«%Kc Dp itt::iitii.,...^ ,,

Soiitb :3liWi

llssdclaiion fo. tbc

;.•,>, .:V., •.•;:'.,

Advancement .

:•;':'•'.■,*

Vr;*;^-Vs;V' . ,. ■

' "■ .'^'•V/•^^''^^v.',•'.^v.«.'!,',>■,•,v.^'•V••■ •■■•'■ I' .■

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REPORT

OF THE

SIXTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

South African Association

FOR THE ADVANCEiMEMT OF SCIENCE.

JOHANNESBURG,
1918.

JULY 8-13-

CAPE TOWN :

PUBLISHED BY THK ASSOCIATION.

1919.

' ■ IBR ARY ■

CONTENTS.-\ '*'•'*' /O

PAG*.

Officers, anh Cooncil i

Tables : Past Annual MfefeTiNos ; —

Places and Dates, Presidents. \ ice-Presidents, and Local

Secretaries ii

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries iV

Evening Discourses viii

JOHANNESBURG MEETING, 1918:—

General Meetings ix

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees x

Proceedings of Sixteenth Annual General Meeting of Members xiv

Report of Council, 1917-18 xviii

General Treasurer's Account. 191 7- 18 xxiii

Eleventh Award of the South Africa ^fedal (Plate i) xxVii

Association Library xxx

Address by the President hf the Association: Dr. C. F. Juritz,

' M.A., F.LC I

Address by the President of Section A : Prof. J. T. Morrison,

- M..A., B.Sc. F.R.S.E 31

Address by the President of Section B : P. .A. Wagner, B.Sc,

Ing.D , ... 45

Address by the President of Section C: C. E. Lecat, B.Sc. ... 70
Address by the President of Section D : Prof. E. T. Goddard, B.A.,

D.Sc ... ... lOb

.\ddress by the President of Section E : Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A..

B.Litt 107

Address by the President of Section F. : Prof. T. M. Forsyth.

M.A., D.Phil 121

List of papers read at the Sectional Meetings .... ... ... 135

The desiccation of Africa : the cause and the remedy : Prof. F. IL L.

ScHWARz, A.R.C.S.. F.G S 130

Uses of Mirahilis jalapa 190

Roval Society of South Africa 190

The medicine man in Natal and Zululand : Hon. Mr. Justice C. G.

Jackson ... ... ... i0i

Safety in winding operations : J. A. VaUghan, M-LCE., M.l.Mech.E. 265

.\tmospheric nitrogen 216

The world's wheat crops 216

Research grants 216

The medicinal springs of South Africa : supplement T : Prof. M. M.

RiNDL, Ing.D 217

Solar bombs 225

A note on the flora of the Great Winterhoek Range: E. P. Phillips.

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S 226

The natives of Natal in relation to the land : M. S. Evans, C.M.G..

F.Z.S 235

Stellar distances and magnitudes 246

Some results of ostrich investigations: Prof. J. E. Duerden. M.Sc.

Ph.D., A.R.C.S. (Plates 2-5 and four text figures') 247

The electro-magnetic theorv of light 285

Evolution and mankind: Prof. H. B. Fantham. M.A., D.Sc ... 287
The Zulu witch doctor and medicine-man : J. B. McCord, M.R.C.S..

L.R.C.P 306

Botanical survey • 3i|

Electrical conductivity of milk 3i8

Suggestions towards a better provision for. the medical needs of the

natives : C. T. Loram, M.A.. LL.B.. Ph.D 3I§

Epidemic catarrhal fever .• ... 3*4

32476

IV CONTENTS.

PAGF..

On the persistence of arsenite of soda in tlie ?oil : C. W. Mau.v.

M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S. ... ,_,„. 3^5

Mova Aquilce 329

The ethical principle of equity: Rev. S. R. Wfxch, B.A„ D.D.. Ph.P. 33^>

CheraicaJ warfare service 23A

Leucocytogregarines. and their occurrence in South Africa: A.vnie

Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S. i Abstract ) ... ... 335

Stellar catastrophes ...... ... 336

Soxne parasitic protozoa found in South .Vfricah fishes and aniplri-
• bians: Prof. H. B. F.s vth.\m. M.A., i.XSc. F.Z.S. {Abstracl) ... 33;

South .\frican Coccida- s^'f'.

Does it pay to educate the native?: Rev. A. E. Le Rov, B..\., P>.1). 330
The determination of phosphoric oxide, particularly in fertilisers.

soil extracts, and the like: B. dk C. M.vkch.nnd, B.A., D.Sc... 3^7

Alligators as food 363

The diagnostic characters of some superlicial tunyi : lvrTii;.i M.

DoiDGE, M.A.. D.Sc. F.L.S 364

Vaccine prophylaxis in intluenza .36S

Behaviour of bacteria towards arsenic: H. H. Green. D.Sc., and

N. H. Kestfili.. B.A 369

Paper from Megass 374

.Some South African snails and the cercariie which attack tlieni :

F. G. C.vwsTo.v. B.A., M.D,. B.C.. M.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P 37.S

"J'he traditional historj- and customs of tlie Alakaranga (Varozwe) :

E. G. HowM.A X 383

Solar physics 393

Ostriches in Arizona 393

The killing of the Divine King in South .Africa : Rev. S. S. Dok.v \y.

M.A., F.G.S. 394

The collapse of kelp potash .Wi

Health problems in countrv districts, Transvaal and (grange P'ree

State: J.^xe B. H. 'Ruthveik. M.D., [..R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E.,

L.R.F.P.'S.. F.R.S.A 400

The origin of novae 406

Walnut bacteriosis : Bacterium iuglandis. Pierce- Kthe!. M. DoinoE.

M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S 407

Paraffin paper dressings in surgery 412

Radioactive colouring of minerals 412

Note on the persistence of the right posterior cardinal vein in Xciio-
.^pus Uevis. and its significance: R. J. ORTi.Eri\ M.A. (with one

text figure) 413

The pandemic in the United States 415

Some engravi'd stones of the Lydcnburg district and North-East

Transvaal : the occurrence of cup-and-ring markings in South

Africa: Dr. C. Pyper (Pis. 6-1 1) 416

The British Association 417

Religious beliefs and supersf ition'i of the Xosas : a study in philology •

J. McL.xrex, M.A '.■. , 418

Radiotelephony 424

Cattle as a factor in the economic development of South Africa:

Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A.. F.R.S.E.. F.L.S 425

Calcium clouds in stellar space 440

Arts and crafts of the Xosas: a study based on philologv : T.

McLaren. . M.A ... . ' ... 44J

Salt water as a preventive of epidemic influenza 449

Some notes on a collecting trip to French Hoek: E. P. Pjiillips,

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S 450

Some early geographers and explorers of .Africa: Rev. W. A.

Norton, B.A., B.Litt. ; 479

Purpose in Education : H. C. Reeve, ^LA 483

Who buih the Rhodesian ruins? W. H. Tooke 492

CONTENTS. V

PAGE.

Atomic weight of nebulium. . . ... ... ... 499

A' note on the pollination oi Cyamlla cupensis Linn. : E. P. Phillips,

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ... soo

The bacterial blight of beans: Bacterium phaseoli Erw. Sm. : Ethel

M. DoiDGE. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S'. 50J

Alcohol from Seaweed ... 305

L^nrealised Factors in Native economic development : Rev. ]. R. L.

KiNGON. M.A.. F.R.S.E., F.L.S. ... ... ... 506

The pepper tree (Schiuits iiiolli') in its relation to epidemic hav

fever : Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D 52*5

The engraved stone of Loe, Hechuanaland Protectorate : Mi§,s M.

WiLMAN (Plates 12-15) 531

Radium production 534

Ageing of chemical elements _. ... 534

The pure-line hvpothes's and the inheritance of small variations :

Prof. E. Wakren, D.Sc. (Plate 16) 535

Note on the Equatorial Sundial at the Castle, Capetown : J. Lunt.

D.Sc. F.I.C. (Plate 17) 568

A Jovian prominence 5^9

Liquid hydrocyanic acid for fumigation 560

Additions and corrections to the recorded flora of the Transvaal and

Swaziland : J. Burtt-Davv, F.L.S.. F.R.G.S 570

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES 572

Some experiments used in the rudimentary teaching of botany:

Rev. F. C. KoLBfE. D.D.. D.Litt 575

Economic natural historv. and whv it should be taught in schools :

F. W. FiTzSiMONs.'F.Z.S., F.R.M.S. ... 580

Problems of degeneration as represented by the ostrich : Prof. J. E.

DuEFDEN. M.Sc. Ph.D.. A.R.C.S. (Title only) 587

The pineal bcdv in the ostrich : Prof. T. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D.,

A.R.C.S. (Title only) _ ... 587

Charts, photographs, and reports of the Rand Mines Sanitation

Department: A. J. Orenstein, M.D.. ALR.C.S., L.R.C.P. (Title

only) 58I7

Intoxication by gastrophilous larvae: G. van de Wall dei Kock,

M.R.C.V.S. (TW^ only) 587

On the eradication of venereal diseases : R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E. (Title only) 587

Some features of the South African Odonata as a fauna: S. G.

Rich, M.A., B.Sc 588

Crossing the North African and South African ostrich: Prof. J. E.

DuERUEN. M.Sc. Ph.D., A.R.C.S. (Title only) 589

The natives in the larger towns : J. S. Marwick 590

Paper yarns 610

Are the Odonata of economic value? S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc. ... 611
Drug treatment in Nuttalliosis of equines : G. van de Wall de

KocK. M.R.C.V.S. (Title only) 612

Bovine contagious abortion in South Africa: E. M. Robinson,

M.R.C.V.S. (Title only) ... 612

On certain changes in the external sex-characters of ostriches,

occurring after removal of the reproductive glands: Sir A.

Theiler, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, and D. Kehoe, M.R.C.V.S. (Title

only) 612

Spectrography of seaweed ashes 612

A preliminarv investi.eation into a disease attacking young Cupressus

plants: Miss A. M. Bottomley, B.A. (Plates 18-21) 613

Are the Orthoptera and Neuroptera actual orders or conglomera-
tions? S. G. Rich, M.A., B Sc 618

Rhodesian minerals 621

Epie poetry in French literature : Prof. R. D. Nauta 622

Suggestion for the education of public opinion on Native affairs :

M. S. Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S. ( Title only) 637

Social conditions of Natives on the Rand : Rev. W. F. Hill, M.A.,

(Title only) 637

vi CONTENTS.

PAGK

Place-names of Africa, No. II: Rev. W. A. Nokton, B.A.. B.Litt.

(Title only) , 637

Note on the occurrence of a peculiar phosphate of aluminiam in a

deposit of Bat guano : B. de C Marchand, B.A., D.Sc 63S

More Sesuto etymologies: Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A.. B.Litt. (Title

only) 639

Reconstitution of the Union Senate: R. T. A. Inne-s, F.R.A.S..

F.R.S.E. (Title only) 639

Decimal coinage: Prof W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D. (Title only) 639
Vicarious parenthood: a war suggestion: Mrs. F. McLaren (Title

onlv) 639

War and the value of money: Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S. (Title

only) ...... ... 639

Some experiments on the fate of arsenic in the animal body: H. H.

Green. D.Sc, and C. D. Dyk.man, M.A 64O

National Chemical Service 651

Some preliminary observations on unseasonable veld-burning; and

its possible relation to some stock diseases : A. (). D. Mogg,

B.A. (Abstract) 653

The philologv of the Native languages ( Zulu and Xosa) : Rev.

S. G. G.'AiTCHisoN, M.A., D.D. (Title only) 653

Wasted South African resources ; coal and its bye-products : A.

Kloot, B.A., A.LC. (Abstract) ... 654

The evolution of a Native administration: Rev. T. R. L. Kingon,

^]. A.. F.R.S.E.. F.L.S. (Title only) " 655

Notes on the morphology and life history of Uromyces Aloes Cooke :

V. A. PuTTERiLL, B.A. (Plates 22, 23, and six text Agures) ... 656

Scientific labour union 662

The Kap-tent wagon : J. Y. Gibson (Plate 24) 663

The geophone 669

Notes on the genus Balansia: Miss A. M. King, B.A. (Plate 25 and

four text figures) 670

Paper from sugar cane leaves 67s

Smoke screens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... • • • • • • 073

Native child life: Rev. S. G. G. Aitchison, M.A., D.D 674

Concrete sleepers 679

Discontinuous distribution in a few mammalian groups: T. F.

Dreyer, B.A., Ph.D 680

Central African Folk-lore tales: Rev J. R. L. Kingon, M.A.,

F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Title only) 689

A new type of accurate sundial or solar clock: J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc,

F.LC. (Plate 26.) ... 690

Some photographic illustrations of South African vegetation: LB.

Pole- Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. (Title only) 693

Synthesis of sugars 693

Native customs in relation to small-pox amongst the Ba-Ronga :

Rev. H. A. JuNOD 694

Infantile paralysis ... , 702

Nitrogenous products . . . 702

A philological method of exhibiting classical declensions and conju-
gations: Rev. W. A- Norton. P. A.. I' 703

On the heterocerous fauna of Southern Rhodesia : A. J. T. Janse,

FES 708

Bacteriological production of acetone 711

.\ survey of aboriginal place-names: Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A..

F.R.S.E., F.L.S 712

Helium foi dirigibles ... 779

A rapid approximate method of calculating the occultation of stars

bv the moon (for the Central Transvaal) : J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc,

F.I.C 780

Officers and Council, 1918-19 i

List of Members Hi

Index xxxvii

CONTENTS.

Vll

Plat
No.
I.

2.

3.
4-

5-
6.

7-

8.

9-

10.

II.

12.

13-

14.

15.
16.

17-

18.

19.
20.
21.
22.

^3-

24.

:25.
26.

JST L)F PLATES.

The South Africa Medal

Some results of ostrich investigations
Some results of ostrich investigations
Some results of ostrich investigations
Some results of ostrich investigations
Engraved stones of the Lydenburg District
Engraved stones of the Li'denburg District
Engraved stones of the Lydenburg District
Engraved stones of the Lydenburg District
Engraved stones of the Lydenburg District
Engraved stones of the Lydenburg District

The engraved rock of Loe

The engraved rock of Loe

The engraved rock of Loe

The engraved rock of Loe

The pure line hypothesis

An equatorial sundial

A disease of young Cuprcssits plants
A disease of young Cuj^ressiis plants
A disease of young Cii/''i'i'ssits plants
A disease of j'ouiig Cithrrssiis |)lants

Lh'omyces Aloes t^ooke

Vromyces Aloes Cooke

The Kap-tent wagon

The genus Balansia

A new type of sundial

To face
Page
xxvii
247
246
270
271
416
416
416
416
416

417
531

532

563
568

6x2

613

614
616

658

660

663
670
69O

ERRATA.

Page 191,
Pag-e 192,

Page 193,
Page 194,

Pai^c 202. 1

J 'age J03. 1
Page 322,
Page 376,

line

line

last

line

line

line

iiK-

line

ine

iiie

line

line

line

line

line

line

line

10. — For " heart "' read " art."
30. — For " therefore '' read " therefor."
line. — For " practice " read " practise."
23.— For " practice " read " practise"

1.— Delete " it."
29. — For '■ practice " read " practise."
28. — For " Aiiiakiihiilo " read " Ainakubalo."
35.— For
41. — For

5. — For
J 1 . — For
24. — For
44. — F'or

.~l liii.ii\ IK ' II ic ituu ^ 1 limn iiuiiiL' .

fsiiuliycndiya " read " Isindiyandiya.''
sparkling " read " .sprinkling."
liabiyc " read " habuja."
aiiiasttiut " read " aiiiasimu."
■ particuar " read " particular."
44. — ±ui poisonus " read " poisonous."
9 from bottom. — After "unless this" insert "is

prevented b}- law."
3^ — For " Schistosome becattse of " read " Schis-

losoiHiiin b\. '
22. — For ■■ cercaria attacks " read " cercaria-

•attack."
2 from bottom. — For " mixacidiitm " read " inira-
cidiuni."

VllI -ERRATA.

Page 413, line x8 of text. — For '* precaval " read "postcaval."
Page 414. line i. — For " Postcardial " read " Postcardinal.'"
Page 414. text-tigure. — For " Sel." read " Scl."
Page 415, line 19. — For " aiiiphibious " read "amphibians."
Page 426, line 8 from bottom.— .\fter " of " delete " the."
Page 428, line 4. — For " 1485 '" read " i486."
Page 431, line 24. — For "east" read "last."
Page 433, line 5. — For " counsellors " read " councillors."
line 19. — After " contact and " insert " conflict."
Page 437, line 28. — For "Machiavellian" read "gigantic."
Page 438, line 25. — For " ignominous " read " ignominious."
Page 43Q. line ti. — Before "the mainspring" insert "it will be

seen that."
Page n/o. line 6. — For ■" addition " read " additions."
line 15.— For " Staff " read " Stapf."
line 32— For " Staff " read " Stapf."
line 34. — Insert full sto]) after '' Dur."
line 35. — For " Staff " read " Stapf."
line s^. — For " Cragrostis " read " Eragkostis," and

for " Staff " read " Stapf."
line 38. — Fur " lickloiis" read " EckJoiiis."
Page 571, line i. — For " .hincics uxycarpns" read " JuNCUs

OXYCARPUS."

line 4. — For " Hook-fil." read ' Hook, fil."

line 6.— For " 17 " read " 17384."

line 9. — Delete full stop after " Zeyh."

line 12- — For '' scuber" read " scaber."

line 24.— Delete full stops after " FIelichrysum '

and " cephalojdeum/' and for " Dc '

read " n.c."
line ^ti. — Insert full stop after " Port."
line 2 from bottom. — For " Galp'mu" read " Galpinii
last line. — For " naflensis '\ read " nataiensis."

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1917-1918.

HONORARY PRESIDENT.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
C. F. JURITZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

EX-PRESIDENT.
Professor J. ORR, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. i Prof. \V. N. Roseveahe. M.A.

A. H. Reid, F.R.I.B.A., F.R.San.I.

II. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Mct.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES,

Rev. W. Flint, D.D., Library of Par-
liament, Capetown.

J. A. FooTE, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Commer-
cial High School, Plein Street, Jo-
hannesburg.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
A. Walsh, P.O. Box 39, Cape Town.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

H. Tucker, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street, Cap«
Town. P.O. Box 1497. (Telegraphic Address: " Scientific.")

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

I. CAPE PROVINCE.
Cape Peninsula.
Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.

M.D., M.R.C.S.,

Prof. L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Prof. R. Leslie. K.A.. F.S.S.
C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S.
R. W. Menmuir, A.M.I.C.E.

Kimberlcy.
Miss ^T. Wilman.

Kingwilliamstozvn.
3. Leighton, F.R.n.S.

Middelburg.
A. Stead, B.Sc, F.C.S.

Port Elisabeth.

Rev. T. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.R.S E.,
F.L.S.

Stellenbosch.

Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Prof. B. de St. J. van der Riet, M.A.,

Ph.D.

II. TRANSVAAL.

Witwatersrand.

I. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

W. A. Caldecott, B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S.

P. Cazalet.

Lt.-Col. J. H. DoBSON, D.S.O., M.Sc,

M.I.Mech.E., M.l'.E.E., A.M.I.C.E.
Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc,

A.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
F. Flowers. C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Jas. Gray, F.I.C.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.E.E.
J. Mitchell.
Prof. C. E. IMoss, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,

F.R.G.S.

A. T. Orenstein,

L.R.C.P,
Prof. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M.,

M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M., F.I.C.
H. A. Trubshaw.
J. van Niekerk. alb., cm.
W. Watkins - Pitchford, M.D.,

F.R.C.S., D.P.H.
Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S.

Pretoria.

1. B. Pole Evans. M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S.
Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D.
Prof. D. F. DU Toit Malherbe, M.A..

Ph.D.
Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

Pctchefstrooin.
E. Holmes Smith, B.Sc.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.
Bloemfontein.

T. F. Dreyer. B.A., Ph.D.
Prof. M. I\r. Rindl, Ing.D.

I\'. NATAL.
Durban.

M. S. EvAKS, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

C. T. LoRAM, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

M aritsburg.

J. S. Henkel.

Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc.

V. RHODESIA.
Bulawayo.
Rev. S. S. DoRNAN, M.A. F.G.S.

M. MOZAMBIQUE.

S. Seruya.

Endowment Fund.

I W. Jagger, F.S.S. , M.L.A.
W. RuNciMAN, M.L.A.
Principal J. C. Beattie,
F.R.S.E.

TRUSTEES.

S.A. Medal Fund.

W. E. Gurney.
C. Murray, M.A.
D Sc W Thomson, M.A., B.Sc,

F.R.S.E.

LL.D.,

11

PLACES AND DATES OF PAST MEETINGS, ETC.

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IV

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place.

Presidents.

Secretaries-

SECTION A.— ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS,
METEOROLOGY AND PHYSICS.

1903. Cape Town . .

1904. Johannesburg*

1906- Kimberley

1907. Natalf . . . .

1908. Grahamstown

Prof. P. D. Hahn, M.A., i Prof. L. Crawford.

Ph.D.
J. R. Williams, M.I.M.M., W. Cullen, R. T. A. Innes.
M.Amer.I.M.E.

W. Gasson, A. H. J. Bourne.
D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

J. R. Sutton, M.A.

E. N. Neville, F.R.S.,

F.R.A.S., F.C.S.
A. W. Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

D. Williams, G. S. Bishop.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS. METEOROLOGY,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND

GEOGRAPHY.

ic>09. Bloemfontein
1910- Cape Town$
191 1. Bulawayo

igi2. Port Elizabeth

19 1 3. LourenQO

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg . .

1917. Stellenbosch . .

1918. Johannesburg

Prof. W. A. D. Rudge,

M.A.
Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc,

F.R.S.E.
Rev. E. Goetz, S.J.,

M.A., F.R.A.S.
H. J. Holder, M.I.E.E.
J. H. von Hafe.

Prof. A. Ogg, M.A., B.Sc,

Ph.D.
F. E. Kanthack, M.I.C.E.,

M.I.M.E.
Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc.

M.I.C.E.
Prof. W. N. Roseveare.

M.A.
Prof. J. T. Morrison,
M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.

H. B. Austin, F. Masey.

A. H. Reid, F. Flowers.

A. H. Reid, Rev. S. S. Dor-
nan.
A. H. Reid.
Prof. J. Orr, J. Vaz Gomes.

Prof. A. Brown. A. E. H. Din-

ham-Peren.
Prof. A. Brown, J. L. Sout-

ter.
Prof. A. Brown, P. Mesham.

Prof. A. Brown, L. Simons.

Prof. A. Brown, Prof. J. P.
Dalton.

SECTION B— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY,
BOTANY, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

1903. Cape Town .

1904. Johannesburg

1906. Kimberley

R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D. Prof. A. Dendy.

G. S. Corstorphinc B.Sc, Dr. W. C. C. Pakes, W. H.,

Ph.D., F.G.S.
Thos. Quentrall,

M.I.Mech.E., F.G.S.

Jollyman.
C. E. Addams, H. Simpson.

* Metallurgy added in 1904.

t Geography and Geodesy transferred to Section A and Chemistry and
Metallurgy to Section B, in 1907.

t Irrigation added in 1910 and Geography transferred to Section B.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place-

Presidents.

Secretaries.

CHEMISTRY, METALLURGY, MLNERALOGY, ENGINEERING,
MINING AND ARCHITECTURE.

1907. Natal

1908. Grahamstown

C. W. Methven. M.I.C.E.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.I.B.A.

Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,
A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

R. G. Kirkby, W. Paton.

Prof. G. E. Cory, R. W.
Newman, J. Muller.

CHEMISTRY. BACTERIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY,
ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, SANITARY SCIENCE.

1909. Bloemfontein C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, , Dr. G. Potts, A. Stead.

I F.I.C.

CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY AND

1910. Cape Town . .

191 1. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourenqo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg. . .

1917. Stellenbosch . .

1918. Johannesburg

GEOGRAPHY.

A. W. Rogers, M.A.,

Sc.D., F.G.S.
A. J. C. Molyneux,

F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Prof. B. de St. J. van der

Riet, M.A., PhD.
Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.,

D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
Prof. G. H. Stanley,

A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E.,

M.I.M.M., F.I.C.
H. Kynaston, M.A.,

F C S
Prof", j'. A. Wilkinson, M.A.

F.C.S.
Prof. M.'m. Rindl, Ing.D.

P. A. Wagner. Ing.D..
B.Sc.

J. G. Rose, G. F. Ayers.

J. G. Rose, G. N. Blackshaw.

J. G. Rose, J. E. Devlin.

Prof. G. H. Stanley, Capt. A.

Graqa.
J. G. Rose, J. Parry.

Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. D.

F. du Toit Malherbe.
Dr. H.C.J. Tietz, Prof. J. W.

Bews.
Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. B. de

St. J. van der Riet.
Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Dr. J.
Moir.

SECTION C— AGRICULTURE, ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

1903. Cape Town . . Sir Chas. Metcalfe, Bart., A. H. Reid.

M.I.C.E.
1904- Johannesburg * , Lieut.-Colonel Sir Percy G. S. Burt Andrews, E. J.

Girouard, K.C.M.G., Laschinger.

D.S.O.

1906. Kimberley

S. J. Jennings. C.E., D. W. Greatbatch, W. New-

M.Amer.I.M.E., M.I.M.E. 1 digate.

* Forestry added in 1904.

VI

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY,
FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY,

1907- Natal

1908- Grahamstown

1910. Cape Town *

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. LouretiQO

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg. . .

1917. Stellenbosch . .

Lieut.-Colonel H. Watkins
Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S.

Prof. S. Schonland, M.A.,
Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

Prof. H. H. W. Pearson,

M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S.
F. Eyles, F.L.S., M.L.C.
F. W. FitzSimons. F.Z.S.,
F.R.M.S.
A. L. M. Bonn, C.E.

Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc,

Ph.D.
C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc,

F.E.S.
I. b'. Pole-Evans, M.A.,

B.Sc, F.L.S.
J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S.

AGRICULTURE AND
HYGIENE.

W. A. Squire, A. M. Neilson,

Dr. J. E. Duerden.
Dr. J. Bruce Bays, W.

Robertson, C. W. Mally,

Dr. L. H. Gough.
W. D. Severn, Dr. J. W. B.

Gunning.
W. T. Saxton, H. G. Mundy.
W. T. Saxton, I. L. Drege.

F. Flowers, Lieut. J. B.

Botelho.
C. W. Mally. W. J. Calder.

C. VV. Mally, A. K. Haagner.

C W. Mally, Prof. E. Warren.

C. W. Mally, C. S. Grobbelaar.

BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY. AGRICULTURE, AND FORESTRY.

1918. Johannesburg C. E. Legat, B.Sc.

Dr. E. P. Phillips. J. Burtt-
Davv.

SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, AND
- SANITARY SCIENCE.

1918. Johannesburg ! Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., 1 C. W. Mally. R. T. Ortlepp.

D.Sc. '

SECTION E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY. ECONOMICS.
SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1908. Grahamstown W. Hammond Tooke. I Prof. A. S. Kidd.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE EDUCATION,
PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCIOLOGY.

1917. Stellenbosch . . Rev. N. Roberts.

1918. Johannesburg ' Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A.

B.Litt.

* Sanitary Science added in 1910.

Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite.

Prof. J. J. Smith.
Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite.

Rev. G. Evans.

PRESIDENTS AXD SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Vll

Date and Place.

Presidents.

Secretaries.

SECTION F.— ARCHEOLOGY, EDUCATION, MENTAL SCIENCE,
PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS-

1903. Cape Town .

1904. Johannesburg

1906. Kimberley

Thos. Muir, C.M.G., M.A., i Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
(Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, | Howard Pim, J. Robinson.
M.L.A.), E. B. Sargant, |

M.A. (Acting).

A. H. Watkins, M.D.,
M.R.C.S.

E. C. Lardner-Burke, E. W.
Mowbray.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHEOLOGY, ECONOMICS. EDUCATION
ETHNOLOGY. HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOLOGY,
SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1907. Natal R. D. Clark, M.A.

R. A. Gowthorpe, A. S.
Langley, E. A. Belcher,

ARCHEOLOGY. EDUCATION, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY. AND
PHILOLOGY.

1908- Grahamstown E. G. Gane, M.A.

I Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, W.
I D. Neilson.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY^ POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY
AND STATISTICS.

1909. Bloenifontein I Hugh Gunn, M.A.

1910. Cape Town .. 1 Rev. W. Flint, D.D.

191 1. Bulawayo .. ; G. Duthie, M.A., F.R.S.E

1912. Port Elizabeth | W. A.^Way, MA

1913. LourenQO ' ' — '- -
Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Marilzburg

J. A. Foote, F.G.S.
Prof. W. Ritchie, M.A.
J. E. Adamson, M.A.
M.S. Evans, C.M.G.,F.Z.S.

C. G. Grant, Rev. W. A.

Norton.
G. B. Kipps, W. E. C. Clarke-
G. B. Kipps, W. J. Shepherd
G. B. KioDs, E. G. Brvant.
H. Pim.'j. Elvas.

Prof. R. D. Nauta, A. H. J.

Bourne.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, R. G. L.

Austin.
Prof.^ R. D. Nauta, Prof. O.

Waterhouse.

EDUCATION. HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECO-
NOMY. GENERAL SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1917. Stellenbosch .

1918. Johannesburg

Rev. B. P. J. Marchand.

B.A.
Prof. T. M. Forsvth, M.A.

D.Phil.

Prof. R. D. Nauta, Dr.

Bertha Stoneman.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, J. Mitchell

Vlll

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place-

Lecturer.

Subject of Discourse-

1903. Cape Town .

1904- Johannesburg
1906. Kimberley

1907. Maritzburg .
Durban.

1908. Grahamstown

1909. Bloemfontein

Maseru

1910. Cape Town
1911- Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. LourenQO

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Alaritzburg .
Durban . . . .

1917. Stellenbosch . .

1918. Johannesburg

Prof. W. S. Logeman,
B.A., L.H.C.

H. S. Hele-Shaw, LL.D.,

F.R.S., M.I.C.E.
Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A.,

D.Sc.
W. C. C. Pakes, L.R.C.P.,

M.R.C.S., D.P.H., F.I.C.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E.

Prof. R. B. Young, M.A.,

B.Sc, F.R.S.E.. F.G.S.

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

A Theiler, C.M.G.

C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc,

F.I.C.
W. Cullen.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.,
F R S F
Prof. H. Bohle, M.LE.E.
J. Brown, M.D., CM.,

F.R.C.S., L.R.C.S.E.
W. H. Logeman, M.A.
A. W. Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A..
D.Sc
S. Seruya.

Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,
A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc,

F.G.S., M.I.M.M.
C. W. Mally, M.Sc,

F.E.S., F.L.S.
C. P. Lounsburj', B.Sc,

FES
R. f. A.' Innes, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E.
H. E. Wood, M.Sc.

F.R.Met.S.
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist,
M.A.. D.Sc. Ph.D.,
F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S.
Prof. H. B. Fantham,
M.A., D.Sc. A.R.C.S..
F.Z.S.
Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc.
Ph.D.. A.R.C.S.

The Ruins of Persepolis and
how the Inscriptions were
read.

Road Locomotion — Present
and Future.

The Electrical Aspect of
Chemistry.

The Immunisation against
Disease of Micro- organic
Origin.

Some Recent Problems in
Astronomy

The Heroic Age of South
African Geology.

The History of the Eastern
Province.

Tropical and .Sub-tropical
Diseases of South Africa :
their Causes and Propaga-
tion.

Celestial Chemistry.

Explosives: their Manufac-
ture and' Use.
Astronomy.

The Conquest of the Air.
Electoral Reform — Propor-
tional Representation.
The Gyroscope.
Imperial Astronomy.

Antarctica.

The history of Portuguese
conquest and discovery.

The Kimberley Mines, their
discovery, and their rela-
tion to other volcanic vents
in South Africa.

The gold bearing conglomer-
ates of the Witwatersrand.

The House fly under South
African conditions.

Scale Insects and their travels.

Astronomy.

Some imsolved problems of

Astronomy.
Some marine animals of
South Africa.

Evolution and Mankind.

Ostriches.

GENERAL MEETINGS AT JOHANNESBURG.

On Monday, July ^, at 2.30 p.m., the Association was offi-
cially welcomed by His Worship the Mayor of Johannesburg
(Councillor T. F. Allen) in the Assembly Hall of the South
African School of Mines and Technology.

At 3.30 p.m.. Members of the Association proceeded on a
motor drive round Johannesburg and suburbs.

At 8.15 p.m.. in the Selborne Hall. Dr. C. F. Juritz, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.LC., took the chair as President, and delivered an
address, for which see page i.

The President subsequentlv presented the South Africa
Medal to Mr. R. T. A. Innes, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. For the pro-
ceedings see page xxvii.

On Tuesday, July 9, at 2 p.m., Members of the Association
visited the Crown Mines, and the Johannesburg Municipal Under-
takings, Power Station and Abattoirs.

At 8.15 p.m., in the Assembly Hall of the South African
School of Mines and Technology, Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A.,
D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S., delivered a discourse on " Evolution
and Mankind," the President of the Association presiding.

On Wednesday, July 10. at 2 p.m., ^Members of the Asso-
ciation visited the New Modderfontein Gold Mine and Dunswart
Iron and Steel Works.

At 2.30 p.m., Members visited the Johannesburg Trades
School and the South African Institute of Medical Research.

At 8.15 p.m., Members attended a reception held by His
Worship the Mayor of Johannesburg, in the Town Hall.

On Thursday, July 11, at 11.30 a.m., the Sixteenth Annual
General Meeting was held in the Assembly Hall of the South
African School of Mines and Technology, for Minutes of which
see page xiv.

At 2 p.m., Members of the Association visited the New
Transvaal Chemical Works, Delmorc, and the Rosherville Power
Station of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Co., Ltd.

At 8.15 p.m., Members attended a reception held by the
Local and Reception Committees at the Union Observatory.

On Friday, July 12, at 8 a.m., Members of the Association
proceeded on an excursion to Vereeninging, and there visited the
Union Steel Corporation Works, the Vereeniging Power Station
of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power Co., and the site of
the Rand Water Board Barrage on the Vaal River.

At 8.15 p.m., in the Assembly Hall of the South African
School of Mines and Technology, Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc,
Ph.D., A.R.C.S., delivered a discourse on " Ostriches," the Presi.
dent of the Association presiding.

On the morning of Saturday, July 13, members of the Asso-
ciation inspected the underground working's of the Crown Mines.

X

OFFICERS OF LOCAL AND SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES, JOHANNESBURG, 1918.

LOCAL COMMITTEE.

Chairman, H. E. Wood, M.Sc. F.R.Met.S. ; J. Burtt-Davy.
F.L.S., F.R.G.S., W. A. Caldecott. B.A.. D.Sc, F.C.S., P. Oazalet,
Lieutenant-Colonel J. H. Dobson. D.S.O., M.Sc, M.I.Medi.E..
M.I.E.E., A.M.I.C.E., Prof. H. B. Fantlham, M.A.,
D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F. Flowers, C.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.,
J. Gray, F,I.C.. W. Ing-ham, M.I.C.E.. M.I.M.E., R. T. A. Innes.
F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E.. J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.F.E.E., T- Mitchell,
Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.. F.R.G.S., A. T- Orenstein.
M.D.. M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Prof. [. Orr, B.Sc. M.I.C.E.,
M.I.Mech.E., Prof. (i. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M.. M.I.M.E.,
M.I.M.M., F.I.C., H. A. Trubshaw, J. Van Niekerk, M.B., CM..
W. Watkins-Pitchford, M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H., and Prof. J. A.
Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S. Local Sccrciar\\ ]. A. Foote, F.G.S.,
F.E.I.S.

RECEPTION COMMITTEE.

Chairman, His Worsihip itihe Mayor of Johannesburg (T. F.
Allen) ; Vice-Chairman, the Deputy AJiayor of Johannesburg
(D. Anderson) ; Chairman and Members of tthe Local Com-
mittee: Councillors B. Alexander, G. B. Steer, M.P.C., J. A.
Moffat, S. Scott, M.P.C., S. A. Smit, and C. V. Becker;' His
Worship tllie Mayor of Benoni (I. Kuper). His Worship the
]\Iayor of Boksburg (A. Ruffels), His Worship the Mayor of
Germdston (Dr. R. Straohan). His Worship the Mayor of
Krugersdorp (J. Hoatson), His Worship the Mayor of Roode-
poort (G. W. Arthur). His Worship the Mayor of Springs (E.
Stanton Corke). President, Chamber of Mines (E. A. W^allers),
President, Chamber of Commerce (F. C. Sturrock), President,
Association of Mine Managers ( E. H. Bulmain), President. S.A.
Institution of Engineers (C. D. Leslie). President, S.xA. Institute
of Electrical Engineers (Prof. J. H. Dobson, D.S.O.), President,
Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining Society of S.A. (H. A.
W'hite, Vice-President), President, S.A. Society of Civil En-
gineers (Mansergh Robinson). President, S.A. Society of Analy-
tical Chemists (Prof. J. A. Wilkinson. Vice-Pres.) President.
Geological Society of S.xA. (Dr. E. T. Mellor, Past President).
President, Association of Ceritificated Engineers (H. Newbery),
President, Association of Architect's of the Transvaal (■\1. J.
Harris), President. Transvaal Insititute of Architects (D. M.
Burton), President (London Society of Architects, S.A. Branch
(D. M. Sinclair), President, Transvaal Society of Accountants
(J. T. Goldsbury), President, Society of Incorporated Account-
ant's (H. J. Macrae), President, S.A. Geographical Society

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XI

(J. H. Hutcheon, M.A.), President, Instkute of Land Surveyors
(W. M. Harries), President, Britisih Medical Associiation, Wit-
watersrand Branch (Dr. E. P. Baumann), President, Transvaal
Medical Council (Dr. J. Van Niekerk), Presidenit, Transvaal
Pharmacy Board (B. Owen Jones), President, Pharmaceutical
Society of the Transvaal (J. Colebank), President, Incorporated
Law Society of tlhe Transvaal (E. J. Van Gorkom), Chairman of
Council, Soultlh African School of Mines and Technology
(S. Evans). Principal, South African School of Mines
and Technology (Dr. George S. Coirstorphine), President,
Transvaal Teachers' Asisociait'ion (J. Mitchell), President,
Johannesburg and Rand Teachers' Association (I. Abra-
hams), Chairman, WitwE^tersrand Council of Education
(Colonel W. Dalrymple, Deputy Chairman), Chairman,
Witwaitersrand Central Sdhool Board (Howard Pim),
Director, South African Institute of Meidical Researdh (Dr. W.
Watkins-Pitchford), Chairman, Rand Water Board (T. A. R.
Purohas). Chairman, Joh'annesburg Stock Exchange (D. C.
Greig), President, Witwatersrand Commercial Exchange (A. Y.
Niven), President, Witwatersrand Agricultural Society (John
Roy), Chairman, South African National Union (J. Waldie
Pierson), President, Transvaal Automobile Club (J. Davidson),
Chairman, Rand Club (J. M. Buckland), Chairman, New Club
(J. Hopkins), Chairman, Country Club (C. A. Wenitzel), Chair-
man, Union Club (J. A. W. Kerr), Chairman, Unionisit Party
Club (J. E. Jones), Chairman, South African Party Club (J.
A. Coetzee), C. Aburrow, Alex. Aiken, Sir George Albu, Bart.,
P. M. Anderson, G. S. Burt Andrews, Norman Anstev, Sir Abe
Bailey, K.C.M.G., A. J. Beaton. L. Blackwell, M.L.A., Major
Blaney, D.S.O., W. R. Boustred, H. C. Boyd, J. Frank Brown,
C.M.G., H. O. Buckle, Sir William St. J. Carr, E. Chappell.
D. Ohristopherson, G. H. Clififoird, C. Chu'dieigh, L. Colquhoun,
Lt.-Col. F. H. P. Cresswell, M.L.A., L. Clarence, Col. Cresswell
Clark, C.M.G., Sir Thomas Cullinan, Richard Currie, J. P., D.
Dingwall, M.E.C., Patrick Duncan, C.M.G., M.L.A., W. Easton,
J. Emrys Evans, C.M.G., L. Edwards, S. E. T. Ewing, E.
Farrar, P. Ross Frames, A. French, Sir Kendal Franks,
M.D., L. Geldenhuys, M.L.A., Richard Goldman, W. T.
Graham, H. Graumann, M.L.A., G. Hartog, M.E.C.,
R. H. Henderson, C.M.G., H. J. Hofmeyr, W. Hosken,
A. C. Holtby, Sir William Hoy, Sir Wm. Van Hulsteyn, E. G.
Izod, R. Ward Jackson, Julius Jeppe, J. L. Johnson, C. E.
Knecht, Dr. F. E. T. Krause, J. Dale Lace, C. D. Leslie. J.
Langley Levy, H. T. Lewis, Isaac Lewis, F. R. Lynch, H.
McAlister, M.L.A., T. G. Macfie, W. B. Madeley,' M.L.A.,
Senator the Hon. Sam Marks, W. A. Alartin, H. Stuart Martin,
J. B. MacKinlay, Dr. G. A. E. Murray, John Munro, Lt.-Col.
Temple-Mursell, Dr. F. Napier, Emile Nathan, M.L.A., Dr.
Manfred Nathan, M.P.C., James Neilson, H. Newhouse, Henry
Nourse, J. W. O'Hara, J.P., W. J. Parrack, M.L.A., Bernard

Xll OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Price. H. P. Papenfus, K.C.. M.L.A., D. B. Pattison, E. J.
Renaud. Theo. Reunert, F. Peabody Rice, J. B. Robinson,
M.L.A.. F. G. A. Roberts, W. Rockey, M.L.A., W. Ross, H.
W. Sampson, M.L.A., Sir H. Ross Skinner. H. Warrington
Smj^th, A. Sutherland, W. H. Stucke, M.P.C., James Thompson,
Senator the Hon. W. K. Tucker, C.M.G., A. M. Tippet, Walter
Webber, W. L. White, D. Wilkinson, E. J. Way, Hon. Justice
Ward, Senator the Hon. J. J. Ware, Senator the Hon. P. White-
side. Hon. H. A. Wyndham, M.L.A. Hgvi. Secretary: H. A.
Trubshaw.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS. PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND IRRIGATION.

President, Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. ; Vice-
Presidents, W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., and H. E. Wood,
M.Sc, F.R.Met.S. ; Members, C. J. Gyde, A.M.I.C.E.,A.Hammar,
R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., F. E. Kanthack, C.M.G.,
M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., T. J. Niven, M.I.C.E., Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc,
M.I.C.E., :\I.I.Mech.E., and Prof. W. N. Roseveare, M.A. ;
Hon. Secretaries, Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc. (Recorder), and
Prof. T. P. Dalton. M.A.. D.Sc.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
MINERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President, P. A. Wagner, B.Sc, Ing.D. ; Vice-Presidents,
H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S., and H. A. White. Members, ].
Hutcheon, M.A., F.R.S.G.S., Prof. D. F. du T. Malherbe, M.A.,
Ph.D., Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D., Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz.
A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Prof. G. H. Stanley, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E.,
M.I.M.M., F.I.C., Prof. B. de St. J. van der Riet, M.A., Ph.D.,
Prof. T. A. Wilkinson, M.A.. F.C.S., and Prof. R. B. Young,
M.A.. b.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.; Hon. Secretaries, H. C. T- Tietz.
M.A., Ph.D. {Recorder), and J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc.

Section C— BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE

AND FORESTRY.

President, C. E. Legat, B.Sc. ; Vice'Presidents, Ethel M.
Doidge, A'l.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., and Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc.
F.L.S., F.R.G.S. ; Members, Prof. J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc. I. B.
Pole Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., Prof. A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D..
Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D., T. R. Sim, E. Holmes-Smith, B.Sc,
and Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S. ; Hon. Secretaries, E. P.
Phillips. M.A.. D.Sc, F.L.S. {Recorder), and T- Burtt-Davy,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xiii

Section D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE AND

SANITARY SCIENCE.

President, Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc. ; Vice-Presidents
Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S., and A. j!
.Anderson, M.A., M.B., M.R.C.S., D.P.H. ; Members, C. G. S.
de VilHers, M.A.. T. F. Dreyer, ©.A., Ph.D., Prof. J. E.
Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D.. A.R.C.S., Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist,
M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Prof. W. A. Jolly, M.B.,
Ch.B., D.Sc, D. F. S. Lister, C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S.,
D. T. Mitchell. M.R.C.V.S., G. A. E. Murray. M.D.. F.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., A. J. Orenstein, M.D.. M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Annie
Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S., Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc. and W. Watkins-
Pitchford, M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H. ; Hon. Secretaries. C. W.
Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S. (Recorder), and R. J. Ortlepp, M.A.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCI-
OLOGY.

President, Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt. ; Vice-
Presidents, Rev. S. S. Dornaoi, M.A.,F.G.S., and Rev. J. R. L,
Kington, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. ; Members. Rev. S. " G. G.
Aitchison, M.A., D.D., M. S. Evans, G.M.G., F.Z.S.. Hon.
Justice C. G. Jackson, C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D., J.
McLaren, M.A., and S. Seruya ; Hon. Secretaries, Rev. E. W. H,
Musselwhite, B.A. (Recorder), and Rev. G. Evans.

Section F.— EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE,
POLITICAL ECONOMY, GENERAL SOCIOLOGY,
AND STATISTICS.

President, Prof. T. M. Forsvth, M.A., D.Phil.; Vice-^
Presidents, Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, M.A., D.Sc, and Prof. W. A,
Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D. ; Members, A. Aiken, Prof. F. Clarke,
M.A., Prof. J. Finlay, C. W. F. Harrison, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.S..
Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S., Prof. W. M. Macmillan, B.A., and
Prof. O. Waterhouse, M.A. ; Hon. Secretaries, Prof. R. D. Nauta,
(Recorder), and J. Mitchell.

XIV

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SIXTEENTH ANNUAL
GENERAL MEETING OF MEMBERS.

(Held in the S 021th African Schc^ol of Mines and Technology,
Johannesburg, on Thursday, July 11, 1918.)

Present: Dr. C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. (President),
in the chair; C. Aburrow, Miss A. M. B'ottomley, P. Cazalet,
Miss R. Clapton, W. P. Cohen. C. Constaneon, W. S. Cordiner,
Prof. G. E. Cory, Prof. L. Crawford, Prof. J. P. Dalton, J.
Daniel, Miss F. C. de Wet, Lieut.-Col. J. H. Dobson, Dr. Ethel
M. Doidge, Prof. T- E. Duerden, Dr. A. L. du Toit, Rev. G.
Evans, I. B. Pole Evans, Prof. H. B. Fantham, Mrs. H. Fitz-
Simons, Prof. T. M. Forsyth, Prof. Elinor W. Gardner, F.
Gimkewitz, Prof. E. J. Goddard, J. Gray, Dr. H. H. Green, Prof.
J. H. Hofmeyr, J. Hntcheon, W. Ingham, R. T. A. Innes, Hon.
Justice C. G. Jackson, A. J. T. Janse, A. E. Jensen, L. D. Jones,
Rev. H. A Junod, F. E. Kanthack, Miss A. M. King, Rev.
J. R. L. Kingon, Rev. Dr. F. C. Kolbe, C. E. Legat, Prof. R. A.
Lehfeldt. Dr. C. T. Loram, W. M. McDavid, Prof. W. A. Mac-
fadyen, Mrs. H. M. McKay, Mrs. F. V. McLaren. J. McLaren,
Dr. B. de C. Marchand, J. Mitchell, A. O. D. Mogg, R. E. Mont-
gomery, Prof .J. T. Morrison, H. K. Munro. Rev. W. A. Norton.
Prof. J. Orr, R. J. Ortlepp, Dr. E. P. Phillips, Dr. C. Pijper, Dr.
Annie Porter. V. A. Putterill, H. C. Reeve, S. G. Rich, Prof.
M. M. Rindl. Prof. W. N. Roseveare, Prof. S. Schonland, Prof,
E. H. L. Schwarz, S. Seruya, R. Shanks, G. A. Smith, Miss
E. L. Teasdale, H. A. Trubshaw, Dr. P. A. Wagner, Hon. Sena-
tor J. J. Ware, Prof. E. Warren, Prof. O. Waterhouse, W. C.
Watson, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, Miss M. Wilman, and H. E.
Wood; Rev. Dr. W. Flint and J. A. Foote (General Secretaries),
and H. Tucker (Assistant General Secretary).

Minutes. — The Minutes of the Fifteenth Annual General
Meeting, held at Stellenbosch, on 5th July, 1917, and printed
on pp. xxiii to xxvii of the Report of the Stellenbosch Session,
were confirmed.

Annual Report of Council. — The Annual Report of the
Council for 1917-18 having been suspended in the Vestibule since
Qth July, was taken as read and adopted, on the motion of Mr.
W. Ingham. (See p. xviii.)

Report of General Treasurer and Statement of Ac-
counts FOR 1917-18. — The General Treasurer's Report and the
audited Financial Statements for the year ended 31st May, 1918,
having been suspended in the Vestibule since 8th July, were
taken as read and adopted, on the motion of Prof. Wiikinson.
(See p. xxiii.)

Alterations in Constitution. — i. Goold-Adams Medal
Rules. — The question of either amending Rule (a), in view of
the abolition of the University of the Cape of Good Hope re-
ferred to therein, or discontinuing the award of the Goold-Adams

PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XV

Medals, and consequently abolishing all the rules relating thereto,
was discussed. A letter having been read from Hrof. G. Potts,
urging that the award of tlhe Medals should not be discontinued,
as they were a great stimulus to students, the General Secretary,
Capetown, explained that the founder of the Medals, in providing
a die, had supplied no funds for expenses, so that the Associa-
tion had to pay annually for the cost of striking and engraving
the Medals. It was then moved by Prof. Rindl that the award
should be discontinued for the present. Prof. Schonland moved
an amendment to the effect that the question should be referred
to a sub-committee for consideration and report to the incoming
Council. The amendment being put to the vote, was rejected by
27 votes to 25 ; and Prof. Rindl's motion being put, was carried
by 2;^ votes to 11.

(2) Headquarters of Association. — Prof. Orr moved, in
accordance with notice : —

That "Johannesburg" be substituted for "Capetown" in Rule VIII of
the Constitution.

This was seconded by Dr. Annie Porter, and supported by
Mr. Innes. Prof. Dalton moved as an amendment that the con-
sideration of the change of Headquarters should be deferred
until the next Annual Meeting. This was seconded by Mr.
Kanthack, and the discussion was continued by Professors Rindl.
Crawford and Morrison. The motion and amendment were then
withdrawn by the movers.

Reports of Sectional Committees. — The following reso-
lutions, adopted by Section D Committee and recommended to
the General Meeting, were read and adopted : —

(a) By Prof. Goddard:

This Committee, realizing the immediate necessity for the institution
of a zoological survey of South Africa, strongly urges the Government
to forthwith appoint a Scientific Committee to draft a practical scheme
for its accomplishment.

{b) By Mr. R. T. A. Innes:

(i) That the Government be requested to introduce legislation
restricting the sale of quack medicines, especially those professing to
cure venereal diseases.

(2) That information regarding the prophylaxis of venereal diseases
should be published.

(3) That the danger of venereal diseases and the necessity for early
treatment be urged.

A recommendation by Section E Committee that the Com-
mittee should nominate officers for the section for the next An-
nual Session was referred to the incoming Council, with power
to act as might be found expedient.

A resolution, adopted by Section F Committee, was read,
viz. : —

That four propositions relating to the Reconstitution of the Union
Senate, submitted by Mr Innes, be sent forward to the Annual Meeting
for discussion, to give Mr. Innes the opportunity of bringing the matter
before the whole of the Associatio \

XVI PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING.

It was resolved that as time did not allow of the discussion
of the subject, it should be referred to the incoming Council.

Election of Officers for 1918-19. — The following Officers
were elected for 191^8-19: —

President, Rev. W. Flint, D.D. ; Vice-Presidents, P.
Cazalet, Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., W, Ing-
ham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.. and Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc. ; General
Secretaries, C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., and J. A. Foote,
F.G.S., F.E.I.S. ; General Treasurer, Prof. A. Brown, M.A.,
B.Sc, F.R.S.E. ; Editor of Publications, C. F. Juritz, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.I.C.

Election of Council Members for 1918-19. — The follow-
ing were elected members of Council for 1918-19 (the retiring
President, Dr. C. F. Juritz, being also ex-officio a member of
Council for the year) : —

I. Cape Province. — (i) Cape Peninsula'. Prof. L. Craw-
ford. M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S.. C. W.
Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S.. F.E.S.. Sir A. Theiler, K.C.M.G., D.Sc,
and A. Walsh. (2) Kiniherley: Miss M. Wilman. (3) King
William's Town: J. Leighton, F.R.H.S. (4) Middelburg:
W. J. Lamont. (5) Port Elisabeth: Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A..
F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (6) Stcllenbosch : Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A..
D.Sc, and Prof. B. de St. J. van der Riet, M.A., Ph.D.

II. Transvaal. — (i) IVitzmtersrand: C. Aburrow.
M.I.C.E., M.S.A., J. Burtt-Davy. F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Lieut.-Col.
J. H. Dobson, D.S.O., M.Sc, M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E.,
A.M.I.C.E., Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S.,
F.Z.S., J. Grav, F.I.C, R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E..
J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.C.E., Dr. E. T. Mellor, MT.M.M..
F.G.S., Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.. F.R.G.S., Prof.
J. Orr, B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., Ven. Archdeacon F. A.
Rogers. H. A. Trubshaw, Prof. J. A. Wilkin.son. M.A., F.C.S.,
and H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S. (2) Pretoria: I.'h. i^ole
Evans, M.A., B.Sc, F.L.S., H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. A. [. T.
Janse, :^.E.S., and R. E. Montgomery, M.R.C.V.S. (^) Potchef-
stroom: E. Holmes Smith, B.Sc.

III. Orange Free State (including Basutoland). — T. F.
Dreyer, 'B.A., PhD., and Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D.

IV. Natal.— (i) Durban: Hon. Senator F. F. Churchill,
and M. S. Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S. (2) Maritsburg: Prof. J. W.
Bews, M.A., D.Sc, and Prof. E. Warren. D.Sc

V. Rhodesia. — Bulawayo: Rev. S. S.Dornan, M.A., F.G.S.,

VI. Mozambique. — Loureugo Marques: S. Seruya.

In this connection a representation by the Rev. J. R. L.
Kingon, that the present system of requiring a local Council
Member representing a single-member centre to conduct the
election of a representative for that centre for the following year
placed such Council Member in an embarrassing position, was
referred to the incoming Council for consideration.

PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XVll

Annual Session, 1919. — The acceptance by the Council of
an invitation by the Mayors of Kino^ WilHam's Town and East
London, for the Association to hold its next Annual Session
at those towns, giving- three days to each, was confirmed.

President for 1919-20 and Place of Meeting, 1920. —
The provisional selection of these was discussed, and an invitation
from the Alayor of Durban for the Association to hold its 1920
Session at that place was read ; but it was decided, on the motion
of Prof. Orr, to leave the matter for the incoming Council to
deal with.

Exhibition of Apparatus. — A motion by Prof. Rindl to
the following effect : —

That at future meetings arrangements be made to have lantern slides,
etc., illustrative of papers, and other interesting exhibits (original appa-
ratus and specimens) on view at one of the evening functions.

was referred to the incoming Council for consideration.

Votes of Thanks. — On the motion of Prof. Duerden, it
was unanimously resolved that the hearty thanks of the Associa-
tion should be accorded to the following: —

(i) To His Worship the Alayor and the Councillors
of Johannesburg, for the cordial welcome extended to the
Association, and for the Reception given to the Members
at the Town Hall.

(2) To the Local and Reception Committees for the
excellent arrangements made for the accommodation, com-
fort and entertainment of the visitors, and for the Reception
given to the Members at the Union Observatory.

(3) To the Council of the South African School of
Mines and Technology, for their kindness in placing the
School buildings at the disposal of the Association as the
Headquarters for the Session, and for the use of the hostel
" Sunnyside " as residential quarters.

(4) To the ladies of the Home Industries Depot, for
kindly taking charge of the arrangements for morning tea,
and to the ladies assisting them.

(5) To tihose in control who have afforded facilities for
the inspection of the following: —

Johannesburg Municipal Undertakings.
Crown Mines.

New Modderfontein Gold Mines.
Dunswart Iron and Steel Works.
South African Institute of Medical Research.
Johannesburg Trades School.
New Transvaal Chemical Works, Delmore.
Power Stations of the Victoria Falls and Transvaal
Power Company, at Rosherville and Vereeniging.
Union Observatory.

Union Steel Corporation Works, Vereeniging.
Rand Water Board Barrage, on Vaal River.

B

XVm PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING.

(6) To the following Clubs for admitting' Members as
Honorary Members during the period of the meeting: —

Rand Club.

New Club.

Automobile Club.

Country Club.

Union Club.

Unionist Party Club.

South African Party Club.

(7) To those gentlemen who kindly provided motor
cars for the motor drive round Johannesburg and Suburbs,
and other excursions.

(8) To the local Press for its appreciative references to
the proceedings of the Session.

Prof. Orr moved a vote of thanks to Dr. C. F. Juritz, the
retiring President, for his services during his year of office ; and
Rev. Dr. Flint moved a further vote of thanks to the retiring
General Treasurer, Mr. A. Walsh, for his valuable services for
many years. Both these votes of thanks were unanimously and
heartilv accorded.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED

30TH June, 1918.

I. Obituary : Your Council desires to place on record its sense
of the loss it has sustained during the year in the death of two
of its former Presidents — Col. J. H. Hyslop, D.S.O., who was
President at the Natal Meeting in 1907, and Prof. P. D. Hahn,
M.A., Ph.D., who held the same office at Bulawayo in 191 1.
Other losses are indicated by the names of General P. L. de Ij. da
Silva, Prof. J. P. du Buisson, Rev. B. P. J. Marchaiid, Messrs.
D. Cullen, C. L. Fischer (on active service), D. J. Haarlmft, A.
GK>rdon Howitt (on active service), G. Rouliot, and W. W.
Thompson.

2. Memuership: Notwithstanding the removal of 42 names
from the register by resignation or resolution of the Council, in
addition to the 11 removed by death, it is gratifying to report an
increase from 712 to 774 members, no less than 115 new names
having been added :

The following is a comparative table showing the localities^
from which the members are drawn : —

REPORT OF COUNCIL. XIX

1917.

1918.

Cape Province . . .

• . • ...

203

... 215

Transvaal

... ...

337

... 390

Orange Free State

... ...

7>7

... 41

Natal

... ...

83

... 82

Rhodesia

. • • ...

18

19

Basutoland

. ■ • . • •

I

Mozambique

. . • ...

13

9

Swaziland

... ...

I

South-West Africa

Protectorate

2

I

Abroad

• • ■ • • •

17

14

Unknown

I

2

y

712

... 774

The present number of Life Members is 84, one having died
during the year, and five having been added.

3. Report of the Maritzburg Meeting, 1916: This, the
thirteenth annual volume of the Transactions of the Association,
has been completed and bound in uniformity with the previous
issues of the series. It comprises 57 papers printed in full, and 23
by title only, making a volume of 714 pages.

4. Report of the Stellenbosch Meeting, 1917: The issue
of this is well advanced in the Journal form, and the complete
volume should be available at a much earlier date than last
year.

5. Journal Expenditure: This has engaged the serious
attention of the Council at several meetings during the year.
Owing to the fact of the late publication of some of the numbers
of the Journal containing the papers read at the Maritzburg
meeting, the balance-sheet presented at the last Annual General
Meeting did not reflect the true position of the Association, as
was pointed out by the Treasurer. A Sub-committee was
appointed early in the year, consisting of two sections representa-
tive of Capetown and Johannesburg, to consider and report upon
the financial situation, and a deputation waited upon the Minister
of Education with a view of obtaining a Government Grant
towards the expense of publishing the Transactions of the Asso-
ciation. It was hoped that a sum of £250 might be obtained,
and in due course the sum of £150 was voted by Parliament, and
has been received. Without this sum the Council would have been
unable to fulfil its obligations. The Council desires to place on
record its thanks to the Minister of Education for his interest in
the work of the Association. Ir must also he noted that by resolu-
tion of the Council the sum of £150, together with £19 6s. 9d. in
interest, was withdrawn from the bank, where it had been
deposited in more favourable years, and was placed in the general
fund. A special effort in Johannesburg to obtain subscriptions
has added to the funds of the Association the sum of £150, and
the thanks of the Council are due to the Sub-committee. The

XX REPORT OF COUNCIL.

Sub-committee has made certain suggestions with a view to cur-
taiHng expenditure on the Journal, and it is hoped that these
may not be without effect, although at the same time it must be
borne in mind that, owing to the war, the cost of pubHcation will
be considerably enhanced during the coming year if the same
number of pages be printed.

6. South Africa Medal and Grant, 1918: The South
Africa Medal Committee, comprising Dr. C. F. Juritz (Chair-
man, Mr. J. Burtt-Davy. Dr. W. A. Caldecott," Prof. J. E.
Duerden. Prof. H. B. Fantham, Prof. C. E. Moss, Sir Thos.
Muir. Prof. J. Orr. Prof. M. M. Rindl, Dr. A. W. Roberts,
Sir A. Theiler, and Prof. E. Warren, recommended Mr. R. T. A.
Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E, Union Astronomer, Johannesburg, tor
the eleventh award of the South Africa Medal, together with the
grant of £50, which has invariably been presented with the Medal.
This recommendation has been confirmed by the Council.

7. Goold Adams Medals, 1918: The eighth series of awards
of the Goold-Adams Medals was made in connection with the
Matriculation and Senior Certificate Examinations of the Uni-
versity of the Cape of Good Hope, held in December last. The
names of the recipients were as follows : —

MatheiJiatics: Max Cohen, South African College Hi"f-^h

School, Capetown.
Physics: John Alexander Gilmore, South African College

High School, Capetown,
Chemistry : Bernard Gluck, Grey College School, Bloemfon-

tein.
Physical Science : Daphne Olive Tipper, Gill College High

School, Somerset East.
Botany : Edith Kathleen Tredgold, Girls' High School, Wyn-

berg.

The abolition of the University of the Cape of Good Hope
will necessitate the amendment of the Medal Rules ; and the
question of altering the rules or discontinuing the award of these
medals is being referred by the Council to the Annual General
Meeting for decision.

8. Research Grant Committee, 1918: Your Council has
appointed Prof. H. B. Fantham, Rev. Dr. W. Flint, Dr. C. F.
Juritz, and Mr. A. H. Reid as its representatives on the 1918
General Committee for Research Grants administered by the
Council of the Royal Society of South Africa. The grants have
not yet been awarded.

9. Metric Conference: In connection with the recom-
mendations of this Conference for stimulating public interest in
the adoption of the Metric System, the Witwatersrand Council
Members were appointed a sub-committee to consider and report
upon the steps necessary to give effect to the resolutions.

10. Memorial to Sir David Gill : The question of a Memo-
rial to the late Sir David Gill, the first President of the Associa-

REPORT OF COUNCIL. XXI

tion, was considered, and several suggestions were made in regard
thereto. It was resolved that a Sir David Gill Memorial Fund be
instituted and allowed to accumulate for a number of years, until
an amount is raised adequate for some purpose to be decided on
later, and that the offer of Mr. R. T. A. Innes to act as Secretary
and Treasurer of the Fund be accepted.

11. Standing Committee on Meteorological and Geo-
physical Research : The recommendation of Section A at the
last Annual Meeting, that a Standing Committee on Meteoro-
logical and Geophysical Research should be appointed was
approved by the Council, and the following Committee appointed :
Principal J. C. Beattie, Prof. A. Brown, Prof. J. P. Dalton,
Messrs. E. J. Hamlin, J. Hutcheon, S. S. Hough, R. T. A. Innes,
and F. E. Kanthack ; Professors W. H. Logeman. f. T. Morrison
and A. Ogg; Dr. A. W. Roberts, Mr. H. Pealing. Prof. W. N.
Roseveare, Dr. E. T. Stegmann, Messrs. J. S. van der Lingen,
and H. E. Wood; and also (subject to their joining the Associa-
tion) Messrs. C. Stewart, T. Stewart, Dr. J. R. Sutton, and Prof.
A. Young; Prof. Morrison to be Chairman, and Messrs. Hamlin
and Wood to be joint Secretaries.

12. Subdivision of Section C: The recommendation of the
Committee of Section C that the Section should be divided has
been considered by the Council. Various proposals for carrying
this into effect were brought under review, but as these diverged
too widely to admit of reconciliation, it was resolved to accept
the original proposal of Section C Committee for adoption at the
Annual Session, viz. : ( i ) Botany, Bacteriology, Agriculture, and
Forestry; (2) Zoology. Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitary
Science, the Committee appointed for that Session to be asked
to report thereat whether any modifications appear desirable.

13. Central Committee of Industrial Research: Pro-
fessor J. Orr and Messrs .J. Burtt-Davy and R. T. A. Innes were
re-elected representatives of the Association on this Committee.

14. Endowment Fund Trustees: Mr. A. D. R. Tugwell,
one of the trustees of the Endowment Fund, having died during
the year, the vacancy was filled by the appointment of Principal
J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, who has accepted the office.

15. Loan of Publications in the Library to Members:
Requests having been received for the loan of publications in
the Library to members, the Council resolved to approve the
principle, and the following regulations regarding the same were
adopted :

( i) A Member desirous of borrowing" books or journals shall forward
a deposit of £1.

(2) The borrower shall paj- postage both ways, and in the case of
the loss of books or journals shall refund the value of the same.

(3) Not more than three issues shall be held at one and the same
time

(4) Books and journals may not be kept longer than one month, but
this period may be extended to two months if the application is renewed
at the end of the first month.

XXn REPORT OF COUNCIL.

(5) An extension of the period shall not be granted 'f another
application has been made for the same work during the first month.

(6) In the case of specially valuable works, the Librarian shall have
discretionary power as to the issue of the same.

16. The New Council: On the basis of membership pro-
vided for in the Constitution of the Association. Section VI (d),
the number of Members of Council assigned for the representa-
tion of each centre during the ensuing twelve months should be
distributed as follows:

Cape Provhice :

Cape Peninsula 5

Kimberley i

Kingwilliamstown i

Middelburg i

Port Elizabeth i

Stellenbosch 2

Transvaal :

Witwatersrand 14

Pretoria 4

Potchefstroom i

Orange Free State {with Basut eland) :

Bloemfontein 2

Natal :

Maritzburg 2

Durban 2

Rhodesia :

Bulawayo i

Mozambique :

Lourengo Marques ... i

38

XXlll

REPORT OF THE HONORARY TREASURER FOR THE
YEAR ENDED MAY 31st, 1918.

In handing you the audited financial statements for the year
1917-18, I regret to have to draw your attention to the fact that,
notwithstanding the special grants amounting to i200, and al-
though the ordinary revenue has been higher than last year by
£74 i8s. id. (made up of the following: increases, subscriptions,
£56 2s. 8d. : interest. £8 15s. 5d. ; Hfe fees, iio), the revenue has
fallen short of the expenditure by no less than £122 12s. 46.

On the expenditure side, printing and stationery is higher
by £5 IIS. 5d., due to the general higher costs. Grants under
Rule 9 are smaller than they otherwise would have been, owing
to an amount of £3 17s. 6d. having been returned by the Maritz-
burg centre. The expenses of the Annual Meeting include the
amount of £10 los. granted to the Assistant General Secretary;
other items are as usual.

The expenses of the Journal are shown in the balance-
sheet, and are sufficiently explanatory. The monthly issues have
been brought closed to proper date, only April and May numbers
not having been paid for at the end of May. The accounts for
these have since come in, amounting together to £65 is. iid., so
that the cash balance at the end of June of £92 los. 3d. may be
considered as reduced by that amount, leaving £27 8s. 4d. to
start the new year clear with.

As I understand that the Council will frame some new regu-
lations re expenditure, I would say that, excluding extraneous
donations, the income for the year 1918-19 may be estimated at
£725, and the balance as above added makes available for ex-
penditure the sum of £752, against which the average ordinary
expenses amount to approximately £270, leaving a balance of
£482 for Journal expenditure and carrying forward.

The Endowment Fund now amounts to £1,548, a sum of
£60 having been added, and £10 withdrawn.

The Medal Fund amounts to £1,445 13s. ,8d.. invested at
4 per cent. The annual requirements amount to £53, which
would be yielded by £1,325. I would suggest that some of the
surplus money might with advantage be used for grants in aid
of scientific research, as that side of the Society's original pro-
gramme has not been given effect to for many years, and our
ordinary income does not allow of anything being done in that
direction.

All investments are taken at face value.

A Walsh,

Hon. Treasurer.
June 20th, 19 1 8.

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S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. 1.

The South Africa Medal.

xxvn-

ELEVENTH AWARD OF THE SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL

AND GRANT.

(Fund raised bv Members of the British Associaticm in com-
memoration of their visit to South Africa I'n. 1905.)

After the conclusion of the Presidential Address in the Sel-
borne Hall. Johannesburg, on Monday, July 8, 1918, the Presi-
dent, Dr. C. F. Juritz, handed the South Africa Medal, together
with the customary grant of £50, to Mr. Robert Thorburn
Ayton Innes, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Union Astronomer. In
making this presentation the President said: —

Mr. Innes occupies an assured place as one of the foremost
astronomers of the day, especially in such branches of research
as the astronomy of double and variable stars. To the advance
of knowledge in these subjects he has not only contributed ex-
tensively and continuously by his own observations, but he has
also produced works which are considered to be of standard
rank by those who are intimately acquainted with the branches
of astronomical science just mentioned.

In 1894 he published his first list of new double stars. This
list has since been followed by others, the number of independent
discoveries now standing at 1.125 pairs.

It was as an enthusiastic amateur that Mr. Innes began
astronomical work in New South Wales, and much of his earlier
investigations in relation to variable stars and double stars was
recorded from time to time in the Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society and in the Journal of the British Astro-
nomical Association. In those earlier days he also contributed to
the Proceedings of the Royal Astronomical Society papers relat-
ing to the secular perturbations of the earth's orbit. Mr. Innes'
method of computing these perturbations was a new adaptation of
(iauss's " elliptical ring "" method to m<')dern elliptical functions,
and is the briefest method available for the solution of the prob-
lem. His first contribution to the Astronomical Society's Pro-
ceedings was made just 30 years ago. and its object was to point
out an error in Le Verrier's tables.

Conjointly with Gale, one of the best-known and most skilful
observers of New South Wales, he was instrumental in founding
the New South Wales Branch of the British Astronomical Asso-
ciation.

In 1896 he came to South Africa to join the staff of the
Royal Observatory at Capetown, and laboured at the revision
of the Cape Photographic Durchmusterung. Of his services in
this direction Sir David Gill spoke as follows in his introduction
to the last volume of the Durchmusterung: —

" Mr. R. T. A. Innes has, as a labour of love, devoted him-
self since April. 1896, to the work of revision which is sum-
marized in the introduction."

XXVni SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL.

And again, in his Presidential address to the South African
Philosophical Society, September 17, 1902, Sir David Gill said: —

" Mr. Innes, previous to his arrival at the Cape, had devoted
himself to this branch of astronomy (double stars), and, with
comparatively feeble means, had discovered about 40 previously
unknown double stars, and published their estimated distances
and position angles. In the course of his revision of the Durch-
musterung, and by making use of opportunities of exceptional
definition, he has now added about 300 to the list of known
southern double stars, all of a class that would appear single on
cur photographic plates. He has also applied the i8-in. refractor
of the new McLean telescope to that work, and with Mr. Lunt
has made many measures of the position angles and distances
of southern double stars. In addition to this he has prepared a
reference catalogue of southern double stars, with a bibliography
of the subject, which is published in the Annals of the Cape
Observatory, vol. ii., part 2."

In 1903 Mr. Innes was a])])ointed to take charge of the
Transvaal Observatory, and in this capacity he issued eight an-
nual volumes of Meteorological Reports. In 1909 the issue of
the Transvaal Observatory Circulars was commenced — the title
of this publication was altered to Union Observatory Circulars in
1912 — and some four dozen numbers have since appeared.

Mr. Innes was amongst the first to appreciate the value of
the blink method in application to the discovery of minor planets
and other rapidly-moving objects in the heavens. By this method
he has succeeded in discovering many proper motion stars, vari-
able stars, and minor planets, including a third component of the
system Alpha Centauri, our nearest neighbour in stellar space
outside of the solar system. To this star the name of Proxima
Centauri has been assigned.

In this connection it is of considerable interest to note
that the first parallax of a fixed star ever observed was found at
the Cape by Henderson, whose observations were made during
1831-32 This was. in fact, the parallax of Alpha Centauri.
The results, however, were not published uritil 1841 — that is
to say, after Bessel had announced the parallax of 61 Cygni.
The parallax of Proxima Centuri was found by Mr. Innes in
1917.

It is in the knowledge of many members of this x*\ssocia-
tion that ]\Ir. Innes was one of its original founders in 1902,
and that by his zeal and service he did much to make it a suc-
cessful venture from the ver\- beginning. From 1909 to 1912
he was one of the General Secretaries of the Association, and
at the Pretoria meeting in 191 5 he occupied the presidential
chair.

It is only seemly and just that the Association should mark
its appreciation of the services of one who has so loyally sup-
ported science in South Africa, and who has done so much
for its furtherance: the Council of the Association has therefore

SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. XXIX

resolved that this eleventh award of the South Africa medal and
grant, bestowed on the recipient for achievement and promise in
scientific research in South Africa, shall be made to Mr. Innes,
and in now handing him this mark of appreciation, I voice the
hope, which I am sure the whole Association shares with me,
that investigations of the important and valuable character of
those carried out by Mr. Inues in t!he past may yet long be con-
tinued by him.

The following is a list of some of the principal astronomical
and meteorological papers published by Mr. Innes : —

" Note on an error in Le Verrier"s ' Tables cln Soleil.' " Monthly

Notices R. /IS. (1888).
" Secular Perturbations of the Earth's Orbit bv Mars." Monthly Notices

R.A.S. (1891).
■' Secular Perturbations of the liarth's Orbit bv \'enus." Monthly

Notices R.A.S. (1892).
"A List of New Double Stars." Monthly Notices R.A.S. (1894).
■' Computation of Secular Perturbations." ^fonthly Notices R.A.S.

(1906).
" Anomalous Occultations of Stars bv the Moon." Monthly Notices

R.A.S. (1900).
" Note on certain coefficients appearing in the algebraical development

of the perturbative function." Monthly Notices R.A.S. (1908).
" Reference Catalogue of Southern Double Stars." Annals of the

Cape Observatory 2 (1899).
9. ■■ Revision uf the Cape Photographic Durchinusterung."" Annals of

the Cape Observatory 9 (1903).
TO. "Transvaal Meteorological Reports." Annual Volumes (1903 to 1910).
'■ The Barometer in South Africa." Report S.A . Assoc, for Adv. of

Science (1906).
" Weights and Measures for Sonth Africa." Report S.A. Assoc, for

Adv. of Science (1909).
"A Logical Notation for Mathematics." Report S.A. Assoc, for Adv.

of Science (1910).
" South African Climatic Conditions in relation to Aviation." Report

S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of .Science (1911).
" Star Positions and Galactic Co-ordinates." Kchort S.A. Assoc, for-

Adv. of Science (1913).
" Cosmological Hypotheses." Report S.A. Assoc, for .\dv. of Science

(1914).
"Daylight Saving." Report S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of Science (1916).
" Periods of the Elliptic Functions of Weierstrass." Proc. Roy. Sac.,

Edin. (1907).
" Double-Star Astronomy in the Southern Hemisphere." Addresses

and Papers Brit, and S.A. Assocs. for Adv. of Science (1905).
" Reduction of Transvaal Temperatures to Sea-level." Trans. Roy.

Soc. of S.A. C190Q).
"Fourth Order Perturbations of Satellites TTT and TV of Jupiter."

Trans. Roy. Soc. of S.A. (1911).

8,

II

12
13

14

15

t6

17
18,

19
20.

21

Previous Recipients.

1908. GrahamstoivH. — Arnold Theiler, C.M.G., V.M.D., Bac-

teriologist to the Transvaal Government, Pretoria.

1909. Bloenifontein. — Harry Bolus. D.Sc, F.L.S., of Sherwood,

Kenilworth, Cape Division.

XXX SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL.

1910. Capetonm. — John Carruthers Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,

Professor of Physics. Smith African College.
Capetown.

191 1. Bulawayo. — Louis Peringuey, D.Sc, F.E.S.. F.Z.S.,

Director of the South African Museum, Capetown.

1912. Port Elizabeth. — Alexander William Roberts, D.Sc,

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., of Luvedale Observatory, C-P.

1913. Lourengo Marques. — Arthur William Rogers, M.A,.

ScD., F.G.S., Assistant Director of the Union
Geological Survey, Capetown.

1914. Kimbcrley. — Prof. Rudolph Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Cape-

town.
'915. Pretoria. — Charles Pugsley .Loun.sbury, B.Sc, F.E.S .
Chief of the Division of Entomology, Union De-
partment of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1916. Maritzburg. — Thomas Robertson Sim, F.L.S., F.R.H.S.,

formerly Conservator A Forests for Natal.

1917. Stellenbosch. — John Dow Fisher Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc,

Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology.
South African College, Capetown.

ASSOCIATIOX LI I'.KARY

The followinir publications are regularly filed at the office
of the Association, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings.
St. George's Street, Capetown.

General Science.

Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings.

Royal Society of South Africa: Transactions.

Royal Society of South Australia : Memoirs.

Royal Society of South Australia : Transactions.

Royal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.

Royal Society of Canada : Proceedings and Transactions.

Royal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.

Royal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.

Royal Dublin Society : Scientific Proceedings.

Royal Institution of Great Britain : Proceedings.

Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.

Royal Society of Arts : Journal.

Michigan Academy of Science : Reports.

Chicago Academy of Sciences:

Bulletins.

.Special Publications.
Reale Academia dei Lincei, Rome; Atti.
Kungl. .Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :

Handlingar.

o

Arsbok.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY. XXXI

Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam:

Proceedings of the Section of Sciences.

Verhandelinqen.
Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid : Revista.
British Association for the Advancement of Science : Reports.
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ceedings.
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0

Meddelanden fran K. Vetenskapsiakademiien Nobelinstittut.

California Academy of Sciences: Proceedings.

Academy of Science of St. Louis : Transactions.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadephia : Proceedings.

American Journal of Science.

Ohio Journal of Science.

Revue Generale des Sciences.

Archives Neerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles.

Annaes scientificos da Academia polytechnica do Porto.

Rlhodesia Scientific rVssociation :

Proceedings.

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Societe de ph3''sique et d'histoire naturelle de Geneve :

Memoires.

Comptes rendus.
Det Kongelige Norske Videnskapers Selska]is Skrifter.
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Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
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New Zealand Institute : Transactions and Proceedings.
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XXXn ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

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The Mineralogical Magazine.

South African Association of Analytical Chemists: Proceedings.

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International Crop Report and Agricultural Statistics.

International Review of the Sciemce and Practice of
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XXXIV ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

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association library. xxxv

Education, Political Economy and Sociology.

United Empire.

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Ohio State University Bulletin.

International Institute of Agriculture, Rome: International

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talassografico :

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di Catania : pubblicazioni.
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Survey :

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Patents for Inventions : Abridgments of Specifications.
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Anthropology and Ethnology.
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x^rch.eology.
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PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

ADDRESS

BY

CHARLES FREDERICK JURITZ,
M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

PRESIDENT.

Since last we met in annual session we have had to mourn
the loss of several of our members. Some of these have yielded
up their lives in the service of their country — yes, and in a
larger sphere of service, the service of humanity — on the field
of battle ; others, who had, in another sense, spent their lives
for South Africa, passed away in the quiet of their own homes.
Amongst the latter I pause for a moment on the names of three
who had held high offices during some of our past annual gather-
ings : two had been Presidents of the Association, and the third
was a sectional president. Paul Daniel Hahn, a man of con-
spicuous personality and strength of character, who thoroughly
appreciated the inestimable value of science as a factor in national
prosperity, achieved an immense work for this land in fostering

2 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

the scientific spirit during a period exceeding an entire generation,
not only amongst the youth of the country generally, but more
particularly amongst the agriculturists. James Hyslop, perhaps
better known in the Province of Natal than in the rest of the
Union, coupled military instincts with a keen desire to alleviate
mental ailments among his fellow-beings. Modest and unobstru-
sive, he accomplished the bulk of his valuable labours sa silently
that the great world around was almost unaware of them, but
those who came from other parts and saw, returned deeply im-
pressed with admiration for the man and for what he had done.
Then there was Bernard Alarchand, keen as an educationist, and,
if that were possible, keener still to uplift sunken and degenerate
countrymen, alive to every opportunity of fashioning such into
thrifty and useful members of society. Each of those three
worked for South Africa in the manner that best became him.
In aims and methods they differed considerably, but all were
alike practical, and their aggregate achievements covered a field
so extensive that few, if indeed any, of us adequately realise its
proportions.

We are now meeting in annual session for the fourth time
since the war began, a war which has made some of us wonder
whether an association for the advancement of science is after
all an institution beneficial or prejudicial to the best interests of
the human race, for it is undoubtedly science — organised, calcu-
lating, deliberately applied science — that has made this un-
paralleled conflict — a conflict of arms, yes, but more of intellects
— possible. But the suggestion is fallacious : fire and water are
ills only when they are allowed unbridled scope and become mas-
ters ; under control they serve us excellently. The world had
got into the way of luxuriating in all the unprecedented benefits
that new forms of applied science had conferred on human-
kind during the first decade of this century, when the second
decade let loose on an unprepared world all the evils, all the
passions, all the debasing influences that misapplied and mis-
directed science could call into being.

I doubt whether humanity at large has even now learnt the
lesson which this colossal disaster should teach it ; that principle
and loftiness of purpose are more to be desired than knowledge,
and that mere science, uncontrolled by man's higher aspirations
and nobler feelings, may involve the human race in an inconceiv-
ably stupendous catastrophe. We are fortunate indeed that we
do not yet possess the highly dangerous power to unchain the
interatomic energy now happily latent in our stabler chemical
elements.

Is science, then, to be blamed for that which the world now
suffers? Is it not rather the circumscription of science that is
the cause of it all? Inasmuch as science is knowledge, our science
of necessity remains imperfect as long as we know only in part ;
and if a so-called science levels in the dust all the highest moral
and spiritual principles in man, if it outrages liberty, flaunts truth,
tramples sanctity underfoot, casts chivalry to the winds, and
acclaims as its god all that is vile and loathsome and devilish, it

{'RKSIDKKT S ADDRESS. 3

remains a stunted travesty of the full-orbed science that seeks
the highest ideals of knowled_2^c in every realm.

And so Principal Beattie was unquestionably right some
months ago when he said that the present world contest is a
struggle not between nations, but between ideals. Admittedly
neither ideal is perfect, but the ideal that is low and grovelling
and sordid and selfish is obviously the ideal of a mind that has
no vision for anything loftier. If science is to confer the highes^t
benefits on mankind, its outlook must be ever broadening, and
to a truly scientific people there should be nothing tending to
prejudice or dogmatism resulting from a circumscribed range
of A-ision.

In one of his " short stories," H. G. Wells describes con-
ditions amongst a race of degenerated human beings, who vege-
tated in a mysteriously isolated and forgotten valley amongst the
mountains — a valley that had in it all that the heart of man could
desire — sweet water, verdant pastures, glorious climate — -but a
valley cut off from the outside world, less bv reason of the ice-
capped clifTs of rock that walled it in than because of the fact
that 15 generations ago a strange disease had seized upon the
dwellers in that valley, and had left to them total blindness as
an inheritance. The walls of ice that isolated them geographically
they could have surmounted, as man's ingenuity often scales the
highest of material difficulties, btit the sightlessness which
hemmed them in mentally cut them ofif efifectually from the world
of men.

The most serious obstacles to the advancement of a country
are not geographical. When a great movement is in progress
one sometimes finds that those who should be in the van fail
to lead because they lack discernment. It was not Nelson who
was blind at Copenhagen, but the amiable and kindly Sir Hyde
Parker, who seldom ventured to take responsibility, while Nelson,
when he put the telescope to his blind eye, had really the clearer
vision of the two. Now South Africa had been geographically
cut of¥ from the centres o'f scientific activity in the Northern
Hemisphere for generations, but to-day all the important hap-
penings of Europe are flashed across 6,000 miles of ocean in a
few hours. The opening decades of last century brought no less
sensation in the way of scientific discovery to our forefathers than
the discoveries of the last 18 years have brought to us, and one
of the chief contributors to the new light that dawned on men a
century ago was Prof. Hans Christian Oersted, of Copenhagen,
who laid the foundations of electro-magnetism by his discovery
that the electrical current of a galvanic battery, when passed
through a platinum wire, acted on a compass needle placed below
the wire.

Every naval man at the beginning of last century was not as
clear-sighted as Nelson, and illustrations may be quoted of some
of very different type who, it is much to be feared, still have
representatives amongst us in this rapidly closing second decade
of the twentieth century, as they had amongst our ancestors in
the second decade of the nineteenth.

4 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

For some time before Oersted's clear reasoning- led him to
the precise point at which his discovery was made, Ronalds, of
Hammersmith, had been busy devising an electric telegraph, and
succeeded in working it on a small scale between two stations
525 feet apart. When the possibilities latent herein were com-
municated to the Admiralty, the reply was received that " tele-
graphs of any kind were wholly unnecessary, and no other than
the one in use would be adopted." The British Admiralty's stolid
refusal to see any better way of doing things than that of the
time-worn groove was emulated by a large proportion of the
British nation when war was declared four years ago, and the
silly formula, " Business as usual," was flaunted about. The dis-
illusionment soon came, for the voice of Science began to assert
itself, and demanded audience, until the stolidity that was pro-
verbial began to melt, and the need of organising the stud\- and
application of science was realised simultaneously with the dawn-
ing of an unpleasant feeling that the enemy had been beforehand
in this matter.

Then it was that the leaders of science laid the responsibility
for the lethargic condition of the nation at the door of the Gov-
ernment, and charges of administrative inertia with respect to
the support of science as a national duty were heard.

The reply of the British Admiralty to Ronalds, of Hammer-
smith, is an instance by no means unique of ci>rjx)rate self-com-
placency in regard to science : an entire nation exhibited a similar
mental twist when that brilliant chemist, Lavoisier, was executed
by the French Republic in 1794. After his sentence he had
pleaded for a fortnight's reprieve in order that certain experi-
ments on which he had been engaged might be completed, but the
reply was. " The Republic does not need such," and so the guillo-
tine terminated Lavoisier's researches. We speak of Liebig as
the father of modern agricultural chemistry, and justly so, but
the extent to which Liebig might have been forestalled had not
the blundering short-sightedness of the French Revolution
sheared Lavoisier's life away nine years before Liebig was born
we shall never know.

" Wholly unnecessary !" " We do not need such !" The
ejaculations, we say, of a purblind administration — of an ob-
sessed nation! And yet. to-day, 120 years after Lavoisier's death,
even to-day, after four years of intense warfare, it is surprising
how much we are still inclined to echo the stupid cry of the
Republic, " We do not need such !"

What foundation is there for such an assertion ? What
w'arrant has one for diagnosing national lethargy and adminis-
trative inertia? Listen to some evidence. Many of us in South
Africa have most perverted notions of what the national attitude
with regard to the study and encouragement of science should
be. In the United Kingdom, they probably imagine, that attitude
is all that could be desired, and here, most likely, it is just what
it is there. Both assumptions are incorrect, but as I do not wish
you to accept such a statement on my bare assertion, I ask pardon
for introducing several quotations. Much strong language has

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 3

been uttered on this subject since the war began, but Httle of it
has been stronger than that of the eminent bacteriologist. Sir
Ronald Ross, in Nature of January 13th, 1916 — 17 months after
the declaration of war : —

Tt is idle to disguise the fact [said he] that recent events have filled
most educated persons with a sense of extreme resentment against the
administration of this country. . . . It is felt by many (and I am one
of them) that we live under the rule of the invertebrates. The people
who administer the country are not the best, the most vigorous, and the
most sagacious of men. They are too often the time-servers and the
mediocrities. The maladministration of scientific afifairs is only one of
the many forms of maladministration ; but, on the whole, I think it is
perhaps the most important form, because it gives to the mind of the
whole nation a lower, a meaner, and a thoroughly sentimental and
unpractical turn.

Scarcely less trenchant in parts is an editorial in Nature of
March 29th, 1917 — 31 months after war was declared. There
we are told that

such matters have been too much in the control of the clerical establish-
ments> who are ignorant of the significance of chemistry, and its vital
importance to the interests of the country.

Even if one had no other evidence, the obvious consensus
of opinion on the part of scientific men throughout the length
and breadth of the British Dominions should suffice to convict
the nation of criminal neglect of science in general, and of chem-
istry in particular. Witness against this neglect has. I say. been
borne in every part of the Empire. In England, Sir William
Crookes suggested as a remedy a Ministry of Science, and repre-
sentation of Science on the Privy Council. In the Nova Scotian
Institute of Science, Professor Eraser Harris put forth a power-
ful plea for the institution of a Department of Science, presided
over by a Cabinet Minister. The comfortable mental inertia of
the British race he deemed to be such that " nothing less than
this irruption of Teutonic brutality " could have shaken it, and
so he urged that the official interests and the economic aspects
of science should be presided over by someone who knows some-
thing about them.*

Not mere lapse of time — not six score years of unparalleled
scientific progress since the day when Erance rewarded the dis-
coverer of oxygen with the guillotine — sufficed to break down the
impenetrable crystalline structure of the British mind. Natura
non agit nisi fluida, and so a stupendous war had to intervene
and melt this conl}X)site solidity before anything like chemical
action could be brought about. The war has been called a chem-
ists' war. It has been described over and over again as a war
between the engineers and chemists of the belligerent countries,
with chemistry in the front ranks. Within limits the statement
is true, and certainly it is far nearer the truth than many admin-
istrative authorities realise. Bearing that in mind, hear the
testimony of two chemists of note, one from the British and
one from the American side of the Atlantic.

* Nature (1917), 99, 237.

D PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

Prof. G. G. Henderson, of the Royal Technical College,
Glasgow, addressing the British Association as President of
Section B. animadverted strongly on British failure to keep pace
with other countries in industrial chemistry. This he ascribed
to the general ignorance of and indifference to the methods and
results of scientific work which characterise the people of Great
Britain.

For many years past [he said] our leaders in science have done all
that lay in their power to awaken the country to the inevitable and deplor-
able results of this form of " sleeping sickness," but hitherto tlieir recep-
tion has been much the same as that accorded to the hero of " The
Pilgrim's Progress : " they lookt upon him, and began to reply in this sort :
Simple said, / see no danger; Sloth said. Yet a little more sleep; and
Presumption said, Every vat must stand upon his ozvn bottom. And they
lay down to sleep again, and Christian went on his way."*

Similar in its kernel was an utterance by G. W. Thompson
in the course of an address to the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers last year.f

Germany has made great advances in chemistry. Some think that
this is due to her system of education, and probably this is partly true.
Some think that it is due to the far-sighted wisdom of public men. This.
too, is probably partly true, but the real success of chemistry in Ger-
many in my own opinion has been due to its greater popular appreciation.
. . . Progress ultimately is in the people of a nation, their developing
thoughts, their appreciation of the world that is about them.

One is astounded to find that a blundering nation may receive
a staggering shock as a result of its blundering course and yet
persist in the selfsame course. One expects a civilised nation
to show more common-sense than a flock of sheep dashed into
by a railway train. Britain was staggered when she discovered,
at the outbreak of war, her extreme poverty in three departments
of chemical manufacture — synthetic dyes, synthetic organic prin-
ciples, synthetic drugs. One tnight imagine that this would have
taught her wisdom, and that she would forthwith have begini
employing her chemists to best advantage ; but no, it was not
until the introduction of asphyxiating gases by the Germans
that it begati to dawn on Britain that she was acting unwisely
in making musket-bearers of her chemists. It was then, as
Nature points out.t that the War Office called for volunteers
with training in chemistry, and formed a new fighting force,
" selecting the officers from chemists already holding commis-
sions, and transferred non-commissioned officers and men with
scientific qualifications from other units." But the awakening
came far too late to be of the service that it might have been.
Let me quote to you some forcible sentences by Dr. Geoffrey
Martin, a graduate of the Universities of London, Bristol, and
Rostock, a lecturer on technical chemistry in one of London's
University colleges, one of the most lucid writers of the day
on both theoretical and applied chemistry, and the author of
numerous works both in English and in German. He says : —

* Rept. Brit. Ass. for Adv. of Sc. (1916). Newcastle-on-Tyne. 369.
■f Jotirn. Ind. and Eng. Chemistry (1917). 9 [2], 182.
X March 29, 1917, p. 85.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 7

British chemists believe that if their Government had h'stened to them
years ago the Germans would have been beaten in the early
stages of the great war, and that thousands of lives would have been
saved, [and that] in the autumn of 1914 Germany was saved from a
crushing defeat because she possessed the sense to encourage her
chemists.

We may. however, candidly admit that the Anglo-Saxon pub-
lic has gone some distance in the direction of learning wisdom
during these four years. An American chemist was delivering a
presidential address to an academy of science on the evening of
the day on which President Wilson .signed the Declaration of
War, and he said that

probably the greatest contribution to science of the present war is the
awakening of the average mind to the power and value to mankind of that
group of phenomena which we study as chemistry. This is probably
because we most easily grasp and appreciate applications rather than
generalisations, and the use of chemistry in war has been a revelation to
the general puljlic.

My predecessor of three years ago, in a paper read by him
at our Stellenbosch meeting last year, urged that " each State
must be organised for efficiency." If that be aimed at, then the
principle " Every man in the post that fits him best " will have
to become one of the guiding principles of organisation, as it
has done in the United States. The Western Allies were slow
to realise the need of applying this principle, at all events as
far as scientific qualifications were concerned, but they have
begun to see it now. In the " Report on the War Service for
Chemists " to the Council of National Defence of the United
States, it was stated that

Eingland, France, and Italy found it necessary to recall all chemists from
the ranks ; Canada does not allow chemists to enlist ; chemists have saved
Germany up to the present time.

Prof. Camille Matignon, writing in the Revue Gencrale dcs
Sciences in January, 191 7, explains how this salvation was
brought to pass. Germany would surely have been faced with
disaster at the commencement of the present war had she not
devised means of providing herself with a sufficiency of nitrates.
These were absolutely essential for the production of explosives,
and the outside supply being cut off, Germany could only be
saved if the problem of converting ammonium sulphate into
nitrates on a large scale could be solved. How this was done is
too long a story to tell here ; suffice it to say that by encouraging
people to use gas and coke instead of coal a large annual output
of ammonium sulphate was secured, and by the end of 191 5 the
Anhaltische Maschinenbau Gesellschaft of Berlin had established
30 installations for the conversion of this into nitric acid at the
rate of 100,000 tons per month by means of a process newly
worked out by Frank and Caro. A factory employing Pauling's
process for the preparation of nitric acid from atmospheric nitro-
gen was established in Saxony, and a third method — the direct
synthesis of ammonia — was subsidised by the German Govern-
ment after the Battle of the Marne, so as to increase its annual
production to 300,000 tons of ammonium sulphate.

8 president's address.

Contrast with this the official attitude in Great Britain when
the war began. " The need for fit men was the first considera-
tion," says the Editor of Nahit-e* and the need for chemists, as
such, in other spheres directly connected with war was not at
first recognised. OfiFers to the War Office of scientific assistance
emanating from organised bodies and from individuals were
politely acknowledged, and pigeon-holed for future reference in
case of necessity. The British Admiralty and Ronalds over
again !

It is true things are somewhat different to-day in the Old
World: to quote a recent address by Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S..
of Cambridge, President of the Chemical Society if

The general public, the public authorities, and our governing bodies
now regard as vital to the interests of the country a science which they
previously left unconsidered as being of purely academic interest.

The error has been fully and frankly admitted. As the
editor of the American Journal of Industrial and Engineering
Chemistry wrote a few months ago,f

France and England fully acknowledge that they greatly decreased
their efficiency by sending their scientific men to the trenches. Although
they have since withdrawn most of those still alive, § and are now using
them in special service, the dearth of technically-trained men has been
and is severelv felt.

As I make this quotation I think in particular of such a
man as the late H. G. J. Moseley, whom I had the privilege of
meeting in Australia four years ago, and whose work in England
as a scientific investigator was incomparably greater than the
brief service which -he rendered in the fighting-line before his
brilliantly begun career was cut short — a man of whom the
Chairman of the Chemistry Committee of the United States
National Research Council said that he was allowed to go to the
front when he should have been retained at home at all costs.

When America first entered the war there was for a brief
period the danger that she, too, would follow the mistaken lead
of England and France, and so Dr. W. H. Nichols, Chairman of
the Committee on Chemicals of the United States Council of
National Defence, felt impelled to say :

Already serious trouble has come to many of our chemical plants, and
plants employing chemists, as a result of the draft, and unless wise pro-
vision be soon made we can foresee a condition which it will cost months to
rectify.

Lieut. Engel, of the French Commission, drove home these
remarks :

I desire first to emphasise [said he] the mistake it is to take chemists
from where they are most needed, and to place them in the trenches, as
we did ourselves, and have lost them where they were most needed — in
the laboratories and the industries. We made this great mistake at the
beginning of the war. We took all chemists available and sent them into

* March 29, 1917.
t Chem. News (1917), 116, 199.
t (1917), 9 [11], 1002.

§ To the number of 128,000, it is said. — Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem.
(.1917), 9 fii], 1009.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 9 '

the regiments, mostly the infantry. Perhaps we lost 60 per cent, of the
mobilised chemists below the age of 40. . . . At the National School.
in the scientific department, there was a loss of about 52 per cent, in the
first ten months of the war. I cannot tell you emphatically enough that
we must in all of our allied nations do our best to keep scientific men
where they are most needed, not only for war problems, but for the future
upbuilding of these nations.*

Such quotations as the above afford an informative pano-
rama to the average South African, who has, I fear, but Httle
conception of the manner in which the position is regarded by
scientific inen overseas ; they give us, moreover, some inkling of
where Germany's power and our own weakness He. If we wish
to probe a Httle further into ulterior causes, we may find some-
thing of what we seek in Sir Ronald Ross's remark that

for more than half a century before the war England has ceased to be
an intellectual nation ; the public at large has remained indifferent to
science, art, literature, invention, and all the great intellectual pursuits,
and has given itself up to game-playing, party-politics, faddism, and a
debased drama. We are now paying the penalty, and, if I do not mistake,
will have to pay a heavier one before the end.

How is it that we do not realise that they do these things
differently in Germany? Mr. A. G. Thacker, writing in Science
Progress i8 months agof on the recent advances in anthropology,
had occasion to refer incidentally to German science, and used
these words :

Even now the people of this country do not properly appreciate the
fact that the remarkable strength displayed by the German nation during
the last thirty months has been very largely the power of German science.
Eailing a much more adequate cultivation of science, there will be no
great future for Great Britain.

Now why has German science such a power? The answer
is : Because of the wise policy pursued in connection therewith.
Let me offer you an illustration. Prof. J. Stieglitz, of the Uni-
versity of Chicago, President of the American Chemical Society,
a few months ago said with special emphasis that, in his opinion,
the most important single factor which would lead to a tremen-
dous increase in power in the industrial development of the
United States is not immediately a question of scientific achieve-
ment, but a factor found in a simple psychological analysis of
the country's industrial situation. J

Let our manufacturers but awaken [said he] to the full meaning of
the simple old behest that the labourer is worthy of his hire, and they will
be astounded at the results.

He went on to relate how the chief chemist in one of the
largest manufacturing concerns in the country perfected a device
that saved the corporation perhaps 80,000 dollars a year: his
reward was a princely increase of 200 or 300 dollars a year in
salary. " Let me say," he continued, " that I promptly took him
away from this corporation — we cannot afford to waste good
men in such places." American tendency, he said, is to exploit

*Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem. (1917), 9 [10], 925-926.

t January, 1917, p. 477-

t Science (1917), 46, 324, 325.

lO PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

the chemist as an employee, instead of treating him as a partner,
and by way of contrast he mentioned the Badische Anilin-Fabrik,
where, from the lowest workman up to the highest chemist, every
individual is by contract guaranteed a royalty, a definite share
in the money earned or saved by any suggestion or discovery
on the part of the individual. Britain. I need not say, approxi-
mates in this respect more to American than to German practice,
and to say what some of Britain's colonies do is quite superfluous.
Often we find that private manufacturing firms, who ought to
be employing whole-time chemists of their own, seek to make
amends for the lack by periodical interviews with Government
chemists. On the other hand, it is a significant comment on the
rate of remuneration in Government scientific departments that
one of the must important laboratories in this country should
have lost five members of its stafi:' within the last six months
because considerably better financial prospects were offered by
a private firm and by an adjacent administration — this at a time
when the Government was already achertising for three chemists
to fill other vacancies caused by the war.

American scientific journals have reiterated that chemists
have become scientific hacks solely because they have not made
their voices heard. They are, 1 know, proverbially a ])atient
class, and have e\'er been so. As long as 200 years ago Pope
spoke of

The starving chemist, in his golden views

Supremely blest.

But there are limits.

Let me revert to the comparison between British and Ger-
man methods in regard to chemists. In a supplement to the
Manchester Guardian of June 30th, 1917, Prof. A. G. Green
attributes the decadence of the dyestuff industry in Britain, and
its prosperous career in Germany, to the fact that though in both
■countries the managing firms were originally chemists, those in
England gradually passed into the hands of purely commercial
men. Some of you may recollect that, in my presidential address
given in this city three years ago to the South African Association
of Analytical Chemists, I referred to the British efforts to regain
the lost industry, and quoted the late Prof . Meldola as saying that
the supposition that this could be done by staring a company
whose directorate is to consist solely of business men is simply
ludicrous. What do we hear on the subject to-day? This:

The Government meant well, the husiness men meant well, but after
three years the hard facts can no longer l)e denied. The protests of British
scientific opinion, ignored at the time, are in the event justified beyond
all measure. The fact is, it is not enough to mean well ; it is knowledge
that is wanting, not good will.

That is the state of affairs in Britain : how far is South
Africa behind Britain?

South Africa is a new country, and her future — she imagines
— lies all before her : shall we be right in adapting Mr. Thacker's
remark that, failing an adequate cultivation of science, she will
have no future at all? On the other hand, one does not wish

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. II

these reflections to be misunderstood. A mere cultivation of
science is hopeless.ly inadequate to ensure the best results. If we
never realised this before, we should certainly be positive of it
now. South Africa, I trust, will have something more than mere
organised science. G. K. Chesterton has said that the weakness
of Prussian organisation is that it is destitute of all that is or-
ganic. An organ is not at best, he says, when it is a barrel organ.

Precisely what makes the difference between the mechanical and the
organic is the presence throughout the system of that invisible vital
principle which we call in the lower organisms " life," and in the higher
organisms " soul."

I have spoken about the symptoms of inertia: to a certain
extent it has been generally admitted that the diagnosis is correct,
and efforts are being made to apply remedies, but it is to be
feared that in some cases, even where the heart has been put
right, the head is still woefully wrong. Prof. W. J. Pope has
wisely insisted that public opinion should be educated to realise
that concentration upon scientific progress, urgent in time of war,
is also vital in time of peace*. If such be not done, legislators
and administrative bodies will be in danger of flying off at a
tangent when a crisis occurs, and when a nation thus loses its
head, panic legislation sometimes results : measures are adopted
which effect more harm than good. We. I trust, are not in such
a condition now. Nationally, our heads may be cool enough, but
the dawning sensation that our nurture of science has been de-
fective and is in urgent need of buttressing has roused in us a
zeal which, at times, I fear, is not altogether according to know-
ledge, and that blessed word " research " is again brought for-
ward, dazzling the uninitiated with the fancy that it is a kind
of Kut-el-amara, by the taking of which we may expect to gain
control of all Mesopotamia.

Is it consistent — not to say dignified — on the part of a nation
and its rulers to treat science with apathy, and starve scientific
investigators in days of ease and plenty, and then to turn to
them with wringing hands when smitten by panic? Some years
after I was first appointed to a position under the Government
of the Cape Colony, a far-seeing permanent head of the Minis-
terial Department to which I then belonged, said to me, " If I
could have had my way, twelve chemists would have been ap-
pointed instead of one." If nothing more than the mere training
of men for such posts had then been begun, and appointments
made five or six years later, a vast amount of useful work
accomplished would now stand to the country's credit. Now
turn to another picture. When the South-West African Cam-
paign was undertaken, and there were fears of the water supplies
being poisoned, and there was a dearth of chemists, a score of
men were sent helter-skelter into my laboratory one day, and I
gave them an hour's experimental lecture on testing for poisons,
after which they were attached to various units, provided with
the requisite appliances, and despatched to different parts of the

* Chetn. News (1917), 202.

D

12 PRESIDENTS ADDRESS.

invaded territory, in order to apply their hastily-acquired skill.
Most of them had never before had so much as an hour's lecture
on chemistry in their lives.

Panic research will undoubtedly lead to effects analogous lo
those resulting from panic legislation. In neither case can the
procedure be sane, well-considered, evenly-balanced. In the
United States Experiment Station Record last October it was
said that

The lesson has been taught that research cannot be carried on spas-
modically under stress of temporary emergency, but must go forward
continuously, year in and year out, from generation to generation. And
it must be surrounded by conditions in which it will best thrive, without
the handicap of being expected to produce something every day of imme-
diate market value or application.

Now in many respects our mode of action in the past has
been the exact antithesis of this. Let me given you one example
from a printed report of my own, dated 13 years ago. Discussing
ihe investigation of our poisonous plants. I remarked:

This most important branch of the laboratory's work is perhaps the
most unsatisfactorily performed. It is carried on at present in a most
casual way, instead of being earnestly and systematically undertaken.
Whenever a poisoning or suspected poisoning case occurs, problems have
to be grappled at short notice, and in a hurried and therefore often per-
functory manner, which should have been carefully investigated at leisure
months beforehand.

In eleven successive annual reports I continued making
allusions to this matter, and in a report four years later than
that just quoted from I said :

The complaint that I have to make is that the casual and incidental
character that these investigations are compelled to assume greatly militates
against results of enduring usefulness being arrived at. Matters of
this kind should be dealt with because of their intrinsic value
and not, as they at present are, merely as side-issues to the legal
proceedings against some " Kaffir doctor."

In scientific research, as in so many other phases of activity,
it is " slow and steady that wins the race ": ad hoc measures only
court failure; and carrying this principle to its logical conclusion
means that research in pure science has the strongest claim on
State aid and encouragement. Prof. A. W. Crossley, in an address
on " Science and industrial problems," delivered before the Royal
Institution about three years ago, aptly quoted a remark made,
some two months before the war broke out, by one of the world's
most prominent industrial chemists — " Pure scientific research
work, carried out in the laboratory, is the soul of industrial
prosperity " ; and, as Sir J. J. Thomson has said, applied science
ma)^ lead to reforms, while research in pure science
leads to revolutions, a remark which may be supplemented by
one of Prof. W. J. Pope, that " practically every useful chemical
development of a technical kind has arisen as the result of some
[)urely scientific investigation."*

But this is not the class of research that appeals to Govern-
ments : the research that they want and are willing to encourage

* Chcni. News (1917), 116, 200.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. I3

15 of the ad hoc type — perfectly utilitarian. Read what an edi-
torial in Nature of June 2131.1917, says in this connection:

Though we are assured that " after the war " scientific research is to
receive substantial aid from the State, there is reason to fear that this aid
will be given with qualifications. In other words, the promise is extended
only to investigations calculated to further the ends of commerce.
Students of what is commonly known as " pure science" will not only not
participate in the grants that are to be made, but they may be called upon
to subsist upon even smaller doles than were allotted to them in the
pre-war days. Our administrators seem incapable of appreciating the
fact that "applied science" has its roots in "pure science," so that if
these be starved the tree will of necessity be stunted.

B'ut surely, some may say. during a period of great national
emergency, at all events, we cannot alTord to spend on pure
scientific research time and money which should be devoted to
the objects of the immediate and critical present. Admitting
that there may be validity in such an argument, and that those
researches which concern the manufacture of arms and ammu-
nition are vital, yet an adequate supply of foodstuffs is equally
essential even for the waging of war, and that supply depends
upon the nation's agricultural prosperity, which is in turn de-
pendent upon the farmer's ability to maintain his soil at its
normal productivity, and. if possible, to increase the latter. More-
over, it remains for the close of the war to reveal how much
pure scientific research has been able to achieve in the years
through which we are now struggling; and let us never forget
that excessive devotion to the merely practical may hinder rather
than help the attainment of even the most " practical " discoveries.
To quote some lines from an address on " Industrial re-
search and the colleges " given last October by Dr. A. E. Ken-
nelly before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers :

While under extraordinary circumstances, such as those due to the
present World-German war, the pure science departments may advan-
tageously take up industrial research, yet, as a general rule, the best con-
tribution of those departments to industry is by restricting their attention
to pure science.

Sir A. G. Bourne, F.R.S.. in his presidential address to the
Indian Science Congress at Bangalore, in January, 1917, said:

Who can say how many profound truths await discovery because some
utilitarian who happened upon a glimmering of them did not think it
worth while to pause and investigate the apparently irrelevant? . . .
How much patient work and loving care have been bestowed upon inves-
tigations seemingly impossible of application to any of the specific
problems of the day? Upon research of this kind no utilitarian would
have been at all likely to embark, yet, sooner or later, such research has
either proved capable of direct application, or — and this has more often
been the case — has unexpectedly formed a corner-stone, or occupied a
more humble, but still useful position, in building up some far-reaching
generalisation capable of being seized upon at once bv the worker in
applied science, thus in turn perhaps stimulating further scientific
research.

Such remarks as the above, many times repeated in varying
keys and modes, are slowly educating administrators and the
public, and one is not without hope that at some not very distant
date the value of true research in pure science may be far more

14 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

generally realised that it now is. Meanwhile one may rejoice
that even applied science has received an amount of recognition
formerly denied to it, or at best grudgingly conceded. In this
connection a most unfortunate fact is that almost everyone who
has had a general education imagines himself in the possession
of sufficient knowledge of scientic subjects to be able to decide
what kind of research should be undertaken in each branch.
Here such a science as astronomy has an advantage : the average
educated man is so ignorant of astronomy that the astronomer
is usually left to pursue his investigations unmolested, and it
is only when persons who themselves carry on these pursuits
prostitute science to personal ends that the astronomer finds him-
self obstructed by lay intervention. An instance of this kind
seems to have occurred when Sir David Gill had served the
Admiralty for as long a period as 15 years. In a letter to Prof.
Kapteyn. Sir David wrote :

A deliberate attempt was made to hand over the Observatory to the
Cape Government — which would have been equivalent ro its extinction —
and the appointment of a successor to George Maclear (one of my assist-
ants) was refused — in consequence of statements made to the Treasury
that I had been neglecting my proper duties and been observing mmor
planets and other pursuits on my own account. Fortunately Newcomb
wrote me a letter, acknowledging in strong terms the value of the Cape
work to the American Ephemeris, which gave the lie direct to my false
accusers, and ended in my getting a warm official letter of thanks from
the Admiralty for these very services.*

Another instance of workers in science endeavouring to
thwart research may be quoted from the same book (p. 175) :

It would be laughable [says Prof. Forbes], if it were not almost tragic.
to record the fact that Gill's work was opposed because, at a Royal Society
Conversazione in 1886, his photographs, showing so few stars, were placed
beside the long-exposure photographs of the Milky Way. showing thou-
sands of stars. Gill wrote to Newcomb: "I told them that I had heard
of babies crying for the moon, but I had never dreamt of anything so
funny as a row of Fellows of the Royal Society insisting on having more
g^ magnitude stars in the heavens, else they would stop supplies."

Unfortunately astronomy is not the only branch of science
in regard to which such episodes as the above have occurred,
but there is surely nothing more reprehensible in the history of
scientific investigation than opposition to the inception or con-
tinuance of necessary work, engineered by those who should
be aware of the value of that work, but who labour to oppose
it in order to serve personal ends. Proceedings like these would
be less likely to occur if there were a Department of Science as
suggested by Sir William Crookes and Prof. Fraser Harris, for
such a Department would be less liable to be misled by the un-
scrupulous, and better able to gauge the capabilities of its workers
and the value of their work.

After four years of war we are looking forward to a time
when accounts shall be ruled off, and a balance-sheet drawn up.
Each country, each State, will be estimating its assets and Ha-

* George Forbes, F.R.S., "David Gill: Man and Astronomer.'' pp.

.V)0-I.

president's address. 15

bilities, and unquestionably such a process will go on in this
Union amongst the rest. We are continually hearing a great
deal about our assets : last year at Stellenbosch the Rev. Noel
Roberts reiterated the view that the native population is one
of South Africa's greatest assets ;* we need not be told to regard
the country's enormous mineral wealth as one of its chief assets ;
and the economic potentialities of our almost boundless floral
riches constitute another, while the many still untapped resources
of agriculture form an asset that is almost without rival in variety
and importance. If the end of the war is to find the country a
going concern — to adopt commercial parlance — we should not
risk the need of having to put up our shutters for stock-taking
when peace comes : we should reckon out and invest our assets
without delay, so that the proclamation of peace may find them
at least on the high road to the production o^f substantial interest.
We are, I know, working in that direction, but is there that
whole-hearted co-operation that is so highly essential if a commu-
nity means to succeed in a task that calls for grit and strenuous
action ?

As we wax hot in faction,

In battle we wax cold.

We have at times considered the subject of a national bo-
tanical survey, but for some unexplained reason this matter,
economically so important, hangs fire. South Africa had, a cen-
tury ago, acquired a world-wide reputation as a field for botanical
students, and. in addition to botanists from other continents, is
now building up botanical schools of her own. The worth of
a botanical survey is everywhere admitted, and even the type of
person who shrugs his shoulders at observations of minor planets
has no botanical counterpart. Yet the survey lags, and not alone
South Africa, but the world, remains the poorer on that account.
One hesitates to surmise reasons for the delay, but so much is
certain, the vastness of the undertaking makes it imperative that
the co-operation of every possible worker shall be enlisted, and
the American principle, " Every man in the post that fits him
best,'" would no doubt find loyal acceptance with all.

The need of an agricultural survey o'f the country's soils I
have discussed on several previous occasions, t Such a survey,
if it is to be thoroughly carried out, should include a study not
only of the inherent character and properties of the soils them-
selves, but also of the soil in relation to its environment; that

*Rept. S.A.A.A.S., Stellenbosch (1917), 88.
t See inter alia —

Senior Analyst's Report, Cape of Good Hope (1892), 6.

"Need for organised research in Cape Colony": Addresses and
Papers. Brit, and S.A. Assocs. for Adv. of Sc. (1905), 1, 221.

'' Fertility of some Colonial soils as influenced by geological con-
ditions "' : Trans. S.A. Phil. Sac. (1907), 18, 13.

Presidential address, Sect. B, Rept. S.A. Assoc, for Ad7\ of Sc,
Bloemfontein (1909), 33.

"The study of the soil": Agricultural S. Africa (1910), I9-

"Soil Surveys": Proc. Jsi Ann. Transvaal Dry Farming Congress
(1910), 25, 30.

1 6 president's address.

is to say, the soil must be studied both absolutely and relatively.
Regarding the soil itself, we have to study its chemistry, its
physics, and its biology, the last including the indigenous vege-
tation on the surface as well as the micro-biology beneath the
surface. In respect of the soil's external relations, we have to
learn all that we can about the orography, the geology, and the
meteorology of the tract of country surveyed. Hence the soil
may be studied, as to its inherent qualities, in the soil laboratory
(though only after having been properly sampled) ; but as to
its external relationships co-operation with the surveyor, the
geologist and the meteorologist is needed.

The whole subject of soil chemistry in relation to crop pro-
duction is comparatively little understood, not only in South
Africa, but all the world over. How little we know of it we
realise but too keenly when the world is faced with a wheat
shortage. All things are in a state of flux,* said Heraclitus, the
Greek sage, and he doubtless had a prevision of twentieth-
century science. It is little more than half a century ago that
the doctrine began to be preached that the crop-producing power
of a soil can be determined by a mere chemical analysis. There-
after arose a school that ridiculed such teaching, and upheld
practical plot experiments. To-day we find men like Patten
declaring that

the manner of conducting fertiliser tests by measuring the crop produced
has failed to materially increase our knowledge of soil conditions, and it
is now quite generally recognised that it is unsafe to draw general con-
clusions from results based upon such experiments. +

All this shows the need of agricultural chemical research,
for which South Africa affords a peculiarly well-adapted field.

To come closer to particulars : the world has been threat-
ened with a wheat famine, and, second only to the problem of
munitions, there has come the wheat problem. On the day that
I left Australia — two months after the declaration of war — the
Commonwealth newspapers announced that the Government had
authorised the immediate conversion of large extents of forest
into wheat lands, and had set great bodies of men to work at
felling the trees. Of late we, too, have begun to show some
concern about our wheat crops, and the two problems that faced
us were how to make existing lands yield larger crops, and how
to extend the present wheat area. These problems have been
rendered none the easier by the extreme scarcity of fertilisers,
and with us, as, indeed, all over the world, the scarcity has
brought to the fore another problem — how to turn potential into
available supplies. These are all-important matters for research,
even in war-time ; in fact, all the more important because it is
war-time.

Under war conditions, then, the cultivation of cereal lands
must of necessity be, as far as possible, intensive, and so we
need fertilisers containing not merely phosphates and nitrogen,

* TIdvra pet-

t Mich. Acad, of Science, T3th Report, (igii), 44.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. \J

but containing them in a state as readily available as possible
for the cereals to absorb. How to get our raw materials into
this readily available state is precisely the problem on which
all our chemical energies should have been concentrated for some
time past.

Regarding the utilisation of our phosphate deposits there
is much work to be done, both on the field and in the laboratory.
The Saldanha Bay deposits were first investigated in the Cape
laboratories about nine years ago,* but until the war quickened
the pulse, very little was done in the direction of ascertaining the
best way of converting these aluminium-iron phosphates into a
form available to plants, and of their value in the unconverted
form we know scarcely anything more from field experiments
than we knew nine years ago. With regard to nitrogen, we
scarcely realise that we live at the bottom of an atmospheric
ocean of which the bulk consists of free nitrogen — free, not only
in the chemical sense, but likewise so free that no war can cut
us off from it as the present war has cut us off from the essen-
tially German potash ; and not alone free, but abundant, for
there is a weight of seven tons of this nitrogen above every
square yard of the earth's surface.

Now there are two nitrogen cycles in constant operation, and
in each cycle the animal kingdom has a definite part to perform.
There is a cycle of free nitrogen, and there is a cycle of com-
bined nitrogen. The former is relatively simple, the latter more
complex. We breathe in the free nitrogen of the atmosphere' and
exhale it again, thus restoring it to the air unchanged, and as
free as it was before. The. combined nitrogen taken by animals
as a constituent of their food undergoes a change within the
animal body, is returned to the soil as new nitrogenous com-
pounds in the form of manure, and becomes converted by the
soil bacteria into nitrates, which are capable of being absorbed
by the vegetation. Animals feed on and assimilate this vegetable
ifoodstufif. and so the cycle begins anew. The two nitrogen
cycles — ^^the.breathinw cycle and the feeding cycle — move in per-
fect independence of each other, and the problem of the chemist
— a problem that has been largely solved within little more than
the last dozen years — has been to bring free nitrogen within
the sphere of operation of the cycle of combined nitrogen. I
say this problem has been to a great extent solved. Chemistry
has discovered two methods which are commercially practicable
whereby the nitrogen of the air can be "' fixed," as it is called.
One is the manufacture of cyanamide, which can then be used
directlv as a fertiliser. For this manufacture two things are
essential — almost pure nitrogen and electrical energy as a source
of heat. The nitrogen is obtained by liquefying air. and allow-
ing the liquid air to evaporate, when the nitrogen boils away
first and is collected. This " fractional distillation " of the
liquid air is generally carried out in a Linde or Claude apparatus.

* C. F. Juritz : Report of Senior Anal.vst, Cape of Good Hope (1909),
159.

1 8 president's address.

The electrical energ^^ is obtained from water-power. It is re-
markable that in the United States, where there is much water-
power available, there was not a single factory of the above
type when America entered the war. South Africa has many
rivers furnishing waterfalls of no mean size, but none of these
has hitherto been utilised in this direction.

The other commercial method for the fixation of nitrogen
is also dei)sndent upon electrical action. Water is decom43osed
into its constituent elements by electrolysis, and under great
pressure at high temperature the hydrogen is made to combine,
in the presence of a catalyst, with nitrogen produced by the frac-
tional distillation of liquid air, and thus forms ammonia. To
the practical operation of this process is largely due the fact
that Germany has still the means of manufacturing explosives.
The ammonia produced as above is converted into nitric acid,
also by catalytic agency in the presence of atmospheric air, and
nitric acid is the chemical basis of all explosives.

Before the introduction of these methods the far greater
power-consuming process of Birkeland and Eyde, first commer-
cially practised in the neighbourhood of the Niagara Falls, and
subsequently developed in Scandinavia, played a great part in
bringing within Germany's reach the potentiality of producing
enormous quantities of nitric acid, and it was to the perception
of this potentiality by Germany that the present war was due,
for then began to be Jaid the foundations of the scheme of
munition production which in turn made it possible for Ger-
many to embark on a definite war policy.

That this was actually the position is now thoroughly well
recognised amongst chemists all the world over. The President
of the Ohio Academy of Science put the facts in a nutshell at
the Columbus meeting- a year ago, when he said, in the course
of an address on " The relation of war to chemistry," that, with
British control of the seas, German armies with all their num-
bers, thorough equipment, and solendid military power, would
have been impotent in a few weeks or months without the chem-
ical ability to get nitric acid from atmospheric nitrogen instead
of from Chilean nitrate, for without nitric acid high explosives,
and even smokeless powder, are impossible.*

The class of investigation that finds most favour amongst
Governments and populace in Britain and her dependencies to-
day is that which is commonly known by the name of " Indus-
trial Research." The reason of this is of course quite plain :
both officials and public are capable of grasping the direct benefits
of applied science and technologv. and hence technological inves-
tigation is frequently favoured in quarters where pure scientific
research is despised.

Obviously we cannot make any real advance in scientific
investigation or research unless we have adequate facilities,
qualified workers, well-equipped laboratories. Naturally all this

* Ohio Joiinil. of Science. (igiS). 18 [3], 70.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. IQ

means a financial backing, l)ut we shall never reap the bounteous
fruits that science is able to afford until we cease to look upon
money devoted to such objects as expenditure, and dubious ex-
penditure at that, and begin to believe in it as direct investment.
As long as we hold the former view, scanty returns \v\\\ be
deservedly proportionate to our niggardly treatment of science.
And the treatment has in the past been niggardly because — to
quote the editorial in A'atitrc (March 29th. 1917) again —

such matters have been too much in the control of the clerical estaMish-
ments, who are ignorant of the significance of chemistry, and its vital
importance to the interests of the country.

Prof. Pope, alluding, in an address given by him in the
Regent Street Polytechnic last October, to the establishment of
the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research with an
endowment of £1.000.000. asked why that experiment was not
made 20 years ago. at a time when it would undoubtedly have
prevented the horrors of the last three years.

We have suffered [he said] in the past from the exclusively British
method of making the specialist entirely subservient to the administrator,
the administrator being generally chosen because he is available, because
he is politically acceptable, and because he knows nothing whatever about
the subject which is to be administered, and is therefore not likely to be
prejudiced by any previous convictions. That process of appointing some-
one who knows nothing to supervise the work of someone who does
know how to do the job seems to have been at the bottom of a great many
of our misfortunes in the past.

There was a time — now, fortunately, long past — when I used
to be asked to submit an annual requisition for the " drugs "
which I would require in the course of my chemical work, and
the request used to be accompanied by an instruction to call for
tenders for the supply of these " drugs " from the various
pharmacists in the city. It was with the utmost difificulty that
I managed to persuade the authorities that the laboratory under
my charge needed not drugs but chemicals, and that the disciples
of Galen and .^sculapius were quite unable to supply those
needs ; the chemist, whose concern during war-time is largely
with explosives, gases, foodstuffs, follows a calling totally dis-
tinct from that of the druggist, who concerns himself solely with
pills, potions and plasters ; but this is a distinction wholly beyond
the ken of those pilloried by the editor of Nature.

Those day.s — when one used to be called a Trades Unionist
for suggesting that when a Government Analyst was wanted it
was scarcely appropriate to appoint a physician to the post —
have happily passed away, even in South Africa, which gener-
ally lags behind in such matters, and thanks to such books as
Sir William Tilden's " Chemical Invention and Discovery in the
Twentieth Century." the general reader is at last beginning to
arrive at clear notions regarding the chemist and his work ; not
a moment too soon, for, as a contributor to the Manchester
Guardian remarked a few months ago.*

* January. 9, 1918.

20 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

it is high time that the public began to distinguish between the druggist
or pharmacist, who sells toilet articles and medicine, and the chemist,
whose prime business is chemistry and its application to production.

The popular confusion that formerly existed in the British
mind between the chemist and the apothecary is largely respon-
sible for the false perspective of chemical matters that the whole
iBritish nation has had. In Germany such a Hogarth's picture of
the chemist and his functions never prevailed.

It is unfortunately true that, however inadequate the value
placed upon chemical attainments and qualifications in England,
the position is distinctly worse in South Africa. Two years ago
the South African Association of Analytical Chemists appointed
a Sub-Committee to report upon the duties and responsibilities of
Government Analysts. The resulting report — a very exhaus-
tive one — was subsequently printed in that Association's Pro-
ceedings,''' and it proclaims with emphasis that with the emolu-
ments obtained by analysts in the Imperial Government Labora-
tory the conditions of the South African service compare most
unfavourably, a condition of afifairs which it attributes to " the
lack of scientific training extant among ministers and responsible
officials."

The Government Laboratories [the report continues] could be more
fully utilised in investigating the industrial resources of the country. The
crying need of this countr}' is research, and the Government should
provide the necessary staff and laboratories for investigational work ; at
present, the time of the officials is largely taken up by work of a routine
character.

In another part of the report occurs this paragraph :

This failure to realise the importance and necessity of the cliemist is
found among the general public as well as among Government officials,
and it will be necessary, in order to effect an improvement and secure
proper recognition of the value of the chemist, to continually emphasise his
importance to the welfare of the State.

Many, no doubt, do not comprehend what functions the re-
search chemist can exercise in South Africa, and what scope the
country can offer for his labours. Following the United States'
principle of the best men in the best posts, where, they ask, can
we place him so that the country may, through his instrumen-
tality, reap the greatest advantage? To answer such questions
one needs, first of all, to consider how scientific research — and
therefore inferentially chemical research — may be distributed.
As a matter of convenience, a threefold grouping is adopted —
imiversity research, industrial research, and national research.
Adapting the definitions given by Mr. C. E. Skinner a few month>
ago at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, we may say that university research includes the pure
scientific research, which naturally finds its home in the univer-
sity and all other research done there for the purpose of training-
men. Industrial research comprises all that done by or for
industrial concerns with the purpose of advancing industry.

* Proc. S.A. Assoc. Anal. Chemists (1916-17), 32-51.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 21

National research is that carried on by the Government for the
purpose of benefitting the people as a whole. Now it is plain
that between these three types of research there can be no sharp
lines of demarcation, but university research is often the step-
ping-stone to industrial advancement, while national research is
repeatedly industrial in its objects.

Mr. Skinner rightly holds that the primary function of the
university in research should be the training of research men,
and that universities should be equipped to turn out research
men just as they are now equipped to turn out men with academic
and engineering degrees. Prof. G. G. Henderson, in the address
from which I have already quoted, laid down that the training
of the chemist, so far as that training can be given in a teaching
institution, must be regarded as incomplete unless it includes
some research work.*

The demand for research in almost every field is growing
with a rapidity wholly unprecedented, and to the universities
alone can we look for men able and ready to take their places
in the strenuous efifort that is bound to be put forth on all hands.
We have just inaugurated a triple university system: Prof. Craw-
ford, in his presidential address to this Association at Maritz-
burg, asked and sought to answer what South Africa expects
from its universities, and referred, in particular, to the need of
encouraging the study of science and of furthering research. In
developing this theme he asked us to remember that the highest
form of research is not made to order, and that there is more
in genius than industry and opportunity. It would benefit us
to bear this in mind, and in juxtaposition with Prof. Crawford's
words, to place a sentence from Mr. Skinner's address :

If it takes a genius to recognise a genius yet undeveloped, and
properly to stimulate and direct that geniusj liow necessary it is that we
place men of genius at the head of the research departments of our
universities.

It comes to this, then : that we should see to it that our
universities are well equipped with scientific research workers,
and it is pre-eminently desirable that a system of research pro-
fessorships should be instituted, the chairs to be occupied by men
of enthusiasm — men who will inspire a like zeal and devotion
amongst those of the younger generation whom they gather
around them, men of personality and character, who will kindle
in the breasts of the research students feelings of admiration and
respect for them and their work.

" In training research men," says Mr. Skinner again, " the
university will naturally become the custodian and the promoter
of pure scientific research." Here is the fountain-head whence
, we shall ultimately draw our men for industrial research, and
for national research ; how important, then, that the source of
all our supplies be of crystal purity! Whatever more utilitarian

* Kept. Brit. Assoc, for Adv. of Science. Xe\vcastlc-on-'l"ync (i<)i6),
374-

22 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

form of research one may subsequently take up, research in
pure science is invaluable in the earlier part of the research
student's career, for it will give him a zest and a stimulus that
will remain with him throughout, enrich his scientific imagina-
tion, and adorn all his subsequent work.

At the same time uniyersity research may lead to the most
utilitarian results : some of the most important dyes, artificial
alizarin, the phthaleins. indigo, and such drugs as phenacetin,
antipyrin, and aspirin, were all discovered in university chemical
laboratories.

Now. why have we so few persons doing research work in
South Africa? Is it in part because no research geniuses are
born, or is it that we failed to recognise them, and neglected to pro-
vide them with the essential facihties? — youths, maybe, on whose
humble birth fair science frowned not, flowers " born to blush
unseen and waste their sweetness on the desert air," mute in-
glorious Miltons, whose genius remained latent because we took
no trouble to draw it out?

Science to their eyes her ample page.

Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll.

Dr. P. G. Nutting about a year ago said that

some writers have spoken of the investigator as a rare individual, to be
sifted out from educational institutions with great care for a particular
line of work. My personal opinion is that a large percentage of the men
students are fitted for research work if properly started along the right
line.

What we in South Africa lack — next to the facilities for
research — is not so much the research students as the men to
start them on right lines. I think that Principal Beattie, at the
inauguration of the University of Capetown three months ago,
sounded the correct note in observing that the youth of South
Africa did not lack enthusiasm or ability for research, but they
lacked opportunity, and, he added, much depended on the men
they had as professors. That is the secret of it all. In this
dread war South Africans have more than once exhibited a phy-
sical courage and a pertinacity equal to anything that Australia
or New Zealand could show ; why should not South Africa, then,
produce a Bragg or a Rutherford as well as Australia and New
Zealand, seeing that intellectul courage and pertinacity are two
indispensable qualities in a successful research worker? The
position is analogous to that which war has developed in Europe
and America : there the opportunity has made the man. An
American chemist already quoted said that

the German General Staff has learned, if others have not, that German
chemical achievement, which is great indeed, is no sign that equal ability
does not exist elsewhere. The Allies and America improvised a muni-
tions industry in two years to match their machine of forty years' pre-
paration.

And then he went on to make a remark which we may well
take to heart :

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 23

War could force us to do nothing we did not possess capacity for
before.

" The potential research worker," says the editor of the
United States Experiment Station Record, " is probably less born
than made," and Dr. Nutting thus clothes the same thought in
different language :

Fertility of mind is not so m,uch an inborn quality of the mind itself
as of the training and association which that mind has had.*

Hence it is our solemn duty as a young nation to provide
abundant facilities at each of our three universities for the
making of our future research workers.

We pass on to speak of industrial research, which always
has some utilitarian end in view, whereas the purpose of pure
scientific research is more exclusively philosophic — the discovery
of truth. The investigator in pure science has been likened to
the explorer who discovers new continents, or islands, or lands
before unknown; the investigator in industrial research to the
pioneer who surveys the newly-discovered land in order to locate
its mineral resources, to determine its forest areas, and ascer-
tain the position of its arable land.f

I quote these remarks with all circumspection, for after all
there are no sharp boundaries between research in pure science
and in applied or industrial science, and Huxley was right when
he wrote that " what people call ' applied science ' is nothing
but the application of pure science to particular problems." The
fact is that applied science is impossible until a foundation of
pure science has been laid to build it on. You cannot apply a
science which is not there to apply, and, as Sir William Tinney
has said, until men began to interrogate nature for the sake of
learning her ways, and without concentrating their attention on
the expectation of useful applications of such knowledge, little
or no progress was made.

Industrial chemistry has been defined as that branch of
chemical science which uses all the rest of chemistry, and much'
engineering, for the furtherance of production of chemical sub-
stances, or the use of chemical means or methods for manufac-
turing any material of commerce ; and hence industrial research
for the most part differs widely from university research. True„
there are instances to the contrary : thus Michigan University
has at Ann Arbor a tank for testing ship resistance,' and Illinois
University has a laboratory for investigations on a full-size loco-
motive engine, but industrial research is for the most part im-
practicable for universities, and as often as not needs to be
carried out under large-scale conditions, as it were in situ, and
by persons already possessing practical experience in the various
phases of the problem under investigation. At the same time

* Nature (1917), 100, 157.

t Col. J. J. Carty: Presidential address: Proc. Amer. Inst. Elec. Engi-
neers (1916), 35, [10], 1415.

24 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

there should be much closer co-operation between the university and
industrial research. Industry should recognise that it must depend
primarily upon the universities for its trained research men, and co-operate
to the fullest possible extent to the end that properly trained men be
turned out.

Do you realise what this last sentence involves — you who
are connected with the big industries? It involves that industry
should recognise that, from a purely selfish motive if from no
other, its interest lies in endowing research chairs at the univer-
sities, and in seeing that they are occupied by men of genius.
The very nature of industrial research implies that there must
be a constant accession to the ranks of its workers of persons
trained in pure scientific research. If such accession be inter-
m.itted. or if the increase of knowledge by means o'f pure scienti-
fic research be hampered, industrial research will inevitably be
limited in corresponding degree.

The Government has acted wisely and well in endeavouring
to establish a system of industries in this country : do we want
these industries to fizzle out, or to go through years of laborious
struggling? If we wish to minimise preventable disadvantages
of that kind, let us do without delay whatever we can to foster
research, so that the men to conduct it become available as soon
as they are needed.

National research approaches more nearly to the industrial
than to the university type. It is often undertaken for the
advantage of industry in general, but its outlook is considerably
broader than that above embraced within the scope of industrial
research, restricted, as the latter is, to the requirements of indi-
vidual industries. In South Africa the cry for industrial re-
search has become more imperative of late, and the Industries
Advisory Board, as well as the Scientific and Technical Com-
mittee appointed on the initiative of the Minister of Mines and
Industries, have gone some distance, both in educating the public
to the need of this type of research and in giving an impetus
in the required direction. Mainly, however, the agencies used
were of two classes : the laboratories of the University Colleges
and those of certain Government Departments, together with the
respective officers of those institutions.

There are two fundamental principles on which I must now
lay stress : they are expressed in the words " co-operation " and
" co-ordination " — co-operation between workers in different
branches of science, co-ordination amongst those who work in
the same branch, in order that the maximum of benefit may be
attained. So interdependent, in fact, so interlaced, are the three
types of research to which I have briefly alluded, that it should
be patent as the sun at noon that the closest co-operation between
them all is essential. It is to be feared that this is not yet as
clearly realised as it should be. The waste of time and energy
that has arisen from overlappping, which in turn has resulted
from lack of collaboration, is incredibly great. It has stifled
work of value in the past to an extent that is certainly not

president's address. 2^

realised ; it has thrown back for many years branches of investi-
gation in which ere now incalculable progress might have been
made, and untold pecuniary advantages reaped. Would that the
dire necessity of this searching^ war could stir up the South
African nation to a correct appreciation of the facts!

About a year ago the President of the Society of Chemical
Industry, in his address at Birmingham, insisted on the absolute
necessity for the engineer and the chemist to " get into double
harness as quickly as possible," and work sympathetically to-
gether for the progress of chemical industry. In South Africa,
too, this necessity has been manifested, but I am glad to say that
we have had more than manifestation: we have had realisation,
and we have had operation. For example, when, some months
ago, the fertiliser scarcity arose. I was deputed to investigate
the potentialities of unutilised raw materials in the Union, and
found, amongst other things, that there were several thousand
tons of good material going to waste in various places in connec-
tion with such institutions as slaughter-houses and crayfish can-
neries for lack of by-products plant to deal with it. When I
had completed my tour of inspection and furnished my report,
the engineers were charged to follow on, and set to work to
make good the deficiency in plant, with the result that a respect-
able quantity of fertilisers will now be produced from the refuse
that hitherto has been going to waste.

May I just here repeat^because they are still applicable to-
day— a few remarks which I made in my presidential address to
the Cape Chemical Society six years ago:

As an industrial science, chemistry never operates in isolation. When
we concern onrselves with the chemistry of the country's vegetable
products, it is the science of botany that has to afford additional aid; if
it is general agriculture that we arc dealing with, the chemist may also
have to work in co-operation with the zoologist, entomologist, or mycolo-
gist. Often, in connection with the investigation of the country's mineral
products, and of its agricultural soils, consultation with the geologist is
required. In any case, there is tliis one outstanding fact : that these
various scientific offices need to be in closest touch with each other in
order to promote the smoothest working of the entire machine of investi-
gation as an organised whole.

This close contact between science and science is of great importance,
but it is still more important that contact between the various workers in
one and tJ:c same science should be as intimate as proper co-ordination
and organisation can make it. During its annual convention towards the
close of iQiOj the American Society of Agronomy was very largely
occupied with the standardising of methods for conducting experiments.
It was then shown, again and apain, that a large amount of experimental
work, done in the United States, has led to results which could not be
compared with each other, were difficult to interpret in a reliable way,
and were liable to lead to wrong conclusions, because there had been no
agreement as to method amongst the various institutions involved in the
work. We do not wish to have these mistakes repeated in South Africa;
our desire is rather to profit by the experience of other lands ; but unless
we look well to our steps we stand to repeat some of those very mistakes
in an aggravated form. Therefore, lest we should go on a wrong track
with regard to this matter of investigation and research, two principles
should remain deeply graven on 'nir minds : these are co-ordination of
effort and unity of plan.

26 president's address.

Some of us have read what H. G. Wells describes as ideal
in his " Modern Utopia " :

In Utopia a great multitude of selected men, chosen volunteers, will
be collaborating on this new step in man's struggle with the elements. . .
. . Ever}- university in the world will be urgently working for priority
in this aspect of the problem or that. Reports of experiments, as full and
as prompt as the telegraphic reports of cricket in our more sportive
atmosphere, will go about the world.

Clearly co-operation and co-ordination cannot become effec-
tive without efficient organisation. We were afforded a splendid
illustration of what may thus be eft'ected in the case of a private
corporation on the occasion of the Stellenbosch meeting, a year
ago, when we visited the dynamite factory at Somerset West.
and listened to the historical account given by the general
manager. Established at the beginning of the present century
for the purpose of supplying dynamite to the Kimberley Mines,
the sphere of operations had so extended that during the twelve
months immediately preceding our visit the works had exported
to the Commonwealth of Australia over £100,000 worth of explo-
sives manufactured in South Africa, in addition to supplying
our own needs. From that manufacture other industries
developed, one by one, and the works now include plant for the
manufacture of sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, and of
copper sulphate and the nitrates of barium and lead, while others
are under consideration. Farmers have been supplied with the
sulphur which they need for sheep-dipping and vine-spraying,
while 20.000 gallons monthly of a lime-sulphur solution for sheep-
dipping have been turned out. The works bid fair to develop
into a general chemical factory after the war. Thus far the
private concern; what we need in the 'way of a Government
establishment is an institute for research in pure and applied
chemistry — such a National Chemical Laboratory as Prof. Hen-
derson has been longing to see established in England, but Eng-
land is not yet sufficiently responsive. " We don't conduct
research." says H. G. Wells. " we simply let it happen." Ah.
that is where England dift"ers from South Africa — we don't let
it happen : sometimes we make ourselves believe that we do, and
then we let other things happen to interfere with it. Why, I
have been pleading these twenty- four years in this agricultural
country for a properly organised system of chemical, physical,
biological research with respect to our agricultural soils, and it
has not come yet.

The way in which a nation can organise itself and its re-
sources for war has impressed a world. Other nations are
talking about organising themselves for the commercial struggle
that will ensue upon the present strife, but mere talking about
reconstruction will not enable us to face the future serenely.
" We all talk about the weather," said Mark Twain, " but
nothing is done!" Why is it that England, France, Australia.
New Zealand, Canada, are mobilising their scientific men for
research? Dr. G. E. Hale. Chairman of the Department of

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 2/

Science and Research of the United States Council of National
Defence, says that it is because,

looking ahead, it was seen that the conchision of peace would be followed
by a trade war witli German}', in which no industry not perfected by
scientific research could hope to succeed.

Can this country compete industrially with a country that
has shown me what organisation can achieve if we starve the
very soul of industrial prosperity — pure and applied scientific
research carried out in the laboratory ?

Mr. W. C. Dampier Whetham, F.R.S., in his recently pub-
lished book on " The War and the Nation," devoted a section to
'■' The organisation of iBxitish industry and commerce," in regard
to which a reviewer says that

three years of war have done more than a century of peace to impress
upon the public mind the indispensability of scientific research to national
prosperity.

The result has been that the Imperial Government has called
into being a Department for the express purpose of organising
and directing research, and has placed considerable sums of
money at this Department's disposal. But perhaps the most
important outcome is that «

the leaders of British industries have licgun to acquire the hal^it of working
together in order to conduct associated researches.*

Now let me emphasise the point that there is not one of
these industries for which the chemist is not essential at one
stage or another. An interesting address given some months
ago by the President of the American Cyanamide Companyt
shows how universal the need of the chemist is. Two thousand
grades of glassware are required for a vast variety of purposes ;
for this the skilled glass-maker must work under chemical con-
trol. The iron and steel of oin* cutlery, the extraction of silver,
gold, and, in fact, of all metals from the ores, need the chemist
at every step ; the clothing we wear, the dyes that colour it, and
more particularly synthetic dyes, 'the host of other uses to which
cotton is put, the use of cellulose in the form of artificial silk
as a new textile material, all are interwoven with the resources
of the chemist. The preparation and preservation of our foods,
and the securing of their purity, both depend on chemical con-
trol. The manufacture of synthetic drugs, such as antipyrin,
phenacetin, sulphonal. veronal, novacain, aspirin, and salvar-
san ; the introduction of synthetic perfumes like heliotropin, of
synthetic flavours like vanillin, of synthetic rubber and synthetic
camphor ; the quality of the fuel we use, the efficiency of the
fertilisers we put into the soil, the extraction and utilisation of
the various animal and vegetable oils, and the conversion of some
of them into solid fats by catalytic agency, and so into soaps or
candles, with glycerine- as a by-product ; the production of liquid

* Journ. Roy. Soc. of Arts (iyi7), 65, 755.
fChem. Nezi's (1917), 116, 157-159.

28 president's address.

fuels — every one of these would be impossible without chemical
aid.

There are a few facts regarding the chemist which I want
every South African, and particularly those in high positions, to
realise. First of all, get rid of the idea that he is a druggist
or pharmacist, any more than he is a baker of plumber, or
belongs to any other avocation in which chemistry takes a share.
And then, grasp the fact that there is scarcely an avocation on the
face of this earth intO' which chemi.stry does not enter, or wherein
the chemist would not be of some use. One does not need to
tell Johannesburg that it has to thank the chemist for its pros-
perity, for without him many of the mines would long have
ceased to work. The other great industry of South Africa,
agriculture, is at the mercy of the chemist in respect of the manu-
facture of fertilisers, and many agricultural products owe to him
the processes employed in their preparati(m ; chemical operations
are fundamental to every branch of the dairy industry, the
making of jam, the drying of fruit; the tinned vessels in which
many of these articles are preserved are all subservient to the
chemist. Without him the economical production of metals of
any kind could not take place, there would be no locomotive
engines, no assurance that the water which these engines need
w\\\ not corrode their boiler tubes, no testing of the coal which
converts that water into steam, no orovision of steel rails to run
the locomotives on, or. to go further, no steel armour for our
battleships and no alloys for shrapnel, aeroplanes, or submarines.
It is also the chemist's work to control the driving power of ships
of war and merchandise alike, whether that driving power be
coal, oil, or electricity, for the materials employed by the elec-
trician must all in the first place be scrutinised by the chemist.
All explosives are essentially chemical in their make-up, and, in
fact, the whole army, as well as the navy, is dependent on the
chemist all along the line, inasmuch as he has to vouch for the
purity of all their supplies of food and drink, even well-
water ; and not only their natural purity, but also their
freedom from fraudulent adulteration or deliberate poison-
ing. The various gases so much used in the present
war are all the productions of the chemist, and so are
the means adopted to secure immunity from those gases. It is
the chemist who controls the army's drugs, disinfectants and
anaesthetics. The colouring of the material used for clothing
not only the military and naval services, but the whole civil
population as well, is subject to the careful scrutiny of the
chemist. His functions also include the manufacture of the
leather which provides an army with boots : without him that
leather cannot be tanned, as the entire wattle and other tanning
industries are conducted under his advice. The finished leather,
too, is investigated by him, lest fraudulent practices should have
participated in its manufacture Without the chemist there
could be no books, for chemical processes are fundamental to the

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 2g

making of paper, of printing and writing ink. not to mention
again the materials wherewith bool^s are bound and the colouring
of the binding. The production of illustrations in those books,
by whatever means, and also the whole art of photography, must
Stand or fall with the ability of chemistry to assist them. And
then, as I have already said, there is the increasingly large sub-
ject of fine and synthetic chemicals, beginning with manufactures
like those of starch, glucose, and dextrine, the synthetic dyes
which surpass natural products in brilliance and permanence, the
synthetic perfumes which far transcend natural odours in
potency, the synthetic drugs which have done much to afford
relief to the suffering ; artificial products — I do not say imita-
tions, for they are often better suited to their applications than
the natural products which they replace — artificial products in
substitution of rubies, of bone, horn, and ivory, of resins, and
of leather, are all the result of chemical research. Again and
again the chemist has shown us how to produce the most valu-
able commodities out of waste and refuse. The refuse of the
Bessemer steel works gave rise to one of our most efficient fer-
tilisers ; the refuse of the gas works provided the world with
dyes, drugs, and a marvellously long list of other useful articles ;
the waste of wool-washeries furnishes us with lanoline. Waste
wood, if destructively distilled, and. amongst others, waste wattle
wood, of which large quantities are annually available in Natal,
is capable of producing acetone, whereof enormous quantities
are now being used for the manufacture of propellants.

And so we may rightly claim that the present age is the age
of the chemist. The chemist has never before had such oppor-
tunities for the application of his knowledge to the betterment
of material conditions upon earth, and never has he more effec-
tively applied it to the attainment of this aim. It is also sadly
true that never before has he applied his knowledge with such
damaging eft'ect as during the present w^ar ; but when the war
shall have run its course, all the chemist's resourcefulness, all his
energy, all his persistence will be needed to repair the damage
done, and to start exhausted nations upon new lines of industry.
On the chemist, more than on anyone else, will this task devolve,
and in South Africa in particular he will find abundant work
awaiting him. Is he to be there to respond to the call? Then it
is for us to educate and train him to the necessary standard ; it
is for us to provide the means whereby his purpose may be accom-
plished ; it is 'for us to accord him sympathetic treatment. Do
not let us regard him as useful only as long as he is bound down
to routine work, and as academic when he is occupied with in-
vestigations beyond our limited capacity to understand.

We have heard much during the past four years of the diffi-
culties under which the chemist has been labouring in Britain
and America — of the apathetic attitude adopted towards him by
Governments, public institutions, and industrial concerns, of the
sparing hand wherewith the essentials for the pursuit of his

30 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

investigations have been doled out to him. I have deemed it
very desirable to place before you this evening some of the
opinions which have been expressed on these topics north of the
equator, because I am convinced that many of our administra-
tors, politicians, educationists, and commercial men are wholly
unaware of the strong remonstrances which have grown to quite
a literature during these four years, and are probably under the
illusion that in South Africa the chemist has now the oppor-
tunity, if he cares to make use of it, to help the Union, with
eclat to himself, safely through some of the difificulties resulting
ifrom the war. I have, in fact, heard such a view seriously ex-
pressed. The idea is, of course, perfectly absurd. At the same
time it falls to the chemist in particular to do all that in him lies
to aid production during this time of crisis, and to assist those
directly engaged in the work of production, whether it be the
manufactures or agriculttire. And those who have it in their
power to strengthen the chemist's hands in such a work will
themselves not only be aiding the State, but will be assisting to
bear up the lofty principles for the maintenance of which
amongst men Britain and her Allies are contending.

Thoughts somewhat akin to these were well developed by
the American chemist, James R. Withrow, President of the Ohio
Academy of Science, whom I have more than once quoted in
the course of these remarks, and now I close by commending to
your attention the concluding paragraph of his able and thought-
ful address :

It has become so evident in this war that the intelligent and scientific
criminal is a terrible menace, and dislodging him at times such a weary
and fatal task, that we must find some way of preventing our leaders and
groups or classes, whether governmental or industrial, from becoming this
kind of danger. Have we not reached the time when we are willing to
turn to the One Who ordained civil government for our good, acknow-
ledge that He ordained it and not we ourselves, and make our leaders
or rulers " whom God and this people shall choose " — " men fearing God
and hating covetousness "?

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, EN-
GINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND IRRIGATION.

President of the Section : — Professor J. T. Morrison, M. A.,

B.Sc, F.R.S.E.

MONDAY. JULY 8.

The President delivered the following address : —

ON THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.

Some fourteen years ago, Parsons, of steam-turbine fame,
when President of the Engineering Section of the British Asso-
ciation, devoted a considerable part of his presidential address
to the question of the feasibility of the sinking of a mine-shaft
to the enormous depth of 12 miles. He went in some detail into
the methods of construction and probable cost of such a shaft,
basing his proposals largely on the experience gained in deep
mining on the Rand. His suggestions gave rise to a considerable
amount of discussion, which was directed more particularly to
the question whether the rocks surrounding such a shaft would
not flow like plastic solids at the pressures and temperatures
which must occur at so great a depth ; but at that time there
v/ere few accurate experimental data on which to base a well-
considered judgment on this question.

Since the date of Parsons' address, a great deal of research
has been directed towards the elucidation of the conditions that
obtain at various depths in the earth's interior, and as much of
this research is geophysical rather than geological in character,
it has occurred to me that the subject of the internal structure
of the earth in its broad aspects would be a suitable one for the
presidential address to Section A of this Association, more espec-
ially at a town such as Johannesburg, whose material welfare is
so largely dependent on mining operations.

The problem of the structure of the earth is one that pos-
sesses many elements of fascination and attractiveness. It has
important bearings on almost all the sciences. For the astrono-
mer, the earth sei'ves as the short and incessantly moving base
from which all astronomical positions and distances must be
measured, as well as the planet whose life-history is most likely
to throw light on the course of cosmical development. To the
physicist and physical chemist it has the interest that it must
contain materials under conditions of temperature and pressure,
such that their faint imitation calls for the highest resources of
experimental skill, and that their effect on the physical behaviour
of the materials will always present a wide field for the specula-
tive tendencies of molecular philosophers. For the geologist,
the knowledge of the internal structure of the earth is the only

32 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION A.

key to the mystery of those incessant rises and falls, those thrusts
and bucklings and occasional tearingfs of the apparently rigid
crust, of which the surface rocks are so plain a record. For
the evolutionist student of the biological sciences and of the
history of man, the question is wrapped up with such important
matters as the area and extent and connections of old land
surfaces, their possible climates as affected by changes in alti-
tude and other terrestrial and astronomical conditions, the per-
manence and physical state of the oceans, and the like. Finally,
the subject has presented tO' the mathematician problems at once
of the greatest interest and of the greatest difficulty, problems
that test in the 'highest degree his resources of imagination and
his clarity of thinking.

I shall discuss the question chiefly from the side of geo-
physics, partly because it is on this side that my own ignorance
of the subject is perhaps less complete than on others, and partly
because the methods of geophysics, because of their quantitative
character and comparative simplicity, are those which have of
late years been the most fruitful in trustworthy results. I say
this with no want of respect for the large body of exact know-
ledge accumulated by the researches of geologists. But it appears
to me that to a considerable extent the work of the geophysicist
begins where that of the geologist ends, and that it lies with
the former__to discover, as far as may be, the exact processes by
which those incessant movements have been maintained to which
the geological record is so indubitable though perplexing a
witness.

The methods that have been of greatest service in geo-
physical research are the following: —

(i) Exact geodetic surveys, accompanied by astronomical
observations of latitude, longitude, and meridian.
Such surveys have not only given the size and shape
of the earth so far as these can be determined from
land observations, but have also in recent years thrown
a considerable amount of light on the probable density
and strength of the earth's crust and the layers lying
immediately thereunder.

(2) Determinations of the total mass of the earth and of

the densities of the chief rocks.

(3) Exact determinations of the intensity of gravity at

points kno'wn in geodetic height and position.

(4) Determinations of temperature, heat conduction and

radium content in surface rocks.

(5) Laboratory determinations of the elastic constants of

rocks, and of their greatest stress-bearing power at
the ordinary and higher temperatures.

(6) Investigations into the small deformations of the earth

that occur under the tidal forces of the moon and sun.

(7) And perhaps the most fruitful of all, investigation by

seismometers of the rates of propagation of earth-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 33

quake waves in various directions round and through
the earth.

I should like to add that in my opinion the recent pro-
foundly important discoveries of the arrangement of the mole-
cules in crystals is likely to lead at an early date to our being
able to calculate the elastic constants and strength of solids even
at the enormous pressures and high temperatures that must
exist in the interior of the earth. If such be the case, the whole
of our knowledge of the interior of the earth will attain an
exactitude quite unexpected only a few years ago.

This summary of methods will show how impossible it is
for anyone to attempt anything but the shortest outline of some
of the more certain results that have been yielded by them, or
to make more than passing reference to the need there is in
many cases simply to suspend judgment.

The size and shape of the earth have been measured with
something like accuracy, only by geodetic surveys made on con-
tinental areas. Such measurements vary slightly, but the general
result is that the land surfaces, when reduced to a mean level,
are very approximately those of a flattened ball or spheroid
such as would be produced by spinning an ellipse round its
shorter axis, the equatorial radius or semi-axis being 6,378.2 km.
very nearly, or 3,963.3 miles, and the solar radius being 1/298
part shorter. It is worth pointing out that the radius of curva-
ture of the oceans has not been directly determined. It is known
from dynamical theory that if the earth consisted of a series of
concentric shells, each of uniform density, the free surface would
be a flattened spheroid such as has been described. But a direct
determination of the curvature of the ocean by a goedetic chain
of triangles extending over some of the Pacific Islands would, if
feasible, yield information of great interest.

The method of such geodetic surveys is, of course, a well-
known one, but as it has an intimate bearing on some questions
dealing with the strength and movements of the earth's crust
that will come up for our consideration later on, I may be par-
doned if I refer to it briefly. A level base line several miles
long is carefully measured, and from its ends the angular posi-
tions of two marks set up on neighbouring hilltops are accurately
determined by a theodolite. The base line is thus the base of
two triangles that have the hilltop marks as vertices. The line
joining these serves as a new base from which one or two other
points are determined. So the process of triangulation goes on,
the triangles spreading over the country, and the individual
sides being ultimately usually about 30 miles long. The vertices
of the triangles are almost invariably beacons set up on promi-
nent mountain peaks. I need hardly say that the highly accur-
ate and extensive geodetic sun'ey of South Africa which we owe
to the energy and skill of the late Sir David Gill and of Colonel
Sir Richard Morris is one of the finest examples ever effected.
To find the shape of the earth we must also by star observations

34 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SEt TION A.

determine very accurately at as many vertices as possible pre-
cisely how a plumbline would hang with reference to the sides
of the triangles that meet at the vertex. One may imagine the
whole network as a system of triangles whose sides are made of
long, straight wires with plumblines hanging from as many of
the vertices as possible. Now the problem of the geodesist is to
find what shape of flattened spheroid will pass as nearly as pos-
sible at right angles to these various plumblines, and will start
from the mean sea-level at some chosen point of the coast. This
shape gives the figure of the earth as calculated from that par-
ticular survey.

When the average figure lias been calculated that will most
nearly cut the plumblines perpendicularly, it is invariably found
that practically all the plumblines show minute deviations from
perpendicularity. These deviations, usually called residual deflec-
tions, are. of course, related to local irregularities of surface or
of density. They throw a clear light on the density of the crust
underlying the surface to depths far beyond those we can reach
by boring, and we shall return to their consideration towards
the close of this address.

It is well to remember how enormous the dimensions of the
earth are, when compared with the thickness of the surface rocks
with which we are directly acquainted. On a model of the earth
of a diameter of six feet, the ten miles' vertical interval which
separates the highest mountain-top from the greatest ocean depths
would be represented by a thickness of only i/ii of an inch, and
the elevation of a sea-coast through a mile, with its consequent
profound change of climate and its exposure of the surface to
agencies of new character and intensity would be represented by
a movement of the model surface through merely the thickness
of thick paper. These comparisons will help us to realize how
gentle a tilting of the earth's crust would cause surface changes
of the greatest biological and geological importance.

The density of the earth, as determined by recent accurate
comparisons of its gravitational attraction with the gravitationr^l
attraction exerted by a small body of known shape and mass,
is very nearly five and a half times as great as that of water. The
mean density of the chief rocks of the crust being only about
two and three-quarter times that of water, it is obvious that the
parts towards the centre must have a density so far exceeding
the average as to make up for the deficient density of the crust.
It may therefore be regarded as very probable that the central
parts contain predominant quantities of iron and other heavy
metals, though it is to be noted that the pressures that obtain in
the interior are so enormous that they must compress all ma-
terials considerably and cause their densities to rise proportion-
ately. As we do not know how the different layers increase in
density, we cannot calculate these pressures exactly, but it is
easy to give rough approximations. At a depth of 40 miles,
i.e., only one hundredth part of the earth's radius, the pressure
must be about 250,000 lbs., or (say) no tons to the square

PKESIIM", N'TIAL ADDRESS SliCTlON A. 33

inch, while at 2,000 miles, or half-way to the centre, a probable
estimate is 8.000 tons to the square inch. It will help to gave
some idea of the effects of such pressures if we recollect that
a block of good granite, if unsupported laterally, will generally
begin to crush under a pressure of about 11 tons to the square
inch, so that a column of granite four miles high will, if devoid
of lateral support, begin to crumple at the base under its own
weight. We shall see. however, later that strength to resist
crushing is immensely increased if the column be given lateral
support.

To complete a first rough picture of the earth's structure,
we must turn now to the question of the temperature of the
interior and of its physical state.

As all w^ho have to do with mining are well aware, after
a borehole passes through the first few feet, the temperature
always gets higher the deeper we go. The rises observed in dif-
ferent boreholes and tunnels have varied considerably, but we
shall not be far wrong in taking a rise of about one Centrigrade
degree for every 100 feet, or, say. 50 degrees per mile as an
average. If this rate were maintained for even a few miles in
the crust, we see that at a depth of only 40 miles the temperature
would be about 2,000° C, a temperature well above the melting-
point of all known rocks, when these rocks are subjected to
ordinary pressures.

The deduction made by most geologists and many physicists
till well on in the nineteenth century was that a part of the
interior of the earth must be liquid, and the innermost part even
a highly compressed gas.

There are, however, many facts which militate very strongly
against the soundness of such conclusions.

In the first place, it is, as we shall see, very doubtful whether
the surface gradient is maintained. Again, direct experiments on
substances in the laboratory show that increase of pressure raises
the melting-points of almost all substances, including rocks, and
also increases enormously their stiffness or rigidity when below
the melting-point. Finally, the evidence of observations on earth-
tides practically precludes the possibility of the existence of a
continuous shell of liquid or gas anywhere, and this is confirmed
strongly by the evidence of the propagation of earthquake waves
as observed by the seismometers now installed at numerous
places.

On the other hand, these is strong evidence of the existence
of a layer beginning at some depth between 20 and 100 miles
beneath the surface, and probably extending considerably down-
wards, wdiich is relatively less rigid than the rest, and which
intermittently, perhaps, or like a plastic solid, adjusts itself to
the constantly varying burden which the surface agencies lay
upon it when they corrode and denude the continental areas, and
deposit the products along the oceanic borders.

We shall shortly consider these points in turn.

36 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

Lord Kelvin showed many years ago. that if we can regard
the earth as cooHng in the manner of a small ball of uniform
conductivity and uniform initial temperature, and if we know
that initial temperature and the surface gradient, we can specify
the temperature at any depth, and can also tell the duration of
cooling. The diagram ( Fig. i ) illustrates Kelvin's result, and one
striking point about it is the slight extent to^ which the tempera-
ture of the innermost parts elf the earth would be affected by con-
duction even after the lapse of many millions of years. Thus if
the earth had been initially at 4,000° C. throughout, and its
surface had at once been reduced to our ordinary temperature,
its fall of temperature after 1,000,000 years, at a depth of 7.6
miles, would have been about 630 Centigrade degrees, at 15.2
miles only 17 degrees, and at 22.8 miles barely one-tenth of a
degree; while after the lapse of 100.000,000 years these falls of
temperature would have penetrated only ten times as far, that
is, the fall at the comparatively small depth of 228 miles would
have been less than one-tenth of a degree, while the remaining
3,700 miles of the radius would have been still more minutely
affected by the surface cooling.

Kelvin used his calculations to determine the so-called age
of the earth, that is, the limits of time Vv-ithin which the conditions
oi the earth's surface were likely to have been such as to make
life possible thereon. Several things go to invalidate the sound-
ness of his ?ireument. but two facts are made clear by his reason-
ing which will always have an important bearing on our subject.
The first is that owing to the enormous distances and to the poor
conducting powers of rocks, the various layers of the earth are
much isolated from each other as far as the distribution of heat
is concerned. The second is that a wave of cooling progresses
slowly from the .surface inwards, so that while at first the free
surface itself cools most quickly, thereafter the layers that cool
most cjuickly are to be found always deeper and deeper as time
goes on. This is independent of any maintenance of temperature
that may arise from the presence of radium, but is slightly af-
fected by the heating that is generated by shrinkage. The dia-
gram (Fig. i) shows the curves of Kelvin's imaginary earth
after periods of cooling of 25,000.000 aufl 50,000.000 years re-
spectively, and it will be seen by the third curve, which repre-
sents the fall of temperature in the intervals, that a layer 30
miles deep had cooled most during the second 25,000,000 years.
It is ea.sy to calculate what layer is cooling most rapidly after
any given lapse of time on Kelvin's data. For instance, if apart
from radio-active action a fairly uniform temperature had pre-
vailed in the surface layers 100,000,000 years ago, the layer that
would now be cooling most rapidly would be only 54 miles deep,
and this is not unlikely to be something like the actual fact.
Further, if the initial temperature had been 3.700° C, as Kelvin
assumed, the rate of cooling of this layer would at present be
one Centigrade degree in loo.oco years. The shrinkage pro-
duced in this layer by its more rapid cooling would have tended

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION A.

37

to relieve the pressure on it, have produced in it a tendency to
plasticity, and would have caused intense horizontal thrusts in
the more superficial crustal layers — all of which are phenomena
the occurrence of which must be regarded as extremely probable
from other lines of evidence.

There is now a general consensus of opinion that we must
probably look to two sources for the origin of supply of the
earth's internal heat. The first, and in some ways, the more
important, is that which has arisen from the almost certain fall-
ing together of the earth's materials from a much more widely
disseminated state ; the second, the discovery and further in-
vestigation of which we owe chiefly to the researches of Strutt
and Joly, arises from the presence of uranium and its child
radium in the rocks of the earth's crust, and perhaps to some
slight extent in the interior of the earth.

Temp.

tuoo
3T0<J

30O0

-yd

>-

^

'B

^

5000

/

/

/

1
1

i

J00<?

o

V

V

1

1

i

1

^ ^

c

m- ^ .

'..^

■?i

.^jlJ

1

_L

3700

50

Dept h

100

IS'omis.

Fig. 1. Kelvin's curve:^ ut cooling of a supposed homogeneous Earth,
originally at .3700° C. throughout: A, after 25,000,000 years; B, after
.50,000,000 : C, fall of temperature in the interval hetween A and B.

It is worth while considering each of these for a moment.

The heat developed in the original concentration .)f the
earth was enormous, and the temperatures that were generated
must have been correspondingly high except so far as the heat
was lost from the free surface of the growing earth by the pro-
cess of radiation. It is easy to show that the energy developed
by a pound of any material in falling from any large multiple of
the earth's radius on to its present surface would raise nearly
1.5,000 lbs. of water through one Centigrade degree. When the
earth was much smaller the heat generated was less ; in fact, for
the same mean density, the heat generated would be less in pro-
portion to the square of the radius. No doubt, additions to the

38

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

growing earth would by compressing the whole cause a general
rise of temperature. In spite of this and of cooling by radiation
during the process of growth, it is clear that it is the outer and
not the central parts of the earth that must have been most
heated in the process of earth formation, and I do not doubt
that a somewhat similar state of things still prevails. Apart
from radio-activity then, I think the curve of temperature along
a diameter of the earth is likely to run soinewhat as in the
diagram (Fig. 2).

The other source of heat is the presence of uranium and its
product radium in the surface rocks. In most of these, radium
has been shown by Strutt and Joly to be present to the exces-
sively small amount on an average of abo-ut five parts by weight
in 1,000,000,000,000 parts. But the heating effect of the radium
emission is so enormous that if radium were present in that
quantity even to a depth of only 45 miles, it would provide all

Fig. 2. Probable distribution of tenijxivature along a diameter

of the earth.

the 'heat that is at present being lost by the earth's surface.
As we cannot admit that none of the original heat of aggrega-
tion is now being lost or that the earth's geological age is likely to
be much, if at all, less than 100,000,000 years, we must agree
with Strutt in his contention that the distribution of radium and
its parent, uranium, is almost wholly superficial, confined proba-
bly for tbe most part to the outer 30 miles or thereabouts. This
contention is confirmed by the observation that meteoric iron
which is not unlikely tO' be similar to a large part of the earth,:
is found to contain little or no radium.

Joly has pointed out that when sedimentary materials are
eroded and deposited they carry their uranium and radium with
them, and begin to rise in temperature in their new position. The
rise is slow and its total extent increases rapidly with the thick-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 39

ness of the deposit. When such deposits therefore occur on a
larg-e scale as in great earth troughs or geosynchnes, the con-
siderable rise of temperature that will ensue is likely to cause a
line of weakness to develop along the axis of the trough, and
the line is less likely than neighbouring areas to resist the hori-
zontal thrusts that will be caused by that general cooHng of sub-
crusted layers which we have pointed out as probable. It is to this
deposition of radio-active sediments in great geosynclines that
Joly attributes, with some degree of probability, the origin of
the great mountain chains of the Alps and Himalayas and analo-
gous systems.

It has- been stated above that in spite of the high tempera-
ture of the interior revealed by mines and by volcanic action, and
of the supplies of heat generated by the original potential energy
and by the radio-active contents of its materials, it is impossible
to regard any continuous shell of it as being liquid ; and, in fact,
that the earth as a whole behaves towards quick-acting forces as if
it were a rigid body somewhat stiffer than first-class steel.

Several lines o-f evidence concur in leading to this conclusion.
I shall refer to two.

The first is the evidence of the tides. Kelvin and Love have
proved that if the earth had a liquid kernel or even if there were
a liquid shell below the crust, the crust would rise and fall under
the tidal forces of moon and sun to nearly the same extent as
the ocean would, and that the actual tides which depend on the
relative motion of crust and ocean would be much smaller than
they really are. The most accurate observations on the matter
are those of Michelson, who laid twO' horizontal iron pipes, each
500 feet long, underground, closed them and half-filled each
with water. He then observed that the water at one end of each
pipe went up and down, though a very minute distance, under the
tidal action, while the water surface at the other end went down
and up. He observed that the amount of rise and fall was less
than if the earth had been quite unyielding, but much greater
than was compatible with the presence of any liquid shell. The
axnount of yielding was such as would be expected from an earth
rather stififer than first-class steel. It is highly desirable that the
experiment should be repeated in various parts of the world, and
a beginning has been made therewith in South Africa.

The general high rigidity of the earth revealed by such
experimeuts and by certain astronomical effects, has been fully
confirmed by the evidence oif earthquake waves, as shown on the
delicate earthquake recorders or seismometers which are now
to be found in many parts of the world, and of which we have
at least three in South Africa, namely, at Capetown, Johannes-
burg and Kimberley. Just as X-rays, by their passage through
the human body, reveal its inner structure, so do earthquake
waves, by their march through the innermost parts of the earth,
make a definite and undeniable revelation of their nature, and
I do not doubt that in the course of the next 20 vears we shall

40 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

be able to give a fairly precise description of the various layers
that compose it, at least, as regards their elastic strength.

To record earthquake waves completely, and to find their
true meaning, we need three recording instruments at each sta-
tion— one to record the N. and S. horizontal motions of the
ground, another to record. the E. and W. horizontal motions, and
the third to record the vertical motions. The earth motions, much
.iiagnified, are recorded on a uniformly moving paper, on which
the intervals of time are also marked.

Many earthquakes have their origin near the surface, and
these are seldom felt at great distances. But the so-called tec-
tonic earthquakes which seem to be caused by those underground
shiftings of rock masses, of which we have so many geological
evidences in the foldings and faultings of strata, often originate
at depths such as six to twelve miles, and their shock is recorded
all over the world. Many such occur every year.

When we examine the record of any such earth-shaking
earthquake, we find that the large waves that chiefly constitute it
are invariably preceded by a gentler rippling motion known as
the preliminary tremors. When the recording station is near
the seat of the earthquake, these tremors precede the main waves
by a very short interval of time, but the interval grows longer
and longer the further away the seismometer, till at last the
tremors outstrip the main waves by more than an hour. These
tremors predicted by Knott and first observed clearly by Rebeur-
Paschwitz, were shown by Oldham to fall with more or less
clearness into two stages. These become most distinct when we
compare the records given by the three instruments at any one
station. The instinnments show clearly that in the first stage of
the preliminary tremors the ground is pushed backwards and
forwards along the line in which the quake is travelling. For
example, an earthquake originating in Italy would at first affect
the N.S. seismometer at Johannesburg much more than the
E.W. one. This part of the tremor is clearly due to longitudinal
vibrations. In the second phase, however, the earth shakes across
the line of advance of the waves, i.e., the vibration is transverse,
and would in the case supposed mainly affect the E.W. in-
strument. In the chief waves, the motion is partly vertical an3
partly horizontal, and somewhat resembles the motion of sea-
waves.

The times taken by earthquake waves to reach stations at
dift'erent distances from the origin have been examined with
great care. It is found that the main waves take a time very
nearly proportional to the distance travelled measured along the
earth's surface, i.e., to the arc. We therefore conclude that they
travel along the surface, and this agrees with the mathematical
theory of their progress as worked out by Rayleigh and Lamb.
On the other hand, the times taken by the two parts of the
preliminary tremors are much more nearly proportional to the
direct distance right through the earth. If we assume that they
go along the surface we must imagine that they go faster and

PRESIDENTIAL AiJDKESS SECTION A 4I

faster the further they go, and the theory of elastic vibrations
shows this to be impossible. Hence we are forced to conclude
that they take a nearly direct route, and plunge right through the
great unknown depths of the earth. The way in which they
emerge entirely confirms this.

The behaviour and speeds of these waves throw much light
on the elastic nature oi the earth's interior. In the first place it
is well-known that a liquid or gas cannot propagate a transverse
disturbance at all. Hence we are once more definitely shut up to
the conclusion that for such rapid vibrations as constitute these
waves, with periods of a few seconds, the earth behaves like a
stifif, very incompressible body.

But we can go much further. For it is well-known that
from the speeds of longitudinal and transverse vibrations travers-
ing a large solid of known density we can calculate its elastic re-
sistance to compression and to change of shape. The equations
are: —

Vi (longitudinal vibrations) = \J k-\- ~ ^z=modulus of re-

d ' sistance to com-
pression.

v., (transverse vibrations )= v/-^ n=:modulus of re-

" ▼ a, .

Sistance to

change of shape,
(/zrrdensity.

Whence k and n are found when V,, \\. and d are known.

At the surface, Galitzin gives as mean observed values for
V\.. 7.17 km./sec. and for Vo 4.0J km. /sec, whence, if we assume
a surface density of 2.75 gm/per com. we get for the rigidity
of the surface crust a value equal to a little more than half of
that of good steel.

As we go down into the earth we .should naturally expect
the increasing temperature and density to cause a progressive
diminution in the speeds of these waves. To our surprise, the
precise contrary is the case. The speed grows decidedly greater
the deeper we go, in spite of the certain great increase of density.
DilTferent seismologists have given somewhat different estimates
of the increase, the differences arising from the dilBculty of com-
paring the records of instruments of different types. But we shall
not ibe far wrong in taking 12.7 km./sec. as the maximum speed
otf the longitudinal vibrations, and 6.8 km./sec. as the maximum
speed of the transverse vibrations when passing through nearly
centra] regions. These speeds give evidence of a rigidity ex-
ceeding that of steel two or three times.

The continued investigation of earthquake records is full
of promise. For instance, there seems to be evidence of a differ-
ent surface speed under oceans from that which obtains under
continents. Again, both Oldham and Wiechert believe that they
have accumulated clear evidence of more than one shell within

42

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

the earth. Oldham, in 1906, published the accompanying diagram
(Fig. 3) in explanation of the results he had collated up to that
date. He considers that there is clear evidence that the speed
of the transverse vibration attains a maximum at a depth of about
2,400 miles, and thereafter decreases somewhat sharply to a
steady value. This would argue the presence of an innermost
core somewhat less stiff than the parts immediately outside of
it, which would bend the waves along the paths shown, much as
a sphere of glass bends and condenses the waves of light.
Wiechert agrees with Oldham in the main, but believes himself
able to differentiate a considerable number of layers between
Oldham's core and the surface. He considers that the main
waves are confined to a crust of thickness of about 19 miles, and
that there are changes of stiffness at about 750 miles. 1.030 miles.
and 1,530 miles.

Fig. -.i. Oldham's Eaitli-Wave Patlis.

Longitudinal Vibrations.

Transver^^e Vibrations.

I may add that recent investigations by Barrel! on the
strength of the earth's crust to resist deformation, as evidenced
by the enormous deltas of the Nile and Congo, and the remark-
able experiments of Adams in Canada on the crushing stresses
of different kinds of rocks, both bear witness to the enormous
increase of the stiffness of rocks when supported laterally.
Adams found that granite which, if unsupported laterally, would
yield under a crushing stress of 23,000 lbs to the square inch,
gained immensely in power of resistance to such stresses if given
lateral support, till with a lateral support of 20,000 lbs to the
square inch it needed a crushing stress of some 80.000 lbs. per

PRESIDENTIAL ADDKESS SECTION A. 43

square inch to make it begin to yield. After such an experi-
ment the granite was found quite as rigid as ever.

The rocks experimented on, however, lose seriously in rigid-
ity when subjected to a high temperature, though they still show
great gain in strength with lateral support.

The evidence of earthquake waves, of earth-tides, and of
other phenomena, while firmly establishing the rigidity oi the
earth to quick-acting forces, must not keep us frotn giving due
weight to the countervailing evidence that distinctly indicates the
tendency of a layer lying under the earth's crust to adjust itself,
probably with extreme slowness, to the enormous stresses placed
on it by the constant wearing away of land surfaces and the de-
position of the sediment on the oceanic borders. This combina-
tion of rigidity and plasticity is not a singular one. The slow
creep of a rigid glacier is a case in point, and probably gives a
precise analogy ; or we might cite the case of a copper wire
slowly yielding to a heavy load, and yet capable of transmitting
longitudinal vibrations.

Permit me, in closing, to refer shortly to the arguments
which practically force us to admit the presence of some such
plastic-rigid layer at no great depth, its upper surface lying pro-
bably at a depth of between 20 and 100 miles.

In describing the method of making a geodetic survey, I
called attention to the fact that everywhere the plumb-line shows
slight deviations, called residual deflections, from perpendicular-
ity to the general spheroidal surface. These deviations were first
noted by Archdeacon Pratt in calculating the results of the
survey of the North of India, and were attributed by him to the
attraction oi the Himalayas. On calculating, however, the deflec-
tion which the Himalayas undoubtedly produced, he was sur-
prised to find that it was much greater than that which was
actually observed, and hence that the crust under the Himalayas
must be so far deficient in density as to greatly diminish the de-
flection produced by the great mountain range. The phenomenon
reminded Pratt and Airy, the then Astronomer-Royal, of what
would happen if an iceberg were floating near a suspended plumb-
bob. Such an iceberg would cause very little deflection of the
plumb-line, as its total mass down to the bottom is the same as
the mass of the water it displaces. Airy pointed out how strongly
Pratt's result bore evidence to the whole crust being, as it were,
buoyed up on a liquid substratum, the characteristic of such a
substratum being that at the same level it will push up equally
and be able to support equal total vertical loads, but would yield
if the loads were unequal.

Within the last ten years Hayford and Bowie, of the United
States Coast and Geodetic Sur\'ey, have made this theory the
subject of an enormous research. They had exact computations
made for every one of 383 geodetic stations in the United States
of the deflections which should be produced by all the land eleva-
tions and all the oceanic depressions within a distance of 4.126
km., or 2,600 miles from each station. They foimd that the mean

44 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

deflection from the perpendicular which should have been pro-
duced by these surface features was 30.37 seconds of arc, while
the mean deflection actually observed was only 2.91 seconds.
Hayford and Bowie conclude that the surface features are to
the extent of 90 per cent., compensated by deficiencies of density
below the land elevations and by excess of density under the
ocean bottom. Observations of the intensity of gravity on conti-
nents, sea-coasts and oceanic islands largely confirm these results.
The magnitude of the compensation will be better understood
if one notes that 2.91 seconds of arc is the deflection that would
be produced by a rectangular table-land 12 miles long, 8 miles
broad, and 662 feet high, consisting of rock of specific gravity
2.77, acting on a plumb-bob at a point one mile from the middle
of its longer side. Hayford and Bowie's calculations go to show
that the most probable depth of the layer of equal pressure
is about 76 miles.

Now as the surface rocks of all continents are constantly
being worn away, and as this process has been going on for
enormously long geological periods, entailing a constant increase
of load on oceanic borders, it is clear that if no yielding had oc-
curred below the crust, the pendulum deflections would have had
much greater values than those which actually occur. We are
therefore forced to postulate a weak sub-crustal layer which has
adjusted itself to the varying load and by a slow flux backward
from below the ocean to below the continents has restored the
vertical loads to the approximate equality which we observe. To
small quick-acting forces this layer is highly rigid, just as a glacier
is when we walk on it ; to great slow-acting inequalities of load
with the changes of temperature and stress they involve, and with
the slow fall of temperature caused by conduction towards the
surface, this layer is plastic, just as a glacier slowly flows down
hill under its own weight.

The lines of evidence I have tried so imperfectly to trace for
you point then to an earth which, on the whole, is highly rigid and
fairly stable, especially for gentle, quickly-changing forces, but
which possesses within itself certain slowly-acting elements of
instability, namely, a greater density of rocks under the oceans
causing a separation of land and water, with all the consequences
of denudation and deposition flowing therefrom, a high tem-
perature at no great depth beneath the surface crust with proba-
ble cooling, shrinkage, and a tendency to plasticity in a layer
beginning at a depth of from 20 to 100 miles, and finally an
irregular distribution of radio-active materials carried hither and
thither by water and wind, and ready wherever they accumulate
to evolve their heat and generate fresh centres of instability and
weakness. Such, I believe, to be, in dim outline, the structure of
the interior of mother earth as seen by the feeble but steady
gaze of the great geologists, mathematicians, physicists and biolo-
gists who have devoted their lives to its study. For clearer out-
lines we must trust to perseverance in the great paths marked
out for us by our forerunners.

20°

REFERENCE

\L±±

Wil-witersrand- Venrersdarp Protrmce
fCaroo PrO¥/nce
Transf3a/ Sysf'em Province
SushyeM Province

'^ O/J Srani^Si^a^i/ant^Sys/'em ,^oyinc!

^^^^^/Vsmsoua/an:^ Copper /feg'on

tVesf Co^Si^ Province
Cspe SysZ-ein Province
ffa/sh^ri Province

OF

THE UNION OF SOUTH

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
MINERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President of the Section. — P. A. Wagner, B.Sc. Ing.D.

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

The President delivered the following address : —

THE MINERAL INDUSTRY OF THE UNION OF
SOUTH AFRICA AND ITS FUTURE.

Notwithstanding the many adverse circumstances affecting the
mining industry, the value of the mineral production of the
Union during 1917 amounted to £52,288,766. only £636,224 short
of that of the record year 191 3. when diamonds to the value of
£11,387,807 were produced. The diamond output for 1917 was
worth £7,713,810 — £3,675,997 less than that during 1913. Had
it been anything like normal, the 1913 total would have been very
considerably exceeded : a truly remarkable achievement ajfter
nearly four years of war, and one that, in view of the fact that
over 92 per cent, 'by value of the total output is exported over-
seas, serves to emphasise our absolute dependence on the British
Navy.

