than those of 6 years, in
whose tests this comes. TelHng the month and year had to be
omitted, as being- unknown to most subjects. This is obviously
a thin<>' that our more complex hfe teaches us at an early age.
Unfamiliarity made us omit all the other tests: the subjects
simply could not understand them.

Age 10. Here likewise we had to omit a test that dealt with
coins, since the children did not know more than the penny, half-
penny, threepence, sixpence, and shilling. We translated the
tests for drawing from memory, and for repeating numbers. In
the case of the tests of judgment, we had to make substitutions
throughout in order to get material familiar enough to allow of
judgment. We inserted such tests as: " What ought one to do
when the ])orridge has boiled over?" "What ought one to do
when he has killed a neighbour's goat by accident?" We trans-
lated the test on making a sentence from three familiar words,
making a change in the words : we used ox. hut, snake.

Age II. In the tests for discovering nonsense in sentences
we had to make a few changes. One sentence has " ])olice " in
it in English : we substituted " chief " as being the i:)erson of like
authority among natives. We found that they knew the police
only as tax-collectors. We translated the test fc^r making a sen-
tence with three words, changing it as for age lo. In the test
for saying as many words as possible in three minutes, we found
it necessary to allow for the slow reaction-time of natives: 35
words in three minutes were all that most subjects could give.
The rhyming test we had to omit entirely, as being utterly foreign
to the Zulu language. We could not find a substitute. We
simph' translated the test of arranging words to make a sentence.

Age 12. The test for repeating numbers was simply trans-
lated. Children in school at this age seemed able to do it as
easily in English as in Zulu. In the test of defining words we
found Binet's words unfamiliar: we substituted " love," "bright-
ness," " anger." Binet uses among other words " justice," which
• was totally unknown. Eor the sentence to be repeated we sub-
stituted a Ztilu sentence of the same length, 25 syllables. We sim-
ply translated the test ifor resisting suggestion by picking out the
longer line from successive pairs. 1lie last test for this age was
very difficult. W^e found that the problems which Binet used
were totally insoluble in most cases. Eor example, Binet asks
" If a man came from the forest and ran to the police, what did he
see?" The substitution of "chief" for "police" did not im-
prove matters very much. Most subjects answered, " A snake.''
It was the same with the case of the lawyer, doctor, and minister
calling at a house : the Zulus simi)ly did not know what was mean',
since they had ne\'er seen such doings at a death. We devised
two substitutes: " If you saw a bird's nest, and the mother bird
flew in and out again \ery (luickly, and the father bird flew in
and out again very quickly, what was the matter?" " There Avas
a dance: somebody went and got the chief to come with his in-

480 BINET-SIMON TESTS ON ZULUS.

dunas and their sticks; what was the matter?" . These are fairly
satisfactory.

Age 15. We used the same pictures as in the 6-year test of
Hke nature, but, as Binet has done, we required an interpretation.
This was satisfactory as a test. The time test, of reversnij;
mentally the hands of a clock shown them, and telling^ what time
it would be. proved imi3ossible. Almost every subject was noi
suflicitntly familiar with a clock to meet the test. We substituted
a test on the appearance of a footprint when a person has
walked backward. While undoubtedly difficult, this new test is
practicable, and contains the same mental process as Bluet's
reversal of clock-hands. The cipher tests to learn the cipher,
and, after removal of the paper, to write in it three short words,
was excessively difficult. It is an excellent test, however, and
might be retained if double value were given for passing it,
without double penalty for failure. In giving opposites, we have
simply translated the test into Zulu.

Aditlf Tests- — The test of drawing what a piece of paper
folded and cut in a given way appears like when opened was
simplv translated. All four of the other adult tests were imprac-
ticable, since they dealt with matters entirely outside of the sub-
jects' ex])eriences. We have therefore omitted them. The two
tests in which differences are asked for are most strikinu' cases
in jx^int. Hardly any even knew what a republic was. when
asked the difference between a president and a king.

Individual Results.
Our work is based mainly on the following eight individual
sets of results. The tests, as given above, were used.

1. v. M. Male, age 6.2. Parents, both Zulu. Father a
teacher. Passed all three and four years' tests, and three in
5-years" series. Passed four out of five 6-years' tests. Intelli-
gence age. 5.5. A bright boy in school. This boy counted in
English 1)\- preference.

2. L. Z. -Male, age 10.5. Standard 1, Adams' Practising
School. Parents both Zulu. Passed all io years' tests. Fur-
ther tests not tried. Passed perfectly a test of 10 analogies;
gave 21 words in 3 minutes.

3. W. M. Male, aged 13. Standard I, Adams' Practising
School. Parents both Zulu, heathens. Passed all tests through
age 10, two out of four in age 11, four out of five in age 12,
two out of four in age 15. Intelligence age. 13. This boy began
school late. Gave 30 words in 3 minutes. On test with pairs
of lines ; resisted suggestion.

4. A. N. Female, age 19. Amanzimtoti Institute, School
Grade Class. Normal Department. Passed all tests through
age 15. and three out of five in adult series. Intelligence age,
18. All tests were given in English at subject's request. Failures
in adult tests due to unfamiliarity with material ; likewise with
hands of clock tests. Unusually quick in reaction time.

5. Z. Mk. Alale, age 22. Second Grade Class. Amanzimtoti

IJINET-SIMDN TESTS OX ZULUS. 481

Institute. Normal Department. Passed all tests throtigh 12
years. Passed three out of four tests in 15 years. Passed one
out of five in adult tests. Sixty-two words sriven in 3 minutes.
All tests were given in English. This student relied far niitre
than any others tested on verbal memory. Rection time was
very slow. Gave English and Zulu words mingled in test for
gibing words.

7. Tested with translation of regular tests, and not with
substitutes. K. Nx. Male, age 14.8. Parents, Zulu. Standard
VI, Amanzimtoti Institute. Passed three out of five tests of 12
years, one out of two in 15 years. Twenty-nine words in 3
minutes.

8. Tested as in number 7. L. G. AJale. age 14.9. Parents.
Zulu. Passed ifour out of live in 12 years, two out of three in
15 years. Gave definitions " in terms of the question."

General Remarks.

We noted the association-groups in the test of giving words
in all cases. They were in all cases many small groni^s, but not
connection between them.

As I have remarked above, the greatest need is to extend
the work to uneducated natives. A comparison of the results
of such work with work similar to the present report would
show what the influence of education is u])on the rate, and more
especially upon the type of intellectual development.

More extensive tests wotild show to what extent the current
forms of native edtication are effective as i^romoters of mental
power. Since native education in Natal shows forms ranging;-
from nearly an exact copy of the English schools of 30 years
ago to thoroughly modern curricula and methods, there is chance
for excellent work of great {practical \-alue.

An extension of this work ought to show the truth or
falsity of the vulgar assertion that the native mind ceases its
growth at puberty. It would demonstrate to what extent educa-
tion prevents such an occurrence. Our results indicate, so far
as they go. that there is no check in mental growth at puberty.
but that the direction o"f growth is not the same as in adolescent
Europeans.

To what extent this is a restilt of the educational systems
in use cannot as yet be told. To what extent it is due to dif-
ferent heme surroundings must likewise remain as yet unde-
termined.

The tendency toward ])ure verbal memory, without associa-
tion, is noticeable in the subjects examined. This would appear
from the data at hand to be a product of education rather ihan an
innate character of the native mind.

It will be noticed that many, if not most, of our changes
have had to be made to fit the cultural conditions of the natives.
The Binet-Simon tests, as originally devised, seem to test as
much cultural conditions as of mental ability. They are
based on things and customs not foimd excejjt in the older and

482 r.INET-SIMON TESTS ON ZULUS.

more advanced countries, and mainly in towns. This must be
reckoned with in all work in which they are used. The pro-
blems of making change, or rhyming, and the like, are very
good cases in point.

I would end with an appea^ to extend this sort of work.
We lack utterly any criteria as to what is normal ])rogress among
natives, and as to the particular directions in which their mental
aptitudes lie. With an extensive series of mental tests on natives
at hand it will be possible to devize what has hitherto been im-
possible : a system of education that will fit the natives.

{Read. July 3, 1917.)

THE GRASSES OF THE EASTERN COAST BELT
AVAILABLE FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF

PAPER.

By Charles Frederick Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.LC.

(Printed in "South African Journal of Industries/'
January and February, 1918.)

THE ALLEGED ARREST OF MENTAL DEVELOP-
MENT IN THE NATIVE.

By Charles Templeman Loram, M.A., LL.B.. Ph.D.

(Printed in "The Education of the South African Native":

Longmans, London.)

Ancient Panama Canals. — The faunal relations of
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans have at various times received
the attention of many eminent zoologists and palaeontologists. In
the course of a series of papers conmumicated by R. E. Dicker-
son to the California Academy of Sciences, the author said that
recent discoveries and investigations in the miocene, oligocene,
and eocene of the Pacific coast had led him to review this sub-
ject again. He states some of his conclusions thus : The Panama
Portal was closed during cretaceous time, and this gateway was
not opened until upper eocene time. During a period of wide-
spread uplift in oligocene time the .\ntilles were probably con-
nected with Southern Florida, and possibly Central America.
Following this emergent stage, a wide submergence occurred dur-
ing miocene time. At this period North and South America were
disconnected, and v/ide straits in Central America were formed.
Since the miocene, the Panama portal has remained closed until
the narrow barrier was trenched by the Panama Canal.

EXPERIMENTAL EXPRESSION OF THE RELATION-
SHIP BETWEEN THE CONTENT OF A FOOD-
STUFF IN ANTINEURITIC HORMONE AND THE
PERIOD OF HEALTHY SURVIVAL OF ANIMALS
UPON IT.

By Henry Hamilton Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

(Abstract.

{Printed ill Aniuial Report of the Director of Veterinary

Research, Pretoria.)

An extensive series of experiments uix)n pigeons is recorded,
on diets varying- in known fashion in regard to content in vita-
mine or antineuritic hormone, and an attempt is made to find
a simple algebraic expression to explain the data. .'V formula
is tentatively sugti'ested :

K I

6- = —

V- X C

Where .S" = period elapsing before onset of deficiency disease.

V = minimum proportion of vitamine in the diet neces-
sary for health.

X = proportion of vitamine actually present in the diet.

K = proportion of vitamine reserve in the tissues of
the animal.

C = the available energy value of the diet.

It is argued that this tentative expression explains the
observations much better than the simple assumption that a
fixed daily vitamine intake is reciuired. and gives some indica-
tion of the length of time which may be expected to elapse before
onset of deficiency symptoms on any given diet is noticeable.
It indicates that the f|uantity of vitamine required for health is
not absolute. l)ut depends upon the gross energy value of the
diet, and suggests that the (function of vitamine is related rather
to the gross metabolism than to the structural requirements of
the animal. A considerable amount of evidence is adduced in
support of this expression, which, though it cannot be relied
u])on in any one given case, seems to fit fairly well when a large
number of individuals is considered, and individual idiosyncrasy
is ruled out. Individual variation in vitamine requirements is
shown to be great, and this factor renders definite proof exceed-
ingly difficult to obtain. The expression is therefore only pro-
visional, and intended as a guide in the interpretation of conflict-
ing data. It is held that the value for Y. is much the same in
the avian and in the human subject, but much lower in cattle.

484 EXPERIMENTAL EXPRESSION.

Polished rice, the staple deficient basal diet in the exi:)erimental
work on beri-beri in the past, is held to be far from " vitamine
free," and is regarded as containing residual vitamine equiva-
lent to at least half of average avian or human requirements.

{Read, July 5. 1917.)

Seaweed as Fodder. — Analyses of sam]>les of Fuciis
vesiciilosus, both in the fresh and in the dried and ground con-
dition, have recently been made with a view to utilisation as
stock- food. The following: results are recorded : —

'i-i

Fresh. Dry.

Moisture 37-97 11 .82

Protein TO.53 6.50

Fat 1.65 3.43

Nitrogen-free extract 26.78 41-93

Fibre 8 . 95 20 . 00

Ash '4- 13 16.32

The fresh seaweed is richer in protein than the ground dry
seaweed, but contains less fat and fibre. Usually seaweed con-
tains but little protein or fat, but a large (juantity of nitrogen-free
extract and fibre. Recent experiments in Norway, France, and
Germany show that food of this class ma}' well be given to
animals, and leaves no trace of its smell in either meat or eggs
of animals exj^erimented on. The nutritive value of the sea-
weed appears to depend chiefly on the nitrogen-free extract,
which consists principally of lichen-starch, arabinose. rf-galac-
tose, etc. The fibre is probably also easily digested. It seems
most advisable to give the seawood in the ground dry state, as a
supplementary food, especially to cattle and pigs. 1:)ut its nutritive
value must not be overrated.

Early Man in America. — E. S. Balch, in a paper read
before the American Pbilosophical Society,* summarises the pre-
sent status of knowledge about early man in America. He
believes that early man was there ; that lie lived during at least
part of the Pleistocene period for tens of thousands of 5ears
south of the Glacial moraines ; that he probably went through an
eolithic period, and certainly through a Chelleen period in some
places, and therefore was truly a Paheolithic man. Paleolithic
American man was the ancestor of the Neolithic historic Indian,
and, although less advanced in culture, much like his descendant
in anthropological characteristics.

'■ Proc. Amcr. Phil. Soc. (1C17). 56, |6], 473-483.

I'OMiES APPLANATUS (PERS.) WALLR. IN SOUTH
AFRICA, AND ITS EFFECT ON THE WOOD OF
BLACK IRON WOOD TREES (OLEA LAURI FOLIA).

Bv Paul Andries van der Bijl. Al.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

{Plates 14-17, and two text figures.)

Introduction.

The ifungus Pontes applanatiis (Pers.) Wallr. is about the
commonest of the Poh-porace^e occurrin»- in South Africa, and
is perhaps better known under the name Pomes australis Fr.
There is. however, no specific distinction between the alx)ve
two fvmgi. and many of our specimens agree exactly with Pomes
applanatiis as known from Europe and America.

Lkiyd* writes: "In a narrow sense this (P. australis) is a
tropical form of Pomes applanatiis with a thin context and lon.i,'-
pores." " It is a time-honotired custom to refer every Pomes
oi the section Canodermus that came from the tropics to P.
australis." And againf : " In the tropics Pomes applatiafits often
takes a form exactly the same as the European form, but
generally the crust is hard and l:)rown. and then it is classed as
Pomes australis."

MurrillJ places this fungus in his genus Elf^'ingia, and
cites Pomes australis as a synonym of his Elfi'ingia tornata
(Pers.) Mur.

Heald§ describes Elfvingia inegaloma (Lev.) Mur. as
causing a disease oif cotton-wood, and cites Pomes leueopheeus
( Mont. ) as a synonym.

Pomes leucophccus can, however, hardly be regarded as a
distinct species, and the only difference between it and P. appla-
natiis is that in the former the crust is of a lighter colour.

Under the name Pomes australis, Petch l| mentions this
fungus from Ceylon on palms and bamboos as well as on
dicotyledonous trees, and states that whereas it is usually
saprophytic, several instances had been noticed in which it began
to grow on the exposed surface of a wound, and from that
starting-point proceeded to destroy the tree. This was observed
on a large Zisyplius Xylopyrus in the Peradeniya Botanic Gar-
dens. As far as Aeacia decurrens (cultivated wattle) is con-
cerned, he writes :

Onl}- tlie old trees at Hakgala are known to liave been attacked, l)Ut
it is evident from an examination of the stumps that most of the Acacias

* Lloyd. C. G., " Synopsis of the Genus Foiiics.'' 265.

t Lloyd. C. G.. ibid.. 264.

JMurrill, Wm. A.. "North American Flcra,'' 9 [2], 115.

§ Heald, F. D.. "' A Disease of Cottonwood due to Elfvingia inega-
loma." Nebraska Agric. F.xpt. Stn.. Nineteenth Ann. Report, 92.

Petch, T., Circulars and .lyric. .Joitni. of the Royal Botanic Garden.
Peradeniya. 5 [10]. 92.

486 FOMES APPLANATUS (PERS.) WALLR. IN' SOUTH AFRICA.

whicli liave died there have been killed by Pomes austmlis. The progress
of the disease is apparentl.v very slow, and it must have been at work on
these trees for many years.

\'on Schrenk and Spaulding/'' referring to the disease in
cotton-wood caused by Fomes applanatiis, write:

The writers have repeatedly observed this form of decay in the cotton,
but in their experience it usually starts near the base of the trunk in large
wounds caused by hre or otherwise. On that account they are not inclined
to call this decay of the cottonwood a disease in the sense in which the
decays induced by Fomes iii<:iiianus. P. fraxinnphilus, and others, are
diseases. There are a large number of species of fungi which, like Panics
applanaUis, grow on dead wood, and whicli may now and then grow on
living trees. All of these, including Pomes applaiwtus, can grow just as
well, and apparently better, on wood after it has been cut from living trees,
and should, in the f)pinion of the writers, be considered as saprophytic
forms.

The alx>ve view is rather to the extreme, and even if it
holds for the cotton-wood disease in America, it certainly does
not for Ijlack ironwood in South Africa, whicli latter is more
in agreement with the observation on Acacia dccitrrcus (the
wattle) by Petch in Ceylon. W'e must bear in mind that there
is no sharp line of demarcation between parasitic and sapro-
phytic fungi. As an extreme case of parasitism, we may take
the fungus Fomes rlmosus B'erk., which grows only on living
trees, and when it has killed its host ceases itself to grow. As
extreme cases af saprophytism, we have the fungi which live
and grow only on dead organic plant and animal remain?
Between these two extremes we have : ( i ) Fungi which start
life as ])arasites, and continue to grow and thrive on their dead
hosts — they become saprophytic; (2) fungi which start life as
saprophytes — e.g., in a wound, etc. — and then grow into the
healthy tissue of their hosts, which may ultimately succumb.

It is in this latter category that we must place Fames appla-
natiis. which, even if it does start as a saprophyte, is nevertheless
capable of invading living tissues of its host, and is frequently
the main cause of the death of trees which it has attacked.
Having killed its host, it continues to grow and thrive on the
dead remains — it returns once again to a saprophytic life.

The cycle of this fungus is from saprophyte to parasite and
back again to saprophyte, though the parasitic stage is not
necessarily essential to the life of the fungus, and is often
omitted. Fomes applanatiis. in other words, is a facultative
parasi'te.

Hosts of Fomes applanatiis tx South Africa.

This fungus has been found on a large number of different
trees in Sotith Africa, as the following list indicates. In some
instances the host was dead at the time the fructifications
appeared, whereas in others the host was still alive : Olea foveo-
lata (bastard ironwood) ; on dead and also at the base of live

* Schrenk Hermann von. and P. Spaulding, " Diseases of Deciduous
Forest Trees," U.S.A. Dep. Agric, iUireau of Plant Tndustrv. Bull. 149,
p. 5S.

FOMES APPLAN ATI'S ( I'KKS. ) VVALLR. IN SOUTH AFRICA. 487

trees of Olca laiirifolla (black ironwood) ; on stumps of Acacia
molissima (cultivated wattle); Melia Azcdaracl\ (Syringa); on
dead and also on live Rhus hcvujata (red currant) ; Cnrtisia
fagiuca (asseg^ai wood) ; (^n dead and also in wounds of Triclio-
cladits sp. (tuiderbush) ; bole of dead but standing Podocarpus
sp. (yellow wood) ; in wound of live P\nis cojiiiiiitiiis (culti-
vated pear); Ccltis Kraiissiana ( Canideboo stinkwood); dead
log of Scolopia Miindii (red pear). Many sjiecimens have been
entered up as growing on dead logs, which were not possible to
name, and the above list will later jirobably have to be con-
siderably enlarged.

The Funcus on Black Ikoxwood {Olca Jaiirifolia).

Sim,* treating of Olca laitrifolia, writes:

Trees which appear quite sound f)ut\varclly are often found to be
more or less decayed inside, even without showing much evidence of that
in the cross-cut. hut the sound parts of such a tree are not rendered untit
thereby.

The above is the only reference to a decay Oif black iron-
wood trees in South Africa, and whether Sim had this fungus
or Pomes rimosus, which less freciuently may occur on the same
host, in view, I do not know.

The loss of black ironwood trees owing to attack h\ this
fungus must be considerable, as I had an opportunity of seeing
for myself when, in 191 5, in company with Mr. J. D. Keet, of
the Forestry Department. I visited several of the forests of
the Eastern Conservancy.

As a result of the decay induced by this fimgus the trees
are weakened, and are easily blown over by the wind. Fre-
quently the sporophores of the fungus develop only after the
tree has been blown over, but they have also been observed at
the base of li\e black ironwood trees, and there can be on doul)t
about this fungus being directly responsible for the decav and
ultimate blowing oxer and death of these trees.

The fungus in most cases probably gains entrance through
small wounds or abrasions near the soil level, a i)lace which,
since it is usually somewhat moist, would favour the develop-
ment and growth of external mycelia of the fungus. The trees
affected are invariably full-grown, though it can hardlv be held
that their vitality had become impaired ])rior to infection by the
fungus. Furthermore, in no case obser\ed in black ironwood
was there any large wound, such as \on Schrenk and Sjjaulding
would appear invariably to associate with the cotton-wood
disease. The attacked ])art is soft and ])unky, and the
decayed wood in the dry condition is readily crtmibled
between the lingers. We come next to consider the
action of the fungus on the wood. Figure i illustrates a tran.s-
verse section, which had been treated with chlorozinc iodide.
The lamelUe bordering the lumina readily lake the cellulose

* Sim. T. f^.. '■ The Forests and Forest Flora of Cape Colony." p. 265.

488 I'OMES APPLANATUS ( I'l'-KS. ) WALLR. IN SOUTH AFRICA.

stain with the above reagent, and this region is dotted in the illus-
tration. After conversion O'f the lignin into cellulose the cellu-
lose is digested by enzymes secreted by the fungus, and this is
evident from the cellulose ridges which project into the lumina.
The cell walls become thinner and thinner as a result of deligni-
fication and digestion of the cellulose, and ultimately, when
completely absorbed, the cavities formed become filled with
fungoid tissue.

T ha\e not seen such large masses of fimgoid tissue as is
fre()uently met with in trees attacked by J'Oiiics riniosus Berk.,
but thinner, more or less felt-like fmigoid tissue is easilv evident
v*hen diseased wood is split lengthwise. Plate 15 fl, is a photo-
graph of a piece of wood of lilack ironwood in which deligni-
fication has already taken place to a considerable extent.
Though enzymes were not specially tested for there can never-
theless be little doubt thai both delignification and the digestion

of the resulting cellulose is caused by enzymes secreted bv the
fungus.

The mycelium of the fungus, as seen highly magnified in
the wood and illustrated in Fi^-. 2, is composed of hyaline,
branched and septate hyphai. which measure 1.2 to 1.6 /a and
less, ifrequently 2.8 /a, in diameter, and are frequently decidedly
vacuolate, as shown in the drawing. For staining the myceliujn
in the host 1 emjjloyed methyl violet after first mordanting the
sections in tannic acid, and this method gave very satisfactory
preparations. Fig. 2 also shows the hy])hc'e of the fundus pass-
ing through the pits of the wood, and I have not observed the
fungus to bore its way directly through the cell walls. For the
hyph?e to get from cell to cell the presence of the pits in the
cell walls would appear to be essential.

A yellowish deposit has been observed in the lumina of
the vessels, raycells, etc. These deposits are of frequent occur-
rence in the wood of trees attacked by i)ore fungi, and some

S A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917 Pl. 14.

P. A. Van der B\jl. -fomes applanajus

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. PL. 15.

P. A. Van der BtJL.—FOiuss applanatus.

FOMES AFFLAXATL'S (PERS.) VVALLK. IN SOUTH AFRICA. 489

authors have suggested that the tree endeavours to check the
advance of the fungus b}^ plugging its cells with deposits which
fill their lumina, and are very difficult for the fungus to pass.
The chemical nature of the deposit I have not investigated, but
it appears to be difficultly soluble.

Description of the Fungus.

Tile bracket-like body which grows out from diseased or
dead trees is the fructification — sporopliorc or pileus — oif the
fungus, and the spores of the ftmgus are borne in the minute
pores, which are evident on the lower surface of the sporophore.
The following is a description of the S|X)rophore, and with the
aid of the i^hotographs it is hoped the fungus will be readily
recognized.

Pileus, Plate 14 and Plate 15 h, perennial, hard, woody,
dimidiate, sessile, thin and applanate, though less frequently

ji-'

Fig. I.

ungulate and thick, plane below or somewhat hollowed or con-
cave; often very large, 10.5 to 42.5 X 10-23 X 2-10 cms. Sur-
face covered with a thick, horny, encrusted layer, greyish, red-
dish or drab-brown, zonate or concentrically sulcate, glabrous
or somewhat ttiberculose, opaque to subshining, conidial bear-
ing. Margin smooth, thick or thin, sterile, acute or obttise,
and at times truncate . Context dark bay brown, floccose to
soft corky, 2-9 mm. thick. Tubes stratified, .5-2 cms. long each
season ; old tubes stuffed with white fibrous fungoid threads,
between which are the dark amber of their walls (Plate 15 /;).
Strata of pores in many specimens separated by context tissue
(Fomes vegctus Fries.),* in others not thus separated. Mouths

* Fames vegetus Fries, is described as having the pore layers separated
by context tissue, but this is, as pointed out hy Lloyd, a condition of F.
(ipplaiiafi)s. and not a distmct species.

490 FOMES APPLAN.iTUS (PERS.) W'ALLR. IX SOUTH Al'KlCA.

minute. 3-4 to mm., circular, white to dark umber, darken when
■bruised. Spores { i'late 16 c) elhpsoid, truncate, yellowish-
brown, with thick walls, which are either smooth or punctate
and roughly echinulate, 6.6-8.25 X 8.25-9.9 /x diameter. The
sixjre is surrounded by a hyaline membrane, and it is the col-
lapse of this membrane at the base which gives the spore its
truncate appearance.

Plate 17 a, illustrates some young sporophores. They first
appear as white, corky nodules, which under favourable con-
ditions develop into the horizontal bracket-shaped s])orophore.
and under unfavourable conditions turn hard and brown. For
how long it is capable of remaining in this condition, and yet
retain its power of further de\el())>ment on the return of favour-
able conditions, I do not know.

Plate 17 h, is a photograph of a fungus in Mr. Pole Evan's
herbarium (No. 1703), and which 1 named Poly poms (jibbosiis
Nees. Jn surface, pores, context, colour, and s])ores it agrees
with Fomcs appla)iatiis. and differs only in the lateral stipe.
Lloyd* recognizing this resemblance, writes: "It (Polyporus
f/ibbosits Nees) could be considered, of course, an annual stipi-
tate form of Fonics Iciicophwits. but in the United States, where
/^07//es leucophccits is the most common species we have; it
never takes a normal stijiitate form. Sometimes Pomes leuco-
phcciis takes a false stipe when growing under abnormal condi-
tions, l)Ut I believe that the stipe of Polyponis f/ibbosiis is a
normal feature of the ])lant."

Plates 15 c, and 17 r are stiiiitate forms of Pontes appla-
natits. and these forms I have thus far observed in South Africa
only growing at about soil level, and usually in the rotten
cavities, and i)artly covered by debris, etc. Al! stipitate forms
I have thus far seen have been annual.

It is of necessity difficult to ccime to any conclusion as to
the real position of Polyponis cjibbosiis Nees, but its relation-
ships are evidently so close to Pomes applanaius that I am in-
clined to think that when the original specimen of Nees is
examined, it will turn out to be but a form of the latter fungus.

In the Mycological Herbarium of Mr. I. B. Pole Evans
there is a specimen (No. 2338) with amber yellow ]:)ore mouths,
and this I named Pomes oro flams (Lloyd, " Syn. Fomes," p.
265). Except in the colour of the pore mouths, and that the
spores are slightly larger, it further agrees with Pomes appla-
natits. Lloydf regards this fungus as a tropical form ')f
Pomes applaiiafus, and writes further : " A quite frequent plant
in the tropics, otherwise the same (as P. applanafiis). has deep
yellow pore mouths. We have never seen but one specimen
ifrom Europe that approximates this tropical form. We have
several collections from the United States (particularly Cali-
fornia), which we refer to Pomes applancttus (and rarely to
Pomes leucoplueits) , that have yellow pore mouths, but they

*I.lovd, C. G., Letter Xo. ^^. p. 3.
t Lloyd, C. G.. op. cif.. 265.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. PL. 16.

P A. Van der BtJL.—FoinES applanaws

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1917. Pl. 17.

P. A. Van der B\jl —fomes applanatus.

FOMES ^PPLANATJJS (PERS.) WALLR. IN SOUTH AFRICA. 49I

are not the deep yellow of the tropical plant." The ahove is
the only specimen with yellow pore mouths that has come to
my notice, and was collected in the Knysna forests by Mr. P. J.
Pienaar, on Podocarpits TliitiibcrgU. a host on which the ty])ical
Fames applaiiatiis also occurs.

Suggestions for Control.

Methods of control should follow preventative lines. The
practice of leaving in forests fallen trees and stumps infected
with this fungus, and on which the fruiting lx)dies of the fungus
frequently develop in great abundance, is not only opposed to
proper forest hygiene, but it is a sure means of propagating the
fungus, and enabling it to maintain itself in the forests. This
practice, therefore, continually exposes the trees to infection
when a favourable opportunity offers itself.

Dead stumps and trees killed by the fungus should be
destroyed by lire, and all sporophores collected and similarly
destroyed. Depending somewhat on how infection has taken
place, it will be possible in certain instances to preserve the tree
by cutting out the developing sporophore and diseased wood
and painting the wound thus formed with tar. This method
would be found useful, especially where it is desired to i)reserve
attacked ornamental or shade trees, but in a large forest it is
hardly practicable, and here all attention should be directed to
prevent infection taking place. This can only be accom-
plished by the destruction of the s|x)rophores of the fungus,
and since the fungus fruits very readily on the dead remains of
the tree it has killed, all inifected material should be destroyed
as well, and attention given to proper forest sanitation.

Summary.

The paper treats of fouies appkuiatiis, a fungus very com-
mon in South Africa, and particularly deserving of attention
as it is the main cause of the death and blowing over of large
numbers of Olea laiirifoUa (black ironwotid) trees in the
Eastern Cape Conservancy. The fungus further occurs on a
large number of other hosts, and the list will probably later
become considerably enlarged.

On black ironwcnixl the fungus is regarded by the author
as a facultative parasite, which gains entrance through wounds
at about .soil level, and from here grows into the healthy wood
and starts its work of destruction. The ifungus continues to
form sporophores after it has killed its host, and this is a i)oint
to be remembered in methods olf control.

The action of the fungus on the wood is described a> one
of delignification followed by digestion, and agrees with the
obser\ations of Heald, as also with the elifect of the fungus
Polypunts liicidns Leys,* on willow, as pointed out bv the pre-
sent writer. A description of the fungus is given, and attention

* " Note on Polyponis lucidus Leys., and its Effect on tbe Wood of
the Willow," Rept. S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of Science (19x6), Maritzhurg.
506.

492 FOMES APPLANATUS (PERS.) WALLR. IN SOUTH AFRICA.

also drawn to forms of the same fungus, which occur in South
Africa.

Methods of control should follow preventative lines, which
are best attained by proper forest sanitation, such as the destruc-
tion of sporophores of the fungus and of diseased wood.

Acknowledgments.

My thanks are due to Mr. I. B. Pole Evans, Chief of the
Division of Botany, for placing certain references at my dis-
posal, and also for allowing- me to examine some material in
his herbarium.

I also acknowledge the assistance given by various officers
of the Forestry Department, and especially Mr. J. D. Keet in
collecting specimens of this as well as other Polyporaceae, as also
for notes which frec|uently accompanied the specimens.

Some specimens of this fungus were verified by Mr. C. G.
Lloyd, of Ohio, and him I thank for assistance with the Polypo-
raceae generally.

The drawings were kindly made for me by Miss K. A.
Lansdell, of this Department (Natal Herbarium, Durban).

Explanation of Illustrations.

Pig. I. — Highly magnified transverse section through black
ironwood to show the delignification and digestion of the
wood brought about by this fungus. The dotted regions
gave reactions for cellulose with chlorozinc iodide, and the
digestion is evident from the cellulose plates projecting
into the lumina.

Fig. 2. — Section highly magnified, and showing the mycelium
of the fungus in the wood of black ironwood, and passing
from cell to cell through the pits in the cell walls.

Plate 14. — Photographs of sporophores of Fomcs applanatus
from stumps of Acacia mollisinia. The specimens are in
the herbarium of the Government Mycologist at Pretoria,
and the numbers are those of that herbarium.

Plate 15 a. — Photograph of wood of diseased black ironwood.
which has already been considerably delignified, and crum-
bled easily hetween the fingers.

Plate 15 b. — Sporophore of Pomes applanatus from dead Podo-
carpus sp.

Plate 15 c — Abnormal laterally stalked form oif Pomes appla-
natus from Olea laurifolia (black ironwood).

Plate 16. — Spores of Pomes applanatus. Highly magnified.

Plate 17 a. — Nodules of Pomes applanatus, which develop into
the bracket-shaped sporophore.

Plate 1/ b. — Poly poms gibbosus Nees. No. 1703 from Her-
barium of Government Mycolog'ist, Pretoria. This fungus
is most probably only a form of Pomes applanatus.

Plate 17 c. — Abnormal laterally stalked form of Pomes appla-
natus from dead Rhus Iccvigata (red currant).

(Read, .fuly 3. 191 7.)

SOME FACTORS IN THE REPLACEMENT OF THE
ANCIENT EAST AFRICAN FOREST BY WOODED

PASTURE LAND,

By Charles Francis Massy Swynnerton, F.L.S., F.E.S.,

F.R.H.S.

I. Introductory.

The observations of which this paper is an incomplete
resume, general at first, but more detailed since early 191 3, when
an investigation of Mr. A. K. Thayer's views on the all-conceal-
ing properties of forest led me to some close semi-ciecological
work and thus to an interest in recology itself, have extended in
all over eighteen years during which I have lived near forest
patches. For the last sixteen of them I have lived right on the
outskirts of the largest piece of high forest in Southern Rho-
desia— Chirinda — and I am including here a brief account of the
results of a private attempt of my own at forest protection that
has led to a reversal of the process described in the title.

I have not seen this type of forest, as it occurs in East
Africa, discussed at all thoroughly — though it very likely dften
has been, for I have no access to libraries, and my own is very
limited.* It is im]x)ssible, actually, that the idea of its former
continuity should not have occurred to everyone in the least
ac(|uainted with the distribution of our forest plants and animals,
and it is the evidence afforded by their distribution that still gives
the idea its best support. It may be of interest, nevertheless,
if I state the evidence of other kinds, in so far as I have ob-
served it, that a single locality can produce, and discuss the main
factors that may have afifected the distribution and welfare both
of this type of forest and of its supplanter.

My observations have been confined to the Melsetter district
of Southern Rhodesia, and to the. foot-hills and lowlands in
Portuguese East Africa that divide that district from the sea;
and it is to this small section of our East African floral area that
my remarks and conclusions primarily apply. I cannot help
ifeeling that their applicability is, actually, wider, though I do
not for an instant flatter mvself with the belief that my local
and still incomplete observations have given me all the factors
that will have contributed to the change referred to in the title
of this paper, or even, quite necessarily, the most important of
them ; and my object in writing is rather to provoke discussion

* I cannot tender this excuse for having overlooked Mr. J. S. Henkel'.s
most interesting account of " Forest Progress in the Drakensberg "
until the very day before posting the present paper. It is pleasing to have
been able to confirm his observations from another portion of the sub-
region. I am sorry I have not seen Prof. Bews's paper referred to by
Mr. Henkel, or any other references to the subject, so far as T remember,
excepting those actually alluded to in this paper. I hope that this will
be accepted as an excuse for anj' resultant shortcomings.

C

494 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIExXT E. AFRICAN FOREST,

and the production o.f evidence from elsewhere than in anv way
to attempt to doumatize.

2. The Two Types of Wooding referred to.

From where I write, 700 feet above the nearer flats, and
4,000 a'bove sea-level, on the hill that is crowned b}' Chirinda, I
can see an immense tract of country. It includes low veld,
stretching away to sea-level and looking- like the sea, foot-hills,
plateau, and high mountains, the latter with peaks of nearly 9,000
feet. And practically the whole of this great stretch of country,
physically and geologically most varied, is to-day under grass,
and to the greater part of it can be accurately applied Welwitsch's
term of " wooded pasture." The wooding varies from widely-
scattered shrubs and small trees and groves to a uniform cover-
ing df close-standing trees that is nevertheless mere wooded pas-
ture, not true forest. The species arc extraordinarily varied,
but nearly pure wooding sometimes occiu-s in the groves oi
Uapaca Kirkiana and Bracliystegia on the drier slopes of the
mesophytic areas, of Acacia near natal it ia on the dolerite, and of
Copaifera inopane in areas of smaller rainfall. Grass hres, lit
by natives wishful to cultivate, or hunting buck and rats — also
nowadays by whites — sweep over it annually.

The type of vegetation is one which, with \ariations, is
common throu.tih much of Africa south and north-east of Tan-
ganyika.

One feature in the view remains unmentioned. In rare,
isolated, little patches on the flats, or tilling kloofs, or, more fre-
quently, crowning hills and looking like the " Rings " on the
Sussex downs, are small, dark " forests of gigantic timber,"' a-
Livingstone called them in Angola. The nearest of them, a
hundred yards away, completes the panoramic view I have de-
scribed, carrying it round from the south-east to the west again,
and, except (for its larger size, is sufficiently typical of them all.
Its suddenness— its non-blending with the surroimding grass veld
— is the feature that most strikes an observer outside. It is like
a tall plantation. On entering it, one is struck with its loftiness,
its density, and its step-like formation, described already in my
I)aper on the Melsetter trees and shrubs. No contrast could be
stronger than that between this type of forest and the woodinu-
of the grass veld, whether we have regard to their outward ap-
pearance or to more fundamental characteristics. The trees of
the forest are intolerant of Are, the pasture trees are especially
adapted to withstand it. The members of the one formation
never enter into competition with those of the other — where grass-
burning is the practice — yet the soil and moisture conditions
inside and outside the forest are exactly the same, excepting in sc>
far as they are modified by the jjresence of the forest itself.

Sub-divisible, as the eff'ect of altitude, into " mountain "' and
lowland types, the first with an admixture ai Gymnosperms, the
second without them but loftier, and varied further with latitude.
Chirinda-like forest is found in patches throughout East Africa

REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST 495

from the Cape Province to Elgon and beyond, in the higher rainfall
areas; but in parts of the Cong^o basin and elsewhere in the west
it covers the face of the country. A suggestive gradation occurs
from this condition, through the forests of British East Africa,
which, if isolated, are still large, down to the diminutive dense
forests of Southern Rhodesia. Where continuous they are re-
garded, I believe, as primary. Are they then to be looked on
as secondary in the other areas? If so, how. with such
laboriously-moving constituent members as, for instance. 1Vid~
dringtonia, have they reached their jMXsent widely isolated posi-
tions? If not, whv are they no longer continuous througlnmt?
It is the last problem, chiefly, which I ])ropose to discuss in this
paper.