Reference to the accompanying tables will shew that in com-
parison with 1913 the most important increases were under the
headings gold, silver, coal, copper, salt, asbestos, soda and corun-
dum; also that certain products such as rock phosphate, tungsten,
talc, iron pyrite, mica and ammonium sulphate, that do not figure
in the 1913 tables, appear in those for 1917. On the other hand,
diamonds, lead and chert shew notable decreases, and tar and
kieselguhr, of which there was a small production in 191 3, are
not included in the 191 7 tables.

The returns for the first four months of 1918 are given, as
several new products make their appearance therein.

I propose, in the first place, to treat seriatim of the various
minerals and mineral products enumerated in the tables so as to
present to you a general picture of the mineral industry of the
Union, while the second part of my address will be devoted to a
discussion df the potentialities of the country in regard to future
discoveries.

Before proceeding, it may be of interest to record that the
Union is not only the world's leader in the production of gold,
diamonds, and corundum, but is happy in the possession of the
largest known reserves of these minerals. In the matter of
asbestos production we stand fourth, and in coal production
eleventh.

46

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION h

STATISTICS OF MINERAL PRODUCTION

Product.

Gold . .
Silver
Diamonds
Coal ..
Coke . .
Tar ..

Ammonium Sulphate
Copper*
Tin* .
Asbestos
Corundum
Antimony
Graphite
Iron Oxide
Iron Ore
Iron Fyrite
Kaolin
Lead . .

Arsenic (White)
Verdite
Magnesite
Manganese
Mica . .
Soda . .
Talc ..
Tungsten*
Lime . .

Rock Phosphate
Chert
Gypsum
Salt

Kieselguhr
Clay i'roducts, Cement,
Structural Material

Totals

1913.

Quantity.

8798712 77 oz.
952596-81 ,,
5 1 68540-68 cts
6,801,216 tons
9,345 „
43,293 gals,

18383-41 tons

3671 90

961-78

1-2-81

47-87

38-83

395

1
444

41

70,953

604

121

47,992

32

Value

37,374,553

115,822

11,389,807

2,2411,458

15,862

1,433

607,856

436,550

16,0-28

128

18-2

1,257

1,199

20
1,191

185

118,984

3,789

484

77,142

64

621,993

£52,924,990

1916.

Quantity.

Value.

£

9296963-6 oz.

89,490,990

96S935-1 ,,

106,311

23463:-;0-2 cts.

5.728,391

10,007.502 tons

2,739,665

10,704 „

19,576

22841-65 ,,

1,137,380

3-264 07 ,,

839,571

4655-84 ,,

83,070

755-31 ,,

7,762

721-66 ,,

15,292

6015 ,,

1,780

22-4 ,,

45

5276 7

502-0

609-12

13-5
6299-0
132 0
1-42
78,222

297

3,990

56,267

8,019
5,502

1,766

1,185

25,121

686

252

115,750

1,587

11,983

106,303

646,773

£50,593,359

* The values given are calculated on the percentage of pure metal contained in the

\ Figures relate to actual sales.

\ Small quantifies of fluorspar, quartz and molybdenite were also produced, but in regard to
a fairly large production in the Cape Province.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION 15.

47

)F THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.

1917

•

Increase ( + ) or Decrease ( — )
in 1917 compared with 1913.

1918.

Four months ended

April 30th.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

Quantity.

Value.

£

£

£

018388.63 oz.

38,307,675

+ 219676-86 oz.

+ 933,122

2788687 98 oz.

11,845,590

9381-4 5-93 ,,

172,997

—14450-88 ,,

+ 57,175

294340-41 ,,

47,876

902416-51 cts.

7,713,810

— 2261130-17 cts.

—3,675,997

934553 66 cts.

2,607,425

10,382.920 tons

3,275.608

+ 1,581,704 tons

+ 1,035,150

3,352,929 tons

1,111,383

15,361 ,.

28,648

+ 6,016 „

+ 12,786

—

—

—

-

43,293 gals.

-1,433

—

—

132818 ,,

28,576t

+ 1328-18 tons

+ 28,576

762 ,,

28,474t

2013161 ,,

1,126,040

+ 1748-20 ,,

+ 518,184

1527-84 ,,

81.592

2678-56 ,,

346,016

—993-34 ,,

— eo,534

836-89 ,,

153,039

6219-56 ,,

87,3^4

+ 5257-78 ,,

+ 71,336

1610.76 ,,

22,740

2628-86 ,,

13,038

+ 2616-05 ,.

+ 12 810

15,37-75 ,,

9,085

616-68 ,,

12,428

+568-81 ,,

+ 12,246

.35-61 ,,

937

86-37 ,,

2,590

+ 47-54 „

+ 1,333

26-85 „

761

121-20 ,,

305

121-20 „

+ 305

91-20 „

200

—

—

2075-00 ,,

1,538

2856-00 .,

4,463

2856-00 ,,

+ 4,463

1334-00 „

1970

28 00 ,,

19

28.0 „

+ 19

—

—

270-12 ,,

3,761

—124-88 ,,

+ 2,562

53 ,.

613

—

—

—

—

6 185 ,,

619

781 00 ,,

2,050

+ 337 „

+ 856

352 ,,

924

123 50 ,,

641

+ 123 £0 „

+ 641

284-75 ,,

1,150

3-88 „

877

+ 3-88 ,,

+ 877

23C4 ,,

630

6715 75 ,,

29,377

+ 5674-75 ,,

+ 29,192

302 59 ,,

4,151

785 00 „

1,962

+ 785 „

+ 1,962

205- 5 „

519

8-62 „

l,f)51

+ 8-62 ,,

+ 1,551

3-58 ,,

777

89057-00 ,,

131,373

+ 18,104 ,,

+ 12,.389

33,104 „

49,715

—

2,875

—

+ 2,875

—

—

180-CO ,,

1,120

-424 ,,

+ 2,669

48 „

368

2082-00 ,,

5,092

+ 1,961 ,,

+ 4,608

741 „

1,895

5798400 ,,

110,566

+ 9,992 ,,

+ 33,424

—

—

—

-32 „

-64

—

—

877,934

£52,288,766t

—£636,224

shipments at London quotations.

these minerals no statistics are available. The same applies to mineral water, of which there is

B

48 presidential address section p..

Gkdld.*

Gold has long 'been, and will without doubt continue for
many a year to be the principal mineral product of the Union. The
total recorded output to date is approximately 134.435,000 ounces
— 4609.75 short tons — valued at £571,350,200. Much the
greater part oi. this has been contributed by the Witwatersrand
goldfield, the output of which during the past five years has
averaged over £37,500,000 per annum. The output for 1917.
namely 8,822,431 ounces, worth £37,475.303, f represented 42.34
per cent, of the gold output of the world. The high-water mark
of production on the Witwatersrand was reached in 1916. when
gold to the value of £38.492.070 was produced. It is not likely,
for various reasons, that this figure will ever be reached again.
Had it not been for the war, and ifor the serious shortage of
native labour in recent years, it is not improbable, however, that
the 40-million level would have been exceeded.

At the present time the industry is faced with one of the
gravest crises in its history. As a result of ever-increasing costs,
no fewer than 14 low-grade mines, responsible in 191 7 for
almost 19 per cent, of the total output of the Witwatersrand,
are either actually being worked at a loss or barely repaying
exploitation, and it is quite evident that, unless relief in some
form be forthcoming, most of these mines will sooner or later
have to suspend operations.

This, in addition to being fraught with the most serious con-
sequences to a large section of the community, would result not
only in a very considerable decrease in the current output, when,
according to the highest authorities, it is absolutely essential to
the successful prosecution of the financial side of the war that
gold production should be maintained at its highest possible level,
but in the ultimate output of the Witwatersrand, as it is certain
that a number of the properties referred to, if now closed down,
would never be reopened.

The inadequacy of the supply of native labour and the
shortage of glycerine have undoubtedly contributed towards
bringing about this very serious state of affairs, but at the root
of the trouble lies the fact that whereas the price of almost every
commodity incidental to its production has risen enormously
as a result of the war, that of gold itself is arbitrarily fixed. As
1 matter of fact, the mines, in consequence of the increase in
freight, insurance and refining charges, only receive £4 3s. 6.84d.
per ounce compared with the standard value of £4 4s. ii.45d.,
and owing to the depreciation of the British currency given in
payment the actual value received is much less.

As the producers, if they were allowed to dispose of their
gold in the best Allied markets, would obtain much better terms
than they now do, a case 'for equitable adjustment undoubtedly

* I am indebted for assistance in the preparation of this section of the
address to Sir Robert Kotze and Mr. Samuel Evans.

t The output of the Heidelberg district is included in this total.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRKSS SKCTloX V.. 49

exists. Various remedial measures have l)een suggested to effect
this, among the most recent of which are :

(a) That the price of gold 'he increased by 5 or even 10 per

cent.

( b ) That the Imperial Government — it is now generally

realised that this is essentially an Imperial (|uestion —
should grant a subsidy of so much per ounce or per
ton milled to all low-grade gold mines within the
British Empire,
(f) That part of the increased cost of production, due to
the rise in the price of commodities and wages, should
be borne by the Imperial Government.

The first of these proposals is obviously impracticable,
having regard to the enormous stock of gold actually in existence
— it is estimated at over £2,000,000,000 — compared with which
the total annual production is very small. The second and third,
while perhaps indefensible on sentimental grounds, have both
much to recommend them. A Committee, elected by the gold
producers of the Empire, are at present preparing a case for
presentation to the Imperial Government, and it is to be hoped
this will result in a satisfactory solution of the problem being
arrived at.

In regard to the question of freight and insurance charges,
which even in normal times constitute quite a heavy item, it
appears to me that these could to a great extent be done away
wath, in so far, at any rate, as the mines are concerned, by mint-
ing as large a proportion as possible of our gold locally ; and I
am strongly of opinion that a great mint ifor gold as well as
silver coinage should 'be erected at Johannesburg. The silver for
the purpose would have to^ be imported, hut this, after all, is also
done in England and other countries.

Assuming that means are found to enable the majority of
the low-grade mines threatened with being closed down to con-
tinue operations, it should be possible for some years to main-
tain the output of the Rand at nearly its present level,* as
developments at some of the mines on the far East Rand have
exceeded expectations, and it is anticipated that the opening up
of new mines in that area, which is proceeding apace, will make
up for the decline in production on the Central Witwatersrand
and in the Boksburg area. It is none the less certain that there
will henceforward be a steady diminution in the production of
the Witwatersrand goldfield.

As to the amount of gold that the mines of the Rand may
be expected to produce, it is of interest to recall that Sir Robert
Kotze, in evidence before the Dominions Royal Commission, in
1914, estimated the tonnage of ore in the mines producing at

* The value of the output of the Witwatersrand mines for the first six
months of 1918 was £687,970 below that of the corresponding period of
last year. This, however, is partly attributable 10 the floods during the
earlier part of the year.

50 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

that date to be 587,000,000, and in the mines and areas not then
producing at at least the same quantity. Having regard to the
disappointing gold values encountered at depth in some sections
of the West Rand and in the neighbourhood df Boksburg, it
would appear that the estimate in regard to mines crushing in
1 9 14 was rather too high, while, if developments to date on the
Far East Rand can be accepted as a criterion, that in regard to
areas not then producing was undoubtedly too low.

Allowing for this, and assuming that working costs after
the war will recede to their average level during the period
1908-1914 — ^namely, 17s. 9. id. per ton — which wiii depend very
largely upon the policy adopted by the Allied nations with regard
to the prices of commodities,* I have estimated — so many un-
certain factors enter into the calculation that the estimate
is largely conjectural — that the total amount of gold still
capable of being profitably extracted on the Witwatersrand is
m the neighbourhood of £1,200,000,000. The probable life of
the field is to an even greater extent a matter of conjecture, as
it will depend on the rate at which the existing mines become
exhausted and new ones are opened up tO' take their places.
There can be no question, however, that 50 years hence the Far
East Rand— and possibly certain other sections of the Witwaters-
rand— will still be the scene on a very considerable scale of gold-
mining operations.

With regard to the gold mines of the " outside " districts
of the Transvaal — Lydenburg, Barberton, and Leydsdorp — the
outlook is not at all encouraging. Recent developments at most
of the mines in these districts have been very disappointing.
Several properties, including the celebrated Sheba at Barberton,
have in consequence been closed down, and the reserves of others
are being steadily depleted.

It would appear, altogether, that unless fresh discoveries
are made, the output of the "outside" districts will decline very
considerably during the next few years.

In the Cape Province alluvial gold mining is still being car-
ried on on the Millwood field in the Knysna district. The out-
put, however, is very small, and in 1916 amounted only to 31.28
ounces, valued at £132.

Silver.

No very important deposits of this metal have hitherto been
discovered in the Union. f Practically the whole of the silver

* It is contended by some economists (vide The Round Table,
September, 1917) that prices after the war should be maintained at the
highest level possible in order to lessen the burden imposed on the
different communities by the huge interest-bearing- war loans contracted
by their Governments. If this is done, there is little prospect of any very
appreciable diminution in working costs for a long time to come.

t South Africa appears to be rather poorly off as regards silver, lead,
and zinc, which are frequently associated in ore deposits. This may
possibly be due to great denudation that the sub-continent has undergone,
as deposits of these metals, speaking generally, are formed close to the
surface.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 5I

recovered is contained in the gold ibullion, of which it forms
roughly lo per cent. Small quantities of silver are also con-
tained in the copper ores of Little Namaqualand, and in the
lead ores worked at different localities in the Transvaal, but in
regard to this no figures are available. It will be noted that,
while the weight of the silver produced in 19 17 was lower by
14,450.8 ounces than that produced in 1913, the value was
almost 50 per cent, higher, owing to the great advance in the
price of the metal.

Diamonds.

The production of diamonds in the territories embraced in
the Union of South Aifrica from the year 1867, when the first
discovery was made, to the end of April, 1918, reached the enor-
mous total of 137,868,630 carats — 31 short tons — of a declared
value of £216,165,760.* The latter figure is certainly very much
below what the diamonds actually realised in Europe and
America, and probably not much more than one-half of what
they were finally sold for in a cut state.

The industry ranks next to gold-mining in importance. The
output reached its maximum in 1913, when there were produced
5,163,547 carats, valued at £11.389,807. It is common know-
ledge, however, that there was a considerable over-production
of diamonds in that year, and the average annual output for the
period 1910-1912, namely, £9,596,804, gives a fairer indication
of the pre-war rate of production. As a result of the outbreak
of hostilities the output dropped in 1914 to 2,801.017 carats,
valued at £5,487,194, and in 191 5 to 103,3)86 carats, valued at
£399,810 — the lowest figures on record in the period 1870-1918.

Within the past two years there has been a remarkable
recovery, and the value of the output, of which about 86.5 per
cent, is contributed by the mines and 13.5 per cent, by the
alluvial fields, is now rapidly approaching its normal pre-war
level.

This is mainly a result of the agreement, in regard to the
production and sale of diamonds, reached by the principal com-
panies, which has placed the industry on a sounder basis than
it has ever been. The policy oif judiciously feeding the market,
or. in other words, of carefully adjusting the output to the
amount of money that the world is prepared or inclined to ex-
pend on the purchase of diamonds, has led to a very considerable
increase in the price of the gems, as is evidenced by the follow-
ing figures : —

* This figure is very ccnsiderably in excess of that given under the
heading, '' Progressive Totals of Mineral Production," in the last Annual
Report of the Government Mining Engineers. The " Progressive Totals."
however, do not take into account the diamond production of the Cape
Colony previous to 1883 — prior to which date no accurate data are avail-
able— or that of the Orange Free State previous to 1904-

52 I'RESIDENTIAL ADDRKSS SECTION U.

Average Value per

Carat of the
Diamonds produced
by the Mines of
the Union.

Year. s. d.

1913 41 6

1914 37 o

1915 —

1916 43 II

1917 49 2

Indeed, prices are higher at the i)resent time than at any pre-
vious period, and there is every pros])ect of their going yet higher.

The progressive appreciation in vahie is not only of great
advantage to the producers themselves, but of the utmost benefit
to the State; directly, because it tends greatly to increase the
profits of the mining companies, and thus the revenue accruing
to the (jovernment, and indirectly, because it has the effect of
conserving the diamond resources of the Union and prolonging
indefinitely the lives of the existing mines. If the increase in
prices continue, there can be no doubt, moreover, that certain
mines, hitherto unpayal)le, will he brought within the limit of
profitable exploitation, and the already enormous diamond
reserves of the Union therel)y considerably increased.*

Pin;iil\ . the policy of regulating and controlling sales has in-
spired the whole diamond industry with absolute confidence,
since, as the Chairman of De Beers put it at the last annual meet-
ing of that Company :

Cutters, polishers, factors, and jewellers now know
that they can. without fear of rough diamonds being forced
on the market, hold large stocks, and bankers can grant
financial facilities to the trade generally, knowing that our
product will not be offered in excess of requirements, and
that merchants and others will not be faced with a serious
fall in prices or the risk of over-production.

As regards the possibility of fresh diamond discoveries,
there can be no question, as I have elsewhere pointed out.f that
further payable pipes await discovery, and will be discovered.
So far as existing knowledge can be accepted as a guide, there
is no reason why pipes or dykes of kimberlite should not be
found anywhere within the limits of the South African plateau.
The profitable occurrences so far discovered are, however, con-
fined to a tract of country, about 160 miles wide, extending in a
north-easterly direction from the Jagersfontein Mine in the
south to the PVemier Mine in the north, and it is presumably

* The reserve of blue ground actually in sight in the live KimhL'rley
mines of the De Beers Company alone is estimated at 108.750,000 loads.
to'. The Diamond Fields of Soiitl;rni Africa, p. 242.

PRESIDENTIAI, ADDRESS SECTION I!. 53

witin this " Diamond Belt." as it may for convenience be termed,
that any discoveries of importance will be made.

What the future holds in this respect it is impossible to
say. but having- regard to the enormous financial resources of
the combination controlling the market, it may be asserted with
confidence that the discoverey of even a very large pipe — unless
it were of phenomenal richness — could not lead to anv serious
disorganization of the diamond industry.

The alluvial diamond diggings, which, as already stated, are
responsible for about 13.5 per cent, by value of the total output
of the Union, are likely to continue for many years to be an
important source of production. This applies particularly to
the Griqualand West fields, where diamond digging has reached
the condition of a comparatively settled industry conducted on
well-established lines df experience, and where it has come
gradually to be realised that, while the element of chance un-
doubtedly enters very largely, finds, generally speaking, are in
proportion to energy and intelligence expended.*

The only serious competitor of the Union in the matter of
diamond production is the Protectorate of South-West Africa,
the output of which amounts at the present time to about 30,000
carats per month.

Coal.

Coal, next to gold and diamonds, is the most important
mineral product of the Union. The "output amounted in 1917
to 10,382,623 tons, valued at ^3, 255,659, against 10,007,502 tons,
valued at £2,739.665 in 1916^ and 8,801.216 tons, valued at
£2,240,458 in 191 3. The marked increase in comparison with
1913 is due mainly to the increasing quantity of coal bunkered
and exported, which in 191 7 reached the record figure of
2,343,552 tons, valued at £543,211. This is largely a result of
conditions due to the war. In view, however, of the favourable
geographical situation of the Union, the excellent facilities for
coaling that exist at our principal ports, the fact that the price
of coal at the pit mouth is lower in South Africa than in any
country in the world with the exception of India,! and that the
quality of South African coal has now become established
abroad, there is every reason to anticipate — provided that the
coal-owners receive fair treatmeiit in the matter of railway rates
— that the export and bunker trade will continue steadily to ex-
pand. In particular, an exjiort trade with the Argentine and

* Cf. Annual Report, Govt. Mining Engineey, 1916, p. 64.

t The following table gives the average price per ton of coal at the
pit's moutli in 1Q12 in the principal coal-producing countries: —

s. d. s. d.

United Kingdom 9 of British India 4 6

Germany 10 6| .Australia 7 6J

France 12 8i New Zealand 10 ii\

Belgium 13 s\ Canada 11 S\

United States 6 r Union of South Africa .... 411

54 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION 1!.

Other South American States appears to offer great possibilities,
as South African coal can be landed on the east coast of South
America at a much lower price than North American or Euro-
pean coal. The establishment of a direct service of steamships
between South Africa and Buenos Ayres, which is also very
desirable for other reasons, would greatly assist matters in this
direction, and is certainly worthy df the consideration of the
Union Government and the big shipping companies carrying on
trade w^ith South Africa.

In regard to the available reserves of coal in the Union,
some of yon will remember that these were estimated in 191 1
at 56,200,000,000 tons, of which 36,000,000,000 tons fall to the
share of the Transvaal. Both estimates, which it is only fair
to state were admitted to be very approximate, are now gener-
ally conceded to have erred considerably on the conservative
side, and it is very desirable, both in order to settle this impor-
tant question and to obtain accurate information in regard to
the suitability of the various South African coals for the produc-
tion of coke and the manufacture of ammonium sulphate and
other by-products, that a detailed survey of our coal-fields be
made on the lines recommended by the Fuel Research Board of
Great Britain.

CoKE^ Tar, and Coal By-Products.

Most of the Natal coals and much of the coal found in the
Central Witbank district olf the Transvaal yield good serviceable
coke, well adapted to blast-furnace and foundry purposes, though
unfortunately, as a rule, rather high in sulphur.

Until the middle of last year the only producers were the
Natal Navigation Collieries at Hatting Spruit and the South
African Coke Company at Vryheid. Recently, as a result of
the increased demand for coke created by the erection of blast-
furnaces for the production of iron at Pretoria and Vereeniging
and in Natal, the coke industry has undergone considerable ex-
pansion, and at least five other Natal companies will shortly
enter the market.

None of the ovens at present in operation are designed for
the recovery of the valuable by-products contained in the volatile
matter of coal. The shortage and consequent liigh price of
coal-tar — for which there is a very considerable demand in
South Africa — due to the em'bargo placed on its export from the
United Kingdom, have, however, led to the formation of a com-
pany with a capital of £40,000, wdiich proposes to undertake
the production of coke, tar, ammonium sulphate and benzol at
Witbank.*

A much more ambitious project is that of the Dundee

* The tar production shown in the returns for 1913 came from a
plant erected at Witbank some years ago. The plant proved to be badly
designed and altogether unsatisfactory, and after being in operation for
some time it was closed down.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 55

Coal Company, who intend, as soon as the requisite etiuipment
is available, to spend £150,0000 on the erection at Dundee of a
large by-product recovery coking-plant. These schemes are
fraught with the greatest importance to the country, because if
successful they will doubtless be followed by others, since it is
becoming generally realised that the coal by-product industry
offers almost illimitable possibilities.

It is almost certain, for example, that after the war trinitro-
toluol, prepared from toluol, a coal-tar derivative, will compete
with dynamite as an industrial explosive, just as benzol, another
coal by-product, is at the present time successfully competing
with petrol in France and Germany.

Ammoniitw Sulphate. — One of the most important develop-
ments that has taken place df recent years in the South African
coal industry has been the erection by the Natal Ammonium,
Limited, at Alount Ngwibi, near Vryheid in Natal, of a large
modern plant of the Mond type for the production of ammonium
sulphate. A seam of coal, characterised by containing about
2 per cent, of nitrogen, which crops out on the slopes of Mount
Ngwibi, affords the basis of the industry. At the present time
the output is at the rate of about 250 tons per month, and it is
hoped to increase this to 350 tons in the near future. Alost of
the ammonium sulphate is exported to Mauritius, ver\ little of
this valuable fertiliser being used in South Africa. The indus-
try appears to be capable of very considerable expansion, as there
are other coals in this and the adjoining districts of Natal which
are equally well adapted to the manufacture of ammonium sul-
phate.

Copper.

Practically the whole of the copper output of the Union,
amounting in 1917 to 20,131,614 tons, valued at £1,126,040,
comes from the Messina Mine in the Northern Transvaal and
the mines of the Cape and Namaqua Copper Companies in Little
Namaqualand. None of these mines are equipped for the
actual production of the metal, and have hitherto exported all
their copper in the form of hand-picked ore, concentrate, and
matte. The industry has in consequence received a very serious
set-back from the recently published decree of the Ministry of
Shipping prohibiting the shipment of copper ore, matte, and
concentrate. The Namaqua Copper Company, after nearly 50
years oif continuous production, have decided temporarily to close
down their mines. The Cape Copper Company are continuing
operations, and propose stocking the matte and concentrate pro-
duced. The Messina Company, on the other hand, are en-
deavouring to obtain equipment to enable them to produce blister
copper. In any case, the outlook of the copper mining indus-
try was none too bright. In the Namaqualand mines the grade
had of recent years fallen to such an extent as to cause the
gravest concern ; and at the last annual meeting of the Messina
Company shareholders were informed that they had " to con-

56 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION P..

template the unpleasant fact that the life of the mine may he
approaching its end."

'J he future of the Namaqualand copper region, where enor-
mous quantities of low-grade ore, averaging from i^^ to 2^2
per cent, of copper, are available in the existing mines and in tlie
hundreds of ore-bodies that have not hitherto been opened up,*
depends on the introduction of economical methods such as
leaching flotation for the beneficiation of this material.

As pointed out by Trevor, f the ore in question is well i.vcr
the grade that is being profitably exploited on a vast scale in
the United States and in Chile, in areas just as inaccessible and
inhospitable, and there is no apparent reason, therefore, why
the introduction of modern methods of treatment should not
give this grand old mining field a new lease of life.

At Messina it is a question of locating further rich ore-
bodies of the type being worked, which have been shewn to owe
their origin to a process of secondary enrichment by descending
solutions. Exploratory work has for several years past been
conducted by the management on approved scientific lines, and it
is to be hoped that their efforts will bear fruit.

Tin.

The tin production of the Union for 1917 shows a consider-
able decrease com]:)ared with 19 13. This is due to the fact that
during 1916 and 191 / poor zones were encountered at some of
the ])rincipal mines. At the present time the workings of all the
more important producers are in good, or fairly good, ore, and
if the high price of tin be maintained, it is not improbable that,
as regards value, the 1918 output will constitute a record.

Apart from a small production of alluvial tin from the Kuils
River fields near Capetown, the whole of the output t comes from
the Bushveld province of the Transvaal, which includes two
distinct tin-bearing areas, known respectively as the W'aterberg
and the Olifants River fields. Of these the former, occupying
a large crescent-shaped area in the central portion of the Water-
berg district, are the more important. The output of the Olifants
River fields, which extend in a north and south direction from
the farm Mutue Fides, in the south-eastern corner of the Water-
berg district, to the Elands River, is, however, steadily increasing.

The deposits of both areas exhibit an extraordinary diversity
of type, and are as yet but imperfectly understood. From the
experience gained in the different mines and i^-ospects. however,
one fact stands out. and that is that, within the limits of either
of these tin fields, it pays to follow up the merest indication. It
is also relevant to observe that fissure deposits in the quartzites
of the Rooiberg series and pipe occurrences in the Red (iranite

* C/. Rogers, A. W. : Proc. Geol. Soc S.A. (1915). 21-3.;.
t Cy. The South African Year-Booh. 4..13.

t The output of the alluvial tin-tields of Swaziland, amounting to
about 350 tons of concentrate per annum, is not inchided in the returns.

PKESIDEiNTlAL ADUKluSS — SliCTIUN Ji. 57

have hitherto given far more favourable resuhs than deposits in
the felsites and shales of the Waterberg system. In view of the
many disappointments that have attended the opening up of
our tin occurrences and the unenviable reputation that the
Bushveld deposits, Jn general, have earned for impersistence, it
is a pleasure to be able to record of one of them — the No. 13
pipe of the Zaaiplaats Company — that it has been foHowed for
a distance of 2,400 feet, measured along the dip, and at the
greatest depth hitherto attained— about 400 feet — is as productive
as it was near the surface.

The most notable event in connection with die tin mining
industry in 191 / was the erection by the Zaaiplaats Company of
a tin smeltery.

Hitherto all the cassiierite won in the Cnion has been
exported in the form of concentrate, containing from 65 to 70
per cent, of metallic tin. to the Malay States, where better ])rices
are obtainable for this material than in England.

About a year ago the Zaai])laats Company, owing to the
increasing difficulty and cost of shipping their concentrate, decided
to smelt it (jn the spot, and have ex{)erienced no difficulty in
obtaining ingot tin containing 99-5 pev cent, of the metal, for
which there is a ready sale locally.

Encouraged by the success of this ])ioneer smelting venture,
all the other large producers are erecting furnaces, and it appears
safe to |)redict that in future only metallic tin will be exported
from South Africa.

ASBESTCS.

The asbestos industry of South Africa has made remarkable
progress since 1913, and, as ] have jxDinted out elsewhere,*
appears to be capable of almost indefinite ex])ansion. Exports
are limited at the present time by the lack of shipping space, and
there will without doubt be a considerable increase in the output
after the war. Practically the entire production of the Union
is obtained from the deposits of (jriqualand West and the Lyden-
burg district of the Transvaal, which occur at almost the same
horizon as the Pretoria series, and are among the most extensive
occurrences of asbestos now being mined in any country.

The Griqualand West fields yield blue or crocidolite asbestos,
and the Lydenburg fields a pale-coloured iron-amphibole asbestos.

The output of the Lydenburg fields, which produce fibre up
to 10 inches in length, is already considerably in excess of that of
Griqualand West, notwithstanding the fact that their exploitation
only began two years ago.

The bulk of the asbestos produced in South Africa is
exported. It is gratifying, however, to be able to record that the
local asbestos manufacturing industry is steadily expanding.
Three firms are now making asbestos-cement tiles and slabs for
roofing, ceilings, and partitions. Another concern is engaged in

* C/. S.A. Jount. Industi'u's. Xoveniber, igi/.

58 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

the manufacture of asbestos flooring, and yet another is putting
on the market a patent asbestos composition for covering boilers
and steam-pipes.

Corundum.

That South Africa ranks at the present time as the leading
corundum-producng country, and is Hkely to continue almost
indefinitely to continue to hold that position is not generally
known.

Much the greater part of the output, amounting to about
400 tons per month, is derived from the Zoutpansberg fields, in
the Northern Transvaal, which constitute by far the largest and
most important corundum-producing area in the world.

There is also a small production in the Leydsdorp division
of the Transvaal, and in the Steinkopf district of Namaqualand.

The bulk of the corundum exported is in the form of eluvial
crystals, for the most part broken, that are separated by sifting
and washing from the thin soil and sub-soil of the areas in
question. A smaller proportion is boulder- or rock-corundum, in
which the mineral is associated with varying amounts of other
minerals.

The position and prospects of the South African corundum
industry are fully dealt with in a recent article in the Journal of
Industries*

Antimony.

The increase in the price of this metal, caused by the demand
for it for war purposes, has given a great impetus to antimony-
mining and smelting in South Africa.

Considerable quantities of antimonite are available in certain
of the mines on the so-called " Antimony Line " of bedded gold-
quartz veins in the Murchison Range, and a very promising
occurrence is being worked in the Steynsdorp division of the
Barberton district. The bulk of the antimonite recovered is
reduced to the metallic state and used in the manufacture of
antifriction and white metals, for which there is a fairly large
demand in South Africa. Part of the antimonite produced in the
Murchison Range is converted by roasting and volatilisation into
white antimony oxide, which is used as a substitute for white lead.

Graphite.

Reference to the accompanying tables shows that the graphite
industry is making steady progress, and it is encouraging to
find that practically the whole of the South African requirements
of the mineral are now being met by the Transvaal (Graphite
Company, who are exploiting a deposit situated 20 miles east of
Groot Spelonken Siding, in the Zoutpansberg district of the
Transvaal. t

* Cf. Wagner, P. A. : S.A. Jouni. hidu^tries. May, 1918.
^ S.A. Jotirn. Industries, February, 1918.

presidential address section b. 59

Iron Oxide.

The material under this heading is used in the manufac-
ture of mineral paints, the production of which has become an
industry of some importance.

Iron-Ore — Iron.

As a result of conditions due to the war South Africa is
at last about to enter the ranks of the world's iron producers.
Two small blast furnaces are actually on the point of being
blown in, and two others are expected to be in operation within
the next two or three months ; so that what was considered a
few years ago as being without the bounds of commercial prac-
ticability will shortly be an accomplished fact. The sedimentary
iron ores of the Pretoria series and Karroo system afford the
bases of all four ventures. The furnaces already completed are
those of the Pretoria Iron Mines, Ltd., and of the Transvaal
Blast Furnace Company, Ltd. The former company propose
smelting in a 50-feet furnace, with coke prepared from Dundee
coal, a mixture of siliceous and " clay-band " ores from the
lower portion of the Pretoria series. The siliceous ore, an
arenaceous ootltic ironstone,* in which most of the iron is pre-
sent as martite, assays from 40 to 54 per cent, of iron, and from
14 to 22 per cent, of silica; sulphur and phosphorus being both
very low, and titanium present in traces only. The " clay-
band " ore assays from 50 to 55 per cent, of iron, from 7 to 9
per cent, of silica, and from .5 to .6 per cent, of pho.sphorus.
Both types of ore can be very cheaply mined, and are available
in enormous quantity, millions of tons of the siliceous ironstone
being actually in sight.

Limestone from Taungs, in Bechuanaland, is to be used
as flux. The furnace has a capacity of from 12 to 15 tons of
pig iron per diem.

The Transvaal Blast Furnace Company, who have erected
a 50-feet blast furnace at Vereeniging in connection with the
Union Steel Corporation, intend smelting a very pure bedded
magnetite ore, found in the Transvaal Coal Measures on the
farm De Roodepoort, No. 67, 7 miles east of Ermelo.

x^s there is very little information on record regarding the
iron ores of the Transvaal Coal Measures, it may be noted that
they occur irregularly interstratified with the almost horizontal
sandstones of the Ecca series in Ermelo and Middelburg dis-
tricts, t The beds are up to 6 feet in thickness — the average
thickness being about 18 inches — and occur at varying distances
above the coal seams, sometimes resting directly on them. They
are in the form of attenuated lenses and consequently imper-

* CA Wagner. P. A,, and Stanley, G. H. : S.A. Min. Journ. (1917),
/uly 14 and 28, and August 4 and 18.

t Cf- Henderson, J. McC. : Proc. Geol. Soc. S.A. (1909). 21.

6o PRESIDENTIAL AI)l)Ri:S.> SECTIOX I!.

sistent ; the quantity of ore available — in comj)arison with the
reserves in the Pretoria beds — being small.

The ore is thinl}- laminated and ranges in character from
soft brown limonite, through compact red haniiatie to dense,
hard fine-grained magnetite, the last being a product of the
metamor])hisn] of beds of limonite and haematite by sheets of
dolerite intrusive in the coal measures. The ore to be smelted at
Vereeniging is of this type, occurring almost immediately below
a sheet of dolerite.

It is the purest iron-ore yet discovered in Soutli Africa,
assaying from 66 to 69 per cent, of iron and from .5 to 1.5 per
cent, of silica. Suljjhur and phosphorus are low, and it is quite
free from titanium. The tonnage in sight, however, is not very
great.

A third Transvaal company, proposing to undertake the
production of iron and steel, is the Locale and Industrielle
Maatschappij of Pretoria, who have leased a large area of the
Pretoria town lands adjoining the lease of the Pretoria Iron
Mines, Ltd.

The other blast-furnaces referred to are in Natal, one at
Wentw^orth, a suburb of Durban, and the other at Sweetwaters;
near Maritzburg.

The former is being erected by the Iron. Concrete, and
Asbestos Company, of Durban, and the latter was put up many
years ago by Mr. S. L. Green. A preliminary attempt, recently
made, to utilise this furnace failed, but I understand that after
certain alterations have been carried out a further attem])t is to
be made.

In both instances sedimentary iron-ores from the Ecca beds
of the Karroo system are to be smelted. That for the Wentw^orth
furnace is being quarried at Elvarston, while at Sweetwaters it is
proposed to use a mixture of local ore and Ermelo magnetite.

The progress of these smelting ventures, at least two of
which are merely the forerunners of far more ambitious projects,
will be watched with the greatest interest, as it is generally
recognised that an established iron and steel industry would be
of the utmost benefit to the whole of South Africa.

Prospects are very hopeful, as the South African demand
for iron and steel is well over 50.000 tons i)cr annum, and is
almost certain to increase.*

The dimensions to which the industry will ultimately attain
depend largely upon the success of the eftorts that are to be made
as soon as practicable at Pretoria, to smelt the rich titaniferous
magnetites of the Bushveld complex. The available reserves of
these ores are practically inexhaustible — I estimate them at least at
2.000,000,000 tons — and if they could, as suggested 'by Stanley,!
be smelted on a large scale in admixture with the siliceous ore

* Cf. Stanley, G. H. : S.A. Journ. Industries. December, 1917.
t Cf. Journ. Cheiii. Met. and Min. Soc. S.A.. November, 1909, and May,
X910.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION ]!. 6l

of the Pretoria series — of which I estimate that there are some
1,000,000,000 tons available — using cheap non-caking Transvaal
coal as fuel. South Africa should be able to export iron and steel
in competition with the great iron-producing countries of the
world.

Iron Pyrite.

Owing to the increasing difificulty of obtaining adequate
supplies of sulphur fron] Sicily and the United States, a consider-
able proportion of the sulphuric acid requirements of the large
explosive companies and other indnstrial concern'^ is now manu-
factured from pyrite mined, or obtained as a by-product of gold-
mining, in the Transvaal. The available reserves of the mineral
are considerable, and, as the acid can be made more cheaply from
local pyrite than from imported sulphur, there is every prosj^ect
of pyrite-mining becoming one of the permanent industries of the
country.

Kaolin.

Since the closing-down of the pottery at Olifantsfontein,
between Germiston and Pretoria, the only use to which kaolin
has been put in South Africa is the manufacture of whiting,
distempers, and wall paints, " Blanco," and the like. The prin-
cipal producers are the Sienna Paint Company, of Durban, who
obtain their kaolin from a deposit near Padleys Station, on the
Durban-Maritzburg railway.

Lead.

Small pockets and veins of galena occur and have been
worked at many localities in the Dolomite of the Transvaal
system in the Transvaal and on the Kaap Plateau. The mineral
is also found in fissure veins in the Pretoria series and in the
Waterberg sandstone formation, of which several are being
exploited.

At the present time the lead output of the Union is derived
mainly from a vein in Waterberg sandstone, in the Blaauwberg
Range, in the northern part of the Zoutpansberg district of the
Transvaal, and from occurrences in the Dolomite.

There is little prospect of any considerable increase in
production.

A plant for the production of white lead from cerussite has
been erected at the Edendale lead mine, to the north of Hatherly.

Zinc.

There is no production of zinc or zinc ores in the Union at
present. The only important deposits hitherto discovered are in
the Malmani division of the Transvaal, near Ottoshoop, where
lead and zinc ores occur partly in the form of pipes and partly
in the form of disseminations in the Dolomite of the Transvaal
system. In 191 4 a concentrating plant was erected at the Blane-
Witkop Mine, jjnd was worked for a short time, but it was found

62 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION V..

impossible to dispose of the concentrate at a remunerative price
owing to the fact that, at that time, smelters in the United
Kingdom and the United States, had more ore than they could
deal with. x\bout 200 tons of concentrate, averaging 50 per cent,
of zinc, were produced.

Arsenic.

Within the past six months a promising start has been made
to produce white arsenic locally, this material being extensively
used in the manufacture of arsenite of soda for sheep and cattle
dips, insecticides, and the like. The output for the first four
months of 1918, amounting to 6.185 tons, valued at £619, came
from the Stavoren Tin Mine, where massive arsenopyrite occurs,
together with cassiterite, scheelite, copper pyrite, and other
minerals.

A plant for the production of white arsenic is also being
erected at the Consort Mine in the Barberton district. Here
arsenopyrite is associated with gold.

As some £80,000 worth of arsenite of soda is annually con-
sumed in the Union, the prospects of the industry appear very
hopeful.

Magnesite.

The Union has considerable resources of magnesite, but
owing to the low price of the mineral it is at present only being
worked at Budd's Mine, near Malelane, in the Barberton district.
The output of the mine amounted in 1917 to 781 short tons,
valued at £2,050.

The production of magnesite may be expected to increase
with the expansion of the local steel industry, but there is little
prospect of estabHshing an export trade in it.*

Manganese.

The manganese output, recorded in the table for 191 7, came
];art]y ifrom a vein deposit in the Magaliesberg quartzite, near
Derdepoort. and partly from an occurrence which is being ex-
ploited on the farni Daniels Rust, 12 miles north of Krugersdorp.

Here the manganese occurs as nodules, up to 12 inches in
diameter, composed of a mixture of pyrolusite and psilomelane.
These are scattered indiscriminately through residual clay,
resulting from the weathering of the dolomite of the Transvaal
system. The nodules average about 47 per cent, of metallic
manganese. The deposits appear to be of considerable extent,
and can be cheaply worked.

A somewhat similar occurrence is being opened up at Rand
Gate, near Randfontein. At this locality, however, the man-
ganese content of the nodules is lower than on Daniels Rust.

Within the last week a promising deposit of this nature has

* Cf. Wagner, P. A.: S.A. Joiirii. [)idusfries. March. 1918.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B. 63

also been discovered on the property of the Randfontein Central
Gold Mining Company.

Mica.

The pegmatites of the so-called Mica Belt, in theLeydsdorp
division of the Transvaal, yield muscoviate mica of excellent
quality, of which there is a small but steady production. Efforts
are being made to establish an export trade in the mineral,
which is in great demand at the present time for aeroplanes and
the condensers of wireless stations. Limited quantities are used
in South Africa for electrical purposes, and there is a small mica
factory in Johannesburg, where mica lamp-chimneys, stove-fronts,
and micanite sheets are made.*

Soda.

The soda production of the Union, amounting m 1917 to
5,674.75 tons, value at £29,192 is derived from the remarkable
salt-panf on the farm Zoutpan, 25 miles north-west of Pretoria.

Hitherto operations have practically been confined to thin
layers of nearly pure trona, but enormous quantities of soda are
also available in the mud underlying and interbedded with the
trona layers. This has been proved to a depth of over 200 feet,
and averages about 15 per cent, of NaoCog. A plant for the
preparation of pure soda from the mud is at present being erected,
and if it proves successful the future of the industry will be
assured for many years to come.

Talc.

Almost the whole of the talc production of the Union comes
from the Verdite Mine, near Noordkaap Station, in the Barberton
district of the Transvaal, "in the neighbourhood of which there
are other considerable deposits. There is also a small production
in the Krugersdorp district of the Transvaal, and in Zululand.

The talc of the Barberton district deposits has been proved
to be well adapted to the manufacture of paper and rubber. As
it can be cheaply mined, and the railage to Delagoa Bay is only
3s. 6d. per ton, it is confidently anticipated that a large export
trade in it will be established after the war.*

Tungsten.

The small output of tungsten recorded in the table of mineral
production comes from the Stavoren Tin Mine, in the Olifants
River tin-fields. Several tons of scheelite were also recovered
in 1917 from a deposit in the neighbourhood of Leydsdorp, but
this is not being worked at the present time.

* Cf. Wagner, P. A. : S.A. Journ. Industries, April, 1918.
t For a description and plan of the Salt Pan see Wagner, P. A. : Proc.
Geol. Soc. S.A. (1917), 30-38.

t S.A. Journ. Industries, June, 19 18.

64 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

No workable occurrence of wolframite has been found in
the Union, though the mineral occurs in association with cassi-
terite in certain of the mines of the Waterberg tin-fields, and in the
quartz-lodes on the farm Annexe Langverwacht, near Capetown.

Lime.

A recent survey* has shown that the Union has very
considerable resources of limestone, though the largest deposits
unfortunately are rather unfavourably situated with regard to
the principal industrial centres.

The most important occurrence being worked at the present
time is that near Taungs, which is estimated to contain 7,000,000
tons of high-grade limestone. There is also a considerable
deposit near Potgietersrust, in which the limestone has resulted
from the de-dolomitisation of the normal dolomite of the Trans-
vaal system. f

Pure cave limestone occurs in the Dolomite at many localities.
Until recently deposits of this type supplied the greater part of
the pure lime used in the cyanide works on the Witwatersrand,
and they still make an important contribution to the total output.

Fairly considerable quantities of " blue " lime obtained from
"burning" ordinary dolomite, are produced at Irene, Olifants-
fontein, andjDther localities. It is used principally for building
purposes.

Arenaceous surface-limestone is very largely employed for
the manufacture of cement.

Rock Phosphate.

There has now for nearly two years been a steady output of
crushed rock phosphate from the deposits at Saldanha Bay. These
are of great extent, $ readily accessible, and capable of being
cheaply worked ; and are without doubt destined to afford the
basis of a very important industry. The phosphate, an intimate
mixture of aluminium and iron phosphates, has been formed
mainly by the phosphatisation of granite and quartz porphyry
detritus, and to a less extent by the phosphatisation of these rocks
in situ. Though almost completely insoluble in ammonium citrate,
it has practically demonstrated that the phosphate, if finely
ground, has a very beneficial effect when applied together with
finely-ground lime to soils poor in phosphorus, and to sour soils;
the phosphorus being doubtless rendered assimilable by the agency
of soil bacteria. It was early realised, however, that its efficiency
as a fertiliser could be greatly increased by rendering the phos-
phoric acid more soluble and several processes to effect this have

* Cf. Wybergh, W., and Du Toit, A. L. : The Limestone Resources of
the Union, Geological Survey Memoir, No. 11, Union of South Africa.

t Cf. Young, R. B., Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A.. 1916. p. 57.

+ Cf. Du Toit, A. L. : Report on the Phosphates of Saldanha Bay.
Memoir No. 10, Geological Survey, Union of South Africa.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B. 65

been devised. When one or the other of the processes has been
successfully applied, there should be a big increase in the output.

There is also a small deposit of the more valuable calcium
phosphate or phosphorite in the neighbourhood of Saldanha Bay
on the Hoetjes Bay Peninsula, and this encourages the belief
that further deposits of phosphorite remain to be discovered in
this locality or along some other section of the littoral. As the
soils of the Union are, generally speaking, very deficient in phos-
phorus, any discovery of this nature would be of the utmost
importance.

Another source of rock phosphate investigated by Du Toit*
are the phosphatic nodules occurring in the Upper Ecca shales in
the Weenen area and other localities in Natal. These contain
from 20 to 30 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and have been proved
experimentally to have considerable fertilising value when finely
ground.

( )wing to their irregular and sparing distribution through
the shale, operations will perforce have to be confined to the mere
collecting of the nodules set free by weathering or still partially
imbedded in the matrix. Du Toit is of opinion that there is
enough of this material scattered over the Weenen area to enable
a mill to operate with a small output for some time. With the
experience gained it is suggested that other localities, such as the
neighbourhood of Tadysmith, might with advantage be investi-
gated.

Chert.

Chert, suitable for lining tube-mills, has a wide distribution
in the Dolomite formation, and is won in the neighbourhood of
Frederikstad. in the Potchefstroom district of the Transvaal.
Owing to the introduction pf steel and composite liners, the
demand has fallen considerably, the output for 191 7 having
amounted tO' only 180 tons against 604 tons in 1913.

Gypsum.

This mineral is principally used in South Africa in the manu-
facture of Portland cement, in which it acts as a retarder.

There are important deposits at Ngbevu, in the Tugela
Valley, in Natal, on the farm Vrede, in the Boshof district of the
Orange Free State, and on the farm Bestpan, near Kimberley.

The demand for gypsum is limited, and there is no likelihood
of any great increase in production in the near future.

Kieselguhr.

Kieselguhr occurs as an earthy deposit in the beds of certain
pans in the Amsterdam district of the Transvaal ; also near
Krugersdorp, and in Griqualand West.

* Cf. Du Toit, A. L. : The Ecca Prosphates of Natal. S.A. Journ.
Industries, January, 1918.

66 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION li.

It is used in admixture with asbestos for covering boilers and
steam pipes, and for preparing brass and metal polish. There was
a small production of the mineral in 191 3, but, so far as I am
aware, none of the deposits are being worked at present.

Salt.

The salt industry of the Union continues to make steady
progress, though very little is heard of it, and information
regarding recent progress is difficult to obtain. The whole of the
output, amounting at the present time to nearly 60,000 tons per
annum, is derived from salt-pans, most of which are located on
the Dwyka tillite or shales. The supply of salt, which owes its
origin to a process of natural concentration, is constantly
replenished, and the pans, as pointed out by Rogers and Du Toit,*
are undoubtedly among the most valuable assets of the country.

For the actual production and refining of the salt, solar
evaporation in shallow pans is generally relied upon. This system,
while very economical, has the disadvantage that the output is
dependent on weather conditions, being greatly diminished during
the winter months, when very little evaporation takes place. To
remedy this, some of the salt companies have of recent years
supplemented their evaporating ponds by furnace-heated pans,
which enable a fairly steady output to be maintained all the year
round.

Cement, Clay Products, and Siructukal Material.

The value of the output of the industries under this heading
amounted in 1917 to £877,934, an increase of £255,941, compared
with 191 3. This is due largely to the great expansion of the local
cement industry, which is now supplying the whole of the rapidly-
increasing South African requirements. The Union has three
large cement factoreis, and the erection of two others is con-
templated.

The clay and pottery industries have also made very satis-
factory progress, the cutting-ofT of oversea supplies having given
a great impetus to the production of roofing tiles, stoneware, and
fireclay goods. There is also a magnificent opening for the local
manufacture of electrical insulators, sanitary ware, and crockery,
and the ceramic industry appears altogether to be capable of very
considerable expansion.

The great shortages of bottles has led to the establishment of
a bottle factory at Dundee, in Natal. The glass is obtained by
melting broken bottles. The actual manufacture of glass is,
however, also to be undertaken shortly, sand for this purpose
being available at several localities.

It is to be hoped that this and other industries that have
come into existence as a result of the existing conditions, will be

* Cf. The Geology of the Cape Colony, p. 478.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SIXTION H. 6/

adequately protected after the war, when it is probable that
dumping on a colossal scale will be attempted.

Future Discoveries.

The future of the mineral industry of South Africa, in so
far as it is dependent on deposits actually known or worked at
the present time, has already been discussed at some length in
the foregoing review. It remains to consider what prospects
the country offers in the matter of fresh discoveries. In dealing
with this interesting subject, it will be useful to divide the Union
into a number of mineral provinces — ^^that is, natural divisions,
which by virtue of the geological or physiographical conditions
prevailing within them yield, or may be expected to yield, certain
minerals.

Those having even a passing acquaintance of the geological
features of the Union will realise that this scheme, if rigorously
carried out, would involve the discrimination of a large number
of areas, many of which, in addition to being ([uite unimportant,
could, owing to their small size, not be shown on the accompanying
map.

For this and other reasons it is proposed to adopt the
following nine-fold division, though it in nearly every instance
involves the inclusion in the individual provinces of rocks of
different geological age or of widely separated areas of the same
formation : —

( I ) The Witwatersrand-Ventersdorp Province.

( 2 ) The Karroo Province.

(3) The Transvaal Sj^stem Provinces.

(4) The Bushveld Province.

(5) The Old Granite-Swaziland System Provinces.

(6) The Copper Region of Little Namaqualand.

(7) The West Coast Province.

(8) The Cape System Province.

(9) The Kalahari Region.

The boundaries of the provinces, except where actually
determined by geological boundary lines, are largely arbitrary.

The Witwatersrand-V'hnti'ksdokp Province.

The Witwatersrand-Ventersdorj) Province embraces a con-
siderable extent of country in the Southern Transvaal and
adjacent territories occupied or underlain at comparatively shallow
depth by the rocks of the Witwatersrand and Ventersdorp
systems, which for the purposes of the present address have been
grouped together. It includes a fairly considerable area of
Karroo rocks to the east and south-east of Boksburg, narrovN
strips of dolomite to the west of Randfontein and to the south-
east of Klerksdorp. and has also for convenience been made to
embrace the area of older granite to the north of Johannesburg,

68 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

and several areas of older granite and Karroo rocks in the South-
western Transvaal.

Including as it does the greatest gold-field and the two
greatest alluvial diamond fields in the world, this is easily the
most important of the nine divisions, contributing about 80 per
cent, by value of the total mineral output of the Union.

In addition to gold and diamonds, it yields silver, coal,
asbestos, building-stone, quartz, talc, and a considerable variety
of clays.

As regards future discoveries, the possibility of locating
further outcrops of the Main Reef, or areas underlain by it, will
doubtless continue to act as a powerful incentive to prospecting
and boring within the tract of country over which the Witwaters-
rand beds are known to extend.*

On the whole it does not appear likely that the productive
area of the Rand gold-field will be very materially added to,
either to towards the east, south-east, or west. It is possible,
however, that some of the work now being carried out in the
Heidelberg area may bear fruit, and that the faulted continuation
of the Main Reef zone will eventually be located beneath the
Dolomite to the south-west of the Randfontein group of mines.
There is also a remote possibility that a " Farther "' East Rand
may await discovery below the coal-measures of the Bethal and
Middelburg districts, but this systematic deep-boring alone can
decide.

In regard to the Venterskroon and Klerksdorp gold-fields,
the outlook is not very hopeful. The prospecting and boring
operations carried out in the former area some years ago, under
the direction of Dr. Corstorphine, render it practically certain
that the Main Reef zone does not exist in the Witwatersrand
beds as developed within it.

In so far as the Klerksdorp district is concerned, it still
remains to be proved whether or not the Main Reef zone is
represented, and, until the complex geological structure of the
area has been more completely unravelled, it will hardly be
possible to do this. Some geologists have identified Buffeldoorn
Reef, until recently worked by the Quest Gold Mining ( onipany,
with the Main Reef, but the correlation rests on rather a slender
basis.

In any case, the disappointing results obtained from the
exploitation of this ' reef " indicate that, if it is the Main Reef,
the latter is verv th'n and patchy in the Klerksdorp district.

Coal. — Fairly considerable quantities of coal are produced
from the coal-measures overlying the Witwatersrand beds and

* The most easterly exposure of undoubted Main Reef zone hitherto
located is on, or more correctly speaking, beneath the farm Droogefontein-
No. 447, on the Far East Rand ; the most westerly, in the south-western
corner of the claim-holaing of the South Randfontein Deep, on the Wefet
Rand; and the most southerly, on the farm Platkopje, No. 63, 16 miles
south-west of Heidelberg.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B. 69

Dolomite on the Far East Rand, but the generally superior
quality of the coal found farther east, combined with the improved
railway facilities, have tended of recent years to diminish the
amount of coal mined in the area

There is little probability of any important coal-bearing
areas, other than those known at present, being located within the
province.

Diamonds. — The whole of the Witwatersrand-Ventersdorp
Province falls within the Diamond Belt previously defined, and it
is not unlikely, therefore, that important pipes and dykes of
diamondiferous kimberlite await discovery within it.

The Karroo Province.

The Karroo Province, occupied by the sedimentary and
igneous rocks of the Karroo system and dykes, sills, and laccolites
of dolerite intrusive in them.* is by far the most extensive of
the mineral provinces, embracing over one-half of the area of the
Union. In the value of its mineral production it is second only
to the Wtiwatersrand Province, the supremacy of which it will
doubtless eventually rival.

It is not only the great repository of the fuel-wealth of the
country, but includes the most productive section of the Diamond
Belt. Apart from coal and diamonds, its mineral products include
salt, iron-ore, rock-phosphates, fireclay, and other clays, gannister,
building-stone and gypsum. Gold has also been found. f Potential
sources of mmeral wealth are natural gas, oil and alum shale, and
the magnetic copper-nickel deposits of Griqualand East.

The Copper-Nickel Deposits of lusisiva, Tahankuln, and
l^onki, in Griqualand East. — These deposits are similar in many
respects to those of Sudbury in Canada, at the present time the
principal source of the world's supply of nickel. The ore-bodies
occur J at the lower contacts of great cakes or basin-shaped masses
of gabbro-norite, merging downward into picrite§, which have
been shown by Du Toit to be the remnants of a vast sill intrusive
in the lower division of the Beaufort series. The lower surface
of this sill appears to have undulated considerably. The existing
gabbro masses represent the parts filling the hollows, the inter-
vening dome-like connections having been removed by denudation.
The principal ore-minerals are pyrrhotite chalcopyrite and pent-
landite, with smaller amounts of bornite and niccolite. Platinum

* It has also been made to embrace the broad belt of Cretaceous and
Tertiary rocks along the coast of Zulnland, and several inliers of Older
Granite and rocks belonging to the Transvaal and Waterbera; systems
to the south and south-west of Prieska.

t At Cekkers Kloof, near Cradock, where the gold occurs in asso-
ciation with prehnite.

t Cf. Du Toit, A. L. : The Geology of the Transkei. an Explanation of
Sheet 27 (Cape). Geological Survey, Union of South Africa (1917) ,
18-27.

§ These rocks represent a special phase of the widespread Karroo
dolerite.

70 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION li.

is also present. Assays of several ounces to the ton have been
recorded, but the average platinum content of the ore appears
to be between ^ dwt. to i dwt. per ton.

The ore clearly owes its origin to a process of gravitative
differentiation, and it is believed that ore bodies very much larger
than any hitherto exposed await discovery on the concealed floors
of the basins or cakes. Thus, the mineralised zone, on which
most exploratory work has been done at Insiswa, is in all prob-
ability only the eastern edge of a great lens-shaped mass of ore
underlying the Insiswa Mountain. The same applies to the Tonti
and Tabankulu occurrences, and as the massifs are of very great
size — ^that forming the Insiswa Mountain is ten miles in diameter
— it will be seen that the area offers enormous possibilities. Some,
indeed, see in it a second Sudbury.

Apart from the value of its metallic contents, the ore is of
value as a potential source of sulphur.

Petroleum. — The Karroo Province contains the only area
in the Union — namely, the so-called Folded Belt, along its
southern margin — within which some, at any rate, of the requisite
conditions for the formation and concentration of petroleum in
commercial quantities are satisfied.

The prospects of finding oil in the Folded Belt are, as has
been pointed out elsewhere,* not very hopeful, because, if
present, it is probably so deeply buried as to be beyond com-
mercial accessibility, but the possibility of its being struck none
the less exists.

Oil-Shale. — There are extensive deposits of oil-shale in the
Ermelo and Wakkerstroom districts of the Transvaal, and in the
Utrecht and Impendhle divisions of Natal, and equally extensive
deposits are said to exist in the north-eastern portion of the
Orange Free State. . The deposits are likely sooner or later to
form the basis of an important industry.

Natural Gas. — Natural gas has so far only been struck in
considerable quantity on the farm Gruisfontein, in the Heidelberg
district of the Transvaal, f where it was encountered at a depth of
540 feet, beneath a dolerite sill, which acted as an impervious
cover. Cunningham Craig| is of opinion that there may be other
isolated and irregular reservoirs of gas in the area, and also
considers that the Fauresmith district of the Orange Free State
and the Folded Belt of the Karroo system offer favourable con-
ditions for the occurrence of gas.

Diamonds. — The discovery of further workable occurrences
of Kimberlite within the Karroo Province may be predicted with
confidence, the neighbourhood of Kimberley and the north-

* C/. S.A. Journal of Ivdustries, October, 1917.

t Dr. Du Toit inforrhs me that an important strike of natural gas
was made some months ago near Dannhauser, in Natal.

X Report on the Petroleum Prospects in the Union of South Africa.
Pretoria, 1914, P- T9.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION Jl. /I

eastern portion of the Boshof district of the Orange Free State
holding out the greatest promise.*

The Bushveld Province.

This region coextensive with the Bushveld igneous complexf
yields a great variety of useful and valuable minerals, all derived
by differentiation or other processes of natural concentration
from the Bushveld granite and allied rocks.

The following metals and minerals have been or are being
worked: Tin, copper, arsenic, bismuth, tungstem, lead, J^old,
silver, molybdenite, and trona.

Of the important mineral deposits within the area, that
have not as yet been worked, but are receiving attention at the
present time, mention may be made of the occurrence of high-
grade haematite on the farm Kromdraai, south-east of Settlers — a
replacement deposit along a zone of fracture in felsite; the
chromite deposits on the farm Jachtlust No. 333, 50 miles south-
south-east of Pietersburg ; and the copper-nickel deposits on the
ifarm Vlakfontein. No. 902, west-south-west of the Pilandsberg,
in the Rustenburg district.

The Vlakfontein deposits are in the form of irregular masses
of nickeliferous pyrrhotite containing varying amounts of copper,
developed along fairly well-defined parallel zones of fissure in
pyroxenite belonging to the marginal phase of the Bushveld
Igneous Complex. The zones have been followed over a con-
siderable distance, and are being opened up by means of shafts
and tunnels. The Vlakfontein ores contain small amounts of
platinum, and it is of interest to recall that platinum is also
present in the remarkable stratiform segregations of chromite
occurring at much the same horizon in the basic margin of the
Bushveld laccolite.

Thus a series of samples of chromite taken by me to the
south-east and south-west of Turfgrond Station, in the Rusten-
burg district, assayed up to 1.5 dwts. of platinum and .15 dwt.
of osmium and iridium per ton. Here, as in certain other areas
where the chromite has been tested, the platinum metals, unfor-
tunately, are not uniformly distributed through it, and the
average values obtained by sampling were not sufficiently high
to warrant the exploitation of deposits, either as a source of
platinum or chromite.

Having regard to the enormous extent of the deposits — they
crop out intermittently over a distance of fully 400 miles — it is
quite possible, however, that some sections of the chromite
" layers ' will be found to contain platinum in profitable quantities.

The chromite itself, as previously intimated, is being opened
uj) on the farm JachtkiPt, situated 50 miles south-south-east of

* Cf. The Diamond Fields of Southern Africa, p. 4.

t For convenience it has also been made to include the VVaterberg
Plateau, and the igneous and sedimentary rocks of Karroo age underlying
the Springbok Flats.

~2 I^KESIUENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION H.,

Pietersburg, where there are two distinct layers of the mineral,
averaging six feet and 12 inches in thickness respectively. The
main layer averages 39 per cent, of chromic oxide, and it is
believed that this can easily be brought up to 42 per cent, by
hand-picking.

The principal mineral product of the Bushveld Province is
tin. which, as already stated, has a very wide distribution. Con-
ditions known to be favourable to the occurrence of the metal,
moreover, exist over extensive areas, as yet but imperfectly pros-
pected, and it may safely be predicted, therefore, that many
important cassiterite deposits will, in the course of time, be
discovered within it. The same applies to most of the other
metals previously mentioned, and the Bushveld Province appears
altogether ^ be an area of exceptional promise from the point
of view of future discoveries.

The Transvaal .Snstem Provinces.

These are t\vo in number. The more important, marked A
on the accompanying map, takes in a large tract of country in
the Central and Southern Transvaal ; and the other, marked B,
the greater part of Griqualand West.

They are occupied mainly by the rocks of the Transvaal
system, but for convenience both have been made to include fairly
considerable areas of sedimentary and igneous rocks belonging
to the Waterberg system, the Transvaal region in the Pretoria
and Middelburg districts, and the Griqualand West region along
its western margin.

The Transvaal region of the Transvaal .System Province
ranks third in point of output among the various provinces.

It includes the Premier Diamond Mine,* the Pilgrim's Rest
and Ottoshoop goldhelds, the gold mines on the Black Reef, in
the Southern and South -Western Transvaal, the asbestos occur-
rences of the Lydenburg district, and the extensive deposits of
iron-ore in the Pretoria series, and is clearly destined for many
years to be an important source of mineral wealth.

It also produces lead, pyrite, manganese, blue lime, fluorspar,
and slate, and contains the only economically-important deposits
of zinc hitherto discovered in the Union. Silver, copper, and
cobalt have been worked, and potassium nitrate, cinnabar, f and
lead vanadate fQiind within it.

The great variety of its mineral products, the fact that these
occur at such widely-separated localities, and the uniformity of
the geological conditions prevailing over great areas render the
prospects of future discoveries within the province distinctly
bright.

* The Premier Mine, tliough almost completely surrounded by felsite,
belonging to the Bushveld complex, lies well within the limits of the area
occupied by the Pretoria series.

+ Tn the Malmani district at Ottoshoop.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 73

It is a practical certainty, for example, that further workable
deposits of gold and asbestos remain to be found in the Ly den-
burg district, and that many occurrences of lead and zinc await
discovery in the Western Transvaal, while the possibilities of
gold mining in that region cannot by any means be said to have
been exhausted.

In so far as the Central Transvaal is concerned, most of the
epigenetic mineral deposits occurring in the Transvaal system
appear to be related genetically to the Bushveld granite and allied
rocks, and it is the portion of the province falling within the
sphere of influence of the intrusive activity of the Bushveld
complex that thus holds out the greatest promise.

As the province includes a considerable part of the Diamond
Belt, there is also a possibility of further discoveries of Kim-
berlite pipes and dykes within it.

II. — The Griqualand West region, as already indicated, is
far less important. Its mineral products include asbestos, lime-
stone, lead, and alluvial diamonds. It also contains enormous
deposits of iron-ore that may some day be of great importance.
Potassium nitrate, which occurs as thin veins in and as an encrus-
tation on the shales and slates of the Pretoria series, and also in
angular fragments as a scree deposit, has a wide distribution to
the north and north-east of Prieska. The mineral is believed to
have been derived by a process of nitrification from the excreta
of rock-rabbits, bats, and the like. Up to the present efforts to
work the deposits have not met with success.

Some very promising occurrences are said, however, to have
been discovered recently, and a company has been formed in
Johannesburg to exploit them. The results of its activities will be
awaited with interest.

Further discoveries of lead, zinc, and asbestos may be
expected within the province.

The Old Granite, Swaziland System Provinces.

Under this heading are included four large disconnected
areas occupied by the rocks of the Swaziland system, or their
supposed equivalents, and old granite and gneiss intrusive in them.
The areas are numbered I, II, III, and I\' on the accompanying
map.

I. — Embraces the whole of the Northern, North-
western, and B>astern Transvaal, Swaziland, and portion of
Northern Natal.

II. — Includes portions of Griqqualand West, and of the
Ma f eking division of the Cape Province.

III. — Includes an elongated tract of country in Natal
and Zululand, occupied partly by the granite and rocks
belonging to the Swaziland system, and partly by Table
Mountain sandstone, which it was found more convenient
to group with these rocks than with the Karroo beds.

74 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION li.

IV. — Takes in almost the whole of the Calviiiia and
Kenhardt divisions of the Cape Province, the southern and
western portions respectively of the (jordonia and Prieska
districts, and a portion of little Namaqualand.

Of the afore-mentioned, 1, which includes considerable areas
of Waterberg sandstone and a small patch of Karroo rocks, is by
far the most important.

It is a region that stands unrivalled in the variety of mineral
resources. These include gold, copper, silver, antimony, tin. lead,
corundum, graphite, magnesite, talc, timgsten. arsenic, pyrite.
mercury, mica, ornamental stones, salt, and limestone.

By virtue of the geological conditions prevailing t)ver large
areas, prospects of future discoveries — particularly of gold and
copper — are very hopeful, and as regards latent potentialities,
it is probably the most promising of the various provinces.

Further discoveries of gold may be expected in the Rarberton
district, where, according to Hall,* the contact belts of the De
Kaap and Crocodile Poort granite massifs merit particular atten-
tion; also the Murchison Range and surrounding area. As
regards copper, the neighbourhood of the Messina Mine appears
to ofier the greatest possibilities, though deposits of the metal
have been found at a number of widely separated points in the
North-Eastern Transvaal.

The north-western and extreme eastern portions of the area,
which are virtually unprosjiected. will also doubtless be the scene
of many future discoveries.

II. — This area, occupied for the most part by granite and
gneiss, includes three belts of ancient schistose and sedimentary
rocks, belonging to the Kraaipan series, which have many features
in common with the rocks of the Swaziland system. A number
of auriferous veins were opened up in the Kraaipan series at
Madibi and Kraaipan some years ago, but proved disappointing.
No other mineral deposits have hitherto been found. In view,
however, of the similarity in geolgical conditions to those pre-
vailing in the goldfields of Southern Rhodesia and in the
Barberton district, and of the fact that the greater part of the
area has not been prospected, it can hardly be doubted that
further gold occurrences remain to l)e discovered.

III. — Gold has been mined at a number of localities in this
province. Asbestos and talc are being quarried on a small scale,
and tin. copper, graphite, and mica have alsc^ been worked.

Results on the whole have been disappointing, but the area
is generally regarded as offering considerable possibilities in the
matter of future discoveries. According to Hatch, t there are
large areas within it that should be the home of many deposits

* Memoir No. 9, Geological Sunry. Union of South Africa, pp. 322,

329-

t Cf. Report on the Mines and Mineral Resources of Natal, p. 15.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION H. 75

of metals, such as ,^old, iron, and copper, while the pegmatites
that vein the schists of the Swaziland system, near the margins
of the granite intrusions, are favourable to the occurrence of
tin, molybdenite, and mica.

IV. — This area is occupied by granite and gneiss, except
along its eastern margin, where there is a broad belt of metamor-
phosed sedimentary and igneous rocks, belonging to the Kheis
esries — correlated tentatively with the Swaziland system.

The only important mineral deposits hitherto discovered are
the lenses of pyrite, in part cupriferous, that are being opened up
at the Areacheap Mine, tojhe north-west of Upington.

Copper-bearing quartz veins occur in gneiss in the neigh-
bourhood of Pella on the Orange River, and copper in the form
of malachite, chrysocalla and copper glance is also found in
quartz veins on the farm Toekomst West, on the Molopo. about
five miles south of the Keetmanshoop railway.

These occurrences, while not workable, serve to indicate that
copper is widely distributed.

The greater part of the region is still a terra incognita in so
far as the prospector is concerned, and certainly seems to merit
more attention than it has hitherto received.

The Copper Province of Little Namaqualand.

This province, occupying a fairly considerable extent of
country in the north-western corner of the Cape Province,
embraces two distinct mineral areas,* namely, ( i ) a northern
region characterised by veins containing native copper and
copper sulphides in a gangue of quartz, carbonates, felspar, and
chlorite. None of these are being worked at the present time.
The Kodas and Numees Mines, situated in the mountainous
country near the Orange River, yielded considerable quantities
of high-grade ore in the seventies of last century. Transport,
however, offered insurmountable difficulties, and they were closed
down after a time.

Both mines are said to contain considerable reserves of ore,
which will doubtless be exploited as soon as the area is rendered
more accessible by the constrijction of roads and railways, when
other workable deposits will also doubtless be discovered.

(2) A southern region, embracing about 2,000 square miles
in the middle of the Namaqualand division, characterised by the
presence of dykes and irregular intrusions of a genetically con-
nected series of igneous rocks — ranging from mica-diorite at
Ookiep, through norite at Tweefontein, to hypersthenite at Naba-
beep — which contain as primary constituents varying amounts of
copper sulphides ; the country rock being gneiss.

No fewer than 344 distinct intrusions have hitherto been
located and mapped, and others in all probability await discovery.

* Rogers, A. W. : The Copper Deposits of Little Namaqualand, Proc.
Geol. Soc. S.A., 1916, pp. xxi-xxxiv.

76 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B.

To date over £22,500,000 worth of copper has been produced
in this region.

This area also yields corundum and merchantable mica, and
columbite, beryl, and spodumene occur in the pegmatites of the
Steinkopf district.

It is thus evidently highly mineralised, but is unfortunately
handicapped by its inaccessibility, its arid character, and the
lack of transport facilities.

The West Coast Region of the Capf. Province.

This includes a strip of country running along the west coast
of the Cape Province from Cape Point to the mouth of the
Orange River.

It is occupied by rocks belonging to the Nama system,
granite, and porphyries intrusive in them, recent calcareous
deposits and sands, and for convenience has been made to embrace
several areas of Table Mountain sandstone.

Its mineral products include tin, rock-phosphate, building-
stone, clays, limestone, and niineral-water.

Among other economic minerals that occur, but have not
hitherto been discovered in workable quantities, mention may be
made of wolframite, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, and gypsum.

In the matter of future discoveries, rock-phosphates and tin
appear to hold out the greatest promise. Du Toit's investigations
of the phosphate deposits of Saldanha Bay render it highly prob-
able thatsimJar occurrences, not onlyof aluminous rock-phosphate,
but of phosphorite, are to be found along the coast, and the whole
of the littoral between Table Bay and the Orange River mouth
appears to be worthy of careful investigation. As regards tin,
it would be remarkable indeed if further workable deposits of
that metal do not await discovery around the margins of the
great intrusions of granite in the Western Province, while the
newer granites of the Van Rhyn's Dorp district and Tittle Nama-
qualand offer possibilities in the same direction.

The Cape System Province.

The Cape System Province embraces practically the whole
extent of country in the southern and south-western districts of
the Cape Province occupied tjy the rocks of the Cape and Creta-
ceaus systems, and the important inliers of the Nama system in
these.

The area is singularly deficient in metallic mineral wealth,
which is probably due to the almost complete absence of igneous
rocks within it.

The only important occurrences of metallic minerals hitherto
discovered are the veins and deposits of manganese ore in the
Table Mountain sandstone series in the Western Province, the
alluvial gold deposits of the Millwood fields, in the Knysna

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B. "JJ

district, and the deposits of argentiferous galena found many
years ago at the Maitland Mine, to the west of Port Elizabeth.

Of the manganese deposits, only three, according to Welsh,*,
are of any extent, and of these only one is really considerable,
containing possibly about 500,000 tons of ore. The exploitation
of this particular deposit, however, would hardly be feasible,
because it happens to be the site of the Caledon hot springs and
sanatorium.

In the Milhvood goldfield, situated in the Outeniqua Moun-
tains, steeply folded shales and sandstones, believed to belong to
the Table Mountain sandstone series, are traversed by auriferous
quartz-veins, carrying pyrite, blende, galena, and sometimes
siderite.

The occurrences are not worthy of exploitation, the small
quantities of gold won on these fields being all alluvial.

Natural gas and petroleum may exist beneath the anticlines
into which the fossiliferous Bokkeveld beds have been thrown
between Touws River and Montagu, but it is a remote possibility.

The most promising potential sources of mineral wealth in
the area are the occurrences of limestone, belonging to the Nama
system, that occur in the inliers already referred to. A deposit
of this nature is to form the basis of a large cement and lime-
works at Robertson, and the possibilities of another inlier between
Hankey and Port Elizabeth are being investigated with a view to
establishing cement works in that neighbourhood.

The dolomite limestone of the Cango area will also, no doubt,
eventually become of importance as a source of " blue " lime.

The clays and shales of the Cretaceous Uitenhage series
are made into good tiles, pipes, and bricks at several localities.
The formation also contains beds of lignite of inferior quality,
but efforts to utilise this material have not so far proved suc-
cessful.

Certain sections of the southern coast of Cape Province,
included in the area, appear to be worth prospecting for rock
phosphate.

The Kalahari Region.

The Kalahari Region embraces the portion of the Kalahari
falling within the Union. No important mineral deposits have
been discovered within it, which is hardly a matter of surprise,
seeing that, in addition to being practically waterless, the greater
part of the area is covered with a deep mantle of sand and surface
limestone that completely obscure the underlying rocks.

The only economic minerals hitherto discovered in the
Kalahari region are potassium nitrate and kieselguhr. The
former occurs in the Matsap salt-pan, but apparently not in
payable quantities. Kieselguhr is found in the Witkop pan in

* Cf. Welsh, A. B. : Report on Manganese in the South-West Districts
of the Cape Proz'ince. Dept. of Mines and Industries, Union of South
Africa, 1917.

78 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

Gordonia, and also in some of the pans on the Grlqiialand West
side of the Kalahari.

Great stores of mineral wealth may be locked up in this
tract of country, but there is little probability of any important
discoveries in the near future.

Conclusion.

In concluding this brief and necessarily imperfact survey of
the potential mineral resources of the Union, I would remind you
that Africa has ever been a land of surprises.

All things considered, it is improbable that any discovery
rivalling in importance that of the Kimberley diamond mines or
of the Witwatersrand goldfield remains to be made, but there
is no knowing what may be in store ; and when it is remembered
that the past decade has witnessed the discovery of the asbestos
and corundum deposits of the Northern Transvaal, the phosphate
occurrences of Saldanha Bay, two small diamond mines and a
number of promising deposits of tin and other metals, and that
vast tracts endowed by nature with geological conditions favour-
able to the development of mineral wealth are as yet virtually
unattacked by the pick of the prospector, you will, I think,
agree with me that there is every warrant for the most sanguine
expectations in regard to the future.

Section C— BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE,

AND FORESTRY.

President of the Section : C. E. Legat, B.Sc.

WEDNESDAY. JULY lo.

. The President delivered the following address : —
TIMBER SUPPLIES AND FORESTRY IN THE UNION.

The Union is almost entirely dependent for its timber sup-
plies on importations from abroad. In this respect its position
is similar to that of Great Britain. Both countries are very
poorly wooded. A recent return shows that the area of wood-
land per head of population in the United Kingdom is 0.067 o^
an acre. If the native population is included, the figure is prac-
tically the same here, viz.,- 0.07. Calculated on the basis of the
white population alone, the South African figure is more favour-
able, viz., 0.32 acre. But there is an important difference be-
tween the position in Great Britain and here. The woodlands
of the United Kingdom are cultivated forests, and as such more
productive, and they are comparatively accessible to roads and
railways. In South Africa, on the other hand, the forests are
wild, and considerable areas are far removed from roads and
rail, so that the present direct utility of much of them is very
small.

For the past thirty years or more there has been a growing
public opinion in Great Britain that something should be done
to place that country in a more independent position in regard
to its timber supply. For the five years previous to the outbreak
of war the country's timber bill had been on the average about
£37,000,000 per annum, and the local production insignificant.
Commissions and committees were appointed at intervals to go
into the matter, and they made recommendations, but nothing
very concrete resulted. Now the war has brought home to the
Government and the country most forcibly the unsoundness of
the national position in regard to this question. At a time when
shipping was most urgently required for other purposes there
was no alternative but to earmark a large amount to transport
this essential war material, even though it involved reduced
rations for the people. During the years 1915 and 1916 the
imports of timber absorbed 7.000,000 nett tons of shipping, and
cost £74,000,000, or £37,000,000 in excess of the pre-war value.
The Prime Minister, in his speech of February, 191 7, on the
submarine menace, emphasised that the saving of this tonnage
was a vital necessity, and that to effect it, it would be necessary
to fall back on the country's own timber resources and to arrange
with the French Government for some of their forests to be
placed at Great Britain's disposal.

In view of this state of affairs the appointment of a Forestry
Sub-Committee of the Reconstruction Committee " to consider
and report upon the best means of conserving and developing
the woodland and forestry resources of the United Kingdom

D

8o PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

having regard to the experience gained during the war "' was not
surprising.

This Sub-Committee has now reported. One of the con-
clusions arrived at was that " the war has disclosed no demand
which could ncit have been satisfied by timber grown in this
country." In other words, Britain's neglect of forestry cost the
country £37,000,000, and seriously impaired her war efficiency.
Another conclusion was : " Forests are a national necessity ; the
country must have them, even though (they yield less than the
current rate of interest on the capital invested. The whole sum
involved is less than half the direct loss incurred during the years
1915-1916 through dependence on imported timber."

I have thus referred to the position in Great Britain for the
lesson seems wholesome, and one which this country, being in
much the same position as Great Britain, can assimilate with
advantage, especially when it is remembered that our timber
has to come a distance of 6,000 miles, whereas Great Britain ha.>
practically at its doors in Norway, Sweden, and France large
supplies to draw on.

The lack of an adequate timber supply has not been felt
as acutely in the Union as in Great Britain, but there can be no
doubt that the industrial expansion and general development of
the country has been seriously handicapped by it.

Before the outbreak of war the following were the prices
of pine timber per cubic foot ;

Deals, 2s. 3d.; flooring, lis.; ceiling, los. 6d. To-day they
are: Deals, 9s. yd.; flooring, 24s. yd.; ceiling, 27s.

Under the circumstances, it is not to be wondered that no
building is being done which can possibly be avoided. The popu-
lation is, however, increasing, and consequently the demand for
houses is increasing. Rents have risen accordingly, and thus
timber shortage has had a considerable influence on the increased
cost of living.

To take other examples: In 1914 sleepers for railway pur-
poses cost 6s. 2d. each. To-day the Administration has to pay
9s. to los. Wood is required for the marketing and distribution
of many articles produced m the country, such as fruit, cheese,
jams, soap, candles, boots, dynamite, etc. The cost of the wood
is reflected in the price of the articles, and so all through the
community has to pay higher prices owing to the absence of
an adequate South African timber supply. The Union is only
on the threshold of its agricultural and industrial development,
and in proportion as that expands so will the need for timber
expand, for experience shows that increased consumption of
timber goes hand in hand with the progress of a country. In
1910 Germany had over 54,000 square miles of forest, and yet
imported 27 per cent, of her consumption ; France had 37,000
square miles, and imported 6 per cent. The shortage oif timber
is felt now, but under similar circumstances in 50 or 100 years'
time it would be felt still more. Though one sincerely hopes
that war will not again recur, it is a possibility ; and, as the
countries on which we now depend for wood may be involved^

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 8 1

supplies may be entirely cut off, thus leading to complete or par-
tial dislocation of industrial life.

Apart from that aspect of the matter, there is the considera-
tion that the world's consumption of timber is rapidly increasing,
and prices have risen considerably in recent years. Between
1895 ^^<^ 1913 ^^6 increase in Great Britain amounted to 33 per
cent. It would therefore seem only prudent that this country
.should take steps to see that its future is provided for in this
respect, and I think it may be of interest to this Association if
the position of the Union in regard to forestry and timber supply
is placed before it.

During 191 3 — the last normal year— the Union imported
over 15^ million cubic feet (15,617,000) of unmanufactured
timber, valued at just short of one million pounds sterling
£980,000). Over and above that £252,000 worth of manufactured
timber was brought into the country, of which the cubic contents
are not known, but which, at a conserv^ative estimate, may be
placed at about two million feet. Thus the total timber .importa-
tion in 1913, exclusive of furniture and one or two other items,
was about 17 J^ million cubic feet, worth rather less than 1%
million pounds sterling (£1,232.000).

Of this amount nearly 90 per cent, was coniferous timber,
that is to say, the soft timber derived from the class of trees
known as pines, spruces, and firs.

It may be of interest to note that Sweden furnished practi-
cally half our requirements, Norway about i/5th, while the
United States, Canada, and Russia were mainly responsible for
the balance, in the order they are mentioned.

I do not suppose the most pessimistic person would question
that agricultural and industrial expansion during the next fifty
years will be on such a scale that the timber requirements of the
Union will be at least double what they are now. The estimate
is certainly conservative, and a timber consumption of 35 million
cubic feet per annum, of which 30.000.000 cubic feet will be pine
timber, is a safe assumption.

Now, what is the Union's present equipment to meet this
probable demand?

If reference is made to the last report of the Forest Depart-
ment it will be seen that the total area of forest reserves on the
31st Alarch, 1917, was rather over 1.000,000 morgen, of which
747,000 morgen were classed as demarcated and 252,000 as un-
demarcated. It might be as well to explain what is implied by
the terms ' demarcated " and " undemarcated." " Demarcated
forest " is any area, not necessarily wooded, of which the boun-
daries have been defined, and which, after certain preliminaries
into which it is unnecessary to enter now, has been declared by
the Minister in the Gazette to be demarcated. Forest land once
demarcated cannot be alienated without the consent of both
Houses of Parliament, and the penalties for offences on such land
are more drastic than in the case of undemarcated forests. All
forest areas imder more intensive management, or which it is
desirable to safeguard from alienations are, as far as possible,

82 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS- -SECTION C.

demarcated. Demarcation is a useful weapon for the Depart-
ment because it is not unusual for forest reserves to be " Naboth's
vineyards " to the general public, and even to other Departments.
" Undemarcated forest " embraces Crown land set aside as
a forest reserve with the approval of the Minster of Lands, and,
to quote the Forest Act in so far as the protection and utilisation
of forest produce is concerned, includes —

(I ) Outspans and commonages situate on Crown land, e.g.,
Burnshill Commonage, Frankfort Commonage ;.

(2) Crown land on which forest produce exists, e.g.,
wooded Government farms in the Waterberg district ;

(3) any other land of which the Crown retains a right to
the trees, timber, and other forest produce.

The Department's control over such undemarcated areas is
much less complete than in the case of demarcated forests, and
therefore when circumstances allow, and it is otherwise desirable,
demarcation is efifected.

One million morgen is a very large area, and certainly if it
were all under forest the country would be in a sound position.
Unfortunately, that is far from being the case. Large tracts
consist of steep, rocky, mountainous country carrying few, if
any, trees, and quite unsuitable for planting, either because the
climatic conditions are unfavourable or because the country is
too remote, inaccessible or broken. Examples of such reserves
are the areas on the Zwartberg Mountain range in the Laings-
burg, Prince Albert and Oudtshoorn districts, stretching from
the BufTels River to the Willowmore and Uniondale boundaries,
having an area of 109,497 morgen.

It may be asked how these areas fall to be administered by
the Forest Department. The answer is simple. The Irrigation
Department for the past ten years has recommended that the
Government should retain control of the mountain tops and
sides in the catchment areas of the rivers of the country in the
hope that ultimately it may be possible to check veld burning
and maintain and encourage the growth of the natural vegetation,
thus assisting to prevent erosion and flooding, and to conserve
the flow of rivers and streams on which the country depends
for irrigation. It was felt that if sold such mountain lands
would fetch the most paltry sums, and later on, in the national
interest, it might be necessary to acquire them again. The
Forest Department had convenient machinery for locking uj)
these lands by demarcation, and they were accordingly handed
over to it. I am sorry to say circumstances have not, so far,
allowed of much being done to realise the objects for which the
reserv^es w^ere made, but when normal times return greater pro-
gress may be possible.

Coastal reserves and drift sands form a considerable percen-
tage of the forest reserves (80,000 morgen) as the prevention,
reclamation, and control of drift sands fall within the scope of
the Forest Department's duties. Only in exceptional cases do
these reserves carry a crop of wood, and when they do poles and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 83

firewood for local consumption are the principal products. Much
of the reserves is grass veld, and all that is required is the regu-
lation of grazing to maintain the surface cover and to avoid the
exposure of the sand surface to the wind.

In other cases, e.g., at Port Elizabeth, Bellville, Rerste River
and Strandfontein, costly works have had to be undertaken to
fix the sands. The reclamation work at Port Elizabeth took 20
years to carry out, and cost i6o,ooo.

Another large tract of forest land, aggregating 100,000
morgen (83,000 morgen demarcated, 17,000 undeniarcated) is
the Cedarberg, on which are found the Cedar forests. These
forests hardly fill the popular conception of what a forest should
be, for the trees composing them are sparsely scattered among
the boulders of the precipitous mountain sides, and their flat,
spreading tops do not meet and form canopy, so that heaths and
other sour veld vegetation are free to flourish between them. In
form the old Cedars, botanically known as Callitris arboreci, look
exactly like the Cedars of North Africa (Ccdrus atlantica). which
grow in a similar rocky country and within the snow belt. These
Cedar forests have been carefully conserved and fire-protected
'for the past 25 years, and there is abundant natural regeneration.
The trees grow to 60 feet in height and 5 feet in diameter. Un-
fortunately, even old trees are very susceptible to damage from
fire, and all over the mountains may be seen specimens from
which the bark has been burnt long ago, but which, on account
of the great durability of the wood, remain otherwise almost
intact.

The occurrence of this tree is interesting. It is only found
on the Cedarberg, between 3.400 and 4,800 feet above the snow
line, and is absent from the Winterhoek, where similar climatic
conditions exist. Lister is inclined to believe that the difference
in the geological formation between the two localities sufficientlv
explains the distribution, but the general appearance of the sur-
face soil in the two places is much the same. The timber which
has a strong cedar odour is not of general economic importance,
and is used locally principally for fence posts. In the past it
was used for planking, and is still to a small extent, though the
sale of timber is now entirely confined to dead trees. The out-
put of this vast area during the year 1916-1917 was only 1,151
cubic feet. These reserves, extensive though they are. will
never appreciably afi'ect the timber position in this country,
though, if fire protection continues to be successful, they will
greatly increase in value. C)wing, however, to the occurrence
of Buchu on them, their conservation is meantime carried out
with financial profit to the country.

Thus a big percentage of the forest reserves consist of waste
lands, most of which will never be of any value for afiforestation.
What proportion is plantable is not known, for no close investi-
gation or survey to ascertain this has vet been made. The matter,
however, is not one of urgency, as there is at present sufficient
accessible ground to occupy the attention of the Department.

Of the large total of forest reserves, the area of dense indi-

84 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS —Sl'XTION C.

genoits forest belonging to Government is only about 200,000
morgen, and besides that there are 35,000 morgen under planta-
tions. There is probably 25,000-50,000 morgen of private forest.
If the indigenous forest were as productive as a plantation, were
accessible, and produced timber of a kind that could be generally
used like imported pine, that area would suffice to meet our pre-
sent needs as well as our requirements during the next fifty
years, but that is far from being the case.

The indigenous forests are found along the south and south-
east coastal belt, and on the slopes of the mountain ranges falling
within 100-150 miles of the sea, though in the Transvaal and in
parts of Natal they penetrate further inland. They generally
have a south or south-eastern aspect. In the Western Province,
where there is a purely winter rainfall, the forests are small and
detached, being mostly confined to sheltered kloofs, but as one
travels east the forests become more frequent, and between
George and Humansdorp the largest continuous stretch of forest
in the Union is 'found. There the rain falls all through the year.

In the Eastern Province, the Transkei, Natal and the Trans-
vaal the rainfall is entirely a summer one, yet in general character
the forest differs little from that found in the west.

Some new species come in, and the percentage of each
species present differs somewhat, but the variation is hardly so
marked as might be expected, considering the forests range from
34° S. Latitude to the Tropics in 23° S. Latitude.

The indigenous forest is essentially a mixed forest, that is
to say, it consists of a large number of species growing together,
the composition oi the mixture varying according to the district,
elevation, soil and climate. Some species seem to appear in the
forests almost wherever forests occur ; such are Beukenhout
{Rapanca melanophelos) and Vlier {Nuxia florihunda). Others,
again, are less accommodating. Keur {Virgilia capensis) con-
fines itself to the coastal area from the Cape to Port Elizabeth,
and seems to avoid the summer rainfall zone. Kamassi (Gonioma
kamassi) is abundant in the Knysna forests, and is found occa-
sionally along the coast as far as East London. It does not.
however, occur in the Transkei, Natal, nor, I believe, in the
Transvaal. It is reported, however, to occur in Rhodesia. The
true South African Box (Buxus macozmni) is absent from the
Knysna forests, but is fairly abundant at Alexandria and near
East London, and in one or two Transkeian forests. Else-
where it is missing. Stinkwood (Ocofea bullata) occurs in the
Cape Peninsula. Knysna, Transkeian, Natal and Transvaal
forests, but seems most vigorous in Knysna. In the Eastern
Province it is practically missing from the forests, though when
the Pirie forests were recently worked an isolated group of fine
Stinkwood was discovered. Though Stinkwood and Sneezewood
(Ptaeroxylon utile) refuse to meet at Knysna, and hardly know
one another in the Eastern Province, they grow to great perfec-
tion side by side in the Transkeian forests along with Yellows-
wood. The Yellowwoods {Podooarpus thunhcrgii and P. elun-
gata) are foimd to a greater or less extent in the larger proper-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 85

tion of the dense forests, but the Falcate Yellow wood (P. falcata)
is peculiar to Pondoland and Natal.

The distribution and occurrence of our forest trees is a
most interesting study, and one which has been little touched on
as yet. The field is a wide one, and should afiford plenty of
scope for investigation to members of the increasing band of
botanists now in the Union.

The forests are managed under what is known as the " Selec-
tion System." Generally in this country one notices pine and
gum plantations are clean felled, and are either regenerated by
planting or from seed on the ground or from coppice shoots.
In the indigenous forests under Government control, on the
other hand, clean felling is avoided and only the mature, over-
mature and depreciating trees, or trees which for sylvicultural
reasons should be felled are removed, and their place is taken
in time either by self-sown seedlings or coppice growth. A
forest worked under this method looks to a layman viewing it
from outside as if it had not been worked. Trees of all ages,
from one year old to the oldest, are constantly represented over
the whole area and, theoretically, the work of selecting trees for
cutting extends at all times over the whole forest. In practice,
however, the forest is divided into series, and further into sec-
tions, which are gone over in turn, so that cutting returns to the
same section after 40 years.

Systematic management was introduced into the Cape forests
in 1883 by a French forester, the Comte de Vasselot de Regne,
whose services were obtained for that purpose by the Govern-
ment. The broad principles he laid down were sound, but his
ideals have scarcely been attained for various reasons. The data
on which he worked were necessarily of the sketchiest nature,
the forests were in a highly abnormal condition, and trees, which
in the interest of the forests should have been removed, were
unsaleable, and left to encumber the ground and prevent the re-
growth of a better crop.

It will take a very long time before the forests reach a nor-
mal state, and, meantime, the urgent need is a careful study of
the sylvicultural requirements of the different species compris-
ing the forest, for without more knowledge than is at present
available, progress in forest management is not hkely to be
rapid or sure.

In Natal till Union there was never a settled forest policy,
and the forests were worked spasmodically without much system.
In the Transvaal before the Boer War there was little attempt
at control or conservation, and most accessible forests were
worked out. Since then most of the forests have been closed.

Of all the species of trees in the indigenous forest the only
ones that produce timber that can be regarded as a substitute
for imported pine time are the Yellowwoods.

The Yellowwoods attain large dimensions, the largest of
any trees in the forest. There are three kinds — the Real, the
Bastard, and the Falcate. The Real Yellowwood grows 80 to
100 feet in height, and occasionally to 7 feet in diameter. The

86 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

Bastard grows even larger. It will reach ,80 to 120 feet in height
and a diameter of 9 feet, with a clear trunk of 40 to 80 feet ;
but more usually the diameter does not exceed 3 to 4 feet.

Yellowwood timber is rather harder and heavier than Pine,
but is much stronger and greatly superior in appearance, and is
comparatively free of the heavy knots found in most imported
wood. Apart from that it is excellent for beams, rafters, tiooring,
and ceiling. The beams, floors, ceilings, and doors of many of the
old homesteads at the Cape are of Yelloww^ood. Yellowwood
creosotes well, and it has been largely used on the South African
Railways for sleepers, close on 3,000,000 having been supplied
from Knysna during the past 30 years. Generally speaking, the
other kinds of timber are only suitable for special purposes, such
as furniture-making and wagon-building. Some, such as Stink-
wood, White Els, Red Els. and Beukenhout, are of great beauty.
Stinkwood is well-known throughout the country as a furniture
wood, and it is also valued for wagon construction. Though it
has been used for planks and beams it is too valuable and scarce
for such work. It is fortunately one of the quicker-growing
species, and the re-growth in the Knysna forests is good. Sound
trees are, however, rare. It will grow 3 to 5 feet in diameter,
and 60 to 90 feet high. Assegai, White Pear, and Ironwood are
greatly sought after by wheelwrights, and of late years Iron-
wood has found a ready market on the Rand for stamp blocks.

Sneezewood is very hard, heavy, strong and durable. It is
much appreciated by engineers for bridge-building, but large-
sized timber is now scarce. It grows 50 feet in height and 2 in
diameter. It is chiefly used as a fence pole, and the tree is split
or sawn up into suitable dimensions for the purpose.

But all these trees have limited use compared with Yellow-
wood, and, as I said before, that is the only kind which can be
used in place of imported deals. In most of the forests in
which it occurs Yellowwood preponderates, and is readily pur-
chased where facilities for cutting and marketing exist. .\t
Knysna during 1916-1917 52 per cent, by volume and 30 per cent.
of the total output of 336.000 cubic feet was Yellowwood, and
during the same period, when the total output of all the Govern-
ment indigenous forests was approximately one and a half
million cubic feet, over 600,000 cubic feet was Yellowwood. In
the Eastern Province, the Transkei. and Natal 40 to 75 per cent.
of the exploitable unworked forest is of this species.

As the result of the roughest of calculations — data on which
to base a reliable estimate being absent — I should say that
possibly all the forests of the Union — demarcated and undemar-
cated and private — together contain about 75,000,000 cubic feet
of Yellowwood of exploitable size, or ju.st about five times as
much as the annual importation of softwood in 1913. The esti-
mate, I believe, to be a liberal one, but it serves to show how
restricted the timber resources of the Union are. Under present
conditions it would not be a ct>mmercial proposition to place one-
third of that timber on the markets of the Union, even if from a
sylvicultural point of view it were permissible ; for many of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SFATION C. 87

forests are far removed from road and rail or carry but a few-
trees to the acre, or for social reasons it is inexpedient to accelerate
their exploitation. As the country opens up, more forests will
be tapped, but at present many are of purely local value. To
meet the existing shortage of wood the Department has placed
more than the normal supply of Yellowwood on the market, and,
should circumstances warrant, still more will be done in that
direction. The stock of timber referred to is the accumulation
of centuries, and if it could be removed it would take genera-
tions to replace. In considering how far the indigenous forests
can go towards meeting our timber requirements when once
they are in a normal condition, it is important to arrive at ?;ome
idea of the rate at which the forests produce Yellowwood timber.
I regret to have to admit our information on this point is scanty,
for investigations on this and kindred matters have received very
little attention.

However, McNaughton. who for many years was Conser-
vator at Knysna, made some careful computations during the
course of preparing a working plan for the Sourflats forests. He
arrived at the conclusion that on an acre of forest of first-class
quality the annual increment of all s]>ecies amounted to approxi-
mately 31 cubic feet. Of this 31 cubic feet 21 cubic feet were made
up of valuable species, mainly the two Yellowwoods, Stinkwood,
Assegai, White Pear, Iron wood, Kamassi, and a few others of
less importance, and the balance of 10 cubic feet, of inferior
species, unsaleable for industrial purposes, and useful only for
fuel. The two Yellowwoods contributed .3 of the increment
of the valuable species, or 6.3 cubic feet per acre per annum.
These figures are probably not very wide of the mark.

Now. adopting that figure it will be seen that, if all the
forests of the Union were of equally good quality as the Sour-
flats forest, and every year only the amount of timber were
felled that was produced, the annual out-turn of Yellowwood
would reach 6.3 X 400.000=2,520,000 per annum. It must,
however, be remembered that a certain projxvrtion of the dense
forests of the Union are devoid of Yellowwood, are inaccessible,
and that much Yellowwood forest is inferior to Sourflats. Under
those circumstances it is probably not safe to assume that a
greater output than one and a quarter of a million cubic feet
of Yellowwood per annum could be looked for, when once the
forests have been brought into a normal condition, a process
which will take a very long time. No doubt as further experience
is gained of the native forests and more intensive management
becomes feasible, the total annual increment might be consider-
ably enhanced ; so that a somewhat greater supply of Yellowwood
would be forthcoming, especially if steps were taken to foster
the better species. But even under the most favourable circum-
stances, it is quite clear that the outptit of the indigenous forests
of the Union are entirely inadequate to provide much more than
5 per cent, of the probable future requirements of the
country for- softwood timber, and softwood timber, as I pointed
out before, comprises 90 per cent, of the timber consumption

ob PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

of the Union. If the Union is not to continue importing timber
for ever, and to remain dependent on other countries for its sup-
plies, it must form adequate artificial forests. There is no other
remedy. The Forest Department has realised this position for
many years, and the matter was prominently brought to the
public notice by Hutchins when he was Conserv^ator at the Cape
between 1896 and 1906. The subject was then regarded as the
meritorious fad of a few enthusiasts, but of late years the pro-
paganda work of the Comte \'asselot de Regne. Lister, Hutchins.
McNaughton, and other pioneers has begun to bear fruit, and is
reflected in the better provision made by Parliament nowadays
for afiforestation. It will no doubt be suggested by some that,
as South Africa is so poorly wooded naturally, it would seem
risky, to say the least of it, to embark on afforestation. If the
country were adapted for the growth the trees would have been
there.

Luckily it is jx>ssible to meet this theory with facts. Exotic
trees producing softwood of the kind this country requires are,
and have been, grown in plantation form to maturity or to com-
mercial size under varying conditions. Why it is that large
tracts which are capable of aft'orestation with exotic trees are
devoid of natural forest is a matter for speculation, and one for
which it is difficult to find a satisfactory solution. I know of
many places in the Cape Province where the Cluster pine, as
long as fires are excluded, spreads itself vigorously and matures,
yet on the same ground there is no vestige of a native forest ex-
cept in the deep kloofs, nor has there ever been any since the
first Dutch settlers arrived in the country. These are places. tot>,
where there is a heavy regular seasonal rainfall. I have in mind
the valley of the Berg River, Genadentlal and the Cape Peninsula.

Other people maintain that if plantations are required they
should be composed of native trees, as native trees having grown
for centuries in South Africa must be better suited to its climatic
conditions. This attitude seems entirely reasonable, but what
I have just stated rather disposes of it. Native trees, at least
nf the more valuable kinds, such as Yellowwood. seem to require
a certain degree of shade and shelter, at any rate in early youth,
to establish themselves, and as this is generally almo.st entirely
absent on the class of land that has to be planted, they cannot
well be used for afforestation. Planted on bare hillsides exposed
to the full effect of sun and wind they would, if they lived, make
such slow progress that the cost of cleaning and cultivation would
remove any prospect of them proving a profitable crop. In
selected sheltered bottom lands it is no doubt possible to raise
small groves successfully, but for general commercial afforesta-
tion native trees must be ruled out.

It being admitted that it is possible to grow in this country
a large proportion of the timber now imported or of timber to
replace it. it remains to inquire what area should be afforested
to carry this object into effect, and what has so far been done in
that direction in the past, and what it is planned lo do in the
future.

I'RKSIDKNJ lAI. ADDRESS SECTION C. St)

Before going further it might be as well to explain that cer-
tain classes of timber will always have to be imported, for they
cannot be grown in South Africa. Such kinds are Teak,
Mahogany. Ash, Hickory, and Walnut. Pitch Pine may also have
to come from abroad, though experimental plantings of this
species seem to indicate that it may be possible to cultivate it in
some parts of the Union with success. These kinds, however,
form only a small percentage of the total imports, and do not
materially aifect the general question of growing our own tim1)er
su])plies.

I previously estimated that the annual consumption of
timber in the Union in 50 years' time will be 35,000,000 feet.
Now, an acre of pine plantation can be expected to produce 100
cubic feet of timber per annum. Measurements taken in this
country show that that amount is often exceeded, e.g., the yearly
increment of a stand of P'mus itisignis 29 years old at Tokai was
275 cubic feet, and of a 30 year old stand of Cluster Pine also
at Tokai was 157 cubic feet, but to be on the safe side, and taking
good and bad stands together, 100 cubic feet per acre seems to
be a safe figure to adopt. If it is assumed that five out of the
35,000.000 feet of timber is made up of hardwoods and other
kinds that cannot be grown in South Africa, it will be necessary
to plant about 300,000 acres to produce the balance.

Up to the present the total area afiforested by Government is,
in round numbers, 70,000 acres, of which 21,000 belong to the
Railway Administration. Of the 70.000 acres a considerable
proportion cannot be regarded as of a nature that will serve to
meet the general timber requirements of the country. For in-
stance, the bulk of the plantations in the Transkei, amounting to
over 7,000 acres, consist mainly of Wattles and Eucalypts grown
especially to meet native wants, and to relieve the strain on the
indigenous forests. Again, the jjlantations in connection with
the drift sands at Port Elizabeth, aggregating 5,000 acres, are
only useful as fuel reserves. Other plantations, such as some
of those in the Transvaal and the Free State, will serve to pro-
vide only local needs for fuel, poles, and rough farm material
for which, owing to the treeless character of the country, a good
demand exists. A considerable area of plantations in all the
Provinces has been experimental, and there have naturally been
failures, and the result.s, as far as timber production is concerned,
can be disregarded.

If due allowance is made for all these circumstances, and
deducting the land under hardwood plantations, the area <tf
plantation which can be expected to produce pine timber is con-
siderably curtailed, and does not amount to more than 30,000
acres. Thus only a small beginning has been made in the desired
direction.

Though I have laid considerable stress on the prime imjx>r-
tance of a softwood timber su])ply, it should not be overlooked
that the consumption of hardwoods is hkely to reach considerable
proportions. Hardwoods are used largely in railway work,
especially for sleepers. The length of railway now open is

90 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

9.500 miles. That will probably be doubled in 50 years, so that
if there is a sleeper to every yard, a mile of track will contain
4,400 cubic feet; and the railway system of 19,000 miles, 19,00 X
4400 = 83,600,000 cubic feet

If the sleepers were all hardwood, and renewed every 15
years, the annual consumption of timber per niile would be 293
cubic feet, and for the whole system 5,567.000 cubic feet. Assum-
ing that a Eucalypt plantation yields 200 cubic feet per acre per
annum (and measurements show that this is a reasonable figure)
the Railway Administration would require 27,834 acres of plan-
tation to meet their requirements for sleepers alone. Hardwoods
are used for many other purposes besides sleepers, and therefore
their cultivation should not be neglected. Probably the Union
will be able to absorb in 50 years' time the product of 50,000
acres.

The Cape Province was the pioneer in plantation work in
South Africa. The first Government plantation was started by
Lister at Worcester in 1876, and consisted of Blue Gum
(Eucalyptus globulus). The plantation, 72 acres in extent, was
grown under irrigation, and it was formed with the idea of pro-
viding fuel for locomotives. It was. however, sold in 1892-1895
to De Beers for mine timber, and yielded a profit of £4,338 (ex-
clusive of interest charges). The re-growth was sold during
1916 and 1917, and the plantation finally disposed oif to the
Municipality, the second rotation having yielded a nett return
of £2 I OS. per acre per annum. Encouraged by the success at
Worcester, plantations on a larger scale were started in 1883 ^^
Concordia, Knysna, in 1884 at Tokai and Kluitjes Kraal, and
in 1889 at Fort Cunynghame in ihe Eastern Province. Different
kinds of trees from all over the world were tested at these cen-
tres, as well as difl:"erent methods of sylviculture. Little was
known then of many of the trees experimented with, and infor-
mation on the subject in the absence of adequate literature was
difficult to procure. Sylvicultural practice which had proved to
be successful in other countries was found by bitter experience
to fail here, e.g. in 1884 it was considered unnecessary to kill
ofif the natural veld as a preparation for planting. The conse-
quence was the young trees died wholesale, and it was only when
the approved European method was jettisoned that success re-
sulted. Planting espacements were often wide, 20 feet apart
each way, but there is evidence in the shape of underplantings
in some of the old stands of trees that the foresters of those days
early realised their mistake.

Among the trees planted was Pinus insignis. There was a
specimen of it growing in the Gardens at Cape Town, and the
Conservator (Lister), attracted by its appearance, thought he
would test it on the slopes of Tokai. He did so, and the trees
then planted succeeded so well that it was possible recently to
arrange for their sale. Many of the trees are now over 100
feet in height and 2 feet 6 inches in diameter.

South Africa owes a great debt of gratitude to these pioneers
of forestry — Harison. Comte Vasselot de Regne. Hutchins, Lister.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 9^

and Heywood — who, in spite of lack of funds, of adverse criti-
cism, failures and want of encouragement, quietly and unobtru-
sively added an acre here and an acre there, and paved the way
for forest extension on a large scale. The Stone and Cluster
Pines had been naturalised in the Western I-'rovince before the
Government plantations were started, but those valuable species
the Canary Island and Ingisnis Pines were practically tmknown.
Many different kinds of Eucalypts were experimented with, and
as experience was gained it became possible to discard some and
fit others into the zones best suited to their requirements.
Eucalyptus corynocalyx, the Sugar Gum. R. diver skolor, the
Karri, and E. rostrata, the Red Gum. were useful introductions
of that period. E. marginata, the Jarrah, was also tested, but the
results have no't proved sufficiently satisfactory to warrant ex-
tended cultivation. Prior to the Forest Department taking up
the trial of the then unfamiliar species the Blue Gum was prac-
tically the only Eucalypt cultivated in the Union, and many fine
specimens can be seen at homesteads all through the country,
its popularity being greatly enhanced by its rapid growth and
general hardiness.

The work of the past 40 years has made it possible to
decide at least for the winter and all-the-year-round rainfall
areas of the Cape Province, which species of trees, particularly
conifers, are mo.st suitable to grow, and to allocate to such
species within certain limits the conditions needed for their best
development. A great deal has still to be learned about these
exotics, but enough is kno\\'n about their requirements to justify
them being planted on a large scale in the areas referred to. In
the summer rainfall areas of the Eastern Province and the
Transkei the situation is not so clearly defined, and there is some
element of risk in extension which is absent in the west. Greater
care is called for in choice of species and of sites for planting,
and until some of the plantations reach maturity this will remain
the position. On the other hand, planting is mainly confined
to the natural forest zone, where conditions can be expected to
to be favourable, and results so far attained indicate that certain
species can be counted on to reach a commercial size, if not large
dimensions.

The Cluster Pine and Insignis Pine, which are so at home
in the winter and all-the-year-round rainfall zones, though they
do well in favoured spots, are prone to disease, and their place
in the Eastern Province mountains would seem to be taken by
the Chir Pine {Piniis longifolia) from India, and perhaps by the
Canary Island Pine.

Some Mexican species are now under trial, but are too young
to give any reliable indication of their possible future value.
The Portuguese Cypress and, in parts, the Deodar, flourish on
the mountains, and in the kloofs the common Oalc and the White
Poplar grow remarkably. Certain Eucalypts appear much at
home, and magnificent groves of Blue Gum of 120 feet in height
serve to show what may be expected of younger plantations.

92 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

In the Cape Province commercial afforestation propositions
are confined to the coast and coastal mountains in the natural
forest zone, though trees and small plantations to provide for
local needs can be grown in selected places in all but the most
arid parts.

In Natal forestry under Government auspices has had a
chequered career. A most excellent forest policy was laid down
in 1889 by H. G. Fourcade in a careful report, but unfortunate!
after a feeble attempt to put it into practice under a German
forest officer it was abandoned. After the Boer War the sub-
ject was again taken up, and steps taken to conserve what was
left of the indigenous forests ; further, plantations were started
at Cedara, Empangeni, and on a smaller scale at other centres.
During the period of retrenchment in 1907 the young Depart-
ment which had sprung up was seriously affected, and till
Union and some time after progress was slow. Even now the
total area of Government plantation in Natal and Zululand is
only a little over 2,500 acres, but this is being regularly added to.
As is well known, there is no Province in the Union where more
tree planting has been done by private enterprise than in Natal,
and this probably explains why so little has been accomplished
in this direction by past Governments.

There are about 250,000 acres of wattle plantation in Natal,
and on many farms are to be seen fine plantations and collection
of exotic trees. The planting of hardwoods has been and is
most in favour, and the Rand has reason to be thankful that so
much was done in this way in former years, for Natal has been
a fruitful source of supply for the timber it requires.

Pines, generally speaking, have given disappointing results.
Possibly this is due to wrong kinds having been planted. The
species most favoured have been Pinus insignis and P. pinaster,
but it is doubtful if these are climatically suited to Natal condi-
tions any more than they are to the summer rainfall areas of
the Eastern Province and the Transvaal. It is likely more satis-
factory results will be obtained from other kinds, such as Pinus
longifolia, the Chir Pine, on the hills av/ay froiii the coast, and
from species such as P. mistralis, P. tacda, and P. mitls, both on
the coast and the hills. Specimens of some of these pines are
thriving in Natal, but records of trials that may have failed are
unfortunately lacking.

Natal is likely to become highly industriahsed in time, and
the need for softwood timber will be strongly felt, and this
pK)int must be kept in view in determining the future policy of
the Department, and an effort made to extend the planting of
Conifers.

Before the Boer War Government afforestation in the
Transvaal was confined to one Eucalypt plantation near Pretoria,
which was planted by contract in 1896. After the war Govern-
ment plantations ancl nurseries were started in various parts of
the Province, and since the capabilities of the country for affores-
tation were so little known much work of an experimental nature

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C.

93

was undertaken. In 1903 the Government of the day secured
the services of D. E. Hutchins to report on forestry in the Trans-
vaal. Hutchins found the mistake made in the Eastern Province
and Natal being- repeated, and that in spite of the difference in
climatic conditions the same trees were being planted in the
Transvaal as in the Cape. He recommended a radical change in
policy, and urged, among other things, that the Transvaal should
draw on the rich forest flora of Mexico for its trees, as Mexico,
of all countries in the world, most resembled the Transvaal in
climate. This policy was adopted, but great difficulty has all
along been experienced in obtaining the required seeds on
account of the chronically disturbed state of Mexico and subse-
qently the war.

The first importations were made in 1907. To obtain these
seeds it was necessary to send a collector specially from the
United States. The expedition was satisfactory, and led to the
introduction into the Union of two Pines from Northern Mexico
— Pinits arizonica and P. cngelmanni or. as it is perhaps more
correctly named, P. macrophylla. The results have so far
amply justified Hutchin's predictions. These species are being
tested often imder very adverse conditions alongside the species
that have hitherto been grown in the country, and in every case
are more reliable in growth and hardiness. It may be of interest
to give here some particulars of their growth under plantation
conditions.

Locality.

Espace-

ment in

Feet.

Age in
Years

Height

in
Feet.

Diameter Breast

Height in

Inches.

Pinus arizonica.

Belfast Arboretum...

4x4

9

17

5-4

Jessievale ,,

4x4

10

20

43

Ermelo ,,

4x4

10

20

4-8

Pinus engehnanni (syn. macrophylla).

Belfast Arboretum..,

4x4

9

15

4.4

Jessievale ,,

4x4

10

15

40

Ermelo ,,

4x4

10

16

4-3

About the same time some Pinus montezitmce transplants
were raised, and a year later some P. leiophylla. Then followed
some P. montezumcc var. hartzvegli, P. montezunKe var. lindleyi,
P. patula, P. teocote, P. lumholtsii, P. hnvsoni, P. oocarpa var.

94

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

microphylla, P. chihuahuana, P. pseudostrobus van tenui'foHa Siud
pseudostrobus. To give an idea of the growth of some of these
have made I give a ifew further figures.

Locality.

Espace-

ment in

Feet.

Age in
Years.

Height

in
Feet.

Diameter Breast

Height in

Inches.

Pinus leiophylla.

Belfast Arboretum...

4x4

9

24

6-3

Jessievale „

4x4

8

22

4-8

Woodbush ,,

?

8

23

45

Pinus iHontezumce.

Belfast Arboretum...

4x4

6^

16

40

Jessievale „

4x4

8

22

49

Woodbush ,,

?

10

20

50

Pinus pntula.

Belfast Arboretum ..

4x4

5i

16

3-3

Jessievale ,,

4x4

6

14

4-0

Woodbush ,,

?

4

16

2-5

Some of the Mexican Cypresses, such as Cupressus benthami
and C. lindleyi, were also obtained, and two kinds of Oak (one
Quercus reticulata, the other unnamed), and Juglans rupestris, a
Walnut. Hutchins also advocated the cuhivation of some Indian
species, particularly Deodars and Pinus longifolh, and, as far as
circumstances have permitted, these have been given trial.

From what I have said it will be gathered that afiforestation
in the Transvaal is not, and cannot in the nature of things be, in
such an advanced state as in the oldest Province of the Union,
and that it will take years before it will be possible to assign
with certainty to each of the various types of country the tree
or trees best suited to it. I would lay stress on this point for
many strenuous advocates of afforestation lose sight of it and
think that planting can proceed on a wholesale scale without risk
of failure, which is far from being the case. If it were not for
the fortunate circumstance that timber even of comparatively
small dimensions is saleable for mining and otlier purposes it

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 95

would be a question whether an even more cautious poHcy than
is now in vogue should no't be adopted.

Hutchins's recommendations, however, have been amply justi-
fied as far as it is possible to judge at present, and if it were
feasible to obtain seed of the kinds that have done best, the
Department, through its nurseries, would encourage their culti-
vation. Till the war is over nothing can be done in this direc-
tion, and even then much will depend on how Mexico settles
down. Even in the ten years the Department has been dealing
with these species a a good deal has been learnt about their sylvi-
cal characters, and in the next twenty it should be possible to use
them with considerable assurance. -By that time it should be
possible to get seed locally, and thus the progress of afforestation
in the Northern portion of the Union would receive an impetus
such as is at present impossible. Just as in the Cape Province
the Cluster and Insignis Pines have acclimatised themselves, so
in due course I anticipate that some of the Mexican Pines, such
as Pinus arisonica,, P. montesmncc, and P. nvacrophylla, together
with P. longifoUa from India will take hold in the Transvaal.

In the Transvaal, as in Natal, the cultivation of hardwoods
is more advanced than that of Conifers. Certain areas of the
Transvaal, such as the warm, moist Eastern slopes of the
Drakensberg, grow Eucalypts of the best timber-producing varie-
ties excellently, and in most parts a Eucalypt of some kind or
other can be, cultivated for mining purposes. But the coal fields
of the Transvaal cannot be divorced from industries and, indus-
tries require coniferous timber, and, as in Natal, the Department
has to keep this point in view in shaping its policy. The Trans-
vaal is an inland country, and therefore its need for a local timber
supply is more important even than it is for the coastal Pro-
vinces. The extent of Government plantations in the Transvaal
is 7,600 acres.

In the Free State 'before the Boer War there was no organ-
ized forest work. Shortly after the Government test plantations
and nurseries were opened at various central places.

Generally speaking, the conditions in the Free State for
afforestation are unfavourable, but good work was done by
Carlson, the Cape Forest Officer appointed to take charge of
afforestation, in spite of many difficulties and much discourage-
ment in ascertaining the most suitable species to plant under
different circumstances and the best methods to employ. The
success of some of the plantations, particularly the one at Har-
rismith, has been remarkable, and the object lesson afforded by
Government plantations has undoubtedly led to increased plant-
ing by the general public, which is one of the principal objects
the Department has in view, especially in that Province, for other
portions of the Union are more favourably situated for afforesta-
tion on commercial lines. Millions of young trees have been
distributed from the Government nurseries in the Free State
(and for that matter in the Transvaal) during the past 15 years,
and anyone familiar with these Provinces after the Boer War

96

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C.

and now must remark the advance that has been made. Some
of the species now under trial in the Transvaal are also being
tested in the Free State, and it is possible some of them will
ultimately turn out to be valuable introductions.

As the farms in the Free State become reduced in size, tree-
planting will become more general, and the movement that has
been taking place in the past 15 years may be expected to become
intensified.

Now as to 'the steps which are being taken to provide for
the future timber requirements of the Union: during 1915-16
and 191 6- 1 7 the areas afforested were 2,384 and 2,655 acres,
respectively. At that rate of progress it would take more than
100 years before the acreage which I have estimated would be
required to replace our present importations would be planted.
The Government, appreciating the position, decided during last
Session of Parliament to provide money on the loan estimates
(^50.000) to permit of a programme of extension being em-
barked on. This has now been initiated. In deciding on the
localities at which to commence operations the factors taken into
consideration have been suitability of soil and climate for the
species to be grown and reasonable accessibility to rail or port.
The places at which Government has sanctioned operations being
started are : —

Name of Area.

District.

Area available

for
Afforestation.

Acres.

Funds to be

expended

during 1918-19.

£

Tollberg and 1
Geelhoutboomberg )

George ...

6,000

3,000

Groenkop

,, ...

10,000

3,000

Buffels Nek

Knysna ...

8,000

3,500

Farleigh

)) • • •

2,000

3,500

Witte Els Bosch ...

Humansdorp

12,000

7,000

Hankey

>)

24,000

7,000

Isidenge

Stutterheim
Total

2,000

3,000

64,000

In addition to these, schemes for Natal and the Transvaal
■are still under consideration.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION C. 97

It may be thought that it would be advisable to push on with
one or two schemes and finish them rather than scatter opera-
tions over several centres, but there would be obvious difficulties
in concentrating all the labour required at one or two centres
and in arranging for ploughing by contract and departmentally.

It will be noted that all the schemes now sanctioned except
one are in districts bordering the South Coast, where rain falls
all the year round. The plantation sites are on the southern
slopes of the mountain ranges. The labour employed on the
work will be mainly white. The principal species to be grown
in the plantations will be Piiins iiisiguis. P. pinaster and P.
canariensis.

Pliu's insigfiis^ the Insignis Pine, is a rapid grower, and
produces a greater volume of wood per acre per annum than
any other pine. From 12 to 15 years it is large enough to yield
boxwood, and at 30 years it reaches a height of 100 feet with
a diameter of from 18 to 24 inches. The total yield of two
stands of 29 years of age at Tokai were 7,972 and 7,721 cubic
feet per acre, which shows a mean annual increment per acre of
275 and 266 cubic feet. The gross money yields were in 19s. 7d.
and £10 9s. lod. per acre per annum, respectively, the timber
being sold standing. The costs of formation and tending are
not known, but even granting these amounted to a high figure,
such as £20. and reckoning compound interest at 4 per cent., a
rough calculation will show the credit balance is still large. The
sales, of course, took place under war conditions, but, even
allowing for that, a good margin of profit could be counted on,
especially as nowadays planting is not likely to^ exceed £io-£i2
per acre, and more satisfactory crops could be obtained. At
40 years of age a fully-stocked wood of Insignis Pine on good
soil should yield 10.000-12,000 cubic feet of timber per acre.

The wood of Phius insignis is not strong or durable in con-
tact with the ground. It is practically free from resin, and being
tough, is useful for fruit-boxes. It is also' a good wood for
match-boarding, ceilings, joinery, packing-cases, and generally
for any purposes where strength and durability are not required.

Pin us pinaster, the Cluster Pine, is a hardy species. Its
timber is useful for flooring, rafters, joists and general car-
pentry. It is rather resinous for fruit-boxes, but is excellent
for packing-cases. When creosoted it makes a good sleeper.

Pinus canariensis, the Canary Island Pine, produces a hard
and durable pine timber. It grows faster than Cluster Pine, but
slower than P. insignis. The wood works well and has a nice
grain. It is a good timber for building and constructional pur-
poses generally.

To break up the masses of Pines into sub-compartments and
protect the boundaries against fire, deciduous trees like Oaks and
Poplars, as well as Blackwoods and some Eucalypts will be
planted according to the nature of the soil.

At Isidenge. Canary Island Pine and Chir Pine will be the

98 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

species mainly used. The kloofs will be planted with Oak and
Poplars.

Tollberg and Groenkop are within ten miles of the George-
Mossel Bay Railway. Buffels Nek is five miles from the term-
inus of the South- Western Railway leading^ to the port of Knysna,
from which it will be possible to distribute wood to Durban.
East London, Port Elizabeth and Capetown, should the railway
at George not be extended to Knysna in 50 years' time, which
however, is unthinkable. Farleigh lies about 12 miles by road
from Knysna, but the extension of the railway to Knysna would
reduce road transport by about two-thirds. Witte Els Bosch
is at present 18 miles >from the railway at Assegai Bosch, from
which extension can in due course be expected. The afforesta-
tion contemplated there, if persevered with, would of itself
largely justify construction.

The Hankey area is served by the narrow gauge railway
running from Port Elizabeth to Loerie River. Isidenge is about
14 miles from the main Eastern line, but the road communica-
tions are good, and bearing in mind the prospect of the develop-
ment of mechanical transport, it is not thought the distance is
excessive.

From Revenue funds two other large schemes have been
inaugurated during the last two years, both in connection with
the employment of poor whites. One is at French Hoek, in the
valley of the Berg River, and the other at Jonkersberg, on the
southern slopes of the Outeniquas. The latter adjoins on its
eastern boundary Tollberg and Geelhoutboomberg, so that when
the two schemes are complete there will be a continuous stretch
of artificial forest on the southern slopes of the Outeniquas, from
Brak River in the west, to Montague Pass in the east, a di.stance
of at least 20 miles. The scheme of afiforestation here and at
F'rench Hoek will be on the same lines as those already men-
tioned, the same species of trees being employed. The area of
plantable ground at French Hoek has not yet been accurately
determined, but is likely to amount to 5,000 acres.

When in addition to the work now being done all these
schemes are fairly launched, it should be possible to advance
at the rate of 8,000-10,000 acres per annum as long as funds
are forthcoming.

In the course of this address I have endeavoured to place
before you the salient features of the position in regard to
timber supplies and forestry in the Union. The position is one
that calls for earnest consideration by all who take an interest
in the welfare of this country. While the forest reserves in
the Union amount to a respectable total, the actual area of
forest capable of producing timber suitable for general use is
very restricted, and the best possible annual output that can be
looked for is almost negligble in comparison with the country's
needs. Unless, therefore afforestation is seriously tackled, this
country, like Great Britain, will always have to depend on the
favour of other countries for its timber supplies. Apart from

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 99

the ({uestion of (ler..;ice, that is a state of affairs which is aUo-
gether unsound and to be avoided. In spite of the more exten-
sive use of iron, steel and concrete in recent years, the amount
of timber used throughout the world is rapidly increasing
without any corresponding increase in the forest area.

South Africa, unless it augments its own timber resources
— and that it can and should do^ — will have to look forward to
competing with countries more favourably situated geographi-
cally for some of the world's surplus timber, and will be forced
to buy, whatever the price, or else helplessly have to see its
industries strangled or paralyzed for lack of an adequate local
supply of this prime essential of industry. In this connection it
is interesting to recall, especially in this golden city, what Evelyn.
the famous English forester, wrote more than 250 years ago.
Referring, of course, to England, he said: *' Since it is certain
and demonstrable that all arts and artisans whatsoever must
fail and cease if there were no timber and wood in a nation
(for he that shall take his pen and begin to set down what art.
mystery or trade belonging any way to human life could be
maintained and exercised without wood will quickly find I speak
no paradox), I say when this shall be well considered, it will
appear that we had better be without gold than without timber."

Bearing in mind what the position is in regard to this vital
question, it is a matter for satisfaction that a strong forward
move has now been initiated in aft'orestation. The country, if
it is wise, will see that the move is continued.

Section D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE,
AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

President of the Section: Prof. E. J. Goddakd, B.A., D.Sc.

THURSDAY, JULY ii.

The President delivered the following address : —

To decide on a special topic for a IVesidential Address,
which, despite its specialised character, would appeal to all is a
difficult matter, and in attempting to discover such a topic I was
led to see that this occasion demanded really a survey of the
status of Zoology and the means obtaining in this country for
the development of the various branches of zoological research.
The fact that the Zoological Section makes its debut at this
meeting of the Association has guided me in this direction,
particularly so since the conditions obtaining in the world at
the present day have stimulated interest in researches whose
economic value and importance is patent to all, and even in such
as in many cases were hardly appreciated in pre-war days. This
sudden realisation, or rather appreciation, of the fact that there
is a direct relationship between Pure and Applied Science, may,
in its embryonic phase and its youthful lack of perspective, lose
sight of the fact that this apparent discovery is just what the pure
scientist has been attempting for years to unravel before the eyes
of the modern world, hungering for that appreciation which was
his due, and for that encouragement which our Governments
have been loath to give. Already we find a Technical and Scien-
tific Connnission in existence in this country, and we should seize
the occasion to point out that such a Commission (which is cog-
nisant of the value of scientific research in general), while bound
to suggest and open lines of research which will lead to greater
production within this country, is equally strongly bound to
encourage scientific research even where the object in view may
be of so abstract a nature that the mind of the modern commer-
cialist can perceive no direct economic return therefrom. For,
after all, the value of the work of any such Commission will be
measured, not by this generation alone, and not by the actual
number of lines of research which it has opened, but rather by the
extent to which it has itself encouraged and led our governing
bodies to develop the spirit of research — be it concerned with
afifairs patently of economic importance or apparently abstract or
abstruse. The extent to which they succeed in this will be a true
measure of their work, for it will be a measure of the ability of
the country in future to deal with fosterings not yet patent to us,
but which must continually arise de novo. It seems to me that
this is the outstanding defect throughout the British Empire,
namely, that we have continually dififerentiated between so-called
Pure and Applied Pesearch. and have given a half-hearted

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 101

support to the latter division, almost entirely refusing support to
the former. Such a policy has been almost fatal to research,
for, despite the attitude of governing bodies, the scientist con-
cerned in research which has a patently economic value will admit
that it is impossible to draw a line of division, and further, that
so-called Applied ^Science is directly dependent on Pure Science.
Consequently, the progress made is comparatively small. The
present world-confiict has demonstrated to us all that in such
matters Germany was leading the way. The organisation charac-
teristic of that country appreciated the way in which the whole
was constituted, and realised the value of each unit. There we
find a whole-hearted Government support given to all that may
be called scientific research, and accompanying this policy a rapid
progress. In ever}- branch of Science — Pure and Applied — we
must admit thoroughness and minuteness. It is only by adopting
such a scheme that we can hope to advance, missing nothing by
the way. This amounts to the encoiu-agernent of the spirit of
research. Cultivate such, and then the rest is assured. Lhnit the
lines of research — for arbitrary choice of certain branches for
encouragement spells limitation — and then vv-e are lost. " Orga-
nisation and Thoroughness " should be our motto.

l^erhaps the subject of Zoology is that, or one of those,
development of whose research is most likely to be overlooked.
There are a few divisions of the subject which have a patent
economic importance, and these are just those which receive some
attention at the hands of Government experts. Such divisions
are Entomology. Protozoology, etc. Yet these are not supported
as they should be, if the work is to be done thoroughly and scien-
tifically, and, further, tiiat work is far too localised. VVe have in
this country a number of universities, museums, and Government
departments, the stafifs of which are actively engaged in zoological
work. Progress is made under extreme difficulties, and although
much has been accomplished, can we say that it approaches what
might be expected from such a number? Routine work inten-
sified by understaffing, and lack of literature, combine to militate
against research work. More important still, there is very little
attempt towards co-ordination.

It is time that we made up our minds to attack seriously and
scientifically the zoological problems in this coimtry, and
further to encourage South Africans to take their share in that
work. In glancing over the spheres of work in which research
is being attempted in this country, it is noteworthy that nearly all
the main divisions of the animal kingdom are receiving some
attention. It is, indeed, most fortunate that there is little over-
lapping. Protozoa, Ccelenterata, Phatyhelmintlies, Polychseta,
Oligochieta, Hirudinea, Nematoda, Crustacea, Myriapoda, Insecta,
Arachnida, Pisces, Amphibia, and Reptilia are all being investi-
gated. Much of this work is purely systematic, but it is the first
and essential step towards a deeper knowledge of the zoological
problems of this country. I am sure that workers in all these

I02 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

groups will agree with me that there should be much greater
co-ordination. We require to know, not merely the various
species represented in this country, but the distribution in detail
of each species. To no worker should this appeal more than to
the parasitologist and veterinary.

Anyone interested in zoological problems will realise that
systematic zoology must play a very important and basal part,
and that broad generalisations will lack support unless they have
been built up in full cognisance of the systematics of the group
or groups concerned.

The mere description of new species or genera at the present
day fails to attract many zoologists, but all will recognise the
necessity for the description of all existing forms. Many no
doubt will see in such descriptions the corroboration of morpho-
logical generalisations, interesting information bearing on prob-
lems in heredity, genesis of species, distribution, palseogeography,
phylogeny, or possibly the key to a classification not before possible
owing to our ignorance of the existence of intermediate forms.
To all zoologists the completion of a census of the fauna of
South Africa will appeal as a necessary and ideal task, for the
reasons above mentioned. The carrying out of such, however,
will demand the labours of more zoologists than are at present
available in our universities, museums, and Government depart-
ments, and thus directly and indirectly demands greater financial
assistance. In inaking any such request I think we, will all feel
that it devolves on us to demonstrate that, beyond the great
necessity for such a zoological survey in elucidating the fauna (jf
South Africa, there is a direct economic side, and again to indicate
the means by which such a survey can be carried out.

Perhaps no country in the world possesses more interest for
the parasitologist than Southern and Equatorial Africa. The pro-
tozoologist has here a life work, and continues to discover new
forms and find the clue to life-history cycles. He soon realises
that what is known of South African parasitic Protozoa repre-
sents but a small part of what remains to be known, and that
patient work, with encouragement, will lead to results that may
yet be appreciated from the direct,ly economic standpoint. The
protozoologist is concerned not merely with the morphological
characters of his protozoon, but also with its life-history, and this
demands a specific census of a great number of other grou|)s.
Hence from this standpoint alone we can furnish a very strong
case for a complete zoological survey. It will, I think, a])peal to
all that this knowledge merely will not furnish us with a scienti-
fically complete record. We need really a detailed distribution list
of each particular species, both of host and parasite. It is only by
possessing such information that we can set to work to encounter
scientifically any trouble due to parasitic iforms that may arise
at any time. This concerns not only parasites which are endemic,
but also specific hosts which may act as intermediaries for exotic
forms which may arrive. Further, much interesting work of a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTlUN D. IO3

Statistical nature has been initiated in connection with such para-
sites as the germ of malaria, and such is dependent to a large
extent on our knowledge of the distribution of anopheles. A
detailed knowledge of the latter form, tor example, may be
needed ere long, as there is every possibility that malaria will
atlect much wider areas than m pre-war days.

Quite recently Bilharzia has made its appearance in many
areas within the Union, and unless the greatest precaution is
exercised, will spread throughout this territory, ihis state of
altairs, when we realise at the same time our comparative ignor-
ance of the specific nature of tlic numerous riatyhelminthes in
this country, and needless to say, their life-history, necessitates
a detailed census of the Mollusca, both from the specific and dis-
tributional standpoints. We have several workers in this group,
but they have not the time nor opportunity under present condi-
tions of even attempting any such serious task. Such workers
need an army of trained collectors. To quote one outstanding
example, it may be pointed out that we are ignorant of the life-
history of the tapeworm affecting the ostrich. Such work neces-
sitates much patient labour, and can be carried out only with
relief from an excess of routine work and Government assistance.
Under any circumstances it will occupy many years, but a start
must be made, and 1 feel strongly tliat we should now plead for
the initiation of such. What has been said in reference to the
Trematoda and Cestoda applies equally well in the case of the
Nematoda. Great attention to these parasites is encouraged by
European, American, and Australian Governments, and tnere is
equal need in South Africa. We want to know much more of
the structure and life-history of South African forms, and
especially of their life-history. This is necessary if we are to
attempt a scientific control over parasites affecting stock. The
important part played by insects and ticks as intermediate hosts
in tiiis country is known to all, and I think it unnecessary to ask
for support in suggesting the urgency of a census of these
forms.

I have mentioned a few groups, the economic significance of
which will no doubt appeal to all. But we must bear in mind that
other groups have an equally strong claim, and some may yet
claim greater attention, such as Myriapoda, UligochcCta, Hiru-
dinea, etc. In fact, it becomes at once dogmatic and unscientific
to attempt to differentiate, although it must be granted in the
present state of our knowledge that certain groups have the
stronger claim. It would be better, however, to work towards the
ideal, and follow the scientific path by instituting a complete
zoological survey.

A recently-published bulletin of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture presents the results of the second annual bird
count in the United States, carried out in 1915. It is based on 315
reports, from every State in the Union except Utah and Nevada,
and shows a gratifying agreement with the results obtained in the

I04 PRESIDENTIAI, ADDRESS SECTION D.

previous year. " When an enumeration of birds was suggested,'",
says the author, " the project was the subject of much good-
natured banter and some criticism from those who declared the
scheme utterly visionary," but these animadversions were based
upon the misunderstanding of methods to be employed and the
objects in view. The average bird population of that part of the
North-Eastern United States devoted to agriculture has been
determined with sufficient accuracy to furnish data having various
practical and scientific applications, and some useful general
information has been obtained in reference to the rest of the
counti"y. The average in the North-Eastern States is about 800
pairs of birds to the square mile. It is not yet possible to estimate
the population of each species, except for a few of the com-
monest and most widely distributed, such as the English sparrow
and the robin, for which the reports are sufficiently numerous to
permit an approximate estimate. The most elaborate report
received in 1915 was that of the Campus of Cornell University.
Its 256 acres were divided into six blocks, and the survey of each
was made by a different person, the whole being in charge of
Professor Allen. The densest bird poi^ulation was found on a
small private estate near Washington, D.C.,with 135 pairs nesting
on five acres, and the most varied population in the bird sanctuary
and park, known as Woollen's (iarden, near Indianapolis, wuth 62
species on 44 acres." I quote this as illustrating the efiforts of
the American Government. In that country a great deal of
attention is now being given to the study of Animal (Ecology and
animal communities. This most important study is necessary if
we are to attempt to comprehend the significance of " Balance in
Nature." The ruthless destruction of certain types of animals,
notably birds, the importation of an exotic pest, have many times
demonstrated the existence of such a " balance." This is very
patent in the case of insect pests. Our experiences in this country
with the Australian wax scale is a case in point. An understanding
of this balance necessitates a knowledge of Animal Oncology, the
prelude* to which must be a more or less complete census of our
species, and their distributions. Other countries have realised this,
and South Africa should fall into line.

But independent of the directly economic aspect, such a
survey would enable us to deal more effectively with the origin
and distribution of our fauna. Botanists have realised that the
.scientific basis from which we must orientate in grappling with
the problem of distribution is oecological, and a great amount of
research is accomplished already in that direction. The claim is
equally strong to the zoologist. There are portions of our fauna
— particularly terrestrial invertebrata — which are practically
unknown. The same state of affairs exists in regard to the distri-
bution of our littoral shallow-water and deep-water marine
forms. As we are living to-day in a time when the generalisations
in any one science are so markedly overlapping those of other
sciences, the necessity for a deeper knowledge of faunal distri-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. IO5

butioiis in this country — terrestrial and marine— should ai)peal
strongly. For South Africa possesses great interest to the zoo-
geographer. The history of our fauna cannot be elucidated, nor
the true relationship to other parts of the world indicated satisfac-
torily until such data as a survey would supply are accessible.
Many of the generalisations accepted at the present day are based
on meagre information, and will no doubt be revised. Localised
surveys of certain groups which appear to possess some special
interest to zoogeogra])hers have been attempted, but naturally
are far from having any character of completeness.

The fauna of the Bokkeveld beds, and the fauna and flora of
the beds of the Karroo Basin, suggest close relationships in
Devonian, and in late Palaeozoic and earlv Mesozoic times with
South Africa and India, and possibly even more directly with the
Antarctic Continent. There is much evidence supporting the idea
of a late Palaeozoic and earlv Mesozoic Gondwanaland, but
this evidence can by no means be regarded as conclusive. The
existence of such a land mass is of great importance to the geolo-
gist working in the Southern Hemisphere ; and the acceptance of
such must fundamentally affect the problems of dvnamical
geologv in this hemisphere. The student of zoogeography must
also take into consideration the significance of such a land mass
in attempting to elucidate the meaning of the present faunal
distribution. Further, if such be the case, we might exr)ect that a
deeper knowledge of present faunal distributions in this country
might be reflected on the problem of Gondwanaland. We might
reasonably hope for the discovery of forms i^reserved on our
mountains, and descendants of a stock derived from Gondwana-
land.

So far the little survey work attempted has been successful
in finding generic representatives of Phreodrilid Oligochfetes,
and the peculiar Crustacean — Phreatoicus. The former grotip
occupies an important intermediate position between Microdrilid
and Megadrilid Oligochceta, and enjoys a circumpolar distribu-
tion, being found in South America, South Africa, Australia. Tas-
mania, and New Zealand. The peculiar habitat — the forms
occurring on mountains or adopting a semi-parasitic habit on
hosts endemic to the particular area — strongly support the idea
that they are the remains of an archaic stock which probably once
occurred throughout Gondwanaland. Phreatoicus enjoys a cir-
cumpolar distribution, and is highly sjiecialised. Further search
may yet unearth such archaic forms as Anaspides. which so far
has been found only in the mountains of Tasmania. From these
remarks I think it should be clear that a detailed zoological survey
will furnish not only information of direct economic value and
data of interest to zoological research, but will help materially
towards developing a positive position on the part of zoologists ir
rep-ard to the generalisations accepted by many geologists,
which are of the greatest importance to geological research in
general.

106 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — -SECTION D.

We have now to consider the means by which a survey can
be carried out. It is quite clear that the present staff of zoologists
available within the Union cannot undertake such a survey with
the hope of completing it. Systematic collections must be made
by trained zoologists, and the work of the various zoologists
co-ordinated. 1 have already stated that there is a most fortunate
distribution of the various groups among the workers in this
country, and assisted by systematic collectors and other workers
a great deal can be accomplished. In addition to university,
museum, and Government departmental zoologists, there are a
number of private investigators engaged in research, and the
services of the latter could be relied on for investigation and
collation of data in connection with their special groups.

With the appointment of a number of young trained zoologists,
the country could be mapped out into areas, and each of these
systematically investigated. This will offer special opportunities
for South Africans anxious to assist in elucidating the fauna of
their own country.

At the present time we lijid that Zoology, as a subject, has
not the same attraction for the bulk of our Science students at
the Universities, except in the case of medical and agricultural
students, as have those sciences which will assist them in the
teaching profession. In this way there can be little doubt that
many who would show aptitude for zoological work are lost. A
limited number of scholarships are offered by the Government for
students anxious to undertake Entomology and Veterinary
Science. In this connection I would suggest that scholarships
should be made available for those anxious to prosecute zoo-
logical work, and that the services of such candidates be enlisted
in connection with the proposed survey. The details of any such
scheme as suggested must await the acce]:)tance of such a pro-
posal.

I trust that 1 have in this address the support of the
Zoological Section, and that they feel with me the importance of
a Zoological Survey of South Africa.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION. PHILOLOGY, AND NATIVE SOCIO-
LOGY.

President of the Section : — Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

FRIDAY, JULY 12.

The President delivered the followinsf address :

AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF RESEARCH INTO THINGS
NATIVE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE
BANTU AND THE WORK OF THIS ASSOCIATION.

It seems natural that a presidential address from time to time
should summarise the progress made hitherto, and I therefore
propose, after sketching very lightly the field of this section and
the workers in that field of the past, to treat in more detail of
those subjects which have occupied the meetings of the section
since its separation from Section D, and former papers which
would have been contributed to Section E. had that section then
existed. Finally, to draw attention to subjects crying for solu-
tion, and the possible bearing of that solution on the whole of
our field.

Section E is intended to be the native section (not that the
members of it are native, except in so far as a large and in-
creasing number of us are African-born), but in the sense that
it has, with becoming modesty, taken all the Sciences for its
province which have to do, specially or immediately, with natives.

According to the programme of the last two annual meet-
ings, the subjects of Section E are Anthropology, Ethnology,
Native Education, Philology, and Native Sociology. It is true
that the Philology is not specifically Bantu, or even African, but
I notice that philological papers like that of Professor Nauta
on French literature were wont to be taken with the educational
subjects, which now, we are glad to see, have a section to them-
selves.

For two years now, Section E has been in the same condi-
tion, the subjects of which tended before unduly to crowd with
papers Section D — our parent section — which has now, therefore,
the time to discuss that useful bird, the ostrich, and other matters.
I called my paper " A Sketch of the Field and of the Workers
contributing directly or indirectly to the subjects of our section.,"
This will, I hope, make it clear that my treatment will be neces-
sarily rapid. I shall skip over regions and centuries like a hart
upon the hills ; but I would ask you at the end to draw with me
a definite conclusion.

Obviously all African explorers would be alone too large a
scope to treat of, or even to I'ist, in a paper of this sort, so I will

I08 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

confine myself mainly to modern South African workers, or
workers in the Southern half of Africa.

II.

I have no intention of treating in detail the various English
and other travellers who made the civilized world acquainted
with the different lands of Africa, or even those of the present
Union.

We will not linger over the Portuguese writers, their brave
missionaries and warriors, who have been so exhaustively treated
of by Dr. Theal, except to mention, from the side of philology,
the work of Dias, the Jesuit, on Angola, and of Brusciotto on
Congo, published in the seventeenth century at Lisbon and Rome
respectively. Purchas, in the early seventeenth century, touches
lightly on South Africa: Peter Kolbern made known the un-
pleasant manners of the Hottentots in German, Dutch and Eng-
lish in the early eighteenth century.

We had a train of visitors — Sparrman, Paterson, Thunberg,
Stavorinus, and Le Vaillant, who, himself romantic, reminds us
of his ingenious parodist, the greater romancer, Damberger, with
his extraordinary fiction of a journey from the Cape, through the
Kaffirs, to Timbuctoo. Percival and Barrow arrived at the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century. Burchell, Campbell, Lichten-
stein, Latrobe the Moravian in the 'teens ; Thompson in the
twenties, Owen, Arbousset, Casalis in the thirties, Methuen in the
forties, Smith in 1850, left us accounts of their pilgrimage. Bor-
cherd had begun his by 1801, but did not publish till '61.

Time would fail me to tell the tithe of those who since have
followed in their train — of the lands and tribes they visited — of
the observations they made — of the sciences and nationalities
they represented. They are a great cloud of witnesses, many
of them worthy to rank with the pioneer ex])lorers of West an'l
Central Africa, with Park, Barth, and others in the former, with
Bruce, Burton, Speke, Grant, Stanley, the unfortunate Tinne
ladies, Petherick, the Bakers, Sweinfurth, in the Nile basin; and
in East Africa, with Rebmann, Krapf, and a host of others ; ad-
ministrators like Gordon, hunters like Oswell, and the late heroic
Selous ; explorers and scientists like Holub and Miss Mary Kings-
ley ; missionaries like Du Plessis in recent times, and earlier Dr.
Moffat, whose son, Mr. John Moffat, is still happily with us — a
fount of information about the Bechuana and the days of Loben-
gula. These, in North and South, helped, in one way or another,
in less or greater degree, to open up the mighty continent which
we inhabit. One name, of course, stands out above them all for
universal travel, many-sided interest, and appeal to the native
'mind, for his magnificent character, his imperial determination,
his grit and patience — the immortal name of Dr. David Living-
stone.

In spite of the intelligible but regrettable opposition of the
London Missionary Society, which would have chained the Pro-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E. IO9

metheus of Central African discovery to the mission station of
Kuruman or Mabotsa (over there among the Bakgatla, vi^hom
I also, a few years ago, was teaching) , he braved alone the perils
of river, swamp, and forest, of slave-trader and barbarous chief,
and came safely through, where Stanley, with an army, found op-
iposition at every turn. He became the typical opener up of
Africa, whom his mission would have used to teach a few Bech-
uana. When will missions and when will governments learn to
know and use their men ?

Further than the crying and historic case of Livingstone,
I cannot venture to speak of other denominations than my own;
but of that I am bold to say — for truth is better than dear friends
— the failure of thoise responsible for the training and equipping
of the minds of our missionaries for their task, linguistically and
ethnologically — the failure to use them when they have equipped
theniselves, fills me oftentimes with grief, despair and shame.

You may think that this is too strong language, and more-
over not a concern of this Association, nor of any but the mis-
sionary societies. This I deny. The missionaries, as a class,
are in closer touch than any other European, with the native, i.e.,
with the bulk of the population of this country ; and I consider
that their effectual training and the moral (I do not say religious)
training of the native which depends upon it, is a very serious
matter for the community in general.

In Nigeria I was told by an administrator that missionaries
who are not ethnologists are not encouraged by the Government
for fear of complication with the Mohammedans. No one desires
such an attitude here, but the fact is very significant. Nor can
our governments escape blame for the lack of training of Admin-
istrators.

If I may quote Mr. A. E. Griffiths in a recent paper on the
South African Undergraduate : —

" The part our undergraduate has to play in the administra-
tion of native affairs has received no consideration from our
University or Ministerial Authorities. The fact that South Africa
looks among the rising generation for the future rulers of
her native races is not yet understood. There exists, apparently,
no correlation between University work and preparation for na-
tive administration ; at least, we have no specific University
course — no professorial chair of native languages." (And that is
still true in spite of one advertised last year.) " No national
school of administration. . . . Are we surprised that our
undergraduate has given this — the first of South African fields —
no serious attention?"

in.

Mommsen has said of Scipio Africanus that in his quiet
chamber he no less died for Rome than if he had fallen beneath
the walls of Carthage. Thus (may we not say?) the scholar
Lepsiiis, for example, in addition to his labours for European
scholarship, did more for African missions by his phonetic

no PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

system than many missionaries have done. The figure of
Livingstone kneeling dead by his camp bed in Ujiji — dead for
Africa and its tribes, for the removal of the plague spot of the
world, the slave trade — touches the mind with its peculiar
pathos ; but there is another name I would mention, who gave
his life for Africa, though, like Scipio, he died at home; who
gave it in studies of portentous magnitude and effect. The
mind reels at 'the thought of the 80 note-books of Bushman lore,
still (alas) in manuscript only, with which Dr. Bleek's indus-
try has endowed the South African library. What African
philology owes to this scholar and his family passes telling; one
of that family survives, as, I believe I am right in saying, the
only Bushman scholar in the world. Bushman paintings and
engravings are a special care to a learned lady of this Associa-
tion, but firsthand knowledge of their language depends upon a
single life; and again we must lament the lack of interest which
South Africa has taken in things Bushman, her unique contribu-
tion to philology, and the history of primitive art.

I cannot conclude this part of my subject without a reference
to that veteran historian of equal industry, Dr. Theal, whose
contribution to South African literature it would be presump-
tuous of me to praise, especially as he too, thank God, still sur-
vives.

One is thankful that here the succession is not entirely
broken, as younger historians are present to carry on the torch.
It is, strangely enough, upon a Rhodes chemistry chair that
Elijah's mantle seems to have fallen.

Other sections may consider it unsuitable and even im-
proper to carry introspection to such an extent as to make past
contributions to itself the subject of a presidential paper. But
Section E, at least, need feel no squeamishness in this regard,
and for this reason — ^that (though the papers of all the sections
doubtless contains original research into branches of science
which have been worked for decades, if not for generations)
some of the founders of ethnology are still with us, and the
scientific study of the natives of this country and their language
is still very much in its infancy, or (shall we say?) in its embryo
stage ; and this Association, especially in Sections D and E, may
venture justly to say Pars magna fui. This is my apology for
proceeding to mention some of the contributions which it has
made to the scientific study of South Africa on the native side.

IV.

Mr. Hammond Tooke. as early as 1905, directed the atten-
tion of the Association (soon after her birth) to the subject of
uncivilised man south of the Zambesi, which in 1820 he divided
into five groups, viz., the Zulu-Xosa, Gvvamba. who tekesa (as
the Zulus say) in their speech, the Kalanga, Chwana, and
Herero — which last were identified as possibly the Mazimba of
early Portuguese writers. Mr. Tooke followed up this essay

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. Ill

outside the pages of our journal with notes on the Bantu of the
loth century as described in extracts from the " Golden
Meadows of Mas'udy," and these were published by the African
Monthly in 1907.

I had originally intended to discuss the early geographers
and explorers of Africa in connection with this paper, but to
avoid undue length, have already read those pages as a separate
paper before my section. In them I drew attention to the fact
of the great importance of philology in regard to all research
into the testimony of the early and present writers about our
country. I cannot doubt (and in this I find I have the agree-
ment of Dr. Theal), that much material still remains to be dis-
interred : not only from the libraries and other hiding places of
the West, but also from Oriental sources ; and, for the interpre-
tation and use of such authorities, philology will be indispensable
— not only knowledge, and in so wide a field, necessarily com-
parative knowledge, of Semitic and other groups made use of
in ancient geography and kindred subjects, but also comparative
knowledge of the dialects of Africa, which will certainly throw
much light upon the records of the past, as can be seen, for
example, in the case of Mas'udy, whom I treated in my ex-
cerpted pages, alluded to above ; but to this point I will again
return.

I have, in the other paper, used Mr. Tooke's work on the
Arab geographer as a starting point for a resume of the earlier
writers on Africa. I may now use his paper before your Asso-
ciation in 1905 as a starting-point for the later and contemporary
work with which I am in the briefest outline to deal. It is, of
course, as I said before, impossible to attempt to mention, not
to say appraise (even if the present speaker were worthy to do
so), all the recent work upon native Africa or South Africa.
I can but endeavour to say a few words about our debt to some
of those writers who have come in any way before our Associa-
tion.

V.

Let me begin by paying a tribute to the industry and effec-
tiveness with which our President in this section last year —
Mr. Roberts — largely in conjunction with Mr. C. A. T. Winter,
has set before us the results of their research into the tribes of
the Northern Transvaal. Would that he were here to-day to
assist our deliberations, though we must not grudge his services
at the seat of war. We will hope that his presence in Europe
may procure the publication of his papers in a more permanent
form than the present, and we shall look forward, please God,
to a speedy return of him and all our heroes. I need not specify
his manifold work here, nor that of Mr. J. A. Winter. The
latter contributed in 191 2 the " History of Sekwati," the " Tradi-
tions of Ralolo." the "Praises of the Chiefs," and "Circum-
cision among Sekukuni's Folk," followed in 1914 by his " Men-
tal and Moral Capabilities of the Natives." Mr. Junod, to travel

F

112 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

further East, contributed in the same year an arresting paper on
the " S.E. Natives in the i6th Century, and has since produced
a most valuable contribution to the ethnology of the same field
in his two volumes upon the " Thonga." Mr. Garbutt has written
of Rhodesia, and compared the custom of Egypt and the South ;
Mr. Dornan not only writes on native poisons (a subject which
the President of Section B last year has also made his own), but
has further had the courage to enter the lists, and that from the
side of native tradition, in that delicate question which, from
time to time, shakes Africa — I mean the Zimbabwe origins,
which have been discussed in our Transactions, in the past, by
no less an authority than Mr. Hall. While very willing to join
with the Oxford Professor in claiming more culture for past
generations of natives than we in this sub-continent are always
ready to grant, I feel that so weighty a question may not, till
the end of the chapter, be settled ; but the very fact that claims
and counterclaims of date range over some two millenia, not
only in the case of African Zimbabwe, but even in that of British
Stonehenge, shows how very little way we have gone in settling
the sciences of anthropology and ethnology, and how very little
encouragement is at present given, either by government or the
public. But there are economic sciences considerably more inti-
mate and pressing, not always, perhaps, to my own, but to the
public mind, to which are made the masterly contributions of
my other Vice-President, Mr. Kingon, especially within his own
sphere, the Transkei. I note that he apparently sides with the
presidential address of my predecessor in doubting of the
weighty warnings, which a veteran authority on the Eastern
lands, like Mr. Maurice Evans, gave us, as regards the likelihood
of real competition between white and native workers, in case
of a labour-market free from the present artificial restraints of
law and custom ; a subject of peculiar interest at the present
juncture. I note another difi^erence of opinion between one of
the writers last mentioned and Dr. Loram in his book, so full of
valuable statistics, on the education of the native, and ask, " Is
it, or is it not, the fact that they, at the age of puberty, become,
any more than whites, mind atrophied ?

VI.

There are grave questions, and evidently at preseiU it is
hopeless to expect anything but disagreement among the doctors.
If we turn to the missionaries we find the same disagreement,
but here the shocking neglect of professional training on the
physchological side for dealing with foreign nations oft'ers very
largely the explanation. Let me give an example of a moot
point among us; the majorities in our missionary synods and
conferences have legislated against the traditional manner of
native customs like circumcision, with a minority protest, to
which I confess that, after study, I incline. What has struck
me is the very little vahd evidence that most missionaries have

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E. II3

to offer of the essential character and moral effect (in the wider
sense) of the rites, and how very little dispassionate study is
given to the matter. (My own discoveries I ventured to sub-
mit to you some years ago, as did Mr. Roberts for the Trans-
vaal recently).

Early missionaries had to make a decision before the birth

of ethnology, and that they did fearlessly, according to their

light, however much their own immediate success was hindered.

It may be that then was the time for trenchant severance from

an evil inevitable legacy of past abuse.

But now, I cannot help feeling, the native suffers grievous
loss of very much needed discipline, through the uprooting of the
landmarks of immemorial sanction, and I hope it may not be
too late to save some part of the structure of what is now recog-
nised, among serious students, as a highly respectable ethnic sys-
tem, in the face of the obvious failure of the effect to Euro-
peanise.

Pray do not think me a Julian endeavouring to galvanise a
twice-dead heathenism ; it is just because I believe that true re-
ligion should find room, in most cases, for the pre-Christian
Ethic, and build upon it, that I regret the complete (and, I fear,
largely needless) ruin of the sanctions of the Bantu past. The
fact, which I emphasize again and again, is that we have too little
study of that past and its meaning, on the part of those who
have to guide policy, both in Church and State ; and even the
academic world is not allowed to contribute as it should to the
solution of the native problem. Academics themselves are now
awake to the need, but only partially, even they. I shall not for-
get the surprise of a Professor of a South African University
College, who was very deeply interested in totemism, when he
discovered from me, for the first time, that the totemists were at
his gate, as I called a native lad to him and asked him what he
danced — that is to say, his seboko. or " totem." I am only say-
ing in much oif this what Mr. Roberts said last year at greater
length and with greater effectiveness : " The work of the Chris-
tian missionary requires very special training, and, until this fact
is recognised by the churches, the results of their work among
the Bantu are bound to be disappointing and more or less of a
failure. The fault lies with those in authority. The training
should include the study of comparative ethnology." Note the
" comparative !" No true philology or ethnology can be other.
This is a practical matter, not an academic. If we break an arm
we choose a first-aider to help us, rather than one who says he
has the love of heaven or of mankind, if it has not led him to
learn duly the science of giving first aid, by studying bones and
muscles : a study which seems to the layman academic. So must
we study native cult and custom if we would best commend our
own.

Dale, of Zanzibar, was able to tell some Moslem teachers
that the text they were quoting was not in the Koran but in a

114 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

commentary upon it ; they marvelled that he knew their own
books better than they did themselves. We want more men
trained thus fully for their special work ; then should we find
no lack of trained administrators and missionaries as experienced
contributors to ethnology, far better than the scientific visitor
who has not the confidence oi the particular tribe.

If we were thus learners as well as teachers, how many
solecisms in translation, how many mistakes in policy we might
avoid, which alike proclaim our systems alien (externally, though
not fundamentally). We have no difficulty in realising the point
with our fellow white-men. We know that we must enter into
their lives, and the more thoroughly, that is, the more scientifi-
cally, the better. We do not need to live all their lives, as we
need not, nor are able, to live a native's, but we need to study
the lives scientifically, alongside of the language, and until we
do so we deserve to be ousted by others who will.

One day I happened to mention the names of some of his
ancestors to the son of a chief of the Batlokoa who was visiting.
In a few weeks three pages of foolscap arrived filled with a
neat though elaborate genealogy which I could largely verify,
and which went back nearly 30 generations (probably something
over 600 years). There was confidence established, and the
native shyness broken down by an interest shown in their his-
tory. As a high government official points out in Mr. Hollis's
excellent book on the Masai, a genuine interest in the native
mind and language is one of the most hopeful ways of avoiding
even punitive expeditions.

If all that I have said is true of the missionary, surely it is
true also, if not more true, of the administrator and his assis-
tants. How true also it has been in this war that often all has
depended on such intelligence and staff work, and indeed the
principle has long been recognised in the navy, so far as the
encouragement of language study is concerned ; yet a recent num-
ber of the English Rczneiv gives a case of a loss at sea costing
the country £3,000,000, due to ignorance on the part of an
officer of the distinction in sound between German and Nor-
wegian. I could give many examples of similar mistakes in
native tongues, often laughable enough, but too frequent to be
amusing, seeing the estrangement which their cause in the long
run brings between ruled and ruler, teacher and taught.

VII.

This is the case with us English in the matter especially of
philology, in spite of the fact that the science deals with speech,
the prerogative of man alone, the chief interpreter of the mind,
and therefore the chief interpreter of man to man. Yet this is
the science which we carefully avoid. Though near a century
and a half has gone by since the derided discovery of Sanscrit
as the key to European tongues, instead of Hebrew or what not.
philology is still commonly considered a mark of the faddist, or

PKE'^IDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. II5

the wide-sundered metiers of the philologist, necessarily compara-
tive, and the linguist, whether polyglot or idiomatist, are con-
fused. It is not realised that the philologist does not claim to
be an expert on every tongue as spoken, which indeed were quite
impossible, 'but can yet throw light, as perhaps no one else
can, on the meaning of the idioms within the family he studies,
and often far beyond ; for, once again, let us recall it, speech is
the key to the main gate of psychology.

I may illustrate this failure to realise the position of the
philologist by the si;rprise and sometimes indignation I have met
with from the speaker of a dialect, whether European or native,
when one presumes to suggest a derivation for a personal or place
name. The non-philologist bystander, even of intelligence, is apt
to endorse the unfavourable verdict; but a concrete illustration
from an English place-name will shew the unreasonableness of
this attitude. I spent some years upon the Trent bank in the
combined parish of Kelham and Averham (pronounced A'erum),
near Newark. The spelling of both names suggested a home
originally; but of what? The Domesday " Calune " was rejected
as the mishearing of a Norman scribe, but a chronological listing
of the forms, in which the names occurred, revealed the fact
that 'the spelhng was a fallacy of association in both cases, and
phonetic script made plain that the local pronounciation preserved
the Anglo-Saxon locative phrase, all but exactly, which describes
the place as "set cellum and atherum " (gen plur : forms), i..e.,
" at the springs and watercourses." The native Notts villager
had preserved the sotmd all those generations, but all his re])eti-
tions could not have guided him to the meaning of the name
without philology. As an Englishman born and bred, with no
trace, so far as I know, of foreign blood in me, I deeply regret
that this simple bit of English philology was due to a German
scholar, who very probably spoke bad English, and might rouse
our indignation or amusement at his temerity, if we did not
understand the use and purpose of the philologist, his distinc-
tion from the linguist, and his practical value, nevertheless, to
the same. Why need we be so behind in matters of such sim-
plicity? It reminds me of a certain front of a war where inter-
cepted enemy wireless messages were being passed to head-
quarters and uselessly filed, while the freely offered services of
an experienced decipherer were refused.

May I venture to suggest that we see this same weakness
reflected in our own association, and even in Section E. Many
useful papers appear dealing with the customs of different tribes
or with their dialects, but how little comparative work is done
on the one or the other over any wide field. It may be thought
that this is due to the time not having yet arrived — but this is
not so, for the Berlin Orientalisches Seminar, and the Hamburg
Kolonial Institut (only recently at last followed by our London
school of Oriental languages), have long been working under
the guidance of ?\Ieinhof on the comparative study of Bantu,

Il6 PRESIDENT] AI, ADDRESS SECTION E.

and have produced results which stand the test of practical
application to individual dialects, as I myself have often proved.
(I beg to refer to my paper on South African language study
in 1914.)

It is just that co-operation which we need in the
future between the idiomatist, who knows something of
comparative philology, the philologist, who knows some-
thing of the idioms, and the ethnologist, who knows,
as too often he does not, something considerable of
both. Our present enemies have taken the forehand and
advantage of us by securing this co-operation in the past.
They do this by Government endowment and publication of re-
search, instead of waiting, as we too often do, till we have broken
the heart of the researcher by leaving him to the tender mercies
of the publisher, who at his peril rises above the demands of
the inanes voces populi. Of university presses, it is true, we
reap better things ; would that somebody would endow in this
way our new universities here.

Again, to illustrate from Meinhof 's work : Endemann in
Sesuto ; Hahn, Brincker, Kolbe, and \^iehe in Herero, etc., are all
laid under contribution by him for comparative purposes, and
are themselves often highly alive to the need and importance of
comparative work, and hence of a sound phonetic, in which again,
doubtless owing to the abominations of our English spelling, we
are ourselves but beginners. Steere, however, was in East Africa
an exception; in Swahili, Yao, Nyamwezi, Shaimbala and Konde,
he is acknowledged by the Germans as a match, and has a digne
successor in the truly venerable Archdeacon Woodward, of
Zanzibar, who has, if 1 remember aright, recently brought out
his sixth African grammar. To the scholarship of Mr. Madan.
senior student of Christ Church, was due a Swahili dictionary
and Testament.

Would that the tradition of learned students after the pattern
of Bishops Colenso and Callaway, for example, had been better
kept amongst our missionaries here in South Africa, or adminis-
trators found with interest in their people equal to the production
of books upon them, such as those of Sir H. Johnston, the
Lugards, Routledge, and Mollis of the Masai.

Let me pay a tribute to those who have (paved the path for
the comparative work of which I speak ; to the collections of Fr.
lorrend ; and, among idiomatic work, Kay's researches in Kaff-
raria ; Holden, on the Xosas in the 6o's (of whom and others
I am reminded by my kind friend the Parliamentary Librarian) ;
the Zulu labours of Fr. Bryant, those in Suto of the Paris Mis-
sion ; the magnificent and growing treasures of Kropif and his
continuators ; the Kaffir Bibles of Appleyard and others ; and
(last but not least) the many useful works of Mr. McLaren,
Mr. Scully, etc. ; and I beg to congratulate Miss A. Werner, more
especially, the Reader in Swahili at the London Language School,
on her persistent and increasingly successful efforts to make the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E. II7

soundest comparative work known to the English public, not to
speak of her own labours in many spheres of research. [To
those beginning their study of the subject I can recommend no
better book than her " Language Families in Africa," published
by the S.P.C.K., and her translation of Meinhof's lectures, pub-
lished by Dent.]

I have omitted the work of Tindall, Shaw, and some Ger-
mans, in Hottentot, as lying somewhat beside my main subject,
though extremely interesting philologically, and continuing the
treatment of one of the earlier South African problems attacked
by Peter Kolben and other officials of the Dutch Colony, who
took an interest in these neighbour tribes, worthy of more imita-
tion by modern administrators. I must not forget in this para-
graph to mention the great work done on the aboriginals, ethonolo"
gically, by the distinguished Director of the Cape Town Museum.

VIII.

For the future, it remains to get an adequate phonetic script
used in every language, including, let us hope, our own, even if
not adopted for ordinary publication in each : too often their
orthography has been inadequately, misleadingly, and contradic-
torily settled, even in allied tongues, and it is already too late to
expect a reformation ; witness the case of Sesuto and the Sech-
wana dialects, where the sounds and forms are almost identical,
though, of course, peculiar words occur in each special vocabu-
lary. The new literary languages, however, as published, are
trenchantly separated into Sesuto, Serolong, and Setlaping, this
being largely due to the dialects met with by each group of
missionaries, when they reached the publishing stage, being
stereotyped as standard, within their various fields. Had the
science of phonetics, through more adequate training, then im-
possible, reached the missionaries earlier, one consistent ortho-
graphy might doubtless have been adopted, followed by
translations containing the most expressive words and idioms of
every dialect, and giving (like our Authorised Version) a rich,
permanent, common standard of vocabulary and diction through-
out the whole of Central South Africa.

In case some of my hearers may be expert in Sechwana
dialects, I may explain that I found this statement on experience
in a Native Training College, containing representatives of some
score of tribes, who were asked to write, each in his own home-
speech, the simple sentences: —

" The chief has made a good law."
" He has not yet done it."

The experiment proved, as was expected, that the rea.1
vernaculars, unstandardized artificially by missionary translation,
faded into one another, like the colours of the spectrum, and of
the twenty versions of these short phrases scarcely two agreed.

Another desirable move is the introduction of comparative
grammars for European students of Bantu, like those of Latin

Il8 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

and Greek now used in schools, having similar forms under like-
numbered paragraphs — an arrangement lending itself admirably
to Bantu, the dialects of which are so extraordinarily consistent.
This plan had been adopted, both in German and in English, by
Meinhof, for grammars, before the war. The grouping of
these dialects is a problem scarcely touched, which would be
greatly helped by such comparative methods ; the relation of
Bantu to Hamitic and to the Soudanese group might then
approach solution, and the place be found of the sundry Pygmy
dialects as well as of the remnants of Bushman. All kinds of
subjects standing between philology and anthropology would thus
more easily be attacked. Personally, I hope wide-reaching re-
sults from the study of those branches in which I am specially
interested, and have had the privilege of speaking about them
before you in the past, viz., native music and poetry, fauna and
flora names, star-names and place-naimes — these, having reference
to objective facts, observed by all the tribes, must certainly throw
new light, if widely enough studied, on the wanderings of the
peoples and on cultural borrowing.

In this connection we welcome the large increase of know-
ledge of native praise-songs and similar traditions, which this
section owes to Mr. Stuart, of Natal, and others.

Again, wide research into chief's genealogies would not be
difficult to record and compare, and would lead, as in my own
experience, to much access of knowledge about tribal history,
and so contribute to- that of Africa in general. The South
African Historical Society, now, I fear, suspended for the time,
show^ed this in the care Prof. Cory and others took to collect in-
formation, both from natives and Europeans.

An admirable illustration of the use of such work is pro-
vided by M. Ellenberger's book (and that of his translator. Mr.
McGregor) on the Basuto tribes, upon which French and Swiss
missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, have settled with so
great effect for more than <So years, and number among them
scholars, in Suto^ and kindred tongues, such as M. Dieterlen and
M. Jacottet, the latter distinguished for his comparative and eth-
nological work.

I trust that the strong language I have used in this paper,
about a work which is very near my heart, and in which I was
actively engaged until March. 191 /, and the somewhat ex cathedra
manner, as it may seem, of my allusion to many such topics,
will not be misunderstood as overweening confidence : I know too
many old-experienced missionaries, who say, the longer they
work with natives, the less they feel they understand, for that.
The cause is. indeed, quite other : I am so weighted with the
imperfection of my own training, and the sense of the very little
way I and most have gone among the roots of native life, that
I am driven (after long being " meek and humble-mouthed "), by
saying unpleasant but true things, about such delinquencies, both
in missionary conclave, and crying upon the high places of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. I IQ

city, to do my little part to secure, if possible, that the next
generation shall be better trained than myself.

I yield to none in thankfulness for the mighty work which
both administrators and missions have done these many years
for this land, as has been testified by many in regard to the
latter, and cannot understand how men in general, if only for the
country's sake, can be apathetic to their efifectiveness. On the
other hand, it is clear that those responsible are awaking to the
lack of training, and even the word " phonetics " has been men-
tioned.

I would not, indeed, wish to be understood to say that no
one can be an administrator or a missionary, who is untrained
in the sciences I am recommending; I think the keenest and pro-
bably most effective European evangelist, for example, whom I
know, is one who does not know or want to know anything about
them. I am a profound disbeliever in education, in the conven-
tional sense, as a panacea for all ills, and if a man is to be a
m.ere evangelist (I use the epithet without disparagement) he
may very well dispense with much. But more and more, I be-
lieve, native evangelists should be relied upon to evangelize their
own people (as they can and will do far better than European,
knowing better their own wants) ; and so Livingstone himself
desired : thus setting the European free to teach the native
teachers ivhat they have not and cannot have, and guide the
general policy of the movement, in loyalty to all that is morally
sound, both for the individual and the social life. For this the
European leader must have, certainly, the best specialist training,
and not least in the psychology of nations, to which science both
philology and anthropology are undoubtedly ancillary.

Again, if this is true oi missions, it is true of administrators
also, that more and more they should be needed, in any healthy
political development, such as has been usefully tried under the
Glen Grey Act, not for ruling in detail, so much as for guiding
local govenment, with very much the same specialist training,
in many ways at least, as we have seen to be important in the case
of missionaries.

Some may have thought this paper unpractical. It is not
about gold or diamonds, unless we count the natives black ones,
as, for their value to the country, we well might. But a practical
question does emerge from our rapid survey of the opening up
of our land : — where is the South African ethnological bureau ?
Practical America has such an institution, elaborately studying
her few Red men and their history. India has her Stricklands,
with whom Kipling has made us familiar; but apparently in this
country such an institution is considered unnecessary, for no one
can suppose that its purposes are fulfilled by the Native Aflfairs
Department, admirable as its operations are, and we hear no talk
of anything further.

The dwindling Hottentots we leave to Dr. Peringuey, the
dead Bushman to the Bleek family and Miss VVilman ; but what

I20 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F-.

of the masses of Bantu which swarm in our towns, and the
tremendous problems, social and political, which crowd about
them? Are they alone of no interest to the academic, of no
urgency to the sociologist, of no use to the politician (when not
driven by danger or agitation to consider them), that the sciences
of ethnology and philology, which open up their psychology, are
scarcely risen above the horizon of the learned world here, are
scorned as fads by the general public, mocked at by the poli-
tician, as unworthy of encouragement or support?

If meteorology and chemistry have to do with farming
(but how many farmers guessed of it, or knew the names of
such sciences 50 years ago?), then, surely, ethnology, philology,
and native psychology and sociology have to do with the safety,
good government, and progress of this country. It is not an
academic matter, but one of the most practical we ever touched.

Cease, I say, to play the superannuated farmer, when your
farm is the souls, bodies, and estate of the millions of this sub-
continent.

Section F.— EDUCATION, HISTORY, xMENTAL SCIENCE,
POLITICAL ECONOMY. GENERAL SOCIOLOGY,
AND STATISTICS.

President of the Section: — Professor T. M. Forsyth,

M.A., D.Phil.

FRIDAY. JULY 12.

The President delivered the following address :

The Section of oiir Association of which I have the honour
to be President at this year's meeting may not untitly be called
the Philosophical Section of the Association for the Advance-
ment of Science ; and when one who pro'fesses Philosophy as
his subject of study and teaching is given the task of delivering
a Presidential Address, it is also not unfitting that he should
try to say something about the relations between Philosophy and
Science, and the question whether Philosophy has any part in the
advancement of knowledge.

That a section of the work of the Association includes
Mental Science as one of its divisions indicates that the " ancient
quarrel '' between science and philosophy is in process of being
allayed. But the process is a slow one, and it is worth while
to do even a very little in the way of trying to make the two
seem less foreign to each other. To' some minds it seems more
important to distinguish philo.sophy and science than to relate
them. If the mind concerned is a scientific mind, this attitude
i? apt to take the form of denying to philosophy a place in the
system ctf knowledge altogether. It mav be exemplified, perhaps,
hy a remark which I remember reading in one of the books of
my own science teacher at Edinburgh, Professor Tait. After
quoting a pas.sage — on the nature of space, I think — ifrom the
philosopher Kant, he says : " The reader will have no difticalty
in distinguishing the truth from the metaphysics in this passage."
Taken just as it stands, this means that philosophy, as such, is
inherently false. When, on the other hand, the distinction
between philosophy and science is insisted on by a philosophical
mind, the attitude, even if it should be true and, moreover, not
at all meant to be depreciatory of science, is one that is apt,
in the first instance at least, still further to alienate the scientist
from philosophy. My own mind has always run rather in the
direction of bringing them together.

The first step towards bringing phi4osophy and science
together is the apprehension that science has not a monc^poly
of the experiential method, or the endeavour to keep true to
actual experience. Granted that philosophy has often erred
through hasty generalization and equally hasty application of
general principles to experiential details, it has none the less
always been its effort, when it has been true to itself, to express

122 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

things in terms of, or through a logical process of inference
from, whatever principle seemed to state most succinctly and
most suggestively the essential nature of experience; and as
philosophy has progressed the ideal of getting everything ex-
pressed in terms of experience itself has become more and more
insistent, until to-day this may be said to be the character of
all living philosophical thought. William James, for instance,
calls the fundamental method or " way of thinking " of his
philosophy " radical empiricism," meaning thereby that what-
ever is real for us must enter in one form or another into our
experience, and whatever enters into um experience — whether
" things " or " relations " — must be taken as real/ Similarly,
Richard Avenarius has formulated the philosophic ideal or
principle of pure experience, i.e., that all interpretation of ex-
perience should be in terms of experience itself and not of non-
experiential hypothesis.^ Lastly, Shadworth Hodgson, a
philosopher whose work may be said to be the culmination of the
English or British tradition of experiential philosophy, and whose
method of thinking is not less exact and thorough-going than
that of the most patient scientist — a distinguished French savant
has said of his philosophical writing that it is so clear that we
can see him thinking — has given an analysis O'f experience in its
general nature'^ which is thoroughly in keeping with the stand-
point of scientific investigation, while dififerentiating this from
the distinctive attitude of philosophy. It is not my intention
to state even in outline such a " general analysis " of experience
■ — I have tried to do so elsewhere.* But I want to try to indicate
the standpoint of philosophy in relation to science. First of
all, however, I may perhaps be allowed briefly to illustrate what
is meant bv getting experience interpreted in terms of experience
itself, by reference to a question which happens to be a familiar
one to mvself, namely, that of the relation between body and
mind.\

From the general standpoint of science the body is simply
a portion of the material world, subject to its laws of cause
and effect, and itself the cause or " real condition " of the
appearance of mind. But however true this may be from the
point of view of the ascertainment of the general or objective
conditions of our experience, ])hilosophy insists that unless these
conditions can themselves be expressed in terms of experience,
we have still got an inadequate conception of the nature of body
and its relation to mind. If we ask what is the distinction in

^Essays in Radical Eiiifricism, p. 42 aiui fassini : The Mcoiiini^ of
Truth. Preface, pp. xii-xiii.

'Philosophic ah Denken der Welt genidss dent Priiizip des kleinsten
Kraftmasscs: Prolegomena su einer Kritik der reinen Rrfahrung, §§ 51 ff.,
y\ ff.

"The Metap:iv.uc of Experience, bk. i, ch. ii. etc.

* English Philosophy: A Study - / its Method and Gencr.'l Dei<clop-
ment, ch. i.x.

'Cy. my "Note'' on the subject in last year's Journal — Rcpt. S.A. Ass.
for Adv. of Sc: Stellenbosch (1917). 249.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION F. 1 23

actual experience between consciousness and its conditions, we
find that it is that between attention or concentration of effort
or individual interest and initiative on the one hand, and haibit
or mechanized tendency on the other hand. We have no right
to say, from the point of view of pure, i.e., immediate or concrete
experience, that mind is one thing and body another, that either
is more real or ultimately more causal than the other, or that
either could exist apart from the other. What we are entitled
to say is that our individual experience discloses to psychological
analysis the two poles or phases of habit and effort, automatism
and spontaneity. In other words, in actual experience there is,
on the one hand, the concentrated feeling or selective awareness
of things which we call consciousness, and which is the individual
being itse'if in the act of apprehending the circumstances or
environment to which its life has to be adapted at the present
juncture or with regard to its determinate behaviour ; and there
is, on the other hand, the mechanism of organized habit and
potentiality which we call the body, and which in its actual con-
crete character and constitution is the condition and at the same
time the instrument of the present manifestation of mind, and
develops further potentialities through every activity or
actualization of consciousness. Thus the body is just
the mechanism or organization of habits, tendencies, aptitudes.
avenues of impression and lines of action, which condition the
progressive or developing manifestation of consciousness, and
which is itselif continuously developed with the fuller realization
of individual activity. Body is habit or mechanism, conscious-
ness is attention or direction of effort. Such a conception enables
us, without in the least contradicting anything implied in the
detailed investigations of physics and ])hysiology, to unite in some
measure the results of science with the concrete facts of im-
mediate experience and the actual life of the individual, which
philosophy aims at interpreting. The working out of the implica-
tions of this conception may involve an ultimate reinterpretation
of the nature of what we are accustomed to call the material
v/orld ; but it is quite in keeping with the general attitude of
science, namely, that matter is known essentially as limiting or
conditioning the manifestation of mind.

What present-day philosophy is bent upon, then, is the
endeavour to interpret experience in its concrete character — to
get a way of stating things which shall show what they are for
our actual concrete experience. Through this lies the way to
the union of philosophy and science.

At the same time that philosophy is becoming more ex-
periential and therefore more scientific, science is becoming more
critical of its own procedure and import, and therefore more
philosophical. It is being more and more recognized that scientific
conceptions and principles, however well established by the most
thorough methods, are not direct statements of the nature of
reality or experience, but hypotheses that have approved them-

124 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION F.

selves as the best ascertained means of predicting or anticipating
experiences. A scientific law is a statement of condition and
consequence, or of the correlation of phenomena, such as enables
us to act or to get results in accordance with its formula, but
which cannot on that account claim to state in any definite way
the real nature of the things concerned. The efficiency of such
laws, as instruments of control, shows them to be partial expres-
sions of the nature of things, or to be not inconsistent with
reality, but they are one and all sym^bols or indices rather than
actual characterizations of reality. Similarly, it is being recog-
nized that each special science deals only with an abstract aspect
of things — an aspect " abstracted out of the full comprehensive-
ness of reality " ; and that, while the principles and laws of the
more abstract and general sciences are applicable in partial ex-
planation of more concrete spheres of experience, so that different
inquiries tend more and more in part to coincide and to inter-
penetrate each other, each science has nevertheless its own dis-
tinctive problems and concepts, its own plane of reality to
investigate — matter, life, consciousness, etc. — and that the dif-
ferences or peculiar nature of each sphere, though more or less
interpretable in terms of others, can in its essential character
be apprehended only 'by way of immediate acquaintance or actual
experience.

This critical attitude towards the fundamental conceptions
and procedure of science is prominent in the w'ritings of such
thinkers as W. K. Clififord, Ernst Mach, Henri Poincare, and
Karl Pearson ; and amid much that is toO' special and detailed
for the mere philosopher adequately to follow, much less to esti-
mate, there is a general trend of thought that connects interest-
ingly and significantly with the problems and the standpoint of
contemporary philosophy. A brief statement of some of their
main theses will make the position clearer.

Clifl:ord emphasizes that scientific thought is essentially the
application of past experience to new circumstances by means
of an observed order of events, and that its chief business, there-
fore, is to be the guide of action. Whatever be the particular
subject-matter of our knowledge, the character that makes it
scientific is that it enables us to act upon it with security and
confidence, to regulate our behaviour in accordance with this
knowledge.^

Mach shows that the (function of science is to give a descrip-
tion of the facts of experience in the most concise and compre-
hensive way, with the utmost economy of thought. By ascer-
taining the modes of the interdependence or interconnexion of
the several elements or aspects of experience, and by express-
ing these correlations in ever more general statements or
formulae, science is able increasingly to anticipate and thereby
to save or economize experience.^

^Lectures and Essays, "The Aims and Instruments of Scientific
Thought."

''Science of Mechanics, especially Introduction and ch. iv., sect. iv.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION F. I25

Poincare affirms that all the fundamental principles of
science, including- even mathematical axioms and postulates, are
hypotheses suggested by experience and therefore not arbitrary,
but conventional in the sense of being not the only possible bases
for theoretical constructions, and giving certainty only within
the limits implied in their acceptance in preference to others.
They have an intuitive or experiential along with a conceptual
or constructive character, and their fertility proves them to be
in keeping with reality, but they have no justifiable claim to
finality.*

Karl Pearson contends, as against the tendency even of first-
rank scientists to objectify their definitions and conceptions, that
scientific notions express ideal limits to processes which begin
from sense-perception, but can never be carried to a limit in
actual experience. To take the very simplest case — " The fly-
leaf of this book," he says in his "Grammar of Science," "appears
at first sight a plane surface bounded by a straight line, but a
very slight inspection with a magnifying lens shows that the
surface has hollows and elevations in it, which quite defy all
geometrical definition and scientific treatment. The straight
line which seems to bound its edge becomes, under a powerful
glass, so torn and jagged that its ups and downs are more like a
saw-edge than a straight line." Similarly, the idea of distance,
as the length from one point to another, is a conception reached
as a limit to perceptual experience. So it is with all scientific
concepts. They are ideal symbols by which we describe, classify,
and formulate the characters or elements of immediate or per-
ceptual experience, and their validity lies in their power of
resuming past and predicting future experience. But what we
get in this way is not — at any rate, not directly — anything beyond
perception, anything underlying phenomena, such as matter in
motion or absolute space and time, nor anything that has actuality
in the phenomenal world, but a conceptual representation of ex-
perience, a means of describing the order of our sense-perceptions
or interpreting the perceptual changes which are the actual facts
of experience.'-*

Along with this criticism of ifundamental conceptions and
postulates in the work of the philosophical scientists there goes
as its correlate the recognition that the justification of scientific
concepts at the bar of philosophic doubt must consist in their
derivation from the facts or data of immediate or sense ex-
perience. This is the reverse of what has been the customary
or traditional attitude, though its truth may have been recognized
or even enforced by the greatest scier!.tific thinkers. For example.
Newton's general standpoint is not inconsistent with it ; and it
seems to have been a recurrent thought of, among others. Clerk
Maxwell. But the ordinary attitude is dififerent. It is con-
stantly assumed not only that well-established scientific laws and

^Science and Hypothesis, e.g., pp. xxiii, 70-1, Tio.
* Grammar of Science, pp. 197-9, 266-7, 287-8, etc.

126 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

principles are beyond question, and that scientific concepts, as
such, are the most certain and indubitable, but that reality and
the only reality consists in the things or entities which form the
general subject-matter of science. From this point of view what
is most real in the universe is such things as matter, molecules,
atoms, electrons, ether, whereas feelings, sensations, thoughts,
volitions are unreal or relatively unreal — they are only our
awareness or consciousness of reality. But from the philoso-
phical standpoint consciousness or actual individual experience
is the indubitable reality. Accordingly, if Dhilosophy and science
are ever to be brought together, some wav must be found of
interpreting consciousness or the conditions of consciousness and
the matter and so forth of the scientist in terms of each other
oi in their essential relations to each other. As Ber-
trand Russell says, " Men of science, for the most part,
are willing to condemn immediate data as ' merely sub-
jective,' while yet maintaining the truth of the physics
inferred from those data. But such an attitude, though
it may be capable of justification, obviously stands in need
of it ; and the only justification possible must be one which ex-
presses matter as a logical construction from sense-data. "^° And
again : " //; so far as science is verifiable, it must be capable of
interpretation in terms of actual sense-data alone. The reason
for this is simple. Verification consists always in the occurrence
of an expected sense-datum. Now if an expected sense-datum
constitutes a verification, what was asserted must have been
about sense-data; or, at any rate, if part of what was asserted
was not about sense-data, then only the other part has been veri-
fied.""

Now philosophy consists distinctively in the effort to begin,
in all inquiry, irom our actual or concrete experience. What
is most real, or at least most indubitable, for us is our immediate
experience — our sense-impressions and feelings, along with the
impulses or efforts which are their active expressions. Exper-
ience is always objective as well as subjective — awareness of a
content or object as well as a subjective or conscious process;
and the facts of experience, which form the basis equally of
philoso])hy and science, have throughout this double character.
What philosophy demands is that they be taken in this concrete
character and not turned into objects with no subjective aspect,
as though they could be anything in or for experience at all
apart from our awareness of them. Any abstraction or con-
struction from them must be so regarded as not to imply that
the things so reached are of a nature entirely different from the
data themselves. In other words, they must be actual or possible
contents of experience, continuous in their existence and nature
with the sense-perceptions which they are invoked to explain.

The need of explanation, i.e., of connexion or correlation.

11

Our Knowledge of the E.vternal World, p. loi.
P. 8i. Cf. Pearson, op. cit., pp. 53-4, 66-7.

PRESIDENTIAL ADliRl':.SS — SKCTK'M I'. 127

spring^s from an intrinsic feature of immediate experience,
namely, its endless variety and particularity, and the correspond-
ing complexity of its conditions. The sense-impressions of each
indixidual are in all cases and at all times different from those of
every other. Even when we are looking- at the same thing, for
example, the sight sensations of each of us are diff'erent. The
appearances of things differ with our point of view, with our
bodily organization and mental outfit, with the sensitiveness of
our sense-organs, etc. A thing is seen as of a different colour
according as it is reflected on the centre or the margin of the
retina, with the light in which it is seen, the state of the atmos-
phere, etc. A note in a chord sounds differently than when heard
alone ; and so on endlessly. Moreover, the s])ace sensations of
sight, of touch, and of hearing, even of the same individual at
the same time, are different spaces. So it is with the time sensa-
tions of each of us. But habitual exijerience leads us to co-
ordinate these different spaces and times, and through mutual
action and response we come to interpret the conditions of our
sense-impressions as consisting of a world that is common to
all of us and as lying in the relations between the things that
constitute this common world. It is here that science takes
its rise.

In order to describe the relations between things in a way
that is independent of any particular kind of sense-impression
or the sense-impressions of any particular individual, science
abstracts from all such diff'erences. and seeks to state in general
terms — " in a neutral universal fashion " — the nature of the
reality determining our experiences. Starting from the funda-
mental experience of change of sense-impression, along Avith
that of the togetherness or grouping of impressions — that is,
from experiences of time and space — science interprets the con-
ditions of changes in our sense-impressions as consisting in
changes of position, i.e., motion in things. For science, there-
fore, the various characters of our sense-impressions — the
several sense-qualities — are our mode of apprehending changes
o^f position or motions on the part of things or the elements of
things. Colours, sounds, pressures, odours, temperatures, etc.,
are our way of appreciating such changes according to their kind
or degree. For the purpose of stating the conditions of ex-
perience, i.e., of saying precisely what conditions will have such
or such consequences in the way of experience, science resolves
these into configurations of molecules, motions of ether, wave-
forms, or the like ; duration into a single onward-flowing time ;
and extension into a vast space in which things exist and events
or changes in things occur. But as experienced colour is visual
sensation, sound is auditory sensation, extension, shape, size,
position, even motion itself, consist in modes or relations of
tactual, visual, and muscular sensations. Similarly, such con-
ceptions as force, resistance, weight, body, are one and all, in
the first instance, actual sensations or sets of sensations. Force,
for example, definable as any condition or determinant of motion,

G

128 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION F.

is actually known to us only in our own sensations of pressure
and effort. Again, " a body is a relatively constant sum of
touch and sight sensations associated with the same space and
time sensations."

But, while the origin of scientific concepts is to be found in
sense-impressions, the ideas directly expressing sense-impressions
lack the definiteness and precision required for scientific pur-
poses. Science proceeds by accurate measurement. Measure-
ment is in some degree possible by sense-'impression itself. Thus
the mere succession of sensations, and especially their character
and variety, give us a certain estimate of the lajise of time ; our
muscular sense gives us a rough estimate of weight or of the
intensity of any pressure or force. But, although such immediate
feelings of change, effort, etc., constitute our actual individual
experience of things, they are useless as objective standards of
measurement. They are incapable of defining relations as obtain-
ing between things belonging to a common world. They must
accordingly be expressed in terms suitable to exact inquiry.
Poincare says on this point : " We do not require a definition of
force; the idea of force is primitive; irreducible, indefinable;
we all know what is is ; of it we have direct intuition. This direct
intuition arises from the idea of effort which is familiar to us
from childhood." But " this immediate notion of eft'ort is of no
use to us in the measurement of force." " The important thing
is not to know what force is, but how to measure it. Everything
which does not teach us how to measure it is as useless to^ the
mechanician as, for instance, the subjective idea of heat and
cold is to the student of heat. This subjective idea cannot be
translated into numbers, and is therefore useless ; a scientist
whose skin is an absolutely bad conductor of heat, and who,
therefore, has never felt the sensation of heat or cold, would
read a thermometer in just the same way as anyone else, and
would have enough material to construct the whole of the theory
of heat."^- Mach puts this in almost identical terms : " The cir-
cumstances determinative of motion that are best known to us
are our own volitional acts — our innervations. In the motions
wdiich we ourselves determine, as well as in those to which we are
forced by external circumstances, we are always sensible of a
pressure. Thence arises our habit of representing all circum-
stances determinative of motion as something akin to volitional
acts — as pressures. . . . We are able, in a great many cases,
to replace the circumstances determinative of motion, wdiich occur
in nature, by our innervations, and thus to reach the idea of a
gradation of the intensity of forces. But in the estimation o'f
this intensity we are thrown entirely on the resources of our
memory, and we are also unable to communicate our sensations.
Since it is possible, however, to represent ez.'ery condition that
determines motion by a weight, we arrive at the perception that
all circumstances determinative of motion (all (forces) are alike

"Science and Hypothesis, pp. 105-6.

i'KKSlDKN'IIAl. AODRKSS — SliCTlON F. I 29

in character and may be replaced and measured by quantities
that stand for weight. The measurable weight serves us, as a
certain, convenient, and communicable index, in mechanical re-
searches, just as the thermometer in thermal researches is an
exacter substitute for our perceptions of heat."^^

Herein, then, lie the origin and significance of scientific
units and standards of measurement. As is well known, these
took their particular form, in the first instance, from facts of
habitual experience — the foot, the forearm, the heart-beat, the
bow-shot, the day's journey, etc. But the philosophical signifi-
cance cif this lies in the truth that only in our sense-impressions
have we direct experience of reality — the reality which science
aims at interpreting — and that scientific concepts therefore are
and must be to the end transcripts of sense-impression. In
pursuance of its effort to> interpret reality in the most concise
and comprehensive terms, science advances to ever-wider
generalizations of experience and the statement of laws of co-exis-
tence and sequence in more and more general formulae, until the
symbols it uses seem far away from, and to have little reference
to, the experiences from which they took their rise. By means
of such symbols or conceptual constructions it is able to form
a working thought-model of the universe by which to express,
as simply and completely as possible, the conditions of experience.
But its concepts remain descriptive formulae for phenomenal
occurrences or changes, i.e., ifor the order and connexion of our
sense-perceptions.

Accordingly, the road of advance — the way to union of the
philosophical and the scientific standpoints — lies in the further
analysis of sense-impressions, or, more generally, further elucida-
tion of the nature of immediate experience, and the more precise
and systematic derivation from these of the conceptions by which
it is sought to explain experience. The realization of this is to-
day common standing-ground to the experiential philosophers
and the philosophical scientists. It is the explicit attitude of the
philosophers whose conception of philosophical method I have
cited ; and it finds equal expression in the insistence on the part
of scientists when they incjuire into the foundations of science,
of the need of justifying scientific concepts by derivation from
sense-impression, and in their tentative suggestions in this direc-
tion. The chief example is Mach's Analysis of the Seusatwns,
with its concluding chapter on the influence of this investiga-
tion on the mode of conceiving physics. But there are also sug-
gestions in Poincare's Science and Hypothesis, in Ostwald's
Natural Philosophy, and in Bertrand Russell's Our Khok:-
ledge of the External World. Russell shows how some of the
main conceptions of science, such as the indestructibility of matter
or things, and a single time and space, might be stated in terms
of sense-data. He defines a thing as a certain series of aspects
or sensible appearances related to one another by continuity and

^^ Science of Mechanics, pp. 84-5.

I30 ]'KESlDliNTlAL ADDRKSS SECTION F.

causal connexion, which is ])recisely the sort of definition which
modern philosophy in general tends to give, and he indicates
how points and instants may be defined in a similar way." What
this implies is that there is no inconsistency but rather reciprocity
between the philosophical or psychological account of the actual
nature of sense-experience, so long as it is not combined with
uncritical assumptions, and the mathematical treatment of the
very same experience in terms of particles, points, and instants,
in spite of the non-existence of such entities; and that their
definition in terms of actual experience, i.e., as logical functions
of sense-data, is what is required to ])r()ve their applicability to
reality as a thorough-going exi^eriential i)hilosophy must con-
ceive it.

Tn a similar strain Russell's collaborator, Whitehead, in bis
little " Introduction to Mathematics," seeks to relate the funda-
mental ideas of mathematics to individual sense-experience. For
example, wdien dealing with co-ordinate geometry and speaking
of the origin O and the two axes OX, OY. he says : " From an
abstract mathematical point of view the idea of an arbitrary
origin may appear artificial and clumsy, and similarly for the
arbitrarily drawn axes. But in relation to the application of
matbematics to the events of the universe we are here symbolizing
with direct simplicity the most fundamental fact respecting the
outlook on the world afl^orded to us b}- our senses. We each of
us refer our sen>ible ])erce])tions of things to an origin which
we call " here "" : our location in a particular part of .space round
which we group the whole universe is the essential fact of our
])odily existence. We can imagine beings who observe all
phenomena in all space with an e(jual eye, unbiassed in favour
of any part. With us it is otherwise, a cat at our feet claims
more attention than an earthquake at Cape Horn, or than the
destruction of a world in the Milky Way. It is true that in
making a common stock of our knowledge with our fellowmen,
we have to waive something of the strict egoism of our own
individual ' here.' We substitute ' nearly here ' for ' here " ;
thus we measure miles from the town hall o:f the nearest town,
or from the capital of the country. In measuring the earth,
men of science will put the origin at the earth's centre; astrono-
mers even rise to the extreme altruism of putting their origin
inside the sun. But, far as this last origin may be, and even if
we go further to some convenient point amid the nearer fixed
stars, yet, compared to the immeasurable infinities of space, it
remains true that our first i)rocedure in ex])loring the universe
is to fix upon an origin ' nearly here." "'''

" O/' cif., lect. iv; cf. Poincare, pp. S5-7.

"A. X. Whitehead: " Iiitrodvctiuii to Matliciihitu\< ft-. ^^5-6. Com-
pare with this the reflexion characteristic of the ideas advanced hj' Clerk
Maxwell, which have hecomc familiar ones today, viz., that "a line is
not originally a mark on the hlackboard, whicli can equally he called BA as
AB, hut is the locus of a motion from A to B." Quoted from lloffding,
Modern Philosophers, p. iti.

i'KIiSIDliNTlAl. ADDKIuSS SECTION V. l^l

The significance of this conception is that "point" funda-
mentally means " here " ; " line " means '* from here " ; " instant ''
means " now " ; " unit/' " particle," or " thing " means " this " —
all of which imply the standpoint of the individual percipient
with his actual j^resent experience. Science is all derivative
from this, instead of this heing in any ultimate view an accident
or incident in the real world. Absolute or conceptual space and
time are constructions from the relative spaces and times oif
individual perceptual experience, i.e., fundamentally from visual,
tactual, and muscular sensations. Similarly, the i)rinciple of
continuity is formed from the experiential fact of differences
in the degree of dixersit}' Avith increase or decrease in the num-
ber of terms in a series of perceptible things or phenomenal
changes, the idea of absolute continuity being reached by regard-
ing the number of terms as inhnite. The principle of relativity
— that all phenomena are relative to the percipient or observer —
is a general and far-reaching expression of this same i)oint. In
general, science treats of ideal cases which are constructed by
abstraction from actual experience. To the laws of such ideal
cases experience approximates in proportion as it is less complex
and varied. But it is immediate concrete experience that gives
us direct apprehension of reality, our particular and individual
apprehensions of which it is the function of the indirect or
scientific conception to unify or correlate. Philosophy expresses
this fundamental truth in such principles as : " A thing is an ex-
perience that has been repeated." " A unit is an act of discrimi-
nation." " The root-idea of distance is fatigue." " The first
psychological meaning of object is oibstacle." All of these have
the same general import, namely, that things are fundamentally
inter])retable only in terms of actual individual experience.

The position, then, is this. The entities of scientific thought
are not reality. They are constructions devised to give a con-
ceptual representation of reality. Their purpose is to tran-
scribe perceptual experience in such a way as to enable us to
know as fully, exactly, and rajjidly as possible what to expect
under determinate conditions, "J'he criterion of this jjrocedurc
■ — the test of scientific constructions — is. on the one hand, their
own self-consistency, and, on the other hand, their applicability.
It is only by keeping to experiential terms or logical and veri-
fiable derivatives from these that science is able confidently and
successfully to anticipate or predict experiences. Scientific con-
cepts, therefore, are valid or have objective truth, not through
being direct statements of the nature of reality, but through
systematizing the facts of actual experience and j^redicting
resvdts that are afterwards verified by experience. It is in this
sense that science is able to " exi)lain " experience, namely, by
relating sense-im])ressions or other experiences to their conditions
in the common or objective world. That it accomplishes this
shows that its symbols or counters are trustworthy indices of
reality, that they " correspond " to realit\-. though they cannot
claim definitively to express reality.

1^2 PRESIDENTIAL ADbRESS^SECTION F.

Now philosophy has Hkewise no just claim to any full or
final expression of the nature of things. It is as worthless apart
from the detailed inquiries of science as science is apart from
the efifort of philosophy to unify — or (in Plato's phrase) to " see
things together " as one whole. But what it insists upon is that,
since immediate experience is our point of contact with reality,
the suggestions that arise from it are, equally with the construc-
tions of science, indispensable clues to the nature of things.
That interpretative concepts originate, and must he logically
derived, 'from immediate experience implies that any actuality
so reached must still be of the same general nature as this. But
this is just what philosophy says when it contends that reality
must be continuous with our experience. Whatever its ultimate
character or content, i.e., whatever it would be to experience
ultimate reality, it cannot be of a nature wholly different from
conscious experience— ^of which consciousness is only the aware-
ness. It is actualized for us only in our experience, and any
further actualization of it can only consist in further modes of
experience. Matter is a limiting conception. It represents the
material or stuff or substance or, better still, the nature of reality,
and therefore the unknown as conditioning our experience. But
the reality, though unknown in its character and content, must
be thought of as realizable in further or fuller experience. Thus
conceptual constructions as symbols of reality have a meaning
only as instruments — somewhat analogous in this respect to such
instruments as the telescope and microscope — which make pos-
sible the realization or the development of further modes of
immediate experience.^" In other words, reality is actually
realised for us only in experience, and can therefore be finally
interpreted only in terms of experience and as being continuous
with experience. Philosophy expresses this by saying that all
reality must be somehow akin to what we know as consciousness.

Philosophy, then, is not being false to the experiential
method, l)ut only Ijeing radical or thorough-going in the concep-
tion and use of this method, when it suggests that not only can
reality be known only by way of experience, but it can ultimately
consist in nothing but ex])erience. This ]>rinciple signifies that
reality or existence is meaningless apart from some kind or
degree of consciousness as its correlate, just as consciousness is
meaningless apart from something or another of which it is the
awareness. It implies, further, that the real meaning of the
economy of knowledge is that the function of knowledge, as the
guide of action, is to lead through action to further experience,
or that knowledge and action upon it — knowledge as enlightening

" Compare on this point Clifford's allegorically-expressed speculation
to the effect that " as the ph3sical senses have heen gradually developed
out of confused and uncertain impressions, so a set of intellectual senses
or iiisi^i^ltts are still in course of development, the operation of which may
ultimately be expected to be as certain and immediate as our ordinary
sense-perceptions.'' — Quoted from Sir F. Pollock's liiographical sketch
prefixed to the Lectures and Essays, where the allegory is instanced.

TKESIDKNTIAL ADDRICSS SKCTIOX V. 1 33

action and action as applying knowledge — are the inseparable
factors in the development of concrete experience itself. Lastly,
this principle means that the ultimate nature or reality of what
we are wont to call things must be analogous to what we know
in ourselves as experience. ]^Jore generally, everything that is
real must have some kind of inner hfe of its own. I shall con-
clude with a word or two on this last point.

If it is asked what there is in our actual experience to sug-
gest this conception, the answer is that, in a true analysis of
experience, things are known to us not merely as facts of which
we may l)ecome aware, but as entities of which we have to take
account in our practical life, and therefore as related to our
efforts and purposes. When we regard things in this way,
we find it impossible to think of them only as objects of know-
ledge, and not in some degree as subjects or centres of experience.
Things respond in different ways to different modes of treat-
ment on our part, and they exhihit differences oif quality through
adaptation or facilitation. They have their own ways and habits
and tendencies, their own attitude or point of view, their owai
conatus in suo esse perseverarc, as Spinoza put it. There is a
passage in F. C. S. Schiller's " Studies in Humanism "' ^' that ex-
presses this point in a quaint but suggestive way : " A stone, no
doubt, does not apprehend us as spiritual beings, and to preach
to it would be as fruitless (though not as dangerous) as preach-
ing to deaf ears. But does this amount to saying that it does
not apprehend us at all, anfl takes no note whatever of our
existence ? Not at all ; it is aware of us and affected by us on
the plane on which its own existence is passed, and quite capable
of making us effectively aware of its existence in our transactions
with it. The " common world " shared by us and the stone is
not, perhaps, on the level o:f ultimate reality. It is only a phy-
sical world of " bodies," and " awareness " in it can apparently
be shown only by being hard and hea\y and coloured and space-
filling, and so forth. And all these things the stone is, and
recognises in other " bodies." It faithfully exercises all the
physical functions, and influences us by sO' doing. It gravitates
and resists pressure, and obstructs ether vibrations, etc., and
makes itself respected as such a body. And it treats us as of a
like nature with itself, on the level of its understanding, i.e., as
bodies, to which it is attracted inversely as the square of the
distance, moderately hard, and capable of being hit. That we
may also be hurt it does not know or care. But in the kind of
cognitive operation Avhich interests it, viz., that which issues in
a physical manipulation of the stone, e.g., its use in house-
building, it ])lays its part and responds according to the measure
of its capacity."

Philosophy stands, therefore, for the recognition of the
suggestions or indications as to the nature of things which spring
from immediate experience — not only (from sense-impressions,

"P. 442 ~~ "

134 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRl'.SS SiaXloN F.

but from feelings, impulses, aspirations, instinctive or intuitive
awarenesses of any kind. A cautious philosophy, like a cautious
science, will not make confident assertions that go beyond the
limits of probable knowledge. 'But philosophy cannot admit that
the unknown reality must remain unknown. And the function
and justification of philosophy lie in the fact that without its
speculative ventures into the unknown, which are of the very
same nature as scientific hypotheses, although vaster and further-
reaching, knowledge could not advance for lack of inspiration
and impetus. It is in this spirit that a genuine philosophy of
experience suggests — as a hypothesis that arises from reflection
on the nature of our experience and from the inspirations of life
itself — that matter may, after all, be only mind in disguise, or
that what we call things must have an inner nature or being-
for-self which is not wholly different from our own. It is t'he
same feeling of our oneness with nature that leads science to
seek to reduce mind to terms of matter and philosophy to reduce
matter to terms of mind. It is only the double tendency, and
the gradual approach of the two through open-minded sugges-
tion and verification, that can lead to further truth. " We shall
then discover," says Mach, " that our hunger is not so essentially
different from the tendency of sulphuric acid for zinc, and our
will not so greatly different from the pressure of a stone, as now
appears " ;^* or as philosophy puts it from the other side, that
"if ' atoms ' and ' electrons ' are more than counters of phy-
sical calculation, they, too, know us, after their fashion. Not
as human beings, o!f course, but as whirling mazes of atoms and
electrons like themselves, which somehow preserve the same
general patterns of their dance, influencing them and reciprocally
influenced."'^-' Such conceptions, in ovu* present state of know-
ledge, seem unreal. But they are finger-posts on the way to
truth. At all events, they are better than the attitude expressed
(whichever way we take it) in the old saw:

" What is mind ? No matter.
What is matter? Never mind."

^^ Science of Media iiics. p. 464.
"• .Schiller. /(;<•. cit.

LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL

MEETINGS.

Section A. — Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Meteor-
ology, Geodesy, Surveying, Engineering, Architec-
ture, AND Irrigation.

MONDAY, JULY 8.

1. Address by Prof. J. T. Mokkison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E., President of

tlie Section.

WEDNESDAY, JULY la

2. Safety in winding operations : J. A. Vaughan, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.

3. A new type of accurate sundial or solar clock : J. Moik, M.A., D.Sc,

F.I.C.

4. A rapid approximate method of calculating the occultation of stars

by the moon (for the Central Transvaal) : J. MoiR, M.A., D.Sc,
F.I.C.

THURSDAY. JULY n.

5. The desiccation of Africa : the cause and the remedy : Prof. E. H. L.

ScHWARz, A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

Section B. — Chemistry, Geology, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
AND Geography.

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

1. Address by P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., B.Sc, President of the Section.

2. The medicinal springs of South Africa — Supplement I : Prof. M. M.

RiNDL, Ing. D.

3. On the persistence of arsenite of soda in the soil : C. W. Mally, M.Sc,

F.L.S.. F.E.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 10.

4. Note on the occurrence of a peculiar phosphate of aluminium in a

deposit of bat guano : B. de C. Maechand, B.A., D.Sc.

5. The determination of phosphoric oxide ; particularly in fertilisers,

soil extracts, and the like : B. ue C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc.

6. Wasted South African resources : coal and its by-products : A. Kloot,

B.Sc. A.I.C.

THURSDAY, JULY 11.

7. Some experiments on the fate of arsenic in the animal body:

H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S., and C. D. Dykman, M.A.

8. The behaviour of bacteria towards arsenic: H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S.,

and N. H. Kestell, B.A.

Section C. — Botany, Bacteriology, Agriculture, and Fores-
Try

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

1. Some experiments in the rudimentary teaching of Botany: Rev. F. C.

KoLBE, B.A., D,D.

2. Some notes on a collecting trip to French Hoek: E. P. Phillips,

M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S.

136 LIST OF PAPERS READ AT SECTIONAL MEETINGS.

3. A note on the flora of the Great Winterhoek Range : E. P. Phillips,

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

4. A note on the pollination of Cyanella capensis, L. : E. P. Phillips,

M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 10.

5. Address by C. E. Legat, B.Sc, President of the Section.

6. Some photographic illustrations of South African vegetation : I. B.

Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

7. The diagnostic characters of some superficial fungi : Miss E. M. Doiuci:,

M.A.. D.Sc, F.L.S.

8. Notes on the genus Balansia: Miss A. M. King, B.A.

9. Additions and corrections to the recorded flora of the Transvaal and

Swaziland. II: J. Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

10. Walnut bacteriosis : Bacterium Juglandis Pierce : Miss E. M. Doidge,

M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S.

11. The bacterial blight of beans: Bacterium phaseoU Erw. Sm. : Miss

E. M. Doidge. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

12. A preliminary investigation into a disease attacking young Cupressus

plants : Miss A. M. Bottomley, B.A.

13. Notes on the morphology and life history of Uromyces Aloes Cooke:

V. A. Putterill, B.A.

14. Some preliminary observations on unseasonable veld-burning; and its

possible relation to some stock diseases : A. O. D. Mogg, B.A.

15. The pepper-tree (Schinus molle) in its relation to epidemic hay fever:

Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D.

Section D. — Zoology, Physiology, Hygiene, and Sanitary
Science.

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

1. Problems of degeneration as represented by the ostrich : Prof. J. E.

DuERUEN. M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

2. The pure-line hypothesis and the inheritance of small variations : Prof.

E. Warren, D.Sc.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 10.

3. The pineal body in the ostrich: Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D.,

A.R.C.S.

4. Charts, photographs, and reports of the Rand Mines Sanitation

Department: A. J. Orensiein, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

5. The moth fauna of Southern Rhodesia: A. J. T. Janse, F.E.S.

6. Note on the persistence of the right posterior cardinal vein in Xenopus

lecvis and its significance : R. J. Ortlepp, M.A.

7. Leucocytogregarines, and their occurrence in South Africa. Annie

Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.

8. Some parasitic protozoa found in South African fishes and amphibians :

Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S.

9. Intoxication by gastrophilous larvae: G. de Kock, M.R.C.V.S.

10. Some South African snails and the Cercarise which attack them : F. G.

Cawston, B.A.. M.D., B.C., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

11. Arc the Orthoptera and Neuroptera actual orders or conglomerations?

S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc

12. Are the Odonata of economic value? S. G. Rich, M.A., B.Sc. ^

13. On the eradication of venereal diseases : R. T. A. Innes, F.R.S.E.,

F.R.A.S.

14. Some features of the South African Odonata as a fauna: S. G. Rich.

M.A., B.Sc

tlSV OF PAPERS READ AT SECTIONAL MEETINGS. I37

THURSDAY. JULY II. ■ ..^^
55. Address bj' Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc, President of the Section.

FRIDAY. JULY 12.

36. Crossing the North African and South African ostrich: Prof. J. E.
DuERDEN, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

17. Drug treatment in Nuttalliosis of equines : G. de Kock, M.R.C.V.S.

38. Bovine contagious abortion in South Africa : E. M. RoBINso^f,
M.R.C.V.S.

iy. On certain changes in the external sex-characters of ostriches, occur-
ring: after removal of the reproductive glands; Sir A. Theiler,
K.C.M.G., D.Sc.. and D. Kehoe. M.R.C.V.S.

20. Discontinuous distribution in a few mammalian groups : T. F. Dreyer,
B.A., Ph.D,

\
Section E. — Anthropology, Ethnology, Native Education,
Philology, and Native Sociology.

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

1. The Natives of Natal in relation to the land: M. S. Evaxs, C.M.G.,

F.Z.S.

2. Native customs in relation to small-pox among the Ba-Ronga ; Rev-.

H, A. JuNoo.

3. The medicine-man in Natal and Zululand : Hon. Justice C. G. Jackson :

4. The Zulu witch-doctor and medicine-man: J. B. McCord, M.R.C.S.,

L.R.C.P.

5. Suggestions towards a better provision for the medical needs of the

Natives: C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

6. Suggestion for the education of public opinion on native affairs : M. S.

Evans, CM.G., F.Z.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 10.

7. The engraved rock of Loe, Bechuanaland Protectorate: Miss M.

WiLMAN.

8. Religious beliefs and superstitions of the Xosas : a study in philologv ;

J. McLaren, M.A.

9. Arts and crafts of the Xosas : a study based on philology : J. Mc-

Laren, M.A.

10. Some early geographers and explorers of Africa : Rev. W. A. Norton,

B.A., B.Litt.

11. Some unrealised factors in Native economic development: Rev. J. R. L.

KiNGON, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

12. Does it pay to educate the Native? Rev. A. E. Le Roy.

13. Social conditions of Natives on the Rand : Rev. W. F. Hiix, M.A.

THURSDAY JULY 11.

i-|. The killing of the Divine King in South Africa: Rev. S. S. Durnan.
M.A.. F.G.S.

15. The traditional history and customs' of the Makaranga (Varozwe) :

E. G. How man.

16. Who built the Rhodesian ruins? W. H. Tooke.

17. Cattle as a factor in South African race relationships: Rev. J. R. L.

KiNGON, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

18. The philology of the Native Language (Zulu and Xosa) : Rev. S. G. G.

AiTCHisoN, M.A., D.D.
ig. Place names of Africa, No. II : Rev. W. A. NokxoN. B.A., B.Litt.
20. The evolution of a Native administration ; Rev. J. R. L. Kingon.

M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

1^8 LIS'T OF PAPERS READ aT SEXTIO^AL MEETIN'GS. "

21. Central African folk-lore tales. Second Series : Rev. J. R. L. KiNGOif^

M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

22. Classification of Bantu place names: Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A..

F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

23. More Sesuto etymologies : Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

FRIDAY. JULY 12.

24. Address by Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt., President of the Section,

25. The Natives in the larger towns : J. S. Marwick.

26. Some engraved stones of the Lydenburg District (North-East Trans-

vaal) : the occurrence of cup-and-ring markings in South Africa:
Dr. C. Pyper.

27. Native child-life: Rev. S. G. G. Aitchison, M.A., D.D.

Section F. — Education^ History, Mental Science, Political
Economy, General Sociology, and Statistics.

TUESDAY, JULY 9.

t. Reconstitution of the Union Senate : R. T. A. Innes, F.R.S.E.,.
F.R.A.S.

2. Decimal coinage: Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D.

3. Epic poetry in French literature : Prof. R. D. Nauta.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 10.

4. Economic Natural History, and why it should be taught in schools ;

F. W. FiTzSiMONS, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.

5. Purpose in education: H. C. Reeve, M.A.

6. The ethical principle of equity : Rev. S. R. Welch, B.A., D.D., Ph.D.

FRIDAY. JULY 12.

7. Address by Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil., President of the

Section.

8. Health problems in country districts, Transvaal and Orange Free

State: Jane B. H. Ruthven, M.D.. L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E.,
L.R.F.P.S., F.R.S.A.
0. Vicarious parenthood: a war suggestion: Mrs. F. McLaren.

10. Philological method of teaching classical declensions and conjuga-

tions : Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

SATURDAY, JULY 13.

11. War and the value of money: Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S,S,

12. The kap-tent wagon : J. Y. Gibson,

139

THE PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF AFRICA
THE CAUSE AND THE REMEDY.

By E. H. L. SCHWARZ, A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

(With eight text figures.)

That Africa is drying up is a fact that is as apparent in
the north as in the south of the continent. In the north within
the historic period there was a vast population living where
now the desert sand drives over the land. In the south the
forefathers of the present generation have left records of
forests, lakes and running rivers where to-day there are
practically desert — or at least Karroo — conditions. The two
great central reservoirs, Lake Chad for North Africa and
Lake Ngami for South Africa, are the insignificant remnants
of vast sheets of water, the old terraces of which are still to
be seen like those of Lakes Lahontan and Bonneville, in
North America. Even within the short period during which
these regions have been visited by white men they have shrunk
very considerably. This drying up is due to the fact that
Africa stands at a great height above sea-level as a plateau,
with an elevated edge bordering the sea; this edge I shall
call the Coastal Rampart.* Inland, great rivers once
traversed the continent, yielding fertility to all the lands
adjoining, but the short coast streams, rising in the mountains
along the edge, having precipitous courses to the sea and
consequently great tearing or erosive power, have cut back
into the inland basin and have drawn off the waters. Then
the rain falling in the area of the inland plateau, instead of
collecting in rivers which flowed placidly through the continent
amid plains covered with luxuriant vegetation, was drawn off
in the rocky channels of the coast streams and was hurried to
the sea. This process is still going on and every year more
territory is gained by the coast streams at the expense of the
inland system. The study of the cause of the progressive
desiccation of Africa resolves itself, therefore, into a study of
the river svstem, which, as I shall show, consisted origfinally
of four main streams, three flowing from the centre northwards

* Livingstone, in his "' Missionary Travels." p. 474, describes how
on visiting Lake Dilolo on his return from St. Paul de Loando, he
came to regard Central Africa as an elevated trough, with a border
of mountain ranges. He was led awav from discovering the true
cause for the rivers being drawn away from this trough by a state-
ment bv Sir Roderick Murrhison. that the rents by which the rivers
escape have been suddenlv formed by volcanic upheavals. — President's
address, Royal Geographical Society, 1852,

-I40

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

and one from the centre southwards; these I have called the
PROTO-Niger, the PROTO-Congo and the ProtO-Nile for the
northern tract, and the ProtO-ORANGE for the southern. The
remedy for this distressing state of affairs is the revival of the
great inland sources of supply for the rainfall of the interior,
the re-flooding of Lakes Chad and Ngami. While the scheme
for Lake Chad involves too much expense for it to be advocated
at the present time, the case of Lake Ngami is quite different.
The rivers supplying Lake Ngami are actually now being
stolen by the head-streams of the coastal rivers, and a quite
moderate weir across the Cunene River would turn the whole

Fig. I. — Map of Africa.
tSiiowiNG THE Original C'orR,SF:s of the Prixoipal Uivers.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 141

of the water coming down from the Angola highlands in a
southern direction into Lake Ngami, instead of rushing
uselessly to the sea. A second barrage at the outlet of the
Ngami depression, where the Chobe River filters into the
Zambesi River, would prevent the waters escaping and would
fiood thousands of square miles in the Ngami and Makarikari
depressions. From the evaporation from these vast expanses
of water the air throughout South Africa would receive a
most notable increase in moisture and the humidity of the
continent would be permanently increased. The surface of
water exposed when these depressions were filled was greater
than that of Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika; one can judge,
therefore, what an immense loss to the humidity of the
continent has ensued since these have been drained. According
to Chapman, the Makarikari dried up about 1820, leaving vast
quantities of hippopotami, crocodiles and fish which lived in
the lake, to perish, when they were devoured by vultures.
Even in Chapman's time (1852-4) the Chobe occasionally
flowed towards Ngami. The proposed weir at Ngoma on the
Chobe would have to be, according to data hitherto published,
which, however, are very uncertain, not more than 10-12 feet
high. That is, taking Ngami to be 3,117 feet above sea-level
and Kasungula at the Chobe-Zambesi confluence 3,084 feet ;
between Ngoma and Kasungula there are the Sebuba Rapids
formed by a bar of hard rock which crosses both the Chobe
and the Zambesi.

THE AFRICAN RIVER SYSTEM.

If one glances at the map of Africa, one is at once struck
by the extraordinary courses of the rivers. The Niger rises m
the coastal mountains of the south-western corner of North
Africa, goes north-east to Timbuktoo as if about to run
through the desert, then turns right round and enters the sea
on the very coast on which it commenced its course. The
Congo, likewise, begins by running northwards, then turns a
complete semi-circle and pierces the rampart of mountains on
the west coast, instead of following the low ground up towards
Lake Chad. The Nile is again peculiar in its course, and the
Zambesi and Orange alone seem to run straight from source
to mouth like normal rivers of the Amazon or Mississippi type^
but these appearances are, as we shall see, deceptive.

The second noticeable feature in the African map is the
prevalance of deserts like the Sahara and the Kalahari. There
is a very widespread misconception of the nature of deserts;
the Sahara, for instance, is not a waste of drifting sand as is
often imagined, but has an Alpine range of mountains, the
Tibesti Highlands, in the centre, and on either side are tracts

142 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

which may be covered with drifting sand, the " Ergs," or
they may be just bare stony ground, the " Hammada," or,
again, they may be covered with pebbles, when they are called
" Serirs." The deserts are in actual fact seamed by great
water-courses or wadys; some of these, like the Igharghar,
north of Tasili, can be traced as gorges through the hills and
as deep river-beds in the flats, though no water now flows
down their channels, and in places sand dunes entirely
obliterate all traces of them. Prehistoric stone implements for
the grinding of corn are found all over the western Sahara,
and the ruins of cities of stone-built houses occur, as at
Taodeni, north of Timbuktoo, where settled life is no longer
possible. River fish of the barbel family are found in pools
in the Tasili plateau, far from any river now flowing. All
these facts go to prove that the deserts are of recent origin
and were at no very distant date fair portions of the earth's
surface inhabited by man. Paradoxically enough, the very
fact that the desert is over large tracts covered with drifting
sand is proof, according to Captain Courbis, of underground
moisture, which, by capillary attraction, rises through the sand
and binds the grains together; were there no ground moisture
the sand would all blow away as in the stony deserts or
hammada. For the same reasons Foureau considered the
Ergs, or areas of drifting sand, to be the broad basins of a
former river system.

The deserts and the peculiar courses of the rivers are
causally related, and we shall see evidence in the sequel to
show that the great African rivers originally ran through the
deserts, giving them the requisite moisture to make them
normal fertile regions, but that, owing to the diversion of these
rivers by others working backwards from the coast and
capturing the waters of the inland system, a large portion of
the continent has been bereft of its natural supply.

Before we begin the detailed evidence of the capture of
the several great rivers, there are a few fundamental facts to
be mentioned with regard to the topography of Africa, which
perhaps are not generally recognised, but which will help us
considerably in understanding this question of desiccation.

In the first place, Africa is divided into two halves, the
line of division being a great volcanic fissure commencing in
the Gulf of Guinea by the string of islands, Anobon, St.
Thomas, Price's Island and Fernando Po. Then inland, there
are the volcanic peaks of the Cameroons, Mt. Atlantica, south
of Yola, the Marra Hills in Darfur, and the volcanoes in the
Bayuda bend of the Nile, between Dongala and Khartoum.
The half of Africa north of this line lies for the most part
below 1,500 feet above sea-level and that south of this line
above 1,500 feet.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 1 43

On the east, from the Zambesi to Abyssinia, there is a
great stretch of very high ground traversed by rift-faults of
such recent date that they cut across and interrupt the rivers,
the courses of which had already been laid down. Here there
is a portion of the country to which the ordinary laws of
erosion and river development cannot be applied, and we must
leave this area out of consideration. Many of the lakes m
this area, indeed, have no outlet and all the drainage from
the country adjoining is absorbed in the basins lying in the
rift valleys. Lakes Tanganyika and Kivu have been tapped
by the Congo and Victoria, Albert, and Albert Edward
Nyanzas by the Nile. Lakes Rudolf and Stephanie are
drainless, and in the south. Lake Nyasa is drained by the
Shire. In Cape Colony, the volcanic lavas of the Drakensberg
have been thrown across the drainage from the main watershed
of the country and the upper courses have been turned and
the waters forced across this watershed as the Orange River.
The original lower courses of these rivers, the Bashee,
Umzimvubu, Umzimkulu and so on, run impetuously down
the steep slopes of the Drakensberg and straight to the sea.
So great is the velocity of the water flowing on such a steep
and so short an incline, that the erosion is very intense, and
these rivers on the coast side of the Drakensberg are eating
back into the mountains and are in reality trying to restore
the original water-parting. In Abyssina similar features are
exhibited ; the short coastal rivers are pitted against the inland
system, which, whether flowing into the Nile or Congo, have
to traverse the whole length and breadth of the continent, or
whether draining into basins without outlet, have far less
precipitous courses and consequently erode or wear down their
beds far less rapidly. In far future ages the original water-
parting will be restored, but the faulted mass is so broad that
at present we cannot recognise the plan as we can in the
Drakensberg. Africa is a great fault-block which has risen
recently, speaking in a geological sense, from the sea, much
as an iceberg rises when the top burden melts. The continent
of Africa is different entirely from the other continents, which
have as predominant features folded mountains. The folds,
contemporary with the African faults, form, as it were, two
concentric ripples round the fault block of Africa, the nearest
ripple being the Alps-Himalayan chain of folds of Europe
and Asia and the further ripple being the Aleutian Islands-
Rocky. Mountains-Andean chain of America. All the waters,
then, run from high tablelands, which, owing to the limited
time of exposure to the effects of river erosion, have not been
carved into the hills and valleys of the more familiar scenery
of Europe; the topography is said to be immature. The
rivers run in deep gorges separated by wide tablelands, and
they flow rapidly to the sea with water- falls or cataracts in

144 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

at least some parts of their courses. This vigorous energy of
their flow has as a result an intense destructive influence on
the beds of the rivers, and erosion is more marked as a
trenching or downward cutting effect than as a lateral one,
such as we see in Europe, where alluvial valleys are the more
characteristic. The amount of sand and gravel carried by a
river depends on the energy of the stream, which is measured
by its velocity; the sand and gravel dragged along by the river
acts as a rasp that wears away the rocks, and hence the greater
the velocity the greater is the erosion. The greatest velocity,
and consequently the greatest amount of sand and boulders
borne by the streams is at the sources of the streams where
they commence in the hills. This portion of the rivers is, then,
enabled to arode its bed more rapidly than the lower ones,
and its action is called Headstream erosion. Headstream
erosion is the means by which the short, rapid coast streams
eat back through the heart of the coastal mountains and tap
the waters of the inland system, whose waters are more
sluggish. Headstream erosion has tapped the Niger and the
Congo, diverting their waters from the Sahara and leaving it
dry. Headstream erosion, again, has tapped the Zambesi
basin from the east and has diverted its waters, which once
flowed south-west through the Kalahari, and has turned it
into a desert.

Africa is such a homogeneous mass; its features are so
distinctive, different from those of other lands, yet the same
in character throughout the length and breadth of its enormous
extent, that an illustration taken from one part is an explana-
tion for any other area. The nature and effect of headstream
erosion, then, may be illustrated by a perfect small example
in Cape Colony and can be apphed to the elucidation of
problems in central and northern Africa. This example occurs
in the hills south of Grahamstown. A ridge of Carboniferous
sandstone forms the edge of a great tableland, 2,500 feet
above sea-level; to the south, the coast-shelf is a thousand
feet lower, and the ridge forms, as it were, the hardened edge
of a step in a gigantic staircase. On the north, a river scoured
a valley in which Grahamstown lies; it flowed east by south
and eventually entered the Great Fish River. The rivers on
the south of the ridge, heading in the thousand-feet cliffs of
a former sea-coast, have been working vigorously to breach
this rampart, and three gaps have been made in it. The flrst
two near Grahamstown, Howieson's Poort and Woest Hill,
have simply excavated large basins in the hills and are every
year stealing a little more from the northern drainage-area,
with its rivers running in beds with only moderate falls.
The third poort, however, is the Blaauw Krans, where the river
has actually pierced the ridge and captured all the eastward-
flowing water. The continuation eastwards is the Cap River,

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

U5

Fig. 2. — Capture of the Cap River by the Blue Krantz

(Blaauw Krans).

146 THE DESICCA-TION OF AFRICA.

which is now beheaded, and its natural head-waters find an
outlet through the Blaauw Krans gorge. The deviation is
the effect of headstream erosion; the fact that a stream flowing
eastwards in a natural valley made for it should turn abruptly
at right angles and pierce a high range of quartzite hills, can
have no other explanation, unless we have recourse to faults,
of which there is no evidence.

The coastal rampart of hills on the east coast, or on the
Gold Coast, is similar to that of the Grahamstown mountain
ridge, or Zuurberg. Substitute for the three streams, the
Kariega, the Kowie and the Blaauw Krans, the Sanaga
(Cameroons), the Ogowe and the Congo, or the Bandama, the
Volta and the Niger, and we see on a large scale what has
happened on a small scale near Grahamstown ; this fact, the
capture of the inland water-system by the smaller, but more
vigorously-flowing coast streams, is the great fundamental fact
which explains the alterations gomg on in the physical
conditions all over Africa.

I have referred to the phenomenon of headstream erosion
in the Grahamstown hills because I happen to live m that
town, and the example is compact and complete, but quite as
good examples occur in the western mountains, especially
north of Ceres and generally throughout Cape Colony. In
Oudtshoorn there is a further example of two parallel rivers,
the Olifants, running in soft Cretaceous rocks, and the
Kammanassie, running in comparatively hard Devonian slates.
Here we have the conditions represented by the Niger, which
flows in Cretaceous strata above the Bussa Falls, and its
tributary, the Kaduna, which, originally probably of equal*
extent to the Niger itself, having to erode its bed m hard
granite, progressed but feebly, while the Niger spread back
and absorbed the whole of the drainage behind the coastal
rampart. The Olifants River has similarly spread back and
worn for itself a great alluvial plain, while the Kammanassie
has lost much of its original drainage area and lies in a
narrow valley.

The topography of Europe, Asia and Africa was laid down
in the Eocene epoch. At the end of the Cretaceous period"
enormous changes took place ; the whole fauna of the world
was wiped out and new forms took their places. Among
vertebrates, for instance, the predominant type in the Cretace-
ous period was that of the reptiles, and in the Eocene the
modem mammalian types were introduced. Africa, which up
till then formed one continent with India, was riven by
gigantic faults, and the trough of the Indian Ocean was
produced. Round this fault-block the continents of Europe
and Asia became ranged, with the Alps-Himalayan chains as
the backbone. The destruction of life was related to these

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 147

convulsions in the earth's crust, and we can reconstruct from
geological evidence a picture of what then went on. The
earth's crust was disturbed, was broken and crumpled, as if a
blow had been given it and the material were plastic like
modelling clay. The convulsions were not confined to a single
short period, but were spread over what would be regarded
historically as an immense stretch of time, and at the end
the world-segments, the continents and oceans, emerged more
or less in the broad outlines in which we now see them. The
movements continued during the Eocene period and altered
somewhat the original plan, but we can regard these as
supplementary. As a matter of fact, the barriers raised by
these later movements are definitely athwart an earlier
topography, and the rivers with which we are chiefly concerned
are busy removing them and restoring the earlier features. It
is on this assumption that the reasoning in the following pages
is based, but it would take us- too far from the subject in
hand to develop it fully. To put it concisely, the features of
the earth's surface, its topography, its rivers, hills, coast-lines,
etc., date from the dawn of the modern period, the Eocene;
these were on a different plan and had no relationship to the
topography of the earth's surface in earlier periods. That, in
the widest sense, is a sort of master-key to the understanding
of the present condition of affairs, and the changes that are
now going on are alterations of that original Eocene plan.
Individual terrains, when examined in detail, confuse this
prime conception, because we may find that the original
topographical features were laid down later than the Eocene,
or, may be, earlier, as in Cape Colony, and it would be more
strictly accurate to leave the period in which the stamp was
set indefinite : that a stamp was set and that its recognition
explains why the conditions in various countries are changing,
we shall see ample evidence in the sequel.

THE NIGER.

The Niger rises m the granite hills of Tembi Kundu,
2,764 feet above sea-level. These hills form part of
the coastal rampart which guards access to the interior
from the sea on the Gold Coast and which, indeed, is a
characteristic feature on the whole west coast as far as
Cape Colony. It is deeply canyoned on the sea-ward side
towards Sierra Leone and Liberia and the main watershed
has retreated inland under the action of headstream erosion
by the short, rapid rivers of the coast. Some of the heights
of the original crest, like Mt. Drouple, 9,750 feet, are left
isolated and far south of the watershed-

On the north, the Tankisso River, flowing from the sand-
s,tone hills of Futa Jallon, joins the Niger at Siguiri, which is

148 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

1,100 feet above sea-level; thus the Niger has a fall of 1,664
feet in 260 miles and the rest of the course of this great
river, which amounts to 2,340 miles, has to be accomplished
with a fall of a little over two feet to the mile. Further down,
the Sankarain River joins the Niger from the south, rising in
Mt. Kon, 4,550 feet, part of the Mt. Drouple group. Finally,
the two rivers, the Baoule and the Bagoe, a little further east,
rise in the same way, but unite as the Bani River ; the latter,
after following a course parallel to the main river for some
distance, falls into the Debo Swamp. This is the first stage
in the capture of the tributaries ; the Baoule and the Bagoe
are hesitating in their courses, and loose themselves in a
level swamp, ready to be deflected. The next river to the
east, which rises in the same way from the coastal rampart,
is the Black Volta; this flows northwards as the others do,
but a coastal stream still further east has eaten back through
the rampart, stolen the waters of the northwards-flowing
stream, and this in turn has captured the waters of the Black
Volta, uniting, thus, three original rivers in one great stream.
A small tributary from the north, flowing into the Volta at
the bend, marks the former course of the stream into the
Niger.* This precisely is the history of the Niger itself,
carried out on a smaller scale. The other branch of the Volta,
the White Volta, does not show this diversion so clearly; its
headstreams penetrate nearly to the Hombori Mountains in
the bend of the Niger, and a string of lakes on the north of
the mountains lie in depressions which probably mark the
course of the river before its waters were captured and
brought south.

All the tributaries east of the Bagoe have been reft from
the Niger, and a very little further erosion by the Bandama
River will bring the waters of the Bagoe southwards ; then
the Baoule will form a bend similar to that of the Black Volta.
Its waters will flow southwards along the drained channel of
the Bagoe, and will reach the sea at Grand Lahou by the
Bandama River- The Bani, now forming the common conduit
for the Baoule and the Bagoe, will then gradually silt up and
all connection with the Niger will be lost. We shall see later,
in connection with the Benue and Cunene Rivers, that some
African rivers are just in this stage when the waters are
hesitating as to which way they shall run, and the river with
the shorter course always wins in the end, draining the area
and leaving the bigger river without its natural tributaries.

Not only has the Niger lost the waters of the White and
Black Voltas, but, nearer its source, the Senegal River has

* Attention was first drawn to this capture by R. de Lamothe, in>
"Contribution a I'etude geologique des territoires du Haut Senegal -
Niger." Bull. Soc. geol. Fr. (4), IX., 1Q09, p. 528.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 149

invaded the drainage area of the river, and in the tributaries,
the Bafing, the Bakoy and another river of the name Baoule,
we see clearly by their courses that they once belonged to the
larger river. The Senegal River originally began m the
Tamboura Mountains, near Bafoulabe, but the short, straight
course, combined with the easily-weathered, horizontal sand-
stones of this area, allowed it to eat into and rob the Niger
of a considerable portion of its waters. As it is, the Senegal
River is steadily gaining ground in the natural basin of the
Tankisso, and at some future date this great tributary of the
Niger will be lost to it.

The floods of the Niger extended more than a hundred
miles north of Timbuktoo within the memory of man, but
these inundations are far more restricted nowadays; this is
usually ascribed to the drying up of the continent, but it is
far more probably due to the fact that every year sees many
square miles of country which formerly contributed its waters
to the Niger, drained by the encroaching coastal rivers. The
Senegal is the chief thief on the west, and on the south there
are the Liberian rivers, the Sassandra, the Bandama and the
Comoe. Thus, waters which originally went to fertilise the
inland districts are now drained rapidly to the sea, and their
beneficial effects are lost.

Some 300 miles above Timbuktoo the Niger enters a great
level plain which is liable to inundations, the waters at such
times forming a lake i/o miles long and 80 miles broad. At
ordinary times the waters are restricted to a reticulating
system of channels and one more or less permanent lake, Lake
Debo. A further system of shallow depressions extends
northwards, west of Timbuktoo, the largest being Lake
Faguibine and Lake Horo. All the wells dug north of
Timbuktoo as far as Arouan, 200 miles north of the Niger,
are in fiuviatile deposits, full of shells of Melania, Physis and
Planorbis, showing the former extension of the flood-lake
system. A vast region like this, with practically no fall,
indicates a temporary phase in the evolution of a river system;
the Niger below the Debo Swamp has not cleared its course
sufficiently to accommodate itself to the new conditions.

At one time it was thought that round about Timbuktoo
there had been an inland sea like the Black Sea, which
communicated with the Atlantic through a channel in the
Adrar Highlands ; Chudeau even designated this channel as
the depression El Khat (lat., 19° N.). According to Lemoine,
however, all the evidence for such a sea lies solely in the
presence of countless shells of Margmella, which are found
strewn about in the soil round Timbuktoo. These sea-shells
were at one time used as money and were probably the
"cowries " which poor Mungo Park was presented with by the

1 50 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

Sultan of Segu ; Park estimated his present of 5,000 as being
worth about twenty shillings. The cheapness and profusion
of these shells would lead to the improvident natives dropping
quantities of them, and hence their presence round the city
can be explained.

The great salt desert of El Juf, with the salt mines at
Taodeni on the eastern margin, is the relic of a dried-up lake,
rather than that of a sea, and further, the levels of Timbuktoo
(787 feet) and Taodeni (722 feet) rule out this theory, unless
we bring in movements of the earth's crust, which can only
be purely speculative. To the north of El Juf there are the
Ergs, regions of shifting sand-dunes, which are, according to
Foureau, the broad basins of a quaternary river system. It
has now vanished, but it once led north into the great
Igharghar and thence to the sea by the shotts, or lagoons, of
Algeria. Just south of Taodeni, Lenz marks a depression
only 400-500 feet (120-150 m.) above sea-level, inviting the
waters of the Niger to flow into it and to form a great central
Saharan lake.* Further north, there are the oases of Twat,
Gourara and Ouargla in the course of such a supposed river.
Comparatively high ground lies between Gourara and
Ouargla, but the whole of this area is covered with enormous
thicknesses of recent debris, washed down from the Atlas
Mountains; this would obscure any pre-existing river valley
and would also have aided in the obstruction and final
diversion of the stream.

There is another possible outlet for this river system,
namely, through the Adrar Highlands, bordering the west
coast. At Cape Blanco there is a great estuary, between four
and five miles broad, now filled in with light, friable,
sandstones, that could have been the mouth of this river.
This, however, would not have given the requisite moisture
to the Ahaggar Mountains and allowed them to pour plentiful
rivulets out into the present deserts, which, joined together,
scoured the great river beds we find m these regions; the
larger ones, such as the Tanegrouf, In Azoua and Tafassasset,
are now, indeed, dry, but at one time they were filled with
water and communicated with the sea. In the heart of the
Ahaggar, in the pools, there still live the river fish, Barbus
deserti and B. biscarensis, which must have originally swum
up a river that flowed far from their present haunts. These
central Saharan highlands are so hemmed in on all sides by
vast plains, separating them from the coastal regions, that no
climatic changes would suffice to bring rain-laden clouds in
such quantities as to allow of their giving rise to great rivers
that could flow the 1,200-1,500 miles to the coast, unless the

* See Lieut. Cortier's " Route March from Timbucktoo to
Taodini." La Geographie, 1906, pp. 317-341.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 151

plains around them were moist with an irrigation brought
there from more favoured regions.

On the north of the Ahaggar massif, which is of granite
(Mt. Hamane, 7,150 feet), the great Igharghar waddy cuts
first a deep canyon through the Tasili, or plateau, of the
Azdjer, consisting of Devonian and Carboniferous rocks, and
then becomes lost under the great Erg, or region of shifting
dunes. On the north of the Erg, the wady reappears and its
course is marked by wells and irrigation works, showing the
presence of abundant underground water. It seemed possible
at one time, that the Lake Chad might have discharged its
waters northwards and, through a rift in the Ahaggar high-
lands, have led down into the Igharghar, but the documents
of the Foureau-Lamy mission are so definite as to the great
escarpment facing south and barring all drainage from south
to north, that one had to abandon the idea.

To come back to the Niger, the river, after leaving the
neighbourhood of Timbuktoo, enters the Burrum Gorge,
flowing in it due east for 250 miles in a trench scarcely 300
feet wide. Thence it follows along the junction of granite on
the south-west and soft Cretaceous and Eocene rocks on the
north-east, until it reaches the Falls of Bussa, where Mungo
Park perished. Here the granite stretches across the river
in a comparativeh' narrow bar and. forms, on the east, the
continuation of the coastal rampart, which rises near Bauchi
to 6,400 feet. The Niger in this region consists of two
branches, the Niger proper and the Kaduna River- Both
originally rose in the coastal rampart. The Kaduna has
eaten back by headstream erosion, but, its upper tributaries
draining a compact granite area and having only hard rock
to work on, has not progressed far into the interior; the
Niger, on the other hand, having only a narrow bar of hard
rock to eat back through, and, behind that, the soft rocks
of the Cretaceous and Eocene formations, has tapped the
whole of the drainage area behind the coastal rampart. The
course of the Niger between Timbuktoo and the Bussa Falls,
was once a river rising on the north of the coastal rampart
and flowing north-east. The region of dead water in the
Debo Swamp indicates where the two northwards-flowing
rivers originally met.

The stages in the erosion of the rivers of the Gold Coast
are so complete in their varying degree of reaching the
coastal rampart, and the action is so similar, on a large
scale, to what is found going on in so many of the rivers of
Africa, like in the Kowie, that one is justified in drawing the
conclusion that the Niger once flowed into the Sahara and
made it a habitable region. The fact that has enabled the
Niger to work this act of spoliation is the sudden thinning

152 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

of the bar of hard rock at Bussa, which elsewhere guards the
drainage of the interior, and the presence, behind it, of soft
uncompacted strata.

The future development of the Niger region is full of
disaster for North Africa. The Volta has completed its
spoliation; the Bandama is busy stealing the Bagoe and
Baoule tributaries; the vigorous headstreams in Sierra Leone
and Liberia are eating into the area of the upper Niger, and
some time in the future this will drain to the sea by the St.
Paul or the Moa River; the Senegal River is stealing into the
basin of the Tankisso River. Thus, the ultimate evolution
of the south-western Sahara will result in an absolutely
waterless desert. Not one of its present streams, whose
waters reach the sea by such a long route, can compete with
the boring headstreams of the coast rivers. The only thing
that would prevent the fulfilment of this would be a bodily
tilting of the whole continent, and such readjustments, due
to the lightening of the earth's crust by the mass of rock
weathered away and carried to the sea by the rivers, and
also by the absence of millions of tons of ground-water
that now permeate the soil, have taken place in the past, and
may do so again in the future-

For the geology of this portion of Africa I have used the
work of P. Lemoine in Steinmann and Wilken's " Handbuch
der Regionalen Geologie," and for the. topography, geology
and archiology of the central Sahara the two volumes of the
"Mission Foureau-Lamy," Paris, 1905.

THE BENUE.

This great tributary of the Niger is, at its confluence, a
larger river than the mam stream; it comes fresh from the
Adamawa Highlands and the coastal rampart hills, whereas
the waters of the Niger have come a very long way, and have
visited the outskirts of the Sahara. The Benue, in the
original plan, began in the coastal rampart, or escarpment,
through which it has now cut back. The physiography
of the country immediately adjoining the stream is very
characteristic. Above Yola, where it occupies a river-bed in
which the waters formerly flowed towards Lake Chad, instead
of away from it, there is the same deep, narrow channel that
we saw in the Niger, below Timbuktoo, and which we shall
see again below Stanley Pool, on the Congo, and m the
Kebrabasa Falls, on the Zambesi. Below Yola, where head-
stream erosion has been in play, the coastal rampart appears
as two great ranges bounding the valley, at some places
approaching, at others retiring some distance from the river.
It is very instructive to compare this river gorge with that

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. I 53

in which the Congo flows below Stanley Pool; here the Congo
flows ni a steeply inclined river-bed, interrupted by continual
rapids; whereas the Benue, breaching the same rampart, is
navigable throughout, with a fall of only one foot in the mile.
In other words, the cutting of the breach, in the case of the
Congo is of much more recent date than in the case of the
Benue- This leads one to the question of what happened to
the waters of the Congo before the breach was made? The
answer is that it flowed north to Lake Chad, but I shall
develop the evidence for this later.

The Benue has had, however, long ages of thieving to
its credit, and its tributaries are everywhere stealing into the
basin of Lake Chad. Captain Lenfant, starting from Garua,
on the Benue, ascended the river in a small boat, the
Benoit -Gamier, drawing two feet of water; by following the
Moakebi River he actually reached the Tuburi Swamps, and
thence, descending the Logone River, he reached Lake Chad.
At Bmdere-Moundang he had to take the boat to pieces and
carry it for twenty miles before reaching the Tuburi Swamps.
The whole of this Tuburi region is one of hesitating flow, like
round the Etosha Pan, that is still connected with the Cunene
River in flood time; a deserted river-bed to the south of the
present one connects the Kebi River with the Tuburi Swamp.
To the north and south of the upper Benue tributaries can be
seen on the map interdigitatmg with the Chad affluents; it
is only a question of time before the whole system of rivers
flowing into Lake Chad will be captured by the Benue and
diverted to the Atlantic. The robbery is actually proceeding
under the eyes of living men; Lake Chad is yearly becoming
less extensive and the desert sands are filling it up. We can,
then, compare the Logone and Shari Rivers, which are in
the course of being diverted to the Benue, to (say) the Kasai
and the upper Congo, which have actually been diverted to
the Atlantic. The direction these rivers take is the same:
a direct northerly run, then west, and then south. The whole
of the Congo drainage, the whole of the Lake Chad drainage,
once poured north into the Sahara ; first the Congo portion
was filched, and next the Chad portion is going.

THE CONGO.

The plan of the Congo River as it exists at present is
surely the most puzzling of any river system in the world.
There are three sections. The first is the section from the
Kwango River to the Sankuru River, where some twenty
great rivers flow from the highlands of north Angola, in
almost straight courses, due north, and then are collected
by a river flowing due west. Two of the northwards-flowing

154 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

rivers, the Lomami and the Lualaba, further east, have not
been tapped by the westwards-flowing river, but continue
their northward course for another three hundred miles, till
the Aruwimi River, flowing west, cuts them off; this is the
second section. The third section is the Ubangui-Welle
River, which flows west from the mountains about Albert
Nyanza, and then turns south. All the water poured forth by
these great rivers ponds up against the coastal rampart and
forms the Stanley Pool, from which it flows over a series of
cateracts to the sea. On the northern bank of the Ubangui
River rise the tributaries flowing into Lake Chad; the Gribingi
and Fufa Rivers actually rise some seventy miles north of
the Ubangui. The watershed between the Gribingi and the
Ubangui is about 400 feet high above the Ubangui stream-
level. Just at the bend of the Ubangui the Tomi River has
a course similar to that of the Black Volta; it rises in the
hills, about fifty miles north of the Ubangui, flows north
towards Lake Chad, and then makes a complete semicircle
and flows south into the Ubangui. This shows that the
rivers are more vigorous on the south of the divide than on
the north. The opening of the poort through the coastal
rampart, to let through the waters of the Congo, is fairly
recent, but it has allowed the rivers to scour their valleys
very considerably, and a scour of 400 feet is not a very
large one to assume. In Cape Colon}', in the Eastern
Province and the Transkei we see valleys which have cut deep,
narrow canyons four times as deep. Raise the level of the
rock barrier at Stanley Pool and the whole water-system behind
will be checked ; if the elevation be sufficient the whole drainage
of the Congo would pour into Lake Chad- The following are
the heights above sea-level: —

In the bend of the Ubangui, Zongo
In the bend of the Ubangui, Banzyville...
Mean-mouth of Tomi River (about)
Highest point in the Ubangui-Gribingi

divide
Stanley Pool

In other words, it requires an elevation of 485 feet at the
mouth of the Tomi River to empty the Ubangui River into
Lake Chad, and an elevation of 897 feet at Stanley Pool to
empty the whole of the Congo waters into Lake Chad. There
is a poort in the Zwartberg Mountains, in Cape Colony,
called Meiring's Poort, in which the mountains rise to 7,000
feet above sea-level, while the level of the river is 1,000-1,200
feet, giving a depth of a river-cut gorge of 5,800-6,000 feet.
Throughout the coastal mountains of Cape Colony there are
similar poorts cut by the rivers since the Cretaceous period,

Difference

Feet.

Feet.

1,287

1,384

1,335

...

1,820

... 485 ■

923

... 897

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 155

and there is nothing, therefore, to stop one assuming that a
river of the vokime of the Congo in flood may have cut down
some 900 feet in comparatively recent times.

The whole plan of the river system on the inside of the
coastal rampart shows that the barrier existed quite recently,
and that the rivers have not yet had time to adjust their beds
to the changed direction of flow. The Kwango River and
all the northwards-flowing rivers, as far as the Sankuru
River, now deliver their waters to the Congo by the Kwa
River, but the first ten or a dozen apparently gathered
together and ran north through the Leopold II. Lake and Lake
Tumba, from here, northwards, along the valley of the
Ubangui River and thence down the Gribingi River to the
Shari River and so to Lake Chad. The next eight or so of
the northwards-flowing rivers originally took a similar
course, but all trace of them has been lost in the great plain
in the embrace of the horseshoe of the Congo; this area is
now drained by rivers flowing west and which rise quite
abnormally close to the left bank of the Lomami River.
The next two rivers, the Lomami and the Lualaba, maintain
a northernly course for a greater distance before being
deflected westwards ; their original courses were, probably,
across the flat divide, between the Congo and the Ubangui
River, which is some 120 feet above the level of the main
stream, and found an outlet into the Ubangui River some-
where near where the Welle River now enters that river. The
progressive stages of the deflection of the northwards-flowing
rivers, as one passes eastwards, is very instructive ; near the
breach in the coastal rampart, the rivers have been drawn
closely in, and as one goes further away, the westerly drag
becomes less and less felt. The whole horseshoe of the Congo,
from Stanley Falls (1,391 feet) to Stanley Pool (923 feet)
has a fall of 478 feet; as the distance is quite 1,000 miles,
this gives an average fall of less than half a foot in the mile.
Lake Chad is 81 feet lower than Stanley Pool, but from
Stanley Falls it is 200 miles further, so there is a nice balance
between the two outlets. To appreciate this, one must
obliterate all valleys as they now exist and think of the
country as an inclined, featureless plain ; we then see that the
rivers, were they free to flow without their present confining
banks, would have very little choice between Stanley Pool
and Lake Chad ; in practice, however, the more vigorous
coastal streams always prevail over the more encumbered ones
of the interior.

Stanley Pool has absorbed the Congo drainage for a
very long time, but the sluggishness of the river above the
Pool shows that the capture has not been so very remote.
The horseshoe of the Congo represents the bend of the Niger

156 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

above the Bussa Falls, but the original outlet to the north
is not so clearly marked in the case of the Congo as it is in
the case of the Niger, at Timbuktoo.

The crest of the coastal rampart is a range of hills„
nearly half-way between Stanley Pool and the head of the
estuary, at Matadi, culminating in Mt. Ulia, 3,430 feet. From
this ridge the Congo originally flowed west to the sea, like
the rivers to the north, the Chiloango, the Nairi Quilo, the
Nyanga and others. The next great river to the norths
however, the Ogowe, has eaten back through the coastal
rampart and is making a bid for the inner drainage of the
continent. With two rivers equally vigorous, tapping the
same source, the river traversing the softer rocks wins. The
escarpment rises to 4,500 feet at Mt. Otombi, where the Ogowe
traverses it and generally, with this coastal rampart, it may
be taken that the higher the peaks, the more massive and more
resistant to the agencies of weathering they are.

There is an interesting example of complicated river
capture in the Dscha tributary of the Sanga, a large river
that enters the Congo, just below the Ubangui confluence.
It rises in the south of the Cameroons and flows westwards,
as if to join a coast stream, the Nyong River, which is just
south of the Sanaga River. This Nyong River pierced the
coastal rampart and was stealing the waters of the interior,
when the great thief, the Congo, seized the prize, and the
Dscha now turns round in a semi-circle and flows eastwards.
Tributaries of the two rivers, the Sso of the Nyong River and
the Lobo of the Dscha, come very close to one another. The
struggle for territory is very keen in this area. The affluents
of Lake Chad, the original owners, are steadily retreating
northwards, as the Sanaga and other coast streams invade
their basins. The Congo, in turn, through its western
affluents, bringing every year more force to the head streams
as the lower river becomes cleared, is steadily filching from
the Lake Chad area and the conquered territory of the coast
streams.

LAKE CHAD.

Lake Chad lies 842 feet above sea-level. It is a sheet of
water that is rapidly diminishing from the filching away of
areas originally draining into it, by more vigorous streams
from the west and south. It is not a lake in the ordinary
sense of the word, with well-defined basin, but falls into the
category in which are Lake Ngami, the Etosha Pan, Lake
Leopold II., Lakes Debo and Faguibine on the Niger and the
Bahr-el-Ghazal on the Nile. That is to say, Lake Chad is
part of a river system that has been blocked up and is evidence

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

157

of the diversion of the general drainage of the country, which
is in the act of being consummated.

On the west, the natural boundaries of the Lake Chad
drainage area is the coastal rampart in the Cameroons and

Fig. 3. — iST Stage. — The Nyong and the Dscha
Rise in the CoasTAl Rampart.

Fig. 4. — 2ND Stage. — The Nyong eats back through

the Coastal Rampart and captures the

Inland Drainage.

Fig. 5. — 3RD Stage (Present Time).^-The Dscha has
Re-captured Two of its Head-streams.

Q
C
<

• P
CAMEROONS

\y LOKUN

•7

The Struggle for Drainage Area
in the Cameroons.

158 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

Nigeria ; this is continued into the Sahara, through the high-
lands of Air, or Asben, up to the Tasili, or Plateau, of Azdjer.
From this side only two affluents now reach the lake, the
Kamerduga Yobe, from the direction of Kano and the
Jedseram, to the south. The Benue thrusts itself boldly into
the south-western drainage area, and on the north-west the
Saharan highlands have now no moisture to contribute to
waters of the lake. There is, however, an oasis in the desert,
east of Air, called Agram, which owes its existence to under-
ground moisture. These oases, as one learns from the
Igharghar, are on the courses of dried-up streams, and the
underground rivers are relics of former streams that flowed
above ground. On the south, the Lagone affluent is being
filched by the Benue, through the Tuburi Swamps, and there
remains only the Shari River, with its many tributaries, as a
constant and settled contributor.

On the east, there is the Bahr-el-Ghazal, which has
nothing to do with the Nilotic river of that name. The eastern
boundary of the Chad basin is formed by the Tibesti High-
lands and the Ennedi Hills; one would expect these to drain
towards the lake. One finds, however, that at the foot of the
Tibesti Highlands there are places, visited by Nachtigal, which
are 350 feet below the level of Lake Chad. This is evidence
that the waters of Lake Chad are held up by silt and sand
above the normal height, and explains the expansion of the
river into a lake; it also shows that this river system once
flowed from the lake towards the Tibesti Highlands in an
easterly direction. The whole system of wadys on the
western side of the Tibesti Highlands is collected by larger
wadys directed towards the south-east ; that is to say, when
there was sufficient water to fill these wadys, it did not flow
towards Lake Chad, but turned round southwards and made
for a gap in the Ennedi Hills. The inclination of the Bahr-el-
Ghazal is in the same sense eastwards. The Bodele and the
Djourab are districts lying under the Ennedi Hills, at the
eastern end of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, with a general level of some
200 to 300 feet below that of Lake Chad. According to the
geological map of this region, by Captain Arnaud, the depres-
sion of the Bahr-el-Ghazal lies within a semi-circle of high
granite hills, Tibesti on the north and a series of heights to
the south, about Wadai ; these connect with the granite of the
coastal rampart. The Shari and Logone Rivers pass through
a gap in the granite hills. Between the Tibesti massif and the
southern one, there is the gap of the Ennedi Hills, which are
composed of horizontal sandstones, such as Foureau has made
us familiar with in the Tasili, or Plateau, of Azdjer, which
lies to the north-west. Foureau found this latter breached by
a vast canyon, in which the Igharghar once flowed from the

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

ISO

C/circbceotui

I Jci£e^c

Fig 6. — Lake Chad.

watershed on the south. The expedition of Captain Arnaud
visited the southern end of the Ennedi Hills and no outlet was
observed through the escarpment. Such an outlet may exist,
although it may not be visible from a distance. Many of the
deepest poorts cutting the coastal mountains of Cape Colony,
like Meiring's Poort, cannot be identified from a distance, nor

l6o THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

would a way through the mountains be suspected by anyone
approaching to within even a few miles of the poorts.

It is the general rule among geographers to make the
Tasili-Tibesti-Marra Hills line a great water divide for this
part of Africa, but there is no real reason for maintaining this.
I would rather divide North Africa into three partitions, served
by three northwards-flowing rivers, the Proto-Niger, the Proto-
Congo and the Proto-Nile.

Besides the fact that the gradient of the rivers is inclined
from Lake Chad towards the Ennedi Hills, which is similar to
the case of Lake Faguibine on the Niger, with the depression
near Taodeni, 300 feet below the level of the lake, there is a
further parallel between the Niger and the Chad systems. At
Taodeni, there are vast deposits of rock-salt, filling in synclines
of the older rocks and often outcropping on the surface. To
the east of the Djourab depression, on the other, that is, the
east side of the Ennedi Hills, there are the salt mines of Domi.
In the case of Taodeni, we ascribed the salt deposits to the
drying up of an inland lake, like the Great Salt Lake of Utah;
the same applies to the salt deposits of Domi. The water to
fill such a lake must have come from the Lake Chad direction,
for the Tibesti Highlands could never of themselves have
aff^orded sufficient moisture to fill it, seeing that they are
entirely isolated by immense stretches of desert. Further, we
find east and north of Tibesti the great depression of the
Libyan Desert, filled with shifting sand-dunes; there is still
abundant underground moisture, however, which comes to the
surface in the Kufra Oases and, further north, in the Oasis of
Augila.

The Tibesti Highlands culminate in the volcanic peak of
Tusidde (7,800 feet). Nachtigal found the valleys on both
sides of the range, with flowing water and with apes, gazelles
and birds to enliven the scenery. The moisture to maintain
this state of affairs is drawn from the depressions of the
Djourab, Bodele and Chad, and is precipitated by the cold
surface of the high peaks of the Tibesti range. The rivers
now disappear in the sand at the foot of the hills, and what
we now see in the shape of animal and plant life is a relic of
a time when the whole district was not only much more moist,
but was connected by fertile plains with the rest of the habit-
able parts of Africa.

Until an actual outlet to the east has been found for the
Bahr-el-Ghazal, our arguments cannot amount to more than a
surmise, but the evidence seems sufficiently strong to indicate
that the Congo once flowed north along the Gribingi and Shari
Rivers to Lake Chad. If that was so, then there must have
been an outlet through the gap, we suppose exists, between the
high granite hills to the east, a gap which apparently is barred

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. l6l

by the horizontal sandstones of the Ennedi Hills. Once
through the gap, the course of the Proto-Congo would lie past
the oases of Kufra, which cover 7,000 square miles of fertile
ground in the centre of the Libyan Desert; thence to Augila
and so out to sea in the Gulf of the Great Syrtis.

On the west of Augila, there is a valley, between the
Tasili and the Azdjer, on the south, and the Black Hills on the
north, in which lies the great oasis of the Fezzan. It is a very
large, fertile district, with vast, dry river courses directed
towards our supposed former river, as if to join it as tributaries.
Here, again, we have evidence of a former, much more plentiful
rainfall.

At Augila, there is a great wady, the Bessame-Schecherre,
which is in the form of a horseshoe, with the rounded end point-
ing south. This rounded end would have received our sup-
posed Proto-Congo ; the eastern portion was connected with the
Nile through the Oasis of Siwa and the Bahr-bila-ma, while
the western branch led to the sea. At one time it was thought
that the Augila Oasis, together with the depressions to the east,
formed an arm of the Mediterranean; this theory was due to a
wrong estimation of the height of Augila above sea-level.
Rolfs first put this height as 100 feet below, but later measure-
ments have fixed it at 130 feet above the Mediterranean level.
From this supposed inland sea, the great fertility of the
Fezzan, in early historic times, was thought to be due ; this,
however, would be far more naturally explained by the fact of
the Congo waters flowing through the desert and fertilising
the neighbouring lands, as one river, the Nile, still fortunately
does. On the coast, north of Augila, is the Barka Plateau,
where about 600 B.C. flourished five cities of the most astonish-
ing luxuriance, Gyrene, Apollonia, Arsinoe, Berenice and
Barke (Ptelomais), constituting the Pentapolis of Cyrenaica.
One can picture the condition of things in those times. The
great river passing the Tibesti Highlands, which, precipitating
the moisture drawn from the fertile valleys at their base, sent
many tributaries to join it ; from there to the sea, a well-watered
land, with pastures stretching eastwards till they united with
those along the Nile and, on the west, the whole of the Fezzan
a continuous tract of luxuriant vegetation. All the wealth of
this back country reached the cities of Cyrenaica, which
attained an opulence quite unexplainable on other grounds.
Then the coastal river, far to the south, eating back through
the coastal rampart, tapped the headstreams and, century by
century, captured more waters, till the whole of the Congo
drainage was diverted ; the head of the river system then began
where the Gribingi now does. Then the Benue, eating inland,
captured a great part of the effective drainage area still left.
The river flood was no longer able to surmount the barrier of

i62 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

the Ennedi Hills and the fair country along the river, of which
a sample can still be seen in the Oases of Kufra, became

" A region of emptiness, howling and drear,

Which man hath abandoned, from famine and fear."

The filching of drainage areas by the Benue is still going on
and is reacting on the Libyan Desert to its disadvantage by
lessening the flow of underground water. How recent these
changes are can be realised by the fact that when Rolfs in
1874 set out from Dakhel Oasis in Egypt to cross the desert"
to Kufra, by a track that had been in use from time
immemorial, he found that dunes had risen across the route to
such an extent that it was no longer a practicable course.

THE NILE.

Of the three great rivers which flowed north and fertilised
North Africa in ancient times, only one remains, the Nile.
Owing to recent volcanic eruptions north of Lake Kivu, the
drainage area of Tanganyika and Kivu has been cut off from
the Nile, but before this happened the northerly course of the
Nile was as long as that of the Proto-Congo, from the Congo-
Zambesi divide to the Great Syrtis Gulf. Curiously enough,
Livingstone, when exploring Lake Nyasa, was told by a native
that Tanganyika was of the same shape as that of Lake Nyasa,
but that the outlet was on the north of the lake, instead of, as
in Lake Nyasa, on the south ; as the native had not seen this
himself, Livingstone dismisses the statement as a piece of Arab
geography, but the fact remains, that the M'fumbiro volcanoes,
north of Lake Kivu, have only recently been thrown up; it may
well be that the Arab slave-hunters, not long before Living-
stone's time, did actually see Tanganyika discharging north-
wards, into the Nile.

The Nile, however, is by no means a simple river, and
there is abundant evidence that important changes have taken
place in fairly recent times. The most striking feature is the
S-shaped bend in the Nubian region, stretching across the
southern bend from some distance above Khartoum to
Ambukol, where the river runs south-west, and then resumes
its northerly course, there is a deep channel, the Wady
Mokattem. It is now dry, but it once was the main stream of
the Nile, making a straight course for the Blue Nile, from the
Ethiopian uplands, in a north-westerly direction. There is no
question here of headstream erosion, or river capture, for the
volcanoes in the Bayuda bend of the Nile, Magaga, Ghilif and
Ghekdul, are the cause of the deflection, that is to say, the
accumulations of lavas and ash piled up to such an extent that
they turned aside the river. The Blue Nile, then, ran north-
west, down the Wady Mokattem to Ambukol, thence along the

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 1 63

bed of the Nile to Amara and then out into the desert, past the
oases of Charga, Dakhel and Farafra.

The Atbara, also, flows north-west from the same high-
lands as the Blue Nile ; it joins the Nile above Berber and
flows m a straight course to Abu Hamed and then turns south-
west. Again, a deep wady continues the straight course of the
original Atbara, cutting across the bend and joining the present
Nile at Asaki, above Assuan ; this is the Wady Galgabba,
with its northern continuation, the Bahr-bila-ma, " the river
without water " (not the river of the same name we mentioned
in connection with the Siwa Oasis). The Nile, then, originally
w'as two rivers running parallel. Owing to the failing of the
Proto-Congo and the conversion of the open country into a
desert and consequent filling of the river-bed with sand and,
also, probably, owing to the lowering of the bar of syenite at
Assuan by the erosion of the river, giving the more easterly
stream a more drawing power than its western neighbour; the
former worked back by a side-stream across the divide and
tapped the western stream. The lakes of Charga then dried
up.

In Upper Egypt, the Libyan Desert commences at the foot
of the escarpment of Lower Eocene rocks, that form a plateau
between it and ttie Nile. Underground water is plentiful, as
the oases indicate, and underground water is everywhere asso-
ciated with former streams above ground. We have reason,
therefore, to continue the western Nile on the desert side of the
escarpment, to Siwa, where there is the Temple of Jupiter
Ammon. Here was once a populous Roman city with every
evidence of abounding fertility in the country around it. There
is the other " river without water," the Bahr-bila-ma, here,
which is connected with the present Nile through the Fayum.
The Fayum is a depression into which a western branch of the
Nile, the Bahr-el-Yussuf, discharges, and there is still a lake,
the Birket-el-Qurun, in the depression, that serves as an illus-
tration of what existed in most of the oases in bye-gone times.

The Bahr-el-Yussuf leaves the Nile a little below Assuan
and flows parallel to it for 120 miles; in the same way the
original western Nile, leaving its present course at Amara,
flowed on the western side of the Libyan Desert escarpment
and discharged into the Charga Oasis. There are two areas
of lake-deposits here, with salt-pans, indicating the connec-
tion of the oasis with running water m former times. From
Charga the escarpment runs westwards; following the foot
of the hills, one comes to the oasis of Dakhel (Dakla), which is
of a similar nature. Thence the plateau trends north-west to
Farafra. Siwa and Jarabub Oases lie at the foot of a table-
land composed of sandy Mid-Tertiary deposits, that separates
the Lib}'an Desert from the sea and the escarpment runs,

]G4 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

somewhat irregularly, east and west. These places were
■ connected at one time with the present Nile by the Bahr-
bila-ma, but if the western Nile did flow on the desert side
of the plateau escarpment, as there is reason to believe it
did, then, at an earlier stage it must have penetrated here
also. There are a number of salt-marshes, or sebkhas,
between Siwa and Jarabub, that are fed by underground
water; they form a series of depressions connecting Jarabub
with Augila. Rolfs conceived the project of transforming
this chain of oases into an inland gulf by admitting the
Mediterranean waters through a cutting to the Wady Fareg
or the Bir Rassam. A waterway, he thought, might thus be
opened far into the arid Libyan Desert, the climate improved
and Cyrenaica converted into an island in the middle of the
Mediterranean- Rolfs himself, however, gave up the idea
after his expedition into the Libyan Desert, when it was
found that Siwa alone with its eastern extensions fell below
the level of the Mediterranean (Siwa -98, Sittra -80, and
the Birket-el-Ourun - 141 feet). Augila and Jalo were, on
the contrary, found to stand 130 and 296 feet respectively
above sea-level, so that the marine inlet cannot have pene-
trated very far in recent geological times. Rudaire had a
similar project in connection with the shotts of Algeria.
Beyond these marginal floodings, no engineering feat can
bring the Mediterranean into the Sahara, because it stands
much above sea-level. In 1877 Donald Makenzie proposed a
plan for opening Central Africa by flooding the Sahara; he
published a book, "The Flooding of the Sahara," which was
widely read, and is the reason that the idea is so prevalent.
There are no facts to support Makenzie.

As bearing on the question of the Proto-Congo, we find
a very large western tributary of the Nile coming from the
volcanic region of Darfur ; this is the Wady Malik, that joins
the Nile at Old Dongola. Nowadays the Marra Hills have no
moisture to spare for the plains and the fact that a very large
river once took its rise in these hills, shows that the climatic
conditions were very much more favourable at one time.
According to our arguments, the Marra Hills lay in the bend
of. the Proto-Congo and its once copious rainfall is readily
explained by this fact.

In the Sudan, the Nile has a swampy region, like Lake
Chad, called the Bahr-el-Ghazal. There is a more or less well-
defined river-bed which bears this name, but it has practically
no fall. On the east, the Sobat enters the Bahr-el-Ghazal on
the same course, but flowing in the opposite direction, and
if both rivers are in flood at the same time there is a great
congestion of water at the confluence. It is an axiom that
when a river system contains such a region of dead water,

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 165

or when two rivers meet in such an unnatural manner, that
changes have taken place recently, and that the river has
not yet adapted itself to the new conditions. Here, however,
we come up against the Rift-system of East Africa, which
is a region of block uplift as well as of trough faults, and the
whole original plan of drainage is obscured. One is tempted
to suggest that the original river-bed extended from the Marra
Hills as the Bahr-el-Arab, then down the Bahr-el-Ghazal, down
the Sobat and out to sea by the Juba River; that the
mountains of block uplift rose across this and turned the
Sobat from a south-easterly flowing river to a north-westerly
one. Given sufficient time and no further shifting of the
earth's crust, the Juba River will eat back through the high-
lands of Abyssinia, tap the Sobat and actually cause such
a river to come into existence.

At the time when such a condition of things obtained,
the Rift Valleys of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden had not
yet been formed, and Arabia was joined on to the continent
of Africa. Africa then was a symmetrical block, with a
central extension north and south, together with a northern
cross-piece, the West African shoulder being balanced by the
Arabian shoulder on the east. The central portion was drained
and fertilised by the Proto-Congo, flowing from the Congo-
Zambesi divide to the Great Syrtis Gulf. On the west the
Niger and the Igharghar drained the country from south to
north and on the east; the Arabian shoulder was drained by
the twin Niles. The whole of the continent was then as well
watered as the North American Continent. With the Rift
system we cannot deal here, but for the rest, the drying up
of North Africa is due to the capture and diversion of its
natural river system whereby the waters which once tra-
versed the continent are now hurried in short, precipitous
courses to the sea-

SOUTH AFRICA.

In South Africa we have the central depression of the
Kalahari, surrounded on all sides by high ground. In the
centre lies Lake Ngami, corresponding, in many respects,
with Lake Chad. East of Lake Ngami there is another great
depression, occupied by the Soa Salt Pan and the Ntwetwe
Pan, and constituting the Makarikari depression. The Soa
Pan. covers an area of about 2,000 square miles and is 56
miles from north to south; the Ntwetwe Pan is 86 miles long,
by 5-8 miles broad. If the whole of the Makarikari depres-
sion, which lies some 150 feet below the level of Lake Ngami,
were to be filled by the overflow from that lake through the
Botletle River, a lake of 15,000 square miles in area would

1 66 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

be created, a sheet of water about double the size of Tangan-
yika and more than half the size of Victoria Nyanza.

The Soa and the Ngami Lake are connected by the
Botletle River and the relationship between the two is the
same as that between the Bodele and Lake Chad, the Botletle
River representing the Bahr-el-Ghazal. To the south-west of
the Soa Pan there is another pan, Andersson's Vley, con-
nected by a dry river-bed, or "omuramba," with the Soa
system, and from here to the Molopo River there are the sand
hills of the Kalahari; these are what the French call " Ergs
morts," that is, dunes that have been anchored by vegetation.
The sand belt occupies the centre of the course of the original
great river of South Africa, which T am going to call the Proto-
Orange, in accordance with the nomenclature adopted in the
case of the North African rivers. This river failed owing to
the capture of its head waters-

The original central South African river, this Proto-
Orange, rose in the highlands about Tanganyika and is now
called the Loangwe River. This flows south-west and joins
the Zambesi near Zomba; thence it originally flowed up the
channel of the Zambesi to Wankie, where it met the Batoka
basalts, and then followed a course parallel to the Deka fault,
in a valley, the Gwai Poort, still open to it, to the Soa Pan.
From the Soa Pan it flowed to Andersson's Vley and the
Molopo River at Mokopon, and so out to sea by the lower
Molopo and the Orange River. Livingstone, in his " Mission-
ary Travels," 1857, p. 477, alludes to the ancient river which
once flowed from the Linyanti (Chobe) basin to the Orange
River, so I am stating no new idea of my own, but rather
developing the facts recognised by actual travellers.

The original coastal rampart, on the east, was the Kirk
range, that skirts the western shore of Lake Nyasa and is
continued on the south, as the Melsetter Range; this latter
forms the boundary between Southern Rhodesia and Mozam-
bique. The original Zambesi rose in these hills and flowed
south-east to the sea. On the inland side the river ran
in its present channel, but north-westwards and then west-
wards, to join the Loangwe River. The original rampart is
now much degraded by weathering and erosion where the
Zambesi traverses it; at one time it was, judging from some
of the peaks left standing, like Mt. Dombo, 6,240 feet, at a
general average height of 6,000 feet, which is a constant
level for all the coastal ranges of South Africa- From this
range the Zambesi had a run of 350 miles to the sea, or a
fall of 17 feet to the mile. On the inland side the river had
a course of between 2,500 and 3,000 miles, or about two
feet to the mile; in other words, the erosive power of the coast

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.- 167

stream was eight and a half times greater than that of the
inland one.

The place where the Zambesi originally rose is now occu-
pied by the Kebrabasa Cateracts, which, have a fall of i6d
feet. On the right bank stands the mountain Zakavuma and
on the left, Morumba, some 3,000 feet high. The river is
jammed between these two mountains in a channel with per-
pendicular sides and less than 50 yards wide; the rocks are
water-worn and smooth, with huge pot-holes even 100 feet
above low-water. We can at once recognise the relationship
of this gorge to that below Stanley Pool on the Congo, and
the Falls of Bussa on the Niger. The swell of the land in
which the Victoria Falls are situated runs in a north-north-
westerly direction and is a secondary water-parting; at one
time the Zambesi cut back to as far as the Batoka Gorge
and all the water above the Falls was restrained within the.
Ngami depression, with an outlet to the Makarikari, and so
through the Kalahari to the Orange River. This was actually
the arrangement of the water system that the Portuguese
imagined to exist, before Livingstone ascended the Zambesi
from the mouth of the Falls in i860; it is only a coincidence,
based on faulty information, since even the early missionaries
at Zomba could scarcely have been there before the Zambesi
breached the ramparts of the Batoka basalts.

The Makarikari depression to the east of Lake Ngami is
a vast plain with the sides rising gradually or in terraces,
like in the old Lake Bonneville in Utah. In this plain the
salt pans lie sunk a few feet beneath the general surface and
are occasionally filled with water. Formerly there was a lake,
Kumado, in the southern corner, corresponding to the present
Ngami in the bed of its former extension; in Chapman's time
(1852) it was still a marsh, in the centre of which the Chief
Chapo had his town- The fact that in both depressions the
water accumulated in the southern ends leads me to think
that the natural outlet was formerly here, and not in the
north or east. The Gwai Poort, "the land of a thousand
vleys." forms a long bay in the high walls that separate the
depression from the Zambesi valley, but it is now partially
choked up with sand. On the south-west the valley of the
Gwai Poort is continued by the Omuramba Epukira. These
omirimba are shallow, grass-covered valleys, practically with-
out gradient; they were once river-beds but they have become
choked by silting or the' accumulation of wind-borne sand and
after rain, instead of being filled with running water they
become a series of vleys. A still further desiccation and all
connection with a river system becomes lost and the depres-
sions become isolated pans. The physiographical features
of this part of the country render it probable that the Gwai

1 68

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

Fig 7. Map of the Makarikari Depressions

Passarge and Percy C. Reid.

.—After Dr. S.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

169

Poort was the continuation of the Loangwe River before the
Zambesi cut across it.

On the Kalahari side we are fortunate in having a com-
plete description of the river-system by Livingstone, J.
Chapman, Galton Andersson, P. C. Reid, A. Schulz, and by
Passarge, in his work on the Kalahari- The Etosha Pan
forms practically a drainless area just inside the coastal
rampart- From the north the Cunene River drains the high-
lands of Angola, and formerly it poured its ample waters mto
the Etosha Pan; the vigorous head-stream erosion of the
coastal river, however, has cut back through the coastal
rampart and has now drained off most of this water. The
capture is actually in progress at the present time. Although
now when in flood, some of the water may overflow into the
Etosha Pan, m ordinary times the drainage from the Angola
highlands goes straight to the sea. Above Kinga the Cunene
River flows through an extensive plain with practically no
fall, and the river lies in a broad, marshy valley, with very
low banks. When in flood the river overflows its southern
bank, and the flood water finds its way, to the east of Humba
and above Kinga, into two large omirimba, the Oware and the
Kwamatua, which lead into the Etosha Pan. One large river
from the Angola highlands still, however, flows directly to
the pan, and in a few years this will be the only source of
supply.

WAL V I S H 8 ^ Y

'a.noersso,*>s

VUEY V

Fig. 8.

I70 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

Below Kinga the Cunene enters the rocky defile through
the coastal rampart and flows down a series of cateracts and
waterfalls, one of which is 330 feet high; there is no doubt
that the vigorous erosion going on here will shortly deprive
the inland system of all drainage from the Angola plateau.
The waters that once went to fertilise many thousands of
square miles m the Kalahari will all be diverted and hurried
uselessly to the sea. It is not practical politics to advocate
the building of a 900 feet dam across the Congo at Stanley
Pool to turn the whole of the Congo waters northwards into
the Sahara, but it is worth while pointing out that a weir
built across the Cunene River below Kinga, of very moderate
dimensions, would re-divert all the western waters of the
Kalahari into their original channels and make of that desert
a fertile, habitable region.

At the present time the flood waters of the Cunene River,
after filling the Etosha Pan, work their way up the Ovambo,
and eventually by the Omatako reach the Okavango River.
The latter river has in flood discharged into the Omatako during
recent .years, but in the floods of 1908-1909 the Omatako
became a raging torrent pouring into the Okavango- As far
as I can find them, the levels are: Kinga 3,501 feet, Etosha
Pan 3,447 feet, and where the Omatako flows into the Oka-
vango, 3,510 feet. A weir of 30 feet will give an elevation
of 21 feet above the Omatako confluence, and the depth of
water in the Etosha Pan 73 feet. These levels will have to
be adjusted by actual survey.

The Okavango River has its source m the highlands of
Angola, not far from that of the Cunene; between Cuangar
and Andara, the Libebe of Livingstone, it flows in a broad,
open valley, and the reed-bordered stream winds through
extensive flood-plains that are under water for a considerable
part of the year. It is a deep, clear river, having an average
width of about 100 yards, and is navigable for light craft
throughout this portion of its course. The river is m many
places bordered by aUuvial terraces of mud and sand, no
gravel being present, and on these forests of luxuriant growth
flourish. Just below Andara the river broadens out, with
sandy wooded islands in mid-stream, and then encounters a
bar of reddish quartzite striking north and south across the
stream. Over this the river, which is here 700-800 yards
wide, falls vertically some twenty feet. The river then enters
a sort of estuary, between the high walls of the Mabula
and Koka Plateaux, _where it divides into many inter-
communicating branches. This estuary lies in the floor of
the old Ngami Lake, now dried up all but a few swamps, of
which the present Lake Ngami is one. The original lake now
appears as a depression, like a shallow rift-valley, directed

>^

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 17 1

north-east south-west. On the other side of this there are
the Madenassa, Haina and Chansi Plateaux, separatmg the
Ngami from the Makarikari. The two great hollows are
connected by the Botletle River and to the south by, the
Omuramba Epurika.

Lake Ngami is an expansion in the system of inter-
communicating canals of the Okavango Delta and lies under
the eastern bank of its former basin. Livingstone, who dis-
covered the lake on August 1st, 1849, described it as being
60 miles wide, and from the writings of Livingstone, Chap-
man, Baines and other travellers of that time, the general
impression has arisen that Lake Ngami is a respectable sheet
of water. In 1897 Passarge found that the water had
entirely disappeared and its place taken by a brown expanse
of reeds, between the roots of which the traveller sinks into
treacherous mud. This was the condition of Lake Kumado
in the south of the Makarikari depression in 'Chapman's time,
1852, and here the lake has entirely disappeared, a? Ngami
will shortly if nothing is done to prevent it.

Livingstone recognised that Ngami land was once the
sight of a vast lake; he came to this conclusion from the
prevalence of fresh-water shells in the limestone layers that
appear underneafh the sand. He it was, too, who first
explained the climatic changes in South Africa as due to the
draining of this lake by the Zambesi. Livingstone called it
"a breaking through " of the Zambesi, but I have ascribed it
to the head-stream erosion of the river. The limits of the
two great Kalahari Lakes are shown in the map which I have
drawn from that by C. Jurisch, which accompanies Passarge's
work on the Kalahari. The limits of the Makarikari are
indefinite on the north, for here we have the Gwai Poort,
which is the old valley of the Loangwe, before the Zambesi
trenched across it. There has been doubt expressed as to
whether, if the Makarikari were to be filled up again, the
water would not escape by the Gwai Poort, but Chapman is
positive that there is a distinct water-shed, separating the
two areas.

The Kwando, Linyanti, or Chobe River, like the
Okavango, enters the Ngami depression by a sort of delta,
receiving an important tributary from the Okavango which
is short-circuiting the water past Lake Ngami and then
expands into a vast swamp, through which the water filters
into the Zambesi. Livingstone happened to be on the
borders of this swamp in i860 and describes how, after a
period of drought, the natives were burning the reeds in order
to drive out the elephants that fed in the swamps. The
chief, Makompa, with his men lying in wait, had killed five
elephants and three buffaloes with their spears, as well as

172 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

wounding several others which escaped. With man helping
to clear away the obstructions, the draining of Ngami by the
Zambesi became accelerated. Hundreds of similar examples
might be quoted from Cape Colony, many of which I have
seen myself; a swamp, either of reeds or palmiet, is burnt
in the dry season and in a very few years there is produced
a dry valley, down which the flood waters rush during the
rains, leaving no portion held in reserve in the swamp, that,
like a sponge, had previously retained it.

The Chobe Swamp has been driven away from the
eastern side of the Ngami depression here, but a portion of
the Chobe water, together with some from the Okavango,
reaches the far side to form the Mababe Swamp. The
north-eastern continuation of this is the Komane River, which
apparently no longer connects with the Zambesi, if it exists
at all at the present day as a river bed. It was crossed by
Chapman in 1852 and has not been seen since.

The Zambesi enters the Ngami depression by the
Mpandwe Falls and leaves it at Kasungula, where the Chobe
joins the Zambesi, some 50 miles above the Victoria Falls.
Between these two points the river follows the north-eastern
border of the depression. When the lip of the Victoria Falls
was a few feet higher, the whole of the Ngami depression
was a vast lake, 300 miles long, from south-west to north-
east, and 100 miles broad, having the appearance of a
rift-valley lake, like Nyaso and Tanganyika, which are 350
and 235 miles long respectively. At a still earlier stage, the
Victoria Falls formed an unsurmountable barrier for the
Zambesi and its waters went into and filled up the entire
Ngami depression. This lake was tapped by the Zambesi
below the Falls, eating back by head-stream erosion, just as
Tanganyika has been tapped by the Lukuga in quite recent
times; in a few centuries Tanganyika will be drained dry by
the Lukuga and its basin will present the same appearance
as the Ngami depression now does.

Livingstone's description of the country is as follows
t" Missionary Travels," p. 527): —

The level of the lower portion of the Lekone is about
200 feet above the Zambesi at the Falls and considerably
more than the altitude of Linyanti ; consequently, when
the river flowed along this ancient bed, instead of through
the rent, the whole country between this and the ridge,
beyond Andara westwards. Lake Ngami and the Zouga
(Botletle) southwards, and eastwards beyond Nchokotsa,
was one large fresh water lake. The whole of this space
is paved with a bed of tufa, more or less soft according
as it is covered with soil or left exposed to atmospheric
influences. Whenever ant-eaters make deep holes in this

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. I -JZ

ancient bottom, fresh-water shells are thrown out, identical
with those now existing in Lake Ngami and the Zambesi.
The whole of these lakes was let out by means of cracks
or fissures made in the subtending sides by the upheaval
of the country. The fissure made at the Victoria Falls
let out the water of this great valley and left a small patch
in what was probably its deepest portion and is now called
Ngami. The Congo, also, finds its way to the sea through
a narrow channel.

The greater Ngami found an outlet southwards down the
Botletle, to the Makarikari, the two sheets of water being thus
connected, like Albert and Albert Edward Nyanzas by the
Semliki River. Livingstone, who approached the Makarikari
in 1849, by way of the Makoko River, states ("Missionary
Travels," p. 61) that the Makoko below Lotlakani spreads out
into a very large lake, of which Ngami formed a very small
part. According to Chapman, who crossed the Ntwetwe Pan
several times, and who was on the eastern side of the depres-
sion in 1854, the banks on the east are abrupt and steep. The
older Bushmen told him that some thirty or forty years ago
the lake never dried up and abounded with hippopotamus,
crocodiles and fish. Suddenly, they said, the waters from
Lake Ngami ceased to flow, the lake dried up and the dead
fish and animals were devoured by the vultures. In Chap-
man's time the vast expanse of the Soa Pan was nothing but
a barren plain, level as a plank floor and covered with a white,
saline incrustation. This level plain became inundated during
some months of the year, assuming then a very grand appear-
ance, though only twelve to eighteen inches deep.*

Aurel Schulz (1897) states that the natural outlet for the
Makarikari is through the Macloutsie Poort, down the Shashi
River and so to the Limpopo, but Chapman (loc. cit., p. 257),
who was in this angle of the depression, states that there is a
range of hills shutting in the view and directed S.W.-N.E. In
the same way other travellers maintain that the Gwai Poort is
the natural outlet, and that if the depression were to be filled
up, the water would flow down the Gwai River, and so into
the Zambesi below the Falls. Chapman discovered the Gwai
River, and he distinctly states that there is a big rise from the
Makarikari to the water-shed, and the fact that the Makarikari
was a lake at one time, rather discounts this view ; besides the
whole drainage on the east of the depression is towards the
pans, as shown by the Shua or Nata River. Livingstone recog-
nised that the original outlet was on the south, and he calls it
the old river that flowed through the Kalahari and joined the
Orange River. People who have been over this ground recently

*J. Chapman, " Travels," London, 1868, vol. I., p. 242.

J74 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

tell me that there are still great forest trees standing along
the course of this river, though they look as if they had been
dead for centuries, and at one place there is a great debris heap
of boulders, sand and trunks of trees in the bed of this old
river, which may have been the prime cause of its diversion.

Before the Zambesi drained the Ngami basin, the Kafue
was not diverted into its present course, but made straight
for the Ngami depression, instead of, as at present, turning
abruptly at right angles and joining the Zambesi below the
Falls.

The wear and tear of the rock-lip of the Victoria Falls is
so tremendous that every year the level is sinking and more
water is being drawn from the Chobe-Okavango system.
Livingstone noticed evident deepening of the river bed above
Sesheke ("Missionary Travels," p. 216). The Chobe Swamp
will soon be drained, though at the present moment (May, 191 8)
owing to unprecedented rains it is a vast inland sea, the old
channels to the Ngami are sanded up and the water cannot
escape fast enough over the Falls. What is to be feared is
that, after such a flood as has occurred this year, the water
from the Okavango will find a straight course by the Selinda
branch to the Zambesi and the Ngami Lake will disappear as
completely as the Kumado Lake in the Makarikari.

To complete the preservation of what is left of the river
system of the Kalahari and to prevent desert conditions from
spreading beyond the Kalahari, as they obviously are at the
present day, it will be necessary to weir up the Chobe River,
between the swamps and its confluence with the Zambesi, to
prevent the water that is turned into the system by the pro-
posed weir on the Cunene River from escaping down the
Zambesi, and increasing, perhaps, the beauty of Mosioatunya,
as the natives call the Victoria Falls, but doing no good to the
country. The site for this weir is about thirty miles from the
junction of the Chobe with the Zambesi, three miles east of the
village of Ngoma; here there is high ground on both sides of
the river. Lower down, at the Sebuba Rapids, seven miles
from the confluence, there is a bar of hard rock crossing the
river, but there is only high ground on the south; on the north
there is a dead level plain, flooded by the Zambesi. The same
bar of rock crosses the Zambesi, and forms the Alambova
Rapids. The idea of the weir is not to form an absolute bar-
rier to the outflow of the waters, but to provide an impediment,
which will make the water pound up against it, and allow the
water from the Okavango, coming straight to the Ngami, to
clear the old channels of the sand which now blocks their beds.
The weir, in such tremendous floods as have occurred this year,
would be entirely submerged, but gradually, as the old chan-
nels are scoured out, the water would flow into the Makarikari,

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 175

and the weir would become more of the nature of an unsub-
merged wall.

To recreate the greater Ngami in its entirety would mean
the building of a barrage across the Zambesi, which is too big
a scheme to advocate just at present; there are, also, too many
interests involved, not the least of which are those of the
natives who live in the Ngami depression; if the whole depres-
sion were to be flooded, these natives would be drowned out.
As the Makarikari depression is 150 feet below the level of
Lake Ngami, the proposed Chabe weir would cause a consider-
able expansion of the area of Lake Ngami, would turn the
Mababe, Mashabe and Chobe Swamps into large lakes, and the
overflow would go down the Botletle River and All up the
Makarikari basin. A sheet of water of this size, some 15,000
square miles in area, in the middle of the Kalahari, would turn
this great thirst land from being the source whence all the
drought-producing hot winds originate, into an evaporating
dish, supplying rain clouds for the whole of South Africa; for
moisture in the centre of a continent is not dissipated as on the
sea-board, by winds that may blow the rain-laden clouds out
to sea, but, as it transpired by the leaves of the forest trees
and the grass of the meadows, or evaporated from the surfaces
of lakes, it ascends into the air and is precipitated as rain over
the adjoining country, and the process is repeated in ever-
widening circles. The converse is also true; a desert keeps the
air hot and dry, devastating hot winds blow from these
regions and scorch up the adjoining lands. In South Africa,
whether in the Karroo or the coastal plains on the west, one
sees after rain the original vegetation spring up, green and
tender, among the hardy, permanent bushes; this " opslag," as
the Boers call it, is very short-lived, for in a few days the hot
winds come and wither it up. It is a fact, too, that many of
the severest droughts in South Africa are not due to deficiency
of rainfall, but occur because between the falls of rain the
desert winds come and wring out of the soil every drop of
moisture. As a case in point, I may mention the drought in
the Eastern Province in 191 3- 191 7. With quite a fair average
rainfall, the hot winds had so dried the soil that the run-off,
after rain, was reduced to 4 per cent, 96 per cent, being
absorbed in the ground which had become as dry as ashes; in
the latter half of 191 7 the drought broke and a succession of
rains fell without the intervening periods of hot winds and, the
run-off rose to 80 per cent., only 20 per cent, being required by
the soil.

To revive the whole of the Proto-Orange system is no
longer possible ; it is more impossible than to revive the Proto-
Congo system. South Africa stands at such an elevation above
the sea, that the rivers quickly cut for themselves deep canyons.

176 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

The Loangwe River, for instance, which was once on the Ngami
level, now enters the Zambesi below the Victoria Falls, at an
elevation of 774 feet, whereas Lake Ngami is 3,117 feet and
the Soa Pan 2,954 feet above sea-level. Kasungula, at the
confluence of the Chobe and Zambesi, is about 30 feet below
Ngami ; the site I have indicated as suitable for a weir cannot
be much more than 10 feet below Ngami; in fact, Chapman
found the Chobe flowing up the Talmalukan towards Ngami in
1853.* As we have taken the Soa Pan to have been on the
course of the Central South African river, the Proto-Orange,
the Zambesi must have cut downwards 2,161 feet since it cap-
tured the Loangwe. This seems a vast amount, but when one
regards the gorges of double and treble the depth, cut by our
small rivers in Cape Colony, through the coastal rampart, it
docs not seem so great after all.

South of Andersson's Vley, all trace of a river system
becomes lost, and what rain does fall collects in isolated,
shallow pans. We And, however, on the south-east the Kaap
Plateau draining into the Kalahari, by stream-beds of con-
siderable size, though now dry. All these are directed to the
north-west and some of them connect with the central portion
of the Molopo River. The present commencement of the
Molopo near Mafeking is a stream that often flows, but the
water does not get many miles west of the town; the river,
after proceeding in a westerly course, turns north-west, then
due west, and then due south. At this last bend, marked
Mokopon, I have placed the junction of the Proto-Orange with
the present bend of the Molopo, as the most probable place,
making, thus, the Molopo a tributary of this river above the
bend ; below this, the Molopo would be the bed of the original
principal stream. According to the relief map in L. Schultze's
book on Namaland and the Kalahari (1907), the main river
may have joined the Nosob first, the Molopo entering it lower
down. At any rate, the natural inclination of the land would
lead the water in the direction I have stated, and the Makari-
kari Lake, if refilled, would not flow north or east through the
Kwai or Macloutsie Poorts. The Kalahari sand has obliterated
the more northerly portion, between Mokopon and the Makari-
kari, just as the Saharan sand has obliterated the middle
portion of the Igharghar.

On the west of the Kalahari, we have the highlands of the
coastal rampart, and these drain by several very large, dry
rivers into a central channel, the Molopo; they all run in a
south-easterly direction, and the chief one is the Nosob.

^Between the site of the weir and Kasungala there are the Sebuba.
rapids (Chapman's "Travels," 1868, vol. I., p. 184).

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 177

The Molopo River enters the Orange River below the great
bar of granite at the Aughrabies Falls. The whole of the area
under discussion, that is to say, the drainage area of the
Proto-Orange, is a plateau inclined to the south-west, and we
have assigned to it its natural outlet. This Proto-Orangc has
been beheaded ; its head streams have been diverted by the
Zambesi, and the central portion has been bereft of its
natural aliment and has become a desert. Luckih', its southern
affluents, the present Orange and Vaal Rivers, still have water
in them, but the same process is going on all round the basins
of their head streams, the coastal streams are eating back
through the girdle of the coastal rampart, and every year more
and more water is being hurried precipitously to the sea,
instead ©f going the long journey across the continent, where
it can do some good.

In Cape Colony, the rampart of dolerite-capped hills of
the Karroo guard the inland waters, what little is left of them,
the tough nature of the rock yielding very gradually to the
agencies of Weathering and erosion, but still the Great Fish
River has eaten a great bite out of the inner drainage area.
The dolerite-capped escarpment of the Karroo is a secondary
water-shed and stands in the same relationship to the coast
ranges, as the Batoka basalts of the Victoria Falls stand tb
Kirk and Melsetter Ranges. In the Transvaal, we see the
Komati River stealing into the territory of the Vaal River; the
Olifants River draining inland as far as Pretoria, and the
Limpopo River reaching back even to the outskirts of the
Kalahari. Further north, the Sabi River has pierced the
Melsetter barrier range and drains the whole country from
Bulawayo to Salisbury ; finally the Zambesi sends back its
tentacles almost to the West Coast. Every one of these rivers
started originally at the coastal rampart and has eaten back
by headstream erosion. The waters inside the barrier-ranges
once flowed towards Central South Africa and made the
central depression a land of running rivers and of great
fertility.

We cannot hope to bring all or any of these rivers back
to their original courses, and to w^eir up the inland streams is
simply to check their flow and to give a further advantage to
the vigorous coastal streams. We can, however, stop the
further desiccation of the central portions of South Africa by
building two weirs, one across the Cunene River, below Kinga,
and the other across the Selinda River, or, better still, across
the Chobe River, between the swamps and the Zambesi. The
study of any good map of South Africa will show one how
the steep, coastal rivers are stealing inland and draining the
waters that flow towards the centre, so that the waters that
once went to fertilise the plains are turned back and hurried

178 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

uselessly to the sea. Not only are the courses of the rivers
steeper on the seaward side of the mountain rampart, but
owing to the fact that this intercepts the moisture-laden sea-
breezes, there is more precipitation on the seaward side. If we
could give more rain to the inland area, we should equalise
matters more nearly and delay the invasion of the coastal
streams indefinitely.

The scheme outlined here is a practicable one to give
South Africa a greater general humidity, and is not an exces-
sively expensive one. The two weirs across the Cunene and
Chobe Rivers will cause the Etosha Pan to fill up and Lake
Ngami to cover much of its former area, making one great
lake out of the present separated tracts of Ngami, the Mababe
and Chobe Swamps; the overflow would fill the Makarikari
depression, which, with the Gwai and Macloutsie extensions,
covers an area of 15,000 square miles, There would be, thus,
created a source of supply for rain-clouds, that would refresh
the Kalahari and clothe its sand-hills with permanent pasture.
The water transpired by the vegetation covering this great
tract would ascend and be precipitated throughout the area
within the girdle of the coastal rampart; the condition of South
Africa would be restored to that of some two or three hundred
'years back, when the Karroo was a flower garden, supporting
vast herds of game and the present dry rivers ran throughout
the year. Unless this is done, the central supply for our rain
will dry up entirely ; desert conditions will spread until South
Africa will become a waste land like North Africa, and the
fate of Capetown and Pretoria will be that of Berenice and
Taodeni. Such a future will not be fulfilled in our lifetime,
nor in a century, but we can go back in this descent several
hundred years in one step, by stopping up the leak while it is
still mendable ; we can preserve South Africa from the fate of
North Africa, where the leak has become a tear, beyond our
present skill in engineering of repair.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. F. E. Kanthack, C.M.G., M.I.C.E., Director of Irriga-
tion, after moving a cordial vote of thanks to Professor
Schwarz for his interesting and courageous paper, went on to
deplore the fact that such a very inadequate amount of time
had been allowed for this paper and its discussion, in view of
the extreme importance of the matter, and, more especially of
the remedies proposed by Professor Schwarz, and of the far-
reaching beneficial results which, he claimed, would result
therefrom. The fact that Professor Schwarz had, some months
ago, brought his ideas before the public through the medium
of the Press, and that his ideas had stimulated very consider-
able interest, not only amongst the public at large, but also in

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. I79

the Senate, where the matter was debated, and in the course of
which debate it was pointed out that the scientific aspects oi
Professor Schwarz's proposals were to be discussed by members
of this Society, made it most desirable, therefore, that a full
discussion on the subject should be allowed. In view of the very
short time at his disposal, however. Air. Kanthack said that he
must confine his remarks to only a few aspects of the case, and
as these remarks dealt to a large extent with meteorological,
geological and botanical aspects, sciences which were represented
at the meeting by recognised authorities, he would endeavour to
raise points Which would stimulate definite criticism on the part
of these authorities.

Professor Schwarz's paper he considered could be roughly
divided into four sections :

Firstly, there was what could be described as the Paleo-
graphical Section, in which Professor Schwarz attempted to
reconstruct the ancient drainage system of the African Con-
tinent as deduced from general geological and present-day
topographical conditions.

Regarding the views put forward by Professor Schwarz
under this heading, he did not feel competent to express any
opinion, but presumed that his geological friends would do so.

The second section of the paper dealt with more modern
drainage conditions, both hydrographic and topographical, and
dealt mainly with the vast area included within the drainage
area of what Professor Schwarz describes as the Proto-Orange
River system. In this section Mr. Kanthack ix>inted out that,
from personal knowledge, he could not agree with some of the
statements made in the paper, amongst them the statement that
the Omatako River, in the South-West Protectorate, was an un-
defined drainage line, as described in the paper. He had, during
191 5, explored this river for about 150 miles, from its head
waters downwards, and was of opinion that the Omatako was a
most pronounced drainage line arising on the high watershed of
the Northern Protectorate, and embracing such very prominent
features as the Omatako Mountain and the Waterberg Range,
from which there was a most decided gradient draining in an
easterly direction. The assertion made that this channel, or
Omuramba, as it is called locally, was capable of conveying
water alternately westward or eastward was, in his opinion,
impossible ; it would imply in the case of the westward flow, a
most pronounced flow up-hill. Then, again, in the case of the
Ovambo River, which was also well known to him, and which
was a pronounced drainage channel running from east to west,
Mr. Kanthack took exception to the statement that the flow of
water in this river could be reversed so as to convey water from
the Etosha Pan into the Okovango River system.

With regard to general statements made in the paper relating
to the relative levels of the Kunene, Okovango, Chobe and
Zambesi Rivers, in relation to the N'Gami and Makarikari Lakes,
he had to point out that these were based entirely upon aneroid

t8o the desiccation of AFRICA.

observations, and, as everyone knew who had had experience
with observations made with such instruments, no matter what
precautions were taken, such levels were liable to very great
errors, and, in vievv' of the very small difference in altitude, on
which Professor Schwarz based his scheme, extreme caution was
necessary in accepting such data.

The third section of the paper dealt with the partial
restoration of Professor Schwarz's Proto-Orange River drainage
system., and this was, to a large extent, an engineering question.
The entire absence of reliable levels had already been referred
to and it is impossible to criticise many of the far-rea6hing
engineering proposals made without having essential data of this
kind. It has already been stated that, in so far as the proposal
to divert the Kunene into the Okavango system is concerned, the
proposals appear to be impracticable, and this raises many
misgivings regarding the practicability, ifrom an engineering point
of view, of the proposals concerning the Zambesi River and its
tributaries.

Another matter which is oil 'thei utmost limportance in
connection with the proposals is the availability of sufficient
volumes of water to be derived from the Kunene, Okovango and
other drainage areas, which would be required for the purpose,
firstly of creating an enormously enlarged Etosha Lake, which,
according to Proifessor Schwarz, would attain a depth of over 70
feet, and, secondly, of recreating the Makarikari Lake, the
superficial area of which he estimates at 15,000 square miles.

The extensive knowledge which we have now in our
possession relating to the percentage of rainfall which runs from
a given area in the form of stream flow, clearly demonstrates
that the enormous volumes of water required to give practical
effect to this sdheme would rarely or even never be forthcoming,
and, in this case, far from achieving the objects desired, the
proposed works would merely lead to the creation of vast salt
deserts and swamps. To engineering and technical difficulties,
such as referred to above, must, of course, be added very great
politico-economic difficulties, and also what Professor Schwarz,
in his resume, euphemistically described as sentimental difficul-
ties. Supposing, however, for the moment, that it were possible
to carry out the sc'heme, and that the vast inland seas in the
northern South-West Protectorate and in the Kalahari or the
Bechuanaland Protectorate came into existence, we then come to
the most important section of the paper, namely, the advantages
which would be derived from the scheme. It is clear that, in plac-
ing such an enormous scheme before the people of the Union of
South Africa, which, it must be said, would certainly cost a vastly
greater amount of money than Professor Schwarz appears to
imagine, assured benefits of a far-reaching and very sub-
stantial character would be demanded.

The main results claimed for the scheme by Professor
Schwarz are the pronounced amelioration of climatic conditions
in the arid parts of the Union, more especially the Karroo, and,

%

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. l8l

whilst it is not so definitely stated in the paper before us, it is
clear from Professor Schwarz's prelim,inary remarks in the
newspapers that he claims that in the Karroo, within
historic times — that is, within the period of the last few
generations — climatic agricultural conditions were vastly more
favourable in the past than they are now, and he claims
that his scheme will restore to the Karroo those favour-
able conditions, and it is mainly on the question of the beneficial
results to be derived from the scheme that the greatest exception
was taken to Professor Schwarz's proposal. It is, in the first
place, denied that, within what could possibly be described as
recent times, the Karroo, or any other portion of arid South
Africa south of the Molopo, was anything but a pronouncedly
arid stretch oi country. The very name " Karroo " is, it is
understood, the Bushman or Hottentot word implying aridity.
It is true that, during the past few generations, the Karroo, to a
large extent, has suffered greatly as a result of erosion, which is
due entirely to artificial causes ; but, wliilst this erosion or slooting
has been responsible for the most widespread drying up of
vleis, etc., and whilst the destruction of mountain vegetation by
fires and overgrazing has given rise to destructive floods, which
'have eroded large areas of land, and rendered other large areas
useless by covering them with sand, boulders and detritus, and
in many cases the rate of run-off of the rainfall has been
increased to an extent wholly prejudicial to the country, there is
no evidence whatever, during the whole of this period, that the
rainfall over the Union or its intensity has been decreased, or
that meteorological conditions, in general, have altered to a
greater extent than is shown by possible periodic variations due
to causes at present impenfectly understood, and which cannot
be properly analysed with the comparatively short record at our
disposal. All the evidence at our disposal goes to show that arid
South Africa has been arid for ages which can only be measured
in geological time.

Taking, in the first place, the botanical evidence, we have,
in arid South Africa, what I believe to be an unique flora
composed largely of succulent and other species which have been
adapted by nature to be extremely drought-resisting. It is well
known to any observer of such things that this peculiar vegeta-
tion, which may be called Karroo vegetation, is unable to exist
under more humid climatic conditions. Along the edges of the
arid belt, where the rainfall begins to be more regular and
greater in amount, but where these better conditions are not fully
established, the Karoo vegetation has to put up a very severe
struggle for existence, and two or three favourable rainfall
years are sufficient to drive it out altogether.

If Karroo veld is irrigated, the Karoo vegetation is almost
immediately killed, and, if such irrigation is stopped, the re-
establishment of Karroo vegetation takes place very slowly from
the margin. It is obvious that a vegetation so unique in the
world and with such pronounced characteristics, has not come

l82 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

into existence within a few generations, but must have required
an enormously long period of time for its evolution. The
(further development of this line of argument must be left to
botanical authorities, such as Dr. Pole Evans and others, who,
it is hoped, will take part in this discussion.

Secondly, from the geological and physiographical point of
view, evidence most strongly supports the theory of the extreme
age of the present arid conditions. The great vleis in the
Karroo, which, in the past, were such a feature in the landscape,
but w'hich are now unfortunately, to a large extent, arid and
eroded flats, due to causes already mentioned, have obviously
come into existence only throughout a long period of arid
conditions. In this connection, Mr. Kanthack cited examples of
the nature and formation of such vleis as derived from experi-
ences in building dams in the Karroo, more especially the
valuable evidence obtained in the building of the great dam on the
Smartt Syndicate Estate in the Britstown district. He further
drew comparison between the conditions under which these vleis
had been formed and the formation oif the great Loess plains
and steppes of South-East Europe. He also drew attention to
the interesting discovery of a fossil skeleton of a large saurian
in the Henkries Valley in Northern Namaqualand, which was
recently discovered by Dr. Rogers, and which was embedded in,
and entirely covered by, deposits of material derived from
erosion under extreme arid conditions, which pointed to the
extreme length of time throughout which desert conditions had
obtained in that part of Namaqualand.

Thirdly, he pointed out that agricultural evidence indicated
clearly in the Cape Province that, with soils derived from
identical geological formations, the degree of fertility was, more
or less, in inverse proportion to the rainfall. Thus the alluvial
soils of the most arid parts of the Karroo were vastly more fertile
than the soils derived from almost exactly the same geological
formations situated further east in regions of much greater
rainfall.

Fourthly, there is the historic evidence contained in old
accounts of travels of high ofificials, etc., which are to be found
in the Cape Archives, in which frequent reference is made to the
most severe droughts.

All the above, and much more evidence of a varied
character, goes to show that the present arid conditions of the
Karroo are of enormously longer standing, and that if, as is
asserted, any great changes took place in the northern parts of
Bechuanaland such as the sudden drying up of the N'Gami and
Makarikari Lakes, these catastrophes made no impression upon
the climatic conditions of the Karroo, either for the worse or for
the better. , .,

It remains to deal with the problem from the meteorological
point of view, which, in many respects, is the most important
aspect of the case. This was, however, a matter which Mr.
Kanthack stated he preferred to leave in the hands of authorities

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 183

on -meteorology, such as Mr. Charles Stewart, Chief Meteoro-
logist for the Union.

Dr. I. B. Pole Evans. M.A., F.L.S., Chief of the Division
of Botany, Union Department of Agriculture, said that he was
much in the same position as the previous speaker (Mr.
Kanthack) ; in that he had not yet had an opportunity of reading
through Professor Schvvarz's interesting paper; he could there-
fore, in the short time at his disposal, only touch upon a few of
the points which had occurred to him whilst listening to Pro-
fessor Schwarz.

The first point was that with regard to Professor Schwarz's
suggestion that at one time in the history of Africa some of the
great rivers instead of flowing directly into the oceans first ran
inland. If such had been the case one would naturally expect to
find evidence of the peculiar coast-belt flora in the interior along
the courses of these rivers. As far as he was aware, there was at
present no evidence of a botanical nature to support this view.

The second point was with regard to Professor Schwarz's
idea that the desert conditions of the KarroO' were of com-
paratively recent origin. The botanical evidence certainly did
not bear this out, for the Karroo flora was of a very highly
specialised type. All the organs, such as the leaves, stems, and
roots, were constructed either for the purposes of storing water
or for preventing the evaporation of water. Such a high degree
of specialisation could not possibly have been brought about in
even a comparatively short geological period of time.

Furthermore, it was common knowledge that the Karroo
xerophytes were the most difficult of all plants to grow out of
their natural habitat, and could not be easily acclimatised by man
like many of our other plants.

By creating such a huge mass oif water as Professor
Schwarz proposed in the interior of the continent, it must be borne
in mind that we would be disturbing the balance ui nature, and
it would be very difficult to predict, without considering the
matter in all its aspects from a biological standpoint, whether the
presence of such a lake would be to the benefit of the country or
otherwise.

_ Mr. C. M. Stewart, B.Sc, Chief Meteorologist of the
Union, said that before proceeding to make any comments, he
must express his admiration for the originality and boldness of the
ideas contained in Professor Schwarz's paper.

Apart from the geological aspect of the probable cause of
aridity, the most important because the most practical considera-
tion in connection with this proposed scheme is the probable
effect of such a body of water on the climate of South Africa.
There are certain results which would naturally ensue from the
damming up of a body of water 15,000 square miles in area.
Among these may be mentioned, first, a modification of the local
atmospheric circulation similar to the land and sea breezes of the
coastal districts. Owing to its great specific heat, the water would

184 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

become heated much more slowly than the land during the day,
and would part with its heat equally slowly during the night,
so that as a general rule the water would be colder than the
adjoining land by day and warmer during the night. As a result
there would be on-shore breezes during the day, and on-lake
breezes at night, or, at least, a modification of the general cir-
culation due to the pressure distribution, in consequence of the
tendency to the production of such winds.

A second result would be an increase in the humidity of the
atmosphere due to the evaporation from this large water-surface.

A third effect would be a tendency to the reduction of the
extremes of daily temperature, tlie maximum being slightly
lowered, the minima being raised more particularly, owing to hot
winds being cooled and cold winds warmed in their passage over
the water. These last two effects would be more apparent on
the leeward than on the windward side. A somewhat similar
result would be locally apparent in the seasonal variation. A
similar effect is met with along the eastern shore of Lake
Michigan (20,000 square miles in area), where the amelioration
of the climate due to the presence oif tthis large body of water is
such that peaches, grapes, etc., can be grown in a narrow strip
known as the " Fruit Belt." Whilst there can be but little doubt
that the impounding of a large sheet of water such as this would
produce the modifications of local climate just mentioned, it is a
very different matter when we come to consider the modifica-
tions of actual precipitation that are likely to ensue. It then
becomes necessary to ask the questions. Is the proposed scheme
capable of producing the effects claimed for it? And if so, is it
likely that the results claimed for the scheme would be actually
produced? The mere proximity of extensive sheets of water is
of itself insufficient to^ ensure any area having a large or even
moderate rainfall, otherwise there would not be such a state
of affairs as prevails at Walvisch Bay, on the West Coast, where
precipitation amounts tO' something like one-third of an inch in
the year. If for the sake oif argument it be allowed that a rain-
fall of 20 inches per annum is the minimum on which agricultural
operations can be carried on without artificial watering {i.e.,
without the assistance of irrigation), it is found that in the Union
of South Africa alone there are approximately 240,000 square
miles having less than this amoimt.* Of these, something like
128,000 square miles have less than 10 inches; so that,
on a rough estimate, an additional amount of 9 inches
per annum would on the average require to be dis-
tributed over these 240,000 square miles to bring the annual
rainfall up to the minimum assumed necessary for agricultural
purposes. Even granting that the evaporation from this water-
surface amounts to 100 inches per annum, and further assuming
that the whole of this amount were transported and distributed

*Schunke Hollway states that the desert region of South Africa
measures 700,000 square miles.

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 185

over the Union in proportion to the requirements df each
locality, a simple calculation shows that it would add an
additional 6 inches to the rainfall, bringing the average up to 17
inches, thus leaving an additional 3 inches to be met from
artificial watering. It is of course not only possible, but very
probable, that a certain proportion would be re-e\aporated from
the ground and re-precipitated, but this would take place in
decreasing amount as the distance from the source of supply
increased, and with each recurrence of precipitation and subse-
quent evaporation.

In order to produce the desired result it is not sufficient
merely to get the moisture into the air, but the mechanism must
also be available, not only to transport the moist air to the desired
area, but also to re-precipitate it over that region. The main
cause of aridity in any part of the world is not that there is not
sufficient moisture in the air, but that nature has withheld the
means of cooling the atmosphere sufficiently over sudh regions to
cause condensation. It is evident that in order that this scheme
should benefit the arid and semi-arid portions of the Union, there
ought to be a fairly persistent northerly to north-easterly wind to
transport the moisture ; whilst over these dry regions the means
of dynamically cooling the air to such an extent as to produce
precipitation must be at hand to take advantage of the presence
of the moist currents. This might take the form of a denser
stratum of air, which, by under-running the warm, moist layer,
would cause it to rise and so cool by expansion to such an
extent as to cause it to part with its moisture ; or the atmosphere
over t'he dry regions must be so warmed as to cause convectional
(vertical) ascent, resulting in thunderstorms, etc. As the
attitude of the proposed scheme is approximately 3,500 feet, and
as the dry areas of the Union vary from 1,500 to 4,500 feet
(mostly about 4,000 feet) it is evident that but little rain could be
expected from orographic causes, that is produced by cooling
due to forced ascent over mountains or other high ground.

Athough nothing is known of the meteorological conditions
prevailing over the site of this proposed scheme, it may be per-
missible to examine the weather conditions at Bulawayo as
published by the Rev. Father Goetz in his papers on " Some
Meteorological Features of Southern Rhodesia " and " The
Rainfall of Rhodesia."

Bulawayo (20°9' South Lat.) is in practically the same
latitude as, but a little further east than, the Alakarikari, and so
lies well within the Tropics. It is not, therefore, surprising to
learn that Father Goetz asserts that a rainfall not accompanied
by electrical phenomena is an exception from October to April.
An examination of the tables of hourly distribution of rainfall
shows that 75 per cent, of the total occurs between i p.m. and
midnig'ht, the largest portion (42 per cent.) falling between i
and 6 p.m.

It would therefore appear that thunderstorms are the most

l86 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

effective agents in producing rainfall over this area. The
direction and rate at which they travel will be dependent on the
currents some distance up : of these we know very little, except
that " cirrus " clouds travel from a little north of west. Now
the frequent occurrence of afternoon thunderstorms presupposes
an almost stagnant atmosphere, so tliat one is prepared for the
statement that the winds at Bulawayo are mostly light (forces
3 to 4 on the Beaufort Scale being considered strong for
Bulawayo) .

The prevalent direction is very nearly E.S.E. Although
Father Goetz states that " it is not easy to decide whether there
are any w^inds especially associated with a fall of rain, he finds,
on correlating the self-recording anemometer and rain gauge
records, that 55 per cent of the total that fell between 24th
January, 1904, and ist May, 1908, occurred with winds between
E. and S., leaving 45 per cent, distributed among the remaining
five points and calms.

If one may be allow^ed to apply these results to the Makari-
kari region, it seems reasonable to believe that the result of the
conversion of these marshes into a lake would be an increase
in the humidity of the air, particularly on the west side ; an
increased rainfall in the immediate vicinity of the lake ; and a
much smaller increase at a greater distance, noticeable all round
— possibly to a distance of two hundred miles — but more par-
ticularly on the north and west sides.

In order to benefit the dry regions of the Union, a radical
readjustment of the distribution of pressure over South Africa
and the surrounding seas would be necessary, including the
obliteration oif the permanent anti-cyclone off the West Coast,
one of the most effective factors in causing the rainfall to be low
over the western half of this country.

Such an alteration is certainly far beyond what could be
effected by Professor Schwarz's scheme,, large though one may
consider it.

For these reasons I am afraid that tlie climatic results that
would ensue from the carrying out of this scheme would fall far
short of those depicted ; our arid regions would remain arid, and
the Karroo continue to be merely " Karroo."*

* As mention has been made of Lake Michigan in the above remarks,
the subjoined extract from the letterpress of the U.S. Weather Bureau
publication, "' Meteorological Chart of the Great Lakes/' by Alfred J.
Henry and Norman B. Conger (1907), ought to prove of some interest.
These five Great Lakes together cover an area of about 93,000 square
miles, and lie directly in one of the main storm tracks of the North
American Continent, consequently the atmospheric circulation is mainly
horizontal. The prevailing winds are from north-west to south-west, so
that the effects of evaporation from the Lakes ought to be most apparent
to eastward. On the subject of "The Lake Influence," the authors
remark as follows : —

" It is a rather common belief that the Great Lakes, by reason of
the enormous possibilities of evaporation they possess, are an effective

THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA. 187

Dr. p. A. Wagner, B.Sc. : The thanks of the Association
are due to the author for having brought this very important
matter before us. We, the colleagues of Professor Schwarz, do
not always see eye to eye with him in geological matters, but we
know that he can be relied upon to present his view^s in a most
interesting manner, and you will, I think, agree with me that on
the present occasion he has excelled himselif.

Many of the questions raised in the paper have already been
fully discussed. I shall therefore confine myself, as far as
possible, to points not hitherto dealt with.

In the first place, I should like to offer a word of criticism in
regard to the author's conception of the Proto-Orange. Professor
Schwarz joins up to Loangwe River with the lower course of
the Molopo, and thus conjures up the vision of a mighty stream
traversing what is at present the Kalahari. Now there can be
no question that the Molopo at soine former period must — at
times, at any rate — ^have been a swiftly-flowing stream, for,
during a recent visit to the Southern Kalahari, I found on a
small island in the middle of the present dry channel, about six
miles south of the Upington-Keetmanshoop railway, an extensive
terrace of coarse river wash, 15 feet in thickness, with well-
rounded boulders up to 18 inches in diameter. lu regard to the
age df the deposit, the top of which is about 35 feet above the
river-bed, there is no evidence. It may, however, be, and in all
probability is, very ancient. The Molopo Valley itself is without
doubt of great antiquity, and, like some of the old valleys leading
down to the Orange River from the south, was probably in
existence in Cretaceous times. The Loangwe, on the other
hand, flows in a rift-valley of comparatively recent origin.
Indeed the faulting to which the valley owes its origin is still

cause of precipitation, and that because of their presence the precipitation
of the Lake country is greater than it would be were they absent.

" The increase in precipitation due to the presence of the Great Lakes
is believed to be small, probably not more than two or three inches annu-
ally. This conclusion is reached by considering the precipitation of the
lake region in its relation to that of the remainder of the country east
of the Mississippi. The heaviest precipitation of the Mississippi occurs
in the Southern and South-Eastern States, and the amount diminishes
both in a northerly direction toward the interior of the continent and in
a westerly direction toward the sub-arid region of the far West. The
rate of decrease of precipitation, considering the region of 50 inches as a
reference point, is quite sharp in a westerly direction, being as much as
30 inches in 450 miles, or an inch in 15 miles. In a northerly direction
the decrease is much less ; in 300 miles it is at the rate of i inch in .30
miles ; for the next step northward, which includes the lake region, it is
only an inch in 50 miles. In other words, the rate of diminution between
the isohyetal of 50 inches and the isohyetal of 40 inches, if projected
northward, would cause the isnhvetal of 30 inches in the lake region
to pass about 200 miles southward of its present position. This displace-
ment would mean an average loss of two or three inches of precipitation
over the greater portion of the lake region. Considering also the distribu-
tion of precipitation on both sides of the lake region, it would appear
that the foregoing estimate is a fair allowance for the increase of precipi-
tation which might reasonably be attrilnited to the effect of the Lakes
themselves."

l88 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA,

in procuress, as is evidenced by the frefjuent earthquakes
emanating from that quarter.

To join up these valleys, which are separated by a distance
of over 800 miles, and reconstruct in the imagination the channel
of a hypothetical Proto-Orange is thus, to say the least of it. not
justifiable.

Taking the present physiography of South-Central Africa
as a basis, it appears more probable to me that the waters of the
Okavango and Kwando, and also possibly of the Upper Zambesi,
at one time flowed into the Indian Ocean z'ia the Makarikari
depression and the Limpopo Valley, and that they were diverted
to the courses they now take either by a regional uplift or north-
ward tilting of the Central Kalahari, or, as suggested by Pro-
fessor Schwarz, by the headstream erosion of what is now the
Lower Zambesi. In the absence of an accurate topographical
map oif the Makarikari Basin and the area to the east of it, I
hesitate, however, definitely to put forward the theory.

Turning to Professor Schwarz's project for the re-flooding
of Lake Ngami, I agree with the author that the waters of the
Kunene could be turned into the Etosha Pan by building a weir
across the river above Kinga. His statement that the flood
waters of the Kunene. after filling the Eto'sha Pan, " work their
way up the Omuramba Ovambo, and eventually by the Omatako
reach the Okavango River," however, is not only incorrect but
misleading, inasmuch as the Omuramba Ovambo is a very clearly
defined watercourse with a pronounced fall towards the west,
which is separated from the Omuramba Omatako by a tract of
elevated sand-veld.

The Onuiramba Omatako became a raging torrent during the
rainy season, 1908-1909 — the statement, by the way, is taken
from my memoir on " The Geology and Mineral Industry of
South-West Africa " — not because of the flooding oif the Etosha
Pan by the Kunene, but because of the abnormal rains that fell
in the Grootfontein and Waterberg districts in that season.

Speaking from personal knowledge O'f the area, I can assure
Professor Schwarz that the flooding of the Etosha Pan, to a
depth sufficient to make the Kunene flow 7'ia the Omuramba
Omatako into the Okavango, would require far more water than
the Kunene is capable of supplying, quite apart from the fact that
ic would result in the submergence of the whole of Ovamboland
and considerable portions of the fertile Grootfontein and Out jo
districts. This part of the project is therefore, in my opinion,
not worthy of serious consideration.

In regard to the diversion of the waters of the Okavango
and Kwando Rivers intO' the N'Gami depression by erecting a
barrage across the Chobe, about 30 miles from its confluence with
the Zambesi, it appears to me, having regard to the fact that
these rivers, on entering the N'Gami region, flow in broad
marshy valleys with low banks bordered by very flat country,
that, instead of creating a greater Lake N'Gami, the efifect of
raising the level of the Chobe. in the manner suggested, would

THE DESICCATFON OF AFRICA. 189

be indefinitely to enlarge the vast Okavango-Kwando swamp-
land : a region of almost indescribable dismalness, absolutely
useless for any purpose, and \ery unhealthy.

Now there appears to be considerable misapprehension in
regard to the Northern Kalahari. Much the greater part of this
alleged desert is well timbered and grassed, and is, in the opinion
of competent judges, admirabl}- adapted to cattle-ranching. The
only obstacles to the settlement of t'he area, apart from its
inaccessibility, are the lack of surface water during the greater
part of the year and its iinhealthy character in the rainy season.

In regard to the first oif these obstacles, I am convinced that
water could be obtained by putting down boreholes through the
thick mantle of sand with which the whole region is covered,
seeing that the average annual rainfall over the area probably
exceeds 20 inches, while tlie run-off is nil. It is also relevant to
observe that excellent supplies of artesian water have been struck
in the eastern part oi the Southern Kalahari in the Protectorate
of South-West Africa. In regard to the second obstacle, t^e
climate of the Northern Kalahari, except in the neighbourhood of
the Okavango swampland, is probably not more unhealthy than
that of other malarial regions in Southern and South-Western
Africa wbich have been successfully colonised.

Professor Schwarz's barrage, in addition to permanently
destroying enormous areas of this potentially valuable ranching
country would render equally large areas so unhealthy as to be
uninhabitable by Europeans, and as the benefits to be derived,
judging by wdiat we have heard from Messrs. Kanthack and
Stewart, are very problematical, it appears to me that this boldly
conceived scheme, though appealing powenfully to the imagina-
tion, is in fact quite impracticable.

Dr. A. L. Du ToiT, B.A., F.G.S., Government Geologist,
said that the course of the Proto-Orange across the Kalahari, as
advocated by Professor Schwarz, receives considerable geological
support, and there are also indications that the damming back oif
the drainage over the N'Gami region may have been brought
about by gentle unwarping along an east-west line through the
Central Kalahari, this action provoking the capture of the waters
of the S3^stem by the more active young Zambesi on the east. Such
a tilting movement might not yet have ceased, and its continuance
might be an important influence in diverting the waters of the
depression towards the north even at the present day. Presuming
that there was originally a great body of water in this hollow,
it does not necessarily follow that the area was any more fertile
in the past than to-day. for it is important to observe that in
almost all the continental masses there are, on their western
shores or just within their western interiors at about t'he Tropics,
extensive areas over which desert or semi-arid conditions prevail.

A most important point is the magnitude of the evaporative
losses from such a large body of water. Taking evaporation at
about 8 feet per annum, the loss would be equivalent to about

190 THE DESICCATION OF AFRICA.

7,000 cubic feet per second for each thousand square miles of
surface. The gaug-in^s of the Zambesi above the Falls are given
in a very recent Rhodesian Report as 11,750 cubic ieet per
second for the seven winter months of 1905, and although the
summer flow would be enormous, yet these figures should prevent
one ifrom too readily assuming that a basin of the size advocated
could be kept filled during normal years. Moreover, such a body
would bring abotit the extension of the present fever-stricken
swamps, and would, through periodical floodings, give rise to
marginal barren salt-flats, while the effects upon the climate of
any re-condensation of the moisture evaporated, upon which the
success O'f the whole scheme depends, would be more or less
problematical.

Uses of Mirabilis JalAPA.— F. Mancada Guignones
gives an account in La Rivista Agricola'^' of a long study of the
plant commonly known as Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis jalapa).
When grown in gardens it flowers abundantly, but jjroduces
small seeds. Imt if grown under arid conditions, and i)articularly
if fertilised with ashes, it flowers less, but produces seeds which
are much larger and richer in starch. This starch is of very
good quality, and produces an excellent floitr capable of being
used for bread, biscuits, etc. The seeds also contain a sugar,
and can be subjected to alcoholic fermentation. The stamens,
jjistils and perianth (which dries up without separating from
the seed) yield a fast purple, which can be used for dyeing silk.
The flowers open towards evening (hence another common
name for the plant in SoiUh Africa is " Vier-uur bloem " or
" Four o'clock ") and exhale a strong odour during the night
which is said to stupify or drive away mosquitoes. In such a
case it might be advantageously cultivated in malarious areas.
It grows in a semi-wild condition in several parts of South
Africa — for instance, near Idutywa in the Transkei, and on the
Rhodesian veld.

RoYAii Society of South Africa.— At the annual
meeting of the Royal Society of South Africa, held on the 25th
September. 1918, the following were elected Fellows of the
Societv: Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc. F.R.S.E. ; Miss E. M.
Doidge. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ; S. H. Haughton, B.A. F.G.S. ;
Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. : and Prof.
A. Yoimg, M.A.. D.Sc, F.G.S., F.G.S.

'-• 14 ( igi8), 142, 143.

TllF MF.DICINE ^^lAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.
By the Hon'ble Mr. Justice Cecil Gower Jacksox.

The medicine man or herbahst plays an important i)art
among all the Bantu tribes of South Africa. For good or ill
he plies his trade, secure in the conviction that his office is an
indispensable one, and content to follow the primitive methods
which his forbears for generations past have practised in the
treatment of disease. Little is known generally by Europeans
of these methods: little is known of the man himself; yet the
lives of many are in his keeping. By some he is credited with
having gradually acquired a considerable degree of cleverness
in his heart, and a close knowledge of many indigenous plants
of high medicinal value, an analysis and study of which would
repay otu- own doctors and chemists. On the other hand, there
are many who hold that he is an evil in the land ; that his treat-
ment for the most part is entirely experimental, and carried out
by methods which in themselves are sufficient to jeopardise the
recovery of any but the most obstinate patients. The subject
is not one which has been widely discussed ; probably even those
who have expressed divergent views as with authority would not
not claim to have made a deep study of the matter, but base their
opinions on facts which have come to their knowledge in a
general way. Statistics, naturally, are not available; accurate
information as to the number of patients which an average prac-
titioner may attend in the course of a year, and the result of his
ministrations, would be difficult if not impossible to obtain. If
such a return, even approximately correct could be compiled,
it may well be that the figures would be startling. Anyone even
moderately familiar with Native life and customs may soon
glean enotigh to satisfy himself that the cult of the medicine
man is one which gives unrestricted scope to experiments in the
medical and surgical treatment of disease and wounds, as well
as in midwifery, and constitutes a problem which calls for investi-
.gation.

The urgency of the problem might be well exemplified by a
reference to concrete cases, both civil and criminal, v.'hich have
come before the Courts, and which alone would furnish sufficient
data of a reliable and convincing nature to illustrate its impor-
tance. A study of these judicial records would be instructive ; a
comprehensive gamut of human nature, from comedy to tragedy,
would fall within its purview, and could not fail to reveal much
of interest from a material and psychological standpoint. Limi-
tations of time and space, however, preclude an attempt to deal
with this phase of the subject in a hasty sketch which does not
aim at being other than a superficial review of the medicine man,
his legal status, his position in the economic life of the Native.
and his general method of procedure. In this connection a
popular fallacy that the issue of a licence to a Native doctor

A

Hj2 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

is a guarantee of efficiency, and secures him a certain measure
(-'f immunity when a charge of culpable homicide is laid against
him, may be contradicted. The mere fact that a man has taken
out a herbalist's licence is no protection in such cases, which
are, t)f course, governed by the ordinary principles of law appli-
cable tb.ereto : but it is often a matter of great difficulty for the
Crown to prove the case. There have, however, been a number
of convictions for culpable homicide where death has resulted
from the improper or careless administration of Native medi-
cines : and even where a prosecution may fail, a good result has
been obtained in teaching these men to desist from the use of
certain drugs or plants, of the properties of which they know
little or nothing.

The medicine man is common to all parts of South Africa,
but reference to him will he confined to Natal and Zululand,
where his office is to some extent regulated by special legislation.
In the other Provinces he is, I understand, untrammelled by
official recognition, unless he trespasses within the prohibited
regions of witchcralft.

The Natal Native Code of 1891 deals with medicine men
and herbalists, who are known respectively as izinyanga zokum
Lapa— those skilled in healing — and i:;inyanga ze mlti — herbal-
ists. The office may be held by both men and women, but it is
seldom that the latter make any attempt to follow the profession
except as midwives. Women diviners are common, notwith-
standing the stringent penalties attaching to the practice of this
art, and some of them claim to heal by divination or otherwise
— 'but the ordinary lady doctor is scarcely known. In revising
and amplifying the old Native Code of 1878, and substituting
therefore the Code of 1891, it was considered desirable to place
restrictions on the indiscriminate practice of medicine by Natives
in Natal, and with this object it was declared illegal for any man
or woman to practise his or her calling for hire unless duly
licensed by the Magistrate. Women, however, who act as mid-
wives only are not required to be so licensed. Before obtaining
a licence, the applicant must be recommended by his chief, or
the chief of the tribe in which he seeks to practice, and no other
formality is necessary. The Magistrate may, of course, (for
sufficient reasons, refuse to grant the licence, and this has been
held to be an administrative act not subject to a judicial appeal.
It is infrequent that any applicant is refused a licence, but the
Magistrate would exercise his discretion in the case of a man
whom he has occasion to believe is undesirable, whether by
reason of a reputation for being a witch-doctor, or Ifor any other
sufficient reason. No form of qualification is required ; no
inquiry is made as to any previously acquired knowledge of
herbs or the treatment of disease ; the law is complied with if
the approval of the chief is given, and there is no obligation on
the latter to satisfy himself as to the applicant's competency.
The amount of the licence is £3, and it must be renewed annually
by a like payment. The holder may thereafter practice in any

THE MEDICINE MAN IX XATAL AND ZULULAXD. I93

part of Natal — as distinct from Zululand. He is permitted to
charge a preliminary or retaining- fee {iilitg.va), which must not
exceed ten shilhngs ; further payments depend on the wise
principle of " no cure, no pay." The patient is further protected
by the right to claim civil damages ifor blunders or negligence,
entailing bad results, independent of any criminal charge which
may be preferred. It may be remarked that if the number of
such civil claims bears any relation to the number of failures,
the Native doctor must be a singularly proficient man, for it is
seldom that recourse is had to law to obtain compensation for
the consequences of improper treatment. One such case may
be mentioned — a claim against a doctor for eleven head of cattle,
representing the loholo, or marriage consideration, which would
have been received for a girl if she had not unfortunately met
her death at the hands of her medical attendant before the mar-
riage took place. It is not suggested that failures are few ;
under their own customs this class of litigation would not
generally be invoked, Ifor it may be a dangerous thing to make an
enemy of the medicine man ; and the fact that European-made
law afifords this sanction is perhaps not widely known. Those
who have suffered at the hands of the physician are no doubt
content to know that he at least can claim no payment for his
pains. To practice without a licence is to incur the penalty of
the law, and carries with it the further disability that no claim
for fees will be entertained. A sharp distinction is drawn
between the offices of the medicine man and the diviner. The
sale of love philtres and charms is prohibited, and any medicine
man resorting to such means of gain will have his licence can-
celled, his stock-in-trade confiscated, and himself imprisoned or
fined. The rain doctor, the lightning doctor, the witch-doctor
are not countenanced, and any Native who thus dabbles in the
occult is severely punished if he is found out — ^which, in most
instances, he is not. The heavy hand of the law is not confined
to the diviner, but falls also on his client, for it is an offence to
consult or employ, either personally or by agent or messenger,
a witch-doctor in any of his varied capacities ; and to round up
the circle the luckless agent or messenger is also caught in the
net. To profess for gain any knowledge of witchcraft, or the
use of spells or charms, or to give advice with the object of be-
witching or injuring any person or property, or to supply any
pretended means of witchcraft is to court disaster. Disaster is
nevertheless courted very freely and widely, and the eleventh
commandment — not to be found out — is successlf'ully observed in
the majority of cases. Thus far the law in Natal, as set forth in
the Native Code of 1891.

In Zululand. to which most of the Natal laws apply, this
Code is not in force, but speciil regulations, issued under Pro-
clamation, follow much the san.e lines. Offences arising out of
witchcraft are dealt with under Proclamation 2 of 1887, and
to accuse another of witchcraft is an offence. No such cases
can be tried by the chiefs (who have far wider criminal powers

194 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

than in Xatal), but it must be heard by a Magistrate. Native
medicine men and herbalists receive attention under Zululand
Proclamation No. 7 of 1895. The annual licence there, how-
ever, is only ii. An alien doctor, from outside the territory of
Zululand, is required to take out a monthly licence at the rate
of 2s. 6d. 'for each patient he attends. No goats or beasts can
be demanded to be killed, nor can the medicine man require that
the meat of any goat or beast be supplied for the purjx)se of
better effecting a cure. The reason for this is presumably two-
fold— to 4)revent the doctor from increasing his preliminary fee
by the acquisition of meat, and to dispel the idea that portions
of these animals are a necessary requisite in the cure. It is safe
to say that this prohibition is not taken very seriously. The
earnings of midwives, both in Natal and Zululand, are not to be
regarded as a personal perquisite, but belong to their special
house : they, like all Native women, are minors in law, and act
merely as agents. The fees due to them, and the debts contracted
b} them in the course of their profession, can only be recovered
or discharged by their principals — the husband, father, or
guardian.

It is the opinion of many that the licensing of Native d(Ktors
is a mistake, and should no longer be permitted. By others it is
contended that the legal restrictions which encircle them serve
a useful purpose, and give some mea.sure o»f protection to their
clients, who might otherwise be preyed U[>on to a greater extent
if these restrictions were withdrawn. Not a few, notably cer-
tain missionaries, think that the office should be abolished alto-
gether, and that it should be made illegal for any Native to
practice as a medicine man. There is one direct evil which should
be remedied — the sale of so-called medicines by licensed doctors.
This is especially the case in towns where, under cover of this
licence, the vending of atrocities which are called medicines has
become an established practice in the streets, and at recognized
depots. These wares are not confined to roots and herbs, but
include a variety of other products of high medicinal value, such
as snake flesh and skin, powdered bones, portions of the dried
flesh of wild animals, the fat of birds and beasts, mysterious
powders, and the many other substances known to the Native
pharmacopoeia.

It may be of interest to give some idea as to the number
of natives who have been granted licences as medicine men. In
1909 the numbers were : 754 in Natal, and 683 in Zululand.
The total population is then shown as 1,039,269. of whicii
245,335 were resident in Zululand, and the remainder in Natal.
(Fifty years before, the Native population in Natal was computed
at 150,000.) According to the statistics of 1909 there was.
roughly, one licensed doctor in Natal to every 1,050 Natives, and
in Zululand one for every 360. In 1914 the number of practi-
tioners for both territories is shown as 1,924. an increase of
487 in five years. To-day it is probably larger. There are many
unlicensed men, especially in locations, who are content to save

THE ^[F.nl(■I^^: max in natal and zululand. 195

their licence-money until >uch time as an evil chance may bring
them to the notice of the authorities. There is no inspection of
licenses, and if a doctor fall in arrear for two or three years
he expects to have to make good the deficiency when at length
seeking a renewal.

There is a general tendency in speaking of medicine men to
confuse them with witch-doctors and wizards, and to divide them
into three classes — (i) witches and wizards, (2) the witch-
doctor or smeller-out, (3) herbalists or medical practitioners.
All Native tradition, however, points to the fact that the calling
of the medicine man or herbalist is, anrl always has been, recog-
nized as distinct from that of the witch-doctor, and still more
from the dreaded wizard. It is true that a medicine man may
deal in charms against witchcraft, and be ready to supply medica-
ments for the frustration of the snares of the evil-doer ; and it
is true, also, that the witch-doctor may combine the treatment
Gif disease with his other functions ; but there is no connection
between the training which a medicine man undergoes and the
mysterious rites which the candidate for the office of a witch-
doctor must oljserve in his novitiate. The medicine man, in the
course of his experience, acquires a knowledge of certain reputed
antidotes to witchcraft, and is often called upon to supply self-
protective metlicines or charms to ward ofif the threatened evil, but
he is not a smeller-out. The witch-doctor, in encroaching on
the clinical preserves of the medicine man. does so by reason of
his powers of divination. He traces the cause of the malady
to rts tmdoubted source — the wizard — and prescribes the remedy.
Nevertheless, there is a sharp distinction between the two pro-
fessions— not arising out of legislative restrictions, but from
ancient times 1)\ the Natives themselves. The witch or wizard
ii far removed from both the witch-doctor and herbalist. He is
the arch-fiend, the enemy of all, the source of every evil under
the sun. His unlimited powers may certainly enable him to
rival and excel the greatest accomplishments claimed by the
others, but his works are the works of darkness, and he comes
not to bless but to curse. Not even remotely would he be linked
as an associate df those whose aim it is to defeat his machina-
tions. It is quite conceivable, however, that if the medicine man
and witch-doctor did not exist the wizard, too, might disappear.
Of him. and of the witch-doctor, nothing further need be said;
they make a fascinating study, but it is the medicine man proper
and he onlv who is under present consideration.

Although not capable of inspiring the feeling of dread which
the mere mention of the Umtakati, or wizard, conjures up, or of
commanding the same degree and respectful admiration accorded
to the witch-doctor, the medicine man is yet a great power in
the land. His orders are complied with, and his directions im-
plicitly followed in a way which not every European doctor would
be certain of; and his patients, if he be a man of repute, have
faith in his ability and the efficacy of his treatment. This goes

I(l6 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

)

far towards ensuring success ; at all events, in functional dis-
orders. Suggestion has its psychological effect to perhaps a
greater extent on the mind oif a primitive and illiterate people
than on those of a higher standard of civilization. If the doctor
says that a definite result will follow a definite course of treat-
ment, that result is looked for with certainty. It is not intended
to imply that the medicine man is a faith-healer, or that the suc-
cess which often attends his efforts is simply the result of sug-
gestion. The power of mind over matter is a recognised factor
in disease, particularly those of a neurotic nature ; and the con-
fidence which Natives have in their doctors is in itself a powerful
aid to recovery. The medicinal qualities elf certain herbs and
roots are well known to the Native practitioner, but he is seldom
content to confine himself to these useful remedies, even in simple
ailments. His knowledge of pathology is very limited — indeed
from the standpoint of science it may be said to be non-existent ;
his diagnosis is based on symptoms which, however misleading,
he thinks he recognizes as requiring certain treatment, but of the
cause, effect, and nature of the disease he troubles little. The
cause is never looked for as a trespass against the laws of nature,
but as supernatural, the w'ork of a secret enemy ; with the disease
itself he has only such nodding ac(|uaintance as to seek to identify
it, erroneously or otherwise, with i)revious cases within his experi-
ence ; its effect comes not within the range of his study. Of
therapeutics he has acquired some elementary knowledge, not
based on scientific principles, but the outcome of a common sense
observation of experimental treatment. He is not ignorant of the
rudiments of pharmacy wMthin a strictly limited radius, and may
occasionally be surprisingly accurate in his selection and prepara-
tion of suitable remedies.

His knowledge of animals, and the dissection of those killed
for food or medicine, has given him some conception of anatomy
and physiology, but he has never heard of the nervous system,
and his ideas about the circulation of blood are vague; the aorta
he associates with the seat of life, l)Ut since it is devoid of blood
when examined he has no clear estimate of its functions. In dry-
bone anatomy he might be able to make useful suggestions to a
medical student who had just taken up that course, and he is well
versed in many cif the organs of the body, and could give a super-
ficial explanation of the purposes they serve. His experiments in
surgery are crude, not to say barbaric : fortunately oi>erations of
a serious nature are not readily agreed to by his patients. In mid-
wifery it is seldom that the consequences to mother or child, or
both, are otherwise 'than dire in abnormal cases, to which alone
he is usually summoned. Instances to the contrary are alleged
where the happy result has been achieved — or so it is claimed —
by the administration of medicines only; but when the knife and
other instruments are employed, injury is rarely averted.

In attempting to arrive at a just estimate of the capabilities
of. and degree of knowledge possessed by a body of men whose

THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND /.ULULAND. ly/

numbers are considerable, it is impossible to do more than take
the average as a basis upon which to work, and to seek to form an
approximately correct conclusion upon that average. There is no
school of medicine among the Natives by which their attainments
may be judged; the apjiellation by which they are known is not
communistic except as a title to distinguish them from other
Natives; it is an individualistc community with a common object
— 'the healing of disease — ^Ixit as to the methods employed, each
man is more or less a law unto himself. While it is safe to assert
that no single member of that community can be said to have even
a moderate grasp of his profession as a science in the sense imder-
stood by us, it would be incorrect to affirm that as a body they are
so completely ignorant as to be incapaole of efifecting simple cures.
Among them, as in every community, are to be found men of
much greater skill than the average, who have some right to the
reputation accorded to them; but if their standard were the aver-
age it would still be so low as to bear no comparison with the
lowest qualifications in therapeutics and pharmacy in any estab-
lishment where these subjects are scientifically taught.

To say that there is no school of medicine among the Natives
is not to imply that there is no common use of the same in-
gredients for the same purposes. There is little or no interchange
of ideas between medicine men ; but the properties of certain
herbs, roots, plants and bark which are widely used is common
knowledge among them. So, also, in speaking of the medicine
man as representati\'e df his class, it is asstimed that he has
undergone, to some extent at least, the preliminary training
which is expected of him. To-day there is probably an in-
creasing number who seek to earn an easy if precarious livelihood
by entering the " profession " without such training, and, whether
licensed or not, pass themselves oft' as doctors. The medicine
man proper serves his apprenticeship as a medicine carrier
(Impakata or Uhlaka) or assistant to some one actually in
])ractice, and his novitiate may extend over a number of years.
He is not at first permitted to do more than watch his master,
and pick up what fragments of knowledge he may ; but in time
he is allowed to help in the preparation of the various decoctions
which form the materia inedica of the trade, and to administer
them under super\ision. Later on he may be dispatched to visit
a patient by himself to carry out some minor details of the course
of treatment, and report progress. All this stands him in good
stead ; he becomes well known and makes the most of the
authority committed to him. Thus, eventually, when he breaks
away from his instructor, and starts a practice of his own, he feels
that he has graduated with honour and that his credentials are
secure. He has probably paid a premium — ^perhaps a beast or
two — for his tuition, and given his services free, and ma}'
reasonably expect to reap his reward in due time. Not many,
however, are now content to undergo a lengthy training. The
demand for labour lias tatight them the value oif their ser\ices

lo8 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

in the open market, and time is of greater object than it was in
the days of their fathers. This, it may be conjectured, must tend
to lower the standard of efficiency, and the average medicine man
to-day may know less, for good or evil, than his predecessors.
This possibly would not have ec[ual application where a son
succeeds his father. The office is hereditary, and is not lightly
permitted to die out in a family which for many generations has
numbered one of its members in the profession, the stock-in-trade
and goodwill passing from father to son. There are. of course,
yearly accretions to the ranks by those who have no claim to the
prestige which heredity affords.

The Zulu medicine man is easily recognizable, with his strips
of skin, tails, small baskets, horn, bottles and haversack. He is
wiry and alert, for the ambulatory nature of his practice gives
him exercise in plenty; and he carries himself with dignity. On
reaching the kraal to which he has been summoned he is not
forgetful to secure his iihigxa, or ])reliminary fee, before com-
mencing his treatment. It may be that there has already been a
death in the family, and that others are down with the same
complaint. A goat must be killed, not only as a sacrifice to the
ancestral spirits, but because its blood, and certain tendons and
muscles, and other parts of the carcase, are required in the treat-
ment. Incidentally, too, it is convenient to be assured of a supply
of meat "during his residence at the kraal — which may extend
over several weeks, for the treatment must not be hurried. If
there have been unusual or mysterious occurrences connected
with his patients, it is first necessary to safeguard them by a dose
of insizi composed of many ingredients, such as burnt portions of
flesh or skin and herbs made into a black powder, the effect of
which must be heightened by certain restrictions or ukusila.
These may take the form of abstinence from particular fcK)ds,
or the avoidance of some customary usage. The evil having
been thus countered, the potent eft'ects of the treatment itself
must be corrected by a purification process known as ukupotida.
The body must be washed or anointed with certain medicaments.
followed by a dose olfi what is known as white medicine to dis-
tmguish it from iiisisi, or black medicine, which it cleanses away.
To further protect the kraal or the hut of the patient from the
spells of a secret enemy, a preparation of the leaves of certain
trees or herbs, usually found in secluded places, is compounded,
and is kno'wn as Intclesi. This is used to sprinkle or cela around
and within the hut by means of wild broom or small branches.
As a still further precaution the ])atient may be given a charm or
inifijigo to render harmless the intrigues of the evil one. Having
thus secured him immunity from the sinister influences which are
lield accountable for all untoward events, the doctor is tree to
attend to the main purpose of his visit — the curing of the disease.
Almost certainly an emetic will be given, made up possibly from
a i^lant known as Matunga (Cyrtaniliiis obliguus) or any other
plant cr root know'n to be efficacious. This may be followed by

THF. MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND. I99

a clyster — (for both these forms of treatment are widely prac-
tised, and are regarded as a specific for the removal of bile. If
rightly prescribed, and medicines of a harmless nature used, they
may form the most valuable part of the course ; hut several
instances are on record where death has resulted both from the
emetic and the clyster,* due to the inclusion of a poisonous
ingretiient. If there is pain in any part of the body this must be
removed by a counter-irritant. Cutaneous incisions are made
over the afflicted spot, and a j^owdered substance is rubbed in.
Mr. J. Y. Gibson, late Nati\e Commissioner for Zululand, informs
me that he witnessed one of these operations at a Royal kraal,
the peculiarity of which was that the assistant had a frog in
readiness in a pail of water. After the powder had been rubbed
in, the doctor took the frog and wiped off what remained with
the mouth of the ifrog, passing it over the incised surface.
Replacing it in the pail he then directed the assistant to take it
back to the stream and let it go. The frog may in this case have
been regarded as the scapegoat to take away and dissipate the
evil which caused the pain.

External. treatment is almost invariably complementary to the
taking^ of drugs. (It is a disappointed native wdio comes away
from a European doctor without a lotion which can make its
presence felt on the skin.) In the preparation of prescriptions
and the administration of the medicines, whether for internal or
external use, there is much solemnity and ritual. The delibera-
tion and care with which the ingredients — whether bone, quartz,
(fat, snake-skin, dried flesh, bark, root, and the rest — are selected;
the cutting oflt" of tiny fragments here and there, the roasting of
some on the udcngesi, or potsherd, the pounding up of others ;
the boiling of leaves and roots, the infusion of green herbs, the
.scraping of tendons from the slaughtered animals, and the addi-
tion df the requisite amount of blood — all this must in itself be an
inspiration to the expectant patient and his friends. Elaborate
instructions also are given for the taking of these nostrums.
Interest may be further kept up by a little judicious cupping by
means of a hollow horn. Possibly the condition of the patient
requires something more drastic, and a pit or underground oven is
prepared and heated, into which, when the fire is scraped away, he
is placed. ( )r. instead of this form of Turkish bath — which is
not popular — a shower bath may be prescribed. This is very
reviving when the patient is in extremis, or thinks he is too ill to
move. Herbs and medicines of the intelesi class are thrown
into boiling water, and the patient is plenteously besprinkled over
the body with a mixture hot enough to raise blisters. The idea
that he is incapable of moving is thus effectively refuted. This
is a u.seful remedy, irrespective of the nature of the disease —

* The metliod of administering a clyster by means of a cow's horn is
very arionrately described by Dr. Park Ross in his article "A fictitious
Native di.sease — ifiifrrrbrdhln " iAinmlN of Tropical Medicine and Ftixis-ito-
h^ny, 7, 371).

200 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

whether iniikiililaiie (a chest complaint, fevers, malaria, etc.) or
any other.

Not to unduly extend the somewhat comprehensive range of
disorders which our modern ^sculapius is called upon to attend
at the kraal to which he has been summoned, let it be supposed
that one of the inmates is suffering from an attack of mumps.
He cannot be expected to recover until he has supplemented his
treatment by walking backward to an ant-bear hole into which he
must shout " Zagiga, Zagiga. iigi yckc, ngi yekc!" (numips.
numips leave me, leave me). His final cases mu.st be surgical.
A collision with a kno'bkerrie has perhaps resulted in a fractured
skull. The wound is well probed, and loose pieces of bone
extracted. The aperture, by this time considerable, must be
tilled up with a specially prepared suppository, and plastered over
with cow dung. When septicaemia is well advanced the Euro-
pean doctor will ])robably be sent for. No such necessity, how-
ever, arises with the concluding operation — a dislocated ankle or
knee. The injured limb is buried in the ground, and the earth
made fast around it by ramming with a pole — then " a long, long
pull and a strong strong pull "' by half a dozen stalwarts will
soon give the required relief.

It is not proposed to attempt to detail fully the course of
treatment which a medicine man may follow in any particular
malady, or to give an exhaustive account of the various methods
that may be employed. The rough outline that has been attempted
may serve to illustrate some of the ordinary ways of alleviating
pain and suft'ering, without suggesting that they may not be varied
according to circumstances, or necessarily be resorted to in every
case.

Imitation of the European doctor's methods is not un-
common, and European medicines, especially powders, are a
frequent addition to the dispensary of a native doctor, though he
may know nothing of their properties and uses. In one instance
arsenite of soda was administered in good Ifiaith, but with a tragic
result. In another, a medicine man, who was impressed with the
value of vaccination, inoculated a number of natives from the
postules in a case of confluent smallpox. There were eight deaths,
himself included, before the matter was reported to the authori-
ties.

Time is no object in the healing of disease — as distinguished
from accidents which may obviously call for a less leisured
attention, or snake-bite, where every moment is ])recious. The
princi])le of " no cure, no pay " carries with it a hope for the
best while life lasts, and ensures a long attendance in obstinate
cases; not easily must the patient be surrendered — and if eventu-
ally he recovers, whether as a triumph to nature in spite of the
doctor, or to the doctor in spite of nature, the applause and
reward (usually a beast) are claimed by the doctor. If the fates
rule otherwise, the fault must he attributed, not to the medicine
man. whose prestige may remain unassailed, but to a flank attack
by the secret enemy, whose witchcralft has proved too strong.

THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND. 20i

In eitlier contingency the doctor is unruffled and philosophical,

and may say with Milton

I argue not
Against Heaven's liaml or will, nor bate a jot
Of heart and hope: l>nt still hear up and steer
Right onward.

He probably has several cases in hand at once, and conies out well
enough on the average. His medicine is slow working; if a
recovery ensues months after he last saw the jxitient, the credit
is claimed by him — but he does not always get the cash.

There are grades in the profession. Some medicine men
never aspire to be anything more than herbalists jnire and simple
— a sort of family doctor in ordinary ailments, and aliandoned
for one of higher reputation when complications arise. Others,
more ambitious, may be regarded as specialists, and will be sent
for from long distances, or lengthy journeys undertaken to visit
them. They are not averse to breaking fresh ground in new
districts in the expectation that their presence will bring them
further work to the discomfiture of the local practitioners. Some
n/icn have secured fame in cases of snake bite. They have high
confidence in their own abilities, and claim great achievements.
One man, well accredited locally, informed me that he had never
had a failure even with a black mamba { Dendraspis aiK/itsticcps)
or puff adder (Bitis arietans) — a strong claim, and doubtful of
credence. He gave me some of his isibiba, or snake cure, about
the size of a ginger biscuit, not unlike cow dung in appearance,
with an assurance that if it were dissolved in water and
swallowed within a reasonable time^ — the sooner the better— the
result was certain. Unfortunately no opportimity for testing it
has presented itself. It is indeed difficult to test and authenticate
a reputed cure. One case seemed hopeful. A girl was said to
have been bitten by a black mamba, and the Chief's own special
doctor, who happened to be within call, successfully admin-
istered the antidote. I was satisfied that the girl had been bitten,
and that there had been a swelling, and the evidence that it was
a black mam'ba appeared irrefutable, as it had been killed and
identified without question. Later on, I closely interrogated the
girl, and she admitted that she had not actually seen the snake.
as it was in the long grass, but that the next day a black mamba
had been killed in tlie vicinit\ — the conclusion beino- certain that
this was the reptile which had attacked her. More ])rabably the
snake was one of less lethal ],i)\\er: the venom of a mamba acts
with great rapidity and certaintx'. and half-an-hour's delay might
place the victim l)e\i;n.d hope <if recovery. Some of these snake
doctors appear to be tliemsehes immune by a process of pre-
inoculation. One man of renown in the Umvoti district could
allow himself to be bitten with impunity. Probably each snake
bite ftirtlier fortified his system. Btit in his old age he succumbed
to the poison. He was bitten by a snake he had caught, and trusting
to his usual immunity took none of the antidotes for which he
was famous. Evidently loo long a period had elapsed since his

202 THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

last inoculation, and his own remedies, applied just before he
died, were powerless. The facts as given seem to be well
verified from different sources where I have made enquiry, but
1 cannot personally vouch for them.

The gall and other portions of the snake are an essential
ingredient in the cure, and preferably they should be obtained
from the identical snake which inflicted the injury. The snake
doctor, howe\xr, has a stock-in-trade to draw from if the
assailant lias escaped. Other ingredients are compounded from
roots and shrubs which are well known. Tradition, however,
ascribes a secret remedy known only to the few, and discovered,
according to legend, by observing an antidote which a snake itself-
when bitten by one of its species, v.dll have recourse to.

Each class of medicine is distinguished by a generic name,
according to the use for which it is intended, and not dependent
on the genus to wdiich it may in science belong. There is. for
instance, the species known as aiuakainbi, consisting solely of
"green" medicines of the vegetable kingdom — not the dried
substances, whethtr animal, vegetable or mineral, which the
doctor carries with him. The medicine man will make use of
these, but they are essential !}• well-known household remedies
used as simple correctives by the Natives without medical sanc-
tion. The imbisa, on the other hand, is prepared by "the doctor,
and is the name given to many varieties of herbs which require
to be boiled and used for purifying purposes, and for chest com-
plaints. Isiconco denotes much the same sort of medicine, but is
not boiled, and has other substances added to it, the whole being
mixed together in water. Amakiibulo is the name given to the
medicaments invariably used immediately after a death has
occurred by the relations of the deceased. It is compoimded
chiefly of roots and bark, and must 'be taken fasting. Its chief
object is to fortify those who partake of it, and to protect them
from the evils that might otherwise ensue. Its effect would be
nullified or weakened if food were eaten after the death had
taken place : Isindiyendiya is a legal draught — that is to say, it
i-; used by a litigant before going to Court in order to secure
success if he has a good case, or to cloud the mind of the Court
if the issue is regarded as doubtful, in the hope that law and
justice, from the opposing standpoint, may not prevail. Refer-
ence has already been made to some of these distinctive classes
of medicine — the i)itclcci, or sparkling mixture; the iiufingo, or
j)ersonal medicine 'for protection against evil ; uniuti oninyama
(black medicine) or umsisi for charming away evil, and the
■umiiti omhlopc (white medicine), for removing the effect of the
black. One other only will be mentioned — the nmkando, con-
sisting chiefly of minerals, its virtue being to obtain an ascendancy
over others, and to circumvent their attempt at supremacy. Some
of these medicines, particularly those of a purifying nature (as
for instance, when a man has killed another) nnist be taken only
in one way — by the process known as uknncinda (dipjjing the
fingers into the mixture, and thus conveying it to the mouth).

THE MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND. 203

Tlie offices of the medicine man are various, and are not
restricted to the heahng of disease. They may be called U|X)n
to cure persistent evil dreams ; they may also prescribe love
charms which will break down every obstacle or remove the spell
which causes liabiyc (hysteria) in girls. The sex of the unborn
child can be arranged for in accordance with the mother's desire
by administering the proper potion. They may be recjuired to
protect a kraal from lightning, an interesting ceremony, and one
which brings with it much kudos; if the kraal is not struck its
salvation is due to the skill and power of the doctor. Then there
is the custom of ukusukiila or ukukanda amasunn — the doctoring
of the fields to make them fruitlful. The bones of a dead man.
or certain parts of the body, are a valuable if not vital ingredient
if the medicament is to be effective.

Enough has been said to show how closely superstition is
interwoven with medicine in the treatment oi disease, and ho\A-
largely medicines figvu-e in superstitious practices which have for
their object the circumvention of the evils attributed to witch-
cralft. All the illustraions given come within the province of the
Native doctor or medicine man ; and alth(Migh every medicine
man may not claim to be proficient in all branches of his profes-
sion, yet few, if any, confine themselves to the use of medicines
as the sole means of curing disease. There are, of course,
specialists whose particuar functions are mainly confined t<>
superstitious practices, and yet who still rank as medicine men
and not as witch doctors, in that they prdfess no ]x>wers of
divination. It has been made clear that stringent legislation has
endeavoured to render it im]x)ssible for a medicine luan to resort
to magic in any form in attending to hisi patients, but it is
doubtful if there are any who do not transgress in some way or
other. The description which has been attempted of the Native
doctor and his methods is true enough to-day in spite of legisla-
tion, useful though such legislation has been in checking illegal
practices based on superstition and its ramifications. It has
reference only to Natal and Zululand ; but, as a type, the sketch
in its nnigh outline is perhaps sufficiently accurate to apph .
luutotis iiiiifandis, to the Native doctor of all the Bantu tribes in
South Africa. It is not sought to minimise in any degree the
undoubted knowledge possessed by many of these men in regard
to the useful qualities of certain plants as medicines — the male
fern (Felix tnas) for tapeworm; the innondi (Chlorocodou-
JJliitei) for indigestion and flatulence, and many others; but
with this knowledge goes a profound ignorance o)f the dangerous
and ix>isonus nature of other plants if recklessly used, not to
mention the admixture of deleterious animal and mineral sub-
stances with their prescriptions. When misadventure results and
death ensues, it is often difficult for' the pathologist who may
investigate the case to ascertain what poison has been introduced,
the toxic f[ualities of many South African plants having yet to
be determned by scientific research. In one such case, arising
out of a charge of culpable homicide, it could only be said that

204 TIII^ MEDICINE MAN IN NATAL AND ZULULAND.

possibly it was tlie uuihlonlilo {Euphorbia grandidens) which
had been used, but no definite opinion could be given.

What, then, is to be the future of the medicine man? For
many centuries he has been an integral part in the life of the
])eople ; he has their confidence to a remarkable degree, although
that confidence may l)e founded largely on superstition ; he is
often the only available source from which they may seek to
obtain assistance in time of need, and that assistance is sometimes
attended with results which are unquestionably beneficial. On
the other hand, he is responsible for many evils, his methods
are crude and unscientific, often barbarous, and fraught with
considerable danger to life; and he is an active factor in pro-
moting and fostering a belief in witchcraft as the source of all
evil. Should his office be prohibited by law? ought further re-
strictions to be imposed? or should all legislation be withdrawn
and he be regarded merely as a part of the domestic economy of
the Native, without interference on the part of the governing
powers? However variously these questions may 'be answered,
it will have to be recognized that, whether by warrant of law, or
w^ithout. the medicine man will long continue to exist in those
districts which are not in close touch with civilization. The
solution of the problem may lie in the gradual elimination of the
medicine man by the substitution of educated natives who have
received some degree of medical training. The evolution df a
practical scheme, even if only experimental in its nature, should
not present insuperable difficulties. As regards midwifery,
something has already been done l)y a Natal doctor who has a
large Native practice, and who has trained or is training Native
women with encouraging results.

Confidence in the European doctor is increasing, especially
among Natives who have come under direct civilizing influences.
Those who are more highly educated would seldom elect to con-
sult a medicine man unless impelled to do so by their friends.
Many raw Natives have learned to discriminate between skilled
and unskilled treatment ; yet many a life is lost through the
refusal of parents or friends to allow a child or relative to have
proper medical or surgical attendance when such is proferred.
Rather must the patient be taken back to the insanitary condition
of kraal life, and the ministrations of a Native doctor. Especially
have they a dread oi hospitals ; nor will they readily consent to
an amputation even as the last means of saving life. The problem
generally is one of much per])lexity, but in the interests of the
Natives themseh es it should be faced.

Postscript. — The Rev. A.T. Bryant has devoted much time
to the study of Native Medicine. His interesting and able article
" Zulu Medicine and Medicine Men " {Annals of the Natal
Museum (1909) 2 [i] was not available for reference when
this paper was written, nor was there opportunity to seek for
further literature, if .such exists, on the subject.

(Read, July gth, 1918.)

SAFETY IN WINDING OPERATIONS.

By J. A. Vaughan, M.I.C.E., MT.Mech.E.
(Read July lo, 191 8.)

The author has chosen a title which covers a very large
field, but intends to confine his remarks in the main to the ques-
tion of the safe handling of the winding-engine, having recently
dealt with the subject of the winding-rope in the proceedings uf
another institution.

On the Witwatersrand, besides a large number (about i.oooj
of small auxiliary hoists or winches of average horse power — t6
steam and 65 electric — there are installed main winding plants to
the extent of 443 in number, of collective horse power totalling
173,038. These statistics refer to 31st December, 1916. and are
the latest obtainable. The comparative figures subsequently
tjuoted will therefore be taken for that date, although later figures
are in these cases available.

Of this total of 443 main winding plants, 262 are driven by
steam and 181 by electric motor. The number out of use is not
known, but the published return shows that 372 were licensed for
the conveyance of persons, the maximum capacity of the con-
veyance being rated for 10,790 persons.