3. Present Distridu'tion of High Forest in the
Melsetter-Beira Section.

Chirinda is our largest |)atch on the British side of the bor-
der, but, as I have said, it is by no means the only high forest in
the country. Small i)atches are scattered along the Portuguese
border and in Portuguese territory south of the Lusitu River,
and wooded kloofs often tend to reproduce this type of forest.
Further north, the higher mountains, including Chimanimani,
boast many forest patches of the " mountain " type, and forest
patches crop out along the high Anglo-Portuguese boundary so
far north as Umtali and, I am told, beyond. I am not ac(|uainted
with the last-named patches, but Mr. L. Cripps told me, when in
Chirinda some years ago, that he recognised there species of big
trees which also occur in forest on his farm near Umtali. I am
not aware that forest of this kind occurs much more than 25 miles
west of the border, and, if that be the case, it may be regarded as
falling entirely within the area of greater rainfall ; but, travelling
30 or 40 miles east, one comes on an extensive forest patch,
larger than Chirinda, on the eastern slope of the Sitatonga Hills,*
and, far nearer sea-level and relatively nearer the coast, the well-
known patches on the Beira Railway and one south of the Buzi
Ri\'er which contains, as well as Khaya iiyasica, other trees that
in growth, foliage and bark I was unable to- distinguish from
certain trees of Chirinda, though I was unfortunately unable to
secure flowers. It is true that further dense forests — the great
dwarf rubber forests of the lower veld — cover immense areas,
and mav well be taken into considerati(^n in connection with the
di,stribution of our forest animals (they are the only i>lace in
which I have seen Papilio opliidoccphahis, also occurring in Chir-
inda, really abundant, Intt they seem to me to belong to a very
different type from the kind of forest I am discussing here, and
])robably to be, in part, secondary. At the same time, I am
informed that in portions of these forests not visited by myself

* I include the Sitatonga Forest with a slight reservation. I passed
through in May. 1900. when 1 had not yet taken up botany. ;md wlien.
also, I had not yet seen Chirinda, so tliat my memory of it may he
inaccurate. I believe it to be correctly included here.

4y6 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

( t\(/., at Makupi's), patches of Chirinda-like forest occur, and 1
judge from the statements of natives that other patches of the
same kind must occur here and there in the low veld off the
beaten tracks.

4. Evidence of Forest Destruction and Probable Former

Continuity.

( I ) From more or less direct observation. I have myself
seen a single fire destroy a 10-15 y^i'ds depth of forest along a
very limited front, and. in the Chimanimani Mountains, seen
where much larger areas than this had been cleared by the last
season's fire ; and I have witnessed in the eighteen years I have
resided here a more ofradual, yet definite, eating into portions of
the outskirts of small forest patches with which I am acquainted,
by the annual fires. The evidence of old natives in this connec-
tion— at any rate of those who do not live right up beside forest
— is apt to h^ unsatisifactory. as they appear not to observe and
remember readily gradual events that concern them little ; but
one very old man — old even when I first came here — who lived in
his youth right beside the Chipungambira patch (near Spunga-
bera), and then moved up beside Chipete, tells me that when he
was a lad some specially destructive fires destroyed c|uite large
])ieces of each of these forest patches.

In the case of the " Jihu " — a large, rich, mostly Portu-
guese trap-area south of Chirinda — it is possible that 30 or 50
years hence no one will be able to say from i)ersonal o'bservation
that true forest ever existed there. Yet in iyo6 evidence, in the
form of charred tree-bases, the vegetation that immediately suc-
ceeds forest, etc., still pointed unmistakably to the recent exis-
tence of a good-sized j^atch on the eastern slope of the rise divid-
ing the Zona and Kurumadzi rivers, and. near the Zona, a patch
of fine mahoganies still stood, but some of their late companions
were .sprawling, charred, on the ground just round them, and
were surrounded in turn l)y the evidences of i)revioiLs destruc-
tion.

As for the matter of (former continuity it is suggestive that
the final destruction of the first-mentioned forest-patch widened
by several miles the gap between surviving patches, while the
piece of Chipete said to have been destroyed 60 years or so ago
continued that forest towards a still-existing outlying strip of
Chirinda.

2. Indirect Evidence. — The position of the majority of the
surviving patches is perhaps suggestive. Three of six patches
I can see from where I write definitely crown hills, and two
others are on a ridge. This verv common position certainly
seems to point to the ])robability that fires sweeping from
below have gradually eaten up the forest lands till these for the
most part occupied only the hills, and have then burned across
the " neks," split the forest stretches into i>atches, each occupy-
ing the higher parts of a hill, and then continued to eat these

REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST ^(Jj

l)ack by the process already noted. Conij^are, also, W'hvte's
description below.

Not that their elevated position is. Ijy an\- means, all there
is in favour of the hill-tops as a last refuge of iforest. Sand-
stone and shale below, they are frequently capped with overlying
dolerite and the fertile red loam that belongs to it, and that seem>
to offer this type of forest the best guarantee of the luscious
margin, even in the dry season, which helps it to keep out lire.
At the same time, these dolerite caps are in several cases a con-
tinuous part of the main masses of our two big trap-areas — are.
so to speak, the very slightly outstretched processes of a great
Amoeba — and it is therefore highly suggestive of the first view
here mentioned, that it is chiefly these, the culminating points,
and not the main masses, that to-day carry forest. Chirinda.
Chipete and Maruma are amongst the examples. Again, some
of the higher mountain-forests, and considerable slices of
Chirinda itself, as well as small jiatches elsewhere, and some ex-
perimental planting of my own, show clearly that this ty])e oif
forest can flourish ]:)erfectly well on the sandstone and shale,
although, for indirect reasons, such as the one T have suggested,
it has undoubtedly, I think, been the general tcndencv for the
fires to remove it from these areas first.

The plants and animals of the forest-])atches afford evidence
of the usual kind. ( )ne has to be cautious in relation to the
alternative possibility of migration, and a bird like the Alilanji
Bulbul {Phyllasfrephits iiiilanjciisis), which inhabits also the
wooded kloofs, is under su.spicion of ha\ing travelled along Ijy
easy stages ; but it seems significant that trees with no special
means of seed-dispersal are found in very widely-se])arated
patches vniconnected by water, and that the same ai)plie< to
animals that, at any rate, one does not suspect even of local
migration. Such are the common Robin of Chirinda ( Erifha-
cus S2i'\)iiiertoni), formerly found only there and in Chipete,
but since discovered by Air. ]\ A. Sheppard in forest-patches
near Macequece. on the Beira railway, and such shade-having
and imenterprising fliers as the butterflies At erica (/a! cue and
Eupha^dra neophron, taken by me in the Sitatonga and Chirinda
forests, and seen in others. However, the resemblance lietween
their arthro]X)d inhabitants «'enerally is striking, and one finds
such titterly sluggish species as the scarlet millipede o<f the tree-
trunks (Spirolobits), and a barely-moving "red spider" (Troin-
bidiutn) in widely-separated patches. Cases like these last seem
to me to tell decisively against the theory of migration.

The usual succession of vegetation that follows forest also
affords good evidence df progressive shrinkage and ])robable
former continuity, and the case of Chipete is instructive in this
and in other ways. It is a patch of perhaps 40 acres crowning
a hill, and separated now from the main body of Chirinda by a
wide kloof and several hundred yards of grassy hillside. There
is a little wooding in the kloof, and there are three diminutive
scraps of it near its head, on the Chipete side, on the sandstone.

498 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

That these are not purely new j^rowth, but originally. iM-ol)aljly.
the remnant of a former general continuity between Chipete and
Chirinda is suggested by the presence till, some years ago, of
a couple of old decayed trees, by the fact that the destruction
of the little ])atches (in no way worth protecting) has gone on
till nearly nothing- is left of them but a few sfjuare yards of
rank green grass and cree])ers in each place, and by an examina-
tion oi the surrounding vegetation with the usual local succes-
sion in mind. This last stiggests the former connection of the
three as a single, straight strip of forest, and the latter's yet
earlier connection with a Chipete far larger than at present.

An examination of the low, erect, so-called " Sand -apple "
scrub (Parimirium ciiratcUa^fcVuim), which nearly every-
where clothes these hills, bears all this out. and indicates further
facts, in a verv remarkable way. For, whatever agency — their
own once more abundant ]>arents or some animal that distri-
buted the stones — once sowed these little sand-ap])les broadcast
and ubiquitous over the face of the country, has obviously
ceased to exist many years ago. Now the sand-apple will just
germinate in forest, but it won't live there ; so that those areas
that were covered with forest at the time the sowing ceased should
to-day show no sand-apples. Actually, a most clearly defined
bare ring of this kind surrounds Chipete, and others surround
Chirinda itself (with much country to its south-west), the
group of three little patches referred to above, a piece of ground
between these and the former, big Chipete, and — a further link,
taking us to within 200 yards of Chirinda — a long, narrow piece
of ground with occasional suggestive vegetation between these
same little patches and the latter forest. I may say at once that
neither ditterences in the soil, or in its humus or water-con-
tents, nor any (^ther factor except the one I stiggest, has proved
at all capable of accounting for the sharp demarcation, in these
l)laces, between the gmund that is crammed with Parinarium
and that which has none.

In general, the " Sand-apple line " seems to show that the
main body of Chijjete at the time indicated swept down far
nearer to Chirinda than it does at present. Tt also ( contrary
to expectation based on the lie of the ground) suggests that the
fires worked in between the forests from the head of the kloof,
along the broad sandstone area that still carries the disappearing
connecting-links I have described, and that the latest point of
junction between the two forests was at the point indicated by
the information received from the old Kafifir, along a ridge
characterized by dolerite. This illustrates the fact already re-
If erred to. that forest tends to disappear from sandstone first.
Further, if the latest point of junction was acttially at the spot
suggested. Chipete would have formed a fold of Chirinda. and
its native name, meaning *' the fold," would j^erhaps be ex-
l)lained. Natives questioned as to its origin have always said
they do not know — that the name was handed down to them by
their forefathers.

.REPLACEMENT OF Tlii: ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST 491^

A similarity in the species comprising- Chi])ete and the part
of Chirinda that was, apparently, last connected with it is sug-
.Sl'estive. but not conclusive, for bird-carried species are largely
concerned.

To sum up: Chirinda itself, shaped like an hour-glass by
thf tires that formerly ran in between its twin heights, shows
us an early step in forest-splitting. Chipete, only a few hundred
yards away, and with liighly-suggestive evidence of a former
Cfintinuity with Chirinda, the next. The other patches of the
countrv show us everv gradation in the matter of distance 'from
one another, and I have described an instance above in which
a gap was greatly widened b\' the coniiplete desitruction of a
forest-patch. The evidence generally is suggestive of former
continuity in the section I am particularly concerned with, and
of the view that the patches actually represent our most primi-
tive type of forest.

Should we accept this much it is hard not to extend our
conclusions. The actual distribution of a number of plants and
animals, and the facts touched on in the last paragraph
of Section 2, suggest strongly that the idea of a great East
African forest tha't once connected Knysna with Elgon and
bevond is not far-fetched. Our Gazaland dense forests are the
meeting-place of Nyasan and Sotithern species, Podocarpus
inilanjiana carries us on beyond to the German and British East
African mountains, and cases like Khaya nyasica (not much more
than a sub-species of K. sciiegalcnsis) take us round with a
swiuiJ-. 7'ia Nyasaland, into the forests of the west. Finally,
Pscudoi'oly.v, Pcvcilosfachys, and other apparent relics of the
connection with Madagascar, enable us to picture the forest as
existing already in the earlier Tertiaries, when, as the great
luimmulitic deposits between Chirinda and the sea alone sufifice
to show, the country's configuration must have been very dif-
ferent, and land must have been under water that to-day carries
isolated forest and was once perhaps clothed with it.

5. Factors in Forest-distribution.

(fl) High Primitive Forest. — I have already incidentally
indicated the view (i) that the general area in which Chirinda-
like forest can occur is strictly limited by conditions of rainfall;
and (2) that one important factor which has brought about its
present scattered distribution is the annual grass- fires. It has
been suggested to me that the rainfall generally is gradually
diminishing, and that this may be the factor that is causing the
forests " to die out."

Directly, no — or so one would say: for the surviving
forests are, for the mo.st part, in far too flourishing a condition
to allow one to suppose that any such detrimental influence is at
work within them. At the same time, a realization of the exact
conditions under which some of them grow suggests that the
possibility should not be lightly dismissed. Thus Neave (Geo-
graphical Journal, February, 1910) writes of the " mitu," or

5CX) REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

dense forest-patches, of the high plateau country, the backbone'
of which forms .the water-shed between the basins of the Congo
and Zambezi rivers, that " they are commonly on the sovirce or
banks of a stream." Many of our kloofs — with streams or ])ro-
bable underground moisture — carry dense bush that is ])racti-
cally a sub-community of our high forest formation, and often
contains a considerable sprinkling of true forest forms, as
Khaya, Plptadenia, the shrub Tn'calysia, and others I might
name. The forest-patches on dolerite. as I have said, often
occupy the hill tops, but the red loam in any case probably con-
serves moisture better than the sandstone. Of the little patches
on the latter formation that I have referred to more particularly
earlier, it is interesting to note that the elongated one, nearest
Chirinda, now no longer carrying forest, follows roughly a
shallow kloof, in which a spring has sometimes ai)peared after
great downpours in our older, heavier, rainy seasons, while those
nearest Chipete were connected this last season, after a 31.4-inch
rain in four days, by quite a stream — on a convex surface with
no trace of a previous suriface-flow excepting from the lowest
of the patches. The survival of one or two other \ery small
patches has obviously been aided by the presence of low, wide-
spread ant-heaps of Termes bcllicosus, full, of course, of col-
lected humus. So that, on the drier soils, it is in the damper
places or above probable subterranean waters that 'forest most
tends to survive. Again, it is the rule — which has its notable
exceptions — that the forests have eastern and south-eastern
aspects.

Actually, all this is explicable also in relation to fire, and
against the other interpretation we nmst place the present non-
afiforestation of the va.st bulk of the doleritic area with the aspect
described, and the ease and success with which forest-trees can
be re-established on the drier soils, continuing to take care of
themselves if looked after for the first season or two, and then
merely protected from fire. Also the fact that considerable
pieces of Chirinda are on the sandy soil, yet carr\- flourishing
forest — lower and slightl\- less dense, it is true, on one of them,
yet apparently thoroughly healthy. Chipete, it is true, has
latterly rather the appearance of decay, but it is on the dolerite.
and I will show below that this a])pearance is probablv due to
another reason than dr-ying up. It must be remembered, for the
piece of country with which I am s))ecially dealing, that the rain-
fall is even now heavy right from the coast to the mountains, ex-
cepting within particular circumscribed areas. If the inner
plateau lands of lighter rainifall, which line the great cur\c of
dotted forest and comprise much of .South .Vfrica and most of
Rhodesia, ever boasted high forest, and this were destroyed
before the advent of fire-using man, one might be disposed to
attribute it to a general decay accompanying a falling rainfall,
I doubt whether our coast rainfall has yet fallen so low as to
act thus as a directly destructive factor, and it is interesting
that seeds of forest-trees, sent bv mvself manv vears ago to the

REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST 5OI

luwer-rainfall plateau area (at Salisbur}- ) have i)roduced
tlourishing- trees. Alt the same time, I abundantly realize that
my personal observations have been carried out from a centre
that is not only blessed with o^ood summer rains, but is excep-
tionally favoured through the relative cool that accompanies
a considerable elevation, and through the usual possession of
light winter rains in addition. So I will not generalize.

On the other hand, a reduced rainfall — and even a relatively
slightly reduced rainfall — might well have produced a powerful
indirect effect. After a good rainy season the heavy ureen
fringe of Hypoestes and other tall herbs and shrUbs that sur-
roiuids our dense forests lets little fire in, and it cannot travel
if it ^ets in. In a very dry year the opposite tends to happen,
and there can be little doubt that dry cycles must see a \astly
greater destruction of forest than wet ones. Since grass-veld
became its neighbour and grass-fires became the order of the
vear, the Chirinda type of plant formation has depended for its
continued existence on the adecjuate co-operation of herb and
shrub and tree. The herbs that belong to it cannot flourish and
keep back fire without the coolth and relative moisture that is
retained, i^'licn the rainfall cjh'cs it, by the canopy of the trees
and shrubs and lianas, and if the trees are deprived of luscious
greenness in their herb-fringe and carpet, they are also depri\ed
of their protection against fire. It is even i)ossible that the
trees of the formation might inhabit a far wider general area than
they now do were it not for this indirect result of a smaller rain-
fall, and the fact, already referred to, that at least one of them
flourishes under the latter condition in the Gardens at Salisbury
(I do not know, however, what the cultivation has been) may
suj)port this hy}X)thesis.

T have already suggested that this indirect factor will be
specially powerful where the soil is relatively poor or sandy,
and that this may be one reason why forest tends to disai)]>ear
from soil of this kind first. It may just be worth suggesting
further that another indirect factor working in the same direc-
tion— a less important one— ;;/a3' have been — elephants. At any
rate, mv recollection of their work in the Sitatonp'a forest, in
which they were somewhat ])lentiful at the time of my visit,
leads me to suspect that the rather poor forest that tends to
occur on the poorer sandy soil in Chirinda would be more liable
to such damage by elephants as might tend to let fire in.
Whether, when they were here in the great numbers described
by old natives, their destruction of the " green 'fringe " actually
did more than counterbalance the lessened ferocity of the fires
that might ha\e resulted from the general trampling (yet greater
drying) of the grass-veld round the forests, can best be settled
by observation of forests in which they are still abundant, but
I am inclined to think that they may have acted as a slightly
accelerating factor in the destruction of forest by fire. A more
important accelerating factor will have been the late fires that
were in vogue during the native regime. According to all

502 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

accounts, most of the burning' was annually postponed till Seji-
tember and October, when the grass is very dry, and when the
forest fringe and carpet is also at its driest, owin^' both to the
hot sun and to the strong, dry winds that are blowing con-
tinually from Aug-ust onwards. These late fires are often
exceptionally fierce and destructive. It is also possible that
throughout the hot, low veld the rate of destruction may have
been comparatively high.

A rcfardiuf/ factor may well have been the grass-eaters of
our once great ungulate population, and the known facts in this
connection e\en constitute a strong argument against the view
that fire has been an important factor at all. We know from
old hunters that formerly in the Free State and elsewhere these
grass-eaters used to eat the veld bare, and it is the fact, appar-
ently, that in British East .\frica to-day. and at any rate in con-
siderable portions of German East Africa, they eat the grass
so close that fires do not take place. Our own older natives
state that this has happened over particular areas even in the
section with which I am more particularly dealing, but that it
has not been a general phenomenon, annual fires having taken
]5lace through the rest of the country throughout their life-times.

This shows that even with only a native population in the
land it has been possible to have periods of grass-fires. I have
already referred to a considerable destruction of forest fhat took
place through fire 30 years or more 'before the white man came.
Selous records the grass-fires as occurring annually in his hunt-
ing days in the Transvaal. Bechuanaland. Matabeleland, and
Mashonaland ; they 'have been, apparently, as regular a phe-
nomenon in Northern Rhodesia with buck still plentiful. I do
not know, however, whether this applies back to the time at
which the whites entered that country. I well remember refer-
ences to the severity of the annual fires in Nyasaland in early
numbers of the B.C. A. Times : and I will shortly quote a passage
frcmi an account of Alexander Whyte's botanical exploration of
Mount Milanji 26 years ago ( Trans. Linn. Soc.. 1894. vol. iv.
Pt. I, p. 3), that shows them to have been occurring annually
before that time with " de])lorable " and '' devastating " effects
on the forest. All this suggests strongly that such a superabun-
dance of antelopes, etc., as will completely stop grass-fires, has
been a local and temporary phenomenon, alternating with periods
of fire ; and. of course, so long as fires take place at all. they
will, in dry seasons, destroy forest.

But the three strongest arguments in favour of fire as a
factor are indirect. The first is, the result of protecting forest
from fire. I will describe this in Section 6. The second is this :
The grasses which covered this country when the treks came in
still cover it wherever fires have continued annually, and grazing
has not been excessive. Where, on the other hand, grazing has
been very close and burning has for long stopped, new gras.ses
are replacing the old ones. The third is the strongest argument
of all. It is afforded bv the existence to-dav. over all this vast

KKI'LACE.MiCXT OF Till-: AXCiKNT K. AFRICAN FOREST 5O3

area, of pyrophytic trees and shrubs. Such perfect adaptation
.to a condition of annual fires as we see in these and the differen-
tiation into numerous dau_<^hter si)ecies. which ])rol:)able pyrophytes
have already undergone, will hardlv have come about in less than
verv many thousands of years. The fact may have an interesting
bearing- on the antiquity of man in this ]-)art of the w<^rld. for,
now at any rate, no regular tires take ]>lace excepting through
his ag^ency. In the days when our i.gneous rocks were forced to
"he surface things ma\- have been different, and the i)vrophytes
might have made some be.ainning llie analogy of the veg^eta-
. lion in areas still actively volcanic should be useful here.* Of
course, if such a plant community exists in anv ])lace which can
be stated confidently never to have undergt)ne a fire-period, the
argument goes. Meantime. I am inclined to regard it as C(^n-
clusive.

It must be remembered, I think, that differences in the num-
bers and hunting proclivities of the natives and the number of
the lions do not exhaust the possible factors that mav have pro-
duced fluctuation in the ungulate i)opulation. The rinderi)est,
which so reduced the numbers of some of our larger buck, is
unlikely to have been the first epidemic that has swept through
them. The process of immunization to the effects of tr\panosomi-
asis mtist alone have taken long, and led to great reductions
in their numbers, though it may, of course, have been completed
before tires began. The immunity, iif any. of the older African
races of man should have a bearing here.

The actual ]>rocess of forest destruction is well described
in the accotint of Whyte's exploration of Milanji in iS^^r,
already mentioned : " It is de])lorable to witness the devastating
eft'ects of the annual bush-tires, from which even this loftv and
all btit inaccessible retreat is not exempt. Dtiring the dry
months of August and Se])tember these tires, originating from
the villages on the lower slopes of the mountain, gradually creep
up the precipitous cliffs from tuft to tuft of <JTass until at last
they reach the grassy plateau. Once there the work of destruc-
tion is rapid. The tire rages along the table-land and eats its
wav along the edges o'f the remaining belts of forest, annually
sc<irching, if not burning, the bark and timber of the outside
trees, and killing otitright the young seedlings. In excei)tionally
dry seasons it appears that these fires have even penetrated some
of the damp iforests. and hundreds of giant cypresses lay pros-
trate . . generallv burnt right through at the base of the
tree."

These are the two stages — first scorched, later burnt into
or through. The process of destruction in ordinary years is

* Of tlie plates illustrating Dr. Tempest Anderson's account of the
volcanoes of Guatemala (Geoii. Jul., May. lyoS), one (PI. II. "Santa
Maria, from the slopes of Ccrvo Queniado " ) might represent a scene in
the poorer pyrophytic wooding hetween Melsctter and Umtali. Another
(PI. VII. " Tropical forest on the slopes of Attilan ") is exactly Chirinda,
"witlKHit the hig trees.

504 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

slower than one would perhaps gather from the above account,
and the forest may even hold its own completely along consider-
able fronts for very many years. exj)laining the fact that in some
places the " Sand-apple line " even now nearly touches Chirinda,
and conveying- sometimes, to the mere traveller or short-term
resident, the impression that " the i)atches of dense-crowded
forest trees . . . are seldom or never affected by the annual
bush-fires "(S. A. Neave, " Zoological Collections from Northern
Rhodesia," P.Z.S., June, 1910). But in a dry year the fire runs in
further, and a succession of two or three dry years tends to
produce the result descrilied ])y W'hyte. It is f|uite interesting
that the destruction of jjortions of the Chipete and Chipungam-
bira forests already referred to should, according to my infor-
mant, have coincided with " the last great famine " — in, I should
judge from my estimate of his age, abotit 1S60.

Other factors: Ciiltivatioti. — I have laid stress on fire be-
cause there is very clear evidence of its destructiveness in the
recent past, and because it is the only important factor that can
be seen at work here to-day. But another factor of possibly
high importance mtist by no means l)e lost sight of. I have stig-
gested (Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xl. ) that the grass-fires "obtained
their original hold on the forest-lands during some j^eriod of
dense native population.'" With a better realization of the time
re(|uired, T would no lonti'er say " original " ; but clearing for
cultivation, which was in m\ nnnd as affording starting-point?
for fire, may itself have contri])uted to the destrtiction. It is
very interesting to read Thomas Belt's account of the way in
which the whole Pacific slope of Nicaragtia has been, ai)parently.
cleared thus by the Indians -without the aid of fire* in the course
(he believes) of thousands of years, the trouble of weeding the
grass that soon comes in being in this case the incentive for the
continued use of the forests to the neglect of the still fertile
savannahs ; and Roosevelt records the destruction of much dense
forest in East Africa l^etween the Aberdare Range and Mount
Kenia " by the Kikuyu tribe in order to give them new soil for
cultivation," while " similarly destructive agricultural methods
have separated portions of the Elgon and Nandi forests, which
were formerlv continuous." ]\Tiss Lilian Gibbs, in a most in-
teresting paper describing the last of her adventurous explora
tions {Jour. Linn. Soc, 1914, xlii., no. 285). shows us a relatively
early stage ; for she describes how the primary forest of Borneo
still co\'ers the lowlands north oif Kinabalu, where there are no
natives, but has elsewhere been destroyed l)y them for ctdti-
vation up to an altitude of 3.500-6,000 feet, and, in the valleys,
considerably higher (p. 11).

The clearing of this ty])e of forest is not the rule amongst
our natives to-day — I have seen only one small instance of it,
in Portuguese territory — but when Chirinda-like forest covered
a large projwrtion elf the country, there was more temptation

=' Belt does not mention fire.

KEl'LA.EMENT OF TllK ANC IKNT E. AFRICAN FOREST 505

and (if the population were larjie) less choice, and this mode of
cultivation may have heen as much the fashion here as it was in
Belt's day in Nicara^^ua. A recent period of this kind mig-ht
explain, far better than tire alone, the clearing of certain rich
trap-areas, like large parts of the jihu, since the sand-av)ple line
was fixed — subsec(uently. that is, to another kind of period dur-
ing which the disappearance of forest from the poorer or drier
soils first was the rule. Not so recent as to have left memories
or traditions — .for of these I find no trace : and not concluded bv
the Zulu incursion — for this, an incorporation on this side of the
Sabi rather than a con(juest. appears to have interfered so little
with the life of the people as to have been unlikely to have
caused the cessation of such a custom. Yet it might have been
coincident with the Arab trade and the better davs of the
\''arozvvi.

A fact that perhaps may tell against the importance of the
above factor is that some of the most important forests in Africa
outside of the solid area occur far up on the route of the south-
ward migration of the races, and where blocking and crowded
|X>pulat-ions would appear to have occurred in the process.

An instance of the effect of the constant cuttinq of saplings
by natives will be given below. Continued long enough by suffi-
cient natives, it would certainly end in the destruction of the
]x>rtion of forest afifected.

Shade. — Roosevelt and Heller (^ifricaii Game Animals)
suggest as the raisou d'etre for this " massed "' type of forest and
its sharj) demarcation from the surrounding grass-veld that the
trees composing it seem capable of growing' only " where they
are protected from the maximum (|uantity of sunlight." The
need is doubtless felt by certain si)ecies — as it is. I believe, by
the Ca])e Stinkwood — and the shrubs and herbs are also, doubt-
less, largely dependent on shade. Coffea lic/iisfroides, planted by
me without shade, failed, and shrubs of Conopharyngia usam-
bareiisis, though they have grown vigorously, show some leaf-
crumpling and a flecking with yellow that indicates some chloro-
]ihyll-destruction. Seedlings, again, in their first drv season,
liave certain small requirements, which may be better referred
to below. Be)-ond this, the view does not seem to apply to our
big forest trees. Many years ago. in experimenting in shade-
trees for coffee and standards for Lan.dolphia rubber, I planted
forest-trees in the open sunlight, did not irrigate, and. except at
first, gave no cultivation, b'ach is now growing in isolation,
surrounded by grass but protected from fire,, and the latter
seems to be, at this stage, its sole demand. The failure of one
individual {Chrysophyllum s|). ) has been counterbalanced by the
success of another that has come u]) naturally, in broad sunlight,
outside the forest, and Khaya iiyasica, Lovoa Szuynnertonii,
and Eckebergia Meycri ( IMeliacecc). Teclea Szvymiertonji (Ruta-
ce?e). Schefflerodendron gazense (Leguminosse), Pygeum afri-
canum (Rosaceae), Chrysopliyllinn fulvum ( Sapotaceae), Stryeh-
nos mitis (Loganiaceffi), Maba mualala (Ebenace?e). Croton

506 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT i:. AFRICAN FOREST

Sylz'aticitm (Euphorbiacece ), and Ccltis dioica ( Uricacccie ) . all
big trees of Chirinda, are flourishing under the unwonted condi-
tions in spite oif a somewhat dry series of years. The same may
be said of IViddringtoiiki IVIiytei of the mountain forests, and I
have been told that this tree, amongst others, comes u]j, and
grows up, outside the forests in unlnu'nt ])ortions of (iermaa
East Africa. My trees named abo\e. Hke those of the luu-o-
pean forests, show clearly their independence c^f the massed
condition for such protection as they may need from excessive
sun — and wind — ^by readily protecting themselves when neces-
sary through lower branching, a stockier growth, and, in one oi
two cases, denser foliage. The firmer, smaller " sunlight '
leaves were naturally assumed earlw in ready adajjtation to the
early need for reducing transpiration.

The moisture that canopy — and especiall\-, as in Chirinda,
layers of canopy — directly and indirectly conserves is the real
essential : not to the big trees, once started, for they are shade
endurers and shade makers rather than shade l(jvers and sun-
light (fearers : but to the formation as a whole, in keeping green
its defence against fires. Yet neither the advantage in relation
to fire, nor delfence against drought, can be regarded, I think,
as the forest's raisoii d'etre, though they may exi)lain its long
survival here as against possibly less efficient sub-tyijes of the
same formation that may have gone first in the drier area? ;
for what is essentially the saiue general type is found elsewhere
in the world with fires absent and a rainfall approaohinu- 20C-
inches. The fact is that, with vegetable reproduction what it
is, it is not crowding, but the converse that most needs accounting
for. and the latter is probably in mo-;t cases due to thinning
agencies or conditions of hardship. The sharp demarcation
'between veld and forest — the " solid wall " of Roose\'elt and
Heller, " definite line " of Belt, and " abrupt cliff " of my own
description (Jour. Linn. Soc. Bot. xl.) — is, in the places in
W'hich we see it to-day. man's handiwork, direct or indirect : but
the difference is in any case between two plant societies, each
of which normally supplies conditions that are intolerable to
the other, and make invasion and commingling impossible excep:
with outside assistance.

Duration- — The various complicating factors I have re-
ferred to earlier make it futile to try to estimate the probable
duration of the period of destruction. A very crude estimate,
based on fire alone and on a higher average rate of destruction
than is observable here to-day in the case of unprotected forest-
patches, gave the figure of 105,000 years. Even if we should
admit the systematic destruction of forest for culti\'ation dur-
ing many centuries, the figure would still have to be great. Yet
man's association with extinct animals at Broken Hill suggests
that this need not, in itself, be a formidable objection to the
view that primary forest of the Chirinda type once covered the
stri]> from the mountains to the sea, and was removed chieflv
by the two agencies 1 ha\e suggested — especiall\- by, and. for

REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST 507

long only by, fire. Such a tradition as that mentioned, I be-
lieve, by Theal, to the effect that the Kaffirs on reaching the
Limpopo found savages there who, at that late date, had no
knowledge of fire, might tell against it. But even if the tradi-
tion be well-founded, it does not seem (|uite inijjossible that a
type as low as are the present Vaali)ens of that valley might have
remained without fire for an immense time even with fire-using
Bushmen and Hottentots in the country.

It seems impossible to say whether the retarding factors T
liave referred to earlier will haxe been more than counter-
balanced >by accelerating factors. A single, really prolonged
period of drought might have seen immense fores't-obstruction.
Again, a slow and gradual start from a few small centres is
possible, or, on the other hand, the fires may have come in along
the whole dry western front, the forests of the inland i)lateau
coumtry, if they existed so late, having been burned oft' first.
It might also be argued that tlie dense forests are mainlv a
mountain phenomenon, and that it is unnecessary to assume
that, at this latitude, they may have extended to the coast. A
once more or less continuous stri]) of forest on the mountains
and eastern foot-hills would exjilain distribution, and have
needed less time for its destruction. Against this we must i)ut
the fact that the South Melsetter and Mossurise forest-patches,
though occurring at from 3.000 to 4,000 feet, are essentiall>'
of a lowland type, that such patches occur also in the lowlands
and not ifar from the sea, and that dense, high forest is simi-
larly found in the lowlands in British East Africa.

{b) Pyrophytic Forest. — The trees that are associated
with the annually-burning grass-veld are fully as intolerant of
dense-forest coiuhti»jns as are the grasses themselves. Ada])ta-
tions of the bark enable them (once well established) to meet the
fires with nothing worse than a loss of leaves and their seedlings
survive both fires and winter drought in a marvellous way ; but
the latter, in contrast to the true forest seedlings which will keep
alive for years in the undergro'wi:'h awaiting light in order to
grow tip, cannot long survive damp and shade. I have numbers
of times seen masses of Uapaca seedlings in particular, dropped
in the forest by Kafirs or baboons, germinate, yet fail every time
to persist. It is correct, therefore, to say that the factors that
have reduced the dense forest areas have also brought about the
present wide distribution of the trees of the pasture-lands.

Derivation. — Dr. W. L. Thompson has said to me that he
has been much impressed with the probability that the one type
has arisen (from the other by the fact that the same genus so often
possesses representatives both in the forest and in the pastur'^
Ochna, Eckebergia, Rlioicissiis, Parinarinm, Eugenia, Vangueria,
Stryehnos, Vitex, Bridelia. Eicns, are amongst the instances of
this quite striking fact. If (as I think we must) we regard
regidar fires as a relatively recent phenomenon and the ])resent
" wooded-pasture " trees as belonging to a later, specialized, defin-
itely pyrophytic type, it certainly seems not entirely unlikely that
if we could go back far enough we should find that they are. each

508 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

one, eventually thus derived from a forest-inhabiting ancestor.
But the present wide distribution in Africa of many of them sug-
gests that for these we should need to go back very far indeed,
and that the replacement of any particular great piece of forest
has probably proceeded (as it does under our eyes to-day) far
more by immigration and spread of already-specialized forms
than by the trans'formation of its own trees. It is likely enough
also that some of the forms came in, already ombrophobous, from
an equivalent to our present grass-veld that may already have
existed in drier areas long before tire, in the hands of man,
became an important factor. This would entail a less violent
re-adaptation than is presupposed in the transformation of a
forest-tree into a pyrophyte and, especially, of its seedling into a
seasonal xerophyte. and the indirect palaeontological evidence, such
as there is of it, seems to point to the existence of open country in
early Tertiary times. Against the view that such country may
have existed in potential forest areas before man and his fires
commenced to destroy, may be placed an argument which anyone
who has lived long in this country — in this part of it at any rate
— will have seen growing u]> under his eyes. The fact is that
land from which fire is excluded tends to go back to dense bush.
Even the more open grass-veld here is full of stumps that seldom
get further than a one season's shoot.* The very fires that have
rendered their existence on that ground possible, by driving the
(forest ofif it, keep them from growing up until, some year, a |xoor
'burn, it may be, or no burn, allows of a second season's growth
being superadded to the first and gives a more fire-resisting bark
to the latter — just as the shade that secures the survival of the
forest seedlings may also keej) them back till the sun, some year,
gets in. Keep the fire from such a piece of ground^-or
burn too soon — ^for several years, and these shoots grow up and
eventually in places become so dense as to reduce the grass and
the severity of the fires and to allow semi-forest types
as Marklmniia lanata and Albissia chirindensis to spring up
amongst them as I shall describe below, and eventually to replace
them. The result, when this occurs so far from high forest as
not to obtain seeds from it, is a form of dense thicket, that is not
uncommon in this section. I am not at all sure that very large
parts, at any rate, of the great rubber-forests of the Portuguese
lowlands may not be of this type. I was much struck, when
there, by the frequent intermingling seen of the trees usually
ifound in pasture with the shrubs and climbers of the denser
growth and the smothering by these that was actually in pro-
gress.

The semi-forest types referred to just now, and especially
such a one as Rainvolfia inebrians, at home even in Chirinda yet
capable of holding its own outside with only a little protection
from fire, may represent the sort of form through which our

* Cf., also, Neave ("A Naturalist's Travels on the Congo-Zambezii
Watershed." Geog. Jul., Feb. 1910, p. 138"):" The tree-stumps .
have to undergo a very keen struggle to survive the annual 1)ush hres."

REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FORESTi 5O9

nioic specializtMl modern pyro])hytes have descended. Tlie

Raiiivolfia ajjpears to owe its dispersal mainly to birds, and it
seems to me highly significant — but I do not know whether an
examination of other African forest areas would give a corre-
sponding result — that those forest-trees which possess congeners
in the fire-swept pastures are, for the most part, the ones which
l)roduce edible fruits: all but one in the list above are of this
category. The seeds of these, drop]:)ed into every conceivable sort
of stati(in outside, wfuild occasionally hit off conditions which would
be, in varying degree, suj^portable, and the transformation might
thus come aljout by easier stages than seeds dro])ped on the out-
skirts of a disappearing forest, and bound in a year or two to face
the full severity of the fires, could hojie (for. That the migration
has not been from the veld to the forest seems rather to be sug-
gested by the j^resent uniformly inhos])itable conditions in such
forests as Chirinda, though with elephants still abundant in them,
or natives making clearings, this may n(^t liave been the case to
the same extent in the i)ast.