Taking 200,000 persons as the number employed under-
ground on the Witwatersrand, it would need only 20 trips to
lower and raise this complement in the 242 shafts. But the
lowering and raising operations are not always simultaneous, the
loading of the cages is not always up to full complement, and the
trips at the beginning and end of the shifts are not nearly all the
occasions on which persons are being transported.

Instead of trying to estimate the number of hoists in which
there is a human freight, it is better to regard the general wind-
ing operation in trying to estimate the accident risk. It has also
to be remembered that accidents such as overwinding cause
annually great and expensive damage to plant, besides the
personal casualties that will be treated later on.

Let us suppose, what are very close to the facts, that 400
main winding i:)lants are regularly at work, and that an average
of nine trips per hour are made ; a " trip " being the downward
and upward journey of the conveyance, whether the companion
drum is sinmltaneouslv in motion or not. The annual total will
be just over 31.000,000. while the winding accidents such as we
are considering amount to about 62. ecjuivalent to a rate of i in
500.000. This low accident rate could be regarded with complacency
if it were felt certain that the mistake was in all cases inevitable
and the resulting accident absolutely unpreventable. Regarded
in another way, it may be assumed that 800 certificated engine-
drivers are responsible for 50 accidents annually, so that if each
driver was restricted to one accident he would have a chance of

2o6 SAFETY IN WINDING OPERATIONS.

driving for i6 years. However, it is usual for a first offence to
be dealt with by an official caution, subsequent offences by short
]ieriods of suspension, while it is extremely rare for a driver's
certificate to be cancelled.

It has never been proved that suspensions of certificates or
])rosecutions in the Criminal Courts have ever actually brought
about a reduction in the number of winding accidents, but those
who await the proof before believing, and who are unprepared to
allow that any deterrent effect is produced in the delinquent, will
still doubtless admit tlie possib)lit\ or even ])robabih'tv of
" encouraging the others."

It is fairly certain, however, that, if the supply of capable
drivers is not maintained, the accident rate will increase.

The training of winding-engine-drivers has been discussed
off and on for the last 15 years, but no satisfactory scheme has
been evolved. Since the year 1904 there has been a provision in
Regulation 308 (5) for a sort of adult apprenticeship. This
regulation allows of a person being accepted as a candidate U>r
the vhia-vocc examination who, having had one year's charge of
engines or boilers, including at least six months' charge of a
reversing engine, has also served six months' ap])renticeship
tmder a certificated driver in a main hauling engine-room. This
plan has not been so successful, no more than ore candidate ]»er
annum having been trained. The greater number of locally-trained
winding-engine-drivers (jualify under Regulation 308 (4) for
examination on small rock hoists and winches. This regulation
states the condition. vi:~., " that he has had at least one v^ar's
charge of an engine or engines used in the ordinary hoisting of
minerals, unless he is the holder of an engine-driver's certificate,
in which case a period of six months shall suffice."

It has to be remembered that 21 is the mininumi age (jf
applicants for winding-engine-drivers' certificates. To enable
the youth of the country to qualifv in the best way. it remains to
be decided what is the most suitable training between the ages of
16 and 21. The author feels disposed to commend a system
proposed to him in 1916 by two eminent engineers who were
then considering apprenticeship schemes for the various trades.
The ]>roposal was that the engine-driver apprentice should after
two years in the Trade School serve one and a half year? learning
fitting and turning, one and a half years tending boilers and
engines, and the remaining time (at least 12 months) imder a
certificated driver in a main winding-engine-room.

The number of candidates presenting themselves for exami-
nation has been diminishing, the average number of certificates
issued annually during the last five years being less than 50
cent, of the average ntunber issued during the |)receding similar
period.

The most recent figures available as to the number of
certificated winding-engine-drivers in service on the mines of
the Witwatersrand relate to the ist August. 1916, at which date

SAFET^ IiX WINDJ.NG OPERATIONS. 20/

there were 'j<<)'j driving-engines licensed for the conveyance of
persons, 15 ch-ivin^ nnhcensed hoists, whilst 2}^ were otherwise
employed.

If 3 per cent, is a reasonable wastage to estimate, then at
least 40 new drivers should be produced each year. The average
number of certificates issued by the Johannesburg Board of
Examiners for the past five years has been only 24, so that it
appears (juite time that a satisfactory and popular system of
apprenticeshi]) be put into operation if the mining industry is
to continue (»n tlie same scale as at present.

It would be very rash, however, to sui)pose that an assured
satisfactory- supply of perfectly-trained winding-engine-drivers,
even working shorter shifts and medically inspected periodically,
as has l^een sometimes suggested, would entirely provide against
" overwinding " and " runaway '' shaft accidents. By closely
considering the nature of the winding-engine-driver's duties it
mav be seen that some small proportion of errors should be
regarded as inevitable. The right thing must always be done at
exactly the right time, and a moment's lapse at the critical instant
is very likely to lead to disaster.

In endeavouring to prevent mishap following on the error or
omission, it is therefore wise to employ all automatic safeguards
that engineering ingenuity can devise, provided that no new
elements of danger are introduced that are not of less possible
consequence.

Before considering the safety aj^pliances at present in use.
tiieir more general application and the possibilities of the intro-
duction of further preventive measures, attention may be
directed to the classes of accident that now occur, and their
frequency and imjjortance. compared with other shaft accidents.

The accompanying table shows this comparison for a period
of ten vears. From a study of the figures in the various columns
it will l)e seen that, excejjt in the cases of the lirst and second
columns, the percentage ligures for Class T ( " ( )verwinds and
Runaways") and Class II ("Ropes, Chains, or Connections
Breaking " ) are fairly low. The non-casualty accidents report-
able under Regulation 274, outside the two classes just mentioned.
ma\- obviously be expected to be of much rarer occurrence, and
the liigher percentage ligures in Column 2 in these classes should
not occasion any surprise. It may be of interest to i)oint out
here that the classes of accident that ])roduce the great bulk of
the casualties in shaft accidents are " Material ( stones, timber,
tools, etc.) falling in shaft"; "While ascending or descending
bv machinery — exclusive of accidents under Classes I and II " ;
" Struck by cage or skip " ; and " Miscellaneous." Tlie meaning
of the term " overwinding " is that the conveyance is either
raised or lowered too far, but, in the case of a non-casualty
accident it is not supposed that a failure exactly to meet the
landing is reportable. In the crise of a " runaiway.'' it is meant

208

SAFKT\- IN WINDING OPRRATTONS.

TABLE SHEWING FOR MINES OP TR.\NSVAAL(>NLY SHAFT ACCIDENTS
FOR THE YEARS 19<)8-1917, WITH CLASSES 1 AND 11 OF SAME SET
FORTH FOR COMPARISON WITH TOTALS.

Ye a

Total

Number of Separate
Accidents.

Not
causing
persona
injury.

Under
Reg. 274.

Causing

personal

injury.

Casualties

Fatal

Non-
fatal.

Deal lis.

Wht. Clrd.

Total

Injuries

Wht.

Clrd.

Total

190S
1909
1910
1911
1912
191.H
1914
1915
igiC)
1917
Averages . .

Percentasres
of Total
Shalt
Accidents.

37
78
53
80
75
74
58
53
52
60
62.0

14-3

Class !.— Oveuwi.nhs di; RqNA\v.>vs.

27
57
36
55
50
61
44
46
36
45
46.3

eo.6

0

11

4
10

11

(; ,

18

7

10

9

10

8

5

9

2

5

12

4

II

4

9.C

0.1

5 8

3 2

17

3.4

14.1

6

r-

—

17

IS

3

17

21)

2

■29

32

3

'^1

31

5

21

22

f^

IS

21

7

2

2

3

12

29

10

! 12

13

5

1 10.1

19 5

4.3

9.4

10 0

ss

5
14
13
25
20

H
14

2
15
10
12.

7.0

5
17
15
28
2')
13
21

5
25
15
16.9

7.3

Class II.— Ropes, Chaiks, or Conkecttons Brivakino. Exclx'sivk cf Breakages

DUE TO OVKRWINDS OR Ru.VAWAVS.

1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
Averages

17
14
14
15
11
17
£0
20
30
.30
19.4

Percentages

of Total

Shaft

Accidents.

4.5

9

8

9
10

8

7
14
13
17
16
11.

5

4

^

4
1
9
5
4
9
7
5.2

1

14.5

3.1

1

—

1

2

7

1

3

1

4

.

7

1 1

- 3.1

08

5
11

8

1
11

7

5
10

6

8,1

9

5
10

8

1
13

8

6
16

7

8.9

1.6

3.3 i 4.7

4 0

—

6

—

3

—

1

1

2

4

1

8

4

9

—

3

_

10

9.

7

0.8

5

16

2.9

6
3

1
3
4
9

13
3

10
9
6.

2.6

Total Shaft .

\CCIDENTS.

1908

354

44

169

141

18

162

ISO

32

129

161

1909

481

113

206

162

24

201

224

47

148

195

1910

474

53

219

202

25

226

251

69

168

237

191 1

523

71

235

217

33

240

273

68

209

277

1912

547

81

196

270

23

215

238

53

274

327

1913

456

92

152

212

26

161

190

57

203

260

1914

407

80

126

201

19

139

158

54

195

249

1915

4fO

82

136

182

17

130

147

48

162

210

1916

362

74

118

170

35

125

160

47

189

236

1917

319

74

112

133

21

105

126

31

133

164

Averrges ..

432 3

76.4

166 9

189.0

1
24.1 170. e

191.7

tO.6

181.0

231.6

SAFETY IX WINDING OPERATIONS. 20g

that the w inchiig-druiu has hecome uncontrolled, ht-ing in-hand
neither hy the clutch nor hy the brake.

Overwinds or runaways due to defective plant amount to
about 14 per cent, of the total, that is to say. nine out of the
average of 62 may be so classified. The two chief causes of this
class of accident are: (i) Troubles with the reversing or control
lever ; correct design and regular examination should provide
against these. ( 2)F"ailure of the depth indicator to record j^roperlw
Chain and sprocket drives have been mostly at fault. They should
be watched and the chain not allowed to become too slack. In
the one or twti instances where rod and pinion drives have failed,
the keys <»f the wheels have been allowed to become slack and
drop out. Here again watchful care should be exercised. It is
reall}- doubtful in some of the cases just mentioned, and others in
which the .locking devices of clutches or brakes have failed,
whether the accident should not really have been attributed to the
driver's deficiency in the matter of close insj^ection of the j)lant
m his charge.

There have been a few instances of the failin-e of friction
clutches due to the iractru'e of some of the parts transnu'tting the
l)ressure from the toggle to the eyes of the clutch bands. If the
adjustment of the toggle is set incorrectly, so that the toggle lever
approaches the vertical, these ])arts and the bands themselves
may be stressed to the breaking point. The adjusting bolt at the
fixed end of the bands also re(|uires some freedom of motion in
its attachment to prevent the occurrence of dangerous repeated
bending stresses. Occasional annealing of these parts is also
desirable. Engineers who have to deal with this class of clutch
are, however, generally aware of the necessity for these precau-
tionary measures. In this connection the accident in 191.^ at the
" Edgar's " shaft of the Mysore ( lold Mine may be mentioned,
in which 42 persons were killed outright.

Deducting from the total of 62 — 9 ^= 53, a small number of
accidents due to miscellaneous causes, such as faulty signalling,
physical incapacity, or distraction of attention of driver, etc.,
etc., it a])pears reasonable to regard 50 overwinds or runaways
as being the average number that occur annually due to the
faults or omissions of the winding-engine-drivers.

These may be classified as follows :—

1. Starting to lower with the reversing lever in the position

for raising.

2. Proceeding too far at the conclusion of the wind in either

direction.

3. .Allowing a drum to run away through faulty application

of clutch or brake.

Dealing with Class i, it has to be noted that this fault has
been somewhat checked dtu'ing recent years owing to the intro-
duction of Philip's patent safety device. This invention links up the
reversing lever, or some part of the gear, with the ])ointer of the
depth indicator by means of an electric circuit, which remains

2jO safety in winding operations.

open normally, but becomes closed if the reserving lever is not
in the correct i)osition when the cage or skip enters the " danger
zone." When the circuit is closed, an electric hooter or loud-
sounding bell comes into operation close to the driver.

The chief reason that Philip's safety device, although litted, has not
prevented accidents in many cases, is that, as most of the licensed winding
plants are used for ordinary rock hoisting as well as the conveyance of
persons, the contact whicli closes the circuit has to he set for the tip.
that is, unless there is a two-way switch in the circuit to be operated by
the driver when the conditions of hoisting alter. If there is no such
switch, and the driver does start to lower with lever in the wrong direc-
tion, a certain amount of speed is acquired before the warning is given,
and an accident is not averted. This also may occur if the device is set
too "coarse," as it may be in some cases where a "fine" adjustment leads
to a frequent blowing of the hooter, which irritates the driver. Incident-
ally it may be remarked that optical warning signals, such as a red li.ght,
have been found to be of little effect for the circumstance under consi-
deration. The htting of the two-way switch is not itself sufficient for
the change-over may be forgotten. It is really necessary to interlock this
switch with another one in the bell circuit, so that reply, " three bells."
signifying that persons may enter the cage, cannot be given by the driver
unless he has set the Philip's device for the bank. Exact adjustment is
not ahvaj's possible, owing to slack motion on the reversing and indicating
gears, and, unless the warning is given directly the lever is out of the
neutral, it is too late to be of service. Failures also have occurred through
rope grease being thrown on to the contact plates, cither at the Iiack of the
indicator dial or on the driver's platform.

Class 2 must be sub-divided for full consideration. Sixteen
years' experience guides the author to the following classifica-
tion : —

(</) Driver, in raising or lowering, neglects to apply the means of
control early enough when nearing the end of the trip. This
may be due to " driver new to the engine," forgetfulness,
mental aberration, preoccupation, or some sudden physical dis-
ability. The results are usually very serious. The loss of life
may be very great, as in the case of the Brakpan Mines
disaster in 1915; or when persons have not brippened to be
travelling, great damage to plant may ciccur. tlie top of the
headgear being taken clean off. as in the " Rmulcixiort United"
accident in 1913.

(b) After changing winding from a higher ti) a lower level, the
engine-driver may forget the fact, and. watching only the
" down " indicator, occasion an overwind at great speed on
the other side. A variant of this class is provided by the case
of the driver forgetting to unclutch. and fancying tliat he has
done so, as was the case ;it Xo. 8 Ivandfontein, in 1017. wlien
the headgear was decapitated.

(<" ) After changing the conversance from skip to cage, tiie driver
forgets the fact, or the driver fails to remember tliat the skip
has Ijeen loaded with persons on an occasional trip.

<(/) Lowering unbalanced, with electric winder on counter current,
tjoo great speed developed, or too sudden application of
reverse current, tripping of switch of stator current, and failure
of single brake to control the runaway drum.

(e) Lowering with steam winder on compression, with reversing

lever against the motion, too nuich compression created, cage

stopping too soon or descending too slowly, when the driver

puts reversing lever over to the other position without safe-

4 guarding the motion with the brake-

SAFETY IN WINDlxXG OI'EKATIOXS. 211

(/) Lowering unbalanced, with the reversing or control lever in
I the downward sense. Engine-driver, not aware of his error,

keeps brake tightly applied, and the blocks become burnt and
useless. This has occurred in steam-winders, and also in the
case of a 3-phase hoist. In this latter case the driver appre-
hended his mistake, and threw the control lever over to the
opposite position, and naturally caused the "trips" to act
immediately.

Regarding" Class 3. it can only be said that these accidents
could not occtir except for neglect of duty on the part of the
engine-driver. Again, if he does rieglect to adjust the brake, or
if the brake path shoukl be seriously fouled with grease or oil,
any accident should be i)revented if there was strict compliance
with the regulations. The apposite portions of those dealing with
clutches and brakes are qtioted here to make these jwints
clear : —

kcyiilation 15 (4). — The driver of a winding-engine shall not
unclutch a drum of his engine until he has assured himself
immediately iKt'oreband, by testing the brake of the druin
against the full power of the engine, that the brake is in proper
condition lo hold the load suspended from the said drum.

Rcyulntioiic 15 (5). — When the drum is uncjutched. the brake shall
only be used for the purpose of maintaining such drum
stationary. Lowering from an unclutched drum is not allowed.

Rc'fiulation 15 (6). — When the winding-engines are fitted with fric-
tion clutches, the engine-driver shall, when clutching in, test
the holding power of the clutch before releasing the brake of
the corresponding drum, the brake of the other drum being-
kept otT. In the case of a steam or air hoist, the test shall be
made against the full power of the engine, and in the case of
an electric Imist, against the normal starting current.

'i'he mention of Regulation 15 (5) calls to mind a few rare
instances in which engine-drivers have caused serious accidents
while directly disobeying this regulation. The brakes, especially
after the deterioration of the surface <>f the blocks which accom-
panies the [lerformance of this illegal act, are of no use after a
certain speed of descent is attained.

It n')w remains for consideration as to how far castialties to
persons and damage to plant can be prevented by means of auto-
matic contrivances in the event of the (Kctirrence of any of the
lapses eiuimerated in Classes 2 and 3.

Dealing with Class 2, it may at hrst be remarked that over-
winds do not generally take place with the conveyance travelling
at any great speed. In these cases, therefore, as also in those
occurring under Class 1, a detaching hook is a very reliable
safeguard. These hooks have in almost every instance been effec-
tual unless the speed is too great, and many lives have been saved
during recent years oh the W'itwatersrand through their instru-
mentality. In one case, in 1916, a cage carrying 19 natives was
safely held, but unfortunately the shock was so great that two
were seriovisly injured, one of them subsequently dying. Again
in 19 1 7, at the Simmer and Jack, when the morning trip was
going down, a cage loaded with 24 natives was raised, instead of

2J2 SAFETY IN WINDING OPERATIONS.

lowered. The detaching hook did its duty, the conveyance being
safely, suspended, and the occupants sustaining no casualties.

Detaching hooks are not fitted to cages or skips running in
every vertical shaft, for various practical reasons. They are not
considered suitable for use in incline shafts on the Rand, although
in the case of another African gold field thev have been, and
possibly still are, used as a safeguard against the vagaries of the
native engine-drivers. In one " compound " shaft on the Rand
the " Humble " hook has been successfully adopted, in this case
necessarily fitted quite close up to bridle of the skip.

There have been a few cases of detaching hooks failing
during the process of the vertical hoist, the assignable causes
being — {a) rocks falling and striking the wings of the internal
plates; (b) brittleness of the hooked end of these plates, which
might have been ])revented by more regular annealing.

With respect to the process of annealing, the following table
may be quoted containing the recommendations of the American
Society for Testing Materials : —

Range of Carbon Content, Range of Annealing

per cent. Temperature, Degrees C.

Less than 0.12 S75 to 925

From o. 12 to 0.29 840 to 870

0.30 to 0.49 815 to 840

0.50 to 0.90 790 to 815

From a pai)er recording the results of a series of experiments
carried out in the U.S. Naval Yard, Boston, presented by Messrs.
^\'ebster and Patch, to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, in December, 1916, it is noted that iron for annealing
should l)e heated to about 950 degrees C, insead of 890 degrees, as
was the j)revious practice. Heating to this temperature and
cooling in air gives strong and better chain than heating to lower
tem])eratures, and higher tem]>eratures give no imp'-ovement.
The air should preferably be still, and there should be ])rotection
from rain or snow.

These chain cable results are quite applicable in tiie case of
t-age or ski]) connection, whether safety-hook, draw-bar. bridle, or
link.

It has been noted that the detaching hook is of no avail in
the case of an overwind at speed, and in this respect it is subject
to the same limitations of successful employment as other safety
devices which aim at avitomatically applying the brakes to the
(^Irums when the conveyance reaches the " danger zone."

The necessary safety arrangements are evidently: — (a) the
requisite movements of the control or reversing levers so that
speed mav be reduced before ( h) the automatic ajiplication of the
brakes. It is now well known that compliance with (h) is ineffec-
tual unless (a) is also com])lied with previously and adequately.

Tliere is no difficulty in complying with ib). This is done

SAFETY IX WINDIAC Ol'liKATIONS. _' 1

J

automatically, with success, by such i^ears as the " Whitniore,"
the " \'isor," and others.

There are ditiiculties in the \va}- of comijlying with (a), i'his
operation must not be too gradual or winding speed is sacrificed.
The only successful ai)paratus in use on the Rand for this purpose
appears to be that htted to several of the \\'ard-Leonard sets.
'J he operating cams in these instances ar;.' readily adjustable
to suit various conditions of winding, in tiie case of Ward-
Leonard hoists, the speed that the conveyance travels, whether
empty or full, downward or upward, is i)ractically fixed for any
definite position of the control lever, and in api)roaching i or
when at) the neutral, there is consideraljle braking effect, due to
the regenerative action of the motors acting as generators.

The three-phase winding-engine resemljles more the steam-
winder, in that the s]:)eed for any position of the contrcr] lever
depends on the load as well as on the extent to which resi>tance
IS applied in the rotor circuit. The eddy-current brake, howeven
if applied to either of them would, inde])endent of the 1; ad or
direction of motion, so redtice the speed of the drum tiiat the
mechanical brakes, if automatically applied, would effectively
prevent an overwind. The E.C. l^rake should, of course, also be
automatic in application, both for overspeeding and for o\er-
winding.

The automatic apparatus for either (a) or {b) has, except in
the case of winding ])lant used solely for persons, to be set and
reset, to provide for the journey to and at, either the collar of the
shaft or the tip, and this setting should not be " permissive," but
" compulsory " on the part of the engine-driver, or absolutely
out of liis hands. There are two or three local inventions installed
embodying this principle, or some approach to it. It is therefore
very desirable that the working of these appliances be en(iuired
into, and that those found to be really reliable should be brought
into general use.

Tt has been oljserved that the induction motor in regard to
its suitability for speed control against overwinding is not so w cH
fitted as the direct current winder, but attention may be directed
to a description of three devices designed to eff'ect this pur])ose
contained in an article entitled, " Electric \\Mnding for Mines," by
W. I\. Evans, R.Sc. (Eng. ), ptiblished in the Mining MiU/a.cinc,
London, September, 1917. It is to be ho])ed that the a])p1icability
(if these inventions, under the conditions of winding on the Rand,
will l)e seriously considered, and that a suitable apparatus ma\- be
installed for trial before long.

With regard to (7^) and (c) of Class 2, the author can only
advertise the necessity for invention in respect of the ])revention
of these contingencies, and regret that up to the ])resent nothing
satisfactory has to his knowledge been suggested.

The contingency referred to in (d) of Class 2 has l)een so
ably dealt with by Mr. G. K. Chambers, in his paper on " The

2T4 SAFETY IN WINDING OPERATIONS.

braking of high-speed winding-engines,"'* that it appears quite
unnecessary to add anything further on the point, except to
recall that Mr. Chambers was not in accord with the arrangement
as installed on the winding plant which he was describing, whereby
the failiu-e of current led to the automatic apjjlication of the
inechanical brakes, the eddy-current brake being available for
hand application by the driver, lie ])referred the reverse of this
proceeding.

Class 2 {e) deals with a class of accident which is fortunately
very rare, and which no properly-trained driver is ever likely to
cause. An automatically-operated overspeed device, bringing an
eddy-current brake into action, would of course prevent harm
resulting.

With regard to Class 2 (/), a safety ])recaution might easily
be applied to prevent the control or reversing lever being moved
into the downward position when the opposite clutch is " out.''
This might possibly, under some circumstances, hamper the driver
in his handling of the engine when just starting to lower.

With further reference to Class 3, it remains to be stated
that it is a growing practice to interlock the levers on the operating
systems of the brake and clutch in a similar manner to that
adopted on the railways to link up signals and ])oints. This is
effected in many diti'erent ways, there being no standard method,
each winding-engine receiving api)ropriate treatment. Where the
clutches are operated by steam, it is better for the pin-pose of the
lock to utilise the movement of the clutch itself, and not merely
that of the slide valve of the clutch engine. Sluggish action of
this engine is then provided against, and it becomes impossible
to luiclutch a drum unless the corresponding brake is properly
applied.

A runaway drum, es])ecially if of the cast-iron variety, is a
very dangerous hap])ening, similar to a flywheel explosion. The
whole winding-rope is usualh- lost ; much damage may be caused
to shaft, track, and timbering, and, if the drum fractures when
the rope has run out to the end, there is great likelihood of tlie
engine-room being comi)letely wrecked.

The Eddy current brake j^rnvides an ideal method of safe-
guarding unclutched drums. Mr. Chambers suggested that with
steam-winders the existing current for the brakes could be conve-
niently obtained from a small direct converted steam-driven
generator, situated in the engine-room itself, but it has to be
remembered that on several of the older mines, where steam
winding prevails, direct-current clectricit\- is imiuediately avail-
able.

The Kddy current 1)rake does not actually stop all motion,
but it brings down the speed to a low value, so that counter
current or the mechanical brake can be used safely and success-
fully to bring the drum or the hoist to rest.

*Journ. S.A. Assoc, of Engineers. Nov. 1912.

SAFETY IN WINDING OPERATIONS. 21 5

After preaching the gospel of tliis safety brake to a leading
" safety-first " financier the other clay, the author was immediately
asked the question, " What is it gouig to cost?" In looking into
this important matter, it has to be acknowledged that the extra
cost is serious, bringing up the price of an A.C hoist, fitted with
E.C brake, to just about that of a Ward-Leonard set. Mr.
Chambers stated that the cost of the E.C. brake for a five-ton
hoist, with a rope speed of 3,500 per minute, was £2,000. Mr.
J. H. Rider, at the Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1915, in
his paper on " The Power Supply of the Central Mining Rand
Mines Group," gave the cost (with the motor, generator, etc.) as
nearly two-thirds that of the winding motor. He also stated that
ail expenditure of energy at the rate of about 45 K.W. in the
field magnet system of the E.C. brake obtained a result equal
to a rate of about 1,600 K.W . in the case of counter current
braking.

This comparison invites the author to make a few closing
remarks v/ith respect to electric winding.

The A.C. hoist can j^robably be made as safe as the Ward-
Leonard, and doubtless when normal times return further steps
will be taken in this direction, 'ilie author was present at tUc
tests varried out on the A.C winding hoist at the Village Deep,
Ltd., when, witli an unl)alance(l load of y,ooo lbs., the speed was
reduced from 3,000 to 250 feet ])er minute in a few seconds, one
d(jzen being al)out the figm-e. \\'ith a \\'ard-Leonard set at the
Consolidated J.anglaagte, he had the privilege to witness an
important test, of which the following details give the description.
The winding motor was accelerated as quickly as possible, until
a normal rojje speed of 2,500 feet ])er minute was reached; the
driver was then taken off the platform and the hoist allowed to
com])lete the wind with only the safetv-gear controlling it. The
cams l)rought the winding drmns to an almost imperceptible
cree])ing speed, and when this speed had caused a sufiicient
jiressm-e to bear on the brake trigger gear, the brakes were
ap])lied, the current cut oft", and the lioist brought to rest. This
test, the antlior is informecl, is ap])lied to the Ward-Leonard hoists
of this ])articular group once a week.

If a thi'ee-])hase hoist be installed where the winding c\cle
IS sucli. in ordinary l)alance winding, that the upward load always
overbalances the downward load, then if failure of current takes
jflace, it is obvious that before the hoist could run awav the rope
direction nnist be reversed, and the load which before the failure
was l)eing wound ]n an ujnvard direction nmst change to a down-
ward direction. ( )l)viously, then, at some moment the load will
1k' stationary, and therefore the automatic application of the
I)rakfs will ])ull the hoist u]>, and no runaway will take place;
whereas if the downward load overbalanced the ui)ward load, and
a failure of power took place, the direction of hoisting will not be
reversed, the speed will be accelerated, and the ai)plication of the
brakes w ill l)e ineft'ectual. With the Ward-Leonard lun'st. although

2:6 SAFETY JX WINDING OPERATIONS.

the failure of power has taken place, the regeneration control
will not be absent, because the winding motor, acting as a
generator, will raise the speed of the converter set, thus assisting
the brakes to pull the hoist up.

It appears, therefore, that in any winding proposition in
which the downward load at any period of the cycle overl)alances
the upward load, the \\ ard-Leonard type of hoist is preferable,
but when the upward load predominates throughout the whole
wind, the three-phase motor is the more suitable.

The autliur, in conclusion, expresses the hope that the statis-
tics, facts, and opinions cjntained in this short paper will tend to
stimulate the " safety-first " movement, not only in tlie winding
engine-room, but in the office of the consulting engineer.

Atmospheric Nitrogen. — According to The Ameri-
can Fertiliser * a very important syndicate has been formed in
Great Britain in connection wth a large chemcal company which
proposes to utilise the hydrogen — at present a waste product
from the company's plant — for the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen, and also for the manufacture on a large scale of
ammonia and nitrates. The company's waste hydrogen has been
found to be of high purity and suitable for the manufacture of
svnthetic ammonia.

The WORLD'S Wheat Crops. — TheBulletin of Agri-

eiillural and CoiiiDiereia! Statistics, pul^lishefl by the International
Institute of Agriculture. Rome, states that Canada estimates its
191 8 wiieat cro]) to yield 70,045 ([uintals, about one-tenth more
than in 1917, atid very nearly equal to the average yield during
the five years from 1912 to 1916. In the United States a cro|) of
242,495 quintals is the estimate. The aggregate yield of the four
countries, Canada, United States, British India, and Tunis, of
which three arc quite the largest exjiorters of wheat at present,
was 418.574 quintals in 1918. against .HS-'^SO in 191 7 and 387,905,
the average from 1912 to 1016. As regards rye. the yield in the
United .States will this year attain 20.'/2'j (iiu'ntals.

Research Grants. — The Council of tlie Royal
Society of .South Africa has recently awarded the following grants
in aid of research : — Prof. M. M. Rindl. Ing.D., £40, for continua-
tion of investigation of the active princii^les of toxic and medicinal
indigenous plants. Mr. I. .'^. van der Lingen, R.A.,£too. for continu-
ation of researches in radiology and cr) stallography. Mr.C. R.Har-
denl)erg. M.A.. £40. for a study of the fann"lv Psvchida- ;md other
I.epido|)tera. Mr. .S. H. Tlaughtou. P>.A.. £40. for investigation
of the vertebrate and invertebrate fauna of the .'^t. »rmberg Reds,
mainly in the north-eastern portion of the Ca|)e Colom . Mr.
R. W. P. Tucker. R..A.. £40. for the stu(l\- and collection '>f the
Arachnid fauna in tlie Pastern Transvaal. Pxdenburg I)istrict,
Selati Region.

*49 (tot8^ f.^1. 152.

THE MKDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPPLEMENT I.

Rv Vroi. Max Morris Rindl, Ing-.D.

The sympathetic reception which was accorded to my paper
on tlie medicinal springs of South xAfrica, read at the Maritzburg
meeting of the Sotith African Association for the Advancement
of Science in 1916,* and the encouraging criticisms that ha\e come
to my notice, have inchiced me to continue the work of collecting
information on the subject.

My hopes of being able to throw more light on the prol)lem
from the therapeutic point of view have not been fulfilled, but I
am in a position to add several new springs to those i)reviously
recorded. Among these the springs c<f the South-West Protec-
torate exhibit some striking features.

(a) The Windhuk Springs.

There are three liot springs at Gross-Windhuk, the junker-
(luelle (69.8°C), the l'ahl([uelle (73.5°C), and the Bergquelle, all
of which enjoyed coi.siderable reputation for their medicinal
virtues even before the advent of the white man. At Klein-
Windhuk, wdiich is separated from Gross-Windhuk b}' a low range
of hills composed mainly of micaceous schists, there are also
several thermal springs of lower temjjerature (45 — 55'' C. ). bttt
similar to those of (iross-Windlnik with respect to their chemical
constituents, and also endowed with therapeutic ])roperties.

Geological Feafitrcs of the Gross-U'indhiik Springs.-[ — The
sj)rings issue from what appears to have been a sim]>le fissure.
The strata on both sides of the fissure show no signs of vertical
displacement relati\e t(^ one another, so that, apparently, no
faulting has taken place. The extent of the original fissure is
indicated by a vein of quartzitic material of 15-25 metres breadth,
which forms the continuation oif the springs' fissure. This vein
has been traced to a distance of roughly 3.4 km., and runs in a
more or less north-southerly direction. The brown and yellow
colour is due to deposition of, and impregnation with, iron
hyd.-ate. The nature of the quartzitic material (crystalline
(|uartz and chalcedony), and its structure (variability in trans-
parency and colour) characterize it as a deposit from aqueous
solution.

Orif/iit of fhc Sprhu/s. — 'I'he high temperatures show t!ie
springs to be of deep-seated origin. There is ample geological
evidence that the micaceous .schists extend to a very considerable
deptli. so that the rate of increase of the temperature downwards
is pr(.bal)ly uniform. Taking the average temperature of Gross-

* Kept. S.A. Ass. for Adv. of .SV., Maritzburg (1910). 028-5.52.
i From an iiii|iiilpli^lu'il lopnit on tlie Windluik niiiicnil sprin;,'^. by
Di. Kroncnkcr.

2l8 THE MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Winclhuk (^19.2°) as being the temperature of the upper layers
of the rock, and the maximum temperature of the water (77-5°)
as that of the lower layers from which the water derives its heat,
the average difference of 58.3° between the surface and lower
layers at the " eye "of the springs, gives a depth df origin of at
least 2,000 metres. The temperature gradient is taken as 33
met.cs per i°C.* No allowance is made for the cooling effect of
the rocks before the water reaches the surface, nor for the
possible infiltration of cooler surface-waters. Such corrections,
if data were available, would give a higher figure than the one
calculated above.

Considerable discussion has centred round the question
whether the water of the springs is of meteoric origin, (vadose
Thermen), or whether the water is liberated from the magma as
water vapour or even hydrogen under high pressure (juvenile
Thermen). Although the question has not been solved definitely,
the balance of evidence is in favour of the asstmiption that the
springs are, at least in great part, of the latter origin, namely,
the high and uniform temperature, the regularity of flow, the
independence of the water supply elf seasonal variations in rain-
fall, and the considerable amount of free carbon dioxide and
carbonates dissolved in the water.

Chemical Nature of the Water. — The composition of the
residue from 100,000 c.c. of the water of the Pahlquelle, heated
sufficiently high to decompose bicarbonates and hydrates, and to
drive oft' water of crystallisation, is as follows* : —

NaCl 10.7 grams.

Na^SO^ 12.78 grams.

Na^CO. 32.OT grams.

K,SO^ 8.80 grams.

MgSO^ 3.08 grams.

CaCO;^ 8.93 grams.

MgCO, 1.45 grams.

ALO.^ 0-70 grams.

SiO. 8.90 grams.

The water contains appreciable amounts of free carbon
dioxide, so that the carbonates of both the alkalis and alkaline
earths should be calculated as bicarbonate ions. Lithium and
other balneologically important constituents are present in small
quantities, but the actual amounts have not been determined.

In estimating the proximate composition of the mixture of
saline constituents of a water the silicic acid is usually regarded
as uncombined. Whilst this assumption, even ilf incorrect, in-
troduces no appreciable error in the majority of cases, it is
wholly unwarranted in the case of hot alkaline springs like those

* In tlip discussion of the .paper it was suggested that this figure is too
h>w.

t Dr. K. Renz, " I l)er die Eignung der Windhuker heiasen Quellen zu
Heilzwecken," from Der Weltkrieg, Windhuk. .Tune, 1917.

THE MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 2I9

of Windhuk. In the table of ion equivalents the silicic acid has
been calculated both as the ortho- and meta-acid.

The values for the ion-equivalents are obtained as usual b}'
dividing the weight of each ion (expressed in grams per 100,000)
by its atomic weight (or the sum of the atomic weights), and
multiplying by the valency in order to obtain monovalent ions.

Table of Ion Equivalents.

Cations. Anions.

Ka 0.9669 X I = 0.9669 HCO. 0.40CS4 X I = 0.4084

K 0.10099 X I == 0.10099 SO^ 0.166 X 2 = 0.3320

Mg 0.04278 X 2 -- 0.08556 CI 0.1830 X T -- 0.1830

Ca 0.0892 X 2 = 0.T784 SiO, 0.1476 X 2 = 0.2952

Al 0.0137 X 3 =--^ 0.041 1 or(Sir)^ 0.1476 X 4 = C).5904)

1.3729 1. 2 186

or 1.5138

Dissolved Gases. — Apart from the carbon dioxide previously
referred to, the water contains dissolved sulphuretted hydrogen in
small quantity, which intermittently rises to the surface in
bubbles.

The radioactivity also fluctuates between the limits 3 and 10
Mache units.

Classification. — The spring is described as a radioactive
alkaline-muriatic-sullidic bitter water. In my previous paper I
classified the springs only according to the principal divisions,
there being hardly sufficient data to justify the introduction of
additional mixed groups. In view of the ])redominance of
sodium bicarbonate, and of the presence of appreciable quantities
of the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, the inclusion of
these springs in the group olf alkaline waters rather than in any
other seems justified.

Therapeutic Properties. — Medical men who have had ex-
perience of the effect of these springs are agreed as to their
efficacy, and the concensus of opinion is that their use is indicated
in cases of digestive and metabolic disorders, of catarrhs of the
respiratory organs, and female complaints.

The other two springs have also been examined, and do not
differ materially from the one described.

Apart from geysers, the Windhuk springs belong to the
hottest springs known. The well-known Karlsbad Springs are
only a fraction of a degree hotter than the average temperature
of the Pahlquelle (73.8" as compared to 73.5°).

{ /' ) (ikOSS-BAKMEN.

The thermal spring on the farm Gross-Barmen (District
Okahandja ) has a temperature of 64-65°, a feebly alkaline
reaction, and smells and tastes strongly of suljihuretted hydrogen.

220 THE MEDICINAL SI'RTNflS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

'I'lie following analytical data will give an idea of its composi-
tion.*

Grams per 100,000.

Total solids 113-94''^

Solid residue on heating to redness T02.465

SO, ' 37-382

CaO 5.307

^IrO 0.437

cr 12.788

H.,S 0.425

K.'O 16.167

. Na/) : 17.823

NFI,/ trace

Tai!li-: of I().\ Kouivalents.

Cations. Ayiions.

Na 0.575 X I -■= 0.575 ''^<^4 0-389 X 2 = 0.778

K 0-343 X I == 0.343 CI 0.3606 X r = 0.3606

Ca 0.0946 X 2 = 0.1892 .

AFg 0.0109 X 2 = 0.0218 1. 1 38')

1 . 1 290

The figures for the pt>tassium contents are interesting in
view oif the paucity of the South African springs in potash. Of
the springs in the Union recorded in my previous paper, the one
at Kouhad ( No. 14) contain less than one-third of the above
amount. The (juantity of sulphuretted hydrogen in the spring
is probably much higher, as the analysis was only carried out
some time after collecting the water. The radioactivity is stated
to be considerable. The spring might be provisionally classified
as a sulphur-spring.

The South-West Protect(>rate is comparatively poor in
springs. But there is a zone running through the middle of the
country from north to south, practically through its entire length.
in which there are quite a large number of springs with an ample
supply of water, and all of them of comparatively high tempera-
ture.f Some of these are merlicinal. but only teni])erature
measurements are recorded.

Rehoboth 53°C

Klein-Barmen (Otji Katiti ) 6i-62°C

Omapiu 61°

Oniburo, given variously as. . . . 61° and 77°C

Warmbad and the other springs described in this paper lie
in the zone, and a prolongation of the line strikes a number of
the hot springs in the Cape Colony, namely, Clanwilliani

* Dr. ('. Grimme: " Weideverhaltnisse in ryeutsch-Siiclwestafrika,"
197 (1011). ^'l■l■;■)l^(■IltIi^thllnf^(■Il (ifi- Deutschen rjandwirtsdiafts-Gesell-

ischaft.

+ (Ji-iiiniK'. I0C. cit.

THE MEDICINAL Sl'KIN(;s OF SOUTH AFRICA. 221

( 42-43' C). (iotulini (40'), Brandvlei (62°). and Caledon (49°).
The majority of the remaining- hot springs in the Colony
he on a hue running from Caledon more or less parallel
to the coast as far as Port Elizabeth, namely, Montagu
(45°). Barrvdale (no temperature recorded, but said to be un-
comfortabh hot to the touch), Warmbad, Olifants River
(45.6"), Tuoverwater Poort (49°), and Zwartkops (54.5°). It
might l)e interesting to ascertain whether this regularity of
grouping is not something more than mere accident.

((■) The Springs at W'ini'.urc. O.F.S.

The water of the baths at Winburg. which were referred to
under X >. 55 of my ])rcvious paper on the medicinal springs of
South Africa, has been analysed, and in view of the preponder-
ance of sodium chloride over all other constituents, the spring
should be classified as a salt spring. The baths are situated on
the farm De Villiersgunst, eight miles south-south-west from
Winburg. A stone bath, approximately 8 'feet long by 5 feet
wide, and closed in with corrugated iron, is built over the " eye "
of the spring. This is described as the ladies' bath, and there is
a similar structure for the use of men adjoining it, also fed by a
spring. The water is described as being tepid and impregnated
with sulphuretted hydrogen, and there is a continuous rush of
l)ubb]es of gas through the water over the " eyes " of the springs.
When the water reached the laboratory it contained no trace of
either -ul])huretted hvdrogen or carbon dioxide. There are said
to be indications of deposits of sulphur outside the bath build-
ings, but none in the baths themselves. The only accommodation
consists of a primiti\'e stone Iniilding of three rooms, and visitors
must make their own arrangements for obtaining supplies. As
is usual at springs of this kind, the majority camp in tents and
wagons. The springs seem to enjoy a measure of reputation,
having been patronised by some 150 people during the past 12
months. The water seems to be preferred for bathing rather
than for internal use. and is reported to be efficacious in cases of
chronic rheumatism, gout, sciatica and lumbago. As in the case
of the majority of South African medicinal springs, only such
unreliable and i)rejudiced iniformation about the therapeutic pro-
perties is available as is supplied by enthusiastic patients.

Density. — The density at 4° C (distilled water 4=^ C -= i ) =
1. 00 1 7.

Total Solids. — 100 c.c. of water of 12°, evaporated and
heated to 105''. gave 0.2204 of a gram of residue. 100,000 c.c. of
water of 4' therefore contain 220.50 grams of dissolved solid
constituents.

Ih-icnuinat'uni of the A)iio)is. — Silica.

I. 2 litres of 12.95° g^ve 0.0827 gram SiO. + BaSO^.
Residne obtained on treatment with hydrofluoric acid,
0.0040 gram of BaSO^.

222 TlIF, MKUICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

II. 500 c.c. of water of 1 1 .6" j^^ave 0.0223 gram of SiO., -p

BaSO,,.

III. 2 litres of 12" gave 0.0753 gram of SiO. -|- BaSOj.
100,000 c.c. of water of 4° therefore contain 3.9273

grams of SiOg and 0.2000 gram of BaSO^, correspond-
ing to 0.1 177 gram of barium.

Chlorine.

I. 25 c.c. of water of 10° require 29. i c.c. AgNO... of which

ICC. corresponds to i mg CI.

N

II. 25 c.c. of 12° require 40.95 c.c. — AgNO:^.

100,000 c.c. of water of 4° therefore contain 116.33
grams of chlorine.

Sulphuric Acid {50.^). — Two litres of water of {2.()^° give
0.0145 gram BaS04, corresponding to 0.2984 gram SO^ per
100,000 c.c. to which must be added 0.0823 gram from the BaSO.j
precipitated with the SiOo, giving a total of 0.3807 gram of
SO4 per 100,000 c.c. of water of 4°.

AlkaJinit\.

N
50 c.c. of water of 14.3° are neutralised In' 1.15 c.c. — r

H^SO^ (four estimations).

100,000 c.c. of 4° therefore contain 2,8204 gi'anis HCO...

Determination of the Cations. — Calcium.

I. 500 c.c. of water give 0.0605 .^''am Ca( ).

II. 1,000 c.c. of water give 0.1179 gram CaO.

100,000 c.c. of water therefore contain 11.945 grams
CaO, corresponding to 8.5375 grams of calcium.

Iron.

Determined colorimetrically with thiocyanate solution (two
determinations).

50 c.c. of water contain the same amount olf iron as 0.2 c.c.

of a standard ferric chloride solution, of which i c.c.

corresponds to o.i mg. Fe.
100,000 c.c. of water therefore contain 0.04 gram 1 if iron.

Aluuiiu'uui.

2 litres oif 12° give 0.0099 Fe^Og -(- ALO...

Subtracting the iron leaves 0.338 gram Al,( ),, per 100,000
c.c. of 12°, corresponding to 0.1793 gram oi alumin-
ium in 100. oco c.c. of water of 4°.

Auunouia.

298 c.c. oi water correspond to i c.c. NH^Cl solution con-
taining 0.1 mg NH.. per c.c. (Nesslerised ; four esti-
mations).

THE MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 22^

100,000 c.c. of water therefore contain 0.0336 gram of NH3,
corresponding to 0.03559 gram NH^.

Magnesium.

1 litre of water gives 0.0332 gram of ]\Ig.P._.07.

100,000 c.c. of water therefore contain 0.7253 gram of
magnesium.

Sodium.

2 Htres of water of 12.95° were evaporated to dryness and

left, after removal of silicia, iron, aluminium, calcium
and magnesium, 3.5350 grams NaCl.
100,000 c.c. of water of 4° therefore contains 69.580 grams
of sodium.

Tal!le of Ion Equivalents.

Cations. Anions.

69.58 116.33

Na X I = 3025 CI. X I = 3.281

23 3546

8.5375 2.8204

€a X 2 = 0.426 HCO.; X I = 0.046

40.09 61.008

0.7253 0.3807

Mg X 2 = 0.060 SO^ X 2 = 0.008

24.32 96.07

0.1 177
Ba X 2 = 0.002

137-37

0.03559

NH4 X I == 0.002

18.042

0-1793

Al X 3 = 0.020

27.1

0.04

Fe • X 3 = 0.002

55-85

3-537 3-335

2.?4 THE MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

SpECTRoscoric Examination of Solid Residue.

Spark Spectrum

ill Nature and Intensity of Lines. Element or Conipound

Wave-lengths. Identified.

67_1 Well defined, bright Lithium 670-8

(->563 Well defined, but often faint Hydrogen(C) 656-3

(S51-637-5 Faint band, only in concen- CaCl.,

trated solution
627-616 Bright band, continues very CaCl.,

faint to D line
621 Well defined and fairly bright, ?

but only in concentrated

solution
618 • Intensity and definition as 621 ?

594 W^ell defined, but faint Nitrogen j^ggl

589-6 1 Very bright and sharply de-

589 j fined ' Sodium (D)

569 Bright and well defined Sodium 5688

5(.;j^.'> ■ J Sodium 5682

1 Nitrogen 668
Bright bands, but edges ill-de- \
556 ;:>-552-5 I fined. Figures give approx- ,

552 - 550 I imate positions of edges of j ^^^^'-

bands '

554 Bright and well defined Barium 553-7

519 Faint, but sharpiv defined ?

=;w i\/r • 518-4) ,

oks .. ^^ ,, ^, Magnesium 517.3 [?

\Lir •• '• " " Sodium c^jg !•

4985 „ „ „ „ Sodium 498-3

(Nitrogen 463-1

""^' ^ " " " " (Lithium 460-2?

446 So faint that position only Calcium 445 5

approximately determined AA'i^ \

442-2 So faint that position only Calcium 4x9. c '

approximately determined

423-3 Bright and well defined Calcium 422-7

The residue, after precipitating iron, calcium, magnesium,
etc., was examined spectroscopically, and gave the follawing
lines in addition to those underlined in the preceding table:

Spectruni

in Element.

Wave-lengths.

615-5 Sodium

615-5
616 1

Hvdrogen (F) 486-2
4865

THE MEDICINAL SPRINGS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 22$

Of the definitely identitied lines due to metals only those of
lithium and sodium were seen in this concentrated residue. No
potassium, rubidium or caesium lines were found.

The line 461.2 is i)robably not due to lithium, as the line
610.4 could not be found, and this line is of at least the same
intensity as the line 460.2. As only the line 670.8 could be located,
and that only with a strong discharge, it would seem as if only
traces of lithium were present.

The line 554 coincides with that of barium, but is probably
not due to this meta], as it could be easily discerned in the con-
centrated residue, which had been twice treated with precipitants
of the heavy metals and alkaline earths. The absence of calcium
lines gives evidence that this metal has been completely removed,
so that the presence of any barium in this residue is most im-
likely.

In the above spectroscopic tables the figures in the third
column are taken from a catalogue of spectra. Where no values
are given i^c.g., calcium chloride), the identification was efifected
by comparing a spectrum of the salt in the third column with
that of the saline residue.

I desire to place on record my indebtedness to Dr. K. Renz,
of Windhuk, for placing analytical data and other information at
my disposal, to Dr. H. H. Green, of Onderstepoort, for assisting
me with relevant literature, to Major Haywood, S.A.P.. Bloem-
fontein, for obtaining supplies of water from the Winburg
Baths for me, and to my assistants, Messrs. V. A. Putterill, B.A.,
and C. Brink, B.A., for their assistance in carrying out the
analyses of this water.

{Read, July 9, 1918.)

Solar Bombs. — An interesting phenomenon has lately
been investigated at the Mount Wilson Observatory. Spectro-
scopically it consists in the sudden appearance of a very brilliant
narrow band, including the region of Ha. the latter meanwhile
retaining its character of a dark line. As a rule this appearance
was found to last between one and three minutes, seldom con-
tinuing for as long as five to ten minutes. These " bombs " of
solar hydrogen are said to follow one anotlier, at intervals
from 10 to 20 minutes, like the balls of a Roman candle, and it
is suggested that they are caused by explosions in which only-
hydrogen is involved. As the dark hydrogen line Ha remains
unaltered, the level at which the explosions occur evidently lies
below the reversing layer, and it is thought that the eruptions take
place round and among active sun-spot groups.

A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF THE GREAT WINTER-

HOEK RANGE.*

By Edwin Percy Phillips. ATA., D.Sc, F.L.S.

The area investigated botanically was the Sneeinvgat Valley, and
the mountains and valleys surrounding" it, including the Great Win-
terhoek itself. The Winterhoek Peak reaches an altitude of 6,8x8
feet ; on the Tulbagh side it is precipitous, but on the northern
side the slopes fall gradually away. At the base of the Peak is
the Sneeuwgat Valley, which is entered by a nek between the
Little Winterhoek and the Witzenberg Range. The Sneeuwgat
Valley has an average altitude of about 4,000 feet, is well
watered, and has several kloofs entering it from the mountains on
the north-east. As the valley a})proaches the W'itzenberg Range
it gradually widens out and merges into the slopes of the Witzen-
berg.

This region was visited on two occasions, vi:::.. in A])ril and
November, 1916, and consequently species were collected on the
first visit which were not recorded in the second, and 7'icr versa.
April appears to be near the end of the flowering season for most
plants, except the heaths, which were more numerous than at the
beginning of the season, in November.

As the slopes of the Winterhoek are ascended frtjm Mr.
Theron's farm at the head of the Tulbagh Valley, the change in
the character of the vegetation is very marked. The streams at
the foot of the mountain are lined with trees, while the o])en slopes
carry fine specimens of the Waaboom {Proted grandiflora).
Between 2.000 to 3,000 feet the trees diasppear and the slopes
are covered with dense bush, such as Salvia africano, Psoralea
pinnata, tall plants of Sutherlandla frufescens, Rhus spp., etc.
Above the 3,000 feet level — more noticeable, however, between
3,500 and 4,000 feet — the vegetation again changes, and the t^U
bush is replaced by small shrubs, grasses, and sedges. In some
places large patches were covered with Borhart'ia robiista. Perhaps
the largest bush present at this altitude was Barosma pnchella,
two to three feet high, which is very common, and gives oiT a
strong lemon-like odour. A few sttmted specimens of Podocarpns
latifolius were seen growing quite isolated among some rocks,
and were evidently outliers from the lower levels. The true
tnountain flora starts from an altitude of 3,500 feet. A partial
study of the flora of the Matroosberg, on the Ceres side (recently
undertaken) leads me to suppose that a line indicating the lower-
most limits of the mountain flora in the Western Province will
not always be at the same altitude, but will rise and fall according
to the locality in question, and that altitude alone is not the
deciding factor. At present I am not in a position to discuss this
fully, but from my observations on several mountain trips I am

* The data for this paper were gathered when on a collecting expedi-
tion for the South African Museum, Capetown.

A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERHOEK RANGE. 22/

inclined to believe that it is the " exposure " which determines
the altitude at which the mountain flora begins, and this may be as
low as 3,000 feet or as high as 5,000 to 6,000 feet. On the French
Hoek Mountains, for instance, the mountain type of vegetation
may be found at 3,000 feet, while at Seven Weeks Poort, in the
Zwartbergen, it does not appear until peaks over 5,000 feet are
reached.

To give any detailed account of the flowering period of the
of the various species, continuous visits during the year must be
made to the locality under observation ; this, unfortunately, I have
not been able to do. One point, however, was noticed very
markedly, vis., that at the higher altitudes the flowering period is
much later — e.g., Microdon lucidus was freely flowering in
November between 3,000 to 3,500 feet, but was still in bud at all
altitudes above 4,000 feet, and finishes flowering at the higher
altitudes in April. Ccelidium roscnm was collected at the base of
the Great Winterhoek (4,300 feet) in fruit only, while on the
Peak itself (6,000 feet) it was in full flower, and showed no signs
of fruiting. The flowering period of most of the species at the
same altitude is very short — e.g., Cyclopia bonneana was in full
flower on November i/th, and a week later not a flower was to
be found on any of the bushes. Aspalathiis triqitetra showed
extremely young buds on November 17th, and was beginning to
flower freely by November 28th ; how long the flowering period
lasts I cannot say, but it is certainly over by April. Gladiolus'
involntns in flower was very common on November 17th, but
a few days later all the flowers had disappeared. Other examples
could be cited, but the above will suffice to show the extraordi-
narily short space of time in vvhich the species flower and fruit.

The character of the vegetation covering the Sneeuwgat
Valley, the mountains, and slopes is not homogeneous, and it
can best be described by detailing the types which occur in the
various localities. The upper reaches of the Sneeuwgat Valley,
running south-east and north-west, have gentle J^opes with
kopjes on the eastern side rising to 500 to 600 feet above the
valley. In the valley itself are found chiefly grasses and .sedges,
together with prostrate plants, such as Borbonia villusa. Argyro-
lobimn lanceolatum, Indigofera fiilcrata, etc. Near the nek
overlookingTulbagh Valley were numerous plants of Euryops
abrotanifoliiis. The steeper slopes of the kopjes have a shrubby
aspect, due to the numerous bushes of A.<cpalathus triquetra,
while the lowermost portion was densely clothed with masses of
Stoebe cinerca growing socially. At the low^er end of the valley
is a wide stream, almost stagnant, and covered with dense masses
of Scirpus costatus, the dominant species. Fringing the wet sides
of the stream, the common species are Zantedcschia a^thiopica.
JuncHS lomatophylhis, FJegia verticillaris, RanmicHlHs' piu-
imfus, Bulbinc sp., while the damp ground further oft' contained
many plants of Aspalathiis sp., a prostrate creeper forming-
cushions.

228 A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERHOEK RANGE.

On the dry slopes leading to the back of the Little Winter-
hoek, the dominant plants were two species of Restiacece, while
common in isolated patches was Pentaschistis curvifolia. The
other species found on these slopes are plants with underground
root-stocks, bulbs, or tubers, and prostrate plants. All the plants
growing to a height of 9 to 1 8 inches have either reduced,
leathery, or very woolly leaves. Rafuia ovata has broad leaves
resembling those of a niesophyte, but these are borne on shoots
which spring from underground buds. The prostrate species are
represented by Serniria cygnea and Erica thiiiiifolia ; species with
reduced leaves by such plants as Erica PUikcnetii; leathery-
leaved plants by Cliff ortia {ilicifolmf) ; species witli woolly leaves
by Hernias gigantia; and Asparagus ( retrofactiis)
represents s])ecies with phyloclades. In a marshy
patch on this sloj^e were several typical hydrophytes
as Oropenthea elegans, Hypoxis stellata, Cyrtanthiis sp.,
Oxalis obtiisa, Ufricitlaria sp., Lxia scariosa var., and species of
Drosera. In a stream a tall Senecio ( 5". rigidits) was the domi-
nant plant, but Psoralca pinnata and Thaumochorus sp. were very
common. As an undergrowth among the above three species
were Selago spuria, Hebenstreitia- den fata, Geranium canescens,
GnaphaVunn. litfeo-albuni. Hippia gracilis, Guuiiera perpensa
Zaiitcdeschia a^lhiopica. Anthospcruuim n^thiopicinn, and Scirpus
costatus.

Senecio rigidus grows actually in the stream mixed with
Scirpus costatus. and as a definite fringe to the stream appears
Thamnochortiis sp.. outside of which is Psorolea pinnata. These
three sjjccies intermingle somewhat, but the general imi)ression is
that of three distinct zones. On the steep slopes on either side of
the stream was the typical dry-slope vegetation described above,
with the addition of Gacania { krebsiana?) , Thesium sp.. Diosnm
vulgaris. Aulas cueorifolia, and Morcca angusfata.

To the south of the Great Winterhoek is a high peak, almost
6,000 feet in altitude, and connected with the A\'interhoek by a
nek. The slopes of this peak up to 5,000 feet are covered princi-
pally with grasses and sedges, and with very little bush. At a
lower altitude. 4,500 feet, Protea ntelliferai four to five feet high)
forms sub-dense thickets, while at 5,000 feet this species only
occurs as isolated bushes, together with scattered jilants of Meta-
lasia tnuricata. Stoebe cinerea, so abundant in the Sneeuwgat
Valley, is found occasionally at 4,500 feet, but disapjjears at 5,000
feet. Among the plants found between 4,500 and 5,00 feet are
Hydrocotyle virgata.'n semi-])rostrate wmXcrshrwh ^Rochea jasniinca
growing on rocks ; Cliff ortia junipcrina, a small bush not common ;
Pentaschistis pallescens, one of the commonest grasses growing
in scattered clum])s, more especially at 5.000 feet; Erica invohi-
crata, not common at tliis altitude ; Erica cristcrflora, f recjuently
found in the shade of rocks; Elegia pan'iftora is one of the
dominant species at 4,500 feet, but becomes very scattered at

A NOT1-: (»x Tin-: ii.uk. \ ()!• \\i xti-.riioek range. 22g

5,000 feet; a restiaceous plant, one of the dominant species; Pcn-
taschistis colorata, growing in scattered clumps at 5,000 feet ;
Ehrharta rauiosa, common at 5,000 feet, and one of the dominant
species; Lcncadendron glutinosuni, a sub-prostrate plant, fre-
quent at S,ooo feet ; Rafnia cuncifolia, of which a few specimens
were seen at 5,000 feet; Tetraria involucrata is very common at
4,500 to 5,000 feet, and forms one of the features of the vegeta-
tion, as it stands conspicuously above the grasses, restios, and other
sedges. The slopes just described were exceptionally dry.

Beyond the kopjes forming the south-east boundary of
Sneeuwgat is a sandy valley, down which an annual stream runs.
The soil is composed of decomposed sandstone, forming white
sand. Rocks or large stones are almost quite absent, especially
in the lower portions. In a marshy patch in this valley was a
dense social growth of W'atsonia sp. In the upper reaches of the
valley (near the W^itzenbergen) the dominant species is No. 53
(a restiaceous plant), while lower down this is ousted by No. 54
(a restiaceous plant), which dominates. Growing among No. 53
are isolated p^itches oi Daiitlioiiia laiiofa; ^ispalathiis s/^., forming
cushions on the ground; Lessertia pulchra; Schizodutni inflexnm;
Ixia scariosa var. ; Sphcnogyne anetJiifolia, a prostrate plant; and
S. iiitdicaiilis, a compact shrub, with underground stems.

The Great Winterhoek may be ascended by way of a steep
narrow ravine, which takes one almost to the summit. This
ravine is very densely covered with Ehrliarta raiuosa, so much so
that the ascent is made somewhat difficult. Not much else was
growing in the ravine except a few plants (Nciiiesia diffusa, Geis-
sorhica gcmissata) on the wet rocks at the sides. On a clifif face
at the head of the ravine are fine specimens of Proiea Dykei.
This beautiful protea is now known from four mountain peaks,
all above 5,000 feet altitude, z'ia., the Coxcombe Mountains
(Uitenhage); the Zwartbergen, near Oudtshoorn; the Somerset
West Sneeuwkop ; and the Great Winterhoek. Its habitat, as far
as I am able to gather, is always the same — on rock faces. The
summit of the Winterhoek itself is very rocky and stony, Init
where soil is deposited it is covered with Restio sp. NanoUron
capcnse, a small liliaceous plant, is found among the rocks, and
forms small cushions on the ground. This is another of the
species confined to high mountain summits. Bolus first found it
on the Little Winterhoek, and Marloth later collected it on the
summit of the Matroosberg. Other flowering plants were rare, and
the following list represents all the species found : — Lacluuca pciii-
cillata, growing on clifT faces; Ccclidimn rosenm, a bush one to
two feet high ; Aster bcllioides, a plant with woolly leaves (also
found by Marloth and myself on the summit of the Matroos-
berg) ; Biilbiiic sp., which was copimon in Sneeuwgat at 4,000 feet ;
Erica sp.; Mitraltia crassifolia; and Selago sp.

The total number of species collected on the two trips is 245,
as follows: — Dicotyledons, 173; monocotyledons, y2. Proportion

230 A XOTE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERHOEK RANGE.

of dicotyledons: monocotyledons :: 2.40: i. The predominant
orders are : —

Species. Per cent.

of Whole.

Compositae 42 17. 10

Ericaceae 25 10.20

Leguminosae 20 8. 16

■■ Gramineae 16 6. 53

Irideae 13 .S-30

Restiacea; 13 5 -30

Proteacese 12 4-89

Cyperaceae 10 4.08

Orchidaceae 10 4.08

Geraniaceae 8 3-26

Selagineae 7 2.85

Rutaceae 6 2.44

Thymelaeaceae 6 2.44

' Crassulaceae 5 2.04

Polygonaceae 5 2 . 04

Scrophulariaceae 5 2.04

Campanulaceae 4 i . 63

Liliaceae 4 t .63

Amaryllidaceae 3 1

Euphorbiaceae 3 i

Raniinculaceae 3 i

o-r>

Comparing this list with that given by Bolus for the South-
West Region generally, it is found that the first three orders,
Compositae, Ericaccce, and Leguminosae, occupy the same relative
positions in importance ; the grasses are better represented, while
the Liliaceae are but poorly represented. Too much stress must
not be laid on this comparison, as the area under consideration is
but a small portion of that dealt with by Bolus. We will only be
able to tell whether the mountain flora differs in com])Osition from
the flora of lower levels when the highland and lowland floras of
several localities have been thoroughly explored and worked up.

The most important results obtained, ])erhaps, are those
relating to the character of the vegetation existing under mountain
conditions, and in this I have followed the classification of
Raunkiaer, as outlined by Bews, in his paper on " The Vegeta-
tion of Natal." The results are as follows : —

Species. Per cent.

Plemicryptophytes ... 86 35 • 10

Cham^ephytes 60 24.48

Nanophanerophytes . . ;i,^ I5- 10

Geophytes t,o 12 . 24

Therophytes. ...... 18 7 -M

Helophytes 10 4-o8

Microphanerophytes . . 3 t . 22

A N(^TE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERHOEK RANGE. 23I

These hgures prove quite conclusively that the habit of the
species inhabiting this region is influenced by the rigorous condi-
tions under which they live. Nearly 60 per cent, of the species
are prostrate plants with winter buds below the surface of the
soil, or a few inches above the ground-level (^Hemicryptophytes
and Chanijephytes), while the "bushes" (Nanophanerophytes)
only constitute 15. 10 per cent, of the flora. If the Geophytes and
Therophytes, as a general class, are included witlj the Hemi-
cryptophytes and Chamaephytes as representing a type adapted
for tiding over adverse climatic conditions, we then find that
79.16 per cent, of the flora of the Winterhoek and environs is
of this extremely xerophytic type. This, however, is not so
important from the point of view in which these investigations
are being pursued, as the predominance of the Hemicrypto-
phytes and Chamaephytes in the flora. Wq know that the high
mountains of South Africa carry a sub-alpine type of vegeta-
tion, but I do not know of any systematic investigation on this
point dealing with the Western Province flora. The results as
given in this paper are not of much value in themselves ; many
such mountain peaks must be worked on the same lines, the results
obtained co-ordinated and compared with those of lower altitudes
in the vincinity of the peaks explored. It is only then tliat any
definite statements can be made regarding the mountain flora of
South Africa. Reverting back to the type of plants, the small
number (three) of Microphanerophytes is noticeable when com-
pared with the list of small trees found at the foot of the moun-
tain.

Plants with woody stems, quite irrespective of their form,
constitute 54.22 per cent, of the flora, while the herbs or herba-
ceous plants make up the remaining 45.77 per cent. A stud}-
of the leaf -characters of plants growing in areas under the same
climatic conditions may lead to some general conclusions if
several such floras are worked, and I have adopted here a similar
scheme to that employed in my paper on the French lloek flora.

The bulk of the species possesses sessile, alternate, entire,
expanded, glabrous leaves. Linear leaves are fairly common,
but deeply incised (or compound), cricoid, terete, revolute (or
involute), leathery, or hairy leaves are less common. These facts
are naturally corollated with the predominance of I lemicrypto-
])hytes and Chamaephytes present in the flora. The species in
this region have not only to contend against a summer drought
as the plants of the valleys, but have also to make provision
against the cold of winter, when the ground is covered with
snow for two or three months in the year, which kills the aerial
vegetative shoots, but does not injure the dormant winter buds.
In the period intervening between two winters, the plant produces
a type of leaf best fitted for rapid transpiration, assimilation,
and respiration, .so that it may build up in as short a time as
possible reserve food for the following year's underground
stem, and at the same time produce flowers and fruit before the

27,2 A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERIIOEK RANCE.

advent of the second winter. It must not be inferred from this,
however, that the chief type of leaf is mesophytic; the xerophytic
type is predominant. Plants with cricoid, filiform, terete,
involute, revolute, leathery, and hairy leaves, if taken collecti\'ely,
outnumber the mesophytic type.

The following list shows the various leaf-characters: —

Sf'ccics. Per cent.

of Whole.

68.42

,V.5«

91 •♦^'S

^-97

Leaves sessile

i-«

Leaves petioled

66

Leaves alternate . . .

223

1 .eaves opi)osite . ...

22

1 .eaves sim])le and

cntu'c

174

Leaves comi:)Ound,

deejih' incistrd, or

lobed. or leaflets

with dentate or

crenate maronis . .

26

Leaves filiform, terete

or sennterete

]2

Leaves cricoid

39

/r.o

->

10. 6 T

4.^w

LS-91

Leaves flat and ex-
panded 84 34 • 28

Leaves invohue or re-
volute 46 '^'^■77

Leaves leathery. ... 31 12.65

Leaves glabrous. ... 136 .^5 -51

Leaves hairy 66 -6.93

Leaves glandular ... 13 .^-.^f^'

Leaves ]iungcnt or

spiny 8 ?,-2^^

The type of inflorescence, size and colour of the flowers, and
tyi)C of fruit have all been worked out in detail, and are embodied
in the following lists: —

LVFLORESCENCE.

species.
A capitulum 63

Flowers solitary 46

An umbel 31

A spike 2^

.\ raceme 21

A corymb 11

A i^anicle 3

(The Restiacene, Cy])erace<e. and (iramine?? not inclulcd.

Pen

■cut.

31

.18

22

LS.

•34

13

.3^^

10.

■39

5 ■

. 44

I

•4'^

A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF WIXTERHOEK RANGE.

-OO

SlZK ol- l^LOWEKS.

Sf'ccics.

Mowers conspicuous
or grouped into con-
spicuous masses ... n(^> ■ ■ ■

Flowers medium. ... 71

Flowers small

3^^

Per cent.

4; • -'<J

' 7 ■ r3

Conspicuous flowers would be such as Ixia scariosa, Hnuiia
}i()d! flora, Neriiie iiiarginata, etc.

Mediiun flowers, such as Argyrolohlum lanccolatuin. Bor-
honia fiUosa, Hippia gracilis, etc.

Small' flowers, such as Riiiiic.v AcetoceUa, Raiiinicnlns pin-
nahis, Mtiralfia clifforticrfolia. etc.

(The Restiace.T. Cyperacea?. and (iramine?e not included. )

Capsules .
Nuts ... .
Berries . . .

Fruits.
Species.
122

93

4

Per cent.

55 -69
42.46

T . H2

CoLorK OF Flowers.

Species.

Reddish (red and pink ) 58 . . . .

Yellow 54 ....

White ( cream) 41 . . . .

Blue ( mauve) 11 . . . .

Green 8 . . . .

Brown 7 . . . .

P'urj-jle 5 ....

Per c

31

-'9
22

5
4
3

eiit.

^2

34
2^

'J7
34
80

71

In the French Hoek flora, which I worked on the same lines,
liut which included both mountain-tops and valleys, the dominant
colour of the flowers was as follows : —

Yellow .
White
Reddish ,
Blue . .
Green .
Brown .

Per cent.

26.26
21 . 19
22.67

9-25
2.68
1.49

Here we immediately have a small question of minor scicn-
tiflc interest : Is the dominant colour of flowers in the mountain
flora red; and if so. what hearing- has this on the pollination and
the insect fauna? .Such ])oints as these can only be answered by
careful studies of the mountain fl.ira.

-'34

A NOTE ON THE FLORA OF WINTERHOEK RANGE.

Comparison of Biological Spectra, Natal and Winterhoek.

Percentage of Species belonging to Life Forms.

Total
Number of

S

L

MM M

H Ch

H

G

H H Ph

Species
245

..

.. il-2

15-1

245

35-1

1

Winter hoek

12-2

4-1

Tl

Natals (Bews) ...

3,034

I

I

3 14

14

19

18

18

55

6-5

Normal Spectrum

400

I

'>
.>

6 I 17

20

9

21

3

I

13

(Raunkiaer)

ijr.f.

If we take the biological spectrum of Natal as given by
Bews as being typical of one of the larger general areas, with
conditions varying from sub-tropical and mesophytic on the coast
to alpine temperate on the Drakensbergen, the comparison table
given above brings out certain interesting points. The taller trees
belonging to the class M.M. (Mega and Mesophanerophytes) are
totally unrepresented on the \\"interhoek. Of small trees on the
Winterhoek the percentage is only 1.2, as against 14 in Natal.
Chamsephytes and Hemicryptophytes show a large increase.
Geophytes (bulbous plants), on the other hand, are not quite so
numerous as in Natal, and certainly not nearly so numerous as
in the grass-veld ])ortion of Natal. They may be looked upon as a
type peculiarly adapted to steppe conditions, though they are
fairly well represented in the moimtainous areas also. The pro-
portion of marsh plants is slightly less, that of annuals ( Thero-
phytes) slightly greater tlian in Natal. The annuals would, of
course, be more abundant were the area under cultivation. The
increase in the number of Hemicryptophytes, which is nearly
double that of Natal, is to be explained by the lower winter
temperature on the Winterhoek. It shows a nearer approach to
temperate conditions as opposed to sub-tropical. It is 8 per cent,
greater than Raunkiaer's normal for the whole world's flora, but
is not quite so great as for most true temperate regions in the
Northern Hemisphere.*

As I pointed out previously, any facts given in this paper
have been published in the hope that when other workers \.wx\\
their attention to investigations on similar lines, some use may
be made of them. I hope to be able still to continue this work,
and later on to make some general statements regarding the high
mountain flora, based on a detailed study of each individual
species.

In conclusion, I am greatly indebted to Dr. J. \\^ . Bews for
his kindly interest and f riendl}^ criticism.

* See examples of biological spectra, Bews. loc. cif.

THE NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE

LAND.

Bv Maurice Smethurst Evans, C.M.G., F.Z.S.

To a greater extent than any of the other races inhabiting
South Africa, the life of the Bantu people is boimd up with and
directly dependent upon the occupation of the land. This is quite
as true df Natal and Zuiuland as of any part of the Union. There
are probably about a quarter of a million native families living in
Natal, and out of this large number I do not suppose there are
more than a few hundred who do not raise the greater part of
their sustenance directly from the soil by the labour of their own
hands. It is true that from every kraal one or more of its
members go forth to work for the white man, but their earnings
are not usually spent in food, which is drawn direct from Mother
Earth by the labours of those who remain at home. In a sense
it may be said that these also are working for the white man, for
if the native had no such holding his present wages would hardly
support his family and pay his taxes. His earnings may be said
to be supplemental to his crops, or, if you prdfer it, his crops
supplement his earnings. Viewed thus, the umfaan who herds
the goats and the women and girls who hoe the gardens are also
working for the benefit of the European.

Since the Native Land Act of 1913 passed through Parlia-
ment, the present position of the native on the land, and his
future thereon, have been much discussed ; and much more so in
Natal than elsewhere. It may therefore be of some value to give
a brief description of the position of the native in relation to the
land in that province, where his numbers, in proportion to
Europeans, are so much greater than in any other Province of
the Union.

The past history and the present occupation of the land,
both by Europeans and natives, in the old G)lony of Natal is ?<o
different to what obtains in Zuiuland that I propose to deal with
these areas separately. It would be well, at tlie outset, to give a
short description of the topography of these two areas. Such
descriptions have been given in the past, but this one mav differ
somewhat, as it is primarily intended to elucidate racial and
economic occupation : south of the River Tugela. north of the
Umtam\iina, west olf the Indian Ocean, and east of the Drakens-
berg, is the original Colonv of Natal. For the purpose of this
paper the coast-line may be regarded as extending from the beach
to the inland limit of sugar cane cultivation, some 12 miles in
distance and i.ooo feet in height. It is by far the most valuable
agricultural area in Natal proper. The ownership is for the
greater part in the hands of Europeans, and the labour is done
mostly by Indians. On one part of the South Coast native
location lands overlap the sugar zone, and attempts 'have been
made to exchange this area for one less valuable for European

23^ THK NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAND.

occupation, but so far without success. This sugar district is
fairly flat and easily cultivated. The contour, altitude, and con-
sequent economic value and occupation of Natal beyond the
sugar-cane zone is governed by three factors: (i) The mountain
wall of the Drakensberg on the west, of varying height but rising
to 11,000 feet in Mont Aux Sources; (2) the rapid but short
rivers which, rising in this chain, traverse the country in a general
east or south-easterly direction to the sea; and (3) the presence
of a ridge of high land of varying but considerable width running
across the middle of Natal, terminating northwards about High-
lands Station, on the South African Railways, at a height of
5,000 feet above sea-level. The rivers in that portion of their
courses immediately above the sugar belt and for a distance
inland of from 20 to 50 miles, according to their size, have worn
deep into the original tableland huge valleys with subsidiary ones
formed in the same way l)y their tributaries. Looked at from the
lieight i)f the tal)leland di\iding these main valleys, the view is
extraordinary — a vast iumble of hills and valleys 'bounded far
away by the opposite escarpment. A typical and well-known
example of these river valleys may be seen from the railway
near Botha's Hill Station, and is locally called the Valley of the
I'housand Hills. The rainfall here is uncertain, not nearly so
dependable and well-distributed as on the plateaus bounding and
dividing these valleys. Torrential rains are, however, not
infrequent, and these, washing away the surface soil and deepen-
ing the valleys, together with the long spells of dry weather, make
agriculture a somewhat precarious undertaking. The soil is
often stony, and poor, and too steep for successful cukixation.
There are, however, pockets of good alluvial land in the neigh-
bourhood of the rivers which in suitable seasons amply repay
cultivation. In the larger river valleys, as the distance from the
coast increases, the aridity becomes greater and the character of
the vegetation alters. These upper valleys are known in Natal as
the Thorns, from the abunlance of acacias of various species
which, with, aloes and euphorbias, form the principal vegetation.
Above the Thorn Valleys, and until the Berg is reached, the river
courses are more open and shallow, and the country is high,
roUing, open and healthy. From the coast to the river sources
the watersheds between the valleys are high, open grasslands,
healthy for man and beast, and with a fair amount of arable
land. This is the class of country generally seen by visitors and
travellers, as the railways and roads usually run along the
watersheds. The high land running across the centre of the
Province, previously mentioned as one of its chidf characteristics,
is of this cliaracter, and is one of the most valued areas for white
occupation. Beyond this high area to the north, in the Estcourt,
Klip River and Newcastle divisions, the country is from 1,000 to
2,OQO feet lower than the high central ridge, and may be said to
partake of the character of the higher veld, or the Thorns,
according to elevation and aspect. Excepting on the border Oi

" i: NATIVES UF NATAL IN RELATION Td THE LAND. 2}^"/

Zululand. along the boundary river — the Tugela — original Natal
of which we are now speaking is free from malarial fever.

We must now giA'e a few words to the topography of Zulu-
land. The sugar belt extends all along the coast as it does in
Natal. It is continuous from the Tugela to near the railway
terminus at Somkele. As we go northward the climate becomes
appreciably more tropical and more favourable to sugar-cane
cultivation. The great chain of the Drakensberg — so con-
spicuous a feature in Natal proper — lies away to the west df the
present Zululand boundary, and the high land of Zululand consists
mostly of limited areas lying between the deep river valleys.
There are no such large areas of high healthy ground as are
present south of the Tugela. For some distance north of the
present limit of sugar cultivation there is an area of very fertile
land most suitable for this culture, but beyond this again is the
sandy waste of Maputaland, of little economic value, and danger-
ously malarial. The river valleys of Zululand are similiar in
appearance and character to those of Natal, but inferior as the
homes of humankind in that they are subject to malaria.

Such, in brief, are the natural features of Natal and Zulu-
land, the home oif 100,000 Europeans, 150,000 Asiatics, and
1,000,000 Bantu — of this large number of natives, only some
265,812 live in the native locations of Natal proper. These
locations in total extent cover 2,259,904 acres. They
are held in trust by Government for the exclusive use of the
native people. They are mostly situated in the central and
southern portion of the Colony ; there are none in the northern
divisions of Klip River and Newcastle. As a rule they occupy
the river valleys previously described, the greater area being
situated in the lower courses of these streams. One of the
largest, the Mpofane, is in the higher Thorn Valleys. A few,
such as the Impendhle, are situated in the high or grassy table-
lands. But on the wdiole the locations are in the most rugged
area and least fertile portion of Natal. The choicest and most
fertile parts of the Colony are in the possession and occupation
of Europeans. I may say that the term " location " is used
rather loosely in South Africa. In many parts it denotes a
portion of the outskirts of a tow'n set apart for exclusive native
occupation, but in Natal it is applied to areas of considerable size
right away in the country, with properly defined boundaries, in
which natives alone may live. The occupation is always com-
munal, the tribal system is upheld, and, except with the special
permission of the Government, no Europeans are allowed to
reside therein.

Native life in these areas goes on much as it did in the days
of the fathers of the present population. For years there was
no white supervision. Now^ a few European supervisors have
been apjx)inted, wdio. however^ interfere very little with the life
of the people. The ravages of East Coast fever induced the
Government to take more interest in what was going on in these

238 THE NATIVES OF XATAL IN KELATIOX TO THE LAND.

areas. In the interests of the white man, as well as of the native
cattle owner, the location cattle had to be cleansed from the
disease-carrying ticks ; dipping tanks were erected throughout
these areas, regulations made and inspectors appointed. Aifter
some preliminary trouble the natives recognized the benefits of
dipping, and loyally obeyed the Government's instructions. At
the last meeting of the Farmers' Conference in Natal the prin-
cipal veterinary surgeon reported that out of Sy outbreaks of
East Coast fever, only 3 occurred in native locations ! I have
already said that in the locations the native people live as their
fathers did. This is true in large measure — the tribal system
])ersists ; the Zulu hut and cattle kraal are still built and occupied
l)y the majority; the belief in and practice of witchcraft still
endures ; polygamy, lobola, and other native customs form part
of native law, and are endorsed by Government. But there are
changes. The plough is now universally used, the men under-
t;iking this work, the women all the subsequent operations,
including harvesting. But in proportion to the increased popula-
tion the ground does not yield an increase. No manure is used,
and as the virgin soil is exhausted, steeper, stonier and more
sterile fields are tilled, with scantier results. It is a remarkable
fact that though many of the men living in the locations work as
agriculturists for Europeans, and are fully acquainted with his
methods and see the benefit he derives from manuring and good
cultivation, they do not copy these improved methods at their
homes — their crops are as slovenly as those of their neighbours.
Many years ago thousands of bags df grain were bought by
Europeans from the locations where now there is not only not
a surplus but a deficiency in bad seasons. Many of the European
farmers living near the locations sell the whole of their crops at
high prices to the natives who occupy land not naturally much
inferior to that farmed by the white man. The crops grown by
the natives are those grown of old: maize, Kafifir com. beans and
amadumba (Calocacia ediilis). The more profitable crops grown
by Europeans, such as sugar-cane, wattles, potatoes and European
cereals are not grown by the native. In general terms it may
be said that no produce grown in the native locations finds its
way into the markets of the Colony, and no exportable produce is
grown by them. And the same applies to their flocks and herds.
No dairy produce is made, they do not keep wooUed sheep, and
their cattle and goats are exchanged among themselves for lubola
purposes. Of late years some little instruction in agriculture
has been given by a few of the missionaries living in the
location, but there has been no Government assist-
ance, nor any Government instruction. Taken as a whole,
I think it may be truthfully said that the economic-
agricuhural position of the natives on the locations of Natal is
worse than it was in the early days of the white man's occupation
•of the country.

Notwith.standing the fact that such a considerable portion of

TIIK NATIVES OF NATAL IN RHLATION TO THE LAND. 239

the Colony is reserved for the sole use O'f the natives, only
265,812 live therein, while no fewer than 346,641 live on land
privately owned by Europeans. These privately owned lands
are generally described as " farms,'' and the use of this term
may easily give rise to a misconception, and an explanation must
be made. A considerable number of these farms are not <.)ccu-
pied at all by the European owners, who either li\e in a more
desirable locality, from the European point of view, or are non-
resident in the Colony. Man_v of these farms are situated in
the Thorn country, or in the lower river valleys, where very few
]-AU-opeans reside. The description given of much of the location
country would apply also to a great part of this area. These
native occupiers pay rent to the European owners, \arying in
amount from £2 to £6 per hut per annum. Some of them who
reside on land belonging to farmers living elsewhere in the
Colony are under (.ibligation. as jiart of the contract, to work
for them for a portion of the year, generally at a lower rate of
wages than they could obtain in the open labour market. These
natives are all under the rule of some chief, and their conditions
of life, their occupation and cultivation of the ground, does not
differ materially from that obtaining in the locations, as alreadv
described. So long as they pay their taxes and dip their cattle
■Government does not interfere with them, or assist them in any
way, with the exception of the occasion of a faction fight between
the tribes, when the police promptly swoop dow^n on the dis-
turbers of the King's peace, and they are fined sums which, in
])roportion to their means, are t|uite enormous.

The contracts hetween the land-owner and the native
occupiers are made with the kraal head — generally an old man
who does not go out to work himself; but who. by his contract,
binds the younger members of the kraal. The growing disregard
of the once universally recognised family obligations on the part
of the y(^ung people makes it difficult for the kraal head to carrv
out his responsibilities to the land-owner, and causes difficulty
and often litigation between the farmer and native occupier. The
general conditions of native life and cultivation olf the soil are
very much the same on these farms, unoccupied by Europeans, as
on the native locations, previously described. There are no statistics
available showing the number of natives living on these un-
occupied farms and those residing on farms occupied and
cmltivated by the owners, but a very considerable portion of the
Bantu people live on these latter. Years ago these occupied
farms were large, and cultivation very limited ; the resident
native tenants were allowed to use. for cultivation or grazing, as
much land as they desired. Now the farms are fenced into pad-
docks, much land is under cultivation, and the grasslands are
pastured by well-bred cattle, which must not mix with the
common herds olf the native tenant. Gradually the nati\e has
been pushed into the most undesirable portion of the farm, and
the numbers of his live-stock strictly Umited. Some good and con-
siderate land-owners w^ill lend oxen and ploughs to their tenants

D

240 Tlih: NATIVES OF XATAL IN RlXATloN TO THE LAND.

i'or a limited time in the planting season, after which time the
native women cultivate and harvest the crops. In many cases
these native tenants are attached to their masters, and live con-
tinuously on the farm for years, and are fully acquainted with
the methods of cultivation and the breeding of cattle followed by
their European masters. But it is remarkable that in very few
instances do they follow his example in the cultivation of their
own cro])s ; generally speaking, they are little in advance of those
which may be seen on the locations and unoccupied farms. In
bad seasons there is often not enough grown for the food oif the
family, and it is eked out either by gifts froin the farmer or by
burrowing money to purchase. When the latter is the case the
Ucitive has always to pay top price. The native is notoriously
improvident, and will always borrow money without reckoning
of the da}- of payment, and this has become so common that on
many farms the whole of the kraal heads and many of the other
members of the family are in debt to the owner. The kraal head
will readilv hypothecate tht? future, labour of the young- members of
the kraal at low wages to pay this debt, and hence another if ruitful
source of trouble and litigation. The present position has become
so unsatisfactory on some farms that the owners forsee that in
the not distant future the native tenant will become a farm-hand
living in barracks and furnished with rations, as is the case with
Indian labourers on the sugar estates. From the purely economic
standpoint this may be desirable, but some of us cannot view
without scrio'us misgiving this alteration in the status of the
native. It seems a lowering of human life and opportunity that
a man, free within certain Hmits well understood by him, living
his own life on the soil occupied 'by his fathers, with many
interests, tribal and personal, should Ijccome a mere wage-earner
without any interest in the soil he tills, and divorced from the
social life he so much valued, and denied the rights hitherto
exercised, and which he regarded as inalienable to mankind.

There is a tendency among the Euroi^ean Ifarmers to estimate
the value obtained from their native farm servants by the price
paid If or it: e.g., if they get the services of a native at 15s. per
month he is cheap, if they have to pay 30s. he is dear, irrespective
of the quality of the services he may render. Low-priced
la1x>ur may in truth he very dear ; intelligent, willing work has
been proved all the world over to be really cheaper than un-
intelligent, ignorant work, even if a much higher wage should be
l^aid. The high wage paid to farm workers in Australia. New
Zealand and America, and their higher standard of living, does
not prevent these countries from sending their produce to Africa,
ill the face of our low wages and mealie-pap-fed labourers. This
elementarv. but important, fact must be learned by the land-
owners of Natal, and when learnt, there will be hope for the
native who works as farm servant, for he may then hope to
advance his position and earn wages more commensurate with
the more difficult and responsible work he is often called upon to
nndt-rt'ike. in these days of more advanced agricultural practice.

THE XATIVES OF NATAL IN' RELATION" TO THE LAND. 24 1

In past years considerable grants of land were vested by the
Government in missionary bodies, and these grants are called in
Natal, Mission Reserves. In all. these reserves amount to 313,867
acres, and are inhabited by 43.10) natives. There are resident
European missionaries on most of them. The native people
living on these reserves are not all Christians ; a number of uncon-
verted natives have been allowed to reside on them. Formerly,
in a few of these reserves, individual freehold title was given to
a limited number of allotment holders, but the practice ceased
many years ago, and the greater part of the native residents have
no title to their holdings. On some reserves the missionaries
have made an effort to encourage and teach better agricultural
methods ; generally speaking, the natives on the reserves, who
are under the ini|uence of the missionaries, have better homes
and make ])etter use of the ground than any of those previously
mentioned.

There are a number of native freeholders in Natal who have
purchased their farms, either as individuals or as members of a
syndicate. Altogether there are 359,708 acres held by these
native freeholders. The holdings are not usually df large size,
but as they are often contiguous, a considerable continuous area
may be owned and occupied by these native farmers. Unless one
is acquainted with the details of one of these farm areas, it is
(litBcult to estimate the cpality of the farming operations carried
on by the actual owner, for they nearly all have copied the Euro-
pean in taking on other natives as tenants, and the crops of these
tenants are no better than those of the native tenants of unoccu-
jtied European farms. It is generally understood that these native
landlords charge high rents and deal promptly with defaulters
through the agency of the law. Still, speaking generally, the
native owner, when he does cultivate, makes better use of the
ground than any of the classes we have mentioned hitherto ;
there are not a few instances in which the advance is noteworthy
and creditable. The maji who has had the thrift and foresight
to buy a piece of land is, as a general rule, the man who makes
the best use of it. Fundamentally, human nature is the same
all the world over. There has been much anxiety evinced in
some parts of the Union because of the alleged increasing desire,
on the part of natives, to purchase land in the midst of white
communities. To prevent this intermixture was one of the
objects of the Natives Land Act of 1913. In Natal this fear is
not generally entertained. The Europeans ha\e already acquired
all the most desirable agricultural and pastoral land, and are
being more and more firmly entrenched therein by the adoption
of improved methods, which means higher prices for the land
■ and more capital and capacity to work it profitably. In many
cases native purchasers ha\'e been unable to retain their land
through lack of business ability, foresight, and thrift; and the
instalments ]>aid. and the land itself has been lost to them. With
Government aid I think it is possible for the native farmer to
survive, if his operations are on a limited scale, but I do not

242 THE NATIVES OK XATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAND.

think lie can compete successfully with Europeans in a European
area, much less be a menace to European occupation on such
areas. I speak, of course, of Natal only.

I have now treated of the position oif the native on the
various classes of land in Natal ; it remains to say a few words
on his position in Zuiuland. The large num'bers of natives on
private land in Natal are not found in Zuiuland. Prac-
tically the whole native population lives either in the
reserves or Crown lands demarcated by the Saunders Com-
mission of 1902-04, so that the involved questions of tenancy,
rent, and labour complications do not arise. A large number
of male Zulus turn out to work, proceeding to Natal and the
Transvaal, or getting work on the sugar estates of the Zuiuland
coasts, and these bring the new and disturbing ideas, bred by
contact with the white man's civilization, to the old environment;
but on the whole, social liife and the use and occti])ation of the
land is not much changed in Zuiuland among the natives. Except-
ing in one or two areas in which the missionaries have encouraged
better methods, the agriculture to-day is as in former days. But
in proportion to the population land is more plentiful in Zulu-
land than in Natal, and the evidence of worn-out fields is not
present. In Northern Zuiuland the natives belong to the Tonga
branch of the 'Bantu, and here the people grow a greater variety
of cro])s than further south, and are, on the whole, better agri-
culturists. But what was said of Natal applies to the whole of
Zuiuland ; also there are no surplus crops grown by the people ;
nothing is sent to market or exported from the land tilled by
the natives of Zuiuland.

I have now reviewed the present position of the native as
occupant and cultivator of the soil, and the position cannot be
considered satisfactory. It is over 60 years since Europeans
first settled on the land of this Province. At first, and for some
vears, their cultivation was not much in advance of the Bantu,
but year by year they improved, until now the gap between the
two races in this respect is enormous. Excepting in isolated
cases, which certainly give ground for hope, the native has not
advanced, and it is probable that on the whole he has retrograded.
This is a question of serious national importance, for it means
that millions of acres are not fully utilised, and human life is
not sustained as it might be. I know that according to native
ideas the locations are already full, and at many meetings of
natives I have attended the cry went up that they were over-
crowded, but there is no doubt that if properly organised, utilised,
and cultivated, they would carry a much larger population. To
ascertain the reasons for this backwardness among these people
would be a most valuable and interesting subject for scientific
enquiry. Meantime, pending such an enquiry, I will venture
to give a few thoughts on the subject, tentative conclusions I have
arrived at from my own observations and discussions with many
who are familiar with native life. And first I would say that it
is not lack of capacity, either physical or mental. It is true, as

THIi NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAND. 243

I said beftjrc. that the average native could not successfully carry
on farming on a large scale, involving knowledge of scientific
method and modern business. But I believe many are quite
capable of good and profitable cultivation of small farms. JKs
before stated, many Euro[)ean farmers have natives who do
excellent work, and who, learning the routine, may be trusted
to continue without much supervision. In the Southern United
States negro farmers have made extraordinary progress in late
years, extending their holdings and im[)roving their methods to
an extent comparing very favourably with their white neigh-
bours. In i^arts of Africa, notably in Nigeria and Uganda,
people akin to our Bantu are growing exportable crops of great
value. It is not, then, lack of natural ability which is the cause
of the backwardness of our natives. What is it, then? Many
I have spoken to give but one reason — indolence. But under
sufficient and appropriate stimulus, or when in the employ of
European^ whom he trusts, in a situation he values, he certainly
cannot be called indolent. What my friends call indolence, I
think is rather an innate conservatism, coupled with the absence
of the will to advance for the sake of advance. If this is so,
there is hope, for, as I said before, human nature is fundamen-
tally the same all the world over, and stimulus, encouragement,
instruction, and supervision may work some of the marvels one
see^ in some of the negro communities in the Southern States,
i his conser\'atism gives play to a factor which certainly plays
a part. In a tribal location all believe in witchcralft, and the
witch-doctor openly or secretly carries on his calling. He is a
great upholder of ancient custom, and any person departing
therefrom, or introducing innovations, is likely to be suspected
and at least ostracised. So the man who would like to plant
wattles refrains from doing so lest he incur the dislike or hos-
tility of his neighbours. Another factor is the gradual break-
down of the old rigid social s\'stem. After ploughing, the culti-
vation i^ the work of the women, and they can no longer be
punished for failing to carr}- out their duties. Competent obser-
vers also say that the old emulation between the women, and the
pride they took in their respective gardens is no longer present ;
they are now not ashamed of slovenly garden-plots. In old times,
a beer-drink was a gathering of the men on some important occa-
sion, anti women and youths were excluded. But now they
are held whenever amabclc is procurable, and women and imma-
ture young men attend, and character and industry suffer in con-
sequence. Under communal tenure, whilst a kraal will not be
evicted so long as it is occuj)ied. when the area becomes crowded,
there are frequent garden disputes, and of course this system does
not {)ro vide- the stimulus which is furnished by individual tenure,
and there is no inducement to improve when a man is in
doubt whether he will retain the fruits cif his labour or they will
pass to another. Many in Natal are of the opinion that the
custom o\ polygamy is the source and fount of all that is back-
ward and barbarous in the life of the Zulu. It nuLst be admitted

244 THE NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAND.

that it is a cement binding together many ancient customs
which to-day are proving hindrances to advancement. In a mono-
gamous society when a man has courted and married, his attention
is devoted to earning his Hving, and, if possible, a better living,
year by year, and so the State progresses. Among our Bantu,
instead of working and earning, our married man goes philander-
ing among the girls, and, from the standpoint we are now
considering, he wastes the time of many others as well as himself.
When he is sufficiently married the position is no better, for the
man who should provide most of the brain and muscle, now
reposes in the shade while his wives scratch the ground to grow
their scanty crop.

It wili be seen that I attribute the failure of the Bantu to
advance largely to social customs. While many of the customs
had a high value, when incorporated as part of a system they lose
this value when the whole system is breaking down., The position
is a most unfortunate one. By our contact and example we dis-
integrate old social order but fail to put anything in its place.
I made a comparison a little while back l)etween the agricultural
progress made by the European and the Bantu in the last few
decades. Such a comparison would be unfair if we did not
remember that during the time many hundreds of thousands, if
not millions, have been spent in Natal alone to help the European
to better his position on the land, while not a ])enny has been given
to the native from the public exchequer for the same purpose.
We are constanjly preaching the doctrine of the dignity of labour
to the native, but we do not see that he has in his labour that
greatest incentive of all — hope. When the native sees that by
energy and thrift he can acquire many desirable things, and the
road is pointed out to him, hope will spring up and make all the
difference in his life. But we must show him the road and we
must encourage and support hini in it. He cannot achieve, un-
aided, progress towards a better life in the native areas, and agri_
citltural development therein is a main road, but Government
initiative and assistance will be needed. This work should form
one of the chief duties of the non-political Native Affairs Council
which I have so ciften recommended, and the idea of which was
embodied in the Native Administration Bill of 1917. On general
lines the development would follow what has been done in such
large measures for the European farmers by the Agricultural
Department — agricultural education, establishment of experi-
mental plots, introduction of new crops, help in marketing and
all the other plans now familiar to us. But the details would have
to be altered and adjusted to suit the character and cai>acity of
the |>eople with whom we are dealing. For a people like our Bantu
who are either in, or just emerging from the patriarchal state, the
personal element counts for much more than it does among a
];eople who are indi\idualistic like ourselves. Much will depend
<m the knowledge, wisdom and sympathy of the Admiiiistration,
and the greatest care should be exercised in choosing those who
come into contact with the people. It must be recognised also

THE NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAM). 245

that unless the women can be interested and induced to co-operate,
any attempt will be doomed to failure. If our effort is to result
in higher lives, the home as well as the field must be improved.
Idle time must be filled in agreeably and profitably, and an effort
should be made to start small industries which could be taken up
by the women and children in their spare time. I have often
thought that a Government Commission to investigate the village
industries carried on in many Eastern countries could gather much
useful information, (iradually. individual tenure should be given
on conditional title, but 1 would not hurry on with the system, I
would rather wait until the people themselves recognised its
suitability and benefit, and asked for the change. An effort should
be made to train selected natives as instructors. The negro agri-
cultural graduates df the celebrated industrial institutes of
Hampton and Tuskegee.are working among the negro farmers of
the Southern States, personally visiting, advising, and encourag-
ing, and have been a wonderful factor in the recent uplift of their
people. I do not advocate any great outlay at first, nor the
creation of very elaborate machinery. I know we have to learn
our way, and there will be many disappointments. We will make
mistakes, but we must learn from our failures. Our aim must
be to help the people to help themselves, and in these areas a
measure of self-government should in time be granted., Whjle
always under white guidance and control, they, too, should be
allowed to make and learn from their mistakes and not be unduly
nursed and coddled. The policy carried on consistently would, I
believe, result in a great advance in the rural life of the locations,
and the good influence would spread thence to other areas. But
the good effect would he more than economic. General Botha, as
Minister for Native Affairs, has pointed out that we have lost the
confidence of the natives. Once they looked upon the Govern-
ment as a father who. while punishing their misdemeanours, also
protected them and looked after their interests. Now they look
on every new law and regulation with suspicion ; in some hidden
way the white man is going to benefit at their expense. l\i we are
to govern without friction and conflict we must regain this lost
confidence, and I believe an honest attempt to assist them in these
locations would do much to restore confidence and trust. Every
year a larger number of educated natives are leaving Educational
instittites. Under present social and economic conditions it is
difficult to see how these increasing ntunbers can find satisfactory
oj>enings for useful employment. But if the native areas are
developed these advanced ones may find a field for usefulness —
beyond anything at present offering — to help their own people.
And more than all. this upward movement will replace apathy and
l)ewilderment by hopeful effort. A people living without hope or
outlook in the future is in a dangerous state — ripe for the i)olitical
agitators. The restraints of tribal and family life, necessary and
salutary in the Oild life, are gradually breaking down. The cry
of the father is that when his children leave the home to work in
the wider world they forget their home diuies and become in-

246 THE NATIVES OF NATAL IN RELATION TO THE LAND.

dependent. This growing tendency toward individualism is
deplored by many, but it is inevitable, and may be the nucleus of
an era oif progress for the race. But this largely depends upon
ourselves. If we neglect the signs of the times, and do nothing
to guide this movement into safe channels, it must lead to social
confusion and racial demoralisation : guided by our larger experi-
ence and wider political wisdom along such roads as I have
indicated, it will lead to the uplift and betterment of the race.

{Finally received, Oct. 23. 1918.J

Stellar Distances and Magnitudes. — Prof. \\ .
II. Pickering, in circulars Nos. 205 and 206 of Harvard College
Observatory, has discussed the distances of the great nebula in
Orion and of the Pleiades. The Orion nebula includes the whole
region of the " sword handle," and the naked-eye stars c, 6,
and t. As the nebula (whose diameter is estimated at 1,700 light
years) is looked at from our position in the heavens very nearly
along the axis of the great spiral, all the stars associated with it
must be at approximately the same distance from us : hence the
bright star i, which is eleven magnitudes brighter than many of
the fainter B stars associated wnth the nebula, must emit a light
25,000 times as great as theirs. It would seem, therefore, that t
Orionis is a super-giant among giants, since the 14th magnitude B
stars are by no means dwarfs. It has been proved that in order for
a star to reach the colour of type B it must be very massive, and
its total light enormous. The brightness of y8 Orionis is ten times
that of c. Now Sirius, to our vision, the brightest " fixed " star in
the heavens, is 20 times as bright as our Sun. Antares is 3.500 as
bright as our Sun. and Canopus is probably brighter than
Antares, indeed Walkley. in Knozvledge* makes its brightness
50,000 times that of our Sun. But these figures all fade into
insignificance when compared with some of the Orion stars.
According to Russell and Charlier. the average blue star has 210
times the brilliancy of our Sun, Init / Orionis is 1,000
times brighter than these average stars, and fi Orionis
is ten times as bright as /. It has therefore 2,100,000
times the brightness of our Sun, and is possibly the brightest of
all created objects. " In such a furnace," says Prof. Pickering.
" we can well imagine that our chemical elements might have
been born." In the case of the Pleiades there arq also, Prof.
Pickering finds, giants and super-giants, though not in such
marked degree. The Pleiades are just five times as remote from
our own system as the Hyades, and seen from the Hyades. would
appear much as they do to us. The diameter of the whole group
is about 70 light years, and while Alcyone is 2,100 times brighter
than our Sun. the other five bright stars average 800 times as
bright, and their real distances from Alcyone are about the same
as from our Sun to Sirius.

*37 (1914), 288.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. PL. 'i.

A

B

^ki«|pHi|Oi|l^fiiiil fllir !>'

c

J. E. OuERDEN.— Some Results of Ostrich Investigations.

SOME RESULTS UE OSTRICH INVESTIGATIOxNS.

By Prof. James E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

{Evening Discourse, delivered in the School of Mines, Johannes-
burg, on Friday, 12th July, 1918, illuslraicd by lantern
slides.)

(Plates 2-5, (///(/ four test fic/ures.)

The graceful plumes of the ostrich have been employed for
decorative purposes from time immemorial, and frequent refer-
ences to the giant bird occur in Biblical and classical writings.
No personal adornment is so attractive as that of plumage, and
the ostrich plume holds sway from the native kraal to the thrones
of kings and queens, and, where secured under humane circum-
stances, renders a high service to the aesthetic nature of man.

Ostrich plumes were first obtained from the hunting of the
wild bird, and so valuable are they that the bird would have
become extinct ere this had not its domestication been under-
taken. As it is, ostriches in South Africa have rapidly increased
under farming conditions, imtil in 1913 they were estimated at
near 1,000,000, a noteworthy instance of an animal saved from
extinction and increasing in numbers through man's agency.
Serious attention was first directed to the possibilities of ostrich
farming about 50 years ago. Under suitable management the
bird proved itself amenable to the restraints of farm life and
bred freely, and in a short time the ostrich industry became
one of the leading pursuits of parts of Cape Colony. It reached
its zenith in 1913, the year before the beginning of the war,
when feathers to the value of £3,000,000 were exported overseas,
mostly to Europe and the United States. An article of luxury,
ostrich plumes naturally suftered with the advent and continuance
of the war, th<^ugh there is every likelihood that the industry will
recover with the restoration of settled economic conditions.

Although the ostrich is indigenous to Africa, it has been
established that the domesticated bird will thrive and reproduce
under diverse conditions, and the remunerative nature of ostrich
farming has led to its introduction into other parts of the world,
notably Arizona and California, in the United States, and also
Australia and New Zealand. The plumes produced in these
parts are, however, by no means the equal of those grown in
South Africa, and, as the bird is farmed only for the feathers
it provides, it is doubtful whether the industry can be made a
success beyond the confines of x\frica. As in so many other
highly specialised animal and vegetable products, jieculiarities of
soil, climate, and the general environment have much influence
upon ultimate success, and even among ostrich areas in South
Africa, great differences obtain in the degree of plumage perfec-
tion attained.

248 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

It is no small achievement for the South African farmer to
have, within 50 years, reduced the. wild, highly nervous, ostrich
to a thorough state of domestication, to have worked out the
details of management necessary for the production of successive
plumage crops of the highest perfection, to have combated the
many parasitic diseases to which the bird is" subject, to have
elaborated methods of breeding and chick-rearing, and, by
selection, to have advanced the plume to the high state
of excellence in which it is now found.

A fact most impressive to the physiologist is the unusually
sensitive nature of the feather growth. Unless the bird is main-
tained in the highest nutritive condition throughout the six nronths
required for a feather crop to grow and mature, the character and
quality of the plumage suffer; and any imj)erfection of growth
greatly depreciates the ])lume in value. The feather is an epi-
dermal product, nourished from a long dermal medulla, and like
all epidermal structures — hairs, nails, hoofs, and horns — is deli-
cately responsive to nutritive variations and changes in external
conditions. Even the normal variations in blood-pressure between
the night and day ]:)eriods often leave their mark upon the
growing ])lume, in the form of night and day rings. These
represent alternating differences in density in the new feather
growth, and are the foundation of the prevalent defects techm"cally
known as " bars," the nature of which has been investigated for
several years by the writer.* (PI. 3A.) The longest ])lumes have a
growth at the rate of a quarter of an inch a day, and all the
feathers are so many projecting cylinders, full of blood capillaries,
closed at the outer end and open below to the blood sup]jly. To
maintain the uniform blood-pressure necessary for the growing
feather to attciin its highest perfection demands a constant supply
of highly nom-ishing food, such as lucerne, rape, mangel, and all
l<inds of grain. It can safely be said that no animal is so highly
cared- for. and leads such a pampered existence, as the high-grade
domesticated ostrich. The farmer, however, has no option in the
matter. The difference in returns from a perfectly grown feather
crop of high quality and one defective in growth is often the
difference between prosperity and failure.

The method of securing a full, complete, and even feather
crop is a matter of some interest to the zoologist. In North Africa
the entire i)lumage is usually plucked from body, wings, and tail,
a measure which leads to rapid deterioration in the successive
crops ; but in methodical ostrich-farming, only the three main
rows of wing feathers are taken (PI. 412), along with the tail.
With care, the same character of plumage may be procured year
after year, maybe for 50 or more years. In farming, the object
is to maintain all the commercial feathers at the same stage of
growth at the same time ; in other words, to keep the crop even.
The natunil method does not suffice, for the moulting of the

* " Experiments with Ostriches, X : How the Bars in Ostridi Feathers
;iri- prdduccfl." C.C.U. Agric. Jctini-. Oct., 19OQ.

SOME RESULTS OF OSTKlCIl 1 N VESTKIATK )N S.

240

various plumes is irregular ; some are only jiartly grown, while
others are ripe or over-ripe. Further, to allow the illumes to
remain on the bird until natural moulting takes place, wmild
result in a serious deterioration and depreciation in value, as a
result of the wear and tear during the two or more months after
the plume is ripe. Hence all feathers are clipped as soon as the
plume part is fully developed, and then the quill is allowed to
remain in the socket until it matures also, the process requiring at
least two months after clipping has taken place. ( Fig. i . )

Fig. I.

The first clipping occurs when the chicks are six months old,
and all the commercial feathers, technically called spadonas, are
removed. The quills rernaining are then fully ripe in about two
months' time, that is, all the medulla, with its blood and nerves,
is withdrawn, and the tip of the quill rounded of¥. T^eft to
natural moulting, the quills would be ])ushed out at different
times, and the second crop of feathers begin to grow in an

2^0 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

irreofular manner. To forestall this, all the quills are drawn by
hand when mature, the chicks being then about eight month.s
old; and invariably the withdrawal of a quill acts as a stimulus
to the germ of the new feather at the bottom of the socket or
follicle. All the old quills being drawn simultaneously, the new
feathers begin their growth together, and a second full and even
crop is secured. This also requires six months for growth from
the time of drawing the quills, so that the second feather crop
is ready for clipping by the time the bird is 14 months old. Two
months later the second quills can be drawn, and the third feather
crop starts, to be completed by the time the bird is two years old.
The third clipping usually represents plumage maturity, that is,
it is the best crop the bird will ])roduce. With care and good
management, however, little dei)reciation follows for a number
of years.

The ostrich plume owes its success as an article of adorn-
ment to its intrinsic grace and beauty, and, in these later times,
when humane principles are in the ascendancy, to the fact that
no cruelty whatever is involved in its production. The clipping
of the mature plumes involves no more to the bird than cutting
the hair, or trimming the nails, or shearing the wool of sheep.
Feathers, hairs, nails, and wool are all epidermal structures,
devoid of nerves and blood-vessels, and no pain is connected with
their removal once the growth is complete. (Fig i.) The
drawing of the ripened quills is only performing for the bird, in
advance and simultaneously, what would take place more slowly
and irregularly in the natural process of moulting. It is this
knowledge which in all recent legislative enactments devoted to
the prohibition of trade in plumage has led to the exemption of
ostrich plumage from any repressive regulations.

The wild ostrich breeds when four or five years old, but the
domesticated bird from two to three years of age. or even before
two years, a remarkable instance of the influence of high feeding
in hastening the physiological processes of reproduction, com-
bined with a certain amount of unconscious selection on the part
of the farmer. The six-weeks' period of incubation is undertaken
in the nest by the cock at night and the hen by day, or is carried
out artificialh' in the incubator.

In a dry climate, and free from parasitic attacks, the chicks
are hardy, an.d their rearing presents no difficulty. But with each
succeeding generation the primitive wild nature of the bird tends
to assert itself, and needs to be overcome, the tameness acquired
by the parents being in no measure transmitted to the offspring.
Left for a few weeks to themselves, or even with the parents,
the natural wildness would become established, and later control
would be practically impossible. To overcome this instinctive
tendency to wildness, chicks for their first year or so have to be
reared in close and constant association with people on the farm,
when their nervous fear remains in abeyance. Familiarity
breeding contempt, the natural fear of man in the ostrich turns

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH I NVESTUiATK )XS. 25I

to aggression at the breeding season, and many a prancing cock,
in the full glory of its sexual vigour, has stricken terror into the
heart of the hai)less person who has, unwittingly and unarmed,
intruded on its territory, whether veld or camp, and many a
violent kick has been received from its flattened foot, or cut from
its sharp powerful claw, resulting in serious injury or even
fatality.

The domesticated ostrich also affords much that is attractive
to the student of animal behaviour. Along with other old-time
African animals, such as the giraffe, rhinoceros, and hippopota-
mus, it combines a maximum of bulk with a minimum of brain.
Like these and the big Mesozoic saurians and early Tertiary
mammals, its nervous activities are mainly reflex in character,
not mental. If intelligence be defined as the abihty to profit by
experience, then the ostrich is deplorably lacking in this desirable
qualit}-. ICven in such remote times as those of the patriarch
Job, aspersions were cast at the mentality of the bird, for do we
not read: "God hath deprived her of wisdom, neither hath He
imparted to her understanding."

Its oft-quoted proverbial stupidity in burying its head
in the sand when pursued, believing itself thereby hidden
from view, has, however, no foundation in fact, unless
the instinct of death-feigning in the chick, when on
sudden alarm it flops down, with its long neck and
head prone on the ground, can be regarded as the origin of the
opprol)riuni. In han^lling the l)ird. as during the operations of
clipping and quilling, the eyes are hooded, and its nervous rest-
lessness is thereby overcome.

Personal attachments and responsiveness, such as are
exhibited by all domesticated animals toward those who care for
them, are wholly lacking in the ostrich. A glimmering of distinc-
tion between the familiar and the unfamiliar person, and a feeble
tendency to the formation of the simplest habits, such as coming
at call to be fed, or travelling more readily along frequented
directions, represent practically all the education of which the
bird is capable. Attachment between mates, even after being
" camped oft" for a season, seems non-existent ; and the regard
;ind care of oft'spring have manifestations of only the sini])lest
character.

Genetics of the Ostrich.

The domesticated ostriches in South Africa to-day are such
as have been produced by gradual selection during the 50 years
or so since ostrich farming was first established at the Cape.
The foundation stocks naturally consisted of wild birds, and the
best of these and their progeny have been employed in building
up the present superior strains. The ultimate object in breeding
is simple and well defined. The farmer selects only for feather
production ; no other character of the bird is taken into account,
as anv weakness in constitution or breeding is scarcely observable.

^5- SOME Ki:sri.TS of ostrich 1X\ ESTIGATIONS.

Also, practically only one feather ideal exists, tianiely, the largest
feather, combining all the many desirable feattires at their maxi-
mum. The technical " points " relate to details concerning lengths
width, strength, shapeliness, density, and lustre, in all of which
the plumes vary greatly. None of the original South African
strains possessed the highest expression of these in comibnation,
and the object throughout has been to gather into one all the
best features available. As yet no breeder has succeeded in doing
this, though many are nearing the desired end. The ostrich
farmer clearly appreciates the distinctness of the various
characters of the plume, though in his selection for mating
proceeds mainly on the assumption of a blending inheritance,
and in practice the method is succeeding, even though progress is
slow, and much variety is encountered in the progeny. When
the ideal type of plume has been built up, it is understood that it
must be "fixed" by a measure of in-breeding; and at present
widely divergent crosses are rarely made.

It is generally conceded that, notwithstanding all the selection
which has taken place, no advance has been made on the best of
the feather points originally scattered among the foundation
.stocks, except such as can be ascribed to imj^roved nutrition and
other conditions dependent upon domestication. All that the farmer
has done is to combine in the one plume the best of the features
originally distributed among the many wild strains ; but it has not
been found possible to change any of the characteristics beyond
what nature provided. Taking the features separately, the ostrich
plume affords a noteworthy instance of the impossibility of
continued improvement by means of continued selective breeding.
All that the process has achieved is to segregate the best of the
features most desired ; moreover, in connection with the points
of the feather, no hint of auy sport or mutation ever occurs.

When comparing closely the many commercial varieties of
ostrich plumes, each representing a separate type to the specialist,
and having a distinct value, the question arises as to how far the
many differences in size, density, shape, and lustre should be
considered as fluctuating variations, or how far they are elemen-
tary characters. Farming experience has fully proved that selec-
tive breeding within a type will not change any of the minutiae
of the type. If a farmer requires any ])articular feature added
to his strain, he must procure it from birds whose plumage
displays it : no degree of breeding will produce it otherwise. The
variations distinguishing the types are undoubtedly germinal, not
environmental, and should therefore be regarded as representing
definite elementary characters. Yet how many of these elemen-
tary characters must be represented in even a single ostrich
])lume ! No doubt the same multiplicity of small characters
appeals to the specialist in an intensive study of any domesticated
stock. Experimental investigations are usually undertaken on
one or on only a few of the pronounced characters ; but when all
the many details have to be considered which are of the greatest

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRKU I N VESTIGATlUiNS. 253

iiupoitanccr to the practical breeder, there appears no limit to
which analysis can be carried.*

Imi'ortatiox of North African Ostriches.

Old records reveal that in the early days of the ostrich
feather industry, when onl}- wild plumes were exported, the
supplies from North Africa realised much better prices than those
from South Africa. Hence it is reasonable to suppose that the
northern bird produced a pluniage superior to that of the original
wild southern l)ird, and that, despite the improvement in the
latter, it might still be possible to procure birds giving a better
plumage, or which might be of use in still further improving the
plumage of the South African. For generations the Arabs and
natives of North Africa have kept the ostrich in captivity in small
kraals, and ruthlessly plucked its feathers. These are birds
which are captured as chicks from the nest of the wild bird,
restraint of the wild adult being impossible. Oiicks are never
bred in captivity, and the term " ostrich farming " can scarcely
be appHed to the crude conditions under which the domesticated
bird there exists. Under the circumstances no improvement on
tlie northern bird can have been effected as a result of selective
breeding.

These were the chief considerations which determined the
Government of the Union of South Africa to despatch, a few
years ago, an expedition to North Africa to the area in which it
was expected the best types of plumage birds could be procured.
The expedition was placed in charge of Mr. R. W. Thornton,
and resulted in the importation in 1912 of 132 northern ostriches
of different ages from Nigeria. f These were stationed at the
Grootfontein School of Agriculture, and the investigations to be
conducted with them were placed in charge of the writer. It
soon became evident that no one of the imported ostriches was
superior to the best birds in South Africa, and that any possible
advantage could be gained only by crossing and by encouraging?
certain special features, such as strength and density, in which
the Nigerian excelled. It would be premature as yet to submit
any statement as to the likelihood of success along these lines.

The experiments have now been in progress over four years,
and during the period about a hundred cross-bred chicks have
been hatched, as well as a score or so of pure North African
chicks ; and at the present time some of the first crosses have
reached the age at which they are beginning to breed (PI. 2c).

* Two preliminary attempts have already been made to analyse the
various plume characters of the parents and progeny in cross-matings
" P.reedinjT Experiments with North African and South African Ostriches.
I. '"The Plumes of Parents and Chicks. 2. "The Plumes of the Second
and Third Clippings." Local Series, Nos. 13 and 17, Department of Agri-
culture, Union of South Africa (iQi?)-

t Report on the North African Ostriches imported in Soutli Africa in
f9i2." Union of South A-frica, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria, [21

(K>l6).

254

SOME KESl'LTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

but only two chicks belonging to the second hybritl generation
(F2) have been reared. (PI. 31*.).) The earher niatings were
carried out with whichever of the northern birds attained sexual
maturity, irrespective of their plumage qualities or other
characters; but with the abundant material now available, matings
are made with a definite purpose in view. The long period
between maturity of one generation and the next, usually between
three and four years, necessarilv renders progress slow.

Characters of the Northern and Soi'thekn ( )stkicii.

The distinguisliing characters of the northern ( !'l. 2\) and
the southern ostrich (PI. 2b) are as follows: —

A. — The North African Ostrich. Struthio camelus. Lam. —
The species is larger and stronger than the South African bird,
the head reaching about 814 ft. from the ground; the lengih of
the body from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail is about
8 ft., and the total weight about 275 lbs. The neck is also longer,
about 33/2 ft. in length, and the body feathers exte.id u]'wards

Fig. 2.

for ab.)ut i;'4 ft. The legs are longer, thicker, and more robust,
the knee joint being at least 4 ft. from the ground, and the feet
are larger ; a claw is sometimes present on the small toe, and the
scales over the large toe may show one and rarelv two breaks.

(Fig- 3-)

The number of wing plumes or remiges is about 36 to each

wing, but varies from 33 to 39.

The colour of the skin in immature birds of both <exes, as
well as of mature hens, is a creamy yellow, while the mature cock
is bright red or scarlet on the legs, head and neck, and red or
pink over the body generally.

The crown of the head has a bald patch, either single or
])artly divided. (Fig. 2.)

The egg is smooth as if polished, ]iractically free from deep
])ittings or pores, and larger and more rounded than that of the

SOME RESULTS OF OSTKUll INVESTIGATIONS. 255

southem bird. (PI. 4A.) The average long diameter is 6.15
inches, the short diameter 5.35 inches, and the weight 3 lbs. 1 1 07.
Found in Northern and Western Africa, and in times past
ranged eastwards to Abyssinia, Arabia, and South Palestine.

B. — The South African Ostrich, Struthio australis, Gi<niey.
— Smaller than the North African, the less size being due to the
slender and shorter legs and neck rather than tO any difterence in
the size of the body. The head extends about 7>4 ft. from the
ground, the length from the tip of the beak to the end of the
tail is 73^ feet, and the total weight about 240 lbs. The neck i.s
about 3 ft. long, and the body feathers pass upwards for about
I ft. ; the knee joint is about 3j/'2 ft. from the ground ; a claw is
rarely present on the small toe, and the scales on the tarsus and
third toe are usually continuous.

The wing plumes average about 36 to each wing, but vary
from 33 to 42.

The skin of the neck, body, and legs is pale yellow in chicks,
and dark grey in the mature hen, and dark blue in the cock. In
the sexually ripe cock only the beak, front part of the head,
naked skin around the eyes, and tarsal scales are bright scarlet,
and the rest of the tarsus and toes pink, but the redness does not
extend above the ankle.

The crown of the head is without any bald patch, and often
bears a tuft of longer, hair-like feathers in the middle.

The egg is deeply pitted all over, smaller and more oval than
in the northern bird. (PI. 4A.) The average long diameter is
6 inches and the short diameter 5 inches ; the weight about 33/2 lbs.

Inhabits practically the whole of the sub-continent of South
Africa.

Observed alongside one another, as can now be done at
Grootfontein, no one could fail to distinguish the northern from
the southern ostrich. The greater height of the former, the stronger
limbs and light yellow colour of the skin are obvious features,
while the sexually mature cock is still more distinctive on account
of the brilliant scarlet of the head, neck, and legs, and the red
colour of the body generally. The naked patch on the head, and
the smooth, larger eggs are just as constant distinguishing
features. Many small dififerences of feather structure also occur,
and are of much importance to the practical ostrich farmer.
Hitherto all the distinguishing characters of the imported northern
ostrich have been retained under the new conditions of South
Africa, and re-appear in the progeny, showing that they are
germinal and independent of climatic and other environmental
influences.

Whether the northern and the southern ostrich are to be
regarded as distinct species depends largely upon one's concep-
tion of the term " species," and will be discussed later. It may be
noted, however, that the two are found to interbreed freely and
reciprocally, and the crosses or hybrids have also been proved to
be fertile, both inter se and with either of the parent forms ; at

E

256 SOME RESl'LTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

the same time the two races have many distinctive characters
which are hereditary and therefore germinal.

Crossing of the Northern and S(m;tiiern Ostriches.

While the main object of the investigations is the practical
one of determining to what extent the plumage of the southern
bird can be improved by crossing with the northern bird, in the
course of the work many other questions have arisen which have
an interest to students of genetics generally. It has been j^ossible
to determine how the characters distinguishing the two species
behave in the hybrids or cross-bred birds. Those specially studied
comprise the dimensions, colour, the bald head patch, and details
connected with the egg.

Dimensions.

On account of its restless, nervous nature, and the difticulty
of fixing upon constant determinable ])oints, the live ostrich is
not a creature which lends itself to accurace bodily measurements.
In any troop it will be found that the members differ much among
themselves, and the same individual varies at different ages, and
according to its nutritive condition. Hence the northern and
southern birds and the crosses from them can be compared only
in general terms, as when seen side by side. The average North
African ostrich is a much taller bird than the South African, being
longer in the legs and neck. The head reaches to a height of
from eight to nine feet from the ground, whereas in the Cape bird
it extends only seven to eight feet. The feet, legs, and neck of
the Nigerian bird are also more robust. The general dimensions
of the body do not differ much in the two, the greater size of the
northern being mainly a result of the longer legs and neck. As
a chick and young bird, the body of the northern ostrich, however,
tends to narrow behind more than the southern, but later this
becomes a feature largely dependent upon the nutritive state.
The relative sizes admit of the two being easily picked out in a
mixed troop, the heads of the northern birds towering a foot or
so above those of the southern.

The cross-breds at maturity stand higher than pure Cape
birds, but are not so high as the Nigerian. As chicks, the body
tends to narrow behind more than in Cape chicks, so that, with the
slightly longer legs and tapering body, they appear decidedly more
slender than Cape chicks of the same age. On the whole it can
be said that as regards size, especially length of limbs and neck,
the hybrids follow neither one parent nor the other, but are inter-
mediates between the two, though the statement is not one which
can be supported by actual measurements.

The two chicks of the second cross-bred generation ( PI. 31; )
already reared are now a year old, and as regards their general
size are strikingly like the South African grandparent, as con-
trasted with the North African, including the shorter, less robust
legs and neck. When mingling with first generation cross-breds

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 25/

of the same age the difference is most marked, and no one would
hesitate in regarding them as pure Cape birds. Such a result is at
least suggestive that the distinctive sizes of the northern and
southern ostrich will undergo segregation in the F2 generation^
but further chicks will be necessary before the real nature of the
segregation can be determined.

Colour.

The skin, or body, colours of the ostrich, as distinct from
those of the plumage, vary from the chick to the adult stage, are
different in the hen and the cock, and change in the latter with
the breeding state. They also vary with the physiological con-
dition of the bird, according as the surface of the skin is clean or
covered v/ith scurf. When low in condition, the skin becomes
dry and scaly, thereby masking the true colours ; but as a higher
])hysiological state is reached, the scurf peels oft' or is preened
off, and the true fresh colour is revealed. This is particularly
the case at the beginning of the breeding season, when the skin
colours are at their brightest. The colour is readily seen on the
naked legs and under the wings, around the eyes and beak, and
elsewhere by turning aside the overlapping feathers. Chicks of
both sexes are practically alike, and even young birds show little
distinctioiL The hen remains throughout of the same colour as
young birds, but the cock undergoes a change beyond, and in
places assumes a brilliant scarlet as the nuptial state is attained.
From the chick onwards the colour distinctions between the North
African and South African ostriches are strongly marked.

The red and scarlet colouration of the cocks of both races,
as well as the rich dark blue of the Cape bird, are found to be
dependent upon the presence of the testes, while the black
])lumage is dependent upon the absence of the ovaries. South
African cocks which have been castrated while young never
assume the red and scarlet skin colours, but retain the light or
dark grey of all young birds and mature hens. ( )n the other
hand tlie plumage of castrated cocks attains the normal blackness
of the sex. as contrasted with the greyness of the hens, from
which it may be inferred that the formation of the black pigment
of the feathers is not subject to any influence from the male
gonads. Spayed hens retain their ordinary body colour, but the
normally grev feathers are found to assume the blackness of the
cock, sliowing that ordinarily the secretions from the ovaries
exercise an inhibitory influence on the formation of black pigment
in the feathers of the hen, though having no action on the skin
colour.*

* Prof. T. II. ^Morgan (Amcy. Nat. (1917) 51) has shown thai the
cock bird of the Sebright bantam is "hen-feathered," and has proved
experimentally that when castrated a complete change in their plumage
occurs, normal cock feathers appearing. He considers that as in the hen,
some internal secretion, acting tlirough the gonads, must inhibit the deve-
lopment of the secondary sexual characters in the hen-feathered cock.

25'^ SOMK RRSTLTS OF OSTRICH ] N VESTIGATTOXS.

The secondary sexual colours of the skin and plumage of the
ostrich are thus determined hy altogether different influences ; the
full attainment of the ope is dependent upon the ])resence of
the testes, and of the other upon the absence of the ovaries. Two
North African birds at Grootfontein, although about six years
old, have shown no signs of sexual maturity ; they retain the cream
yellow of all northern young birds and mature hens, but have the
black plumage of cocks. Evidently some abnormality is connected
with the internal gonads, but from the external api)earance of
the birds it is impossible to say whether they are cocks or hens.
It may be noted that the removal of the ovaries or testes, especially
after a bird has attained maturity, has little or no effect on certain
of the sexual instincts. Thus a spayed hen will go through the
characteristic snap]:)ing of the beak and fluttering of the wings
as if broody, and will crouch to receive the cock ; while the cas-
trated cock will perform his ordinary " rolling" display and even
mount a crouching hen.

Tluis the scarlet colour of the cock is a secondary .sexual
character, it may well be doubted whether it has any influence on
the mating of the birds, or any preferential value in the eyes of
the hen, as is so often sup])osed to be the case with the bright
nuptial Colours of birds. For northern cocks are a bright
scarlet over all their exposed parts at the time of sexual ripeness,
while southern cocks are scarlet only over the head and the tarsus,
and are far less striking in their general appearance, yet a northern
hen will crouch just as freely for the latter as for the former.
( )ccasionally ostriches exhibit a dim suggestion of ])referential
mating, but in practice it is found that any hen will jjair with any
cock, and in " camjjing off " as breeders the farmer never takes
into account any possible preferences on the part of the birds
themselves. In a state of nature, on the open veld, a cock
gathers around him one or more hens as the breeding season
approaches, and very definite si)atial limitations become
established among the different breeding sets, and woe l^etide
any cock which may wander on the area appropriated by another.
In all this, however, the hens are purely passive and indifferent,
and are prone to lay in the same nest, as many as 60 or 70 eggs
being sometimes found in the one shallow depression. Further,
as in most other birds, the plumage is at its highest state of
development at the beginning of the mating season, as if still
further adding to the attractiveness of the cock. Yet farmers as
often as not clip the plumes before mating the birds, and so
preserve them froiu wear and tear, without however any influence
on the readiness with which pairing takes place.

Morgan also refers to certain experiments by Goodalc, who li;is fonnd that
wlien the hen of ordinary breeds of fowls is spayed, she develops the full
male plumage, as is also proved above for the lien ostrich. Seeing that the
plumage of the cock ostrich is more valuable than that of the hen, the
results from spaying the latter have an economic bearing, and the
practice is followed by some farmers.

J-.

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 259

The Northern Ostrich. — North African chicks are a bright
deep yellow, almost orange, over the legs and head, and a slightly
paler yellow over the body and neck. As maturity is reached
the hen becomes a light yellow, the tarsal scales assuming a light
or dark horny brown. Some northern hens are slightly pink over
parts of the body, and sometimes it may show through the white
downy covering of the neck.

The North African cock undergoes certain remarkable colour
changes as sexual maturity is attained, which are a sure guide to
the farmer as to the breeding condition of the bird. The deep
yellow of the chick is gradually replaced by a light yellow, this
by pink, and then b^' red, reaching a bright scarlet over the legs,
body neck and head as the actual mating period is reached. The
bright scarlet colour contrasts strongly with the jet black body-
"feathers, white waving wings, erect light brown tail feathers and
fleecy white down of the neck, and makes of him a glorious
creature as he prances about in his breeding camp in all the pride
and pugnacity of his sex. The nu])tial colours pale greatly when
nesting begins, and also when the breeding season is over, the
body being reduced to a pale pink or brick colour. At its height
so sensitive is the colour to the physiological state of the bird,
that close observation often reveals variations in the intensity
within the same day, as well as from day to day.

The Southern Ostrich. — South African chicks are at first
pale yellow in colour, and afterwards dark grey. Highly fed
Cape chicks may show a rich deep yellow around the eyes and
beak, though this does not continue for more than a few months.
Mature southern hens are a dark grey over the legs, body, neck
and tarsal scales.

The Cape cock is at first a dark grey or steel colour, much
like the hen, but as sexual maturity is gained he assumes a fresh,
bright blue over the greater part of the body, while the tarsal
scales, beak and naked parts around the eyes become a bright
scarlet ; the small scales over the sides and hind part of the
tarsus may also be red or pink, but ordinarily none of the red
colouration extends beyond the tarsus, nor over the body and
neck.

Thus northern chicks are a deeper yellow than southern
chicks. They pass to a pale yellow and the hen remains at this
stage, but the cock passes beyond to a pink and then scarlet stage.
The pale yellow of southern chicks is early replaced by a dark
grey, which persists in the hen, but is followed in the cock by a
blue or blue grey as sexual maturity is reached ; moreover, only
the tarsal scales, beak and skin around the eyes assimxe the bright
scarlet vvhichi characterises practically the entire body of the
northern bird.

In southern cocks the red colour of the northern would
appear t'- be latent or perhaps wholly obscured by the dark blue.

26o SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

for on recovering from an injury to the neck or body it is often
found that the scar of the new skin shoiws a reddish tinge.

Cross-bred Ostriches. — The colour of the skin of cross-bred
chicks is intermediate between that of northern and southern
chicks. The legs, body and large scales are a pale yellow, which
is lighter than that of Cape chicks, but never so deep as that of
Nigerian chicks. The adult cross-bred hen retains the light
yellow body colour, though usually it becomes a little darker com-
pared with the chick. The colour remains darker than that of
the pure northern hen, but is invariably lighter than the pure Cape.

The cross-bred cock retains the uniform light yellow of the
hen until sexual maturity approaches. He then assumes a pink
tinge in places, and later the bright scarlet. As noted, however,
it is in the extent of the red colouration, not in its intensity, that
the northern and southern cocks differ so conspicuously ; in the
former it is diffused practically all over, while in the latter it is
limited to the head and legs below the ankle joint. The sexually
mature cross-bred cock is decidedly intermediate between these
tv^o as regards the area of the body assuming the red colour. The
head and tarsus are scarlet as in both parents, but a slight pink
colour appears on the upper part of the leg and also over the
neck, and may even tinge the other parts of the body, though
without approaching the bright red oif the norhern parent. The
various cross-bred cocks naturally differ as regards the degree
and extent of the colouration, but they never wholly follow one
])arent or the other. In extreme cases the body colour may be
a grey blue almost like the southern cock or a grey yellow nearly
like the northern, but all kinds of intermediate tints are to be met
with, even in birds from the same nest.

As regards the two F2 chicks, the colour of the body, legs and
neck is quite as dark as that of any Cape hen, showing no in-
fluence from the lighter colour of the northern grandparent and
the intermediate light colour of the cross-bred parents. Both
being hens, however, the colour is not so distinctive as it would
be in the case of cocks. Taken as a preliminary result, it cer-
tainly suggests that the colours of the northern and southern
birds have a separate factorial basis, and that segregation will
take place in the second cross-bred generation. The rearing of
further F2 chicks will be awaited with interest as likely to solve
the problem.

Bald Head Patch.

The crown of the head of the .South African ostrich is covered
with short, hair-like feathers, which often form a longer tuft in
the middle. A bald pineal spot, present in all ostriches at the back
of the head, is so small in the adult as to be only noticeable when
the feathers are turned aside. The North z-\frican ostrich, on
the other hand, is distinguished by having the top o\ the head
for the most part naked, a bald patch beginning at the back and
extending forwards in a shield-like faf;hion between the e\'es.

SOME KESn/rS (IF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 261

(Fii^. 2.) The area is roughly ])ear-shaped, l)ut ma}' be partly
divided down the middle. In diagnostic descriptions, the baldness
is considered to be a character of some importance in separating-
the northern species from the southern, and is even mentioned in
the writings of Pliny.

The extent and shape of the naked space vary a little in
different ostriches, but all the North African birds at (irootfontein
display it to a greatc" or less degree. It is quite independent of
the pineal spot, and its ])Osterior border may either include this
( Fig. 2), or pass in front of it. In some birds, instead of forming
a continuous patch, it is divided more or less down the middle,
having then a decided bilaterality. Often a tuft of long, hair-like
feathers remains at the middle of the hinder border, corresponding
with the tuft in the southern bird, and gradually disappears
forwards. The area is covered with a horny, scurfy kner, w hich
peels off at times, exposing a fresh, clean surface of the skin,
with hard bony skull immediately below.

The baldness is not apparent in the North African ostrich
chick when first hatched. At that time the head is covered with
short bristly down as in the South African, and the character
becomes established in the course of the first six months or so
of growth. It is gradually formed by the droj)ping out uf the
hairy feathers from about two months onwards, and in a Ijatch
of chicks of the same age, practically all stages in the loss can
be observed, the feathers to remain longest being those of the
middle tuft. No shar]^ line of separation occurs between the
naked and covered part of the head ; a few stunted feathers
represent the gradual transition, while the median tuft may or
may not persist. No corresponding falling out of the feathers
ever takes place in the Cape chick.

Naturally some interest has been attached to the l)ehavi(jur of
the bald ])atch in the crosses of the northern and southern ostrich.
( )f the hundred or so cross-bred chicks which have been hatched,
none at first showed any signs of baldness, but in every case the
feathers began to fall out when the chick was two or three months
old, and at six months the i)atch was established as completely
as in adult North African ostriches. Thus the baldness of the
northern bird is shown to be dominant over its absence in the
southern bird.

The two second generation chicks already reared are now
well over the age at which the bald i)atch becomes established,
and in on.e of them the head remains covered with hairy feathers
as in the southern birds, while in the other the baldness has been
formed as distinctly as in any northern bird. The F2 chicks thus
afford evidence that factorial segregation takes ])lace in the
second hybrid generation, and there can be little (luestion tha:
when sufficient chicks of this generation have been obtained, it
will be found that the baldness behaves as a homozygous dominant
in strictly Mendelian proportions.

262 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

The bald patch is therefore a distinctive Mendehan unit-
character, separating the northern and the southern ostrich. The
differences associated with the dimensions and colours of the
birds, and also those of the egg, are dift'erences of features common
to both, but in the Cape bird there is nothing suggestive of the
baldness of the Nigerian. It is an absolutely new character which
has appeared in the latter race of ostriches, but not in the former.
It may be regarded as a mutation, and was jiresumably fully deve-
loped from the beginning, for though it varies somewhat in its
extent and form, the differences are no more than can be
regarded as fluctuating variations. That it is germinal in its
origin is manifest since it appears in all chicks, both jnire and
cross-bred, while its dominance in all the latter proves that the
parents are duple.x or homozygous with regard to it.

It can hardly be supposed that the baldness has arisen in
response to any external influence, for it is unlikely that anything
environmental could affect the top of the head of the northern
bird which would not have a corresponding action upon its
southern relative, even if it were possible that any influence of
the kind could bring about a corresponding change in the germ
plasm. Nor can it be considered as having any adaptive value.
It lends strong support to the view maintained by Prof. W.
Bateson and also by Prof. T. H. Morgan, that new characters
make their appearance as a result of changes in the germ plasm
without any reference to external influences or any utilitarian
value or need of the individual. Since the baldness is now
]jresent as a duplex dominant in all the imported birds, it must
have originated long ago in the history of the northern ostrich,
sufiiciently long for the change to have aff'ected all the individuals.
For, as wall be shown later, there is good reason to suppose that
in the ostrich a new character appears at first in only a few
members, but gradually extends to more and more, by the
continued change de novo in the germ plasm of the nulliplex
members of the race.

The Egg.

As in all other birds, the eggs from the same ostrich and als!^
from different ostriches vary within certain limits, are regards size,
shape, and surface characters. Beyond these fluctuating varia-
tions, however certain well defined differences distinguish the q^^
of the North African from that of the South African bird.
(PI. 4A.)

Egg of North African OstricJi. — The eg;^; of the northern
bird is practically always larger than that of the southern, the
shell is almost free from obvious pores or pittings. and presents
an ivory-like smooth surface. Usually also the northern egg is
rounded in shape and less oval. Measurements have been taken
at the nest of the long and short diameters of four series of eggs,
and the averages are as follows : —

S().\[li KESL'LTS OF OSTKRll I N VESTIGATK^NS. 263

Tabli-: I. — Mcasiirciitoif of Eags of North African Ostrich.

Long Diameter. Short [diameter.

Series A, 1 1 eggs '">.05 5-25

Series B, 1 1 eggs 6.24 5-43

Series C. 14 egg^ 6.14 5 .34

Series I). 7 eggs 6.19 5 . 37

Average f^ . m ^.'\-

Egg of South African Ostrich. — The egg of the southern Ijird
is deeply pitted all over the surface, the pits often larger and more
plentiful at the air-chamher end. hence tlie shell does not present
the ivory smoothness of the northern egg. A Cape hen will
sometimes produce a nearly smooth, round egg. but never to so
marked a degree as the typical Nigerian hen. Also the latter may
occasionally lay eggs with deeper |)ittings than usual, especially
in the hrst egg of the season. Among a number of eggs from
northern and southern birds mixed together, no mistake can,
however, be made in separating the one type from the other.

The pitting which gives such a marked character to the
southern egg is associated with the respirator}- ])ores of the shell.
In the northern shell the jjores are so small, and open so close to
the stirface. as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. and are
mostlv scattered singly, with l)ut little groui)ing, hence the surface
appears almost uniformly smuothi. In the sotithern egg the sliell
pi-)res are larger, sunken below the general surface, and mostly
in small groups, varying from about six t<i twelve in a group.
It is the close grouping of the sunken pores which give rise to
the pitted surface. In eggs which have been in the nest for some
time dirt tends to accumulate within the pits, and thus accentuates
their presence, whereas in the northern egg the pores are too
small and shallow. In both types the outer enamel layer shows
differences in thickness, and with it the polished character of
the surface. All the eggs are a cream or y^'lov/ colour when
freshly laid, but fade considerably on exposure.

Twii series of measurements, of 10 eggs cach, have l)een
obtained, and the averages are as follows: —

Tai'll. 2. — Mcasitremcnt of Eggs of South African Ostrich.

Long Diameter. Short Diameter.

Series A, 10 eggs 5-92 4-<^S

Series B, 10 eggs 5-93 5 -OO

Average S.92 ^-92

With such variable structures as eggs a larger series of
measurements is desirable in order to seciu-e a more relial)le
average. They serve to show, however, that on the average the

264 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

northern egg is about a quarter of an inch longer (6.15 — 5.92
= 0.23 inches) and two-tifths of an inch broader than the
southern egg (5.35 — 4-92 = 0.43). The mean difiference in
the two diameters is 0.8 inch for the northern and i inch for the
southern, indicating that the former are rounder or less oval than
the latter.

Eggs from Cross-matings. — In breeding for cross-bred chicks
the eggs follow the charcteristics of the hen, whatever the cock
may be ; that is, the eggs laid by a northern hen, mated with a
southern cock, are large, round, and vmpitted, while those from a
southern hen, mated with a northern cock, are smaller, oval, and
pitted. Thus as regards size, shape, and surface features, the
(^gg, as laid, is uninfluenced l)y the male bird, and partakes wholly
of the nature of the hen. This is what would ordinarily be
expected, seeing that the germ from the cock unites only with
the germ of the hen, and scarcely any further change takes place
before the egg is laid. As the albumen, shell-membranes, and
shell are formed in the oviduct of tliC hen after fertilisation, it is
difficult to see how these coverings of the egg could be influenced.
Instances are adduced, however, where in crosses of other birds,
giving differently-coloured eggs, the cock seems to exercise some
influence, the i)henomenon being known as Xenia.''' The diverse
character of the eggs of the northern and southern ostrich afford
a good test of the possibility of Xenia occurring in birds, but
from none of the cross-matings has any support for the pheno-
menon been forthcoming.

Eggs from Cross-bred Hens. — In cross-bred hens are natur-
ally combined the possibilities of both the northern and the
southern parents, and the characters of the eggs laid by them are
just as much a part of the make-up of the bird as are the more
obvious body features. The question therefore arises whether
the eggs laid by cross-bred hens will follow those of one parent or
the other, or be something intermediate between the two. Scores
of eggs laid by cross-bred hens have been examined at the nest
and in the incubator, and in all cases have been found to be
intermediates as regards size, shape, and the nature of the
shell between typical northern and southern eggs. Obvious
])ittings occur over tlie shell, often more numerous towards the
air-chamber end, but are never so plentiful nor so deep as in the
eggs from the southern bird. The egg has neither the full size
nor the roundness of the northern ostrich, but is larger than the
southern, and its general surface is more enamel-like. Naturally
variations occur in the eggs laid by dififerent hens, and sometimes
they approach those of the one parent more nearly and sometimes
those of the other. The degree of pitting and smoothness of the
surface of the shell do not admit of more than a general statement,
l)Ut the dimensions of 34 cross-bred eggs are available for com-
l^arison wjth those of the northern and southern eggs.

*Jourii. of Hcrrditv, 6

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH I X VESTI(;ATIoXS. 265

Taiile 3. — Measurciiieut of Eggs of Cross-bred (Ostriches.

Long Diameter. Short Diameter.

Series A, lo eggs 6.08 5.08

Series B, 10 eggs 6.06 5-02

Series C. 14 eggs 5 .89 5 .09

•\verage 6.01 5 .06

5-35 •■

0.80

5.06

0.95

4.92

1 . 00

The nioasurements of the three series may be compared as
follows : —

Long Diameter. Short Diameter. Difference.
43 North African Eggs 6.15 ...
34 Cross-bred Eggs ... 6.01
20 South African Eggs 5.92

Though not elaborate enough for many purposes, ti'e results
suffice to indicate that as regards size and sha])e the cross-bred
eggs are intermediate between those of the nortnern an.d the
southern bird. They apparently approach somewhat nearer to
the southern than the northern, but with such variable objects,
an indication of this kind may be deemed of little value when
only small numbers are available.

The intermediate nature of the cross-bred eggs, as regards
size, shape, and the nature of the surface, may be taken to suggest
that the different characteristics of the eggs of the two races of
ostrich are dependent upon separate factorial representation in
the germ plasm, as in the case of the dimensions and colours of
the birds. Also the factors are not alternatives, for in r'l'^ 1^^-lirid
<ig^ no one character of the parents is donn'nant or recessive to
the other, but each strives, as it were, for expression, the result
being something midway between the two.

Nu:mhf.r of Plumes to W'ixg.

In the prosperous ostrich days before the war the i)lumes pf
hundreds of thousands of birds were clipped yearly, yet it is
doubtful if many farmers were in a position to tell how many
feathers came from the wing of an ostrich, or how many from
the tail. In a general way it was known that the wings an.d tail
of some birds gave more feathers to the crop than others, but it
was impossible to say by how many. This indifference arose
partly from the fact that feathers are sold by weight and not by
number, but was mainly due to the fact that in the ostrich |)lume
quality counts for far more than quantity. In making com-
parisons of the plumage of the North African and South African
ostriches, and of the cross-breds derived from them, it has been
foimd necessary to determine the exact number of commercial
feathers produced by each, and this has led to a detailed study of
the wing and tail feathers generally. The result has been the
discovery of certain facts in connection with the plumage of the

266 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

ostricli which will be of practical importance to the breeder in
the future, and which are also of some scientific interest from the
point of view- of the evolution of the ostrich. From the facts and
])rinciples presented it should be possible for farmers to increase
by as nmch as 25 per cent, their output of feathers from the same
inunber of birds, or, a more desirable consequence, to procure
the same quantity of plumes from three-quarters of their present
number of birds.

North African Ostriches. — The first-row feathers on each
wing have been counted on 25 of the original imported North
African birds, and the results are given below. It will be noted
that a difference of one or two plumes is often found between
one wing and the other, but the cocks and hens show no distinc-
tion. The number on the wing varies from 33 to 39, the arith-
metical mean of the series being 36.34; rei)resented graphically
they approximate to a normal frequency curve with the mode at
36. Manifestly the birds represent a mixed population, a result
of indiscriminate breeding in a race in which the numbers differ
by small amounts ; but indications are not wanting that a pure
line can be built u|) of each number. We may regard each bird
as heterozygous with regard to number of plumes, and a mixture
of the kind given below is what would be expected, seeing the
birds come from a single area in North Africa, where no farming
selection has been i)ractised.

Table 4. — First-rozv Plumes on Winys of Imported North

African Ostriches.

Right

Left

Right

Left

Wing.

Wing.

W^ing,

Wing

I,

Hen.

Xo.

1 1

39

38

H-

Hen,

No.

87

36

37

2.

Hen.

No.

20

37

37

15-

Cock,

No.

92

37

3^'

3-

Hen.

No.

40

3^>

37

16.

Hen,

No.

105

36

37

4.

Hen,

No.

41

34

35

17-

Hen,

No.

108

37

36

5-

Hen,

No.

45

36

36

18.

Cock,

No.

115

38

38

6.

Cock,

No.

50

36

37

19.

Hen,

No.

116

33

34

/•

Hen,

No.

63

37

38

20.

Hen,

No.

130

35

3^>

8.

Hen,

No.

69

3'^

39

21.

Cock,

No.

141

35

34

y-

Hen,

No.

71

3'>

35

22.

Cock,

No.

252

38

39

10.

Hen,

No.

7S

37

36

23-

Hen.

No.

277

35

36

1 1.

Cock,

No.

7H

37

36

24.

Cock,

No.

284

36

37

12.

Cock,

, No.

84

35

36

25-

Hen.

No.

287

38

39

13-

Cock.

No.

<^5

3<^

38

The number of plumes on the wings oi 15 pure Ncjrth
African chicks, reared at Grootfontein from the importation, are
also re])resented. and give approximately the same arithmetical
mean as the above, namely 36.7, though without the low numbers

33 ^^^'^^ 34-

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

267

Table 5. — First-rozv Plumes on North African Chicks Reared

at Grootfontein.

Right Left

Right Left

I.
2.

3-
4-

Wing.

No. ^T^z 36

No. 334 36

Wing.

6.

7-
8.

335-

1 .

2 .

3-
4-

3'

2,7
Z7
38
36
36
36

36
^7
Z7
i7
38
36
36
3^^

9-
10.

1 1.

12.

13-
14-
15-

No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.

9
10
1 1
12

Wing.

Wing.

36

37

39

38

3H

37

y:^

36

3H

}.7

36

3-^

3^^

35

No.
No.

No.
No.
No.
No.

South African Ostriches. — Li order to ascertain the number
of phtnies on the South African ostrich, for comparison with the
North African, recourse has been had to the troops on various
farms. Inckided among them are representatives from the best
and most widely known ostrich strains of South Africa. It is
only necessary to give the detailed countings of one series of 50
birds as an example, the average for the others agreeing closely.
As much interchange of birds and chicks has taken place since
ostrich farming commenced, it is most unlikely that any additions
to the series will vary from the averages here given

Tap.lk 6. — NuDiber of Plumes on South African Ostriches — -

Farmers' Scries A'o. 4.

Right

Left

Right

Left

Wing.

Wing.

wing.

Wing

I. Hen

39

39

26.

Cock . .

• 39

39

2. Cock

35

35

^7-

Cock . .

■ 36

35

3. Cock

38

37

28.

Hen ..

■ 37

3(>

4. Cock

27

36

29.

Cock ..

■ 39

39

5. Cock

36

37

30-

Cock . .

■ 38

3X

6. Hen

36

36

31-

Hen ..

• 37

34

7. Cock

37

36

32-

Hen . .

■ 37

38

8. Hen

37

36

33-

Hen ..

■ 36

35

9. Cqck

37

38

34-

Hen ..

• 36

37

10. Cock

36

36

35-

Cock . .

• 36

36

II. Cock

36

35

36.

Cock . .

• 36

35

12. Cock

37

37

37-

Cock . .

• 35

36

13. Hen

39

38

38.

Hen ..

• 35

35

14. Cock

36

36

39-

Hen ..

• 37

38

I S- Cock

38

3^

40.

Cock . .

■ 36

35

16. Hen

36

36

41.

Cock . .

• 39

3^

17. Cock

38

37

42.

Cock . .

• 39

38

18. Cock

36

37

43-

Cock . .

40

39

19. Cock

37

36

44-

Cock . .

• 35

34

20. Cock

38

37

45-

Hen . .

■ 37

38

21. Cock

39

3^

46.

Cock . .

. 36

36

22. lien

34

34

47-

Hen . .

37

36

23. Hen

38

38

48.

Hen ..

■ 37

3^>

24. Hen

37

36

49.

Cock . .

■ 37

37

25. Cock

39

40

so-

Cock ..

■ 39

38

268 SOME RESCLTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

The aritlinietical means of five Fanners' Series are as
follows : —

No. I, 25 birds 36.88

No. 2, 24 birds 36.58

No. 3, 19 birds 36.97

No. 4, 50 birds 36 . 87

No. 5. 19 birds 36.63

Total mean 36 . 78

The average number of plumes on the South African ostrich
is therefore the same as that on the North African, an important
conclusion which could not have been arrived at without the
opportunity of counting large numbers of each.

As the northern ostriches now at Grootfontein were all
procured originally by the Arabs of Nigeria as chicks from wild
nests, and are uninfluenced by any artificial breeding, we may
presume that their plumes rei)resent the average for the North
African wild bird, and we have therefore good reason for con-
cluding that the ostriches over the whole continent of Africa
])roduce the same average number of pliunes. From this it
follows that during the 50 years of ostrich farming in South
Africa no advance has been made on the average number of
plumes originally present on the wild bird. On the average
the domesticated birds of to-day produce the same quantity of
plumes as the original birds with which the first ostrich farmers
commenced in the sixties.

Though somewhat remarkable at first sight, this result is
scarcely to be wondered at, if we bear in mind the principles
vmderlying ostrich breeding : Farmers have bred for quality; quan-
tity has never been taken into accou)it. Great advances have been
made in the so-called quality characters of the individual pliune,but
in doing this no attention has been given to the number of feathers
which one bird produces as compared with another, and therefore
no numerical change has taken place. It is a good instance of the
principle that no progress is ever made as a result of indiscrimi-
nate breeding, unless a character has some selection value or
mutations are taking place.

Cross-bred Ostriches. — Seeing that the northern and southern
birds have the same average number of plumes and are a mixture
of heteri)zygotes, no change is to be expected in the number of
plumes on cross-bred chicks compared with what would be
procured by mating two northern or two southern birds. The table
given below is an example of the results which have been obtained.
The arithmetical mean of the parents is 36.24, and of the chicks
36.28, but for a larger series the average is 36.31, which agrees
more closely with that of the two races. A hint at factorial
purity is indicated, seeing that the extremes 33, 34, and 39 are not
represented.

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIOXS. 269

Tauli-: 7. — Number of First-roiv Pinnies on Cross-bred Cliieks
from mating a North African Cock with a Soitth African
Hen.

Parents. Right Wing. Left Wing.

N.A. Cock. No. 78 37 36

S.A. Hen, No. 225 36 36

Chicks.

1. No. 300 36 36

2. No. 301 35 36

3- No. 315 3^"^ ^7

4- No. 316 36 Z7

5. No. 318 :^7 36

6. No. 320 35 36

7. No. 321 36 36

8. No. 322 36 35

9- No. 323 38 37

A 42-PLUMED Ostrich.

Among the Ca])e birds in the Grootfontein flock two have
been disc(^vered with 42 phmies to the first row, though the rest
have the usual average of about 36. Of the two original birds
one has since met v/ith an accident and died. The birds were
procured several years ago from two farmers widely apart,
without any suspicion of their high number of plumes. It is
noteworthy that though search has since been made among the
same flocks, yet in neither case has another 42-plumed bird been
found. At first it seemed as if two distinct strains of ostriches
were represented in South Africa, as compared with the single
strain in North Africa, one with approximately 36 plumes as
the average, and another with 42. The countings on farmers'
birds have, however, given no support for this view ; they have
disclosed no individual bird exceeding 40 plumes, nor any influence
from a 42-plumed strain. Hence it is concluded that the occur-
rence of ostriches with 42 plumes is altogether exceptional among
Cape birds, and has has had no recent influence on the general
average. Likewise none of the Nigerian birds has more than 39
plumes, nor any of the chicks reared from them ; so the influence
of a 42-plumed strain is non-existent in North Africa.

As regards their origin, it is manifest that the 42-plumed
birds represent a distinct departure from the ordinary 36-plumed
birds. Were no other evidence available, the high number might
be looked upon as a meristic mutation, and the birds give progeny
with such high numbers as to show that the extra plumes are not
merely the extreme limit of a fluctuating series, but are of
factorial value. They have also been considered in the light of
reversions to any earlier ancestry, but full consideration leads us
to account for them otherwise. Recent observations, to be given
in the next section, have shown that the ostrich presents us with
numerous stages, indicating the course of the degeneration which

2-JO SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

the wings and legs have undergone up to the present, as well as
the course likely to be followed in the future. Survivals of many
ancestral characteristics are to be found among the abundant
material now available for study, and indicate that the 42-plumed
bird may with good reason be regarded as a survival of a stage
when the average number of plumes to the wing was larger than
at present. On this interpretation the 36-plumed bird? of to-day
are to be considered as degenerate in the number of wing quills,
as they are in many other respects. The practical endeavour is
II07V being made to build up a pure strain of ostriches bearing 42
phones, for zcith the increase of the other rozvs of plumes in
correlation ivith the zmng quills, it becomes possible to provide the
farmer zmth an ostrich giving about 25 per cent, more plumes
than he receives from his birds at present, the " quality points"
being also of the highest. The demonstration below that the high
number is not merely the extreme of a fluctuating series, but is
factorial in its nature, renders this possible. Whether by con-
tinual selection the number 42 can be exceeded is doubtful, seeing
that the factors for any higher number have probably been
altogether lost to the race, even if they were ever present in the
ancestral ostrich.

The table below shows that when the 42-plumed southern
cock is mated with various North African hens of the 36-strain,
the average number of plumes in the progeny is practically inter-
mediate, namely 39.56, the lowest number being 37 and the highest
42 ; they do not regress to the general average. The numbers
form an approximately normal curve, with the mode at 40. None
of the birds hitherto employed as breeders can be deemed " pure "'
as regards the number of plumes, and the 42-plumed bird is
probably heterozygous like the rest ; hence the fluctuating series
represented below : —

Table 8. — Number of First-rozv Plumes on Cross-bred Chicks
from jnating a 42-plumed Southern Cock and 2)^-plumed
Jiorthern hens.

Right Left Right Left

Wing. Wing. Wing. Wing.

1. No. 226 42 41 13. No. 311 40 40

2. No. 228 .... 39 40 14. No. 230 41 40

3. No. 229 41 42 15. No. 232 39 41

4. No. 242 40 40 16. No. 233 41 42

5. No. 243 39 40 17. No. 234 42 40

6. No. 302 37 38 18. No. 237 40 39

7. No. 303 • • • • 38 38 19- No. 2^^ .... 39 38

8. No. 304 40 40 20. No. T 39 38

9. No. 307 38 38 21. No. 2 39 39

10. No. 308 40 39 22. No. 3 38 39

11. No. 309 37 39 23. No. 4 40 41

12. No. 310 38 39 24. No. 5 41 40

S A. Assn. f^or AdV. of SciENce

1918. PL. 4.

J E. DuERDEN.— Some Results of Ostrich Investigations.

S.A. Assn. kok Adv. of Scienoe.

1918. Pl 5.

J. E. DuERDEN.— Some Results of Ostrich Investigations.

somf. resi'lts of ostrich investigations. 2/1

Degeneration in the Ostrich.

The Ratitre, or running birds, to which the ostrich belongs,
are looked upon as degenerate in many respects compared with
the Carinat?e, or flying birds, jDarticularly as regards tlie wing
which is no longer of use for flight. The ostrich is also unique
among birds in having only two toes to the foot, in place of the
usual four. The large number of northern and southern birds
now available for study has disclosed many other directions in
wliich a loss of parts is taking place, and the various stages in the
degenerative process obtainable, serve to indicate the manner
according to which the losses are effected. Independent lines of
degeneration are exhibited by parts of the plumage and the digits
of the wing and foot, and are here briefly summarised.

Under-C averts.

First Row. — In nearly all ostriches only a single row of
imder-coverts occurs, and this is rarely a complete row. (PI. 5^.)
The members alternate with the row of wing quills, and also with
the last plume of the first, second, and sometimes third row of
upper-coverts which, along with the remiges, constitute the mar-
ginal row of plumes. Only in two birds out of hundreds examined
has the full alternation of under-coverts been observed, and often
as many as nine or ten are missing. The absent members are in
regular succession, beginning at the elbow end of the row. All
stages in the loss can be procured, though the greater number of
ostriches have from seven to ten missing. Actual countings of
25 birds gives an average of 30.2 coverts, which is six less than
the average of the remiges, and two or three more should be
present for alternation with the last member of the rows of upper-
coverts.

While usually the losses are entire plumes, not infrequently
two or three vestigial feathers are seen beyond the last ordinary
member of the row. These are not simply diminutive feathers,
but are imperfectly formed, the axis especially being imperfect.
The degenerative stages are similar to those better seen in connec-
tion with the down feathers on the wings and tail, where it is
found that the shaft is the first part to break up and disappear,
then the barbules, and lastly the barbs. The vestigial feathers
continue to appear with the regular succession of the plumages,
but are more prone to disappear with age than the normal
feathers.

From the details submitted it is evident that the row of
under-coverts in the ostrich is in process of gradual reduction,
beginning at the elbow end. The number of birds available makes
it possible to trace all the stages from the complete row to where
as many as ten have disappeared, showing that the process does
not proceed uniformly in all the representatives of the race. In
most cases the loss involves complete feathers, though the presence
of the vestigial members indicates that it takes place in ])iecemeal
fashion, according to a definite sequence.

F

2-J2 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

Second and Third Rok<s. — While the great majority of
ostriches have only the single incomplete row of uncler-coverts,
birds are occasionally found which bear feathers belonging to a
second and even to a third row of under-coverts. They are much
more likely to occur on southern birds than on northern. In one
Cape cock, as many as 13 alternating smaller plumes were present
next to the first row of under-coverts. and in front of these were
four others alternating with them, and manifestly members of a
third row. They tended to give to the wing the appearance of a
covered under-surface, altogether different from the generally
naked effect. Not unfrequently detached feathers of the second
and third rows are present at any part of the row, or several may
occur in regular succession, the middle members of the row being
more likely to a])pear than those towards the end. Only in one
farmer's birds, however, have the nearly complete second and
third rows been found, but as they appear in the progeny also, they
are deemed to be germinal in their origin. The additional feathers
are nearly always fully formed, and, like the first three rows of
upper-coverts, they are successively smaller from the first to the
third row. Occasionally, however, vestigial imperfect feathers
occur, as if the individual plumes were going through a gradual
process of degeneration.

The only feasible explanation which can be advanced for the
rare presence of second and third row under-coverts is that the
ancestors of the ostrich were, like modern flying birds, provided
with a covering of feathers to the under or inner surface of the
wing, though in nearly all cases this is now naked except for the
single rov/ of under-coverts, itself a disappearing quantity.

Plumes on TJiird Finger.

The third finger is ordinarily buried in the muscles of the
wing, but during development it projects freely, and in some cases
retains its distinctness in the adult. Where hidden, its free tip
extends nearly to the hind border of the wing ; and at this place
one or two additional plumes sometimes occur, interfering with
the regularity of arrangement of the under-coverts and wing-
quills. (PI. 515.) These irregular feathers are often a puzzle
to ostrich farmers. Dissections show that they belong to a
distinct series from either the under-coverts or wing-fjuills, the
quills crossing the phalanges of the third digit in the same manner
as the quills of the remiges cross the phalanges of the second dgit.
Without doubt, therefore, these additional feathers are to be
regarded as belonging to the third digit.

In addition to the feathers at the ti]). single plumes are
Occasionally found set along the course of the third digit. They
may appear at any part of its length, and are altogether distinct
from the under-coverts. It is submitted that the tip feathers,
along with these along the length are representative of a time
when the ancestor of the ostrich had its third finger provided with
feathers, like those surviving on the bastard wing. Apparently

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 2"] }^

the ostrich is the only living bird in which the third finger bears
feathers, though there is little question that this was the condition
in ancestral birds.

Upper-Coverts.

The upper-coverts are black in the cock and grey in ihe hen,
and alternate with the wing-quills. (PI. 4B.) The number of
rows varies somewhat ; in some birds only two or three are well
defined, but five or six in others. As regards the number of
plumes to the row, the first one varies in direct correlation with
the wing-quills, and shows no independent reduction ; the second,
on the other hand, is in a degenerative phase at its distal end, in
contrast to the proximal end of the first row of under-coverts.
Very rarely the second row bears the full number necessary for
complete alternation with the first, or has only one or two less;
often six or seven, or even as many as ten are missing, but all
intermediate stages are to be met with. Occasionally some of
the terminal feathers are vestigial, as if undergoing piecemeal
degeneration. The rows of upper-coverts are usualh/ more
reduced in northern than in southern birds, the wing as a whole
being then appreciably narrower. It is evident, therefore, that
the actual number of rows of coverts is undergoing reduction, as
well as the number of plumes in each as far as the second. The
degenerative influence has not yet reached the first row of
coverts, except in so far as it varies with the wing-quills.

Lcg-C overt s.

In the newly-hatched chick the outer surface of the fore-leg is
provided with natal feathers similar to those over the wings and
l3ody generally, and in due course these are pushed out by the
feathers of the chick plumage. The full covering persists until
the chicks are about six months old, and from this time onwards
the feathers gradually drop out without others taking their place,
until when about a year old the leg is entirely naked, witli the
possible exception of a few feathers along the posterior border,
and rarely along the anterior border. The rate of falling out
and the number remaining vary in difl:'erent chicks. The pits of
the empty sockets persist for years, gradually becoming less
conspicuous.

In this case we may hold that the germinal factors concerned
with the production of the leg-coverts retain their normal activity
until the chicks are about six months old, and then by far the
greater number lose their effectiveness, and the feathers fall out.
Were we to seek an adaptive explanation, the loss might be
associated with the increased size of the wing plumes. While the
latter are small, the outer surface of the leg would be
uncovered were it not for its own coverts. As the chicks become
older the wing quills grow longer, and, in extending downwards
and backwards, serve to cover the fore-leg; hence it may be held
there is no further need for their presence. There may be .some
adaptive need for them in the young chicks, but not in the older

2/4 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

t

chick and adult. Allowing for such an adaptive correlation, we
still have to attempt an understanding from a germinal and
factorial basis. Do the feather-producing factors naturally lose
their potency with the late chick stages, or are they inhibited by
some other physiological influences appearing in the chick?

Down.

In most flying birds a covering of down feathers or plumules
occurs beneath the ordinary contour feathers of the body and
wings, and a number of small, hair-like feathers or filoplumes
may also be present. Accounts of the plumage of the ostrich
refer to the absence of these additional small feathers, yet on
close examination every Nigerian and Cape bird is found to
<lisplay them around the base of the larger feathers on the wings
and tails, the degree of development varying much with the
individual. A casual examination of the surface of the body
would fail to disclose them, but farmers often remark u])on their
presence on the wings and tail, and have some vague notion that
their strong development is indicative of a good plumage bird.
They are usually more sparse on northern than on southern birds.

As regards the individual feathers, some are fully developed,
though diminutive down, provided with quill, shaft, and flue,
Init by far the greater number are imperfect and degenerate. In
place of a single shaft, many have two f)r three imperfect ones,
others are tufts of barbs with barbules, while others are reduced
to one or two hair-like barbs without any barbules. But all inter-
mediate stages between the extremes can be observed on the
same bird.

While the down is usually restricted in its distribution to the
neighbourhood of the large wing and tail ]^lumes. it is occasionally
found to extend over a larger area. Some birds display a sparse
covering of the hair-like barbs over the whole of the hind ;iart
of the body, including the broad lateral apteria ; and in a few
instances extremely degenerate down has been observed over
the inner, naked part of the wing, where it would least be
expected, were it not for the evidence already presented that the
under part of the wing was at one time fully provided with contour
coverts.

All these occurrences lend strong support to the view that the
ancestral ostrich was clothed with an under covering of down
feathers over the body generally, in addition to the covering of
large contour feathers, after the fashion of most flying birds.
Usually it is now restricted to the region of the larger wing and
tail feathers, but occasionally it spreads over other parts of the
body. In addition, the feathers are now rarely tvt)ica! down,
complete with quill, shaft, barbs, and barbules. The shaft is
usually imperfectly developed ; sometimes there is only a tuft of
barbs with barbules ; and again one or two hair-like barbs,
without any barbules, may alone persist. In other cases it is
found that individual feather degeneration follows the same

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 2/5

sequence — total loss of the shaft, loss of barbules, loss of barbs.
Even the larger contoiu^ feathers appear not to drop out as a
whole, but in a definite piecemeal fashion.

Third Digit of Wing.

In all living birds the third digit is greatly reduced, and
buried in the muscles of the wing. This is usually the case in
the adult ostrich, though its outline can be distinctly felt through
the thin skin. In the embryo, however, the finger is clearly seen
at about the tenth day of incubation, and is then of equal size
with the second, which is by far the largest of the thre§ in the
mature wing. From the tenth day onwards the second digit
greatly outstrips the third in growth, and within a few days of
hatching the latter shows as a small triangular projection from
the post-axial border of the wings, much larger in some embryos
than in others. After hatching, the projection generally dis-
appears, and no trace is to be seen from the exterior. Dissections
show that the first phalanx is always well developed, but the
second is usually represented by only a very small nodule, of
bone. The first and second fingers bear well-defined claws, and
some writers assert that a claw appears on the third also,* but
this has never been found in the hundreds of birds coming under
my observation, although specially looked for.

While the third digit is usually hidden, as above described,
on some birds it forms a distinct projection from the general
imder surface of the wing, and may even extend beyond the
border in a finger-like manner. (PI. 50.) All intermediate
stages between the extremes are to be met with on the large
number of birds examined. Owing to the manner in which the
bird drags its wings over the ground when taking a "' sand bath,"
the projecting finger comes in for a good deal of rough wear on
the hard ground, and develops a knob-like callosity as a response.
In birds with the finger projecting conspicuously, the second
phalanx is a bone nearly an inch in length, instead of a mere
nodule, and its free end becomes knob-like in correlation with
the callosity ; but all intermediate stages in the size of the phalanx
can be procured.

Among the number of adult ostriches available for study,
we therefore find numerous stages which serve to illustrate the
manner in which the degeneration of the third digit is proceeding,
and these are supj)lemented by the embryonic stages. Externall\
there may be no trace of the digit, while again it may project as a
distinct finger, callous at the tij) ; also the second or terminal
phalanx may be represented l)y stages from a mere nodule to a
bone an inch or. so in length. Difl:'erent individuals have reached
dififerent .Sitages in the degeneration of the digit, but they reveal
that the passage from one to the other is by imperceptible
degrees, not by conspicuous steps. The genetic factors concerned

* Parker and Haswell : 'Text-Book of Zoology. 11. ,^9J.

2/6 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

with the third digit may be presumed to be equi-potential with
those for the second digit as far as the tenth day of incubation,
but from this stage onwards they are comparatively weaker, and
may ultimately result in the formation of only one or two
phalanges, without any claw at the tip, whereas the second digit
has always three phalanges and is clawed. The factors for the
third claw have wholly disapi)eared from the germ plasm, and
those for the second phalanx have almost lost their potency in
most individuals, but are fully effective in others.

Fourth Outer Toe.

The small uuter toe in the ostrich is the fourth of the penta-
dactyle foot, the first, second, and fifth having already disap-
peared, though Prof. Broom has shown there are traces of all
five in the embryo chick of ten and eleven days' incubation.
Following upon the losses which have already taken place, the next
in the sequence to disappear will be the fourth, and in the end the
middle third will be the only toe remaining. In addition to the great
difference in size between the fourth and the third t^e, other
conditions represented by the former give every rea.son for
thinking that it is at present undergoing slow degeneration,
especially as regards the claw and the scales on its upper surface.
Though very small in size, the normal munber of ])halanges,
i\vQ, is still retained.

Already the claw on the fourth toe has for the most part
<lisappeared, though it is occasionally present, more often on
North African than on South African birds. In 25 mixed
northern birds it occurred on six specimens, and was wanting on
the others, while in 20 mixed southern birds it was found on only
one individual. Everywhere it is feebly developed, especially by
comparison with the big claw on the middle toe, and is always
non-functional, never reaching the ground. Where best formed,
it projects for about half an inch from its socket, while at other
times it is almost hidden in the integument, and can scarcely be
felt with the finger ; but all intermediate sizes can be obtained.
Usually it is equally develo])ed on both the right and left foot,
though sometimes a difi'erence is observed. (Fig- 3.)

In crosses where both ])arents are without the claw the
progency are also devoid of it. \\ here, however, one parent is
clawed and not the other, it appears in about half tlie ])rogeny,
showing that the clawed birds are dominant heterozygotes. Out
of a total of 36 chicks hatched from breeding })airs, wliere one
parent was clawed and not the other, the niuubers were actually
equal, 18 chicks were clawed and 18 unclawed. Thus the
evidence is conclusive that the ])resence of the claw follows the
Mendelian ])ro])ortions for heterozvgotes when breeding takes
place. With the small ])roportion of clawed to clawless individuals
among both northern and southern birds, it is to be expected that
the clawed osl riches will be heterozygous, for a mixed assent-

SO.MK KESl'LTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

V7

blage the chances of a clawed bird mating with another clawed
one are very remote.

The experiments therefore prove that the absence of the
claw represents the loss of one or more genetic factors from the
germ plasm, but the various stages show that the claw factor
undergoes a gradual loss in potency. There is every reason to
expect that in time the claw on the fourth toe will disappear from
the entire ostrich race, as is seen to be the case with the claw
of the third finger.

The large scales on the ujjper surface of the toe form a
continuous series, usually eight to ten in number. (Fig. 3.)
They cover only a small part of the toe, while comparison with
other birds would lead us to expect they would extend the whole

1- ig.

length, and be in continuity with the large scales along the tarsus.
It may be presumed that the factors for the missing scales have
wholly disappeared from the germ plasm, for no evidence of
them is ever forthcoming, not even in the embryo. Along with
the claw, they may be deemed to afford so nuich evidence in
support of the degeneration of the fourth toe.

Ihivd Middle Toe.

The large toe of the ostrich is the third or middle of the
]>entadactyle foot, and, as the only other toe remaining is shown
to be well on the way towards disappearance, it is highly
l)robabl€ that in time tlie l)ird will be dependent upon this toe
.- lone. Certain strrctural facts ])resented by it, however, give

27^

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

considerable support for the idea that degeneration is also in
process even here, so that ultimately all the toes may disappear,
if the bird survive the intervening stages.

Along the front of the tarsus extends a series of large, nearly
rectangular scales, which in most cases passes uninterruptedly
to the end of the big toe. (Fig. 3.) Over the leg their contiguous
edges simply meet, but they are imbricated where the tarsus
joins the toe, and also over the latter, thus allowing for the
bending movements during walking and running. Along the
tarsus the scales retain approximately the same size, but at the
junction with the toe they usually become somewhat smaller,
enlarging again distally. Occasioally a distinct break in the
continuity occurs at the joint, several of the large ones disap-
pearing and being replaced by the insignificant scales which
cover the surface of the limb generally ; and in rare cases a
second break in the continuity takes place over the joint about
the middle of the toe, thus giving a proximal and a distal series
of digital scales.

The number of scales fluctuates in different individuals, and
also on one limb as compared with the other, and occasionally
irregularities are introduced owing to single scales being partly
subdivided. At the breaks the large scales tend to pass insensibly
into the small one of the limb, hence any enumeration is only
approximate. Actual counting give the following: —

Table 9. — Number of Scales in Tarso-pedal Scutellation.

A . — Con fin u o us-

Right Tarsus
and Toe.

I.
2.

3-
4-

53

55
57
58

Left Tarsus
and Toe.

55
53
56

57

B. — With one break-

Tarsus. Toe.
16
17

27

2^

Tarsus. Toe.

27
30

17
19

C. — H'itli t-cco breaks —
Tarsus.

Toe.

Tarsus. Toe.

I. ... 29 58 29 58

2- ... 30 59 31 69

3- • • • 32 69 31 711

The break in the continuity occurs rather rarely, especially
in southern ostriches. Out of 20 Cape birds of mixed breeding,
only one showed an interruption, while in 20 mixed Nigerian

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 279

birds a single break occurred in three cases and a double break
in two. They represent a definite loss of toe scales, and, taken
along with the other facts of degeneration in the foot, are
without doubt to be regarded as the first evidence of degeneration
in the nu'ddle toe of the ostrich, the first, second, and fifth having
already disappeared, and the small, fourth, being well on the way.
The breaks evidently represent independent unit characters,
retrogressive mutations, in course of introduction within the
whole race, the process having gone a little further in the
northern ostrich than in the southern.

Breeding experiments prove that the breaks are germinal
in their nature. Where no break occurs in either of the parents
the progeny also show none. Thus in 13 cross-bred chicks from
a southern cock and a northern hen, both with a continuous
scutellation, no loss of scales occurred. When, however, one of
the parents bears a break and not the other, then, as indicated
below, approximately one-half of the chicks displays it, proving
that the factor for the break is dominant, but that the germ
plasm is simplex or heterozygous with reference to it.

Tarle 10. — Scutellation in Parents and Chicks.

Break.

Parents.

No Break.

N.A. Cock, No. 78

X

S.A. Hen, No. 225 . . . .

. . . —

Cross-bred Chicks.

No. 314

X

No. 315

X

No. 316

No. 318

No. 319

No. 320

No. 321 . . . ,

X

No. 322

No. 323

X

No. 300

X

No. 301 . . . ,

X

X

X
X

X

X

The heterozygous condition as regards the break is what
would be expected, assuming that the character is one which is
in process of introduction within the race, and that it behaves
in Mendelian fashion. At present the mutation is found in com-
paratively few individuals, and in a state of nature there is little
chance that a bird showing the break would mate with another
in a like condition, but rather with one having the scales con-
tituious. If the genetic change first took place in a homozygous
duplex form in a few individuals, there is small likelihood that
these would mate with others in like condition, but with nullifiex
individuals. The first crosses would be dominant and simplex,
and these, mating with other nullifiex birds, would give half

2<So SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTICATIONS.

simplex dominants and half nulliflex, which is what the experi-
ments indicate.

Ultimate Fate of the Ostrich.

With degeneration in progress in so many directions, the
(juestion may well be asked as to what will be the ultimate fate
of the ostrich. It is reasonable to expect that the losses already
initiated will continue along the same lines, if nature be allowed
its free and unrestrained course. Evidently some intrinsic
influence is at work upon the germ plasm, resulting in a slow
disappearance of certain i)arts of the bird in a continuous deter-
minate manner, and from what has already happened, we can
form some conclusion as to what will be the end result. Unques-
tionably, the plumage as a wdiole will become less and less in
extent. Probably no bird is at present so naked as the ostrich.
Both the right and left sides are almost destitute of feathers,
a large naked area occurs over the sternum and the pubis, the
legs are featherless in the adult, the under surface of the wing
is nearly free of plumes, the head of the northern bird is bald,
and the under-covering of down feathers has all but disappeared
from the race. The facts already presented give cv.?ry reason to
expect that if the ostrich were left to itself, the wing quills would
continue to drop out, and the present minimum of T)S plumes be
still further reduced ; the single row of under-coverts is in process
of reduction, and w-ill follow the second and third rows, which
have practically gone, while tiie upper-coverts are becoming less
and less in number ; the leg feathers may altogether cease to
appear, even in the chick ; the baldness may increase in extent ;
and the down feathers, though now vestigial and negligible as
regards the welfare of the bird, may drop out altogether.

With the first and second fingers clawed, and the third finger
sometimes separate and distinct, and having two phalanges, the
wing of the ostrich, in its component parts, is less degenerate than
that of most birds, and the limb as a whole is more nearly related
to the reptilian ancestor. It is probably, however, undergoing a
general reduction of size rather than loss of its constituents, as is
also the case with Apteryx and probably other Ratitae. There is
evidence, however, that the third digit is in process of degenera-
tion, and that a shorter, narrower, wing is correlated with a
reduction in the mmiber of plumes.

It is in the loss of its toes that final disaster is most likely to
overtake the ostrich. Already it has fewer toes than any other
living bird, the American ostrich, Rhea, having three, and most
other birds having four. Of the two remaining in the ostrich,
the fourth is already much reduced in comparison with the third,
while the ])ractical loss of its claw and the reduced number of
scales along its upper surface are further evidences of degenera-
tion. There can be little doubt that the fourth toe will in time
follow tlie first, second, and fifth and also disappear. Likewise
willi th.e th.ird or middle toe, the only one then remaining.

SOME KKSl'LTS OF OSTKU 11 1 N VKSTJC.ATloNS. 28 1

Though well develo])ed and of supreme importance at the present
time for supporting the bird and for running and walking,
evidence has been adduced to prove that in the loss of the scales
we already have the first hints of its degeneration.

The degenerative processes must be carried out with extreme
slowness, probably tens or hundreds of thousands of years being
involved. The many survivals still met with reveal how long the
genetic factors may persist in some birds, although lost to the
race generally. If, however, the degenerative influence is as
relentless as it appears to be, there seems every reason to fear
that in the end the sad spectacle will be presented of a plumeless,
wingless, and legless ostrich. This result might ultimately be
exjiected if the bird were left to nature, subject to all its iniierent
tendencies.

Now, however, that man has taken the ostrich under his
charge, nature need not be allowed its free, unrestricted course.
By means of selection, the degenerative tendencies can to a large
extent be held in check, and the farmer can retain the bird very
much in the condition he desires, or even restore it to some
former state. Nothing essential to its welfare is yet lost to the
ostrich as a race — some still retain all that is desired — and these
birds can be selected to the exclusion of others where degenera-
tion has proceeded furthest. Thus already experiments are in
progress to arrest the further loss of the valuable wing jilumes,
and to provide the farmer with a bird giving 42 plumes in place
of an average of 36, the other rows being increased in the same
proportion, and all the plumes of high quality. The tendency to
loss of plumage of the wing as a whole can be checked by
selecting as breeders birds having the factors for a high number
of plumes. Also, if any fear be entertained that the ostrich may
lose its only toe, the tendency can be almost indefinitely checked
by breeding from birds showing the least evidence of degenera-
tion, and eliminating as breeders those w^ith the greatest loss of
scales. The principles elaborated by Mendelian researches will
enable us to ]:)roceed in a genetical problem of this nature with
an assurance undreamt of under the older methods of breeding.

From a zoological point of view, the outlook is attractive.
While developing the plumage to its highest possibihties, both of
quality and quantity, there is added the anticipation of arresting
the retrogressve tendencies in the ostrich, and ultimately of
restoring the wing to its ancestral, heavily-plumaged condition.
Under domestication, birds already degenerative will gradually
be eliminated, and those with desirable ancestral characters
remaining will be encotiraged. Not only will the restoration apply
to the principal row of valuable wMng ])lumes, but also to the
upper and under coverts, and perhaps include the feathers of
the third finger ; and possibly the provision of a general covering
for the present nakedness of the entire under-surface of the
Aving. With the material already found to exist, even though
scattered among different birds, it becomes ])ossible to build up an

282 SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

ostrich wing far different from that of to-day. The only hmita-
tions imposed will be in connection with those ancestral characters
the factors for which have altogether disappeared from the germ
plasm. No selection can bring back these. We can only
construct from the material which is left; much, however, has
gone for ever.

Pineal Patch.

In all ostrich chicks, on hatching, a small, bare, oval patch
occurs towards the back of the head. (Fig. 4.) As the chick
grows older, it tends to be hidden by the downy and bristly
feathers which constitute the covering of the head, but even in
the adult it can always be observed by turning the feathers aside.
The area is somewhat darker coloured than the rest of the skin,
and never bears feathers. Dissections reveal that it is situated
over the part of the brain known as the pineal body, which, in
the ostrich, is a rather large oval structure occupying the trian-
gular space formed by the two cerebral hemispheres and the
cerebellum. During the com-se of development, the patch appears.