Tlic Influence of Man and other Animals on this Type of
J'Voodin</. — I have referred to fire as a factor that may repress,
temporarily, tlie gnnvth even of pyrophytic trees. It has not, in the
past, been the only repressive factor. It is a matter of com-
ment amongst our Kafirs generally, and also amongst white resi-
dents, that the country north and west of Chirinda has been be-
coming wooded with pyro])hytes at a great rate in recent years,
and Parinariuni eiiratelhcfoliiini has been making great strides in
the district generally. I consulted, independently, two aged
natives. Eacli said that in his youth the country in c|uestion was
as bare as the stri]) to its north still is, or barer. Asked to ac-
count for the change, one said that even Uapaca Kirkiana (now
the dominant tree and a help in famine) was then too scarce to
supply the local po])ulation. and that parties of natives used to go
regularly a dozen miles, to the Buzi, to collect the fruits. He
presumed that the seeds thus carried must have resulted in some
of the present groves. This explanation is by no means capable
of accounting for all the if acts even in relation to this one species,
and the old man was puzzled to explain the similar increase on
the part of Bracliystegia, the fruits of which genus have no such
interest for the natives ; but I mention his statement because it
suggests how great a factor for ra])i(l dispersal the natives may
in some cases be.

My other informant — an old doctor — from whom I had long
1)reviously olitained much of the information with regard to the
medicinal uses of plants that I included in mv ])aper on the trees
and shrubs, stated that, for the most part, neither the Parinariuni
scrub nor the present proves of other species were new. He
had seen them as a child, but — the plants that have now made
trees were then regularly browsed back to the ground by the great
herds of buck that grazed our veld before the white man came.

As a ]:)artial explanation this seems to me good, and othv'^rs
have confirmed it. It does not account for everything, for, if

510 Ki':i'LAt'i:.Mi:NT of tuiv anch^nt ]■:. afkkak fokicst

some o'f the nnw oldci" i^rox'cs were actually as small in the old
men's youth as they stated, then they had already, as a fact, in-
creased somewht before the white man came. It is jjrobable
that the increase in the numl)ers and virility of the local native
[population which will have accompanied the settling^ beside Mount
Chirinda of the great invading- Chief Umzila with his warlike
Zulu following will itself ha\e started the ]:)rocess of i)reserva-
tion from the Imck — at any rate in the immediate neighbour-
hood (^f the main kraal, and some details I have gleaned from
okl men, but have not s])ace to discuss here, sujDjiort this view.
But the wooding has undoubtedly made its great, and general.
s])urt since the white man's arrival, and this may have been due
to the fact(Tr suggested as well as to the tamer fires that result
from the white man's earlier burning. It is not necessary for
most of the species to sup})ose that the ])resent trees are entirely,
or even mainly, old stumps grown up, for the main groves are
admitted to have been represented by clumps even in the old
men's youth (Umzila j)laced his first kraal beside such a clump;
it now covers a hundred acres), and, the natural reproduction
being good, it has merely re(|uired the removal of the antelopes
to allow it to become effective — the fires i:)ermitting. But, for
Parinariiiiu, as I have shown in my " Melsetter " paper, natural
re])roduction ofl:"ers no ade(|uate ex]>lanation and old Ali'a'owe's
exi)lanation, added to that connected with fire, holds good in its
entirety.

Man's influence on the vegetation is a difiicult, if interest-
ing, thing to assess with any exactitude. In this locality the
black man troubles the large trees of the forest but little — unless
one hajjpens to contain a liees' nest, in which case its felling
merely antici]:)ates its death from the decay already begun ; but
when i^resent in great ntimbers or where the forests are very
small, he seriously hinders reproduction by destroying the
younger growth. I have been told that Umzila's people, arriving
in an otherwise nearly woodless land and commencing building
o])erations, felled an immense amount of small forest growth and
destroyed some small patches, not containing many large trees, in
a single day. The mere trapi^ing of bluelnicks, against which
animals Gungunyana (Umzila's successor) is said to ha\e at one
time instituted quite a cami^aign, must have entailed a continuous
destruction of saplings for the tra]) fences. The i:)rocess was a.p-
parentl}- insufficientlv severe, or (better) insufficientlv prolonged,
to cause the decay and disa])])earance of any ])ortion of Chirinda,
but I am inclined to attribute the present rather decayed appear-
ance of the older {portions of Chipete to the fact that several
kraals, including the Chief Mapungwana's, have always been
located just to its east, and that all the young growth was regu-
larly cut down until I commenced to protect it. There is conse-
fjuently a gap of very many years between the older trees and the
next oldest growth and this gap shows U]) when the former pass
maturity.

The natives' influence on l!ie more oiien woodiu"- would seem

ki';i'LAci':.Mi';\T oi' riii': AXeii^Nt k. ai'Kuan fokicst 51 1

to be, (Ml the whole, re])ressive. He shifts his liardens e\erv few-
years, and wherever he makes a new one he first lojxs off the
l)ranches. piles them round the base of the trunks, and, firinj^'
them, destro3's a patch of bush. Some of the trees of the wooded
])asturcs bear favourite fruits, or support edible cateri^illars.
Im])rovident of the goose that lays his "'olden eg-gs, he frec|uentl\-
chops these (Unvn to collect the " e_ggs " more easily. He is a
far more efficient dis])erser of the seeds of edible fruits than is
the white man, but he fails to keep down the buck that eat down
the seedlings. He even reinforces them — with goats.

Idle white man, on the other hand, chops down some of the
mature forest-trees but prohibits the cutting of vounger growth.
He protects the forest from the annual fires, and tries, if any-
thing, to extend it.''' But he also conserves the relatively useless
];asture-trees that are making his agriculture expensive and will
gradually reduce his grazing. Jealous of his proprietary rights
he forbids the native to cut them ; an efifective and blood-thirsty
hunter, he destroys the buck that kei)t them down ; his earlier
fires let them make a start, and his sheep and cattle (more fre-
(|uently kei)t than goats) definitely encourage them by replacing
only the grazing antelopes and keepiny' down chiefiy the trees'
competitor and fire-bringer, the grass. And so, if he is not so
near a town or mine as to be able to cho]) all down and sell it, his
land reverts to wooding — of a verv poor kind, whether you look
at it from the point of view of direct utility (as compared with
wliat can be obtained from a (|uite small plantation of better-class
timber), or from that of its influence on soil conservation and the
springs. The latter is probably ///'/, or worse.

6. Recon'ouest ny Forest.

I am nowadays commencing to see a definite, if incipient,
acKance on the part of a considerable line of forest as the result
of having protected Chipete and my section of Chirinda from
the fires ifor fifteen years ])ast, and the process is worth de-
scribing.

The sub-community represented b\- the uiitskirfs j)lants has •
made the first and great advance. The green fringe of Hypo-
cstcs ai'istafa has pushed in ])laces as much as 40 or 50 yards into
the grass and is supplanting it, the luxuriant climbers Dioscorca
Schimpcriaiia and Hcliints iiivstaciiius are in places wandering out
and smothering it, and the large shrubs Venwnia podocoma
and raiigiicria apiculaia and small, labunmm-Iike Calpnrnia
lasiogync are following up this advance and making a tliicket.
Ab)st i^rominent of all, however, is the semi-tolerant sjjecies Albh-
::.ia fasfigiafa chlrindeiisis. While the fires lasted, this tree hugged
the forest, but now it is thrusting out boldly into the grass-veld —
individually up to eighty and a hundred yards, and closer growth,
already forming clumps and little woods, u]) to tliirt\- and forty

* \t Cliiriiula I think wo recot>nisc our ohligntions towards the fores;!.
I'.ut it nnisl 1)e admitted that ihe ahovf has not hix-n \hv altitude <it" ihr
wliite man in all countries.

Sl2 KEl'LACEMENT UF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

yards. The forest proper is slowly bringing up the rear, as the
shade advances, with a small but quite definite advance of from
three to five yards, the out-leaning- trunks of Calpiiniia and other
outskirts species that used to be on its outside being now that dis-
tance inside it, and in a more or less decaying condition. Only
in one place, a broad indentation of Chipete, has the forest ad-
vanced as yet in a really sensational manner — yo yards at the
deepest spot. It has been enabled to do this under cover of the
shade of thorn-trees — also BridcUa, Catha and Erythrina — that
had come in with the invading grass-veld and grown u]), and
with the liana Toddalh aciiiiiiiiala as its advance guard and shade-
connecter. It is curious to see the al:)ove trees — old trees, and,
some of them, as the Bridelias and Erythrina hiimcaiia, marking
former limits during the process of (forest-destruction — standing
far inside the forest, the thorn trees mostly already dead. But
an occasional Iforest seedhng is to be seen beyond even the general
slower advance of Chirinda, pushing up amongst the outskirts
])lants ; and Tcclea in s])ecial numbers, but a few other s]jecies
too, are coming up under the shade of the Albizzia clumps and
even — aided, doubtless, by the layer of humus that has already
formed in such positions — that of isolated thorn-trees growing in
the unburnt grass-veld. This suggests that far greater ])rogress
on the i)art of the forest itself will be visil)le at the end O'f a
second fifteen years than is to be seen now, and it seems likely
that a final cessation of grass-fires would, other thin.us remaining
as favourable as at present, result in the course of ages in the re-
taking by the forest of its lost ground, just as Belt claimed would
happen in Nicaragua were the felling there for cultivation to
be abandoned. The process would be slow, but less slow, 1
believe, than the destruction has been, for Hypoesfcs and
Albiccia are energetic and far-])ushing pioneers. Also the shade
and liumus of the forest's rivals, the trees of the veld, would l)e
freely used by it for their supplanting.

Not merely along the general advance, either ; for new forest
centres would be created under them by fruit-eating birds and
would accelerate the closing-up ])rocess as they came into bearing.
This has begun to happen already, for Haroiuja inadagascari-
ciisis, a tree of the dense-wooded kloofs, is, over a certain area
of ground near Chirinda. coming up thickly under Eii(jeiiia
Jaiifoha and small Pariiiariuiiis in the unbtirnt grass-veld, and,
growing rapidly and overtopping them, is killing its nurse-trees
and itself coming into bearing and being visited by numbers of
bulbuls. The kloofs generallv would helj) greatlv in the re-
aOoresting of the mountains. Those of a portion of the northern
slope of Chirinda that is covered with Uapaca and Brachystegia
wooding, but has been little burnt oi late had ])reviously had their
Dvrojiiiobe trees reduced by the fires to a mere thin line along their
bottoms. Yet now they are climbing out again, and — Eckcbcrgiii'
iVIcycri, J'yf/ciiiii africaiitiiii . Teclca Szvynnertonii, Sapiitin
Maiiiiiaiiinii and Eugenia inxirirnsis. but esi^ecially. and in nmn-
bers, the ]jioneers Haroaga, Albizzia, and, to a less extent,

liEPLACEMENt ()!• THE ANClENT E. AEKKAN EOi< ol 513

Bersaiiia — they are entering into successful warfare with the
l)yrophytes of the lower slopes, while the big climbers Landol-
pliia, Clioi'isfxlis, Caiitliiiitu, Klioicissiis, Uvaria, Secamonc, and
Lygodiiiiii siibalatitiii are flinging themselves out over Bracliy-
stcyias and Uapacas, and already smothering some of them.
That the pyrophobes should be capable of growing up under
trees so exclusive and hard on the ground as the last two genera
has interested me immensely, and jjrompted the suggestion I
shall state below ; 'but our forest^trees are obviously good
fighters. It is possible that few trees have so drying an effect
on the ground as Eucalypts — they have quite dried out a small
swamp that used to provide me with Anopheles. Yet, in my
close-])lanted gum shelter-belts, forest trees and shrubs, as well
as several importations, have come up everywhere and ,uro\vn
freely. They include the fine trees Trieliilia chirindensis,
Eckehcrgia Meveri. Pygeitin africanum, Maba niiialala, Croton
sxlvaficitni, Sapiiuii Mannianiiin, and Celiis dioica.

The prompt advance of forest that follows the cessation of
fires is an argument in favour of the latter as the agent of its
destruction. The circumstances under which the seeds of forest-
trees germinate and succeed outside the forest enajjlc one to
gauge their actual needs. I have seen seedlings that have
si)rung up in numbers on the outskirts and flourished in broad
sunshine, while the rain lasted, dry up and disajjpear as the dry
season i)rogressed. Llere the ground was bare of fallen leaves,
or practically so, and baked dry. On the other hand Kliaya,
Trichilia, Pvgeiiui, Raitwolfia, Teelea. Croton, EJiretia, Schefflero-
dcndron, and Landolphia sown in ploughed ground survived
their first dry season well without shade, the ifact that they
were covered up, together with the moisture retained by the
]3loughed ground, and its ])enetrability, evidently fulfilling all
needs. To-day they form a well-grown grove. Albizaia
chiriiidensis, again, gives very little shade when one would ex-
pect it to be much wanted, for it drops its leaves in June and
early Jiflv. Yet it seems a successful nurse tree. There is always
a fair amount of good humus layer under it, and this, apparently,
is able alone to carry a fair ])ro])()rtion of the seedlings it shelters
through their first dry season. In general, I should say that one
never finds a forest-seedling surviving the latter when some
slight layer is not present, unless it finds tilled ground. The
seeds slip or are washed down Ijetween the undecomposed leaves,
and are sheltered by these ; and the layer generally, heli)ed by
shade when present, tends to retain much moisture between the
falls of rain, and also provides a jjenetrable bed for the seed-
ling's roots, with the result that it has begun to be established
by the time the dry season comes. If, now, the humus is such
as to ensure the continuance of a sufticient moisture supply, the
l)lant does not fear sunliglu. If not, it burns unless sliaded.
Tims moisture, ratlier than sliade, is the real necessity in their
first season, for, at any rate, a great many of the finer and com-
moner trees of this tyi)e of forest, though it is seldom that the

514 KEI'LAl 1:MENT of THE ANCIENT E. AFKRAN EUKEST

f(jnner is sufficient, outside the forest, to enable tlieni to dispense
witli tlie latter. Inside the forest the tendency of shade is to
keep them back, and of sunlii^ht to bring them on. In cultiva-
tion, they would probably nearl}' always need either initial
shade or tilth — -or water.

The effect of a large antel(ti)e po|)ulation on adxancing
forest can best be noted where the former still exists. Buck
mostly avoid forest. The little "blue-buck" (C. nioitficola
inhabits it. and Intshbuck be uj) in it. Inn feed outside. The
stomach, examined by myself, of an individtial that thus haunted
the .forest, contained recognisable remains only of ])lants of tlie
grass-veld outside.

A Sitgf/estioii. — AIa_\' it not jjrove i^ossible, for certain pur-
])oses, to utilize our already-established pasture-trees as nurse
trees in artificial afforestation, at any rate under favourable
conditions of rainfall, situation, etc.? 1 do not know whether
it lias been attemi)ted. i have myself, as a very small exj^eri-
ment, ])lanted gums ( (V. botryoldcs ) in a Uapaca grove under
conditions api;arcntly imfavourable lo them — a high and dry
spur, with mixed shale and saiidstmie right on the surface and
no i)rc]niration beyond holes that would just take the roots — and
they have over-tO]j])ed and are killing the Uapacas; but gums,
not needing shade, and being worse than useless for the ptu-pose
that this sort of i)lanting might be particularly used for, are not
so much to the i)oint as the other o])ser\ations 1 ha\'u described.

The pasture-trees make good shelter for stock, and contain
a few really useful species, and one would be sorry to sacritice
the gorgeous si)ring tints of the Brachystegias — a landmark in
the year ; Ijut the type of forest is, all the same, a relatively use-
less one, and, where not near mines and towns, is tending to swamj)
the ]jasture. 1 have referred to its i)rol)able inefficiency in the
matter (^f water-conservation, llie humus is more or less burnt
off' annuallv, the cano])y is connnonly so thin and broken that it
fails ade(|uately to protect the ground (from the sun and check
evaporation, or greatly to lower the temperature, and the wood-
ing is so open below and around that the drying winds blow
through unchecked. Air. llutchins. if i remember rightly, sug-
gested many years ago that the moisture exhaled from the leaves
])robably greatly exceeded that retained by the shading, and
this, for most of the s])ecies, seems likel\' enough. It is doubt-
ful, again, whetlier, on a steep slo])e. the thinning of the grass
that takes place vmder a close grove does not lead to greater
waste than is prevented by the roots of the trees — at anv rate
where the fallen leaves are Ijurnt. I'inally the drving-u]j of the
springs of a slope in which 1 am interested has gone on coinci-
dentall}- with its bectjming more and more completelv clothed
with this type of woruling. 1 do not connect the two ])henomena
necessaril}-, but I doubt whether it would have hapijcned to at
all tlie same extent uii<ler jiine or ("liiritida-like forest. 1 ha\e
several times heard tlie cutting of this oi)en wooding denounced
as likely to " dry up the springs " or " diminish the rainfall,"

kI':i'L.\cI':.mI':nt of iiii': ANcii'LiXT !■:. ai-rjcan i'()Ki':s'i 515

l)iU ill \icw (if all I lia\c jusi said, I do not feel that il need be
regretted if it should be ])ossibte l<> eoiuert an ijeeasional liill-
sidc of it into useful forest.

'The \alue. as nin-se-trees, of a dr\in,i^- ty])e of \voodiii<i' may
well l)e (|tiestioned. Vet the ol)servations I have given suggest
that it mav serve, and the ini])ression left with the observer is
that it onlv requires the eontinued exelusion of fires and an
abundant seed-sowing to extend over the whole s]oi)e I have
mentioned the oj^eration that is already taking i)laee in the
kloofs, and on part of the hilltoj). Obviously the growth
obtained from sueh planting eould not be ex]:)ected to be so even
or the returns at all so early as from ploughed ground, and it
would be worth attempting only in a case like the above, in whieli
not early returns, but the rescue of s])rings at as cheap a cost as
])ossible was the primary consideration.

Albi::sia or Er\tlirliia or some other useful tree might be used
as a shade connecter and wherever natural wooding was absent,
being either sown at stake ov put in as live posts; and a
later sowing made at stake, at stations roughly hoed in the
urass, with the better native fc^rest trees as (in these parts)
Khaya and Pxgciim. To get its full moisture-conserving effect
from this tyi)e of forest, and to guard it against fire, one would
doubtless have to follow nature and include some of the shrubs,
if not of the lower-canopy trees, in one's sowing, and later, in
order to bind the humus on the steeper slopes and add a shade-
layer, to introduce fc;rest-grasses at intervals. They would soon
sj/read and meet. Actually, this forest never makes much
hunuis, though masses of leaves fall, and there being no white
ants and no fire to destroy it, one expects to see accumulation
in the course of years. On scraping oft' the top layer of un-
decomi)osed leaves, one finds such (juantities of small roots
feeding right at the surface that one's immediate im|)ression is
that the forest is eating- uji its humus as fast as it deposits it.
Pines would quite likely be better if Pin us lialefcnsis,
for instance, were found to succeed under the conditions, but
the Chirinda type seems very eft'ective in preventing wash and
in ])reserving coolness and moisture and a i:)erpetual flow from
its springs, though they sometimes get low in a drought.

If I should be successful, jiersonally. in aiding the re-
aft'orestation, begun by nature, of the slope referred to, or the
forest-advance itsejf, in the manner I ha\e just suggested, it is
l)ossible that I mav yet oft'er the Association a i)aper on " The
]'ie^l)lacement of W(^oded Pasture-land by High Forest!"

/;/ conclusion, it may be said. 1 think, that this type of
forest, while i)rimarily dei:)endent on rainfall, has elastic require-
ments even in that respect. Miss Gibbs gives the range 61-158
inches for another siii>type of the same general formation, and
here we may ])ut the minimum as low. I think, as 40 inches:
])Ossiblv a good deal lower were it not for the more wholesale
damage that would then be done by fires. Above a certain
figure. var\ing doitlvtless with \ariotis factors, an(l with no

^if^ RRTL ■\CK:NrENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

stron.s^ly-iiiarked dry season, il would a])|)ear thai this forest
g-ives place, after its destruction for cultivation and the subse-
quent aband(^nnient of the crround, to secondary forest more or
less dense, which becomes largely replaced in time by the
orig-inal forest. Below that figure, and with a sufficiently
strongly-marked dry season, annual fires take place outside the
forest, and the latter, as it is destroyed by them or by cultiva-
tion, is rejjlaced by grass land, of fire-bearinu' grasses, inter-
mingled throughout great areas with a secondary tyi)e
of wooding which is also ])yroi)hytic. This is vsry dif-
ferent, apparently, from the secondary type in the other class
of area, and to be regarded as intervening between it and the
primary type; for an equivalent to what is elsewhere the secon-
dary type occurs here as a third stage, should fires cease. The
latter is at first i)artly a matter (^f the denser massing of the
]jyrophytic trees themselves, but it is chiefly composed, eventually,
of shade-beariny species that belong neither to the true forest
nor to the pyrojihytes. Where these thickets, or the secondary
pyro])hytic bush, are near enough to true forest to receive seeds
from it, they are eventtially swami^ed and replaced bv it — fires
still not taking place.

One other point is ])erha]is of some importance. Our
retreating forests of to-day are surrounded by gradtiated zones,
varying in width with circumstances, that might be called
dcnudatioii-zones, should we acce])t wash as the chief factor in
the impoverishment that follows forest — ^though nati\e cultiva-
tion and burning contribute strongly — or, better, ijerha])s, liiiiuiis-
.'::oiies. When the forest was still unbroken, but was already
retreating before the fires, these zones would have existed as
continuous lines or concentric rings along or round the wh(~)le
forest area, and even the inner lines would still have been con-
tinuous for some little time after the forest became broken
through, while the outer zones may be regarded as still connected
to-day. As the fragments became more numerous and widely-
sj^aced, various com])licating factors will have arisen. Members
of a ]5articular zone wdll have persisted far longer in some cir-
ciunstances than in others ; the inner zones Avill not only ha\e
surrounded forest-patches, Init have survived them for a time
as islands, or, should the forest have advanced again, have dis-
appeared through being swallowed up in it, and changes, through
siltins', etc., in the distribution of the richer elements of the soil
will have led to much dis])lacement. Allowing for all this.
I believe that a fuller realization of* the former continuity of
forest and the consecpient extension of the zonal idea to eml)race
these sub-divisions of some of the altitudinal zones, dei)endent
not merely on altitude but on degrees of soil-impoverishment fol-
lowing the destruction of forest sub-divisions, Avill give us
the correct basis for a study of distribtition, as well as for our
more local necological studies, faunal and floral. Thus it is
highly suggestive that in the Chirinda region our connections
with Kilimanjaro, both in l)irds and plants, extend to several of

KKPLACEMENT OF TlIK ANCIENT K. AFRFCAX FOREST

.-iV

the inner _^ras.s zones, and — to take a more local jjoint — it is
interesting- to find that animals — the "bine-buck" (C )nonti-
cola), the elephant-shrew (Petrodromns tciradaciylus) — many
butterflies, and such birds as AntJvcptcs Jiypodiliis, which on
Chirinda's northern outskirts venture only a few yards outside
the forest, and might well be regarded as ijurely forest, or at
most (like the Anthrcptcs) outskirts animals, range to the south
of Chirinda over a grass-jungle tract (the Jihu) that is nearly
20 miles wide. The fact is that the innermost humus zones,
narrowed to the north by the circumstance that the Iforest has for
hundreds of years held its own there while the slope outside it
became denuded, to the south still cover the large extent of
country mentioned.

There is this difference between these zones and those that
are .dependent on altitude : that, while the inner higher altitudinal
zones have doubtless spread out during i)eriods of glaciation,
mountain forest replacing lowland forest and itself in places
being squeezed out of the country, yet it has been able to regain
the lost ground when milder conditions returned. But its re-
placement by the grass-veld zones, or whatever civilized man may
yet substitute ifor the latter — let us hope not desert ! — will pro-
bably be, for the greater part of the area concerned, final — till
man disappears.

Addendum. — ^^Mr. J. M. Sim's paper — of great practical
interest^on " The Modification of South African Rainfall " *
reached me to-day, and, as it bears directly on some of the
points I have discussed, I add this note. He proves the disappear-
ance of great forests in the Cape at, I judge, a vastly more
rapid rate than may be seen here, but this, I take it, has been
in the main the result of the white man's presence. He shows
also that, in the Cape, drought conchtions, brought about by
man, have distinctly to be reckoned with as a direct factor in
forest destruction, and though such conditions have not, I be-
lieve, acted thus here, yet they may have done so in our lesser
rainfall areas to the west — // the results were not anticipated by
fire, which they probably commonly would be where fire was
already annual and the forest unprotected from it. Mr. Sim's
remarks on the stag-horning of isolated trees also show clearly
that my statement as to the apparent independence of the massed
condition enjoyed by our forest trees does not apply to the
same type oif tree under a much reduced or modified rainfall.
Here I know of one or two splendid isolated mahoganies, last
survivors of their patches, but now protected from fire, that are
in perfect health in spite of their isolation.

I doubt, myself — rashly, for I have no personal acquain-
tance with them — whether Mr. Sim is quite right in supposing
that the Hottentots were kinder to the forests than the Kaffirs
have been — excepting where the Kaffirs have also felled or ring-
barked for cultivation. Hunting is quite as great an incentive

* Rept. S.A. Ass. for Adv. of Science, Maritzlinrs' (T916).

E

5l8 REPLACEMENT OF THE ANCIENT E. AFRICAN FOREST

to grass-burning as the wish to cuhivate, and here (especially,
of course, in the less settled parts) great ring fires are lit
annually by the natives for the express purpose of hemming in
the contained game, which either breaks through and is shot at
or speared — or is burnt. I have known both koodoos and sables
to be caught and killed by the flames, in one case quite a num-
ber ; and these fires, as also fires lit for purposes of rat-hunting,
often involve considerable pieces of country. I should expect
that hunting man will have used this method ever since he knew
the use of fire and found himself in grass-veld.

The pa])er on the Melsetter trees and shrubs, read in 1916,
and several times referred to here, remains unpublished owing
to my indisposition. In it I suggested the terms " pyrophyte "
and " pyrophobe," here used, for trees adapted to withstand fire,
and not so adapted, respectively, and gave in detail the succession
of pyrophyte associations that here follows the destruction of
forest.

(Read, July 4, 1917.)

NOTE ON THE MICRO-TITRATION OF ARSENIC.

By Henr> Hamilton Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

(Abstract.)

(Printed ill Ainntal Report of Director of Veterinary Research,

Pretoria.)

The difiiculty of determining small quantities of arsenic in
physiological material with any real ai)proach to percentage
accuracy is emphasized, and it is pointed out that 'for quantities
ranging from a milligram or two down to one-twentieth of a
milligram a micro-titration method is much more serviceable
than the commonly used Marsh mirrors or Gutzeit papers. A
method is described in which the arsenic is brought over as
arsine in the conventional way, collected in dilute silver nitrate,

N
and titrated directly with iodine (i c.c. = one-tenth of a

495
milligram AS2O3) after addition of a little bicarbonate and
sufficient potassium iodide to keep all excess silver salt in solu-
tion. Comparison is made with the reports of referees in the
most recent trials of the methods favoured (for food-stuffs) by
the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists in America,
and it is maintained that micro-titration is more reliable and
more rapid than colorimetric determination ; that it requires less
personal attention to detail, and is applicable in a great many
cases where most chemists now adopt a modified Gutzeit
method.

(Read. .Inly 4. 1917.)

THE VITAMINE CONTENT OF MAIZE AND MAIZE-
MILLING PRODUCTS, AND THE AMBIGUITY OF
ITS CORRELATION WITH THE PHOSPHORIC
OXIDE CONTENT.

By Henry Hamilton Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.

(Abstract.)

{Printed in the Annual Report of Director of Veterinary

Research, Pretoria.)

The examination of maize-millino- products by dietetic ex-
periments, using the pigeon as discriminant, indicates that the
distribution of vitamine in the maize kernel follows the distribu-
tion of phosphoric oxide whenever any given sample of grain
is taken into consideration. This parallelism, however, does not
hold between different samples of grain, and in a series of
samples oif whole maize varying in P, O^ content from 0.35 per
cent, to 0.71 per cent, no difference in vitamine content could
be detected by pigeon analysis. In these samples the " indicator
limit " of phosphoric oxide, for milled meals on the border-line
of efficiency, would vary from 0.23 per cent, to 0.46 per cent.
It is therefore impossible to use phosphoric oxide in milled pro-
ducts as indicator of vitamine efficiency unless the phosphoric
oxide content of the original mother-grain is known. This
information is rarely available, and the determination of Po O5
as a general analytical guide to efficiency, as advocated by
Voegtlin, Sullivan, and Myers, is therefore ruled out of court.
Their standard of 0.5 per cent. Pa Og for maize flour would
condemn more samples than it passed, and w'ould condemn the
majority of perfectly efficient South African meals. Simple
microscopic examination of a meal, to gauge the extent of
milling, would be a safer guide than the Po O., standard.

By taking "' average pigeon requirements " as standard for
comparison, and stating this as 100, it is possible to assign
" vitamine indices " to any given diet. On this basis whole
maize works out at about 160 to 180 — i.e., contains over 60 per
cent, more vitamine than is actually required in metabolism —
and whole maize can thereifore stand depletion of vitamine (or
P., 0-) to the extent of about one-third before deficiency is
likely to be manifested. The following \itamine indices repre-
sent determinations on an average series of milling products to
an estimated accuracy of about to per cent, either w^ay : —

Whole Fine Hominy

Product : Maize. Meal. Seconds. Bran. Chop. Samp.

Vitamine Index 160 120 170 180 380 30

The actual value in any given case depends, of course, upon
the mode of milling. The average fine meal is not deficient.
The more highly milled high-class table products and breakfast
foods (Fanko, etc.). are almost invariably highly deficient, and

520 THE VITAMINE CONTENT OF MAIZE.

their vitamine indices may vary from the border-Hne lOO down
to 30. Since, however, these products are more expensive, and
only used by white people living on a mixed diet, their low
vitamine content is of minor importance. All samples of mealie
meal as ordinarily milled for native consumption were found
to be perfectly efficient, with vitamine indices ranging roiuid 130
to 140. The mode of cooking maize meal for native consump-
tion is also discussed, and the bearing of the various data
offered in the paper is considered in relation to the possible
incidence of deficiency disease on the Rand.

(Read July 4, 1917.)

THE SUPPLING KILN AS A MEANS OF DESTROYING
INSECTS BORING IN WOOD.

Bv Charles William Mallv, ALSc, F.L.S.. F.E.S.

{Not printed.)

OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE SELECTION AND

BREEDING OF DESIRABLE STRAINS OF

BENEFICIAL INSECTS.

By Charles William Mallv. M.Sc. F.L.S.. F.E.S.

(Not printed.)

NOTES ON ANHYDROUS LIQUID HYDROCYANIC
ACID AS A FUMIGANT.

By Charles William Mally^ M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

South African Shells.— In the course of a report
on the availability of shells in South x\frica for use in the manu-
facture of buttons, Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist remarks that no South
African shells are gathered for commercial purposes except
those which are burned for lime, and those of the Argonaiif(e,
which have a small sale as ornaments. The only marine shells
which are likely to possess commercial value are the " klipkous "
(Haliotis) ancl the Cape pearl oyster (Margaritifera). Dr.
Gilchrist sent specimens of these shells to London many years
ago in order to ascertain their commercial value, but the price
quoted would hardly defray the expense of collection. It might
be, however, that a more favourable report wotdd be given if a
consignment were sent to the United States. These shells, more
especially the first-named, could be gathered in quantity, and a
report from American shell experts would be of great value, and
might lead to important developments.

SOME CENTRAL AFRICAN FOLKLORE TALES.

By Rev. John Robert Lewis Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

There are so many languages and dialects in the Bantu group
that no one man can expect to be master of them all. Some strange
chance, or opportunity, may put material into the hands of a
collector who is himself unable to make full use of it, and con-
sequently there may be danger of losing that material for ail time.
On the other hand, the mere fact of publication may be the means
of placing that material before someone who is qualified to complete
the work. It was with this thought uppermost in my mind that I
have been induced to place on record a number of Central African
Folklore Tales which recently came into my possession. As any
experience and opportunities which I have had hitherto have been
confined to the southern parts of the African Continent, and re-
membering that the Bantu group (as the Rev. W. A. Norton told
us at the Maritzburg meeting in 1916) comprises 182 languages and
119 dialects, no one will be surprised if I disclaim knowledge of
the Central African language in which the following tales are
written. This, then, will account for possible errors of grammar,
spelling, and punctuation, which may be detected by the expert
eye. The main thought in thus recording the tales was to save
them from being forever lost, so that, however imperfect they may
be in grammatical details, some later worker may be enabled to
correct them and translate them.

The tremendous upheaval caused by the campaign in German
East Africa, with all that it has meant of disturbance to the native
tribes in those regions, the dispersal of tribes, the mixing up of
tribes, the change of locality, the flood of new ideas concerning the
white man and his ways as exemplified by the British, South
African, Belgian, Portuguese, and German troops, with their vary-
ing standards of morality and everything else; not to mention the
strange men from India, the motor cars, and big guns, and maxims,
and aeroplanes, and all the paraphernalia of war — all these things
are calculated to create the profoundest disturbance to the native
mind, and so lend cogency to the argument in favour of recording
these tales ere they are lost, or hopelessly corrupted with the impact
of more modern events.

I am indebted to Mr. A. C. Scott, of Port Elizabeth, from whom
I have received these stories. It appears that so long ago as 1896
he was a missionary of the Scottish Church, and being stationed at
Bandawe, or thereabouts, was able to secure them. They are
therefore quite uncorrupted by the recent events connected with the
German East Campaign, and may be relied upon. I have already
made several efforts to get the tales translated, but thus far without
success. However, I am hoping tliat when once they are in printed
form it will be more possible to induce some friend who has the
knowledge to complete the work. In the meanwhile they are at
least recorded in a safe place.

A

522 CENTRAL AFRICAN FOLK-LURE TALES.

1. Indaba Yoinnntu Nomntwana Wake.

Umuntu wahamba ukutima nomntwana wake lapo wahamba f uii
luti, kodwa indhlala kadi inkulu kadi wadhla inhlamvu zemiti
watata futi futi wapa umntwana wake njaro njaro. Kwati ngolunye
usuku umntwana wasuta watata inye inhlamvu wabeleta imhlanu
wake, wati lujise ebona loku wati hamo wenamntwana mjenza njaro
ngani na ? uyabona ukuti indhlara ikona, wena utata inhlamvu
ubeleta imhlana, watata mjise warjidhla, kodwa umntwana wakala.
waya wahlala emutini umuti kadi ngitshihlahla etshinsinyane>,
Kodwa itshihlahla kadi tshikula lapo uyise wake wabona njaro
ukuti itshihlahla tshiyakula Avatata inhlamAu iziningi wapa untanake.
Kodwa umntwana wahala kakulu ngitshihlahla tshakulu tshaba tshide
kakulu umntw^ana uhlezi pe-zulu. Naye mjise wake wakala lapo
wabona itshihlahla tshiyakuba nonmtwana upezulu kwatsho itshi-
hlahla, mjise wake walinga ukwenza intambo ende ukuti wamdonsele
pansi umntwana wake tshayala itshihlahla waraema abantu aban-
ingi ukumsiza. Kodwa itshihlahla tshaza tshakuba tshafika pezulu,
njaro wahamba pezulu kwentaba ukuti wambose umntwana wake
itshihlahla tshahulu lapo itshihlahla tshaba tshide umoya wapepeta
itshihlahla tshawa pezulu kwelitshe umntwana wafa. Kodwa abanye
abantu bamhleka bati, bona peza wayakera ukupata kahle umn-
twana wako bona peza bamhleka kakulu. Kodwa wahamba
wazibopa Avafa. Inkosi yabo yati memeza ni muti loku indhlala
inkulu loyo oyakupata. Halu umntwana wake lapo mufuna izitero
zemiti tiyazi tizobona yakuluma njaro inkosi. Abantu bahlakampa
bati atipate kahle abantwana betu injaro indaba leyo.

2. Indaba Yo)nitntii Iiidoda Kxvakiikona.

Umuntu watata umfazi waki Babaka undhlu yabo kadi kunomn-
twana pakati kwe ndhlu yabo. Kodwa umntwana wahamba ukuzin-
gera, walara izinsuku .ezmingi ehlatini kwati, unina wagabana
nendoda yake wati nguwe vise umtumileyo umutwaha, uknhamba
ukuzingira. Indonda yatukutera y^ati nizomburara loyu mfazi wati
ngati nimbulalera lapa ekaya abantu bazaniburara nami Avamyenga
umfazi Avake wati atihambe tiyoteza izinkuni bafika elilatini.,
Babona umuti uyomile Avakwera umfazi indoda yayima pansi lapQ
umfazi Avagamura ulukuni pezulu kAvomuti naye indoda iyagahiura
pansi umfazi Avabeka endodeni pansi nayo indoda yabeka pezulu
komuti lapo umunti ufuna kuAva kwahka kanyoni kati yekera ukuAva
kanbi kayenza. Njaro lako kanyoni ngumntAvana Avake loyo kadi
wayozingera, akanyoni lapo kafuna ukuhamba umuti ufuna kuwa
kahka kati kumuti yimayima uyise awayazanga ukuti lako kanyoni
nguye umntwana Avaki Avagamura uyise naye umfazi Avake Avagamura.
KodAva lako kanyoni kafika kamluma iliso uyise kalikoku lapo uyise
Avakoka ilizembe ukuti Avatshaye akanAoni kafika njaro kaluma
elinye iliso AvaAva pansi Avafa. Wayehlika unina emutini kanyoni
kaba umntwana kalinyera kunina wake unina wake Avati yebo
mntAvana Avami unilamlere.

3. Indaba Iiija Ne Mpisi. ■

KAvati : Impisi ne yisya kadi bahlala ndaAvonye kAvati Ngolunye
usuku bahamba ehaya ukubambaizinkuku. Inja yabona ukuti umbaso

CENTRAL AFRICAN FOLK-LORE TALES. 523

ukona ekaya yali Po mina mya godola neligqwa izinkuni zikona
ehlatini tina." ati, pembi umbaso. Yahamba yatshera abanye ukuti
urribaso iikona ekaya tina tiy'agodola lapa ehlatini atilinge ukubaleka
tihainbe tihlale nabantu zabaleka izinja zahamba ekaya zapika
kubantu zati atihlale tonke bahlala nazo abantu. Kwati impisi inye
yatshb k\veyin\e nguwe awahaniba nomuntu wako ekaya ngako
vvahonile abantu ekaya Banawo umbaso ngako unomlanda nati.
Kwati leyo, impisi eyahamba ekaya yati yekelani ukukala lina zinini
zami babinda yati nizolinga nibambe ekaya nilinge ukubamba injii
umuntu wami yayenza. Njaro impisi yabamba ekaya yazingera
yaza yakandana ne mja yabanjiwa inja ne impisi yahamba nayo
kwezinye izimpisi, lapo izinye izimpisi zabona njaro nazo zahamba
ukubamba izinja nguwo umlandu wezinja nezi mpisi tshokona
bayanyanyana.

: 4. Indaba yomuntu umzingeri loyo muntu wahamba futi
ukuzingera izinja mazana waburala izinyamazana ziningi kwati
ngosuku lunge wahamba yedwa ukuzingera izinyamazana wazi-
kanda ziningi Izindhlovu, kodwa lapo Izindhlovu zambona zati
atipenduke jnkawane zayenza njaro umuntu loyo wanyenya uqonda
ukuti mijohlaba zona lapo watika eduze wakonda inkowane, wati
aniqale nisipune. Inkowane wasipuna wahamba wanyenya
waqonda Izindhlovu zikona Lapo wafika eduze wakonda kuze
Izindhlovu watsho pakati kwenhliziyo Avati loku Izindhlovu
zibalekile anihambe niyopeka inkowane yake, wayawafika etshi-
kodldweni wabeka imbiza ezikweni lapo watata inkowane ukuti
nibeke embize ni kupeka yona. Inkowane yapenduka yaba
Izii-jdhlovu, walinga ukubaleka kodwa zamba mba zagijima naye
umuntu loyo zihamba naye kona ekaya lake zihamba zivuma
Ingoma ziti Lilibambile iqili elatiqeda zaya zafika naye ekaya kubo
lapo abantu bambona upezulu komh!ana wezindhlovu bapuma
bamlandera ukuti bamtate kodwa lapo bafika eduze bakanda
ngimizi yabantu IzindhloAU zapenduka imizi kwaba abantu pal<ati
Ikewzindhlu Batshuleka babuya ekaya labo bayalira. I Njaro
indaba yomuntu awahamba yedwa ukuzingera.

5. Indaba Yoiiiiintu Oiniidala.

Kwati umuntu omndala kadi waze ukudhla wahamba
emhlanjeni ukuqipa izimbeba wahamba futi futi emhlanjeni
wahamba watata izimbeba ekaya wadhla ngosuku lunye wahamba
emhlanjeni owukulu wakanda. Abantu bayalinia kadi banaban-
twana watika wati loku mina ningu ndala mina a niondhle \xn\ni\vdim.
wenu munikokele ukudhla l->amupa umntwana wawondhla, wayenza
njaro futi futi ngosuku lunye watata umntwana wahamba naye waya
wangena elitsheni wahlata kona. Abanikazi bomntwana lapo
babona umuntu kuze ukufika nomntwana Bamlandera bamkanda
elitsheni uyangena naye umntwana bamemeza betu tisizeni tina
bakiti nangu umuntu wafika kutina watatile umntwana wetu
wangene naye elitsheni babuya abantu abaningi namakuba namaz-
embe ukuyimbai litshe bayimba nokuyamura bakanda amazembe
namakuba ayapuka kodwa kwafika umfani loyo. Kadi ngum-
hambi wati nilisize mina batsho yebo tisize waqipa itshipingo wati

5^4 CENTRAL AFRICAN FOLK-LORE TALES.

kubo sukani kaloku kuhlale kutulile basuka bonke kwatuly loyo
muntu wabona kutulile wallnga ukupuma lapo wapuma wabanjwa
nomntwana usezandhleni zake lapo batuma munye ukuyakubona
wabona ubanjiwe nomntwana usezandhleni zake wagijima waya
wabika bapuma bonke abantu bamkanda bamtata umntwana
bahamba naye Babonga umuntu owabasiza a bona.

6. Indaba Yeziniyamazana.

Izinyamazana zamemana zonke zabutana ndawonye. Inyati
yati kuhle tibofihlama titume omunye ukukanda ofihlenieyo kwaba.
Njaro yahamba, Indhlovu ukufihlama batuina, Impofu ukukanda,
Indhlovu yahamba Impofu yakanda, Indhlovu yati nguwe. Ind-
hlovu yapuma kwaba njaro inye yahamba zatuma inye ukukanda
efihleme yakandiwe, njaro njaro ezinsuku zonke zayenza njaro zaza
zapera zonke izinyamazana ezikulu ukufihlama. Kwati ngosuku
lunye uqakide wati mina ngati nifihlama kuti munganibona aike
Izinyamazana zati zonke erere mfana tina tiyahluleke ngani ? Loku
wena nguwe mfana, kodwa uqakide wati niyekeleni nilinge.

Wahamba uqakide wafihlama ekufihlameni kwake waha w-ay-
imba endhleleni wapakamisa ilikanda namazinyo apezulu umzimba
upasikwomlindi. Izinyamazana zatuma inhlangu. Lapo, inhlangu
yahamba yabona endhleleni amazimpo akona yayetuka yamameza.
Qakide bona ilizwe lihlime amazinyo yahamba yagijima yaluza
ezinyezabuya zonke zimemeza ziti Qakide ilizwe lihlume amazinyo.
Kanti aziyazi ukuti nguye u Qakide zasabe kakulu zahamba
ukuhlahluma azikandanga itshisusa ukuti nguye u Qakide.

Kwati zisakuluma Indaba wafika u Furu wati mukulumanilina
zinyamazana, Kodwa zapendura zati ilizwe lihlume amazinyo wati
u Furu tihambe tibone Bahamba wafika kona u Furu wati nguye u
Qakide ofihleme lapa, wapuma u Qakide Izinyamazana zonke
zamangara zati ulungile u Furu zatokoza yapera indaba yokufihlama.

NOCARDIA CYLINDRACEA: A SOUTH AFRICAN

OTOMYCOSIS.

By William Edmond de Korte, M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

Not printed.')

NEGLECTED ASSETS OF EMPIRE.

By Mrs. Julia F. Solly.

{Not printed.)

SA. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Plate 18.

J. W. KiRKLAND.— An Electric Vehicle Charging Plant.

AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING PLANT.

Bv John Wilkinson Kirkland, M.AniT.E.E.

(Plates 18-19 ^"^ •^'"'' ^''-^'^ fi9">'<^-)

The i)urpose of this brief paper is to describe and illustrate
a successful and economical charg-iiig plant for electric vehicles
which has ])een installed at Johannesburg. It is believed that
this is the largest electric charging station south of the Equator.
No general or specific arguments as to the economy of such
vehicles are advanced, but the practical arrangements of charg-
ing apparatus and control are dealt with.

The problem was to design and btiild from materials locally
available apparatus wdiich would enable a large number of elec-
tric vehicles to be charged simultaneously by means of the 460-
volt direct current municipal supply. The largest vehicle planned
for requires for charging 75 amperes at 115 volts, and the
smallest syV^ amperes at 60 volts.

It was decided to instal a 4-unit balancer set consisting of
115-volt direct-current shunt-wound generator, and to^ derive
from this machine four 115-volt circuits. The set as erected is
shown in Plate iSb. Each machine is rated at I2y< kw., and the
speed is ,800. (The fifth machine, on the left, is a s])are, and is
not connected up either mechanically or electrically. ) These four
machines as originally furnished had shaft extensions at one end
only. It was necessary, therefore, to weld extensions to two of
the shafts, and this was successfully done by the electric arc
process. The machines are connected by flexible couplings of
the leather strai) type, and are mounted on a heavy timber base.
A single starting rheostat, with low voltage release, is employed,
and a direct-current circuit breaker protects the set and the
system from overload. An ammeter (300 amperes) and a volt-
meter ( 750 volts ) are also provided, as may be seen in the picture.

All of this apparatus is installed on the first floor of the
charging garage, and heavy insulated circuits are run thence to
the ground-floor, where there is a distribution and control switch-
board. This board was built locally in Johannesburg, and has
four main sections, three of which are now equipped for four
circuits and one for six circuits. When required the board can
be completed for 18 circtiits by adding switches for two more
circttits on each of three of the sections. Plate i8a shows the
general arrangement and appearance o^f the board.

Fig. I is a general wiring diagram of the balancer set and
switchboard. Each of the four 115-volt circuits derived from
the balancer is connected to busbars through a reverse current
overload circtiit and through a main ammeter. A voltmeter also
shows the busbar voltage. Immediatel}^ below these main instru-
ments are the circuit ammeter and voltmeter, one of each being
sufficient to care for all of the circtiits in the section. This is

526

AN ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING PLANT.

accomplished as regards the ammeter by using double-thrower
lever switches, and. as regards the voltmeter, by means of poten-
tial plugs and receptacles. These circuit instruments enable the
operator to ascertain at any time the voltage and current supplied
to any battery under charge. There is a series rheostat for each
circuit for regulating the charging rate. These are easily manipu-
lated by a rod from the floor level. ...

Plate 19a shows the charging circuits fastened to the garage
ceiling, and also a number of vehicles on charge.

< tit

"

13 t p 460 V i .V. a rt r wi rn

tNOCQNlACr 4.\D3tuO T I.

WIT ft L V ffCi.CAS£ AfiD CPCCAt
GRIDS ___^_

SALANCfff SET 4 RCn f5f1/? aOOR.PM /15V USA t3HW-900RPM.

Fig. 1.

The advantage of using a balancer set is that its units need
be no larger than the requirements of the largest vehicle to be
charged. That being so, it is exceedingly efficient in operation.

Plate i()b shows an electrically-operated still (also of local
design and manufacture) for producing the water necessary for
the storage batteries. It is equipped with eight i.ooo-watt heat-
ing units. These are wired in 'four sets of two in series on 460
volts, each pair being controlled by a snap switch. The capacity
is about two gallons per hour, and after once being switched on
and the inlet cock adjusted to give the best relation of cooling
water to the product, it requires no further attention. The still
is of sheet copper, thoroughly tinned on all surfaces in contact
with the water. Its operation has been highly satisfactory.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. 19.

J. W KiRKLAND— An Electric Vehicle Charging Plant.

ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI : WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE TRACHINIAI.

B\^ Hendrik Geldenhuys Viljoex, B.A., D.Litt.

The task of the textual critic is twofold : (i) recension and (2)
emendation. In the case of our author, Sophokles, our recension
is about as complete as possible, for the present at least, unless
the sands of Eg^^pt have still a surprise in store for us. Lately
the Indagatores of Sophokles was found in Eg^^pt, and we may
cherish the hope that more of Sophokles' works may come to
light.

With respect to emendation, much must still be done for
Sophokles. It is not onl}' a question of emendation, but very
often a question of interpretation. From what I have seen of
emendation, it appears to me that scholars are too apt to rush
into publicity with the most impossible emendations. Boeck, the
founder of the idea of the Altertamswissenschaft and the great
rival of Godfried Hermann, whom Goetlie stj'les the aristocrat of
classical philology, has aptly said : " Im Allgemeinen kann man
behaupten, dass von 100 Conjecturen, welche die Kritiker machen,
nicht 5 wahr sind."

In the case of Sophokles this is, according to my experience,
quite true. In the first three instances I have attempted to show
that the hand of the emendator is not required. It is a case of
interpretation. In the other passages I have tried to point out
that the accepted remedies are too violent. The physicians have
either applied the remedy in the wrong place or they have entirely
ignored the diagnosis, which in the case of textual criticism depends
upon a first-class knowledge of paleograph}' and the various errors
into which the scribns dormitantes fall.

Trachiniai of Sophokles 674 sG[q- '■

h) y<tf) TO)' iVOVTl](ia /TfTTAOl' aj)Tll>H^

TOVT i}(p(n'i(TTa(, ciajjo f)ov irpo^ ovdtvoi;
7i~iv tvodv. aW idicrrov it, avTov (pfjivn^

Kill Xpy Ki'V (IKpUQ (Tn-tAttOOvC.

Jebb, in his note to v. 678, says : — " ;//»/ is not elsewhere in-
transitive (cp. 698), and hence has been suspected here ....
K-ar' uKpaij crTTjAaSo^, down from the top of a flat stone, or slab,
in the uvX)) of the house. Schol. : ux; oOv twi XiOov Oe/niin]
avTo TovTo ^»/(7J. On coming into the courtyard from the room

528 ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

in which she had secretly anointed the robe, she had carelessly
thrown the tuft of wool down upon this stone. Such is the only
sense which the words will bear. They are perhaps corrupt.
Sophokles has the dat. plur. (TTrtAdSco-o-j, in the ordinary sense,
" sea-rocks," in fr. 341 ; but the sense of the sing, here is peculiar
. . . . Possibly the true reading is kut' iiKpui^ o-TroStor,
" utterly pulverised," and (tttiXu^O'^ arose when the letters after
(T- had been partly effaced, through the wish to lind a subst.
which could agree wdth uKpa^. Cp. Sind. kut aKpa^' Si oXou,
TTdi'-fAw^ : and O.C. 1242 (^w>^ kcu rovce kut a/c/xt^ I ouvai
i-cviiiKToayeiQ arat KAovioixri}' an t,i>}>ov(TU(j.

And he translates : " That with which I was lately anointing the
festal robe, — a white tuft of fleecy sheep's wool, — hath disappeared,
not consumed by anything in the house, but self-devoured and
self -destroyed, as it crumbled down from the surface of a stone."

He accordingly takes ipy as intransitive and (nriXaSo'^ as agreeing
with «</v7)((s. (T-(A«c is an Homeric word. It is found only in the
Odyssey, t 405 we have trn-jAaSe^ : t 401 (nriXaSecrai and y 298
fT-«An§f (ro-n-, according to the Index Homericus of Gehring and
Ebeling's Lexicon Homericum.

Ancient Homeric critics and lexicographers were not quite sure
whether the rocks were to be placed along the coast or in shallow
water. Ap. 144, 7, says : o /iih> Arriivv at iv vSan KoiXat

TTtrpai^ o 0£ HAjOOWpO^- «l TTapaOaXiKTCflUl TThrpal ICal /T67r»A>J/t£vaC
ll-O T(i)V KVfJ.UTl01'.

Hesychios says : «i -f/Hf^o^uv«f ry HuXtiaaij -n-trpai.

In Apollonios Rhodios F 1293 sqq- we have :

uvrap o Tovaye^
IV ^to/3as", t7r<oi'r«s, " t£ (jTrtXit^ nv aXi Titrpi]
/KJ^ii'ft a~ttf)i(ny(Ti oovejytfi'ff KVfiar atXXai^.

As a rule we talk of sea-rocks in the plural, but it is clear that
we can have the singular when one sea-rock is meant.

J ebb's objection to the singular in our passage is therefore
groundless.

Dindorf-Alekler, the editors of the Teubner-text of Sophokles,
say : Nondum expeditus : requiritur quale quid Froehlichius

temptat kui ^/'/^^erot kut idarjux;.

But I hold that our text is sound here. ;//y is not used intransi-
tively ; its object is (t-iAuSo^, which is the genitive of the part.
It is strange that no French critic has detected the use of the
genitive of the part here, as the French language shows the same
affinity. (T7r(A«? is perhaps a flat stone with which the courtyard

ARS SOPHOCLIS I NTERPRETANDI. 5^9

\vas paved. Sophokles does not ask his audience to believe that
such a large stone was entirely corroded by the tuft of wool. Only
the part that came in contact with the wool entirely vanished.
kut' aKpa<; has the same meaning as in O.C. 1242 and as explained
by Suidas. Translate : " and it entirely corroded a part of the
stone " and not : "as it crumbled down from the surface of a
stone."

IbiiL 868.

TIIVC (>><; u.)iO)i<: K((i (riivio(pf>V(i>i[iiv}i
\(<>pit ~i)0<; ilfids yfidld ....

In his note Jebb says : The MS. reading, u>/6'»js-, cannot be right.
Tile word means either (i) " unusual " or (2) unaccustomed to
a thing. Here it has been taken in the first sense, as meaning,
" with strange aspect," " unlike herself," — i.e., gloomy, instead
of cheerful. It seems inconceivable that a classical writer should
have so used loiOm^. Rejecting the conjecture ai]^r]Q he proceeds :
Surely «>/f^(/s- was merely a corruption of a-y>;6')K-, which does not
seem to occur, but which is as correct as ivytjOi'i'^ or -uAi)y)/Oi/^.

Since the discovery of Sophokles' Indagatores we have more
light on our author's boldness of using words. In v. 162 of the
Indagatores we find the verb -(//or/^f/o-frt which Maas* has shown
to have the same meaning as in Modern Greek, viz., " to die like
a dog " ; Dutch " vrekken " and German " crepieren." We find
^ia(j>(o}'Ho in this sense in the Septuagint and Diodoros, etc. Cf.
Sophocles, Byzantine Greek-English Lexicon, s.v.

Furthermore, we have in the vicinity of lOiOt]^ a number of
UTTut, iip}]fdvu'. Kaiv<)-on\6t\> (873); ^LJjVoTwaE (881); ^tlpOTTOtiirai
(891), etc. In V. 911 we have another instance of our dramatist's
bold use of words, as we shall see.

Prof. Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, in his note to Eur.
Herakles, v. 2(19, p. 275 sq. says : Weit kiihner sagt Soph. Tr. 196
TO rroOoui' tKCKXTO^ iKjiiaOtii' 9^\toi' I ovK av /neutiro irpiv KuO
7/rtov>)i' k\vuv. In his note to this verse Jebb says : " I leave
70 . . . -o^oTm' in the text, not feeling certain that it is corrupt ;
though I am disposed to read, with E. Thomas, tu ycip TroOt'iv ."
If TO -oOovp can mean only " the feeling of desire " I think the
error must be sought in eK/nadin'. In this case I would read f/cf^nrt /v.
I hold that TO -ofiolv is sound. The schol. explains t6 7To()ovjni]'<n'.
Translate : "Everyone wishing his feeling of desire to die away."
In accepting 7,", -oOor.v = ro -oOou//ti'oi', iKOo.ven' would easily

* Berl. Philol, Wochenschr. {1912), 34, 1076.

530 ARS SOPIIOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

become iK/naHnv to fit in with the sense, and also on paleographical
grounds through the metathesis of the letters BAN into MAG
Roberts in his edition of the De Sublimitate, p. 200, s.y. iiOog says :
7i0o<;, as contrasted with TraOoq was considered a special mark
of comedy as distinguished from tragedy. Hence ?)• i)0ti' (sc.
rvvro e(p}])—" in character" or "humorously" (Rutherford,
Schol. Aristophan. II 442 ; cp. Plut. De Andiendio poetis). De
Sublimitate XXIX 2 reads : ttuOo^ ^f viPovs furty^ti roaovTuv,

The participle avvM(l)pvio^iiv)}, " with knitted brow " shows that
jn\Or]Q must refer to the countenance and the eyes. For the
interpretation of (t{]Oi]^ I may cite Philostratos TrtpJ -yii/n-aa-rf/vou
XXV, 20. aWa ycip in£Xai>o(j)6aXfi(ov . itXXa fie \apo7Tcoi> fxjiOaXinon'

'/^*/r 'J 7"P <pvo-i<; (.>jpa<; fiiv fiorpOK fff)//n;i'oro i]Ot] o ixjjOaXpdt^; ;

ibid. XXV, 16, -j}i' ti' ocijOaXjU'ln- ijOikiiv and XXVI, 15.

Ibid. 907 sqq.

«AA)/ ?ie koXXtj dM/ndrfov (rrfXixjxoimxnjj
f'( roK <j)iX(in> pXtipeiev o/.vtrcov rtt^a^,

CKAaitV 1) Cll(TTriVi)<; (KTOpMfliVjf.

avTi] Toi' iniTt]<; caifiin' oi'aKdXintpiivr]
K(ii T(i'^ a-((ic(fq i<; TO Xoiwo}' ovaiaij.

In his note to line 911 Jebb says : " The MS. text, k(u tu^
inruiSag ic to Xoittov oi/CTtos^, is undoiibtedly corrupt
The genuine verse must have had some direct reference to the
context. She is weeping at the sight of attached servants whom
she is about to leave." He proposes EIIAAAOIS for AllxAIAA^ :
Kai Ti}(; i- oXAok tQ To Xoi-ov oi/cr/ac,' '. " and the fate of the
property which would thenceforth be in the power of others."
Although the slaves are part of the oixr'ia we expect a more direct
reference to them.

The Teubner editors cut the knot by deleting the verse.

To my mind the text is sound as we have it. ttuk: in Greek
means " a slave " as well as " a child." airuti^ can therefore mean
" without children," " unlike a child," or " unslave-like," " with-
out a slave." Compare ivnaK; which means " blest with children "
and in Eur. H. F. 689 and I. T. 1234 it means " well-built, noble
son." It has the same meaning as KitXX'i-ati^. Compare Eur. Or.
964 Trfpaffpaaaa KaXXiTzatg 6tu^ and Ibid. Phoenissae i6t8 -'.AA'

In the passage under consideration uTrai^ is formed like uoikoc; in
Soph. Philoktetes 534 : aoiicov i'i(ToiKr](Tiv where it means " a
dwelling that is no dwelhng " — i.e., a miserable, wretched abode

AKS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI. 531

Compare TroXtfiog a-oAc/u)^-, a war that is no war, a hopeless
struggle. Aischulos Prometheus 904 : a-oXe/wo? oSe y' o -oXinnij ;
Eur. H. F. II33 : «-oAfji(f>v, <t> ;r«», -oAe/joi' ((rmiKTag reKvin<:.
And rr<)A<s o-oAk, a city that is no city, a ruined city. Aischulos
Eum. 457 : i»)i' (o (tv TpoKtv d-oAn' lAfoi* -oAfi' 'f6'>j;cfl<.

Instead of having -fa^r/t; icraitar — i.e., slaves that are no
slaves, wretched, miserable slaves — we have the bold periphrasis :
K(ti Tdc ((~atna<; fs^ To Ao<-oi' ovaiac : KUi t((<; (or tiiV<:) zaica<;
iij To Aojr.oi' inrai^(t(j ovfjdc yivrac). The word ()V(Ti<((j may
have been chosen on metrical grounds, but its meaning in the
sense of pieces of propertv, i.e. chattels, may have prompted the
dramatist to use it here. The plural .aia'iai for individuals we find
in Aristotle.

In Sophokles Philoktetes 93f)-7 we haA-e the periphrasis (o
iuvowaiot Qi]pMV o/j6fwr = oj ^vvovth: Hijptf; where we may note
that t,vvov(jiai too like ovaidi; in our passage stands at the end
of the verse. We may therefore infer that the nouns ovcria'^ and
3,vvov(Tiai were selected on metrical grounds as the quantities of
the participles i;iM'ovrfs, oi-ra^: and nva-a^ offered difficulties in
iambic verse, especially in the last foot, where a short and long are
required. It is remarkable the number of passages we find where
oiV/a and the compounds a-ou(r/a, iuvoucr/a, -apoixria are placed
at the end of iambic verses. Compare Aischulos Eum. 285 otrot^
-prj<Ti}Xll.v o/3/\a/3er ^vvima-ia ; Soph. O.C. 647 ; Philoktetes 520 ;
Aristophanes Xub. 649 ; Thesmoph. 21 ; Ekkl. 729 -po^eipiov/nai
KCt^eracrw ti)v nvatav ', Eur. H. F. ^^/ ; Hecuba 962 : fri'i 8' t'l rt
fx^jj-fpy Ti]<: f /UJ9 fWoucrtoc ; Aisch. Ag. 1259 ; Eiu-ipides Alkestis
606 : avdpMV ^epaiu)v ei»/ifvJK- -apovcria which is a periphrasis for
uv^pi<: 01 7Tap6v7e<; ', Aisch. Pers. 169; Soph. Elektra 1104 ; 1251 ;
Arist. Thesm. 1049.

These passages show that the iambic ending of oixria and its
compounds appealed strongly to the dramatists to use these words
at the end of verses, especially in cases of periphrasis when the
untractable endings of the participles were to be avoided metri
causa. The best examples are Sopn. Phil. 936-7 and Eur. Alk. 606.

The feminine noun uvnia^ leaves the question open as to the
gender. It may be common gender or it may refer specially to
the female slaves of Deianeira.

To sum up : i<o.l ra<; UTraiSa^ l<; 7o XolTtov ovcriw^ is a bold
periphrasis for koi rii^ (~r>^>^) ~inBa^ (dovXov^, Sov\a<:) k- ro
y\o«-ov o'»at8a9 oucrcK (ovra^). " And the slaves that are for the
future slaves no more, miserable, wretched slaves." And this is
exactly the sense required by the context. The difficulty of

53- ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

interpretation arose when commentators settled their thoughts
on Deianeira as a mother suggested by her being oTrat;;, i.e. unable
to bear children when Herakles had died.

Ibid. 329 sqq.

1/ o ovv idrruM^ kui TTopiveauio areya^

" " « 0- (> ^

TUl<; OlKTt AVTT)]V ~f)6<; y ifiOV AUTTJ/V Xdpol.

This is the reading of the Codex Laurentianus, with most MSS.
It is clear that either the first or the second Xvizy^v in the last verse
must be corrupt. Jebb accepts the emendation of Triclinius, the
scholar of the early fourteenth century, u\\r]v for the first Ai/,t»/v.
F. W. Schmidt suggested Au->;v . . , ^t-ATji', which is received
by Mekler in the Teubner text. On paleographical groundsel
have a doubt against aAA»/»'. The first AYOHN must have
arisen out of AYTHN. A and A, T and n are easily confused
in capitals. The last line would therefore run :

7oK oUfTn' ail 7i]v ~j>or y fuou Ai*7rj/i' Anpol.

For TTpo^ y ifLov compare v. 738 :

71 C KTTiv. (.) -f((, ~poq y i/jLov u-rvyoo/iiivov |

Ibid. 379 s<^^-

)/ iccii 7(1 Mia-pa K(ii Kar ofi.jj.a K(ti (pixriv Trarpo^; /mv uv<j(t
y*ivt-:(nv KvpVTOv -ori I IoA»j KoXetro, ktX.

This is the MS. text, y kuI ra has been changed into 1) ndpra
by Canter of the sixteenth century. The acceptance of this emen-
dation has led Frohlich and others (Hartung, V/ecklein) to read
oi'(./«< for nufw.. Jebb's text accordingly runs :

1; Kii.pT'i. AajkTTpK Kill Klir (JVD/^Ht Kdl (j-ViTiV TTItTpOC UiV <iV(Ta

yfVKOlU h.Vf){lT(>V TTnTi | ](')A»/ K".Aet70, ktX.

Reiske (i 716-1774) was the first to feel some difficulty about
/idv after -a-po^ for which he proposed ycip. Jebb says : " Tlie
simplest account of the ^itev is that ToA>/ St K-aAou/iiEvj; ought to
have followed, but, owing to the fact that her name is primarily
in question, the second clause became 'IoA>? 'kuXhto." So he
accepts two emendations and smooths over the difficulty* where
I think we ought to look for the word that would restore sense to
the whole passage. We shall have occasion to draw attention
to the fact that eminent scholars have in other passages followed
the same bad principle of emending or accepting emendations
intended to bring the sense in line with the only word that is

ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI. 533

undoubtedly corrupt without attempting to emend it. This is a
very serious flaw in the work of the textual critic.

The only change required in this passage is the simple restoration
{jitvovaa, " abiding, awaiting " for /mlv ova-a and the mark of
punctuation must be removed after (jwatv :

t) K<n T(i XixixTTpa KCtt Kar o/t/ia Koi (pvcriv | naTpoq aevovaa
ytvecrii' Eupurow noTt | IoA»/ KaXt-nro ktX.

<pv(riv does not mean " birth " as taken by Jebb, but " form,
stature," as used by Sophokles in O.T. 740 : rov ^e Xuiov (pvcrtv
TIV <i'\^- <Pp(>-Ui^ ktX.

7raTp6<; gOes very closely with -a Xafxnpu Kai kot oiijw. K'U
(pvaiv. There is no difficulty with the meaning of o^i^ia when
(pvaiv is taken in this sense and yivtaiv is not left otiose as it would
be according to the view of Jebb. Kar ofx/ui Kal (jwatv refers to her
noble appearance and fine build with which Deianeira was struck.
TToA by its position shows that it goes with ^uvovcro. as well as
'KoXe^To. Translate : " Indeed awaiting once the lustre of her
father Euiytos as to her appearance and build she was called lole."
She received her name naturally as an infant. As a child she
had to grow up still before she could show her full build and ap-
pearance. Hence she was awaiting this splendour.

Ibid. 660 sqq.

oOtV fwXot -avd^tt'pov^
Ta<; TTiiOov^ 7Tay\pi<Tro>
iTvyKpautic; eni 7Tpo<po.(Te( Or^po'^.

So the MSS. For Tzav 6.^t,tpo(^ Mudge reads jraviinepo^;. For the
unmetrical 6r)f)6<^ Haupt gives ^cipou^. (TvyKpa66i<^ cannot be
right, as we require a long, short, long syllable as is shown by
i^tXvs V. 653 in the strophe j3'. For Or] pot; we require a short, long.

Jebb accepts -avt'/ttpos- on the strength of the meaning of
(TvyKpaOeii; which he however obelizes.

Of Tzayy^piarM Liddell and Scott say that it stands without a
substantive ! Schneidewin reads ayKia-Tpoi.

I feel that the substantive with which -a-yy^/rrrw goes is con-
cealed in the corrupt (TuyK-|Oa6'eJv, for which I would suggest
2YNKPATEI2— i.i;. <tvv koAtu <r'.

rravaaepoq is sound, but it means: quite tame, soft, gentle. This
adjective is found in Ecclesiastical writers, but the simple qfiepos
is found in classical writers. Here we have once more that
Sophokles uses a word that is extant only in late writers.

;ravajuepo9 goes with the genitive ra^ neidovs;. If it had not
been for the metre there would be some point in retaining $r}p6<; as

534 ARS SOPIIOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

the diijj, the wild beast, was the means of taming Herakles. The
a' refers to Deianeira, as the Chores turns from the third to the
second person to a.ddress her when she appears towards the close
of the ode.

In verses 731-3 the chorus betrays a knowledge of facts that
they may have gathered on entering at the close of the prologue
that closed at line 93.

These lines therefore run :

Tils -f<^(>(^s" TTO/yy^jyUTTiJ

•< , ' ■. \ / ,

" Thence may he come to thee, all-subdued (tamed) by per-
suasion, with his strength (person) all-anointed on the pretext of
the robe."

If it had not been for the metre I would have retained 6'jj/j(><.
-ij-yy^p'umo crvv Kpurtt refers to Herakles' athletic prowess, as
athletes were anointed or rubbed with oil after their exercises.

Ibid. 828 sqq.

^ \ ^\ ^ \ /
-wfj ycj' I'V >> fill AKvaaMv

fTL -oTt f r ^7Tl7T( V .V iVOl Ui'A'HH'

y\aTfJHuV ;

In the corresponding line of the antistrophe, 840, the Codex
Laurent ianus reads :

vSirov u vno (poivin dnAofKiiriK Ktt'rp f;r'^f(^al'T«.

In v. 830 Jebb reads: fV< -or' tr' t-Z-ovov <;-<'.i'(oi'>- f^m Oaviof
XfiTpfiav ; accepting Gleditsch's conjecture novivv after in'iTTOvov.

In the line of tlie antistrophe the Cambridge editor reads :
rStfrrroK v-o(p('>vL(t 6oX(i'>txvB«. Ktvrp tuiCtcravra based on Gleditsch.

This view of Gleditsch and his followers I have to reject. His

conjecture -oviov in 830 is nothing more than a stopgap to emend

the metre which he is compelled to change in two places in v. 840.

There are three points that go against inserting jrovwv after
» f

tTTITTdVuV.

In the first place Xtvao-u.v is without an object, a
construction not found elsewhere. L. has a space of seven or
eight letters between ttotI and fV. This space must have con-
tained the object of Xtva-atov and the preservation of the e in
rroA shows that the following letter was a consonant and not a
vowel.

I must first consider the metre of v. 840 and the readings
before I can decide on the quantities rec^uired in the lacuna in
V. 830.

ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI. 535

I may note a point o\'erlooked by other ciitics, which shows that
N£(T(Toi> is sound and no interpolation.

Some commentator was offended by the hiatus between Ne'acrui;
and u-of/)om«, so he inserted B' after Ntcrcrou but he compensated
the gain of a short syllable in the metre by writing a single a so
as to make the first syllable of Nfrroi; short. He accordingly had
a short, long, short which was equivalent to the two long ones

in Nf<T(T()i;i»77.

I therefore consider that line 840 ran : Nto-crou vnofpo'ivui SoXo/xvOa
Kivrp' tTTiC^cfavTa. The first syllable of Nttro-ou stands in
anacrusis. The metre is then : — v — vv w — v — v — v — v
Taking in in v. 830 in anacrusis corresponding with the first
syllable of Netrtrou we see that we require in the lacuna four short
syllables to emend the metre. This must be the object of Xeva-o-iov
and the e of ttotI shows that it must begin with a consonant.
It must be from seven to eight letters long. This can be either
Tohe (paoq or ro (p^yyo^. I prefer to ([liyyo^ where the long
syllable of (plyyo^ corresponds with that in v-ixpoivLc.

So the passage runs :

77ti)^ yiij) «r O fUl AHV'.rirhtV

Oavtov Xar/>ii<i.v ;

This gives er/ -ort its real force, and shows that the two words
iTi have their respective work in the sentence.

Tills sentence corresponds with v. 840 in metre :

NfCrcrOl^ V-<>(i>OlVfii. C(lX(tfl.v9a Kl:^'T|) i:-t4f(TaV7n.

//'/;/. 841 sqq.

ojv (iC< a TAd/K'n' <ioK\'(i\' fi.fyuA'Av -jxKroiXriira

rtf»^/.()(,!r(, jjXajJuv Ttwr
a/crcruvrw,' -yu/ioji', tci uav ovn rr/JOTtpiAAK

ra () i- o.XXoOpov
yviojiiix; liinAuvr oXtOfiiaari (rin'oXXoyoi'^

1) ,Toi' oXoii (n>;vKJ, ktX.

Musgrave reads udkvu^ for (kikvjv. For ukto-uvtiov Nauck reads
uiiTf-ovrav. Blaydes suggests aiiTci for fji»-t. For t- aXXodpov
L. has a correction <<.-' uXXoffpov which is found in B,K,T. In
V. 842 ^oiiioun is the reading of Triclinius : ^o/^ol^ MSS. Minor
corrections are 844 -/>(>(.rf/3u/\e v : -luurejiaXtiv L. ; aXXoB/wv
Erfundt ; aXXoBi>6<)v MSS. 845 oXEdfuaicn Triclinius : oXeOp'iat^
MSS. avvaW'i.ycA^ Wimtler : t,vv:tXXayat~^ MSS.

536 ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

Jebb's text runs :
tov ao a TAa/^nov ao/ci'o'-r, /jLeyaXav Tr/'Ocropwo-a ou/jiDurt pAnp'H' vnov
<tiaa-ov(Tav ya/xwv, ro fiiv aiiTU Trpofr ipo.Xe ' tu 8 nz (i\\o9p<)v
yvit)f.ia<; jj,i>X('tvT oXtiOpiaLCfL ffvv(i.\X.ayai>^ 1) zoii oAofJ arti'ei

He translates : " Of such things this hapless lady had no fore-
boding ; [but she saw a great mischief swiftly coming on her home
from the new marriage. Her own hand applied the remedy ;
but for the issues of a stranger's counsel, given at a fatal meeting,
— for these, I ween, she makes despairing lament, etc."

To get this sense Jebb has to accept four serious changes of the
text. And yet the very words that are shown by the words in
the corresponding strophe to be undoubtedly corrupt he passes
by with the remark : " o-rivei is metrically suspicious ; the
corresponding word in the antistrophe is vv/x(pav 857." And must
we not in the first place correct the words that we know are, on
metrical grounds, undoubtedly corrupt ? Does it not show that
their sense maj^ fundamentally change our view of the whole
sentence and render other conjectures unnecessary ?

In line 376 Deianeira talks of lole as : t/v' KKT^iS^y/uu -f?/t<ii'))v
v-ocTTtyov AaOpaiov |

In V. 893 sqq. the chorus says :

tTEKev (TiKt 8>; fnyaXav

a VfO/>TOs" «0£, VVfKfxi.
CO/XOl^ T()/(Trt t,plVVV.

In V. 857 lole is called Ooiiv vvj^k^i'v and in 1139 she is referred
to as Tov^ fv8ov yafjiov^.

In the light of these passages I hold that the only corruption
in our passage is to be sought in oXo« aTtvat as shown by the
metre of the corresponding \"erse in the antistrophe. For
vXouaTtviL i.e. OAOAETENEI I would propose u\oa<; thivh i.e.
OA()A2TEINEI. oAoa? goes with -yi'^ij/xa?.

The thought of the chorus is that Deianeira sees the new woman
lole fall upon her home but she does not directly attack her. She
follows a circuitous way. She tries to win Herakles' love back
by following the advice given by Nessos the Centaur. This ad\'ice
the chorus deems to be harmful.

The sentence runs thus :

f.ii' 00 (I rA«/<wi' aoi<}'Ov myaAo-V

-po<Ti>nMiTa to/LtoitrL ^'jXajjdV I'fojv
uKTcrovTMi' ycffHtH', r« /ttr ovtl TrpotTipaAt-:

Til A i~ uWoOpoV

y\'0}p.a<^ fxoAoVT oApM pi (xuri, (TVvu.W('.y«.i<;
17 7TOV oAo((9 TfM'et, ktX.

ARS SOPIKK'LIS INTERPRETANDI. 53/

For the construction of wv I may refer to vv. 1208 sq. :

w oi]T tywy , (tAA f.n' ty^to -auovtot' Kai fxuuvov /arjj/ja t(<)\'
i/jLMV KaKiov, and Ant. v. 404 : <>v rrv rov veKpov cnrtnra^.

We may note the obhque reference to lole aoKvov layaXn]'
/3Aa/3av vUov aio-(T6vTU)v yitfx(i)v. She is not specifically referred
to, as we have noted in other passages. Hence we have the
indefinite ra fitv.

In the Aiax, 405 sq., we liave another instance of this use :

il T(t fXiV (pdive.t^ (plAoL TOla-<) O^ttOU TTfAttv^.

So the MSS. Jebb reads : h r« fxtv <pOivsi, toloiu-^ o/xoi) -fAas-
suspecting -fAa^ for which he would read /Soml'.^.

In Uncials, I think, the text was :

<l>IAOITOI2A()MOY]]EAA3:— I.e., rjAXoc r' o^ «o/k>u -i\a^.

I take 01^ to be nominative plural, contracted form, with
diaeresis of the diphthong. In Homer we find 01^ the ace.
plural. This gives good sense, and complies with the metre.

The translation runs : " This hapless lady seeing the fearless
and great bane of the new marriage rushing upon her house in
no wise attacked it, but made her plans on the mischievous inter-
•change of thought with a stranger, a harmful thought I ween."

In the antistrophe, 853 sqq.

Ki\VTai vocro9 i>> -o-oi^ oiov avapcnuJv
ov-M aya/cAstrov IIpaKAfoi^v^ a-f/ioAe

-aOo'g oLKTifraL,

anifxoXe has the same meaning as d^rt/Sr/, resulted. Herakles was
always victorious over his enemies. His suffering at their hands
never resulted in his having to be pitied, as now with the robe
which he received from no enemy but from his wife. There may
be even some significance in inserting his name here 'H^aKAeouc
after ayaKXarov.

Ibid. loiS sqq.