^■;|^.

Fig. 4.

even more conspicuous than in the newly-hatched chick, and is
always darkly pigmented. At a certain stage it has been found to
be raised a little above the general surface as a black vesicular
swelling.

Embryological studies have not yet been carried out to
determine the microscopic structure, nor how far the superficial
area is connected with the pineal stalk below. On the skull itself
no indication appears of any connection ; so that if a prior attach-
ment occurs it must be severed at an early stage of development.
There can be no doubt, however, of the association between the
oval area and the pineal body, and that the former may justly
be regarded as a pineal patch. Similar pineal structures are
frequently found in the Reptilia, where they often take on the
character of sense organs, particularly of a visual nature, the most
familiar being the pineal eye in the New Zealand lizard, Sphcn-
don. They are also known among the amyhibia.

Apparently the ostrich is unique among birds in having the
jiineal patch, and its presence serves to emphasize the generally-
accepted close relationship of the birds and reptiles. It also
•confirms the closer relationship which the ostrich bears to the

SOME RESULTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS. 283

reptilian ancestry compared with birds generally, a relationship
supported by the presence of the claw on the first and second
digits of the wing, and the occasional distinctness of the third
digit, with its two phalanges.

Specific Distinctness of Northern and Southern

Ostriches.

Whether the northern and the southern ostrich are to be
regarded as separate species, or only as sub-species or varieties of
a single species, raises the ever-recurring, but unanswerable, ques-
tion as to what constitutes a species. In the foregoing we have avail-
able all the data which the systematist could possibly desire to
enable him to reach a decision. A germinal character, baldness,
occurs in one, but is wanting in the other, while the dimensions
and colours of the body, as well as certain features of the egg
are also distinctive and germinal. The characters are retained
when the members of one race are subjected to the same environ-
mental conditions as the other, showing they are not dependent
upon external circumstances. They can alL be regarded as distinct
elementary characters in the De Vriesian sense, and the combina-
tions might be held to warrant us in regarding the two as
specifically distinct.

On the other hand, the birds are proved to interbreed freely,
and the offspring are fertile, both inter se and with the parental
forms. The fact that similar degenerative processes — ^loss of
])lumage, scales and claws — are proceeding in both also points to
a close germinal relationship. In the opinion of many systematists
the physiological fact of fertility alone would be deemed to
justify specific unity.

The ostrich ranges over all the habitable parts of Africa, and
there is every likelihood that in intermediate areas between north
and south a mingling of the two races goes on, producing a mixed
population, composed of all possible combinations of the two sets
of characters. Thus in the East African ostrich, .S". uiassaictts, as
the writer has found in visiting the ostrich farms jn British East
Africa, the colour of the hen and immature cock is a cream
yellow, while the mature cock has the head, neck, and legs
scarlet, and the birds are somewhat larger than the southern.
The bald patch is present, and the eggs are pitted. The Somali
ostrich, S. molybdo phones, is described as a smaller, darker bird
than the southern, but the bald patch is wanting, and the coloura-
tion is like that of the southern, and the eggs are pitted.

If the entire ostrich population of xA.frica were gathered
together, we are probably justified in thinking that all intermediate
forms would be forthcoming between typical northern and
southern birds. An exception would occur, however, in the case
of the bald patch, for. however much intercrossing had taken
place, the character would never be intermediate, but
would be wholly present or absent ; and though the
dimensions, colours, and q^^ characters appeared in varv-

284 SOMK KKSILTS OF OSTRICH INVESTIGATIONS.

iiig intermediate degrees, as a result of crossing,
we should still have the knowledge that their distinctive nature
could be extracted by selective breeding. When discussing inter-
mediate forms, the possibility of segregation should always be
borne in mind. Among the African fauna especially, experimental
breeding would proljably establish that many so-called species and
sub-species, often f(_)unded upon one or a tew specimens, are in
reality intermediates or hybrids of other species.

So long as we have the facts before us, it is of small moment
whether we regard the northern and southern ostriches as distinct
species or not. It becomes a matter of individual prediliction
whether greater importance should be given to somatic differences
or to physiological similarity. Without being biassed in either
direction, it appears to the writer to make for convenience to
regard them as distinct under the names bestowed by Linnaeus and
riurnev.

DESCRIPTJOXS OF PLATES AND TF.XT FIGURES.

Pl. 2.\. — Group (if North .\frican Ostriclics.

Pl. 2b. — Group of Soutli African Ostricht-s in full plumage.

Pl. 2C. — Troop of first generation (1'") cros.s-lired ostriches at the
Grootfontein School of Agriculture.

Pl. 3.^. — Plume showing " bars " and defective growth ])elo'\v, result of
malnutrition.

Pl. 315. — Pair of tirst generation ( ¥2) cross-bred ostrich chicks.

Pl. 4.\. — Egg of North African (left) and Soutii African (right)
ostrich.

Pl. 4B. — Outer surface of fore-wing of ostrich, v/ith plumes cut off, the
quills showing the arrangement of the feathers in rows.

Pl. s.\. — Inner surface of fore-wing of ostrich, with plumes cut off,
showing the naked surface, incomplete row of under-coverts and
outline of the tliird digit.

Pl. 51!. — Part of inner surface of wing, showing the projecting third
finger, witii an irregularity in the row of under-coverts and wing-
cjuills at the same place.

Fic. I. — Diagrammatic representation of stage at which plumes
are clipped to avoid injury to bird. Clipping takes place along
the line a, b, tlie pith, or medull;i, having receded below; clipping
along the lint c. d. wouUl expose the medulla and result in
hemorrhage.

I"i<;. 2. — Head of North \frican Ostrich showing baldness. The
clear, oval area towards the hind part of the bald patch represents
the pineal spot.

Fig. 3. — Tarsi and feet of Northern ostrich. The scutellation
shows a strong break between the tarsus and the large, inner, third
toe, and the beginning of a second break over the middle_ joint
of tlie toe. The small, outer, fourth toe bears only a few scales, and
the claw shown is unusually well-developed.

Fig. 4. — l'pi)cr surface of head of ostrich chick, showing the
]>ineal spot.

ELliCTRO-MACiNETIC TllEOKV Oi- LIMIT. 285

The Electromagnetic Theory of Light.

" I have cleared the electrotiiagnetic theory of Hght from all
unwarrantable assumption, so that we may safely determine the
velocity of light by measuring the attraction between bodies kept
at a given difference of potential, the value of which is known in
electromagnetic measure." Thus Clerk Maxwell wrote in Sep-
tember, 1864. More than thirty years later the theory of light,
based upon the assumption of an elastically deformable sther
still held virtually unchallenged sway. While treatises on natural
philosophy could not fail to mention other i^hases of Maxwell's
views and work, they w^ere, as a rule, strangely silent on this
]iarticular aspect thereof, and when theories were contrasted, it
was invariably the corpuscular against which the undulatory
theory was ranged. After Hertz's classical experiments. C. (j.
Knott and other text-book comj)ilers gave just due to Maxwell's
views. To-day and for many years past. Maxwell's electro-
magnetic theory has had universal acce])tance. With the latter
assertion Dr. L. Silberstein opens his little book on the elements
of the theory.* Maxwell seemed to express himself more
cautiouslv in his writings for publication than in the private letter
from which the first four lines of this paragraph are quoted. He
contented himself with the remark that his theory is not contra-
dicted by the results obtained for the velocity of light in air, and
interstellar space. Yet, says Dr. Silberstein, " there can be but
little doubt that the said agreement has had a decisive influence
upon the birth of the electromagnetic theory of light," and " Max-
well's predictions found a splendid corroboration a quarter of a
century later in the famous experiments of Hertz, who has not
only confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves, but also
verified the approximate equality of their velocity of propagation
with that of light." The little book whence these extracts are
taken is an English version of a single chapter from the author's
three- volume treatise (written in the Polish language) and
originally published in Warsaw^) on " Electricity and Magnetism."
In concise form the essentials of the theory, as generally accepted
at the present time, are presented in such a manner as to afford
the reader both a complete and a relatively simple exposition of
the fundamentals of Maxwell's theory. The advantages of the
electromagnetic over the elastic theory are very lucidly set forth,
and the luminiferous aether, as originally conceived by Green, that
continuous elastic medium of which one has heard so much
during the last 80 years, becomes converted into an almost incom-
pressible jelly, for which a foam-a?ther was afterwards substi-
tuted b}' Lord Kelvin. All elastic theories of light, however,
are forced into somewhat strained assumptions in consequence
of the phen(^mena of polarisation, while the electromagnetic
theory, w ith its purely transversal waves, needs no such assump-
tions.

Adopting the language of vectors, the author j)roceeds

*

L. Sillicrstein : " Elements of the electromag}tetic theory of light."
8vo.. pp. 4S. London : Longmans, Green & Co., 1918. 3s. 6d.. net.

286 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

to discuss plane waves on the basis of Maxwell's differential
equations in the Hertz-Heaviside form. The remaining half of
the book may be broadly divided into two sections ; the first of
these treats of the phenomena of reflection and refraction ; the
second deals with the optics of crystalline media. In the former the
author incidentally points out that the electromagnetic theory of
light has united in itself, as far at least as reflection and refraction
are concerned. Fresnel's and Neumann's theories, and the famous
quarrel about the direction of ?ethereal vibrations with respect to
the plane of polarisation has become an idle controversy.

Apart from its undoubted value, from the purely scientific
point of view, Dr. Silberstein's little book constitutes an unfeigned
testimony to the far-seeing and deeply penetrating genius of that
brilliant and unassuming physicist who " enriched the inheritance
left by Newton and consolidated the work of Faradav.""

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Chemical, Metalluk-ckal, and AIining Society of South Africa. —
Saturday, March i6th : G. Hildick-Sniith, B.Sc. President, in the chair. —
"The esfiniafion of injurious dust in mine air by the Kotse Konimeter'' :
J. Innes. A known quantity of air is caused to impinge at a higli
velocity through a fine nozzle on the surface of a glass slide thinly coated
witli vaseline: the dust content is deposited as a circular spot about i mm.
in diameter. The number of particles in a spot are subsequently counted
under a microscope.

Saturday, April 20th : A. Whitby. Vice-President, in the chair. — " Fur-
ther notes on sandfilling of mines'": C. M. Greathead. An account of
minor alterations in the methods of sandfdling introduced during the last
five years, and of the development of methods put into practice in the
reclaiming of pillars, foot and hanging walls in portions of mines that
have been abandoned for many vears.

Saturday, May i8th : H. S. Meyer, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.M.. Vice-Presi-
dent, in the chair. — " Ceiucutaliou process applied to minincj (Francois
System)": A. H Krynauiw. Cement grout is introduced, under
pressure, into minute fissures and cracks in rock strata. Several applica-
tions of the process were described, e.g., in connection v^'ith shaft-smking,
sealing of ferro-concrete shaft-lining or of open fissures, damming back of
water near open ground, rendering underground dams watertight, rectify-
ing defective boreholes, and rendering foundations of dam walls
impervious.

Saturday, June 22nd : H. A. White, Vice-President, in the chair. —
"The estimation of oxygen in working cyanide solutions" :H. A. White.
To the solution is added Vjo gram of pyrogallol and i cc. of zN-NaOH.
and the resulting liquid is compared colorimetrically with a series of
standard solutions. — ''Note on the removal of a vertical shaft pillar^': J.
Chilton. A description of the operation of removing a large shaft pillar
in the Village Main Reef Gold Mine, which had on two occasions become
damaged in consequence of severe earth tremors.

Saturdaj^ September 21st: H. S. Meyer, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.M.. Presi-
dent, in the chair. — Presidential address : H. S. Meyer. The address
dealt with recent progress in mining and metallurgy in South Africa.

Saturday. November T6th : H. S. Meyer, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.M., Presi-
dent, in the chair. — " Notes on the footwall Ijeds of the far east Rand
reef": L. W. Macer. The stratigraphy of the far east Rand is assumed
to be simplified by the existence of the "slate" footwall. which is so
easily recognised that it constitutes a reliable indicator for the payable
reef of this area. The author pointed out that this deposit is of a variable
nature, both petrologically and in its mode of occurrence, and is not so
readily distinguished as is generally supposed.

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

By H. B. Faxtiiam, Ai.A. Caiital)., D.Sc. Loud.
Professor of Zoology, University College, Johannesburg.

{Evening Discourse delivered in the School of Mines, Johan-
nesburg, on Tuesday, July ()th, 1918; illustrated by 55
lantern slides.)

Introduction.

It has been well said that the present is the child of the ])ast
and the parent o^f the future. Applying this fundamental fact
to the animal world, we find that the animal kingdom is a vast
complex, containing numerous orders, classes or groups. Each
group has its place, however, in a system, and it is well known
that certain groups are more dominant than others, that there is
a flux, some disappearing, others increasing in virility and
flourishing. Animal life in the past was very different from that
of the present, and in the future it will again differ from what it
is now.

From the early days of the study of science two hypotheses
•have been current. as to the origin of the differences between
various animals. In the first hyi>othesis. a special creation is
assumed, whereby each sptfcies of animal has come into being
independently, has arisen sui generis^ and has an origin unrelated
to that of other organisms. The mechanism of the special creation
is not explained, it is merely stated. The second hypothesis—
that of evolution or the doctrine of descent — now held by all
scientists, is based on evidences of a definite kind. Recognising
the existence of diff'erences between parent and offspring, it
states that all present-day animals have arisen from species that
existed before them.

Evolution ma\' ])e l)ricfly delined as ])rogress involving
differentiation, or as the alteration of the average characters,
either of the whole of a species or of groups of its members, from
generation to generation in a constant manner, the result being
that they are so different from what they w^ere before, that a
new species arises. The said species has. however, its own
definite characters, and the test of validity of a species is that it
breeds true, the off'spring not reverting to the marked characters
of the ancestral stocks, but retaining the modified characteristics
that are the result of the differentiation from those ancient
features.

A broad outline of the evidences for evolution and of certain
of the evolutionary hypotheses only can be presented, followed
by a consideration of evolution in relation to war and nationalitv.
and to some social problems of the present and future.

Evidences of Evolution.

Evolution is no myth, no merely philosophic speculation. As
mentioned before, it is based on definite evidence from the past,

A

2<S8 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

and useful experimental observations can be made on a small
scale in a zoological laboratory during breeding experiments. The
evidences for evolution may be set forth under a number of
separate categories, briefly described as classificatory, morpho-
logical, enxbryological, distributio.nal or regiional amd paJaeo-
zoological, which, combined, give the evidence of the past and
present, and enable a forecast to be made as to the forms of the
future. These evidences may now be briefly considered.

Classification is the organised arrangement of animals
based on common characteristics. Every attempt to classify
animals results in an arrangement which to some extent suggests
the evolution of its members. There are said to be about a
million different species of living animals in the world, nearly
half of which are stated to belong to the Insecta. Modification
in different directions of groups of members of a single species
results in the production of new species, which, in the course
of time, become more and more unlike the ancestral stock, until
they themselves attain generic rank. Species, genera, families,
orders, classes, phyla are like the twigs and branches of a genea-
logical tree, and the sub-divisions of any group have arisen by
descent with modification along definite directions. Again,
between one group and a neighbouring, divergent group, annec-
tant forms have been discovered, such as Peripatus, well known
in South Africa, which animal forms a link between the Annelida,
or segmented worms, and the Arthropoda, such as Myriapods,
Insects and Crustacea. Indeed, all known kinds of animals have
been arranged or classified in the form of a comprehensive genea-
logical tree, perhaps not quite accurately, for it is likely that
several such trees or parts of trees would be needed adequately
to express the correct relationships

The evidences of evolution froaii the point of view of
Morphology or Structure are abundant. Considering various
types of the vertebrate world, it is easily seen that there is a
common plan underlying the organisation of each of the sub-
divisions of that group. While there is a general uniformity of
the main plan, there are definite modifications that characterize
the various sub-divisions. Thus, while the fore-limb of a frog
and of a lizard, the wing of a bird, the fore-limb of a rabbit, the
paddles of a whale, and the hand of a man are all built on the
same plan, the parts are of different shapes and relative sizes
in the several cases. Organs which are believed to have origin-
ated by modification of the identical organ Of an ancestral animal
are said to be homologous. The wings of a bat and of a bird are
homologous alike with the arms of a man, the paddles of a whale
and the fore-foot of a horse, and contain the same essential bony
structures. Analogous organs are those having the same function
or use, but a different origin, examples being the wings of a
bird and of an insect. The successive adaptations seen in homo-
logous organs of a series, of forms also afford strong evidence
of evolution.

Nature does not fully obliterate morphological records of

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 289

the past. Even at the present time, some animals retain struc-
tures df apparently little or no use to them, in the form of
vestigial organs. The function of such organs is gathered from
considerations of other animals in which they are of use. For
example, movability of the external ears by the action of
powerful ear muscles is common among the hoofed animals. In
man, the ear muscles are vestigial, btit it is very probable that
they were both larger and more ftinctional in ancestral man.
The gill slits oif developing reptiles, birds and mammals are also
vestigial, except in the case of the first gill slit, which survives
as a connection betw^een the ear and the throat, and is known
as the Eustachian tube. Other examples of vestigial organs are
the minute " third eyelid " of man, lying in the median angle of
the eye, the rudimentary wing of birds like the ostrich and the
New Zealand kiwi or Apteryx, the hind limbs of the whale sunk
beneath the skin, and the teeth of the baleen whale that never cut
the gum. Also, there is good reason to believe that remote
fossil ancestors of existing vertebrates possessed an additional
pair of eyes on the top of the head. These extra eyes were
known as pineal or parietal eyes, and traces of them are still to
be found in lampreys and Hzards, and especially in the remark-
able New Zealand reptile, Sphenodon punctatus. This lizard-
like animal is apparently the oldest surviving terrestrial verte-
brate. Its pineal eye possesses retina, lens and nerve, but lies
buried beneath the skin, though it pierces the bones of the skull.
It is the left-hand member of the original pair of eyes that per-
sists in Sphenodon.

The embrvological evidences of evolution are complicated
by specialisation, but are none the less clear. Different animals
pass through similar stages in development, and animals that are
more alike resemble one another longer during development.
Thus, the egg or ovum of all animals is at first a single cell,
comparable with the single-celled animals known as Protozoa, of
which an Amoeba such as Entamoeba histolytica, the excitant of
amoebic dysentery, is an example. Later, in all animals higher
in development than the Protozoa, a two-layered embryo is pro-
duced, whether the organism be a jellyfish or a mammal. The
higher invertebrates and all vertebrates develop three germinal
layers, as may be seen from a consideration of the development
of Amphioxus. All vertebrates at a still later stage of develop-
ment have gill slits, and possess a notochord which is the fore-
runner of the backbone. The simplest explanation of these
embryological facts is that in development the animal broadly
recapitulates its ancestry. This generalisation was first enunciated
by von Baer early in the 19th century. For ex:ample, the frog's
tadpole recapitulates a fishlike ancestral stage. Regarding this
recapittilation hypothesis, which Haeckel called the biogenetic
law, it has been well said, " The living hand of the past is upon
the embryo, constraining it to follow the old route of its race,
and often reasserting its power in trivial details, even when a
considerable short cut has been made." However, it must be

290 ENULUTIUN AND MANKIND.

remembered that there are moditications due to the possible
presence of food-yolk in the ovum, the acquisition of .special
larval characters, and other causes, all of which have to ha
considered in the scientific interpretation of the recapitulation
hj-pothesis.

It may here be remarked that retrogresslim or dej^eneration
occurs in the animal kingdom, as is well shown in an embryo-
log-ical study of the Ascidia or sea-squirts, which, from a young
active tadpole-like stage, become sedeiUary and relativelv de-
generate.

Distribution or Regional Grouping of animals also affords
evidence of evolution. It is well established that, while certain
animals have a wide range of distribution, others only occur on
very limited and often isolated areas of the earth's surface. This,
distribution can be explained on the hypothesis that the earth has
been populated by the descendants of common ancestors that
migrated ifrom place to place as occasion permitted, and under-
went modifications in various directions. The peculiar fauna of
certain parts of the world is proportional to the length of time and
the extent of the isolation of the special area from other areas.
Thus, Australia has been separated from Asia probably since the
Cretaceous period, and the numerous peculiar marsupials, such as
kangaroos, wombats, wallabies and phalangers are not yet sup-
planted by the more recently developed groups of animals. The
presence of Ornithorhynchns and Echidna, which belong to the
Monotremes, are living links with the past — their reptile-like
appearance, reptile habit of egg laying and mammalian habit of
suckling their young are O'bvious recapitulative features of ances-
try. In New Zealand, which is even more isolated than Australia,
wp. find no less peculiar inhabitants, including the remarkable
tuatara lizard [Sphenodon) and the kiwi bird (Aptcryx) which i-
about the size of a hen, and other flightless birds, some, such as
the Moas. recently extinct. These flightless birds have been
aptly described by the late Professor W. K. Parker as

overgrown, dcsencrate birds that were once on tlic right road for
becoming flying fowl, but through greediness and idleness never reached the
goal — went hack, indeed, and lost their sternal keel, and almost lost their
unexercised wings.

There are also the palacoaoological or fossil evidences of
evolution. Unfortunately, the bodies of many animals are un-
suitable for preservation as fossils, owing to the absence of hard
parts. Also, many layers of rocks have been broken or destroyed,
and only a small portion of those that remain can be examined.
However, throughout geological history, there has been continual
change in the types of animal life, gradually leading to those
existing at the present day. Occasionally it is possible to trace
fully the evolution of species from each other. This is well seen
among the Mollusca, as shown in the gradual transition between
Paludina neuniayri and P.hocrncsi.

It is only possible to consider some of the vertebrates or
backboned animals, and certain of the forms that mav have griveii

;->■

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 2gi

rise to them. Their occurrence in time can be ascertained by
consulting a i)alaeozoo!ogical table of strata. The exact origin of
vertebrates is not agreed upon with unanimity ; there are several
dififerent views thereon. One viev,-, put forward by a physio-
logist, the late Dr. (raskell, was that vertebrates might have arisen
from certain .\rthropod-like ancestors, which learned to live and
swim on their backs. Forms somewhat resembling the supposed
Arthrojx>d ancestor are the present day Limulus or king crabs,
found off the muddy or sandy shores of the Atlantic coast of the
United States of America and the China seas. Limulus is the
sole surviving representative oi its race. The youth form or
larval stage of Limulus presents a striking superficial resemblance
to some of the extinct Trilobites.

The fossil Eurypterida, allies of Limulus and of present-day
scorpions, were large forms found from the Cambrian to the
Carboniferous strata. An example of the Eurypterids is Ptery-
gotus osiliensis, a sort of large sea scorpion. Such forms are also
interesting in that they bear a superficial resemblance to some of
their contemporaries, the Ostracoderms, a remarkable group of
fishes with dermal armour found in the Upper Silurian and Devon-
ian rocks. The Ostracoderms are the oldest known vertebrates.
The resemblance between the Eurypterids and the Ostracoderms
may be merely superficial and due to convergence, owing to
similar conditions of life.

The Ostracoderms, owing to their absence of jaws, are placed
with the lampreys and hagfishes in the Agnatha. An interesting
small fossil member of the group is Palaeospoiidylus. a small
tadpole-like creature about one or two inches long, a lamprey of
the Devonian age.

The most primitive group oi true jaw-bearing or cartilagin-
oiis fishes is the Elasmobranchii, which date from Silurian times,
and which include sharks, dogfishes, skates and rays. The bony
fishes or Teleostei. including the great majority of living fishes,
are of later origin.

The interesting and remarkable lung fishes or mud fishes,
called the Dipnoi, are feebly represented at the present day by the
Australian Ccratodus {Neoceratodus) , the African Protopterus
and the South American Lepidosircn. These fish, the survivors
of an archaic group, indicate how the transition from an aquatic
•to a terrestrial mode of life was first rendered possible to verte-
brate animals, by the conversion of the swim bladder into a pair
of lungs. The Dipnoi arose and attained their maximum develop-
ment during the Devonian epoch. Unfortunately, here an illus-
tration is afforded of the occasional imperfection of the geological,
record, as the rocks yield no evidence as to how the paired fins of
fishes gave rise to the pentadactyl or 5-digitate limbs of the semi-
terrestrial Amphibia.

The earliest known Amphibia were the Stegocephalia. They
ranged from the Carboniferous to the Upper Trias. As their
name implies, they had strongly developed bony armour, which
covered the head and formed the roof of the skull, as occurred

292 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

in many df the earlier fishes. A tail was invariably present, and
usually two pairs of digitate limbs. Some Stegocephalians, such
as Branchiosaurus, were small and salamander-like. On the other
hand, the Labyrinthodontia, such as Mastodonsaurus, were large
crocodile-like creatures. These latter were so named because the
walls of the pulp cavity of their teeth were complicated by infold7
ings of dentine. The Stegocephalia were the earliest known
digitate animals, and their footprints are found i)reserved in the
coal measures and in the Karroo formation of South Africa.
They were fresh-water or terrestrial, and the larger ones up 1.0
ten feet long were predatory.

The Amphibia attained their maximum development in the
late Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic times. The present-day
Amphibian forms, frogs and toads, are specialised.

Present-day Reptiles are the survivors of a dying race.
Formerly nine orders existed ; now there are only (four. Many
of the extinct or Mesozoic reptiles were far more highly special-
ised and remarkable than any existing fonns. Different members
were adapted to various modes of life, the group taking full
possession of sea, land and air. Some of these extinct reptiles
may now be briefly mentioned.

The Ichthyosaurs were great fish-lizards, with shark-like
heads and no neck. They were air breathers, and lived on fish.
The largest of them attained a length of 30 feet.

The Plesiosaurs were long-necked sea-lizards, with small
heads. They became re-adapted to marine life. The later ones
were larger than the earlier forms, and often attained a length of
ten feet.

The Dinosaurs were an enormous group of land reptiles, with
diversified habits. They sometimes attained a length of 80 feet,
and comprised the largest terrestrial and semi-aquatic reptiles
that ever lived. Some of them, however, had relatively small
heads. Stegosaurus, with its remarkable bony plates or spines
on the back, had an enlargement of the spinal cord in its sacral
region, apparently in order to control the large hinder part of
its body. Other forms were Iguatiodon, Bronfosauriis and
Triceratops. The Dinosaurs represent " the dragons of old
time."

The Pterosaurs or Pterodactyls inhabited the air in the
Mesozoic ages. These " flying dragons " had wings well adapted
for flight. The wing was formed by an extension o.f the skin,
sup[X)rted by the arm, leg and tail, and especially l)y the greatly,
elongated fifth digit of the hand. It was thus more like the
wing of a bat than that of a bird. The size of the Pterosaurs
varied from that of a sparrow to that of Pferanodon. that had a
total wing expanse of 18 feet. Feathers were absent, and re-
semblances with birds were parallel or convergent.

The Anomodontia or Theromorpha were the earliest and
least specialised df the extinct orders of reptiles. Thev were
intermediate in skeletal characters between the higliest Labvriii-
thodont .Amphibians and the lowest mammals. The) were terres-

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 293

trial creatures with limbs lifting the body off the ground. They
were somewhat lizard-like on the one hand and mammal-like on
the other. The teeth in some were differentiated into incisors,
canines and molars. Pariasanrns, from the Karroo formation,
attained a length of ten or eleven feet.

The origin of birds from reptilian ancestors has been con-
clusively demonstrated on anatomical and embryological grounds.
They developed a special dermal cm^ering of feathers. The
skeleton of the earliest-known bird, Archaeoptcryx , was found
in the lithographic slates at Solenhofen in Bavaria, belonging to
the Upper Jurassic age. Archaeopteryx was about the size of
a rook, and had teeth, which are absent in the modern bird. The
digits of its anterior limb or wing are not so much reduced as in
modern birds.

Mammals appeared at an earlier date than birds. Their
remains have been found as low down as the Trias, but the group
(lid not attain much importance before the Tertiary epoch, when
it replaced the reptiles as the dominant group of vertebrates.
Mammals probably arose from some primitive group of reptiles
such as the Theromorphs, which themselves show affinities with
extinct Labyrinthodont Amphibia.

As an example of the completeness of the geological record in
some cases, brief reference may be made to the ancestry of the
horse. The Equidae are generally considered to have originated
from a primitive five-toed Ungulate, appearing in early Eocene
times. Passing through the Eocene to the Oligocene and Miocene
epochs are a series of horses which gradually increased fri >ni 1 1
inches in height in the Eocene to 48 inches at the end of the
Miocene. The modern horse is about 64 inches high. Contem-
poraneously there was a continual reduction in the numljer of
toes, the Eocene horse having four toes in front and three behind,
the Miocene horses being three-toed, while the modern one- toed
horse — ^with its splint bones- — made its appearance at the same
time as three-toed horses were disappearing in the Pliocene.
With increase of stature came increase of swiftness, their necks
became longer, their teeth more complex, and their brains larger.
Thus has evolved the modern horse, running on tiptoe on Mie
middle digit of its original pentadactyl limb.

The elephants probably originated from the same primitive
Ungulate group as the horses. Correlated with the development
of special characters came increase in size. In the skull the occi-
pital or back region gradually began to grow upwards, the nasal
opening in the skull passed ftirther back, the second incisor teeth
fonnecl tusks, but ultimately only those of the upper jaw re-
mained. The chin at first lengthened, but afterwards shortened,
in order to allow greater flexibilit}- to the proboscis.

It may be asked, why did so many of the animals just tnen-
tioned die out? Probably their extinction was due to their lack
of power of adaptation to their environment, to which their huge
size often contributed. This increase in size may. perhaps, be
correlated with disturbance in the development and function of

294 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

the pituitary body on the under surface of the brain. These giant
animals may also have been exterminated by great outbreaks of
parasitic diseases, such as have occurred in our own times through
rinderpest in cattle.

So much for the evidences for evolution. We may now
briefly consider some of the hypotheses put forward to account
for the doctrine of descent.

Some Hvi'otheses Regarding Evolution.

Among some of the Greek philosophers, Nature was con-
sidered to have developed, and still to be undergoing a process
of change. Aristotle, who was the founder of comparative
anatomy, recognised the unity of plan prevailing throughout each
of the great groups of animals. Biology made little progress
during the Middle Ages, and it was not until the i8th century
that a glimmering idea of evolution, or the doctrine of descent,
came into being. Buifon ( 1707-1788) and Erasmus Darwin
(1731-1802), the grandfather of Charles Darwin, clearly stated
that species had not been created independently, but had origin-
ated from pre-existing species. However, the greatest of the pre-
Darwinian evolutionists was Lamarck (1744-1819), and Haeckcl
describes his " Philosophic zoologique " (1809) as " the first con-
nected and thoroughly logical ex]x>sition of the theory of
descent."

When considering the various hypotheses regarding evolu-
tion, we must first state there are three aspects of life, the
organism, its (function, and its environment. The vitalists take
the living organism as a creative agent to be the fundamental fact.
In recent times, this view has been expounded by Professor
Bergso!!. Other naturalists have laid stress on function. Such
were the central ideas of Lamarck and of Erasmus Darwin. To
others, such as Bufifon, environment was the potent factor.
Charles Darwin laid stress on all three aspects of life, and
embodied his ideas in the hypothesis of Natural Selection.

Evolution implies (a) raw materials in the form of varia-
tions*; (b) an arrangement ior securing the inheritance of some
of these; and {c) a directive mechanism for securing consistency
and effectiveness of racial change.

A very brief outline of the views of the chief exponents of
evolution only can be given here.

The main hypothesis of the famous French biologist, Lam-
arck, was the cumulative transmission of functional modifications.
For example, the long neck of the giraffe was supposed to have
been gradually <-Jeveloped in response to the need of the animal
to browse on the leaves of trees, and of constant effort in order
to reach such foliage. As a result, not only did the neck become
long, but the forelimbs also became longer than the hind limbs.

* This statement is of fundamental importance. The existence of

variations is an observed fact, for individuals of the same parentage are
not identical.

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 295

Again, the disuse of their eyes by cave animals brought about
a dwindling and subsequent tlegeneration of these organs. Such
modifications or ac(iuired characters were supposed l>y Lamarck
to be transmissible to the »)ffs])ring. This transmissibility was
denied bv Weismann, but Lamarck's opinions have recently re-
ceived increased attention, especially in America.

Weismann (i<S34-i9i4) propounded a hypothesis oi hered-
ity based on what he termed the " Continuity of the (jerm
Plasm."' His lxx)k on the subject was translated into English
in 1893. The germ cells are early separated from the body cells,
as can be ascertained by embryological investigations. The germ
cells are supposed to retain each a complete sample of the
ancestral germ plasm, and so to be directly continuous fr<nn
generation to generation, thus transmitting hereditary characters.
The work oif Mendel (1822-1884) sheds important light on
problems of heredity. His classical })aper on " Experiments in
Plant Hybridisation " was published in Briinn in 1865. but was
overlooked until about 1900. Mendel worked chiefly on crossing
different varieties of the garden pea. Pistim satii'uni. He found
that of certain contrasted couples of parental characters, which
did not blend, one was dominant over the other, which was latent
or recessive. The first generation of hybrids was apparently
all dominant, but it was subsequently found that they were really
impure dominants. When these hybrids were inbred, it was
found that one-c|uarter of them reverted to the dominant type,
one-quarter to the recessive type, while one-half reproduced
hybrid features, and that these proportions were maintained when
the impure (Kjminants were again inbred. The inbred offspring
of pure dominants and pure recessives bred true.

Mendel's results indicate that small individual characters may
occur separately in the germ cells, atid may be transmitted
separatelv to the olTspring. The individual organism may, per-
haps, be composed of a number of factors or unit characters, with
regard to which there is a comjilete segregation among the germ
cells, each of which liears one only of each pair of contrasted
characters. A table of some of the dominant and recessive
characters of j>lants and animals was shown, for example, tall and
dwarf stems in peas, yellow and green cotyledons in peas, round
and wrinkled seeds in ])eas, susceptil)ility and immunity to rust
in wheat, rosecomb and single comb in fowls, eye-colour in man,
certain diseases in man ( such as brachydactyly, night-blindness,
colour-blindness, haemophilia, and pre-senile cataract).

New varieties may arise by crossing, and some species may
have arisen in that manner (I>otsy).

.'\ mode of origin of species, derived from his study - 'f
variations, was set forth by Professor Hugo de Vries. of Amster-
dam, in his work entitled " The Mutation Theory." published in
if^oo. His conclusions were based upon the study of plants, the
classical example being his work on the evening primrose,
Oenothera Jamarckmna. From his observations, he concluded
ihat species arise from one another by changes of considerable

296 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND,

magnitude, accomplished by discontinuous leaps and bounds. De
Vries' own statement was that

the new species appears all at once ; it originates from the parent species
without any visible preparation, and without any obvious series of transi-
tional forms.

Further, these species are constant irom the first. The discon-
tinuous variations or mutations of de Vries are, in the main, the
outward manifestations of the presence or absence of the cor-
responding Mendelian factors.

A Hormone hy{>othesis of heredity has l)een set forth by
Cunningham and others. A hormone is an internal secretion or
chemical messenger produced by some organ or tissue, such as
the reproductive organs, the pancreas, the thyroid gland and
actively growing tissues. Hormones " are produced in one organ,
and carried by the blood to another organ, on which their effect
is manifested." According to Cunningham, external stimulation
may affect certain hormones, and they, in turn, may influence the
gonads, producing modifications of the corresiK)nding parts of
the offspring. Support is said to be given to the hormone hyjx)-
thesis by observations on secondary sexual characters in animals,
though Geoffrey Smith interpreted such characters otherwise. The
development of antlers in the male deer would be the result of a
chemical stimulus originating in the male organs, which, by acting
on the skull, causes the inherited tendency to the development of
antlers to become active. An example of the disturbance of
hormones is afforded by the cretin, whose thyroid gland is dis-
eased, and to whom the administration of thyroid extract,
containing thyroid hormones to supply the deficiency, causes an
increase in mental and physical development.

Charles Darwin ( 1809-1882) will always be reniembert-d
for the hypothesis of Natural Selection, published in 1859. It^
was during his voyage on the " Beagle," some twenty-five years
before, that the evolutionary view of Nature began to unfold
itself before his mind. He found on the (valapagos Islands that
each island had its own distinctive animal i>opulation, especially
of reptiles and birds. He also noticed the striking resemblance
between the living and extinct animals of certain parts of South
America. He also made a large imniber of observations and
experiments on the breeding of animals under domesticated con-
ditions. He attached much importance to two factors, namely.
the existence of small, fluctuating variations, and the occurrence-
O'f a struggle for existence between organisms owing to the
natural increase in numbers and the resulting possible lessening
of the food supply. The possessors of the fitter variations tended
to survive. If this was kept up consistently, then by new adapta-
tions, and probably with the help of some form of isolation, new
species arose. Natural Selection was the process suggested l)y
Darwin to account for the origin of new species, by the preserva-
tion or survival of the fittest variations. The strength of the
hypothesis of Natural Selection lies in its interpretative value.
Darwin's hypothesis was supported by Alfred Russel Wallrtce

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 2y7

(1823-1913), who independently arrived at similar conclusions.
The views were championed by Huxley (1825-1895) and by
Haeckel. Further details regarding Darwin's hypothesis will be
discussed in the next section.

Natural Selection, War and Nationality.

It has been well said that some " modern philosophers explain
and justify human conduct after a visit to the monkey-house at
the Zoological Gardens, or from observ'ations on the family life
of rabbits"* However, it is easy to pass from analogy to argu-
ment, often with disastrous results. The biological justification
of war is the most notable instance of a zoological analog)' that
has been presented as a deduction from scientific law. It has
seized the imagination of the German nation, revelling in material
prosperity. General von Bernhardi, in his book. " England ;is
Germany's Vassal," states this view definitely.

Wherever we look in Nature [he writes] we lind that war is a
fundamental law of development. This great verity, which has betn
recognised in past ages, has been convincingly demonstrated in modern
times by Charles Darwin. He proved that Nature is ruled by an unceasing
s.truggle for existence, by the riglu of the stronger, and that this struggle
in its apparent cruelty brings about a selection eliminating tiie weak and
the unwholesome.

Again, Bernhardi writes

The natural law to which all the laws of Nature can be reduced, is
the law of struggle. . . . From the first beginning of life war has
been made the basis of all healthy development. Struggle is not merely
the destructive, but the life-giving principle. The law of the stronger
holds good everywhere. Those forms survive which are able to secure
for themselves the most favouralilc conditions of life. The weaker suc-
cumb.

Briefly, then, this doctrine states that organisms rise to higher
levels, not on the stepping-stones of their dead selves, but on the
dead bodies of all that come in their way. Let us analyse this.

A scientific law is an empirical generalisation from acquired
experience of a particular set of data ; it is not absolute. The
very expression of a scientific law must, of necessity, be tinged
with human interpretation. A .scientific law is the result of an
interaction, one factor being the whole world itself in all its
breadth and varying aspects, and the other the human mind,
always engaged in reducing facts of observation to language,
arranging in relative values and assigning a place according to
their relative value and importance in the world of knowledge.
All that we know of the extended world or reality is, that it is
" not-us." Chalmers Mitchell has well said that "the extended
world is a filtrate of the real through our faculties." As soon as
a proposition is removed from its context, that is, from the
assemblage of facts from which it was originally derived, and is
diverted and applied to some other set of facts, we are substitu-
ting an analogy for a truth, and not only deceiving ourselves but
also deceiving others. In other words, scientific laws are

* Chalmers Mitchell: "Evolution and the War." p. i

2yS EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

extremely misleading if applied t(^ any other set of data tlrui
those from which they were derived.

Is the struggle for existence in any sense, whether of war
or otherwise, a scientific law? It may be stated at once that
Huxley, from 1859 till the end of his life, was consistent in con-
sidering natural selection as no more than an illuminating hypin
thesis. Thus, in 1894, before the Royal Society, he said

I nm as convinced now as I was thirty-four year as^o, that the theory
propounded liy Mr. Darwin, I mean that whicli he propounded, not tliat
whicli has l)een reported to be liis by too many ill-instructed, both friends
and foes, has never been shown to ))e inconsistent with any positive
observations, and still holds the held as the only hypothesis at present
before us which has a sound scientific foundation. . . . But I do not
know, I do not think anyone knows, whether the particular view he held
will be hereafter fortified by the experience of the ages which come after
us. • . . Whether the particular form in which he has now put before
us the Darwinian doctrines may be such as to be destined to survive or
not, is more, I venture to think, than anybody is capable at the present
moment of saying.

The op|X)rtunity of Natural Selection occurs because of the
existence f;f variations, that is, because of the observed fact that
individuals of the same parentage are not identical. The.se
variations may be small and continuous, or large, sudden and
discontinuous, and so may account for new species. The terms
Evolution and Natural Selection have been confused under the
term Darwinism. EvoluticMi, indeed, as the mode of organic
progress, has been accepted as almost a scientific law. but Natural
Selection is only a hypothesis, providing a reasonable suggestion
as to how evolution may come about. In other words " the
scientific world is a.greed about evolution ; it is not agreed about
Natural Selection. It is merely ludicrous to assert that Natural
Selection and the struggle for existence have any claims to be
regarded as scientific law." The German claim, as expressed by
Bernhardi, fails, because Natural Selection is not a law. and even
if it were a law 't does not follow that one derived from a .study
of animals and plants is applicable to man. The phrase " struggle
for existence " was used by Darwin in a metaphorical sense, for
in the first edition of his " Origin of Species " ( 1859) he wrote,
T 1- -1^1 T^-emise that I use the term ' struggle for existence " hi
a large and metaphorical setise. including the dependence of one
being on ant)ther." Chalmers Mitchell has well said :

One sjjccies is not supposed to advance in serried ranks against
another, wolves a.gainst l)ears. eagles against vultures, firs against
beeches, and so forth. The competition is internal, amongst the individuals
of a species. . . . It was only later, when poets and popular writers
got to work, that the struggle for existence acquired the special significance
of fierceness and cruelty, became an expression of Nature " red in tooth
and claw.'"*'

Darwin extended the idea of Malthus, as expressed in the
"Essay on Population" (1798) to organisms in general. All
organisms tend to multiply at a rate that would rapidly outstrip
the fcx>d supply. Darwin considered that on the average the

* Chalmers Mitchell, " Evolution and the War," pp. 22, 23.

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 299

individuals better adapted to secure such necessary ccmditiL^ns as
food, air, water, sunlight and ground space survived longer and
left more progeny than their less fortunate relatives. Doubtless
the total effect of this internal struggle among the individuals of
-ix species may be to raise the general level of the si)ecies" capacity
and to allow one species to encroach upon the ground of another.
Examples of this might be cited, such as the supplanting of the
Australian carnivorous marsupial, the Thylacine, by the dingo, a
tru-^ dog. The success of the latter is probably due to its being
hardier, possessing a relatively larger brain and Iveing more
adaptable to its environment. Darwin referred to the brown and
the black rat in connection with the struggle for existence. The
brown or Norway rat, Mus dccuuvanus, is an outdoor animal, a
burrower, keeping mostly to the ground. It may haimt sewers
and drains and is a scavenger. The black rat, Mtts rattus, on
the contrary, is more active, it has a longer body and can climb.
and in the East, it nests in trees or on housetops. It feeds on
grain, but is more shy than the brown rat. The Alexandrine rat
is the golden-brown variety oi the black rat. The story in the
popular books regarding the brown rat attacking and ousting the
black rat is not correct, for in the port of London the black rat
is increasing in numbers, as also in various suitable parts of
Europe.

Another interesting example oif the struggle for existence
but of a different kind, may be considered. It is the relation of
a parasite to its host. It is not to the advantage of a para-
site to kill its host. Parasites which are frequently fatal ro.
their hosts, such as Tryp-anosoma rhodcsicnse, the causal agent
of Rhodesian sleeping sickness, are considered recent intruders,
that is. new parasites to their hosts. Parasite and host after a
time tend towards a mutual tolerance of each other.

Analogies have been drawn between nations and communi-
ties of social insects, such as ants, bees, wasps and termites (white
ants). Such insect communities are really families, often pro-
duced ifrom a single pair. As Chalmers Mitchell writes :

Their habits and customs have been described vi'ith a wealth of
picturesque language and an attribution of human motive excessive
even for writers on natural history, and I suspect that much new observa-
tion and careful interpretation arc required before we can really under-
stand what is going on.

Without discussing details, for which there is not time, it must
be pointed out that in comparing insects with men the analogy is
vitiated, because of their great difference in mental constitution.
Social insects may represent the highest stage of instinctive action,.
man the highest development of conscious intelligent action.

I cannot do better than to conclude this argument by quoting
at length from Dr. Chalmers Mitchell : —

The strength and ferocity so frequently displayed in the animal
Icingdom, the restless pursuit of their prey by hungry animals, the use
of offensive weapons such as beaks and claws, Jiorns and teeth, are
frequently used as analogies for the activities and weapons of human
warfare. But the comparison does not bear close examination. The

(I

300 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

necessity of eating and the peril of being eaten are associated with much
that is wonderful in the instincts and apparatus of the animal kingdom,
with a development of courage and cunning, of alert senses, of muscle
and bone, armour and weapons, eyes and ears and nose, touch and taste,
colouration and form. But from the lower to the higher animals, there
has been a gradual replacement of a general unintelligent ferocity, ready
to grasp at everthing, friend or foe, that seems a possible food, to a more
specialised, more competent and at the same time more limited instinct
that comes into action only at the necessary call of hunger, and only with
regard to the normal prey. I suppose that the large carnivora, such as
lions, tigers and bears, are the highest examples of ferocious animals.
They, however, are not ferocious (apart from fear and sex) except when
they are hungry. Apparent exceptions are old lions and tigers, and possibly
a few species such as polar bears- But these, probably, are always
hungry : they have few chances of getting food, the old animals because
they have lost much of their strength, the polar bears because they have
to live on seals, creatures more active and intelligent than themselves,
and so they cannot run the risk of losing any chance that comes their
way. Apart from the obtaining of food, the strength, ferocity and weapons
f all the higher animals are employed only in defence of themselves,
their mates or their young, or in the rivalries of sex. . It is,

moreover, too obvious a truth for elaboration that civilised man has
developed fashions of obtaining food, more economic and successful than
those involving the slaughter of his fellow-men. Looking through the
animal kingdom as a whole, and remembering that the vegetable kingdom
is as much subject and responsive to whatsoever may be the law of
organic evolution, I find no ground for interpreting Darwin's " meta-
phorical phrase," the struggle for existence, in any sense that would make
it a justification for war between nations.*

Chalmers ^Mitchell then proceeds to state that he

eould adduce from the writings of Darwin himself, and from those of later
naturalists, a thousand instances taken from the animal kingdom in
which success has come about by means analogous with the cultivation
of all the peaceful arts, the raising of the intelligence, and the heightening
of the emotions of love and pity.

The arg-ument that wars are useful for reducing the excess or
undesirable population of an area, is also specious and scientific-
ally unsound.

Turning now to a brief, general consideration of race and
nationality, it may be noted that the racial characters of cranial
index, colour of hair and eyes, and stature are on the average
inherited. When crossing between races occurs, it appears that
racial characters tend to blend, and individual characters tend to
segregate in transmission according to the Mendelian iformulae.

The environment of the body and of the mind determine
national differences. The environment of the mind involves
conscious human intelligence and choice. The conditions of en-
\'ironment, which differ among nations, produce an effect on each
generation. To some extent there are the effects of climate, food,
air and social conventions, which probably affect chiefly the aver-
age character of a population, but among modern civilised
peoples the greatest effects follow from the influence of environ-
ment on mental and emotional qualities, such as those produced
by systems of education, the books read, the companionshij>s made
and the sy,stems of militar)^ service, all of which factors stamp

* " Evolution and the War," pp. 40, 41.

INVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 3OI

the people with separate nationalities. The results of environ-
ment on the mind are reflected in literature and the press, especi-
ally as relatively few members of any nation acquaint themselves
with the literature and current thought of any country other
than their own. It has been well stated that

although the physical and mental qualities that are acquired by an indi-
vidual are not transmitted to his descendants tnit have to be acquired
afresh in each generation, every new acquisition by a literature is
inherited. The new generation begins at the stage in which its predecessor
left off; every wave of emotion, of sentiment, 01 ideal that traversed the
former generation is stored in literature. . . . Literature is a new
organ <if a nation, transcending the individual life, being shaped and
growing from generation to generation, and forming a permanent mental
environment of the most powerful kind.*

^lan differs from the brute creation in that he has become
possessed of a peculiar quality known as consciousness, or a sense
of freedom. The great philosopher, Immanuel Kant, in 1790
stated :

Two things fill my mind with ever-renewed wonder and awe the more
often and deeper I dwell on them — the starry vault above me, and the
moral law within me.

The moral law of Kant has been distorted by the peoples of the
Central Empires into . a doctrine of self-exaltation and self-
responsibility only, regardless of the rights of others. By the
adoption of such pernicious, distorted doctrine " Germany rushes
on to what must be either her own doom, or the doom of the
human race."f

The Rel.vtionship of Evolution to Modern Social

f^roblems.

Remembering that the present is the child of the past and
the parent of the future, I would earnestly plead for attention to
certain vital biological principles that are in danger df being over-
looked at the present time. As has already been said, man is
separated from animals by his possession of consciousness, which,
if allowed to decay, will inevitably lead to his degradation in the
scale of life, and perhaps even to his ultimate extinction.

One of the great manifestations of consciousness is the
recognition of the " not-self," and this involves recognition of
individual responsibility on tb.e part of each of us towards others.
The lack of recognition of this sense df responsibility is obvious
in our modern world, tainted as it is by the worship of material
prosperity, and where shirking of responsibility is flagrantly
common. Progress is not always identical with increased crea-
ture comforts. So far from many feeling that there is a pur-
posefulness in their lives, an end to be attained, an inheritance to
pass on. the summation of their ideals is expressed in the phrase
" having a good time," and that chiefly in the material sense.
That the "good time" is at the expense of others, and consists

* Chalmers Mitchell, '' Evolution and the War," pp. 89, 90.
^ A remark justified by the request for an Armistice, which was signed
on Nov. nth, 1918.

302 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

of ihe gratification of a craving- for excitement, a succession of
evanescent amusements and futile or merely trivial 0'Ccui>ations,
matters nothing to them, even under the appalling conditions ot
the present world war, when the fate df civilisation hangs in the
balance. They 'forget that they were brjrn into a world that was
made habitable for them by their forefathers, that they have
inherited the priceless literature and liberty from past ages, and
that it is their duty to hand on this fair inheritance, not merely as
it was given to them, Ijut unsullied, beautified and amplified. Well
may the question be asked in the futare of the devotees of "good
times " — You received much : What have you given and added in
return? Individual, family and civic responsibility to oneself
and to others, together with the necessity for creative effort, need
impressing and deepening among the present generation.

Granted that some amusement is reciuired. let it be not only
physical but some mental relaxation, replacing the gross, material-
istic, almost sensual amusements of the present day, which appeal
largely to the animal instincts, and are advertised with a w^ealth
of inappropriate and exaggerated language, that in itself is
degrading. The value of quiet, too, is hardly understood in this
age of noise and unrest. But it is essential that the solidarity <)*f
human life should be realised. Longfellow voiced similar thought,-*
many years ago in his " Psalm of Life."

Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives sublime,
-And departing, leave behind us

Footprints on the sands of Time.

Let us then be up and doing.

With a heart for any fate.
Still achieving, still pursuing.

Learn to labour and to wait-

.\gain. in Nature, it has been shown that brains not bulk,
mind not muscle. ha\e succeeded in establishing dominance over
the less adaptable races. The immense, physically over-developed,
inadaptable animals died out ; the more adaptable or responsive
to their environment survived. The inevitable bond of cause
and effect is fundamental, and Nature cannot be cheated.

Li present-day human affairs there is far too much import-
ance attached to the opinions of numbers, whether educated i>r
otherwise matters not. In many decisions of national importance
the counting of heads is the usual procedure, instead of consider-
ing the brain power. Modern systems of education appear
largely to have failed in the uplifting of the masses, and high-
sounding formulae replace simple statements and truths ; argu-
ments not facts are desired ; words, not deeds, and external
appearances instead cil realities. Ability for constructive action
is usually inversely proportional to the ability to make eloquent
speeches, largely consisting of specious jilatitudes.

In the past our rulers have been trained on a casual and
disjointed scheme of education, the centre of which was the

EVOLUTION AND MANKIND. 303

classics, to \hv stiulv of wliich an undue proportion of time was
giveu. Far lie it from me to discourage the study of the classics,
for I am glad that I received such a training myself. Htnvever,
the majority of pupils passing through such a course hecome
merely acquisitive, their creative ])owers have never heen de-
veloped, and they ha\e no idea of relative proportions in Nature,
for they know little of science with its wide outlook and forward
view. Unfortunately, also, the accjuisitive or possessive mind
may, perhaps unconsciously, tend to view the afifairs of life with
a somewhat superior air.

In connection with education, the recent views of the well-
known mathematician, Prdfessor Whitehead, may prove illumina-
ting:

Wiien one considers in its, length and in its I)readtli the inipoitance of
this question itt education ot a nation's young, the broken lives, the
defeated hopes, the national failures, which result from the frivolous
inertia with which it is treated, it is difficult to restrain within oneself
a savage rage. In the conditions of modern life the rule is absolute : the
race which does not valtie trained intelligence is doomed. Not all your
heroism, not all \our social cliarm. not all your wit. n.ot all your victories
on land or at sea. can move back the linger of fate. To-day we maintain
ourselves. To-morrow science will have moved forward yet one more
step, and there will be no appeal from the judgment wliich will then be
pronounced on the uneducated.'"

Science, of a broad and generous tyjje, must l)e the vitalising
agent in education. It should not l)e too narrow or tinged with
immediate economic expectations. Scientific research must be
pursued for its own sake, and the economic applications will
follow automatically, as has so often happened in the past.
Recently, it has been aptly stated that

Tn the changing order of affairs it is not so certain that the conven-
tional governing type of man will be able to deal with the new relationships
which are in rapid process of development. .\t any rate, men of this kind
are in full pcnvcr in the State, in Government offices, and in many
business affairs, and they have not prevented strikes, or wars, or
revolutions: and at the moment their methods and aims and powers
are in a fair way towards paralysis. Who can tell whether the men of
research will not be called from their laboratories to save and reconstruct
the State ?t

Again. Sir Alfred Keogh, till recently Director-General of the
Army Medical Services of Great Biritain, said in London on
Feburary 2/. tqi8: —

I hold, and always have held, that in this comitry, and perliaps in this
country alone, administration has been absolutely divorced from science,
that the administrator, as a rule, is ignorant of any particular branch
of science, that he has had. as a rule, no scientific training, and neither
thinks nor acts scientifically. 1 attribute many of our national short-
comings lo tliis fact.

It is obvious, therefore, that government by trained men.
not by amateurs, is necessary in a State ruled according to natural

* A. N. Whitehead : " The Organisation of Thought : Educational and
Scientific." pp. 27, 28.

■J Xaturc. March 7. igiS.

B

304 EVOLUTION AND MANKIND.

evolutionary principles. Thus, sociologists must become
thoroughly versed in biological science and its practice, not be
content with scraps, snippets and pious platitudes. Every theo-
logian, politician and classicist should be coinpelled to take a
course in practical and evolutionary biology. At the same time,
it must also be remembered that education and training alone will
not regenerate the race, but there must be a continual increase in
numbers of the desirable elements of the population.

Before closing, a few remarks may be made with special
reference to democracy. In the oj)inion of many, especially of
the ignorant and luithinking, a panacea for all htnnan ills is
believed to have been found in the dominance df democracy, as
represented by the working classes, and of international socialism.
That legitimate grievances exist, and that certain of the socialistic
views are theoretically correct, must be admitted. Nevertheless,
the main idea appears to be expressed in the conviction that
alleged rights only need consideration, while responsibilities and
liabilities can respectively be repudiated or confiscated. Mental
ability is not properly and adequately recognised under such a
social scheme, the result being that uniform or standardised
mediocrity only prevails, and the le\el of intelligence of the least-
informed but loudest talker is that adopted as a standard.

There can never be really absolute democracy or socialism,
because of the existence of natural \ariations. Evolution, hered-
ity and variations all need to be taken into accotint, and only
too frequently the last two factors are overlooked. Absolute
equality in any respect is an impossibility, because of the inevitable
occurrence of variations in Nature. All are not born equal in
physical condition or in the capacity for mental acquirements, and
this being the case, no matter what artificial system of equality
be enforced at any one period, the balance is upset the next
moment, and ineqtiality once more is established.

Further, democracy needs to realise that there must be har-
mony in the Universe, that railing at capitalism and repudiation
of responsibilities cannot bring about real improvement, and that
a constructive policy, whereby democracy endeavotirs to shoulder
the burdens committed to it, alone will be of service. Ditties,
not rights, must be the watchword if real progress is to accrue.
Permanent good cannot result unless those who have inherited
no mean heritage pass it on amplified and intensified in such a
way that " each for all and all for each," or *' loving one's neigh-
bour as one's self " are realities, instead of the organised selfish-
ness and self-seeking that at present often flaunt themselves under
the names of democracy and socialism. The peoples of the world
should realise that they are members of one great brotherhood,
the world being its home, and that consec^uently, as in a human
family, there must be discipline — the discipline with love behind
it, and not the discipline of brute force. Freedom, justice and
equality of opportunity for all, according to their capabilities,
would then be the natural order of afifairs, instead of the constant

EV(),LUTI()N AND MANKIND. 305

Straining after individual personal success, regardless o-f what-
ever stands in the way of its achievement. There must, of neces-
sity, be some order and government. All cannot rule, and in a
multitude of counsels there is confusion. In any reasonable
s<:)ciety, based on evolutionary principles, reverence and respect
for those able to think clearly, balance and weigh evidence accura-
tely, and follow out cause and effect, must be inculcated. The
expert will then be given his rightftil place.

Modern democracy must invoke the aid of biological scien-
tists, and thereby gain an insight into the fundamental laws of
Nature, as applied to living organisms. Rules of government or
of conduct founded on other than the laws of Nature are fore-
doomed to failtire, and no superficially-attractive hypothesis
founded on or swayed by emotional desires merely, can ever
really succeed or last for long.

These fundamental facts of biology are in no way contra-
dictory of ethical ideals ; rather are they the scientific, codifierl
expression of ideas that are often only vague, elusive and ill-
<Iefined. Idealism is but the perfected expression of the laws of
the Universe, as they are now and as they will be throughout
time.

Weismann, in 1909, expressed his views on the ethical bear-
ings of evolution as follows :

The human race will never consist of entirely unselfisli saints: but
T believe that the number of those who act on the basis of a purer and
higher humanity, and in whom the care for the whole race overshadows
that of self, will increase as time goes on, as we know it has done in the
past, and has led to higher forms of religion and to higlier ethical
conceptions. . . The theory of evolution has often been perverted

so as to indicate that what is merely animal and brutal must gain the
ascendancy. The contrary seems to me to be the case, for in man it is the
spirit, and not the body, which is the deciding factor."

Following Geddes and Thomson, it may well be stated:
" To-morrow we shall realise that more of free and creative art
ii^ needed to redeem industry from its nlammonism and its drud-
gery, as science from formalism and cram ; thereaifter, with the
imison of all three will come education indeed : artistic, scientific
and practical each calling out the others to fuller ex-
pression and development.''

Finallv, in the words of the great essayist, Emerson :

Everything in Nature is engaged in writing its own history : the
planet and the pebble are attended by their shadows, the rolling rock leaves
its furrows on the mountain side, the river its channel in the soil, the
animal its bones in the stratum, the fern and the leaf inscril)e their modest
epitaphs on the coal, the falling drop sculptures its story on the sand and
on the stone ; not a footstep on the snow or on the ground but traces in
characters more or less enduring the record of its progress.

It is for Man to ensure that his epitaph be not less enduring than
theirs.

THE ZULU WITCH DOCTOR AND MEDICINE-MAN.

By J. B. McCoRi), M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

{Read July 9, iyi8.)

Medical practice among the Zulus is intimately associated
with their belief in witchcraft and kindred superstitions. The
Zulu medicine-men may 1ie roughly divided into three classes.
In the first class we may include the witches and wizards proper,
and all those who deal in secret spells, charms, ]>oisons, etc.. to the
harm of others. In the second class we should include the witcli
doctor, the smeller-out, whose special function it is to detect and
expose those ()f the first class. The third class is comprised o\
the herbalists or medical practitioners proper. It is likely that
almost every Zulu medicine-man ])artakes more or less of the
nature of all three classes.

The Zulu witch or wizard or poisoner is not a figment of a
diseased imagination, l)ut a real person. His spells and charms
may be inert, but his poisons are often most powerful, and m
many cases he has remarkal)le psychic ]>ower. He is universally
feared, and his charms and medicines held in great respect. He
uses all sorts of substances 'for making his medicines and charms,
but the various parts of the human body ai^e considered the most
efficacious, especially if the victim is killed in the proper way —
that is, by twisting the head round until the neck breaks, but
without shedding any blood. Justice C. ( i. Jackson, in his article.
■' Native Superstition in its Relation to Crime."* descrilies six
cases which have come under his observation in recent years in
which people have been killed in such a manner for the sake of
parts oif their bodies for the making of medicines. The Zulus
believe that practically every case of serious sickness is caused l)v
witchcraft or jxii.son. This belief leads to anything but peace and
harmony in the family and in the tribe. It also gi\es rise to the
second class of Zulu medical practitioner, the witch doctor, the
smeller-out or di\iner.

In the good old days before the white man came to Natal
and Zululand. this witch doctor had practically absolute power of
life or death over the individuals of the tribe. By smelling-out
and accusing any individual as the witch or wizard when an im-
portant person became sick, he condemned that ]>erson Xo a speedy
death, and there was no appeal from his decision. Even in this
day of law and order the witch doctor has a })rofound influence
among the natives. Mr. Justice Jackson cites a number of cases
that have come under his observation in recent years where
natives have been done to death because it was believed that thoy
had caused death by means of witchcraft, because they had been
smelled out by the witch doctor.

The medical practitioner proper among the Zulus, the herbal-
ist, is ideally one who is versed in the medicinal properties of the

* Repf. S./L .^ssii. for Adv. of Science. Maritzlniro ( i9[6). 25[-26,^

ZULU WITCH DOCTORS. 30/

various herl)s and roots that the natives are accjuainted with, and
who gathers them and makes me(Hcines for the rehef of sickness
and suffering among his people. It is tloubtful if such a person
exists outside the pages of romance. The native doctor in prac-
tice is a combination of wizard, witch doctor and medicine com-
]X)under. He shares and promotes the universal native belief
that all sickness which has not an obvious cause is the result of
witchcraft, or magic, or of poison. To diagnose a case he must
be something of a smeller-out or witch doctor. To treat success-
fully a case of sickness caused by witchcraft, he must be some-
what versed in the black art— must be something of a wizard him-
self. He must use a stronger form of witchcraft to defeat the
wMtchcraft that caused the disease. And so the vicious circle
goes on.

The nati\es" belief in witchcraft, and the jjractice of witcii-
craft bv tlie native doctors under the guise of the practice of
medicine, are to-day two of the strongest factors which are
preventing the natives from rising in the scale of civilization.
Listen to the opinion on this point of some of the men who are
devoting their lives to the education and elevation of the natives
of Natal and Zululand.

The Rev. F. B. Bridgman. of Johannesburg, late of Natal.
savs : " .\s witchcraft springs from ignorance and superstition,
being the ready tool of revengful hate, it is in every way antagon-
istic to the progress of the native religiously, morally, and in-
lellecfually."

The Rev. F. Suter. of Dumisa Mission Station. Natal, says:
■' As to the influence of witchcraft, which, of course, includes that
of the witch doctor, there can be no question : the tendency is to
keep the natives in the blackest of darkness in everv respect."

The Rev. Johannes Astrup. of Untunjambili Mission Station,
Krantz Kop. Natal, says in regard to witchcraft and witch doctors,
that they " engender super.stition to an incredible degree, rudely
and barbarously destroy the last remnant of decency and modesty
in wives and daughters, and envelop the intelligence in a j>erfect
maze of lies, deceit and folly. I have no patience whatever with
native doctors. I have fought them tooth and nail for twenty
years, and I could tell many weird and shocking stories al^out
their stupidity, barbarity and bestiality."

The Rev. Mr. Feyling. of Mount Tabor Mission Station,
Zululand. says : " In my opinion the real rulers of the natives are
ihe witch doctors. This one thing I am sure of, that as long as
wHtchcraft and witch doctors govern the hearts and minds of
the.se people, there can be no real progress religiously, morally
or intellectually." Mr. Feyling classes all native doctors as witch
doctors.

The Rev. Mr. Hawkins, of Lansdown Mission Station. Zulu-
land, says: " Both the herbalists and witch doctors are the greatest
hindrances to the (jospel and uplift of the people, for they liter-
ally have the Zulus completely subject to them. Thev are an
awful curse."

308 ZULU WITCH DOCTORS.

From such testimonies as these, which come in from all sides
from men who .have an intimate knowledge of Zulu character and
customs, we are driven to the conclusion that the native witch
doctors and medicine-men have a most sinister influence on the
Zulu race, socially, religiously and politically.

Consider the native doctor from the standpoint of the practice
of medicine. For a native to obtain a license to practise medi-
cine in Natal no qualifications whatever are required except the
recommendation of the chief, the consent of the magistrate, and
the payment of the license. The native doctor has little idea of
anatomy, practically no idea of physiology, and his idea of patho-
]og>' and the cause of di.sease is worse than negative ; it is wildly
erroneous. The native 'belief is that most severe diseases are
caused by witchcraft, and the native dcxrtors share this belief and
foster it. It is their stock-in-trade.

The Zulu does not differentiate clearly between witchcraft,
pure and simple — that is, the compact with the Devil and direct
assistance from His Satanic Majesty, and the communion with the
assistance df other members of the spirit world of lesser renown —
and the magic properties inherent in the various substances which
he finds in the world of nature. He decides on some medicines o i
account of the properties they are known to have, such as some
well-known emetics, jnirgatives, counter-irritants, etc . In the great
majority of cases he decides on a medicine on account of the
properties it ought to have or is said to have. He reasons all
out of his own head what substances ought to make strong
medicines or powerful charms, and then he goes and gets them
to make his medicines with. The source of the medicine is im-
portant. The parts of a snake are in great demand. The organs
and fat of the humaii body make powerful medicines. The parts
of almost every animal are at times used. There is a gre it
variety of substances which he uses for making medicines and
charms. I recently had sent to me a dose of meclicine which had
been put up by a native doctor. On examination one could dis-
tinguish pieces of snake-skin, birds" feathers, porcupine (juills,
dead insects, bits of bark, horse-hair, tlung, and other ingredients
whose nature was not so evident. The patient had a tempera-
ture of 104°. The friends brought a bottle of native beer to
wash the medicine down with. Some time ago 1 examined and
invested in some of the native medicine on sale down at the
Native Market in Durban. Among other medicines I noticed a
piece of crocodile skin, which, if put in cough medicines, increases
their efficacy ; the feathers and skin of a vulture as a cure for
insanity ; powdered cuttle-fish for sore eyes ; and the ])owdered
dried flesh of a snake as a cure for witchcraft, and so on.

It is likely that every doctor has his ])et remedies and his
favourite methods of treatment. Fach is a law unto himself.
Still, there are undoubtedly general beliefs and i:)ractices which
might almost be said to constitute a system of practice of medicine
among native doctors. I have endeavoured to get a description of

ZULU WITCH DOCTORS. 3O9

some of the commoner practices as seen from a native's stand-
point.

For the following description of the native doctors" method
of treating disease I am indebted to Isaiah Wosiana. a trustworthy
native df Mapumulo Mission Station. While giving a libeiul
translation, I have aimed to give, as far as jxxssible, the thouglit
and expression in English as it was given in the original Zulu.

The Nati\-k Doct(ir.s — >l()\v Thk^' Trkat Diskase.

A sickness which is in the body is treated thus :

A fever is cured In medicines made of green herl>s. A fever which
is causing a' hot pain inside the body, similar to the pain caused i)y an
eruption of inflammatory condition of the skin on the outside, is best
cured by a liitter medicine. Isibani (th:it is, the bark oi a certain treei
should be mixed with Katazu (this is the !)ulbous root of a small i)iant t
and with Ndaliiqivatu (another root) and with Xduinji;hi (another kind
of bulb) and with green herbs such as Xapo.zi (an herl), and Ih);za (a
tree). The bitterness of these medicines will cure the fever Wlicn these
medicines have been properly compounded they should be mixed with
watr and taken with a spoon as often as desired.

Another fever is caused by biliousness. In this case it is necessary to
cause vomiting with emetics, which will remove the bile from the stomach.

The severe sickness in the body and in the blood are cured by
medicines which are strong and powerful, mixed with the flesh .and fat of
Ix^asts-

If the blood comes out of the body through the nose or mouth, it is
necessary to take the bark of trees which have the juice like blood, and
parts of an animal which bleeds readily when touched, and parts of an
animal which has much blood in its body. These are mixed together arid
tlien the blood of an animal like a goat is mixed with them. The 1)1( od of
the goat destroys the poisonous properties vv'hicli the mixture would other-
wise have. The whole combination is then burned and the ashes made
into a powder. This powder is divided into three parts. One part is to
be taken internally. A second part is to be put into a dish which has
been heated over the fire; a little water is added, and the patient is then
to quickly touch it with the lingers of the left hand and lick the medicine
off his fingers. Then he is to do the same with his right hand, and
so alternately until he has taken all the medicine. A third part is to be
introduced into the body by making cuts in the skin and rubliing the
medicine into these cuts. It thus goes into the body directly, rhe tree
from which this powerful medicine is ubta'ned is (he ( nullrbc tree — which
bleeds blood — and is found in Hasaland. Another such tree, the ^'A'flr!J
is found in Swaziland. These are the trees which are- m'xed with the
animals which have much blood.

Another sickness in tlie body is treated with the I'at of animals and
with their flesh. If a person is sick with nervousness and fear, it is
necessary to take the heart and eyes of a lion, also its fat; also the fat
and flesh of an elephant, and the fat and flesh of all powerful animals;
these to be mixed with the bark of many kinds of trees. The i)art of the
animal preferably taken is the part which is just below the chest, where
one feels the palpitation of the heart. I'here siiould be mixed with this
combination the blood of a cow or a sheep, and the_ whole burned and
made into a powder. This is a powerful medicine, to be taken mternally.
Also, it is very efficacious if rubbed into the body through the holes cut
in the skin over a painful spot. The lion is put in on account of its
strength- It prevents the disease from growing in the body. A python is
put in to keep the disease in one place, to prevent its spreading because
a p3'thon holds everything together. The fat of anin.ials is put m to
increase the other beneficial properties of the medicine, and to make it
more powerful.

3IO ZULU WITCH DOCTORS.

If a man wishes to become great among his people, to be respected
and feared, he pounds up certain stones which are very heavy in weight,
and mixes them with fat. He also puts in some quicksilver. He anoints
his face with this medicine. He also puts the eye of a lion or the eye of
a large snake into the mixture. This makes a medicine which gives a
man great dignity, and makes him to be feared. The doctors mix up
these medicines, and say that the mixture gives a man a powerful
personal appearance, and that in the presence of this medicine and its
effect, diseases of the body are overcome.

If a person has broken a leg, don't cut it off. .\ small ])onc of a
dog should be tied on the leg until the bone is united. That is the
treatment of a broken bone.

Another treatment for a broken bone is to take the roots of the
iiiiitonibi tree — not the roots in the ground, Init the roots hanging down
from the branches — also take the trunk of a banana tree; also take some
other trees which, when cut, do not drj- up, but sprout out quickly. The
name of such a tree is i niahlokolo.zi. 'I'his mcdicne causes sv^'clling. ;in(l
then draws out the pus from the sore.

Also take acid stones, such as blue stone, and a white stone, such as
is used for mending buckets, and grind them up intcj a powder, and ml)
them into the body through holes cut in the skin ovt-r the injured part.
The stones cause some pain. All these medicines go straight to the injury
and cause the hones to unite.

l~or the disease which causes twitching of the flesh and spasms of the
body it is necessary to get twitching medicines- Some animals are good
for this kind of medicine, such as the !i>ifinge.zi — a small beetle-like insect
which, if touched, curls up into a small ball — and tiic /.ifi.si — an animal
which, if touched, pretends to bi. dead — also some animals from the sea
which act in the same way. which roll themselves up and pretend to be
dead when taken out of the water; also worms; -ilso trees and plants which
if touched, fokl up their leaves. These plants and the flesh of these
animals make medicines which cure the twitching diseases and spasms.
They are taken internally and rubbed into the bod.\ through holes cut in
the skin.

In all tiiese diseases it is necessary to uses medicines for vomiting
and medicines for enemata while the other medicines are being used.

Tlii.s is the \va\' native doctors cure disea.se. I do not claim
for a moment that the native doctors do not have powerful medi-
cines at hand. They mo.st certainly do, and they tise them in a
powerful manner. The Rev. F. F. Bridgman has given me the
following incident :

In Zululand, on one occasion, 1 arrived at ;i i)!ace where a girl of
sixteen or so, had died suddenly an hour or so prc\iously. She was
ailing, and had been administered an herbal potion. She dropped dead
soon after- The supposition by the natives was that .'rhe had been givn
an overdose. Certainly the circumstances seemed to indicate that. After
taking the dose she had gone to the river and died there.

Before the Native High Court, 25 March, 1914, was heard
the case of Ciaxana, who had heen conxicted of culpahle homicide.
A native woman. Nonkani. had been dreaming, (javana ])rofesscd
to be a doctor, and made a medicine for her from isiudiyaiidiya.
The medicine was given to her at 5 a.m.. and she died at (^ a.m.

The Rev. Johannes Astritp gi\es me the following case:

I have (jne native boy here who had brain iever when he was about
eight or nine years of age. The stupid ass of a " doctor " lilled his ears
with some poisonous stufif, which destroyed his ears, so that he is deaf
as a door post and partly dumb.

ZULU WITCH DOCTORS. 3II

When \vc consider the nati\e doctors' conii)lete ignorance
of physiology, pathology, and the indications for treatment, we
can readily comprehend that, the more povyerfiil medicines he has
at his command the more dangerous a legalised malefactor ]ic
becomes. 'I"hc ahoye arc. of course, onl\ illustrati\'e cases. They
could be miilti])lied 1)\- hinidreds and tlioiisands if one had the
time and |)atience to ferret them out.

In surgery, for the most part, the natiye d<x^tor confines his
operation to cutting holes in the skin for rubbing in medicines,
and to cutting do^yn on the skull and scraping it for headache.
Occasionally they \v\\\ operate with great boldness. Dr. Bonfa.
of Umzinto. tells of a case in which the natiye doctor made an
abdominal incision for the relief of ascites. He got the fluid all
right, l)Ut didn't know what to do next, .^^o he left the wound open
to drain, and so ])re\ent the fluid from re-collecting. When tried
for culpable homicide, he was cleared on the ground that he hail
a Goyernment license to ])ractice, and was doing his best.

It is in childbirth where we get the most mournful results.
There is prevalent a very general belief that women who live
near to nature go through childbirth without complications, with-
out danger, and i)ractically without suffering. My experience
among the Zulus leads me to the opposite conclusion. I have
seen atid heard of a great many deaths of native women in child-
birth, which, with very few exceptions, could have been avoided
with timely medical attention. I have seen a large number of
cases of vesico-vaginal fistula due to neglect during child-birth or
to reckless cutting oi)erations. 1 have seen a large number of
Ct.ses in which the vagina was obliterated In' cicatricial tissue due
to cuttin,g operations, infection, etc. The number of deaths among
the natives and cases of in\-alidism. resulting from child-birth, due
to lack of attention or to ignorant meddling with natural j)r:>-
cesses. is ap])alling.

The following cases illustrate some of the methods of the
native doctors and midwives. Tn the Ixopo Division, in 1891^,
a man complained to the magistrate that the doctor was charging
him too much, as his wife had dierl. The evidence showed that
his wife had had twins. The first child was born normally. The
second was slow in ctjming, and the native doctor was called in.
He jiroceeded to operate with a large knife, hlxamination showed
that the diictor had cut away a large piece of the uterus. On
trial the man was cleared on the ground that the (lovernment had
licensed him to practice medicine, and that he had done the best
he could.

Dr. Bonfa, of Umzinto. reports a case that came under his
observation in which two men were placed outside the hut r>
pull on ropes tied to the woman's legs while the midwife delivered
the child. As a result of the treatment she received, the woman
died of puerperal fever. On trial, the Court held that the mid-
wife had done the best that she knew how. and she was dis-
charged.

312 ZULU VVITCn D()('T()RS.

Dr. Bon fa also reports a case in which the midwife thought
that there was something- that had not come away. She intro-
duced her hand and removed something, and the woman immedia-
tely died. She had pro])abiy taken out ])art of the uterus.

I had a case oif my own recently in which the midwife
tried to remove the uterus, thinking that it was something that
ought to come away. At each such attempt the woman fainted.
This midwife was somewhat faint-hearted, so she sent for ^he
doct( r. All that was necessary was to replace the uterus inside
the pelvis. I ha\'e had reix>rted to me a large number of cutting
operations by the native doctor during child-birth. The doctor
uses a knife or an assegai, or, very commonly, a piece of broken
bottle. Fatal results or chronic invalidism often follow, the
frequency depending on the thoroughness with which the doctor
has done his work. In cases of delayed labour it is a favourite
practice to the native doctors to cut up the child and remove it
piecemeal. This procedure is often disastrous to the mother,
always so to the child.

Dr. Bon fa reports a case in which the midwife undertook
.so to cut up the child. She cut off one foot and was |)roceeding
to cut off the leg when the hu.sband interfered. The child was
born, and is now healthy, but minus one foot. Such cases migiit
be multiplied indefinitely, but it is not necessary. In cases of
normal lab(.>ur, the native woman gets along almost as well as do
white women. In abnormal lalxjur they are truly between the
devil and the deep sea. Shall they die of neglect or shall they
die of ignorance and meddlesome inteiiference ? Fov a very large
nimiber of them do die. It is really a deplorable state of affairs,
the way the Zulu woman suffers and dies in child-birth. But it
is superfluous to cite further cases or present further arguments
to prove that the present methods of meeting the medical needs
of our native population are deplorably inadequate. The Natal
and Coastal Branch of the British Medical Association, in a
meeting held in 1914, passed the resolution " That this meeting
considers that the present system of licensing 'medicine men' is
a disgrace to Natal." This resolution was aimed in the right
direction, but it did not carry far enough. The native doctor in
Natal is an evil, but the great evil is the lack of something better.
The people that the native doctor kills is a small thing coni])ared
with the number of people who die for want of the proper atten-
tion, which the native doctor cannot give because he does not
know how. Destructive criticism is easy. " The present system
of licensing medicine-men is a disgrace to Natal." But where is
the constructive criticism? What are we going t(^ do about it?

In my o})inion it is a mistake for the Govermiient to accept
a license fee ifrom the native doctor and to give a license to hini.
I am not prepared to define the .standing of a licensed native
doctor from a technical, legal, standpoint, but to the understanding
of the natives and to the public generally, for the Governmerit
to give a man a license to practise medicine means that the (jov-

ZULU WITCH DOCTORS. 313

eminent approves of that man as a fit and proper person '.o
practice medicine. This is shown by the number of cases which
have been tried for culpable homicide, but cleared because the
prisoner held a Government license as a native doctor.

To withhold the licenses from the native doctors would put
the Government on a more rational basis, and would enable the
magistrates to deal more effectually with the cases of maii-
slaughter by native doctors. But this would not materially im-
prove the conditions, medicall}', among the natives. I believe that
it was President Kruger who remarked that if there was a snake
in the grass, it did not do much good to hit the end of its tail.
Without a license the native doctors would continue to practise
medicine on the same basis as hundreds of unlicensed native
doctors practise now- We could not forbid them to practise
medicine, for the simple reason that there are no other doctors to
attend to the people, and the Zulu must have his medicine.

And even if we could stop the native doctors from practising
it would not help matters materially. The harm that the native
doctor does is a very small matter compared with the good that
he fails to do. Thousands of natives are dying every year, and
thousands of others are lyings around in miserable invalidism
whose lives might be saved and who' might be cured, or whose
sicknesses might be prevented if they had proper medical attention.
That is the question before us to-day. I have endeavoured to
demonstrate not so much that the native doctors kill people
and injure people, but rather that they are utterly ignorant and
totally incompetent to treat disease. In other words, that our
native population — ^one of the greatest assets that Natal has —
though over-ridden and bullied by thousands of native doctors,
is practically without medical assistance in their day of trouble.

What are we going to do about it ?

It is not a feasible proposition to have the native p<_)pulation
attended by European practitioners. A comparatively few
natives already go to white d(x:tors for treatment occasionally,
and they will continue to do so. But they are, as a rule, the
ambulatory cases, the light cases and the chronics, and such a
patient will come two or three times a year to get medicine. But
such attention can hardly be called treatment.

If the native population called in the European practitioners
on the same basis as the white population does, we would pro-
bably need ten times the number of doctors that we have now
in the colony to meet the need.

And if the doctors were in the colony, still it wouldn't meet
the need, for white doctors are not going to the oiit-olf-the-way
places where they are most needed and live among a native
population away from white companionship.

And if white doctors were found willing to live among the
natives away from white companionship, the native i)ractice
could not support them. It is all right for a native to come to
town once or twice a year with a ]>iiund or two in his ])ockct and

314 ZULU WITCH DOCTORS.

get liis medicine and pay up like a little man. But if his child
IF sick with an acute fever, and he calls the white doctor over the
hills four or hve miles to see the child, and the doctor calls every
day for a week or two, the account which the doctor must send
in will he utterly heyond the resources of nine natives c^iU of ten
in the countr}'. 1 do not hesitate to state that a white doctor
who does a family practice in a purely native community, will
have the greatest difficulty in living in a manner befitting a white
man and a medical {practitioner. It is my opinion that it is utterly
imj>ossil)le for the needs of the native population in Natal to he
adequately met by European practitioners.

We should gixe to our native population competent and well-
trained medical men, and we should ultimately abolish the present
type of witch doctor anl medicine man. To do this I propose
that we give the more advanced of the Zulu yoiuig men a good,
practical course in modern medicine ; that when they have passed
satisfactory examinations we license them as Native Medical
Practitioners, and when there are enough oif these to meet the
medical needs of the natives, that we abolish the present type
of \\'itch doctor and medicine man. This coidd not be done in a
day. It would dott])tless be many years bef(>re we would be in a
position to abolish the old type medicine man. But the longer
we delay to start, the longer it will be before we accomplish
anything worth while.

Such a liody of Native Medical Practitioners would not have
the same dif^culty in living in the native communities that Euro-
pean doctors would. The European doctor should have at least
£500 }>er year if he is to live in a manner befitting a white medical
practitioner. A native, even an educated native, will live on ii(X)
a year and get fat on it. This difference in living requirements
makes a body of native practitioners a possibility for the country,
while white practitioners for the same work w<;idd be an imjira,--
ticable ])roj)osition even if the white debtors were available.

The native race in Natal is clamouring for education. All
the primary schools for natives are filled to overflowing. The
l>oarding schools and higher schools are turning applicants away
every vear. There is probably no department C'f higher educa-
tion that the native would take to as eagerly as to the study of
medicine. If we gauge the native's ability to master the subject
of medicine by the visible intellect of the heathen kraal boy who
works in our kitchen, the case seems hopeless. If we judge
from the brighter intellects among the Zulus, the case is far
otherwise.

In i8yi a Zulu yoimg man, John Nembula, graduated from
one of the best medical colleges in America and came back to
Natal, and successfully j)ractised medicine until his death a few
years later. Dr. B. N. Bridgman was associated with him in work
for .some time, and says of him: —

He graduated from a Chicago medical school — Rusli Medical, I think.
I knew him at Adams Mission Station, where he assisted in the medical
work about 1894-1896. He was a man of excellent character, and his

ZULU NViTCll 1M)CT()KS. 315

v.'icutil'ir education had entirely dissipated all Zulu superstition and lalsi
ideas which are so deeply rooted in the Zulu mind. He was not l)rilliant.
and had some of the easy-going characteristics of his race, hut on the
whole was, I believe, as capable professionally as many of our white con-
freres. He held two or three district surgeoncies at different times in
Natal, and so far as T know, acceptably to the authorities.

Mr. riordoii, who was magistrate at Napumulo while Dr.
John Nembula was district stirgeoii there, said of him that he was
a thorough gentleman and an able physician. The only tlvug
that he, Mr. Gordon, regretted was that he could not in\ ite Dr.
Nebula to his table because he was a black man.

Dr. Lindsay Johnson tells me of a native from the Congo
who studied medicine in the Edinburgh University, and passed
his examination with honours, receiving several gold medals for
excellency of work.

These are not exceptional cases. A great many Zulu young
men and other natives of South Africa have gone to Europe and
America and taken desfrees in divinity and law and in other lines,
often with honours. Given an eqtial chance with the white
students, the Zulu youth makes a very fair showing. ^

The two cases mentioned above received their medical educa-
tion— one in America and one in Scotland. They took the same
course of study, passed the same examinations, and received the
same qualifications as white men. Such a course has somewhat
to commend it. It has many seriiAts objections. .\s a practical
solution of the question before us, it is impossible and undesir-
able. Those most interested and experienced in native education
look with distinct disfavour on a native's going to Europe or
America for an education which he can get here — or even
a])])roximate here. I think that most missionaries and educa-
tioni.sts working amoug the Zulus in Natal will agree that such
a medical education of the Zulu should l)e had in South Africa
ri;ther than in Great Britain. There is a very distinct danger
that five or six or seven years in Great Britain would get a man
out of touch with his OAvn people and lead him to acquire th.e
ideas and tastes of a white man. He might even want to drive
his own motor car and have his office in the Britannia Buildings.
Ke would verv likely be unfitted for the simple life desirable for
tlie dfX^tor depending on a famil>- practice among the Zulus.

Furthermore, the ideas of equality of races that a man is
likely to acquire in England, is not condticive to harmonious
relations between the white and black races in South Africa. The
Zulu is (juick to acquire an idea of his own importance with but
little urging. The bump of self-importance is much less likely
to become over-developed in Stuith Africa than in England.

A third reason against the Zulu's going to England for his
medical education is the expense involved. Not one Zulu in
a thousand can aft'ord the expense. If they should be sent at
private or Government expense, the cost of training one mtn
in England would train ten men if the education took place in

3l6 ZULU WITCH DOCTORS.

Natal. Financially, a British education as a solution of our
present question is an impossibility.

The great objection, in my mind, to the local medical educa-
tion of natives under present circumstances is the fact that the
Government here will not recognise any medical education
acquired in South Africa except the education oif the herbalist?,
who is usually also more or less of a witch doctor. If I take a
native youth and give him a five years' medical course and see
that he masters the various subjects, at the end of that time he
can get a license as an herbalist and nothing more. He can
get such a license, that is, if his chief recommends him and the
magistrate approves. He will rank as a native herbalist. If
he decides, at the end of five months' study, that he has learned
all there is to know about medicine, or if the discipline of his
teacher is too severe, he can cut loose and take out exactly the
same license that the man can who has studied hard for five years.
Under present conditions he has no definite goal to attain in his
studies, he has no examinations that he must pass, and he has
nothing to hold him to his work.

The following suggestions must be taken as tentative and
not as a final and infallible solution of the question. I think,
however, that the solution of the question mu.st be along lines
similar to the following brief outline.

The medical education of the Zulu should not be a superficial
hop, skip, and jump through the various subjects. He should
be thoroughly grounded in the ^fundamentals and in the theory,
and he should be drilled in the practical work and in the ap]>lica-
tion of the theories until he is a safe man. The course should
consist of at least five years of nine months each. .Vt the end
of each year the students should be required to pass satisfactory
examinations in the studies of that year before 'being allowed to
enter upon the studies of the following year.

A Medical Education Board, consisting of the Medical
Council or other authoritative body apj>ointed by the Government,
should decide on the studies to be taken up each year, and should
set the examinations to be passed at the end of each year, and
should decide, on the merits of the examinations, which students
are entitled to pass on to the studies of the succeeding year. It
will thus be within the power of this Board to satisfy itself that
the medical students are receiving an adequate medical education,
and that they are mastering the subjects.

This Board should also decide what preliminary education
a native should have before beginning the course o(f medical
study. The passing of the Cape Junior Examination would seem
to be a fair standard to set as the entrance requirements.

On completing the course and passing the final examinations
the graduates from the medical course should receive a title
diflferentiating them from the ordinary medicine men, such as
Native Medical Practitioner or other suitable title, and should be
given a licen.se to practise among the members of his own race
only.

ZULU WITCH DOCTORS. 31/

To guard against a native's leaving his studies when only
half-way through his cotu'sc. and taking out a license as an
herbalist, I would suggest that, when a native enters on a course
of medical study with a view to gaining a license to practise as
a modern civilised medical practitioner, he be debarred there-
after from taking out a license as an herbalist.

The status of the Native Medical Practitioner after gradua-
tion is a phase of the subject which should receive much careful
thought. It seems desirable that he sould be subject to certain
amount of supervision and control until he has proved his ability
and his good character before he is given an unlimited license.
It has been suggested that he be required to give to the magis-
trate of the district or other suitable authority a list of his visits
and charges made. This might be more easily done if the
Government could establish medical outposts, so to speak, in
out-of-the-way districts, and appoint these graduates to such
posts at a small guaranteed salary, the Native Medical Practi-
tioner retaining all his fees and not drawing the Governmer-t
guarantee in case his fees exceeded the guaranteed amount. But
this is going into details, which should be properly worked out
as the scheme unfolds itself.

It is an imjx>rtant question, " Should we aim to give the
Zulu the same education that he would get in an English univer-
sity, or should the local education come short of this?" That is
a question that I would leave to the Medical Education Board.
My own feeling is that he should be given all that the general
])ractitioner requires to know, but that he be not required to be
an expert in the various specialities. For instance, I should not
undertake to drill him in the technique of the Wassermami reac-
tion, of the Widal blood test, or in ophthalmic surgery, or in
the details of pathological microscopy. , I should concentrate on
the lines that the ordinar}- practitioner learns and remembers.

I am pleading for an opportunity for the South African
Native to get a good, practical medical education in South Africa,
and that he receive qualifications enabling him to practise as a
civilised physician among his own people, a qualification differen-
tiating him from the herbalist, and giving him a standing in the
community, but not on a par with the European practitioner.

The South African native is going to get a medical educa-
tion. It is for us to decide what sort otf an education he is
going to get, what examinations he must pass, and what his
standing will be in the community after he has obtained the medi-
cal education. It is our duty to suggest a practical, workable
method to accomplish this. It is our privilege to help the native
along and guide him in bis endeavours to be a man.

In this outline of medical study and general procedure,
which I have suggested, I do not for a moment claim or think
that I have solved all the difficulties connected with medical
education for the natives. I have not touched on the financial
aspect of the matter. I have not suggested who should teach

31 8 ZULU WlTCIi DOCTORS.

them. T liave not recommended a location for the educational
iiiStitution. There are a great many other (questions that I have
not gone into- These cjuestions cannot be settled in a day or
by an individual.

This is too Ijig a matter for an individual to undertake
single-handed or even for a Missionary Si>ciety to be resjjonsible
for. It is the Government that grants the license and decides
on the qualifications necessary for such license, and it should l>e
the Government, through its Medical Education Board, thit
should decide on what examinations should be passed, and what
course of study should be conii)Ieted before the examinations art-
taken. It seems to some of us who have talked the matter over
that the rational and pro])er course would be for the (iovernment
to appoint a commission to go into this wdiole matter and make
recommendations to the (rovernment relative to the betterment
of conditions, medicallx. among the natives, with s])ecial reference
to the desirability and practicability of giving a medical education
to some of our most advanced native vouths.

Botanical Survey. — The Union C.oxrmment Gacctte
announces the appointment of an Advisory Connnittee for the
botanical survey of the Union, constituted as follows : — Dr. I. B.
Pole Evans, M.A.. F.L.S., Chief of the Division of Plant
Pathology and Botany (who wmII act as director of the survey) ;
Professor j. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc, Natal University College;
Mrs. L. Bolus, B.A., University of Capetown; Professor R.
Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Capetown ; Professor G. Potts, M.Sc,
Ph.D., (irey University College, Bloemfontein ; I'rofessor S.
Schonland, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S.. Rhodes University College,
Grahamstown ; Mr. C. E. Legat, B.Sc, Chief Conservator of
Forests; Mr. E. R. Montgomery. M.R.C.V.S., Director of Veter-
inary Research.

Electrical Conductivity of Milk. — Tn a paper

read by Dr. U. S. H. W'ardlaw before the Linnean Society of
New South Wales,* an account is given of an investigation into
the relation between the fat-content and the electrical conduc-
tivity of milk. The author found that removal of fat ifrom milk
increases the electrical conductivity, the increase in a given
sample of milk being directly proixirtional to the volume of fat
removed. The increase of conductivity due to the removal of
a given amount of fat is not the same in difTerent samples of
milk, but the average increase of conductivity due to the removal
of I per cent, by volume of fat is i .5 per cent.

*43 [.?] 613-625 (1918K '

SUGGESTIONS TOWARDS A BETTER PROVISION
FOR THE MEDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES.

By Charles Templexman Loram^ M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

(Read, July 9, 1918.)

This paper is ancillary to that oif Dr. McCord on the Zuki
witch doctor and medicine man. 'Being convinced of the need
for better medical provision for natives, and realising the desira-
bility of obtaining further information and of creating^ a general
interest in the matter, I induced Dr. McCord to allow me to
circulate copies of his paper, together with a questionnaire of
my own, among magistrates and missionaries in Natal, Zululand,
and other parts of South Africa.

This paper proposes to set out the results of my investiga-
tion, and to ofifer a few constructive suggestions. This is by
no means the first time that this question of providing for the
medical needs of the natives has been discussed, but there is
some danger lest it be regarded as a " lost cause," and since
importunity seems indefensible in matters of native reiform, I
make no apology for taking up the torch.

That some progress has been made in the matter is evidenced
by the fact that a few weeks ago a body of medical men. who
some few years ago laughed this question out of discussion,
listened to this paper with keen interest, discussed it seriously,
and went so far as to pass a formal motion agreeing that the
provision for the medical needs of the natives of Natal is totally
inadequate, condemning the licensing of the ignorant and dan-
gerous witch doctors and herbalists, and urging the Government
to investigate the whole matter. No decision was come to as
regards the desirability of training natives as doctors, but to have
induced such admissions and recommendations as these from the
abode olf medical profession is primary evidence that the matter
df supplying the wants of the natives is now one of " practical
politics."

I tabulate the replies to my questionnaire under the follow-
ing heads, and then proceed to quote typical replies : —

Question i.

Is the provision for the medical needs of the natives in your
district adequate?

Quite adequate. Fairly adequate. Inadequate. Wanting.
Magistrates 6 2 15 4

Missionaries 4 4 22 6

There is only the District Surgeon to serve some 17,000 odd natives
scattered over an area of 1,100 square miles, though there are ri native
herbalists licensed under the code. — R.M., Bergville.

c

320 MEDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES.

There are two Europeans and 32 licensed witch doctors. .\s far as
European doctors are concerned, tlie provision is not adequate ; as far as
native medical men are concerned, there are .32 too many. — R.M., Stanger-

There is a District Surgeon when obtainable. F"or the last two
years none was obtained. Now a District Surgeon, over middle age. not
acquainted with the native language, for 30,000 people, spread over 400
square miles. — R.M., Nqutu.

The inadequacy is shown by the number of preventable deaths from
malarial fever, from childbirth, and the dissemination of contagious dis-
eases, such as smallpox, the medical personnel being quite insufficient to
even vaccinate the people. — Dr. Garin. Lonreu(;o Marques.

Conclusion. — -It would be safe to assume from these replies
that the pro^•ision for the medical needs of the natives is inade-
quate.

Question 2.

Could the natives be induced to give up their witch doctors
and medicine men in favour of native assistant surgeons train jd
on European lines?

Readily. Slowly. Not at all.

Magistrates 5 15 5

Missionaries 19 20 2

Yes, perhaps in a generation's time, or even longer. Ik-lie f in witchery
is inherent in them, and is part of their natures. . . . You'll never
knock their belief in witch doctors out of thL-in. Maybe your children
will. — R.M., Nezv Hanover.

Their superstitions will die hard, and will only pass with the general
enlightenment of the people. The provision of native medical practitioners,
would be a step in the right direction, and would gradually l)reak down
the most dangerous of their superstitions. — R.M., Dundee.

Their giving up witch doctors would keep step with their enlighten-
ment and education generally. . ■ . . .Natives j)roperly trained and
living among them would have great iiiHucnce in the direction of
teaching them the worthlessness of the witch doctor. It is probal)ly too
optimistic to hope that superstition will entirely die out, since white
people living in the country have Iieen known to resort to witch doctors,.
and in towns to white quacks and fortune-tellers. — Rev. C. I'. Faye,
Entumeni.

Conclusion. — Our conclusion would be that the natives would
certainly patroni.-^e a native assistant surgeon trainerl on European
lines. The rate at which this patronage would grow would depend
on the character, disposition, and success of the practitioner.

Question 3.

Is it desirable to train native medical men on the lines sug-
gested by Dr. McCord, z'is., a five years' course of training in a
native hospital or ward, following a course of general education
equivalent to that required by the Junior Certificate Examination?

Emphatic Yes. Yes. Doubtful. No. Emphatic No.
Magistrates 4 11 4 3 i

Missionaries 6 . 29 2 i o

It sounds all right, but one must remember that the native is not
naturally a pioneer. Educate him and the result will probably be to set
him pioneering townwards. — R-^f-.. Nonf/oina.

MEDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES. 321

X^o, a little knowledge is dangerous, and the native assistant surgeon
would revert to the witch doctor's methods to get a living or starve. — R.M.,
Mapumulo.

Yes, the lines indicated are practical. 1 he men, during training,
would not get out of touch with their people as they would do if trained
in Europe. I am strongly in favour of their not heing sent out of South
Africa. — R.M., Dtmdce.

Yes, because the patients and assistant surgeons would use a common
language ; because even heathen natives know a person trained by Euro-
peans is a !)etter qualified person to treat them than a native medicine
man, and because the trained native doctor would automatically oust the
heathen medicine man by his greater skill. — R.M., Ladysmith.

Xo : such men would not be trained to be exact and particular, while
they would have the use of powerful drugs. Even if so far traitied
environment would he too strong for them, and they would relapse into
native ideas and customs. — Rev- B. Ross.

Yes : it takes a native to properly understand the thoughts and ways
of natives. That is why native teachers do so w^W.—Rcv. Johaiuics
Asintp.

Conclusion. — Although for the ptirpose of stimulating dis-
cussion I have quoted more of the negative than of the affirma-
tive answers, the consensus of opinion is decidedly in favour
of training selected men as native assistant surgeons.

Question 4.

If such assistant surgeons are appointed, should they be undet
supervision ? If so, whose supervision ?

There is almost complete unanimity of opinion that native
assistant surgeons should be under the supervision of Europeans.
The opinion of the Resident Magistrate at Nongoma that, " The
suggestioti is unthinkable without the closest supervision," would
tind verv considerable support. There is considerable diiTerence
of opinion as to the nature of the supervision. I classify the
answers as best I can.

Special Super-
Dist. Surgeon. Med. Council. Magistrate. vi.sor.

Magistrates 12 7 2 2

Missionaries 23 488

Other suggestions for control are the Native Affairs Depart-
ment, a medical missionary, and a local European practitioner.
Personally, I favour the appointment of a special supervising
officer for district surgeons, as there is an officer for magistrates.
Then the native assistant surgeon might work under the district
surgeon.

Further suggestions offered by my witnesses are that tlie
native assistant surgeons should be paid wholly or partly by
the Government, that the scale of pay should be fixed, that they
should be required to keep a " case book " to be submitted regu-
larly to the district surgeon, and that they should be liable to
supervision at the discretion of a magistrate or other responsible
officer.

322 MEDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES.

Bind them by law to practice under a qualified European physician
and surgeon, at a suitable salary, with a commission on the fees earned.
Compel the District Surgeon, by the same short law, to employ as many
as in the opinion of the Secretary of Native Affairs and the Magistrate of
the district are necessary. — R.M., Ladysmith.

The Medical Council should be allowed by Government to employ
and supervise the necessary number of native medical supervisors, whose
duty it would be to travel around and inspect the working of the various
native medical practioners.- — R.M .

If possible, every month, but at least every quarter, the practitioner
must come to the District Surgeon and bring him a report of the work
done, and give a look at his books to see how the patients were treated.
The pharmaceutical stock might also be under the supervision of the
District Surgeon. — Rev. C. G. A. Kohl, Potchcfstroom.

Employ a method similar to that in schools. The District Surgeon
or Magistrate (medical knowledge not being necessary) to be the grantee,
and another officer (with medical knowledge) to act in the place of an
inspector. — Rez'. C. U. Faye, Entumeni.

(Question 5.

Will native assistant surgeons compete with European
doctors in so ifar as European practice is concerned?

This question will only affect the remoter districts where
medical attention of any kind is difficult to obtain.

Much. Eair aiTiount. .\ very little. Not at all.

Magistrates — ^3 7 14

Missionaries — — 28 IC

Pertinent opinions are : —

I should say not. Cases where that might iiappcn would not be
those in which the District Surgeon could have any possible mterest. —
R.M., Nongoma.

I think probably some low-class Europeans would — but very few ;
and I would suggest that the native surgeons' licences confine them to
practise among natives. — R.M., Ladysmith

Yes : in cases of emergency. In other cases, scarcely. He would be
a poor white doctor who cannot hold his own against a native. — Rev. A. R.
Kemfe, Dundee.

It seems clear that ii natives are given a proper medical education,
and are allowed to practise) one will have to risk their being employed by
ordinar.v white men in extraordinary cases, and by extraordinary \^-hite
men perhaps habitually. — Rev. H. J. S. Astnip.

Conclusion. — It seems likely that the native assistant sur-
geons will occasionally be consulted by Europeans unless this.

The questionnaire establishes the following general conclusion :
There is an undoubted need for further provision for the medical
needs of the natives. To meet this need it is desirable to train a
body of natives as medical men. These men should practise
among their oz<ni people under the supervision of a European
medical man. Slowly but surely the natives would support these
native doctors, zvho might also at times be consulted by Euro-
peans of the lozver class.

IMKDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES. ^2^

II.

The need having been demonstrated, it remains to suggest
how this need is to be met. It is evidently impossible, even if it
were desirable, for a sufficient number of natives to obtain train-
ing in Europe. The expense involved j^uts such a course beyond
the reach of almost all natives. The medical education must
needs then be obtained in this country. The universities and
colleges of South Africa, which might l)e expected to ofifer a
suitable course, are closed to native students. Hospital orderlies,
dispensers, male and female natives, can, of course, be trained in
native wards and hospitals, but useful as these people are, they
cannot luidertake the work which we expect from the native
assistant surgeon. In dealing with this point Dr. McVicar, of
Victoria Hospital (a native hos]>ital ) at Lovedale. says: "A
definite line may be drawn, however, between adequate and in-
adequate, scientific and unscientific, safe and imsafe medical train-
ing. The line is drawn at the subject — Practical Anatomy. A
thorough experience of dissecting the human body is the essen-
tial element in a sound medical training. I do not see how any
person can percuss or auscultate the chest, assist at a difficult
labour, or even lance an abscess with safety unless he is familiar
with the appearance, situation, and relationship of the internal
organs and the positions of blood-vessels and other important
structures, and this familiarity can be obtained in no other way
than by patient dissection." Most men who have thought deeply
about this matter would agree with Dr. McVicar. so we must
look for an institution which could olTer adequate oi)portunities
for dissection. The obvious place for this work is the South
African Native College at Fort Hare, near Lovedale, where the
college and the hospital should not find it difficult to arrange for
this work between them. A three or four years' course at Fort
Hare, followed by a year or two of work in a native hospital or
ward, and then a few years" practice as assistant to a suitable
district surgeon with a large native practice, should give our
])icked native the skill he needs. As one selective agency, I
would advocate the Matriculation Examination if the University
authorities will listen to our request to make that a suitable
examination for native students. The junior certificate examina-
tion, suggested by Dr. McCord, is not a sufficiently good dis-
criminating test.

Even, however, if we began to train these men they would
not give us the supply of medical helpers, of which we now
stand in need, and as a speedier relieif it would be well to allow
and, indeed, induce such men as Dr. McCord, Captain Hertslet.
S.A.M.C, Dr. McVicar, Dr. Backenstowe. and others to train male
natives as hospital assistants, who could be sent out lo work
under selected district surgeons. These men would correspond
to the hospital assistants in India, who, after passing an examina-
tion equivalent to standard A^II. spend four years studying materia

324 MEDICAL NEEDS OF THE NATIVES.

medica, pharmacy, medicine, surgery, midwifery, ancl hygiene.
Three types of medical helpers for natives should be aimed at — •

1. Male and female native nurses.

2. Hospital assistants.

3. Assistant surgecnis.

In conclusion, I may quote from a letter sent to me by the
Ven. Archdeacon Johnson, the doyen of missionaries in Zulu-
land: " May I express a hope that your committee [i-c, of the
Natal Native Affairs Relform Association] is prepared to fight a
long, long fight for this important matter. I am an old man
now, and I have lived my life amongst the natives, and I say
with knowledge that the root <>f most of the sin, the ignorant,
cruel barbarism of the Zulu native, is the so-called native doctor;
lie is also the great instigator and inciter to rebellion and revolt.
Any committee of men persistent and strong enough to go on
v,'orking and agitating until Cjovcrnment be moved to abolish the
])iesent system of giving licences to this crowd of charlatans, and
substitute trained, educated natives with a knowledge oif anatomy
and medicine, will be doing the native people a service that will
l)c difificult to exceed.

In the hope that Section E of the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science will join forces with those " per-
sistent and strong " committees already at work on this matter.
I close mv remarks.

Epidemic Catarrhal Fever —According to Nature
of July i8th, 1918, the " prevailing epidemic of so-called in-
fluenza " was then widespread both in the British Isles and on
the continent of Europe. The most striking symptoms were
said to be the sudden onset of the disease, with chills, headache,
])ain in the neck, back, loins, and limbs, with general malaise,
accompanied by fever ranging from 102° to 105° F., and generally
disappearing almost suddenly on the third or fourth day of
attack, after which rapid convalescence ensues. The Lancet
(July 13th. 1918, p. 34) suggests that the disease be referred to
as " catarrhal 'fever," ;md the differences between it and influenza
are j>ointed out. Influenza is caused by Pfeift'er's bacillus, a
minute rod-shaped microbe which abounds in the bronchial secre-
tion. On the other hand, investigation of a number of cases of
the present disease seems to have demonstrated the entire absence
of the influenza bacillus, while a diplococcus was so constantly
present in the naso-pharynx, throat, and sputum that the investi-
gators, Captains Little. Garofalo, and Williams tentatively re-
garded this as being the cause of the disease. " On the whole,"
says Nafnre. " the disease (catarrhal fever) is (|uite mild and
imattended with complications. It differs from the true influenza,
which was so prevalent in 1889 and the early nineties, by being
milder and of shorter duration, and by the rapid convalescence.

ON I III: PERSISTENCE OF ARSENITE OF SODA IN

THE SOIL.

By Charles William Mally, M.Sc, F.L.S., F.E.S.

{Read July 9, 191 8. J

The possibility of arsenic accumulating to an injurious extent
in soil under fruit trees, through their being sprayed annually with
arsenical compounds has received considerable attention, espe-
cially in the United States of America; but in South Africa a new
phase of the question arose when it was proposed to use poisoned
bait containing arsenite of soda for the destruction of house flies
in stables and around manure heaps. Based on experience in
the use of arsenite of soda for the destruction of weeds and of
dodder in lucerne lands, certain farmers feared that the arsenic
in the bait might have an injurious effect in the soil. Even though
it might not be noticeable the first season, would it accumulate
sufficiently to become a serious factor in the future ?

Amount of Arsenite in Baited Manure.

To get direct evidence on this point it was decided to take
samples from baited manure heaps that had been accumulating
for about six months — the usual length of time before the mamn^e
is carted away and spread on the land — and determine the
amount of arsenic therein.

The following sami)les were taken at the School of Agricul-
ture. Elsenburg, Mulders Vlei, Cape Province, and submitted to
Mr. D. C'. Crawford, chemist at the school, for analysis. The
manure had accumulated from the stable, where baiting was
carried on systematically, and hence there was a certain amount of
bait in the manure from that source. In addition to this, the
manure hea]) had been covered with eucalyptus branches and
sprinkled regularly with the following solution : — Arsenite of
soda. 1 II)., sugar 10 lbs., water 10 gallons. The leaves of the
branches would therefore carry an excessive amount of the
bait, and sample A was taken because of the accumulation of
leaves at that s]iot. so as to get some idea of the relative
importance of the leaves. This .should not be overlooked in
connection with the analysis of this sample. The following are
Mr. Crawford's results and his interpretation of them :—

Sampi.ks of ,Maxi;re Tksteu for Arsenite.

Sample A. — From depression on top of manure lieap. Surface dry,
strawy : certain amount of leaves included in the sample.
Sample 2A. — Taken from depth of 2 ft.
Sample .^A. — Taken from depth of t, ft. 6 in.

Sample B. — Taken from top at edge of manure heap, dry and strawy.
Sample 2B. — Taken from depth of 2 ft.
Sample 3B. — Taken from dejith of 3 ft. 6 in.

326 PERSISTENCE OF ARSENITE.

Sample C. — Composite sample of the manure from another part of
the heap; top, middle, and bottom.

In Air-Dried Samples.

A 2A 3A B 2B 3B C

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent Per cent-
Arsenic as
Arsenite .081 .011 .001 .024 .016 .002 .001

In Original Samples as Taken.
Arsenic as
Arsenite .068 .007 .'3005 .020 .nij .oooS .0004

Though little danger would result from the use of such manure, a
sample such a "A" might cause trouble, and on tliat point it would be
well to caution farmers.

Where the leaves have been sprayed for some time, and where there
are signs of soaking through the leaves, such manure should !>e well mixed
with the bottom layers.

In connection with the above, Mr. Crawford carried on plot
experiments in the field to determine the effect of baited manure
on barley. On 30th November he reported that there was not
arsenite of soda enough to have any effect.

Two samples from a heap of manure accumulated under
treatment with house-fly bait, the same as the Elsenburg- sam])les
given above were secured from Mr. C. W. T. Duminy's farm,
" Thalman," Bellville, C.P., and submitted to the Government
Analyst, Dr. C. F. juritz, to determine the amount of arsenic
present.

For Sample i, manure was collected in small forkfuls over
the surface of the heap, becatise it seemed likely that the surface
layer would be richer in arsenic. This was thoroughly mixed,
so as to secure uniformity before taking the sample for analysis.

For Sample 2, manure was taken from two parts of the lieap
where the bait had been persistently used. It was taken in the
same manner as if loading a cart or wagon, so as to re])resent a
quantity of manure as usually spread on to the land. After
thoroughly mixing the manure the sample was taken.

The following are Dr. Juritz's results and his interpretation
of them : —

The amounts of arsenite, calculated as AS2O3, amount to .014 per cent,
in No I, and to .0055 per cent, in No. 2. In other words, a ton {2,000 lbs),
of No. I would contain .28 of a pound weight, or about 4^ ozs. of arsenious
oxide, and such a ton, if applied to an acre of soil, and mixed with the
latter to a depth of six inches, would add arsenious oxide to the soil
.000014 per cent, of the latter's weight — a quantit}- far too minute to
exert the slightest harmful efifect on vegetation. Similarly, a ton of No. 2
would contain .n of a pound weight of arsenious oxide, and, if mixed
with an acre of soil to a depth of six inches, would add to such soil
.0000055 per cent- of arsenious oxide.

I assume tliat, roughl}-, an acre of soil six inches deep, weighs i.ooo
tons.

Seeds planted in soil with a liberal dressing of this manure.
compared with unbaited manure at the Fxperiment Station,
Rosebank, showed no ill eft'ects whatever.

rERSlSTRNCE OF AKSENITE. 32/

Retention of Arsenite in the Soil.

For spraying fruit trees, arsenical compounds which are
relatively insoluble {e.g. arsenate of lead) are used as a rule;
but for the destruction of the house-fly a soluble compound like
arsenite of soda is clearly desirable on account of its quicker
action on the flies, and the greater likelihood of its being carried
away under the leaching influence of rain.

To get some idea of the effect and persistence of arsenite of
soda in varying quantities in the soil, two series of experimental
plots were started. May, 191 5, at the Entomological Experiment
Station at Rosebank, C.P. The plots (including two control
plots for each series) were 16 feet long b}' 6 feet wide, and
separated by isolation plots 3 feet wide. The plots in the first
series were treated with arsenite of soda at the rate of 500, 400,
300, 200, 100, 50, 25, 12^, 514 pounds per acre, prepared as for
fly bait, according to the formula given above, and mixed with
stable manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre. The plots in the
second series were treated with the same strength of arsenite of
soda dissolved in water and applied evenly by means of a
garden syringe. In comparison the two series would show
whether the presence of the sugar and the manure increased or
decreased the injurious effect of the arsenite. After the applica-
tion of the poison, the ground in each plot was w^ell dug over
(8-10 inches deep), and the following seeds and transplants were
])lanted across the line of the plots so as to insure uniformity : —
Wheat, oats, barley, ny^e, maize, peas, beans, potatoes, and
cabbage.

The ground had been trenched to a depth of 2 to 3 feet in
1913, forming a deep, stiff, clayey soil. The plots are nearly
level ; but a few yards beyond the second series the ground slo})es
off rapidly, so that both series are fairly well drained. The
annual rainfall is approximately 25 inches, the rainy season
extending from May to October.

Results.

All the plots were kejjt under close observation by Mr
C. P. van der Merwe, who was then Assistant Entomologist, and
in immediate charge of the work, and myself. The results show
that in the stronger plots (500, 400, and 300 lb. per acre) the
transplants, as well as the seedlings of all kinds, presented a
very sickly, spindly appearance from the start, being stunted in
growth, and of a reddish yellow colour, especially at the tips and
along the edges of the leaves. On the whole, the sickly apjiear-
ance was less pronounced from plot tO' plot as the strength of
the arsenite decreased ; but there was not much to choose between
the 500, 400. and 300 lb. plots. In the 200 lb. plot the injury
was less severe, and in the 100 lb. plot only noticeable. In the
weaker strengths no injury was manifest in com]~)arison with the
control and the isolation idiots.

.^2S PERSISTENCE OF ARSENITE.

The manured plots were better than the unmanured ])lots.
The manured part of the control plot was better than any of the
others, including" the isolation plots, which received neither
manure nor poison. The manure in the poisoned plots clearly
counteracted the effect of the poison to some extent ; but whether
this was due to the influence of the manure in the ordniary way
or to some interaction between the arsenical and the organic
compounds in the manure it is impossible to say.

In his notes, Mr. van der Merwe several times records that
the ])lants near the borders of the plots were better than in the
centre, and suggests that this may have been caused by leaching
due to the slight rills which marked the line of plots providing
better drainage around the borders. Judging from the general
appearance of the plots at the time, this explanation at least
seems plausible.

The injurious effect of the arsenic was most noticeable
during June and July, while the different plants were young.
Of the grain crops, severity of injury was apparent in the order
named : — Oats, barley, wheat, and rye. Oats were very sensitive,
and would make a valuable " indicator " of arsenical poison in
the soil. Barley followed it very closely. Wheat was consider-
ably less sensitive than oats or barley. Rye showed a considerable
degree of resistance, so nnich that it would be of little use as an
indicator ; but this fact establishes its value as a crop to be grown
when arsenical soil-poisoning is suspected. Peas were much
more sensitive than beans — in fact, peas would also serve as a
good indicator of arsenical soil-poisoning. Although the other
crops recorded above showed the effect of the poison, they were
not specially sensitive, and were so irregular that no close com-
[)arisons could be made.

As the rains diminished, and the season advanced into spring
and summer, all of the plants made more rapid progress.
Although there was a heavy mortality amongst the original plants
in tlie 500, 400, and 300 lb. plots— 50 to 70 per cent, in oats and
barley — the remaining plants did so much better on account of
having more room, that on first glance they obscured the effect
of the arsenic ; but on areas sufficiently large to give reliable
harvesting results by weight, the yield would have been low in
Ijfojjortion.

The plots were continued through 1916, 1917, and 1918,
with the same crops as indicators. The results are in the same
order, but distinctly less marked each succeeding season. So far
during the present season (June, 1918) the effect of the arsenic
in the stronger plots can still be traced in oats and barley ; but
it is doubtful whether it will show to any extent as the crops
approach maturity.

In the experimental plots, amounts of arsenic, far in excess
of any possible bait-accumulations in the manure, did not have
a noticeable effect on the crops grown. It therefore seems justi-
fiable, on the basis of the above analyses, and the plot tests

PERSISTENCE OF .XRSENITE. 32g

extending over three seasons, to conclude that farmers have
iK)tliing whatever to fear from the small amovmt of arsenite of
soda in the form of house-fly bait that may accumulate in stable
manure.

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. C. F. Juritz and Mr. D. C.
Crawford for their kind co-operation in making the analyses
recorded above, and to Mr. C. P. van der Merwe for his a<^sist-
ance in connection with the plot experiments.

Division of Entomology,

Department of AoRicuLTrRE,
Capetown.

NOYA AQUILil^. — According to Hanxird Collcc/c Obser-
vatory Circular, No. 208, the first record of the star now known
as Nova Aquil?e is on a photogra])h taken at the above obser-
vatory on May 22, 1888, when its ]:»hotographic magnitude was
10.5. It was found on 405 subsequent ])hotographs, extending
over the intervening 30 years up to June 3. 1918. and in all these
its brightness remained practically tmchanged. In three photo-
graphs taken on June 7, 1918. it was of the sixth magnitude.
On tlie following night, when its visual magnitude was 0.8, it
was discovered independently l)y several persons. The earliest
observation ai the new star, under these circumstances, appears
to have been made by Prof. Laskovski at Geneva on June 7. at
■9.45 p.m.. mid-European time. The star was then white,
and. although less bright than Altair (magnitude 0.9), was
ibrighter than a Ophiuchi (magnitude 2.T ). Mr. Harold Thom-
son, who independently detected the star on June 8, estimated
its magnitude on that date as 0.7, and records that on the two
succeeding days its brightness had increased to -0.26 and
-0.25 respectively. On June 9 the nova was brighter than
Vega, but by June 18 had faded to second magnitude, and five
days later it had become a third magnitude star. On July 14
it was of (fourth magnitude. In the visible spectrum the most
prominent features were the bright lines of hydrogen, while a
band in the blue near A 464 was very conspicuous. l)rightening
continuously from the time of its first a]>pearance on June 13.
By the end of June the star had assumed a brick-red colour.
During the succeeding fortnight the spectrum (^f the star showed
continuous approach to the nebular stage, the nebular lines
increasing in intensity concurrently with a reduction in intensity
of the hydrogen lines. From the noted dis])lacements of the
lines a relative velocity of 2,300 kilometres per second was in-
ferred— far greater than that observed in any previous nova.
Father Cortie records that for a few moments on July 13 the
star a])peared double. " This," he adds, " may be an illusion, but
is noted in case any other observer has seen the star double."

THE ETHICAL PRINCH^LE OF EQUTfY.

By Rev. Sidney Read Welch, B.A., D.D., Ph.D.

(Read. July lo, 191 8.)

We may take it for granted that as long as there have been
laws among mankind, the idea of equity has somehow co-existed
in the minds of men. The very ancient distinction between the
letter of the law and the spirit is possibly the most rudimentary
form in which the notion olf equity is to Ibe found with any dis-
tinctiveness. The spirit of the law dictates the exercise of equity,
and the contrast occurs at once with the law itself.

Aristotle has the first reasoned exposition of the nature of
equity, whicli he calls eirieiKia . In the practical conduct of
life among the Greeks that virtue was already well known ; and
being a certain relaxation of the law, it was also popular. And
like all popular virtues, it ran the risk of having to bear the
burden of all forms of goodness. .A-S a " white man," in
countries where colour is not fashionable, is supixtscd to be the
embodiment of every other good quality ; so the " equitable " in
Aristotle's time seemed likely to become a synonym of the "good."
Aristotle did a service in pointing out what its specific meaning
was.

The full exposition of it is to be found in the Eudemian
Ethics (5, 10), where he treats alsO' of justice in general. Equity
is a finer and higher sort of justice, coining to the rescue w^here
legal justice would be so rough and ready as to amount to injus-
tice. Hence it may be called an amendment of legal justice,
where this fails through being too genera] and indiscriminating.

This is in fact a necessar\- complement of the indefinite
nature of law. Aristotle compares law, in this aspect, to the
Lesbian art of building.* " In the Lesbian architecture, *:he
(leaden) rule is not fixed, but shifts according to the shape df
the stone; and so does the ordinance {■\jr)j<^ia/jia) of the legisla-
ture according to the nature of the case." As the builder had to
inake allowance for the polygon stones of the Les'bian architecture
in using his leaden rule, so the Athenian assembly by its special
decrees, in accordance with equity, straigluened out the irregulari-
ties of the existing laws.

We thus note how soon the ethical principle of equity began
to find recognition on the part of the lawgiver. This recognition
was very incomplete among the Greeks, but at any rate it existed.

In English law it made headway from the beginning; cen-
turies before any actual courts of equity were established. Juris-
prudence began early to teach that the rigour of the law was
often a real violation of the intentions of the legislator and a
means of defeating the law by chicane ; and we are told by legal

*" Ethics," 10, 7.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLE OF EQUITY. 331

luminaries that from the time of the Norman Conquest this idea
bore practical fruit in the law courts.

Speaking of the twelfth century, Pollock and Maitland* tell
us that the King's Court could already do all that equity could
then demand. " In the days of Henry II and Henry III the
King's Court wields discretionary powers, such as are not at the
command of lowlier courts, and the use df these powers is an
exhibition of equity. Often on the plea rolls we find it written
that some order is made by the counsel of the court (^de consilio
curia). It is an order that could not be asked for as a mere
matter of strict right; the rigor juris does not dictate it; wouM
perhaps refuse it, but it is made in order that the substantial
purposes of the law may be accomplished without circuity of
action."

And what we say of England must be repeated of the con-
tinent of Europe. We see there how the ethical principle of
equity soon became transformed into something like a new code
of secondary principles of law. The Roman law was accepted in
the German States of the seventeenth century as a great reposi-
tory and source df legal wisdom.

But the more highly-developed sense of right amongst these
people naturally tended to assert itself against the hard and fast
principles of the Roman law. In the ranks of jurists like Samuel
Puffendorf, a modern authorityf tells us that the principle of
equity " is generally justified by an appeal to greater simplicity,
clarity, and naturalness ; criteria which are constantly resorted
to, in correction of the Roman law, and much more skilfully used
than by Grotius. Especially certain Roman rules of equity,
charily introduced under sharp limitations, are universally ex-
panded in accordance with the equitas juris naturalis. . . . The
search of some test of principle for legal rights begins with truth,
honour, altruism ; and in this process conventional rules conflict
sharply with the demands of equity against chicanery and for-
malism." During these centuries the Canon Law of the Church
played a conspicuous part in the development df both law and
equity. It was perhaps more straightforward and direct in
recognising the claims of the equitable.

This w-as largely done by what are known as dispensations.
When the law pressed so hard upon the individual, that it seemed
to be in the public interest that he should be exempt from it,
he was granted a dispensation.

Of course, the system was liable to abuse, as every system
is ; but its essential justice was that it aimed at redressing the
balance of justice by an official permission to set aside the law
in this or that case. The dispensations from Canon Law to-day
are nearly always given gratis, when just cause is recognised.
But our own civil law to-day furnishes an instance of the manner
in which the dispensation may be abused, and cease to be a func-
tion of equity.

*" History of England," 1, i68.

t" Continental Legal History Series," 1, 417 .

33-2 ETHICAL I'RIXCll'Lli OF EljUlTV.

This occurs in the issue of marriage licences, which are
dispensations granted l)v a magistrate to condone the caUing ot
banns o'f marriage in a particular case. The licence is granted
to-day at a fixed sum, and when the sum is paid, there is never
any question of discussing the reasons of the request. Thus the
well-to-do can escape the law of banns at a price which is a
small matter to them. But the pcK>r, who cannot easily rn'iot
five pounds, and who yet may have excellent moral reasons for
demanding in equitv a relaxation of the law, cannot obtain it.

But in discussing the claims of Canon and Civil law,
medieval theologians gave equity a status as an active principle,,
that marked an important advance in the legitimate developmeiit
of individual libertw They called it epyikia, or epiicia. or
epicheia, or epyichia, transliterating in dift'erent ways the one
Greek term c^f Aristotle. Two writers who indictated the rights
of the individual against the law have expounded " epicheia "
with great precision — St. Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth cen-
tury, and the Jesuit Suarez in the sixteenth.

In two articles of his " .Summa Theologica "' St. Thomas
Aquinas states the rights of the individual conscience against the
law. Such, he maintains, is the infinite variety of the adjimcls
of single human acts, that no law could be framed that would
be valid in every single case. The law can only embrace what is
generally desirable. Its observance in a particular case may
therefore be unjust or contrary to the public interest. Justice
and the good of the Commonwealth would demand that the letter
of the law be set aside to fulfil its sj>irit. In such an event, we
mav add, a good case would be made out for a dispensation "f
the law.

Suarez reminds us that the lawgiver must always be ])rL--
sumed to be a reasonable authority, and not willing to press the
law when it would inflict injustice. Hence in equity we may
always consider the following circumstances as modifying the
expressed wish of the legislator ( i ) whether the carrying out
of some jx)sitiAe human law would be repugnant to a natural or
divine law ; (2) whether^ in the given circumstances, the fulfilment
of the law would be beyond the competence of the legislator ; and
(3) we must be guided by the custom of the courts and their
authoritative interpretation of the law. These theologians there-
fore provided a moral justification for the medieval Christian
in applying to the civil and lu'clesiastical Courts for relief per
cpichciam against the letter of the law.

But in studying the history of law, we find that the ethical
motive of e([uity, acting for centuries upon the letter of the law.
has sometimes led to the complete reversion of unjust notions
that were covered by the law as it stood.

I think we may say that in ancient law. in medieval and in
great part of modern law,, there has been an underlying assump-
tion that marriage ought to be for the woman a kind of legal
death ; she became absorbed in the personality of her bus-

ETHICAL I'KINCIl'LE OF EQUITY- 333

band. The contrary fact, tliat she remained physically a separate
j^erson, led to the employment of many equitable subterfuges^
which were very confused and complicated at first.

This is an example of one of the devices of the medievd
lawyer, to reconcile legal justice and equity in the thirteenth
century. '*

The decisions of the Courts of equity aui'noriscd the -.vife to keep
as Iier personal lielongings certain properties ( separate estate) h}- con-
fiding them to trustees or tiduciaries. At law the wife has no possessioiis
of her own, in equity she becomes independent of her inisband, through
the intervention of trustees, and to the extent of her separate estate.
The motives which justified tliis, even caused in time the recognition of
the fact, that the wife had a riglit to demand a separate estate independent
of any agreement.

Later, in many countries the civil emancipation of tl;e
married woman was introduced into the letter oif the law. In
this way the old law was practically abolished by the li»ng pres-
sure of equity.

But in the 1\idor j:)eriod of English History, we have one
ii>stance in which the innate vigour of equity in the hands of
strong Chancellors was able to resist successfulh- not only the
law, but a whole system of law. According to the feudal idea,
the actual possessor of land could not disix:)se of it by inheritance
without his lord. Land trusts had been excogitated to evade this
right of the barons, and to hand on lands from the actual
possessor to his personal heir. The practice became so common
that it was a kind of national conspiracy to evade the land laws
of the country to the detriinent oi the sovereign. Henry VHI
tried to stem the process by a fresh statute, but it became a dead
letter.

Thus says a great English jurist,! " In the name of equity
and good conscience the chancellors had been adding an appendix
to the common law," and in this matter the chancellors had the
united supix)rt of the people for their ordinances. Whatever
success the Tudor Sovereigns may have had in /forcing England
to follow them, they signally failed in resisting this movement ;
for there is nothing in which the peo]>le are more tenacious of
justice, than in matters affecting land or money.

But the struggle between the ethical idea of the equitable
and the notion of a strict and unbending law has produced two
ideas of the judge's office, which are the two poles between
which the judge of real life fluctuates in diff'erent systems and at
different times.

At one of these [poles] the model is the man of science who is making
researches, and will use all appropriate methods for the solution of
problems and the discovery of truth. At the other stands the umpire of
our English games, who is there, not in order that he may invent tests
for the powers of the two sides, but merely to see that the rules of tha
game are observed.

* Jean Brassard : " Historv of French Private Law,'" 7S6.
t F. W. Maitland : " Collected Papers," 2, 404.

^34 ETHICAL PRINCIPLE OF EQUITY.

t

These rival ideas of judgeship may be called the inquisitor
and the umpire. Both are bent on doing the fullest possible
justice, and in their highest forms they wish to continue legal
justice and equity. But the inquisitor emphasises the equity,
whilst the umpire emphasises the legality. The inquisitor is so
bent on doing absolute justice that he takes a hand himself in
eliciting the full truth; the umpire has his eyes sO' fixed on the
legal code, that he leaves all argument to the parties. Thus
the intricate game of special pleading has grown up in courts
where the ideal of the umpire prevails. Those who know some-
thing of the habits of English and French courts will have at
hand many other points df difiference between these systems. I
only wish to note that it is the ethical conviction, that there is a
higher form of human justice than a verdict based on the letter of
the law. which has produced these two categories of judges.

The same conviction shines through all the legal activities of
the best men as far back as our records go. None of them could
ever be fully satisfied with the technical justice of the mere
positive enactments of the law ; they demanded a more substantial
justice. Equity was the source of the higher justice which
springs from the breast of man. " Seen from the side of ethics
and psycholog>% it represents the tendencies and habits of the
typical good man, who desires to treat his neighbour as he would
be treated himself."*

Chemical Warfare Service. — The United States

Secretary of War announced recently that the organisation of
the Chemical Warfare Service had been completed, with Major-
General W. L. Sibert in command. All phases of chemical war-
fare will in future be controlled by the newly-organised depart-
ment. Previously chemical work in connection with the war
had been administered partly by the Medical Department, partly
by the Ordnance Department, and partly by the Bureau of
Mines. The Medical Department was charged with designing
and manufacturing masks for men and animals, and procuring
appliances for clearing trenches and dug-outs of gas ; the Ord-
nance Department directed the production of gases and the
filling of gas shells ; the Bureau of Mines had been carrying on
chemical research for new gases and protection against known
gases. The newly-formed Department will also be responsible
for providing chemists for all branches of the Government, and
for procuring chemists for industries essential to the success of
the war. Every chemist in the United States Army will now be
removed from his unit and placed under the direction olf the
Chemical Warfare Service, to which all newly-drafted chemists
will also be assigned.

* Lord Bryce: "Studies in History and Jurisprudence," 2, 143.

LEUCOCYTOGREGARINES, AND THEIR
OCCURRENCE IN SOUTH AERICA.

By Annie Porter, D.Sc.Lond., F.L.S.,
Parasitologist^ South African Institute for Medical Research.

(Abstract.)

The Leucocytogregarines are a group of blood Protozoa
occurring in what may seem to be peculiar host cells, namely,
leucocytes. The parasitised leucocytes, usually of mammals, may
be either mononuclear or polymorphonuclear, and I have recently
found parasitised eosinophiles. It is somewhat remarkable that
the leucocytes, the destroyers of intrusive organisms in the blood,
should themselves be subject to invasion by parasites.

Some years ago, in Science Progress, for October, 1909, I
wrote a short monograph on what were then known as the Leuco-
cytozoa, and in that monograph I separated the parasites of the
leucocytes of mammals from the Leucocytozoa of birds, as the
avian parasites enlarged and sometimes distorted their host cell,
and the exact nature of the avian host cell was and is a matter
of controversy. Further, for the strict haemogregarines of leuco-
cytes I gave the generic name, Leucocytogregarina, which has
received general acceptance. These parasites are closely related
to the haemogregarines of vertebrate red blood corpuscles. An
abridged account of some Leucocytogregarines recently found in
South Africa is now given.

During last year (1917), since my arrival in the Transvaal,
I have seen leucocytogregarines in the dog, the rat, and the rabbit.
For the preparations of the parasite of the dog I am indebted to
Dr. J. G. Becker, who lost a valuable pet in Johainnesburg
through the pathogenic action of Leucocytogregarina canis. While
using rabbits for experimental work, I found a similar parasite
in the leucocytes of some of the animals, the infected hosts
having been obtained from Johannesburg and from Durban. In
both the dog and the rabbit mononuclear and polymorphonuclear
leucocytes were infected, but chiefly the mononuclears in the
rabbit. The parasite of the rabbits should be placed in the species
L. leporis, created by Patton in 1907 for an organism found in
leucocytes of the Indian hare, Lepus nigricollis. I also found
L. nuiris in the polymorphonuclear leucocytes of wild and tame
rats in Johannesburg, while the eosinophile leucocytes of the
rats were also infected. However, it is quite likely that the
various leucocytogregarines now given separate specific names
— and occurring in the dog, cat, rat, mouse, palm-squirrel, hare
and rabbit — are really only varieties of the first-described species,
L. canis, James, 1905.

The parasites are at first small, vermicular organisms, which
become definitely gregariniform when adult. The parasites of

D

33^ LiacocvTo(.ki:(;AKixES.

the dog ultimately have a thin covering arotind them, termed a
cytocyst, while within the host cell, and are thus separated from
the nucleus of the host cell. Free vermicular forms are also seen
in the blood plasma. The intra-corpuscular or cytozoic forms
average from Sfi to I2fi by 4.5/a to O/m broad. The parasite usually
has a well-marked nucletis.

Multiplication of L. canis by schizogony, that is, by the
asexual method of multiple fission, has been observed by me in
the bone marrow, liver, and spleen of the dog that dipd in
Johannesburg. I have some evidence of asexual multiplication
of L. leporis in the lungs of the rabbits used by me. Schizogony
of L. muris occurred in the liver of the rats examined. No
definite sexual reproductive forms occtirred in the blood of the
vertebrate hosts. The parasite was apparently transmitted to the
dog by the tick, Rhipiccphalu^ sanguineus, and from rabbit to
rabbit and rat to rat by mites.

The pathogenicity of leucocytogregarines varies. It has
already been mentioned that L. canis was fatal in the case of Dr.
Becker's dog, which died after a fortnight's illness, having shown
much anaemia and emaciation, rise of tenij^erature, and some
diarrhoea. No parasite other than L. cam's was found at autopsy.
Similarly, white rats infected with L. muris died at Washington,
U.S.A., about 1907, as reported by the late W. W. Miller, and
L. niusciili caused outbreaks of disease among some white mice
in England ab<^ut the same time, as reported by Porter.

(Read. July 10, igi8.)

Stbllar Catastrophes. — Prof. 11. N. Russell, of

Princeton University Observatory, in his jjresidential address to
Section A (Astronomy) of the American Association for tlie
Adva!icement of Science, at its Baltimore meeting, drew s])ecial
attention to the catastrophes which happen every few years, or
oftener. in our galax)', and aj^parently every few weeks in the
Andromeda nebula — catastrophes which in magnitude transcend
all other known ])h}sical phenomena. Two possibilities suggest
themselves — a collision or an explosion. Collisions between two
stars are out of the ([uestion ; collisions between stars and nebulae
may account for most of the phenomena, but the s]>ectra observed
are not thus satisfactorily explicable. Collisions between stars
and small dark bodies are also attended with difficulties. Know-
ing what we now do about the stores of energy locked uj) within
the atom, the ])0ssibility of an explosive release of some such
form of energy within a star may be suggested. Prof. Russell,
however, inclines to favour the collision iheory as the most
))romising. supported as it is by the fact of the great frequency
of novae in .spiral nebulae.

SUAIM I'ARASITIC i'R()l\.)/:(JA FoL'Nl) iX SUL'Tli
AFRICAN FISHES AND AML'HiBIANS.

By H. B. Fantham, M.A. Cantab., D.Sc.Fond.. F.Z.S..
Professor of Zoology, C'm'vcrsily L'ollcyc. Joltainicsbiiri/.

{.Ihstracl.)

Having been asked to read a paper before Section D of the
meeting of the Association in Johannesburg, iyi8, I had pleasure
in complying therewith. The ])a[)er can only be considered as
preliminary, for I wish merely to record for the first time the
presence of the following parasitic Protozoa in South Africa,
reserving details for a future occasion.

Ihe Protozoa of fishes were discovered while working at St.
James Marine Aquarium, near Capetown, during January and
February, iyi8. I have much [)leasure in thanking Professor
Gilchrist for his kindness to me while conducting my researches.
Jhe parasitised Amphibia were s])ecimens of the clawed toad,
Xcfiopus Icrvis, and were obtained in the neighbourhood of
Johannesburg. The I'rotozoa found may be grouped according
to their systematic position.

SAi'tcoDiNA. — A motile anweba was found in the digestive
tract of the bamboo lish. Bo.v salpa. There was a tactile pseudo-
podium turning upwards, and the nucleus of the amtjeba contained
a large karyosome. The morphology of the organism suggested
that it was closely related to .Iniaha Umax, sometimes placed in a
separate genus, l^ihlkaiiipfia.

MastigophoR-\. — In the large intestine of the harder, Mugil
capita, a Trichomonas was founfl. A Trypaiiosom<i' was found
in the blood of the skate. Rata capciisis. and in the l)lood from the
gills of the leer visch, Lichia amia.

Sporozoa. — Haemogregarines were seen in the red blood cor-
jjuscles of the bull klip hsh. Cliniis taiinis. A larger hc'cmogrega-
rine was also seen in the erythrocytes of the " plathander." Xcno-
pusUcvis. Coccidia were found in the intestine of kli]) hsh. ( liuits
superciliosus. Some of the coccidia were seen in the epithelial
lining of the intestine, and oocysts were found in the rectal con-
tents. Some interesting Myxo.sporidia were found in the gall-
bladder and contained bile of the bull klip fish, Cliniis faiirus.
The parasites belonged to the genus Myxidium. and produced
changes in the colour and fluidity of the bile, which was yellowish
instead of green, and somewhat turbid, while the wall of the
gall-bladder was thickened, i have previously described (1912),
while working in France, similar derangements in the digestive
])rocesses of fish, due to alterations in the bile caused by various
Myxosporidia. Dentex argyrosoiia were also found similarly
infected with Myxidium.

Infusoria. — A ciliate, allied to the genus Ichihyophihiriiis.
was found on the skin, and sometimes on the gills of marine fish,

SS^ PARASITIC PROTOZOA,

such as klip fish {Ciinus siiperciliosus and Climis cottoides) , har-
ders (Mugil capita), Hottentots (Canfharus blochii), and Romans
{Chrysophrys gibbiceps). When the aforementioned fish were kept
in tanks in the marine aquarium, and were heavily infected with
the cihates,much mortaHty occurred among them. Erosion of tissue
of the piscine host was observed around each ciliate, and subse-
quently the scales fell oft. Dr. Gilchrist found it impossible to
keep such fish in certain tanks at St. James during October and
November, 191 7. When the infected tanks were kept without
fish for a period of about ten weeks, and were then
re-stocked, the infection reappeared, and the new piscine occu-
pants became parasitised.

Anotlier ciliate, apparently belonging to the genus Tricho-
dina, was found on the gills of klip fish (Ciinus taunis and Ciinus
superciliosus) and bamboo fish (Box salpa). The ciliates were
only attached to the gills of the host during part of their life-cycle ;
at other times they swam freely in the water. A ciliate, belonging
to the genus Trichodina, was also found in the cloacal bladder of
the amphibian, Xcnopus Icevis. Sometimes the ciliate was attached
to the wall of the cloacal bladder, sometimes it swam freely in the
contents, and was rarely found in the rectum.

Spiroch/ET/E. — In the blood of some young sand-sharks,
Rlunobatus annulatus, I found an interesting Spirochcrta, clearly
showing a dift'use nucleus in the form of a series of chromatin
granules. The parasite was often rather short and thick, but
varied in length, and had somew'hat acuminate ends

( Read, July 10. 1918.)

South African CoCCID;e — In the Bulletin of Ento-
mological Research * issued by the Imperial Bureau of Entomo-
logy. Mr. Chas. K. Brain, M.Sc, M.A., of the Division of Ento-
molog}', Pretoria, South Africa, contributes part 2 of his work
on the Coccidas of South Africa. Four gall coccidse are described.
" These are of particular interest, because no two of them are
similar, and more remarkable still is the fact that no two of
the insects belong to the same genus, nor apparently to the same
subfamily."' The species are as follows: — (i) Pseudococcinse :
Grewiacoccits^ g.n.. grcgalis, sp.n.; (2) Cissococcinse, Nov.: Cis-
sococcns fulleri, Ckll.; (3) Calycicoccinse, Nov.: Calycicoccus.
g.n. mcnvci, sp,n.; (4) Asterolecaniinae: Aniorphococcus acacicc
sp.n. The other species recorded as occurring fn South Africa
come under the following: — (5) Conchaspinse : Conchaspis eu-
phorbia: sp.n. ; (6) Diaspinge : Aspidiotus, in which the sub-genera
Aspidiotus (s.slr.), Selenaspidis, Morganella, Diaspidiotus, and
Hemilerlesea are recognized ; and Furcaspis, represented by
capcnsis (Walker). Green, and protea, sp.n. A synoptical key is
given covering 14 South African genera of Diaspinge, and also a
key to 26 species and i. variety of Aspidiotus. Five plates of
excellent illustrations are included.

9 [2], (1918).

DOES IT J'AY TU EDUCATK THE NATIXTv

By Res'. Albert E. Le Roy, B.A., B.D.

{Rcad^ July lo, iyi8.j

In presenting this paper, I would like to state at the outset
that it was not prepared in the first instance as an attempt to
defend the educated native, but was simply a more or less scientific
investigation of the data obtainable regarding the product of one
school.

Nor is it offered now as a defence of native education as it
has been given in the past. We w-ho are in educational work have
realised its weakness, and have been insistent upon radical changes
in the curriculum. At the same time there is danger of our
becoming somewhat hysterical in our denunciation of native
education, as being " almost wholly along wrong lines,"' and as
being a " failure." The subjects taught may not always have been
the most suitable, but there was always the discipline, the insist-
ence on regularitv and j)unctuality, on order and cleanliness, on
obedience and work, that are the foundatiini of character. We
must not lose sight of the fact that the giving of education that
will fit a man for his environment is, even for the white man, of
comparatively recent origin. Technical schools and Domestic
Science classes for our boys and girls were never heard of until
very recently, but it does not necessarily follow that all of the
education we received has proved a failure.

So far as native education was concerned in the past, the cry
was: " Teach him to work for the White Man." The success or
failure of native education was judged almost whollv by that
standard. Now the cry is " Back to the land." " Teach the
native to work for himself and his people." We welcome the
change of emphasis, though perhaps these cries have been antici-
pated more than is generally realised.

This paper has to do largely witli the res))onse the native has
made to the former cry : " Teach him to work for the white man."

Much might be said regarding what the native is doing on the
land, but it does not come within the scope of this paper.

During the past 20 years a great change has taken place in the
attitude of the European toward the native in South Africa.
Previous to that time the native did not occupy a large place in
the white man's thinking, except on the few occasivins when he
took up arms against the European, or when he failed to i)rovide
the labour necessary for the carrying on of the varied industries
of the land. He was not a political |)roblem, except to the far-
seeing few. Like the recurring seasons, he was taken for granted,
and so long as he behaved himself, he was not considered. He
had not yet become the i)roblem of South Africa.

To-day aU that is changed. The native is very much in tlie fore-
ground of our thoughts. As one has expres.sed it : " Commissions
are sitting on him ; books are being written abou*^ him ; societies
are being formed to study him ; and Tarliaments are endeavouring

340 DOES IT I'AV T(^ EDUCATli THE NATIN E r

to legislate for him." Wliv this chanioe? Because the natives
are advancing more rapidly than most people have heretofore
thought possible ; and because the Euro])eans are coming to realise
that the progress of the country is inextricably bound u]) with the
proper development of the native races.

A brief analysis of the situation will reveal the extreme diffi-
culty of the problem. In the Union there are one and a quarter
million whites as against four and a half million natives. With
the latter living on a very small percentage of the land ; much of
this land being far from arable; with production being at a
mininnnu throtigh lack of improved methods of agriculture ; and
with a constant demand for labour in the cities, with its assurance
of a regular income, we find an increasingly large number of
natives Hocking to the large centres, where they come into the
closest contact with Europeans — a contact that is admittedly too
often prodtictive of more harm than good. Among these urban
natives there are signs of organisation into bands or unions, and
we may reasonably expect a more frequent use of trade union
weapons of boycott and strike. Attempts at territorial segregation
are being made and opposed, for different reasons, by both Euro-
peans and natives. With civilisation thus overwhelming them —
a civilisation that is difficult for them to understand or to appre-
ciate—the question of race adjustment becomes the paramount one
facing the thinking people of South Africa. The problem bristles
with so many difficulties that it is not to be wondered at that not a
few des])air of the ftiture of our land.

And yet there is much in the outlook ti) encourage. Those of
us who are perhaps most closely associated with the native, and
who are giving our lives for his uplift, believe that the native
himself is making a large contribution toward the working out
of the problem, and we feel that if the European will but be
just and patient — very just and very patient — the seeds that are
being sown by missionaries and other friends of the natives, will
bear fruit and yield a harvest of progress, contentment, and good-
will between the races. We also take courage in our work,
because we can feel that the old prejudice against Christianising
and educating the native is rapidly dying. The South African
Native Affairs Commission of 1903 ; Lord Selborne, in his address
before the University of the Cape of Good Hope in 1907; Dr.
Loram, in his book on the education of the native in 1917; all
students of the problem, have testified to the value of Christianity
and education for these people.

The change of attitude of the ordinary citizen towards tlie
work is also noticeable. Eleven years ago. when I interviewed
employers of native boys, almost every other one had some remark
to make about spoiling the native. Within the past few weeks
I have again interviewed, the employers of 185 students, and in
no single instance was I criticised for spoiling the native. In.^tead
of a sneer. I was offered a chair, and freqtiently a cigarette —
evidences of friendliness that were appreciated — in contrast to
past experiences.

DUES IT l'A\ TO liOL'CATK THE NATIVK .'' 341

There are many causes for the change in the outlook of the
Europeans towards our work. It is only to one of them that I
wisii to refer in attempting to answer the question which forms the
title of my paper.

Does it V.w to Rducate the Native/ — Is he willing
to use his education for the uplift of his people? Is he a
better citizen than the uneducated man ? Does he make a
better servant? Does he stay in his job longer? What does his
employer think of him and of the services he is able to render?
These and many more minor questions are involved in the main
question. This is not the first time I have attempted to answer
this question. In 1906 I had the privilege of reading a paper
before the General Missionary Conference in Johannesburg on
the sul)ject of the educated native, treating the question as
related to industry and crime. That paper embodied investiga-
tions that were made from school records, from personal know-
ledge of individuals, and from testimonies of employers of
natives concerned. This seemed to be the kind of information
that was desired by students of the native question, judging of
the use made of the facts given, by Lord Selborne, by Sir Matthew-
Nathan, and lately by Dr. Loram. in his book on the education of
the South African native. This is my excuse for following a
somewhat similar line of investigation in the present paper, and is
offered simply as a contribution to the detailed study that must
be made of the various phases of the native question before a
satisfactory foundation can be reached upon which to build con-
structively. Theories and individual opinions we have in abun-
dance, but with the awakened interest in the native question that
is so noticeable, there is a demand for something more substantial
than opinions of individuals, or judgments based on isolated
experiences.

The method of investigation was as follows : —

At Amanzimtoti Institute, the school with which I have been
connected for the past 16 years, we have three departments: (a) a
so-called secondary school for boys in Standards V, VI, and VII ;
(^) a teacher training department for boys and girls who have
passed Standard VI; and (c) an Industrial Department. First, I
have looked up the records of the 353 students who left the
institution during the five years from 1912 to 1916. Five years
seemed a sufficiently long period to make the results of value ;
while at the same time this limit enabled me to make the inquiry
fairly complete. Since our school only receives boys who have
passed Standard IV, the term " educated," for the purpose of this
paper, means " passed in Standard V or higher." Then I paid
personal visits to the employers of male ex-students of the
institution in Durban, Maritzburg, Johannesburg, Pretoria, and
other centres, to get their opinions of the boys. These I took
down verbatim, making no attempt to influence the employer's
opinion or to gloss over unfavourable remarks. This investiga-
tion covered students who had ever been to school, no matter
when or how long, and who were working for Europeans. I am

342 DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE.''

therefore in position to offer statistical answers to the folltiwing
questions : —

Question i. — ^'Vhat are the 353 students who left Amanzim-
toti Institute during the years 1912-1916 now doing? (Sei)arate
figures are given for the secondary school and training depart-
ments.)

T.T. S.C. Total.

Teaching 142 11 153

Studying 3 11 14

Married (females) ... 8 — 8

Blacklisted (females)... 3 — 3

Working in cities 19 84 103

France 6 4 10

Dead 10 10 20

At Home 8 15 23

No Address — 18 18

199 154 353

From these figures it will be seen that of the 353 students,
10 are in France and 103 are working for Europeans in South
Africa, which means that 37 per cent, are wnorkiug to-day for
white men. The great majority of the remainder are working for
the uplift of their own people, which means that the primary
object for which we have taken up educational work is being
achieved. Very few are idle or unemployed. Ten per cent, is a
generous estimate of those who would be considered as worthless.
The remaining 90 per cent, are making good.

Question 2. — Is the educated man a better and more .sober
citizen than the uneducated man ?

It is admittedly somewhat difficult to get vital statistics on
this point, but the following facts are worth noting in this con-
nection : —

(a) Not a single student who left school during the past
five years has been imprisoned for any cause whatever.

(b) In only two instances — one in Johannesburg and one
in Durban — did any employer make reference to drink being
a special weakness among the 185 cases investigated.

(c) Of the 136 boys attending school in 1917-1918, I
find that 113 or 83 per cent, have never drank native beer
or other intoxicating drinks. As these boys range in age
from 13 to 25 years, this may not be altogether surprising,
but the significant fact is that of this number, 107 or /S> per
cent, never had it in their homes; seven, or 5 per cent., did
not have it in their homes, but secured it elsewhere; 13, or
10 per cent., had it in their homes, but never drank ; while
the remaining 16, or 12 per cent., had it in their homes, and
drank. In this connection it should be borne in mind that
many of the missionary societies have for years been advocat-
ing total abstinence, even from native beer, and the above
is the response the parents of our students arc making t'> the
teachings of temperance.

DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVES ^43

Question 3. — Wliat occupations do male educated natives
follow, who proceed to the larger towns? One hundred and
eighty-five students were looked up in Durban, Johannesburg,
and elsewhere. The numbers and percentages following the chief
employments were as follows : —

No.

Per cent.

Clerks and Office- Boys , . . .

60 ..

.... 32

Bootmaking and Saddlery . . .

33 ••

18

Other Trades

17 ..

9

Store and Shop-Boys

46 ..

24

Police and Interpreters

15 ••

9

Hospital Orderlies

4

2

Miscellaneous

10

6

The large percentage of boys taking up clerical work is
explained by the facts that a clerical position is the gentlemanly
kind of occupation which the native likes ; it is the education
which is the most easily given, because it is the cheapest ; the
wages offered are fairly high ; and finally there are many openings,
particularly in Johannesburg, for trustworthy boys who can read
and write to act as checkers, time-keepers, etc., on the mines.
Bootmaking and saddlery is an occupation for which the native
seems to have special aptitude, and again is one that can be taught
easily. Large numbers of educated boys are now being employed
in the stores, for delivery of goods — much to the relief of passers-
by, who are not so frequently being accosted to read addresses on
parcels and letters.

Question 4. — How long do these natives working in towns
stay with their employers? What is the length of their vacations?
What wages do they get?

The answers to these questions will come as a surprise to
those who imagine that a native cannot work longer than six
months at a time, to be followed by six months of rest. Here
are the figures : They are not quite complete, as I failed to
enquire, in some instances, but the percentages would probably
not be affected materially, as the above covers 171 cases out of
the 185.

Length of Service —

Under one year 28

1 to 2 years 35

2 to 3 „ 21

3 to 4 „ 24

4 to 5 , 13

5 to 7 „ 17

7 to 10 , 15

10 to 15 10

15 to 20 5

21 years i

22 „ I

28 „ I

171

^44 DOES IT I'AV TO i-:l)L'Catk the native?

This makes a total of 767 j/3 years for 171 men, or an average
of 4 years sVz months for each man.

In lohannesburg the average length of vacation was from
10 days to three weeks — the longest being four weeks. In Durban,
where boys are able to get home more frequently, most of them
only receive the statutory holidays, many working on continuously
for years.

Their wages ranged from £3 los. per month to iio per
montli in Johannesburg. The general wage was 25s. per week
without food, or £4 los. per month with food. In Durban the
wages are lower, ranging £2 to £8 per month, although £4 to £6
per month is not uncommon. The wages obtained may throw
some light on why the educated boys are unwilling to take service
in kitchens.

Question 5. — What does the European employer think of the
educated natives in his employ? If the proof of the pudding is
the eating, then the opinion of the people who use the labour of
educated natives should carry great weight. As stated before,
the very words of the employer were taken down, and the name
of the individual or firm, together with the name of the native
employed, is here given. The complete list is as follows, given
in the order in which they were secured, largely : —

MoDDRK R MiiNi-: — N. C. Aultenkirk, Assistant Com])Ound Man-
ager.

1. Franklin Makanya — Here five years; gets three weeks'

vacation each year.

2. Enoch Sishie — Four and a half months.

Both jolly good boys. We employ from 16 to 20 educated
boys. Pretty well every Natal boy I have come across has been
quite decent. One v\e have is almost as good as a white man.

Brakpan — Dennis Simpson. Compound Manager.

3. Ephraim Mntyali. A year and three months. All right.

4. Zechariah Tshezi — One year.

5. Azariah Hlubi — Six years.

Have close on 20 educated boys. TJke the rest of us, good
and bad among them. On the whole they are very satisfactory.
They have to set an example for the others. They get 10 days to
two weeks' vacation.

Brakpan — European Time Office.

6. Robert Zondi — 5-6 months. Fairly sulky at times, but not

bad at all.

Brakpan Hospitai. — A. Scott, Superintendent.

7. Wm. Mabaso — One year and four months.

Must have educated boys, but would not trust them very far.
The Zulus are all right.

Van Ryn Deep.

8. Mordecai Sitole. Shoemaker, 3 years. A very decent

boy.

New Modderfontein Hospital.

9. Mizraim Goba— Nine months. He's all right.

IH)I-:S IT PAY T(J EDUCATE Till': NATIVE? 343

New Modderfontein Stokes.

10. Percy Mbhele. Shoemaker. All right ; nothing to

complain of. Has been here three years, and gets £6
per month. Very honest.

Benoni — I Market Avenue.

11. Fred Ndhlela — Shoemaker. A quiet fellow. Nothing

against him.

D. Shapiro, Cranbourne Road.

12. Julius Nyuswa — One and a half years. Decent boy. I

keep changing hoys, but never had to let him go.

E. R. Falls, Shoemaker, Cranbourne Road.

13. Henry Mbambo — Is all right. I don't complain at all.

I like him. One of the best boys I ever had. Has
been here 14 years.

Studebaker Garage— Mr. Payne.

14. Philemon Mbuli — Bright, willing boy. One of the best

educated boys we have, and verv good. Six months.

Location — Superintendent, L. J. Poulton.

15. Nehemiah Cele — Four years. Good.

Have been brought up amongst natives near Grahamstovvn,
and would sav this: Iif they jiick u]) education they are rotters;
if they are trained by white men, they are good.

BoKSBURG North — J. Hill, Outfitter.

16. Walter Goba. Was here three years ; now on his way to

France. Very honest and reliable.

17. Nathaniel Dingila — Just come to take his place. Seems

all right.

New Comet Mine — Mr. Develing. Compound ^ranager.

18. Zepheniah Jali — Has been here several years. (4) A

decent fellow and good worker.

Angelo Mine — Mr. Jones, Compomid Manager.

19. Andrew Mkwalo — One year.

20. Africa Gumede — Six years.

Can always depend upon them. HI had more like them, my
work would be much lighter.

Driefontein Mine — F. Parks. Compound Manager.

21. W^ilfred Nduna — Ten years.

22. Rollins Mkwanazi — Three vears.

23. Joseph Majola — One year.

All good boys ; smart. No complaints.
Village Main Reef — E. S. Palfranian, Compound Manager.

24. Nkosana Mtembu — Has been here a donkey's age (11

years), and that should be sufficient recommendation.

Block B — Mr. Miller, Compound Manager.

25. Robert Mvuyana — One year and tliree months. All

right.

26. Daniel Mqadi — Nine years.
These boys give good satisfaction.

346 DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE?

Block B Hospital — Mr. McDougall, Superintendent.

27. Abel Likumbi — Has been here one year. Carries out his

instructions, and is very careful, but is not gifted with
a great amount of brains.

Aurora West — Mr. Marais, Compound Manager.

28. Hofifnai Khati — Seven and a half years. A very decent

fellow. Gives every satisfaction.

Germiston Location — Superintendent.
29. — Ndeya Makanya — Four years.

30. Harold Shezi — Seven years.

Very decent fellows. Have known them for a number of
years.

Germiston — Native Pass Office.

31. Samuel Hlongwana — A clever, good boy. Has just left,

but gave good satisfaction. Two years.

Johannesburg — Cuthbert's.

32. Walter Tshabalala. One of the best boys we have had.-
It's not education that spoils them, but Johannesburg and

n-il influence.

L. WiLDE^ 76, Smal Street, Shoemaker.

33. Bhekinkosi Mdhlui — As good as any of them. A hue

worker if by my side, but loafs terribly if left alone.

Consolidated Main Reef — Win. Blockley, Chief Compound
Manager.

34. Amos Mavuso — Not brilliant, and a bit laz}-. as he hasn't

much to do, but gives satisfaction.
Have had many educated boys during past years, and while
occasionally one is a rotter, yet in the main they are good. When
we say that an educated native is no good, we mean as a labourer,
underground.

Maraisburc; — G. Bushkin, Shoemaker.

35. Wm. Mtembu — Two years. A good worker and respect-

ful, but spends all his money as soon as he gets it.
Needs to mend his ways.

Roodepoort — R. T. Dobson, Location Superintendent.

36. Richard Mdima — Policeman 7-8 j^ears. No fault to find

with him. Ls induna, and thoroughly reliable.

37. Cornelius Mdima- — Has butcher's shop. Is plodding

along, and is all right.

38. Meshack Nyawose — Here three years. Is secretary of

Location Committee. A very useful chap, and in good
standing in the location.
One of these men is living with a woman not his wife, but I
don't lay that U]) against him. for in my opinion no native has
any morals.

United Main Reef — W. Reid, Chief Engineer.

39. Lindley Ngcobo — Here year and a lialf. A very decent

fellow.

DOKS IT I'AV TO Kin (ATI': THK NATIVE? 347

RooDEPooRT United — Wni. Bell-Brown, Chief Timekeeper.

40. Allison Champion — Nine months. All right. Thoroughly-

reliable.

41. Bryant Mtetwa — Six years.
Would not ask for better boys.

RooDEPooRT United — R. M. Bertram, Compound Manager.

42. Napopeon Makanya — A very, very good and trustworthy

boy. One of the cases where education has not spoiled
them. Five years.

43. Julius Cele — One and a half years. Also a good boy.
Usually the great ambition of a boy is to learn to read,

write, and sell brandy.

West Rand Cyanide Works — A. E. Day, Manager.

44. Gabriel Dhludhla — All right; too good for his present

job, and we are planning to give him office work. Four
months.
Consolidated Main Reef. — D. B. Russell, Compound Manager.

45. Walter Dingila — Four years.

46. Vuselela Dingila — Year and half.

47. Johannes Ndhlovu — A good shoemaker. Has been work-

ing on his own for the past two years.

\\'ell behaved boys. Have some awful rotters in the com-
pound— Ninevehites — but they are of the uneducated class.
Block A. — Mr. Thompson, Compound Manager.

4S. Moffat Mcanyana — Has been here four years this
stretch, and eight years all told. He's all right.

I was brought up amongst the natives in the Eastern Pro-
vince, and I believe education a great thing to help the natives.
Most of the talk against education comes from those who have
come the least in touch with the educated native.
Section II South — W. D. Weeks, Compound Manager.

49. James Cele — Six years. A splendid boy ; my right hand

man, as I have no assistant. Gets three weeks ofY each
year if he asks.

50. Elton Sisibo — Year and a half. A good fellow, but not

so bright as the other.
Certainly education has not spoiled these boys.
Forges South — A. E. Smith, Compound Manager.

51. Charles Cele — Year and half. Very dependable boy, and

of good character.

52. Charles Gildart — One year and half.

53. Griffin Kliati — Was here several years and then went

home. I sent for him, but he had started teaching.
C. A. Hadley, Contractor. Marshall Street.

54. Abrani Ngcobo — Has been here five years, and quite the

best boy we have.
African Films Trust — Mr. Schlesinger.

55. Wilder Goba — A good man and well looked after. I

have just built a house for him. (He was Sobuza, the
leading native in the film, "Winning a Continent.")

34^ DUES IT I'AV TU KDICATE fllE NATIVE?

African Realty Trust — Mr. Schlcsinger.

56. Jeremiah Langeni — Has been here eight >ears, and he

wouldn't leave us.
The service natives render depends upon the treatment they
get from the white men.
Langlaagte.

57. Dinabantu Njapa — Has been a bootmaker on his own

for the past nine years, and is all right.
H. MoKToN^ 167, President Street.

58. Amos Mseleku— Here one year as shoemaker. Very

satisfactory boy.
Robinson Deep — George Devenish, Conn)Ound Manager.

59. Lloyd Goba — The best native 1 kncjw. Has been here

1 1 years.

60. Amos Zwane — Here six years. Is becoming addicted to

the races, and no man, in my opinion, whether white or
black, can follow the races steadily and hope to
succeed.

61. Charles Nyawose — Five years.

62. John Ngongoma — Five years.

63. Garnet Mqadi — Three years.

64. Ephraim Mfeka — One year.

65. Judson Goba — Two years.

66. Daniel Mqadi.

Very excellent. Can only give them excellent characters..
The Zulus have always played the game.
Wolff & Eli as — Manager.

67. Philemon Mutyali — Has been here 10 years. Good

character, or would not have kept him so long.
Have a number of edticated natives working for us, and they
are very satisfactory.
Wm. Bain & Co.

68. .Simon Ngcamu — All right. Has been here four years,

and was with W. R. Rurmeister for 12 years, until the
firm went out of business.
Native Pass Office.

69. Lovedale Mfeka — Year and a half.

70. Philip Mdhluli — Two years.

I have 79 natives under me, about three-fourths of them
being educated. They are very satisfactory. These boys are ([uite
good, one especially. I wouldn't say so if they were not.
Collins & List Bros. Jewellers.

71. Zacharias Hlabisa — This boy has been working for us on

and off for 12 years or more. He is one of the most
civil, willing, and thoughtful boys we have ever had.
The Athen.1£UM Clui; — J. .\1. Thom.

^2. Jorof^n Mtivane — A very good boy and does his work
satisfactorily. Has been here three years.
Johannesburg Hospital. — R. Hodgkinson.

73. William Mtetwa — Here three years. Has given us every
satisfaction.

DOK.S IT l'A\' TO F.DL'CATl-: Till-: NATIVE? 349

Allen Wilson^ Architect, Sacke's Buildings.

74. fames Ntsiba. Always been very satisfactory. He is

intelligent, civil, and obliging, and I have every confi-
dence in him. Am pleased to have this opportunity of
speaking in this way of the boy. Has been with us
four years.

P. McIntosh^ Grocer, Fordsburg.

75. Cornelius Ntuli— -Has been in our employ three years.

and is giving entire satisfaction. He is a very good
servant.

Pretoria — Greatrex, Ltd.

76. Porter Dhlamini — A lirst-class workman. Plas been here

two years. Was inclined to be saucy when he hrst

came, but now all right. Was with Mr. Leech for lo

years before coming here.

Mr. Leech : Was with me lo years. Take him all through,

was not a bad sort, but got cheeky one day and I fired him. 1 would

take him back at any time, however. He was absent a couple of

days — said he was sick. He came back on a Thursday, saying

he was ready to work next day. I told him to stay away until

Monday, lie replied, " But, boss, 1 want to work to-morrow."

] replied, " Your business is to do as you are told. Yoetsak the

h out of here!" I thought that would teach liim a lesson. He

went to Greatrex, but I would give him a job whenever he wanted
one.

MiDDELBURG — McDonald & Grant.

yj. Enoch Myeza — Here two years. We find no fault with
the boy, as we have always found him to be a quiet,,
honest, and good-working servant.

H. Bassett-Evans, Box 6328.

78. Abednego Ndhlovu — 1 find him sober, honest, and trust-

worthy. He has had access to many hundreds of
poiuids' worth of goods, and has never betrayed the
trust. Tile fact of his being with me for the last eight
years speaks for itself. If he would only improve
in his writing, or learn to ty])e, I could give him an
opportunity to advance himself.

Simmer Deep — ^Philip Perkins, Compound Manager.

79. Herl)ert Msimang — Here three years and left to take up

a higher-paid appointment. During the whole of this
period he was under my personal supervision. I con-
sider him most trustworthy, civil, and obliging, and
regret losing his services.

Durban.

C. L. Kenwood, Esq., West Street.

I. Mordecai Makanya — .\ jolly good boy. Honest, and
that's evervthing. An excellent chap, (iet's the same
vacations as I do.

350' r)('ES IT PAY To EDUCATF. THE NATI\T-: ?

C. H. Farman & Co., Britannia Buildings.

2. Isaiah Mapumulo — Quite a decent boy. All right. One

year.

Mason's Furniture Store.

3. Mponswa Kuzwayo.

4. Mntombi Nkuku.

5. Ethelbert Goba.

6. Yingi Meyiwa.

One thing I like about them — they never stop off. They
stick to their work splendidly.

W. T. Clark, Esq., Club Arcade.

7. Ephraini Msweli — Thoroughly honest and trustworthy.

Very civil.

John Orr & Co.

8. Samson Yeni — Very clever and well educated, but a bit of

a nuisance.
Have a number of educated boys, and taken all through, I
haven't a bit of trouble with them from one year's end to another.
Like white people, some things must be overlooked. The Zulus
are a fine race of boys.

F. Mackrorv, Field Street, Saddler.

9. Henry Mkwananzi — Has been here five years. Quite all

right. Has the regular holidays. He got oft' 10 days
last year, but I couldn't give him 10 days every year.

Mr. W. F. Johnstone, Smith Street.

10. Valelisa Nyandu — Perfectly satisfactory in every respect.

Does his work well, writes a very good hand, and a
better boy I could not ask for. Has been here six years.

W. Mills, Bootmaker, Railway Street.

11. Zechariah Mzoneli.

12. Stanley Mbhele.

Very good boys. I have five boys working for me that you
couldn't beat in Durban.

v^orporal Treanor, Umlazi Court.

13. Malcolm Hawes — The most excellent native I ever came

across. Always civil. Couldn't say a word good enough
for him, and this is the opinion of all who know him.
Now in France. Two years.

14. Johannes Nzumalo — Not half as good as the other. He

was young and cheeky. Education gave him a swelled
head. Was with us three years ; now in France.

15. Africa Ngcobo — Has just been here two months. A civil

boy.

Native Eating House — Mr. Radford, Superintendent.

16. Dick Kuzwayo — Has been in charge of one of the tables

for the past 14 years. One of the best.

17. Colly Mkize — Here three years. Also one of the best.

18. Lazarus Bhengu (butcher).

19. Napthali Citwayo (bootmaker).

DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE? 351

20. Mordecai Mtetwa (Policeman) — Four years.

All decent fellows. I couldn't say anything against them.
S. Simon, Bootmaker, Smith Street.

21. Simon Mfeka — A good boy. Not a bad boy at all. Has

been with me for the past two years.
Danziger & Co., West Street.

22. Philemon Kanyile. An excellent worker, and a thorough

gentleman. One in a thousand. Here six years.

23. Leonard Mkwanazi — Lazy, very lazy. Doesn't want to

do too much w^ork ; but I've kept him on for two years.
You know how it is — you get attached to them,
J. M. NicHOLL, Grocer, Musgrave Road.

24. Willie Shangase — Quite all right. A steady, useful boy.

Doing you credit.
Cartwrkiht's, Commercial Road (S. Brown, Manager).

25. Cornelius Mcanyana — A very satisfactory boy. Has

been with me seven years. Quite all right, or I would
not have kept him so long. Gets twO' weeks off at
Christmas.
T. Burman, Grey Street.

26. Absalom Bhengu — Excellent. Has been here for the

past 20 years. Gets a week oft" now and then, but that

is all. It has been constant work.
Randles Bros. & Hudson (Mr. Wellington).

2"/. Henry Kwela — Not too bad. As slow as the most of

them. Has been here two years.
E. J. LowTHER, Victoria Bakery.

28. Erwin Zama — The best boy we ever had ; in fact, have

every confidence in him. I wish we had one or two
more like him. Has been here six years.
E. W. Snell & Co., (Mr. H. Dalgety).

29. Peter Zulu — Very good. Working extremely well. Has

worked here for the past i8 years.

30. Samuel Mhlongo — One year. Also good.

I have a number of educated boys, some smart as paint, and
I never have any trouble.

Galloway Bros., Pine Street.

31. William Mtetwa. All right. A good fellow. Here five

years.
Jacklin & Co., Esplanade.

32. Stanford Msomi — Steady, well-behaved, and respectful

always. One year.
Erickson Bros., Nicol's Court.

33. Mf any ana Nyatekazi — An excellent, trustworthy chap.

In charge of our store room, and has been in same job
for past II years.
David Fowler & Co., Nicol's Court.

34. Patrick Nungu — A very good boy. Slow, but depend-

able. Four years.

B

352 DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE?

A. Andreassen, Bootmaker, West Street.

35. Willie Bhulose — He's all right ; getting along well. Has-

missed six months in five years.

36. James Bhulose — Has been here 10 ^'ears. Gets Christmas

holidays, but never absent during 10 years.
They are both good ; the very best boys we have in shop, in
fact. Hard workers, too.

Thesen & Co., Milne Street.

yj. Stewart Ntuli — Smart, intelligent chap. Inclined to be
cheeky at times.

38. Bennet Ntuli — Hasn't been with us long, but seems alt

right.

Hansford & Hansford.

39. John Dube — Very good and steady. Is our induna. and

has been here 14 years.

Clifton Stores, Berea Road. —

40. Garnet Zama — All right.

We get along with all our boys. We treat them well ; we
feed them well ; we pay them well.

H. A. Stick, Montpellier Road.

41. Jonathan Shangase — Very good and reliable.

Congella Police Station.

42. Ephraim Nembula — Very good, very respectful, very

obliging. Has just finished ten years of service.

H. &. A. Payne.

43. Nana Mngadi — He's all right. Has been here a year.

Ravner & Reid, West Street.

44. Samson Dube — A good boy. He's all right. Here two

years.

Dr. J. B. McCoRD, Beatrice Street.

45. Ephraim Mgobhozi — Slow, not very bright, but very con-

scientious.

A. H. ToD, Chemist, Pine Street.

46. Hlangoti Kuzwayo — Here three and half years. Does

his work well.

47. Griffin Madevana — No complaints.

48. Francis Mwandhla — No complaints.

49. John Macebo — The best of the lot ; an excellent boy.

Williams, Hunt & Co.

50. Solomon Dube — Has only been here a few months. He's

all right.

African Life & Guarantee Assn., Smith Street.

51. William Bhulose — A bit slow. Will never set the Thames

on fire, but steady and reliable. Here three and a half
years.

Colonial Banking and Trust Co.

52. Philemon Lutuli — Teller in Native Banking Department.

A good fellow. Has been with us two years.

DOES IT l'A^ TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE? 353

Greatrex, Ltd., Commercial Road.

•)T,. Thomas Alsweli — Has been here some years, and is
working very well indeed. Four years.

S. & W. KiLLERBY, West Street.

54. Ishmael Ngwane — Seems to be all right. Has been here

18 months. We haven't had any trouble with him.

G. Leon, Bootmaker, West Street.

55. Elijah Bhengu — Best shoemaker in Natal. No one can

touch him. Has been here 22 years.

56. Joseph Ninela — A good fellow.

They have been two good men to me. I have had a hundred
boys passing through my hands in the past 26 years, but these are
the best boys I ever had.

Parker, Wood & Co. (Mr. Stapeley).

57. Mzamo Pewa— A genuine straightforward boy. Can

rely upon him to do his work thoroughly. Has been
with the lirm 28 years.

58. Shadrack Ndhlovu — Here just a month.

BuLWER Park Police Station ( Sergt. Welsh).

59. Henry Mgobhozi — Has been here six years. Quite a

good boy.

60. William Mgobhozi — His brother, now in France,was with

me for a number of years. At times was inclined to
wander, but became all right. Wrote a beautiful hand.

Port Office (Mr. Miles).

61. Gideon Njapa — A very good boy. Here a donkey's years

(15).

62. David Ngwane — A hrst-class deck hand. Just had an

increase in his wages. Five months.

63. John Kuzwayo — Been here 20 years. Our top paid boy.

64. William Kuzwayo — Quite a good boy. All right. Ten

years.

65. Africa Kuzwayo — Now on s.s. Professor. Spoken
well of by captain.

66. Meshack Mwandhla — Has been here 10 years. The best

boy we have on the crane.

Bl.\ckhurst & Richards.

67. Nduna Msomi — Here three and half years. All right.

Location (Mr. Hitchcock, Acting Manager).

68. Mafa Lutuli — Able and good at his work. One year.

69. Vivian Makanya — Keen, energetic and attentive. Three

months.

Native Affairs Department (J. S. Marwick).

yo. Leonard Ncapai — For three years with me in Transvaal.
Work excellent ; his work latterly not of same standard,

71. B. Mtetwa — Always all right. Nine months.

72. Seth Pewa — Can say nothing but good of him. One of

the best boys I have had. Work excellent. Eight
years.

354 DOES IT PAY TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE T

-j-^. William Mkwanazi — Very capable. Benefited by disci-
l^line obtained when with Swaziland Police. Has had
to fight against a liking for liquor. Seven years.

74. K. Mkwanazi — Quite satisfactory. Three years.

Mrs. Payne, Overdale.

75. A. J. Mtetwa — Very satisfactory. Has been here 21

years. Has entire charge of grounds. We leave him
in charge of house when away.

KoH^ER Bros., Field Street.

"](). George Gumede — Here seven years. A good boy. Got
into trouble a little while ago. Had a fight in his
" kaya," and was fined £15 at Pinetown. We paid the
ii5 rather than lose him, for he is a good worker.

Standard Boot Works, Berea Road.

yy. Jonah Dube — He's all right. I've nothing against him.
Eight months.

78. Lawrence Hlatywayo. Quite all right. A good worker.

Gets the usual holidays. Here a year and a half.

Union Whalinc; Co.

79. Luke Shangase. Satisfactory. Nothing against him.

Smith and Potts. Ltd. (Mr. Bogue).

80. Sonnieboy Kumalo — Good worker, but fails to show up

frequently on Monday mornings, and I have threatened
to discharge him.

W. F. Johnstone & €., Ltd. (Mr. Pugsley).

81. Moses Dhladhla — Here three years. All right. Never

gave any trouble until some boys got up a conspiracy,
and we sacked him with seven others.

Texaco Co. (J. Wheatley, Manager).

82. Shadrach Ntyali — Five years. Very good boy. Never

had any trouble with him.

Lever Bros. (Mr. Appleton).

83. John Ngcobo — Three years. Good boy. Quite all right.

Lever Bros. (Mr. Lindsay, Foreman).

84. Martin Makanya — All right. Good worker. Left to

take job with more pay.

85. Ishmael Ntaka — Good boy.

Outside Johannesburg and Durban.

Ireland & Co.

1. Tekwana Mdhluli.

2. Paraffin Mdhluli.

We have had one eight and a half years, and the other four
years, in our boot-repairing department. Both good boys. Never
get more than regular holidays.

M. Karsen, bootmaker, Church Street.

3. John Msomi — A good fellow. Has been here two years.

Gets a day off now and then, not more.

does it pay to educate the native? 355

Hall's Motor Works.

4. Frank Biddlecomb. All right. Seems fond of hi.s work.

Five months.

Vause, Slatter & Co.

5. Stimela Msqmi — Quite a good boy. Sticks to his work.

As energetic as any of them, but none of them know
how to make work. They must always be told. Has
been here two years, and gets £2 5s. i:»er month.

John Fraser, J. P.

6. Jerishem Gumede — He's doing you credit. Has been here

three years, and gets off two weeks each year. Receives
£6 per month.

Eddels, Ltd. (Mr. Berry, Manager).

7. S. Dube — 24 months.

8. Isaiah Langeni — Four months.
Both boys doing well.

Estcourt — Lieut. A. A. Wood, S.A.M.R.

9. Manuel Madhlala — Works very satisfactorily, and his

personal conduct is all that could be desired. Three
years.

Krantzkop — Colonel Barter, Resident Magistrate.

10. John Ntaka — Now on his way to France. A very good

boy ; in fact so good that when he went away we missed
him, and that is a pretty good recommendation for
anyone.

S.A. Wicker Work Co. (A. J. Thomas, Manager.)

11. Joseph Mpanza. Here five years. By far the best boy I

have had during that period. In fact, he is the pick of
over 20 apprentices that have passed through my work-
shops.

Camperdown — H. S. Broadbent, Solicitor.

12. Abel Ngcobo— A credit to his trainers, and I can con-

gratulate you upon his production. Capable and trust-
worthy, and generally respected by Euroj)eans and
natives. Four years.

Ndwedwe — S. S. Wilkins.

13. Billie Pewa — With me two years and a half as Dipi)ing

Assistant. A rehable and trustworthy servani:.

Port Shepstone Resident Magistrate.

14. Joseph Cele.

15. Israel Mqadi.

Are in the employ of local police. Both men are emploved as
clerks, and have given every satisfaction in their work.

Umzimkulu — B. R. F. Kennedy.

16. Isaac Keswa — Up to date I have found him satisfactory

in everv wav.

356 DOES IT I'AV TO EDUCATE THE NATIVE?

Kynoch's (Mr. Pugh, Compound Manager).

17. Phineas Masinga — A tip-top boy. My right-hand boy.

18. Ephraim Masinga — I don't think too much of him. but

there is nothing definite against him.

19. John Niekerk.

20. Sikwele Mapumulo.
Both all right.

21. Tonga Ntuli — One of the best boys I have had. A

ripping good boy.

Kynoch's, Ltd. (T. A. Warner, (Jverseer).

23. Joseph Bhulose.

24. Samuel Langa.

Seven years ago I was asked to investigate so as to make a
comparison between educated and raw natives. The subject did
not interest me at first, but I thought it was worth trying. We
had about 800 boys at the time, and we decided to pick out the
best 100 from the lot, based upon their value to us as workers.
When the 100 had been chosen, we looked up the history of each,
and found that 20 were what you would call raw natives. The
other 80 were mission natives, and of this number, 60 were what
are uually considered as educated, that is, were able to read and
write. Since that time I have been a rabid educationist, atid I
will take any boys you care to send along.

These are the facts, and all the facts, regarding the product
of one school, within the limits set by this paper.

With the help of two friends, the above opinions have been
carefully considered and classified, in order to ascertain what
opinions the employers have formed of them. Of the 185 cases
investigated, the employers regarded :

o as worthless ;

7 as poor ;

14 as fair ;

80 as good ;

56 as very good ;

28 as excellent.

To come back to our original question :" Does it pay tO'
educate the native?" we may say that: If education induces the
best of them to go back and work for the uplift of their people;
if the educated native is more temperate, works longer and more
steadily than the raw native ; if the average educated native is
ranked by his employer as varying from good to very good ; atid
from his wages is evidently worth from two to four times as
much as the uneducated man — then it seems to us, to use Parlia-
mentary language, " The anszver to the question is in the affirma-
tive."

Amanzimtoti Institute,
Natal.

THE DETERAIINATION UF PiiUSrHURlC OXIDE,

PARTICULARLY IN FERTILISERS, SOIL

EXTRACTS, AND THE LIKE.

By Beknarj) de Cohgny MARCiiAND, B.A.. D.Sc.

i^Read July lo, 1918.)

The methods that have from time to time been proposed for
the determination of phosphoric oxide are innumerable. We
do not propose to enter into a discussion of the merits and
demerits of these methods but to draw attention to a simple and
rapid method which presents many advantages over some of the
processes commonly employed. The method cannot be said to be
original, as it is merely a combination of two well-known
methods which have been largely employed in fertiliser analysis.

The method is due to the late H. J. Vipond, Chemist,
Department of Agriculture, and is a combination of von Lorenz's
method of precipitation for ammonium phosphomolybdate and
Pemberton's volumetric method for the dejtermination of the
precipitate.

Von Lorenz's method of precipitation involves a departure
from the i:sual methods used for precipitation of the ammonium
phosphomolylxlate in that no ammonium nitrate is used, while
ammonium sulphate is used instead. The underlying idea of
von Lorenz's procedure is the precipitation of a phosphomolyb-
date of constant composition which can be converted into a form
in which it can easily be weighed, while by the use of compara-
tively large volumes of strong acids possible interference of silica
and organic compounds is prevented.

When von Lorenz''' first published his method it attracted
very little attention, but Neubauer (in the Meetings of the Ver-
band Landwirtschaftlicher Versuchs-Stationen im Deutschen
Reiche) took the mauer up and succeeded in getting the method
adopted as an official method of the Verband. Neubauerf has
also modified the method in two details, which appear to be
improvements on the original method.