Y]f). w -ni TOVC ti.vSpo<;, Tiivpyov Tohe atnUov avi/KfJ
1) /car ifxav piojxav, (.rv Of avXXape (Toi re yap ofxfxa
i/HTrXeov j; ^l i/iov crwueLv. YX xpavto fxtv tywye, KrA.

Meineke says of this corrupt passage : " Mirifice torserunt
■criticorum ingenia." His own attempt at emendation is most
radical in its changes : a-v 8e o-uAAa/Se /xot ' to yap opfxa h -Xeov
17 8«;^a (Tov (TMKuv. Dindorf suspects a lacuna. Jebb accepts
-£? rrXiov and changes croi re yap ofA/iia into aoi yap trot/xa.

B

538 ARS SOPHOCLIS INTERPRETANDI.

I take an entirely different view of the sentence. I hold that
ojifui f/j-Atov »/ 8t f^toi) (TO)t,*iLv is sound. The tk after croc
shows that the corruption must be sought there. The only change
that we have to introduce is to turn the tau of n into a gamma
and divide the words correctly and punctuate properly. In
Uncials the original text was EYAAABESOIFE — i.e., o-uAAo/St
tr' oTyK yap ktX. We have to punctuate after ifXTrkeov as ^
§t' t/iKiv crwUiv is another sentence of the -pta-^^v^ which is left
unfinished bv the quick interruption of Hnhos.

These hues therefore run :

<>) -u/ Tovc iivooo^, Tovpyov Tooe p.iiL,uv avijKHi

»/ KiiT f/tOT piofiav. (TV hi (riiAAcjjt (T (liyi yap ou/ta

f/i(-A£(<v. j; hi inov ctmUHv .... 1 A. ipavio //.n- tywye.

Translate : " Collect thyself. Open thine eye full wide. Or
through me to save . . . Hyllus : I am helping."

1] 8(.' tativ a-wUtr. The interrupted thought might have been :
Must 1 alone assist him ?

For the T; I ma}' refer to von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's note
on Euripides Herakles 1084, where he inserts it <»/> rn>^a (p6vov

tTipcV t-l (jx.vio j')(^A(>)^' iiVapaK~v Elian i\aofJieiU)v TioAiV.

On p. 437 of his edition he says : " Das was eintreten muss,
wenn sie dem befehle nicht folgen, wird durch einen Satz mit if
wie 1055 angeschlossen : ohne diese Verbindung wiirde die Ver-
kehrtheit entsteken, dass Herakles trotz ihrer Flucht sie doch
morden wiirde."

In our passage it seems that Hyllus showed signs of fainting
at the sight of his father's agony, and the old man exhorted
him to wake up. Naturally we have no indication how this part
was acted. What lends force to my view of the passage is the
last broken sentence of the old man, which was interrupted by
Hyllus.

The simple verb oiyto is found in Euripides, Aischulos, Horner^
Hesiod, Pindar, etc.

For the rn = creanrov we may compare Brugmann-Thumb,
Griechische Grammatik (1913), p. 480: In der ion. und der att.
Prosa waren die einfachen Personalpronomina (wie z. B. in K.
378 fyw)' tfil XvaoiiiaL Oder Eurip. Andr. iK^wao) /lu ctol) als
Reflexi\'a schon verdrangt, und nur die formelhafte Wendung
att. huK<^) j,ioi, ifxol ^oK(o, herod. eyu) /.loi 8okIm hielt das Alte-
fest (im Att. daneben auch t/jiavTco 8ok-(5." Compare Kuhner-
Gerth, Ausflihrliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache II. i

ARS SOPIIOCLIS INTERPRETANDI. 539

§ 454 Anmerk. 8, p. 559. For further examples in Sophokles I
may note : El. 363 and 461 ; Ant. 736.

For the phrase au/\Aa/3f <t' compare von Wilamowitz's excellent
note on Eur. Herakles 626 o-vXXoyov xPvxm Aa/3f, p. 350 of his
commentary.

In several places we have noted that a fruitful source of error
in our IMSS. is the wrong division of words by copyists. I may
add two more examples, one from Euripides and one from Aischulos.

Eur. Herakles, 118 sqq.

/m) 7Tf)'nrKa/iH)Ti -08a pu|r)u re

-A " ^

/CIOAOV UKTTe ~/)»K ~iT[)(tl(}V

AfTTavj Cvytppniiov -f.»A<>r

' ' ' li ^ >. '

(n'ti'-fe's- W9 papo^ (ptpov

Tpo^riXdroio Tuokov.

For the corrupt <pepov I restore mp w taking it as the accusative
or nominative absolute. For the nominative absolute compare
the newly-discovered fragment of Sophokles' Eurypylus, vv. 66-69.

The passage in Aischulos is Eumenides, 267-8 :

Kul M''vr« (T icr\vava(r (iTTCiC^Ofiai kutw
avTi-oivnv^ rett'i]-^ |nt]Tp<)(j)<)^'(f<: ci>o.<;

For this corrupt passage von Wilamowitz, in his monumental
edition of Aischulos, reads :

<'/v'> .Vvrt-o/vous^ Tivij^ /(ifjrpo^oj'-a^ Sva^^ accepting the emenda-
tions of Abresch <'/v'> and Pauw fxr]Tpo(p6v-ac;. I hold that
the corruption is much simpler. For reivt]^ I would restore
nelvy '9. - and t are easily confused and the '<: was attached
to Tilvt] becoming 7k/v)/s-. Thus the last line runs :

avTLTiOlvuV'^ ireivy 9 i.it]rf)0(pov(i<; oua",.

NOTES ON IRVING FISHER'S THEORY OF

GOLD.

By Alexander Aiken.

(Printed ill " Soitfli African Acc-cuntant," December, 1917.)

A PLEA FOR THE CLASSICS IN WOMEN'S

EDUCATION.

Bv Miss K. M. Earle.

{Not printed.)

A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON DWARFS APPEARING IN
GLUYAS EARLY (WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

By Prof. j. H. Xkf.ttilinc;, M.Sc.

( iritJi six Ic.vl fij/urcs.)

My reason for this heading is due to two facts: (i) Owing
to the limited time at my disposal, I was unahle to treat the matter
a.s fully as I wished, and (2) as the investigation in this matter is
not yet completed, it may be unwise to treat it as finally settled.

In December, 1912, i^y plant selections were made on the
farm of Mr. H. Theunissen, Jun., Langeberg, from the hetero-
geneous progeny passing under the name of Union wheat.
According to R. W. Thornton,* the hybrid must have been made,
probably by Dr. Nobbs, about 1906 or 1907. between Gluyas Early
and Darling.

In 1913, 12 kernels of each of these selections were ])lanted,
each being marked U.i, U.2 etc., to U.149.

In the case of U.37. U.40, and U.45, there appeared respec-
tively four, one, and three dwarfs, i.e., otit of 36 plants, eight
were dwarfs. These plants were late, and hardl}- matured any
seed.

In the case of U.37, ^i kernels were obtained, which were
planted in 1914, all of these giving rise to dwarfs similar to the
parents. Seed could hardly be said to have been produced, and
no further account was kept of dwarfs in these selections, as
better material v^as on hand. In brief, it may be stated that both
parents are normal, and in the ordinary run of events never
produce dwarfs when produced from normal seed. This fact was
noted both from selected strains and from large fields grown.

In 191 3 hybrids were produced between Rieti and Gluyas
Early. As no selections of these varieties were on hand at that
time, the Rieti mother parent was marked 36a, and the paternal
Gluyas Early parent 41 A, hence the hybrid was marked 36a X
41A.

For the characters under discussion a sunnnary may be set
down as in Table I.

Table T.

Weight
Height of Length of of Grain per

No. Name. Plant in cm. Ears in cm. Plant in gm.

<a) 36 Rieti i53 i5 10.07

(b) 41-2 Gluyas Early ... 143 8.5 1500

(c) 37b Florence 136 8.5 13.3

Mean for 36a X 4tA progeny—

(d) Total 149- 170 11.524 15-943

(e) Dwarf (in progeny).. 148.095 TI.012 16. 191

(/) Normal". i49-78i . 11-859 i5-78i

Mean for S7b X 41" —

(g) Total 135-463 9-878 13.854

(h) Dwarf (in progeny).. 137-182 10.045 13.0

(0 Normal 133.474 9.6S4 14843

* C.G.H. Agi\ Journ. (1910), T5-18.

DWARFS IX GLUVAS EARL\' (WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

541

In general the cliaracters under discussion for the Rieti
are reflected in the dimensions given ; the same may be said for
the Gluyas Earl)-. (See Table I. a and /;. )

All the above-mentioned parent strains give rise only to
normal plants, if hybridisation does not intervene.

Dwarfs ap})eared in the second filial ('F.2) generation.
Few of these dwarfs mature any seed, and as the research
is carried out with a \\q\v to producing economical wheat
varieties, these had to be discarded. It would perhaps be
interesting to establish whether this ap])earance of dwarfs is not
due solely to the effect of Gluyas Early when used as the paternal
parent, the more so as Rieti. the other parent in cjuestion, does

■i^'

Fig. r. — Frequency Curve for Height of Plant (cm.), s^a X 41^^-

not give rise to any dwarfs in its progeny, except when hybridised
with Gluyas Early or perhaps a similar parent.

For this purpose it may be well to refer to reciprocal hybrids
between Gluyas Early and Rieti. in \\hich the F.2 progeny
gave the following results : —

36 X 41-2 out of 15 plants 3 dwarfs

41-2 X 36* out of 16 plants 5 dwarfs.
i.e., out of 31 plants eight were dwarfs, immediately showing
that dwarfness is a true recessive, and that this recessive appears
no matter whether Gluyas Early be the maternal or the paternal
I)arent.

* 36 = Rieti. This number 36 is a selection, therefore may be
regarded as a pure line ; tiius both parents used in this case are pure
lines, and future generations have ah-eady shown that they breed true ta
type.

542

DWARFS IN GLUYAS EARLY (WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

For the further discussion io6 selections from the F.2 genera-
tion of 36a X 41A (Rieti X Gkiyas Early) have been chosen."

Out of this 106, 42 gave dwarf forms in their progeny, i.e.,
on the F.3 generation from apparently normal parents.

The total numbers of individuals from these 42 selections =
4,124, out of which the number of dwarfs = 948 — i.e.. for true
recessive theoretically there would be 4 : i, i.e., 4,124 : 1,031 ;
giving thus a theoretical number of recessives of 1,031 as com-
pared to the actual count of 948, in which the theoretical with
the actual number compares as 25 per cent. : 22.99 P^^' cent., a
close enough relation to establish the fact that dwarfness is a

4<

■V \ N.

Fig. 2. — Frequencj' Curve for Length of Ear (cm.). 36(7 X 41--^.

true recessive characteristic. It may be noted that even this actual
number of dwarfs counted shows a less number than actually
grew, as, in the cultivation of these rows, the unskilled labour
used may have been responsible for removing some of the dwarfs,
as these in the earlier stages of growth are very grass-like, and
consequently may be removed.

There are a number of instances where the actual number
for the recessive very nearly approaches the theoretical number,
e.g., in selections i, 30, 46, 66, etc., there are respectively 24: 77;
46 : 131 ; 15 : 43 ; 24 : 70. dwarf : tall.

In another series of hybrid progeny Florence X Gluvas Farlv
i.e., ^yh X 41'? (for ^yh see Table I, c) — from 41 selections of

DWARFS IN GLUYAS EARLY (WHEAt) HYDRIDS.

543

apparently normal plants of the F.2 generation, 22 yield dwarf
progeny. Out of a total of this population of 2,149 plants, 476
were dwarfs; theoretically 537.(25) dwarfs should have
appeared; i.e.. instead of 25 per cent, only 22.15 per cent, were

25

zo

o"

'<7

7

2

/

_ Tora/

/\/orrn<i'

Fig_ 3._Frequency Curve for Weight of Grain (grm.). 361? X 41- ^•

dwarfs. The same reason as above-mentioned may have been
the cause for a decrease of the dwarfs before counting.

These cases cited may be taken as fairly conclusive evidence
of the true recessiveness of the dwarf character as far as these
wheats csre concerned.

344 DWARFS IN GLUYAS EARLY ( WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

T'or the present it will perhaps be best to limit the discussion
to these two series of hybrid progeny.

Alone from the standpoint of the economical breeding for
improved varieties of wheats, it is plain that these dwarfs furnish
an obstacle which causes greater labour, as none of the dwarfs
thus far have shown to have any enonomical value, and especially
as thus far there is no criterion by which it can be established
beforehand whether an apparently normal individual from such
a progeny will give rise to dwarf forms ; the only method of
ascertaining this fact lies in the propagation of such individuals
for another generation. When, however, as it is thought, one
of our best parent strains, e.g. Gluyas Early, is frequently pro-
ducing this uneconomical factor in its progeny, it may be neces-

" — U)»t/a r f

0 — /Vo r mal

Fig. 4- — Frequency Curve for Height of Plant (cm.). 57/; X 41".

sary to enquire further into the matter to ascertain whether no
solution is possible.

Such an investigation may also give rise to other factors of
importance.

Be it here briefly stated that natural hybrids are produced
between dift'erent strains of wheat, and perhaps to a greater
extent than is generally believed to be the case. In one instance,
for example, the knowledge of dwarfness has been of assistance,
in so far as a selection was made from a variety of wheat which
evidently was nothing else but an F.i hybrid; and as was
apparent from the progeny, the paternal parent could be estab-
lished. In so far. then, it may be of use.

However, as in the case of the 106 selections of the 36a
X 41 A, 42 gave rise to dwarfs, and in the case of 41 selections of
57& X 41a, 22 gave rise to dwarfs; so that, unless further selec-
tion is practised, these, even though having exceedingly desirable
qualities, cannot be propagated owing to this, from an economical

DWARFS IN GLUYAS EARLY (WHEAT) HYBRIDS. 545

point of view, unfortunate quality. These selections were in
some respects even very fortunate, as theoretically two-thirds of
the total should have given rise to dwarf progeny. The reason
for this fortunate result remains difficult to explain, and many
factors may have a bearing on the case.

The populations taken as examples, though embracing only
io6 individuals in the case of 36a X 41A, and 41 in the case of
57& X 410, are nevertheless representative for illustrating some
phases which may be of interest, and may perhaps throw some
light on this matter.

Quantitative characteristics, unlike certain qualitative charac-
teristics, still remain unsolved when considered from a definite
Mendelian point of view, but here may be an instance, even
though the object be practical breeding, in which the segregation
of such a quantitative characteristic may perhaps be more nearly
solved, the more so as at least one recessive is evident. Knowing
that dwarfness is recessive, wuU it be correct to assume that

Fig. 5. — Frequency Curve for Ear Length (cm.). 57^ X 4i«.

normal height is dominant, and that height and dwarfness are
an allelomorph?

This need not be, for the two ])arent forms already differ in
their normal height, and it is not incorrect to predict that strains
may be established breeding true to type as far as height is con-
cerned, such strains varying probably from a height greater than
that of the tallest parent to a height much less than that of the
shortest parent; therefore height and dwarfness cannot be taken
as one allelomorphic pair of characters in the present case.

It is not even necessary that in the case of 36a X 41 A the
characteristic height may embody the same number of allelo-
morphic pairs of characters as in the case of 57/; X 41^?. "or need
this be expected. If, however, there is an indication that it is
possible to divide these quantitative characteristics into various
classes, each class being either homogeneous or heterogeneous in

546 DWARFS IN GLUYAS EARLY (WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

capacity, and if it is found that in the segregation some or ah of
the classes yield pure recessives, then naturally it may he con-
cluded that those classes giving this recessive dwarfness are
allelomorphs ; i.e., the pure normal height of such a class and
dwarfness forms an allelomorphic pair, and these, together with
such classes which may not give rise to dwarfness. make up this
compound quantitative characteristic.

Naturally, then, a population may contain various allelo-
morphs, all combining to make up one characteristic such as
height, the allelomorphs being simply classes ranging between
various dimensions, so that with the natural variation in each
class it may be found difficult to distinguish whether an individual
belongs to the allelomorphic class having either a greater or a
less dimension, the more so as the possibility exists that each class

Tc/a/

D^arj

— tier ma i

Fig. 6.— Frequency Curve for Weight of Grain (grm.). 57b X 4i"-

representing an allelomorph need not have the same limits within
which it varies, and the natural variation in such classes may
cause individuals to appear as belonging to a higher or lower
class in height.

From Table I it is apparent that the mean height ranges
between the normal heights of the parents in the 36a X 41 A
progeny ; the same holds true except in regard to the progeny of
parents yielding all-normal progeny.

In comparing curves 1 and W . giving a comparison between
the frequencies of the height of parents (T), total, i.e.. ])arents
yielding dwarf progeny and normal progeny, (2) yielding dwarf
progeny, and (3) yielding normal progeny, it will be noticed that
the curves do not represent a population which breeds true to the
characteristic height, but gives an indication that for the character
height there are various populations to be considered. Moreover,

DWARFS IN GLUVAS EARLY (WHEAT) HYBRIDS.

547

the parents yielding the recessive dwarfness are represented in
some or all classes, which may go to show that this mixed i)opula-
tion for height may he suhdivided into various classes, such
classes embracing individuals which may breed true to the
characteristic height. The normal class height and the dwarf
form may then be taken as an allelomorph. This may l3e the
reason for the mean height (Table I. li) for jjarents producing
dwarfs being greater than either the mean for those for the total
or for the normal { Table I, g and i) as is readily to be seen in
that all parents over 150. i cm. gave rise to dwarf progeny.

Comparing the frequency curves II and \^ for ear length
instead of for height of plant as above-mentioned, the same indi-
cations are produced, and this is also the case where weight of
grain forms the basis as in curves III and \ I.

In the present discussion three quantitative characteristics
are considered, and indications are found to show that quanti-
tative characteristics may become subdivided into what ma\-
])erhaps be called class-allelomorphs, each such a class-allelo-
morph acting similar to allelomorphs in which the pairs of
characters have reference to qualitative characteristics.

The reason why the present hybrid material may be the
criterion for more definitely translating the characteristic such
as height into Mendelian terms is simply because the recessive
dwarfness is a distinguishable characteristic, though for the
present it is diffictilt to give accurate dimensions of the degree
of dwarfness, as dwarf individuals rarely mature, in most cases
the ears remaining enclosed in the apical leaf sheath.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT.

By Kenneth Austin, M.Am.I.^I.E.

(Not printed.)

THE ASCENT OF SAP IN PLANTS.

Bv Prof. Horace Athelstan Wager, A.R.C.S.

(Not printed.)

X'.VRIATION IN AGERATUM CONYZOIDES
(FAAIILY COMPOSIT.E.)

Bv Stephen Gottheil Rich, M.A.. B.Sc.

(Not printed.)

SO.ME SENSE DEFECTS CONSIDERED
PSYCEIOLOGICALLY.

Bv the Rev. Fredi:rick Charles Kolbe, B.A., D.D.

With tzco test figures.

The old dictum that exceptions prove the rule is never
better exeniplihed than in the light which pathology throws on
normal processes. Unfortunately for psychology the victims of
the pathological condition are often least able to tell their expe-
rience. To give such testimony usefully requires not only
scientific observation and a knowledge of psychological demands,
but also freedom from bias in self-inspection. Many, otherwise
competent, are fanciful or untrustworthy in describing their own
symptoms.

As in this paper I am utilising ni}- own experience, I ought
to prove my possession of this threefold qualification.

When I went to London a good many years ago to be
treated by an aurist, I was recommended to choose Dr. Woakes,
of Harle}' Street, who was described to me as brusque and laconic,
a sort of Abernethy. 1 put together an account of all my
observations and experiments on myself, and handed the paper
to him at our first interview. " It may save some words to read
this, doctor," I said. He took it with a cynical smile, as who
should say, " I have seen this sort of thing before." But the
smile died ofi: his face as he read, and at the end of it he looked
hard at me, and read it all over again carefully. Then, abruptly :
"May I keep this paper?" "Certainly, doctor. I wrote it for
you." " It is the best statement of a case by a layman that I
have ever seen. I don't need to ask you a single question. Come
and sit down here." Then he began working on me.

I write this, not for any self-satisfaction in the telling, but
as an indication to strangers that my testimony is likely to have
two of the above-mentioned qualities, namely, accuracy of scien-
tific observation and freedom from fanciftil bias. The third,
namely, the psychological, will (I hope) reveal itself in the
course of my paper.

I have the misfortune to be a first-hand authority on defects
of both hearing and sight. I shall begin with the former.

The defect I am to discuss is due to a gradual collapse of
the Eustachian tube, the result probably of a local flabbiness of
muscle, which also relaxes the tension of the drum. Any
stretching of these muscles would be a temporary remedy. After
a yawn, I used to hear for a moment perfectly well. I used
also to be able, holding mouth and nose, to force air into the
Eustachian tube, with the same result.

The consequence of this condition is that all except very
soft sounds are perceived, but with a l)hnTcd outline. It is like

SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. 549

a normal person listenintr to a murnun- of conversation Jnst
beyond his range, or like a man in a far corner trying to hear
a speaker whose voice does not fill the hall. In the former
case, everybody knows how without attention nothing is heard ;
hard listening will give a word here and there ; if the topic is
known, the drift can be followed; if the person's own name is
mentioned, he is at once aroused even if he had not been
listening. In other words, the difference lietween hearing and
not hearing depends on the attention, the knowledge, the skill in
guessing, the familiarity which the listener can bring to bear
on the sounds. He will also be helped if he can see the expres-
sions and gestures of the interlocutors. In the other case, the
want of audibility is usually the speaker's fault. Actors can
make a large audience hear a stage-whisper. It is not shouting,
but clear articulation that is wanted. In this, as in many other
respects, otu" King George gives good example to his ])eople.
When he was here as Duke of Cornwall and York, and we
made him Chancellor of the University, I had an opportunity of
judging. Sir T. Muir, then Vice-Chancellor, is an incisive
speaker, and 1 heard about three-quarters of his words, and was
able to infer all the rest; but when the Duke spoke, there was no
need of inference; every syllable was clear-cut, and I could have
heard him even at a much greater distance. But the worst fault
speakers have — and onh- a deaf man knows how common and
how annoying it is- — is putting emphasis on the wrong ])lace. It
is like a journalist scoring unimportant phrases for printing in
large type. To this is added a still more deplorable habit, equally
common, of trailing oft the voice and sinking it at the end of a
sentence, as if there was not energ)^ enough to go round. Of
many a speech I have to listen to, this is all that reaches me: — -
" Now, sir, . . . not that .... But, still .... I
don't say .... And here is one point I wish to draw special

attention to Mumble, mumble, mumble . . ." If the "Z'is

viva of the voice were put into the really important words, and
the energy sustained at the close of the sentence, it would be a
great boon to those hard of hearing.

The deaf man has to make rapid inferences from expectation
and familiarity. Everybody, I believe. " hears "' largely by these
means — as can be seen from the difllculty a normal ^lerson has
in catching proper names over the telephone — as soon as infer-
ence is impossible, he hears worse. The intellect plays a much
larger part in sensation than the psychological text-books seem
to admit. It is this fact which makes the hearing of a deaf man
such a puzzle to most people. I had a friend of very varied
interests, who was quite acrobatic in his changes of subject. He
used to say to me, " I can't make you out. You seem to hear
all right for a while, then suddenly you become hopeless " — the
fact being that he had made one of his jumps without warning
me, and I was bewildered Ity trying to fit a tirade on the wool-
question into a theory of Egyptian Art. Once, travelling

550 SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED.

through the Berg River Valley, a friend of mine waved his hand
towards the scenery and said something of which all I heard
sounded like aii'too. ^^'ith this I had two grounds of inference:
( I ) he must mean the Drakenstein Mountains, because that was
all he could see from where Tie was; and (2) I knew him to
be an incorrigible punster. It took me a full minute to realise
that he had gaily said, " These are some of the 'ills that flesh
is heir to." To this day, I believe, my friend thinks I was very
dense to take so long to see his pun. He docs not know what a
conundrum he set me. A still better example shows how a few
articulate sounds with their accompanying murmur can be
" heard "' when subsequent light is thrown on them. As we were
walking in the street, a friend said something to me, of which
I caught three syllables, with a vague consciousness of the rest.
I tried to fit this into English, and failed. Then suddenly it
dawned on me that some people were passing at the time, and
my companion might have wanted them not to understand. In
that case, he would have spoken Italian. I fitted my raw material
together in that language, and after about a hundred yards 1
answered him. " You took a jolly long time to reply," he said.
" I have only just heard it," I rejoined.

I add a good example of the value of attention and expecta-
tion. There is a big bell within a few yards of my room : its
voice is easily heard all over Capetown, but when my door and
window are shut I do not hear it at all — unless I prepare for it.
I know the time when it is going to ring. I then attune my ear
to the musical note it sounds (E flat). Then, if I have hit both
time and note rightly, I not only hear the bell, but hear it quite
loudly.

Moreover. I think we are helped more than we know by
the vibrations in the bones of the head. If I close both my ears
as tightly as I can. I still hear music almost as well as when my
ears are open.

Once more, it is frequentl\- thought that all sound waves
travel with a perfectly spherical wave-front. This is true only
of stationary sound-centres. When a sound is thrown forward,
as in the case of the voice, the side waves are comparatively
very weak. No matter how well I am hearing, the moment the
speaker turns aside I am lost. I may therefore venture to give
some hints equally useful to a public speaker who wants the
outside fringe to hear him. and to the private speaker who is
dealing with a deaf person: — (i) Throw the voice where you
want it to go; (2) do not shout, but articulate; (3) emphasise
the really important words, not the links; (4) make sure the
topic of each paragraph is known; (5) sustain the voice fully
to the end of each sentence, and if you use a falling cadence, let
it be a definite one and not a mere trailing into weakness.

The second defect, that of sight, is much more complex.
It is near sight, combined with slow sight, and two-fold retinal
hemorrhage supervening.

SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. 55 1

The phenomenon of slow siorht is, I presume, due to some
skigo-ishness in nerve-current, and not to the state of the nerve-
ending. I have known people complain of it whose sight was
quite normal otherwise. It obviously provides a question of
importance for psychology, but I do not see it treated in the
text-books. Personally, it has been a source oif much incon-
venience to me. I have, for example, when walking fast, met
a lady of my acquaintance. I have seen her bow, and seen the
expression of annoyance at my lack of response — ^but all after
I had passed.

Now there is a " test " one reads of for estimating power
of observation : it consists of making people pass a shop window,
previously unseen, and of recording the number of objects they
can assert they have seen. In my case the verdict would un-
doubtedly be " below par." But as through life I have habitually
observed Nature more effectively than most o^f m}- companions.
I venture to think this " test " quite fallacious.

There are two qualities in my vision which seem to be in-
consistent with what I have said, viz., sensitiveness to movement
and to colour. I suppose our sense-organization admits of
inconsistencies as much as our mind does. No one is quite
logical throughout.

As to movement, there used to be in the north window
of our cathedral a hole which sent an image of the sun on to
our sanctuary. The image was an elli]:)se of about two sciuare
feet in area. Whenever I looked at this image, as it shone on
the white steps of the sanctuary. I always got a first impression
that it was flozvhicj down the steps. When I looked hard at it,
the movement could no longer be seen ; though it was easily
measurable at intervals of three or four seconds. The impres-
sion quite startled me the first time, but it was always repeated,
and I am quite sure of mv statement. Again, going once with
the Mountain Club tO' the Tulljagh Waterfall, I was Avalking
Avith a ])erson of normal sight, an oculist, by the way, and sud-
denly at a bend I saw a white moving streak. " The Fall," I
cried. " Nonsense,'" said he. " it is the white trunk of a tree. '
'■ But I see it moving," I ]3ersisted. And we walked quite a
hundred yards before he could see the movement. [N.B. — I
must have been helped to confidence in contradicting him by
the knowledge that no tree with such a white trunk could possi-
bly be growing in that locality ; but the movement I distinctly
saw, and that far beyond my range of vision of form.] This
was very useful to me once in science. I was collecting insects
in South Rhodesia, and the train made a long stop at a place
where, as far as the eye could reach, there was only one tree
(an acacia) on the grass veld. I knew there would be something
on that tree, and made for it. I examined leaves, twigs, branches
and trunk, but in vain. After at least twenty minutes, I gave
up in despair and turned away. But, knowing the wary habits
of our wild life, I turned sharply back after going two or three
steps. There was a minute, but unmistakable, movement. I

55-^ SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSVCIIOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED.

nishecl back to the spot and found (|uite a large beetle, sha|)ed
much like a piece of the bark, and snuggling^ into the crevice
to add to the illusion. Moreover, however he had done it, the
rogue had further caiuoiiflaycd himself by pasting little bits of
bark on his back. Once I found him, it was easy to tind other
little " bits of bark " of the same shape, and I gathered in about
a dozen of them — all because that one had not been able to
refrain from shi)uting " Hurrah !" with his antennae too soon.

Sensitiveness to colour has stood me in e(|ually good stead."
No one could believe what the blue of the Aris'tca on the Paarl
mountain meant to me in my early childhood. A stranger walk-
ing with me once pointed about a hundred yards ahead to some
flowers that struck him. " Homeria collina," I said. " But,"
said he, " I shouldn't have thought 3'ou could even see there was
a flower there." " No more can I." I replied, " but I see a
splash of colour, salmon pink, and no other flower of that colour
grows here." Again, walking wnth a doctor once round the
Kloof, with a clear sun declining in the west and a mist over the
last buttress of the Table, I pointed suddenly and said. '" How
lovely the rainbow colours are when mingling Avith the A-egeta-
tion." He looked carefully, and then turned to me: "There's
nothing there: pure imagination: you had better mind or you'
will be getting hallucinations one of these days." Just then the
sun shone out more clearly, and the rainbow finished all over
the sky. I never saw a man more taken aback. Moreover,
when I lift my arm in the sunlight. I can distinctlv see the
iridescence of the small fibres on the surface of my black coat,
though I cannot see when my coat needs brushing or cleaning.

Now, these two points, and I suppose there are others,
have to be taken into account before a psychologist dogmatises
about " power of observation."

The defect of near-sight with me is a form of astigmatism,
the results of which seem not to be commonly known. At least
I find them in no ibook within my reach, and even medical men
sometimes seem surprised when I talk of clear multiple vision
Avith a single eye. Perhaps therefore it is worth describing.

The defect lies in the cornea (or ifront of the eye) rather
than in the lens. The bulge of the cornea (which I can
feel with my finger through the eyelid) causes a parallel ray to
be refracted at very various angles on to the lens. Each little
region comes to its owai focus on the retina, and the result is
between 50 and 100 images of a candle-flame ( sa}^) arranged in
a circle, but so superposed as to lose all outline. This is why
near-sighted people (as I discovered for myself very early in life)
find their vision cleared by looking through a pin-hole in a card :
it cuts ofi:" all except the few central images, and the true outline
becomes perceptible. As years went on, and the bulge of the
cornea increased, the images came to be set further and further
apart, until one day, while experimenting with a small electric
light, I happened to look at it with my spectacles oft. and to

SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. 553

my amazement I saw what I have endeavoured to depict in

FiR- I- .

This phenomenon developed until larger lig-hts also separated
thdr images. I once counted 64 clear distinct full moons in my
right eye.

The next stage that suj^ervened was hemorrhage of the
retina owing to straining the eye : this was in the right eye, till
then the better one. The immediate result was a dark ellipse
in the very centre of the optical field, surrounded bv a most
lovely rainbow. This was " visible " even when the eye was
shut. In due time the figure faded away, but I have never read
with that eye since. I suppose a little clot of blood formed
right o\-er the yellow spot.

I thought I was lucky to kee]) my left eye safe anvhow ;
but one night I fell over an obstacle in our garden, and nearlv
had that eye pierced toy a coujjle of seedling-stakes. Permanent
black figures immediately appeared at the side, and I knew that
in the instinctive efifort to save itself the eye had sufifered some
lesion of the retina. A short while after there came a sudden
gush of blood, and that eye was for a while quite blind.

I am aware that at the time there was published an account
of the matter, denying the accident. What motive the person
could have in contradicting what he knew to be my description
of my own experience, I do not know. I cannot say he was
ill-informed : I simply say his statement was untrue. And it
becomes important in this connection to say so, because if both
lesions had resulted from eye-strain, they would probably both
have been central, whereas now I am able to describe the dif-
ference between a central and a lateral lesion.

5:-)4-

SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED.

Fic-

Bleeding on the retina, of course, plays havoc with the deli-
cate nerve-endings. The present appearance of a candle-flame
at a distance of about 6 feet I have endeavoured to show in

2.

The right eye (on the reader's right), it will be noticed, has
no central image : the left eye has. 1 need not say I watch that
central image lovingly and anxiously : if it goes, I shall no longer
be able to read.

It will be understood that for both eyes the whole circle is
a blurr of mottled light with the indicated figures standing out
more or less clearly. The right eye has one little clear image
outside the circle : I cannot explain it, but it is always there.

I had a strange experience after the gush of blood in the
left eye had settled down and left the eye clear again. Lying
down' one afternoon, and looking at the ceiling while the light
from the window entered the eye obliquely, I distinctlv saw
what is quite familiar to me as a microscopic view of the red

WW ,

Fig. 2.

corpuscles of blood. I cannot be mistaken : the shape of each
corpuscle was quite clear, and (as scientists know) it is unique.
I could repeat the experience at will until the blood had time
to be quite re-absorbed. It is a curious variant oif the experi-
ment by which some people are able, with a proper adjustment
oif oblique light, to project into the darkness a highly magni-
fied view of their own retinal blood-vessels. But I wonder
whether anybody else has ever seen and recognized his own
blood-corpuscles without their leaving the body.

The next point of psychological interest was that the two
images, till then firmly co-ordinated, began to separate. It was
as if the bodily system had a will of its own apart from con-
sciousness. There was a long struggle between me and it. I
had complete control over the muscles, and w^as able always to
put the straying right image back again. I could even move
it at will and attend to both images at once. I often, for fun,
used to put one person's head on another person's shoulders
to see the effect. I was able to compare tile or wall-paper pat-

SOME SEXSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY CONSIDERED. 555

terns to see if one figure would exactly fit its neighbour. They
always did, with deadly monotony. But the body got the best
of it. After an interval, in which I had relaxed my conscious
efforts, 1 found that the images were firmly separated, and now
I have quite lost control, and can do nothing to make the right
image even approach the left. Moreover, my hands and feet
refuse to obey the right image. If I shut my left eye and try
to touch something on a table, I miss by about 4 or ^ inches.
I once tried to walk witli the left eye shut, and ifound myself
colliding with lamp-posts. Anxious to preserve my reputation
for sobriety, I do not repeat that experiment. But it is surely
curious that two sets of muscles should have passed from a state
of will-resisting co-ordination to a state of equally will-resisting
dis-co-ordination, through a period of perfect separate will-
control.

A further consetiuence has resulted. It is well known that
our perception of colour is so " interpreted "' by the mind, that
artists have to unlearn the interpretation. Sunlight should be
" seen '" more yellow, shadows more purjile, and candle-light
more red. Now, that is what has hai^pened to my right eye.
Since the " mind " has made up its mind to ignore the right
image, the two eyes give c|uite a different colouring. And I do
not think it is a new defect, one of partial colour-blindness:
such defects rarely, if ever, come nearer to the truth. The fact
distinctly is that for my right eye sunlight is more yellow,
shadows more purple, and candle-light is almost as red as
Gherardo delle Notti ever painted it.

Yet one more optical effect may be noted. Looking once at
a white object, surrounded by shadow, but itself in the light,
my right eye being closed to block oft" its image, I found that on
opening that eye the left image immediately bricjhtcned. This
could not be from super-position of images, because that is im-
possible now to me : nor could it be from access of light from
surroundings, for all Avas gloom around. However, to make
quite sure, I put my hand before my right eye, and then found,
to my amazement, that the mere opening of the right eye (though
it saw nothing) reinforced the image of the left. Evidently the
extra flow of energy was shared by sympathy. From this one
can easily believe that it is not merely a poetic fancy that things
look brighter when we are gay and gloomier when we are dull.

Last of all, my experience is that the muscles in the head
which sub-^erve attention are so sympathetically linked together
that each contributes towards the action of the rest. Normal
people have enough energy to be able to use their senses together.
I cannot. If I read, I cannot hear. If I listen, I cannot look.
A friend asked me to dinner twice : the first time he asked me
to choose the wine, and I patriotically chose Witzenberg: the
next time he chose for himself, and we had one of the choicest
Rhine wines: unfortunately I did not notice the difference, and
he thinks poorly of my taste. If he reads this paper he will
know that I prefer my friends' conversation to the most epicurean

556 SOME SENSE DEFECTS PSYCHOLOGICALLY COXSIDERED.

palate-tickler the world can tempt me \\ith, and as I was listen-
ing to him I simply could not attend to his wine.

Further, it sometimes amuses my friends that when I am
looking hard at anything I instinctively put my hand to mv ear.
k simply means that all attention-muscles with me ha\e to be
strained for the service of each of the senses. It enables me
to hear better in the dark if I put my spectacles on, thoug'h
there is nothing to see. This strange co-ordination of our atten-
tion-energies seems to me to be worth some jjsvcholagical con-
sideration.

I have put together these experiences in the hope of starting
trains of thought, or at least of providing illustrations, for
teachers of nsvchologv.

BANTU PLACE NAME.S IN THE CAPE PROMNCE.

Bv Rev. loiTN RoHEKT Eewis Kingon, M.A., E.R.S.E. F.L.S.

(Not frill fed.)

A KEY TO THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF

SPERMATOPHYTA IN THE TRANSVAAL

AND ORANGE FREE STATE.

Bv losEPU BrRTT-D.wv, F.L.S.. E.R.(;.S.

{Not f^ rill ted.)

THE WOOLLY APHIS {ERIOSOMA LAN I G ERA) AS A
FACTOR IN APPLE CULTURE.

Bv Cii.vRLES WiLLLv.M .Mall^. M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

(Not printe<i.)

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1917-1918.

HONORARY PRESIDENT.

Ills MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
C. F. JURITZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.l.C.

EX-PRESIDENT.
Professor J. ORR, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., ]\I.I.Mech.E.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

W. Ingham, -M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.
A. H. Reid, F.R.I. B.A., F.R.San.I.

Prof. \V. N. RosEVEARE, M.A.
H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES

Rev. \V. Flint, D.D., Library of Par-
liament, Capetown.

J. A. FooTE, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Commer-
cial High School, Plein Street, Jo-
hannesburg.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
A. Walsh, P.O. Box 39, Cape Town.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

H. Tucker, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street, Cape
Town. P.O. I')0.x 1497. (Telegrapliic .'\ddress: " Scientific")

I. CAPE FROYIKCE.

Cape Peninsula.

Prof. A. BnowN, !\r.A.. B.Sc, F.R.S.E.
Prof. L. Crawford. M.A., D.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Prof. R. Leslie. M.A., F.S.S.
C. W. M.ally. M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S.
R. W. Menmuir, A.M.I.C.E.