We do not propose to describe the original method, or Neu-
bauer's modifications, except in so far as it is used in the modi-
fication adopted by Vipond.

Solution of the phosphoric oxide may be made by any of
the methods employed generally, e.g., for the determination of
the total phosphoric oxide in fertilisers, the substance is boiled
with nitric acid, or soil extracts are ignited and ground, as pro-
posed by Neubauer. J and generally adopted by agricultural
chemists and the phosphoric oxide dissolved by means of dilute
sulphuric acid.

* Landw. Versuchs Stationen (1901), 55, 183.
i Zeit. Anal. Chem. (1912), 51, i6r.
tl.ainh<.'. I'erss. Stat. (1906), 63, T41.

358 DETEKMINATION OF PHUSI'IIORIC OXIDE.

The reagents required are :

(i) Stilphate-molyhdate reag^ent, — This is prepared by dis-
solving 300 grams of ammonium molybdate in i litre of water,
and pouring the solution in a thin stream into i litre of nitric acid,
sp. gr. 1 .36, in which 100 grams of ammonium sulphate have been
dissolved. The mixture is allowed to stand in the dark for 48
hours, the clear solution decanted or filtered ofif, and kept in
brown glass stoppered bottles in the dark.

(2) Sulphuric-nitric acid mixture. — 30 c.c. of sulphuric acid,
sp. gr. 1 .84, are added to i litre of nitric acid, sp. gr. i .20.

(3) Nitric acid, sp. gr. i .20.

(4) Sodium nitrate, a 3 per cent, solution.

The precipitation is carried out as follows : —

10 to 25 c.c. of the solution to be analysed, corresponding to
0.1 to 0.25 gram of the original substance, are placed in a
beaker of about 250 c.c. capacity. If the solution is made with
nitric acid, sufficient of the sulphuric-nitric acid mixture, and if
the solution is made with sulphuric acid, sufficient of the nitric
acid, sp. gr. i .20, is added to bring the volume of the liquid in the
beaker up to exactly 50 c.c, i.e., if 10 c.c. of a solution made with
nitric acid is taken, 40 c.c. of the sulphuric-nitric acid must be
added, or if 25 c.c. of a solution made with sulphuric acid be
taken, 25 c.c of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.20, must be added. The
solution is heated on a wire gauze until the first appearance of
bubbles, the beaker is removed from the flame and rotated for a
few seconds to prevent the sides of the beaker from being over-
heated. 50 c.c. of the molybdate reagent are then added rapidly,
without allowing it to come in contact with the sides of the beaker.
The beaker is allow to stand for a few minutes, not more than
five, and then rapidly rotated for about half a minute. The
mixture is allowed to stand for 2 to 18 hours, in practice over-
night is convenient, and filtered off at the pump through a Gooch
crucible fitted with a circular disc of filter paper. The precipitate
is washed with the 3 per cent, sodium nitrate solution until the
washings are free from acid. The precipitate, together with the
filter paper is transferred to the beaker in which the precipitation
took place, by means of the sodium nitrate solution, and dissolved
in a slight excess of standard sodium hydroxide solution. About
0.5 c.c. of phenolphthalein solution (i per cent.) is added, and
the excess of sodium hydroxide titrated back with standard acid.
Hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric acid may be used.

The reaction between the sodium hydroxide and ammonium
phosphomolybdate is usually expressed by the equation :

(NH,),P,0,. 24M0O3 -^ 46NaOH = 2(NH,),HPO,
+ (NH;),MoO, + 23Na,MoO^ -f 22H.,6.

According to this equation each cubic centimetre of tenth
normal sodium hydroxide corresponds to 0.0003089 gram of

DliTERMINATION OF PHOSPHORIC OXIDE. 359

phosphoric oxide ( P2O5). This factor is that used by Pemberton*
who used a sodium hydroxide solution made by dikiting 323.8 c.c.
of normal solution to i litre.

Prescottf has come to the conclusion that this factor is too
high.

When Vipond introduced the above method into the Pretoria
Laboratory, he empirically determined the factor in two series
of experiments. The first series led him to adopt 0.0002775 as
the factor for N/io alkali. Later, as the result of his second
series of experiments, he informed the writer that he was of
opinion that 0.00028 was more nearly correct. This being rather
unsatisfactory, the writer was led to making the following deter-
minations with a view to ascertaining the exact relation between
N/io alkali and the ammonium jihosphomolybdate precipitate as
obtained by von Lorenz's method. It is evident from the results
obtained by Vipond and by the writer, that the above equation
does not represent the reaction when the precipitate is obtained
as above. According to Hundeshagen, the precipitate obtained in
the presence of nitric acid and ammonium nitrate has the com-
position, (NH4)3P04.i2Mo03.2HN03.H20. A precipitate of
this composition would recjuire 25 NaOH for solution, or,
doubling we have the equation :

(NHJ«P20g.24Mo03.4HN03.2H,0 -f 50 NaOH
= 2(NH,),HPO, -f (NHJ2M0O4 -f 23Na2MoO, + 4NaNO,

+ 26H2O.

It will be shown that the relation between sodium hydroxide
and phosphoric oxide in the above method of titration of von
Lorenz's precipitate is in practice that indicated by the above
equation.

A difficulty, however, arises in that ammonium phospho-
molybdate of the formula given above contains 3.470 per cent,
of phosphoric oxide, while according to von Lorenz his i)recipitate
contains only 3.295 per cent. In a number of determinations of
phosphoric oxide by the orginal von Lorenz method, we have
found that the factor 0.03295 is the correct one. The discrepancy
can only be accounted for by analysis of the precipitate. Investi-
gations on this point are being carried out.

In the experimental determination of the relation between
sodium hydroxide and phosphoric oxide, the phosphates used
were, (i) specially prepared di-calcium hydrogen phosphate, (2)
Kahlbaum's potassium di-hydrogcn ])hosphate and (3) samples
of fertilisers as received for analysis.

The sodium hydroxide solution used was standardised
against recrystallised and sublimed benzoic acid, and also against
recrystallised salicylic acid, succinic acid being unfortunately

* Journ. .'liner. Chem. Soc. (1894), 16, 278.
i Jouru. Agr. Sci. (1914), 6, in.

.360 ])i:ti:rmination of piiospffORic oxide.

unobtainable. The sulphuric acid used for the back titration was
standardised against the sodium hydroxide, and was also checked
against sodium carbonate prepared from the bicarbonate.

Weighed cjuantities of the phosphates were dissolved in
nitric acid or in water, made up to definite volume, and aliquots
of each solution taken for the determinations. As a check on
the calculated amount of phosphoric oxide in the pure substances,
determinations were also made by the method of precipitation
with ordinary ammonium nitrate-molybdate followed by solution
of the precipitate in dilute ammonia and reprecipitation as
ammonium magnesium phosphate which was finally weighed as
magnesium pyrophosphate in the usual way. This method was
also used to determine the phosphoric oxide in the fertiliser
samples used.

The theoretical amounts of phosphoric oxide used are given
in the second column of the following table, while in the third
column the amounts determined by the molybdate-magnesium
method as outlined above are given. In the fourth column are
the amounts of strictly tenth-normal sodium hydroxide used in
the titration, while the fifth and sixth columns give the factors
as calculated from the theoretical and determined amounts of
phosphoric oxide respectively. .All the results are the mean of at
least two agreeing determinations.

Phosphoric Oxide. P'actor calculated.

Phosphate X , 10 From

used. Deter- Sodium From Deter-

Theory. mined. Hydroxide. Theory. mination.

gr. gr. CCS.
CaH'PO^

2H2O 0.00825 0.008.^1 29.10 0.000283' 0.000285*

CaHPO.

2H2O 0.00825 0.00822 29.10 0.000283' 0.000285'

CaHPO,

2H2O 0.00893 0.00895 3140 0.000284* 0.000285*

KHjPO* 0.00738 0.00741 25.90 0.000284* 0.000284'

CaHPO,

2H«0.. 0.01032 0.01031 ,'^6.30 0.000284' 0.000284*

CaHPO,

2H2O 0.02063 0.02067 72.50 0.000284' 0.000285^

Mixed Fertiliser — 0.00867 30.22 — 0.000286*

Mixed Fertiliser — o.oo6r4 21.35 — 0.000287*

Water extract of
Superphos-
phate — 0.03405 119.00 — 0.000286'

The mean factor as calculated from the amounts of phosphoric
oxide theoretically present is 0.000284-, while that calculated
from the amounts of phosphoric oxide found by the gravimetric
method is 0.000285*. The mean ratio of sodium hydroxide to
phosphoric oxide is 49.8: i, a close approximation to the theo-
retical ratio of 50: i deduced from Hundeshagen's formula. It

J)KTEKMINAT10\ (JF PHOSPHORIC OXIDE. 361

is evident that if the ratio of 50 niols of sodium hydroxide to i niol
of ph<_)sphoric oxide is correct, the factor for conversion of
cubic centimetres of N/io sodium hydroxide to grams of ])hos-
. phoric oxide is 0.000284.

The effect of using the factor 0.00284 instead of the deter-
mined factors for each of the phosphates analysed is shown in
the following table : —

Phosphoric Oxide.
Substance. Theory. Gravimetric VoUiinetric

Determination. Detennination,

Percent.- Percent. Percent.

I.— CaHP()4 . 2H2O ... 41.27 ... 41-53 ■■■ 41 -.32

2.— CaPIPO* . 2HaO 41.27 ... 41.14 ... 41.32

3. — CaHPOi . 2HaO 41.27 ... 41.40 ... 41.21

4. — KIIjPOj o-i!^ ••• 52. 4J. -.. 52.01

5.— CaHP04 . 2HjO ... 41.27 ... 41.24 ... 41 -?4

6.— CaliPO^ . 2H2O 41.27 ... 41.34 .• 41. '8

7. — Mixed I'"ertiHser — ... 4.23 . . . 4.24

8. — Mixed Fertiliser — ... 3.07 ... 3.03

9. — Superphosphate — ... 17.02 ... 16.90

None of the results are outside the limits of experimental error.
The agrement between duplicates in the voliunetric is close, a
difference of more than o. i c.c. in a titration of 50 c.c. being rare.
If the amount of substance taken for analysis is o.i gram, as is
the usual practice in fertiliser analysis by this method, an error
of 0.3 c.c. in the titration affects the percentage result by less
than 0.1.

Experiments were carried out in order to ascertain the effect
of citric acid and ammonium citrate in the phosphate solution on
the quantity of sodium hydroxide used. These experiments show
that when precipitation takfes place in the presence of these
substances the amount of sodium hydroxide used in the titration
is slightly more than that required when citric acid and ammonium
citrate are absent. The excess of sodium hydroxide used is,
liowever, so small that the results are not materially affected. In
the following table some of these results are given : —

Phosphoric Oxide.
Phosphate used. Theory. Gravimetric Volumetric

Determination. Determination,
gr. gr. gr.

CaHP04 . 2H2O dissolved in

Ammonium Citrate 0.00825 ... 0.00831 ... 0.00832

CaHPO* . 2H3O dissolved in

2 per cent. Citric Acid ... 0.02063 — 0.02076

Basic Slag, 2 per cent. Citric

Acid Extract — ... 0.01584 ... 0.01592

CaHPO^ . 2H..O dissolved in

Ammonium Citrate 0.00825 ... 0.00828 ... 000.832

Pemberton.* Kilgoref, and others have drawn attention to
the necessity for performing the solution of the ammonium phos-

* Loc. cit.

t U.S. Division of Chemistry Bull., 43 (r8g4).

362 DETERMINATION OV PHOSPHORIC OXIDE.

phomolybclate in sodium hydroxide as rapidly as possible, and
titrating back with acid without delay. It has also been pointed
out that a large excess of sodium hydroxide is to be avoided owing
to the danger of loss of ammonia, fhe large quantity of indicator
is necessitated by the obscuring of the end point in the presence
of ammonium salts. If the relatively large quantity of indicator
recom!nended is employed, and the back titration carried out as
rapidly as is consistent with accuracy, there is no difficulty in
determining the point at which the pink colour vanishes. If, on
the other hand, only a drop or so of indicatiM- solution be used,
and the back titration is performed by adding the standard acid
drop by drop, the results obtained may be incorrect.

Soil Extracts and Plant .Ishes. — For the determination of
phosphoric oxide and potash in hydrochloric acid extracts of soils
and in plant ashes, the method of Neubauer* is very generally
used. In this method the soil extract, or the hydrochloric acid
extract of the ash, is evaporated to dryness with the addition of
about 0.5 gram of calcium carbonate, the residue hnely grovmd
with a glass pestle and gently ignited. The grinding is repeated
several times during the ignition. The residue is then extracted
with water, and the jX)tash determined in the aqueous solution.
The insoluble residue is extracted with dilute sulphuric acid, and
phosphoric oxide determined in the resulting solution.

The volumetric method is admirably adapted for the deter-
mination of the small amounts of phos])horic oxide usually
present in such solutions, and is probably cai-»al)le of greater
accuracy than methods in which the ])hos]>horic oxide is weighed
as magnesium pyrophosphate.

We append a note by R. J. Sniit, Division of Chemistry, on
the recovery of ammonium molybdate from the residues from
the above method.

Notes on a Method for the Recovery of Ammonium
molvrdate from residues.

Owing to high cost of ammonium molybdate at the present
time, and what is of even greater importance, the difficulty of
procuring supplies, the recovery of the molybdate residues is
desirable. Several methods for the recovery of ammonium
molybdate from these residues have lieen published.* and a
method may be found in almost any text-book. Since the von
Lorenz method of precipitation requires a special reagent contain-
ing no ammonium nitrate, the majority of the recovery processe'^
hitherto published are inapplicable.

Up to the present we have m.^t found it to- be economical to
recover ammonium molybdate from residues other than the
filtrates from the precipitates of ammonium phosphomolvbdate.
The filtrates are collected and evaporated to a small bulk. During

* Landzv. Verss. Stat.. tqo6. 63. 141.

fE.fi., Presoott, J. A.: .'hialyst (1915), 40, 390.

DETERMINATION OF I'llOSPHORIC OXIDE. 363

this evaporation molybdic acid, together with impurities, is depo-
sited. The evaporation is best carried out in a large enamelled
iron dish, since the risk of breakage of a porcelain dish is very
great owing to the formation of a hard layer of molybdic acid on
the bottom of the dish. After the evaporation, the contents of
the dish, a very strongly acid solution, are allowed to cool. The
mother-liquor is then poured off, and the molybdic acid at the
bottom of the dish is washed once or twice with distilled water.
Strong ammonia solution is now poured into the dish, when the
molybdic acid will slowly dissolve, while iron, etc.. will remain
as a dark brown preci])itate. Since the ammonia is neutralised
by the molybdic acid, the solution should be kept alkaline by the
addition at intervals of strong ammonia solution. The precipitate
is filtered off, and the clear solution reduced in bulk by evapora-
tion. This solution is often coloured blue by lower oxides of
molybdenum. Prescott* oxidises these by the addition of hydro-
gen peroxide. We have found that during the evaporation the
blue colour disappears. Molybdic acid is precipitated from this
solution by the addition of strong nitric acid. The precipitate, con-
sisting of almost pure molybdic acid, is allowed to settle, filtered,
and washed with distilled water. The washing should not be
repeated too often, as the precipitate is somewhat soluble in water.
The precipitate on the filter paper is dissolved in strong ammo-
nium solution, and the solution evaporated, when crystals of
ammonium molybdatesettle out. The crystals are collected, and
dried in the steam oven until the strong smell of ammonia has
disappeared. The product obtained in this laboratory by the
above method contains about 85 per cent, of M0O3, and cor-
responds approximately to the formula (NH4)gMo. 0,4, HjO, while
the formula of the amnion itmi molybdate of commerce is usually
given as (NH4),.Mo,0,,, 4H,0.

Chemical Laroratorv,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

Alligators as food.' — A. M. Reese gives an account
in Scicnce'f of a practical test in the use of alligator meat as
human food. The meat was parboiled, rolled in egg and cracker
crumbs, and fried. Thus prepared it was highly appreciated by
a group of some thirty persons who partook thereof. In the
Southern States of America, w^here alligator hides are prepared
for various commercial fancy purposes, it is suggested that this
meat, hitherto dealt with as refuse, be utilised for human food.

* Loc. cit. ^^ ^.„^

t47 (1918), 6^0, 641. /^^'^>V

THE DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERS OE SOME
SUPERFICIAL FUNGI.

Bv Ethel ]\Iary Doidge, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

(Read, July lo, 1918.)

Of the large group df Asconiycetes with a superficial
mycehum known as the Perisporiales only the family Erysiphacea?
has until recently received much attention from systematists ;
this is probably due not only to fche economic importance of the
powdery mildews, but to the fact that the other two ifaniilies
which were placed in the group comprise almost exclusively
tropical and sub-tropical fungi ; but the whole group is a very
interesting one, and well repays study.

Before referring to recent work on the classification I should
like to discuss the peculiarities of the fungi, formerly classed to^
gether as the Perisporiales.

The Erisyphacecc, the family causing the well-known powdery
mildews, are more or less familiar to every student of botany :
the colourless superficial mycelium and the oidial form of the
conidia are common to all the genera, and the classification is
based solely on the characters of the perithecia and spores.

Unfortunately, although the Oidiiim stage occurs on a large
variety of hosts, these fungi very rarely form perithecia in this
country ; this is especially true of mildews occurring on cultivated
plants, and I can only think of three which commonly produce
perithecia, Erysiphe (jraminis. Spluerotheea humuli on Cosmos,
and Podospbcrra leucotricha the cause of the apple mildew.

One of the most beautiful genera is Uncinula with uncinate
perithecial appendages, of which there are several South African
representatives : the most common is the cosmopolitan species,
Uncinula polychceta, which occurs on Celtis phamnifolia; two
other species with less numerous appendages occur on Ficus and
on Pterocarpus.

The genus Phyllactinia differs slightly from the rest of the
family in not being entirely superficial ; it sends special branches
of limited length into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through
the stomata, and on these branches the haustoria are produced.
which penetrate the cells olf the mesophyll.

The perithecial appendages are e(|uatorial, and are straight
and rigid, with a bulbous base. The appendages exhibit striking
hygroscopic movements, and aid in dissemination by bending
backwards and prizing the perithecium away from the leaf sur-
face when it is mature.

Only one cosmopolitan species, Phyllactinia corylea, is recog-
nised, occurring on a large number of hosts, and this has been
collected in the Transvaal on species of Combretum, Rhus, and
Vigna.

SUPERFICIAL FIX(H. 3*^5

The Pcrisporiacccc have many })oints in common with the
Erysiphacccc, but perithecial a]>pendages are far less common,
and in some of the genera there are very typical vegetative struc-
tures which are of value in differentiating species. This is
especially true of the genus Mcliola, which is very well repre-
sented in South .Vfrica. The mycelium is entirely superficial,
and each spore, as it germinates, gives rise to a radiating
mycelium with small penetrating haustoria ; the hypha; are 'fur-
nished with typical outgrowths of two distinct kinds ; the capitate
hyphopodia which occur at more or less regular intervals, and
are usually two-celled, and the mucronate hyphopodia, which are
usually one-celled, and are less plentiful. The latter, w^hich
Gaillard* regards as arrested mycelial branches, arc very similar
in all the si>ecies, and are of no value in diagnosis. The capitate
hyphopodia, which he looks upon as undeveloped perithecia, are
of more interest.

In some species they are opposite, e.g., M. capeiisis on
Hippobromus alata, in others alternate, and the terminal cell varies
very considerably in form, being either glolx>se or lobed in various
wa3's. The erect sterile branches, known as setaj, as also vei'y
varied in form, and Gaillard's system of classification is very
largely based on their presence or absence, and their form. The
majority are simple and straight, or abruptly geniculate at the
base, but some are curved in various ways, e.g., M . falcata com-
mon on Rubiacea?, and others are branches or forked at the tips;
e.g., M. furcilkita and M. varia.

The iperithecia are similar in form to those of the Erysipha-
ceae, but the group with true perithecial appendages is compara-
tively small ; in the section without mycelial seta?, however, one
frequently finds superficial cells of the perithecium growing out
into larvc'eform appendages, e.g., M . pitiggarii^ which occurs oit
Rubus and CUffortia.

In all the forms mentioned the mycelium is filamentous, but
a curious species, .1/. peltata, found in the Knysna forest on
Podocarpus, shows considerable variation from the usual type,
and has certain points df resemblance with a group to be
described later, the l'richopeltace?e. When the spore germinates
it branches repeatedly, and numerous hypho[x>dia are produced ;
the branches become fused by their lateral walls, and as they
continue to grow a fiat pseudo-parenchymatous disc is formed,
but the course of the comi3oneiit hyphae can easily be traced, and
hyphopodia are produced at regular intervals.

The family Microthyriacecc was composed of very miscel-
laneous elements, and it is only owing to the recent work of v-
Hohnef and Theissenj; that an intelligible system of classifica-
tion has been evolved. The order was limited by them to super-
ficial forms, and species which originated below the cuticle were

* Le Genre Meliola.
t Fragm. z. Myk.

\ Mykologischc Cenfralhhilt. 3 [61. 27^280. Centralhlatt f. Bakf. II
Abt. 39, 625.

366 SUPERFICIAL FUNGI.

all excluded ; but even then the group consisted of very hetero-
geneous elements, and forms which were described as belonging
to the same genus, after consideration and careful study, it has
been found advisable to place in entirely different families.

In many of the genera the mycelium closely resembles that
of the Perisporwcecc, having one or two-celled hyphopodia at
regular intervals, and Theissen makes the presence or absence
of these bodies a generic distinction ; but the essential character
in the Microthyriacecc is the structure of the perithecial mem-
brane.

In the genus Asterina, which may be taken as typical of the
Microthyriacecc, the thyriothecium, as it is called, originates
from a medial or terminal cell on the hypha, which divides
rapidly, and forms a small clump of cells between the hyphse
and the leaf surface. Each of the cells comprising this initial
group begins to grow in a radial direction, each radiating hypha
being in close contact with its neighbour, and being attached to
it by the radial walls. As the disc grows the increase in diameter
is provided for by the repeated forking of these radiating hyphae.
These are sometimes connected along their entire length forming
a compact disc, but more frequently they are free at the circum-
ference, giving the thyriothecium a fimbriate appearance. The
central part has meanwhile become arched to form the perithe-
cial cavity, while the peripheral zone remains appressed to the
leaf surface.

Theissen regards this structure as a development of the com-
plete spherical form found in the Perisporiacece; the thyriothe-
cium consists only of the basal half, which has been upside down,
and hence is called " inverse." This inverse form, together with
the radial iprosenchymatous structure oi the membrane, is typical
of the thyriothecia of the Micriothryiacecc proper. In the genus
Asterina, whicih we have been considering, the spores dehisce
through a star-shaped opening formed by the comporent hyphae
splitting apart from the centre.

The pycnidia are exactly similar in form to the thyryiothecia,
and in many of the earlier descriptions the conidia have been
mistaken for ascospores.

The fungi with hemispherical perithecia do not always
exihibit the radial structure described above ; in some cases, e.g.,
Micropcltis, a form of which is found on Marafha fraxinea, the
initial group of cells develop^, in an entirely different way.
Instead of radiating hyp^hse. weak, almost colourless, hyphal
branches are developed almost at right angles to one another,
these branches repeatedly forming an irregular network, which
continually increases in size ; meanwhile secondary branches arise
within the meshes of the net, which anastomose and form a com-
pact membrance, which later on becomes blue-green or blue-
grey. In many species the secondary branches, which are formed
witihin the meshes of the network, become curved, and are irregu-
larly toothed or indented in various ways, the very youngest

SUPERFICIAL FUNGI. 367

branch being" roUetl up in a spiral Ifashion, and giving the mem-
brane a very characteristic appearance.

The developing asci cause the central part of the membrane
to become arched, and the spores finally dehisce at the apex
through a circular pore.

Still a third type of membrane is to be found in the genus
MicrothyricUa ; the mature membrane in this case differs con-
siderably in appearance from the one just described, although it
is really only a variation oi the net-like structure. It originates
in a net-like branching- of the hyphae, but after the intercalary
spaces have all become filled up by lateral branches the straight
lines of the component hyph?e are lost, and the membrane has a
parenchvmatous appearance. The cell-walls, however, never
become thickened as they do in the " net-like '" membrane, and
they are usually yelloAv or yellowish-brown, never greenish.

This " net-like " development of the perithecial membrane
is so characteristic and so clistinct from the radial structure of
genera, such as Asferijia, that Theissen considers that they should
be placed in a separate family, which he calls the Hcmispharicece.
There are two distinct families with hemispherical perithecia, the
Microtliyriacecc, with the inverse radial structure, and the Hemls-
phccnacecc, in which the perithecial membrane originates in a
net-like brandhing of hyphse ; the latter family consisting of two
sub- families, in the first of which the net-like structure is more
or less evident, and in the second the mature membrane is
]>arenchymatous in appearance.

In a species originally described as an Astcriiia. there is still
a third type to be discussed. In the Microthyriacecc the spore
on germination forms a thread-like mycelium, consisting of
branched hyphre, with a single row of cells. The thyriothecia
originate from the hyphae as independent bodies, and they are
totally different from the mycelium in origin, growth, and struc-
ture.

The development of the Trichopcltacccc, as they are now
called, is entirely different. From the germinating spore there
develops through the repeated branching of the hyphae a circular,
one-layered membrane. This either grows in a single direction
and becomes ribbon-like in form, or the disc continues for some
time to enlarge, and then developes ribbon-like bodies on several
sides.

The ribbon-like bodies consist of a central axillary strand of
elongated cells, which are somewhat broader afid more variable
than those of the peripheral zone where the narrow, straight
hyphse are nearly parallel to one another, and at right angles
to the margin and to the axial strand. The course of these peri-
pheral hyphae can easily be traced; when one of the stout
hyphae of the axis bifurcates, one of the branches continues
in the same direction as the main hyphae, but the other takes a
sharp curve outwards, and by repeated branching produces the
narrow peripheral hyphae ; the first of the branches which was
not curved soon again bifurcates, and the process is repeated.

F

368 SUI'HRFiriAl. l'LN<;i.

The reproductive bodies which Theissen terms " ])ycno-
thecia," are formed in the thallus ; they usually develop between
the axial strand and the marg-in. Certain cells of the thallus
become raised, and the cell walls thickened, forming a circular or
elliptical cavity ; as the pycnothecium developes these cells divide
in all directions, causing an increasing arching of the membrane,
and finally form a compact, opaque, arch, consisting of several
layers of short, firm, ix>lygonal cells. The asci and spores
dehisce through an irregular opening, caused by the rujKure of
certain cells at the apex.

This structure is obviously distinct from the thyriothecia of
the Micvothyriaccce, the only point in common being the hemis-
pherical form of the mature 'fruiting bodies.

The following grouping (vf the families has therefore been
suggested ; for these superficial ascomycetes : —

Perithecia spherical, complete. Perisporialcs. Fruiting bodies
hemispherical HcmispJucrialesJ^

The Erysiphaceae and Perisjx^riacea^, described at the begin-
ning of this paper, constitute the Perisporiales. In the Hemis-
phcrriales the following families can be distinguished : —

I. Microthyriacecc. — Thyrioceia inverse, radiate, thallus
thread-like, persistent or evanescent.

II. Hcmisphccriacece. — Thyriothecia originating from a net-
like branching of the hyphse, not radiate, thallus as in Micro-
thyriace<T.

III. Trichopcltacece. — Thallus a radiate membrane, ])erithe-
cia formed pycnotically in the thallus.

Botanical Labokatokies.

Union Department of Agriculture.
Pretoria.

Vaccine Prophylaxis in Influenza — A reix^n
on the value of bacterial vaccine as a ])rophylactic against epidemic
influenza, by Dr. McCoy, Director of the Hygienic Laboratory,
Washington, Dr. Murray. United States Public Health Service,
and Dr. Teeter, Stanford University, San Francisco, is printed
in a recent issue of The Journal of the American Medical Asso-
ciation. Two groups of person.s — 390 in each group, and all
inmates of a State mental hospital, under 41 years of age — were
vaccinated early in November with a bacterial preparation con-
taining Bacillus influenscc, four types of Pncuniococci, Strepto-
coccus hccmolyticus and Staphylococcus pyogenes-aureus. Of
the vaccinated group, 119 developed influenza, 2j^ developed ])neu-
monia, and 10 cases resulted fatally ; amongst the unvaccinated,
103 developed influenza, 17 pneumonia, and 7 died. The reporters
conclude that " it appears clear from the evidence afTorded by
these observations that no protection was afiforded by the
vaccine."

Theissen, F. : Hemisphceriales, Ann. Myc. 11, [5], 468.

BEHAVIOUR OF BACTERIA TOWARDS ARSENIC.

By Henkv Hamilton Green, D.Sc, and Nrolaas Hoemeyr

Kestell. B.A.*

{Abbrcvialcd Prcliiiiiiutrx Paper.)

{Read. July ii, 1918. J

A cursory orientation of the general distribution of arsenic-
resistant bacteria has been commenced, and several highly
tolerant organisms are described. A preliminary study of the
significance of arsenic-resistance as a g"rou]j characteristic is
made, althottgh the data are limited b\- the fact that no bacterial
museum was available.

Two organisms, B. arseiioxydaiis and B. arsciircdiiccns,
responsible for oxidation of arsenite and reduction of arsenate
in arsenical dipping tanks, have been previously described by one
of us, but very little detailed work has yet been published in
regard to the general behaviour of bacteria towards arsenic.

The method adopted was simply to make plate cultures from
soil, air, fa?ces, and tank dip. on ordinary agar an<l on agar
containing (|uantities of sodium arsenite varying from o. i per
cent, to 0.5 per cent. As./), cqiu'valent. Arsenite-resistant
organisms were then isolated from one set of )>lates and non-
resistant colonies picked off from the others. Isolation of
infrequently occurring bacteria by enriching methods has not yet
been carried out.

Aerial Distrihiitioit. — rwo-minute exposures to laboratory
air and stable air gave varying results. On the ordinary plates
miscellaneous colonies developed, but for the most part these
were non-resistant. On o.i per cent, arsenite ])lates B. siibtilis
was suppressed, while on ]jlates containing over 0.2 per cent, to
0.3 per cent., the only surviving colonies were motilds and yeasts.
On one plate containing 0.5 per cent, of arsenite, and exposed to
stable air, a few colonies of the putidinn group ap])eared.

Soil. — Cultiu'es were ])lated from soil taken from a shrub
bed. Tlie dominant types appearing on ordinary agar belonged
to the mesentericus-mycoides group, although several other
forms, including a strei)tothrix, appeared. C,)n arsenified plates
no colonies developed, even at concentrations as low as o.i per
cent. As^Ov as arsenite, and at dilutions showing as many as 100
colonies on ordinary agar. Arsenite-resistant organisms of the
type which grow readily on agar are therefore not frequent in
soil. It is probable that recently-dunged soil would show more,
and it is not unlikely that infrequent forms could be demonstrated
by enriching methods.

Fcsces. — A mixed sample of stable manure was taken for

* Honorary Researcli Worker. L^nivcrsity Innti vacation, T917-1918.

3/0 JJEHAVIOUR OF nACTKKlA.

examination. At dilutions of i ]>er 100,000 the colonies on
ordinary agar were too numerous to be counted; on o. 1 per cent,
arsenite agar 44 colonies developed, and on 0.3 per cent, arsenite
agar (j colonies appeared. At dilutions of i per 10,000,000, 20
colonies appeared on ordinary agar and 2 colonies on o.i per
cent, arsenite agar, while the 0.3 ])er cent, arsenite plate remained
clean. Averaging the number for nine plates, it was a])parent
that about 90 per cent, of the total flora capable of growing on
agar were suppressed by arsenite in low concentration. About
10 ])er cent. ])roved resistant to o.i ])er cent. As^Og as arsenite,
and about 1 ]ier cent, were capable of tolerating 0.3 i)er cent,
or more. The intolerant forms included members of the coli
grou]). while the most highly resistant form belonged to the
putidiun family.

Cattle Dip. — Seven-day "laboratory strength," containing
o.t6 per cent. As^Og as arsenite. Two series of platings were
carried out, one about a week after making uj) the tank afresh,
and a few days after the first cattle di])])ing, the other about a
month later, when the arsenic resistant flora had established
itself. In the first series the bacterial count was naturally k^w,
and amounted only to about 4,000,000 per cubic centimetre.
The count on 0.2 \wr cent, arsenite agar was still lower, thus
suggesting that certain organisms were capable of surviving in
presence of arsenite without being able to nniltiply freely. In
the second ])lating of older di]), the bacterial numbers had risen
to about 100,000.000 per cubic centimetre, and all forms were
arsenic resistant. Apparently the non-resistant forms, introduced
in the faeces of the dipped stock, had died out, leaving the tolerant
forms to develo]:) and dominate the tank. Seven different s])ecies
were isolated, of which the most frec(uent belonged to the
putidum group, and the least frequent to the group represented
by the earlier described B. arsenrcduccus. A few organisms
isolated in the course of the work were then tested in more
detail, adding four pathogenic members of the coli group, pro-
ciu-ed from the Director of Medical Research in Johannesburg.

( I ) Sithtilis (iroiif^: B. subtilis, B. mcsentericiis, B. inycoides,
and B. aiithracls. were examined. ;\.ll proved sensitive to
arsenite. ])eing inhibited by concentrations of less than 0.05 per
cent, in broth media', and altogether suppressed by concentrations
above this. Somewhat more tolerant of arsenate, although inhi-
bited by 0.2 per cent.

(2) Colon-typhoid group: The members tested included
B. coli, B. cntcriditis, B. paratyphosus A, B. Paratyphosus B,
B. typhosus, and B. alcaligenes, i.e., representatives from the
species capable of fermenting several sugars, through those which
produce acid without fermentation, to those which produce
neither acid nor gas.

The limit of tolerance was found to be very low, ranging
only from 0.05 per cent, to 0.1 per cent AsgO. as arsenite
bouillon, although there was the suggestion that B. alcaligenes

HEHANIUL'R OF 1:A( TKRIA. ,V '

•

might be educated u]) to tolerance for somewhat higher concen-
trations. Neither oxidation of arsenite nor reduction of arsenate
was shown by any of the species examined. In this connection
it may be recalled that B. arsenreditcens, which tolerates over
1 per cent, of As.X).^ as arsenite and reduces arsenate with oreat
vigour, has the group number 222.2333033, and falls into the
typhosus branch of the colpn family. Its existence therefore
))recludes any generalisation concerning the tolerance of the
group towards arsenite, although it is apparent that the family
as a whole is intolerant. The resistance towards arsenate is
much greater than towards arsenite.

(3) Putidum (jroup: B. pyocyaiiciis, B. fiiioresccns liqnifa-
ciois, B. flnorcscens iioji'liqiiifaciens, and a non -fluorescing
variety isolated from tank di]). All proved highly tolerant of
arsenite. The strains of ftuorcscens non-Uqiilfaciens isolated
from tank dip were capable of growing freely in i per cent,
arsenite bouillon, and were not completely sup])resse(l by 1 .5 per
cent. With B. pyocyancns inhibition of growth was noted at 0.5
])er cent., but by subcultivation into media of gradually increasing
concentration a t(jlerance for i per cent, arsenite was established.
wStill higher concentrations of arsenate j^enuitted of free growth.
Although highly tolerant tow'ards arsenic, neither oxidation of
arsenite nor reduction of arsenate was effected.

(4) Miscellaneous imperfectly-yronped organisms:

(a) Cocci. Two chromogenic cocci, probably M. roseus and
M. aurantiacus^ showed a low tolerance for arsenite, being in-
hibited by the presence of o. i per cent, in bouillon.

A coccus 2i2.;^2i2>?)'^'^2)' about .5/x in diameter, isolated from
cattle faeces, was found to grow freely in 0.2 per cent. As.( ).. as
arsenate in bouillon, but to be inhibited b)- 0.05 ])er cent,
As^>0.^ as arsenite. A similar non-chromogenic coccus, isolated
from cattle dip, w^as found capable of tolerating ten times thi-
concentration of arsenite — 0.5 i)er cent. As^C).,.

{b) Sarcina: A yellow sarcina 221.3332523, isolated from
laboratory air, and probably an atypical sarcina tlava, coukl
tolerate o.i per cent. As^^O.^ as arsenite bouillon; but not 0.2 |)er
cent.

(c) Bacteria: A yellow bacterium, isolated from :i jilate
exposed to stable air, grew easily in 0.2 per cent As^( )., as
arsenate, but was inhibited by 0.05 i)er cent, as arsenite. Precise
identification w^as not possible without a com|)arative collection.
but the organism may be briefly described. Group number
211.3332613: polymorphic rods about .3/x in breadth and .7".
to 2fi in length. Non-motile and Gram-negative, lirowth la] id,
colonies on agar reaching 2 mm. in 48 hours, and extending to
4 mm. in the course of a w-eek ; colonies round, with entire edges
and amorphous interior, (irowth on agar slo])es light tran.sparent
yellow, keejjing closely to the track of the loo]); later becoming
light transparent orange, smooth, shiny, and viscid ; finally deve-
loping a brown tint. Strongly proteolytic ; stratiform liquefac-

T^'/l BEHAVIOUR OF r.ACTEKJA.

tion of milk complete within a week. Stratiform liquefaction of
p^elatine stab complete in five days at 22 degrees (,". yVgar stab
uncharacteristic, thick, and spreading on the surface, filiform
below. Growth on potato good, more opaque, viscid, and of orange
colour. Growth in bouillon rapid, viscid, with incoherent surface
film, and thick slimy sediment. Indol production marked.
Cheesy faecal odour marked, but not very characteristic.

Five different non-si)orulating organisms, highly tolerant of
arsenite, were isolated from the dipping tank or from cattle faeces,
in addition to B. arsenrediiccns and B. fluorcsccns alread} men-
tioned, ihese are similar in biochemical characteristics, and are
of frequent occurrence in arsenical dips. They grow readily in
media containing 0.8 per cent, to 1.2 j^er cent. AS2O3 as sodium
arsenite, and tolerate still higher concentrations of arsenate, but
neither oxidise arsenite nor reduce arsenate. Three of them
have the same group number in the classification system of the
Society of American Bacteriologists, but are morphologically
different. References to rate of growth mean growth at 2'!^
degrees C.*

a. 212.3332033. Actively motile rods generally .4/a X i-5/^,
but varying if rom i^t to 3/u, in length. Lojx>trichic. usually with
four flagella. Marked tendency to long chain formation. Gram
negative. Stains easily with ordinar\^ dyes, usually in bipolar
fashion. (Growth fairly rapid, colonies reaching 2 mm. in three
days, raised, translucent, shiny, with crenate edges and granular
interior. Growth on agar slope good in three days, translucent,
and slightly beaded at first ; later flat, smooth, more ojjaque,
butyrous, but easily detached with a needle. Agar and gelatine
stabs uncharacteristic, filiform, with good, but rather thin sur-
face growth. Turbidity in bouillon in 24 hotu's, with fairly
abundant, easily dispersed sediment in three days. No Indol
production. Odour uncharacteristic. On potato growth is slow,
scanty, and uncharacteristic. Litmus milk goes slightly alkaline,
but is otherwise unchanged. Sugar bouillon goes slowly alkaline.
Grows freely in arsenite bouillon to 0.8 per cent. As'20.j, ])tit
inhibited by concentrations above i per cent.

p. 213.3332033. Non-motile organism of cocco-bacterial
habit; dominant form a slightly oval coccus .8/i, X -6/*, especially
in arsenite bouillon. In ordinary bouillon, and sometimes on
agar slopes, may show rod forms up to 2^t in length. Weakly
Gram-positive. In general growth characters not unlike a, but
with colonies slightly umbonate and with entire edges. Potato
growth abundant, flat, and greyish white. Gelatine stab not
characteristic ; filiform — echinulate with a fairly dense surface
disc. Litmus milk goes alkaline from the surface downwarrls
and the litmus is bleached from below ; otherwise unchanged.
Grows freely in arsenite bouillon \\\) to concentrations of 1 per
cent. As.jOg.

* The group numbers indicate the major characteristics — sporuIati(.j!i,
oxvi^en requirements, colour, action on gelatine, sugars, nitrate, etc.

BEn.WIOlR OF l!At TKKIA. ^J^

y. 212.2^^20;^^. Non-niotile organism of doniinantly bac-
terial habit, .3/x. to .5/x in Ijreadtb. and .S/jl to 2/i, in length. Simi-
lar in general growth characters to (d, but colonies grow rather
more slowly, and are more opaque in the centre. Agar growth
is more viscid and potato growth is feeble. Bouillon growth is
also somewhat different, and a marked tendency to flaky film
formation is shown. I^itmus milk remains practically unchanged.
Grows freely in arsenite bouillon u]) to concentrations of i per
cent. AsoO^, but is inhibited at 1.5 per cent.

5. 212.3333033. Vigorously motile with two to four uni-
polar Hagella. Breadth .3/x to .5/x; length .G/x to 2^10. Gram
negative. Bouillon turbid in 24 hours ; flaky, easily dispersed
sediment a few days later; goes alkaline. No Indol. Agar
colonies 1 to 2 mm. in 48 hours, and up to 3 mm. in a few days;
roimd. glistening, fairly translucent, and sometimes iridescent
at first, edge entire or slightly undulate, interior granular.
Growth on agar slope rapid, abundant, flat, grey-white, glistening,
soft, but not viscid ; at first keeping fairly close to the track of
the loop; water of condensation clear, with white sediment.
Little or no odour. Stab culture is filiform and uncharacteristic,
with slowly spreading surface growth. Litmus milk goes slowly
but markedly alkaline; little, if any. clarification. Growth on
])Otato is good, translucent, and soft at first, later denser and
more opaque; non-chromogenic at first, but yellowish-brown
after a week or two. Grows readily in bom'llon containing i per
cent. AsvOg as sodium arsenite.

6. 212.3333023. Grows readily in .8 per cent. AsoOg as
arsenite bouillon, but not in i per cent. Resembles S in mor-
phology and general characteristics. Is distinguished by single
unipolar flagella. delicate, but characteristic surface film forma-
tion in bouillon, distinct amylolytic action, well marked pinkish-
brown growth on potato, and more villous gro\\tli in gelatine
stab.

(d) Streptothrix group: Two members were examined, one
isolated from soil, and one pathogenic streptothrix i)roducing skin
lesions in sheep. Both were intolerant of arsenite. falling to
grow in bouillon containing o.i per cent. AsaO..,.

(e) Yeasts: No yeasts were identified and subjected to
examination, but several, including a pink yeast occurring in
dip and faeces, were found growing on agar plates containing
0.5 per cent. AsoO., as arsenite. Yeasts in general are known to
be fairly tolerant of arsenic.

(/) Moitlds: Several moulds cropped up on arsenical plates,
but were not studied in detail. Penicilliiiin glaitcitm was found
capable of tolerating at least r per cent, of arsenite. It would
appear that most moulds tolerate arsenic fairly well, although
limits of tolerance do not seem to be recorded in the literature
accessible to us. The references accessible to us deal only with
the production of organic derivatives of arsine ; work in which
low concentrations of arsenic were etnployed.

374 r.eh.wiour of iiacti'ikia.

Summary.

Differences in tolerance of different bacteria for arseiuc
are very marked. Many which are fairly tolerant of arsenate
are relatively sensitive to arsenite. Certain groups are character-
isticiilly sensitive, e.g., the subtilis group, of which the four
leading representatives were tested, and all found intolerant of
0.05 per cent, of AsgO.-j as sodium arsenite in broth. Other
groujis, notably the piitidum family, can tolerate from 10 to 20
times this concentration, some members growing freely in i per
cent, arsenite broth. The colon-typhoid group is sensitive as a
family, but has at least one outstanding exception in B. arscnre-
ducens, and other resistant members probably exist. Resistance
to arsenic is therefore not a rigorous group characteristic,
although it is probably as characteristic as any other biochemical
feature, and might find a place in diagnostic bacteriology. Apart
from the members of the putidum group, five highly resistant
bacteria {i.e.. non-sporulating rod forms) are described, but not
named.

Of four cocci tested, three were found sensitive, and one
tolerant. Two members of the streptothrix group were both
sensitive. Yeasts and luonhis generally show a high degree of
tolerance.

Although over a dozen arsenic resistant species of bacteria
were examined, only two showed any chemical activity towards
arsenic; the earlier described B. arseiio.vydans. which oxidises
arsenite to arsenate, and B. arsenreducens, which reduces arsenate
to arsenite. The others were merely tolerant. There is no dis-
cernable relationshi]) between arsenate reduction and nitrate
reduction.

Arsenite resistant bacteria are infrequent in soil, but fairly
frequent in faeces. About 10 per cent of the bacterial count of
fresh stable manure were found moderately tolerant, and about
I per cent, highly tolerant. In arsenical dipping tanks an auto-
matic enriching of resistant faecal bacteria, and su])pression (or
metamorphosis ) of sensitive forms takes i)lace.

Vktp:kinar>- Rkskarcii Lahoratorii-.s.
Pretoria.

Paper from Meg ass. — A mill is about to be erected
at Olaa, Hawaii, for the purpose of manufacturing paper from
megass, the refuse cane from sugar factories. The out])ut of
paper will be 16^ tons daily, but that will absorb only about one-
tenth of the ([uantity of megass available. It is hoped that if
megass paper turns out as well as exi)ected, all the megass ])ro-
duced luay in course of time be utilised, so that e\entually there
may be something like 165 tons of ])a])er turned out daily from
the Olaa mills. If the venture meets with success, other ])lanta-
tions may follow suit, and in course of time develop in Hawaii an
industry almost as important as the sugar manufacture.

SOME SOUTH AFRICAN SNAILS AND THE CERCAkLi:
WHICH Al TACK THEM.

By Frederick Gordon Cawston, B.A., M.D., B.C., Al.k.C.S..

L.R.C.P.

{Abstract.)

During the last four years I have exposed to microscopic
examination 3,000 molluscs from various rivers and stagnant
pools in Natal and the Transvaal.

Four different species harboured, trematode parasites in
tlieir cercarial stage : I procured the finest specimens of Linnuca
)iatalcitsis from Rustenburg. My observation oif Physopsis afri-
cana, containing cercarise at Klerksdorp established a new locality
for this mollusc. The genus Isidora is notoriously polymor-
phous, and the species very variable ; but I have obtained a large
number of a new variety from Potchefstroom and Klerksdorp
which agree very well with Jickeli's description and figure of
schakoi. Mr. H. C. Burnup has no hesitation in identifying
them as Isidora scliakoi Jickeli. Plauorbis pfciffcri is conmiiu
at Durban and Rustenburg.

The other species showed no evidence of cercarial infection :
they included Lmvna^a tmncatiila, Isidora tropica^ Isidora annpta
M. & P. (from Pietemiaritzburg, a new locality), Isidora fors-
kali, Plauorbis leucochcilus, Planorbis gibbonsi Nelson (from
Potchefstroom, a new locality), Ancylus (from Pietemiaritz-
burg, Klerksdorp. Potchefstroom, Mulder's Drift, and Pretoria),
ferrissio (from Pretoria), Uiiio caffer Krauss and Corbiciila
radiata.

Schistosomum hcctnatobium occurred in Physopsis africana
from Durban (Toll Gate), Pietermaritzburg (Umsindusi), Rus-
tenburg, Magaliesburg, and Mulder's Drift. No evidence of
redia formation could be seen in infested specimens. The head
of the cercaria varied in shape, but the average full length of the
cercaria was 0.6 mm. The prongs of the forked tail were a
quarter of the length of the tail. These flat prongs are said to
enable the cercaria to suspend itself head-downwards from the
surface of the water.

Cercaria sccobii is a narrower cercaria, with the appearance
of an avian trematode, found only at Pietermaritzburg.

Cercaria gladii occurred in Isidora scliakoi at I'otchef-
.stroom. It develops in sporocyst : the prongs are equal in
length to the rest of the tail, and are sword-Hke. There is no
pharynx.

At Durban an eye-spotted cercaria, Cercaria oculata, can
only be differentiated from Schistosome because of its eye-si)ots.

Various leptocercous cercarise occurred in Limncca imtal-
ensis, Physopsis africana, Plauorbis pfeifferi. and Isidora sclia-

3/6 SOUTH AFRICAN SNAILS.

koi. These developed mostl}- in rcdise, which i>ossess lateral
ap]:)endages and have the appearance of lizards as they move.

Cercaria catenata, a chained form, occurs at Durfhan,
Magalieshurg, and Potchefstroom. Cercaria arcuata, whose
chains join, posterior to the ventral sucker, infests specimens of
Isidora schakoi at Klerksdorp.

Isidora schakoi, at the Potchefstroom Golf Links is heavily
infested with an eye-spotted cercaria, Cercaria frondosa. The
eye-sjjots branch in fully developed cercariae, and present the
appearance of leaves. In some, the pigment is continued down on
either side of the gut, as though connected with an elementary
nervous system. The eye-spots are visible through the walls of
the rediae. in which the cercariae develop.

So far, the life-history of the Bilharma is the only one that
lias l)een completed. No one has yet identified the cercaria which
gives rise to '" liver rot " in South African sheep. The cercaria
is a leptocerojus form developing in rediae, and I am of opinion
that Limncca nataiensis is its usual intermediary host, not
Limtuca truncatida, as formerly supposed. It is a revolting sight
to see these leaf-like liver-flukes crawling about the bile-ducts of
infested South African sheep.

Cercaria attacks any portion of the skin ; though infection
was found to take place most readily by the mouth in Venezuela,
the Japanese believe cutaneous infection to be the commoner.
By means of tiny boring processes around its oral sucker, the
cercaria is able to bore its way through the skin or mucous
membrane.

Paragomius ivcstcrmanii, which develops from a tadpole
cercaria in Japan, inhabits the lung capillaries of man. Should
expectoration containing its eggs reach fresh water, a ciliated
miracidium emerges from the shells and attacks Mclania libcr-
tina, the common fresh-water mollusc, which acts as its inter-
mediary- host.

The various members of the Schistosome group inhabit
various parts of the blood-stream, and live in their human host
for many years. Unlike the smaller blood-parasites, which are to
be found in the general circulation, they are confined to certain
of the bigger blood-vessels. Schistosomiim mansoni and Schis-
tosomum japoiiicuui have chosen the small blood-vessels of the
intestinal wall. The eggs of Schistosoinuni mansoni have a
lateral spine, which assists in their escape through the intestinal
wall. Sometimes, however, the eggs become loose in the blood-
stream, and they cause paralytic symptoms from their presence
in the spinal circulation of some Egyptian patients.

The " seat of selection " of Schistosomum. hccmatobiinn is
the bladder-wall, where the parasites burrow their way into the
smallest veins that can accommodate them. As the bladder
distends, these spine-pointed eggs rupture the vessel-wall, and
escape with the urine. The mixacidium, which escapes in fresh
water, attacks Physopsis africana, its intermediary host.

SOUTH \I"KJ(A\ SNAILS. 3/7

In each 'Distance, the parasites migrate to the snMllest blood-
vessels that can accommodate them. In this way the female
comes as close as possible to the exterior, when laying her eggs,
2vithont herself leaving the biood-strcani.

Unlike the smaller parasites of the blo-od-stream, reproduc-
tion of the Schistosom.e group can take place only outside the
hlood-streani, and by means of a fresh-water mollusc as the inter-
mediary host.

( Read, July lo, iyi8. j

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Geological Society of South Africa. — Thursday, March 21st: .\. L.
du Toit, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.. President, in the chair. — ' The zones of the
liarroo sysloii and tlicir distribmion " (Presidential address): Dr. A. L.
Du Toit. The address outlined the advances that have been made during
the last fifteen years towards the detailed stratigraphy of the system, and
was devoted mainly to the distribution of the Karroo System in tlie
eastern and south-eastern part of the Union.

Monday, April 15th : J. J. Garrard, Vice-President, in the chair. — " On
the mode of occurrence and distribution of asbestos in the Transvaal " :
A. L. HalL The earliest asbestos workings in the Transvaal were com-
menced east of Carolina, about 1906, and were carried on at intervals
until 1914. Recently extensive deposits of asbestos have been found in
the Lydenburg district and east of Chuniespoort : the establishment of a
flourishing industry, with every indication of permanency, gives promi.se
of being realised- The author therefore placed on record the geology of
of the principal occurrences of asbestos, with special reference to the more
recent discoveries which differ in several respects from the Cape Province
deposits. — " Cortindum of the Zoutpansberg fields and its matrix": Dr.
P. A. Wa^er. South Africa is at present the leading corundtun-
producing country, the rate of production being about 400 tons per month.
The greater part of the output is yielded by the Zoutpansberg and Pieters-
burg districts of the Transvaal. Most of the corundum recovered is in
the form of loose eluvial crystals, a much smaller proportion being boulder
or rock corundum. These two types of corundum were separately
descrilied.

Tuesday, July gth : D. Wilkinson. Vice-President, in the chair. — "On
certain felsitic rocks hitherto called ' banded ironstone ' in the ancient
schists around Gatooma. Rhodesia" : A. E. V. Zealley. The nature
and origin of a widely distributed rock, commonly referred to as
"handed ironstone." was explained. Investigation of these rocks in the
field points definitely to a large part of them being felsitic rocks, that is
to say they are nf igneous origin, and not aqueous sediments. — " Plunia-
site (corunduni-aplite) and iitanifcrous magnetite rocks from Xatnl":
Dr. A. L. Du Toit The author described certain deposits of corundum
in the Tugela Valley that are of particular interest in adding to the long
list of different ways in which this mineral can originate. In the second
part of the paper an account was given of some titaniferous magnetite
rocks carrying silicates and spinel that occur in the same neighbourhood
as magmatic "segregations" within a philonic body ranging in character
from a gabbro to a pyroxenite.

South .African Tnstitctk ok Elec'trical Enginf.ers. — Thursday,
March 21st : J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.E.E., Past President, in the chair. —
"Small generating stations and electricity supply schemes" : R. F.
Botting. The paper dealt with municipal schemes for the supply of
electricity for lighting and power in the .'^mailer towns of the I'^nion, and

3/8 TRAN'SAOIUXS OF SnciIiTIliS.

discussL'd the problems of those phices wlicrc the provision <if a generat ng
plant is necessary.

Thursday, May i6th, Prof. J. H. Dobson, D.S.O., M.Sc, M.Eng.,
Al.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., President, in the chair. — " Ttiibine house plant
operation: zvitli special reference to the Rand I'ozver Companies' plants":
T. G. Otley. and V. Pickles. The autliors discussed some of the salient
points connected with the efficient operation of turl)ine plant and its
attendant auxiliaries. With regard to increasing efficiencies, there was a
twofold problem : ( i ) how to use coal to the fullest advantage, both w:th
regard to extracting the maximum amount of heat energy from it and
also the recovery of innumerable by-products which it contains; (j) how
to use to the fullest extent the heat available, when coal is used, either
directly or indirectly for generating steam in boilers.

Thursday, July i8ih : Prof. J. II. Dobson, D.S.O., IVI.Sc., M.luig.,
M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., President, in the chair. — '' Guarantees for tempera-
ture rise in electrical machinery : zvith special reference to large turbo-
generators"' A. E. Du Pasquier. The author sought tt) show that, at
least in all large units, a more scientific basis than that now customary
amongst engineers for estimating temperature rise should l)e adopted, and
urged that, as it is sound engineering to work all materials, employed in
the construction of any piece of apparatus up to the maximum safe limit,
there is no good reason for restricting temperature rises, provided suitable
materials are obtainable for withstanding the heat conditions that may
arise.

Thursday, November 2ist : Prof. J. H. Dobson. D.S.O., M.Sc-, M.Eng.,
M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., President, in the chair. — " Atmospheric electric
effects and hailstorms " : R. T. A. Innes. The probaljle efficiency of
some of the suggested methods of preventing hailstorms were discussed,
and mention was made of the desirabilitv of insurance against damage by
hail.

South African Sociktv of Civil Enginef.rs. — Wednesday, April
loth : Prof. A. E. Snape, M.Sc, A.M.I.C.E.. Past President, m the' chair.—
"Electrification of Railzi'ays": Prof. 11. Bohle. The subject was
approached from the commercial aspect, and steam and electric traction
compared. Relative cost elticiency was discussed, and electrification was
considered from a traffic standpoint. In dealing with the circumstances
under which electrihcation has usually been justified, the author specially
mentioned urban and suburban service, fast passenger service, and goods
traffic. In illustration of the general stibject, the proposed electrii'ication
of the Melbourne urban and siduirban lines was discussed in detail. In
the concluding part of the paper the author dealt with the various classes
of electric locomotives.

Wednesday, May 8th : W. Craig, M.I.C.E., Vice-President, in tlie
chair. — "Irrigation IVorks in t';e Sundays River ]' alley": \. S. Bridg-
man. The Sundays River, with a total catchment area of appro.ximateiy
7,6oo square miles, rises in the Sneeuv,d)erg Mountains, in the GraatT-
Reinet district, and, after crossing the Karroo, flows through a deep gorge
27 miles long, in the Zuurberg Mountains, on to wide fertile Hats,
known as the Sundays River Valley. These fiats consist of rich alluvial
Karroo soil and silt, underlain by gravel beds, affording excellent drainage,
the fertility of the soil being maintained by the silt coming in the irriga-
tion waters. The valley is irrigated by three schemes : ( 1 ) the Strath-
somers Estates, (2) the Selborne, and (,?) the Sundays River Settlements,
each scheme having its own diversion weir and irrigation system. r)f
these schemes the Sundays River Settlements is the Ijiggest, and was
described in detail by the author. This scheme, when fully complete,
will irrigate about 27,000 acres. In this connection a scheme for the
storage of flood waters ha-, been undertaken, and will be situated in the
district of Jansenville, two or three miles above the gorge, in the Zuur-
berg Mountains. The storage capacity of the conservation dam will I'C
120.000 acre feet. In this connection the Union Director of Irrigation, in

TRANSAC'lIdXS Ol" SdCI KTI i:s. 379

his Parlianiciitary Report, expresses the opinion that the project is one
of the soundest and most promising with which lie has ever been asso-
ciated in South Africa, and paves the way for one of the most favourable
closer settlement schemes which the Union is ever likely to produce.

Wednesday. June i2th : T- W. W. Perry, M.I.Mech. E., in the chair. —
" Variations in ihc character and setting times of Portland cement, anl
their effect upon concrete" : J. ¥. E. Barnes. A consignment of 3,000
hags of cement ( following upon earlier consignments of some 4,000 bags,
which had given excellent results) had been used for making concrete,
and fourteen days later the concrete was still soft. The author proceeded
to describe the consequent testing (chemically and otherwise) of the
various materials, and set forth the deductions drawn from these tests. —
" Groutinii of masonry wall zvith liquid cement under air pressure " : C. H.
Warren. .\ description of the method adopted in grouting under
pressure, and rendering water-tight the walls and foundations of a deep
pump well which leaked freely.

Wednesday, July loth : W. Craig, Al.l.C.M. \"icc-President, in the
chair. — ■" Construciiun oj Prins Riier Dam " : F. 1 Patterson. 1 he dam
site is 35 miles from Ladismith, Cape Province, and Prins River, a
tributary of Touws River, has a catciiment area of 305 square miles at
the site. The estimated cost of the dam was £21.000, and the area under
irrigation is Itetween 2,400 and 3,000 acres, which will probably be
increased to 6,000 by an extension of the irrigation district. The capacity
of the reservoir between outlet and full supply level is 3,530 acre-feet, and
as the net available annual yield of the catchment area is estimated at 343
million cubic feet, it should suffice to lill the reservoir twice per annum.

Wednesday, August 14th : W. Craig, M.I.C.E., Vice-President, in the
cliair. — "The recoustru-ction of bridges. North Coast line. Natal": G.
Reynolds. Serious damage was occasioned by extensive Hoods in
Northern Natal during March, 1913, necessitating the reconstruction of
the bridges over the Umvoti and Amatikulu rivers, and considerable
repairs to the Umhloti River bridge. Detailed description of the work
involved was given. In several other cases, notable the Umhlatuzi and
Umfolozi bridges, temporary deviation works were utilised, while at the
Kmeleni bridge the work of restoration was carried on without interrup-
tion to traffic— " Selbonie Avenue Bridge'': A. H. Waller A descriptive
account of the construction of a bridge in Selborne Avenue, Rulawayo,
■ner the Matjemhlope River, at a cost of £3,841.

Wednesday, September iitii: Col. G. T. Nicholson, M.I.C.E., Vice-
President, in the chair. — '' Field water supplies in the East African cam-
paign " : Capt. A. C. Jennings. A description of the incidental works
carried out in the field for supplying water for men and animals during
the military operations in East Africa. Early in iqt6 a separate unit, the
South African water supply corps, was formed to develop and improve
water supplies for the troops on the line of march and in standing
camps. The corps was furnished with a very complete equipment of
drilling machines, well casings, pipes, oil engines, pump heads, hand
I)umps, and all necessary tools. Thus provided, the unit landed at
Kilindini, in British East Africa, in January, 1916, when the advance of
the main force from Mbuyuni was about to begin. There was a heavy
demand for water for the camp at the latter place, and a 2.} inch pipe line
was laid for a distance of nine miles to a lake in the adjacent hills. In
April, Taveta, the starting point for the subsequent main advance into
German East Africa, was occupied, and soon became a large base camp,
supplied at first with water from the Lumi River, two miles north-
Boreholes were subsequently sunk in volcanic formation, and yielded
almost inexhaustible supplies of good water. The next place occupied
was Moushi, where a good water supply from springs was developed and
improved. From Moushi the main force, under General Smuts, moved
across comparatively well-watered country, and no excessive difficulties

380 TRA.WSACTIUNS OF SOCIi'-TrF-S.

were encountered, but another force, under General van De\enler, skirted
the fringe of the great Massi Steppe, traversing ahnost waterless stretche>
for distances of 40 to 50 miles. Pioneer water supply parties accompanied
these forces, and drill parties, fully equipped with l)oring machines,
followed closely behind the main advance, enabling the K>ng lines (if
communication, worked largely by animal transport, to be kept running.
In addition, the railway water supplies had to be reconstructed, as
the retreating Germans had destroyed practically all water installations.
A comoletc tabulation of German analyses of water from the jirincinal
watering stations on the Central Railway was found.

South Akric.\x Institutk)n ok Engineers. — Saturday, May 25tii :
G. M. Clarke, M.A., M.I.CE., President, in the chair. — "Steel guides in
shafts": J. Whitehouse Attention was drawn to results obtained by the
use of slotted steel guides in the Turf Shaft of the Village Deep Mine,
which can l)e taken as typical of many on deep-level mines to-day. The
author outlined a system for replacing with as little delay as possible,
guides which had become badly worn. — ''A short note on a neiv method of
cleaninii condenser tubes": T. (>■ Otley. Experiments have for son.e
time been made with the object of finding a simple and cheap method of
condenser cleaning, and the method described by the author claims to
remove the ordinary deposit found inside a condenser tube, so easily,
quickly, and cheaply, that there is no reason why condensers should run
for such a length of time between successive cleanings as to allow scale
to form. The method involves the use of discs cut out of scrap rubl)er
insertion, one-eighth of an inch thick, these discs being a close tit in the
tubes, four of them being fastened together on a two-inch nail. These are
just pushed to the entrance of the tube, and then driven th.rough at a
very high velocity liy means of a compressed air jet.

Saturday, June 15th: C. D. Leslie, President, in the chair. — " .V^;.'<t'
tiutes on e.vperinients made with a view to redueing the ronsnmpt'Mn of
explosives, and increasing the fathoms broken per machine shift in
machine sloping '' : T. H. Bayldon. The high consumption of explosives
per fathom liroken I)y sniali reciprocating machines is a matter that calls
for careful consideration, in \iew of the shortage of nitroglycerine and
other constituents of high explosives, and experiments vi-ere described
■which were carried out with a view to reducing the consumption of
explosives and incre.'ising the fathomage broken per machine per shift.

Wednesday, July loth : C. D. Leslie, President, in the 'chair, —
Presidential address: C. D. Leslie. The need of forethought, organisa-
tion, and research was urged, to show what South Africa can produce
protitably. so that the potentialities of the country' may become better
known. There is the most urgent need of organisation and industrial
education for the purpose of utilising the inhabitants of the country to
the best advantage for themselves and for the State. Tiie need of cheap
motive power was emphasised as one of the tirst considerations
in industrial enterprises, and much would depend on the scien-
tific administration and management of such enterprises. The
hope was expressed that the Government and people of South
Africa will awaken and take heed of the repeated warnings of the
scientific and technical societies to lose no time in organising for the
country's development — " Note issues and currency " : A. Aiken. To-day
everything, except gold, which is used in settlement of debts is merely a
token, and the real basis of the currencies in the British Empire is .gold.
All other forms of currency, bank notes, cheques, etc., are expressed in
terms of gold. The silver and copper coinage that circulates here is also
merely token money, for silver is not legal tender l)eyond 40s. The author
proceeded to discuss bank and inconvertible notes, and the efifects that
would be created if the Union Government itself were to issue convertible
notes. The nature of the value of money was then discussed, and the
opinion was expressed that the value of gold liad actually risen since 1914.

TKA.NSACTIONS OF .sOt '] l':TTi::S. 381

in spite of the increase of prices, the rise in prices being merely demon-
strative of a still bigger advance in tlic values of general commodities.

Wednesday, September iitli: W. Elsdon-Dew. M.I.E.E., Vice-Presi-
dent, in the chair. — ''Short note on the manufacture of a Babcock and
Wilcox feed xvater regulator '' : D. Heslop. The Victofia Falls and
Transvaal Power Company decided to instal Babcock and Wilcox feed
water regulators on a number of their boilers, and as it was practicaelly
impossible to obtain delivery of tliese from overseas, it was decided to
make them locally at the company's Rosherville workshops. The float
type regulator had been found to be vastly superior to the thermo type,
and it was therefore decided to manufacture and instal this type. The
nature and details of manufacture uf the appliance were described. —
"Shop organisation: a simple scheme" : VV. E. John. An outline sketch
of a scheme for the organisation of a modern factory and, by way of
illustration, of a factory producing aeroplanes-
Wednesday, November i^tb: C. D. Leslie. President in the chair — .
" Hydraulic prospecting at the Rooiberg Tin Mines" : E. R. Schoch The
geological formations at Rooiberg have been classified as the Rooiberg
Series, belonging to the lower division of the Waterberg System. They
consist of sandstones, quartzitcs. and beds of shales. The cassiterite,
occurring in the form of veins and lodes in the sandstone and ([uartzites,
has, bj' the disintegrating tendency of the lodes and of the country rock,
been disseminated in the thick layer of sand which covers a large area,
and from which the tin may be profitably extracted. The method of
surface prospecting, by means of hydraulic jets or monitors, lias hitherto
been applied only where water is plentiful, and the area to be prospected
has a steep slope, along which the tailings can be automatically run off to
valleys lower down. The author described the method inaugurated at
Rooiberg as the first attempt to use this process on practically level
ground, with artificially conserved return water. — "Hammer drills: their
history, design, and operation. Part /"; H. S. Potter- The paper illus-
trated some of the more prominent machines on which most of the
successful hammer-drills are based in one or more details of their dcsigii

Rov.\L Society of South Afric.x. — Wednesday, April 17th : Prof.
J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph-.D.. F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S., President, in the
chair. — "Luminosity i>i a South African Earthworm and its origin":
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist. Luminous earthworms are found on the slopes
of Table Mountain. The luminosity proceeds from a discharge from the
mouth and anus, which consists of cells heavily laden with inclusions of
different kinds. The smaller inclusions consist of a substance allied to fat,
by the oxidation of which the light is produced. The cells arise from the
body cavity, and are discharged into the anterior and fjosterior parts of the
alimentarv canal by definite communications.—'' .V.i/r o;; the Adjugate of
Becout's eliminant of two binary quantics": Sir T'. Muir. — "On the
genera Diplocystis and Broomeia " : L R. Pole Evans and A- M.
Bottomley Some specimens of Diplocystis have recently been obtained
from Portuguese East Africa, the first recorded African occurrence of the
genus. The African material is not identical with that from Cuba, and
the authors describe it as Diplocystis Junodii n. sp. — " South African
Perisporiucecc //. Revis'wnal Notes '' : Dr. Ethel M. Doidge. A revision,
due to work on a number of fresh collections of South African Perisporia-
cex, of a previous communication on the subect by the author. — " Fresh
water snails as a cause of parasitic diseases ' : Dr. F. G. Cawstcn.

The author described a number of snails collected In' him from various
districts in South Africa, and found to be infested with the cercarial stages
of the various trematode worms. — " Colour and chemical constitution :
part IV. The remaining phthaleins" : Dr. J- Moir The absorption-
spectra of complex phthaleins were described, these l)eing partly duplex
compounds of the phenol-anthrol type and partly of a new class derived
from thj'moylbenzoic acid.

382 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Wednesday, May 15th; Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, xM.A.. D.Sc. Ph.D.,
F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S., President, in the chair.—" South African Perisporia-
cea. 111. Notes on four species of Meliola hitherto unrecorded from South
Africa": Dr. Ethel M. Doidge The fungi considered were all from
Natal and the eastern part of the Cape Province, and had heen identified
from recent collections. — " Reproduction of fishes in Table Bay" : Prof.
J. D. F. Gilchrist The eggs and young of 21 species of fishes were
procured in about 60 tow-nettings made at more or less regular intervals
throughout the year. Fourteen of these were referred to known species.
Tlie eggs procured and larvae hatched from them were described. The
eggs of the sardine (Scirdina sagax) and of the anchovy (EngrauUs
aipensis) indicate that ihese fish arc present in abundance, though as yet not
utilised for economic purposes. — " Xotc on the electogram of the Medulla
oblongata " : Prof. W. A. Jolly.

Wednesday. June 19th: Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A.. D.Sc Ph.D.,
1\L.S., C.M.Z.S., President, in the chair. — "A note on the possibility of
long-range weather forecasts'' : Dr. J- R. Sutton. The author showed that
the June temperatures, and especialy the minima, at Kimberley, are
modified by the character of the May rainfall. — " South African Pcrisporia-
cecc : //'. \ ew species from the Coast Districts " : Dr. Ethel M. Doidge.
Nine new species of fungi belonging to the Perisporiacea; were
described ; of these six belonged to the genus Meliola, two to
the genus Zukalia. and one to tlie genus PhccodimerieUa: these
were all collected in dift'erent localities near the coast in
the Cape Province, Natal, Zululand, and Portuguese East Africa. —
"Preliminary note on Anatase": J. S. van der Lingen and A. R. E.
"Walker. The authors gave a preliminary account of their investigations
on the radiation pattern of Anatase.

Wednesday, July 17th: A. J. Anderson, M.A., M.B., D.P.H.. M.R.C.S.,
Vice-President, in the chair. — " On the electrostatic deflection in a Cathode
ray tube " : Prof A. Ogg. In the ordinary Thomson Cathode ray tube
for determining the value of e^m for Cathode rays, we have to allow for
the irregularity of the electrostatic field near the edges of the charged
plates. It is interesting to find the electrostatic deflection when tlie rays
are projected parallel to the plates, but at some distance from them. The
author gave methods for making the calculation. — "Note on a disease
w the Snoek (Thyrsites atun)": Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist. The snoek, one
of the most important Cape fishes from an economic point of view, is well
known to be found frequently in a soft condition. This is attributed by
fishermen to the fact that it has not been properly killed on capture, the
consequence being that it struggles about in the bottom of the boat, and,
in doing so, bruises the flesh to such an extent as to produce the condition
mentioned. This condition may occur a few hours after tlie fish has been
caught, and may quickly become so marked that the whole of the muscles,
especially of the back, appear quite soft and liquid. The process is
believed to be totally distinct from decay by putrefaction or by softening
i.f the flesii by exposure to the heat of the sun, wliich also frequently
occurs. As it was suspected that this condition might be brought about
by the presence and rapid multiplication of some Protozoal parasite in
the muscles, the diseased tissue was examined microscopically, and after
staining with methylene blue and other reagents, the presence of very
numerous spore-like bodies was detected. These were all arranged in
groups of fours, and occasionally, on fixation by heat, long filaments were
shot out from them, showing that they were Protozoa belonging to the
group of Cnidosporidia, which are known to produce diseased conditions
in the muscular and other tissue of fish. The groups of four bodies with
filaments suggests the family of the Chloromyxidse, with their four polar
capsules, but there is reason for believing that they represent spores, not
polar capsules, and if so they probably belong to a new form of the Micro-
sporidia.— " Mycological Notes, I." : Dr. Ethel M. Doidge.

THE TRADITIONAL HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF
THE MAKARANGA (WAROZWT).

By E. G. HowMAK.

For all practical purposes the tribes of Rhodesia can be
divided into two peoples, i.e., those who have resided there for
many centuries, known to us as Mashonas, Maswina, and Maka-
ranga, and those ofif shoots of the Zulu race called Shang-aans and
Matabele.

The former occupied a rather greater extent of country than
that now^ known as Southern Rhodesia., whilst the latter took pos-
session of the south-east ana south-west portions of the territory,
and only penetrated northward when on raiding expeditions.

At 'the present day the Shangaans, whose correct name is
"Bahlengwe," only amount to some 1.500 adult males; the tribe
is one of the few that civilisation appears to have improved.
AVhilst retaining all the best of their old manners and customs
they have merely acquired that portion of civilisation which they
have found suitable to their style of living.

The Shangaans occupied that part of Rhodesia lying east of
a line draw^n from Charter through Victoria, and so south, and
extending if rom near Umtali in the north to the Crocodile River —
this is roughly a stretch of country extending over 300 miles
by 150.

They were in occupation of this country for some consider-
able time before they became aware that the Matabele were also
in Rhodesia; and it was not until the attack of a Matabele impi on
Chipinda's people 35 miles east of Victoria that they were in-
formed of the arrival of the Matabele.

Chipinda's people of the Waduma tribe had for many
.years recognised Nyamandi, the Chief O'f the Shangaans, as
their overlord, and had paid him their annual tribute of cattle and
cat-skins, etc., so when they were suddenly attacked by a regiment
coming from the direction of Victoria they retired to their strong-
hold on a hill called Chisiana, and sent to Nyamandi for assis-
tance. Certain Shangaan headmen were sent to enquire into
the matter, and came on the Matabele encamped before the
stronghold ; they visited the Matabele, and were astonished to find
that, with slight differences, they spoke the same language and
were of the same tribe as themselves.

The result of this historic meeting was that the Shangaan
andAIatabele Chiefs exchanged presents and women, and agreed
to live at peace.

A mutual sphere of influence was also agreed upon between
the Chiefs, it being settled that the Umtilikwi River, running to
the east of Victoria, should be considered the bora'er between
them.

Prior to the arrival of the Shangaans in Rhodesia, an off-
shoot of the tribe named Mazwangandaba had broken away

A

384 HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKARANGA.

from them, and passing thi'DUgh Rhodesia, crossed the Zambesi,
and eventually settled down near the lakes.

It is said that whilst the Mazvvangandaba were on this
journey, they were held up by the Zambesi, which was in flood ;
their Chief thereupon struck the water with his assegai, and the
waters rolled up on either hand, leaving a free passage for the
tribe to cross.

Two reasons are given as to what caused the Mazwangandaba
to leave their own people. One is that the son of the Chief gave
his elder brother a puppy to rear for him ; eventually, when the
pup was grown, the owner claimed it. By this time
the elder brother had grown fond of the dog, and
refused to give it up, whereupon there was a light, and as a result
the younger brother collected his own adherents and left the tribe.

The other reason given is that whilst the Shangaans were on
a raiding tri]) near the Tokwe River, between Chilimanzi and
Selukwe, there was a quarrel as to the division of loot cattle.
The regiment took sides and fought over the matter ; the con-
quered party fled north, with the others hard after them, and it
was when harci' pressed by their pursuers that the Zambesi rolled
back, allowing them to cross and effectually stopping the pursuit.

In addition to the Shangaan and Matabele, another tril>e from
the south, the Swazwi. also raided into Rhodesia, and. as far as
one can gather, lived there for some years.

They apparently arrived there some eight years ])rior to the
Matabele; they found the aboriginal owners of the country, the
Warozwi, still living at their old kraals in Matabeleland. and
fought with them, without much result so far as can be gathered,
until the advent of the Matabele, when the Swazwi left the coun-
try and the ancient dynasty of Mambo, the Chief of the Warozwi.
was swept from their ancient places and the remnants of the tribe
were scattered throughout Rhoaesia.

It is said that the Swazwi brought large herds of white long-
horned cattle with them into the country. As far as can be
gathered, they led a somewhat nomadic existence. They took up
their residence in the Selukwe district for some years, and it
would appear that they came from the west, as the pass through
the hills, from the Gwelo watershed to the lowlands is still called
by the natives the " Pass of the Swazwi."

The oldest inhabitants of Rhodesia were undoubtedly the
tribe known as Warozwi ; their totems are the Heart and the
Lion. Their Chief took the name of " Mambo." At one time
they must have been a great and powerful nation, ana extended
over a vast extent of territory.

Judging from the customs, history and language, these people
were the tribe mentioned in all the Portuguese records of 300
years ago as being the people of Monomotapa, though unfor-
tunately no trace of this name can be found as survixing now-a-
days.

It is possible, of course, that the word was mispronounced
by the historians of those days, as in the local Chikaranga of

HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THK ,M A K AKA N( lA. 3S5

to-day Mitiiii means " man." and tapa is " to raid," and as one of
the old records says, " a praise-name of the Chief Monomotapa is
the " Grand Rohher.'"

Mamho originally had his headquarters at a walled town
called Zimhahwe. which was situated not far from the Zam-
besi. He was driven thence b}- a northern tribe called the
Wadzimba. His people were scattered, and he. accompanied
by only a few followers, was chased south. Arriving in what is
now the Hartle\- district, and being hard-pressed by the pursuing
Wadzimba. he sought the assistance of a section of the W'aze-
zuru. He was hidden by them in one of their caves, and so
his life was saved. In gratitude for the manner in which the
Wazezuru had treated him, he bestowed on them the right to call
themselves " Warozwi ; " this dignity they retain to this day.

After leaving these people Mambo continued south to his
most southerly Zimbabwe, the place now- known as '* Mambo's
Mountain," in Matabeleland. This town was generally known
by the name of Alanyanga, or the FMace of Tusks; it took this
name from the vast store of elephant tusks there, and also be-
cause Mambo's house was built largely of tusks.

In passing, it might be mentioned that the present-day natives
of Rhodesia, when speaking of Zimbabwe, refer to Alambo's
Mountain, not to the Great Ziml)abwe near Victoria. It is a
popular misconception amongst Europeans that there is only one
Zimbabwe in Rhodesia; stone or brick buildings are called Zim-
babwe by the present-day natives, especially if of any size, such as
gaols.

It would appear that Mambo lived at his southern Zimbabwe
for several hundred years — in fact, until the arrival of the Mata-
bele. On their arrival, the Warozwi power was completely
smashed, and of their former state and oower nothing now
remains but names and traditions. In some ci'istricts of Mashona-
land it is still the custom at the crowning of a Chief to call in a
Mrozwi headman to perform the ceremony of anointing-^
apparently this is a survival of the rights the Warozwi once held
as overlords of the whole country.

Nowadays the Warozwi are merged in the Wakaranga : they
speak the same language, and their customs and habits are similar.

Formerly the Warozwi had their own language ; this has
almost completely disappeared. A few of the oldest men still
possess a smattering of the language, but their knowledge is
usually confined to a few words. Each Chief in turn took the
title of Mambo.

Only a man without physical imperfections, and belonging
to the Royal Family, could become Chief. The absence of a finger,
eye, or even a tooth, was sufficient to bar his claim to the chieftain-
ship. A candidate was obliged to pass certain physical tests to
prove his fitness for the position of Chief, such as standing on
one leg from sunrise to sunset.

A Mambo rarely reigned for any length of time. He merely
occupied the position at the will of his headmen. Were he to

.^t% HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE M AFARANGA.

lose a tooth, etc., or as soon as his headmen considered he had
reigned long enough, they waylaid him on a path and strangled
him.

On his death many slaves were sacrificed ; they were clubbed
to death and buried at his side. The number of persons so killed'
numbered five old and two young men, four maidens and one old
woman. The body of Mambo was buried, wrapped in a black-
bull's hide. The burial-ground of the Mambos is stated to be in
the vicinity of Manyanga ; the place is called Mtoro (sometimes
Zimbabwe). An annual pilgrimage was made to this spot by
Mambo and all his headmen, and burnt offerings were made to
the ancestral spirits. A stay of eight days was made there, cer-
tain of these days being devoted to mourning, and others to
feasting and dancing.

Since the Warozwi were expelled, this graxeyard has never
been used, but on the death of a Mrozwi his head is turned with
the mouth facing the spot, as thus the spirit will pass to its resting
place.

During the period of the annual pilgrimage the ancestrrd
spirit would be consulted on matters of importance and general
policy ifor the coming year. The spirit usea the medium of some
living person to enable him to voice his commands ; usually this
medium was a woman, but occasionally a man was used. The
medium is known as Bofedci or Szvikiru.

The insignia of rank of Mambo was a hoe and an arrow, or
the tail of a gnu and an arrow ; one was carried in each hand.
His usual guard was a number of great dogs and women armed
with spears and bows.

The commission of certain crimes was dealt with most
severelv. These crimes were : the slaying of another in cold
blood when the slain had done no injury; adulterers of the wives
of headmen ; insulters of headmen, and those who continually
stirred up trouble in the state. Such crimes were considered
worthy of the death i>enalty, and criminals were executed by
means of a sharpened stake being driven downwards through the
crown of the head, transfixing the body. It is noteworthy, in
view of present-day occurrences, that men who looked on the
wives of Mambo were also executed in this manner.

The usual religion of Africa is ancestor worship, and
in ctnnmon with other lines, the Warozwi sacrificed to their
lVad::imo when necessity urged them to this course ; but they
also revered, and sacrificed to a supreme God whom thev call
Mzi'ari or Mulimo, as he is more generally known in Matabeleland.

Mwari is said to be the creator of all things, and has the
power to make rain and to prophesy. His place of residence
is in the Matobo or Matopo Hills, near to the Dombo-re-Mivari
(Rock of God.) His son, named Runji or Runzi, lives in the
same vicinity.

History differs as to who was the mother of Runji, or even
whether he had a mother, but it is claimed that there was such
a person, whose name was Mvumira-Wamarumbi.

HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKAKANGA. T,6j

Mwari, when he speaks, usually does so from the Rock, or
from a tall tree in the immeu'iate vicinity. He does not use the
medium of a living person to express himself. His voice is said
to be shrill like that of a woman, and it is stated that the sound
appears to descend from above.

Opinions differ as to whether Mwari ever speaks nowadays,

■ some claiming that he has not done so since the Rebellion, and

that the voice that has been heard speaking during the latter

years is really that of Runji. Others, again, deny that Mwari

never speaks, stating that he manifests himself every year.

The priests who wait cmi Mwari are Warozwi of the totem
" monkey." but the power tO' act as a Mitiiyal li\i-Mwari. ])riest
or messenger of God, is not nowadays confined to any one tribe.
It merely depends on whether the man requesting permission t >
be enrolled as a priest has been possessed by the Jukica spirit ana
accepted by Runji.

Jiikrca is a species of Siiabi, and though there are many
Shabis, Jukzva is the only one that emanates from Mwari. and
the man who is ix)ssessed by this spirit is called a Mondoro : he
is credited with being able to perform all sorts of extraordinary
feats, such as transforming one thing into another, turning tobacco
into ashes, or z'ice versa; diving into a pool infested with croco-
diles ; remaining under water an immense time, far longer than
any ordinary man can possibly do, and — as it is stated — play with
the crocodiles without fear or injury from them.

I may say in passing that Sliabi are the spirits of persons
who have diea alone in the bush, and having no one to carry out
the usual rites of death, to ensure the spirit passing to its resting-
place, it — the SJiabi — is condemned to wander about eternally,
and whilst doing so, may enter the body of some living person
and make its wishes and requests known through this medium, at
a place called Mvumira-wa-Marumbi, so named after the
mother of Runji-Uwe, the per.sonal servants or priests of Mwari.
There are, of course, a very large number of priests who live
scattered throughout the country, who rarely, if ever, go near the
place, but communication is kept up between all of them. Women
who are dedicated to Mwari are called IVosana or Albonga.

The Warozwi did not always believe in Mwari, and at one
time attempted to throw off all allegiance to him, which brought
on the tribe the punishment under which they suffer to this dav.
It is said that just after one of their periodical killings of their
Mambo Tumbari, the tribe went to the Ditnibo-rc-Mwari. or
Rock of God, to consult the oracle. Intoxicated by the excite-
ment of dancing and the beer they bad consumetl, one of their
number began a song to the effect that " Since we have killed
Tumbari, why should we not doi the same to Mwari? " Presentlv
all took up the song; and after a time, as nothing untoward
occurred, they ceased dancing, and agreed that they should treat
Mwari as they had 'treated their late Mambo, Tumbari — i.e., by
burning him alive. They all scattered into the bush in search of
firewood, and piled it up until it completely covered the " Rock ;"'

388 HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE .MAKARANGA.

they then set the pile on fire and awaited developments. As
nothing resulted on that day, they retired to sleep. On the fol-
lowing morning the voice of Mwari greeted them from the tree,
and told them that as a punishment for what they had attempted
they should cease to be a nation, and would be plagued in various
ways for many years to come. First of all, he said : " The locusts
will come ana destroy your crops; then shall come a people
wearing a different kind of dress to what you have been accus-
tomed, and calling themselves Masw^azwi. After this will come a
people called the Madzwiti {i.e., Matabele), who will destroy
your villages and despoil you of your wives and herds, and you
shall cease to be a nation. After this shall come a race of people
who have no knees, a stiff-legged people, who cannot sit down
cross-legged in the usual native manner, but must always sit on
logs of trees with their legs stuck out in front of them. These
peoples shall occupy your country for many years, but in my own
time I will take pity on you, and drive them out by means of the
Mai^aiiga-hiitari " (Men in Armour).

Everything that was foretold came true : First came the
locusts, which destroyed the crops. After this came the first two
Swazwi who had ever been seen in Rhodesia — they were quite
young men, hardly more than boys, and were probably scouts of
the main body ; they were captured bv the Warozwi and taken to
Mambo. To him they explained that they were of a tribe called
Maswazwi, and were merely wandering about seeing the country.
After consultation with his councillors, Mambo decreed that one
of the Swazwi should be killed, and the other should be allowed
to return home ; but to deter his tribe from coming to Rhodesia,
his hands, nose, ears and lips were cut off, and one eye was put
out : the other eye was left him, otherwise he would have been
unable to find his way. In course of time the main body of the
Swazwis arrived, and fought with the Warozwi for a number of
years. Eventually came the jNlatabele. or Madzwiti. as they are
called, who swept the Mrozwi nation out of existence, and then in
turn came the " Whitemen," who in their turn drove out the
Madzwiti, the Europeans being the stift'-legged people — i.e.,
they wore trousers and sat on chairs.

The one part of the prophecy remaining to be fulfilled is
that referring to the " Maganga-hutari." The belief that this
mysterious person will come and evict us from the country is
gradually dying out as the years go on, and nowadays the ques-
tion as to whether and when the Europeans will leave the count'-y
is more an object of interesting" discussion than a fixed article of
faith, as it used to be.

The cause of the Rebellion amongst the Makaranga in 189(1-
97 was due to statements made by the various Mondoro priests
of Mwari that the time had arrived when the prophecy would be
fulfilled— the Men-in-armour were coming, and only awaited the
rising of the natives to make their appearance. Had it not been
4or this belief being so firmly planted in their mind's, the Maka-
ranga would never have rebelled, as they are essentially a race of
husbandmen, and fighting is foreign to all their ideas and habits.

HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKARANGA. 389

For many years after the Rebellion had been put down, the
natives were very sore at the manner in which, as they put it,
" ( rod cheated us," and the words Magancja-hutari were more or
less taboo: it was only necessary to mention the word amongst a
crowd of natives to cause an instant silence to fall, and by no
means could they be persuaded to discuss the matter.

In passing, it might be mentioned that the signal to rise in
1896 was a Kaffir corn stalk sent from Chief to Chief.

The Warozwi are now thoroughly incorporated with the
other tribes of Rhodesia, not only as regards language, but also
customs and laws, and they are all known to the Europeans as
JMakaranga. Maswina or Alashona.

How these names originated is impossible to say : the natives
do not use the words themselves, but nowadays, out of deference
to the ignorance of Europeans, they have adopted the names,
using them to explain their tribe, but it can be stated emphatically
that there is no such tribe as Karanga or Swina in the country.

Of all their beliefs and customs the custom of divination (or
bone-throwing) is the one most firmly fixed in their minds.
From the cradle to the grave their life is a perpetual enquiry as
to what it is propitious to do and what not. The most stringent
laws, with enormously heavy penalties, have been imposed ori
those who persist in divination ; but nothwithstanding. it is highly
improbable that the practice is indulged in any the less now than
it was when we first occupied the country. The only difference
is that nowadays the art is carried on in secret, and the natives
are not so ready to talk about it as formerly.

The bones or okata are of two kinds: first'of all comes the
Riipanga or household oracle, for everyday use amongst families.
They consist of four slabs of wood or ivory, about five inches
long by two inches broaci by half an inch thick ; each slab is carved
in a special manner on one side only. They are known by dif-
ferent names, viz., Nokwaro, Chintmc, Kwaini and Tokwadzima.
The procedure adopted is for the diviner to hold two slabs in each
hand ; he then calls out the enquiry which is being made in a loud
voice, the hands holding the slabs are clapped together, and the
slabs are cast on the ground. Naturally some fall one way up,
some another, and from the position they lie does the diviner
read the answer to his question. Of course, they may have to be
thrown several times before a decisive reply to the question is
received.

CIvrumc and 7'okwadaima are spoken of as the " two boys."
whilst Kwami is called " the two stones " or " the crocodile," the
latter from the fact that it has a crocodile carved on its 'face. Tf
either of the two former fall face up it denotes good luck, if one
is going on a journey, seeking for lost property, etc. ; whilst
Kivami falling face up signifies death, extreme bad luck, etc..
unless the enquiry is regarding success in hunting, when Kivmni
denotes luck to the hunter — that is death to a buck. If the
enquirv is regarding a sick person, it foretells that this person will

390 HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKARANGA.

not recover. When a person falls sick the obvious, commonsense
thing to do is to ascertain the cause, and it is also perfectly
obvious to everyone, that if the person is suffering from some
sickness caused by the spirit of his (deceased') mother-in-law, it
will be perfectly futile, in fact ridiculous, to take medicine (or
go to hospital) ; the natural thing to do is to remove the cause of
the sickness, i.e., the wrath of mother-in-law's spirit. Having
ascertained by means of the akafa that it actually is a s])irit that is
causing the trouble, the next thing to do is to find out again, by
means of the akaki, what the spirit recjuires. It may be that,
quite unknowingly, you did some wrong to mother-in-law during
her lifetime, and for this she requires reparation, or perhaps her
spirit has suddenly acquired a craving for meat or beer, or a cer-
tain kind of coloured limbo; or, in fact, anything, and require^
you to supply her wants. Having discovered her reciuirements,
it is easy to remove the cause of your sickness by supplying them.

The spirit is able to communicate its wishes only by inflicting
tribulation on its surviving relatives, anci as of all the ancestral
spirits that of the mother-in-law is most to be feared, owing to its
venomcms habits, it is advisable to appease it as quickly as pos-
sible, otherwise death may ensue.

How often does one hear it said by a European, '" I can't
make out what's come over my cook-boy. Jack. His child has
got a slight touch of fever, and nothing will please Jack but
that he must take the child home, though he knows perfectly well
that quinine will cure the child, and it is much better oft' here
than it is at his kraal." Well, if the housewife will ask Jack
" What did the akata say concerning the child? " Jack will adrnit
(provided he has a sympathetic employer ) the real reason which
drives him home, which is that probably a spirit is causing
trouble, and unless appeased the child will inevitably die.

Chirume is the akata oi males; A^okzvaya of females. Tokzva-
dzinta is the " eye " it seeks out, and Kwanii is " death."

The akata used by the professional diviner are called Gata.
The number used varies considerably, depending on tlie taste of
the diviner, as many as 20 often being thrown at one time. They
are carved in the same manner, and are identical with the
Rupanga. The greatest care has to be exercised in ci'ivining the
meaning of the Gata, as death may ensue as the result of the
throwing. As a rule the profession of diviner descends from
father to son. Gata are used for the protection of the community
against witches and such like enemies of the State. Witchcraft
is considered the most heinous of crimes, as being particularly
directed against the general community.

Nowadays, of course, the public exposure and jjunishment
of witches is not allowed. This is one of the grievances the
native labours under. Many of the cleverer amongst the natives
trade on the power that a witch wields, and profess to be able to
use supernatural power and to have the knowledge of poisons, etc.

How often is a European employer met with — nsuallv on a
mine — who is at at a loss to uno'erstand whv his mine is un-

HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKARANC.A. 7,qi

popular amongst the natives ; and he is, therefore, always short
of boys, even at times when his neighbours have plentw If the
natives are treated considerately, and no sound reason can be
discovered for its unpopularity, the cause will often be found
to be due to witchcraft. Some clever native, often the employer's
most trusted and oldest servant, is trading on witchcraft, and by
levying blackmail on the compound, frightens natives away.

It is a popular misconception amongst Europeans that the
bone-thrower, or diviner, is merely a clever native who defrauds
the credulous by trickery, or divines the bones most favourably
to the person who pays the most. This is entirely wrong. The
diviner is not what might be called a common cheat, as he firmly
believes in his own powers of divination. He does not practice
his art for profit, as the presents he receives are, as a rule,
articles such as a hoe, or a bangle, or a string of beads, or some
such thing of no value.

Formerly, the diviner threw his Gata under a certain tree,
and on this tree were hung all the presents he received from his
clients, so that one could tell at a glance the extent of his
popularity. Some trees were almost covered with the numerable
presents which had been received.

In all important matters, such as in an accusation of witch-
craft, the aggrieved party calls on his accuser to go with him to
throw the bones. If the accuser refuses to do so, he must ])ay
damages for defamation of character. The parties, accom-
panied by their relatives, then travel in search of a diviner ; a
native who is known to either one party or the other is nevtr
consulted. They must go to a complete stranger, who can ha\e
no knowledge of them or their afl:airs. In consequence, they gener-
ally travel for some days until they reach a part of the country
where they are strangers to everyone. There they make enquiries
as to the residence of some diviner, and eventually go to his kraal.
On arrival, they merely state that they want the bones thrown,
and if the diviner agrees, his first procedure is to divine for what
purpose the parties have come to him. It should be remembered
that only the diviner speaks when bone-throwing is going on ;
complete silence is maintained by all the other persons present.
Having discovered that the parties have coine to consult him with
regard to witchcraft, the diviner then has to discover the person
who is accused. He does not question the parties either before
or during the bone-throwing. He addresses his questions to the
bones as he throws them, and as they fall so he divines the replies
to his questions.

The Shangaans are renowned as diviners ; they generally use
the stone of some fruit instead of the Gafa. These stones are
found in the excrement of elephants ; they are split in two. and
are thrown in the same manner as the ordinary Akata. These
stones are called Mungoma, and the complete set consists of six.

Little is known of the art of bone-throwing, even the natives
themselves are unable to explain the matter ; but all Europeans
who Iiave come in contact with bone-throwing can relate most

392 HISTORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE MAKARANGA.

curious results as having occurred. To a certain extent divina-
tion is falling into disuse amongst the more or less educated
natives. Formerly, when a native was going away from home,
either to visit, or to seek work, etc., he threw the bones as tD
whether the time was propitious. Were the bones to say that
he should not leave home, nothing whatever would induce him to
do so. On the other hana', if the bones say that the native
should go only to Bulawayo to work and nowhere else, then no
persuasion or offer of money will deter him from his purpose of
going to Bulawayo. If labour agents and others would bear
this custom in mind, it would save them considerable worry and
trouble. Of course, the labour agent who wishes to be really
successful should send his own diviner on ahead of him, to throw
the bones, and read (from them that dire results will follow if the
natives do not go out to work vvfth his master (the labour agent).
Unfortunately in these modern times this kind of trick is looked
on with distrust by the powers that be, so I would not recommend
an agent to try the scheme.

The power to cause rain or droughts is said to be in the
hands of two persons, that is, Mwari or God, and through him
various Mondoro, or Priests of Mwari, and Msikabantu, a chief
residing in Melsetter district, and through him Mazungunye,
the chief of the Waduma in Ndanga district.

Only certain of the Mondoro are credited with this power ;
they are not thought to be infallible, and their assistance is
rarely sought nowadays.

Msikabantu is related by marriage to IMazungunye, and
both these chiefs are renowned rainmakers, and many extra-
ordinary stories are told of their powers in this direction.

The story of how Mazungunye, or, as he was then called.
Fupajena. gained the power to make rain is somewhat interesting.

It appears that Msikabantu had a daughter named Mepu ;
she was a beautiful girl, but somewhat headstrong: in conse-
quence suitors for her hand were slow in coming forwani.
Apparently, to encourage the men Msikabantu gave out that
whoever married his daughter sliould be given the power of rain-
making. Mepu was not pleased with this, so told her father
that she would marry no man unless he could make her speak.
Suitors came one after another to court Mepu, but to not one
would she speak. So after spending a few ciays in the kraal
the young man would retire to make room for someone else.

The story was told to Fupajena, who determined to marry
Mepu. He travelled to her kraal, explained who he was and
his business, and was told that he could do his best to make
Mepu speak. On the following day he accompanied her to the
garden, where they worked all day. No matter what he did
she would not speak to him. On the next day they again went
to the garden, where they were engaged in weeding. The crop
at this time being only a few inches high. Mepu showed him
what to do. but Fupajena. instead of hoeing out the weeds,
began to chop out the crop, leaving the weeds alone. Mepu, for-

11 J STORY AND CUSTOMS OF THE M A KARAXGA. 393

getting all about the necessity for silence, burst out on him for
being such a fool as not to know weeds from grain.

After they were married she, of course, went with her hus-
band to his home, and took up her residence on a hill called
" The Girls' Hill" from the summit of which she could see her
father's country, some lOO miles away.

Fupajena brought back with him the power to make rain,
and this power has de.^cendeci' from one chief to the other until

recently.

The source of the rain is said to be on " The Girls" Hill " ;
this is a small pool, which is situated on the top of the hill. This
pool is covered with a flat stone, and a hut has been built over
it. When rain is required the slab rock is removed.

The reigning chief cannot climb the hill unless accompanied
by his " Priest." and there are various taboos concerning it. A
pel son, when on the hill, must not whistle in the manner the
natives usually do when driving cattle.

The hut covering the pool has two doors — one may only
be used by men. and the other by women — and no one must com-
pletely encircle the hut by walking round it.

Only the chief mav remove the slab from the ])0ol. It
would appear that someone removed the lid this year, and forgot
to put it back.

Crocodiles and hippos have a very bad effect on the rainfall
if killed and left lying on dr}- land. The former are, of course,
never killed by natives, but in the case of the latter, after it has
been despoiled of the hide and meat, the bones should be re-
turned to the water.

Solar Physics. — Science announces that Dr. L. A.
Bauer has left Washington for England for the purpose of
organising an ex]>edition for magnetic and electric observation
during the solar eclipse of May 2(j, iQiy, at a station in South
Africa.

Ostriches in Arizona. — In the twenty-seventh

annual report of the Arizona Exi^eriment Station ( pj). 2i)0-2g^)
R. H. Williams and W. S. Cunnincfham discuss the laying records
of and the weight of the eggs laid by ostrich hens from Nubia,
from South Africa and by cross-bred hens. In igi6 two Nubian
hens laid an average of 25.5 egg'^, four South Africans an average
of 28.7s, while three cross-bred hens made an average of 32.67,
The eggs of the South African hens averaged 1.507 grams in
weight, those of the Nubian birds 1,597.. ^"fl tlie cross-bred
ostriches gave an average of 1,^)48 grams.

THE KILLING OF THE DIVINE KING IN SOUTH

AFRICA.

By Rev. Samuel S. Dornan^ M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
{Rcad^ July ii, 1918.)

Sir J. G. Frazer, in his great work entitled " The Golden
Bough," has traced the evolution of the kingly office, and has
endeavoured to prove that the idea of the Divine King arose out
oif that of the primitive medicine-man, who was believed to
control natural phenomena, and hence was thought to be possessed
of Divine attributes and properties, or even actually claimed them
himself. In Fart III. of that work he further elaborates the theory
that kings, being Divine beings, had to be killed when they showed
signs of failing physical powers. This was to prevent the spirit
of the king from showing a corresponding decay of spiritual
energy, to interrupt or suspend the course of nature, and bring
disaster upon the people. He fortifies this opinion with a wealth
of illustration altogether unexampled. He gives a formidable
array of instances from ancient and modern history, and from
nearly every corner of the,world. He gives quite a few examples
from Africa, mostly from Central and West Africa, but cites
only two from South Africa, namely, the practice of the Zulus
and the people of Sofala, or the ancient Makaranga of Rhodesia.
This he quotes from the seventh volume of Theal's " Records of
South-Eastern Africa," the narrative of Dos Santos, to whom wl-
are mainly indebted for our knowledge of these regions in the
sixteenth century. Having learnt of the custom of king-killing
amongst the old Varozwe, who were until comparatively recent
times the ruling caste of the Makaranga, I had the curiosity to
look up the reference in Theal's volumes, and found that Dos
Santos had accurately described a custom which prevailed until
quite lately. These Varozwe are few in number now, and have
lost their predominance. They have many interesting customs
peculiar to themselves, and their language is said to have been
quite different to the ordinary Chikaranga, but it may only have
been a dialect of it, just as the language of the Incas of Peru
is said to have been dift'erent. though only a dialect of the
Quichua, the common speech of the people. These Varozwe claim
to be the descendants of the people who built Zimbabwe and other
ruins of Rhodesia, and have many interesting traditions regarding
them, some of which the writer embodied in a paper before this
Association a few years ago.* They are somewhat different in
type to the ordinary natives, and have sometimes aquiline noses
and thin lips, are more refined in appearance and manners, though
still negroes.

*" Rhodesian Ruins and Native Tradition." Refit. S.A. Ass. for Adv.
Scieuce (1915), Pretoria. 502-516.

KILLINC; THE KING IX SOUTH AFRICA. 395

Dos Santos gives a description of the Makaranga which is
wonderfully accurate to-day, even though there is no Mambo or
Monomatapa. Dos Santos confuses both of these terms. Mambo
is the generic term for chief, while Monomatapa, or Munumutapa
correctly, was one of the praise names of the Mambo, and meant
" great thief." Take the following extract as showing the
accuracy of Dos Santos :

Monomotapa and the Mocarangas, his vassals, wear a white shell on the
forehead hanging from the hair as an ornament, and the Monomotapa
wears another large shell on his breast. These shells they call andot'os, and
they are looked upon with hatred by Quiteve, as they are the insignia of
his enemy. Monomotapa, and therefore neither Quiteve nor his vassals
wear ainii'ros. although they are all nt them Mocarangas.*

Again :

In this hunt, which is frequently held by Quiteve, it is lawful for the
Katitirs to kill lions, but not at any other time or place, for Quiteve has
made a law in his kingdom that none may kill a lion under pain of death,
for he is called the great lion, and as such he says he is bound to protect
the lives of the other lions, and they may only be slain in his presence and
and for his recreation. All eat of these spoils at the place of slaughter,
with great rejoicing and merriment, and they carry the remainder of the
meat to their homes.t

It is interesting to find that a round shell, ndoro, is one of the
totems of the Makaranga, being the particular totem of Muranda's
people in the Untibi district, not far from the Sabi River, inside
the boundaries of ancient Makaranga. The lion, shumba, is also
one of the totems c(f Varozwe and of the Makaranga generally,
and is found in the Chibe and Chilimanzi districts. These tribes
are found in the ruins area. It would be quite natural for Qui-
teve, when his ancestor revolted from. ^Monomatapa, to take a
new totem. Such was the usual custom, and w^ould account for
his hatred of his former sovereign.

But to return to king-killing, Frazer, in his book, relies
principally on the custom of the Shilluks to fortify his contention
that this practice was substantially the same as that of the priests
of Neini, the Kings of the Wood, who had regularly to perish by
the hands of their successors. He cites similar customs amongst
the Dinkas and people of West Alfrica, in addition to those given
above. The Shilluks are a pastoral people living on the White
Nile, and pay great respect and honour to their kings, whoin they
regard as incarnations of Nyakang, their great legendary hero,
who is worshipped as semi-divine by the Shilluks. He gives a
description by Dr. Seligmann of the benefits and blessings which
this hero-king brought to the Shilluk nation. He is the great
rain-giver of the Shilluks, and the fertility of the country en-
tirely depends on the rain which he sends. Yet his position is
only that of a demi-god, and is subordinate to Juok, the great god
of the Shilluks. Nyakang is said to have brought the Shilluks
into their present country, to have made them a nation of warriors,
divided the country amongst them, regulated marriage, made the

' * ■' Records of South East Africa." 7, 280.
■rH?i(f. 7, 208.

3<j6 KILLING THK KIXC IX SOUTH AFRICA.

laws, and after having settled the.se matters, he did not die. but
simply disappeared. '\11 the sulxseqtient kings, in order to retain
their divinity, must die violent deaths whenever they show signs
of senile decay, lest their Divine spirits should show signs of decay
also. Most nations of ancient as well as some of modern times
regard their royal houses as of Divine origin, as. for exam]>le, the
ancient Mexicans and Peruvians. These latter called the Inca
the Child of the Stm, and the Chinese Kmperor was styled the Son
of Heaven. Amongst the Mexicans the great legendary 'founder
of their nation. Quetzalcoatl, disappeared on a raft of .snakes.
We see a near approach to this idea in the Basuto traditions of
Alohlumi, a semi-divine chief, who died, they say. about a century
ago. 'By all accounts ]\Johlumi was a remarkable man. He is
said to have been in communication with heaven from his youth.
He was caught up to heaven, and saw many peoples and heard
many things. He brought back an honest and ])rudent heart, and
never forgot the counsel that he had there received- He was a
great peace-maker and law-giver, and was gifted with the faculty
of prophecy. It was the ambition of his successors to be likened
to Mohlumi. He died at a place called Ugodile, and was buried
there, but no one could tell me exactly where. The Basutos say
" God took him," and they pay his memory great honour, and say
that they never had such a king as Mohlumi since. His succes.sors
are not conscious incarnations of his spirit. Of cotirse. given
long enough, Mohlumi might become semi-defied like the Shilluk
kings. There is always the tendency to weave romance round
the lives and actions of great ptiblic characters, especially if they
are far removed from the present, and to represent them and their
times as being so mtich superior to those of to-day.

Amongst tlie Banyoro of Central Africa, the king was never allowed
to attain old age, his mental powers and bodily vigour never being allowed
to decline, nor did the king die from any lingering illness. Did be feel
unwell, or think he was about to be seriously ill. he would call his
leading chiefs and hold a council to consider state affairs, and would
leave them under the impression that he was quite well. When the chiefs
were dismissed, the king would retire to a special house, call his principal
wife, and ask her to bring the poison cup. She would understand that
he wished to have the poison cup to end his life, and accordingly pre-
pared a potion from a drug she kept ready to hand. This she gave to the
king, who drank it, and in a few minutes was dead. The death of the
king was kept secret as long as possible, and everything went on as
before in the royal enclosure. To account for his absence, it was said
that the king was unwell and could not be seen or hold his usual courts.
The principal wife took one or two chiefs into her confidence, and together
they provided a cowhide and stitched up the body of the king in it.
They then made preparations for crowning a new king. This custom
lasted down to within living memory.*

Sometimes the people sought to kill their king while he Avas in
the full possession of his powers, and if he knew that his strength
was failing he anticipated theni. As Unyoro is no great distance
from the Dinka and Shilluk countries, it is possible that the
custom in one country may have influenced the custom in the

*Roscoe: "The Northern Bantu." 14.

KILLINC] THE KIN'G IN SOUTH AFRICA. 39"

Other. Regarding the Zuki custom of king-kilhng. Isaacs, a con-
temporary of Chaka, and a trader at his court, says that the
Zulus were accustomed to put their kings to death when they
showed symptoms of faihng |X)wers, such as the appearance of
grey hairs, wrinkles, or loss of teeth, and that Chaka was very
angry with him because he could not give him a specific to prevent
the approach of these signs of infirmity, as it would be an indica-
tion to him to quit this sublunary world, it being always followed
by the death of the monarch. I have not found any other refer-
ences to this custom among the Zulus in contemporary literature.
Neither Callaway nor Bryant mention it in their accounts of Zulu
customs. Isaacs was, however, a trustworthy observer, and he
is not likely to have been mistaken.

Amongst the Varozwe the custom otf killing the king pre-
vailed. Absence of bodily blemishes w-as considered absolutely
necessary in the occupant of the throne. If a candidate for the
kingly office had any such defects, he was passed over in favour
of someone else. Even when in full ix>sssession of his powers
he was sometimes not allowed to reign very long. If he showed
any signs of physical decay, such as loss of teeth, grey hairs.
failure of sight or impotency — in fact, any of the indications of
advancing age — he was put to death, and a man was deputed to
carry the resolution into efifect. He was waylaid, on a path and
strangled with a thong of cowhide. I have heard it asserted
that any man who saw the king declining in strength had the right
to kill him, but I am not sure if this is true. The kings of the
Varozwe were buried in a national cemeter)'. This was some-
where in the vicinity of Manyanga,* according to Mr. E. G. How-
man, and was called Mtoro or Zimbabwe. Such a national ceme-
tery is mentioned by Dos Santos as having existed in his time.
It is no longer used, since the occupation of the cotmtry by Euro-
peans. At the death of the, Varozwe chief many slaves were
slaughtered to bear him company, and minister to his wants in the
next world. This was the usual practice at the death of great
chiefs in almost every part of the country before the advent of
the white man. Chaka was said to have ordered the slaughter of
every mother in Zululand when his own mother died, as a sign
of national mourning, but was satisfied to stop the massacre when
7,000 had been killed. This was, however, an extreme case, due
to the bloodthirsty instincts of the tyrant. Amongst the Awemba,
in Northern Rhodesia, wife-killing on a large scale accompanied
the burial of a paramount chief. The same custom ])revailed
amongst the people of Nyasaland- If we compare the description
of the Makaranga given by Dos Santos, who wrote in 1607, with
that given by Mr. Howman in his paper on the traditional histor>-
and customs of the Makaranga, f we shall see that tlie people have
changed little in the interval. Mr. Howman has made a study of
these people, and has discovered many interesting facts regarding
their history and customs. Dos Santos, speaking of the in-
habitants of Sofala, says : —

* The mountain called Faba's ka Mainbo, near th^ Shangani River.
Y See ante, pp. 383-393-

3y8 KILLING THE KING IN SOUTH AFRICA.

It was formerly the custom of the kings of this land, to commit
suicide by taking poison when any disaster or natural physical defect fell
upon them, such as impotence, infectious disease, the loss of their front
teeth, by which they were disfigured, or any other deformity or affiction.
To put an end to such defects, they killed themselves, saying the king
should be free from any blemish, and if not it was better for his honour
that he should die and seek another life where he would be made whole,
for there everything was perfect. But the Quiteve who reigned when 1
was in those parts would not imitate his predecessors in this. Being
discreet, and, dreaded as he was, for having lost a front tooth, he caused
it be proclaimed that all should be aware that he had lost a tooth, and
should recognise him when they saw him without it ; and if his prede-
cessors killed themselves for such things, they were very foolish, and he
would not do so ; on the contrary, he would be very sorry when the
time came for In'm to die a natural death, for his life v.'as very necessary
to preserve his kingdom, and defend it from his enemies, and he recom-
mended his successors to follow his example.*

When the Quiteve dies his chief wives are obliged to die also, jn
order to serve and dwell with him in the next world, which is another
of their barbarities. In fulfilment of this inhuman law, as soon as the
king is dead, ihey take poison, which they call lucassc, kept prepared for
the purpose, and so die. The king who succeeds to the tlirone, also
succeeds as husband to all the remaining wives of the former king, of
whom some are his sisters, aunts, and nieces, only excepting his own
mother, if slie is a among the wives of his predecesor. This law only
applies to the kings, for the other Kaffirs, though they may be great lords,
cannot marry their sisters or dauglilers under pain of dcath.f

These Zimbas. or Muzinibas, do not adore idols or recognise any
God, but instead they venerate and honour their king, wh®m they regard
as a divinity, and they say he is the greatest and best in the world. And
the said king says of himself that he alone is r^od of the earth, for wliich
reason, if it rains when he does not wish it to do so, or is too hot, he
shoots arrows at the sky for not obeying him ; and though all these people
eat human flesh, the king does not seem different to his vassals. $

They have many such superstitions and abuses. Dom Jorge de
Meneses, when Captain of Mozambique, sent a very beautiful greyhound
to Monomotapa, which he had received from Portugal. This animal
was much liked by Monomotapa, who always kept it with him, and trusted
the care of it to no one but himself. Shortly afterwards the king died,
and before his decease he commanded his people, as though by a will
to kill his greyhound immediately after he had drawn his last breath,
as he loved it dearly ; and also a very tame .sheep that he had brought
up himself, as he wished to make use of them in the other world, and
have them with him for his pleasure and amusement. This was carried
out as soon the king died, and his chief wife also drank poison, and died
with her husband, which is their custom. §

Many of the foregoing customs held good until quite lately,
and could be applied to several Bantu tribes in South Africa.
The Varozwe of Dos Santos' time were not different from their
neighbours, and their successors have inherited practices with
little change. Owing to the white man being in the land, many
of these cannot be carried out, as British law prevents that, but
they certainly would be if they could. It also shews what a close
and accurate observer Dos Santos was, and what pains he took
to ascertain the truth.

* " Records of .South-Eastern Africa," 7, 194.
(Ibid, 19 T.

Xlbid., 295.
§ Ibid., 200.

KILLING THE KING IN SOUTH AFRICA. 399

The whole subject of king-killing- is obscure, and much more
detailed investigation will be necessary before we can pronounce
definitely upon it. I cannot see that the Zulu or Varozwe custom
bears out Frazer's contention that the king was treated as a
Divine personage in his life and worshipped as a god after his
death. Assertions to this efifect have been made w^ith regard
to certain Central African tribes, but I think on insufficient
grounds. The difficult}' oif the subject is greatly enhanced by
want of clear definition of what natives understand by " god "
or " divinitv." Their conceptions of such terms are certainly very
difterent from ours, and no one can wholly escape the danger of
interpreting their conceptions in the light of our own. No
doubt the chief was reverenced greatly in life, enjoyed many
privileges, and an indignity oft'ered to one of them was considered
to be a crime of the gravest nature,, punishable usually by death,
liut this is a long way from considering him to be divine- It is
not so amongst the tribes I am acquainted with. What the
natives themselves say with regard to killing the king ought to
he given some weight : that they wanted to avoid a struggle over
the succession, as would have happened at the king's death, if
thev had allowed him to become old and infirm ; or it might even
have taken place in his life, as a weak king, they say, always
j)rovokes and invites trouble. One swallow does not make a
summer, and it seems to me that Frazer has largely failed to
prove his case, so far as South Africa is concerned.

The Collapse of Kelp Potash. — The American
Fertilizer^ states that a highly unsatisfactory situation has been
suddenly brought about with respect to the coast potash and kelp
industry, the arnfistice and its attendant events having caused the
closing of the plants. The largest kelp concern in existence — that
of the Hercules Pow^der Company at San Diego, California —
ceased operations because its products were mainly those used in
war industries : its potash — a very high-grade chloride — was used
for the preparation of potassium nitrate ; its acetone went into
the manufacture of munitions. This company was also manu-
facturing acetic anhydride, rare esters, and alginate bodies, which
though af importance and of very great promise, did not suffice
to take the place of the diminished values of the other products.
It seems well accepted that it is not possible to produce potash
from kelp commercially in normal times by any of the means
hitherto tried where no by-products are recovered. The Hercules
Powder Company had, during the last two and a half years, cut
over 621,000 tons of kelp in the Pacific Ocean. Over five million
dollars had been expended in the great works at San Diego.

* 50 [6] 60, 66 (1919).

B

HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS,
TRANSVAAL AND ORANGE FREE STATE.

By Jane Buchanan Henderson Ruthven^ M.D., L.R.C.P.»
L.R.C.S.E., L.R.F.P.S, F.R.S.A.

{Read, July 12, 1918.)

The following paper has been written as a result of my
experience during 15 years of work as a medical practitioner in a
country district of the Transvaal, and from information obtained
in several driving tours extending into the north-western part of
the Orange Free State.

Although written in general terms, it could have been
illustrated, had time and space permitted, by definite cases which
have come under my own observation. Most of the suggestions
express my emphatic opinion as regards what is urgently required
at the present moment, and what is absolutely essential as a
preliminary to any satisfactory permanent scheme of closer settle-
ment.

There are two aspects of family life to which I wish to draw
attention. Firstly, the actual one of producing a family with
all its risks to the mother and the new-born infant. In the
country there is absolutely no provision made for help at such a
time as this. Among the farms the women are helped by an
elderly woman, who has gained knowledge by experience, and,
as nature is kind, the results are apparently fairly satisfactory.
In every farm-house you will find a man and his wife and
children. What more can you want? But look into matters a
little deeper and you will in many cases find that a compara-
tively young man has his second or third wife, and the children
represent mothers who have died. With a kind of comfortable
fatalism, or resignation to the will of Providence, they accept the
inevitable ; the Orphan Chamber sees to the dividing up of the
farm ; and the man looks round and hopes for better luck next
time.

The country Boer, who lives by the traditions of his fathers,
or, rather, I should say his mothers, grandmothers, and aunts,,
may be satisfied, but a new era is approaching; it has already
begun. Men from overseas, tired of mining, or put off the mines
on account of miners' phthisis, are willing to go on to the land
with their wives and children. They hire a piece of ground, trek
out with their belongings, hire a neighbour to plough up the
ground, and prepare to sit in the sun while the mealies are
growing. The woman has another thought — a new baby is in
prospect. What is she to do? In former confinements she has
had some of the amenities of modern care and nursing. She is
afraid of the local " Tante," with her old-fashioned ways and a
language which is strange to her. Her own people are away

HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 4OI

at the other ends of the earth. How is she to face her coming
trial ? What wonder is it if she shrinks back with fear and insists
upon a return to town, with its possibilities of skilled help and
aseptic nursing. The newspapers are full of schemes for closer
settlement, for putting returned soldiers on to the land, for
encouraging miners' phthisis victims to go on to the land, but I
maintain that the first step to be done is to make provision for the
care of maternity cases, so that the women from overseas who
are willing to go with their husbands, will know that when they
do their duty to the State by bringing forth children they will
have some reasonable care and attention.

Although I am emphasising the case of the newer settlers,
1 do not in the least wish to ignore the claim.s of the older settlers
— the Boer farmers. We are told that there is unrest in the back
veld — there is a cry for a Republic, for the old flag. The truth
is that there is a justifiable feeling of unrest and dissatisfaction,
but the majority of the people do not realise what is the matter.
Mischief-makers try to make political capital out of it, but what is
really needed is a sympathetic imagination that will put into plain
language the inarticulate cry of the people.

In regard to sickness or accident in the home, let me
emphasise the fact that the onset is unexpected and cannot be
foreseen. If help is to be of value, it should be given promptly.
If the initial dose of castor oil or the like is not curative, then
skilled medical treatment should be available. In all cases of the
non-indigent, no assistance is given to secure this help in the
country. In the regulations for district surgeons this definition is
found. Indigent person is one '' certified by a magistrate to be
in a state of absolute poverty and physically incapable of earning
a livelihood." Let it be granted that such indigent persons are
well looked after by the magistrate and the district surgeon, but
the question arises, what happens to the others? It may also be
taken for granted that there are in the country certain farmers
who are in a financial position to pay properly for any medical
attention they require. Having excluded the highest and the
lowest ranks, there remains the large middle class of all grades
and capacities. There is many a man who can keep his house-
hold going — it may be in a very humble way, but at least clothed
and fed — who is quite unable to pay a reasonable fee to a doctor.
The Kaffirs and the coloured people are not included in the defi-
nition of "indigent" ; most of them are not in a state of absolute
poverty, and physically incapable of earning a livelihood, yet how
n:any are in a position to pay mileage to bring a doctor out to
their hut in case of serious illness ?

In order to get definite statistics I applied to the Registrar-
General, Pretoria, for information, and received a letter in reply
from Mr. C. W. Cousins, Director of Census, informing me that
the first issue of " The Official Year-Book of the Union " was
in the press, and at the time of writing it is apparently not yet
released for distribution. I have found figures relating to the

402 HEALTH PkOllLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

years from July, 1902, to December, 1911, as follows: — In rural
districts of the Transvaal, total number of European deaths,
12,487, and of these 6,293. or more than half, had no medical
certificate as to the cause of death. Let us make an attempt to
realise something of the state of affairs concealed under those
figures. It is quite impossible to estimate the amount of sickness
that did not end in death. The physical suffering of the patient,
the mental anguish of the relatives, the haphazard and ill-
informed rusii to the powders and drops in the " Huis Apotheek,"
even the })rayers of the Elders of the Church, and finally recovery,
partial or complete in some cases ; in other cases a wild rush to the
doctor after a hasty collection of all the available money in the
neighbourhood, or an agonising petition to the doctor to come,
with a promise to pay when the crops ripen. And the doctor
arrives just in time to see the patient in extremis. He can
recognise the cause of death and grant a medical certificate, and
that death is classified as certified, but I ask, how can that possibly
be described as proper medical attention? In my opinion it is
not. From a doctor's point of view there is no satisfaction in
being called in just in time to certify the cause of death, and too
late to be of any real heli> to the patient. A doctor does not
spend five, six, or seven of the best years of life in order to be in
a ix)sition to assist in the compilation of statistics. A doctor's
trite \york is to help people during life to recover health or to
case pain and anxiety when recovery is hopeless ; the writing of a
death certificate, which is of so much importance and interest to
the statistician, is to the doctor a mere irksome detail. I contend
that in many cases of certified deaths the patient has had no
proper medical attention because the doctor has been called in
too late to be of any real help. In other cases the doctor has
been called in, the diagnosis of an irrecoverable condition is
made, and no more is heard of the patient for perhaps weeks or
months, when the death occurs : whether these are classified
as certified or uncertified I am not in a position to say, but the
fact remains that such cases cannot be described as having proper
medical attention in the ordinary acceptance of the words.

The health of the natives and coloured people in the country
should receive more consideration than it does at present, not only
for the purpose of easing pain and suffering and mental anxiety,
but also because of the close relationship between the white and
coloured inhabitants of the land. In the neighbourhood of towns
there is a continual stream going backwards and forwards. The
women and girls go up to do washing and cleaning, the men work
in town and return on Sundays, and infectious disease may
occur and be carried from place to place. If a death occurs, a
policeman asks a few questions and a burial order is given. If
there is any suspicion of foul play, then another state of affairs
occurs. This really is important. A cart and pair of horses is
sent down to remove the body to the mortuary, a fee is forth-
coming for a post-mortem, and money that is grudged to the

HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 403

sick one when alive is freely expended on a case of suspicious
death. The medico-legal questions are considered of much more
importance than the granting of help during life. From the
humanitarian point of view it is really of much more value to
help a citizen to regain health and strength rather than to
expend time, money, energy, and skill in trying to ascertain the
cause of death. I have no wish to belittle the efforts made to
protect human life from violence and ill-treatment, but merely
to point out that there is another side to the question. If the
victims had a choice they might be j)ardoned for preferring a
sharp blow over the head to end things without delay, rather than
months of pain, weakness, and distress as a precedent to death
" from natural causes," which would be accepted as quite all right
from the policeman on patrol, who had to make inquiries. In
dealing with matters medico-legal and recuperative assistance,
may I quote the words spoken of old, " These ought ye to have
done and not to leave the others undone."

The suggestions now to be made are not necessarily original,
but so long as conditions remain unimproved, the same ground
has to be covered over and over again, in the hope that some day
it will reach the right ears, and the inertia of old-time habits will
be overcome.

The case must be considered from two points of view —
that of the patient and that of the doctor. The mileage, combined
with the roughness of the roads, is one of the greatest reasons
for the high medical fees charged to country ]-)atients. Almost
any fee will be considered a high one from the point of view of
the patient, while from the point of view of the doctor, it is
miserably unremunerative, when the fatigue, upkeep o'" vehicles,
and time involved is considered. The first proposal is this : The
patient should pay an ordinary medical fee, and the Government
should be responsible for mileage at a reasonable rate. The fee
paid should be larger than would be charged if the patients were
brought to the doctor's consulting room. I consider this of very
great importance, because after all we are dealing with humans,
not angels, and it is human nature to save themselves trouble if
it cost them nothing. For the same reason a fee must be forth-
coming, otherwise the doctor would be called to all parts of the
district for any kind of trivial ailment. The mileage is another
matter. It is impossible for the small farmer or bywoner to pay
a reasonable mileage. If the Government gtiarantees the mifeage
to the doctor, then it either can be paid in full by the Government,
or in part, or collected altogether from the farmer, if he is in a
position to pay ; but the doctor should not be put in the position
of having to collect it. alternatively of refusing to go or of going
with no hope of recovering the fee. Both these last alternatives
are wrong. The doctor does quite enough charity in responding
to calls at all hours of the day and night, and in all conditions of
weather, without having to worry about collecting fees or losing
them altogether. This would put everyone on the same footing,

404 HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

whether white, black, or coloured, and when we think how often
the outlying Kaffir kraal forms a focus for virulent infectious
disease, which is ready to take its toll from the white people., it
is not necessary to argue about the necessity for looking after the
sick Kaffir. Let me recall to mind the outbursts of plague,
bubonic or pneumonic, small-pox, the ravages of typhus in the
Cape Province, which even now may not be over.

I have already referred to the need for trained midwives,
and I now add skilled nurses for general illnesses. I have great
respect for the Boer women on the farms, and the men who will
see that the instructions of the doctor are carried out to the letter,
but when you see a woman from overseas lying helplessly ill, with
no relatives in the country, and dependent on the kindness of
neighbours, you wish for skilled nursing. Or, again, if the man,
his wife, and child, are all ill at one time, and the sister who alone
is at hand to help, is herself in an advanced state of pregnancy,
one is apt to look around and ask where is the help that should
come to such as these?

As regards the King Edward Nurses, from whom so much
w'as expected, the latest report, that for 19 17, reveals the fact
that they have not the financial support nor the stafif to supply
the needs of the country, and their regulations show a lack of
knowledge and imagination of the conditions of life among the
people who require help.

A scheme is on foot among the Dutch women of all parties
to provide Dutch-speaking nurses for country districts, and we
may wish them all success, but it must be remembered that
country work bears with it much individual responsibility, and all
nurses for country work must be thoroughly trained up to the
highest standard. Partial training is not fair either to the nurse
or the patient. It has been tried in other parts, and has been
found unsatisfactory. The useful village nurse in an English
village, within a stone's throw of the doctor, is on an entirely
different footing from a nurse in a farm-house, perhaps many
hours away from the nearest authoritative adviser.

Another point is the need for a lavish distribution of tele-
phones throughout the country, with call-offices of easy access,
and a free telephone installed for every doctor in a country town
or district. Every country school might have a call-office, as it
may be supposed that they are fairly convenient for a group of
surrounding farms. At the house of a resident J. P., or Veld-
Cornet, if a farm, there should be a call-office, and at every
country police-station. The calls starting from a call-office could
be charged a fixed reasonable fee, irrespective of mileage, say,
perhaps, is. It is not necessary that these country telephones
should be commercially payable propositions ; they ought to be
looked upon as public health necessities, and as a means of
rendering life on the farms more free from mental anxiety. If
once the country realised the help and comfort it would be to
them to be within verbal communication with a doctor in times

HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 405

of illness or accident, they would realise how badly they were
treated in the past, when these conveniences of modern civilisation
were grudgingly held back from them on account of a compara-
tively trivial initial expense. The telephone is of much more
value than the telegraph, because it is so much easier to speak
or hear than explain in writing, with a limited number of words
at disposal.

Another point is the need for an ambulance available when
required. There are many forms of trailer ambulances, and one
which could be attached to a Cape cart or a motor would facilitate
the removal of urgent cases to hospital. Cottage hospitals should
be maintained in every country town, and as this could serve as
headquarters for the district nurses, it would not be much addi-
tional expense.

This war has opened the eyes of the world to the uses of
the aeroplane. On the battle-field the aeroplane has already been
used as an ambulance to bring in the seriously wounded. When
the war is over there will be many skilled aviators ready for work.
In a country like South Africa, with wide areas, bad roads,
paucity of bridges, and obstacles of all sorts, is it too much to
ask that the bird of war will become the bird of peace, carrying
the country doctor over hill and dale to the care of the sick and
the injured, lightening the burden of the white settlers, and
reducing the toil of the doctor? He, after all, is susceptible to
fatigue and illness, although some people seem to think that a
medical practitioner should be capable of hard and responsible
work at every hour of the night or day, both week-days and
Sundays. I have the impression that a people, who shall be
nameless, introduced aeroplanes into an outlying possession osten-
sibly to facilitate the work of the country doctors. Whether this
be so or not. I have long thought that it would be a very easy
way of getting over distance, in making professional visits, and
I have foimd a French writer advocating the use of the aeroplane
in some such way as this.

After this paper was so far completed, some evidence was
given before the Commission to enquire into the taxation of
incomes derived from farming, and I would like to quote the
words of Mr. John Roy, as reported in the Star of June 24th,
"because it supports the opinion which I have personally formed
of the hardships and difficulties of farm life in the Transvaal.

Mr. Roy said :
In the Cape, farming was a gentleman's life ; in the Ti'ansvaal.
farming, no matter what capital a man possessed, was a hard struggle.
His opinion was that the general farmer of the Transvaal was not too
prosperous. That opinion extended to some parts of the Free State. He
was not surprised that the Income Tax return from the farming com-
munity was so small. In his view it was really a fair reflex of the
conditions of the farmers of the Transvaal.

Further on he said :

He did not think that maize-growing was a profitable occupation any-
■where. The population growing grain were the poorest population on the
iace of the earth.

406 HEALTH PROBLEMS IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

Mr. W. A. Martin, in his evidence, drew attention to the

fact that the costs

of medical attendance was generally very considerably higher in the case
of the farmer than in the case of the urban resident-

It Stands to reason that it must be so if the doctor has to
travel lo, 15, 20, or 30 miles to make the visit.

In conclusion, I claim that an important Society such as this
ought to know the conditions and realise the needs of this country,
and should tise its powerful influence to have things put right.

This is not a question of party politics. It is not even a
question limited to the medical profession. It is a broad (|ues-
tion, of importance to the whole community ; and the future of
South Africa depends in great measure on how this sui)ject is
treated by those in power.

Let me repeat that the hard-working, non-indigent toiler on
the land, the man who produces food for the country and the
Empire, requires public assistance in time of sickness. It is not
medical inspection, it is not supervision that is wanted, but prompt
help towards recovery. The men, the women, and the children
who live far away from the towns, those w^io are so often in
terms of rhetoric called " the backbone of the country," are left
to fend for themselves in all times of difficulty. We have adver-
tisements for '' Inspectors of Noxious Weeds '' ; much is done to
eliminate diseases of cattle, of horses, of mules. Sheep inspectors,
instruct about the dipping and treatment of sheep, anrl the
question may once again be asked: "How much, then, is a man.
better than a sheep?"

The Origin of NoviE. — The Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J.,

F.R.A.S., communicates, in a recent issue of Monthly Notices
of the Royal Astronomical Society,''' the results of a series of
observations of the spectrum of Nova Aquil^ made at Stony-
hurst College Observatory. In the course of his paper he com-
ments on the fact that the stages in the transition of the spec-
trum, from that of an enhanced metallic line s])ectrum to that
of the bright band spectrum of a nebula, are not sharply marked
or separated. " This," he says, " would seem to indicate a
possible explanation of the appearance of a new star as due to
an explosion in a star which was already situated in a nebula,
probably a dark nebtila originally, w'liich itself was put into
luminous vibration by the explosion which took place in its
midst." Father Cortie suggests that possibly the gradual con-
traction of the nebula on the star may have been the originating
cause of the explosion. The existence in the ]\Iilky Way of such
dark nebulre has been abundantly proved l)y photogra])hs, and in
the case of Nova Persei, in 1901, the surrounding nebula was
revealed telescopically as well as spectroscopically.

* 79 (1919) 171-176.

WALNUT BACTERIOSIS. BACTERIUM JUGLANDIS

PIERCE.

By Ethel Mary Doidge, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

{Read, July lo, 1918.)

The disease known as walnut bacteriosis was first described
by Pierce* as occurring in California, and on that account it is
often referred to as the " Californian Walnut Blight." In the
first paper he published a technical description of the organism
causing the disease and its effect on the host ; he had previously
published several more popular accounts in local agricultural
periodicals. t A bulletin published by R. E. SmithJ and others
in 1912 discusses walnut culture and diseases of the walnut in
California very fully, and classes the bacteriosis as by far the
most important trouble affecting the walnut in California.

Geographical Distribution. — It is not yet definitely known
how widespread the disease may be in America. It is of serious
economic importance in California, and has also been recorded
from the Eastern States,§ where its presence has long been sus-
pected ; but it is only recently that the trouble in the Eastern
States has been proved to be identical with the Californian Wal-
nut Blight.

It is very probable that the disease occurs in France, but I
have not seen any very definite statements in this connection.
In the colonies it is known to occur in New Zealand, || and it has
now made its appearance in our South African walnut i)lanta-
tions. For some years it has been suspected that the walnut
bacteriosis was present in this country, but specimens which were
submitted for examination werfe always in a very advanced
stage of decomposition, and most frequently had become inifected
secondarily with Gloesporinm epicarpii, which made an accurate
diagnosis difficult. During the last few years many walnut plan-
tations have been started, and as trees are still being planted in
large numbers, the diseases which effect walnuts are becoming
of greater economic importance to South Africa. During the
last season the identity of the South African walnut blight with
the walnut bacteriosis of California was definitely established,
and several districts where walnuts are grown were visited with
a view to discovering to what extent the disease had spread.

A large number of trees have recently been planted in the
Oudtshoorn district, but most of the trees are still young, and it

"^ Botanical Gazette (1901), 31. 273.

iPacitic Rural Press (1896), 57. [25], 387.

i California Agric. Exp. Station Bull, No. 231. (1912).

California Fruit Grower (1896), 19, \^3^, 243; [16], 316.
§ W. A. IBoucher, New Zealand Dept. of Agric. Kept. (1900), 334-335-
T. W. Kirk, New Zealand Dept. of Agric Rept. (1907), 167.
II McAIurran, S. M., Bureau of Plant Industry Bull.. No. 611.

408 WALNUT BACTERIOSIS.

is only in the Cango Valley that there are any number of bearing
trees; a number of farms in this valley were visited, and the
trees examined during last November, they were all bearing
well, and in some instances promised a record crop ; no sign of
bacteriosis could be detected on the foliage or on the young nuts.
The average rainfall in the Oudtshoorn district is about lo
inches, and this falls mostly in winter, so that even if the disease
were introduced it is doubtful whether it would do much damage
there : bacteriosis only spreads rapidly where there is a good deal
of rain and mist during the spring and early summer while the
nuts are forming.

A case of infection occurs at Napier, in the Bredasdorp dis-
trict, where the rainfall is i8 inches, but this only involved one
tree in a private garden.

Bacteriosis occurs in several localities in the Eastern Pro-
vince ; but it appears sporadically, and possibly in most cases
only where it has been introduced with nursery stock. There
was no sign of the disease on trees in and around Grahamstown,
nor on a few which I examined in the Kowie Valley at Bedford;
but at Eastport. where there were a large number of trees
in full bearing, the disease was causing serious damage. The
season had been an exceptionally wet one, and driving mists had
been very frequent. As a result, all the nuts on the side exposed
to these misty rains were aflfected and a large percentage of those
on the more sheltered side. During the previous season (1916-
17) the disease was not so bad, and a good price was obtained for
the nuts, but, two or three years belfore, the nuts all became
spotted and dropped, just as they did last summer. It is evident,
therefore, that the amount of damage which the disease causes
is dependent largely on the weather conditions during the time
that the fruit is forming. Some of the trees at Eastport are of
French origin, and bear exceptionally large nuts, and many people
have been getting seed from these for planting. Although I have
not _seen any statements to the efifect that the disease can be
carried with the seed, and I have not carried out any tests, it
seems to me that there must be considerable risk of spreading the
infection in this way.

At Alice there are a number of trees which are looking
decidedly unhealthy, the upper branches are dying back as a
result of unsuitable soil conditions, but I could see no sign of
bacteriosis there. At Toise River, from the reported condition
of the fruit, there is probably infection, but this has not been
definitely ascertained.

Owing to exceptional rains last season, serious losses from
bacteriosis occurred at Clocolan, in the Orange Free State; the
disease has probably been in the trees for some years, but the
weather conditions have not before been so favourable for its
rapid development. The growing nuts all became spotted, and
in about three weeks three-quarters of the crop had fallen, the
walnut crop was a complete loss, and the nuts which did not drop

WALNUT BACTERIOSIS. 4^9

••Iried prematurely and became rotten. English and French
varieties were both affected.

At Potchefstroom. in the Transvaal, one tree is known to be
affected, and it is said to drop all its fruit every year ; and in
Natal, at Donnybrook. bacteriosis has lieen found to be the cause
of a blight on the leaves and young shoots of some hundreds of
young trees which have not yet come into bearing.

Characteristics of the Disease.

Like most of the bacterial diseases attacking the parenchyma
and classed by Smith as leaf (and fruit) spot diseases, walnut
bacteriosis only attacks tender growing parts olf the tree, such as
the young nuts and branches, the young leaves and the petioles.
This being the case, it is naturally also severe on nursery stock.

On the branches the young infections always appear on
young succulent growth, usually near the growing point ; the first
indication of infection is a small dark green water-soaked area,
which gradually increases in size ; the central portion becomes
discoloured and finally black, but so long as the area of infection
is increasing, the blackened area is surrounded by a zone of dark
green water-soaked appearance. As the shoot becomes hard and
woody the active development of the disease is checked and it no
longer continues to involve fresh tissues, the whole diseased area
then turns black, and in many cases the affected tissues shrink
and crack. These stem lesions are frequently two and three
inches in length, and in serious cases all the tissues from the bark
to the pith are involved ; but frequently the organism only pene-
trates slightly into the wood.

Infection on the leaves and petioles begin in a similar way to
those on the branches, forming small water-soaked spots which
turn black, these are usually more or less angular in outline, and
when numerous they coalesce and form large discoloured areas.
The petioles and veins are also frequently attacked, and in the
latter case the leaflets become puckered and deformed in various
ways. Smith* states that the disease does not cause any serious
defoliation of the trees, and in the cases which have come under
my personal observation this was certainly the case ; the disease
did not affect the general health of the tree to any very noticeable
extent. It was reported that, subsequent to the serious dropping
of the nuts at Clocolan, noticed above, the leaves began to fall
and the tree became practically defoliated, but whether this was
due to the bacteriosis or to- some other cause I had no opportunity
of ascertaining. It has been reported from elsewhere that the
young shoots which are attacked drop their leaves prematurely,
but further observations are required on this point.

From the economic point of view the bacteriosis on the
young nuts is the only phase of^the disease which is of serious
importance. The bacteriosis on the twigs and leaves ordinarily
does very little injury, and the disease would be of very little

* California Expt. Station Bull. No. 231.

. 410 WALNUT BACTERIOSIS.

economic importance if it did not attack the nuts. These may
become diseased at ahnost any period df their development, but
become infected most readily while they are very small and while
the tissues are tender and growing rapidly. Frequently a large
number of the nuts become afifected when they are from one-
eighth to half an inch in diameter; the organism may attack them
at any point on the surface, but infection is by far the most com-
mon at the blossom end near the stigma. As on the leaves and
shoots the first evidence of infection is the water-soaked appear-
ance of the tissues; the area of infection spreads rapidly, and the
tissues blacken ; and become somewhat sunken ; the organism also
penetrates inwards and frequently, especially in the case of
blossom end infections injures the kernel.

Lateral infections very frequently occur where two nuts are
in contact.

When the nuts are attacked at an earlv stage in their growth,
large blackened areas develop, and the nut sooner or later drops.
Later infections which occur when the nut has almost reached its
full size, usually take the form of small dark spots scattered over
the surface; the late infections do not penetrate very deep, as the
tissues have by this time begun to harden ; but under favourable
conditions severe cases of late infection have been known to
occur, causing the hull to become blackened and shrivel and U>
cling to the shell of the nut.

It is obvious that the lesions on the twigs are chiefly instru-
mental in carrying the disease over from one season to the next.
P'ierce* states that the organism " winter in fallen nuts beneatli
the trees and probably upon fallen leaves and upon the soil." The
danger from fallen nuts and leaves should be small in an orchard
which is properly cared for. and ])robably the risk of soil in-
fection is small as compared with that of infection from lesions
on the twigs. The organism is carried from branch to branch
and from tree to tree chiefly by the splash of the raindrops which
run over the infected surfaces, and also by wind-blown rain. The
leaves which are attacked early in the season are probably one of
the chief sources of infection for the fruit.

Conditions Favouring the Disease.

Walnut bacteriosis depends for its rapid development very
largely on weather conditions. The amount of blight varies from
year to year, and it is only severe when there is a considerable
amount of rain and a large number of cloudy days while the nuts
are forming. The organism infects the voung tissues through
the stomata, and in the presence of moisture the motile organism
moves freely over the surface of the nuts and invades the tissues
through these natural openings.

It is probable, therefore, that the bacteriosis will cause
serious trouble in this country in districts where there is a heavy
rainfall in the spring and early summer. In less humid districts

* Pacific Rural Press, 57 [25]. 387.

WALNUT r.ACTERIOSlS. 4I I

consitlerable loss will probably be experienced in exceptionallv
\vet seasons, and, as has been observed in California, a grove may
he very bad one year and nearly free from disease the next.

In districts like Oudtshoorn, wliere the rainfall is small and
mostly in winter, no serious trouble is to l)e expected, and fruit-
growers intending to plant walnuts in the more humid districts
would l)e well advised to obtain their trees from localities where
the disease is as yet imknown.

The C)rgamsm.

There can be no doubt that the organism causing walnut
bacteriosis in this country is identical with the Bacterium Jtig-
laiidis (Pierce) known in California.

This organism has been repeatedly isolated from spotted
leaves and nuts, and in its cultural and morphological characters
agrees with those given by Pierce for Bactcriniji Jiiglaitdis. A
fev.- minor differences in the cultural characters have been
observed, but I do not propose to go into detail about these at
present, as I am making a comparative study of this organism and
Bacterium campcstris, which it closely resembles.

Bacterium J it^i^hijidis develo])s rather slowly on culture media,
the colonies are just visible to the naked eye after 48 hours, as
minute whitish sjjecks ; they rapidly become vellow as they increase
in size. Xo difficulty was experienced in obtaining a pure culture
of the organism, and numerous infections were obtained by atom-
ising young walnut trees with a suspension of the culture.

From the leaf infections thus obtained the organism was re-
isolated, and a second set of trees inoculated with positive results.
None of the controls became infected, 1 have had no opportunity
of infecting young nuts, but cultures obtained from the nuts
readily infected the leaves.

The characteristics of the organism may be briefly sum-
marized as follows : —

Morphology, a rod with rounded ends, usually single or in
pairs, 1.5 — 3 //. long by .3 — .5 u broad; no spores observed; motile
by means of a single polar flagellum.

Cultural Characters. — On agar plates in 3 days develops
small yellow surface colonies, somewhat raised in the centre, these
increase in size with age ; submerged colonies, minute, lenticular :
grows well on potato and other vegetable cylinders, forming an
abundant, moist, shiny yellow growth ; liquefies gelatine slowly :
clouds beef bouillon, and forms a ring-like growth above the sur-
face of the medium ; in milk cultures it causes a separation of the
casein, which becomes solid ; the casein is gradually redissolved ;
slowly destroys starch, produces indol in peptone media.

The thermal death point I have not yet determined; this
and other details will be published later in connection with the
comparative study already referred to, and which is not yet com-
plete.

412 WALNUT BACTERIOSIS.

The chief object of the account just given is to record the
presence of the wahiut bacteriosis in several localities in South
Africa, and to show that it is identical with the Californian
walnut blight.

Botanical Laboratories,

Union Department of Agkuultlue,
Pretoria.

Paraffin Paper Dressings in Surgery. — An

article in TJie Journal of the American Medical Association
suggests the use of paraffin paper as a non-adherent dressing for
burns and other similar conditions. Ointments may be applied to
the paraffin paper before the latter is placed on the burned area.
Not only does such a dressing completels' exclude air, but it has
the advantage of being easily removable for re-dressing.

Radioactive Colouring of Minerals. — The

source of the varied and beautiful exotic colours which occur
in certain minerals has never yet been satisfactorily explained ;
but in view of the now well-known action of radium on glass,
an action which, when prolonged, colours the glass violet, and
imparts to it the property of emitting a violet light when heated
with concurrent loss of colour, Xewbery and Lupton have
recently investigated the effect of the ])resence of radioactive
substances in the colouration of a number of minerals. An
account of these investigations is given in Manchester Memoirs*
The most interesting minerals dealt with were the fluorspars,
all the naturally coloured specimens <_)f which were thermo-
luminescent, and lost their colour on heating. The fluorspars
showed a green glow under the action of radium and a violet
glow in the cathode rays. A green fluorspar, heated until all
the colour was discharged, re-acquired the same depth of colour
on exposure to 25 mgs. of radium for four days, but longer ex-
posure did not further increase the intensity of colour. A yellow
crystal similarly treated acquired a blue colour, which became
purple in two months without further treatment. Radium as
w^ell as cathode rays coloured rock-salt brown, potassium bromide
sea green, and potassium iodide brown : sylvine was coloured
an evanescent blue by radium, but deep violet by cathode rays.
The natural blue colour of celestine is discharged by heat, but
is restored by the action of radium. Details were also given of
experiments on diamond, sulphur, varieties of quartz, halides
and sulphates other than those mentioned above, phosphates,
silicates, and carbonates. The authors are of opinion that
thermo-luminescence, cathode-ray colours, and exotic colours in
minerals are due to dissociation of traces of impurity in the
bodies concerned, and not to decomposition of the body itself.

*62 [3] Memoir Xo. to (ipiS).

NOTE ON THE PERSISTENCE OF THE RIGHT POSTE-
RIOR CARDINAL VEIN IN X EN OPUS LAW IS, AND
ITS SIGNIFICANCE.

By Rein HOLD Johannes Ortlepp, M.A.

(JVith one text figure.)

(Read July lo, 191 8.)

Material. — The subject of this note is an adult specimen of a
female Xcnopus kcvis, obtained in the vicinity of Johannesburg,
to which my attention was drawn during a demonstration lesson ;
unfortunately some of the internal organs had been removed, so
that all the details of the smaller veins to the urino-genital system
could not be clearly made out.

Morphologx. — On examining the specimen, I found that the
venous system was abnormal, in that the postcaval was completely
absent, except for that portion which lies between the kidneys,
and that an extra vessel, corresponding in position and function
to one of the post-cardinals in fishes, was present.

Arising from the posterior medio-ventral aspect of the suius
venosus, there was a short vein which, soon after its origin,
divided into a number of small branches, which were distributed
to the liver lobes. Normally, the hepatic veins join with a median
vein — the postcaval — arising from between the two kidneys, and
j)assing forwards to enter into the sinus venosus. In this speci-
men, however, there was no vein corresponding to the precaval,
and consequently all the blood which passed througii the renal-
portal system had to be conveyed to the sinus venosus by a
different vessel, which normally is absent in the adult.

This vein — the right posterior cardinal — arises from between
the two kidneys, receiving blood from the same by a series of
lateral veins, revehent renal veins ; on reaching the anterior ex-
tremity of the kidneys, it turned sharply to the right, passed
forwards, and became confluent with the right precaval at the
origin of the subclavian vein.

The interrelationships of the various vessels and adjacent
structures are shown in the figure.

From Dreyer's (1914-15) description of the anatomy of the
tadpole of X. Iccvis, it appears that both the postcardinals as well
as the postcaval are present ; but as the fate of these three veins
during later metamorphosis has not been worked out, one can at
present only suggest that, normally, the two postcardinals dis-
appear, whilst the postcaval grows in importance, and eventually
comes to take on all of the work done by the i^ostcardinals, as is
the case in common European frog.

In the specimen under consideration, something approaching
the reverse seems to have taken place, in that one of the post-
cardinals, as well as the postcaval is completely suppressed.

414

PERSISTENCE OF A VEIN IN XENOPUS LAEVIS.

Other Cases of the Persistent Post car dial Vein in Anura. —
More or less similar cases to the above have been described
in a female Ra>ia temporaria by Howes (1888), and in a male of,
the same species by Parker (1889). In the specimen described
by Howes, the postcaval is present, and the postcardinal ( azygos)
joins it at the anterior extremity of the kidneys, just after having
received a vein from the renal portal. In that described by
Parker, a case practically identical with that described in A'.
Icevis was found, except that in the former it was the left post-
cardinal which persisted, and not the right, as in X. I'cevis.

Probable Significance of this Persistence. — Hochstetter, in
1887 advanced the view that the inferior vena cava (post caval)

RPC

HV == Hepatic vein; Kd = kidney; Li =: liver; PrC = precaval vein;
ReP = renal portal ; RPC = right postcardinal vein ; Sc = sciatic
vein ; Scl = subclavian vein ; SV = sinus venosus ; Ur =: ureter.

of vertebrates had its origin partly independently and partly
from the fusion of the two postcardinal veins of iishes ; whilst
Balfour distinguishes the venous system of Amphibia and
Amniota from that of fishes by the presence of a new vessel —
the inferior vena cava (postcaval) — which vessel replaces the
postcardinals of fishes.

The persistence of one of these postcardinals in this speci-
men of X. Icevis is, therefore, of interest, because it shows the
retention of an ancestral character, and at the same time seems
to afford further support towards Hochstetter's view as to the
origin of the post caval. The inter-renal portion may be con-
sidered as being comparable with the corresponding region of

PERSISTENCE OF A VEIN IN XENOPl'S LABVJS. 415

the {x^stcaval. which portion must surely have arisen from a
fusion of the two inter-renal portions of the postcardinals of
lower forms. (,)ne is practically forced to this view because of
the fact that, in many fishes, the two inter-renal portions of the
post cardinals are joined to one another by transverse connec-
tions, which connections one can easily suppose to have expanded
more and more, so as eventuall}' to become confluent, and so
bring these two portions of the postcardinals into direct connec-
tion with each other alonij their whole length.

SUMMAR^■.

1. The specimen considered is an adult female of Xenopns
hnns, found in the vicinity of Johannesburg.

2. It was peculiar in that the postcaval was absent, and
there was present an additional vein on the right side correspond-
ing to tile right posterior cardinal of fishes.

3. Similar abnormalities have been described in Rana fcin-
poraria by Howes and by Parker.

4. This persistence of the posterior cardinal probably heljis
to explain the origin of the postcaval of amphibious and higher
vertebrates, and consequently helps to support the view brought
forward by Hochstetter in 1887.

References.

Balfour, i^ \L: " Comp. Embryolog}'," 2 (1881). 538.

Dreyer, T. F. : Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr.. 4 (1914-15), 253.

Hochstetter: Morphol Jahrhuch, 13 (1887-8).

Howes, G. B. : " Note on the azygos veins in anurous am-
phibia."— Proc. Zool. Soc. (1888), 122-126.

Parker. W. N. : " On the occasional persistence of the left
posterior cardinal vein in the Frog, with remarks on the homo-
logies of the veins in the Dipnoi." — Proc. Zool. Soc. (1889),
H5-I5I-

Zoological Department,

South African School of Mines and Technology,
Johannesburg.

The Pandemic in the United States. — The

United States Bureau of Census has just issued a statement with
reference to the mortality from influenza and pneumonia in
several large cities in the States during the 19 weeks commencing
September 14, 1918. The total death-roll fromthis cause was
127,503. Of these 27,436 deaths occurred in New York, 14,326
in Philadelphia, and 12,300 in Chicago.

SOME ExNGRAVED STONES OF THE LYDENBURG DIS-
TRICT AND NORT^-EAST TRANSVAAL: THE
OCCURRENCE OF " CUP-AND-RING - MARKINGS
IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Bv Dr. CoKNELJS PVI'KR.

{Plates 6-1 1.)

Read J iilx \2, njiS. )

A few miles to the north-west of Lydenburg a number of
diabase boulders are to be found, lying about in the field, more or
less covered with engravings. (Plate 6.) Some of these en-
gravings represent various kinds of animals, some of them may
represent plants, but in this paper I wish to draw attention only
to one type, a type of which the engravings shown on Plates 7
and S are very good representatives. Both plates show a boulder
covered with grotips of concentric circles, more or less indepen-
dent of each other in Plate 7, while in Plate 8 they are connected
by an intricate system ojf more or less straight lines. (Both of
these photographs are on a scale of one inch to the foot). Plate
9 shows another of these boulders, with similar groups of con-
centric circles. The engraxings of Plate 10 are slightly ditiFerent ;
groups of single circles are here surrounded by systems of con-
centric ones. Plate 11 shows a ctip-like hollow surrounded by
two concentric rings ; on other boulders only cup-like hollows
occtir. Plate 11 shows engravings of otlicr cibjects as well ; these
I intend to discttss in a later paper.

Altogether there are to be found about a couple of hundred
of similar engravings of systems of circles, and a dozen or so of
cups, all near each other, on an area of a few square miles. The
engravings shown on the photographs represent a few of the best-
preserved : in all of them the engraved parts have, from length of
time, once more assumed the original colour of the exposed rock.
On a number of boulders engravings are to be seen which have
become more or less indistinct ; a few show very crude, shallow
imitations, quite fresh — the work of Kaffir herd boys, whom I
have seen amusing themselves by copying the old engravings.
There is no tradition amongst the natives living in the neighbour-
hood as to who executed these engravings, or what they were
intended to represent.

I think we may be stire that the engraved circles are the
liandiwork of our fellow-men : at first sight, however, it may
appear uncertain whether this is also true of the cup-like hollows.
I know of one instance only where nature moulds hollows which
bear a resemblance to those represented in my photo : I refer
to the hollows which are grotuid out of rocks over which a river
flows by the pebbles eddied round by the current. These " natural""

S.A. Assn. for Adv, of Science.

1918. Pl. 7.

C. Pyper.— Engraved Stones of the Lydenburg District.
Dnuldcr witli riii" markiiisr.s.

CO

Cl

00

LU
-J

Z
UJ

o
CO

u.
o

>

a
<

X

o

CO

<

<
CO

o

q:

U
cc

D

m

2

ai
Q

>
_l

UJ

I
I-

u.

O

tn

ID

Z

o

H
C/5

a:
C3
z
UJ

IT

o

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. 9.

C. Pyper.— Engraved Stones of the Lydenburg District.
Boulder with riuti markings.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. PL. 10.

■^-.•r.

r.'^rv*,,..:^,.

i.'^.

,'»■'».

C. Pyper.— Engraved Stones of the Lydenburg District
Boulder with ring markings.

S.A

. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl

II.

■■"^H

■r^- "

:^,/ ""T'"" "".■". ■T'?^Jf^

^^^^rS^^ ' ** jSRH^^^^^^^^I

1

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1

1

1
{

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■ 4

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^- "^^

.^

C. Pyper.— Engraved Stones of the Lydenburg District.
Boulder with cup and ring markings.

TITE ENGRAVED STONES OF LVDENBURG. 4IJ

hollows, however, of a size comparable with the cuj^like hollows
mentioned above, are alwa}'s of an elongated or oval form ; one
may picture the cavity being ground out by elongated eddies. The
cup-like hollows in the l)oulders described above, however, are
as nearly circular as may be expected when it is remembered that
thev must have been executed in a very hard kind of rock by
means of pieces of pointed stone only. 1 am, therefore, of
opinion that we are here face to face with old — very old — en-
gravings, which consist of cup-like hollows and systems of rings,
occurring singly or in various combinations. Similar engravings
from variotis other countries have already been descrilied, but as
far as 1 know, not yet from South Africa.

The British Museum is in possession of " slabs of stone,
with markings of unknown meaning, but probably of the
neolithic period. The simplest are cup-marking's, about iK>in.
in diameter, with a uniform de]Jth of jAin. More elaborate
examples show concentric rings, cut about three-tenths of an
inch deep, or concentric rings surrounding a pit. tisually known
as cup-and-ring markings. These are sometimes connected by
channels."* " These markings, frequently found in connection
with burials of the Bronze Age, are frequent in Northumberland,
Yorkshire. Argyllshire. Kerry, and other parts of our islands;
while they are known also in India. North America, Centr.il
.\merica, and New Caledonia. "f It would take too long to flis-
cuss all the suggestions that ha\e been made concerning the tise
of these markings, or what they were intended to represent. As
yet nothing certain is known about their meaning. No hypothesis
concerning their significance that may be brought forward can
have any claim to be discussed at all unless it takes a broad view
of the question of rock carvings in general, and in particular of
the world-wide distribution of these markings.;!;

The British Association —The annual meeting of
the British Association for the Advancement of Science has been
arranged to take place at Bournemouth from September 9 to 13,
with the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons as President. The meetings
of the Association will thus have been intermitted for three years,
the last meeting having taken place in 1916 at Newcastle-on-Tyne.
The original intention had been to meet at Bournemouth in 1917,
and at Cardiff in 191 8, but both meetings had to be abandoned
on account of the war.

* British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age (1911),

t British Museum Ciuiclf to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age (1904).
79-

JFurther references as to the widespread occurrence of " cupand-
ring" markings may be found in— Windle : "Remains of the Prehistoric
Age," 123; and in Avebury : "Prehistoric Times" (1913). 172.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND SUPERSTITIONS OF THE
XOSAS: A STUDY IN PHILOLOGY.

By James McLari-n\ M.A.

{Read July lo, lyiS.)

In making a rather close study for linguistic purposes of Dr.
A. Kropf's Kaffir-English Dictionary ( F'irst Edn. Lovedale, 1899,
Second Edn., greatly enlarged by Rev. R. (iodfrey, Lovedale,
191 5), I have been again and again struck with the wealth of
anthropological information that it contains, either involved in
or appended to the definitions of individual words. The same
thing is true, as regards the Zvdu tribes, of Dr. Bryant's Zulu
Dictionary. But the information, though there, is not easily avail-
able to students of anthroi)ology, as it is only given piecemeal
under the Kaffir words defined. Having some leisure time at my
disposal, I j^roceeded to form a draft of a sort of anthropological
subject-index to Kropf's great book, and I propose in this and
another paper to give a couple of sections out of such an index.

In looking up, in connection with this, what has been done in
the way of systematic study of Xosa tribes. I find that. ]irobably
just because they were already fairly well known to Europeans
before the study of anthro])ology had been born, they have been
studied much less thoroughly than the tribes of Central Africa,
which have been more recently discovered. Of the books that
have been written on the Xosas, by far the best, in my opinion, is
again by Dr. Kropf , " Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern in dsfliclien
Siidafrika," a book of some 200 ])ages, published at Berlin in
1889, I'^it i^ 's in German, and not translated, though well worth
translating. I have supplemented the information I had gleaned
from the Dictionary by reference to this work.

Beings Venerated and Feared.

The ideas of a Supreme Being among the Xosa-Kafiirs were
of the vaguest. The word n-Tixo, now used for God, was
imported by the missi<^naries, who began their work first among
the Hottentots, and later, using Hottentots at first as interpreters,
among the Xosas. The name, u-Oamata, used more naturally by
the Xosas, is also probably of Hottentot or Bushman origin. It
Is used most in ejaculation, e.g., Oamata ndincede (God hel]) me!)
Sckukokuka-Qamata (God knows'), u-Qamafa tmikakukangele
(May Qamata look graciously upon thee!) (to a sick person).
There is a striking mountain in the St. Marks District in the
Transkei which is called Qamata: It is a perfect dome, with
a dyke of igneous rock, like the raised ridge of a helmet, passing
right over the highest part. The name for a white
man, um-lungu-, is the same as the word mu-Jungn,
widely used in Central Africa as a name for the Deitv, and it is
probable that the white man on his first appearance was looked

XOSA RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS. 419

upon as a sort of deity, or superior 1)eing. among the Kaffirs.
There was something about a white man, as about a formally-
installed and doctored chief, which made him an object of awe.
This was called isi-tunsi, lit. his shadow ; and nesitunzi ( with a
shadow), meant awe-inspiring. The white man is still an object
of awe in out-of-the way places, and his name is used as a bogey
to frighten naughty children.

The real objects of worship among the Xosas were the iml-
n\an\a, or izi-nyanya, the spirits of their departed ancestors, and
especially of their departed chiefs. The root of the word appears
in uku-nyanya, (to fear), and in the locative, cnyanyeni (in the
waste, in the void), and in u-nyanya, the supernatural vigour
displayed in the doctor's frenzied dance. Invocation of these
spirits and sacrifice to them were the main features of Kaffir
worship. They were invoked or implored, kiinga; the invocation
was isi-kungo. When a chief went to war, he was greeted,
iniinyanya mayiknkangelc (may the ancestral spirits look upon
thee with favour). One who was in league with these ancients
had great power for good and evil: nnazinyanya (he has the
ancients), they said. When a chief died his spirit was invoked:
u\c kunndawo ezipakamUeyo, senselelc! (thou hast gone to high
places, transact for us). At the time of the cattle-killing in 1857,
It was these ancestral spirits that Nongqause pretended to have
seen and to have received from them the message that proved so
fatal to her nation. It was l)y the iminyanya that the witch-
doctor was called to his profession. He was um-tya'ctiilufaj one
torn off from the community, as bark is stripped from the tree.
The ancestral spirits of ordinary heads of families i)erformed a
less exalted, though also important function. They were the house-
hold gods, imi-londekaya, the preservers and protectors of heartii
and home, the lares et pcnatcs of the Xosas. They sometime-
appeared about the huts or the cattlefold in the form of snakes —
inambezulu (the boomslang), and in-kzvakwa (the mole-snake) —
and these snakes were sacred, and must on no account be killed,
as any one of them might be the embodiment of a dejiarted
ancestor.

While the iminyanya were, on the whole. friendl\- and benefi-
cial in their influence, there were also ghosts of deceased person-s,.
the imi-shologu, whose influence was hostile and maleficent.
Thev were also called jaifijiccla. or shades. They were tlie t.ric^i-
nators of accident, injury, calamity, and the senders of nightmares
and evil dreams, amu-shologu. Dread of meeting a ghost, (^r
seeing glimpses, ania-nakanibe, of the infernal often hindered
people from passing a place at night. The ghost of a ])erson who
had been murdered and his tongue cut out, uni-kolonjanc, so
that, as he walked about at night, he could only utter weird
sounds, " Male, maid" was especially dreaded. .Such evil .spirits
could, however, be exorcised or expelled, and the places which
they haunted purified by the burning of certain medicinal plants
by the doctor. Such exorcism was ukii-gqiira.

4-20 XOSA KELKUOX AND SUPERSTITIONS.

The Xosas seem to have n;» name for our httle good folk,
the fairies, but they have plenty of mischievous sprites and elves.
The river-elf, i-canti, appears as a many-coloured snake. It is
greatly feared. Stones were flung into the river to
drive it away, or it was scared away by singing,
shouting, and clapping of hands, before people ventured
to cross. It sometimes came out of the river and entered
into a i^erson, who thereupon became possessed, and might
develop into a witch-doctor. Of such a person they said
unecmiti, he has, or is possessed by, the river-elf; or iitzifasa
ngecanti, he starts practice through the river-elf. Another water-
sprite, bearing tlic name of the river il^elf, um-lambo, was the
cause of eruptions, uku-jaditka, breaking out on the face or body.
One suffering from such an eruption, or from the anaemia of
which it is a sign, was being punished b}- the river, iisohva
nguuilambo. When a person was drowned, it was this river god
that was the cause. Such a person was said to have gone off with
the river, or by the river, iimkUe iiumlambo, or ngumlambo. He
might often be propitiated by making a small contribution, riiina,
such as a seed, pin, or bea.d, to the river before crossing.

The river-dwarf, it-lii(i, or ii-fikoloshc, is a mischievous being
who lives either in the water or in the reed-grass, iiujcobo, or the
reeds, ingcongolo, beside the water, to which he was banished for
his love intrigues. He is represented as a dwarf, sometimes with
thickset hair, who goes about playing tricks on j^eople. He has a
round stone, which he grasps, fiiuibata, and thereby renders
himself invisible. Women are fond of him, as he supplies them
with love-philtres, and procures them lovers. "////;' has come out
of the reeds " is a proverbial saying equivalent to our " the cat
is out of the bag.'

Another creature that has the power of assuming human
shape, and is an arch-deceiver is i-mbulu. He has a tail, which
he vainly endeavours to hide. He is the type of those who borrow
and fail, or delay, to pay back. It is curious to note that in
Central Africa i-mbnlo is the name of the Caj)e hunting dog,
which in Xosa is called i-.vunli, a word evidently of Hottentot
origin.

A gigantic ogre, who lives in the forests and has a distorted
face, and tusks like those of a boar, is isi-gcbenga, a word now
used in the sense of a robber and murderer. Its root is probably
gchn. to gash.

A cannibalistic ogre of great size, who figures largelv in
Kafifir folk-lore, is i-gongqongqo, or i-ciiiiu. He hops on one leg.

A hobgoblin, with a frowning face, who devours naughty
children, is ti-nomanyamanyama (the one wiHi the bits of meatV

Prayer.

The spirits of departed chiefs were approached by i)rayer
and by sacrifice. When a man v.-as visited by severe illness, and
this was supposed to be sent by the ancestral spirits because of

XOSA RELIGION AND SUI'KKSTITIONS. 421

soniethin<^ done amiss or left undone, i)eoi)le entering- the sick-
man's hut would say. " Camagit ! Makubc held Makitbc co^!
Ma\ikukangcle imiiiyaiiya yakowenu ucyaniatsluncc! (Mercy, or
propitiation ! May there be alleviation ! May it be well ! May
thine own ancestors and those of the chiefs look upon thee).
But it m^ust be noted that the living- were addressed in a similar
way. In trying- to conciliate a displeased chief, they exclaimed :
Canuigit, mhlc, aknhlanga liingehlanga ! (Re propitiated, or, be
pacified, beautiful one; no evil has happened now that has not
happened before). And in approaching the witch-doctor with,
luipleasant or searching questions, they began: C'aiiiagii, ge.ca!
(Be pacified, frenzied one!) The word now used for pray,
ta)ida:::a (like coming, or, keep coming), meant originally to pray
for mercy or for life to the chief. If accessible to the request, he
was fanda.zcka (entreatable).

Sacrifice.

It was to the ancestral spirits that sacrihce was usually
ottered. The sacrifice of a beast, in-komo, was believed to be
demanded to appease them: if they appeared to a man in his
dreams (i.e., if he dreamt about them) ; if sickness broke out in
his family or his herd; of if rain was withheld and drought
prevailed. This sacrifice was called i-dini. It is described in
detail under this word by Dr. Kropf, in an article of 450 words,
to which you are referred. The details closely resemble those of
sacrifice among the Semites. Among things used in offering a
burnt .'sacrifice were chii)s and branches of nmtafi (sneezewood),
which is specially inflammable; leaves of the kinderbesje, or wild
fuchsia { imv-binca) and fronds of the cycad, or Kaffir bread-
fruit, um^panga.

To sacrifice was iiku-binga ; the sacrifice iiui-bntgo. or i-dini :
the animal sacrificed, isi-biiigo; the man on whose behalf it was
offered, and who provided the beast, nm-bingi (the sacrificer);
the priest-doctor, who offered the sacrifice, iini-hi)!grlcli (the
sacrificer on behalf of).

Sacrifice was made on behalf of a child on the day of its
■mother's emergence from seclusion, imi-pmno, after cJiildbirth.
It was offered by the head of the kraal, or someone deputed by
him, not by the priest-doctor.

Sacrifice was made also to the river-god when anyone had
been drowned, or was in danger of drowning, or when stock were
carried away by the .river. This was done by slaughtering a
beast and throwing it wholly in. The river-god was supposed to
be hungry.

Lightning.

Lightning was believed to be caused by the lightning-bird,
im-pnndnhi (a word apparently the same as iiii-pitndii. fat
breech), or bird of heaven, intak'ezidu, which set its fat on fire
and sent it down as lightning. The lightning-bird was fond of
milk, accordingly the doctor put poisonous herbs into a bowl of

422 XOSA RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS.

milk to poison it. When the lightning strikes, it takes a person
—4zulti limtabatile (the sky has taken him) ; or it takes aims of
him — isulu limvukele (the sky has taken ahns of him). A flash
of lightning is um-hanc, from a root meaning simply light ; but
the lightning, when it strikes anything, is usually called isnln (the
sky or heaven). The charred wood, etc., where lightning has
struck, is called umgubo ka-Pecnlii ( the powder of the ])lace,
or the person, on high).

Animals Held in Veneration.

The praying mantis, or Hottentot God. iiiit-iifan'e.iiilH (lit.,
child of heaven), was not harmed by children, lest they should
suffer harm in turn. Children prayed to it in this
fashion: Ngccngezc, umtcDi' czulu, us usicelelc uujubo kuyihlo.
Pardon, child of heaven, be so good as to ask your father for a
dress (or other article) for us.

As already remarked, certain snakes were not killed, but
were reverenced, and sometimes fed with milk, as any one of them
might be the embodiment of an ancestor. A kind.of limbless lizard,
or slowworm (Acontias meleagris), was called inyok-abafat.il
the women's snake, because the witches among them used it in
bewitching, uku-takata.

The crocodile, ingwenya, possessed a power of fascination
over bathers ; hence, before entering the water, they said : VaV
amehlo ako, ngzvenya, ukuze ungasiboni (Shut your e)'es, croco-
dile, that you may not see us).

The Jan Blom frog, or donderpadda, n-tioccbeyi, if turned
up in hoeing, was carefully covered up again, lest it should be
killed, and so bring unseasonable rain. It was addressed as
" young chieftainess," nkosasana, in token of respect. The por-
cupine, i-ncanda, was also addressed as " young chieftainess," as
its powers of doing mischief in a field, if it was not respected,
were very great.

The great grotmd hornbill. or bromvogel, int-sikizi {lit.
abomination), was sacred, and must not be killed, unless in
sacrifice. H one were killed accidentally, atonement must be
made by the sacrifice of an ox. H it came near a kraal, or settled
near a hut, it was regarded as a messenger of death from the
ancestral spirits, or as having been sent by a wizard. Its presence
on the veld was held to portend rain. In seasons of great
drought, one was caught and tied fast in the river-bed, in the hope
that the river would come down in flood and swee]) the abomina-
tion away.

An owl, isi-kova, settling on a house was a bird of evil omen,
um-hlola. The bush-owl, isi-hnhihnlu. with its weird cry, iva
gxebe, wa gxcbe, was supposed to be used by wizards in
bewitching.

The hammerhead, or paddavanger, i-tekivane, or n-qim-
ngqoshe, was sacred and must not be killed. A man who
robbed its nest became a homeless wanderer. Should it happen

XOSA RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS. 423

to settle on a house, an ox must be killed to avert the death of an
inmate.

Twins.

When twins, anm-zvele, were born, a couple of euphorbia trees,
iun-hlonflo, were planted near the kraal, and surrounded by a
small enclosure, i-tonto; the health and growth of the twins
depended on, and were coincident with, those of the trees. Twins-
however young, were always able to discover each other's where-
abouts. Twins were held in great repute as pruners, aha-teni, of
pumpkin-gardens ; a garden pruned by them would prodtice a
large crop. When a twin, is going away frc^ii home to work, he
exchanges his garment for the time with his brother for luck.

Varia.

Some Kaffir tribes, notably the Tembus. cut oft the first
joint of the little finger of girls. The finger-joint so cut oflf, isi-
shiinqe sommve, is evidenth^ of the nature of a sacrifice offered
to the imi-shologu, that the rest of the body may be in health.

In olden times, before a meal was ])artaken of, a sma-11
jjortion of the food in the pot was taken u]> on the porridge
stick, i-pini, and given to children and hel]jless old people. This
was a custom of apparently religious significance.

Blood, i-gazi, from a wound, or a cloth that had wrapped
a bleeding wound, must not be burned, but must be buried under
the earth ; otherwise, the w^ounded person or animal would suffer
great pain before the wound healed, if it ever did heal.

The hair, i-mvele, when cut, must be buried or ])urnt, not
left lying about or thrown away, lest a wizard picked it uj) and
used it to bewitch, or the birds picked it up and its owner became
half-witted.

Dog-bites, ukit-liimu kwenja, were literally treated with " a
hair of the dog that bit you." A few^ hairs of the dog were taken
and burnt, and the ashes rubbed into the wound, and all was well.
The bite of the millipede, i-songololo, was treated by bruising the
head of the creature, mixing it with water, and applying.

An itching hand, isandla saiii sivababa (my hand itches), was
a sign that its owner was about to shake hands with a visitor. A
spider hanging in the doorway, isigcau sijinga cmnyango, was
also the sign of the early arrival of either a visitor or a letter.

Griping of the bowels, and colic, were attributed to an imagi-
nary beetle, with long, pointed teeth, i-ghonya, which gnawed the
vitals. The doctors pretended to extract it by applying a poultice
of cowdung. A kind of snake, too, um-ruia, or u-via-iiilainbo.
was believed to be eating up the insides of people who were sick.
When a child or grown-up person sneezed, thnJa, the niother
or a stander-by would .say. Citi, or cifi iikule, shinmci ukule.
(sneeze and grow big) ; or, nw-kuhe cost (may it be well), or, as
we should say. Good luck to you! Sneezing in a child was a
sign of health.

4-^4 XOSA RELIGION AND SUPERSTITIONS.

Cairns, isi-vivanc, were coninion uu difticult passes or steep
ascents. To these each traveller, in passing, added a stone,
sometimes wrapped up in a piece of cloth, with a word of prayer.
Qamata, ndincede (God help me) ; or. sipe anwndla (Give us
strength.

Cursing and Ill-omened Speech.

To curse, or imprecate evil upon, is uku-qalckisa, or more
strongly, ukn-shzvahula. Women, when properly angry, tore off
their clothes, and in a perfectly nude state imprecated evil upon
those who had offended them. Such a curse was called isi-
shivahnlo. Cursing was feared because it was believed actually
to bring the evil imprecated. Lomnhvana ivashu^atyulelwa
ncjuyisc ukuzc angahi yonto ; this child was cursed by its father
so that it might come to no good. To ban or devote solemnly to
evil for some crime or wrong committed, is singela pantsi (send,
or direct, downwards), and the ban isisingclo pantsi. [I am not
sure that this' is not merely a translation of the Hebrew ban-
ning.]

To curse, in the sen.se of abuse with bad language, is tiika.
The worst abuse is by the mother of the one cursed, IVanditiika
ngoma (he cursed be by my mother). Even to say, u-nyoko
(your mother) to one disrespectfully is regarded as gross vitu-
peration ptissiblv because the leading syllable of the word can
also be used in an obscene sense.

To chaff another, or jest at his expense, qakatela, is unlucky,:
since to suggest or talk of evil is a sure way to bring it on. To be
wished good luck in a sarcastic or ironical way, uk\i-nywebelela,
is strongly objected to, as it portends ill-luck. In the same way
you nuist not say that a storm, isa-qwitelo, is coming on, other-
wise the storm will certainly come. Oatshii mbctshu (bad cess
to you!) is said to a thing that gets broken or spoilt accidentally,
or through carelessness, as when a dish falls on the floor, or the
pumpkins get burnt in the pot.

Radio-Telephony. — The development of the art of
radio-telephony and the work of producing radio-telephones for
tlie United States Army and Navy form the subject of a recent
paper by E. R. Craft and E. H. Coli>itts.* In 1916 a wireless
telephone was installed on the battleship New H amps-hire and
another in the Navy Yard at Norfolk, where the signals were
automatically transferred to the land telephone lines to Washing-
ton. The captain of the l)attleship was thus enabled when at sea
and on the bridge to report his position hourly by word of mouth
to headquarters and to receive orders. By the instalment of
similar sets it l)ecame possible for the battleships Arkansas and
Florida to con\erse verbally when 30 miles apart, and some of
their conversations were o\'erheard in Jamaica, 175 miles away.

* Proc. Am. Itisf. of Elec. Eui^inecrs. 38 f,?] 337-375 (1919).

CATTLE AS A FACTOR IN THE ECON(JMIC DEVELOP-
MENT OF SOUTH AFRICA.

E} Rev. JOHN R()J5I-:kt Li-:\vis Kingon, ALA., F.R.S.E., F\L.S.

Read, July i i, lyuS.

SvNorsTS.

J. The Portuguese Voyager.s.

(a) The men who dared.
( i) Diaz.

(2) da Gania.

(3) de Saldanha.

(4) d'Almcida.

(h) Results of voyages.

Seeds of comnierce sown.
Seeds of political trouble sown.
The natives' love of cattle seen.
Review of position.
Abandonment of the Cape.

II. The -Aborigines of tlie Land.

(a) The Bushmen.

Introduction.
Distribution.
Relics —

Paintings.

Stone imijlemcnts.

Place-names.
Extermination.

{b) The Hottentots.

Government.

Habits.

Stock.

Methods of barter.

Results of cattle trade.

Relations with Kaffirs.

Extermination.

( c) The Bantu.

Habits.

Gov'ernment.

Wars.

III. The Coming of the Dutch.

The East India Company.

The Cape re-occupied.

Cattle trade commences.

Settlement establishing.

Hottentot wars.

Extension of settlement.

Small-pox I)reaks Hottentot power.

Exploration.

Emigration.

Expansion.

426 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

IV. Contact with the Bantu.

The Eastern Frontier.

The Northern Frontier.

Amaxosa incursions.

Reprisals.

Devastations.

Open rebelhon resuhs.

V. The First British Occupation.

Barrow's Travels

Gaika I's. Xdhlambe.

Treaty of Amiens.

Wild confusion on frontier.

VI. Conclusions.

Introductorv.

The discovery of the Cape of Good I iope some four Inindred
and thirty-two years ago introduced the white races to that great
land which now constitutes the Union of South .\frica. ()f all the
factors which have operated to develop the great resources of the
Union the important part played hy cattle is amongst those least
realised. It is the ptirpose of this stttdy to show how the whole
character and extent of South African economic development has
heen largely dependent upon this factor from the earliest days
even to our own times, in the hojje that a realisation f)f the
])rocesses at work and the issues at stake may lead to sucli wise
action as may tend to accelerate that development, and to
strengthen those honds which unite peoples. There can be no
question that the contentinent of the native peooles under our
jurisdiction could be greatly enhanced, tlie wealth per head
of population appreciably increased, and loyalty to the white
man's administration enormously strengthened by action along
wise lines in connection with the handling and improvement of
stock. For the present, however, the facts of past experience
must speak for themselves, and accordingly we proceed to set
them down, as from the earliest times.

I. — The Portucuese Voyagers.

(a) TfiE men who dared.

(i) When Bartholomciv Diaz landed at Angra Perpiena in
i486 A.D., his first act was to erect a cross as a mark of possession
for his King. He then proceeded southwards in search of an
ocean route to India until being overtaken 1)y a storm from the
north his two small shii)S were driven for thirteen days at the
mercy of the wind and wave. Undaunted by the experienc**- they
set their course eastward in search of the coastline they had been
following, as soon as the weather moderated, and when they did
not come upon the exi>ected land they steered north. In a few
days the southern shores of .Africa came in sight, the ships
arriving at one of the bays . somewhere between Cape Agulhas-
and the Knysna river. It is significant of much that the first
iglimpse obtained of the aborigines of the land showed them

LATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOK IN SOUTH AFRICA. \Z'j

hastily driving large herds of cattle into the interior, and " it was
not found possible to open intercourse with the wild people."
Proceeding eastward a second cross was erected on a small island
in Algoa Bay which ever since has been called St. Croix (the
Portuguese called it Santa Cruz), and eventually Diaz turned
homewards, after reaching the mouth of a river thought t<^ be the
Fish or the Kowie.

(2) Twelve years later Vasco da Gama, following up the
discovery of Diaz, landed at St. Plelena Bay and contrived to get
into communication with the natives. Unfortunately a quarrel
resulted, and blood was shed. Proceeding on his voyage he
anchored as far east as Cape St. Bras (i.e., probably St. Blaize)
and finding the natives very friendly he was able to barter for
sheej), but he could not induce them to part with any horned
cattle.

Further north and east the Portuguese found another race,
black in colour, friendly in temperament, willing to barter copper,
i\-ory, and much-needed provisions— the first intimation of the
presence of the Bantus. This voyage having established the route
to India, fleets sailed at frequent intervals to and from India.

(3) One of these, under Antonio de. Saldaiilia, in 1503 sailed
into Table Bay for the first time. Son?e Hottentots, attracted no
doubt by the strange sight of the great ships under sail, a])peared
on the scene, and a cow and two sheep were bartered irom them.
.A^fter this, no doubt other .ships, of which we have no record,
followed suit and the system of barter became more or less
established. This niiHit well have had far-reaching results had
not the pioneers in their hastiness spoiled evervthing.