Kimberlcy.
Miss M. Wilman.

Kingwilliamsfozvn.
J. Leighton, F.R.H.S.

Middelbiirg.
A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S.

Poi-t Elisabeth.

Rev. T. R. L. KiNGON, M.A., F.R.S E.,
F.L.S.

Stellenbosck.

Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A,, B.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Prof. D. DE St. J. van der Riet, M.A.,

Ph.D.

II. TRANSVAAL.

li'itivatersrand.

r. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

W. A. Caldecott, B.A., D.Sc. F.C.S.

P. Cazal'-:t.

Lt.-Col. J. H. DoBsoN, D.S.O., M.Sc,

M.I.Mech.E., M.r.E.E., A.M.I.C.E.
Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc,

A.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
F. Flowers. C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Tas. Gray, F.I.C.

R. T. A. INNES, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
J. W, KiRKL.\ND, M.Am.I.E.E.
T. Mitchell.
Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,

F.R.G.S.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

A. J. Orenstein

M.R.C.S.,
A.R.S.M.,

M.D.,

L.R.C.P,
Prof. G. H. Stanley,

M.I.M.E., ari.M.M., FI.C.
H. A. Trubshaw.

T. VAN NiEKERK. M.B., C.I\L

W. WaTKINS - PiTCHFORD, M.D.,

F.R.C.S., D.P.H.
Prof. J. A. Wilkinson. M.A., F.C.S.

Pretorin.

I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S.
Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D.
Prof. D. F. DU ToiT Malherbe, M.A..

Ph.D.
Prof. H. a. Wager, A.R.C.S.

Pctchefstroom.
E, Holmes Smith, B.Sc.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.

Bloemfontein.

T. F. Dreyer, B.A., Ph.D.
Prof. M. M. RiMDL, Ing.D.

IV. NATAL.

Durban.

M. S. Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

Marit.zburg.

J. S. Henkel.

Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc.

V. RHODESIA.

Bulazvayo.
Rev. S. S. DoRNAN, M.A. F.G.S.

\I. MOZAMBIQUE.

S. Seruya.

Endowment Fund.

r W. Tagcer, F.S.S. . M.L.A.
^\' RuNciMAN. M.L.A
Principal J. C. Beattie,
F R.S.E

TRUSTEES.

D.Sc,

S.A. Medal Fund-

B.Sc. r.L.D.,

W. E. Gurney.
C. Mur.nAv, M.A.
W. Thom-son. M.A

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

1ST JFLY, 1918.

* Indicates Foundation Members (30tli June. 1902).

t Indicates Life Members.

Names of PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION

are Primed in THICK CAPITALS.

Names of Membeks of Council for the lOiS (Johannesburg) Session

are printed in Small Capitals.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or ;/()/ kiwti'u

are printed in italics.

Members are requested to notify tlie Assistant General Secretary [P.O. Box i^gj,
Cape Tonni) of anij changes in address, or additions 'which mav he necessarv,
as soon as possible.

Year of ■

Election.

1902. fa-Ababrelton, Robeft, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., Royal
Institute, Northumberland Avenue, London, W.C.

1916. Abbit, William, B.A., Maritzburg College, Pietermaritz-
burg. Natal.

1916. Abrahams, Abraham Mark, Jewish Government School,

End Street, Johannesburg.
1902. *Aburrow. Charles, M.I.C.E., AI.S.A., P.O. Box 534,

Johannesburg.
1905. Adamson, John E., M.A. (Pres. D, 1915), Education

Department, Pretoria.
1917 Affleck, Arthur, A.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1032, Johannesburg.
1904. Aiken, Alexander, P.O. Box 2636, Johannesburg.
1904. Ainsworth, Herbert, P.O. Box 1553, Johannesburg.

1917. Aitchison, Rez'. Samuel (iershom Gilkes, 'SI. A., D.D .

Harding, Natal.

1915. jAkerman, Conrad, M.A., M.B., B.C.. Conetlnnoar. Alex-

andra Road, Pietermaritzburg.

1905- fAlbu. Sir George, P.O. Box 1242. Tohannesburg.

1910. Anderson, Alfred Jasper, M.A., ALB., D.P.H., AI.R.C.S.
(Vice-Pres. D).. City Hall. Capetown.

1917. Anderson. Ernest, iB.S.. M.S., Ph.D., Professor of Agri-
cultural Chemistry. Transvaal University College, Pre-
toria.

1916. Anderson, Peter M., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1156, Johannesburg,

Transvaal.

n' LIST OF MEM1!L-.US.

y'ciir of
Election

1902. ^Andrews, G. S. Burt, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mecn.E., M.S.A.,

P.O. Box 1049, Johannesburg.
191 7. Andrews. George J., P.O. Box 27, Jeppes, Johannesburg-.
1914. Anstey, Norman, P.O. Box 1003, Johannesburg.

1903. Arnold. Frank Arthur, M.B., D.P.H., L.S.A., P.O. Box

2 IT, Pretoria.
19 16. Ashkanazy, A. W., Castle Mansions, Eloff .Street. Johan-
nesburg.

1904. Auret, A. A., P.O. Box 838, Johannesburg.

J916. Austin, Kenneth, AI.Am.I.M.E., P.O. Box 4305, Johan-
nesburg.

1906. Bailey, Sir Abe, Kt.. P.( ). Box 50, Johannesburg.

1902. *Baker, Herbert, F.R.EB.A., Exploration Buildings

( 1 61 -1 75), P.O. Box 4959, Johannesburg.
1916. Ball. Mrs. ()li\ia \\'olfen(len, Amberley, Shafton Oange.
Howick, Natal.

1903. fBalniforth, Rcz'. Ranisden, " Shirley," 6, Stephen Street,

Capetown.
1914. Bancroft, Alfred Ernest. M.A., M.Sc., South African
College High School, Capetown.

19 1 6. Barkby, Ernest Arthur, AI.I.iM.E., P.O. Box 3286, Johan-

nesburg.

1917. fBarker, \\'illiani Edward, A.LE.E., P.O. Dynamite Fac-

tory, Somerset West, C.P.
191 1. Barratt, Gaston Frederick Sharpe, Bembezaan, Queque,

Southern Rhodesia.
1911. Barratt, Rowland Lorraine, Bembezaan, Queque, Southern

Rhodesia.

1905. i'Basto, H. E. Alberto Celestine Ferreira Pinto, 95, Rua

Luiz-de-Camoes, Lisbon, Portugal.
1903. tBaxter, William, Al.A., South African College High

.^chool, Capetown.
1902. *tBeattie, John Carruthers, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Pres. A.,

1910). Principal of the University of Capetown.
1916. Beatty, J. W.. Consolidated Buildings, Johanueslnirg.
T915. Bedford, Gerald Augustus Harold, F.E.S., Veterinary
Research Laboratory, Onderstepoort. P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.
1913. Beerstecher. Leonard, P.O. Box 2888, Johannesburg.
T916. Bertram, T.. 134. Market Avenue. Benoni, Transvaal.
1916. Bertram, Reginald Hermanns, P.O. Box 3518, fohannes-

burg.
1916. Bcws. John William, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Botany,
Natal University College, P.O. Box T,y=,, Pietermaritz-
burg.
19 1 6. Bird, Fred William, Government .School. Benoni, Trans-
vaal.

LIST OF Mi:.M KICKS. V

Year of
Election.

1910. Bisset, James, M.I.C.E., M.R.San.L, Beati^eigh, Kenil-

worth, Cape Division.

1905. Blackshaw, George N.. B.Sc. F.C.S., c/o British South

Africa Co., 2, London WslW, London, E.C., England.

19 1 5. Bkmdell. Frederick Moss, 308, Orient Street. Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1906. Bohle, Hermaini. M.LE.E.. Corporation Professor of

Electrotechnics, South African College, Capetown.

191 1. Bolus, Charles Arthur, 20, Steytler's Buildings, P.O. Box

232, Johannesburg.

1905. fBolus, Mrs. F., B.A., .Sherwood, Kenihvorth, Capetown.
ii-jiy. Bosnian. Andrew Murray. B.Sc. A., B.S/C.. Professor of

Agriculture. Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
1913. Botelho, Lieut. Joao Baptista, Chief \'eterinary Officer.
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 255. Lourengo
Alarques.

1916. Botting. Robert Frederick, A. M.LE.E., P.O. Box 700,^

Johannesburg.

1916. Bottomley, Averil Maud, B.A., P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.

1906. Bourne, A. H. J., M.A., Principal, High Schools, Kim-

berley, C.P.

1913. Bracht, Oscar, P.O. Box 134, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

191 5. Brain, Charles Kimberlin, M.A., M.Sc, Division of Ento-
mology, Pretoria.
1915. Breijer. Hermann Gottfried, Ph.D., Director of the Trans-
vaal Aluseum, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1914. Brierly, James Dundas, Department of Agriculture. Bloem-

fontein.

1915. Briggs, H. Fielden. M.D., B.Sc, L.D.S.. D.D.S., P.O. Box

734, Johannesburg.

1917. Brigham, A. F., Diamond Mining Co., Ltd.. Jagersfontein,

O.F.S.
1910. Brill, J.. Litt.D., L.FLD., Ph.Th.M., Lorothwana, 65, Park

Road, Bloemfontein.
1905. Brincker, J. C. H., c/o The Montagu Co-operative Wines,

Ltd., Montagu, C.P.
1914. Brinton, Arthur Greene, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.S.M.,

P.O. Box 4397, Johannesburg.
1910. Britten, Gilbert Frederick, B.A., Government Chemical

Laboratory, Capetown.
1903. Browx, ALMXAxnER, M.A.. B.Sc, F.R.S.E.. Professor of

Applied Mathematics, University of Capetown.
1914. Brown. Rez'. Holman, P.O. Box <S2, Bulawavo. Rhodesia.
1 91 7. Brown, James Thomson, P.O. Box 927, Capetown.

1907. fBrown, \\'ilHam Bridgman, M.A., Penrvn. Cvphergat.

C.P.
1913. Browne,, Rowland F., A.M.LC.E., P.O. Box 432, T.ourenQo
Marques.

VI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1909. Brownlee, John Iijnes, M.B., CM., Tembani, Alexandra

Road, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.
1912. Briimmer, Rev. Prof. N. J., M.A., B.D., University of
Stellenbosch, C.P.

1902. *Buchan, James, Assistant Resident Engineer, Rhodes

Buildings, Bulawayo.

1916. Bull, Henry Walter, 352, Burger Street, Pietermaritzburg.

1917. Buller, Arthur Cheverton, Dwarsriviers Hoek, Stellen-

bosch.
1916. Buntine, Robert Andrew, M.B., B.Ch., M.L.A., Waratah,
Pietermaritzburg.

1905. Burroughs, Herbert John, ioa, Clarence Street, Truyeville,

Johannesburg.

1903. fBuRTT-DAvv, JosErii, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. C, 1917),

Burttholm, Vereeniging, Transvaal.
1916. Burtt-Davv, Mrs. J., Burttholm. \"ereeniging, Transvaal.

1916. Bush, Herbert Henry, M.Sc, A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 187,

Durban.

1903. Caldecott, W. a., B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., P.O. Box 67,

Johannesburg.
1902. *fCamf^bcll, Allan McDowell McLeod, B.A. (address
wanted).

1917. Campbell. Colin M., Mount Edgecombe, Durban.
1916. Campbell, Edmund, P.O. Box 688. Durban.

1916. Campbell. Samuel (rieorge, ^l.D., M.Ch.. F.R.C.S.E.,
M.R.C.S., D.P.H.. 28, Musgrave Road, Durban.

1908. Carlson, K. A., Forestry Division, Department of Agri-
culture, Bloemfontein.

1916. Carruthers. Somerville Craig, ALI.A.A., P.O. Box 266,

Johannesburg.

1917. Cassell, ^lyer, P.O. Box 5992. Johannesburg.

1916. Cawston, Capt. Frederick Gordon, B.A., M.B., B.C.,

M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., No. 4, Military Hospital, Potchef-
stroom. Transvaal.
J903. tCazalet, Percy, P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.

1906. ^Champion, Ivor Edivard (address zvanted).

1914. Chandler, Right Rev. Arthur, ^I.A., D.D.. Bishop of
Bloemfontein, Bishop's Lodge, Bloemfontein.

1918. Chapman, Thomas Henry. P.O. Box 5291. Johannesburg.

1917. Chappell, Ernest, P.O. Box 1124, Johannesburg.

191 3. Charters, Robert Hearne, M.I.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

191 7. Chiappini. Alexander John, P.O. Retreat, C.P.

1918. Churchill. Hon. Senator Frank F., 69, Berea Park Road,

Durban.
1918. Clark, George Muirhead, 15, Meischke's Buildings. Johan-
burg.

LIST OF MEMIJEUS. Vll

Year of
Election.

1916. Clark, Gowan Creswell Strange, C.3.I.G., Railway Offioes,
Johannesburg.

1916. Clark, Hugh B.Sc, A.M.I.E.E., Technical College. Durban.
1903. Clark, John, M.A., LL.D., Arderne Professor of English

Language and Literature, University of Capetown.

1917. Clarke. Frederick. M.A., Professor of Education. L'ni\:'r-

sitv of Ca])eto\\n.
1916. Clayden. Harold A\illiani, AAl.LE.E., A.M.LALE., P.O.
Box 1242. Johannesburg.

1916. Clayton. Emily Jane Mason. 100, Alarket Street, Pretoria.

1917. Cleghorne. William Shaw Hamilton, B.Sc, A.M.LMech.E.,

P.O. Box 181, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

1916. Clephan. Ethel Hunter, Girls" High School, Park Street.

Pretoria.

1917. Clewer. Frederick William Paul. B.A., Leyds Street,

Joubert Park. Johannesburg.

1917. Cogan, Eric Sydney Earle, ALA., Ph.D., School of .Agri-

culture, Cedara, Natal.

1903. Cohen, Walter P.. F.R.P.S., Hon. Sec, Johannesburg Field

and Naturalists' Club, P.O. Box 68, Johannesljurg.

1918. Coleman, Percy, M.A., 208. Union Buildings. Pretoria.

19 16. Collard, J. Aldred, P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.

1908. Collie, J., 274, Eastwood Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.

1904. fCollins, Ernest A. E., 66, Pritchard Street, P.O. Box y2^,

Johannesburg.
1906. Collins, IVL R., Irrigation Department, P.O. Box 399, Pre-
toria.

1917. Colquhoun, Ludovic, Dynamite Factory, Modderfontein,

Transvaal.
1917. Constangon, C, P.O. Box 1176. Johannesburg.
1904. Cooper, Fred W., Public Library, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

191 5. Cordiner, William Smallie, 121, Loveday Street, Wander-

ers' View, Johannesburg.
1914. Cory, George Edward, M.A., Professor of Chemistry and
Metallurgy, Rhodes University College, Grahams-
town.
1904. fCoutts, John Morton Sim, M.D., L.R.C.P.. D.P.H.,
M.R.C.S., Erinville Cottage, Grahamstown, C.P.

1916. Cox, George \A^ilter. F.R.Met.S., P.O. Box 399, Pretoria.
1902. *fCox, Walter Hubert, Royal Observatory, near Cape-
town.

1909. Crawford. David Chalmers, ALA.. B.Sc. B.Sc.Agr..

Elsenburg, Mulder's \Tei, C.P.
1902. *t CRAWFORD, LAWRENCE. M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.

(President, 191OJ, Professor of Pure Alatheniatics.

University of Capetown.
1916. Croghan, Dr., 28, High Road, Fordsburg, Transvaal.

flit LIST OF MEMBliUS.

Year of
Electio)i.

19 1 6. jCrookes. George Joseph, The Cedars, Renishaw, per

Private Bag, Durban.
1916. Cruden. Frank. AHcedale. C.P.
1903. fCullen. \Mniani. M.I.M.M. (General Secretary,

I905-I9q8). Westwood, The Avenue, Upper Norwood,

England.
1916. Currie, Richard, 1:2, Commissioner Street, Johannesburg.
1903. Currie, O. J., M.B., M.R.C.S., Claremont. Capetown.
1916. Curry, N. 6., P.O. Box 2303, Johannesburg.

1905. Dale, Plubert, P.O. Box 632, Johannesburg.

1903. Dalrymple, Hon. W., P.O. Box 2927, Johannesburg.

1915. Dalton, John Patrick, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Mathe-

matics, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176. Johannesburg.
1913. Damant, E. L., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1916. Danckwerts, Ernst. P.O. Box 4^6. Johannesburg.

191 3. Daniel, John, Armley House, 30, Plein Street, Johannes-

burg.

1916. Davidson, D. M., P.O. Box 455. (iermiston, Transvaal.

1917. Davidson, John. P.O. Box 1146, Johannesburg.

191 8. Davies, David Ernest Lloyd, MT.C.E., F.R.San.L, City

Hall, Capetown.
1903. Davies, J. Hubert, M.I.E.E., ^LI.Mech.E., A.M.I.C.E.,

P.O. Box 1386, Johannesburg.
1916. Davis. Carl Raymond. E..M.. M^Am.I.M.E.. P.O. Box 3,

Brakpan, Transvaal.

1903. Davis, Frederick H., B.Sc, M.LE.E., P.O. Box 1934,

Johannesburg.
1916. Daymond. \\'illiam Henry, P.O. Xigel, Transvaal.
1916. Deakin. James Alfred, Dunswart Iron and Steel Works,

P.O. Box 290, Benoni, Transvaal.

1916. De Fenton, John. Ph.D.. Seymour Memorial Library, P.O.

Box 2561, Johannesburg.
191 > De Klerk, Arie, 486, Schoeman Street, Pretoria.

1915. De Kock, Gilles van de Wall, M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary

Research Office, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1914. De Kock, Dr. Servaas Mever. P.O. Box 321. Bloemfontein.

1917. De Korte. William Edmond. M.B., ALR.C.S.. L.R.C.P.,

Llovd's Buildings. Burg Street. Capetown.
1913. Delbridge, William John.' A.R.LB.A., P.O. Box 120,
Capetown.

191 5. Delfos, Cornelis Fredrik. P.O. Box 24, Pretoria.

1904. Delmore. Dr. J. Schlesinger, P.O. Box 1455, Johannes-

burg.

1916. De Ropp, Stephen Edward. Baron, B.Sc, F.G.S.. Univer-

sity College, Johannesburg.

1916. Des Clayes, Raymond, P.O. J^ox 155, Johannesburg.

LIST OF MEMBERS. tX

year of
Election.

915. De Villiers, C. G. S.. ^I.A., 681, Pretorius Street. Arcadia.
Pretoria.

916. De Villiers, Rt. Ffon. Charles Percy, Baron. Riistenburg,
Stellenbosch.

915. De Villiers, Louis Celliers, Ph.D., ]\I.E.. Lecturer in
Geology and Mineralogy, Transvaal University Col-
lege, Pretoria.

915. tDick, Colonel James. .St. Thomas Road, Durban.

916. Diethelm, Carl Robert, P.O. Box 3228, Johannesburg.

917. Dijkman, Cornelis Derksen, ]\LxA., Grey University Col-

lege, Bloemfontein.

916. Dinwoodie, James Herbert, F.C.S., 53, Cavendish Road.

Yeoville, Johannesburg.

917. DoBSoN, Lt-Col., Jo.sEPH Henry, D.S.O., ^LSc, M.Eng.,

M.LMech.E., :\LLE.E., A.M.I. C.E.. P.O. Box 699,
Johannesburg.

916. Dodds, Herbert Henry, M.Sc., F.C.S., c o Messrs. Kynoch,

Ltd.. Umbogintwini, Durban.
909. Dodt, J. J., National Museum, Bloemfontein.

917. Doering," F. Emanuel, M.D., D.D.S., P.O. Box 2165,

Johannesburg.
915. Doidge, Ethel Mary. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. (Vice-Pres. C),

P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.
911. DoRNAN, Rev. S.-xMUEL S.. ]^LA., F.G.S., (Vice-Pres. E),

P.O. Box 106. Bulawayo.
908. Drege, Isaac Louis. P.O. Box 148, Port Elizabeth, C.P.
917. Drennan, Charles Maxwell, M.A., Professor of English,
South African School of Mines and Technology. r.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

914. Dreyer, P., Resident Magistrate's ( )fficc, Cai)cto\vn.

915. Dreyer, Thomas F.. B.A.. Ph.D., Grey University College,

Bloemfontein.
917. Dreyfus, Paul, P.O. Box 5836, Johannesburg.
906. tt)ruce, P. M., M.A.. The College, Potchefstroom. Trans-
vaal. ,
902. *Drury, Edward Guy Dru, M.D., B.S., D.P.H.. Grahams-
town, C.P.
917. Dryden, Thomas Alexander Wemyss, 3ilines Department,

Krugersdorp. Transvaal.
915. Du Boulay, Alice Mary Houssemayne, Transvaal Educa-
tion Department, Pretoria.
917. Du Pasquier, Arthur Edmund, M.I.M.E., AI.I.E.E., P.O.

Box 3633, Johannesburg.
917. Du Plessis, Rev. Prof. Johannes, B.A., B.D., Theological

Seminarv, Stellenbosch.
917. Du Toit, Alexander Logic, B.A.. D.Sc, E.G.S.. P.O. Box
61, Capetown.

;t LIST or MlCMI'.liKS.

]'ear of
Ejection.

1913. Uu Toit, A. E.,M. A. .Professor of Mathematics, Transvaal

University College, Pretoria.

lyi/. Du Toit, Andries Francois, P.O. Box 463, Capetown.

1917. Dn Toit. Hendrik Lodewijk, Michville. z'ia Honev Nest
Kloof, C.P.

lyi/. Du Toit, Pieter Jacobus, B.A., Hilton College, Hilton Road,
Natal.

191^. Du Toit. Pieter Johannes, Under-. 'Secretary for Agricul-
ture, Union iJuiklings, Pretoria.

1906. Duerden, James E., M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of
Zoology, Rhodes University College, Grahamstown,
C.P.

1915. Dumat. lienry Aylmer, M.D.. F.R.C.P.E., 7, Devonshire

Place. Durban. Natal.

1910. Duncan, A., P.O. Box 1214, Johannesburg.

1904. Duncan, Patrick, C.M.G.. ^I.L.A., Sauer's Buildings,

Johannesburg.
1909. Dunkerton, Edward B., c/o Messrs. Lennon, Ltd., West
Street, P.O. Box 266, Durban, Natal.

1917. Duthie, Augusta \'era, M.A., University of Stellenbosch.

191 1. fDuthie, George, M.A., F.R.S.E. ( Pres. D., 1911 ), Conces-

sion Siding, Private Bag. Salisbiu-y, Rhodesia.

1912. Dwyer, E. W., B.A., Forest Department, Kingwilliams-

town.

1916. Eadie, Duncan Maclntyrc. 669, Curric Street. Dur])an,

Natal.

1917. East London Public Library, East London.

1904. Eaton, William Arthur, 74. St. George's .Street, Capetown.

1909. Edwards, Charles J., c/o Messrs. Heynes Mathew & Co.,

P.O. Box 242, Capetown.

1914. Elsdon-Dew, ^\'illiam. M.LF.E., P.O. Box 4563. Johan-

nesburg.

1910. fEngelenburg. Dr. F. \'.. Editor, Dc Volkssfcui, Pretoria.

1918. Epton, W. Martin, P.O. Box 228S, Johannesburg.

1910. Erskine, J. K., F.C.S., P.O.. Willowdene, near Johannes-
burg.

1918. Evans, Rev. Gregory, The Priory, Rosettenville. Johan-

nesburg.

1905. fEvANs, Iltyd Buller Polk. M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., (Pres.

C, 1916), Chief of the Division of Plant Pathology,
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.

1905. Evans, Maurice S:METnuRST. C.M.G., F.Z.S. ( Pres. D.,
1916), Hillcrest, Berea Ridge, Durban, Natal.

1905. fEvans, Samuel. 153. Nuggett, Street, Johannesburg.

1916. Evans, S., Modder B Gold Mining Co.. Benoni, Transvaal.

1918. Evans, Rev. William Frederick. 14, Irwell Street, Obser-
vatory Road. Capetown.

LIST OF Mli.MniiKS. At

Year of

Election.

1914. Eveleigh, Rev. William, Seymour, C.P.

1904. Ewing, Sydney Edward Thacker, M.I.E.E., P.O. Box

2269, Johannesburg.

1906. Eyles, Frederick, F.L.S.. M.E.C. ( Pres. C. 1911). c/o

Department of Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

191 5. Fairbridge, William Ernest, P.O. Box 56, Capetown.

1916. Falcon, \\llliam, M.A., Hilton College, Hilton Road, Natal.

1917. Fantham. Harold Benjamin, ^l.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S.,

F.Z.S. (Vice-Pres. D)., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy, South African School of
Alines and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1905. Farrar. Edward, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

.914. Farrow, Frederick Denny, M.Sc, Rhodes University Col-
lege, Grahamstown, C.P.

1916. Faure, jacobus Christian. B.S., ALA., P.O. Box 502,
Bloemfontein.

1905. Feetham, Richard, Sauer's Buildings, c/o Loveday and
Market Streets, Johannesburg.

191^. Ferreira, Frederick Herbert, Resident Alagistrate's Office,
Herschel, C.P.

1903. Ffennell, R. W., c/o Central Alining and Investment Cor-
poration, Ltd., I, London Wall Buildings, London,
E.C., England.

1915. Findlay, George Schreiner, 151, Esselen Street, Pretoria.

1916. Finlay, Professor James, South African School of Alines

and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
191^. FitzHenrv, Rei'. ]., Bedford, C.P.
1912. FitzSimcns. F. W., F.Z.S. , F.R.M.S. (Pres. C. 1912),

Director. Port Elizabeth Aluseum, Port Elizabeth,

C.P.

191 8. FitzSimons. Mrs., Port Elizabeth Public Aluseum, Port

■ Elizabeth, C.P.

1902. *Flack, Rez'. CiDicvi Francis W^alter, ALA., The Rectory,
Uitenhage, C.P.

1902. Flanagan, Henrv George, F.L.S., Prospect Farm, Komgha.
C.P.

1916. Fletcher, Richard Evelyn, King Edward VH School,
Johannesburg.

1902. *tFLiNT. Rez'. WiLLiAvr. D.D. (General Secretary,
Pres. D., 1910). Wolmunster Park, Rosebank. Cape-
town.

1902. '^tFlowers, Frank, C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., P.O. Box
1,878, Johannesburg.

1918. Foote, H. J.. ALB., Ch.B., L.D.S.. 38, Estcourt Buildings.
Johannesiburg.

1907. Foote, J. A., F.G.S., F.E.LS. (General Secretary 1917-

1918, Pres. D, 191 3), Principal, Commercial High
School, Plein Street. Johannesburg.

JVll LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
.Election.

1914. Ford, Thurston James, Secretary, De Beers Benefit
Society, Kimberley, C.P.

1917. Forest Department, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1914. Forsyth, Thomas M.. M.A., D.Phil. ( Pres. F. ). Pro-
fessor of Philosophy, Grey University College, Bloem-
fontein.

1914. Forsyth,Mr,y. T. M., Eagle's Nest, P.O. Box 2^'S, Bloem-
fontein.

1916. Fouche, Carl Hercules. M.A., P.O. Box T176. Johannes-
burg.

1905. fFrames, P. Ross, P.O. Box 148, Johannesburg.

1906. fFrankenstein. Miss Adelia, B.A., 9, Knight Street, Kim-

berley, C.P.
1916. Fraser. John, J. P., P.O. Box 149, I'ietermaritzburg.
1916. Freeland, Hubert, P.O. Box 2863, Johannesburg.
1902. Fremantle, Henry Eardley Steplien, M.A., F.S.S., Upper

Avenue, Stellenbosch, C.P.
1916. Frerichs. J. A., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1913. Frew. John. P.O. Box i, Johannesburg.

1916. Frood,' George Edward Bell, M.A., M.LM.M., Alines De-

partment, Bloem fontein.

1914. Frood, Dr. T. M., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1902. *Fuhr, Harry A., A.M.LC.E., Public Works Depai'tment,

Bloemfontein.

1918. Fulton, James Renwick. South African Railways Ofifices,

Johannesburg.

1907. Gairdner. Dr. J. Francis R., 754, Church Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1903. tGal])in, Ernest Edward. F.L.S., Mosdene, Naboomspruit,

Transvaal.
1918. Gardner, Elinor Wright, Professor of Geology, University
of Stellenbosch, C.P.

191 5. Garlick, Miss Winifred Marguerite, Thornibrae, Green

Point, Capetown.

1902. *tGasson, A\'illiam, F.C.S., Dutoitsj^an Road, Kimberley,
C.P.

191 5. Gatherer, John Frederick William, P.O. Box 433, Bloem-
fontein.

1904. Gellatly, John T. B., M.LC.E., P.O. Box 37, Bethulie,

O.F.S.
1918. George, Ernest, B.A.. F.C.S., P.O. Box 1176. Johannes-
burg.

1917. tGericke. Oney Mortimer. M.B., ChB., L.R.C.P.. L.R.C.S.,

OfBcers' Mess, Cantonments. Potchefstroom, Trans-
^•aal.
T912. Gibson, Harry, J.P., F.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1643, ■'^.S- St.
George's Street, Capetown.

LIST OF MEMBERS. Xlll

Year of
Election.

1916. Gibson, James Young, 3<So, Longmarket Street, Pieter-

maritzbur-g.

1917. (iie, Joban Coenraad, Dunkeld, Weltevreden Avenue,

Glebe Road. Rondeboscb, Capetown.

1902. *Gilcbrist, John Dow Fisher, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.,

C.M.Z.S. (General Secretary, 1903-1908), Pro-
fessor of Zoology, University of Ca])etown.
1917. Gilchrist, Thomas B., M.D., CM., J. P., P.O. Box 161,
Fordsburg, Transvaal.

1903. Gilchrist, W., M.S.A., Mariendahl, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.

1916. Gill, Harold Warren, B.Sc, F.TC., Chief Resident

Chemist, Magadi Soda Co., Lake Magadi, British blast
Africa.

1917. (iimkewitz. Fred., P.O. Box 28. Brakpan, Transvaal.
1910. Ginsberg, Franz, P.O. Box 3, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.
T916. Glyn, Charles, M.E., P.O. 13ox 1 10, Roodepoort, Trans-

\aal.

n;i2. (ioddard, Ernest James, B.A., D.Sc, Professor of Zoology,
University of Stellenbosch, C.P.

1913. Goddard, ilfrj. E. J., Stellenbosch, C.P.

1902. fGodfrev, Rcz'. Robert, M.A., Somerville Mission, Tsolo,
C.P.'

1917. Goft'e, Edward, P.O. Box 1899, Johanesburg.

1916. Goldstein, Benjamin, E.D.S., Walter Mansions, Johannes-
burg.

1916. Goodall. Frederick, P.O. Box 909, Durban.

1917. (jordon, Webster Boyle, M.I.C.E., F.R.G.S.. Britstown,

C.P.

1904. Gorges, Edmond Ploward Lacam, M.V.O.. Administrator,

South-West African Protectorate, Windhuk.
191 5. Gould, Robert Howe, P.O. Box 4941, Johannesburg.

1913. Graca, Captain Alberto C. de Faria. Sub-Chefe de Estado

Major, Ouartel Geral, P.O. Box 485, T^ourenqo
Marques.

191 5. Graham, George Smith, Avondale, P.O. Box 40, Queens-

town, C.P.
1908. Grant, Charles C, M.A., Education Department, Bloem-
fontein.

1914. Grant, William Frank, B.Sc, Normal College, Bloemfon-

tein.
1907. Gray, Charles Joseph, (Jttice of inspector of Alines, P.O. .

Box 405. Krugersdorp, Transvaal.
1907. Gray. James, F.I.C, P.O. Box 5254, Johannesburg.
1917. Greathead, Percy, P.O. Box 4303. Johannesburg.

1915. Green, Henry Hamilton. D.Sc, F.C.S. ( Vice-Pres. B.),

Veterinary Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.

1916. Greenacre, Walter, " Waveney," Musgrave Road, Durban.

1916. Griffin, Joseph D., P.O. Box 2155, Johannesburg.
D

XW LIST OF. MEMIJKKS ,

Year of . --^'i

Election. ' ■

1906. Grimmer, Irvine Rowell, Assistant General Manager, De

Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Kimberley, C.P.

1916. Grindley-Ferris, Vyvyan, Consolidated Gold Fields of

South Africa, Ltd., Johannesburg.

1917. Grobbelaar. Coert Smit, M.A., Heemstede, Riebeek Street,

Stellenbosch.

1912. Gubbins. John Gaspard, B.A.. Ottoshoop, Transvaal.

191 3. Gundry, Philip G., B.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of

Physics, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1915. Gunn, David, P.O. Box 1013. Pretoria.

1905. fGutsche, Phillipp, M.D., Villa Torrita, Kingwilliamstown,
C.P.

1903. Gyde, Charles J., A.M.LC.E., Public A\'orks Department,

Union Buildings. Pretoria.

1904. Haagner, Alwyn K., F.Z.S., Zoological Gardens, P.O. Box

754, Pretoria.

1916. Haig, W., c/o Messrs. Fraser & Chalmers, Ltd., Corner

House, Johannesburg.

1907. Hall, Carl. A.^I.LC.E., F.G.S., 28, Club Arcade, Durban,

Natal.
1910. Halm, Jacob K. E., Ph.D.. F.R.S.E., Royal Observatory,

C.P. , : ,'

ICJ17. Llamlin. Ernest John. B.Sc. P.O. Box 17, Stellenbosch; ^

• C.P.
1907. Hammar, August. 441. Burger Street. Pietermaritzburg,
Natal.

1902. ^Hancock, H., A.M.LC.E., P.O. Box 192, Klerksdorp,

Transvaal.

1903. tHancock. Strangman, M.Am.LM.E.. Kennel Holt, Crah-

brook, Kent. England.
1916. Hardenberg. Christiaan Bernhardus. M.A., New Hanover
Rail. Natal.

1904. Harries, W. M., P.O. Pox 2189, Johannesburg.

1905. Harris, Lionel. M.E.. B.Sc, 113, Sivewright Avenue,

Doornfontein, P.O. Box 131 1, Johannesburg.

191 5. Harrison. Charles William Francis, F.R.G.S.. F.R.S.S.,

Nel's Rust, Natal.

1916. Hastings. Isabel, ^^'ykeham School. Pietermaritzburg.
1905. Hatchard. John George. F.R.A.S.. P.O. Box 499. Bloem-

fontein.

1917. Hawkins, John Charles, A.M.LC.E., A.M.LMech.E., P.O.

Box 54, Yereeniging, Transvaal.

1916. Hawthorne. Sydney Charles James, P.O. Box 1161, Johan-
nesburg.

1916. Hay. William, J. P.. P.O. Box 521,- Capetown.

LlSr OF MEMBERS. -W

)'ear of
Election.

1916. Heather, Henry James Shedlock, B.A., M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E.,

F.Am.I.E.E., Professor of Electrotechnics, South

African School of Mines and Technology, P.O. Bo-\

1 1 76, Johannesburg.

1916. Healey, John Edward, P.O. Box 2, Maraisburg, Transvaal.

1914. Henderson. Miss Janetta, c/o Dr. J. B. H. Ruthven. P.O.

Box 6253. Johannesburg.
1902. *Henkel, John Spurgeon, Conservator of Forests.
Pietermaritzburg.

1904. fHerdman. G. W., M.A., M.LC.E., Assistant Director of

Irrigation, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

191 1. Hewetson. W. M., M.B.. D.P.H., J.P., Sinoia, Southern

Rhodesia.
1909. Hewitt, John, B.A.. Director of the Albany Museum,
Grahamstown, Cape.

191 5. Hewitt, Strafford Smith, P.O. Box 192. Bloemfontein.

1905. Hermann. Alexander, M.Ph., M.Ch., M.A., P.O. Box 3427,

Johannesburg.
1909. Heymans, Dr. G. M. A., 702, Church Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.
1918. Hill, Rev. Walter Francis, M.A., The Priory, Rosetten-
ville, Johannesburg.

1 91 7. Hilhorst, Henri, P.O. Box 484, Pretoria.

1916. Hodges, Ruth Mary, B.Sc, Wykeham School, Pieter-

maritzburg.

1917. Hofmeyr. Jan Hendrik, M.A.. Professor of Classics,

South African School of Mines and Technology', P.O.
■Biox 1 1 76, Johannesburg.

1914. Holdsworth. |. W., c/o Irrigation Department, Uitenhage.

c.p. ■ ,

1905. Holm, Alexander, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
1916. Flolmes, George G., A.R.S.M., P.O. Box 1096, Johannes-
burg.

191 5. Honey, Thomas, Superintendent, Municipal Gardens, P.O.

Box 403, Lourengo Marques.

1902. fHonnold, W. L., Hyde Park Hotel, 66, Knightsbridge.
London, S.\A'., England.

1902. *Horne, William James. A.M.I.C.E.. A. M.I.E.E., Educa-
tion Department. P.O. Box 432, Pretoria.

1902.' *Hough, Sydney Samuel, ]\I.A., F.R.S., Astronomer
Royal, Royal Observatory, near Capetown.

1916. Hughes, Archibald Charles, Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1917. Hull. John William, P.O. Box 1178. Capetown.

1905. THum))hrey. William Alvara. B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S.. Vry-
heid, NataJ.

191 2. Hunt, Donald Rolfe, Sub-Native Commissioner, Secocoeni-

land, via Lvdenburg, Transvaal.

XVI LIST OF MEM15EKS.

Year of
Election.

1913. Hiitcheon, James, M.A., F.R.S.G.S.. P.O. Box 1176,

Johannesburg.
1916. Hiitton, C.E., P.O. Box 164. Germiston. Transvaal.

1916. Hutton, Jessie Margaret, St. George's Orphanage, Har-

rington Street, Capetown.

1917. Hynd, John, P.O. Box 44, Bulawayo.

1916. Imroth, G., Johannesburg ConsoHdated Investment Build-
ings, Johannesburg.

1918. Industries Section. Department of Mines and Industries,

Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1913. Ingham, William, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. (Vice President,

Vice Pres. A), Chief Engineer's Office, Rand Water
Board, P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.
1907. Innes, Hon. Sir James Rose-, K.C.M.G., B.A., LL.B.,
Chief Justice of the Union of South Africa, Capetown.
7902. *INNES, ROBERT THORBURN AYTON, ERAS.,
F.R.S.E. (GENiiRAL Si<:i"ri:tary, 1909-1912; Prksi-
DENT, 1915 ), Union Observatory, Johannesburg.
K)o8. Institute of Government Land Surveyors, Cape of Good
Hope Savings Bank Buildings, Capetown.

1916. Jackson, Hon. Justice Cecil Gower, 185, Prince Alfred

Street, Pietermaritzburg.
1915. Jackson, Harry Percival, M.Sc, Jeppe High .School,
Johannesburg.

1915. Jackson, Percy, 2'^, Floss Road, Kensington. Johannes-

burg.

1914. Jacot, Edouard, B.A., Lecturer in Physics, University of

Capetown.
1904. Jagger, J. W., F.S.S., M.L.A., P.O. Box 258, Capetown.

191 5. Janse, Antonius Johannes Theodorus, F.E.S., Lecturer in

Biology, Normal College, Pretoria, ist Street,
Gezina, Pretoria.

191 7. Jardine, Alfred Edward, M.E., P.O. Box 107, East Rand,

Transvaal.

1911. Jarvis, E. M., F.R.C.V.S., Jelf Estate, P.O. Box 14,

Umtali, Rhodesia.
1910. Jeffery, John, c/o Standard Bank of South Africa, Ltd.,
10, Clements Lane, London, E.C. 4, England.

1916. Jenner, Alice, Girls" High School, Oudtshoorn. C.P.
1903. Jennings, Hennen, 2221, Massachusetts Avenue, Wash-
ington, U.S.A.

19 1 3. Jensen, Axel Emil, 24, Maddison Street, Jeppestown,
Johannesburg.

1916. Jensen, Ragnvald, C.E., P.O. Box 1361, Johannesburg.
1916. tjoel, Solomon Barnato, P.O. Box 433, Johanneslnirg.

1912. Johnson, Miss Alta, Ph.B., New Street, Wellington, C.P.

LIST OF MEM]J1£KS. XVtt

Year of
Election.

1912. Johnson, George Lindsay, M.A., M.D., 5 and 6, Castle

Mansions, Eloff Street, Johannesburg.
1909. Johnson, W., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S., 3, Link Road, Bloem-
fontein.

1914. Johnson, ^^^ S., M.A., Professor of English, Grey Univer-

sity College, Bloemfontein.

191 5. Jolly. William Adam. M.B., Ch.B., D.Sc, Professor of

Physiology, LTniversity of Capetown,
lyij. Jones. Daniel Johnes. Government School, Roodepoort,
Transvaal.

1916. Jones. J. E., P.O. Box 2354, Johannesburg.

1917. tjones, Levi David. B.Sc, 57, Long Street, Germiston,

Transvaal.

191 1. Joubert, M. J.. B.Sc.Agr., Department of Agriculture,

Bloemfontein.

1905. tJunod, i^^t'. Henri A., P.O. Box 21. Louren^o Marques.

1903. tJuRiTZ, Charles Frederick, M.A., D.Sc. F.LC. (Pre-
sident, Pres. B, 1909. General Secretary, 1910-
1917), Agricultural Chemical Research Laboratory,
Department of Agriculture, Capetown.

1907. Kanthack, Francis Edgar, C.M.G., M.I.C.E., Al.LALE.,
(Pres. A, 1915), Director of Irrigation, Union Build-
ings, Pretoria.

1912. Kehoe, D., M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1903. Kent, Professor Thomas Parkes. ALA., University of
Capetown.

1915. Kenwa}% Harold Cecil, Public \\'orks Department, Pre-
toria.

1905. King, Austin, Director of Mines, Macequege, Portuguese
East Africa.

i()i5. King, Edith Louise Mary, Eunice High School, Bloemfon-
tein.

191 5. King, Francis Edward, P.O. 802, Pretoria.

1916. King, James, Lynedoch, Nottingham Road, Natal.

1914. KiNGON, Rev. John Robert Lewis, M.A., F.R.S.E.,

F.L.S.. (Vice Pres. E.), St. Andrew's Manse, 7, Vic-
toria Park Drive, South End. Port Elizabeth.

191 3. Kirkland. John Wilkinson, M.Am.LE.E.. P.O. Box

1905. Johannesburg.
1907. Kirkman. John. J. P.. M.P.C.. 331, Musgrave Road, Dur-
ban.
1916. Kleudgen, Caesar, P.O. Box 1164, Johannesburg.

191 5. Klooster. W^illem. 576, Church Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.
1902. *tKnapp, Arthur D., Chikondi Estate, Neno Post Office,

British Central Africa.
1902. Kolbe, Rev. Frederick Charles, B.A.. D.D., St. Mary's
Presbytery, Capetown.

XVin I JST OF MF.MP.ERS.

Year of
Election.

1903. Kotze, Sir Robert W. N., Kt., B.A., P.O. Box 1132. New

Law Courts, Johannesburg.
1918. Krause, Frederick Edward Trangott, B.A., LL.D.. K.C,,

P.O. Box 2345, Johannesburg.

1916. Krause, Herbert Louis, A.S.M., P.O. Box 193. Germiston,

Transvaal.

1917. Krige, Jacob Daniel Alphonse, Ph.D., Professor of Dtitch,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1917. Laidler, Percy Ward, L.D.S., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.. F.S.A.,

Seaford, Alain Road, Sea Point. Capetown.
1916. Lamont, William John, Grootfontein School of Agricul-
ture, Middelburg, C.P.

1913. Landau, Nathan, Survey Oflice, Modder Deep Level, P.O.

Box 326, Benoni, Transvaal.

1914. Lange, Hon. Justice Sir Johannes H., Kt., LL.B.. Judge's

Chambers, Kimberley, C.P.
1916. Lanyon, John E., P.O. Box 25, Benoni, Transvaal.

1903. Legat, C. E. (Pres. C), Chief Conservator of Forests,

Pretoria.

1904. Leech, Dr. John Richard, Union Club, P.O. Box 11 12,

Johannesburg.

1904. fLeeds, R. Q., P.O. Box 928, Johannesburg.
1903. Legat, C.E.. Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1907. Lehfeldt, Robert A., B.A., D.Sc. (Vice Pres. F, General

Treasurer, 1909-1910), Professor of Physics. South
African School of Mines and Technology, P.O. Box
1 176, Johannesburg.

1908. Leigiiton, James, F.R.H.S., P.O. Box 86, KingwilHams-

town, C.P.

1902. *Lenz, Otto, P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1918. Le Roy, Rev. Albert E., B.A., B.D., Adams Mission

Station, Natal.
1916. Leslie, Charles Dufif, P.O. Box 1167, Tohannesburg.

1916. fLESLiE Robert, M.A., F.S.S., Jagger Professor of Eco-

nomics, University of Capetown.

1903. Leslie, T. N., C.E., F.G.S., P.O. Box 23, Vereeniging,

Transvaal.
1908. Leviseur, M., Bloemfontein.

1905. fLewis, Mrs. Helen R., P.O. Box 617. Johannesburg.
1903. fLewis, Leon, P.O. Box 617, Johannesburg.

1917. Lindsay, Alan, P.O. Box 74, Pretoria.

1916. Linscott, Arthur Burrow, A.M.LC.E., A.M.LM.E., P.O.
Box 4013, Johannesburg.

1918. Lister. Frederick Spencer, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., " Cran-

brook," Jan Smuts Avenue, Westcliff, Johannesburg.
1916. Loeser, Dr. H. F., Crown Mines, Ltd., Johannesburg.

LIST OF MEMBERS. SIX

Year of '

Election.

1903. Logeman, William H., M.A., Professor of Physics, Grey
University College, Bloemfontein.

1916. LoRAM, Charles Templeman, AI.A., LL.B., Ph.D.,

Education Department, Maritzhurg. Natal.

1903. Lorentz, Henri, P.O., Box 55, Johannesburg.

1902. Pounsbury, Charles Pugsley, B.Sc, F.E.S., (Pres. C,
1915), Chief of the Division of luitomology, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, P.O. Box 513, Pretoria.

1902. *Lunt, Joseph, D.Sc, F.LC, Royal Observatory, C.P.

1914. Lyle, James, M.A., Grey College School, Bloemfontein.

1902. *Lynch, Major F. S., J. P., Kimberley Waterworks Co.,
' Ltd., P.O. Box 630, Kimberley, C.P.

1917. Lyons, Joseph, A.R.C.S.. Grootfontein School of Agricul-

ture, Middelburg, C.P.

i(,j05. t-NfcArthur, Duncan Campbell, ALR.C.S., L.R.C.P..
Aluizenberg, Capetown.

1 917. MacColl, Re^'. John A., M.A., The Alanse, ]\Iowbray.
Capetown.

1917. AlcCrae. John. Ph.D., F.LC, P.O. Box 1080, Johannes-
burg.

1917. McCracken, John, c/o Messrs. Eraser & Chalmers, Corner

House, Johannesburg.

1916. McDavid, W., Trades School. Smit Street. Johannesburg.

1916. McDonald, David Paterson, M..A., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

1909. Macdonald, G., M.A., Normal Training College, Bloemfon-
tein.

1902. *McEwen, T. S., A.M.LC.E., " The Links," Rondebosch,
C.P.

1908. ]\L\cfayden, William xA.llison, M.A., LL.D. (Vice Pres.

F.), Professor of Philosophy, Transvaal University
College, Pretoria.

1909. McFeggans, Alexander, P.O. Box 26, Umtata, C.P.

1914. McGregor. Rev. Andrew Murray, M.A., B.D., Blomme-
stein. Three Anchor Bay, Capetown.

1918. Maclntyre. Alexander Stewart, Government Lidustrial

School, Maseru, Basutoland.
1916. Maclntyre, Joseph Mansfield Bell, M.A., Twist Street,
Government School, Johannesburg.

1916. McKay, Mr.?. Helen Millar, Malvern Government School.

Johannesburg.

1904. McKenzie, Archibald, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S., Glen Lyon,

Musgrave Road, Durban, Natal.

1917. MacLachlan, James, P.O. Box 1876. Johannesburg.
1917. McLaren, James, M.A., Calderwood, Herschel Walk,

Wynberg, C.P.

.r.r LIST OF MEMUERS. [

Year of
Election.

191 5. fMcLoughlin, Alfred George, Chief Magistrate's Office,

Umtata, C.P.

1916. McLove, I. G., P.O. Box 899, Johannesburg.

1914. Macmillan, William Miller, B.x\., Professor of History,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1913. Macpherson, Henry Wingate, P.O. Box 519, Johannes-

burg.

1908. Macrae, li. J., P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg.

jyio. Alalan, Hon. Frangois Stephanus, B.A., LL.D., M.L.A.,

P.O. Box 450, Pretoria.
1912. tMalherbe, D. F. du Toit, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of

Chemistry, Transvaal University College, Pretoria,
1904. Malherbe, H.L., P.O. Box 208, Pretoria.

1917. Malherbe, Willem Elisa, B.A., B.Sc, Professor of Physics,

University of Stellenbosch.

1917. Malleson. Percv Rodburd, F.R.H.S., Ida's Valley, Stellen-
bosch, C.P.

1902. tMallv^ Charles Williajnf, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S., Divi-
sion of Entomology, Dejjartment of Agriculture,
Capetown.

191 5. Manning, Charles Nicolson, P.O. Box 98, Pietersburg,

Transvaal.

191 5. Marchand, Bernard de Coligny, B.A., D.Sc, Chemical

Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
1904. Marks. Hon. Senator Samuel, Hatherley Buildings, P.O.

Box 379, Pretoria.
1902. * 'MARLOTH, Professor RUDOLF, M.A., Ph.D. ( Pres
B, 1903, President, 1914), P.O. Box 359, Capetown.

1916. Marshall, \A'illiam Benjamin, P.O. Box 159, Pietermaritz-

burg.
1904. tMarshall, W. S., P.O. Box 3055, Johannesburg.
1916. Martyn, ]. F., 13, Kock Street, Johannesburg.
191 1. Maufe, Herbert Brantwood, B.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 366.

Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1902. Melle, G. T- McCarthv, M.B., CM., Robertson, C.P.

1903. Mellor, Edward, T., D.Sc. M.I.M.M.. F.G.S., P.O. Box

1056, Johannesburg.
1902. *Menmuir, R. W.. A.M.I.C.E., National Mutual Build-
ings, Church Square, Capetown.
u;i7. Mercier, David Pvne, 'B.A., Secondarv School, Winburg,
O.F.S.

1914. Mesham, Paul, M.A.. M.Sc, Natal University College,

Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
1902.*! METCALFE, Sir CHARLES, Bart., M.I.C.E. (PRESI-
DENT, 1904; Pres. C, 1903), 21, Pall Mall, London,
S.W., England.

LIST OF MEMBERS. X.Vt

Year of

Election.

1916. Meyer, Edward C. J., B.Sc, P.O. Box 57, East Rand,

Transvaal.

1917. Miller, Thomas Maskew, P.O. Box 396, Capetown.

191 7. Mills, Frederick William, M.I.E.E., Headquarters, South

African Railways, Johannesburg.

191 5. Mitchell David Thomas, M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Research

Office, P.O. Box 405, Department of Agriculture,
Maritzburg, Natal.

1916. Mitchell, Hugh, P.O. Box 98, Langlaagte, Transvaal.

1916. Mitchell,. John, Jeppes Central Government School

Johannesburg.

1918. Mitchell, William John, P.O. Box 1696, Johannesburg.

1915. Alogg. Albert Oliver Dean, B.A., P.O. Box 1294, Pre-

toria.

1917. Moir. James. M.A.. D.Sc, F.I.C.. P.O. Box 1080, Johan-

nesburg.
1912. Moll, Dr. A. M., P.O. Box 4708, Johannesburg.

1918. Montgomery. Robert Eustace, M.R.C.V.S., Director of

Veterinary Research, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1916. Moore, Mary Elizabeth Constance, AA'ykeham School,

Pietermaritzburg.
1903. Abyrice, George T., B.A., K.C., 48, Sauer's Buildings,
Johannesburg.

1916. McRRisox. JoHx Todd. M.A.. B.Sc, F.R.S.E., A.M.I.E.E.

( Pres. A.), Professor of AppHed Mathematics, Vic-
toria College, Stellenbosch.

191 2. Mortimer, Capf., W., M.R.C.S., No. 7. Military Hospital,

Wynberg, C.P.
iQiT). ?\li)rton, David Thomas. West Rand Consolidated Mines.
Transvaal.

1917. Moss. Charles Edw^\kd. jM.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

(\'ice Pres. C), Professor of Botany, South African
.School of Mines and Technology. Johannesburg.
191 5. Mudd, Norman, M.A., Grey University College, Bloeni-

fontein.
1902. *MUIR, Sir THOMAS, Kt., C.M.G., M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (President, 1910), Elmcote, San-
down Road, Rondebosch, C.P.

191 5. Munro, Hugh Kenneth, Division of Entomology, P.O. Box

513, Pretoria.

191 3. Munro, James, P.O. Box 19, Lourengo Marques.

1916. Munro, John, P.O. Box 433, Johannesburg.

1917. Murray, Charles, M.A., Department of Education, Cape-

town.
1904. Murray, George Alfred Everett, M.D., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

P.O. Box 105, Johannesburg.
191 1, ^vlusselwhite. Rcz'. E. W. H.. B.A., Zonnebloem College,.

Capetown.

XX II LIST OF MEMB-ERS.

Year of
Election.

1916. Nance, Francis James, Ofiice of Engineer-in-Chief,
South African Railways, Johannesburg.

1916. Narbeth, Benjamin Mason, B.Sc, F.C.S., Principal, Tech-

nical College, Durban.
1910. Nauta, Prof. Renicus Dowe, University of Capetown.

1917. Nay, Arthur Mac, M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 951, Durban.

1916. Neame, Hugh Austin, P.O. Box 3921, Johannesburg.

1917. Neethling. Prof. Johannes Henoch, M.Sc, University of

Stellenbosch, C.P.
1905. Neilson, A. M., Manager, Safco Fertilizers Co., Umbilo,
Natal.

1916. Neitz, Rev. Johannes, P.O. Box 19, Potgietersrust, Trans-

vaal.

191 5. New York Public Library, 42nd Street and Fifth Avenue,

New York City, U.S.A.

1917. Newbery, H., P.O. Box 16, Knights, Transvaal.

1914. Newhali, Percy Melrose, B.Sc, P.O. Box 485, Johannes-

burg.

1916. Newhouse, Hans, P.O. Box 11 56, Johannesburg.

1916. Newman, Arthur Dudley, P.O. Box 231, Johannesburg.

1918. Newton, Francis James. ]\'I.A., The Treasury, Salisbury,

Rhodesia.

1917. Nicholson. Alfred, Schoongezicht, Stellenbosch, C.P.
1902. *Nicholson, Colonel George Taylor, ?vI.LC.E., Resident

Engineer, Docks, Capetown.
19 1 3. Nicol, John, IM.R.C.V.S., Government Veterinary Sur-
geon. P.O. Box 99, Kingwilliamstown.
191 7. Nicolson, John Gregory, F.G.S., P.O. Box i8r. Krugers-
dorp, Transvaal.

1916. Niven, James Just, M.I.C.E., 3.1. R.San. I., P.O. Box 205,

Pietermaritzburg.

1904. Nixon, Edward John, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., P.O. Box 57,

Heidelberg, Transvaal.
1902. Nobbs, Eric Arthur, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.R.H.S., Director of
Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1915. Norton, Rev. William Alfred. B.A., B.Litt. (Pres. E),

Glenwood. Avenue Road. Rondebosch. Capetown.

1905. tOats, Francis, F.G.S., Director, De Beers Consolidated

Mines, Ltd., Kimberley, Cape Province.
1908. O'Connor, James, Railway Hotel and Stores, Ashton, Cape.

1917. Odgers, W., Rand Club, Johannesbiu'g.

1907. Ogg, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. (Pres. A, 1914),
Professor of Physics, South African School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1918. Ordbrown, Albert Edward, P.O. Box 2895. Johannesburg.
191 5. Orenstein, Alexander Jeremiah, ALD., ]\LR.C.S.,

L.R.C.P., P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.

List "'ok Members. .va-hz

Year of
Election.

1914. Orford, Rev. Canon Horace William. M.A., Fick-^burg■,
Orange Free State.

1906. Orpen, Joseph Millerd, Mon Asile, 43, St. Mark's Road,
East London.

1902. *ORR, JOHN, B.Sc. Ai.l.C.E.. Al.l.Mech.E. (Presidi-xt,
1917, Pres. -\, 1916), rVofessor of Adechanical Engin-
eering, Sonth African School of Mines and Tech-
nology, P.O. Box 1 176, johanneslinrg.

1913. Orr, ^Irs. ].. c/o Professor Orr, P.O. Box 1176, Johannes-
bvn-g.

1918. Ortlepp, Reinhold Johannes, ]\I.A.. P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

1916. Otto, Cyril Saxon Douglas, Otto's Bluff, Natal.

1917. Ottley. Thomas George. P.O. Box 2671. Johannesburg.

1905. fPaisley. William, M.B., B.Ch., P.O. Box 127, Oueens-

toNvn, Cape.
1908. Palmer, W^ Jarvis, B.Sc. A., P.O. Box -1557, Johannesburg.
1905. fPapenfus, H. B., K.C., P.O. Box 5155, Johannesburg.

1914. Parrv, John, c/o De Beers ]\rines, Ltd.. 17. Hull Street,

Kimberley.

1912. Paterson, Mrs. T. V., Redhouse, near Port Elizabeth.
1916. Paterson, Wrlliam, 103, Elofif Street, Johannesburg.
1002. fPattrick, C. Beaufoy, A.M.I.C.E., King Edward Man-
sions, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1903. yPayne, Albert E., A.R.S.M., P.O.. Box 15, Langlaagte,

Transvaal.
1916. Pearce. William, Lower Illovo. Natal. *

1916. Pellissier, Rev. George Murray, B.A.. B.D., 7, Langham

Street, Pietermaritzburg.

1913. Pepulim, Dr. D.. P.O. Box 704, LoureuQo Marques.
1913. Perez, Manoel A. Jr., Chief Assistant, Observatorio Cam-
pos Rodriguez. P.O. Box 256. Lourenqo Marques.

1907. Peringuey, Louis Albert, D.Sc., F.E.S., F.Z.S., Director
South African Museum, Capetown.

1910. fPerold, Abraham Izak, B.A., Ph.D.. Professor of Viti-
culture and Oenology, University of Stellenbosch.

1912. Perrins, George Richard, " Grange," 106, Cape Road,
Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1905. Petersen Carl Olief, P.O. Box 4938, Johannesburg.

1917. Petersen, Henry Alfred, P.O. Box 3696, Johannesburg.
1917. Petrie, .Vlexander, M.A.. Professor of Classics. Natal

University College, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

191 5. Pettey, Franklin William, B.A., Entomologist, Govern-

ment School of Agriculture. Flsenburg. Mulder's
Vlei, C.P.

XXIV LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1904. Pettnian, Rez-. Charles, Wesleyan Parsonage, Chapel

Street, Kimberley, C.P.
iyi8. Philip, David R. C, P.O. Box 143. Johannesburg.

191 5. Phillips, Edwin Percy, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., P.O. Box 1294,

Pretoria.

1916. Phillips, Martin, M.A., P.O. Gezina, Pretoria.

19 1 2. Pickstone, Plarry Ernest Victor, Lekkerwyn, Greet

Drakenstein, C.P.

1917. Piiper, /);-. Cornelis,, P.O. Box 21, Lydenljurg, Transvaal.
1903. Pirn, Howard, B.A., E.C.A. (General Treasurer, 1906-

1907), P.O. Box 1 33 1, Johannesburg.
191 5. Plowman. George Thomas, C.M.G., I'rovincial Secretary,
Pietermaritzbnrg.

191 5. Pollard, Miss Grace E., F.R.H.S., Huguenot College,

Wellington, C.P.

1918. Porter, Annie (Mrs. H. B. Fantham), D.Sc, F.L.S.. P.O.

Box 1038, Johannesburg.
T(ji6. Pott, Ethel K. A., St. John's College, Johannesburg.
1918. Potter, Henry Samuel, :\I.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 5510,

Johannesburg.

191 6. Potts, Alexander. P.O. Box 2863, Johannesburg.

1905. fPotts, George, M.Sc, Ph.D. ( Pres. C. 1914), Professor

of Botany, Grey University College, 91, Park Road,

Bloemfontein.
1916. Powell, Owen Price, P.O. Box 192, Germiston, Transvaal.
1916. Price, Bernard, M.I.E.E.. A.M.I. C.E., A.M.Am.I.E.E.,

P.O. Box 2671, Johannesburg.
1916. Price, Roger, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1913. Provay, Giuseppe, Chief Electrical Engineer of Harbour^

and Railwavs, P.O. Box 1479, Lotirengo Marques.
1910. Purcell, William Frederick, M.A., Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., Berg-

vliet, Diep River, C.P.
igir. Purchas, Thomas .Mfred Rufus, P.n. Box 222, Johannes-

l;urg.

1906. Pym, Frank Arthur Oakley, Public Museum, P.O. Box

51, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1902. fQuinan, Kenneth B., Chemist and Engineer, Cape Explo-
sive Works, Somerset West, C.P.

191 5. Ramsbottom, Kathleen Nora, B.A., Eunice High School.

Bloemfontein.

1916. Read, Herbert Alfred, F.R.S.A., P.O. Box 1056, Johan-

nesburg.
1916. Reeve, Herbert C, M.A., High School, Krugersdorp,

Transvaal.
1902. *Reid, Arthur Henry, F.R.I.B.A., F.R.San. I. (Vice-
President), P.O. Box 120, Capetown.

LIST (JF .MEMliERS. A'Xl>

Year of
Election.

1914. Reid, Walter, F.R.I. B.A., P.O. Box 746, Johannesburg.
1917. Reinecke, Theodore Gerald Wellesley, B.A., M.Sc, School

of Agriculture. Flsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
1916. Reunert, Jack, Messrs. Reunert & Lenz, Consolidated
Buildings, Johannesburg.

1902. *REUNERT, THEODORE, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., (PRESI-

DENT, 1905), P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
1905. Reunert. Mrs. Theodore, P.O. Box 92. Johannesburg.
1907. Renter, Rev. Fritz L.. Medigen, P.O. Duivel's Kloof, via

Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

1903. yReyersbach, Louis ]., _:9 and 30. Holborn A'iaduct, Lon-

don, E.G.
1 91 3. Reyneke, Andries Adriaan Louw, B.A., Durbanville, C.P.

191 3. Revneke, Rev. jacobus Cornelius, De Pastorie. Cradock,

C.P.
1916. Reynolds, Sir Frank, Gmhlali, Esperanza, Natal.
1916. Reynolds, H., M.LMech.E., P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
1916. Reynolds-Tait, Joseph St. Guido, P.O. Box 502, Durban.
19 1 6. Rice, Frank Peabody, P.O. Box 930, Johannesburg.
1916. Rich, Stephen Gottheil. M.A., B.Sc, Edendale, Natal.
1909. RiNDL, Max Morris, Ing.D. (Pres. ^B, 1917), Professor

of Chemistry, Grey University College. Bloenifontein.
1903. Ritchie, William, M.A. (Pres. D, 1914), Professor of

Latin, University of Capetown.

1916. Robb, Andrew D., Trades School, Smit Street, Johannes-

burg.

1917. Robb, A. Moir, M.A.. P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.
1902. *ROBERTS, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E. (Pres. A 1908; President, 1913), Lovedale,
C.P

1915. Roberts, Austin, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1914. Roberts, John Lloyd, P.O. Box 529, Salisbury, Rhodesia.
1913. Roberts, Rev. Noel (Pres. E. 1917), The Vicarage,

Orchards. Johannesburg.

1909. Robertson, Colin C, M.F., c/o Forest Department, Pre-
toria.

[906. Robertson, John, P.O. Box 138, Bloemfontein.

191 5. Robinson, Eric Maxwell, ]\LR.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593, Pre-

toria.
1902. fRogers, x\rthur \\'iUiam, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S. ( Pres. B,
1910), P.O. Box 206, Heidelljerg, Transvaal.

1918. Rogers. Feii. Archdeacon Frederick Arundel, P.O. Box

1 131, Johannesburg.
1915. Romyn, Mrs. Elizabeth, Zonnehoek, 157, Troye Street,

Pretoria.
1902. *Rose, James Wilmot Andreas, M.LC.E., Municijjal

Offices, Stellenbosch. C.P.
T905. fRose, Lieut. -Col. John George, D.S.O.,F.C.S..(TOVL'rnment

Chemical Laboratory, Capetown.

A:XUi I-IST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1912. RosEVEARE, W. N., M.A. (Vice-President; Pres. A, 1917),

Professor of Mathematics, Natal University College,
P.O. Box 375, Pietermaritzburg.
19] 7. Ross, Charles Richard, Forest Department. Capetown.

1914. Ross, John, P.O. Box 636, Kimberley.

1917. Ross, John Carl, B.A., M.S., Ph.D.. Scliool of Agricul-

ture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei. C.l\
1902. *Runciman, William, AI.L.A., Simonstown, C.P.

1915. Ruthven, Jane Buchanan Henderson, M.D., L.R.C.P..

L.R.C.S.. F.R.S.A.. P.O. Box 6253, Johannesburg.

1918. Satchel, Oscar John Soley, M.A., Boys' High School.

Kimberley, C.P.

1915. Schlupp. AA'illiani Francis, B.Sc, Lecturer in Zoology and

Entomology, Government School of Agriculture, P.O.

Box 181, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.
1917. Schoch, Edward Rengers, ]\f.I.M.M.. P.O. Rooiberg.

Trans\aal.
1902. ^i^Schonland, Selmar, M.A.. Ph.D., F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S., (Pres.

C, 1908), Professor of Botany, Rhodes University

College. Grahamsto\\ri, CJ\
iQi'y School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

1913. School of Agriculture, Elsenburg^ Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
191^. School' of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Glen,

O.F.S.

191 3. .School of Agriculture and Experimental Station, Groot-

fontcin, Middclburg. C.P.
191 3.. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Potchef-
stroom, Transvaal.

1916. Schreiber, Oscar Albert Egmont. P.O. Box 396, Pieter-

maritzburg.

1914. Schreiner, RL Hon. William Philip. M.A., M.L., South

African Chambers, Capetown.
1916. Schulz, Aurel, M.D., Krantz Kloof, Main Line, Natal.

1902. Schwarz. Ernest H. L.. A.R.C.S., F.G.S. (Pres. B., 1908).

Professor of Geology, Rhodes Uni\ersity College,

P.O. Box 116, Grahamstown, C.P.
1916: Scott. Rev. James. Claridge. Natal.
1914. Searle, Mrs. Amy M.. B.A., Great Brak River, C.P.
19 1 2. Seruya, Salomon, \^ice-Consul for Portugual, P.O. Box

5633, Johannesburg.
1912. Shand, Samuel Tames, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of

Geology. University of Stellenbosch. C.P.

1903. Shanks, Robert. 20, Graf Street, Johannesburg.

I9i'6. Sheridan, Norman. M.D., B.S.. Chudleigh's Buildings,
Johannesburg.

1916. Sherwell, Percy AA'.. City Deep Gold Alining Co., Johannes-
burg.

1916. Shore, John, P.O.. Box, 2997. Johannesburg.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXVIL

Year of
Election.

1902. *Shores. J. W.. C.M.G., M.I.C.E., Rutland. Scottsville,
Pietermaritzburg-, Natal.

1916. Sieclle. (Jtto, P.O. Box 931, Durban, Natal.

1916. Sim. Thomas Pdbertson, 168. Burger Street, Pietermaritz-
burg.

1916. fSimon, Frank-, M.I.M.E., P.O., Minnaar, Transvaal.

191 7. Simons. Lewis. B.Sc. University of Capetown.

1916. Simpson, Archibald James Grant, A.M.LE.E., P.O. Box

239, Capetown.

1917. Skaife, Sydney Harold, B.A.. Government E.Kperimental

Station. Rosebank. Capetown.

1902. *Smartt. Ho7j. Sir Thomas William. K.C.M.G.. L.R.C.S.T,

L.K.O.C.P.I., M.L.A., Glen Ban, Stellenbosch, CP.
1916. Smith, Arthur Herbert, P.O. Box i4i,Durban.

1916. Smith. Hon. Charles G., P.O. Box 43. Durban.

191 5. Smith, Edw^\rd Holmes, B.Sc, School of Agriculture.

P.O. Box 181, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.
1906. Smith. Frank Braybrooke. Secretary for Agriculture,
Union Buildings. Pretoria.

19 1 5. Smith, Frank Gumming, Grootfontein School of Agricul-

ture Middelburg, C.P.

1917. Smith. Sir Frederick WilHam, Kt., P.O. Box 84. Cape-

tOVvTl.

1912. Smith, George William, A.M.LC.E., 11, Constitution Hill,
Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1903. Smith, James, M.A., Normal College, Capetown.

1917. Smith, Johannes Jacobus, B.A., Professor of French and
(German, Universitv of Stellenliosch.

1905. Smuts, Liciit. -General Rt. Hon. Jan C, B.A., LL.D.,

?\Iinister of Defence, P.O. Box 1081, Pretoria.

1914. fSmyth, Right Rev. Bishop WilHam Edmund, M.A., M.B.,

c/o English Church House, 61, Burg Street, Cape-
town.

1916. Smyth, Robert Alilner, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.I.P.H.,

Government Hospital, Durban.
1903. Solly, Mrs. Julia F., Knor Hoek, Sir Lowry's Pass, C.P.
1903. Solomon, Hon. Justice Sir W. H., High Court of Appeal.

Capetowai.
1908. Somerville, Alfred James, M.A., P.O. Box 126, Salisbury,

Rhodesia.
1910. tSoutter, John Lyall, P.O. Box 403, Pretoria.
1916. Sowter, Godfrey Dennis, P.C). Box 1020, Johannesburg.

1906. fSpencer, Dr. Henry Alexander, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Mid-

■ delburg, Transvaal.

1915. jSpensley, James Carter, M.A., Lecturer in Chemistry,

Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
1905. Sperryn. Arthur James, J. P., P.O. Box i, Ermelo, Trans
vaal.

XXviii LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1903. Spilhaiis, William, c/o Messrs. W. Spilhaus & Co., Strand

Street, Capetown.
19 1 3. Stafford, Miss Susan, M.A., Huguenot College, ^^'ellington,

C.P.
1905. Stallard, C. F., K.C., P.O. Box 5156, Johannesburg.

1905. Stanley, George Hardy, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M.,

F.I.C. (Pres. B, 1914), Professor of Metallurgy and
Assaying, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg,

1904. Stead, Arthur, B.Sc, F.C.S., School ^of xAgriculture.

Grootfontein, Middelburg. C.P.

1908. Steedman, Miss E. C, M.A., Gando Farm, Gwelo, South-

ern Rhodesia.

1917. Stegmann, Ebenezer Theodorus. B.A.. D.Sc, Lichfield,
Stellenbosch, C.P.

1917. Stein, Philip, B.A., P.O. 1176, Johannesburg.

1917. f Stephens, Edith Layard, B.A., F.L.S.. University of Cape-
town.

1903. Stevens, J. D., P.O. Box 1782, Johannesburg.

1909. Stewart, G. A., City Engineer, Bloemfontein.

1917. Stokes, Frank Torrens, M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 699,
Johannesburg.

1905. fStoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc, Huguenot College. Wel-

lington, C P.
1917. Storey, Francis W^die, B.Sc. F.C.S., 31, Monument Road,

Bloemfontein.
1902. *Stott, Clement H., F.G.S., M.S.A., P.O. Box 7, Pieter-

maritzburg, Natal.
1916. Strapp, Walter Russell, M.D.. 248. Poop Street, Pieter-

maritzburg.

1904. Struben. A. M. A., A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 317, Pretoria.

1906. Stuart, Tames, 34, T.oop .Street, Pietermaritzburg.

1906. Stucke, W. H., P.O. Box 2271, Johannesburg.

191 5. Swierstra, Cornelis Jacobus, F.E.S., P.O. Box 413. Pre-
toria.

1915. Swynnerton, Charles Francis Massy, F.L.S., F.E.S..
F.R.H.S., Gungunyana, Melsetter, .Southern Rhodesia.

T904. Syfret, S. B., B.A., M.B., B.C., Main Road, Mowbray,
C.P.

T918. Taberer, Henry ^Melville, B.A., P.O. Box 1251, Johannes-
burg.

1905. fTannahi'll, Thomas Findlay, M.D., CM., D.P.H., Queens-
town, C.P.

1918. Tannock, John Porter, M.B., CM., D.P.H.. P.O. Box
5315, Johannesburg.

1918. Tapscott, Sidney, B.Sc, " Tipperary," Riverton Road. C.P.

I.[ST or MEMBERS. XXIX

Year of
Election.

1909. Teasdale, Miss Emma L., Government School, Marais-

burg, Transvaal.

1913. Teixeira. Capf. Augusto D'Almeida, Observatorio Cam-

pos Rodrigues, P.O. Box 256, Lourengo Aiarques.
1906. Tennant, Sydney Dennison, P.O. Box 132, Ermelo, Trans-
vaal.
1904. *THEIL.ER, Sir ARNOLD K.C.M.Ci., D.Sc (PRESI-
DENT, T912), Department of Agriculture, Capetown.
1903. Thomas, Wahvyn, B.C., M.B., B.A., 2, Greenham Villas,
Annandale Street, Capetown.

1914. Thompson, Frederick Handel, B.A., Inspector of Schools,

P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.

1916. Thompson, James, 6. Rissik Street, Johannesburg.
1913. Thomson, Samuel, C.A., P.O. Box 228, Johannesburg.

1902. Thomson. William, AI.A., B.Sc, LL.D.. F.R.S.E.. Regis-

trar, University of South Africa, Pretoria.

1910. Thornton, Russel \\llliam, Principal, Government School

of Agriculture, Grootfontein, Middelburg, C.P.

1903. fTietz, Heinrich C. J., M.A., Ph.D., Btiona Vista, Burham

Road, Observatory Road, C.P.

1917. Tindall, Rory Joseph Laidman, B.A., P.O. Box 4351,

Johannesburg.

1916. Tomes, Rev. Alfred lulmund Godfrey, B.A., 181. Loop

Street, Pietermaritzburg.

1902. *Townsend, Stephen Frank, C.E., Rhodesia Railways, Ltd.,

P.O. Box 215, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1917. Tribolet, Isaac, F.R.H.S., Elsenburg School of Agricul-

ture. Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
1910. Trollip, W. L., Office of the Hon. the Administrator of

the Cape Province, Capetown.
1917. Tromp. Felix Johan, B.A., F.C.S., Transvaal University

College, Pretoria.
1906. Troup, James Macdonald. M.B., Ch.B., L.S.A., 230, Esse-

len Street, Sunnyside, Pretoria.
1916. Trubshaw, Henry Arthur, Twelfth Avenue, Mayfair,
Johannesburg.

1903. Tucker, William Kidger, C.M.G., P.O. Box 9, Johannes-

burg.
1916. Tucker. William Petre, Reunion Estate, Reunion, South

Coast, Natal.
1916. Turner, F. E., P.O. Box 407, Johannesburg.
1906. Tyers, F. G., M.A., The College, P.O. Box 93, Potchef-

stroom, Transvaal.

1916. Udwin, M., Rand Water Board, Johannesburg.

1917. Union Department of Education, Pretoria.

J917. Union Observatory, c o Union Astronomer, lohannesburg.

■t-'^^ LIST OF. MEMBKKS.

Year of
Election.

1915. Van der Bijl, Paul A-ndries, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Natal

Herbarium, Berea, Durban.
191 2. A'an der Lingen. Jan Stephanus, B.A.. Erinville, Milton

Road, Sea I'oint. Capetown.
1917. Van der AJerwe. Charl Daniel, 'B.A., Ph.D.. Professor of
Inorganic Chemistry. University of Stellenbosch, C.P.

1909. \'an der Merwe, C. P., Government Entomologist, Point,

Durban.

1910. Van der Riet, Berthault de St. Jean, ALA., Ph.D.,

(Pres. B, 1912), Proifessor of Chemistry, University
of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1904. Van der Sterr, W. C, P.O. Box 1066, Johannesburg.
1917. Van Niekerk, John, ALB., C.AL, P.O. Box 473. Johan-
nesburg.
1903. Vaughan, J. A., P.O. Box 1132, Johannesburg.
1917. \"iljoen, Hendrik Geldenhuys, B.A., D.Litt., Alarket Streej:,

Stellenbosch.
191 6'. Visser, Cornelis Franc^ois, B.A., Ph.D., 130, Zastron
Street, Bloemfontein.

1916. Visser. \\"ilhelmus Hendrikus, B'.Sc, P.O. Box 231, Johan-

nesburg.

191^. Von Mcngershausen, Frederich Karl, B.Sc, Lecturer in
Alining Engineering, South African School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1903. Von Oppell, Otto Karl Adolf, Department of Lands, Pre-
toria.

1916. Wade, Walter B., P.O. Box 932, Durban.

1912. Wager, Horace Atiielstan, A.R.C.S., Professor of

Botany and Zoology, Transvaal University College,
Pretoria.

19 1 6. Wagner. Percy Albert. Lig.D.. B.Sc. (Pres. B.), P.O.

Box 1277, Pretoria.