(4) Francisco D' Almeida, the first Portuguese Viceroy
of the Fastern Seas, touching at Table Bay for supi)lies,
sent a partv a.shore to barter cattle from the Hot-
tentots. In the course of the ])roceedings some trouble
arose, and next day i.So men were landed to punish
the savages. It is significant that the soldiers marched up
to a kraal and seized the cattle: nor is it .surprising to read
further that the Hottentots attacked tliem as they were driving
the cattle away. D'Almeida and some sixty men being killed in
the ensuing fracas. The reports of this affair seem to have
impressed the Portueuese deeplv. for from that time thev avoided
the Cane, thinking apparentlv that the country was inhabited by
most ferocious savages, and actually arranging that their ships
•should provision at Sofala on the West Coast and Mozambique on
the Fast, doubling the Cape year after year without touching the
southern shores.

(b) RF.SULTS OF VOYAGES.

These four voyages in early South African history are full of
value and interest to the student of the economic history of the
land, for here we are first brought into touch with the aborigines.
here we see the first intercourse betw^een white and black, we see
it develop and we see it lapse for a time. The seeds of commerce

428 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC EACTUR IN SOUTH AEKICA.

are planted, likewise the seeds of political trouble, and in the
beginning- we lind that which has been at the bottom of most of
our economic trials antl trium])hs from that hrst day on Angra
I'eqtiena's shores in far-off 1485 until our own day. Written
in a sentence, it is nothing more nor less than the natives' love of
cattle, and his passion for ])ossession.

The whole development of the idea is traceable in the stories
of the succeeding voyages. At Angra I'equena they had searched
for human habitation in order to secure fresh meat, but the
aborigines were no doubt with their herds where they could get
pasturage. Near the Kny^na the Portuguese saw large herds of
cattle, but the Plottentots hastily drme them into the interior for
safety.

Twelve years later Da (iama landing at St. Helena Bay made
an unfortunate beginning, for while he did contrive to meet with
the Hottentots they ]>arted in a (juarrel.

Learning from ex])erience, he was more careful when he
landed at St. Blaize, ami got the length of bartering a few sheep,
but the ])eople would not i)art with their cattle.

Sailing east and north he discovered the Bantus, who
bartered copper, ivory, and provisions. Since cattle are not
specially mentioned it is ])resumed tliat i)rovisions would cover
small stock, and game, but not cattle. At anyratc we have no
clear guidance on this particular point.

Then in 1503 we find Saldanha with his ships in Table Bay
bartering a cow and two sheep. The jieople are beginning to get
over their superstitious feelings, and their fear of the strange
creatures of the sea, which they must have had as they first
gazed upon the ships sailing along the coast. Once they have
seen and talked with the sailors, and realised that they were men
with white skins, but still for all that men shaped much like
themselves, then they would talk among themselves about these
incidents and the idea of bartering would soon spread along the
coasts in that strange way in which news always travels among
the natives. It is easy to see how the practice would grow, a.>
in fact it did grow, until in a moment of unwisdom, difficulties of
language operating no doubt, passions were kindled and the bUxvd
followed — and then the hands of the clock were put back for
South Africa, which w^as to be avoided at all costs, while the
itumense Portuguese trade with India was profoundly affected
as we shall see bv the rearrangement of the ports of call, and all
this because of the supposed ferociousness of the natives! And
yet what thev had done was done because they valued their cattle
which the white man was driving away!

TI. — The Aborigines oe the Land.

(a) THE BUSHMEN.

Nor do the values of these voyages end here. They serve as
an introduction to the aborigines of the land. Thus when Diaz

CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTii AFRICA. 429

landed at Angra i'etiucna and found no habitation it may well
have been tnat ins every movement was closely watched by an
vinseen observer. 1 iw Dtisiuiian^ havni^ no aoniestic aiiimai but
the dog", was accustomed to wander even in the desolate wastes
ot that part of the coast reg-ion, subsisting on roots and wild
plants, and when lucky connng upon the abode of wild bees. With
a rudnnentary bow and arrow he hunted with marvellous skill,
and locusts were suftic^ently palatable at a push ; carrion, too, was
sometimes better than nothing.

It is not our purpose here to note more than the details
essential and relevant to our study, so that no general description
of either the Bushmen or the Hottentots is to be exi>ected. The
clothing of the Bushman male consisted of a skin throw^n loosely
over the shoulders, while the female wore a small ajjron ; his
weapons were the bow and arrow, and the spear, nor did he
hesitate to poison the tips of his weapons in order to make sure
of his prey. The Bushmen have left their implements and paint-
ings in many parts of the country, and we are now able to say
with some certainty that they occupied most of the interior, the
coast belt and the basins of the Orange and Vaal rivers being the
domain of the Hottentot. From about the latitude of Waltish
Bay on the West Coast, around the edges of the Kalahari
Desert, and along the Vaal River, back along the main mountain
range to the Kei River the Bantu were pressing in from the north.
But even here the Bushmen ])enetrated the Bantu country, for
near Ng(]amakwe, and Umtata and Tsolo I have seen Bushman
paintings, and handled their stone implements, and elsewhere in
Natal and Rhodesia Bushman relics and even colonies are to be
found in the midst of the Bantu.

Indeed in the Umtata District certain implements were
recently found near Kambi, which, on expert examination, were
pronounced to be tools used for the working up of iron into arrow-
heads and assegai heads. The Bu.shmen having learned it from
the Bantu originally, apparently continued to do this class of
work for the natives, for traces of their workings are to be found
right up into Natal, and also in the Northern Transvaal and the
Northern Territories. Reference to my paper on the Place Names
of Tsolo read before this Association in 1916* will show that
important evidence o| the presence of Bushmen is also to be
found in the Place Names of Kaffirland for the pure native
language being without clicks those names in which clicks appear
may be regarded as of 'Bushman-Hottentot origin.

People whose requiremeius and possessions were so small
were of little value for the jnirposes of trade. Since they had
no cattle to barter it was not worth bothering about them, and
they were at first left to die out in the struggle for existence, and
later, as we shall see, deliberately hunted down and exterminated
when thev took to stealing the cattle of the early settlers.

Rept. S..^. Assoc: for Adv. of Sc. Mnritzbnrg, 603-619 (1916).

430 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

(b) THE HOTTENTOTS.

The Hottentots however were much more advanced towards
civilisation. The weak parental government of the Bushmen was
respected as a matter of expediency only until the children were
able to ])rovide for themselves. The Hottentots, on the other
hand, lived in communities under the rule of chiefs who. having
but little ]jower, administered in accordance with freely expressed
j)ublic opinion.

They were entirely nomadic in habits, driving their cattle
'from one place to another as pasturage became scarce, and when
the milk su]>])lies failed the women gathered succulent roots and
bulbs for food. Agriculture was unthought of, and their habita-
tions were portable hiUs consisting of slender frames covered
with mats or skins. As a people they were never very numerous
and occupied only the coast Ijelt and the banks of the Orange
River.

Their stock consisted of gaunt, long-horned cattle; and
sheep covered with hair, and having great fatty tails, which after
great development through the years, are known to tis as
Africander sheei).

It is fortunate indeed that the writings of a very old traveller
are still preserved to us. awd that we are thus enabled to get a
contemporary account of the actual conditions obtaining amongst
the Hottentots themselves, and in their relations with the white
man. at. or about, the time of first contact. On the Qth October,
1673, William Ten Rhyne, described as a native of Deventry,
and Physician-in-Ordinary, and a Member of the Council of
Justice, to the Dutch East India Company, arrived at Cape Town.
He wrote an account, in Latin, of the Hottentots and Natives,
and from this we make the following quotations in order to
reproduce as far as {possible the very atmosphere of those distant
days : —

" Of the Hottentots, the Native inhabitants of this
country. — This name belongs to different Nations. The first
are call'd Effequaes, who claim the Firft Rank, as well in
refpect of their Number, as of their Stature (being like
Demi-Ciants) and Strength, which is the reafon that they
will quarrel with the Namaquas. their Neighbours, upon the
leaft occafion .... they don't care to engage with us

for fear of our Fire-locks Our Governor of the

Fort fends yearly certain Perfons among them, with fome
Tobacco and fonie Brafs Toys, which they exchange with
them for cattle."

Then shortly after he adds this significant touch concerning

the

" Sonquas. who having been (for juft occafions) defpoiled
of their Cattel. by our Country-men. have ever fince dwell'd

in the woods and lived by hunting All unlefs

those that are very poor, have al>out their Necks collars or

CATTLE AS AN ECONOxMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 43 1

Necklaces of Coral, Glafs or Brafs Beads which they ex-
change with the Dutch for their cattle." [Chapter viii.]

Unwilling as one naturally is to over-burden this paper with
lengthy quotations, perhaps I may be permitted a little further
latitude in view of the age and value of the quotation and in order
to establish the point before us ; all the more so in view of the
'fact that the whole study is an original line of thought as yet
untouched by any other investigator. Here then is a first-hand
account of : —

" Their way of traficking. — As all their Riches and
subftance confift in their Cattle, this is the only Commodity
they exchange with our People. Commonly the Governour
of the Fort, fends a Doctor or two accompany'd by fome
soldiers,, and provided with good ftore of Virginia Tobacco,
or rather of the Black and worfer fort (which they efteem
moft) with fome Beads of Coral, Glafs, or Copper, and fome
quantity of Aqnavitae, (whereof they are great lovers) which
they purchase for their Oxen, Cows, Sheep, and fometimes
for feveral Panther skins. Their way of Exchange is thus:
Our Merchants, offer a piece of Tobacco, of about two
fpans in length for an Qx or a Sheep, always adding a piece
by little and little; (a cuftom always obferv'd among them,
without which they think them f elves not obliged to the
Bargain.) At east they will ask alfo a certain quantity of
Aqnavitae, the value whereof nnift be deducted from the
quantity of Tobacco, which they value lefs by a fourth part
at leaft ; But at the firft meeting, our Factors always prefent
them with a piece of this weed which they feek to retaliate
by a Prefent of a Sheep ; by this means they exchange fome-
times 100 or 200 Oxen, (be fides Sheep) at one time. Our
(jrovernor fends his Factors no more than once a year to the
Ef fequas, to make them the more eager after the Tobacco ;
they commonly prefent our Factors with the beft Mutton
at their meeting. But care muft be taken not to let thefe
Barbarians fee your whole stock, for fear of being kill'd by
them upon that account ; . . . But they never exchange
a White Ox or Cow (following perhaps in this point, their
Anceftors the Egyptians who worshipped Ifis under the
fhape of a Cow) which being among them like our Bell-
weather; it is thus conftantly wifh'd, that the Great Captain
(meaning God) may blefs them with a White Ox." [Chapter
xviii.]

It is not possible to trace O'Ut in detail all the minor develop-
ments of the situation, nor would there be very great value in so
doing, and yet sufficient has been already said to indicate not
merely the fact of the cattle trade as between the early settlers
and the Hottentots, but also the manner of approach, the methods
employed, as well as its character, dimensions, and value.

Unfortunatelv this trade was not mutually beneficial. The
greed of gain undoubtedly operated as a powerful incentive from

D

432 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

the side of the white races, and led to the infliction of great in-
justices upon the Hottentots. They in their turn (with much
less enlightenment) were not beyond reproach, and in the ultimate
result it is not too much to say that this bartering of cattle was
in a real and direct sense the beginning of serious political
troubles, and led at first to a change in the manner of life of
whole tribes who by despoliation were, as we have already seen,
driven to dwell in the woods and live by hunting. Eventually the
virtual extermination of the Hottentots is referable to this same
factor, for the Hottentots were assailed by the Kaffirs as well
as by the Avhite men, and it needed only a serious epidemic follow
ing upon years of raiding and death to complete the work of
destruction. It has been put on record by one who made many
journeys more than one hundred years later than Ten Rhyne, into
"the country of the Hottentots and Caffraria" in the years
1777, 1778, 1779, that this state of affairs was then obtaining, as
indeed we know it did obtain all through the years. Lieut. Wm.
Paterson, in the narrative he published in 1790, i^age 85. tells us:

" It is not very uncommon for the Caffres and Chonacqua.s
to quarrel, which generally ends in an engagement. In thefe
encounters feveral hundreds of the Caffres fometimes unite
to oppofe their enemies, who very feldom bring a propor-
tionable force into the field. But the dexterity with which
the Hottentots ufe their bows and arrows, and the practice of
poifoning the latter, render them very dangerous enemies to
those who only use the Haffagai. The difputes between
thefe people generally originate about cattle, of which both
nations are extremely avaricious."

Summing uj) the position then, we find that the trials and
triumphs of the Hottentot races were inextricably associated with
the cattle factor — a factor which, being an instrument of com-
merce as well as an inducement to war, operated in Ijoth the
spheres of peace and war, and in the end of the day cannot but
be regarded in the light of actual fact as being largely responsible
for the extermination of the race.

(c) THE BANTU

were the third race with which the early voyagers came into
contact. Healthy and vigorous and prolific, they were of a quite
different type to the other aborigines. Agriculture was practised
— by the women. Witchcraft held a central place in the tribal
life, and great numbers were put to death on charges of sorcery,
in consequence.

The men spent their time in hunting, or in raiding the neigh-
bouring cattle folds. Indeed, in nearly all cases the tribal feuds,
and wars, were directly traceable to this factor ; some neighbour-
ing tribe had specially good cattle upon which envious eyes were
cast, and the growing temptation culminated in a night raid with
the capture of cattle — and then endless rounds of reprisals and
counter reprisals. Indeed before going out to war it was quite

CATTLE AS AK ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 433

usual to slay a beast sacritically in the presence of the " armies '"
to ensure success and immunity from death. The i>overnment
ot tlie tribe showed a further stage of the evolution m that the
chief governed supreme. Nevertheless he was surrounded b\-
AiiiapaRati (counsellors j who represented various sections of the
tribe, and since each moved about among the people of his own
section he heard what his people desired and thought, and advised
the chief accordingly, and thus the chief was sateguarded from
acting otherwise tiian in accordance with the wishes of the
majority — unless he was a tyrant, in which case he was feared
and obeyed for a season, and then either his followers all deserted
him and sought protection elsewhere, or else he 'found an untimely
death.

The Bantu seem to have been constantly at war amongst
themselves, a condition of affairs which culminated in those great
disturbances of one hundred years ago, throwing the whole of the
Bantu population into confusion and causing the wholesale and
extensive redistribution of tribes. In the course of their redis-
tribution and movements these tribes came into contact and
with the w'hite man with what result, sj far as our study is
concerned, must appear later.

III. — The Coming of the Dutch.

Returning then to the early days of the settlement at the
Cape, we recall that the disastrous affair of D'Almeida with the
Hottentots resulted in the Portuguese deliberately omitting to
call at the Cape on their way to the East. The discovery of this
new route to the East had resulted in the passing of the great
Eastern trade into the hands of the Portuguese, and the decline
and fall of the Republics of Venice and Genoa, which were
dependent upon the East. Unfortunately however (for him)
the hasty decision of the Portuguese King resulted in the forma-
tion of the Dutch East India Company in 1602, and in the ensuing
race for power it became evident that Portugal was passing into
the darkness of eclipse. Into all the details of change we cannot
here enter, the main point with which we are concerned being
this, that the Dutch, finding the Cape vacated by the Portuguese
owing to the cattle trouble, established themselves on the shores
of Table Bay.

The landing of Jan van Riebeek in April, 1652. was a memor-
able event in the history of the aboriginal tribes of South Africa.
A fort was built. Trade, for cattle, was initiated with the Hot-
tentots. The following year the Hottentots trying to eat their
cake and have it, made a raid on the herds of cattle sold to the
white men, and carried off' all except two, and this proved to be
the beginning of open hostilities which continued intermittently
for years.

The settlers' herds, slowly acquired by continued purchase,
Avere closely guarded day and night, and in order to make the
precautions more effective grants of land came to be given across

434 CATTLE AS AN ECOx\0MIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

i

Liesbeek River to adventurous settlers, who thus became free
burgliers, so forming a protective belt around the hitherto open
settlement. But this only accentuated the trouble, for the Hotten"
tots speedily came to see that they were losing not only the ground
actually under cultivation l)ut also tlie pasture land where from
time immemorial they had been accustomed to graze their herds.
In consequence they took every opportunity of driving off the
settlers' cattle, even shedding blood to accomplish their purpose.
The eft'orts at piniishing these elusive people however were not
too successful, and so a strong fence was erected along the
boundary of the settlement, tliree watchhouses were built, and the
settlers behind this barrier simply awaited events, until in due
time after a long period of isolation negotiations were re-opened
in 1660, and the cattle trade proceeded afresh, brightly-coloured
beads and " truck " worth from eight to ten ]:)ence being given for
an ox.

Then followed a period of comparative quiet, during which
the settlement grew apace— but with every expansion the abori-
gines were aft'ronted. Tt took twelve years for this agitation to
come to a head. It is strange indeed to think that " the country
around Cape Town was teeming with game, antelopes of many
kinds, elephants, rhinoceroses, and hippopotami ;" and we can well
understand that Gonnema. the Hottentot chief, must have been
gravely annoyed to see the burghers constantly hunting in his
hunting grounds, killing off the game in large quantities, in order
to supply the garrison with dry meat without sacrificing their
herds of cattle, and that this, together with the old grievances, was
quite sufiicient to cause the smouldering embers to burst into
flame. Coming upon a hunting party near Riebeeks Kasteel one
day. he confiscated the waggons and their teams, but permitted
the burghers to escape with their lives. The next hunting party
he caught he murdered. A third incident occurred at Saldanha
Bay, where one of his lieutenants captured a small trading post
belonging to the company.

Such contumacy ( !) could not be passed over, and accord-
ingly a ptmitive expedition was fitted out, and successfully
accomplished the capture of 800 head of cattle, and goo sheep.
During the course of this the second Hottentot war the Cochoqua
tribe was effectively handled, losing all their cattle to the
Europeans, but " he who fights and runs away will live to fight
another day," and the wily Gonnema bided his time until he could
literally get some of his own back. Pouncing on the Hottentot
allies of the Company he swept off the greater part of their cattle
and then returned to his mountain fastnesses where he could
resist all who came against him. For four years the settlement
was practically blockaded on the land side — until Gonnema pro-
posed peace, the final arrangement being that he should pav the
Company a yearly tribute of thirty head of cattle — a tribute which
by the way was never paid !

Trifling- as all this may seem the consequences were of very

CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 435

great importance. The Cape settlement had been established to
supply fresh meat to the passing- East Indiamen, and for four
years the supplies had been cut off by this war, an experience
which might easily be repeated at any time. If the settlemen'
was to fulfil its main function it must be independent of th
erratic Hottentots, and therefore European cattle-breeders must
be found; and these were found by settling suitable persons,
adequately protected, at Hout Bay, Rondebosch, Wynberg,
Stellenbosch, and Drakenstein. Thus the second Hottentot war
had very far-reaching results for the whole future of the colony,
not only in so important a matter as the establishment of the
cattle-breeding industry, but also in paving the way for the wel-
come and 'facilities given to the French Huguenots, an event the
value of which can never be truly estimated in the economic
history of South Africa.

Before concluding our enquiries regarding the Hottentots one
further matter falls to be recorded even though it is not perhaps
so directly related to our main study as the incidents already
related. In 1755 a homeward-bound fleet infected the settlers
with smallpox. Ordinarily the Hottentots might well have
escaped this dread scourge altogether, but in their bartering the
germs were carried home to their retreats, and laying hold of the
people, assisted by their filthy habits, the disease wrought havoc,
carrying- oft' large numbers. Of all the many Hottentot tribes
only one, the Korana, was left untouched, and those which were
aft'ected were almost utterly destroyed. Henceforth the quaint
names of the many tribes are lost to the pages of our history
books, and even among themselves the survivors are simply
classed together as Hottentots. Yea, more, the scourge passing
from tribe to tribe was communicated to the Bantu peoples in the
far East, through the Damaqua and Gonaqua tribes then assimila-
ting. Tembu tradition says that the country between the Kei
and the Bashee was almost de-peopled, a fact which probably
accounts for the small population of natives originally dwelling
;r that region when the white man penetrated that length. How
many died beyond the Bashee we cannot tell with any certainty.

Thus was the Hottentot power coiiipletely and effectively
broken, leaving a clear issue for the coming days as between the
B.uropean and the Bantu, the Bushman trouble in the North being
ot much less consequence, even though troublesome in the
extreme, and constituting a great hindrance to the progress of
the whole district.

During all this time the work of exploration had not been
pushed, though several small parties had been sent out at different
times and in different directions. One of these striking eastwards
and carrying with it goods with which to purchase cattle, pene-
trated in 1667 as far as Mossel Bay.

But Governor Van der Stel was not content with this policy
of drift. He insisted upon the necessity of exploration, especially
in the northerly direction, whence came strange tales of mineral

436 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

wealth ; and eventually gaining the necessary authority, he himself
set out with a company one hundred strong, discovering at length
the copper mountains of Namaqualand. He might possibly have
been guided to still richer discoveries had he not been dependent
upon oxen. Had he penetrated to the Orange River and estab-
lished a settlement at its mouth how different might have been
the course of South African history! But on this occasion, as
on numberless others, the history of South Africa followed the
tail of the ox, and Van der Stel thought it prudent on the approach
of summer to return ere his beasts died of thirst and starvation
in the land of drought.

The net result however of these explorations, inconclusive
though they were, was soon seen in the increasing flow of
emigration northward and eastward. The ox-waggon made
possible this steady advance of the white man, and on his approach
Bushmen and Hottentots withdrew unwillingly, oftentimes
Harassing the advance by sweeping off the herds of the emigrants.
But superior weapons told in the end. Assegai and poisoned
arrow could not withstand the musket, and so the eastern march
continued unchecked.

In 1737 the Company proclaimed the Gamtoos River the
boundary of the settlement ; but, pushing on, the brave pioneers of
Empire arrived on the .shores of Algoa Bay by 1754. Even then
they continued eastwards until on the banks of the Fish River
they met the advance guard of the Bantu hordes travelling in
the opposite direction, and from that time onwards the pioneers
and the Kaffir<? were in constant conflict.

IV. CONT.-VCT WITH THE BaNTIT.

When Governor van Plettenberg visited the eastern frontier
in 1778 he found a very unsatisfactory state of affairs obtaining.
From the very first the Kaffirs had taken every opportunity of
stealing the cattle belonging to the pioneers, and in consequence
commandoes were formed for the purpose of reprisals, and the
recapture (with interest) of the stolen stock. The Governor,
seeking to bring this trouble to an end, arranged with the Bantu
that the Fish River should be the dividing line. But the natives
continued their depredations, and before long the frontier was
again in confusion. The position on the northern frontier was
also, at this time, equally intolerable, for there the Bushmen were
raiding the farms and either driving off, or hamstringing, the
cattle, until commandoes were raised and sent " to exterminate
the pest.'' At that time some 300 miles of country along the
mountains was cleared, the official report stating that 503 Bush-
men had been killed and 239 taken prisoners. It is further
recorded that between 1786 and 1795. 617 horses, 17.633 cattle,
and 77.176 sheep were stolen by the Bushmen, and that in that
period 2,480 of these people were killed by the colonists. All
this, however, necessitated the employment of between two
hundred and three hundred Boers everv vear, and the fact that so

CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 437

large a number of men were drawn away from the scattered
farms, where they would have been far better employed attending
to their stock, and the work of agriculture which was at a stand-
still in their prolonged absence, indicates the extent and serious-
ness of the menace. Acting under the extreme provocation of
the ruthless and wanton Bushman tactics the commandoes were
merciless, and the Bushman power was soon broken by the almost
complete extermination of the race. This warfare against the
Bushmen is a most unfortunate page in our South African His-
tory, and one to be contemplated with bowed heads. The only
extenuating circumstance is to be found in the extreme and long-
continued provocation which must have caused the bitterest
enmity and the strongest feelings against this half-human, half-
animal, race of people. How great a hindrance all this must have
been to the normal development of the northern districts will be
at once appreciated.

While these things were proceeding in the north, and before
they had come to a climax, several Amaxosa clans were crossing
the Fish River boundary and making incursions at first upon the
remnants of the Gonaqua tribe of Hottentots, and later upon the
Europeans, driving off the cattle. This led to the first Kaffir war,
which proved so great an object lesson to the Kaffirs. In violation
of all agreements they had thus renewed their thieving, and so in
order to protect themselves and recover their stolen property the
farmers had been compelled to band together as they were doing
against the Bushmen, thus initiating the commando system, a
system which has played so large a part in subsequent South
African History. In these days of conscript armies and Machia-
vellian battles one smiles to read that only 92 burghers and 40
Hottentots were mobilised to thrust the Amaxosa back across the
border — and that they did it, capturing in all over 6.000 head of
cattle in the process ! Nor are we in the least surprised to know
that the capture of all these cattle only made the natives all the
more determined to recuperate their losses at the earliest suitable
opportunity. This they did whenever a favourable opportunity
presented itself, until ten years later the conflict was openly
renewed, the second Kaffir war arising primarily out of internal
dissensions, but issuing as usual in the loss oif the cattle of the
hardy settlers. It seems that Nhdlambe had been selected by the
councillors of the boy-chief Gaika. to be regent, and some of the
clans refusing to accept him decided to cross the Fish River.
This they did in 1789, and finding themselves in close prox'imity
to large herds of cattle they helped themselves to nearly all that
was readily available.

Before an adequate force could be gathered to recover this
stock instructions came from distant Capetown that peace was
to be restored at all costs, and the burghers were required to dis-
band, the natives in the meantime having escaped back into
Kaff'raria. The Commission dealing with the matter tried to buy
ofT the natives, eventually agreeing to allow them to occupy the

43<^ CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

land between the Fish and Kowie Rivers. Of course, this was
misinterpreted as weakness, and the cattle-steaUng- was indulged
in more freely than ever until four years later, in 1793, the
prospects of plunder were attracting- clans from far and near,
and Europeans were being murdered as far west as the Zwart-
kops River, their houses being burned and their cattle driven
away. In sheer exasperation the farmers in the Zuurveld suffer-
ing grievous losses at the hands of the tribes, which a weak and
distantly situated Government had permitted to dwell east of the
recognised boundary, and without any redress, sought help from
Ndhlambe, who lived across the river, and was, as we have already
seen, at enmity with their own enemies. This precipitated, un-
expected trouble for the Zuurveld natives promptly called to
their aid the hordes of Kaffraria, who virtually swept the country
of whites. One hundred and sixteen farms out of the one
hundred and twenty then existent between the Kowie and Zwart-
kops Rivers were hastily abandoned by the whites, and a further
instalment of over 60,000 head of cattle, 11.000 sheep, and 200
horses, went to enrich the inhabitants of Kaffirland. Theal
says that 6,000 warriors were west of the Fish River at this
time, and over 65,000 head of cattle had been driven back into
Kaffraria. Such a state of affairs could not be allowed to con-
tinue, and an attempt was made to put a stop to it, but the
period of conflict and travail ended in a peace that was nothing
short of ignominous. As before, the natives promised to be
peaceable and to stop stealing the cattle, and they were still to
remain in the Zuurveld! Is it any wonder that the farmers
nwved away in despair to other localities where they might hope
for greater security, and that consequently the economic and
agricultural development of the whole area was brought to a
standstill? Can we be surprised that the dangers and vexations
and losses inseparable from the extensive cattle-stealing culmin-
ated in 1795 in open rebellion at both Graaff-Reinet and Swellen-
dam? — and that at both these places Republics were declared,
which, owing to the impotence of the Dutch East India Company,
actually continued unmolested for several years.

In the meantime, however, the British captured the Cape
in 1795, and under the stronger rule the burghers of Swellendam
slowly realisexl that further resistance was useless, and Graaft*-
Reinet held out only until a little judicious economic pressure
brought resistance to an end in the following year.

During .this, the first British occupation of the Cape, the
Governor, Earl Macartney, sent his Secretary, Mr. fohn Barrow.
F.R.S.. to enquire into the unrest in the Graaff-Reinet area, and
on the eastern frontier. Finding that the Boers, embittered
by their terrible experiences over a long oeriod of years, were
continuing their depredations upon the Kaffirs, under the pretext
of shootino- elephants and hippopotami, or of trading. Earl
Macartnev determined to establish permanent boundaries.

Beyond this line the colonists were positively forbidden to eo on anv
pretence whatever, under penalty of total confiscation of their cattle, and

CATTLE AS Ai\ ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA. 43y

banishment from the settlement The Kaffirs, as was to be

expected, had already begun to retaliate and avenge themselves upuii
their treacherous neighbours. War was proclaimed between them ; tlieir
barbarities were reciprocal and terrihc indeed. Scenes were then exhi-
bited which left an indelible impression ; and feelings were excited in the
minds of both parties which have not yet subsided, but whch will in all
probability go down to posterity. It was an age of horror not to be
described '■*

For an important and searching description oi those terrible
days reference should be made to " Barrow's Travels," 1, 418,
and the mainspring of the turmoil was the desire of black and
white for cattle.

As a result of Barrow's investigations a treaty was made
with certain Kaffir Chiefs in 1798, fixing the Colonial boundary
once more at the Fish River, which neither Colonist nor native
was to cross on any pretext. But the issue had only been post-
poned, and it was not long before the old trouble arose in an
intensified form. Gaika had by now arrived at manhood's years,
and Ndhlambe, the regent, desired still to remain at the head of
affairs : consequently there was trouble, which ultimately
resulted in the partition of the Amararabe nation into two tribes
— the Amangqika, or followers of Gaika, and the Amandhlambi,
or followers of Ndhlambe. All the turmoil involved in such a
partition helped to aggravate considerably an already complicated
situation, resulting in greater suspicion and hostility as the natives
observed the advance of the white man.

The situation might possibly have been saved even then, how-
ever, had not the treaty of Amiens at this stage restored the Cape
to the Batavian Republic, and in all the uncertainty inseparable
froiTi this, the second great change of Government, within the
brief period of six years, the wild confusion on the distant
Eastern frontier contiued unchecked, and even then, before
Governor Janssens could do more than visit the disaffected area,
the European war had been renewed and the Cape was once more
captured by the British on the loth of January, 1806, necessitat-
ing yet another change of Government. These changes natur-
ally had a most deplorable effect in the matter of the
administration in its relation to the natives, and could not but
operate to aggravate an already grave situation.

VI. Conclusions.

And so. whether we look at the abandoninent of the Cape
by the Portuguese, and the re-settlement by the Dutch; at the
explorations and the expansion of the colony ; at the develop-
ment which proceeded by leaps and bounds ; at the woeful set-
backs to the settlement and establishment of certain districts ;
the disastrous losses, the fiercely flaming political conflagrations,
the wonderful growth of the trade ; not to mention the virtual
extermination of both the Bushmen and Hottentot races ; and
last, but bv no ineans least, the most deplorable and unfortunate

* Stephen Kay: "Researches in Caffraria," 255 (1823).

440 CATTLE AS AN ECONOMIC FACTOR IN SOUTH AFRICA.

racial animosities as between black and white in its one aspect,
and British and Dutch in its other aspect — animosities which still
profoundly affect the situation in our own day and generation,
even though the healing hand of time has done so much to
eliminate them — all these are strangely focussed in a single factor
from which there is no escape.

And even with these important consequences before us our
study is not yet by any means completed, for the extraordinary
part played by cattle in the history of South Africa from the
time of the second British occupation onwards is yet to be told,
and in consequence this study is to be regarded as pre-
hminary to an examination of subsequent events. Moreover, a
right understanding of the whole position, and a true estimate
of the j)art played by this factor, requires investigation as to
the place of cattle in the native economy, and in the develop-
ment of trade as between black and white, in both of which
directions it is proposed to pursue the subject in the near future.

Calcium Clouds in Stellar Space — The spec-
trographic observation of Nova Aquilae made by Dr. J. Lunt
and others have led to at least one remarkable deduction. It
is well known that the displacement to right or left of absorption
lines in stellar spectra indicate motion on the part of the star
under observation. In the case of Nova Aquilae, for instance,
several observers have been able to calculate its velocity in the
line of sight from the displacement of hydrogen lines in its
spectrum, and have estimated that velocity as being of the order
of 2.000 kilometres per second. Certain very narrow and sharp
lines of calcium in that spectrum, on the other hand, were
found to be virtually undisplaced, inaicating that the calcium
vapour causing those lines was virtually stationary. Mr.
Evershed has now drawn attention to similar observations made
in respect of Nova Persei in 1901, and Nova Geminorum (2) in
1912. He adds :

If these novse, situated in widel\ different parts of the Milkj^ Way,
show calcium vapour stationary in the line of sight with respect to the
sidereal system, the probability seems great that the calcium has no con-
nection with the novs, but forms clouds of absorbing material distributed
over the Milky Way region, and that these are really at rest with refer-
ence to the system of stars, not merely at rest in the line of sight.*

Mr. Evershed also gives a table for the velocities of six
binary stars which, he declares, adds cumulative evidence in sup-
port of the hypothesis of stationary calcium clouds.

* Joury\. Brit. Astr. Assoc. 29, 87 (1919).

ARTS AND CRAFTS OF THE XOSAS : A STUDY
BASED UN PHILOLOGY.

By James McLaren, M.A.

{Read, July lo, iyi8.)

Arts and crafts were much more fully developed and culti-
vated among the native races in ancient days than they are now,
when all sorts of articles of dress and adornment and all sorts of
tools and utensils can be readily purchased in the traders' shops.

A trade or craft, and also the workshop where it was carried
on, was i-shisliijii. The craftsman was i-iicibi,_ fitter, repairer,
skilled workman, and he was a craftsman in' wood, iron, leather,
or other material, iiicihi ycmiti^ ycntsiuiibi, yeciknmba. The
materials used were various, and included stone, clay, metals,
wood and other vegetable substances, and the skins, hides, horns
and bones of animals.

They used stone, ili-tyc. for millstones, but these were
selected rather than wrought. An egg-shaped boulder or cobble
from the shore or the river-bed formed the grinding stone, im-
hokotwc ; a fiattish or slightly hollowed hard stone of oblong
shape formed the under stone or bed. on which the grinding was
done, ilityc loknsila. To pick or sharpen a stone is xola, and the
pointed cold chisel with which this is done in-xola. A stone with
a round hole bored through it used 'for weighting the digging
stick. i{lii-i^xa, for digging up roots and sometimes for breaking
up ground, was known, though borrowed from the Bushmen.

Of clay, u-dongwc, they made pots for cooking. i)n-bi"a,
jars for holding water and Kafir beer, mn-paiida, and round head-
shaped bowls for holding food, etc.. i-nqayi, as well as smaller uten-
sils, such as drinking-cups. The pot-clay, u-dongzu'c, was taken
from the river-bank or from a pit. mixed with water, and then
trodden with the feet and worked with the hands till it was a
plastic mass of prepared clay, iim-dongwc. The potter, usually a
female, took a lump of this, and with her hands and a piece of
wood laboriously moulded, biimba, the clay into the shape
desired, giving it a thickness oif from a quarter to half an incii.
It was then dried in the air, and when quite dry was surrounded
and filled and covered with cakes of dried cowdung. wdiich was
set alight to fire the clay. To glaze the pot, Kafir-corn was
ground to meal, put into the pot and cooked to a pap, with which
the pot was rubbed outside and in. This was done repeatedly,
till the pot was sufficiently glazed. The result was not very
artistic, owing to the unequal firing of the pot depending on the
way the wind blew. Tiie Xosas also moulded figures, or dolls,
of clay, ici-tomo, resembling those of the earliest races of man-
kind, in which the most notable thing was the want of propor-
tion in the size of the different parts of the body. The clay

44^ ■ XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS.

oxen that Xosa boys burn to-day show the same feature in the
immense size of the horns.

The Kafirs have names for copper, u-hcdu, lead, i-kogiiin,
and brass, i-xiiia, but the metal, iiit-siiiibi, par excellence, wa>
iron, int-s'niibi or isi-iiyili. In olden times iron was smelted.
iiyibilikisa, from the ore, isi-iiyiti^ by a smelter, i-lala, by heating-
it in a furnace, isi-dlangaMa, where it was blown upon, futa,
with a powerful bellows, im-futo, till it was heated to a white
heat, nhn-qaqauU, and then run off into the sand. The iron
thus obtained, or later, purchased from the trader, was iforged
into shape, kanda iyihve, by a blacksmith, um-kaiidi, in a smithy,
isi-kando, who used a forge, i-siko, consisting of a hillock of
clay about 2 feet square and 18 inches high, in which a fire of
wood-charcoal, ama-lalile, was blown up by the bellows ; a stone
anvil, isi-kandelo, a round stone for a hammer, isa-ndo, and
tongs, ii-dlazvu or n-dlaivaiia. The smithwork or thing forged
was iim-kando.

Of his iron the blacksmith, like Tubal-Cain, the founder
of the art, made firstly weapons, iai-kall (lit. '.utting things), of
all kinds, and thereafter tools and articles c f use for cultiva-
tion, woodworking, etc. The weapons were mostly assegais or
javelins or spears, imi-konto, of various kinds, and included the
following varieties : —

A long-bladed assegai, iii-fslutnfslie, 14 inches in length from
its junction with the shaft to its point, and an inch or more in
breadth.

A long assegai, isi-gixi, with a blade of 10 in. in length and
a rounded neck of 3 in. or so behind the blade.

A shorter assegai, i-rwana, about 8 in. long without neck.
It was used also as a cutting instrument, e.g., in circumcising
boys.

A notched assegai, is-aka, with a blade of about 6 in. and a
four-sided neck of similar length, which was beautifully notched
on the four edges with small teeth or barblets.

A barbed assegai, in-konjanc (lit. the swallow), with a head
3 in. long, and a neck with usually two, .sometimes three or four,
large barbs like those of an arrow. This kind was specially
used in hunting.

A stabbing spear, i-iicitla, with a blade of 5 in. and a neck
of 7 or 8 in., which was not used, like most of the foregoing
for hurling, binaa or posa^ but for stabbing, lilaba, or hlansa, or
gwaza.

A dancing assegai, i-qoqa, with a blade 4 in. long, and a neck
of 6 in., richly ornamented with notching.

A boring assegai, iiig-qaiida, with a four-sided head 10 in.
long and a neck of 3 in.

Other names included isi-hele or isi-nkcmpe, a broad-bladed
assegai used for cutting meat, etc. ; i-josi, a large broad spear ;
■i-kebe, a short dagger; i-rele, a short-handled stabbing and slash-
ing assegai used in hand-to-hand conflict, which most nearly
corresponded to the white man's sword ; and a three or four-

XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS. 44.^

cornered spear. i-ncaiUsa. reseniblinor the fluted rush or palmiet,
and named from it.

The heads of these weapons were forged beautifully smooth,
gudisa. The cutting <i(\gt;, ukn-dla, was sharpened to an amazing
degree of keenness by whetting it, /o/a. upon a stone and then on
a hide. It was inserted, as we shall see presently, into a wooden
shaft. The part of the head so inserted was um-snka, and the
])oint of junction, i-xokauia.

The tools made of iron included the knife, axe and hatchet,
adze, pick or hoe. awl, bodkin or needle, etc.

The knife, isi-tshetshc, was of triangular shape, tapering to
a point and double-edged. It was fixed in a short wooden handle,
and usually carried in a siieatii, isi-kota.

The axe-head, i-ccnibc, was about 6 in. long with a curved
face about 2 in. broad and about ^4 in. thick, and a tang behind
for inserting into the handle. Tlie hatchet, isi-xcng.vc^ was
similar in shape but smaller.

The adze, in-komho.zoiibc. used for hollowing out trunks
of trees into troughs, and farther north into boats or canoes,
differed from the axe in having a straighter edge, and in being
inserted into the handle at right angles to its length, instead of
in the line of its length.

The pick or hoe. iir^-xobonya, was very similar to the adze,
but was inserted into the handle some way uj). It was imitated
from an older wooden implement, and was used for breaking up
ground, lima, rather than ior hoeing, hlaknla. for which a wooden
spade of quite different shape was used.

They also made chisels, iu-tJabo, usually with flanged
edges, 'for cutting wood; awls, i-qampii, for boring, jiklfa or
jijija, and needles, or rather bodkins, isi-landa, for sewing with.
The needle was of various lengths, from 6 to 12 inches, and about
the thickness of a straw. It was eyeless, and pointed at one
end, which made a hole in the material to be sewn, into whicii
the thread was pushed with the fingers. It was used also for
boring ears, cumbusa, extracting thorns, bangiila, and even
extracting teeth by the painful process of prising them out. The
long thin assegai, ing-qanda, was used for making eyelets in a
milksack. The Kafirs could also make fishing-hooks, ■ama-qcru,
and provide them with barbs, i-nyembe.

The worker in brass made the women's bracelets, i-zvatsha,
and arm-rings, i-kopolo, of which they wore a great number,
which often painfully lacerated the arm. They also made
girdles, u-qiuemesha, for the young braves. These were made of
small rings of brass, earlier, no doubt, of copper, which were
strung on fine thongs made of bushbuck skin. The rings were
hammered beautiifully round and smooth. A girdle might con-
sist of 300 or 400 of these rings, and a couple of stich girdles
were worth a cow.

An important part of the woodworker's labour, iikii-basa,
was the preparation and insertion of the shafts of spears and
the handles of tools.

444 XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS.

The shaft, itln-ll, of an assegai was a long thin piece of
assegai-wood, nni-gxina, about 5 feet in length and Yz in. in
diameter, tapering slightly towards the end away from the head.
The shaft was split open at the end. and the head inserted into
the cleft to the depth of about 1]/^ in. It was then fixed in posi-
tion by smearing it wdth resin, i-tywiiia, obtained from the candle-
wood tree, i-bolo, or from a species of hypoxis, i-xalanxa,
and was tied very tightly to the shaft with a fine thong made
from the shoulder sinew^s of the ox. The shaft was rendered
pliant by holding it over a tire, tshisa, and manipulating it with
the hands, and was carefully balanced for use. It was tested
thoroughly, z'avanya, before purchase, and was notched by the
purchaser with his own private mark, iii-tlaho.

The fixing of handles in hoes and axes formed a profession
hy itself, that of the burner-in, iim-piscli. The handle was^ not
fixed into a hole in the head as with us. but a hole was burnt
into the handle, pisela (a primitive Bantu form of the verb
tshiscla), w'ith the pointed end of the axe, or hoe-head, heated
red-hot. When the iron was cool, it was pushed as far as
possible into the hole, and there firmly fixed by lashing it tightly
with thongs well smeared with resin.

The original hoe or pick, i)uj-xoboiii^a, 'for breaking up,
kiihela, and cultivating, lima, land, and also the original spade
for scoffling or clearing away weeds, iim-lilakulo, were both made
of sneezewood, iim-tati, or ironwood, nm-iilcbc, the hardest and
toughest woods obtainable. The head of the pick was fixed as
described above in the case of the axe-head, but it was set at an
acute angle to give greater purchase, and the user bent down con-
siderably in using it. The wooden spade, for the sake of balance,
was made much longer in the head and proportionately shorter
ir. the shaft than our iron spades. The maker of hoes and spades
was called iiin-hazi or incihi ycmiti.

Of wood they also made troughs, iim-kitmbi, and in older
days farther north, boats or canoes, nm-kombc (another form
of the' same word), by burning and cutting out in turn the inside
of a tree trunk. They made stamp-blocks of mortars, isi-
nqusho, for husking" grain, by hollowing out the end of a tree-
stump, isi-kondo, and pestles or stampers, isi-nfilo, of stamper-
wood, um-hlcli. They also hollowed out wooden spoons of
various kinds, i-cepc, i-gxcbcka, u-kczo, the handles of which
were sometimes elaborately carved, rola.

Wooden weapons were numerous. There was the simple
stick, in-to)i(ja, used in fencing, and generally to ward ofT blows
— the word was also used to describe a w^eapon of any kind. A
form of it was the um-rolo, a long stick of olive-wood, um-nquma,
which was bound up with the bundle of assegais, and used for
first defence in case of threatened danger. Another was u)h-
vqayi. a long, pointed stick wdthout a knob, used as a weapon in
single combat, and held high above the head in dancing, made
of wood of the same name, um-nqayi (Eleodendron veliiUiuiui ).
There were also various kinds of knobbed sticks or knob-kerries.

XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS. 445

of which the general name was in-duku. The induku was usually
a stick with a knob, isi-kaiida, of moderate size, w^hich could be
used either for throwing at game or a foe, or in hand-to-hand
conflict. The gripping end of the knobkerrie, umxolo, was
often notched in a line lozenge pattern, so as to give a good hold.

Among the knob-kerries were the i-bungusa or i-gqudu, a
kerrie w'ith a large head and short handle for. throwing at foes
or game ; the i-gqeba, a kerrie for cracking skulls ; the iii-jikijane,
a kerrie designed to pierce the skull when thrown. The isa-
gweba, lit. the settler of disputes, was a short fighting stick, with
or without a knob.

Beautiful walking-sticks, um-simclelo, were made out of
Kafifir ironwood, um-simbiti, of which the heart-wood is dark
red, turnng to a glossy black. These were usually decorated
with ornamental patterns, notches, grooves, rings, spirals, or with
carvings of animals, such as snakes, lizards, baboons, human
heads, etc.

Dancing sticks were decorated by being covered up with
beadwork in a variety of patterns and colours.

The bow, isa-peta, and arrow, ii-tolo, were well-known from
conflict with the Bushmen, hut seem among the Xosas to have
been used only by children. Boys fitted their arrows with a tip,
i-gczi'ilika, of barbed ironwood or sneezewood, or of metal. They
used them mainly for shooting mice. The sling, isi-saulo, seems
also to have been a boys' toy rather than a serious weapon. A
stripped maize-cob, urn- pa, or a piece of clay, was fastened
lightly to an elastic switch, in-kunishi, and hurled at birds, etc.

Other vegetable substances used were gourds, reeds, rushes,
grass^ and vegetable cables or lianes.

The calabash-gourd, uscli^'a^ with its long neck, was gathered
when quite ripe, and was then sunk, nykva, in the ground for a
time, with only the neck sticking out, by which means the rind
v.^as hardened, while the contents decayed so that they could
be emptied out. The inside was thoroughly cleaned out by
rinsing it with water and gravel. It was then fit for use as a
milk container, i-selzva. The calabash was often tied round.
Ixindela, with string or a thong to strengthen it. A mealie-cob,
um-pa, served as cork. A half calabash served well as a spoon
or as a ladle, um-cepe.

Bands for thatching, ing-ximba, were made by twisting"
grass or the stems of various species of wild vine or monkey-
rope, um-nxeba, and other creepers. The fibres of the boterbloem.
iint-kwinfi (Garjania pinuata), extracted by rubbing the leaves
along the leg; the fibres of the finer inner bast, i-twebu, of a kind
of fig, iilu-ci, which was stripped, Hvebiila, off the tree, and
various kinds of grass, um-singizane, um-tala. i-xonye, in-zica.
were twisted or sptm. sonta, into thread, mn-sonto, or ropes, int-
sontclo. The use of bast for making clothes, so common in
Central Africa, does not seem to have obtained among the
Xosas. where skins and hides were so easily obtained.

Weaving among the Kafirs was essentially plaiting, ukn-

44^ XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS.

luka. They plaited of grass, or split rushes, or tig bast, small
closely woven trays or eating mats, izi-tebe, and also small plates
or basins for eating out of, izi-tya. They also made straw hats
for boys, and milkpails, the latter so closely plaited as to be quite
water-tight.

The making of sleeping mats and the making of baskets were
other important industries of the women. The sleeping mat,
H-kuko, was not plaited, but the rushes, imi-.zi {Cy perns te.rlilis),
of which they were made, were laid side by side, and either sewn
together by piercing the rushes with holes, through which a long
thread was drawn, or laced together by threads crossing each
other at every other rush or so. They were finished off or
bound, peta, by a double row of sewing or border, iim-peto, to
prevent unravelling.

Baskets were made in various ways and of various materials.
Light baskets for winnowing, imi-iiyasi, and very light baskets for
storing grain, isi-lulu, capable of holding many bags, were plaited
out of tough grass. Other baskets, such as the in-gobosi or
i-tala, for holding grain, which held a couple of bushels, and the
i-cjindwa^ in which clothes and household goods were stored, of
half the size, were constructed much as straw beehives are in
Europe. When the rushes required for the work had been cut
and dried, the best were selected, moistened and split along their
length ; of these the best were again selected, freed from any
marks, and used for winding round either other rushes or grass
made into a roll of the thickness of a finger or so. which was
constantly added to at the end as it was enwrapped, and firmly
sewn to the convolutions below. Baskets were also made in the
European way by interlacing or intertwining, jiba, cica, small
withes, etc., with upright sticks. A large basket of this kind
was iimczvaswa. A smaller basket, which held perhaps a bushel
of grain, was in-zivazn'a.

Brooms,mw-»ya??i, were made of the threshed head of Kaffir-
corn, um-nyani, or of the male flower of maize, in-tshatshoba, or
of the bushy u-nzvelc {Cliff ortia strobUifcra). which grows
luxuriantly alongside every stream in the lower and middle parts
of the country, or of the broom-bush, i-bosisi or i-ratsha, of the
higher plateau.

Great use was made in manufacture of the hides of cattle,
ici-ku}nba. and the skins of sheep and goats, in-gaga.

A hide was first stretched out on the ground, to which it
was fastened, bopelela, with pegs, isi-konkzvane, at the edges,
mg-qoto. When it was quite dry it was suspended on a frame
consisting of two large vertical and two horizontal posts, which
was leant against the kraal-fence. It was tied to the frame by
thongs put through the holes made for the pegs. The hair side,
which was at the back, was previously moistened with water and
smeared with fresh cowdung, an excellent disinfectant. The
^^f^sh side was well softened with tepid water.. It was
then scraped or shaved, or pared, pala, to remove
all bits of flesh that had adhered to it in the

XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS. 44/

skinning, and all thicknesses and roughnesses of the hide
itself, till the roots of the hairs began to appear. This was done
with the hatchet, isi-.vciigxc, and was a hard day's work for two
men. What was scraped oil was sometimes cooked and eaten as
a delicacy, sometimes made up into a hard ball, called imbiimba
yamanyania. ' a btuidle of bits of meat," and a symbol of the
strength of the union, and made into snutf-hoxes, i-qaiia. and the
like. '

The hide, now called iiiii-palaiic. ' the scra])ed,' was next taken
in hand by the women, who acted as fullers or curriers, aba-sitki.
Receiving it front the hands of the scrapers dry and ready, they
moistened it, trampled it with their feet, nxasha. rubbed it with a
rough boulder of granite or dolerite, i-nyengaiic, then stretclied
it out on the ground and scratched, riverwa, and rubbed, kiilila,
it with the dry leaves of a species of aloe, um-hlaba, which are
furnished with sharp little teeth, so as to bring the surface to a
woolly or fibrous condition. It was then hung up in a warm
place in the hut to dry. When dry, the surface was saturated
with old sour milk and again scratched and brayed with aloe
leaves, in doing w'hich the whole female population of the place
would help. When dry, it was again trampled and ruljbed till it
was soft and smooth, then smeared with fat on the hair-side,
rolled together, and tied into a tight bundle. The next day it was
again rubbed so that the fat might penetrate, again moistened
with warm water, and again rubbed with aloe leaves. When it
began to dry. it was for the fourth time treated with the aloe
leaves till it was quite woolly and soft. This smooth, woolly
surface was called the nap, um-hlapo. The edges, ing-qoto, were
now cut away, the hide once more trodden and rubbed, and it was
now ready for sewing.

According to the size of the hide three or four pieces were
cut out of it. These were narrower at one end than at the other,
as the robe was made narrow at the shoulders and gradually in-
creased in width towards the bottom. The pieces were sewn
together with thread, nm-sonto, made of the tendons, um-sundulo ,
of the ox's shoulder-blade, with the help of the lx>dkin or needle
already described. When the sewing was finished the robe was
damped and spread out so that the seams might be drawn tight.
It was then rubbed with the hands, smeared wdth fat, and dyed
to a black colour, gcaha. with a dye, which was made by burning
the rotten heartwood, i-hiba, of certain trees to a powder. The
finished robe was now called igcahe. The robe took altogether
two or three weeks hard work to make. The hair-side was worn
next to the skin.

Women's hats, i)ni-iiq-a'aci, were made of four ])ieces of the
skin of the bushbuck, im-babala. After being duly fulled or
curried, three of the skins were sewn together into a form of
sack, open above and below. This sack was folded in the middle.
so that one-hajf formed a flap hanging; down the back of the head.
Out of the fourth skin a long sash, four inches broad, was cut
and fastened to the side of the hat. After sewine. the hat was

448 XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS.

buried in the ground to make it tough, then taken out and
sprinkled with sweet milk. Pieces of wood were fixed in the flap
to give it the proper shape. It was again buried, taken out,
stretched, rubbed smooth and trimmed, when it was ready to
put on.

The making of shoes, izi-Jilangu, shields, ama-kaka, and cases
or quivers for assegais, imi-palane, was the work of the shoe-
maker. For making soles of shoes the skin of an ox's forehead
was spread out and dried. The soles were cut out so as to stand
out a finger-breadth all round the foot. A flap two inches broad
attached to each side and a broader piece behind formed the
uppers. These three pieces were knotted together with a piece
of thong. Shoes were little used except in war and on a long
journey. The hard, dry hide, in-tloii:^e, of ox or bull that was to
form a shiekl was first pounded with a stone, sisila, to make it
tough and strong. It was made of an oval shape, rather pointed
at the ends, and ornamented with strips of leather in various
colours. A shield, or buckler, made to protect the face was /;; -
(jicclctshetshc. This craftsman also made the war head-dress (^f
crane's feather, which was attached to the head by a leather band,
so arranged that the black wing feathers stood up perpendicularly.

The method by which riems or thongs are prepared for use
in {ploughing and inspanning oxen in waggons is so well known as
practised by white men as well as Kaffirs, that it does not need
description here.

Small thongs, or laces, for tying, iim-tya, ti-ntyi, and for
vvhi{)-cords. i-::iiiiya, were made by cutting off strips, ncwela, of a
dressed skin, i-tzvat7va, of the bushbuck or other antelope.

Milk-sacks, im-vaba^ were made of goat-skin carefully cur-
ried. An eye was worked near one corner oi the sack with a bit
of thong, by means of which it was suspended. Bags, i-nxozva,
were made from the entire skin of a kid. including the skin of
rhe legs. These appendices to the bag became losing-places for
small articles, and were also used as hiding-places for stolen
things. In the praise-song of Kreli he is called the skin bag wirh
legs, in which he hid Pato and Maqoma from the English during
the War of the Axe.

Among the fine arts the Xosas have nothing in the way of
painting to be compared with that of the Bushmen, yet they are
not without some artistic sense. They decorate, tsliiaafshisa, the
outside and sometimes the inside of their huts with patterns of
lines, circles and chevrons. .Such drawings are called isa-zobc,
and to draw a pattern is soha. They decorate their persons not
with proper tattooing, but with patterns made by raising lines of
incisions (keloids) on the skin, uku-vamha ; these are sometimes
elaborate. Their most artistic work is shown in their carvings on
wood, uku-rola or uku-qingqa, and their notchings and cross-
hatchings, uku-qoqa.. These are mostly done on walking anrl
dancing sticks. Some of them are adepts at inlaying, uku-tyiih.
with lead, iron, brass, or ivory. This is done both on sticks and
on pipe-bowls.

XOSA ARTS AND CRAFTS. 449

Thoiioh the Kaffirs at this low sta.s^e of civilisation had done
little or nothing- in the way of mnsical composition, yet they are
naturally very musical, always singing in parts. ^lost of their
musical instruments were stringed, consisting essentially of a bow
of w^ood. in-jikzve, and a string, u-singa^ made of the tendons of
an ox, with the addition sometimes of a quill, n-siba, sometimes of
a calabash, i-sel-a'a, which acted as a sounding board, and played
upon sometimes with the fingers, sometimes with the mouth,
sometimes with a reed or straw of grass, mn-ciuya. They in-
cluded the In-kinge, a sort of banjo; the n-gwali, a glorified mouth
organ ; the n-i^7vali, a kind of harp ; the urn-rube, a kind of violin ;
the igubitj a stringed instrument which sounded like a dnmi.

Wind instruments included im-bande, the whistle or pipe or
fife, as old as primitive man, made of the shinbone of an animal;
another kind of whistle, made from a branch of the quinine tree.
um-jela, by removing the pith ; a trumpet, i-xilongo, made out of
a pumpkin stem or of a hollow reed, to sound which was uku-
xilonga^ and a horn or trumpet made of a ram's or ox's or ante-
lope's horn, isi-godlo.

The only instrument of percussion among the Xosas seems
to have been the dried ox-hide, in-gqougqo, or drum, which was
beaten by women as an accompaniment to circumcision and other
dances.

To play an instrument was to beat it, beta, or blow it, vutela.
Even in whistling with the mouth without instrument boys were
said to beat the whistle, ukuheta ikivelo.

Salt Water as a Preyentiye of Epidemic
Influenza. — ^Dr. W. Watkins Pitchford, Director of the
.South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg,
discusses in The Medical Journal of South Africa* the preven-
tive value of systematically gargling and douching the nasal
cavities with normal saline solution during an epidemic of in-
fluenza. After the epidemic of last October and November the
Institute appealed through the public press for personal reports
from all who had adopted this measure. Reports concerning 786
individuals were received. Of these 150, or 19.08 per cent., were
attacked by the epidemic, and 3 died, i.e., the case-mortality was
2 per cent. The general population of the Union is 6.1 15 millions :
of these 2.617 millions, or 42.79 per cent., were attacked, and
139.471 died, the case-mortality being therefore 5.32 per cent. Dr.
Watkins Pitchford concludes that the frequent and regular douch-
ing of the nasal and naso-pharyngeal cavities with salt water was
dehnitelv beneficial, and that in communities in which pneumonia
is prevalent, and for which specific immunisation by Dr. F. S.
Lister's method is not available, the adoption of this simple and
inexpensive expedient is worthy of trial.

*18 [8], 398-401 (iqtq).

SOME NOTES ON A COLLECTING TRIP TO
FKENCM HOEK.*

By Edwin Percy I'iiillips, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

(Read July y, iyi8.)

In October, 1913, accompanied by the Herbarium Assistant,
Mr. VV. Foley, the writer paid a visit to French Hoek for the
purpose of collecting and studying the local flora. During that
time our headquarters were at Air. Kriel's farm, " Keer Weder,"
from where daily excursions were made to the surrounding
mountains and valleys. The results embodied in this short paper
have been recorded, as will I hope similar results from other
localities, with a view to a futm-e paper on the flora of a more
or less continuous mountain system extending from French Hoek
to the Matzekammer, a distance of over 150 miles.

My thanks are due to Mrs. F. Bolus, who kindly looked
through some of the Ericacecc and Orcludacea: \ to Mr. E. Kensit
for naming the species of Aspalathiis; and to the Director of
Kew for comparing some of the species with the Kew material.

GEOLOGYf AND TOPOGRAPHY.

The village of French Hoek lies in the French Fioek \'alley
at an altitude of 836 ft., and is surrounded on the North-East,
East, and South-West by a high chain of mountains roughly in
the form of a horse-shoe. The highest peaks in this range are on
the south-west, where they rise to over. 3,000 ft. above the sea-
level. On the west are a number of low hills, which separate the
French Hoek Valley from the Berg River Valley. The summit
of the mountains (above, say, 1,500 ft.) is made up of more or less
vertical walls of Table Mountain Sandstone, resting on MaJmes-
bury Beds, which form the gentle slo])es. On the west the slopes
are composed of granite, with a capping of Table Mountain
Sandstone. The valley is covered with Recent Deposits, resulting
from the disintegration of the surrounding hills and mountains.

Ecology.

There is a marked difference in the character of the vegeta-
tion as the mountains are ascended. The slopes are covered with
bush and shrub, the two principal species being Cliff ortia rusci-
folia and Passerina fiUforniis. As the Table Mountain Sand-
stone is reached, the bush dsappears, and the summit is clothed
with species of Restiacea, among which numerous Orchidacea
and bulbous monocotyledons are found, which are comparatively
rare on the lower slopes. The Sandstone formation also carries

* The data for this paper were gathered when on a collecting trip for
the Soutli African Museum, Capetown.

t I'or a detailed account of the g<^ology. sec " Annual Re])ort of tlie
Geological Conmiisiiion," Capetown (,1<^>*^C -^9-

A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK. 4^1

a more varied flora ; 60.29 per cent, of the total number of species
recorded were collected on Table Mountain Sandstone, only
3f.64 per cent, on the Malmesbury Beds, and 13.13 per cent,
on the Recent Deposits in the valley itself. Many of the species
were only found growing on the one formation. Confined to
the Table Mountain Sandstone were such plants as Anemone
capensis, Knozvltonia rigida, Ranunculus pinnatiis, Pelafgonium
ovale, var.. Zygophyllum sessilifolium. Meseinbrianthcnutm monta-
num, M. clegaiis. Aloe hccmathifolia, Tliamnochoriits cernuus, etc.
The following species from numerous others were only collected
on the Malmesbury Beds, tv'r., Silene capensis. Pelargonium bar-
batitni, Lintt'in quadrifoliuyn, L. africanum, Anaplireninni argen-
temn, Mefalasia nmricata, Sebcea exacoides, Cyanella lutea, Alpe
plicatilis, etc. Among the plants only found on the Recent
Deposits, and which were not found on either of the above two
formations may be mentioned Harveya laxiflora, Lencospermum
hypophyllum, Selago spuria, Serruria gracilis. Frotea lorea, etc.,
A certain number of species were found, however, to occur uu
more than one formation, as for example Pelargonium myrrlii-
fuiiinn. Borbomia parz'i flora, Psoralea decumbcns, Drosera tri-
nerz'ia, Aspalathus heterophylla, Corymbium scabrinn. Erica
dcnficiilafa. E. cxsurgens, tVacho'.dorfia paiiicitlafa. Eapeyrousia
cor\)nbosa, etc., on the Table Mountain Sandstone and the
Malmesbury Beds. Pterygodium catholicum was the only species
I found common to the Table Mountain Sandstone and the Recent
deposits. Pelargonium myrrhifolium, RJius angitstifolia, Lenco-
spermum lineare, Cryptadenia uni flora, Satyrium corii folium, S.
nmrginatiim, Cyanella lutea, Dilatris corymbosa were the only
species collected on the Malmesbury Beds and the Recent
Deposits. There is no single species, as I judge from my collec-
tion, which is common to the three formations. Thus the flora
of the mountains above 1,500 ft. is sharply divided from that of
the valley, with outlying species from each encroaching short
distances into the Malmesbury formaUon.

Regarding the flora as a whole, we find that the bulk of the
species are either woody shrubs, bushes, or trees ; plants of this
habit compose 45.07 per cent, of the total flora; herbs or herba-
ceous plants make up 38.20 per cent. ; acaulescent plants, prostrate
plants, or scramblers, compose 10.44 per cent, of the flora.
Annuals are represented by 20 species (or 5.97 per cent.);
succulents by 12 species (or 3.58 per cent.) ; parasites by four
species (or 1.19 per cent.) ; and insectivorous plants are
represented by three species of Drosera, and a species of Utricu-
larici (or i . 19 per cent.). Many plants, such as Pelargonium
flavum, Drosera cistiflora, Gazania pinnafa, Disa racemosa,
Satyrium candicans, Gladiolus spp., etc., possess underground
stems or thickened roots, and these comprise 17.61 ])er cent, of
the total number of species. The vegetation is of a true xero
phytic type, and a detailed study of the leaves yields some
interesting results. The bulk of the species have simple glabrous

45^ A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH IIOEK.

leaves, and the xerophytic characters are mainly evidenced in the
reduced leaf, involute or revolute leaves, and leaves which have
thick cuticles, so that they appear leathery. The following figures
are the results of a careful leaf-study : —

Species. Per cent.

I. — l.eaves simple 267 or 79-7(y

Leaves compound, or dee]:)ly

divided 54 or 16. 11

11.^ — Leaf, or Leaflets, flat or expanded 142 or 43.3!^
Leaf, Leaflets, or Leaf-segments,

linear 85 or 25.37

Leaves cricoid J2 or 21 .49

Leaf, or Leaflets, filiform, terete,

or semiterete 13 or 3-88

in. — Leaf, or Leaflets, involute or

revolute 74 or 22.08

IV. — Leaf with dentate, lobed, or

crenate margins 43 or 12.83

Glabrous-leaved plants form 66.86 ])er cent, of the total
flora, while plants with hairy leaves, as Ranunculus pinnatus
(pilose) ; Podalyria cuneifolia (tomentose) ; Aspalafhus^ Ben-
tliann (villous) ; Anaxeton asperum (woolly) ; Gerhera tonien-
tosa (felted), etc., form only 30.74 per cent. Leathery-leaved
plants are represented by 6j species (or 18.20 per cent.), e.g.,
Anaphrenium argenteum, Rafnia spp.. species of Proteacecc. etc.

Over 60 per cent, of the species ]M-oduce flowers which are
either conspicuous in themselves or grouped into conspicuous
masses, and in this connection a comparison of the flowers has
been attempted with the following result : —

Group I. — Flowers conspicuous or grouped into conspicuous
masses, e.g., Ane-mone capensis, Polygala hracteolata,
Cyclopia Vogelii, Mesemhriantlicmum spp., Berkheya
carlnioides, Erica spp., Gladiolus spp. 205 s])ecies, or
61 . 19 per cent.

Group II. — Flowers of medium size, e.g., Knozoltoiiia media,
Pelargonimii flavum, Rafnia perfoliafa. Aspalathus
thymifolva. Lobelia pubescens, Royena glabra, Pa-ometra
coluniellaris, etc. 85 species, or 25.37 P^^" cent.

Group III. — Flowers small (excluding the Restiacecc, Cyper-
acecE, and Graminecc, e.g., Rhus angustifolia, Phylica
plumosa. Cliff ortia spp. -Myjmne afrlcaini, Crubbia
stricta, etc., 19 species, or 5.67 per cent.

Most of the species bear either white or yellow fl;nvers ; the
predominance of the various colours is shown in the following
table :—

A CULLECTIiXG TRIP TO FRENCH HUEK. 453

Species. Per cent.

P'lowers yellow 88 or 26.2b

Flowesr white 71 or 21.19

Flowers red or reddish 42 or 12.53

Fowers pink . . . | 34 or 10. 14

Flowers blue 31 or 9.25

Combination of colours 23 or 6.86

Flowers white, tinged with pink 17 or 5.07

Flowers green or greenish 9 or 2.68

Flowers brown or brownish 5 or 1.49

Turning to the fruits, we find that the dehiscent fruits are
found in the majority of species, though quite a large percentage
of the fruits are indehiscent; fleshy fruits are rare, in the follow-
ing table the " pod "" and " follicle," as special forms of ca]>sule.

are dealt with separately. ^ . „

Species. rer cent.

Fruit, a capsule 150 or ^H-77

Fruit, an achene, nut, or caryopsis ... 128 or 38.20

Fruit, a pod 28 or 8.35

Fruits which split into one-seeded por-
tions (e.g., Boraginece) 11 or 3.28

Fruit, a drupe 5 or i .49

Fruit, a berry ■ 2 or 0.59

Fruit, a follicle i or 0.29

Composition of the Flora. Species

Dicotyledons 248

Gymnosperms i

Monocotyledons 86

Total 335

Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons i : : 2.88.

Predominating Orders
No. of
Orders Species. Percentage.

Compositae 55 ... 16. ii

Ericacefe 30 ... 8.95

Leguminosae . 28 ... 8.35

Irideae 24 ... 7.16

Orchidaceae 18 ... 5-37

Proteaceae 17 ... 5 .07

Geraniaceae 13 ... 3-88

Gramineae 13 ... ^^-'^^

Liliaceae it ... 3 • 28

Ficoideae 9 ... 2.68

Thymelaeaceae 9 ... 2.68

Rutaceae 8 ... 2.38

Cyperaceae 7 ... 2.09

Haemadoraceae 7 ... 2.09

Scrophulariaceae 7 ... 2.09

454 A COLLECTING TRIP TU FRENCH HOEK.

LIST OF SPECIES.

Angiosperm-e.
Dicotyledons

POLYPETAL.li.

Ranunculace.e.

Anemone capeiisis, Thunb.

Mountain ridges^behind Kriel's Farm, and above the village,
2,000-3,000 ft.
Knozultonia rig'ida, Salisb.

Ravine near water on mountains near the River Zonder
Einde, 2,000 ft.
A', gracilis, D.C.

Deep kloof above the River Zonder Einde, 1,200 ft. Flowers
white ; lowermost sepals tinged with red.
Ranunculus pinnatus, Poir.

In damp ground among grass below the Waterfall, near the
village, 1,500 ft. Flowers yellow.

Crucifer/i-:.

Heliophila coronopifolia, Linn.

Growing on burnt patches among rocks on kopjes beyond
the village, 1,300 ft. Flowers white.

The above specimen seems to be an intermediate form
between H. coronopifolia, Linn, and H. dentifera, Sond. The
pubescent branches connect it with the former species ; the white
flowers and toothed stamens show an affinity with the latter
species. In my opinion, after examining types of the two species,
H . dentifera, Sond. should be sunk into the above.

Polygalace.^2.

Polygala hracteolata, Linn.

Mountain ridges behind Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. Alas white
or red ; crests white.
P. Garcini, D.C.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 900 ft. Alse pink.

Caryophyllace.?^.
Silene capensis, Ott.

Near stream on moimtain slopes above the village, 1,650 ft.
Flowers pink.
Ce^rasfimn capense, Sond.

Damp ground near streams. Flowers white.

Sterculiace.ic.

H ermannia angularis, Jacq.

Roadside leading up to French Hoek Pass, 1,500 ft. \ bush
12-18 in. high; flowers red.

A COLLKlTING trip to FRENCH IIOEK. 455

LlNE^E.

LinuDi africannm, Linn.

Among bushes on mountain slopes above the village, i.ooo ft.
Flowers yellow.
L. quadrifolium, Linn.

Hills above Le Roux's Farm and in bush at side of stream
between Robert's Valley and the Berg River Valley.
1,500 ft. Flowers yellow.

ZVGOPHYLLACE.^.

Zygophyllnni scssilifoUnm.'Lmn.

Near Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft., and mountains
north of Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. Flowers a dirty yellow ;
petals with a reddish blotch at the base.

Geraxiace.i-:.

Pclargoninui barbatmii, Jacq. ( = P. longifoliuin, Jacq. ).

Sand flats at the foot of kojijes, Ijeyond French Hoek,
900-1,000 ft. Petals white, streaked with red in the
lower half.

I agree with Harvey in tliinking that this species is the same
as P. longifolium, Jacq. Some of my specimens have entire leaves,
others divided leaves. These plants were all growing together in
the same locality, and I noticed intermediate stages between the
two forms. At the time of collecting I made a note that they
were {probably the same species. Knuth, however, in his mono-
graph of the Gcraniacecr. keej^s them separate. (See '' Das Pflan-
ccnreich," Heft. 53)

P. grossulariodcs. Ait.

Mountain slopes above the village, 2,000 ft. Petals brownish-
red."
r. m-yrrliifoUum. Ait. var. coriaudrifoHuni, Harv.

Mountain slopes and damp flats near Kriel's Farm. 800-
1,500 ft. Petals white or a delicate \)\vk, streaked with
red.
P. grossularioidcs. Ait.

Roadsides near the village. Flowers dark red.
P. ovale, Burm var. blattarium. Harv.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm. A prostrate plant
forming cushions ; flowers a deep pink.
P. saiucuhcfolium. \\'illd.

Ravine between Robert's A'alley and the Berg River Valley,
1,000 ft. Petals white or pink, tinged with red or pink.
P. pafuluw,']a.cq.

Growing under shrubs on mountain slopes leading down to
the Berg River \^alley, 1,500 ft. Petals white, tinged with
red.
P. cucuHatuni. Ait.

At the Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft. Flowers pink,
the two upper petals veined with dark red lines.

456 A COLLECTINc; TRll' TO FRENCH HOEK.

This specimen has onl}' a single stem, with two flowers in the
inflorescence, but 1 take it to be only to be a young plant
of the above species.

P. capitatuni, Ait.

Roadside near the village. Leaves sw^eetly scented; petals
pink; the two upper streaked with dark red lines.
P. /^apilioiiaccinu. Ait.

At the Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft. A bush 4-5 ft.
high; the leaves have an unpleasant smell; petals pink,
the two upjjer with a red blotch and lines.
Oxalis imbricata, E. & Z., var.

At foot of the Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft. Corolla
yellowish below, a delicate pink above.
0. variabilis, Lindl.

Growing in the shelter of rocks on mountain.s, 3/X30 ft.
Corolla pale yellow below, ])ale blue above.

RuTAci:.!-:.

Diosma vulgaris, Schl.

A bush 6-9 in. high ; flowers white, sweet scented.
D. aspalathoides, Lam.

Kopjes beyond French lioek, 1,000 ft. Flowers white; disc
green, turning red with age.
Coleonema junipcrinnm, Sond.

Mountains behind Kriel's Farm. Flowers w^hite.
Adenandra serpyllacea, Bartl.

Mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm. A small bush 4-6 in.
high ; flowers white, pink beneath.
A. Villiersii, Phillips.

Mountain range behind the village, 2,500 ft. Flowers a pale
pinkish white above, dark red beneath.
Barosma pulchella, B. & W.

Mountain ridges behind Kriel's Farm, 2,500 ft. A small
spreading bush about 12 in. high; flowers pink.
Agathosma comm-ntata, Sond.

Mountain slopes leading down to the Berg River Valley,
2,000 ft. A bush 1-2 ft. high ; flowers white.
A. aha, Phillips.

Side of ravine, on mountain slopes leading dov.^n to the Berg
River Valley, 1.500 ft. Flowers white.
A. Dunimeri, Phillips.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 3,250 ft. Flowers pale
blue.

CELASTRINE.Ti.

Celastrus laurinus, Thunb.

Roadside, in the valley of the River Zonder Einde. A small
tree 6-9 ft. high.

A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH IIOEK. 457

RliAMNE.E

P hylic a phiuiosa, Thunb.

Between Kriel's Farm and the foot of French Hoek Pass,
1,100 ft. A subsiniple shrnb.

Sapindace.1-:.

Dodoncca thunbergiana, E. & Z.

In valley, among kopjes beyond the village. A small tree
about 10 ft. high.

Anacardiace.i^.
Rhus angustifolia, Linn.

Common in damp places between Kriel's Farm and the foot
of the French Hoek Pass, i,ooo ft. ; also common on
flats at the foot of the mountains. A bush 4-6 ft. high.
Anaphrenium argenteuni, E. Mey.

Top of low kopjes beyond the village. A bush about 5 ft.
high.

Leguminos.e.

Cyclopia Vogelii, Harv. var. brachypoda, Harv.

Low ground at foot of mountains, 1,000 ft. A bush 2 ft.
high ; flowers yellow, sweet scented.
Podalyria, nearest P. myrtillifolia, Willd.

Mountain range behind the village and Kriel's Farm, 2,500-
3,000 ft. A decumbent shrub ; flowers pink.
Borbonia pannflora. Lam.

Common on mountain slopes round the village, 1,500 ft.
Flowers yellow, turning reddish with age.
Rafnin amplexicaulis, Thunb.

Berg River Valley, 1,500 ft. An erect plant ; flowers yellow.
R. perfoliata, E. Mey.

Roadside leading up to French Hoek Pass, and mountains
behind Kriel's Farm, 2,000 ft. A prostrate plant ;
flowers bright yellow, vexillum turning reddish-yellow
with age.
R. cuneifolia, Thunb.

Mountain slopes above Robert's Valley and low kopjes beyond
French Hoek, 1,000-1,300 ft. A low bush 9-24 in. high ;
flowers yellow\
Aspalathns heterophyUa, E. Mey.

Mountain slopes above the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft. ;
roadside between French Hoek and Villiersdorp,
1,500 ft.; near stream in valley between low kopjes
beyond the village, 1,000 ft. An erect, almost simple,
plant ; flowers yellow.
= Schlechter, 7265, and differs from the type of A. hetero-
phyUa, E. Mey by ( i), the calyx lobes being twice as long as tlie
tube and not falcate, (2) the claw of t-lie vexillum being longer
and narrower, (3) the claw of the ala and carina of equal length.

45^ A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK.

A. ciliaris, Linn.

Low kopjes beyond the village, 1,300 ft. A low spreading
bush about 12 in. high; corolla persistent, yellow, turning
brown with age.
A. Benthami, Harv.

Mountain slopes near Kriel's Farm. 1,500 ft. A bush 2-4 ft.
high ; flowers yellow.
A. thynii folia, Linn.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley, 1,500 ft.
A prostrate plant ; flowers yellow. Roadside leading up
to French Hoek Pass, i.ooo ft. A small bush; flowers
yellow, faintly scented.
A. larici folia, Berg.

Deep kloof behind French Hoek Mountain Range, 1,200 ft.
A bush 2 ft. high ; flowers yellow, sweet scented.
A. triqncta, Thunb.

Mountain slopes above the village, 2,000 ft. A bush 2-3 ft.
high ; flowers yellow.
A. ahietina, Thunb.

Mountain slopes on right-hand side of road leading up to
French Floek Pass, 1,500 ft. A low spreading bush, 9 in.
high ; alse and vexillum dark yellow ; carina light yellow.
A. astroites, Linn.

Near Kriel's Farm. A tall bush 2-4 ft. high ; flowers yellow.
A. divaricafa, Thunb.

Valley of the River Zonder Einde, 1,500 ft. A low spreading
bush ; flowers yellow.
Lotononis varia, Steud.

Tops of mountains north of Kriel's Farm, 2.300 ft. A
prostrate plant ; flowers dark blue.
L. involucrata, Thunb.

Top of mountain behind Kriel's Farm. 3.300 ft. A prostrate
plant forming large patches ; flowers bright yellow.
Argyrolohinm filiforme, E. & Z.

Sandy flats at the foot of low kopjes beyond the village,
900 ft. Flowers yellow.
A. lanceolatuni, E. & Z.

Ravine between Robert's Valley and the Berg River Valley,
1,000 ft.; among buhes, mountain slopes behind Kriel's
Farm. Flowers yellow or yellowish-red.
Trifolimn biircliellianuni, Ser.

Roadside in valley of the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft.
Fowers white.

Psoralea pinnata, E. & Z.

Ravine, mountains near Kriel's Farm, and hills east of Kriel's,
1,500 ft. A tall bush 5-10 ft. high ; flowers blue.

P. obliqua, E. Mey.

Mountain slopes near Kriel's Farm, 1,500 ft. A bush 3-5 ft.
high ; flowers blue.

A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK. 45y

P. decumbeyis, Ait.

Roadsides; growing among bushes, i,ooo ft. A decum-
bent plant ; flowers reddish.
P. spicata, Linn.

Roadside near Robert's Valley. Bush, 2-3 ft. high ; flowers
bluish.
Indigofera digitata, Thunb.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley, 1,500 ft. A
prostrate plant ; flowers red.
/. capillaris, Thunb.

Mountain slopes at the top of French Hoek Pass, 1,400 ft.,
and at foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm, 1,000 ft.
A prostrate plant ; flowers red or dark pink.
/. frutcscens, Linn. f.

Low kopjes beyond the village, 1,200 ft. A low bush about
2 ft. high ; flowers red.
Hallia imbricata, Thunb.

Slopes between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley. A pros-
trate plant ; flowers dark purple.

ROSACE.E.

Cliffortia ntscifolia, Linn.

A common plant forming dense patches on mountain slopes,
1,000 ft. A bush up to 6 ft. high.
C. cuneata, Ait.

Mountain slopes leading down to the River Zonder Einde,
1,500 ft. A bush 4-6 ft. high. No male plants seen.
Hills above Le Roux's Farm, 2,000 ft. A bush 3-5 ft.
hgh, growing in large patches. A careful search failed
to secure any male plants.
C. mcyeriana, Presl.

Slopes of hills above Le Roux's Farm, 1,500 ft. An erect
simple plant up to 10 ft. high, rarely branched above.

CrAS-SULACE-Ii.

Dinacria filiformis, Harv.

Among rocks at the foot of the Waterfall, above French
Hoek, 1,500 ft. Flowers reddish.
Crasstila Septas, Thunb.

Damp spots on mountain slopes, 2,300 ft. Flowers white.

Rochea odoratissima, D.C.

Near the Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft., and top ot
mountain north of Kriel's B'arm, 2,300 ft. Flowers a
dull vellow, sometimes tinged with red.

Droskrace.e.

Drosera (rincrvia, Spreng.

Wet ground at the sides of streams above t/ne villa^ge,
1,000 ft. and on damp rocks, mountain ridges behind
Kriel's Farm, 3.000 ft. Flowers white.

4^X) A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK.

D. hilaris. Ch. & Sch.

Damp ground on slopes of ravine above the village, 2,000 ft.
Flowers red.
D. cisfiflora, Linn.

Marshy ground, east end of French Hoek Range, 2,600 ft.,
and damp ground on mountain slopes behind Kriel's
Farm, 2,300 ft. Flowers pale pink.

Bruniace-e.

Ihvrjclia laiiiKjiiiosa, Brogn.

Bought at the French Hoek Flower Show, 1913.
B. abrofaiwides, Brogn.

Bought at the French I loek Flower Show, 1913.
Bcrardia palcacece, Brogn.

Mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm. Bush 3-4 ft. high ;
heads greenish-white.

Onagrarie.e.
Montinia acris, Linn. f.

Foot of mountains, near Kriel's Farm. Bush 2-i^ ft. high ;
flowers white.

Ficoide.e.

Mi'scnibriantlicviiujji gracilc, Haw.

Foot of low kopjes beyond the village, 1,000 ft. Flowers
dark magenta.
M. anceps, Haw.

Foot of low kopjes beyond the village, 1,000 ft. Leaves flat
above, convex beneath ; flowers white, delicately tinged
with pink.
M. anrautiacuni. Haw.

Roadside between French Hoek and La Province, 700 ft.
Flowers dark yellow within, light yellow without.
M. falcatiiin, Linn.

Growing on rocks on mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm,
3,250 ft. Flowers magenta.
M. clegans, Jacq.

Growing among rocks at east end of French Hoek Range,
2,600 ft. P'lowers magenta.
M. Tripolium, Linn.

Near stream in valley jjetween kopjes beyond the village.
Flowers pure white.
M. montanum, Schltr.

Roadside leading up to French Hoek Pass, 2,000 ft. Flowers
a very pale pink.
Adenogramma sylvatica, Fenzl.

Side of streams on mountain slopes above the village
2,000 ft. A scrambler on bushes ; flowers white.
-■/. physocalyx, Fenzl.

Sandy patches, roadside leading up to French Hoek Pass,
1,500 ft. Flowers white.

a collecting trip to fkexcil iioek. 46i

Umbkllifer.e

Hydrocotyle z'illosa, Litin. f.

On rocks at eastern end of French Hoek Range. A pros-
trate plant.
Pcucedannni Calbanuiii- Bth. & liook.

Alonntain slopes above the village. A tall bush ; flowers
greenish-yellow.

Gamopktal.t:.

RupjACE.i;.

AntJwspcrmnm cctliiopicum, Linn.

Roadside between French Hoek and La Province, and sandy
flats near Kriel's Farm. A bush 1-4 ft. high; flowers
greenish.
A. lanceolatitiu, Thunb.

Bank of streams on moimtain summit behind Kriels ^"arm,
2.100 ft. A prostrate plant; flowers pinkish.

DlPSACE.E.

Scabiosa columbaria, Linn.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'alley, 1,500 ft.
Flowers white ; anthers purple.

COMPOSIT.li.

CorxDibiiiin scabntiii, Linn. f.

Mountain slopes above the village, 2,000 ft., and foot of low
kopjes bevond the village, 1,000 ft. Flowers white or
blue.
C. villosii))!- ]-ess.

Mountain slopes leading down to the Berg River Valley,
2,000 ft., and between the Berg River Valley and
Robert's Valley, 1,500 ft. Flowers white.
Ptcroiiia caniplwraia, Linn. var. longifolia, Harv.

Lower mountain slopes round French Hoek. A bush 3-4 ft.
high ; flowers yellow.
Mairca crciiata. Ness.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 2,500 ft. Rays white;
disc yellow.
Aster bergianns, Llarv.

Mountains behind Khiel's Farm, 3.300 ft. Plant 2-3 in.
high ; rays blue.
A. Pappei, Harv."

Growing among rocks on mountain ledges above Kriel's
Farm. 2250 ft. Plant 3-7 iu. high ; rays light blue ; disc
yellow.
Felicia refle.va, D.C.

Near the Waterfall above the village. 1.500 ft. A rambler
growing on bushes; rays white within, red without :
disc yellow.

462 A COLLECTING TRIl' TO FRENCH HOEK.

Chrysocoma coina-aiirea, Linn.

Low kopjes beyond French irloek, 1.300 ft. A dense and
spreading bush. I leads yell^iw.
Hdiptcruui I'irgatnui, D.C

Stony ground near Le Roux's Farm, yoo ft. A bush
12-18 in. thigh; bracts straw-coloured.
//. gnaphaloides, D.C.

Stony ground near Le Roux's Farm, 900 ft. A bush 12-iS in.
high ; invohicral-bracts brown ; flowers yellow.
Helichrysiim- rnhelluin, Less.

Sand flats at foot of kopjes beyond the village, 900 ft.
racts reddish-brown.
//. fcl'nuim. Less.

AJountain slopes above the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft.
Bracts dark red or salmon colovired.
//. mucroiiatuin, Less.

Berg River Valley, 1,000 ft. Bracts pure white.
H. unibcUatuui, Harv.

Mountain slopes. Bracts yellow.
H . fcvfidiDn, Cass.

Roadside between Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'alley. A
simple plant ; bracts white or yellow.
H. capitellatnm, Less.

Damp ground between Kriel's Farm and the foot of the Pass,
1,000 ft. A sub-j^rostrate ])lant ; bracts yellow.
H. vest it It III, Less.

Mountain slopes and summit uf the mountains round the
village, 1,500-3,000 ft. An erect subherbaceous plant
2-}, ft. high ; bracts snow-white.
H. humilc, And.

Mountains north of Kriel's Farm, ^.(joo ft. Bush 1-2 ft.
high ; bracts dark pink.
H. s^samoidcs, Thunb.

Common on the mountain summits. Involucral-bracts pure
white ; the outer tipped with brown.
Phccnocoina prolifcra, Don.

Roadside in valley of the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft. ;
mountain slopes above the village. 1,000 ft. A bush
2-3 ft. high; bracts pinkish.
Anaxctou asperum, D.C.

Mountain slopes, north of Kriel's Farm, 3.500 ft. Bracts
white.
Stoeb-e a^thiopica, Linn.

Mountain slopes above the village, 2,000 ft. Bracts white,
turning pink with age.
Bryomorphc Zcyhcri, Harv.

Growing on rocks on kopje between Kriel's Farm and
Robert's Valley. 1,500 ft. Rays white.
Mctalasia ccphalotes, Less.

Mount,'! 'n slopes above Robert's Valle}-. i.cwo ft. A small
bush 12-18 in. high ; bracts pink.

A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH LIOEK. 463

M. j)iuricata, Less.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm. A bush 1-2 ft. high ;
bracts white.
RrlJiania ericoides, Cass.

Between Kriel's Farm and the foot of the Pass. A small
shrub 12-18 in. high. Bracts yellow.
Jlcfcralcpis dccipicus, Cass.

Rocky spur on mountains behind Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft.
and low ko]->jes beyond the village, 1,000 ft. A small
bush T ft. high ; rays and disc yellow.
Print si a Bergii. Cass.

Mountain slopes above the village. 1,000-1,500 ft. Bu.sh 1-2 ft.
high ; rays ]iurple.
.UhcDiasia Haiiieri, Phillij^s.

Near Waterfall above the village. Busli .4 ft. high. Heads
yellow.
(I'drra latifolia. Less.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. A decumbent
shrub, 6-9 in. high ; rays yellow above, dark reddish
beneath.
Criiia inrhinata. Pers.

Mountain sloj^es above Robert's Valley. i,(xx) ft. Rays
white, red beneath.
Hifypia gracilis. Less.

Mountains north of Kriel's FaruL Flowers white.
Scnccio crosus, Linn. f.

Mountains north of Kriel's Fann, 1,000 ft. Rays yellow.
S. hastulafits. Linn.

Side of stream on mountain slopes above the village, t,ooo ft.
Rays yellow.
6^. i)iccrtiis. D.C.

Among rocks on mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm and
slopes above the village, 2,000 ft. Rays and disc dark
purple.
6^. glastifoliiis. Linn. f.

Growing in stream above the village, 2,000 ft. A tall plant,
up to 9 ft. high, branched above and leafy only on the
young branches ; rays i)urple ; disc yellow.
S. grandiflonis, Berg var. albidus.

Growing in a stream in ravine between Robert's Valley and
the Berg River Valley, t.ooo ft. A tall .shrub 4-5 ft. high ;
rays white ; disc yellow.
S. priniulatus, Thunb.

Eastern end of French Hoek Range, 2,600 ft. Flowers
yellow.
Euryops abrofanifolia, D.C. Z'or.

Growing at the side of a rock, mountain ridges above Kriel's
FarnL 3,000 ft. ; mountain slopes north of Kriel's
3,000 ft. A shrubby bush about 12 in, high ; flowers
yellow.

F

464 A COLLiaTI.Ni; TKU' TO FRENCH IIOEK.

Othonna am/^lc.vicaiilis, Thunl).

Growing- near stream l:)elo\v the ^^'aterfall above the village,
1,500 ft. A large bush branching from near the base;
branches suberect, about 4 ft. long ; rays yellow.
Dimorpnotheca nitdicaulis, D.C.. cf. also D. aurantiaca. D.C.

Mountains south of the River Zonder Einde, 1.600 ft.;
mountain range behind French Hoek, 3,000 ft. Rays
white or yellow above, i)uri)lish or reddish l)eneath.
Osteospcniiitiii corlaci'iiiii, D.C.

Mountain slopes round French Mock, ."^tem simj^le, about
2 ft. high ; flowers yellow.
O. ciliatiim, Berg.

Mountains l)ehind Kriel's Farm, 2.200 ft. A small sub-
prostrate shrub, 6-9 in. high; flowers yellow.
O. ilicifoliinii, Finn.

Mountain slopes above the village, 2,000 ft. ; mountains north
of Kriel's Farm, 3,500 ft. A large bush or small shrub;
leaves sweet-scented ; flowers yellow.
Ursinia (Sphenogync) chamoniilkcfolia. D.C.

Low kopjes beyond French Hoek. 900 ft. Ra\ > yellow
within, reddish without.
U. (S.) anethoides, D.C.

Mountain slopes above Kriel's Farm. A bush 2-3 ft. high ;

rays yellow.
= Bolus 10606 from the same locality.
U. (S.) crithmi folia, Spreng.

Mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm and summit of moun-
tain north of Kriel's 2,300 ft. A bush 1-2 ft. liigh.
Flowers yellow.
U. longiscapa, Phillips.

Mountain slopes round French Hoek. A handsome bush,
1-3 ft. high; rays dark reddish-brown beneath, orange
above and light yellow at the base. Phillips in Ilerh.
Musei Austro-Afric. 5108.
Arctotis acaulis, Linn.

Mountain Range behind French Hoek. 2,500 ft. Rays yellow
within, orange without.
A. angustifoUa, Linn.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley, 1,500 ft.
An erect unbranched plant ; rays yellow above, brownish
beneath with four reddish veins.
A. petiolata, Thunb.

Mountain slopes on right-hand side of road leading up to
French Hoek Pass, 1,500 ft. Stems green, densely
clothed with |)urplish hairs; rays yellow within, reddish
without.
Gazania pinnata. Less.

Mountains north of Kriel's P'arm. 3,000-3^00 ft. Rays a
beautiful deep yellow, with a mouse-coloured mid-rib
beneath, with or without a black " eye-spot" at the base.

A C()LLl-:CTINr. TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK. 465

Berkhcya carHnoidcs, W'illd.

Kopjes beyond French Hoek, i,ooo ft. An erect plant; rays
and disc yellow ; bracts jg^reen.
Gcrhera toiueiifosa. D.C. var. laiiata, Harv.

Mountain Ranoe l)ebind French Hoek, 3.000 ft. Rays
bright yellow.
Hicracium cap ens e, Finn.

Roadside between French IToek and Fa Provence. 700 ft. ; in
fields rt^imd Kriel's F'arni. Flow^ers yellow.

CA^rI^\^'^LA^K.^•:.

Lobelia corymbosa. (irah. '

Growinq- at the side of a rock on mountain ridges behind

Kriel's Farm. 3.000 ft. A decumbent plant ; petals white

or pinkish, with bright red spots near the base; stamens

bluish.

L. pnufolia, Finn.

Mountains behind Kriel's Farm and roadside leading up to
French Hoek Pass, 2,000 ft. A bush 1-2 ft. high;
flowers blue.
L coroiiopifolia, Linn.

Mountain slopes near the top of the Pass. 1,400 ft.; fa^t of
low kopjes beycMid the village, 900 ft. Petals dark blue,
tinged with red in the tube; li]D with two raised white
ridges.
L. Eriiius, Finn.

In a deepkloof behind, the French Hoek Range, 1,200 ft.
Flowers blue.
L. pubescens, Ait.

In shade of rocks, mountain slopes above Robert's Valley,
1,000 ft. Flowers white, base of tube tinged with blue.
Cyphia Phyteitnia, Willd.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley, 1,500 ft.
Leaves in a basal rosette : tl<nvers white-tinged, with
minute blue sjwts.
C. sylvatica, Eckl.

Near a stream on mountain slopes above the village,
1.650 ft. A twmer; flowers white, with a bluish tinge;
the limb of the three segments with a red mark at the
base.
IVahlenbergia capensis, A.D.C.

Foot of kopjes beyond French Hoek, 900 ft. Petals pale
blue, with a dark spot in each sinus.
/['. licklonii, Buek.

Low kopjes near the village. Petals pale blue.

Ericace.e.
Erica scariosa, Thunb.

Common at foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm. <Soo ft. A
bush T-2 ft. high ; flowers white or pink.

466 A COLLECTING TRIP To FRENCH FiOEK.

E. nianiiiiosa, Linn.

Between French Hoek and Paarl. Flowers red.
E. e.rsurycns, An dr.

Kopjes beyond the village, 1,000 ft.; mountains behind
French Hoek. 2,500 ft. An erect shrub, with a simple
stem, rarely branched ; flowers dark red or orange-red,
viscid.
E. longifolia. Ait.

Mountains behind Kriel's Farm. 3,000 ft. A bush 1-4 ft.
high, flowers pure wliite, or ])ink at the base and white
above.
E. citrviflora, Linn. var. diffusa, Bolus.

Growing plentifully in a large swamj), 900 ft. Flowers red-
dish, slightly green at tlie base.
E. ccv'iiithoidcs, Linn.

Low koi)jes beyond the village. 1,000 ft. Flowers red, viscid.
/:. -'c'riifricosa. Thumb.

Mountain slo]ies behind Kriel's Farm, 2,000 ft. Bush
y-18 in. high, flowers wliite, with a delicate tinge of
]:)ink.
/:. fastifjiata, Linn.

Damp, grassy slope on mountain ridges behind Kriel's
Farm, 3,250 ft. Flowers ])ink, with a dark red horse-
shoe mark at the base of each eorolla-lobe. Growing in
a mass in this one locality only.
E. denticuhtta, Linn.

Mountain sloi)es near the top of the Pass, 1,400 ft.; valley
lietween ko]^jes beyond the village, 1,000 ft. Flowers
white.
E. parviflora, Linn.

Marsh}- ground on mountain slopes between Kriel's Farr.i
and Rol)ert's A'alley, 1,000 ft. Flowers red.
E. infcrvnllaris, Salisb.

Dam]) ground at side of stream on ])lateau above Kriel's
Farm, 2,000 ft. Flowers pink.
E. caffra, Linn.

Streams on mountain slopes, 1,500 ft. A bush 4-6 ft. high;
flowers white.
E. plauifoJki. Linn.

Mountain slojies. Flowers red.
E. ihimifolin, Andr.

Mountain slopes above tlie Kiver Zonder Finde, 2,000 ft. A
l^rostrate ]5lant ; flowers dark red.
E. hcrcjiana, Linn.

Growing in streams in ravine above the village, 2,000 ft. A
bush 4-6 ft. high; flowers i^ink ; pedicels red.
/:. hcrgiana, I, inn. forma.

Growing in a swamji between the Berg River Valley and

Robert's V^alley, 1,000 ft. Flowers pink.
Mrs. Bolus notes: " Leaves more open-backed than usual, on
account of damp habitat."

A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRLNCH ITOEK. 467

E quadra iifjnlaris, Salisb.

Dafaip ilats near Kriel's Farm; mountain slopes al)ovc the
village; near the foot of the Pass. 800-1,000 ft. A bush
9-12 in. high; flowers white, somewhat four-angled.
B spuinosa, LiniL

Mountains north of Kriel's FarnL .S.300 ft. Flowers pink.
E iivhricala, Linn.

Mountain slopes l)etween Kriel's Farm and the foot of the
Fass, 1,000 ft. A shrub 12-18 in. high; flowers white;
anthers brown.
E. glauca, Andr.

Growing on the face of a rock, mountain range behind the
village, 3,000 feet. A ])rostrate plant 4-6 in. high ; calyx
and corolla ])ale red ; liml) of corolla greenish within.
E. teguhcfolia, Salisb.

Mountain slojies l)ehind Kriel's FarnL Flowers pink.
E. triflora, Linn.

Mountain slopes near the River Zonder Finde. 2.300 ft. A
bush 1-2 ft. high; flowers white.
E. acuta, Andr.

Mountains behind French Iloek, 3,000 ft. A bush 2 ft. high;
flow^ers red.
E. leucanthcra, Linn. f.

Mountain slopes round the village. Bush T2-T8in. high;
flowers a dirty white.
E. calycina, Linn.

Mountain Range behind French Hoek, 3,000 ft. ; niountain
summit north of Kriel's FarnL 2,300 ft. A small btLsh
■)4-2 ft. high ; flowers white.
E. liicida. Salisb.

Mountains north of Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. A small bush
T2-18 in. high; flowers pink or red.
iT. cristccflora, Salisb.

Growing in large patches on the mountain slopes. A small
bush 9-12 in. high; flow'ers bright red.
Bhieria cricoides. T-inn.

Low kopies beyond the village, 1,000 fet. Flowers jjink,
viscid.
Erctnm totta, Don.

Foot of mountaiiLs behind Kriel's Farm. A prostrate plant;
flowers white.
Sympieza articiilata, N. E. Br.

Mountain slopes, A small bush, 9-12 in. high ; flowers pink.

Prtmulace^ts.
AnagaUis an>ensis, Linn.

Roadsides. Flowers blue.

Myrsine.e.
Myrsinc africana. Linn.

Rocky jjlaces on mountains behind Kriel's FarnL A bush
2-3 ft. high. Flowers reddish.

468 A COLLECTINC; TRIP T0 FRENCH HOEK.

EP.ENAfE/E.

Royena glabra, Linn.

Mountain slopes leading- down to the Berg River Valley. A
bush 3-4 ft. high ; flowers white or creamy-white.

AsCI.EPIADACE.Ti.

Microloma feiiitifoliiiiit. K. Schuni.

Kopje betweeij Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'alley. A twiner;
flowers red.

• Gentianace.^.
Sebcca aurca, R. Hr.

.Damp ground between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley,
i,ocx) ft.; at side of stream near Kriel's c. 850 ft.
Flowers yellow.
.5". exac&idcs, Schinz.

Among rocks, mountains l)eliind Kriel's Farm. l-Howers
yellow.

BoRAClNE.l':.

Lohostemon f/laiicophylliis, Buek.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'alley, T.500 ft.
A bush 2-3 ft. high ; flowers blue.

SCROPTIULARTNE.I':

h (mhutrs rr.onkDia, Linn.

Am ing grass on mountain slo])es behind Kriel's Farm; banks
of streams and \A'aterfall above the village, 900-2,000 ft.
Flowers white or yellow.
NenwsiQ parviflora, Bth.

Sandy flats at foot of kupjes be}ond French Hoek, 900 ft.
Lower corolla ]i[) yellow ; u])])er white, with dark streaks.
Manulea.

.Sandy flats at foot of low ko]jjes beyond the village, qoo ft.
Flowers a darlc orange colour.
liallcria liicida. Linn.

Near Waterfall above the village, 1,500 ft. A tree about
20 ft. liigh ; flowers reddish-yellow.
Zaluzianskya dcnlata, Walp.

Mountain slopes between the Berg River Valley and Robert's
Valley, 1,500 ft. Flowers white within and dark red
without.
Harvey a I a. vi flora. Fliern.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. Corolla-tube yellow
w^ithin "; limb lilac.
BcUardia Trixago, All.

Between Kriel's Farm and i\()l>ert's \'alley, J ,000 ft. Flowers
wOiite.

OrOJ!ANCIIACE.T£.

OrohancJic ramosa, Linn.

Near streams on mountain slopes above the village, 1,650 ft.
Flowers blue; lower half of the 1i]) white.

a cc^llectinci trip to french hoek. 469

Lentibularie.e.

Utricnlaria capensis, I.jnn.

Damp places, roadside leading up to Pass, 1,500 ft.

Myoporine^e.
Oftia africaiia. Boccj.

Mountain slopes on righ-hand side of road leading up to
French Hoek Pass, 1,500 ft.; roadside in valley of the
River Zonder Einde. 1,400 ft. Leaves bad-smelling
when l)ruised ; flowers white.

Selagine.e
Hchcnstrcilia dciiiata, Linn.

Growing in the shelter of rocks on mountain slopes. 2,000 ft.
Flowers white with a yellow and red blotch in the throat.
Sclago spuria, Linn.

Fields near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. ; and valleys between the
kopjes beyond the village, 1,000 ft. A simple erect
plant ; flowers white or pale blue.
Microdon cylindricus, E. Mey.

Mountain range behind the village, 3,000 ft. Flowers yellow.
A^athelpis atujiistifolius, Choisy.

Right-hand mountain slopes leading up to the Pass, 1.500 ft.
Corolla-tube purple ; limb dark yellow.

Incomplet.e.

• polygonace.e.

Rum ex acetoscUa, l^inn.

Roadside leading up to the Pass, 2,000 ft.

Proteace.e.

Leucadcndron plumosum, R. Br.

Foot of mountains above Kriel's Farm, 1,000 ft.; right-hand
mountain slopes leading up to the Pass, 1,500 ft. A
bush 3-5 ft. high. In the latter locality this .species
covers a large area.
L. strictum, R.Br.

Foot of mountains behind Kriel's Farm, i.ooo ft. Bush
. 4-5 ft. high.
L: minus. Phill & Hutch.

Mountains behind French Iloek. 2,500 ft. ; mountain slopes
near the River Zonder Einde, 2,300 ft. A bush 2-3 ft.
high; female bracts light yellow; male bracts sometimes
tinged with red.
L. decorum, R. Br.

On the road to Villiersdor]), just beyond the Pass. 1,500 ft.
A bush 6 ft. high.
P.rotca iiicompfa. R. Br.

Mountains round French Hoek.

4/0 A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH JIOEK.

P. neriifol'm, R. Br.

Ravine behind Kriel's Farm, 1,500 ft. A bush 5-8 ft. high;

]>racts fleshy-pink, tipped with black hairs.
Only about six specimens of this species were seen round
F'rench Hoek.
P. iH'ellifcra, Thunb.

Top of hill iK^hind i.e Roux's Farm. 2.000 ft. Bracts pink,
viscid.
P. lorca, R. Br.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 900 ft. ; mountain slopes
between Robert's Valley and the Berg River \'alley,
1,500 ft. The young leaves are of a reddish colour and
villous, with long white hair ; bracts white, delicately
tinged with ])ink ; perianth and style yellowish white,
villous with white hairs above. This species forms large
" clumps " on the ground.
P. acatdis. Thunb.

Mountain slopes and summits, 1,000-^^,300 ft. This species
was flowering freely at altitudes above 2,(joo ft., but on
the lower slopes only young buds were found.
Leucospermiim conocarpum, R. Br.

Slopes between Kriel's Farm and the foot of the Pass,
1,000 ft. A bush 6-8 ft. high ; flowers yellow. Commot>.
L. linear e, R. Br.

Fields near Kriel's Farm, and mountain slo])es near Robert's

Valley. A bvish t-2 ft. high.
The specimens I saw growing on the higher slopes had pale
yellow flowers, while those on the flats were tinged
with red.
L. hypophyllmn, R. Br.

Sand flats at Robert's Valley, 900 ft. A j^rostrate creeper;
flowers yellow.
Mimetes ly rig era, Kn.

Hills above Le Roux's Farm. 1,500 ft. Bracts red.
DiasteUa ericcc folia, Kn.

Roadside between French Hoek and La Provence, 700 ft. A
spreading prostrate shrub; flowers pinkish.
Serrnriu K night ii, Hutch.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. Flowers ])inkish.
S. gracilis, Kn.

Mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm, 1,000 feet. A pros-
trate plant ; flowers pink.
5. barhigera, Kn.

Ix)w kopjes beyond French Hoek. i.ooo ft. Bush 2-3 ft.
high ; peduncles, bracts, and flowers pinkish.

ThYMEL.'TlACE.^.

Passerina filiformis, Linn.

Between Kriel's Farm and the foot of the Pass, i.ooo ft. A
bush 2-5 ft. high ; flowers red or whitish-red. \''ery
common.

A tXiLLKCTIXG TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK. 47I

Cryptaden'm uniflora, Meisn.

Danijj flats and mountain slopes near Kriel's Farm ; valleys
between low kopjes beyond the village, i.ooo ft. A
small shrul) 6-9 in. high ; flowers \)m]<.
C.sp.

Mountains behind French Hoek. .^,000 ft. A shrul) 9-12 in.
high ; flowers white, sometimes tinged with red l)eneath.
Struthiola.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 3.000 ft. Flowers
pinkish.
Cnidia decurrens, Meisn.

Hills above Le Roux's Farm. A small shrub fornu'ng jiart of
the undergrowth ; flowers yellow.
Ci.oppositifolia, Meisn.

Mountain sloi)es at side of streams. Flowers light yellow.
(7. piuifolia, Linn.

Mountain slopes in the valley of the River Zonder I'jnde. A
small bush, 9-12 in. high; flowers white.
C. I'moidcs, Wikstr.

Summit of mountains behind Kriel's Farm, growing among
Restiaceas at side of stream, 2,000 ft. Flowers blue.
Lachncva capitata, Meisn.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm. Flowers white.

Pen.f.ace.k.
Pencca iniicroiiala, Finn.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 3-3.250 ft. .\ small
bush 9-12 in. high; flowers yellowish.
P. myrt aides, Linn.

Mountain slopes behind Kriel's Farm, 1,500 ft. A small
bush 9-T2 in. high. Flowers yellow, turning red with
age.
Sarcocolla squamosa, Endl.

Growing near a stream in valley beyond kopjes beyond
French Hoek. i.ooo ft. Flowers red.

Loranthace-e.

I'iscKhi paiicifloniDi, Thtuib., var. Euclecc

Foot of low kopjes beyond the village, 900 ft. Fruits red.

Santalace.k.
ThesiuiH strict 11 in. Berg.

Mountain slopes near the top of the I^ass, 1,400 ft. A tall
]jlant, with xirgate branches; flowers yellow.
7". capituin, Linn.

Near streams on moimtain slopes, i.50t:i ft. A bush 2-3 ft.
high ; flowers white.
T. pmci folium, A. D. C.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm, 1,000 ft. Flowers
greenish.

4/2 A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH IIOEK.

T.sp.

Mountain rano^e behind Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. A bush 1-2 ft.
high, with erect branches; flowers white.
Colpoon compressiim, Berg-.

Low kopjes l)eyond the village, 1,000 ft. A bush about 3 ft.
high ; fruits red.
Gruhbia stricta, D. C.

Mountain slopes leading down to the Berg River Valley,
1,500 ft. A bush 3-4 ft. high.

EuPHORBIACE.li.

Jinphorhia crythrina. Link.

Mountain slopes leading down to the Berg River Valley,
2,000 ft. Bracts green within, reddish without.
Clnyiia nibicaulis Eckl.

Mountain north of Kriel's Farm, 3,300 ft. ; east end of
range behind French Hoek, 2,300 ft. A small bush,
9 in. to 2 ft. high ; flowers a dirty white.

Gymnosperme.?-:.

conifere^e.

IViddrmg f 0 nia cu press oides, E n dl .

Rocky slopes leading down to the Berg River Valley,
2,000 ft. ; low kopjes beyond French Hoek, 1,300 ft. A
small bush 3-4 ft. high.

Angiosperme.i-:.

Monocotyledons.

Orchidace.^;.

Acrolophia lamcllata, Sch. & Bol.

Foot of low kopjes beyond French Hoek, i,qoo ft. Flowers
a dark yellowish-green ; lip white, streaked with red at
the sides. This locality is a link between Swellendam
and the Cape, hitherto the only known localities for the
species.
Holothrix scjuaniulosa, Lindl.

Field near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. Flowers yellow.
Satyriuni brmteatum, Thunb.

Damp flats on mountain summit north of Kriel's Farm,
2,300 ft. Flowers reddish-brown.
5". marginatum. Bolus.

A common orchid round French Hoek, growing in damp
ground, 700-2,000 ft. Flowers white, sweetly scented.
S. coriifolhini, Swartz.

Damp ground between Kriel's Farm and the iooi of the
Pass. 1,000 ft. Flowers orange-yellow or dark orange-
red.

A C(>LLi:( TIXG TRIP TO FKF.NCIl HORK. 4/3

^'. iupitli>iitiii, J^indl.

Growing in crevices of rocks, east end of mountain range
behind French Hoek, 2.500 ft. Flowers yellowish white,
very faintly scented.
5". emarcidiiui, Bolits.

Kopje between Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'alley, 1.500 ft.
Flowers }-ello\\ish of greenish white; very faintly
scented.
-S". bicunic, Thunb.

Mountain slopes above the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft.
Flowers yellowisli-brown. Sweetly scented.
.S". candid mil, Lindl.

Flats near Kriel's Farm. c. 850 ft. Flo^vers cre;un.
Monadenia luicrantha. Findl.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm. c. 850 ft. ; sand}- flats at foot
of kopjes beyond French Hoek. 700 ft. Flowers white,
tinged with pink or dark red.
M. cornosa, Reichb. f.

Mountains behind French Hoek, 2.500 ft. Lip brown with-
out, reddish within ; labellum yellow ; lateral sepals
reddish, shining; lateral petals yellow within, brow^nish
without.
Auiphigcna lep'tosfachya. Rolfe.
. - Mountain ridges above Kriel's h'arm, 3,000 ft. Flowers

greenish, sweetly scented,
Pcnthca fiUformis, Findl.

Mountain slopes. Side se])als dark pink, odd sepal pink, with
a broad white margin ; petals greenish-yellow and white.
Disa glandulosa, Burch.

Moimtain slopes above the village, i.ooo ft. Flowers pink,
lateral sepals and petals spotted with red.
D. racemosa, Linn. f.

Damp ground in ravine between Robert's Valley and the
Berg River Valley, i.ooo ft. Flowers pink.
D. ophyridea. Bolus.

Mountain ridges above Kriel's Farm, 3.250 ft. Sepals red-
dish ; petals a very dark red, almost black.
Pterygodium catholicum, Svv.

Flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. ; near stream on mountain
slopes above the village, 1,500 ft. Flowers sulphur-
yellow.
Corycimn carnosum, Rolfe.

Damp sandy .soil in ravine between Robert's A'alley and the
Berg River Valley, 1,000 ft. Flowers yellow, scented.

H^MADORACE.^.

H'achendorfia thyrsiflora, Linn.

Roadsides near R.obert's Valley, c. 1,000 ft. .Stems 4-5 ft.
, high ; flowers yellow.

474 -^ COLLECTINC; TUll' TO FRENCH HOEK.

W. panicnlata, T.inn.

Mountain slopes above Robert's Valley, i.ocxj ft.; summit
of mountain north of Kriel's Farm, 2,300 ft. Perianth
yellow within, reddish or brown without.
W. paniculata, Linn., var. hirsuta, Thunb.

In moist fjround between Kriel's Farm and Robert's \'lei.
i.ooo ft. Perianth yellow within, with a brown mid-ril>
without.
Dilalris corymhosa. Berg-.

F'ield near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. ; low kopjes l)eyond the
village. Flowers mauve.
D. viscosa, Thunb.

Mountain slopes leading down to the P>erg River Valley,
1,500 ft. Perianth reddish within, dark reddish-l)rown
without.
Cyanella capensis. Linn.

Foot of mountains, and flats near Kriel's Farm, 850-1,000 ft.
C. Intea, Linn. f.

Growing among bushes on mountain slopes between Kriel's
Farm and Robert's V' alley. 1,000 ft. Flowers yellow.

Irwem.
Moraa angusia, Ker.

Mountain slopes round l'"rench Hoek. 1,000-2,300 ft.
Perianth yellow ; the three large segments with a dark
yellow blotch above the claw, and streaked with brown
beneath, reflexed.
Romiilea chlorolcuca, Bkr.

Growing in grassy ])atches at roadside leading down to
Villiersdorp, 1,500 ft. F'lowers white.
Borbartia filiformis, Ker.

Mountain slopes above tiie River Zonder bLinde. Flowers
yellow, reddish without.
Aristea toridosa, Klatt.

Hills above Le Roux's Farm, 1,500 ft. Flowers blue.
A. junci folia, Bkr.

Mountain slopes. Flowers blue.
A. cyanea, Ait.

Foot of mountains and damp flats near Kriel's Farm, 850-
1,000 ft. Flowers dark l)lne.
A. capitata, Ker.

Mountain slopes, 1,500 ft. Peduncles 2-4 ft. high; leaves
2-2) ft. long- ; flowers blue.
Geissorhiza secitnda, Ker.

Mountain slopes al)ove the River Zonder Einde, 2,000 ft. ;
near rocks on mountains behind Kriel's Farm, 1,500 ft.
Flowers blue.
G. secunda, Ker., var. bicolor, Bkr. ex descr.

Mountain ridges behind Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. Perianth
white, the three outer segments reddish beneath.

A ror.LF.cTrNr, trip to frrncii iioek. 475

G. c.rcisa, Ker.

Dani]) places on mountain summit hehind Kriel's Farm.
3,300 ft. Perianth white, the outer se.q-ment^ red
beneath.
J.via polysfachya, Linn, var. flaz'cscciis, Bkr.

Mountain slo])es between Robert's X'allev and the Berg-
River Valley, 1,500 ft. Flowers yellow.
/. linearis, Thunb.

Alountain slopes above the River Zonder Finde. 2.000 ft.;
mountain ridg-es behind Kriel's Farm, 3,000 ft. Flowers
pink.
LapcyroHsia cnrymbosa, Ker.

Mountain slopes between Kriel's Farm and Robert's Valley.
1,000 ft.; slopes above the village. 1.500 ft. Flowers
blue or white.
L.Fabricii, Ker.

Foot of low kopjes beyond the village. ()Oo ft. Perianth
delicately tinged with ]jink ; the three upper segments
with a red spot near the base.
iralsonia coccinea. Herb.

^Mountain sloi^es between Robert's Valley and the Berg River
Valley. 1,500 ft. Perianth red; anthers black.
JJ\ rosea, Ker.

Near road in the valley of the River Zonder Finde leading
down to \M'lliersdorp. 1.400 ft. Plant 4 ft. high: perianth
bright red.
J J'. Miiirii, Phillips.

Sandy ground in tield near Kriel's h^arm. c. 850 ft.. Flowers
pink.

Habiaiia stricta, Ker. forina.

Mountain slopes near top of I'rcnch T]oek Pass, 1.400 ft.
Flowers pale blue.
Tritonia erispa, Ker.

Low kopjes beyond the village. 1,000 ft. Perianth creamy
white ; the U]:)per segments streaked wtih a broad red
line, with a white line down the middle.
Gladiolus debilis, Ker.

Mountains behind French Iioek. 3,0(X) ft. Perianth white;
the three anterior segments with dull red sfiade marks :
streaked in the throat.
G. Pappei, Bkr.

East end of rang-e behind French Hoek. 2,600 ft. Perianth
pink, with a spear-shaped white mark on the lowest
segment, and a red blotch on the lateral segments.

G. villosus, Ker.

Damp ground on mountain ridges behind Kriel's Farm,
3,000 ft. Perianth dark ])ink. with red streaks on the '
three anterior segments.

4/6 A COLLECTIXt; TKir TO FRENCH HOEK.

G. blandiis. Ait, var. carncus, l>kr. ex descr.

Near Kriel's Farm, i,ooo ft. I'eriant'.i pale pink, with two
red blotches dee]) down in the throat.
G". arcnarius, Bkr.

Foot of kopjes beyond the village, 900 ft. ; ravine between
Robert's \'Iei and the Berg River Valley, i,uoo ft. Upfter
perianth segments yellow ; the lower almost black.

Lh.iace.e.

jlsparagns scandens, Thunb.

Twiner in a wood ravine in a Berg River \'alley. 2.000 ft.
Flowers white.
Aloe plicatilis, Mill.

Low kopjes beyond French Hoek, 1,000 ft. Stems i-io ft.
high ; flowers red. Common.
A. Jucynanthifolia, Marl. & Berg.

Rocky ridges above Kriel's Farm. 3,250 ft.; hig.i peak
north-west of Kriel's, 3,500 ft. Flowers red.
Bitlbine Foley! , Phillips.

Mountain slopes above Kriel's Farm, 2,000 it.
Anthericiiyn caiiicitlatiiin. Ait.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm. 1,500 ft. I'erianth
white; segments with a broad dark-red mid-rib.
A. hirsiituiu. Thunb.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's harm, 1,500 ft. Perianth
white; segments with a broad red mid-rib.
Lxichcnalia orcliidides. Ait.

Growing in cracks of rocks on mountain slopes between
Robert's Valley and the Berg River Valley, 1,500 ft.
Upper flowers yellowish wdiite, changing to red with
age.
Aibuca Coopcri, Bkr. ex descr.

Right-hand slopes of mountains leading up to French Hock-
Pass, 1,500 ft. Outer perianth segments green with a
vellow margin; the inner greenish-yellow. Leaves
deeply channelled.
L'rginca exuviafa, Steinh. ex descr {= Tyson _ 600).

Damp sandy flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. Perianth
segments white with a dark red mid-rib.
Becomctni cohtmcUaris, Salisb.

Sandy flats near Kriel's Farm. c. 850 ft. Perianth yelliw
alx>ve, reddish beneath.
Dipidax ciliafa, Bkr.

Sandy flats near Kriel's Farm. c. 850 ft. Perianth white.

JUNCACE.P,.

J uncus ccphalotes, Thunb.

Wet ground at sides of stream on mountain slopes above the
village, 1,000 ft. Heads dark brown.

A CULLi:(TiX(; TRll' TO FRENCH HOEK. 47/

Restiace^.
Restio ciispidafits, Thunb.

Right hand slopes of mountains leading- up to the Pass,
1,500 ft.
ElcyUi verticellaris, Kth.

Damp spots at roadside leading dijwn to Villiersdorp,
1,400 ft. Plant 5-8 ft. high.
Thaynnochortus fniticosus, Berg.

Foot of moiuitains near Kriel's Farm, 1,500 ft.
T. nmbellafiis, Kunth.

Mountain tops behind Kriel's Farm, 2,500 ft.
T. cernuus, Kunth.

Common on mountain summits, 2.300 ft.

C^'PKKACE/^•:.

Pycreus umbrosus, Ness.

Wet ground at side of stream, slopes above the village,
1,000 ft.
Scirpus prolifera, Rottb.

Wet ground at side of stream, slopes above the village,
1,000 ft.
Ficinia radiata, Kunth.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm, i.ooo ft. Bracts dark
yellow.
/•". filiformis, Schrad.

Foot of mountains near Kriel's Farm, 1,000" ft.
F. ecklonea, Ness.

Foot of uK^untains near Kriel's Farm. 1,000 ft.
Fidrena lilrfa, Vahl.

Wet ground, side of stream above the village, 1,000 ft.
Tctaria iuvoliicrata, C.B.Cl.

Top of hills behind Le Roux's Farm. 2,000 ft. Stems .^ ft.
high.

Gramine.t:.

Aiithistiria imberbis, Retz.

Mountain slopes, 1,500 ft.
Peiifaschistis pallesceiis, Stapf.

Mountain slopes above the River Zonder Finde, 2.300 ft.
P. eriostoma, Stapf.

Roadside leading tip to French Hoek Pass. 2,000 ft.
P. ciinnfolm, Stapf.

Common on mountain slopes, 1.500 ft.
Pentameris Thaurii, Beau v.

Growing near streams on mountain slopes, i.ooo ft. Stem.^
2-3 ft. high.
Danthonia laiiata, Schrad.

Mountains behind Kriel's Farm. 1,500 ft.
Ehrharta bnlboso, Sm.

Damp flats near Kriel's Farm, c. 850 ft. X-^^ o^^ H^^^

IujI library

47^^ A COLLECTING TRIP TO FRENCH HOEK.

\

E. capensis, Tiinb.

Mountain slopes above tihe village, 1,500 ft.
E. calyciiia^ Sm.

Forming tufts in sandy places at side of road leading up to
French Hoek Pass, 1,500 ft.
E. aphylla^ Schrad.

Mountain slopes 1.500 ft.
BrisophyUiim capcnse, Trin.

Mountains behind Kriel's Farm, 1.500 ft.
Briaa minor, Linn.

Mountain slopes above the village, 1,500 ft.
Ecstiica scahra, Vahl.

Summit of mountains north of Kriel's Farm, 2,300 ft.

Division of Botany,

Department of Agriculture.
Pretoria.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal Society of South Africa. — Wednesda}-, August 21st:
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist. M.A., D.Sc. Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.,
President, in tin' chair. — " On the velocities of two distinct grouf^s
of secondary corpusciilar rays produced by a homof^eneous
Rontgen radiation, and their absorption. co-efUcients in gases'': L. Simon
The absorption co-efficients in gase.s of the secondary corpuscular rays
were found l)y calculation from the pressure at which fhe cathode ionisa-
tion falls to half its maximum value. They are probably too higli for the
fastest corpuscles produced. The log- cathode ionisation curves could be
analysed into two distinct portions when the particles emerge from a very
thin screen, giving two absorption co-efficients in a gas, their ratio being
i: 4.76. — "On a nen' Heard of the genus Latastia, from Southern Rhode-
sia " : G. A. Boulenger. — '' On Rana ornatissima and Rana ruddi " :
G. A. Boulenger. — " " On a Nematode of fozvls having, a tcrnirte as an
intermediate host ": Sir A. Theiler. Some time ago a farmer forwarded
a species of termites infected with a nematode. Since they were larvse, it
was concluded that they represented a stage in the life cycle of a nema-
tode, whicli Iiad its habitat in a host that would consume termites. Fowls
are particularly fond of them. It was decided to feed infected teiniitcs
as well as the larvae extracted from them. Eggs were hatched in an
incubator, and the chickens reared under conditions excluding accidental
infection. Infected termites were found on red soil in the neighbourhooil
of a Kaffir kraal. A series of experiments was carried out. and in every
instance an imago was so obtained in the small intestines of the fowls.
The imago was identified. as a Filaria. and the name Filaria gallinarum
was proposed. The infected termite is known as the hoatkappcr, and
was identified l)y Fuller as Hodoterjiies Pretoricnsis. — " N'ote on recurrents
resolvable into a sequence of odd integers ": Sir T. Muir. " Meliolaster :
a new genus of the Microthyriacece" : Dr. Ethel M. Doidgo. A fungus,
occurring on Piper capensis, was described, which comliincs certain
characters of the genera Meliola and Asterina.

SOME EARLY GEOGRAPHERS AND EXPLORERS

OF AFRICA.

By Rev. William Alfred Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

{Read July lo, 191 8.)

A contributor to the Transactions of this Association has
produced some interesting papers on the Bantu of the loth cen-
tury, as described in extracts from the " Golden Meadows of
Mas'udy," and these were pubHshed by the African Monthly in
1907.

I should like to devote a short space to the consideration of
these papers — not only for the fascination they have had for me
since I took them as a guide to Zanzibar and the neighbouring
coast, but also because they contain, by way of introduction to
the Arab geographer, a notice of those older writers of the Medi-
terranean world, who circumnavigated Africa or recorded
exploration thereof. It is instructive to note how various in race
were these earlier researchers, on whom, reinspired by Mr. Tooke.
I also have lately again spent some time, and desire to recall a
few points which have struck me, and seem v^'orth while to add.

We begin with Semites, like Al Mas'udy himself, who
followed them after nearly a millennium and a half ; but Western
Semites, from Phoenicia, whereas Mas'udy hailed from Bagdad,
like the earlier Sindbad, a sailor even farther famed. Our
j'hoenicians were in the service of a Hamite, Pharaoh Necho. who
was Josiah's bane, a little before 600 B.C. How they sailed the
Southern Sea for two years after setting out from the Red Sea,
and in the third year returned through the pillars of Hercules, is
well known and written for all to read by the Father of History,
who doubts, however, not of the periplus itself, but of the sun
ever appearing to the north of them. The story, by the bye, has
had a strange sequel of some interest in the annals of fraud, for
recently, we may remember, a scarab was produced in a Conti-
nental museum claiming to be engraved with a record of this
periplus.

The next researcher was presumably Arjan, in the stricter
sense of the word, for he was a member of the royal family of
Persia, by name Sataspes, who, for a wrong that he did, was
required to circumnavigate Africa in the contrary direction to
that taken by the Phoenicians some 120 years before. It is
difficult to say who were his " little men," whom, at his furthest
point, where, in the trade winds, his heart failed him, he found
using Phoenicean raiment, if I may so express in English a
difference of quantity in the Greek. This would seem to have
been of the fibre of the Phoenix or palm-tree, if we may not
shorten the E, and with Bahr, translate "red raiment," that is,
skins red-ochred like the Kaffir blankets of to-day, though the

480 EARLY EXPLORERS OF AFRICA.

Bantu race itself has not yet emerged. Nor is it said that the
people were black ; but they lived in villages and kept sheep.*

About this time must have taken place the periplus of Hanno,
the Carthaginian, who, passing the Canary Islands, called " of
the Blessed," reached Sherbro Island, and met the hairy men, two
of whose females after great struggles were secured, dispatched,
and skinned, that their " fells " might be placed in Carthaginian
temples. Our pity for these natives is somewhat mitigated, when
our Greek version of the original Semitic inscription recording
the adventure calls them gorillas', it is said that the present
Mandingo word " tooralla " means men, and that the Fula word
for "man" is " gor.'"^ I mention this North African detail to
illustrate the value of philology, in dealing with research,
ethnological and general — a point I shall return to again.

I will just refer to Herodotus's third tale of African adven-
ture a little later, when the Nasamonian youths, who have the
v^pt,<; (as the teller tells) to cross from the Syrtis through the
Sahara to the West, also find " little men " in the woods, blacks in
a city, and a great river running east. If the Niger is meant, they
followed in mid-5th century B.C., very much the course of Den-
ham, Clapperton, and Lander in the early part of last century.
This adventure does not affect South Africa, but again I recall it
with a sigh for some Nasamonian y/S/ot? to infect our Governments
with a desire to endow research on the looth scale of these brave
men of old. Had we now in our high places but a fraction of
the keenness and enterprise for science of these ancients — sav of
■Pharoah Necho, how different we should be ! And had these
ancients — Semite or Hamite — had as little enterprise in the
conduct and endowment of research, or its encouragement, as
some of our great ones to-day, what would South Africa herself
have been but a desolate wilderness, a home of barbarism, or a
welter of warring tribes ?

I pass over Agatharchides, who, about iii r.c, treats of
the Red Sea region, which does not at present concern us. This
brings us to Strabo who, only a generation before the Christian
era, gives us a lengthy account of the Ethiopians, which, if it
does not really touch the Bantu, at least describes customiS and
ideas which they share with nations further north. It is inter-
esting that he is as sceptical about the pygmies, as we have seen
Herodotus to be about astronomic data. He considers them a
fiction suggested by the Ethiopians' tiny dogs. (He is evidently
taking Pygmy as Tom Thumb, literally.) The diet of blood
suggests the Masai rather than the Bantu : that of curds and
millet is familiar enough in this land.

Mr. Tooke has observed from Strabo their belief " in an

* Can they have been the Hottentots who introduced a new breed of
sheep to the Kaffirs, if we may derive Xosa gusha from the Hottentot
gut?

tSee Johnston's "Opening up of Africa," and the Geographi GrcBci
Minores, which last has been useful for this paper.

EARLY EXPLORERS OF x\FRICA. 481

immortal God, who is the author of all things, and in a mortal
nameless being of which nothing is known." (Strabo's actual
words are, I find, avfow/xov rtva koI aaa(f)fj.)

" For the most part, they regard all things and benefactors
as divine." The printers have been unkind to Mr. Tooke — they
mistook his " K " for " th " and gave a Pantheistic tinge to tribes
who were probably quite innocent of anything so oriental and
theosophic. Mr. Tooke doubtless wrote " all kings and benefac-
tors ", the ^aaiXiKoiK; (rcgios) Koi evepy€Ta<; of Strabo,
who adds that the former are regarded as their common saviours
and guardians, and the latter as the private saviours of those who
fare well at their hands." Here we see, clear enough, the worship
of ancestors and departed chiefs, such as is very familiar to
students of the Bantu.

Early in the Christian era we have the anonymous Periplus
of the Red Sea, written about go a.d., whether by Arrian, the
historian, and Hadrian's protege, or another. It does not really
affect us, more than Mela, 50 years earlier, but from Pliny
and Ptolemy we get the eastern coast as far south as the Prason
promontory, which Mr. Tooke identifies with Cape Delgado,
but some with Pangani. Ptolemy also mentions the Moon Moun-
tains and the lakes beneath which feed the Nile. \\'e pass by Mari-
nus and Solinus. Menuthias, which now first appears, is variously
fixed. Mr. Tooke does not decide between the Comoros, Zanzibar
and Peml)a. It is interesting that the Beheim globe of Nurem-
berg (1492) has Minupias above and Zanzibar below Madagas-
car ! And, according to Avezac's Laon globe of the next year,
Memitias takes the same place ; while in the Berlinghieri map of
1478, at Florence, the name appears as Manuthia. (For all these
see the facsimiles in Nordenskiold.) In the first form the
" P " may be a mistake for "Thorn," the Greek " Theta," as often.
In the second the syllable " mi " is an easy misreading for " nu " :
this gives an idea of the pakTographical difficulties which are
entailed on those who would follow the voyages of the ancients.

The egregious Cosmas Indicopleustes notes the influence of
the King of Axum — the Prester John of the later West — even
as does the Anonymous Periplus 500 years before. This shows
the persistence of Abyssinian influence ; but within little more
than a century after Cosmas the new power of the Arab had
spread, and Pate dates (according to Miss Werner) as an Arab
settlement from 698.

Now for Mas'udy the crown of Arab geographers, himself
a traveller from the China Sea to Madagascar. If we open him
at Chapter 33, we find his account of the blacks (es-sudan).
There he relates how the sons of Kush, the son of Canaan,
crossed the Nile and split up. The Nubians, Beja and Zeng,
" turned to the right between east and west," according to the
French version and Mr. Hammond Tooke. This had always been
a puzzle to me, for if you cross the Nile going west and make a
right wheel, you find yourself in Aboukir Bay, or somewhere else

482 EARLY EXPLORERS OF AFRICA.

in the Mediterranean. But if we remember the familiar Hebrew
idiom in which the right is the south (which is on your right hand,
as you face the rising sun) the mystery clears. This division of
the Ethiopians turned south — not north — between eastern lands
and the west, Magrib, iie.. Morocco, "and others in great number/'
continues Mas'udy, " went west towards Kanem (by Lake Chad)
and Ganah," i.e., Guinea (the "rich" land), and the Soudan in
general; that is to say, the road which the Nasamonians of Hero-
dotus and many a modern traveller has followed.

Two more points before we leave Mas'udy.

The first is the meaning of the name " Sofala." I was long
in doubt as to its provenance. A friend had even suggested a
Gonnection with the Kaffir prefix "So" in proper names (as if
it were a chief's name) ; on the other hand, I was assured it was
Arabic. A glance at Mas'tidy cleared all up : " Whenever a moun-
tain," he says, " stretches far beneath the water, it is given
the name of Sofala." He instances, in the Mediterranean,
Seleucia, the port of Antioch. It is indeed the Hebrew
" Shephelah," or lowland, the name by which the country at the
foot of the Judean hills is known. (I fear, misled by an Arab
as to the initial oif Sofala, I went astray in a former paper.*)

Another point is the word given by Mas'udy for " chief,"
which serves to identify his " Zeng " of Zanzibar and the coast.
The Swahili word is " Mfalme," or "Mfaume"; plural " Wa-
falme."t Mas'udy gives a word which the French edition
w^rites " Waklimi,"$ but in their note on the passage, they
allow that the manuscript which they prefer as a rule has zvaflinii,
and in the first volume, the same without the initial wa-, so that
we may regard the qaf as fa with a fly-blow, making his dot
appear doubled. §

I was interested to find that Monsieur Ferrand, late of
Madagascar, had also taken the same view in a letter which I was
allowed to see. I cannot agree with Mr. Tooke's equation of
" Waglimi," and " Falimi," with " Badimo."

And so much for Mas'udy and his predecessors of the
Mediterranean and the Arab worlds.

I think it will be allowed that some of these ancients devoted
themselves to the cause of the opening up of Africa with an
energy and self-sacrifice scarcely rivalled by the moderns, even
of her own children.

* The word begins with sin not sad. as in my Bantu Place-names
(1916).

t ^J

t /^^

§ Unfortunately the dot in my note t, after all, appears single. In
this case the opposite accident has mysteriously happened, and so helps still
to illustrate my point!

PURPOSE IN EDUCATION.

By Herbert C. Reeve^ M.A.

{Read, July lo, iyi8.)

At the present moment there is sitting a Commission which
was appointed towards the end of last year by the Transvaal
Provincial Council to inquire into the whole of education, in so
far as it conies under the jurisdiction of the Council. The
appointment of this Commission shows that there is a certain
body of opinion which is not satisfied with the system as it stands.
Whether the grounds of dissatisfaction of this particular body of
opinion is justified, or not, dissatisfaction exists. It is not
confined to the Transvaal, but is widespread throughout the
world. As a matter of fact dissatisfaction is no novelty, and
l)robably it would be impossible to find any period when the
education of the time gave entire satisfaction. As, however, the
dissatisfaction of the moment is bound to lead to action the time
has arrived when inquiry should be made into the fundamental
bases of all education, and this paper has l)een written to draw
attention to what, in the writer's opinion, has generally been a
grave omission when matters of education are under discussion.

When dissatisfaction with the results of education have been
expressed there has generally been a tendency to blame the
teacher for such shortcomings as have been found to exist,
though, latterly, there has been a disposition to call the system
in question as well. That the teacher is blameworthy may. or
may not, be true, but the mental attitude which is prepared to
indict the teacher is due to a misapprehension of the facts of the
case. The tacit presumption is that the teacher is an expert in
all matters concerning education. Now this is not necessarily,
or even generally, the case. Even when a teacher is an expert
this is not due to the fact that he is a teacher, but to his being a
citizen. In his particular craft the teacher is only a journeyman,
and as such his duty is to have as thorough a knowledge as
possible of his tools and a capacity to follow out a plan or design.
He cannot be expected to draw up the design itself, any more
than this is expected from a journeyman in any other craft. A
teacher, in fact, may be expected to be an expert in teaching, but
not in anything else. Even the principal of a school only occupies
the position of a foreman. The foreman's duty is to see that the
design is properly carried out, but he is not expected to draft it.
That is the business of the designer, or architect. In education
this position is held by superintendents and directors O'f education,
and any question of the system falls within their sphere.

Where a piece of work is faulty, the faultiness may be due
either to bad workmanship or to a bad design. It is neces-;an%
therefore, to examine both before apportioning the blame. If
the faultiness is due to a bad design it is still necessary to make!

484 PURPOSE IN EDUCATION.

further investigations before blaming the designer. The faulti-
ness of the design may be due to the f aultiness of the instructions
given to the designer by his employers. The objects for which
the work is to be employed may have been ill-delined, or incom-
pletely stated,, either quantitatively, or qualitatively, or both.
In education the employers of superintendents and directors are
the public. Is anyone prepared to say that directors of education
have been properly instructed by the public? Surely not? On
the contrary, the public considers that when a director of
education has been appointed the whole matter of education is out
of its hands, and it merely reserves to itself the right to criticise
the system which he evolves. This attitude on the part of the
public is due to the assumption that the whole of education is a
matter solely for experts, and that no one else can be expected to
deal with it elTectively. This view is due to inability to differen-
tiate between a design and its purpose.

This state of mind is not to be wondered at, seeing that the
leaders of thought have generally failed to make this same
differentiation. The truth of this statement may be illustrated
from the pamphlet published by the Commission aforementioned.
This pamphlet is intended to inform the public as to the lines on
which evidence may be submitted to the Commission. A perusal
of the subjects laid down will show that the only evidence called
for is on the system which should be adopted, that is on the
details of the design. Surely it is self-evident that before a
system can be adopted an agreement must first be arrived at as
to the purpose which it is to serve? To do otherwise is analagous
to asking people to choose a piece of machinery without consider-
ing whether it is to be used for pumping water or for driving
an aeroplane. There is no indication in the pamphlet of any
appreciation of this point.

The same lack of appreciation of the dift'erence between
education and the purpose for which it is to be used is to be found
even in books specifically devoted to education. Many, indeed,
seem to fail to realize that education is not an end in itself. In
those cases where a real attempt is made to deal with the purpose
of education one finds that in many instances it merely resolves
itself into a definition of education, as such, and is no definition
of purpose. In other cases where purpose is actually dealt with,
there is a complete lack of agreement and a fatal inability to
grasp the essentials. As a proof of this almost any definition,
picked at random, will serve. As an example, let us take the
definition of Alexander Bain: "Building up the acquired powers
of human beings." It is not easv to attach a precise meaning to
such a definition, but whp^-ever its exact meaning may be. it is
inadenuate. for it imm^^^'nt-ely prompts the further questions:
" For what purpose should pr>wers he arnuired by human beings
and whv should they be built un?" As another example may
be (yivpn tbp words of Tbornq? Burt, which have been quoted
with apnroval bv Thiselton TVTark :

PURPOSE IN EDUCATION. 485

Education has been advocated froua every possible point of view. It
has been said that education will reduce the rates, that it will empty the
prisons, that it will enable our workmen to hold their own in competition
with other nations. But 1 don't believe that the working men of England
want education on any of these grounds, but they want it because it will
make them better, wiser and happier men.

It is a line ideal, but it does not go far enough. Why should
man reach after goodness? Why should he strive to attain
happiness? What is wisdom, and to what use is it to be put?
It may be said that these questions do not deal with education
but with philosophy — that the answers to these questions would
solve the riddle of existence. The implication, of course, is that
the enigma is insoluble. So it may be, but that is not the point.
What we have to consider is whether it is possible to construct
a sensible scheme of education unless answers of some kind to
these questions are forthcoming, whether they be right or wrong.

Just as with respect to its purpose, so with respect to a
definition of education itself there is complete lack of agreement.
However, for the purpose of this paper, there is no need to enter
deeply into the matter. Education doubtless is, or should be. a
lifelong process. Whatever it may be in that case, so far as
formal, or school, education is concerned it will not be disputed
that it is a preparation. If we go further and inquire for what
it is a preparation we may be able to arrive at its purpose.

There appear to be three main possibilities. It is a pre-
paration for (i) this life, or (2) a future life, or (3) both. If it
is a preparation for a future life then that life must be in some
way afifected by the present one, and it comes to the same thing
as a preparation for this life, or mainly so. There are many who
deny that this life, except in its last few moments, has any efifect
on the next. These people may be divided into two classes —
those who, like the old hermits, cannot see any value in education
at all. and those who consider education as concerned with this
life only. In this country the majority probably consider in a
vague kind of way that it is concerned with both. When, how-
ever, such analysis, as is possible, is made of their views it is
found that, so far as education is concerned, preparation for a
future life consists of the inculcation of morality. Now, what-
ever credit a moral life here may gain in a future state, morality
itself is admittedly concerned with this life only. So far then
as education is concerned two of these possibilities may fairly
be ruled out, and education be considered as a preparation for
this life. In any case with those who disagree with this position
rests the responsibility of defining just how far it is concerned
with this life, and how far with any other. This does not appear
to have been done as yet.

Even thousrh we may have decided that education is a pre-
paration for this life, we have not arrived at its final purpose.
Man has existed on this earth for many thousands of years —
Geikie sets it down at half-a-milHon. We have no reason to
suppose that he will not continue for tens of thousands more.

486 PURPOSE IN EDUCATION.

Is not this fact to be taken into consideration? If so, what
bearing has it on the question ? A body of scientists should have
no difficulty in answering this question. If there is one dominant
principle in all scientific inquiry it is that of evolution. However
scientists may dispute as to the nieans by which evolution is
effected there is no dispute as to the fact itself. Further, whether
evolution takes place through the propagation of acquired
characteristics or by the development of potential variation, it is
conditioned by the environment. In nature, at any rate outside
the human race, there is an elimination of the unfit in the struggle
for existence due to the environment. In the case of man,
however, the environment can be to a large extent controlled. It
is possible, therefore, that natural selection is no longer opera-
tive. This is the position held by Sir E. Ray Lankester, who
calls man " Nature's insurgent son." These are his words :

The mental qualities which have developed in man arc of such
unprecedented power, and so far dominate everything else in his activities
as a living organism, that they have to a very large extent, if not entirely,
cut him ofif from the general operation of that process of natural selection
and survival of the fittest which up to their appearance, had been the law
of the living world, Nature's inexorable discipline of death to those v/ho
do not rise to her standard — survival and parentage to those alone who
do — has been from the earliest times more and more definitely resisted
by the will of man.

In extra-human nature, then, evolution is^ an unconscious pro-
cess, whereas in man it can be a conscious one. In any case man
does control largely his own environment, and through this his
evolution. It is obvious that it is advisable that this should be
done intelligently. On this point Sir E. Ray Lankester says :

Civilised man has proceeded so far in his interference with extra-
human nature, has produced for himself and the living organisms asso-
ciated with him such a special state of things by his rebellion against
natural selection and his defiance of nature's pre-human dispositions, that
he must either go on and acquire firmer control of the conditions, or
miserably perish by the vengeance certain to fall on the half-hearted
meddler in great affairs.

Man therefore requires the education which is necessary for the
control of his evolution in order that he may not be! eliminated.
But this is not all. He must also have come to a decision a^ to
the direction in which he wishes to move. The first considera-
tion, then, for education is the preservation of the species, and
the second is its progress.

Notwithstanding the strong expression of opinion of Sir Ray
Lankester, it is just possible that the preservation of the species
is not inconsistent with the maintenance of the status quo, o-r
even with retrogression, but the fact remains, that whether we
will, or no, change, that is evolution, is a part of the order '0(i
nature. Therefore there will be evolution, even if we have no
definite ideal towards which we should try to move. As man,
however, differs from lower species in having acquired a power
of prevision, he would not be acting intelligently if he adopted a

PURPOSE IN EDUCATION. 487

policy of laisses fairc. It is consequently man's duty to decide
on a final goal.

Apart from the general question O'f man's duty, seeing that
change will inevitably take place, it is the prerogative of teachers
to demand instructions as to the changes for which they are to
prepare their pupils. Pupils when they leave the teachers's hands
will enter a world which is different from that which exists when
they come into his hands. Though the teacher is only a journey-
man, and may be an expert in teaching only, yet he does not deal
with inanimate materials, and the quality of his teaching must
vary with his ultimate aim. Indeed the more expert he is the
more it will vary. It is imperative, therefore, that the supreme
authority over him should have clear and precise views as to the
desired direction of evolution. What that direction should be it
would perhaps be presumptuous on the part of the writer to
state, but the suggestion may be hazarded that it should be
happiness for all. That, however, is a distinct gaol and cannot
be reached without a knowledge of the means to do so. There
may, therefore, be a whole series of intermediate and subsidiary
aims in education. It is necessary that these aims should be
defined, and wnth all the greater precision the nearer they are to
attainment.

The course of evolution has turned man into a social being,
and it is evident that the preservation iind progress of the species
is intimately bound up with this |X>sition. Indeed the limits of
his social activities are steadily being extended, that is to say he
is becoming more and more social. As a consequence man's
relations, with his fellows is becoming of greater antl greater
importance. This supplies a clue to the subsidiary aims of
education. An nispection of tlie social activities of man ought
to furnish the solution. The pupil will develop into an adult
member of the human species, a member of the Aryan family,
possibly a member of the British Empire, a citizen of a State, a
province, a town or country district, an acquaintance, friend,
husband, brother, parent and producer. For all these positions
he requires preparation.

It is of course impossible to turn him out perfectly equipped
for all these activities by any course of formal education, but at
least it is the duty of those in authority to give the deepest con-
sideration as to whether these, or any part of them, should form
a portion of a course of formal education. What is the position at
the present moment? Education is supposed to be cultural,
vocational and incidentally, and mainly indirectly, to form the
character, but one looks in vain for any indication that it has
been adopted with a definite view to his social activities. If it
were to be found anywhere it should certainly be found in the
Transvaal code, btit it is not there. There is a good deal of
discussion of the effect of one subiect or the other on the mind
and faculties of the pupil, but of the use to which the ex-pupil
is to put his mind not one word. Perhaps this is only to be

PURPOSE IN EDUCATION.

expected, for the education supplied can only be in accordance
with public demand, and it is for the public to make up its mind
on these points. The public shows no signs of any definite ideal,
but it is fairly insistent in its demands. At the present moment
there is a steadily-increasing demand for more vocational educa-
• tion. Such a statement may be considered as tantamount to an
admission that present-day education in South Africa is not
vocational to any great extent. As a matter of fact it makes no
such admission. The demand for more vocational education is
due to a misapprehension. The outcry merely means that a
number of people want their children to have a vocational train-
ing of a different type to that already offered. The goal of all
secondary schools in this country is the matriculation certificate,
and this is the sine qua iioii for entry to the professions. It is
true that it does not deal largely with the knowledge required for
the professions, but in the majority of cases it is sought merely
because it is the key that unlocks the door to a privileged en-
closure. For that reason it is just as vocational as a commercial
education.

The desire for vocational training indicates a mental attitude
that places production in the forefront of man's social activities.
Even if educational authorities insist on so-called cultural subjects
being included in the curriculum it is because the adult with the
better trained mind will, other things being equal, be the better
producer, and not because he requires education for his other
social activities. The following remarks of Air. H. H. Bassett
are to the point : —

Public school boys, instead of drifting into the Civil Service and out
again into the stock exchange, banking, and insurance, or into art and
literature, as is happening every year now, would pass from the public
schools or universities to the workshops of the great engineering, ship-
building, and manufacturing firms. Six to seven years is ample time
to acquire a practical knowledge of a trade ; many university young men.
succeeding to the mills and factories of their fathers have acquired a
thorough practical grasp of the business within three or four years. The
university man is trained to learn and learns quickly.

And again,

Starting four or five years behind the average man, the university
man is nevertheless quick to overtake his handicap where he is forced to
apply himself to commerce. It is for this reason that the man who has
been trained in a university and also on the practical side of a trade is
about the best asset that commercial Britain could possess.

Statements similar to the above have been made over and over
again. Surely, however, on any view of life worthy of man.
production is only a means to an end, and not an end in itself.
We should produce in order that we may live, and not vice versa,
but this over-emphasis on vocational training would lead one to
suppose that the latter is the ideal state.

It is not a distorted ideal of course that causes the demand
for vocational education, but sheer necessity. Nevertheless it
is the existence of distorted views in high places that causes the

PURPOSE IX EDUCATION. 489

necessity to arise. Even if one could grant that the introduction
of cultural subjects into the curricula of schools is not due to
the idea that they are part of the training of a high-class pro-'
ducer, can anyone assert that they are introduced with a definite
and clear view to man's social activities, other than production.
One would not wish to assert that these other activities are totally
neglected, for it would not be correct. Curiously enough one
finds subjects introduced with a definitely non-vocational inten-
tion into the curricula of commercial schools. Civics is obligatory
for the new Preliminary Commercial Certificate, though one has
to note at the sanie time a certain amount of protest against it.
Economics is also in the list of subjects for the higher
commercial examinations, and though this deals largely with
production and distribution, yet it also embodies man's relations
to his fellows in that field.

One reason for the demand 'for vocational training is the
existence of blind-alley occupations. Four or five years ago this
question aroused quite a large amount of public interest. The
discussions on the subject showed perhaps better than anything
else in recent years the failure of even thoughtful people to
realize a suitable purpose in education. Even from the point of
view of production alone, the ideal is for every person to do that
work for which he is best fitted, and it does not seem to hav'e
occurred to anybody that it should be the duty of education to
fit somebody for these very occupations. The idea that educa-
tion of a particular type will enable the ex-pupil to avoid these
occupations is based on a fallacy. All occupations become
eventually blind-alley. The Prime Minister of the Union is in a
blind-alley. Even though a field-marshall's baton lies in every
soldier's knapsack, we know — to use an Irishism — that it is not
there. In every organization the number of posts diminishes
as we near the top. and it is a mathematical impossibility for
every employee to occupy them. There is nothing intrinsically
objectionable in an occupation being a blind-alley. If an occupa-
tion is necessary, it is obvious that some one must undertake its
duties. It is not the occupation that is wrong, but, either the
person who is actually doing the work ought to be engaged in
some other occupation, or the pay attached to the occupation is
inadequate. Further, as long as an occupation is necessary, a
wider diffusion of education will not remove the necessity for its
existence, nor prevent people from entering it. The spread of
education has not done so in the past, and there is no reason to
suppose that it will do so in the present or in the future. It
simply means that however high the educational standard may
be the weakest educationally will have to fill these positions. The
question is mainly an economic one, and if the social organization
reanires that certain occupations are to be taken merelv en passant.
as it were, then the organization must see to it that the emoloyee
i: not rendered unfit for some later occupation. This of course

490 PURPOSE IN EDUCATION.

can be done by continuing his education concurrently with his
occupation.

In so far as production is a means to an end and not an end
in itself, it is obvious that the time devoted to it in the body
public should be reduced to a minimum. This can only be done
by the application of new methods or a reorganization of employ-
ment. Both of these remedies require knowledge, but know-
ledge of different kinds. The first requires further investigation
into the secrets of nature, the discovery of new laws and their
technical application. The second recjuires increased knowledge
of ethics and the art of government and administration. It is
knowledge and wisdom, then, that education must provide, even
in the domain of production. " But," it may be said, " this is only
required by, and can only be acquired by, the few." That may
be so, but every citizen has a voice, either directly, or indirectly,
in the government of his country and its various administrative
parts. He cannot acquire, therefore, too much knowledge of
ethics and of the art of government. He must be able to recognize
ability in others and to estimate the consequences of certain
courses of action. These are the re<:iuirements of everyone, and
it is the duty of education to provide them.

Outside his duties as a citizen lie man's relations to his
fellows in the way of intercourse. This requires an education
in ethics. Everyone also w'ill occupy a position of subordination
or O'f authority in the family, or in the general social organiza-
tion. Man must be prepared by education so that he may know
how to regulate his conduct rightly.

These aims are present and near, but they are subsidiary to
the ultimate aim. It is the ultimate aim that must act as a touch-
stone to test the subsidiary aims. Just as a ship travelling over
the ocean has a definite goal, but it is the rocks, shoals, winds and
currents that determine the course, so in education there must
'be subsidiary aims to meet the exigencies of the moment, but
these must always have in view the ultimate aim. Just in the
same way as a ship, whatever its intermediate course and ultimate
goal may be, requires a compass to guide its path, so education
requii:^s a guide for its journey along the path of evolution. This
guide is two-fold. The ex-pupil should be provided with a two-
fold desire — to seek only the truth in the region of thought, and
justice in the region of action. It may be, as some maintain,
that the one involves the other. If so the task will be the easier,
for truth and justice w'ill then be to one another as the poles are
to a magnet, two aspects of one entity.

Truth and justice, then, are the guides of education in leading
evolution to the ultimate end of happiness, but even if they should
become ends in themselves they are at least aims worthy of man.

If these guides should be taken we should hear no more of
many of the proposajs that have recently been put forward.
There has been a demand by a certain section of the people to

PURPOSE IN EDUCATION. 491

control the education of their children, so that they may be
educated in accordance with the views of their ancestors. This
is both unscientific and immoral. Unscientific because it attempts
tiy mit a bar in the path of progress, and immoral because it is an
attempt to bolster up prejudice. Old views are not necessarily
wrong. What is wrong is the attitude of mind that makes the
demand. The demand is, in fact, that these views should be
taught, whether they are right or wrong — that they should be
taught not in accordance with truth, but in accordance with belief.
Even if the belief is founded on truth this type of educiatilon is
essentially wrong, for it develops an uncritical attitude of mind.
In science the most thoroughly-established laws are only working
hvpotheses, and the pupil is trained to treat them as such. It is
impossible for scientists to support a type of education which
treats any subject otherwise. If the belief is not founded on
truth, then a mental injury is done to the pupil from which he
may never recover.

Objection has been taken to this attitude on the ground that,
if we are not to teach pupils anything of whose truth we are not
certain, then they will not be taught much. Such a statement
from those who desire to obtain control of education shows that
they are not competent to do so. It argues a presupposition that
education consists of the acquirement of facts only. It postulates
that education exists in order to train the memory, and is based
on the physchologically un.sound assumption that memory is
capable of being trained. The position is untenable on other
grounds. Even of facts of whose truth we are certain — unless
we ascribe to the term " certain " a meaning that only a few
philosophers hold — there is an enormous mass. Even if all facts
of whose truth we are uncertain — whatever extended meaning
the word may connote — are omitted from education, it would not
be bankrupt. Far from it. Education through investigation
would still demand far more time than we can possibly devote
to it.

Although there has been a lamentable lack of appreciation
of the fact that there must be an ultimate aim in every properly
organized .system of education, the writer is not so foolish as to
suppose that the present content of education can be radically
altered in thejmmediate future, for the possibility of change does
not rest with educationists, but with the public. Schools exist
to supply a pul>lic demand, and. until the general public adopts
a different set of values with respect to the demands of life,
there is little prospect of change. This only shows, however,
that the public requires education as well as children, and they
are not likely to get it unless their leaders themselves acquiire
definite views with regard to the ultimate aim of education.

t5

WHO BUILT THE RHODESIAN RUINS?

By William Hammond Tooke.

(Received November, 1917. Read, July 11, igi8.)

The article on " Rhodesian Ruins and Native Tradition,''
by the Rev. Samuel S. Dornan, which appeared in a former
volume,,* is one of much interest, and there is no doubt but that
it will receive the appreciation and attention it deserves. The
views of one who has himself examined the ruins, and personally
interviewed the natives whose testimony he adduces, naturally
deserve respect, even when they do not meet with ready con-
currence ; and the present writer regrets that he cannot lay claim
to this first-hand acquaintance with the subject.

But other evidence also merits a certain degree of respect, and
even that deservedly-contemptible creature, the armchair critic,
may be allowed to weigh and test the methods by which the con-
clusions as to the Bantu origin of these ruins derived from the
author's researches have been reached.

Travellers and missionaries, before casting discredit on the
evidence of their predecessors of three hundred years ago, will,
of course, take the precaution of making themselves acquainted
at first-hand with the documents tliey have left us, instead of
taking such fragments as they may find in a popular work.

The author begins by expatiating on the value of native
tradition, maintaining its superiority as an instrument of enquiry
over " old Portuguese chroniclers." He continues : "With regard
to the veracity of old Portuguese writers very different opinions
have been held ; many of them are fairly trustworthy ; others are
full of unsifted and unveracious statements. I have read several
of them, and do not attach more importance to their information
than I do to Hakluyt's ' Voyages,' for example." He does not
explain exactly what importance he attaches to Hakluyt's
" Voyages/' so the comparison is wanting in precision.

Having thus lumped the Portuguese writers together indis-
criminately, and extracted a "general average" of unreliability,
he proceeds to borrow a short con'tracted citation from one of
them which he credits to Count Wilmot, the well-known author
of " Monomotapa " (p. 209). I attach the full quotation, show-
ing the discrepancies in italics. It is taken from the Reverend
Jesuit Father 'Monclaro's " Relation of a Journey made with
Francesco Barreto in the Conquest of Monomotapa in the year
1569" Cnot 1572) :—

Of the mines and the abundance of gold and silver many have written
at length, but the sum of what is known is much less than the reports that
are current in Portugal. Nez'crtheless the land in the interior is full of
mines more or less rich, and viore or less gold is extracted from them
according to their size. They dig in them at certain times when they
want to buy cloth to cover themselves. They value gold much more

*Rept. S.A.A.A.S. (1915) Pretoria, 502-516.

WHO BUILT TilK RUODESIAN RUINS? 493

than we do both to trade with and to make the jewels and ornaments
which they wear. The Monomotapa gave some mines to the Portuguese
who were in those parts, but they left them the trade in cloth being
more profitable, especiallj' that in machiras, as has been said.*

This and the following extracts are taken from the Records of South-
Eastern Africa, in ix volumes, London, 1890-1903, which have only since
then been made generally accessible to the public by the ardour and
industry of Dr. G. M. Theal, and are justly described by Dr. Randall-
Maciver as " a work of sterling scholarship."

The above form.s the last paragraph of the Report in question,
and probably the author of " Monomotapa "' had no oppor-
tunity for making- himself acquainted with what preceded it
up to the time that he wrote. Accordingly I venture to
submit further extracts not only relative to gold-mining, but also,
on the subject of the ruins of Zimbabwe and the architecture of
the negroes who are supposed by Mr. Dornan to have built them
in the 14th and 15th centuries, i.e.. a hundred years before Father
Monclaro's arrival in the empire of the Monomotapa.

The gold mines are near Monomotapa, and within his dominions.
There are many of them, and he gave some to several Portuguese who
were there but because the expense of extracting the gold was so great,
and so little was taken out every day, they would not have them as
commerce was more profitable. The negroes dig the earth and make
high and deep trenches, in the which the ground sometimes falls upon
them and kills them. When the Monomotapa wants gold, he sends a cow
to those of his people who are to dig for it, and it is divided among them
according to their labour, and the number of days they are required to
work; each one extracts at most a cruzado or a cruzado and a half a
day. If they find a large piece of gold they hide it that it may not be
discovered, and the mine is ordered to be closed, as they say has some-
times been done, after laying charms that no one may be able to dig
there again. In this there is something strange, the reason of which is
unknown, as they have a great love for gold, and make different things
of it, which they wear round their necks like beads, and also use it for
trading with.f

Of 'the " vassals of Monomotapa " he says : —

Since they have inhabited the country — which must have been
thousands of years — they have never raised a stone upon a stone to
build a house or wall. Their only houses are small straw huts plastered
with clay.t

The first part of this statement is general, and doubtless may
be regarded as founded on tradition. But the second comes under
Father Monclaro's personal observation, and there is absolutely
no justification for rejecting his evidence as untrustworthy or
false, especially seeing that it is embodied in an ofificial report to
the Superior of his Order. Blue-Books, it is said, never lie, but
whether that is so or not, the veracity, if not the accuracy, of these
reports is beyond dispute. Similar " Relations " furnished by the
Jesuit Fathers in New France a few years later " hold," says the
historian Francis Packman, "a high place as authentic and trust-

* Records S.E. Africa. 3, pub. Lond. (1899), 253. Cf. Wilmot's
"Monomotapa." Lond. (1896), 209. and Rcpt. S.A.A.A.S. (iQiS), Pre-
toria, 5X0.

t Ibid., 3, 233-4.

X Ibid., 3, 231.

494 WHO BUILT THE RHODESIAN RUINS?

worthy historical documents."* They cannot be contemptuously
cast aside as if they were no better than the fictitious adventures
of Christian Frederick Bamberger.

The next Portuguese authority which I beg leave to select is
Damao de Goes, Keeper of the Archives at Lisbon from 1546 to
1 571. He was "of a noble Portuguese family, brought up in the
Court of King Emanuel, and occupied important diplomatic posts
in Poland, Sweden, and Denmark. As Chief Chronicler of the
Kingdom of Portugal he compiled the ' important and authorita-
tive Chronicle'" from which, Part II., Chap. X., the following
extract is taken : —

In the middle of this country (Kingdom of Bcnomotapa), is a
fortress built of large and heavy stones, inside and out. It is a very
curious and well-constructed Imildiny, as, according to report, tio lime
to join the stones can be seen. An inscription is cut so ancient that
no one know what it means. Tn other districts are other fortresses
built, in all of which the king has captains to guard the gold mines,
tlie prince at whose command they were built receiving the duties on the
gold paid by the officials whom lie sent there for the purpose, because
this is what is at present done by the present kings of the aforesaid
kingdom of Benomotapa. . . . The houses are all built of. wattles,
plastered with clay, such as I described that of the sheik of Sofala.f

The above passage has been cited by Dr. Randall Maciver
as " including the valuable statement " that in other districts of
the said plains there are other fortresses built in the same manner,
in all of which the king has captains. "J

This is so, and it is a matter of common knowledge (that so-
called " prehistoric " ruins exist elsewhere than at Ziiribabwe, and
that they were and are used and occupied bv Bantu ; but there is
no evidence, nor does De Goes say that the natives contemporary
with his day built them. Scouting this as an unjustifiable attempt
on Dr. Randall Maciver's part to Ijolster up his theory of
" medic-eval Zimbabwe," Mr. R. N. Hall endeavours to discredit
De Goes as a witness on the ground that he was " a compiler,
not a historian. "§ But De Goes can safely be accepted as an
authority on contemporary opinion as to the age of the ruins.
His passing remark on " an inscription so ancient that no one
knows what it means '" sufficiently indicates what that opinion
was. It is clear that it is incompatible with a belief that the
l)uildings were of quite recent origin.

Don Damao, it is true, never visited South-East Africa, but
many of those who constituted his sources of information did ;
and if we cannot accept his conclusions, then neither can we those
of the " Argus-eyed Venetian Envoys " for whom John Lo^hrop
Motley has such admiration, and who followed similar careers at
about the same time.

The generally recognised authorities on the Portuguese ex-

*" Jesuits in North America," London (1909), 6.
■\ Records of S.E. Africa. 3. 129, 131.

t David Randall-Maciver : " Medi;eval Rhodesia." London (1906) 60,
98-9.

S Richard X. Jlall: "Prehistoric Rhodesia." London (.[909), 112-13.

WHO RUILT Tlir. RflODESIAN RUINS? 495

plorations and conquests in Africa and Asia are, however, De
Barros, De Couio and Bocarro.

The first (T quote from Dr. Theal)" was .horn in 14<)6. of
a p[Ood family, and received the best education that could be g^iven
in his day. From 1522 to 1525 he was captain of S. Jorp^e da
Mina, on the western coast of Africa; from 1525 to 1.S32 he was
Treasurer of the Indian Department, and in i_S32 he received
the appointment of factor in 'the India House. He died October
20th, 1570. De Barros had access to the journals, letters and
reports of the earlier discoveries and ofificers of all classes in
India and Africa, just as De Goes had, and here he found his
sources of information, but he used them all with more literary
skill, if not with greater judgment.

The following- extract concerns generally with the briefer
statement of De Goes. It is taken from Decade I., Book X., Chap.
I. of " Da Asia."

The land is rich in gold . . . but one of these negroes must be
very hungry before he will dig for it. . . . There are other mines on
a district called Toroa, which, by another name, is known as the
Kingdom of Butua, which is ruled by a prince called Burrom, a vassal
of Benomotapa, which land joins that aforesaid, consisting of vast
plains (i.e., Manica, see p. 260), and these mines are the most ancient
known in the country, and they are all in the plain in the midst of
which there is a square fortress of masonry within and without, built of
stones of marvellous size, and there appears to be no mortar joining them.
The wall is more than 25 spans in width. Above the door of this edifice
is an inscription, which some Moorish merchants, learned men, who
went thither could not read, neither could they tell what the character
might be. The edifice is almost surrounded by hills upon which are
others resembling it in the fashioning of the stone, and the absence
of mortar; and one of them is a tower more than 12 fathoms high.

This would be an accurate descriotion of the Great Zimbabwe
except for the term " stones of marvellous size " (De Goes has
"large and heavy stones"). This possibly applies to the large
granite boulders among which the buildings there are situated,
or it may be a simple error, large stones being connoted illogically
with large buildings. I continue the quotation: —

The natives of the country call these edifices Symbaoe, which,
according to their language, signifies " Court, "f for every place where
the Benomotapa may be is so called, and they say that, being royal
property all the king's other dwellings have this name. It is guarded
by a nobleman, who has charge of it, after the manner of a chief alcaide,
and they call this officer Symbacayo, or, as we should say. Regent of
the Symbaoe, and there are always some of the Benomotapa's wives
therein, of whom the Symbacayo takes care.

When and by whom these edifices were raised, as the people of
the land are ignorant of the art of writing, there is no record, but they
say they are the work of the devil, for in comparison with their power
and knowledge it does not seem possible to them that they should be
the work of man. Some Moors who saw it, to whom Vicente Pegado,
who was Captain of Sofala, showed one fortress there and the work
of the windows and arches, that they might compare it with the stone
work of the said edifice, said they could not be compared with it for

* Records S.E. Africa, 6 r.

t /.t'., cidcdc, or "great place" in original Corte.

B

496 WHO BUILT THE RHUDESIAN RUINS?

smoothness and perfection. The distance of the edifice from Sofala
in a direct Hne to the west is a hundred and seventy leagues or there-
abouts, and it is between 20° and 21° S. lat. -There are no ancient or
modern buildings in those parts, the people being barbarians, and all
their houses of wood. ,

In the opinion of the Moors, who saw it, it is very ancient, and
was built then to keep possession of the mines, which are very old;
and no gold has been extracted from these for years because of the
wars. Considering the situation and the fashion of the edifice, so far
in the interior, and which the Moors confess was not raised by them,
from its antiquity and their ignorance of the character of the inscrip-
tion above the door, we may suppose this is the region which Ptolemy
called Agysymba, where he made his mendional calculations, for the
name of the edifice and that of the oificer who guards it has some resem-
blance to that name, and one may be a corruption of the other.

Considering the facts of the matter, it would seem that some prince,
who had possession of the mines, ordered it to be built as a sign
thereof, which he afterwards lost in course of time, and through their
being so remote from his kingdom ; and as these edifices are very similar
to some which are found in the land of Prester John, at a place called
Acaxumo, which was a municipal city of the Queen of Sheba, which
Ptolemy calls Axuma, it would seem that the prince who was lord of
the state also owned these mines, and therefore ordered these edifices to
be raised there, in the same way as we have built the fortress of Mina
and this fortress of Sofala. And as in the time of Ptolemy, through the
inhabitants of that land of Abyssinia. Prester John, this land of which we
speak, which he calls Ethiopia, beyond Egypt, must have been in some way
renowned, by reason of its gold, and the place being well known Ptolemy
remained there while making his calculations) of the south.*

Die.^o de Couto, born in Lisbon 1542, visited India, and was
personally acquainted with South-Eastern Africa. His writings
attracted the notice of King FiHppe I. of Portugal, who appointed
him Chronicler of the State of India, and Principal Custodian of
the Archives in succession to-De Barros. He died in 1616.

The following extracts are (taken from his " De Asia," Decade
IX., Chaps. XXIV. and XXV. :

The governor, Vasco Fernandez Tlornem, did not lose heart and
abandon the expedition (to the Manica mines in the kingdom of Tshi-
kanga, 1569-70), but in defiance of hunger and thirst, he proceeded to
Simbaoe (the "great place" of the Quitive) which was the "Court"
(Corte) and which he found abandoned, as Quiteve had retreated with
his wives and children into a district which was very rugged and strong.
Before entering this city (cidade), the governor commanded it to be
set on fire, but the loss occasioned was inconsiderable, as although it
was large, it was built entirely of wood and straw. f ....

It is conjectured that when the Queen of Sheba wished to visit King
Solomon at Jerusalem, she went to these mines (of Monomotapa) to
obtain gold, which she took with her; in which place there were already
kings who, it is presumed, were subject to her; and even at the present
day in those parts, at the markets of M'asapa and Nabertura there are
great stone edifices, which she commanded to be built for herself, which
are called Simbave by the Kafiirs and which are like strong bulwarks.^

Antonio Bocarro succeeded Diego de Couto in the office of
the Keeper of the Archives and Chronicler of India from 163 1
to 1649. There is no reason to suppose that he did not draw his

■^Records S.E. Africa, 6, 267-8.
t Ihid., 6^ 388.
tibtd., 6, 390-1.

WHO BUILT THE RIIODESIAN RUINS? 497

material from authentic sources. 1 quote from Chap. CXXII. of
his " Decada Composta " :

Besides all these there is also a larger and principal kingdom which
is that of Makaranga, where the Monomotapa resides with his court
(corte). . . . There is also another kingdom adjoining this Makaranga,
which is the kingdom of Beza, where there is a palace of the ancient
Monomotapas (onde estas uns paqos dos Manamotapas antigos) which
the Kaffirs hold to be a supreme piece of work (consa supriina). All the
Monomotapas are buried there, and it serves them as a cemetery.

The dwelling in which the Monomotapa resides is very large, and is
composed of many houses, surrounded by a great wooden fence, within
which are three dwellings, one for his own person, one for the queen, and
another for his servants, who wait upon him within doors. There are
three doors opening into a great courtyard, one for the service of the
queens, beyond which no man may pass, but only women ; one for his
kitchen, only entered by his cooks. , , , The third door leads to the
king's apartments, which none may enter but young nobles, who serve
him within doors. . . .

The Monomotapas are generally of the Makaranga nation, who are a
feeble folk, and have no weapons of defence, fortresses, or walled cities.
Their weapons of offence are bows, arrows, and assegais.*

Our next witness, like Father Monclaro, is a padre, but of
the Dominican Order. Fr. Joao dos Santos, one of a large party
of Dominican friars who left Lisbon in 1^86, arrived at Sofala in
December of that year. Father dos Santos remained there until
June, 1590. In August, 1590, he visited Sena, and from thence
he went to Tete. In July, 1591, he went to Mozambique, and was
stationed at Qummba for six years. So that, as Dt. -Theal
observes, he was an eye-witness of the condition of afifairs at the
Portuguese stations south of the Zambesi at their very best period.
He left Mozambique for India, in 1597.

Extracts from his " Ethiopia Oriental," Book I., Chaps.
VIII., XVII:—

Every year, in the month of September, when the new moon appears,
Quiteve ascends a very high mountain situated near the city (cidade).
called Zimbaoe, on which he dwells, on the summit of which he performs
grand obsequies of the kings his predecessors, who are all buried there. .
. . . When the king has feasted eight days he begins his lamentation
for the dead who are buried there, and all join in continual lamentation
for two or three days, until the devil enters one of the Kafhrs of the
assembly, saying that he is the soul of the dead king.f

The Kaffirs have three methods of extracting and collecting gold.
The first and most usual method is to make deep holes and mines, from
which they dig into the earth along the veins which are known to them,
and bring out the gold, washing it with water in bowls, and thus freeing
it from the earth with which it is mixed. They do this at the great peril
of their lives, for very often the mines collapse, and many are killed

in this employment The second method of collecting the

gold is practised when it rains, for then the Kaffirs seek it in all the
springs of the mountains and plains, when it is laid bare by the
torrents and currents of water in which many nuggets and pieces of gold
arc found. . . . Thirdly the gold is extracted from certain stones
which are found in particular mines. These stones contain many veins
of gold, in order to extract which they break and grind them to powder,

* Records S.E. Africa, 3, 356-8.
\Ihid.. 7, 196-8.

498 WHO BUILT THE RHODESIAN RUINS?

which they afterwards wash in bowls, and all that is not gold melts in
the water and is carried off, the gold remaining in the bottom of the bowl,
and thus they collect it. This gold from the stones is called by the
Kaffirs " niatuca"; it is inferior, and of few carats hneness. All the other
gold they call '' dahabo," whether it be in powder or in pieces.*

In this kingdom of Abutua (north-west of the kingdom of Monomo-
tapa) there is also a quantity of fine gold, but the natives do not trouble
to seek it, or dig for it, as they are at a distance from the Portuguese,
who might buy it.f

Close to the town of Alasapa is a very high and grand mountain
called Fura. . . . On the summit of this mountain some fragments of
old walls and ancient ruins of stone and mortar are still standing, whioli
clearly show that once there were houses here and strong dwellings, which
are not to be found in all Kaffraria, as even the king's palaces {casas dos
reis) are built of wood, covered with clay, and thatched with straw. The
natives of these lands, especially some aged Moors, assert that they have a
tradition from their ancestors^ that these houses were anciently a
factory of the Queen of Sheba, and that from this place a great quantity
of gold was brought to her, it being conveyed down the rivers of Cuama
to the Indian Ocean, which they navigated in ships, keeping along the
coast of Ethiopia to the Red Sea, which they entered and pursued their
course up it until they reached the shores bordering on the lands of
Egypt, where they discharged all this gold, and thence it was conveyed
by land to the court of the Queen of Sheba, who, they said, was the queen
and mistress of a great part of Ethiopia above Egypt ; and by the Red
Sea, she send her fleets for the gold of these rivers.

I have very little doubt of this, as it is the opinion of some of our
most serious writers, who say that the Queen of Sheba was mistress of
that part of Ethiopia which is above Egypt; such authors as the glorious
St. Jerome, or the prophet Zephaniah ; Origan, on the book of Canticles ;
and Josephus, on his book upon Jewish Antiquities. § And besides this,
even at the present time there is a most noble city in Ethiopia which was
formerly called Sheba, situated on an island formed by the river Nile,
which is much renowned and talked of among the notable things of that
region, both on account of its fertility and because it is densely populated,
and frequented by men of various nationalities. The name of this city of
Sheba was changed to Meroe by a king called Cambyses, in memory of a
sister whom he greatly loved.

Pliny, Strabo, Josephus, and St. Jerome, and many other writers
make mention of these matters, from which one may infer that there is
solid foundation on what is said concerning the Q'.ieen of Ethiopia,
having a factory on this mountain of Fura, whence the gold was con-
veyed to her.

Others say that tliese are the runis of the factory of Solomon, when
he had his factors, who procured a great quantity of gold from these
lands, conveying it down the same rivers to the Indian Ocean, which they
navigate_d until they entered the straits of the Red Sea, disembarking on
the shores of Arabia, close to Suez, whence the gold was conveyed by land
to Jerusalem, a journey of about 80 leagues or less. They say, further,
that the gold of Ophir which was brought to Solomon was from the
place called Afura and Ophir, and that there is little difference between
Afur and Ophir which name has been corrupted by the changes of time
or the ages between that period and the present.

I know not what foundation they have for saying one thing or the
other. I can only say that there is a quantity of fine gold in the lands
around this mountain, and that it could be sent thence by these rivers
in those times as it is now by the Portuguese and was in former days

*Rccords of S.E. AfHca,9, 21S-X9. Cf. Avahk dahab, " gold." '^
fibid.. 7, 274.

t Not to be weighed, I presume, against native tradition.
§ I do not know whether anyone has taken the trouble to verify
these references !

WHO BUILT THE RHODESIAN RUINS? 499

through the medium of the Moors of Mozambique and Kihva before the
Portuguese conquered these lands.*

These speculations of the worthy Father about Sheba and
Ophir may be taken for what they are worth. They really depend
for such value as they may possess not upon his personal veracity,
but upon the authenticity of the writers to which he refers us and
the character of their testimony. But for his own descrip'tion
of South-East Africa, and his witness as to what he himself has
seen and heard, Dos Santos is as trustworthy and truthful, I dare
to say, as any living missionary or civil servant, (taking into con-
sideration the scientific knowledge of his age, which only dilYers
from our own in the degree of its limitations.

From the extracts we have given it may be fairly inferred
that in the i6th and 17th centuries ancient stone buildings existed
in various parts of South-East Africa ; that on account of their
antiquity and the mystery of their origin they were regarded v/ith
awe by the natives of that day, whose chiefs in many instances
used them as sanctuaries and burial-places for their deceased pre-
decessors, and perhaps, when their situation was suitable, as
military posts and guard-houses ; and that the name of Zimbabwe,
ordinarily applied to the Sidades or Coptes (great places) of the
reigning Bantu chiefs, was also extended to these royal tombs and
fastnesses. t

Further we have very clear evidence that all the huts and
other contemporary structures of the Bantu, including the so-
called " palaces " of the chief, their kraals and granaries were
built mainly if not entirely of wood and clay or dagga, and cer-
tainly not of dressed stone.

With regard to the so-called mines, the natives only under-
stood alluvial working, breaking and grinding stones containing
ore and excavation by means of -trenches, but not underground
working.

The general opinion among the natives of that time was that
the stone buildings were of remote antiquity, and of supernatural
purpose and origin.

Public Library_,

Grahamstown.

Atomic Weight of Nebulium. — In a paper on the

atomic weierhts of the elements in nebuls, contributed to the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, j. W.
Nicholson derives i.3irl--OOi as the atomic weight of nebulium
from considerations of the vibrations of a ring of four electrons
round a positive nucleus.

* Records S.E. Africa, 7, 27^-277.

t The writer does not concur in the distinction drawn by some
between the Zimbabwe (Zimbabgi,) of the elliptical temple and the
Zimbaoe, Zimbaohe, Zimbaoche of the royal residence. Both words are
the same and end with a locative termination " bwe," "che," meaning " the
place of — '' Zimba or the king.

A NOTE ON THE POLLINATION OF CYANELLA

CAP EN SIS, LINN.*

By Edwin Percy Phillips, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

{Read, July 9, 191 8.)

The structure of the flower of Cyanella capensis suggested
that some interesting facts might be obtained as regards the
polHnation by keeping a number of the plants under observation.
On December 4th five plants were brought in to the herbarium
and placed in jars of fresh water. All stages in the develop-
ment of the flower were shown from the young bud to the faded
flower.

Before proceeding to the discussion of the pollination, a
■'ef description of the flower is necessary. The perianth con-
sists of six members in two whorls. The anterior segment
belongs to the outer whorl ; it is a boat-shaped structure and the
largest of the segments : the other two members of the outer
whorl are similar in shape but smaller, and not so concave. The
posterior segment belongs to the inner whorl, and is similar to
its two lateral members. The androecium consists of six stamens,
which may be divided into three groups. The first group is
made up of three stamens opposite the posterior perianth-
segment, and the two lateral segments of the outer whorl respec-
tively : these stamens are almost terete, bent in the middle at an
angle of about 60°, and open by a single terminal pore. Opposite
the lateral segments of the inner perianth-w'horl are the stamens
of the second group, similar in shape to those described above,
but are curved rather than bent. They dehisce by a terminal
slit, and according to the age of the flower their tips may or may
not project beyond a vertical, line drawn through the apices of
the uppermost stamens. At the front of the flower, opposite
to and lying in the concavity of the anterior perianth-segment, is
a stamen whose anther is totally different to those of the other
five. It is an oblong body dehiscing by two terminal slits.
Almost in the same plane as the lateral stamens is the style with
three very short stigmas.

The flower is protandrous, the anthers opening in the bud
and exposing the pollen. In buds just about to open, the anthers
are all erect ; the style lies on the anterior anther, and is curved
upwards near the tip, and at this stage the three stigmas are
clearly visible. f The style in younger buds is quite straight, and
is closely surrounded by the five anthers. At first the buds are
vertical but gradually assume a horizontal position, and finally

* These observations were made at the herbarium of the South
African Museum, Capetown, in 1913.

t The stigma is not capitate as described in the " Flora Capensis."

POLLINATION OF CYANELLA CAPENSIS. 50I

are almost pendulous due to a sharp bend, which forms at the
junction of the petiole and bud; it is in the latter position that
the bud expands. I have no record of the length of time elapsing
between the first formation of the bud and the opening of the
flowers, but in the plants kept under observation it took 12 days,
viz., from December 4th to December 15th for very young buds
to expand into the adult flower. Buds which have already
assumed a position below the horizontal opened within 1-4 days.
All the flowers open during the night ; in no single instance did
any of the flowers open during the day. I always found buds,
which at 4.30 p.m. looked mature, open at 9 a.m. the following
morning. In one instance, a bud which was partly open in the
morning remained in the same position during the whole day,
and only open out completely the following morning. When a
bud opens the antherior perianth-segment moves first ; then the
two lateral inner segments, followed by the lateral outer seg-
ments, and finally the posterior segment. All the segments, with
the exception of the anterior one, which hangs down vertically,
become reflexed. The anterior anther is parallel with the
anterior segment ; i.e., it is also vertical ; the two lateral anthers
lie at an angle below the horizontal, and above them are arched
the three posterior anthers. In this stage of the flower the style
is curved upwards, so placing the stigmas in the same vertical line
as the tips of the lateral antihers. The stigmas usually lie mid-
way between the two stamens, but in some cases the style is bent
either to the left or right, and the stigmas are then immediately
under the pore of one of the anthers. The flowers remain in
this position for 4-5 days ; in one case seven days elapsed between
the opening of the bud and the closing of the flower. Pollina-
tion of the stigmas seems to act as a stimulus to the perianth-
segments to close, as in flowers which were artificially pollinated
on opening, closed within two days ; otiher flowers of the same
inflorescence, and which opened at the same time and not pollin-
ated, remained open for six days. A minute drop of fluid is
exuded from between the stigmas ; in some cases I observed this
just after the flower expanded; in other instances not until 2-3
days after opening.

Every bud which expanded in the herbarium eventually
became pollinated, and this could only have been due to self-
pollination. In some cases pollen was observed on the stigmas
before the flowers closed ; in other cases not ; but in all the ovary
has swelled and a fruit was in the course of formation. Buds
on plants growing in the field were enclosed in muslin bags to
prevent the visit of insects, and in every case a mature fruit
had formed. Though I have had these plants under observa-
tion for some weeks in the field I have failed to notice a single
insect visiting them, though several species of bees and flies
were common in the neighbourhood.