191 3. Wahl, R. Owen, B.A., Grootfontein School of Agriculture,

.., Aliddelburg, C.P.

191 2. Walker, Tames. ALR.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1917. Wallace.' George, ALB., Ch.B.. L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.. Dyna-

mite Factory, Alodderfontein, Transvaal.

1902. nValler, Arthur H.. A.ALLC.E., F.R.AIet.S., Town Engi-
neer, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1902. *Walsh, Alp.ert (Gekeral Treasurer, 1910-17), P.O.
Box 39, Capetown.

191 3. \A'alsh. Lionel Henry, Brackley, Kenilworth. Capetown.
1916. ^^'alton, Arthur John. Rose Deep, P.O. Box 6, Germiston,

Transvaal.
i(;i4. Wark, Rev. David, ALA... D.D., The Alanse. Woodley
Street, Kimberlev, C.P.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXXI

Year of
Election.

1907. AVarr!-:n, Ernest, D.Sc, Professor of Zoology, Natal Uni-
versity College, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

1916. Waterhouse, Osborn, M.A., Professor of English and

Philosophy, Natal University College, Pietermaritz-
burg.
iyo6. Watermeyer, Frederick Stephanus, P.O. Box 973, Pretoria.

1917. W'atkin, Morgan, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of French,

South African School of Mines and Technology,
P.O. Box 11/6, Johannesburg.

1902. *\\'atkins, Arnold Hirst, M.D., M.R.C.S., M.L.A., (Pres.

D, 1906), Ingle Nook, Kimberley. C.P.
1906. Watkins-Pitchford, Wilfred, M.D., F.R.C.S.. D.P.H..
South African Institute for Medical Research,
P.O. Box 1038, Johannesburg.
1916. Watson, Frederick W^illiam, B.Sc, F.I.C., P.O. Box 108,
Germiston, Transvaal.

19 14. W^atson, Thomas Hunter, P.O., Box 1400, Capetown.

191 5. Watson, William Cruickshank, 13, Yeo Street, Yeoville,

Johannesburg.

1918. Watson. John, F.I.C.. P.O. Box 1026. Johannesburg.
1906. Watt, Dugald Campbell, M.D., 131, Pietermaritzburg St.,

Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
1912. WXv, William Archer, M.A. (Pres. D, 1912), Grey Insti-
tute, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

19 14. Webb, George Arthur, A.I.E.E., M.S. A., P.O. Box 3136,

Johannesburg.

1916. fWebber, \\'alter Solomon. B.A., P.O. Box 10S8, Johan-

nesburg.

1917. Weinberg, I.eo. B.A.. P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
1911. Welch, Rev. Sidney Read, B.A., D.D., Ph.D., St. Mary's,

Bouquet Street, Capetown.
1916. \\'ertheim, Louis, P.O. Box 354, Johannesburg.

1903. Wessels, Hon. Justice Sir J. W., Kt., B.A., LL.B., Pretoria.
1916. W^essels, Johannes Jacobus, M.E., P.O. Box 1392, Johan-
nesburg.

1916. \\'hite, Mrs. E. L., King Edward Mansions, Port Elizabeth.
1902. fWliite, Miss Francis Margaret, Trescoe, Cornwall Place,

Wynberg, C.P.
1910. White, H. A. ( \'ice-Pres. B), P.O. Dersley, i -/a Germiston,

Transvaal.
1902. fWhite, Miss Henrietta Mary, B.A., Trescoe, Cornwall

Place, Wynberg, C.P.
1902. *White-Cooper, W'illiam, M.A., F.R.I. B.A., P.O. Box 11,

Cradock, C.P.

191 5. Whitmore. Sidney W., Public Works Department. Pre-

toria.
1909. W'hitworth, Walter S., Koffyfontein Diamond Mine,
O.F.S.

XXXtt LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1910. Wiener, Ludwig, F.R.G.S., Riebeek Street, P.O. Box 365,

Capetown.

1904. Wilhelm, A. R. A., M.B., CM., Barkly East, C.P.

1904. fWiLKiNSON, J^. A., M.A., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1916). Pro-

fessor of Chemistry, South African School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 11 76, Johannesburg.
1910. Wille, Friedrich Adolf, M.D., Ch.B., D.P.H., 11, Derby

Road, Bertrams, Johannesburg.
1902. *Williams, Alpheus Fuller, B.Sc, Alining Engineer,
De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., P.O. Box 616,
Kimberley, C.P.

1916. Williams, Charles Herbert, P.O. Box 2155, Johannesburg.
1 912. Williams, Cornelius, B.Sc, A.R.C.S., Government School

of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.
1902. Williams, Prof. I)., B.Sc, Rhodes University College,
Grahamstown, C.P.

1902. ♦WILLIAMS, GARDNER F., M.A., LL.D. (PRESIDENT,

1906), 2201, R. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1917. Williams, John Elias, P.O. Box 3552, Braamfontein,

Johannesburg.

1903. fWiLMAN, Miss M., McGregor Memorial Museum, Kim-

berley, C.P,
1903. fWilson, Arthur Marius, M.D., B.S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.,
Jesmond House, Hof Street, Capetown.

1916. Wilson, Charles Edmund, A.M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 930,

Johannesburg.

1917. Wilson, James Hugh Elwes. P.O. Box 4303, Johannesburg.
1909. Windram, James Thomas, P.O. Box 3547, Johannesburg.
1912. Winter, Rev. Johannes August, Onverwacht, P.O., Seku-

kuni. District Lydenburg, Transvaal.

1903. fWinterton, Albert Wyle, F.C.S. , Lemoenfontein, near

Beaufort West, C.P.
1906. Wood, H. E., M.Sc, F.R.Met.S. (Vice President. Vice
Pres. A. General Secretary 1913-1916), Union
Observatory, Johannesburg.

1905. fWood, James, M.A., P.O. Box 2, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.
1916. Woods, Mrs. Sarah Ann, 211, Commercial Road, Pieter-

maritzburg.
T916. Wright, Kathleen Margaret, B.Sc, High School for Girls,
Barnett Park, Johannesburg.

1915. Wyatt, Stanley, M.Sc, Normal College, P.O. Box 855,

Pretoria.

1916. Wylie, James Scott, K.C., Scotswood, Ridge Road, Durban.

191 7. Yaldwyn, Sibert Halcott, Government School, Malvern

(Denver Delivery), Johannesburg.
1917. Young, Allan 'Brownlie, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1904. Young, Professor Robert B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,

(Pres. B, 1913), P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

INDEX.

PAGE

AbraIham (Rev. N.), An interesting case of insect mutualism ... 137

Absorption of arsenic through the skin in dipping (Dr. H. H. Green ) 472
Academic study of native philology and ethnology, The need and

value of ( Rev. \V. .\. Norton) 194

Acidity, The volatile, of wine (Prof. A. I. Perold) 405

Acquired characters, A suggested mechanism for the inheritance of

(Dr. T. F. Dreyer) 2TZ

-\ddress by the President of the Association ( Prof. J. Orr) i

— Section A ( Prof. W. N. Roseveare) . . 33

Section B (Prof. M. M. Rindl) ... 48

Section C (J. Burtt-Davv) 6:

Section D (Rev. B. P. J. Marchand) . . 83

Section E ( Rev. N. Roberts) '&>^

African languages, Phonetic analysis and comparison of (Rev. W. A.

Norton) 421

Ageratutu coiiycoidcs. Variation in ( S. G. Rich) 547

Agricultural education in Australia (Dr. C. F. Juritz) 2ro

South Africa (Dr. A. T. Perold) 20 r

Agriculture, Electricity and 176

Aiken (A.), Notes on Irving Fisher's theory of gold 539

Alpha Ccntauri, Parallax of faint proper motion star near ( R. T. A.

Innes 141

America. Early man in 484

, National research in 271

, Potash from kelp in 289'

. See also " United States "

American ancT British proposals for a league of peace (Rev. R.

Balm forth ) 290

Ammonium sulphate 42a

Amphibians found near Kimberley, Some notes on the colouration

of (J. H. Power) ' 263

Ancient East African forest. Some factors in the replacement of. by

wooded pasture land (C. F. J\I. Swynnerton) 493

Panama canals 482

Animals, Healthy survival of, in relation to antineuritic hormone

content of their foodstuffs (Dr. H. H. Green) 483

. South African, Vermian parasitological research with

reference to (C. S. Grobbelaar) 243

Annual ^Vreeting, Fifteenth, Proceedings of xxiii

Ant, The Argentine, Natural enemies of ( C. W. Mally) 245

Antineuritic hormone content of a foodstuff in relation to healthy

survival of animals upon it (Dr. H. H. Green) 483

Aphis, The Woolly, as a factor in apple culture (C. W. Mally) ... 556
Apple culture^ The Woolly Aphis (Eriosoina lanigcra) as a factor

in ( C. W. Mally ) 556

Argentine ant, The, Natural enemies of ( C. W. Mally) 245

Ars Sophoclis interpretandi (Dr. H. G. V'iljoen) 527

Arsenic. Fate of, after ingestion by and injection into live stock.

and after absorption through the skin in dipping (Dr.

H. H. Green) 472

, Note on the micro-titration of (Dr. H. H. Green) 518

. Oxidation and reduction of. by bacteria in cattle-dipping

tanks (Dr. H. \\. Green) 465

Assets of Empire, Neglected (Julia F. Solly) 524

XXXIV INDEX.

PAGE

Atmospheric nitrogen, Fixation of, in New Zealand 283

Austin (K.), Industrial development 547

Australia, Agricultural education in (Dr. C. F. Juritz) 2x0

Bacteria which oxidise arsenite to arsenate and which reduce arsenate

to arsenite, isolated from a cattle-dipping tank (Dr.

H. H. Green ) • . . . 465

Balanophoraceas : Notes on the genus Mvstrof-i-^fi^l'-'ii Haw. (Dr. R.

Marloth) ' 278

Balmforth (Rev. R.), The proposals for a league o.i peace —

British and American 290

Bantu mentality 476

people. The, Future of (W. Hay) 252

place names in the Cape Province (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon ) . . . 556

The, Wit and wisdom of, as illustrated in their proverbial

sayings (J. McLaren) 330

Bews (Prof. J. W.), The plant succession in the Thorn Veld ... 153

Binet-Simon tests on Zulus (S. G. Rich) 477

Black Ironwood trees iOlca laurifolia), Effect of For.ics applanafiis

on the wood of (Dr. P. A. van der Byl) ... 485

Blissus diploptcnis Dist. (C. W. Mally) 467

Body and mind. Note on the relation between (Prof. T. M. Forsyth) 249

Books, New 248, 344

Boring insects, The suppling kiln as a means of destroying ( C. W.

Mally) " 520

Botanical survey of South Africa (J. Burtt Davy) 64

Breeding of desirable strains of beneficial insects ( C. W. Mally) . . . 520
British and American proposals for a league of peace ( Rev. R. Baliii-

forth) 290

Britten (G. F.), Sea bamboo (Eckloiiia buccinalis) as a source of

of potash 105

Bryophyta, South African. Geographical distribution of (T. R. Sim) 385

Bull (H. W.), Mechanical refrigerators 464

Canals, Ancient Panama 482

Cannonading and rainfall •. 242

Cape Province, P^ibre produced from plants in the (J. Leighton) ... 443

, The, Bantu place-names in (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 556

Carbide, Rubber from 193

Cattle-dipping tanks. Oxidation and reduction bv bacteria of arsenic

in ( Dr. H. H. Green) .' 465

Centaurus, Parallax of faint proper motion star in (R. T. A. Innes ) 141

Central African folk-lore tales (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 521

Charging plant, An electric vehicle (J. W. Kirkland) 525

Chemistry, Experimental, Simple expedients in (Prof. B. de St. J.

van der Riet ) 464

Chestnuts, Horse, for munitions

Qiordata, The, Signiticance of the Hemichordata in relation to

(Prof. E. J. Goddard) .... ... 467

Classics* The, A plea for, in women's education ( Miss K. M. Earle ) 539

Cleghorne (W. S. H.), The plough 464

CoGAN (Dr. E. S.), Entomological education in the United States... 345
, Some phases of applied entomologj' in South

Africa 260

Colouration of reptiles and amphibians found near Kimberley, Some

notes on (J. H. Power) ' ... 263

Constitution of the Association ii

Copepoda, A new genus of, from a fresh-water fish ( Prof. E. T.

Goddard) 464

Copper field of Namaqualand, The, An old report on (Dr. A. W.

Rogers) , 146

-//

■INDEX. XXXV

PA&E

Cosmogony, Theories of 140

Cosmology, Native ideas of (.Rev. S. S. Dornan ) ... 177

Council, 1916-1917 ■ i

, 1917-1918 ;'

. Report of, 1916-1917 xxviii

Curvilinear space 438

Dark nebulae. Distances of -95

Daw (J. Burtt), A key to the families and genera of Sperniatophyta

in the Transvaal and Orange Free State 556

, Presidential address to Section C 64

De Korte (W, E.), Xocardia cyliiidracca : a South African otomy-
cosis 524

Decimal system. The. ^Nloney, weights and measures ( W. J. Home) 461
Dipping, Absorption of arsenic through the skin in (Dr. H. H. Green) 472

tanks, Oxidation and reduction bv bacteria of arsenic in

(Dr. H. H. Green) " 4^5

Dips. Soda-sulphur. Notes on the anah'sis of (B. J. Hill) 474

Dornan (Rev. S. S.), Native ideas of cosmology 177

Dreyer (Dr. T. F.), .\ suggested mechanism for the' inheritance of

acquired characters 272

Du Plessis (Rev. Prof. J.). Origin and meaning of the name " Hot-
tentot'' 189

Du ToiT (P.J.) Markets ... 17.I

DcTHiE ( ^liss A. v.), South African ]\Iyxomycetes 456

Dwarfs in Gluyas Early ( Wheat ) hybrids ( Prof. J. H. Neethling) 540

Earle (Miss K. M.), A plea for the classics in women's education.. 539

Early man in America 484

East African forest. The, some factors in the replacement of, by

wooded pasture land (,C. F. ^l. Swynnerton ) 493

Ecklouia biicciiialis as a source of potash (G, F. Britten) 105

Economic aspect of native education (Rev. X. Roberts) 88

Education. A^gricultural, in Australia (Dr. C. F. Juritz) 210

South Africa (Dr. A. I. Perold) ... 201

.Entomological, in the- United States (Dr. E. S. Cogan ) 345

. Native, from an economic point of view ( Rev. N.

Roberts) 88

. Neglected factors in (Rev. Prof. J. I. ]\Iarais) 234

, Technical, The movement towards a national svstcm of

(W. J. Home) " ' 445

, Women's, A plea for the classics in (Miss K. ^1. Earle) 539

Einstein's theory of gravitation 172

Electric vehicle charging plant. An (J. W. Kirkland) 525

Electricity and agriculture 176

Entomological education in the United States (Dr. E. S. Cogan) 345

Entomology, Applied, in South Africa ( Dr. E. S. Cogan) 260

Enosotna laiii'^cra (The Woollv Aphis) as a factor in apple culture

(C. W. Mally) ..." ... 556

Ethnology, Native, The need and value of academic study of (Rev.

W. A. Norton) ' I94

Etymology, Sesuto (Rev. W. A. Norton) 3^5

Evening discourses xviii

Exotic and indigenous plants in tb.e Cape Province. Fibre produced

from (J. Leighton) 443

Experimental chemistry, simple expedients in ( Prof. B. de St. J.

van der Riet) 464

Fantham (Prof. H. B.), Parasitic protozoa in relation to the war 297

Fertilising maize. Some held results of (J. F. W. Gatherer) 467

Fever, Hay 442

XX.Vl'l INDEX.

PAGE

Fibre produced from indigenous and exotic plants in the Cape Pro-
vince (J. Leighton) 443

Fish, A fresh-water, A new genus of Copepoda from (Prof. E. J.

Goddard) 464

Fisher, Irving: theory of gold (A. Aiken) 539

Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in Xew Zealand 289

Fodder, Seaweed as 484

Foerster, F. W., and some neglected factors in education ( Rev. Prof.

J. I. Marais) 234

Folk-lore tales. Central African (Re\'. J. R. L. Kingon) 521

Foiiirs (7/i/'/(7;u;/H.s- (Pers.) Wallr. in South Africa, and its effect on
the wood of Black Ironwood trees (OIca laiirifol'M)

Dr. P .A. van dcr By!) 485

Foodstuff. Antineuritic hormone content of, in relation to healthy

survival of animals upon it (Dr. H. H. GreenJ 483

Forest, The ancient East African, Some factors in the replacement

of, by wooded pasture land (C. F. M. Swjmncrton) . . . 493

Forsyth (Prof. T. M.),_Note on the relation between mind and body 249

France, Sanscullotised literature in (Prof. R. D. Nauta) 361

Fumigant. Anhydrous liquid hydrocyanic acid as a (C. W. Mally) 520

Gases, lonisation of, and the absorption of A'- rays (L. Simons) . . . 464

G.\THEKKR (J. F. \V.). Some iield results of fertilising maize ... 467
Geographical distribution of the South African Bryophyta (T. R.

Sim) " 385

Society. South African I36>

Geology. The, of the neighbourhood of Stellenbosch (Prof. S. J.

Shand) 124

Gilchrist, Prof. J. D. F.. .\ward of South Africa Medal to xxxvi

Gilds, National (R. T. A. Innes) 259^

Gluyas Early (wheat) hybrids. Dwarfs in (Prof. J. H. Neethling) 540
CtODDaro (Prof. E. J.). A plea for greater attention to physiology in

the teaching of zoology 464

. Note on a new genus of Copepoda from a

fresh-water lish 464

. Xotc on the origin of Metamevism . . . 467

, The classification and affinities of Hirudinea 467

The Ilemichordata and their significance

in relation to the Invertelirata and Chordata 467

Gold. Irving Fisher's theory of (A. Aiken) S39

Grain bug. The, (Blissus dl/'lopierus Dist. ) ( C. W. Mally) ... 467

Grants for research 259

Grasses. The. of the Eastern Coast belt availa1)le for the manufac-
ture of paper ( Dr. C. F. Juritz ) 482

Gravitation, Einstein's theory of 172

Greex (Dr. H. H.). Description of a bacterium which oxidises
arsenite to arsenate, and of one whicli reduces arsenate

to arsenite. isolated from a cattle-dipping tank 465

, Experimental expression of tlie relationship

between the content of a foodstuff' in antineuritic hor-
mone and the period of liealthy survival of animals

upon it 483

, Note on the micro-titration of arsenic ... 51^

On the fate of arsenic after ingestion by, and

injection into, live-stock, and after absorption through

the skin in dipping 472-

-, The vitamine content of maize and maize-

milling products, and the ambiguity of its correlation

with the phosphoric oxide content Sip'

Green sun, A 123

Grey College Herbarium 471

INDEX. XXXVtt

PAGR

Groceelaar (C. S.). a plea for vcrmian parasitological research
with reference to South African domestic and native

animals 243

Hahn. P. D* ( Dr. C. F. Juritz) 3-^7

Hay fever 442

Hav (W.), The future of the Bantu neople 252

Hemichordata, Tlie, and their significance in relation to tlie Tnver-

tabrata and Chordata (Prof. E. J. Goddard) 467

Herbarium, Gre\- College 471

Hermaphroditism in Mefoiiastria fitliyocaiiipa ( F. W. PetteyJ . . . 423

HtLL ( B. J.), Xote on the analysis of soda-sulphur dips ... ... 474

Hirudinea. 'Jhe, Classification and aflinities of ( Prof. E. J. G(»d-

dard) 467

Hormone, .Vntineuritic, content of a foodstuff', in relation to healthy

survival of animals upon it (Dr. H. H. Green) ... 483
FloRN!-: ( W. J.), The decimal system; money, weights, and measures, 461
— , I'lie movement towards a national system of tech-
nical education . . 445

Horse chestnuts for Munitions . ^7~

Hottentot, Origin and meaning of the name (Rev. Prof. J. du Plessis) 189

Hewitt, A. G. ( Obituary) 188

Hybrids. Wheat. Dwarfs in (Prof. J. H. Neethling) 540

Hydrocvanic acid. Anhydrous liquid, as a funiigant (C. W. iNIally) 520

Hyslop,' Col. James (Dr. D. C. Watt) 312

Indigenous and exotic plants in the Cape Province, Fibre produced

from (J. Leighton) 443

Industrial development (K. Austin) 547

Infertility in soils, Plant toxins a cause of (A. Stead) 439

Ingestion of arsenic by live-stock (Dr. H. H. Green) 472

Inheritance of acquired characters, A suggested mechanism for

(^Dr. T. F. Dreyer ) ... 272

Innes (R. T. A.), National Gilds: a hint towards reconstruction... 259
, Parallax of the faint proper motion star near

Alpha of Centaurus (Preliminary announcement) ... 141

Insect mutualism. An interesting case of (Rev. X. Abraham) ... 137

Insecticide. Linseed oil as an ( C. W. Alally) 467

Insects, P>eneticial, Selection and breeding of desirable strains of

(C. W. Mally) .. ... ...520

l)oring in wood, The sup])ling kiln as a means of destroving

(,C. W. Alally ) "... 520

Tnvertelirata, The Significance of the Hemichordata in relation to

(Prof. E. J. Goddard) 467

lionisation of gases and the alisorption of A'-rays (L. Simons) . . . 464

fridoiiiyniiiW hitinilis Alayr., Xalural enemies of (C. W. ]\fally) . . . 245

Iron industry, A South African (Prof. G. H. Stanley) 116

JuRiTZ (Dr. C. F.), Agricultural education in Australia 210

, P. D. Hahn 377

, Tile Grasses of the Eastern coast belt axailable

for the manufacture of paper -'82

Kelp, Potash from, in America 289

Kiniberley, Some notes on the colouration of reptiles and amphibians

found near (J. H. Power) 263

KiNGON (Rev. J. R. L.). Bantu place names in the Cape Province. . . 556

, Some Central- African folk-lore tales ... 521

KiRKLAND (J. W.), An electric vehicle charging plant 525

KoEBE (Rev. Dr. F. C), Some sense defects psychologically consi-
dered 548

XXXVm INDEX.

PAGE

Language, Our, and the native pupil ( S. G. Rich) 468

Languages, African, Phonetic analysis and comparison of (Rev.

W. A. Norton ) ■■ 421

League of peace, British and American proposals for ( Rev. R.

Balmforth) 290

Leather, Ostrich 404

Leighton (J.), Notes on fibre produced from some of the most

useful indigenous and exotic plants in the Cape Province 443

, Some suitable materials for paper-making 2d>y

Library of the Association xxxix

Light-absorliing matter in space 442

Linseed oil as an insecticide (C. W. Mally) 467

Literature, Sanscullotised, in France (Prof. R. D. Nauta) 361

LoRAM (Dr. C. T.), The alleged arrest of mental development in tlie

native 4*^-

Loughridge, R. H. (Obituary) 2^;^

]\1cLaren (J.), The wit and wisdom of the Bantu, as illustrated in

their proverbial sayings ?:?i'^

Maize and maize-milling products. Tlie vitaniine content of, and the
aml)iguity of its correlation with tlie phosphoric oxide
content (Dr. H. H. Green ) 519

Maize, Some field results of fertilising (J. F. W. Gatherer) ... 467

Mally (C. W.), Linseed oil as an insecticide 467

, X'atural enemies of the Argentine ant (Iridoiuyr-

inex liuniir.s Mayr 245

, Notes on anhydrous liquid liydrocyanic acid as a

f umigant 520

, Opportunities for the selection and breeding of

desirable strains of beneficial insects 5-0

-, The grain bug or stinkz'licg {Blissiis diploptcnis

Dist.) ... ... 467

, The suppling kiln as a means of destroying insects

boring in wood 520

The Woolly Aphis (Eriosoiiia liiiiigcra^ as a factor

in apple culture 556

Man, Early, in America 484

!Makais (Rev. Prof. J. L), F. W. Foerster, and some neglected

factors in edtication 234

Marchand (Rev. B. P. J.), Presidential address to Section D ... 83

INIarchand, B. P. J. (Obituary) 231

Markets (P. J. du Toit) U3

Marloth (Dr. R. ), Notes on the genus MystroprtaJon Harv. ( Bala-

nophoracea;) 278

Mathematical analysis and science (Prof W. N. Roseveare) ... ,^,^

Measures, weights, and money in the decimal system (W. J. Home ) 461

Mechanical refrigerators ( H. W. Bull) 464

Medal, South Africa viii. xxix, xxxvi

]\Iedals, Goold-Adams x. xxix

Members, List of i'i

Mental development in the native. The alleged arrest of (Dr. C. T.

Loram) 482

Mentality. Bantu 4/6

Mesogoinphns, The respirator}- rectum of (S. G. Rich) 4^6

Metamevism, Note on the origin of (Prof. E. J. Goddard) 467

Mctauastria pithyocampa. Hermaphroditism in (F. W. Pettey) ... 42.t

Alicro-titration of arsenic (Dr. H. H. Green 51^

Mind and body, Note on the relation between (Prof. T. M. Forsyth) 249

Money, weights, and measures in tlie decimal system (W. J. Home) 461
Morrison (Prof. J. T.), Problems in terrestrial phj-sics that require

the attention of South African physicists 4.\?

IMnnitions, Horse chestnuts for 277

INDEX. XX XIX

PAGE

Museum, South African 452

AJutualism, Insect, An interesting case of (Rev. X. Al^rahani) ... 137

Mystropetaloii Harv., Notes on the genus ( J)r. R. [Marloth) ... 278

JMyxomycetes, South African (^liss A. V. Duthie) 456

Xaniaqualand, The copper held of, .\n ohl report on (Dr. A. W.

Rogers) 146

National Gilds: A liint towards rectinstruction (R. T. A. Innes) ... 259

research in America 271

system. A, of technical education. The movement toward^

(W. J. Home) 445

Native education from an economic point of view (Rev. N. Roberts) 88
ethnology. The need and value of academic study of (Rev.

W. A. Norton) 194

ideas of cosmology (Rev. S. S. Dornan ) 177

philology and ethnology. The need and value of academic

study of (Rev. W. A. Norton) 194

■ pupil. The, and our language (S. G. Rich) 46S

, The, alleged arrest of mental development in ( Dr. C. T.

Loram ) 482

Nauta (Prof. R. D. ), Sanscullotised literature in France 361

Nebulas and Novae 473

, Dark, Distances of 295

Neethling (Prof. J. H.), A preliminary note on dwarfs appearing

in Gluyas Early (Wheat) hybrids 540

New Zealand, Fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in 289

Nitrogen, Atmospheric, Fixation of, in New Zealand 289

Xocardia cyliiidnicea : a South African otomycosis (W. E. de Korte) 524

Norton (Rev. W. A.), Sesuto etymology 315

, Stenography as an aid to the phonetic analysis

and comparison of African languages 421

-, The need and value of academic study

native philology and ethnology 194

Notonectids, The respiratory organs of (S. G. Rich) 453

NovJe and nebul?e 473

Nutrition, The place of protein in (Dr. J. C. Ross) 350

Nymph of McsogoinpliUs. The, Respiratory rectum of ( S. G. Rich) 426

Odonata : The respiratory rectum of McsogoiiiMiiis ( S. G. Rich)... 426

Officers and Council. 1916-1917 i

.1917-1918 ;

Orange Free State, The, Families and genera of Spermatophyta in

( J. Burtt-Davy) 556

Orr (Prof J.). Presidential Address of 'i

Ostrich leather 404

Otomycosis, A South African {W. E. de Korte) 524

Oxans 314

\

Panama canals, Ancient 482

Paper-making, Some suitable materials for ( J. Leighton ) 287

, The grasses of the Eastern coast belt available for the

manufacture of (Dr. C. F. Juritz) 482

Papers read at Sectional meetings lot

Parallax of the faint proper motion star near Alpha of Centaurus

(R. T. A. Innes) 141

Parasitic protozoa in relation to the war (Prof. H. B. F"antham) . . . 297
Parasitological research, Vermian, with reference to South African

domestic and native animals (C. S. Grobbelaar ) 243

Past meetings of the Association xiii

Pasture land. Replacement of the ancient East African forest by

(C. F. M. Swynnerton) 493

xl

INDEX.

PAGE
Peace, British and American proposals for a league of( Rev. R. Balm-

forth) ... 2go

PiiALiNG ( H.), On the effect of vegetation on the rainfall of South

Africa 142

Perouj (Dr. A. I.), Agricultural education in South Africa 201

, The volatile acidity of wine : particularly that

produced by pure cultures of j'east 405

Pettey (F. W. ). Hermaphroditism in Metanastria pithyoauiipa ... 425
Philology, Native, The need and value of academic study of ( Rev.

W. A. Xorton ) 194

Philosophical limits of science, The (Rev. Dr. S. R. Welch) ... 326
Phonetic analysis and comparison of African languages ( Rev. W. A.

Norton ) 421

Phosphoric oxide content of maize and maize milling products and

its correlation with the vitamine content (Dr. H. H.

Green) 519

PhysicS' Terrestrial : Prt)ljlems that require the attention of South

African physicists (Prof. j. T. Morrison) 433

Physiologv, A plea for greater attention to, in the teaching of zoology

(Prof. E. J. Goddard) 464

Phytochemical research (Prof. AI. M. Rindl ) 48

Place names. Bantu, in the Cape Province (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) . . . 556

Plant succession, The, in the Thorn veld (Prof. J. W. Bews) ... 153

toxins: a cause of infertility in soils (A. Stead) 439

Plants in the Cape Province, Fibre produced from (J. Leighton) . . 443

, The ascent of sap in (Prof. H. A. Wager) 547

Plough. The ( W. S. H. Cleghorne ) 464

Potash from kelp in America 289

, Sea bamboo as a source of ( G. F. Britten) 105

Power (J. H.), Some notes on the colouration of reptiles and amphi-
bians found near Kimberley, C.P. 263

Presidential address to Section A (Prof. W. N. Roseveare) 33

B (Prof. M. M. Rindl) 4^

C (J. Burtt-Davv ) 64

D (Rev. B. P. J. Marchand) ... 83

E (Rev. N. Roberts) 88

President's address i

Presidents of former years xiii

Protein, The place of, in nutrition (Dr. J C. Ross) 350

Protozoa, Parasitic, in relation to the war (Prof. H. B. Fantham) 297

Proverbial sayings of the Bantu ( T. McLaren) 330

Psychological consideration of some sense defects (Rev. Dr. F. C.

Kolbe ) 548

Radiology, The scope of (J. S. van der Lingen ) 354

Rainfall, Cannonading and 242

of South Africa, Effects of vegetation on (H. Pealing) ... 142

Rectum, The respiratory, of the nymph of Mesogomphus (S. G.

Rich) 426

Refrigerators, Mechanical (H. W. Bull) 464

Report of Council, 1916-1917 xxviii

Reptiles and amphibians found near Kimberley, Some notes on the

colouration of (J. H. Power) 263

Research grants 259

• , National, in America 271

■ , Phytochemical (Prof. M. M. Rindl) 48

, Vermian parasitological, with reference to South African

domestic and native animals (C. S. Grobbelaar) ... 243

Respiratory organs, The, of a Notonectid (S. G. Rich) 453

rectum. The, of the nvmph of Mesogomphus (S. G.

Rich) ... ' 426

INDEX. _ .1-//"

PACK

Rich ( S. G.), Binet-Sinion tests on Zulus 477

, Our language and the native pupil 4C8

, The respiratory organs of a Notonectid 453

. The respiratory rectum of the nymph of Mesogom-

plius 4-^6

Variation in . lL;ri\itiiiii coiiyzoidcs (Family Compo-

sit.e) 547

RiNDL (Prof. M. M.), Presidential address to Section P. 48

Roberts (Rev. N.). Presidential address to Section E 88

Rogers (Dr. A. W.), An old report on the copper field of Xaniaqua-

land T46

RosKVEARE (Prof. W. N.), Presidential address to Section A ... 33

Ross (Dr. J. C), The place of protein in nutrition 350

Rubher from carbide 193

Sanscullotised literature in France (Prof. R. D. Nauta) 361

Sap, The ascent of, in plants (Prof. H. A. Wager) 547

Science, The philosophical limits of (Rev. Dr. S. R. Welch) ... 326
Sea bamboo {Ecklonia bnaitiaHs) as a source of potash (G. F.

Britten) 105

Seaweed as fodder 484

Sectional Meetings, Lists of papers read at iot

Officers of former years xv

Sense defects psychologically considered (Rev. Dr. F. C. Kolbe) . . 5-|8

Sesuto etymology (Rev. W. A. Norton) 3''S

Sh AND (Prof. S. J.), The geology of the neighbourhood of Stellen-

bosch 1 _'4

Shells, South African 520

Sim (T. R.), Geographical distribution of the South African Bryo-

phyta 3(^5

SnroNS (L.), Tonisation of gases and the absorption oi X-rays ... 464

Societies, Transactions of ... 152, 247, 295, 344, ^76. 424, 432, 455, 460

Soda-sulphur dips. Note on the analysis of (B. J. Hill) 47-1

.Soils, Plant toxins a cause of infertility in (A. Stead) 439

Solly (Julia F.), Neglected assets of E'lp-re .. .. -^-q

Sophoclis ars interpretandi (Dr. H. G. Viljoen) ^2?

South Africa, Agricvdtural education in (Dr. A. I. Perokl ) 201

. Botanical survey of (J. Burtt-Davy ) 64

, Pomes apl^hmatits ( Pers. ) Wallr. in (Dr. P. A.

van der Byl) 485

Medal viii, xxix, xxxvi

, Some phases of applied entomology in (Dr. E. S.

Cogan) 260

The rainfall of, Effect of vegetation on ( H. Pealing) 142

Soutli African animals, Vermian parasitological research with refer-
ence to ( C. S. Grobbelaar) 243

Bryopliyta, The geographical distribution of (T. R.

Sim) ... 385

Geographical .Society T36

iron industry. A (Prof. G. H. Stanley) ir6

Museum 452

Myxomycetes (Miss A. V. Duthie) 456

otomycosis, A (W. E. de Korte) 524

physicists, Problems in terrestrial physics that require

the attention of (Prof. J. T. Morrison) 433

shells . 520

Space, Curvilinear 4,38

, Light-absorbing matter in _142

Spermatophyta, A kc}^ to the families and genera of, in the Transvaal

and Orange Free State (J. Burtt-Davy) 556

-1'//' INDEX.

PAGE

Staxlev (Prof. G. H.). A South African iron industr}'; prospects

and possibilities ii6

Star near Alpha of Centaurus. The. Parallax of ( R. T. A. Innes) 141
Stead (A.\ Plant toxins, a cause of infertility in soils: a South

African observation 439

Stellenl)osch. General Aleetinss at xix

. Officers of local and sectional committee. IQ17 xx

. The geology of the neighbourhood of (Prof. S. J.

Shand) 124

Stenography as an aid to the phonetic analysis and comparison of

African languages (Rev. W. A. Xorton ) 421

Stinkvliccj. The {Blissiis di^^^loMrrus Dist.) C. W. Mally) 467

Sugar-cane wax ... 360

Sulphate of ammonia 420

Sun. A green 123

— — , The, Water vapour in J04

Suppling kiln. The, as a means of destroying insects boring in wood

(C. W. Mally) ^ 520

Survey, Botanical, of South Africa (J. Burtt-Davy) 64

SwvxxERTON (C. F. AL), Some factors in the replacement of the

ancient East African fore.st by wooded pasture land... 493

Tales. Central African folk-lore (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon ) 521

Technical education. The movement towards a national system of

( W. J. Home ) 445

Terrestrial physics. Problems in. that require the attention of South

African physicists ( Prof. J. T. Morrison) 433

Theories of Cosmogonj' 140

Theory of gravitation, Einstein's 172

Thorn veld. The. Plant succession in (Prof. J. \V. P>ews) 15,^

Tomato waste. Utilisation of 384

Toxins, Plant, a cause of infertility in soils (A. Stead) 439

Transactions of Societies . . . 152, 247. 295, 344, 376, 424. 432. 455, 460
Transvaal, The, Families and genera of Spermatophyta in (J. Burtt-
Davy ) 556

Treasurer's Statement. 1916-1917 xxxiii

United States, The, Entomological education in (Dr. E. S. Cogan ) . . 345

Universes. Other, than ours 262

Vax dek Byl (Dr. P. A.), Foiiics apphiiiatits (Pers.) Wallr. in
South Africa, and its effect on the wood of Black Iron-
wood trees (Olea laurifolia) 485

Vax dek Ltngex (J. S.). The scope of radiology 354

Vax" her RiET (Prof. B. de St. J.). Simple expedients in experimental

chemistry 464

Vapour, Water, in the sun 404

Variation in Agcratu):i LOiiy;:oidcs ( S. G. Rich) =,47

Vegetation, Effect of, on the rainfall of South Africa ( H. Pea'ling) 142

Vehicle charging plant. An electric (J. W. Kirkland) 525

^\■rmian parasitological research with reference to South African

domestic and native animals ( C. S. Grobbelaar) ... 243

A'lLjoEX (Dr. H. G.)- Ars Sdphoclis interpretandi 527

A'itamine content of maize and maize milling products- and the
ambiguity of- its correlation with the phosphoric oxide

content (Dr.- H. H. Green) ... . 419

\'olatile acidity of wine (Prof. A. 1. Perold) 405

W.\r,ER (Prof. H. A.), The Ascent of sap in plants 547

War. The. and the weather 375

, Parasitic protozoa in relation to (Prof. H. B. Fantham) 297

INDEX.

xJiii

Waste. Tomato. Utilisation of

Water vapour in the sun

Watt (Dr. D. C). Col. James Hyslop

Wax. Sugar-cane

\\'eather. The. and the war

Weights, measures, and money in the decimal system ( W. J. Home i
WixcH (Rev. Dr. S. R. ). The philosophic limits of science
Wheat hybrids, Dwarfs in ('Prof. J. H. Neethling) ...
A\'ine. The volatile acidity of (Prof. A. I. Perold) ...

A\'isdom and wit of the Bantu (J. AIcLaren)

Wit and wisdom of the Bantu (J. McLaren)

Women's education, A plea for the classics in ( Miss K. j\I. Earle) . .
Wood-boring- insects. The suppling kiln as a means of destroying

^(C. W. Mally) .. 7 "...

Wooded pasture land. Replacement of the ancient East African

forest by ( C. F. M. Swynnerton)

Woolly Aphis, The. as a factor in apple culture ( C. W. Mally) ...

A'-rays. Absorption of ( L. Simons)

Yeast, Pure cultures of. Production of volatile acidity in wine bv
(Prof. A. I. Perold) ". ".

Zoology, A plea for greater attention to physiology in the teaching of

CProf. E. J. Goddard) .'

Zulus. Binet-Simon tests on (S. G. Rich)

PAGE

384
404
312
360

375
461
326
540
405
330
330
539

5^0

493
556

464

405

464
477

MBL WHOI Library - Serials

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