The results of my experiments make me believe that there
are three stages in the pollination of Cyanella capensis as fol-
lows : —

S02 POLLINATIO.\ OF CYAN ELLA CAPENSIS.

1. Cross-pollination: Here the large anterior anther evidently
plans an important role, but this I (have not been able to verify. •

2. Self-pollination (first stage) : The relation of the posi-
tions of the stigmas and the two lateral stamens as described
above renders self-pollination very possible as any pollen falling
from the terminal slits of the anthers would probably strike the
stigmas and adhere there. In some of the flowers kept in the
herbarium this actually happened, and would in all probability
be much more frequent in the field where the flowers are often
violently shaken by the wind.

3. Self-pollination (second stage) : As stated above, some
of the flowers which closed before any pollen was observed on
the stigmas yet managed to set fruit, and the pollination in this
case is brought about by the posterior anthers. As the perianth-
segments begin to close, the anterior anther, and with it the
style, is lifted up by the moving segments, and eventually all the
stamens will close together. While this is happening the three
posterior anthers exude drops of fluid from their apices which,
owing to the position of the style, cannot fail reaching the stigmas
and so effect pollination.

I examined this fluid from the stamens and found that it
contained numerous pollen-grains. The pollen of Cyanella
capensis thus retains its power of germination for at least a week,
i.e., for tihe first dehiscence of the anthers to the closing of the
flower. As a further proof of this the pollen-grains from the
three sets of anthers, and taken from an almost closed flower,
were got to germinate in a cultural solution of 1.5 per cent,
gelatine and 15 per cent, sugar.

The perianth a day or two after the flower has closed be-
comes dry and rigid and falls off entire with the stamens by
means of a circular split at the base. The young ifruit assumes
a vertical position and matures.

Summary.

In Cyanella capensis the bud is at first vertical then becomes
horizontal, and finally pendulous; in the latter stage it expands.
The flower is protandrous, and the six stamens are arranged in
■three groups of 3. 2. and i. The tip of the style curves upwards
and the stigmas lie near the apices of the lateral stamens in such
a position as to favour self-pollination. As the flower closes the
posterior stamens exude a fluid laden with pollen grains, which
ensures pollination if other methods fail. The flower is also
pvidentlv adapted to cross-pollination by insects, but this has not
been verified.

Division of Botany,

Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

THE BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS: .BACTERIUM
PHASEOLI ERW. SM.

By Ethel M. Doidge, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

{Read, July lo, 1918.)

From time to time complaints have been received of the
discoloration and malformation of beans cultivated as a field
crop, and in every case bacteria were found in the tissues ; but
only recently has an opportunity occurred for isolating and
identifying the causal organism.

The exceptionally heavy and continuous rains last summer
were favourable to the development of all kinds of fungous and
bacterial parasites, and not only were numerous samples of
diseased beans sent for examination, but plots of French beans
{Phaseolus vulgaris) and Lima beans {Phaseolus lunatiis)
planted for experimental purposes became infected, and so a
favourable opix>rtunity was presented for studying the disease.
The prevalence of the bean blight is probably not only due to the
wet season, but also to the fact that imported seed has been diffi-
cult to obtain, and that the local seed is not carefully selectted.
A local firm of seedsmen in applying for a recommendation for
a permit to import bean seeds, submitted for examination a
sample of seed which had been offered them by a Transvaal
grower, and which was infected to the extent of 75 per cent, with
Bacterium PhaseoU.

Description of the Disease.

The bacterial blight attacks the ordinary field and garden
varieties and also Lima beans, and its effects are most conspicu-
ous on the leaves, pods and seed.

Like most leaf spot diseases, the first evidence of infection
is the development of minute water-soaked areas in the leaf
tissues ; these increase in size, and turn dark brown or black ;
and the leaf blade being thin, and consisting of only a few layers
of cells, the affected areas appear translucent if the leaf is held
up to the light. Under favourable conditions the spots formed
are so numerous that they coalesce, so that large areas of the leaf
turn yellow and the leaves fall prematurely. On other occasions
the area of infection spreads very rapidly, forming large brown
patches which are soft and limp in wet weather, but in any
weather become papery and brittle. On a badly blighted patch,
the leaves become dry and curled as if scorched.

The pods may also become infected; if they are attacked in
the very early stages they shrivel and die, but on the older pods
the disease produces spreading watery spots which finally become
discoloured, but are never sunken like those caused bv the
anthracnose fungus (Collefofriclium lindemuthianum). From

504 BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS.

the pods the organism readily invades the young seeds, but
curiously enough, in examining an infected crop of Lima beans
recently, I found that in many cases the seeds were infected when
I could not find any trace of disease on the pods. How infection
comes about in such cases I am at a loss to know.

Seeds which have been attacked by the blight are frequently
undersized, and malformed, and show one or more sunken, dis-
coloured areas. It seems probable that the 9Ji<janism is chiefly
carried over from one season to the next by means of these dis-
eased seeds, although there is also the possibilitv of reinfection
from the soil where rotation of crops is not practised.

The Cause of the Disease.

The organism causing the bacterial blight of beans in
America was described by Erwin F. Smith in 1897* as Bacillus
phaseoli; he isolated the organism and secured numerous infec-
tions with pure cultures. The disease had been previously
ascribed to bacteria by other writers, but the organism had not
been described nor had its pathogenicity been proved.

Further studies of the cultural characters of the organism,
which he now named Pseudomonas Phaseoli, were published by
Smith in iQOi.f The same or a very similar organism has also
been briefly described by Delacroix,^ who obtained it from dis-
eased beans in fields near Paris.

The South African Disease.

No difficulty was experienced in isolating the organism from
the diseased tissues, and the same organism has been isolated
repeatedly from diseased leaves and seeds.

Inoculations were carried out by atomising young growing
bean plants with a suspension of the culture, and the first signs
of infection were observed 7-10 days after infection. From the
leaf spots thus produced the organism was re-isolated, and
further successful inoculations carried out with the re-isolated
culture. In only one case did the controls become infected, when
plants were used growing out of doors in drums, and this
occurred during a spell of rainy weather. Subsequent experi-
ments were carried out in a different part of the grounds, and no
further infection of the control plants occurred.

Characters of the Organism.

The characters of the organism coincide closely with those
given by Smith for Bacterium phaseoli, and there can be no doubt

* Description of Bacillus phaseoli n.sp., with remarks on related
species. — Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. (1897), 288-290.

f The cultural characters of Pseudomonas Hyacinthi, P. campestris.
Ps. Phaseloi and Ps. Steivarti, four one flagellate yellow bacteria para-
sitic on plants. Division of Vc^t. Phys. and Path. Bull. No. 28 (1901).

f'La graisse. maladie bactericnne des Haricots," Comptes Rcndus.
129. 656.

BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS. 5^5

that the two are identical. Bacterium pliaseoli is a motile rod
with rounded ends, and with a single polar flagellum. It produces
yellowish colonies on nutrient agar, and clouds nutrient broth,
with the formation of a ring above the surface of the liquid ;f
grows well on potato and other vegetable cylinders, covering the
cylinder and filling the water with a solid yellow slime, the starch
in the potato cylinders is entirely destroyed. In milk it causes
a gradual separation of the casein and the whey ; the former is
partially redissolved after some weeks. It liquefies gelatine and
blood serum slowly ; produces indol in peptone media, does not
reduce nitrates, and produces no acid in sugar broths ; grows very
slowly or not at all in Uschinsky's solution ; grows well between
25° and 30° C, thermal death point 49-50° C. and is strictly
aerobic.

Preventive Measures.

Spraying is usually not practicable in the case of such a
crop as this, especially at present, when the price of matsrials is
almost prohibitive, the best means of preventing bacterial blight
are (i) a careful rotation of crops to prevent soil infection, and
(2) a careful selection of seed; any sample showing even a small
percentage of blight should be rejected for seed purposes.

Botanical Laboratories,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

Alcohol, from Seaweed. — Sir Edward Thorpe has
recently pointed out the ix)ssibilities of seaweeds as a source of
industrial alcohol. Certain seaweeds which are procurable in
large quantities may, according to Sir Edward, be suitably treated
so as to yield considerable quantities of alcohol. It is said that
on an average about 6 quarts of alcohol have been produced at
the Pasteur Institute from lOO lb. of red wrack, and if treated at
higher pressures on an industrial scale even larger yields may be
obtainable. The Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
suggests that if the above views materialise a ready and cheap
source of alcohol will be provided, together with the possibility of
employment for persons whose livelihood was greatly impover-
ished by the loss to them of the keljj industry. The process
adopted at the Pasteur Institute is stated to be as follows : The
plants were reduced to lo per cent, by evaporation. They were
then placed in water containing three to six per cent, of sul-
phuric acid at about 6o°C. The acidity is reduced to one per
cent., and the sugary liquid with nitrogenous material added in
some cases was sprinkled with brew^ers* yeast. This — particularly
where nitrogenous material had been added — soon began to fer-
ment, the alcohol being recovered in the usual wav by distillation,
leaving the residue available for the extraction of potash.

UNREALISED FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT.

By Rev. John Roi^kkt Lewis Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

{Read, July lo, 1918.)

Synopsis.

I. — Introductory : —

The teaching of economics in South Africa.

Economic developments in Native life cannot be prevented.

Collection of data.

Arrangement.

II. — Domestic Animals :

(i) Cattle.

Outline.
Detailed studies.

(2) I'he horse.

Introduced.

Parts played in history.

Transport.

(3) Sheep and goats.

Introductory.
Stock improved.
Wool and mohair.
Dipping-.
Export values.

(4) Disease.

Heavy losses.

War.

Rebellions.

(') Drought.

Affects transport.
Paralyses business.
Losses of stock.
Famine.
Rain-makers.
'■ Smelling out."
Birth of tribe.
Rebellions.

III. — Implements :

(i) Implements of war.
Firearms.

Muskets.

Early conditions.

Portuguese routed.

Dutch.

Kaffirs.

Effect on witchcraft.
Gunpow^der — traps and mines.
Rockets.
Guns.

Gun-running.

R ad ways.

Restrictions.

Basuto war.
Rifles — later Kaffir wars.
Maxims.

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 507

(2) Implements of peace.

(a) The plough.

Bushmen implements.
Native spades.
Native methods.
Introduction of plough.
Social changes.
Improved production.
Reversion.
Consequences.

(b) The axe.

(c) The bead.

In barter.

Effect on commerce.

Relationshijis.

IV. — Communications :

(i) The ship.

Discovery.

Shipwrecks.

Intercourse with Natives.

Infusion of white blood.

Eflfects on descendants.

Survey of South .\frican coast.

(2) The Wheel.

Exploration.

Expansion.

Production.

Commerce.

Great Irek.

Transport driving.

Railways.

Motor transport.

Roads and bridges.

Aeroplanes.

Serious considerations.

(3) Concluding remarks.

I . — ^I NTRODUCTORY.

W'^ithin recent years a very great development has taken
place in the teaching of economics in the Universities of the
world; so recent indeed is the movement in South Africa that
reference to the paper read by me at the Kimberley Session of the
Association in 1914 reveals an urgent appeal (all the more
cogent because the Vice-Chancellor of the Cape University,
Professor Ritchie, was presiding) for the extension of facilities
in this subject in all our University Colleges, and that economics
be given its due place in the syllabus of the University. Since
then conditions have changed mightily, and the subject now has
its rightful place in all three of our South African Universities,
and in the Colleges either professorships or lectureships have
been established. The movement, however, has been so recent
that anything like a systematic study of Native conditions, con-
sidered from the economic point of view, has never yet been
attempted; and in the comparatively meagre existing literature,
while some attention has been given to matters ])hilological.

508 FACTORS IN NATIVE liCCJNO.MIC DEVELOPMENT.

ethnological, and historical, whatever there is of economic interest
and value has crept in mainly, if not altogether, as a side issue.
There is therefore a vast field of research awaiting investigation
and exploitation, and the importance of these investigations
cannot be sufficiently urged. It is not by any means sufficient to
acknowledge that the Natives are an asset to the State, nor am
I to be regarded as urging the mere commercial exploitation of
the Native population. Nevertheless one cannot but see the
enormous advantages accruing to the Natives themselves as
the standard of thought, and life, and work, is raised, issuing
in the growth of wealth per head of ])Opulation from, say, two
pounds per annum spending-power. uj) to not less than twenty
pounds per annum spending-power. Whh a Native population of
(roughly) one million, it would make the very substantial differ-
ence of £18,000,000 per annum for purposes of taxation and
commerce. Applied to the Union of South Africa, wi,th a
population of (roughly) seven millions, the aggregate gain in
wealth available for all puq^oses would be raised to £138,000,000.
annually. This looks like juggling with figures, but it represents
sober fact. It is, indeed, obvious that even so moderate an
advancement as that suggested would be beneficial not only to
the Natives themselves, but also to the white merchants, and
to the State. So far, however, our eyes have been closed to the
possibility, or else we have feared the competition of the black-
man would oust the white man, but meanwhile the progress of
the Native peoples continues, and must inevitably do so, in spite
of all obstacles most folk are content to leave in their way.
We may as well try to stop w^ater from running down hill — it
may be dammed back for a time onlv until its own weight breaks
down all barriers with a rush and flood. The wise man, there-
fore, will attempt to understand the conditions and the factors
at work. In its ultimate analysis the problem may be sunmied
up thus : — Are the natives happier, and better off, and living to
best purpose, under their own tribal organisation, and laws, and
customs, than they would be under British law and administration,
subjected to the powerful transforming factors of education and
economic pressure?

That they are still mainly a pastoral people to-day is
admitted ; that they are rapidly becoming more and more an
agricultural people is a fact. Then, again, their tribal organisa-
tion is to all intents and purposes disrupted already in some
parts of the Union, and in process in other areas. Witchcraft,
the dominant and binding factor of heathenism, is largely dis-
credited, and lingers mainly as a powerful, deep-rooted, secret
superstition, and in consequence the ancient laws and customs,
practised from time immemorial, are either fallen into disuse, or
corrupted with many modern ideas drawn from various sources.

The position, then, is that we have burned the bridges and
the Native peoples are definitely and actually cut off from the
terrible past, so that it is too late to even put the question
v/hether the old regime should continue. The hour for indecision

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 5aj

is gone. The die is actually cast. The period of transition,
already upon us, needs strong- and wise leadership — which is
precisely what is not forthcoming. For better or for worse we
are already committed to that course, which means education,
and economic jiressure, with all that these imply.

The purpose, then, of our present study is to contribute
some notes on the unrealised factors in the situation. Where so
little has as yet been attempted, it is not always easy to see the
real values attaching to individual efforts vmtil sufficient data
have been accumulated and co-ordination of that data becomes
possible, and we are in full agreement with the appeal made by
Mr. Maurice S. Evans in his presidential address to this section
of the Association last year, that fur the present at least every
efifort should be made to collect the facts. This paper is therefore
to be regarded as a small contribution, merely suggestive in
character, along this particular line.

In dealing with the unrealised factors of Native economic
development, it is essential for us to begin at the bej^inning-, at
that time when the Natives still dwelt undisturbed by the white
man, and in accordance with the customs and usag-es which had
prevailed from time immemorial. For purposes of convenience
the various factors are grouped together in three divisions, the
relationship of each to witchcraft being indicated, and in so
considering the available material it is quite realised that the
arrangement might well have been otherwise, and also that in
many cases a certain amount of action, interaction, and counter-
action as between the factors must be allowed for. The classi-
fication, therefore, must not be regarded -as even attempting
finality; it is purely one of convenience.

II. — Domestic Animals.

By way of illustrating the foregoing remarks on the subject
of future development of this s'tudy, attention is drawn to the
first great unrealised factor which falls to be considered. When
I set out to deal with the domestic animals of the aborigines,
the first and most important consideration was obviously (i) the
Cattle, and as I sought to realise the economic values of this
factor, it speedily became clear to me that the field of enquiry was
sufficiently large and important to require a paper to itself, and
when I sat down to the task I foimd that anything like a full
study of this subject would easily require a second paper.
Already I have dealt with the economic effects of the East Coast
Fever,* and there still remains the further necessity for working
out the importance and values, and place, of cat!tle in Native life
and thought. Those, then, who desire detail will find it in the
papers to which reference has already been made, for here we
must confine ourselves to the broad outlines.

The outline, then, shows us that it was the hope of securing
fresh meat that induced the early voyagers to land at the Cape
in the first instance, and a quarrel over cattle that scared them

* Rept. S.A. Assoc, for Adv. of Science, Pretoria, 213-226 (1915).

=)lO FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

away. Their abandonment of the Cape left it vacant for the
Dutch to occupy, and this was ettected in order to secure a station
where the East Indiamen could get supplies of fresh meat and
vegetables.

The early troubles with the Hottentots arose over cattle.
The explorations and expansions of the settlement were depen-
dent upon cattle ; the Great Trek, nearly all the Kaffir wars, the
self-destruction of the Amaxosa race in 1856, and numerous
other important events and developments are closely related to
this unrealised factor. Since these are detailed in a separate
paper, it is not proposed to recapitulate them here.

(2) The Horse, on the other hand, was unknown to the
aborigines. Strange and wonderful stories are told of the super-
stitious fears of the Natives when first they saw men riding
horses. Probably the first of these which fell into the hands of
the Natives where the old " crocks " left behind as useless by
one and another of the military expeditions which invaded Kaffir-
land, and once they got over their superstitions the desire for
possession sprang up in the hearts of the younger men, this
leading to endless episodes and thievings all along the Eastern
frontier. The Rev. Stephen Kay mentions in his " Caft'rarian
Researches,"* that

They have been much encouraged and assisted within the last four
or five years by travellers and military gentlemen, who have presented
them with horses of a superior description .... The old chief one
day tauntingly upbraided his sons with not being able to use their legs
since they had got amahashi (horses) to carry them. "This,'" said he,
"was not the case when S'Lhamhi was young; we even tliought it no task
to journey on foot, or to try the strength of our limbs in hunting. But
things are altered now !"

The changing circumstances exerted an immediate influence
on the general situation affecting race relationships. So long as
the horse was the possession only of the soldiers the advantages
of distance and speed were on their side, and as the number of
horses in Kaffirland increased the task of maintaining order and
punishing wrongdoers became increasingly difficult.

Nevertheless it operated to open uj) the country and to
" speed up " development generally, for the lumbering ox-wagon
could go across the veld where roads there were none, but the
lighter horse-drawn vehicle made roads a necessity.

Then, again, at a critical time in the history of Natal, the
horse played a most important part. The bitter struggles which
issued in the Great Trek had not been forgotten by the emigrant
Boers, and in pursuance of their policy they l>oldly proclaimed
a Republic in Natal, in order to be independent of the British
Government. After an encounter with the soldiers, the garrison
were besieged in a small fort, and the British sovereignty in Natal
was in serious danger. x\t this stage a Colonist named Richard
King rode 600 miles across Kaffirland in ten days, from Durban
to Grahamstown. and a relief expedition 1)eing sent with all speed,
arrived just in time to save the situation. In this case the history

*i2T (1833).

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 5II

of Natal, indeed of the Union, hung upon the powers of the
horse as much as on the indomitable vv^ill of a brave man.

Once again, the death of the Prince Imperial of France
during the Zulu War, an event of international importance, was
due to the restlessness of his spirited steed.

A concluding consideration that cannot be lightly dismissed
is the fact that in a land of sparse population and great distances
every well-to-do farmer was wont to glory in a spanking pair of
horses and a Cape cart, that came to be spoken about even in the
remote corners of the earth.

Yet is the tale well-nigh told, for to-day the motor has almost
completely replaced the horse-drawn vehicle, and except in the
rarest instances the horse-drawn vehicle is not met with on our
country roads. Who, indeed, shall estimate the place and value
of the horse (i) in opening up the country at all times, and in
abnormal times, such as during gold and diamond rushes, and
the various wars ; (2) in speeding up and maintaining com-
munication; and (3) as, in itself, a valuable article of commerce.
(3) The Sheep and Goats. — ^During the past four years of
war the immense value of the wool trade has been emphasised
before our eyes. In the earliest days the aborigines were in
possession of a primitive creature with abnormally developed
tail, which after years of development is known to us as the
Africander sheep. In addition, the natives have been accumula-
ting sheep from various sources for years past, and latterly have
even imported the best stock through their own Agricultural
Institution at Tsolo. The traders, too. realisinp- that they would
get better prices 'for the wool bought from the natives if the
quality was better, have from time to time made it their business
in a quiet way to introduce better stock either bv giving a present
of a ram to some strategic headman, or else by selling a better
class of stock to the Natives.

In these ways there has been some improvement in native
wools, but much is yet to be done. However, while it is impos-
sible to state definitely how much of the wool passing through
East London and Port Elizabeth, and Durban, comes from purely
native sources, yet it is possible to give accurate statistics as to
the stock in the Transkeian Territories, and to make reasonable
deductions. The number of she"- is ofificiallv estimated at
2,036,202 in the whole of the Transkei ; the number of goats in
the same area is 886,458; and the number of cattle is 434,063.
In order to secure adequate dipping arrangements for small and
large stock, some 181 cattle-dippino- tanks are in use, with 28
under construction, and 649 sheep-dipping tanks are in use. with
61 others under construction. The substantial amount of money
required for the building of so many tanks throughout the length
and breadth of the country, not to mention that required annually
for upkeep, is in itself an indication of the importance of this
factor, and the disposition of the Natives themselves to care for
their stock wMth a view to larger and better production. In 1915
some 170,000,000 lbs. of wool, valued at £55,380,281. and

c

512 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

16,000,000 lbs. of mohair, valued at £687,635, were exported
from the Union, and calculating on the pro rata basis, it is evident
that the values of Native wools and mohair must be in the neigh-
bourhood of £400,000, not allowing- for the Native stock in the
Colony proper, which would be additional.

(4) Disease. — The place of disease, too, in the Native
economy is a factor to be reckoned with, especially in this country,
which seems to welcome with enthusiasm every possible scourge !
The rinderpest in 1897 and thereabouts wrought havoc through-
out the length and breadth of the land, sweeping off, it is said, as
much as Qo per cent, of the total cattle, thus inflicting staggering
losses upon the Natives and reducing very considerably the total
wealth of the native poi^ulation, which was mainly invested in
stock. The East Coast Fever in 1910-1914 repeated the process
in toto.

Moreover, the Matabele War of 1896 was directly traceable
to the former visitation, for the Government adopted heroic
measures, and taking the view that in any case the cattle in given
areas would all perish, ordered that all the cattle in those areas
were to be shot, so as to stay the scourge by making it impossible
for it to spread further. Such a i)roceeding the Natives could
not understand, and the consequent restlessness led eventuallv to
rebellion, necessitating a lengthy campaign. As a matter of fact,
in the later visitation, trouble, essentiallv similar in character,
found expression amongst Transkeian Natives. The Natives
were ordered to dip their cattle, and being very much opposed to
such procedure, the result came very near to disaster. It certainly
entailed no slight expense, for the military forces were called
out and held in readiness in case of emergency — and this happened
not once only. To a lesser, and yet to an appreciable extent,
other diseases, such as the horse-sickness which periodicallv
sweeps various districts, and gal-lam-sickte, which does such
damage to the small stock, come within the purview of this
section, operating with deadlv effect to retard development.

(5) Drouc/hf. — Then, again, drought i§ a consideration which
cannot be neglected in this connection, related as it is to the other
factors already enumerated. Tf a serious drought is experienced
the oasturage dries awav under the scorching sun. and the ^^attle
having no pasturage along the roadside, the whole transport
system is hung up. and the whole business of the territory is
paralysed. Then, too, the cattle lose condition and fall an easy
prev to disease. Since there is no rain there can be no nlouehing,
and if a suitable shower does come along, so manv cattle have
either died off, or are in low condition, that onlv a relativelv small
amount can be finished in the limited time. Avith the nett result
that much less land than usual is oloughed. while the continued
drousfht eives the borer-worm a chance to establish himself and
to comolete the fell work of eatino- at the heart of the nlant until
it is entirelv destroved. Thus ^vholp fields nerish. and the harvest
is considerablv reduced. Tn Kaffirland. where irrieation is not
known, and dry-land farming is not practised, the results year by

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECUNUMIC DEVELOPMENT. ^1^)

year are disastrous in whole districts, and the total losses must
be very great considered in the ag^gregate.

Ihe drought, however, had another effect which is not on
any account to be left out of consideration, for it operated in
the sphere of influence which so profoundly controls tribal
organisation and life, the sphere of witchcraft. The importance
of the factor of droug-ht is to be gauged by the fact that a class of
rainmakers was called into being in order to produce rain when
needed. The theory of the whole business from the Native point
of view is that the rites and ceremonies performed by the rain-
maker produces the rain, and its failure to appear at the appointed
time is due to the evil influence of one of the amagqwira, or
sorcerers. Thus the chief sends a beast to the rainmaker and
asks him for rain, and this beast is sacrificed. Ordinarily speak-
ing, rain should appear on the third day, when the bones are
burned.

If the rain does not come, the chief sends to ask the reason
why, and some excuse is hastily invented. Perhaps the particular
beast was not of the right colour, and so was not acceptable to
the imishologu or spirits of their ancestors. Another beast
must then be sent to be similarlv sacrificed — in which case the
rainmaker and his family get another supply of meat, for the
beast is split along the spine, and one-half is retained by the
ofificiating priest for his own use, while the remainder is dis-
tributed amongst those present — and if the result is still negative,
he boldly declares that some sorcerers are at work counteracting
his influence and medicines, and that he can do nothing until they
have been " smelt out " and the charm destroyed.

Sometimes the nmhlahlo ceremony is performed, or else the
rainmaker denounces some man as the sorcerer without any such
pretension. In many cases the man scents danger and flies for
sanctuary to a neighbouring tribe, and this is regarded as proof
positive that he must have been guilty ! In other cases some poor
creature is tortured until, to escape further agonies, he admits
that some small object was tiie charm which counteracted the
rainmaker's efforts ! Any little deviation from the ordinary
tribal custom was sufficient to single a man out and bring him
into danger of being denounced as a sorcerer, and so deeply and
universally is this ingrained into their thought that no Native
(until quite recently) would even plant potatoes, on the ground
that it was not according to the custom of their 'fathers to plant
more than pumpkins, and mealies, and Kaf^r-corn, and sugar
cane, and to do so would therefore certainly cause a drought.

In a land of frequent droughts like South Africa, rainmakers
sometimes rose to positions of great eminence and power, and
profoundly influenced the tribe for peace or war, good or evil.
Many, indeed most, enjoyed a spell of success only to find an
untimely end ; but while they were in power their constant
" smelling-out " of individuals helped to distribute the cattle and
to keep them in circulation, for a man who had large herds was
a most profitable quarry to denounce, and his herds w^uld all be

514 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

confiscated by the chief and redistributed amongst those for-
tunates (including the rainmaker himself, of course) who were
in favour.

This practice of " smelling-out '' had a very remarkable
result on at least one recorded occasion. It was carried to such
excess amongst certain tribes that there was an almost continuous
stream of fugitives into a neighbouring territory, and these
eventually banded together to form the Amangqunukwebi tribe ;
so that one may with perfect faithfulness to truth ascribe no less
an event than the birth of a tribe to the influence of witchcraft,
and to go further still, one might even point out the not too remote
part played by drought in stimulating the practice of that cult,
and so contributing to this strange result.

Perhaps, however, the most serious consideration of all is to
be found in the fact that again and again in the history of the
relationships between the white and black races, when droughts
were causing the cattle and crops to die, witch doctors, or i^anusi,
would arise and declare to the superstitious people that when the
whites were all killed it would rain plentifully. How large a
part these wild promises played in urging the warriors to plunge
into the various Kaffir wars can never be truly estimated at this
late date, but it is on record that this was one of the great induce-
ments to strife used by desperate men who realised that the hour
of their doom had struck, and that henceforth their pretensions
were indeed forever ended unless they could utterly destroy the
white man and rehabilitate themselves in the confidence of their
fellow-tribesmen. And so they used their most powerful
weapons, and. associating the promise of gain with the preten-
sions of witchcraft, made periods of drought the occasion for a
bold bid to drive the white man back into the sea, whence he had
dome.

III. — Implements.

The second great class of unrealised factors may be grouped
under the general heading of implements, and those may be
divided for convenience into implements of war and those of
peace. Thus our attention is attracted particularly to the fire-
arms, the plough, the axe. the bead, the ship, and the wheel, the
last two being referable to the concluding division of our study,
viz., the communications.

Dealing, then, with (i) Implements of War, we turn our
thoughts to the part played by firearms. It is strange to think
how a small handful of white men, in the 'face of overwhelming
odds, found a footing in the sub-continent, and gradually con-
quered the whole country, subduing the hordes of blacks opposed
to them. No man can say that the aborigines were not brave,
nor can any say that they were lacking in physical strength.
Indeed, on some occasions, especially in the earliest days, they
rendered a very good account of themselves, their methods of
warfare being sufficient to frighten away the Portuguese
altogether from the Cape. The ponderous lance and the ancient

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 515

musket were more of a hindrance than a help when it came to he
matched against a hght bow with poison-tipped arrow, the spear,
the shield, the assegai. The Dutch, however, were more success-
ful in their methods of resistance. So early as 1673, William
Ten Rhyne visited the Cape, and he tells us that " The Hotten-
totes . . . don't care to engage with us for fear of our tire-
locks." In a later chapter he adds the following interesting
information : —

Their chief strength hes in a furprize, having been taught by the
Lj'ons (which are very numerous here) that it is fafeft to appear with-
out their lurking holes in bad ' Weather ; when our Fire-Arms are
generally out of order, they follow their footfteps, and lurking among
the woods, fend their Darts from thence among our People; but if
they happen to meet them in clear Weather, and in the open Fields, they
get up a huge Cry, and immediately retreat to the Woods, or thorny
Hills, from whence they may tight at a diftance, by the help of their
Bows and Arrows.

It will thus be seen that the ancient muskets of the Portu-
guese had given place to a weapon sufficiently improved to secure
the ascendancy over the primitive bow and arrow, at least so long
as the weather was line. " Trust in God and keep the powder
dry," said Oliver Cromwell — and the Dutch Burghers agreed
with the sentiment. At any rate they prevailed, and were masters
of the situation.

When, however, the pioneers came into contact w-ith the
Kaffirs a new situation was created. At first the latter were at
a complete loss to understand how the white man could carry
thunder and lightning in his hands, and turn these against his
enemies at will. As they began to experience its deadly powder
they were more and more unwilling to fight against such weapons,
until the priests took to promising, at the nknkafitla ceremonies
when invulnerability was secured to the armies, that the bullets
of the white man would turn to water and so leave the advancing
hosts uninjured. I think that when, after repeated promises of
the kind, it was seen that the white man's bullets still steadfastly
refused to turn to water, the native belief in the witch-doctor's
power received its first real setback. This was perhaps the first
powerful cause leading to the breakdown of the power of witch-
craft, and as such it is notable.

Then, again, gunpowder was used in the laying of traps,
especially during the periods of the Kafiir wars, when lonely
farmhouses were attacked in the dead of night. On fre(|uent
occasions mines were laid and fired as groups of Natives passed
over them. Now if there was one thing the Natives really
feared it was the attack of unseen foes, and they at once con-
nected occurrences of the kind with sorcery, and many and many
a place was saved by the fears thus induced in their superstitious
minds. Nor can there be much doubt that gunpowder was used
on occasion as an instrument of witchcraft. An excellent illus-
tration of this usage, almost certainly founded on fact, is to be
found in Horace Rose's book, " Golden Glory," where the witch-
doctor is frustrated by a challenge to produce lightning. He fails

5l6 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

to do SO, but his opponent, who has laid a mine secretly, g-ets an
accomplice to fire it at the psycholog^ical moment — his achieve-
ment, of course, in true native fashion, being all the more wonder-
ful because the lightning sprang from earth to heaven ! Yet
another stratagem much used in the early days was the firing of
rockets amongst the native hordes, who broke and fled, thinking
that there must be something very uncanny pursuing them. But
in time they got too knowing, and then, they began to desire guns
for themselves, and unfortunately there were unscrupulous men
who undertook to supply them, and one of the darkest pages of
South African History is to be found here. That the trade was
most profitable goes without saying, and many were the adven-
turers who engaged in it.

Perhaps the most serious side of the business was the rude
shocks which the Natives received as again and again they made
bad bargains with these renegade white men. Many and many
a load of gaspipes. mounted on stocks, to look like guns, were
off-loaded at top prices on unsuspecting Natives, only to burst
at the first discharge. Some said that it did not matter whether
the Native had guns or not, for he could not hit a haystack if
he tried, and the usual way was to close both eyes and discharge
the gun ! But others saw the danger, and held that the very
possession of the weapon was a standing temptation. It is a
smgular fact that when the Government Railways were being
constructed in the early da}-s, the only wages the Native
labourers would accept were firearms and ammunition, with full
permission to carry these home when their term of service was
ended ; and as the railways had to be completed, the Department
had to connive at the practice, which later the Government
brought in a stringent measure to prevent.

So keen, indeed, were the natives on the possession of guns
that the Basuto War actually was caused by the Government
attempting to deprive them of their arms.

Again and again as we scan the pages of history we find
hordes of Natives ojDposed to a small band of white men, and
except in the rarest cases the rifles of the white men proved more
than a match for the thousands that had been made invulnerable
by the tribal priest. The plain fact is that they could not stand
against the rifle, and with the development of the maxim gun
ICaffir wars were reduced to wholesale niurder, as the last Zulu
rebellion showed. Verily the rifle has for ever settled the issue,
and ensured the Pax Britannica, and made it possible for develop-
ment to proceed unhindered from without.

(2) Iviplcv.icnts of Peace. — The Plough. — ^^It is now an
established fact that the Bushmen were wont to make use of a
pointed sti^ in their primitive agricultural operations, the stick
being weighted for convenience by means of a rounded stone,
through which a hole had been bored, in order that the shaft
of the stick might pass through it, and so into the desired
position. Certain Bushman paintings have been found in which

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 517

the use of these instruments is actually illustrated. An interesting-
problem, however, has arisen more recently with the discovery
of very much larger stones similarly fashioned, for the heaviness
of the stones seems to indicate that they were not used by the
frail Bushman — and if not by him, then by whom? Up to the
present no clear evidence is before us, and in the absence of
further evidence the question must remain indeterminate. The
probabilities, on the w^iole, remain in favour of the Bushman
usage, though I would not be altogether surprised to find that the
Natives also made use of this device in order to dig up the roots
required for the purposes of food, medicines, and witchcraft,
if not in their agricultural efforts. The early records of competent
observers speak frequently of a wooden implement not unlike a
spade, and useful at both ends, made by the men for the use of
the women, who invariably attended to the cultivation of the
garden. In the earliest days the women did all the work, the
men giving themselves to hunting, feasting, and the care of the
cattle.

The actual operations are described in some detail by Kay in
his " Caffrarian Researches," and are worthy of quotation in
this connection : —

Having obtained a plot of ground adapted to their purpose, they
then fall upon their knees, and in this position commence the tedious
operation. The seed is first thrown about amongst the grass and herbage ;
after which they dig up both ground and grass together, and thus plough
and harrow in the grain at the same time. Having in this turned up as
much as is deemed sufficient for their purpose, they leave the loose weeds
and herbage spread over the surface to wither and die; and seldom dress
or rake the garden until the blade has begun to shoot above the clods.
The rubbish is then gathered together in heaps and burnt ; and the men
called upon to perform their part, which ... is to erect the utango
or hedge, in which also the poor women are oft-times compelled to assist.
Within this enclosure a slight and temporary hut is now built. ... It
constitutes the miserable dwelling of one of the women, whose business it
is to preserve the crop from birds by day, and from straying cattle at
night. Here these watchers are obliged to remain as long as the season
lasts, until the harvest be got in.*

The Missionaries undoubtedly were mainly responsible for
the introduction of the plough into Kaffirland, and I am not sure
that it was not their chief idea in so doing to lighten the labours
of the women, for they had seen the oppressions of the women-
folk and the burdens laid upon their shoulders, contrasting with
the idleness and. round of hunting and feasting enjoyed by the
lord and master of the kraal, and the emancipation of the women
must have been a very real consideration. In this connection it
is of more than passing interest to note that the Rev. Wm. Shaw,
in describing the scene when the first plough was brought to
Wesleyville, and the excitement of the Natives as they watched
the implement at work, records how an old chief, clapping his
hands delightedly, shouted to a companion on the hillside, " This
thing that the white people have brought into the country is as
good as ten wives " — this illuminating remark revealing the
Native viewpoint, and the valtie of the wife in his sight.

*P. 143.

5l8 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

The introduction of the plough at once wrought a complete
revolution. It is indeed remarkable what great social changes
sometimes hinge upon comparatively trivial matters. Only on
very privileged occasions are Native women allowed to even enter
the cattle kraals, for the handling of the cattle is the delight and
the monopoly of the men, and in consequence when the plough
was introduced the whole of that important branch of agricultural
labour passed automatically into the hands of the men, lightening
to that extent the burdens of the women-folk. Moreover, the
scratching of the surface, hitherto accomplished by the women,
gave place to deeper ploughing, and this at once produced better
results ; so that the introduction of the plough had far-reaching
economic results. It is, however, significant of much that already
there is a stroi;g tendency to revert to the old arrangement — a
movement which implies a complete breakdown in the ancient
and deeply-rooted idea that would not for one moment tr^lerate
women handling the precious cattle. When this development is
universally adopted in Kaffirland there will be no need for the
men to stay at home to plough, and so they will be set free to
seek employment. But other important considerations are
involved in such a serious change, such as the use of cattle for
sacrificial purposes, the uncleanness of women, the position of
men as priests, and other points which are part of the very fabric
of tribal organisation; and the violation or non-observance of
these and other ancient ideas indicates the broken power of witch-
craft, and of the whole system of native laws and customs. To
this end the plough must be recognised as having made no mean
contribution, and the outcome cannot but be in the directions of
enormously increased production, and the setting free of the
resources of man-power for the labour of the country. On the
other hand, the removal of the restraints may well issue in
complete disintegration and moral disaster, unless the binding
force of true religion is substituted without delay. Counsels of
wisdom, however, continue to fall on deaf ears, even while the
leaven continues its deadly work.

In addition to the rifle, and the plough, many other imple-
ments might claim attention amongst the unrealised factors in a
study of this kind, though these two, together with the wheel, may
be regarded as of major importance.

Perhaps, however, two others, the bead and the axe, are
worthy of mention on account of the large part played by the
former in the development of barter, and the fact that at least
one of the Kaffir wars was caused by the use of the latter.
Indeed, the Kaffir War of 1846 is recorded in our historv books
as " The War of the Axe."

It is almost incredible, but absolutely true, that many traders
have been ruined, or at any rate very considerably embarrassed,
by the bead.

This was notably so in the days when trade with the Natives
was being established about 1824. Hitherto all intercourse with
the Kaffirs had been forbidden, and the Fair at Fort Wiltshire
was the opening of the door. Large quantities of ivory and

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 519

tjides were obtained from the Natives in exchange for beads,
buttons, and brass wire, and in consequence large numbers of
speculators were attracted, and the keen competition reduced
the profits. Then, again, the stocks of ivory that had been
accumulating for years began to give out, and the novelty of the
beads began to wear off, and in consequence the fashion in
beads changed frequently and quite capriciously,

and required for its jndulgence a more expansive kind, the shape,
colour, and size of which varied with ahnost every succeeding fair. The
consequence of these combined circumstances was the failure of most
of the traders in 1826; who, without experience, laid in large stores of
a particular kind of bead which appeared especialh' to catch the fancy
of the admiring savage ; and thus contracted ruinous debts to the mer-
chants for an article which the Kaffirs speedily ceased to desire, and which
was valueless to any other person. Those of tlie traders who were able to
weather the storm, having at length learned prudence, soon made the
traffic advantageous . . . and the Kaffir fair may now be relied on as
one of the most important and certain resources of the Eastern Pro-
vince."*

Through all the succeeding years the bead has retained a
not unimportant place in the Kaffir trade, though of course many
other articles share that place in these days. The one great
disadvantage remains now, as ever, that the fashion in beads is
constantly and capriciously changing to suit a passing whim ;
nevertheless one may safely generalise to the extent of saying
that full many a good bargain has been made by reason of a
judicious present of beads to some chief or headman, and doubt-
less many a serious and dangerous disagreement as between white
and black has been solved along similar lines. It will never be
known how often the eninity of some dangerous witch-doctor,
or chief, who might even have contemplated embarking upon a
war of vengeance, has been turned aside by this simple means by
some kind-hearted trader acting with sublime unconsciousness
of the pendant sword of Damocles.

Enough, however, has been said to indicate that even if
unrealised, then, as now, this factor has played some part in the
development of the intercourse and trade between white and
black. Speaking broadly, some £17,000 worth of beads are still
imported into the Union annually.

IV. — The Communications.

The concluding division of our study is concerned with the
development of communications throughout the length and
breadth of the vast and sparsely populated country. We shall
confine our attention in the main to the ship and the wheel,
though really a variety of realised and unrealised factors have
been at work connecting place with ])lace, and speeding up com-
munications.

(i) The Ship was responsible for the discovery of the Cape
— in itself an achievement of sufficient importance to cause the
downfall of Venice and Genoa, and to be largely contributory to
the remarkable movements in European history, in which Portugal

* Kay, o/>. cit., 450.

520 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

rose to eminence, only to decline, and Holland, France and Britain
were so deeply, and so terribly, concerned, as each strove to
establish their pre-eminence in the trade with the East.

Apart from the actual discovery of the land, the ship played
no mean part in gleaning- information of the coast that was being
skirted, and strangely enough, that information was secured mainly
by the disasters which befell the mariners, who, being cast up on
the coasts of Kaffraria, were under the necessity of making their
way overland to Capetown or Delagoa Bay, and in so doing
were brought into contact with the Natives. In some cases ships,
setting out from India, were never heard of more, and were no
doubt cast up on our inhospitable shores, those who were fortu-
nate enough to escape with their lives being sometimes killed by
the Natives, and at other times carefully tended by them. In
all probability the experiences of those who got ashore from the
Grostfcnor in 1782 were repeated in some instances of which
we have no record, because no survivor succeeded in making his
way to a settlement ; but in any case it is a fact that no small
amount of information concerning the natives, and the conditions
obtaining in the Interior, came to light in this particular way.
The late Dr. G. McCall Theal, in his " History of South Africa,"
has deemed it of such importance that a lengthy chapter is
devoted to the subject of the shipwrecks.

One such tragedy of the sea became transformed into a
tragedy of the land, the particulars being quite well authenticated,
and lingering even to our own day as a tradition in Pondoland.

It appears that a vessel unknown was wrecked near to the
Umzimvubu River mouth, and that six persons in all were saved,
one of whom, named Quma by the natives, became the wife of a
principal chief. On his death, the brother, defying the ancient
law and custom, married his deceased brother's wife, and so
Oiuna became his great wife. The Rev. Stephen Kay actually
saw her children, as did another traveller. Van Reenen by- name.
The latter, in his Journal dated 4th November, 1790, describing
the descendant? of this party, states :

We found tliat the}' were descendant^ from whites, some, too, from
slaves of mixed colour, and natives of the East Indies.

It is thus clear that some of the descendants would have
distinctively European characteristics, and apparently the parents
themselves attained a remarkable ascendancy and exercised a
notable influence over the whole tribe, their children retaining
and continuing sufficient of those characteristics to make an
appreciable efifect upon the tribe itself. At a time when, as we
have seen, no Native would venture to plant anything other than
ihe usual Kaffir corn, mealies, sugar-cane, and pum]:)kins, for fear
of thus rendering themselves unclean and so (according to. their
superstitions) prevent rain, this little colony ai:)pears to have
introduced the sweet potato, which is cultivated in those distant
parts of Pondoland to this day — in itself quite an achievement.

At the time of which we are speaking, the Amaquean tribe
dwelt between the Umtata and the Umzimvubu Rivers, and there
their descendants would no doubt still be living had not Tshaka's

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 52 1

hordes overwhelmed tlie Pondos after a magnificent resistance,
and so the European clan, fighting desperately, and vastly out-
numbered, came to be dispersed. Kay, writing in 1833, has left
an illuminating account of both mother and son, from which we
quote : —

Every account shows that she lived to a good old age. and went down
to the grave full of days twenty-two or three years ago. It would also
appear from a variety of circumstances that her day was a much more
peaceable one than that of her descendants. How far her influence
operated in stilling the active and warlike spirits around her, and in
preventing local feuds, which are now ever and anon breaking out, is, of
course, hard to say; this, however, all frankly acknowledge, that "The
word of Quma was a great word " ; that is to say, it possessed weight
which was calculated to effect great things. . . . It is said that Daapa's
antagonists seldom dared to attack him. when in his prime, with less than
doulile or treble his force, " for," said one, when accounting for his
extraordinary valour, " he and his men have the white men's blood in
them."

Without, then, in any way exaggerating the importance in
the economic realm of the shipwrecks, or attempting to generalise
upon a single instance, I am more than content to bring forward
these highly suggestive facts and quotations, and to let them make
tlieir own emphasis.

Another important result of the earlier disasters was the
survey of the African coast between the Cape of Good Hope and
Cape Correntes, undertaken by Perestrello in 1575 a.d., at the
command of King Sebastiao of Portugal ; and the custom which
sprang up of making substantial presents to native chiefs who
befriended shipwrecked mariners, or who delivered them up in
safety at the various ports of call, was in itself a great incentive
and encouragement to the system of barter, then in its infancy.
Indeed, so late as 1829, Sir Lowry Cole, then Governor at the
Cape, sent Hintza and his ])eople a present of clothes, blankets,
hatchets, iron cooking-pots, beads, etc., etc., as a reward for
help given at the wreck of the French ship, the Eole, near St.
Johns — and. incidentally, as a stimulus in cases of future need.

Reviewing the whole matter, then, we are surprised at the
part played by so seemingly and j^eculiarly external a factor as
the ship in the economic development of Kafifraria, for the ship
was mainly responsible for the discovery of the land ; the survey
of the coast to find out the features of the coast-line, and the
]5iaces where harbour could, be found ; the opening up of com-
munications with the aboriginal inhabitants of the land ; and the
beginnings of commercial relations.

The next stej) obviously was to plant settlements and to
open up the internal comnuuiications of the land itself, and
another great factor brought this immense work within the
bounds of possibility.

(2) The IVhccl. — Great as had been the ])art ])layed by the
ancient argosies in bringing to sight a vast realm of unlimited pos-
sibilities, it fell to the wheel to develop the vast realm of the
l.irent — a task absorbing centuries of toil, accelerated by won^
derful modern devices, and a growing population, and yet but
scarce begun.

522 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

No matter where one looks, the essential feature is ever the
wheel. Sledges might have had, and did have, amongst the
early settlers, as they do have amongst the Natives to-day, a
limited use. Heavy loads could not be transported long distances
hy sledge without great wear and tear upon the oxen, and in any
case the relatively small load was a great disadvantage. When
the pioneers took to building wagons, then the explorations and
the expansions became {possible, and small communities could
settle at some distance from the sea, for supplies could be trans-
ported to them. Then also it became worth while for the burgher
to plough and plant on a large scale, for he could transport his
supplies to market, and reap the benefit of his toil, and so land
near hand was in demand, and men had to search for farms
further afield. With increasing distances from seaports, the
farmer could not spare the time, or the strength of the oxen,
upon a lengthy pilgrimage in search of supplies, and so shops
were opened by men who were prepared to do nothing else than
secure supplies to meet the needs of the farming community.
The first development of the kind was not the shop in the modern
sense, but a travelling wagon or wagons journeying through the
countryside, and then later the dejDOt.

"If the mountain will not come to Mohammed, then Moham-
med will go to the mountain," and wherever the lumbering
wagons went drifts were put into repair and the roads made up
as necessity arose. A case in point is found at the time when
the native trade was opening out and developing by leaps and
bounds from Grahamstown in the year 1831. Some traders had
gone as far north as lat. 26° or 27° ; and on the East Coast, some
had got as far as Port Natal, by the coast route. Previously a
wide detour had been necessary, so as to avoid the precipitous
banks of the Umzimvubu, but one trading party had called rha
natives to their assistance, and constructed a suitable road, so
considerably shortening the communications between Natal ynd
the Cape.

Then, again, there is the great event in South African history
which has so profoundly influenced the whole race relationships
of the sub-continent, on the one hand ; and made so immense a
contribution to the opening up and settlement of the country and
tl.te development of its vast resources of agriculture and industry,
on the other hand. The Great Trek, which began in 1833, and
lead to the establishment and development of the Free State, the
Transvaal, and Natal, and, nnich later, Rhodesia, was only
possible because of the wagon and the ox. And once more we
think of that remarkable period of our history preceding the
development of the railways, the age of the transport driver.* and
remember almost with reverence what the wagon hath wrought —
all the conflicting elements of advantage, and disadvantage, and
danger, the various provocations to strife, the armies supplied
in the field, and so enabled to conduct long campaigns and secure
decisive victories, or perhaps that most sacred use of all when,

* The history of which has yet to be written as a great chapter in
the economic development of the sub-continent.

FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. 523

attacked by large hordes of savages, the brave settlers hastily
drew up their wagons to form a laager for the defence of theif
women and children. Verily the old Voortrekker's wagon has
\\on a worthy place for itself in the coat of arms of the Union of
South Africa.

But more than that, the wagons crossed the trackless veld,
and forded many an unbridged river by reason of its high
clearance, and the establishment of communities in the interior
made roads and bridges necessary, so that faster and lighter
wheeled vehicles could be brought into use. As the population
and the roads increased, railways automatically became essential,
and the network of railways soon controlled the whole of the
transport of the country, ousting the transport-driver, except in
the remotest districts. It is of no slight interest to observe that in
cur Union Ministry the control of Harbours and Railways is in
the hands of one Minister, a fact which shows at once the pro-
gressive spirit of our constitution, and the essential unity of
interest between the ship and the wheel.

With the railways came an enormous speeding up all round,
the development of backward districts, the increase in production,
and the growth of exports, and where Robert and Mary Moffat
struggled six miles laboriously in their first day from Capetown
on their journey to join Livingstone, we are wafted by train
some 500 miles in the same space of time. The wheel is still
turning, but it is turning at high speed now.

A third stage is that of the motor-car. The enormous deve-
lopment of motor transport which has taken place in the various
theatres of war has resulted in the acquirement of much experi-
ence in this new department of activity, and there can hardly
be any doubt that in many districts the motor lorr>' will come into
general use for purposes of transport, competing with the railway
and possibly eventually displacing even the railway. What has
been done under the most adverse circumstances in German East
Africa, not to mention France and Flanders, has not only shown
us what can be done in this direction, but also trained a generation
of men capable of undertaking the work when in the days of
peace our commercial relationships demand the projected exten-
sions. Already almost all the dwellers in the country districts
have acquired motors to facilitate their movements between farm
and town, and it is no uncommon thing to find every doctor,
most farmers, many traders, and even the plumber, possessed of
a car. Many who ordinarily would not be in a position to buy
a car and face the expenses of upkeep are able to do so by running
passengers from point to point for a time until their liabilities are
covered. In the wal<e of this great extension which has taken
place, transforming within a single decade the whole of the condi-
tions and communications by reason of the increase of facilities,
and the general speeding up, there has followed a great improve-
ment in the roads, and incidentally in the wayside hotels ; and
it is obvious that in the near future it will be essential to improve
at least all the main roads, and to build bridges over the rivers,
so as to still further facilitate movement by motor. In some
places already special motor roads are constructed, and probably

524 FACTORS IN NATIVE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

much more construction of the kind wiU follow, when legislative
provision has been made preventing- the heavy ox-wagons from
travelling upon such motor roads, cutting up the surface and
obstructing the speedier traffic. Possibly even the matter will
settle itself by the motor-lorry displacing the ox-wagon, in
v.hich case the last state of such roads would be worse than the
first, unless the restriction is extended to all heavy vehicles,
inclusive of the lorry. There is, indeed, no reason why a system
of more or less parallel roads should not be adopted, the one
being for the use of all transport, the other being conhned to
light motor traffic, and following in the main the " short cuts" as
between town and town, village and village, rather than the
lengthy circuits involved in the customary following of the ridges.

But the possibilities of the wheel are not exhausted. The
aeroplane has been so highly perfected during the war that there
is every reason to anticipate that it will come into general use for
ci>mmercial and other purposes in the near future. In that case
it is bound to have a profound effect upon our relationships, and
just how the competition as between rail, motor, and aeroplane
will result no man can at this stage determine.

The emigration laws, now so easily and conveniently admin-
istered at the principal seaports, the restrictions against undesir-
ables at present so effective, indicate a verv serious difficulty
i!ievitably raised by this new factor. How easy for an enterprising
criminal to escape! — not to mention the evasion of customs, and
many other points similar in character. One almost feels that the
complicatiiMis outweigh the undeniably great advantages, and
that the introduction of the aeroplane into general use will ulti-
njately tend to accelerate the forces of disintegration ana make
life upon this earth an intolerable burden.

But, be that as it may, in an age of lawlessness and world-
unrest, the Native populations dwelling under present conditions
in great reserves, are adequately protected from intrusive and
pernicious agitators. Under the new conditions these ignorant
masses are laid open to the influence of any evilly-disposed
intriguer who cares to use an aeroplane. Perhaps this as a
possible consequence is of greater im,portance than the com-
mercial and other results which might logically be expected to
follow in due course.

It will thus be acknowledged that the contribution made to
the economic development of South Africa and its large native
population by the unrealised factors in the situation have been
very great indeed. Some of the lessons are not yet learned by
those who hold positions of authority and power, who^ could, if
they would, do so much to ameliorate conditions and establish
upon secure foundations the fabric of State. If this paper stimu-
lates thought, and investigation, and action, based upon knowledge,
its purpose will indeed have been served. Above all, it is an appeal
to the missionaries and the Missionary Societies, who have so
nobly and fearlessly led in times past, to take heed lest they be
left behind in the march of progress, for the time is come for wise
and resolute leadership by men of character, vision, and expe-
rience, men capable of adapting themselves to the rapidly chang-
mg circumstances. Let them ever be in the vanguard of advance.

THE PEPPER TREE (SCHINUS MOLLE) IN ITS RELA-
TION TO EPIDEiMIC HAY FEVER: INTERIM REPORT.

By Prof. George Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D.

For several years past epidemic hay fever has been very
prevalent in Bloemfontein and many other up-country towns, and
the Pepper Tree is commonly held responsible for the disease.
In Bloemfontein the epidemic attacks such a large proportion of
the population, especially in early summer after windy weather,
and causes so much discomfort and even misery; and the belief
that the Pepper Tree is to blame is so widespread, that the Town
Council considered the advisability of eradicating the tree from
the town, and in December, 191 7, circularised the local
medical practitioners for an expression of opinion as to whether
the Pepper Tree is to blame for the epidemics. Two doctors
were strongly of opinion that the Pepper Tree is the main cause
of the disease, whilst five considered that it might be one of
many causes, but pointed out that the matter had not been
adequately investigated, and that it would be extremely in-
advisable to remove a tree which does so much to beautify the
town, until the case against it has been definitely and scientifically
proved.

Dr. Targett Adams, ^I.R.C.S., D.P.H., Assistant Medical
Officer of Health for the Union, suggested I should investigate
the question, and I am also indebted to him for guidance and very
material assistance during the course of the investigations. As it
is a matter which concerns the Public Health, he himself, and his
Department, are vitally interested in it.

Examination of Floivers. — As a first step the flowers were
examined ior the purpose of ascertaining whether the pollen is
carried from flower to flower by the wind or by other agencies.
It is well-known that there are two sexes in the Pepper Tree.
The fruit-bearing, or female, tree bears only female flowers,
These have a prominent honey-gland, a pistil with three viscid
stigmas, and ten stamens. The anthers, however, contain no
pollen, and are white and empty — botanically they are called
staminodes. The male tree bears onl}' male flowers. These also
have a prominent nectary which secretes honey profusely, and
ten fertile stamens, whose anthers are filled with golden-yellow,
smooth-grained pollen. There is also an abortive pistil. The
pollen is very adhesive ; it sticks together in balls, and in a
•mature flower the anthers themselves are often stuck together in
groups by means of their pollen. Moreover, when pollen is dropped
on to smooth paper, or even on smooth clear glass it adheres
so tenaciously that it is irripossible to blow it of¥ with the mouth.
The pollen, moreover, is not shed from, nor does it fall out of
the anthers. If flowering shoots from a male plant be placed in
water it will be fotmd that after the anthers open the male flowers
drop ofT with the pollen still contained in the anther-cells. The
sam.e thing happens to flowers left on the trees : and if the minute
white flowers which are to be found under male trees almost all
through the summer be examined, it will be found that the

526 THE PEPPER TREE AND HAY FEVER.

anthers are invariably still full of pollen, which is easily recog-
nized by its deep g-olden-yellovv colour.

The conspicuousness and non-green colour of the fiowers,
the presence of abundant honey, the sticky pollen and viscid
stigmas all point to insect-pollination ; and, indeed, insects are
frequently to be seen visiting the flowers.

The evidence obtained by an examination of the flowers is
thus all against the likelihood of the pollen being carried by the
wind. Indeed if it were carried one would expect to see it in the
air, especially when it is remembered that each of the numerous
small male flowers has ten fertile stamens.

In the Pine, which is wind-pollinated, the pollen can often
be seen floating in the air around the trees when the stamens are
ripe, and if a branch be shaken when the tree is in flower a
veritable shower of sulphur-coloured pollen is produced. The
same is true of the numerous other ornamental conifers so com-
monly grown in garden and parks. iBut the Pine pollen is dry
and powdery and does not stick together, and its carriage by the
air is faciHtated by the grains being winged. The flowers are
also inconspicuous and have no honey. The Pepper Tree on
the other hand is undoubtedly insect-pollinated ; the pollen is
sticky, adheres together in balls, and is carried irom flower to
flower, stuck to the bodies of insects.

Hay Fever and Pollen in U.S.A. — Hay Fever caused by
pollen is very prevalent in America, and there exists there a
society for its prevention, called the American Hay Fever Pre-
vention Association. The plants which cause the disease are all
wind-pollinated and are mostly common weeds ; and experience
has shown that eradication of the pollen-producing plant is the
only method of dealing with the disease which has given satis-
factory results. The objects of the Association are to educate
the public as to the relationship between the weeds concerned and
hay fever, and to hring about legislation for the eradication of the
weeds. Such an "anti-hay-fever-weed law" has been passed by
New Orleans, and since being enforced there has been a great
reduction in the number of hay fever cases.

In an article by Dr. W. Scheppegrell, President of the
Association, which appeared in the Scientific American Supple-
ment, August 12, 1916, emphasis is laid on the statement that all
the nlants whose pollen causes hay-fever in America are wind-
pollinated. The majority of the plants implicated, as has already
been stated, are common weeds ; and it should be noted that many
of these are plentiful in and around Bloemfontein and other
South African towns. They are common in back-yards, on
vacant erven, along the side of our streets, in sluits, and as weeds
on cultivated ground. If their pollen is injurious in America, it
is most probably equally so in South Africa, in which case much
of our epidemic hay fever may quite well be due to these weeds.

"^-rasses, which, too, are wind-pollinated, have been shown
to cause the disease in America, and the researches of *Dr. Black-

* I am indebted to Dr. Targett Adams for this reference.

THE PEPPER TREE AND HAY FEVER. 527

ley, of Manchester (himself a sufferer) have placed this beyond
doubt in his own case. He also showed that the pollen from
Pine trees is very powerful in its effect.

But all the plants which have hitherto been shown to cause
the disease, are plants whose pollen is normally carried by the
wind; and it would be something new to science to find the
disease caused by pollen which is carried from flower to flower
by agencies other than the wind.

Though the opinion that the Pepper Tree is the cause of our
epidemic Hay Fever is so widespread, it should be noted that none
of the evidence in favour of the opinion is convincing. It has
been stated that (Letter from Dr. S. M. de Kock, M.B., Ch.B., to
Town Clerk, December 31st, 1917) "before Pepper Trees were
extensively planted in Bloemfontein hay fever as an epidemic
was unknown ;" and that the introduction of the epidemic has
" followed the extensive planting of the Pepper Tree in Bethulie,
Kimberley and other towns." On the other hand it should be
noted that Pepper Trees are very plentiful in both Grahamstown
and Maritzburg, and yet in neither town is epidemic hay fever
existent. Again, though it is maintained that " the start of the
epidemic of hay fever is synchronous with the flowering of the
Pepper Trees," my observations last season showed that the male
trees were in flower intermittently all through the rainy season,
until, in fact, the first severe frost.

Before considering some experiments with the Pepper pollen,
reference will be made to the aromatic principle contained in the
trees :

The Pepper Tree is very rich in resin ; and American Mastic,
a kind of resin, is obtained from it. There is a very large resin
canal in the phloem of each bundle of the leaf, and one large and
several smaller canals in the phloem of each bundle of the stem,
and if either leaf or stem be injured the resin exudes as a trans-
lucent fluid, which gradually hardens and turns white on exposure
to the air. The tree itself has a pungent and irritating odour
which is very noticeable when working with injured portions of
the plant, but it is extremely improbable that under ordinary con-
ditions the volatile constituents of the resin are even present in
the atmosphere in sufficient quantity to cause hay fever. Indeed,
the odour is only noticeable out-of-doors within a few yards of
the tree.

Experiments "mith Pepper Pollen. — Two of my colleagues,
Professor M. M. Rindl, D.Ing. and Professor W. Conlin, M.A.,
who are hay-fever sufferers, were sufficiently public-spirited to
allow me to experiment on them to ascertain whether pollen from
the Pepper Tree would induce an attack of hay fever. Stamens
with open anthers from male flowers were collected and carefully
air-dried, and the material was them lightly crushed to liberate
the pollen grains. As a preliminary test each smelled the con-
tents of the bottle after the bottle had been violently shaken,
Neither experienced any ill-effects. If fresh pepper pollen were
carried in the air the conditions of the experiment were such
that some of the dried material would have remained in suspen-
sion in the air of the bottle sufficiently long to be inhaled.

D

528 THE PEPPER TREE AND HAY FEVER.

After an interval of three or four days each snuft'ed up
about as much dried pollen as would he on a three-penny piece.
The result in both cases was an acute attack of hay fever, which
commenced after an interval of about six hours, and continued
iur between two or three days (48-72 hours). The dose snuffed
was probably excessive, but at this stage I was almost convinced
that there was no truth in the widely-held pepper-pollen-theory ;
and had the results been negative the experiment might reason-
ably have been regarded as giving the theory a knock-out blow.

The way in which the pollen provoked the attack must now
be discussed. The pollen grains, being smooth, are not likely to
produce much mechanical irritation, and twO' medical practitioners
whom I consulted were of opinion that if the action of the
P'Qllen had been merely mechanical, the attack would not have
continued beyond about six hours.

According to Dr. Scheppegrell the irritant action of wind-
borne pollen in causing hay fever is considered to be chemical,
and the substances absorbed are thought to be proteids, preceded
in the case of spiny pollen by a little mechanical irritation,
Indeed, the action of pollen extracts as a preventive measure is
based on an assumed chemical action of the pollen, the idea being
gradually, and without inconvenience to the patient, to accustom
his svstem to cope with these extractives. Professor W. P.
Dunbar, of Hamburg, who was one of the first to investigate the
relation of hay fever to pollen, found that the disease is caused
uj the pollen of certain grasses, rye, and other plants; and he
isolated from the pollen an albuminoid poison which when a'^nlied
to the nose of a susceptible individual causes an attack, while
there is no result in the case of a normal person. This proves
that the action of the pollen was chemical. Professor Dunbar*
was also able to show that the severity of the attack is directly
proportional to the amount of pollen in the air.

For pollen to produce hay fever chemically a considerable
amount would be necessary ; and whilst in the experiment on
Professors Conlin and Rindl there was probably more than suffi-
cient inhaled to make this mode of action possible, this method
of producing the disease cannot be operative in the case of pepper
pollen under natural conditions, as the pollen is not normally
wind-borne.

The artificial conditions under which the experiment was
performed should be kept in mind. The experiment merely
proves that pepper pollen can produce the disease ; but, though
capable of causing hay fever, it may never do so under natural
conditions.

There remains a third possibility, viz : that pepper pollen
carries a bacterium, which growing on the mucous membranes
of the nose, produces the disease. On this assumption a single
infected pollen grain would be sufficient to inoculate a patient
and produce the disease. I am indebted to Dr. Targett Adams
for most willingly allowing the experienced 'Bacteriologist of the

* Encycl. Britt.. nth ed.

THE PEPPER TREE AND HAY FEVER. 529

Public Health Department, Mr. O. F. Gibbs, to make a bacterio-
logical examination of the dried pollen which had produced the
attack. Mr. Gibbs' report is as follows: —

Government Laboratories,

Department of Public Health,

Bloemfontedn,

25th June, 1918.

With regard to the " Pollen " which you asked me to investi-
gate, from a bacteriological point of view, the following results
have so far been obtained :

Some of the samples was sown in " Peptone beef broth,"
and after 48 hours' incubation at 37 °C quite a dense growth was
obtained. The culture was then " plated-out " on ordinary agar
and after 24 hours' incubation two varieties of colonies had
appeared, viz:

No. I a greyish coloured colony about 3^ m.m. in diameter.

No. 2, a whitish coloured colony about 13^ m.m. in diameter.

Microscopic examination showed in each case a distinct
diplococcus, resembling two beans placed side by side with the
concave margins adjacent. No. i is a rather small diplococcus,
whilst No. 2 is somewhat laiger. Both stain readily with Carbo-
Thionin Blue and are " Gram-positive."

Before these can be classified in any particular group, other
tests will have to be carried out ; animal and fermentation tests.

Whether these organisms have an affinity for pollen and
whether they are the infecting agent in " Hay Fever " remains to
be proved.

i^ome time ago I had occasion to prepare autogenous vaccines
for two cases (Nos. 34 and 3s) suffering from an acute attack
of " Hay Fever." The material was obtained from the " nasal
discharge," and in each case the predominating organism was a
" gram-positive " diplococcus having the same microscopic
characters as Nos. i and 2.

One cannot place too much reliance on two cases, and I
would like to suggest that a series of experiments be carried out
on different pollen from dift'erent sources, preferably in the
summer, when we could have a much greater choice.

I am^ yours very sincerely,

(Sd.) O. F. Gibbs.
Government Bacteriological Assistant,
late of the Lister Institute of Pre-
ventive Medicine, London.

Mr. Gibbs' results are of great interest, and open up a new
field ifor investigation. The dried pollen was found to carry
two species of diplococcus bacteria ; and bacteria with similar
microscopic characters had already been found by Mr. Gibbs the
previous summer (January and April, 1917) in the nasal dis-
charge of two Bloemfontein patients suft"ering from an acute
attack of hay fever.

Here may lie the clue to the solution of the problem of the

530 THE PEPPER TREE AND HAY FEVER.

relation of the Pepper Tree to Epidemic Hay Fever, if there is
any such relation, in which case the sufferings of Dr. Rindl and
Professor Conlin will not have been in vain. On the other hand
it should be explained that there are hundreds of species of diplo-
coccus; and that though the species found on the pollen and in
the nasal discharge are morphologically similar they may quite
well be physiologically very different. It should also be added
that the pollen was not removed from the Pepper Trees with the
usual bacteriological precautions.

Experiments have been started to test the disease-producing
power of the diplococci ; and if they are found capable of pro-
ducing the disease, experiments with proper bacteriological pre-
cautions will be made to ascertain whether they are always
found on the pepper pollen and where else they occur. The
diplococci concerned may be of very general occurence in the air
and dust of Bloemfontein, and may live normally in the nasal
discharge of inflamed mucous membranes without causing injury
to the patient^ i.e., their presence in the case of hay fever may be
the result of the disease, rather than its cause.

Although the investigation is far from concluded it has been
considered advisable to present an Interim Report at this stage
because of the great interest taken in the question by the general
public. It is hoped to continue the investigations next summer
in collaboration with the Public Health Department, when it is
intended to attack the problem from several points of view. The
pepper pollen clue will be followed up, and special attention will
be given to common local weeds, grasses and other plants whose
pollen is normally carried by the wind.

Appeal for Co-operation.*

Assistance is invited in solving the problem. Volunteers
who are willing to allow themselves to be inoculated to test
whether the diplococci isolated are capable of causing hay fever
should communicate with Mr. O. F. Gibbs, Public Health Depart-
ment. Government Buildings (Tel. No. i8). Only persons sus-
ceptible to the disease are suitable for experiment.

If Doctors who have patients suffering from an attack, or
the patients themselves will report cases to me as early as con-
venient, I will endeavour to visit the house or place of work and
record the plants flowering in the immediate neighbourhood at
the time. It will be sufficient to supply the nam§ and add'iess
of the sufferer either in writing to 91, Park Road or by telephone
(253). A statistical treatment of a large number of cases may
disclose the cause of the trouble. It is also hoped to make a
bacteriological examination of the nasal discharp^e of several
patients.

Botanical Department,

Grey University College,
Bloemfontein.

* Issued through the local Press to the public of Bloemfontein.

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THE ENGRAVED ROCK OF LOE,
BECHUANALAND PROTECTORATE.

By Miss M. Wilman.

(Plates 12-15.)

(Read, July 10, 19 18.)

Some years ago, thanks to the kindness of Mr. W. A. H.
Harbor, of Mochudi Station, the writer was enabled to visit Loe
(or Metsieng), a spot well known to the travellers and traders in
the Protectorate.

Here, according to them, is the deep water-hole, out of which
are said to have come the ancestors of the Bakuena, who formerly
inhabited these parts, and of all the different kinds of animals.
These, on issuing from the bowels of the earth, had left their
imprints on the wet soil around the hole, and as this had since
hardened, the spoors remain to this day. Of the humans, one
was a one-legged giant, named Metsieng,* hence his huge single
spoor and the name by which the site is also known.

A drive through the forest brings one to a large flat outcrop
of rock, having almost in the middle of it a hole that may once
have been deep but is now almost silted up, though it still holds
some water.

The so-called spoors are, with one exception, engravings.
The exception is the giant's alleged footprint, and this is merely a
natural hollow in the rock shaped somewhat like a human foot,
without toes, more than 30 cm. long and broad in proportion.

Photographs by Dr. R. Poch (PI. 12) ])ortray the famous
hole in the very centre of the picture, and also the majority of
the engravings, since the side not shown is almost destitute of
them. The giant's mark, however, does not appear.

The engravings have been hacked out of the living rock, and
they are genuine peckings, such as are met with in the Transvaal,
the Orange Free State, and the Cape Province as far south as
Beaufort West, and are generally ascribed to the Bushmen. They
also show every sign of great age, and for this reason they
cannot be confounded with the fresh scribblings of the Bechuana
and other herd-boys also found in these districts. Nor have they
anything in common with the crude representations of animals
and other objects, the work of the Basuto, that are occasionally
met with in Basutoland and in the adjacent districts of the Free
State.

They depict a couple of snakes wriggling away from the
bole (PI. 13A), a creature that may be a lion, another with short
legs and long neck, but otherwise not very like a girafife, and
footprints innumerable facing in all directions, often very close

* At Mochudi Stad the writer was told to spell this word Meheteng
but to pronounce it Metsieng; Mr. Harbor writes it Matsaing; Mr.
Knobel Matsicng: Dr. Poch Machcn!

53-2 THE ENGRAVED ROCK OF LOE.

together, sometimes even overlapping each other. Very occasion-
ally they are paired. Some are huge, others quite small. Some
of them are of human beings, and these are the most conspicuous
(PI. 13B, PI. 14B, PI. 15); the majority are of animals, the lion
(PI. 13A), baboon (PI. 13B), rhinoceros (PI. 14 a and b).
hippopotamus (PI. 14A) and others. No distinct antelope spoors
were noticed.

The representations of the human foot are of special interest.
Some are very large and coarse, up to 33 cm. long (PI. 13) ; some
are quite small, down to 13 cm. lon,^. The largest foot has six
toes, the majority five; none give the impression of having been
outlined direct from life.

At times the object depicted is pecked throughout but more
often only the outlines are shown. The pecking is coarse and
deep and in parts — the toes and the pads of the feet — the rock
may even have been scooped out up to the depth of i cm. Unlike
so many others of their kind, they have not been spoiled by the
hand oi man ; but they have been worn down by the animals that
come to water here and by the weathering agencies to such an
extent that some of them have been almost obliterated.

Rubbings were made of as many as possible, where the rock
was not too smooth to permit of this mode of reproduction, but
lack of time_did not allow of visits to the old people around for
the purpose of taking down, for piecing together, the various
fragments of the Metsieng legend that might still remain in these
parts.

An apneal was therefore made to Mr. J. C. Knobel, then
residing at Mochudi, the stad of Linchwe, Chief of the Bagkatla,
who have replaced the Bakwena (Bokone) in these parts.

The result of his researches is as follows : —

The legend of Loe, of i\Iatsieng, seems to be the common property
of all the Bechuana tribes and I have been assured that among the
Basuto also it still survives. Nevertheless it is almost impossible to-day
to fet at the truth about this interesting belief.

The stone of Loe is situated about three miles west of the railway
line, between Pilane siding and Mochudi station, nearest the o8g] mile-
post from Cape Town.

It is an outcrop of sandstone lying inconspicuously in the middle l i
a heavj^ sand belt, and one may pass close to the stone without noticing it.

The story goes that Matsieng proceeded out of the hole which is
about two or three paces from where his footprint is seen. As there is
only one, and that a large one, he must have been a one-legged giant. He
was a great hunter and lover of flesh. According to some narrators he
was the first creature and the different tribes and animals were called
out by him, and some old Bechuana even say that in the days of their
forefathers there could still be heard the lowing of cattle, the bleating of
goats and sheep, the barking of dogs and the growling of wild beasts
down in the hole, which was then deep and fearful. According to other
narrators the animals of which the footprints are seen leading from
and towards the hole come out before Matsieng, beginning with the
lowest forms of animal life and going higher up. They were followed
by the Bushmen, these again liy the Bakalahari, and they in turn by
the Bechuana.

There is what must be a recent addition, since it brings in the white
man. It gives the native view of the cause for the different relative

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1918. Pl. 14.

A. — One-third actual size.

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Miss M. Wilman.—Thei Engraved Rock of Lqe'.

S A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. PL. 15.

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Miss M. Wilman.-The Engraved Rock of Loe.

THE ENGRAVED ROCK OF LOE. 533

positions of the white and t!ie black man ; therefore it seems worth
recording.

After Matsieng and all the other people had come out of Loe, an
order was sent to him by Modimo (the Supreme Being), he being then
the chief of all men, to await his coming, that he might teach them what
to do in order to procure future happiness. After a long and fruitless wait,
Matsieng saw some vultures swooping down on a carcase. Being by
this time very hungry, he called upon the people to follow him, that they
might go shares with the vultures. But only the black ones followed.

They found the carcase of a wildebeest, and after their meal returned
to Loe, only to find that during their absence Modimo had arrived with
the intention of teaching the black men wisdom in order to give them
sovereignty over the earth. But finding that they had not obeyed him,
Modimo gave all these gifts to the whites, leaving to the blacks only
cattle and game, since their lust for meat had caused their disobedience.

Other versions of this legend are given by R. Moffat* and
S. S. Dornan.f

Bushman legends of a like nature are not known to the
writer, nor, according to Miss D. Bleek, are there any in the
unpublished MSS. of the late W. H. I. Bleek and Miss L. C.
Lloyd.

To continue with Mr. Knobel's narrative : —

There are said to be at least two more such places, but in the Bechuana
tales they play a less important role than does Loe. They lie some t2
miles W.N.W. of Loe, near a hill called Kgope , which can be seen from
Mochudi Station, and they are called Tamoge and Ntsebe. They are
close together and also bear the imprints of human beings and of
animals. There is also in each case the single footprint of the giant.

Since this was written Mr. Knobel has made diligent search
for the engravings, but so far without success. Both places are
well-known to J\Irs. Harbor, and she declares there are no en-
gravings there. Nevertheless, further investigations will be made
here, and also at another creation site just lately reported.

In other parts of British South Africa no spot resembling
Loe is known to the writer, and even at places where there are-
large numbers of engravings depicting humans and animals,
spoors of humans or of animals are rare. Thus at Kinderdam,
Vryburg, there are a few human spoors scattered about among
a very large number of engravings ; and at Amandel Kop, ■
Jacobsdal, Orange Free State, there is a little footprint^ while
Dr. L. Peringueyi has published a couple from some locality not
stated.

From South-West Africa, however, W. Branco§ has
described and figured what he at first mistook for the actual
footprints of human beings and of animals occurring in the
rocks near Gaub, in the neighbourhood of Grootfontein. In
an appendix he announces the discovery, at the same spot, of
hundreds of similar engravings, but as no^ details are given

* " Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa," 1842, 262.

t" Native Ideas of Cosmology," Rept. S.A. A.A.S. (1917), I79-

i " On rock-engravings of animals and the human figure, found in
South Africa," Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc, 18, 401-419, Pis. 11.

t" Fragliche Reste und Fussfahrten des tertiaren Menschen " [Deutsch
Sudwest-Afrika, 121] Zeits. Deutsch. gcol. Gcsdlschaft 56 (1904), B, 97.

534 THE ENGRAVED ROCK OF LOE.

comparisons with Loe cannot be made. Possibly this is the
place referred to by C J. Andersson* as follows : —

The natives of these parts have a strange tale of a rock, in which
the tracks of all the different animals indigenous to the country are
distinctly visible; moreover, that man and beast lived here together in
great amity, but one day, from some unknown cause, their Deity appeared
unexpectedly and dispersed them. I never had the good fortune to
obtain a sight of this marvellous rock. Mr. Moffat, who makes mention
of a similar story prevailing among the Bechuanas, was equally unsuc-
cessful.

As to ithe meaning of Loe, speculation can scarcely hope to
be profitable while so little really is known either of the old
engravings of South Africa or of the artists who made them.

In conclusion, the writer's thanks are due to Mr. Knobel
for his valued co-operation to Dr. Poch for the use of his
photographs, and to Mr. A. M. Cronin for so kindly photograph-
ing the rubbings made at Lo€.

Radium Production. — According to Scieiice,-\ the
radium output of the Standard Chemical Company, of Pitts-
burgh, during the years 1913-1917 amounted to 25.4 grams of
the element, and during 19 18 the output was 13.6 grams, making
a total of 39 grams for the six years. It is estimated that the
total radium production in the United States to 1919 approxi-
mates 55 grams of the element, or probably more than halt of
all the radium produced in the world.

Ageing of Chemical Elements. — It has recently

been suggested that the remarkable difterence in the atomic
weight of what for purposes of distinction have been termed
" common " lead and " radioactive "' lead may be accounted for
by a process of " ageing." According to this hypothesis, what is
now " common " lead, at the time of the formation of the earth
.had an atomic weight of 206.08 and a density of 11.27, but that
as the aeons rolled by the speed of the electrons in the lead atom
slowed down, and so the atomic weight rose to 207.19 and the
density to 11.34. Hence " neo " lead. i.e.. lead freshly formed
by radioactive disintegration, would increase in mass, and in ages
to come will possess a higher density and atomic weight than it
does now. Reasoning along these lines, it is suggested that the
atomic weight of atmospheric or mineral helium must be .0214
higher than that of helium produced by radioactive disintegration,
so that while the atomic weight of " common " helium is 3.94, that
of " neo " helium must be 3.92.

*"Lake N'Gami" (1856), 327.
t49, 227, 228 (1919).

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS AND THE
INHERITANCE OF SMALL VARIATIONS.

By Prof. Ernest Warren. D.Sc.

{Read, July 9, 1918.)

{Plate 16.)

The question whether small, casual variations can be in-
herited is of the greatest importance for any clear understanding
of the methods of evolution, and the experiments described in
this paper have been carried out in the hope of affording evidence
on the subject.

Certain aspects of Mendelism and the factorial hypothesis
are first briefly discussed in order that the object of the enquiry
may be more readily understood.

I. Theoretical.

1. Dissimilarity of Organisms.

From practical experience it may be affirmed that two ferti-
lised egg-cells never develop into two organisms which are
identically the same in bodily structure. This diversity among
the individuals of a species is called variation, and the existenc;
of such is, of course, universally recognised.

The nature of the adult body of an individual depends on the
potentialities of the fertilised tgg, and on the environment to
which the developing embryo and the fully-formed organism are
subjected.

Neither the environment nor the potentialities of any two
fertilised egg-cells can be imagined to be identical in every
respect, and the variations exhibited by any two individuals of a
species result from a variable environment and a variable poten-
tiality. These somewhat trite statements will be admitted as
self-evident.

2. Unit-Characters.

In recent years it has become increasingly the practice to
regard an organism as being composed of a number of semi-
independent characters, and each of such characters is supposed
to have been represented in the fertilised egg-cell in some definite
manner. As a non-committal term, the name " factor " was
applied by Bateson to the potentiality of the fertilised o.^^ with
respect to any one of these characters.

It is, however, impossible to conceive of almost any
character of an organism which does not involve several other
characters, e.g., stature is a highly complicated character. It will
thus be seen that in this regard the expression " character " has
really a technical or conventional meaning; and it implies
a group of characters which shows a tendency to be inherited
independently of other characters and as a whole. Such a
character is frequently spoken of as a " unit-character."

536 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

It is assumed that a so-called unit-character exhibits the
following peculiarities : ( i ) It is essentially indivisible, normally
being inherited only as a whole; (2) it is supposed to be repre-
sented in a perfectly fixed and constant manner as a factor or
group of factors in the fertilised egg-cell, and according to
Morgan and others, the factors are lodged in a particular pair of
chromosomes, and possibly in a definite place in the chromosomes ;
(3) it is frequently capable of being replaced by a second unit-
character of a different nature.

The above features of a unit-character, with the exception^
of the supposed agency of the chromosomes, were demonstrated
by the original experiments of Mendel. The two mutually re-
placeable characters mentioned under (3) are the dominant and
recessive characters of the Mendelians, and are known as allelo-
morphs.

-3. Chromosomes and the Mendelian Relationships.

Recent cytological research and Morgan's* striking experi-
ments with the fruit-fly Drosophila appear to show that the
ordinary cells of the body, the non-maturated sex-cells and the
fertilised egg-cells contain a nucleus in which the chromosomes
are arranged in homologous pairs, one of each pair being derived
from the nucleus of the matured eg^, and one from the nucleus
of the sperm. Morgan has endeavoured to demonstrate that the
factors governing characters are located in definite places in par-
ticular chromosomes of the fertilised egg-cell. When the factors
are similar in the two chromosomes of an homologous pair, the
individual which arises is said to be hovnozygoits ; while if one
chromosome of the pair contains the factor of a certain character,
and the other chromosome contains the factor of the alternative
character, or allelomorph, the individual which arises is said to
be lieterosy(^ous.

In the maturation of the eo;o; or of the sperm in the last
mitotic division the individual chromosomes of the homologous
pairs separate from each other, and in the matured e^^. or in the
spermatozoon, there remains only one chromosome of each pair,
and accordingly a unit-character, or its allelomorph, is repre-
sented by a single factor only, and not by a pair of homologous
factors, as in the fertilised egg-cell. This separation of the pairs
of homologous factors has been called the secfreqation of the
factors (see plate).

The heterozygous condition arises by crossing two indi-
viduals in wdiich jointly both factors for the two alternative or
non-blending characters are present. The ordinary results that
may be expected by various crossings of homozygous and hetero-
zvgous individuals can be readily 'calculated theoretically, and
the predictions frequently tally remarkably well with the results
of breedine experiments with resnect to non-blendine characters.

Mendelian heredity necessarilv involves the notion of unit-

* Moro-an. T. H.. and others : " The IMechanism of Mendelian Here-
dity." New York, 19x5.

THE PL-KE LINE 11 VruTlIESlS. 537

characters and unit-factors which refuse to mingle intimately
with each other in sexual reproduction, and the whole of the
character, or its allelomorph, is handed down by the j^arent. 1 he
conception of unit-characters and Mendelian inheritance has not
been elaborated on account of any inherent plausibility, but it has
been forced into recognition by the striking results that have been
obtained in the breeding of animals and plants.

4 Blending and Non-Blending Inheritance.

It must be remembered that the Mendelian relationship has
been observed most frequently in the case of the relatively less
important characters which distinguish domestic breeds; but the
more fundamental characters of natural species do not appear
to exhibit this type of inheritance. Here the ofTspring usually
have the mean of the characters of the two parents, and on
subsequently mating the offspring together, there is no clear
segregation or separation of the characters of the grandparents.
In other words, the characters of the grandparents have become
inseparably blended.

The strict Mendelians, however, tend to deny the existence
of real blended inheritance. They hold, seemingly, that the
appearance of blending may result from a mosaic or combination
of numerous unit-characters which hang together in groups, and
the groups are so related to one another that an apparent blending
of characters may occur.

Morgan points out that the inheritance of characters in
groups is to be expected if the factors on which they depend are
situated in definite places in particular chromosomes ; but the
chromosome mechanism would appear to be relatively too coarse,
and the number of chromosoraes infinitely too small, for the pur-
pose of attempting to explain the appearance of blending by the
meeting together in homologous male and female chromosomes
of numerous minute, unmodifiable unit-factors.

It would appear that we are bound to recognise the existence
of genuine blended inheritance, and further, that this type mav
concern the more important and fundamental characters of
organisms.

The relationship between these two types of inheritance is
not entirely clear, and whether future cytological observations
will be able to throw light on the subject is uncertain. It is. how-
ever, somewhat significant that the nuclear mechanism which
has been shown to occur in the case of some germ cells is oif such
a nature as to explain Mendelian segregation and other
phenomena associated with non-blending inheritance, on the sup-
position that the factors in the fertilised t^^, controlling or repre-
senting the characters of the future individual, are lodged in the
chromosomes. A possi])le. but not necessarv inference which is
suggested bv thi^; coincidence of behaviour between chromosome
movements and Mendelinn phenomena is that the factors repre-
senting, or controlling', the characters which do blend are not
lodged in the chromo<:ome'^, but in the nuclear sap. o ' more likely
in the general cytoplasm.

538. THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

It must be ever remembered that referring: heredity to a
system of factors, determinants, centres of force, memories, etc.,
in the germ-cell cannot explain heredity ; it may certainly assist
in predicting- results, but a real explanation must include 5 know-
ledge as to how the agencies produce the eft'ect. Such know-
ledge is unattainable, as it would necessitate an understanding
of the nature of life, consciousness and memory.

As a simple example of blending inheritance we may take
the amount of spotting on the lower surface of the flower of the
foxglove. A plant with flowers having very few spots was
crossed with a plant in which the flowers were richly spotted.
The offspring carried flowers which tended to be inter-
mediate between the two parents in the amount of spotting. It
was previously ascertained that the two parents were gametically
pure with regard to this character. Each was self-fertilised,
and the offspring of each were similar to the parent.

The oft'spring of the cross were self-fertilised and families
were raised. No segregation occurred, the individuals of each
family tended to resemble the parent, and it w^as totally im-
possible to separate the plants into two groups, one resembling
the female grandparent and the other the male grandparent.
Another generation was raised by self -fertilisation, and although
there was considerable variation in the amount of spotting, yet
it may be very definitely affirmed that no segregation into the
two great grandparental types occurred. The simplicitv of the
character is advantageous, since the inheritance of any compli-
cated character, such as the stature of man, leaves room for
much ingenious speculation in trying to interpret it in Mendelian
terms.

It would appear that, according to the factorial hypothesis,
we must suppose a factor for a small amount of spotting occurred
in a chromosome of one parent and a factor for much spotting
was present in the other parent. On crossing, these two factors
would be present in the contiguous chromosomes of an homo-
logous pair. We must then suppose that the two factors mutuallv
influence each other, and thereby become quite similar to each
other, and intermediate in nature between the two original
factors. It is doubtful, however, whether this interpretation
w^ould be welcomed by the strict Mendelian. (See plate.)

Obvious Mendelian relationships only occur in the inheri-
tance of individuals which have resulted from the crossing of
forms which bear characters that refuse to mingle intimatelv
with each other. The laws relating to this kind of hybridism
must not be allowed to obscure the relatively more important
type of inheritance where the characters of parents blend, and
there is no subsequent tendency for the separation of the two
characters. In the opinion of the writer, this latter tvpe of in-
heritance is much more intimately associated with the evolu-
tionary process than the former.

It is, in a sense, unsatisfactorv to be obliged to recognise
two types of heredity — namely, non-blending and blending inheri-

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 539

lance — and there must be an underlying principle con-
necting these two types together. As seen above, some
Mendelians attempt to solve the difficulty by denying the exis-
tence of genuine blended inheritance, but some, including the
writer, cannot accept, saving in an almost metaphysical sense,
the view that the blending is merely apparent, and arises through
multiple factors. The whole notion of unit-characters has, as a
matter of fact, an only very limited application, for there is
reason to suppose with de Vries that a change in any one factor
involves some change in every other factor of the organism, and
thus no single factor can be identical in two individuals.

5. Small or Fluctuating^ Variations.

It is maintained by some that small so-called " fluctuating
variations," observable in any given character among brothers
or sisters having the same gametic nature in a Mendelian
sense, are non-inheritable. With such a view, arguing in a
vicious circle is singularly easy in interpreting experimental
results, since, if any particular expression of a character is shown
to be inheritable, it can be retorted that the fact of it being so
proves that that particular expression was not a fluctuating
variation, but a variation of an inheritable nature, which is
known as a mutation.

The subject is, of course, of fundamental importance, for
if small, casual variations are not usually inheritable, it becomes
almost impossible to picture a gradual evolution of organic forms,
and the origin of the adaptation of organisms to their environ-
ment is well-nigh inscrutable. It may be assumed that
" fluctuating variations " are the variations in the expression of
a character in all those individuals of a family which possessed,
in the fertilised egg-cells from which they sprang, the essentially
unchanged factor governing the unit-character.

In other words, a " mutation " denotes that there has been
a change in the factor, while in the case of a " fluctuating varia-
tion " it is supposed that the factor has undergone no change
whatever.

The varying vicissitudes to which embryos are subjected
may modify the physical appearance or expression of a character
in the adult, and some consider that all small, fluctuating varia-
tions arise in this manner. Those that hold this view suppose
that, when there is no mutation, the factor remains entirely
unchanged, and consequently the power of hereditary trans-
-mission is identical, notwithstanding the fact that the visible
character in the different individuals may vary considerably. The
great contention of all who accept this interpretation is that
under ordinary circinnstances the factor, or that which repre-
sents the character in the fertilised egg-cell is, broadly speaking,
unmodifiable. and it can only be changed by some unusual and
at present unknown influences : and then the visible character as
a rule is profoundly changed and a mutation is the result

Careful experimentation is necessary in this connection, since

540 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

a prioii it is quite as likely that a visible variation in a character
of the adult may really correspond to some modification of the
factor, representmg the character in the germ-cell from v^diich the
individual arose, as that the variation is simply due to some
change in the environment during embryonic life.

6. Pure Lines.

An almost necessary corollary to the supposed non-inheritance
of fluctuating variations would be the existence of the so-called
" pure lines " of Johannsen. This observer raised several self-
fertilised generations of beans, and he interpreted his results as
proving that the hereditary transmission of a character remained
the same from one self-fertilised generation to another, although
the visible expression of the character might vary considerably
among the individuals. In other words, he sought to show that
selection within a self-fertilised family had no result. Karl Pear-
son has pointed out, however, that the expermients were not at
all conclusive, although Morgan* and his collaborators state thcit
Johannsen worked '* by methods that have not been questioned."

7. Modification of Factors.

The question whether a factor can be gradually modified by
the selection of individuals exhibiting small variations in the
expression of the character is a most imi^ortant one, and depends
upon the circumstance as to whether or not the variations in the
character are reflections of variations in the factors in the germ-
cells from which the individuals arose. The testing of this
problem is not as easy as might at first be suiJi>osed. In the case
of animals which are not self-fertilising, a new factor for the
character studied is introduced at every generation unless resort
is made to in-breeding.

Utilising self-fertilised generations of plants simplifies the
enquiry, and Johannsen worked with such material. His potion
of pure lines involves the denial of the power of selection to
modify the factors.

Let us suppose that the red colouration of the flowers of a
gametically pure plant is represented by some simple factor. In
the fertilised egg-cell from which the plant arose there were two
of such factors, one in the chromosome derived from the female
nucleus of the ovule, and one in the homologous chromosome
derived from the male nucleus of the pollen tube. If the pollen
grain came from an unrelated plant, the two homologous factors
are doubtless not identical.

In the formation of mature germ-cells the homologous
chromosomes separate from each other, so that finally in the
matured germ-cell there will be only one of the pair of homo-
logous chromosomes remaining in the nucleus and containing the
factor in question. As far as is known, which of the two honiu-
logous chromosomes remains in the germ-cell is a matter of

* Morgan, T. H., and others : " The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity."
New York, 1915.

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 541

chance. Thus there is separation or segreg"ation in the mature
germ-cells of the two slightly different factors, and, provided it
is actually a matter of chance which of the two homoloo^ous
chromosomes remains in the mature germ-cell, half^df the eggt-cells
will contain the factor originally derived from the grandparental
seed-plant, and half from the grandparental pollen-plant. In a
similar manner, half of the male germ-cells will contain the factors
derived from the grandparental pollen-plant and half from the
grandparental seed-plant.

On self-fertilising the plants thus containing two kinds of
each of the sexual cells, we should obtain three kinds of fertilised
egg-cells, namely: (i) Those containing two homologous chromo-
somes derived from the grandparental seed-plant; (2) those
containing one chromosome from the grandyjarental seed-plant
and one from the grandparental pollen-plant; and (3) those con-
taining two Jiomologous chromosomes from the grandparental
pollen-plant. The proportional occurrence of these three dif-
ferent kinds of fertilised germ-cells would be i : 2 : i respectively,
which is, of course, the familiar Mendelian relationship.

Thus independently of any replacement of the factors for
redness by its allelomorph, say the factor for whiteness, we should
obtain the JNIendelian relationship with reference to any slight
differences in the two factors for redness in the two grandparents,
proznded that these factors ivere unable to influence each other,
and were incapable of each assuming an intermediate or mean
nature. It is realised that the detection of such Afendelian
relationship for slightly different factors for redness would not
be very easy ; but no clear evidence o;f its occurrence in the breed-
ing of numerous families has been seen, and the obvious inference
is that the two slightly different factors do mutually influence each
other and become alike and intermediate in nature.

It is still quite debatable whether all hereditary characters
are carried by the chromosomes, and it has been plausibly sug-
gested by C. E. Walker* and others that " individual " characters
are carried by the chromosomes and " racial " characters by the
cytoplasm. It would appear that in the latter case the blending
type of inheritance is more probable, while in the former case the
Mendelian or the non-blending type may occur.

If it is advisable to retain the conception of factors or discrete
potentialities in the germ-cells, we may, in the case of hereditary
characters carried by the nucleus, express the relationship between
non-blending and blending inheritance in the following way. In
non-blending inheritance the mutually replaceable factors are of
such a nature that they are unable, when combined in the same
nucleus, to influence each other and each to become modified into
a factor with a nature intermediate between the natures of the
two original factors ; while in the case oif blending inheritance
such a modification of the two factors does occur (see plate).

* Walker. C. E. : " Hereditary Characters and their Modes of Trans-
mission." London, I9,IQ.

542 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

This simple supposition ^e^ives some notion of a unifying^ principle
between the two kinds of inheritance ; for there is then nothing
antagonistic to the view that blending characters are represented
in the chromosomes like the non-blending characters ; the
only difference being that the factors of the blending characters
in the contiguous homologous chromosomes mutually influence
each other and assume a mean nature. This conception of mutu-
ally influencing factors gives an insight into the possible cause
of parent prepotency, as we may imagine that in the case of the
prepotent parent the factor of the character in question is of
such a nature that a reduction to a mean O'f the factors does not
occur when they are combined in the same nucleus and located
in homologous chromosomes.

As already remarked, the factorial hypothesis does not
explain heredity : it simply transfers the problem to a system of
impulses, memories, centres of force, corpuscles or the like in the
germ-cells. There is, however, a real justification for thus shift-
ing the venue of the problem, for by its means, in the case of non-
blending inheritance, we can predict the approximate results that
may be expected from various crosses, and in this sense the
hypothesis is enlightening ; but it is incapable of aft'ording any
information as to how it is possible for characters to depend on
the presence of factors in the germ-cell, since it does not throw
real light on the nature of the hereditary influence.

8. Relationship betzveen Character and Factor.

We have seen, then, that the peculiar relations which have
been observed in the inheritance of certain characiters have lead
to the conception that characters are represented in the
chromosomes by factors or a group of factors. The important
question arises as to how far the variations observable in the
expression of the characters are to be attributed to a variable
environment or to changes in tlie factor. According to the Men-
delians the factors are relatively stable and fixed, and when they
do change in any way the character exhibits a mutation which is
inheritable. Experimentation with respect to the variability or
otherwise of factors is desirable, but much data in the breeding
of plants and animals have accumulated in recent years, and
doubtless some might be found suitable for the purpose. If the
factor or factors are relatively invariable, and the variability of
the expression of a character is to be attributed to a changeable
environment, Johannsen's pure lines are a necessary consequence.

II. Breeding Experiments.

I have conducted certain breeding experiments with self-
fertilised generations of garden varieties of nasturtiums and fox-
gloves with a view to further testing the pure-line hvpothesis.
The experiments on foxgloves are still in prop-ress. and the results
are proving consistent and intelligible, and are giving no support
to the hypothesis of pure lines as above defined.

In the case of the nasturtiums, the characters studied have

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 543

proved somewhat less suitable for the particular purpose in hand,
but nevertheless some results of interest have been obtained, and
it is desirable that they should be placed on record.

The general result with 'both foxg-loves and nasturtiums is,
that the '' fluctuating variations " of the Mendelians are inherit-
able, and consequently the factors, or group of factors, handed
down to the fertilised germ-cell are not constant, but are variable
or fluctuating in nature.

NASTURTIUMS.

In brief, a dwarf, variegated nasturtium plant (Tropcrolum
minus, " Queen ") with red flowers was crossed with a tall
climbing, green plant (Tropceohim majus) with pale yellow
flowers. The hybrids w^ere reared, and the habit, the characters
of the leaves and the colour of the flowers were noted. These
hybrids were self-fertilised, and families from each were raised
and the same characters were recorded. The plants of this
generation exhibited such a strong antipathy to self- fertilisation
that a continuation of the experiment became almost imprac-
ticable.

The colour of the flowers which developed during the experi-
ment depended on the formation of three colouring matters: (i)
A pale yellow substance dissolved in the cell-sap, (2) a red
substance also dissolved in the sap, (3) small deep yellow bodies
(chromoplasts) imbedded in the cell-protoplasm or lying in the
cell-cavity. It appears that (i) is always more or less present
in the flower, but (2) and (3) may be absent, or may occur
separately or both together in the same flower. Owing to the
fact that the deep yellow chromoplasts are unaffected by alcohol,
it is easy to detect their presence by immersing the flowers in this
fluid. In the course of an hour the pale yellow substance in
solution and any red substance that may be present are com-
pletely removed, but if the yellow chromoplasts occur in any
quantity the flower remains yellow instead of becoming quite
transparent. When a flower is not obviously yellow after immer-
sion in alcohol the yellow chroinoplasts are said to be " absent."
By this it is not implied that chromoplasts are entirely absent,
since generally a few may be found by the microscopic examina-
tion of the ceils at the base of the petals.

I. Male or Pollen-plant {A).

In December, 191 5, there was growing in the garden of the
Natal Museum a dwarf nasturtium plant with variegated leaves
and rather small medium-red flowers. Chromoplasts absent. The
leaves were small and somewhat circular, as is usual with the
dwarf variety, and they were conspicuously streaked and dotted
with yellowish white. The plant was in a somewhat shaded
comer, and did not flower very freely. The flowers were self-
fertilised by hand, plugged with cotton-wool, and the petals were
then carefully fastened together with minute pins in order to
avoid the possibility of foreign pollen entering the flower.

E

544

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

During December, 191 5, and January, 191 6, only 17 seeds
were obtained, owing to the fact that many of the flowers failed
to set seed. It was quite clear that fertility was much impaired
by self-fertilisation. The 17 seeds were sown on 31st January,
1916, and only seven germinated. These seven offspring were
grow^n to maturity. They were all dwarf plants like the parent,
all had variegated leaves, and all had red flowers. On placing the
flowers in alcohol, those of four plants became colourless, those
of two became deep yellow, and one plant was not tested.

2. Female or Seed-Plant (B).

At the same time there was growing in a garden about three-
quarters of a mile from the Museum a tall nasturtium plant with
climbing, sprawling habit. The leaves were large and uniform
green, the flowers were pale yellow wath chromoplasts absent. A
number of flowers were self-fertilised, and 34 seeds were obtained.
These were sown on 3i|St January, 1916, and 20 germinated. The
mature plants were all non-variegated, and were tall, sprawling
plants. In 16 plants the flowers were pale yellow (no chromo-
plasts) like those of the parent, in two light red without chromo-
plasts, in one deep yellow (owing to abundance of chromo-
plasts) with an occasional blush of red on some of the flowers,
and in one deep yellow with no red tinge.

From these results we are led to consider that the male plant
was homoz3'gous with regard to dwarf habit and variegation, and
the female plant with reference tO' tall, sprawling habit and
uniform green leaves of large size.

The gametic nature of the parents with regard to the colour
of the flowers is less clear, since all three colouring substances
were present among different offspring arising from each parent.

Parentage.

No
of

Off-
spring

Pale

Yellow

Only.

Pale

Yellow

and

Red.

Pale
Yellow,

Red,
Chromo-
plasts.

2

1

Pale
Yellow

and
Chromo-
plasts.

Offspring of selfed A (me-
dium red, no chromo-
plasts)

Offspring of selfed B (pale
yellow, no chromo-
plasts)

6
20

16

4
2

1

Thus the characters of redness and the presence of chromo-
plasts do not give a simple Mendelian relationship iir inheritance.
Doubtless^ with further breeding it might be possible to find
hypotheses involving multiple factors or the presence of inhibitors
which would render the experimental results intelligible; but the
present purpose does not necessitate any such attempt.

3. Crossing of Nasturtium Plants A ( S ) and B ( 9 ) — Hybrids.

The tall, pale yellow nasturtium plant (B), with green leaves,

was crossed with the pollen of the dwarf, medium-red, variegated

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

545

nasturtium plant (A) ciurino- December, 191 5, and January, 1916.
Thirty seeds were obtained. These were sown on 31st January,
1 916, and 21 seeds germinated. The seedlings were planted out,
and by 23rd March two plants were in flower.

4. Offspring of Hybrids.

The 21 hybrids were self-fertilised, and seeds were obtained
from each plant during' May- July, 1916. These seeds were sown
in pans on 30th September, 1916, and on the 17th October the
seedling's were planted out in fully exposed, long plots adjacent
to the Natal Museum. The plants flowered in November and
December, and the observations were made at that time.

5. The Effect of Self -fertilisation on Fertility.

During the Natal winter (May-July) the hybrids were self-
fertilised, and seeds were collected from every plant. Many of
the pollinations were quite inefi'ectual. and it was clear that self-
ing was prejudicial, since foreign pollen acted promptly and
'fertilisation almost invariably occurred. The aim was to obtain
about 25 seeds from each plant, and since equal attention was
paid to all the plants, the number of seeds actually obtained from
a plant gives a very fair comparative measure of its fertility with
self-fertilisation. The number of seeds which germinated in
every set compared with the numl^er sown gives another com-
parative measure of fertility, and it will be seen that these two
measures have a distinct tendency to agree with each other.
The figures are given in the following table : —

Regd.
No. of

Off-
spring.

Seeds

obtained

and

sown.

Seeds
germ-
inated.

Regd.
No. of
Off-
spring.

• Seeds
obtained
and
sown.

17
17
18
19
20
20
21

Seeds
germ-
inated.

Regd.
No. of

Off-
spring.

Seedsd
nbtaine
and
sown.

Seeds
germ-
inated.

XIV

XI

II
XVII

XII
XVI! I

XVI

9

11

11

11
12
14
14

4

3

2

6

12

3

3

I
IV
VI
XIX
XX
IX

V

15
10

5
15
15

5
12

XXI

XV

X

III

VIII

VII

XIII

21
21
21
21
22
24
24

10

13

12

18

17

9

24

Mean

12

4-7

Mean

19

110

Mean

22

14 7

Thus in the first seven sets of seed, with an average of 12 seeds
in the set, the percentage number which germinated was 40% ;
in the second seven sets of seed, with an average of 19 seeds in
the set, the percentage number which germinated was 58% ; while

546

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

in the third seven sets of seed, with an average of 22 seeds in the
set, the percentage number which germinated was 67%. The
average number of seeds which germinated in all the sets was
55%.

With seed obtained by cross-fertilisation and with as careful
sowing there is evidence that at least about 80-85% would
germinate. Thus in the first generation of selling there was a
reduction of about 30% in the germinating power of the seeds.

6. The Effect of Hybridism on Fertility.

The crossing of the two varieties of nasturtium was pre-
judicial to the generative system of the hybrids, since it was
discovered that a considerable portion of their pollen was in-
capable of germinating.

It is not always easy to determine by inspection whether a
pollen grain is bad, and to prevent any possible bias in the
estimation, Dr. Conrad Akerman, without any knowledge of the
relative fertility of the plants, kindly made counts of the number
of good and bad grains in six different microscopic fields of pollen
taken from each of the 21 hybrid plants. The percentage of good
pollen grains and the number of offspring raised from the 21
hybrids is given in the following table : —

No. of
G

Offspring in
P'amily.
rade 1-8.

No. of Offspring in

P'amily.

Grade 9-16.

No. of Offspring in

Family.

Grade 17-24.

Percent-

Percent-

Percent-

Kegis-

tered

No.

age of

Good

Pollen

in
Parent.

14

No. of

Off-
spring.

Regis-
tered
No.

age of

Good

Pollen

in
Parent.

No. of

Off-
spring.

Regis-
tered
No.

age of

Good

Pollen

in
Parent.

No. of
Off-
spring.

II

2

IV

95

9

VIII

99

17

VI

25

3

V

2

9

III

96

18

XI

28

1

3

VII

92

9

XIII

95

24

XVI

41

3

XXI

37

9

XVIII

26

3

X

96

12

• •

XIV

17

4

XII

95

12

IX

9

5

XV

94

13

XVII

91

6

I

97

15

••

-•

••

XIX

10

15

••

• •

••

••

XX

96

15

••

Mean

1

'

Mean.

71

12

Mean

97

20

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 547

Thus in eight famihes ranging from 2-6 (average four) in
number the mean number of good pollen grains in the parent was
31%; in 10 famihes from 9-15 (average 12) the mean
number of good grains was 71% ; while in three families with a
mean number of 20 offspring the average number of good grains
was 97%. It is therefore clear that when the fertility of the
plant was low the pollen was defective in quality.

Accordingly it may be stated that on self-fertilising these
hybrids it was found that the number of offspring that could be
raised from each of the 21 plants varied considerably, and on the
average in those parent plants where the pollen was largely bad,
the number of offspring raised was low. This poor quality of
the pollen is to be considered as a concomitant effect of the
hybridism, and not in itself a cause of the fewness of the off-
spring that could be obtained, since with 30% of good grains
there would be an enormous superfluity of such with the slightest
smear on the stigma. It implies that where the pollen was of
poor quality the ovules were also weak or in some way defective.
Thus in selfing the hybrids there was partial sterility arising from
(i) the effect of hybridism, and (2) the bad effect of self-
'fertilisation ; and with the data to hand it is not possible to
separate sharply the effects of the two unfavourable influences.

7. The Nature of the Inheritance of the Various Characters.
(i) General Hubit of Plant.

The original seed-plant (Tropccolum majus) was tall or
straggling, and the original pollen-plant (Tropa:olum minus),
variety known as " Queen,'' was dwarf.

The parent plants appeared to be homozygous with reference
to this character; since on self-fertilising the tall plant. 20 off-
spring were raised, and they were all tall ; and on selfing the
dwarf plant, seven offspring were obtained, and they were all
dwarf.

By crossing the two plants 21 offspring, or hybrids, were
raised, and they all tended to be tall.

The offspring resembled the seed-plant, and consequentlv in
Mendelian phraseology the straggling habit is to be regarded as
dominant, and the dwarf habit recessive. It was not easy to deter-
mine whether the straggling habit of the offspring was in any
way less pronounced than in the seed-plant. On the whole it
appeared to be rather less : and even in the absence of a special
investigation of the point it is probable that dominance was not
perfect. The habit could not, however, be regarded as a mean
between the habits of the two i)arents ; the offspring were cc"-
tainly much closer to the seed-plant than to the pollen-plant in
this character.

By self-fertilising these hybrids 21 families were obtained
and 200 seedlings were raised. Of these, on account of death and
other causes, it was possible to observe the habit in only 180
plants. Three grades in the habit were distinguished — dwarf,
semi-dwarf, and the straggling or tall. These grades were not

548 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

very sharply distinguishable, and the habit of young plants only
could be thus differentiated. Even typically dwarf plants may
become more or less straggling as they grow old. When in a
comparatively young condition these plants were examined, and
the results were: 131 straggling or tall, 7 semi-dwarfs, and 42
dwarfs.

On adding the semi-dwarfs to the dwarfs, we obtain 131 tall
and 49 with a tendency towards the dwarf condition. These
figures are not far from the j : i (i.e., 135 : 45) ratio. On dividing
the semi-dwarfs between the tall plants and the dwarf plants, we
have 134 tall and 46 dwarfs, and these figures are still closer to
the Mendelian ratio.

Owing to the absence of a satisfactory measure of dwarfness,
a study of the inheritance of small variations in this character
was not undertaken.

2. Variegation of the Leaves.

The original seed-plant possessed large, uniform green leaves,
while the pollen-plant had small leaves, conspicuously spotted and
striped with yellowish-white.

The 20 offspring obtained from the seed-plant by self-
fertilisation all had uniform green leaves, and the seven offspring
from the pollen-plant all had variegated leaves. Accordingly the
parent plants may be regarded as homozygous with respect to
these characters.

The 21 offspring, or hybrids, obtained by crossing the above
plants all had perfectly green leaves. In two seedlings one or
two of the young leaves exhibited a few light spots, but it was not
possible to be certain whether these represented true variegation.
In any case all the subsequent leaves were perfectly green. Thus
uniform green leaves were dominant, and variegated leaves reces-
sive, and dominance appeared to be practically perfect.

The 21 hybrids were self-fertilised and families were raised.
Some of the offspring w-ere green and some were variegated.
The amount of variegation observed in the variegated offspring
varied considerably, but there was never any doubt as to whether
any particular plant should be regarded as a variegated one or
not. The number of green offspring with no trace of variegation
was 135, and the number of variegated offspring was .SS- These
numbers diverge somewhat from the ratio of 3 : i (143 green, 47
variegated) ; there were too few variegated offspring, and the
divergence was in the wrong direction. In a somewhat similar
case cited by Bateson there were too few variegated offspring, and
he very plausibly suggested that this arose through the fact that
wholly variegated plants (i.e., those with no chlorophvll) would
be unable to live. Such an explanation will not fit the present
case, for if we suppose a certain number of plants did not survive
on account of lack of chlorophyll, the divergence from the typical
ratio would be still greater.

There was a distinct tendency for the variation in the amount
of the variegation to remain similar in the different families, not-

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

549

withstanding the fact that the paternal variegated grandparent
was the same for all the families.

The maximum amount of variegation observed was called
lOO, and an estimation of the variegation oif the plants relative
to the standard was made in percentages. The necessary data are
given in the accompanying table, and the families are arranged
in ascending order of their mean variegation.

Green Offspring, j

Variegated

Offspring.

Kegd.

No

of

Parents

(Green).

No. o

Offspring in

Percentage Grades.

2 V

CO

o

CO

i

1
o

o
.o

1
o

§
j

90—99.

o
§

i-H

Mean Perc

of Varieg

Plant

VI ..

2

1

. .

34-5

XX ..

9

2

0

1

51-2

XV ..

9

2

0

2

• •

64-5

IV ..

7

1

0

1

• •

64-5

Ill ..

14

2

0

0

2

69 5

VII . .

1

2

1
X

2

74-5

XII ..

8

1

1

1

74-5

IX ..

3

• •

2

••

74-5

XXI ..

5

1

0

2

77-8

VIII ..

11

2

1

77-8

XIII ..

15

1

0

0

2

2

2

78 8

V ..

8

• •

3

0

1

79 5

i

• •

• •

1

• •

84-5

XVI ..

4

• •

1

0

1

84-5

I ..

8

• •

2

1

1

1

84-5

X ..

9

..

• •

2

1

87-8

XIX ..

8

..

1

2

91-2

XI ..

3

• •

—

XIV ..

4

—

XVI ..

3

• •

—

XVIII ,.

3

••

••

—

Means . .

135

55

73-5

550

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

Owing to the fact that the original variegated plant was the
paternal parent of all the plants, I. -XXL, and the families given
in the above table were raised by self-fertiHsation, the factor for
variegation would be identical in all the individuals of the
families according to the strict Mendelian standpoint.

In accordance with the pure-line theory there might be
considerable variation in the expression of the character in the
different individuals, but there should be no tendency for the
averages or means of the families to differ from one another.
There is, however, a very clearly-marked difference in the means
of the families, e.g., in family XX, there was a mean variegation
of 51, and in family I a mean of 85. This result can scarcely be
explained except by supposing that there had occurred a modifica-
tion of the factor in the parents oi these families.

3. Size of Leaves and its Relationship to Habit and Variecfation.

From a casual inspection of the plants it was clear that the
general size of the leaves varied considerably in different indivi-
duals. The maximum widths of some ten full-grown leaves of a
plant were measured, and the mean was taken as the character-
istic leaf-width for the plant.

The mean leaf -width of the 9 parent with uniform green
leaves was 55 mm., and of the S parent with variegated leaves
was 44 mm., while the mean width of 18 hybrids raised by
crossing these plants was 69 mm. The distribution was as
follows :

Mean Leaf- Width in
Millimetres.

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75-79

80-8 _

No. of Plants.

1

2

3

3

4

3

2

Thus the hybrids possessed large leaves, and, speaking in
Mendelian terms, large leaves may be said to be dominant over
small leaves. It must be remembered, however, that the size of
the leaf depends very largely on the general environment and the
age of the plant, and consequently the fact that the mean leaf-
width of the hybrids was greater than the leaf-width of the 9
parent is not surprising. It is clear, however, that there was no
tendency for the leaf-wadths of the hybrids to cluster around the
leaf-width of the male parent, or to approach an intermediate
condition between the widths of the two parents.

From 19 hybrids families (containing in all 144 plants) were
raised by self-fertilisation, and all the plants were grown under
similar conditions of light, soil and moisture. The means of the
different families varied considerably (see table), but owing to
the fact that the leaves from the parents were not collected when
the plants were at the same age, or at the same time of year, as
in the case of the offspring, it is not oossible to ascertain in any
reliable manner the strength of inheritance between parent and
offspring.

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

551

Regd.

Mean Leaf-Width of Ofifspring.

No.

of

Hybrid.

CO

CO

i-H

05

CO

00

So

00

to

CO

s

00

CD

to

00

XVII . .

1

1

2

0

1

1

, ,

, ,

, ,

II

• •

0-

1

0

1

. .

. .

• ft

VI

. .

1

0

2

• •

. .

XXI

0

1

0

oo*'
2

1

1

1

1

XV

o*

1

0

1

0

2

4

■3
1

• •

I

0*

1

0

o

2

3

3

2

1

• «

VII

• •

e*o-'
2

0"

1

0

0

0

0

1

XI

• •

0

1

0

2

XII

1

0

oo'-
2

0

1

2

5

• «

XX

• 4

• •

1

o»
4

2

3

•-•

• •

V

• •

1

0

0*

3

0

4

2

1

• •

IV

• •

0'>

1

ooo'
4

0

1

1

2

• •

X

• •

2

000-*

3

0--
2

0

3

1

1

IX

• •

1

0

2

1

0

1

..

III

0-s

1

0

0

2

7

5

3

• •

XIX

1

0

1

1

1

5

3

• ft

XIV

■ •

• •

••

1

0

3

• •

XVIII ..

• •

• •

••

2

1

XVI

• •

• •

••

••

2

1

••

Total ..

1

7

11

18

25

30

81

19

2

0 Indicates one dwarf plant. - Indicates one variegated plant. o ■■ Indicates one

dwarf, variegated plant.

552

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

In the accompanying table the famiHes are arrano-ed in the
order of increasing mean leaf-width. The total rang-e has now
considerably increased. In the parent hybrids the rang^e was
50-84 mm., while in the offspring it was 20-91 mm. An inspec-
tion of the distribution of the dift'erent families will show that
there is some sign of an imperfect segregation into plants with
small leaves and plants with large leaves ; the break in the series
tends to be in the neighbourhood of 40-55 mm.

There is some correlation Ijetween habit, variegation and
leaf-size. In the table the numljer of symbols (°) above the
figure indicate the number of plants which were dwarf, the
remainder being straggling. The symbol (*) indicates a varie-
gated plant : when placed above ( ° ) it implies that the dwarf
plant was variegated.

The dwarf plants of a family tended to have smaller leaves
than the straggling plants ; thus the mean leaf-width of the 33
dwarfs was 44 mm., and of the 1 1 1 stragglers, 65 mm. Also,
variegated plants tended to have smaller leaves than non-
variegated plants, whether they were dwarfs or stragglers, as is
seen in the accompanying table :

19 Families, 14 1 Offspring.

Width of Leaf.

Condition
of

Stragglers.

Dwarfs.

Le;.f.

No. of
Plants.

No of
Families
Involved

Mean in

mm. \

\

No. of
Plants.

No of
Families
Involved

Mean in
mm.

Non-Variegated
Variegated

94
17

19
10

06
57

10
23

8
12

48
42

Variegated dwarf plants had a mean of 42 mm. against non-
variegated dwarfs, 48 mm. ; while variegated stragglers had a
mean of 57 mm. against non-variegated stragglers, 66 mm.

We accordingly see that variegation in the offspring was not
necessarily confined to the dwarfs, although the variegated grand-
parent S was dwarf, and the non-variegated grandparent ?
was straggling. Nevertheless the relative number of variegated
plants was greater among the dwarfs than among the stragglers.
Thus there were 70 per cent, variegated offspring among the
dwarfs and only 15 per cent, among the stragglers.

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 553

It may be therefore affirmed that there was a very distinct
tendency for small leaves to occur with dwarf habit and varieg^a-
tion.

It is interestinLC to notice that we have here three degrees
of seg^regation : in varieg-ation the seo-reg^atioii was practically
perfect; in dwarf habit it was less perfect, and in size of leaf it
was quite imperfect, althoug-h distinguishable.

On the chromos(.)mc hypothesis, and with relatively invari-
able factors, a practically perfect segregation is intelhgible ; but
it is not obvious as to how it is possible to interpret the occur-
rence of a very imperfect or barely recognisable segregation. If,
however, the notion of stable factors be abandoned, an imperfect
segregation could perhaps be explained by supposing that the
intensity of the mutually influencing action between the two oppos-
ing factors in the homologous chromosomes varied in the germ-
cells from which the different individuals arose, so that in some
a mean of the two original factors was attained, and in others
the two factors remained in a less altered condition.

4. The Deep Yellow Chroiuoplasts.

As already remarked, it cannot be stated that the deep
yellow chromoplasts were entirely absent in any of the flowers ;
i3Ut nearly always they were either abundant, being crowded
throughout the whole of the petals, or they were very scarce, and
mostly confined to the cells near the base of the petals. A few
more or less intermediate conditions were noticed where the
•chromoplasts were thinly scattered through the petals, but their
occurrence was quite exce]3tional among the plants under observa-
tion. Nevertheless, in a large bed of mixed nasturtiums,
recently examined in a public park, intermediate conditions
ajipeared to be less uncommon.

We have seen that the male, dwarf progenitor had no
chromoplasts ; on self-fertilising the flowers, however, four off-
spring had chromoplasts and two had none. Similarly, the
female, straggling progenitor had no chromoplasts, but two of
the offspring possessed them and 18 did not. These erratic
numbers could possibly be ex]:)lained in Mendelian terms by pre-
supposing the existence of inhibitors or multiple factors, but the
material to hand is insufficient for arriving at very clear results.

The 21 hybrids obtained by crossing these two plants com-
prised nine plants with chromoplasts and 12 without. The
families raised by self-fertilising the hybrids exhibited different
conditions. The actual results are given in the following table :

554

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

Hybrid Parents.

Offsp

ring.

Hybrid Parents.

Offspring.

A = Chromoplasts

A = Chromoplasts

Absent.

Absent

A

P

A

P

P = Chromoplasts

P = Chromoplasts

Present.

Present.

I

A

12

0

VIII

P

3

10

II

A

3

0

IX

P

1

3

III

A

18

0

X

P

1

11

IV

A

9

0

XI

P

0

3

V

A

12

0

XV

P

4

7

VI

A

2

0

XVI

P

1

2

VII

A

4

0 1

XVllI

P

0

3

XII

A

6

4 (inter-
mediate)

XIX

P

5

6

XXI

P

1

5

XIII

A

19

0

XIV

A

4

0

XVII

A

5

0

XX

A

IL

0

A. Parents.

105

4 ?

P. Parents.

IG

50

In family XII., the so-called intermediates had flowers which
retained a general pale-yellowish tinge after immersion in alcohol.
Although such was the case, the flowers were very markedly
different from those in w^hich chromoplasts were typically pre-
sent, and they more nearly approached the flowers with chromo-
plasts " absent."

On referring to the right-hand side of the table, it will be
seen that on adding together the offspring of the hybrids which
possessed chromoplasts, we obtain i6 plants with chromoplasts
absent and 50 with chromoplasts present. It will be noticed that
these numbers are close to the i : 3 ratio. Barring family XII.,
all the hybrids which possessd no chromoplasts only produced
oft'spring in which chromo]>lasts w-ere absent.

It is clear that a marked segregation occurs with respect to
this character ; but further breeding would be essential in order
to throw light on the nature of the factors involved.

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 555

5. The Red Colouration.

The character of the red colouration may be dealt with in a
more detailed manner owin^ to the fact that very considerable
variation in its intensity could be observed.

The most intense red of all the flowers was called 100.
Between this colour and zero twenty grades or steps were made,
and the red colour of any flower was referred to one of these
grades. This estimation of grade was repeated several times on
different days with various flowers of the same plant, and the
mean of the results was taken as the grade of the plant.

It has been pointed out by Weiss* that the intensity of the red
colouration of the flowers of nasturtiums increases with the age
of the plant, and with the advance of the season. This was
found to be also the case in Natal. Young plants might have
flowers only faintly red, but as the plants grew older the colour
might increase very greatly. It is therefore very essential that
the estimation of the red colouration should be made only on
quite young plants of approximately the same age, and subjected
to a like environment.

The pale yellow colouration of the cell-sap never appeared
to be entirely absent from the flower.

It is presumed that this pale yellow substance is the chro-
mogen which can be converted into the red colouring matter,
anthocyanin, by an oxidative enzyme when no inhibitor is pre-
sent. That such an oxidative enzyme is sometimes present in
pale yellow nasturtium flowers, without a trace of red colouration
except for the " honey-guides," was demonstrated by the follow-
ing familiar test.f A pale yellow flower was soaked in alcoholic
solution of a-naphthol for two hours, and subsequently it was
transferred to a solution of hydrogen peroxide. In about five
minutes the fibro-vascular bundles began to stain blue, and the
colouration gradually increased and extended to the finest
branches in the petals. Afterwards the general tissue between
the bundles became strongly tinged, and especially such tissue as
was in direct contact with the bundles.

This reaction indicates the presence of an oxidase. From
analogy with similar cases it is to be supposed that the flowers
remained pale yellow on account of the presence of an anti-
oxidase or a reductase.

It was noticed that the oxidase was present in the tissues
of the petiole. It was further observed that in the young flower
which is in the act of opening the amount of oxidase present is
very much less than in the old flower wdiich is on the point of
fading ; and this perhaps explains the 'fact that the older flowers

* I am indebted to Prof. F. E. Weiss for his kindness in sending to
me a reprint of his paper, " Note on the Variability in the Colour of the
Flowers of a Trop^eolum Hybrid." Mem. and Pvoc. Manch. Lit. and
P/m7. 5-oc.. 54 [3I, 1-6 (TQio). , ^, . r

t Haas. Paul, and Hill, T. G.— " An Introduction to the Chemistry of
Plant Products," 244. London (1913)-

556

THE PURE LINE II V}>OTHESIS.

of red plants tend to< be more richl}' coloured than the flowers
which have just opened.

The intensity of the red colouration of the flower is thus
the result of the reaction of several accents, such as the amount of
oxidase present and the amount of the inhibitor or inhibitors,
since a minute amount of the latter might not entirely prevent
the oxidase from having some eltect. It has not been ascertained
whether some of the plants are pale yellow on account of the
complete absence of an oxidase, or whether this condition is
always due to the presence of inhibitors. The subject requires
investigation.

From these considerations it is not surprising that the rela-
tive numbers of red and yellow plants which result from various
crossings should appear erratic, and not follow the simple Men-
delian ratio of i : 3. The actual numbers obtained may now be
given.

The $ progenitor (A) had medium-red flowers, and the 2
progenitor (B) had pale yellow flowers, with the ordinary red
" honey-guides." We have already seen that on selfing A seven
offspring were obtained, and they were all red ; and on selfing B
there were 20 oflr'spring, and of these, three were red and the
remaining 17 were not red.

On crossing B with the pollen of A 21 hybrids were
obtained ; of these, 20 possessed red sap, and one only had no
tiace of redness on the general surface of the petals. The inten-
sity of the red colouration of the hybrids varied greatly, and the
percentage-grade of each plant is given in the following table
in ascending order of intensity:

A ( S ) Redness 60 % X B ( 5 ) Redness o %.

Registered

No. of
Hybrid.

Redness

%

Registered

No of

Hybrid.

Redness

%

Registered
No. of
Hybrid.

Redness

%

XIV

0

VIII

35 1

II

49

XX

6

IX

35 j

XII

55

IV

13

XI

35

XVII

57

XIX

16

XV

35

XVIII

57

XXI

17

VII

37

X

60

V

21

XIII

4G

III

63

VI

31

XVI

47

I

73

Here, then, we have a family consisting of individtials
which exhibit a varying amount of redness in the flowers, and
the problem is to determine how far the intensity of colouration
can be transmitted to the offspring on self-fertilising these
individuals. According to the pure-hne hypothesis, the family

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

557

raised by selling- an individual with an intensity of colouration of,
say, 13 per cent, (such as IV.) should not appreciably differ from
the family resulting from an individual with a colour intensity
of, say, 63 per cent, (such as III.).

Each of the 21 hybrids was self-fertilised, and families were
duly raised. The results obtained with reference to the red
colouration are given in the accompanying table in descending
order of the mean colour intensity of the red members of the
families :

>.

•a

1

>^

Re-
gistered
Number

c -a

II-

Red Offspring.

5j 'x tuO

rt H u

of
Hybrid.

2. 0

0

0

6

0

CD

°?
CT>
00

00

CO
00

0

CO

CM

i

CD

10

CD

00

0

CO
CO

CO

>o

CSI

i-i

00

i-H

0 0

a

I ..

73

1

« .

. .

3

4

2

2

. .

• •

G6-3

Ill ..

63

7

3

2 i

4

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

GO -5

X ..

60

1

2

1

0

2

1

1

3

t'

• •

73-3

XVIII .

57

0

1

0

1

0

1

• •

60-5

XVII ..

57

1

• •

.•

1

3 -

• •

• •

70 5

XII ..

55

2

• •

1

4

2

0

0

0 1

62 5

II ..

49

0

1

0

0

0 0

1

••

405

XVI ..

47

3

..

1

0

1

0

0

0

1

• •

••

63-2

XIII ..

46

0

• •

1

1

3

3

4

0

2

1

1

2

50-3

VII ..

37

0

• •

1

0

0

0

1

0

1

^

49 8

VIII ..

35

1

• •

1

1

2

1

0

1

4

1

1

1

390

IX ..

35

2

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

56-5

XI ..

35

0

2

1

• •

• *

• •

• t

••

••

65-8

XV ..

35

1

• •

• •

..

1

1

3

1

2

0

1

0

1

42 9

VI ..

31

0

• *

• •

• •

2

..

• •

••

60-5

V ..

21

3

• •

• •

2

1

0

1

2

3

0

1

33 3

XXI ..

17

3

• •

1

0

1

0

1

1

• •

f t

• •

• •

62-5

XIX ..

16

5

1

1

0

0

2

1

1

1

1

• •

415

IV ..

13

2

1

1

0

3

1

1

••

30 8

XX ..

6

3

1

2

0

0

1

0

0

1

4

••

36-5

XIV ..

0

4

••

• •

• •

Means
of Fami-
lies.

;^8

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

In the majority of the famihes both red and non-red off-
spring were obtained, as would be expected. The single non-red
hybrid (XIV.) only produced non-red offspring, and it would
appear that the plant was incapable of producing red oft'spring.
All the remaining parents were red. Altogether the red parents
produced 141 red offspring and 35 non-red, and these figures are
divergent from the 3 : i (132 : 44) ratio. It is very probable that
the red parents which did not produce non-red offspring were
incapable of so doing owing to the absence of an inhibitor, and
if the individuals of such 'families, amounting to 31 in number,
are removed from the series we obtain the ratio no: 3s, which is
close to the familiar one.

In the right hand column of the table the mean colouration
of the red members of the different families is given. It will be
seen that, as in the case of the variegation of the leaves, the
means of the different families vary considerably, whereas
according to the pure-line hypothesis the means should tend to
remain stationary with such self-fertilised families.

In the next table the parents and their respective ifamilies
are arranged in four groups in such a manner that the means of
the groups of parents fall by alwut 15 per cent., as we pass from
one group to the next, and it is desired to compare these means
with the means of the groups of families in order to ascertain
whether there is any corresponding reduction.

A Group.

B Group.

C Gr-iup.

D

Group

.

Mean

Mean

'Mean

Mean

Regd.

Colour

Colour

Regd.

'Colour

Colour

Regd.

Colour

Colour

Regd.

Colour

Colour

No. of

of

of

No. of

of

of

No. of

of

of

No. of

of

of

Parent

Parent

Off-
spring

Parent

Parent

Off-
spring

Parent

Parent

Off-
spring

Parent

Parent

Off-
spring

I

73

663

X

60

73-3

VII

37

49-8

VI

31

60-5

II

63

60-5

XVIII

57

60-5

VIII

35

390

V

21

33-3

••

XVII

57

70-5

IX

35

56 5

XXI

17

62-5

••

XII

55

62 5

XI

35

65-8

XIX

16

41-5

••

II

49

40-5

XV

35

42 9

IV

13

30 8

• •

• •

XVI

47

63-2

• •

XX

6

36-5

••

••

XIII

46

50-3

••

••

••

• •

••

••

Means

68

63

Means

53

60

Means

35

51

Means

17

44

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. 559

Thus the mean colours of the groups of parents and of the
corresponding- red offsprinq- are :

Mean of A grroup oif Parents 68, and mean of A Offspring: 63

Mean of B g^roup of Parents 53, and mean of B Offspring- 60

Mean of C group of Parents 35. and mean of C Offspring 51

Mean of D group of Parents 17. and mean of D offspring 44

According to the pure-Hne hypothesis, the means of the
dift'erent groups of offspring should remain about the same,
instead of showing a distinct fall, corresponding to the drop in
the means of the groups of parents ; and it would not be possible
to produce various strains O'f colour intensity by selecting from
such self-fertilised generations. The utmost effect of selection
would be the sorting out of two strains corresponding to the
factors for redness in the male and the female grandparent.
These factors of the grandparents were closely similar to each
other, since the red offspring of each, resulting" from selfing. were
not distinguishable in the matter of colour.

The drop in the means of the parents results from the
fluctuating variations in the expression of a character, which
according to the views of the majority of Mendelians are non-
inheritable.

It will be noticed that the drop in the means of the offspring
is not as great as that in the means of the parents, and such is
found almost invariably to be the case, namely, the offspring of
abnormal parents tend on the average to be less abnormal than the
parents themselves. This falling back to the general mean of
the race on the part of the off'spring may be called " regression."
but the term must not be confused with " reversion," in which a
long-lost ancestral condition suddenly reappears.

The above method of dealing with the results is elementary
and mathematically incomplete ; but it has the advantage of being
more readily understood.

Using Professor Karl Pearson's methods, the following
constants were calculated: Mean of parents, 40.4149 units; mean
of red offspring, 51.3653 units; standard deviation of parents,
20.1130; standard deviation of red offspring, 22.5788; co-efficient
of correlation, .435. The correlation table from which these
constants v.^ere calculated is given as a record.

56o

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

Red

Red

Offspring

, %

Colouration,

Parents.

la-

en

0^

Grades of

Colouration

0/

^0

00

CO

0

00

0

0

00

00

QO

0

02

0

/o

3

T— *

a>

rH
1

CM

0

CO
CO

0

0

CD

2

CO

1

00

05
00

C5

0

1-8

4

1

0

• .

. .

9

9-16

7 ;

2

2

4

1

3

1

0

1

1

15

17-24

6

1

0

3

2

1

1

2

2

1

0

1

14.

25-32

0

2

' '

2

33-40

4

2

1

2

6

3

2

4

4

4

2

1

31

4 1 -18

3 '

2

1

1

3

0

4

3

4

1

2

21

49-56

2

••

1

1

0

0

0

3

4

1

..

10

57-64

9

1

0

0

0

0

1

4

6

6

7

0

1

2

28

65-72

0

• •

0

73-80

1 ■

••

••

••

••

2

2

4

3

1

••

••

11

Totals ..

1
35 :

1

4

9

10

14

8

8

17

22

♦

26

16

4

1

2

141

It is inherently probable that some of the red offspring; were
of such a nature as to be unable to produce non-red offspring,
and such individuals, judging from other cases, would tend to
be of a more intense red than those which can produce both red
and non-red offspring.

In order that the material should be as homogeneous as
possible for determining the hereditary transmission of the in-
tensity of colouration, we should only use parents and offspring
which are gametically similar. Owing to the nature of the
material, it is necessary to take the parents which are capable of
producing both red and non-red off'spring, and also the members
of the families that are able to do likewise. In the latter case
this may doubtless be roughly effected by removing from each
family one-third of the more intensely coloured individuals.
Although this procedure cannot be entirely reliable, yet its appli-
cation will give better results, since the material will be more
homogeneous than it otherwise is, and the only other course
would be to raise families from each of the 141 off'spring, and in
this way to determine their gametic nature.

THE PUKE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

561

Correlation Table, Heterozygous Parents and Heterozygous
Offspring (i.e., those capable of producing both red and
non-red offspring) :

■0

Red Offspri

ng. ?

J Coloration.

Red Parents,

of Non

ffsprinj

% Grades of
Colouration.

CO

0

00

0

00

CO

CO

tr-

0

CO

cl

-

6^
z

t-i

O)

r-t

G<1

CO

CO

10

io

?o

CO

0

1-8

3

4

1

0

0

1

6

9-16

7

2

2

4

1

1

10

17-24

6

1

0

3

2

1

1

1

••

9

25-32

0

• •

0

33-40

4

2

1

2

5

8

1

3

• •

17

41-48

8

• •

1

0

0

0

1

• •

2

49-5G

'2

• •

1

0

0

0

2

2

5

57-64

9

1

0

0

0

0

0

4

5

6

1

17

65-72

0

..

..

0

73-80

1

••

• •

• •

2

2

8

7

Total

Totals

35

4

7

8

12

6

4

10

9

]2

1

73

The constants calculated from the above table are: Mean of
parents, 39.349 units; mean of red offspring, 40.774; standard
deviation of parents, 22.211; standard deviation of offspring,
20.772 ; co-efficient of correlation .720. Thus the co-efficient of
correlation is increased by only taking offspring of similar game-
tic nature to that of the parents.

The main result of this investigation is to show that the so-
called factors of the germ-cell are variable in nature, and are thus
transmitted to the offspring. This would appear to be demon-
strated by the fact that the fluctuating variations of a character
are truly inherited, and obviously they can only be inherited if the
factors or potentialities of the germ-cell do on the average cor-
respond to these casual variations of the character.

The result is at once of prime importance, since with refer-
ence to the method of evolution and the origin of adaptation we
are driven into a cul-de-sac if the pure-line hypothesis and un-
diluted Mendelism are to be accepted.

Summary.

I. Small fluctuating variations in organisms are looked upon
by Mendelians as resulting from the varying action of a change-
able environment, and such variations are supposed not to entail

562 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

any modification of the potentialities or factors in the g-erm-cells,
and are consequently non-inheritable. If a factor itself is changed
by any cause, a variation of another nature results in the character,
and such a variation is called a mutation. In actual practice it
i.5 impossible to distinguish between a so-called casual or fluctua-
ting variation and a mutation except by the test of breeding, since
it is becoming increasingly obvious that minute variations may be
inheritable.

2. The expression " character " in this connection has a
technical significance, since it generally comprises a group of
characters which are inherited as a whole. An inheritable
character, or group of characters, represented by a specific
potentiality or factor in the germ-cell, is called a " unit character."

3. In crossing varieties which exhibit some striking difl:'er-
ences, it is found by breeding experiments that quite frequently
the corresponding characters in the two organisms refuse to
mingle intimately in the offspring, and on mating these offspring
together, or by self-fertilisation, the characters of the grand-
parents reappear in a practically tmaltered condition, and in a
definite ratio.

Cytological research appears to show that the chromosomes
of cells are arranged in a definite number of homologous pairs,
one of each pair being derived from the e9"g-cell and one from the
sperm-cell. It is supposed that an inheritable character of a homo-
zygous individual is represented by two similar factors in the cells
of the body and in the immature germ-cells, one being lodged in
each member of a pair of homologous chromosomes. With this
supposition, the seoaration of the chromosomes in the various
mitotic divisions of the sex-cells, and their subsequent coupling
in fertilisation, explain in an adequate manner the typical Mende-
Man 'ratios and other phenomena associated with this type of
inheritance, which may be called Non-blending Inheritance (see
plate).

4. Non-blending Inheritance is particularly noticeable in the
case of characters distinguishing breeds and varieties which
have arisen during domestication ; but even in such characters
blending may take place. The variations which occur anions' the
individuals of a natural species do not usually exhibit this kind
of inheritance. As a rule the characters become intimatelv
united on crossing, and no segregation occurs in any subsequent
generation: this is Blending Inheritance. It would certainly
appear that in Non-blending, or Mendelian, Inheritance, the
factors for the characters are contained in the chromosomes, but
in the case of characters which do not exhibit the Mendelian
relationship there is the possibility that the potentialities or
factors are borne by the cytoplasm. However, certain artificial
fertilisation experiments among Echinoderms would seem to
indicate that the cytoplasm, as a rule, does not bear the factors
for hereditary characters; but some contradictory results have
been obtained, and further experimental work with Echinoderm
eggs is very necessary.

S A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. 16.

NQN'-BLENDINO INHER/7'ANCF

?fe/VX'/

c/or/e cArcmo^o/jTe \ jjii

/&>/■.>:<-.•

BLSND/NG INHERllAArCE:

y/%..

.'^:-./o rv.'/<'<7'

11 ^\ /Vil^~\

s^ ^::t

. rrc-'- •

i'^^

01 ^K^K'I

4

; i-

7"

^v/-A/^c/s ia//^fe?///?<y .

^^

^r j^

%.^Z

/-«

^

E. Warren. -The Pure Line Hypothesis,

THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS. ^63

To bring;' Blending- Inheritance into line with Mendelian
Irheritance, we have simply to suppose that the slightly different
factors, corresponding- to the two characters which can blend,
influence each other when combined by cross-fertilisation in the
same pair of homologous chromosomes, and become similar to
each other, and more or less intermediate in nature between the
factors of the two characters (see plate).

5. According- to most Mendelians, the so-called fluctuating
or casual variations seen among individuals having the same
gametic nature are due to changes in the environment, and are
non-inheritable, since the factors or potentialities of the germ-
cells of the individuals are considered to be identical and prac-
tically unchangeable. With such a view, Johannsen's conception
of pure-lines in self-fertilised generations is a necessary conse-
quence. According to this, the selection of variations in a series
of self-fertilised generations can have no effect, since the factors
on which heredity depends are supposed to remain unchanged
from generation to generation. It is a question which can only
be decided by experimentation, and Karl Pearson ihas shown
that Johannsen's results are inconclusive.

6. The question whether factors can be modified by the selec-
tion of individuals exhibiting small variations is of fundamental
importance, since if not, the origin of species and of adaptation
passes beyond our ken. The problem can only be solved by an
appeal to experiment, and it is presented in its simplest form by
utilising self-fertilised generations. Take a pure-bred plant,
self-fertilise it, and raise a family. A pure-bred plant is one
which, on self-fertilisation, or on mating with a like individual,
will only produce oft'spring that are all roughly similar to one
another without any tendency to break up into different types.
The individuals of the family will exhibit small variations which

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Plate 16 illustrates the hypothetical relationship between a character
and its factor in the body-cells and germ-cells in the case of both
Mendelian (or Xon-Blending) Inheritance and Blending Inheritance.

On the left there is illustrated the crossing of a pure-bred purple fox-
glove with a pure-bred white plant. The grand-offspring resulting from
self-fertilisation are in the proportion of one deep-purple dominant (homo-
zygous) two intermediate or medium-purple (heterozygous), and one
pure white recessive (homozygous). The two different factors in the two
homologous chromosomes of the heterozygous offspring are supposed to
separate from each other without being mutually influenced.

On the right there is shown the crossing of a dark-purple foxglo\re
with a pale-purple one, and the offspring are intermediate in colour. On
self- fertilising these, the next generation does not show any segregation
into plants exhibiting the characters of the grand-parents. It may be
supposed that the factors for dark-purple and light-purple influence each
other when combined in the same nucleus, and both become intermediate
and alike, and consequently in the subsequent separation of the members
of the pair of chromosomes containing the factors the germ-cells remain
all alike, and therefore the intermediate nature of the parent is handed
down to the offspring.

564 THE PURE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

would be regarded by Mendelians as fluctuating non-inheritable
viJriations. Take some character and select the extreme indivi-
dual at the two ends of the series, say, the deepest-coloured and
the lightest-coloured member. By self-fertilisation raise families
from each individual ; then, according to the pure-line hypothesis,
the families raised from these two individuals should not differ
appreciably from each other : the average colouration in the two
families should be the same. If the families are not the same,
it implies that the variations in the character are inheritable, and
the factors handed down by the darkest and palest individuals
differed somewhat from each other. In other words, selection
has been eft'ective owing to the fact that the factors are not
essentially constant, as has been supi>osed, but are variable, and
the bodily expression of the character tends to reflect faithfully
any change that has taken place in the factor of the germ-cell.

To extend the term " mutation" to- any variation which is in-
heritable and is readily capable of blending with the normal type
is undesirable, and it should be reserved for such inheritable
variations as exhibit by the phenomenon of segregation an
obvious disability tO' blend intimately with the normal form.

7. Breeding experiments with foxgloves and nasturtiums
have been made in the manner above indicated, and the results so
far attained with the foxgloves do not favour the pure-line
hypothesis. A similar result has been obtained with nasturtiums,
but self-sterility has interfered with the experiments to a con-
siderable extent.

8. A cross was made between two well-known varieties of
the garden nasturtium. The seed-plant {Tropceolum majus)
was a tall, green plant with yellow flowers, and the pollen-plant
{Tropceolum minus, var. " Queen ") was a dwarf, variegated
plant with red flowers. These parent plants were homozygous
with regard to certain characters — (i) uniform greenness of leaf
and variegation of leaf ; (2) tall or straggling habit and dwarf
habit.

9. The colour of the flowers is due to three agents : ( i ) pale
yellow substance (chromogen) in solution in cell-sap; (2) red
cell-sap (anthocyanin) ; (3) deep yellow chromoplasts. The
first-mentioned is always more or less present, while the second
and third may be both present together, or either separately.

10. As a result of the crossing of the two plants 30 seeds
were obtained and 21 germinated. Thus nine out of 30 seeds
failed to germinate, and this gives a rough relative measure of
the sterility resulting from the antipathv to the crossing of the
two varieties.

11. Each of the 21 plants obtained from the cross was self-
fertilised, and seeds were obtained. Considerable difficulty was
experienced, owing to the antipathy shown to self-fertilisation.
The seeds obtained were weak in germinating power, and only
5.S per cent, of the seed sown actually germinated. It was clear
that the germinating power of the seeds had been reduced by
about 30 per cent.

THE PURE LlxXE IIVPOTPIESIS. 565

12. Variation occurred in the matter of the difficultv in set-
ting seed in the different plants, and it was shown that the seed
obtained from plants which exhibited the greatest sterility {i.e.,
produced the smallest number of seeds) had the least germina-
ting power.

13. That the hybridism of the two varieties was prejudicial
to fertility is further evidenced by the fact that the pollen of the
hybrids tended to be of poor quality. In those hybrids where the
proportion of bad pollen grains was greatest the number of seeds
obtained capable of germinating tended to be the smallest.
Thus in the case of nine hybrids where the proportion of .o"oo<l
grains was on the average only 31 per cent., the average number
O'i offspring raised was four only, while in nine hybrids with an
average of 75 per cent, good grains the average number of off'-
spring was 12.

14. Habit. — The original seed-plant was pure-bred, or
•homozygous, with regard to straggling habit, and the original
pollen-plant was homozygous with reference to dwarf habit. The
21 hybrids obtained by the cross were all straggling. Thus
straggling habit was dominant. On self-fertilising these hybrids,
21 families, with altogether 180 individuals, were obtained, and
of these 131 were tall or straggling, and 49 dwarf or semi-dwarf.
These figures are close to the Mendelian ratio of 3 : i.

Owing to the fact that a few of the plants were semi-dwarf,
the segregation which occurred must be regarded as im])erfecr,
although quite definitely present.

15. Variegation. — The original seed-plant was homozvo-ous
with regard to the uniform greenness of the leaf, and the pollen-
plant with reference to tlie variegation. The 21 hybrids obtained
b> the cross all had uniform green leaves. Thus g'reen leaves
were dominant. The offspring of the hybrids included 13:; green
plants and 55 variegated, while according to Mendelian theory
the numbers should have been 143 green and 47 variep"ated.
There never was any question as to whether a plant should be
called variegated or not, and therefore the segregation may be
re,garded as practicallv perfect.

The amount of variegation in the offspring varied much;
and according to the pure-line hypothesis there could be con-
siderable diversity in the amount of variegation in the different
individuals, but the averages or means of the families should not
differ appreciably from one another. There was, 'however, a clear
tendency for the averages to dift'er widely in the various families.
Thtis, for example, on a certain scale adopted, the average varie-
gation in one of the families was 51 per cent., and in another 8.S
per cent. This result can scarcely be understood except on the
supposition that there had occurred a modification of the factor
for variegation in the parents of these families.

16. Width of Leaf. — Tlie original seed-plant was homo-
zygous with reference to large leaves, and the original pollen-
plant with regard to small leaves. The hybrids possessed large
leaves, and therefore large leaves are to be regarded as dominant.

566 THE PUKE LINE HYPOTHESIS.

In the offspring of the hybrids great diversity in the mean leaf-
widths of the individuals occurred, the means ranging from 20-
91 mm., while in the hybrid parents the range of the means was
only 50-84 mm. There was some sign of an imperfect segrega-
tion into plants with small leaves and plants with large leaves, the
break in the series tending to occur in the neighbourhood of a
leaf-width of 40-50 mm. Among these offspring of the hybrids
there was a definite tendency for the three characters, dwarf habit,
variegated leaves and small leaves to occur together in the same
plant (i.e., there was a strong correlation of these characters),
but they were not of necessity combined, in that variegated, strag-
gling plants with large leaves and also non-variegated, dwarf
plants, with small leaves, did sometimes occur.

17. Chromoplasts. — There was clear discontinuity in the
iiiheritance of this character. The original seed-plant had no
chromoplasts on the general surface of the petals, but on self-
ifertilisation two offspring had deep yellow flowers, owing to the
presence of abundant chromoplasts throughout the whole surface
of the petals, while 18 oft'spring resembled the parent. The
original pollen-plant had no chromoplasts on the general surface,
but it produced four oft'spring with chromoplasts and two like
the parent. The 21 hybrids included nine plants with chromo-
plasts and 12 without. The hybrids which had no chromoplasts
produced only individuals in which chromoplasts were absent or
scarce, but the families of the hybrids which had chromoplasts
included 50 individuals with chromoplasts and 16 without, and
these figures are close to tlie 3 : i ratio. Further breeding is
necessary in order to determine fuHv the nature of the inheritance
of the character, but it is obvious that segregation is well-marked.

18. Red Colouration. — -The redness of the flowers appears to
be due to the action of an oxidising agent on the pale yellow
chromogen ; but sometimes the oxidising agent, although present,
is prevented from acting by the presence of one or more inhibi-
tors. Accordingly we can understand how it is that some yellow
plants on being sel'f-fertilised are capable of producing both
yellow and red oft'spring, while others can only produce yellow
offspring; and likewise some red jilants can produce both red and
yellow offspring, and others are able to produce only red plants.

iq. The seed-plant was pale yellow, and on selfing produced
three red offspring and 17 non-red. The pollen-plant was red,
and produced on selfing seven red and no non-red offspring. The
hybrids of the above two plants included 20 red off'spring and one
non-red. Among these red plants the intensity of the red coloura-
tion varied very widely. A scale of colour intensity was formed,
and to each plant a grade was assigned, expressed as a percentage.
The range of colour intensity in the 20 red hybrids was 6-73
per cent. Families were raiscfl from all 21 hybrids. The single
non-red hybrid producerl onlv non-red oft'spring. Of the other
hybrids 14 produced families containing both red and non-red
offspring, and six formed families including onh' red offspring.

THE I'UKIi LINE II VPOTliESlS. 56/

Oil takino- the families in which both kinds of offspring: occurred,
the numbers were no red and ji,^ non-red, which h^ures are very
close to the 3 : i ratio.

20. Owing to the circumstance that there occurred a wide
range of colour intensity in the 20 hybrids, the character appeared
suitable for testing the pure-line hypothesis.

In the families raised by self -fertilising the 20 hybrids it was
found that the mean colour-intensity of the dilierent families
varied considerably, and it became obvious that a pale red parent
tended to produce pale red offspring, and a dark red parent dark
red oft'spring. This occurred notwithstanding the fact that the
grandparents were the same in the two cases, and owing to self-
fertilisation, the factors handed down were all derived from the
same grandparental factors. Thus, selection within a self-
fertilised family was effective, wdiile according to the pure-line
hypothesis there should be either no result from such selection, or
the utmost that could be expected would be a sorting out of two
strains of redness, one corresponding to the factor of the male
grandparent and one to that of the female grandparent.

Karl Pearson's co-efficient of correlation which measures
the strength of inheritance between the red parents and red off-
spring was calculated ; it amounted to .435 ; wdiile if parents and
offspring of similar gametic constitution (i.e., individuals which
are capable of producing both red and yellow oft'spring) only are
taken the co-efficient is raised to .720.

21. It may be said that the general results of the experiments
are not in conformity with the pure-line hypothesis which may
be regarded as a necessary consequence of the strict Mendelian
standpoint ; but they favour the view that a small variation in a
character of an individual (B) can be due to a definite small
change which had occurred in the particular factor which had
been handed down to that individual by the parent (A), and,
owing to the occurrence of self-fertilisation, only this slightly
modified factor can be passed on to the offspring of B, and these
offspring will therefore tend to inherit the slight variation
exhibited by B. In other words, slight variations in a character
of an individual can be due to minute variations in the factors of
the germ-cells from which the individual arose, and are not
necessarily due to the action of a varying environment on a rela-
tivelv fixed and unchangeable factor.

The contention is that factors are to be regarded as variable
and capable of being gradually modified, in place of being in-
herently stable, as supposed bv many of the Mendelians. Thus
the smallest variations may be inheritable, and can be utilized in
the course of evolution.

N.\TAL University Collecik,

MARITZnuRG.

AN EQUATORIAL SUNDIAL. 569

In summer the upper (south) side of the dial is illuminated,
and in winter the under (north) side.

At the equinoxes the light from the sun falls in beams
parallel to the sector, and does not illuminate it, but the graduated
rim is bevelled outwards at an angle of 45 degrees, thus securing
a satisfactory shadow of the wire all the year round.

The instrument was constructed by Mr. T. R. Miller,
mechanician at the Royal Observatory, to designs by the writer.
It should serve as a model for dials, which would be more
accurate timekeepers than ordinary clocks, in isolated stations
away from the telegraph.

Liquid Hydrocyanic Acid for Fumigation —

In the Report of the Pretoria Session (191 5) of the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 95, 96,
Mr. C. W. Mally announced that he had employed liquid hydro-
cyanic acid for fumigating fruit trees with considerable success
by means of a small experimental appliance, and that larger
apparatus was being arranged with a view to production of a
sufficient quantity of the liquid acid for field trials. Mr. Mally's
trials of this improved method of fumigation took place during
May and June, 191 5, and it is now stated by R. S. Woglum, in
the Journal of Economic Entomology, that in the early spring of

1916 Mr. W. Dingle, of Los Angeles, California, began public
demonstrations of the same method in connection with citrus
trees. The advantages of the method as described by Mr. Mally
have soon made themselves obvious to horticulturists in the
United States, for Mr. Woglum states that during the sea.son of

191 7 approximately 540,000 lb. of solid sodium cyanide were there
converted into liquid hydrocyanic acid for the use of 30 fumiga-
tion outfits. In 1918 more than one million ix)unds of sodium
cyanide were similarly treated for the use of 94 fumigation crews,
and a very much greater amount would have been used if it
could have been produced.

A Jovian Prominence. — An observation by F. Sar-
gent of a bright projection on the limb of Jupiter is recorded in
the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. The
projection was first seen on the evening of January 16, 1919, and
was then of great brilliancy. Half an hour after the first observa-
tion it had subsided to a bright spot on the tinted equatorial zone.
On the following evening the spot was followed right up to the
limb until it seemed to project. Seven minutes later it was
"flickering" in and out of the limb, and in another ten minutes
it broke the usually even contour of the limb, then slowly sub-
sided, and in ten minutes more it had disappeared. The author
suggests that the phenomenon was a real material projection from
the planet's surface of dimensions great enough to render it
visible.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS TO THE RECORDED
FLORA OF THE TRANSVAAL AND SWAZILAND.

II.

By Joseph Burtt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
(Read, July lo, 1918.)

The first list of additions to the recorded flora of the Trans-
vaal and Swaziland appeared about five years ago,* including
additions up to June 30th, 1912. Since that date additional parts
of the Flora Capensis have appeared, which include a large
number of new species, and revisions of families and genera ;
addition to the flora have also been recorded in other publica-
tions. I have not attempted to bring these together here, but
have prepared a short account of ten species which do not appear
to have been elsewhere recorded for the Transvaal.

I am indebted to the Curator and staff of the Bolus Herbar-
ium, and to Mr. Frank Bolus, for the identifications ; specimens
are deposited in the Bolus Herbarium, Capetown, and the
herbarium of the School of Mines and Technology, Johannes-
burg.

1. Cymbopogon dregeanus (Nees) Staff (Andropogon
dregeamts Nees,; Fl. Cap., y'li.). — Near Breyten Station, Ermelo
District, alt. 5,886 ft., March 22. 1917, on the railway embank-
ment, Burtt-Davy 17491. There is only a small patch of this
rank-growing Tambookie grass, which is obviously adventive
there, probably introduced by means of goods or cattle traffic
from Natal or Swaziland by way of Piet Retief. The Flora
Capensis localities for this species are: The Transkei (i,ooc-
2,000 ft.), and Natal (the coast and Estcourt). It seems strange
that such a typically Low- Veld grass should be able to establish
itself at such a high altitude and in such a bleak district, but it
is in a spot apparently somewhat sheltered from the cold south
and south-east winds, and facing north, where it probably catches
the early morning sun, and the warm air-currents rising fron"/
the valley below. In the vicinity. Paspalum dilatatum, a grass
sensitive to frost, grows freely, and keeps green in winter, at
about 6,000 ft. alt., on a hill slope having a similar aspect.

2. Agrostis natalensis Staff. — Ermelo, alt. cir. 5,689 ft.,
March 22, 191 7, in a pan near the coal-mine, associated with
Pennisetitm sphacelatum Dur and Schinz, Burtt-Davy 17466B.
The only locality given by Staff is LTmpumlo, Natal, 2,000 ft.

3. Cragrostis c.'esia Staff'. — Ermelo, alt. cir. 5,689 ft.,
March 22, 191 7. in a pan near the coal-mine, associated with
Arundinella Ecklenis Nees. and distinctly characteristic, Burtt-
Davy 17468. This is clearly a High-Veld species, being recorded
from the Cathcart Division, Cape Province, and from Natal, at
altitudes ranging from 4.000 to 5,000 ft.

*Rept. S.A.A.A.S. (1912) Port Elizabeth 343-356.

TRANSVAAL AND SWAZILAND FLORA. 571

4. J uncus oxycarpus E. Mey. — Amersfoort, Wakkerstroom
District, alt. cir. 5.500 ft., March 15, 1917, in mud and water of
running stream, Burtt-Davy 17358.

5. Gladiolus purpureo-auratus Hook-lil. — Ermelo, alt.
cir. 5,689 ft., March 22, 191 7, in a pan near the coal-mine, Burtt-
Davy 17. The only record in the Flora Capensis is for " Natal,
upper part of Tugela River." Introduced into cultivation in
England.

6. DiANTHUS micropetalus E. Mey. (non Eckl. and Zeyh).
— Ermelo, alt. cir. 5,689 ft., March 22, 1917, in sandy soil above
the village, Burtt-Davy 17387 ; flowers pink or white. The
Flora Capensis refers this species to D. scuher Thunb ; which,
also, is recorded for the Transvaal.

7. Pelargonium pseudofumarioides R. Kunth. — Ermelo,
alt. cir. 5,689 ft., March 22, 1917, in sandy soil above the village,
Burtt-Davy 17405.

8. Euphorbia pubescens Vahl. — Johannesburg, naturalized
in truck gardens (Italian or Portuguese) near Park View, and
common in wet soil, May, 191 5, Burtt-Davy 15241. A native of
Southern Europe, the Orient, and North Africa. Previously
recorded from South Africa from two localities near Cape Town.

9. Lobelia scabra Thunb. — Ermelo, alt. cir. 5,689 ft.,
March 22. 1917, Burtt-Davy 17383.

10. Helichrysum. cephaloideum . Dc. — Ermelo, alt. cir.
5,689 ft., March 22, 191 7, on sandy soil above the village, Burtt-
Davy 1 7419.

Notes on the Genus Ficus.

1. F. Silicea Sim, Forest Flora of Port, E. Africa, p. 102,
PI. 87. This is probably the tree of which I collected sterile
specimens at Komatiepoort. and which is included in the check-
list as F. (antithetophylla Steud. ?).

2. F. integrifolia Sim, op. cit. p. loi, PI. 89, appears to be
F. damarensis Engl.

3. F. caffra Aliq. appears to be F. lutea Vahl.

4. F. schinziana Warb. The Transvaal forest species,
usually referred to F. natclensis Hochst. on account of its epiphy-
tic habit, appears to be this species, which was described from
Houtboschberg specimens. F. Galpinii and F. Burkei may also
have been placed under F. natlensis.

572 SIR WILLIAM CROOKES.

Sir William Crookes. — The death of Sir William
Crookes, O.M., D.Sc, F.R.S., on the 4th April, 1919, removes
from the scientific world one of the most distinguished chemists
of last century. He was born 87 years ago, and received his
chemical training at the Royal College of Chemistry, London,
under the direction of A. W. Hofmann. He subsequently be-
came Hofmann's assistant, and later on was appointed on the
staff of the Radclift'e Observatory at Oxford. He also had an
appointment at Chester Training College for a short time. The
first publication dealing with his scientific investigations appeared
as far back as 1851, and ten years later, when the spectroscope
was yet novel, and Bunsen and Kirchhofif's investigations by its
means had but recently brought new elements to light, Crookes
successfully employed this appliance for the discovery of the
metal thallium. His spectroscopic researches were followed by
his investigations regarding radiant matter, for which the French
Academy of Sciences awarded him 3,000 francs and a gold
medal. Then came a series of researches into the production
of high vacua, leading ultimately to the commercial manufac-
ture of the electric lamp. Crookes was the first to adopt electric
lighting in his own home, using for this purpose electric lamps
which he himself had made.

With Crookes the (borderland between chemistry and physics
was a favourite field for exploration. Many will, for instance,
recollect the first appearance of Crookes' radiometer, in which
revolving vanes were set in motion, it was supposed, by light-
pressure, the phenomenon being really thermal, as Tait and
Dewar subsequently proved. In recent years Sir William devised
the spinthariscope to render visible the bombarding efifect of the
a-particles projected from radium. When Ramsay discovered
helium in cleveite it was Crookes to whom he submitted the gas,
and who identified it by means of the yellow D3 line. Just 40
years ago he began the study of electric discharges in high
vacua, and all the phenomena that are grouped around the
Crookes tube began to excite widespread interest and astonish-
ment.

Crookes visited South Africa for the first time in 1896, and
took part in the famous legal proceedings relating to the
MacArthur-Forrest cyanide process for gold recovery. During
that visit he lectured in Johannesburg on the liquefaction of
gases.

In 1898 Sir William aroused considerable interest, almost
sensational, by his famous address on " The Wheat Problem,"
delivered before the British Association, in which he added the
role of economist to those of physicist, chemist, and mystic.
He pointed to prospective nitrogen famine as a world-danger
looming into view, and suggested aversion of that danger by
what is now well known as the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
As long ago as 1892 Sir William had demonstrated by experi-
ment that, by means of a strong induction current, air could be
made to burn, producing nitrogen and nitric acids, and, when re-

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES. 573

forring to this experiment in his presidential address to the British
Association in 1898, he forecasted with remarkable accuracy the
manner in which the situation would be saved. " This incon-
siderable experiment," he said, " may not unlikely lead to the
development of a mighty industry destined to solve the great
food problem."

In 1905 Sir William again visited South Africa on the occa-
sion of the meeting of the British Association in this country, and
the honorary degree of D.Sc. was then conferred upon him by
the University of the Cape of Good Hope. During this visit
he twice delivered at Kimberley a highly-instructive and valuable
experimental lecture on diamonds.*

Sir William ever showed a predisposition towards the
mystical, apart from his psychic researches. His speculations
regarding the genesis of the chemical elements illustrated this
bent of mind ; so did his original view that the phenomenon of
the radiometer was due to a new and mysterious force.

In 1863 Crookes was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society,
in 1875 he was awarded a Royal Medal by that Society, and in
1888 he received the Davy Medal. The Albert Medal he gained
in 1900, and the Copley Medal in 1904. In 1912 he received
the medal of the Society of Chemical Industry. Thrice he was
appointed to deliver the Bakerian Lecture, namely, in 1878, in
1879, and in 1883. In 191 3 he became President of the Royal
Society. He w^as also a prizeman and medallist of the French
Academic des Sciences in 1880. In 1897 he was knighted, and
in 1910 the Order of Merit was bestowed on him. Sir William
Crookes was at different times President of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers, of the Chemical Society, of the Society
of Chemical Industry, and of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science. He did much valuable work for
chemical science with his pen not only in writing original papers,
but likewise as editor and translator; his "Practical Treatise
on Metallurgy " was printed in 1869. his " Select Methods in
Chemical Analysis" in 1871, and subsequently appeared his
translation of Wagner's " Chemical Technology." He was
editor of the Quarterly Journal of Science. In 1859 he founded
the Chemical Nezvs, and continued to edit it up to within a few-
weeks of his death.

* Chem. Nezvs, 92, 159 (1905).

574 TRANSACTUms (IF St)ClETIES.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

Royal Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, October 30th :
Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.,
President, in the chair. — " Hceiiiolysis by scniiii in conibination
imth certain benzol bodies": Prof. T. J. Mackie. It has been shown
that while serum-complement acts as hosmolysin in the presence of a
specific immune body, and also along with colloidal silicic acid, serum is
also capable of producing lysis- of red blood corpuscles which have been
treated with certain benzol bodies. The paper records the result of
experiments carried out with brilliant green. " A possible lunar influence
upon the velocity of the wind at Kimberley" : Dr. J. R. Sutton. The question
was discussed whether there is a lunar term in the velocity of the wind at
Kimberley. The results of hourly observations made during 180 lunations
reveal only one definite maximum and minimum of velocity in the lunar
curve, the former falling about three hours before lunar midnight, the
latter just before lunar noon; the range being .20 mile an hour. When
the moon is in south declination, the maximum of velocity is near lunar
noon and the minimum near lunar midnight : the opposite being the case
when the moon is north; the respective ranges of velocity are greater than
one would have expected to find. — "South African Perisporiacece : k'. Notes
on an interesting collection from Natal" : Dr. Ethel M. Doidge. A number
of leaf fungi from Natal, chiefly belonging to the genus Meliola, and
including hitherto undescribed species. — " Fusion of Karroo grits in contact
with dolcrite intrusions" : Prof. A. Young. Certain unusual contact
alterations occurring in the Heilbron district were described. Dolerite
intrusions have apparently fused the Karroo sandstone or grit to a dark
glass resembling pitchstone. The contacts are sharply defined, and the
vitrification extends to a distance of several yards from tlie actual contact
plane. The dolerite presents no abnormal features. The sandstone contains
much soda felspar. The glass miglit be called a pitchstone. — " On
Hyalite": J. S.van der Lingen and A. R. E- Walker The points of
resemblance between hyalite and liquid spheruiites were noted. The truth
of the statement that liquid spheruiites and — under certain conditions —
hyalite, give uniaxial figures when examined in convergent polarised light is
questioned. — "On Anatase" : J. S. van der Lingen and A. R. E. Walker.
A radiograph of anatase shows that, according to the usual interpretation
of such a photograph, the mineral possesses full tetragonal symmetry. —
" On radioactive and other minerals associated with fossH wood from
the Beaufort Series'': A. R. E. Walker. A description of torbernite and
a mineral allied to uranocircite occurring, associated with calcite and
barytes, encrusting and impregnating fossil wood from beds of Lower
Beaufort age — " On Tantalite crystals from N amaqualand " : A. R. E.
Walker. A description of a number of crystals from a tantalite
prospect. — " Colour and Chemical Constitution : Part V. The yellowness
of certain phthaleins when acid" : Dr. J. Moir. Phenolsulphonephtha-
lein, on account of its high ionisation, does not form a colourless ring-
lactone like phenolphthalein, but remains yellow when acidified : it is
really the orthosulphonic acid of benzaurine. Benzaurine parasulphonic
acid and benzaurine-carboxylic methylester have been found to possess
the same property of yellowness in acid solution^ "Part VI. The ultra-violet
spectra of the phthaleins" : A discussion of Howe and Gibson's discovery
of violet and ultra-violet absorption-bands in alkaline phthaleins.. " Part
VII. Inorganic phenomena in connection with cobalt, nickel, manganese^
and uranium!' "Part VIII. Fluorescence and its laws": On comparison
of the spectra of dissolved (ionised) salts of these metals with those of the
salts in the solid state, " loading " elifects are observed similar to those
shown by the phthaleins. The formation of blue cobalt compounds is
ascribed to considerable increase of molecular weight due to combination
with environing molecules.

SOME EXPERIMENTS USED IN THE RUDIMENTARY
TEACHING OF BOTANY.

By Rev. Frederick Charles Kolbe, D.D., D.Litt.

(Received for publication April ii, 1919.)

Useful ideas, like metaphors and willing horses, are some-
imes in danger of being ridden to death. Over-experimentation
at the threshold of Botany is one of them. We are just as liable
in Science as in Politics to the cajolery of catch-words. One
such catch-word is that Botany is an experimental science. Of
course it is, but it does not follow that it must needs be experi-
mental from the very start.

The first stage of every science is pure observation. We
let Nature talk to us in her own way. Then we begin to ask
questions ; ; we isolate phenomena ; we control the conditions ; we
make partial changes in the latter, and watch the corresponding
change in the former. Eventually we put Nature to the torture
to make her reveal her secrets. That is experiment. When by
these means we come to final principles, we argue from them,
and the science passes into the deductive stage.

All the sciences are trying vO become deductive with
varying success, but these three stages form the life-history of
the whole genus.

In Geometry, the observation stage was so obvious and
universal, and the experiment stage so easy and so completely
controlled, that the science leaped at once into deduction ; so
much so that it has often been thought — and sometimes still is
thought — to be essentially deductive from the start. Hence the
frequent educational error of beginning Geometry with the third
stage instead of the first. Are we not perhaps making a parallel
mistake in Botany when we plunge into the second stage before
giving a reasonable chance to the first?

Direct observation is always the most fruitful way of getting
knowledge, when we can have it. It becomes untrustworthy
when the object we want to study is too much mixed up with
other things, and when the normal conditions are too complex.
In such cases we experiment, i.e., we isolate the object, and
control and simplify the conditions — in order once more to
exercise direct observation.

Now while from Nature's side the value of observation
varies as the isolation of the object, on our side it varies as the
intuitive knowledge we have of the conditions.

Hence Psychologv. for instance, must always be predomi-
nantly introspective. Nothing is better isolated than our person-
ality : of nothing have we more intuitive knowledge than of our
reactions on our environment. Psychological experiment will
doubtless become increasingly interesting, but can never be the
mainspring of the science.

A

576 EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING BOTANY.

On the other hand, take Chemistry. Nature rarely isolates
the material elements, and still more rarely gives us the com-
pounds pure ; while we have no intuitive knowledge at all of
chemical affinity. Therefore Chemistry has been an experimental
science from almost the very beginning, and must be so also in
our mode of teaching.

But in Biology the plants and animals are completely and
distinctly isolated, and moreover we have very fair knowledge
of the processes oi life. Botany and Zoology therefore have a
wide range of observation to exhaust before experiment can be
economically begun. Experiment is meant to extend our sphere;
and in Science, as in Art, we must well fill our sphere before
we can extend it.

Indeed, in Zoology we are precluded from premature excess
of experiment by the happy necessity of gentleness towards
sentient creatures. And Zoology gains thereby. Is not Botany
similarly circumstanced? Nay more, the case of Botany is
stronger because in it observation is far easier, far steadier, and
•far more universal.

In the long run, of course. Biology hopes to develop into
full revelation of its relations to the conservation of energy, and
as they near this goal all the sciences draw closer together and
rely more and more on experiment — but it is a long, long way to
that Tipperary.

It is a scientific maxim that the life of the race is repeated
in .the individual; it is therefore an educational maxim that in its
main lines a subject must be taught as the human race learnt it.
That is, observation must be given its full scope before abstruse
experiment begins.

Indeed, " experiments " in rudimentary teaching are not ex-
periments at all. They are simply demonstrations — and usually
book-work demonstrations — under distorted conditions. The
question is not put even by the teacher, and is not even dreamed
of by the pupil : it has been already put and answered in the
University laboratory, and recorded by the text-book. The only
uncertainty about the whole " experiment " is whether teacher
and pupil can make the thing " come right." If, as frequently
happens, they cannot, all the pupil learns is want of confidence in
scientific truth.

Many of these experiments are quite unintelligible to pupils
not already familiar with Physics and Chemistry, and therefore
become merely cut-and-dried bits of memory work — the very
worst way of teaching a science. Of course one cannot pursue
the study of Bo'tany far without considerable knowledge of
Physics and Chemistry, but the bulk of our pupils have begun no
science at all, and are not going to pursue Botany far. All we
want to do with most of them is to train their powers of observa-
tion and give them an educated outlook on some of the processes
of Nature.

There is a pitiful sham abou tquestions beginning " Devise

EXPEHIMENTS IN TEACHING ISOTANV. 577

an experiment." Everybody knows that the candidates do not
devise experiments : not even the teachers do, as a rule. Such
questions imply a false standard : they encourage what Socrates
called a pretence of knowledge without the reality, i hus it is
that we fiave run our idea to death, and have been ourselves
caught by a catch-word.

I am not, of course, advocating the abolition of all experi-
ment. A certain amount of it is spontaneous. Every baby puts
his finger into the fire at least once, just to see what will happen.
Every child pulls up the seeds he has planted to see if they are
growing. All gardening and farming operations are of the nature
of experiment. Often, indeed, in the germination of seeds Nature
is as quaint as we are in our laboratories : for instance, I have
seen a Loranthus seedling tr\'ing to extract nourishment from a
■barbed-wire fence. And in such natural experiments, eking out
Nature's activities with our own, there is plenty of scope in ele-
mentary instruction without having recourse to abstruse chemical
tests or elaborte measurements of abnormal growths by auxano-
meters and things.

Let me specify. In order to recognize the presence of sugar
in plants, I want t i re'.y on the test which

Nature provides : namely, our sense of taste. The kind of answer
I want from them is somewhat as follows : " I know there is
sugar as well as acid in apricots and other ifruits, because I taste
both together : I know there is sugar in ripe grapes because they
are sweet ; 1 know there is sugar in sugar-cane and beet-root,
because sugar is actually made from them : I know there is sugar
in the nectar of flowers because I have tasted it in Kafir-honey-
suckle {Tecomaria capcnsis) and Sugar-bush {Protea mellifera).
I know there is sugar in carrots because you can sweeten pastry
by making it with water in which carrots have been boiled." But
this answer is too crude for our examiners : they want chemical
tests. The sort of answer by the same candidate now is: " You
apply to the specimen some chemical stuft' which I know nothing
about : it makes some difference or other which I cannot remem-
ber, in a plant whose name I have forgotten because I had no
interest in the experiment : and chemists say that proves the pre-
sence of sugar — which I know already by the taste." So al?^3
with lignin. It is quite easy, even with a simple microscope, and
even without staining, to demonstrate all the candidate needs to
know about the nature of wood in both structure and function ;
but again this direct observation is discouraged. It is blind faith
the examiners want, not knowledge. So I go to my pupils and
say. " You must take the chemist's word for it that this stuff is
not powdered sugar or alum but phlorogkicin, whatever that is.
When it touches wood, it strikes it pink, and you must again take
the chemist's word that there is nothing else it will turn pink."
So we try the " experiment." and the pink comes. *' What does
that Drove?" thev a«k. "It proves that this is wood." "But
we knew it was wood" " Tust so: and we can now tell the
chemist that wood is a splendid test for phlorogkicin ; but you

57*^ EXPER,IMENTS IN TEACHING BOTANY.

mustn't say so to the examiner."' So they go, and with girHsh
gaiety and irresponsibiHty tell the examiners that they applied
gloriofuselin and proved that wood was wood. Moreover, as
one of my pupils shrewdly remarked, if we have to believe the
chemists, why not at once believe the botanists and have done
with it?

The iodine test for starch is on a widely different footing,
Iodine is a familiar household substance : the pupils know its
colour and its smell : they know how it stains their fingers and
their handkerchiefs. They can watch its gradual efliect on the
canna or potato starch, whose form and structure are well known
to them. They can then see its efifect on, say, Euphorbia
granules, and are able to bring these dumb-bell shapes into the
same category with the ellipsoids. The iodine test enlarges their
knowledge : the phloroglucin doesn't.

Some of the text-book experiments are logically invalid.
We are. for instance, told to find the upward passage of water
by putting a cut shoot in a coloured solution. But will a cut
shoot behave in the same way as the integral plant? I know a
teacher who cut a pumpkin shoot, put it in eosin, and told her
pupils to make deductions. They found the sieve-plates so beauti-
fully stained that they concluded that water passes up the sieve-
tubes. Their deduction ,was quite right ; it is the experiment
that v.as wrong. Capillarity had interfered, and the interference
would always be visible if sieve-tubes were always as large as
those of the gourds. I suppose the only logical way of doing
that experiment would be to grow a plant by water-culture, and
then some day colour the liquid.

Again, some experiments are utterly unnecessary. Any one
who has examined the structure of the epidermis must see that
the stomas are the only inlets and outlets for air and water
vapour. Why then torture leaves with vaseline or dip them in
hot water? A recent question was "Devise an experiment to
show that transpiration is effected only through the stomas." You
tnay as well say, " Devise an experiment to show that the inmates
of a house can go in and out only by the doors and windows,
and exceptionallv by the chimneys."

After all, whv discourage the use of the microscope? There
IS nothing like it for revealing the relation of structure to func-
tion, which is the main secret of complex life. The only draw-
back, a distorted sense of proportion, is easily counteracted by
progressive use of the naked eye. magnifving glass, low power
and high power: and also bv showing familiar objects under the
plass. It is a highly-efifective extension of that most desirable
thing, direct observation, and is no more to be deprecated than
the use of spectacles by the near-sighted.

A chief reason for the ban on the microscope seems to be the
time lost for a large class. Further, there is the trouble of
making the slides. Bought sections, like the dried plants of the
herbarium, are only an accessorv: the sections should be cut, if
not by the pupils themselves, at least in their presence, and from

EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING ISOTANY. 579

living plants. Some teachers do not like this work. But if I
have a small class and no time is lost, and if I have a special
liking for preparing materials for direct observation, why must
I be compelled by a Syllabus to adopt what is to me an inferior
mode of teaching? And why is not cutting a section quite as
practical, quite as much of an experiment, as sticking a twig into
red ink ?

At present all the fascinating study of hairs, glands, crystals,
stone-cells, oil-reservoirs, resin-canals, bordered pits, etc., is
utterly discouraged, though these things are as typical of struc-
ture and function as any other part of the plant. Syllabus
tyranny is as bad as any other form of the hateful thing.

Once more, the Syllabus tells me to use an expensive instru-
ment called the klinostat to demonstrate heliotropism and geo-
tropism. I think the instrument-makers have a hand in this. I
got one, but have rejected it as either useless or insufficient. How
do our pupils know that the revolution of the plant does not
paralyse its movement ? If so, the apparatus proves nothing. So
we have to devise further experiments to justify the klinostat,
and meanwhile we can quite satisfactorily prove all that is wanted
with nothing but a cardboard box or so. Shakespeare, in Love's
Labour Lost, pokes fun at people who " climb o'er the house ta
unlock the little gate."

Yet another point. Teachers in this country are not quite
fairly treated by the text-books, at whose mercy they usually are,
with regard to the simple and necessary experiment to show
assimilation. The demonstration often fails for want of warn-
ing that over 70° starch is sent away as soon as it is made. As
most bright days here are over 70°, teachers are often dis-
appointed and pupils bewildered. But they are warned, to an
unnecessary exitent, that the old simple plan of tin- foil or cork
will not do, because it excludes air as well as light. Of course
flat tin-foil and clean-cut cork will exclude air. All you have to
do is to crinkle the tin-foil or cut the cork with a blunt knife, and
you cannot exclude the air. My home-made arrangements of
this kind work just as well as an expensive little apparatus of
Professor Ganong's. A friend of mine tells me she is glad to
hear about the cork, for if there is one thing to be found in her
laboratory it is a blunt knife. The demonstration works still
better if a little hollow is scooped out of the cork.

I think I have put forward a fair case by way of a plea for
greater elasticity in teaching. Moreover, when the Examination
Board demands a sub-minimum in " practical " or " experimental"
questions, it ought to rule that microscope work is practical, and
that cutting sections for such demonstration is also exi)erimental.

ECONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY; AND WHY IT
SHOULD BE TAUGHT IN SCHOOLS.

By F. W. FiTzSiMONs, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S.
(Read, July lo, 1918.)

Most of the inventions and discoveries which make so
Ic'.rg-ely for human happiness, and intellectual, moral, and spiritual
development, have been attained by the intelligent study of nature.

In the degree that we study nature and her ways, and turn
the knowledge gained to account ; so, just in that degree, will we
rise superior to our environment, and triumph over the adverse
forces which are ever in operation around us.

Beyond isolated efforts by enthusiasts, little is attempted to
interest and educate the minds of boys and girls in South Africa
in the natural history of their country. They are, in consequence,
growing up to manhood and womanhood unconscious of the
wonderful world of life around them, and its direct and indirect
bearing on their lives. What is observed has little or no meaning
for them.

A primrose by a river's brim.
A yellow primrose was to him,
And it was nothing more.

The ultimate upliftment of the human race out of animalism,
and narrow intolerant bigotry, into the realms of higher thought,
noble desires, and altruistic aspirations, can only be attained by
suitable education. The education of our children is very one-
sided. Girls leave school knowing nothing of the mechanism of
their own bodies, domestic science, or the care of infants. We
talk, write, and preach of the necessity for the conservation of
child life, yet we do little or nothing towards educating the future
mothers of the race on the science of diet, domestic hygiene,
human physiology, and kindred practical subjects. It may be
urged that it is the duty of the mother to educate her daughter on
these subjects; but unfortunately the mothers themselves do not
possess the necessary knowledge.

. With few exceptions, our boys, after leaving school take up
some form of occupation in South Africa. Increasingly large
numbers are taking up farming". It is now realized that the
future of South Africa does not lie in the direction of its mineral
wealth onlv. The permanent prosperity of the people can onlv
be attained bv the opening up of the land to the farmer, and
taking the fullest advantage of every branch of science which will
add to the yield of mother earth. Our boys, through lack of
opportunities to settle on the land, are forced into occupations
anworthy of their talents and manhood.

The development of the agricultural and pastoral resources of
South Africa insure'? the prosneritv of its peonle for all time,
and provides for their natural increase: conseouentlv the fullest
advantage should be taken of every department of knowledge

TEACHING OF FXONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY. 58I

bearing upon the opening up of the country's natural resources.
One of those departments of knowledge is Economic Natural
History.

The preventable losses individual farmers sustain through
the depredations of insects, rodents, carnivora, and plant plagues ;
and the terrible annual mortality in stock due to insect-borne
diseases, profoundly affect the finances of the Union, and seriously
retard progress generally.

Dwellers in towns are apt to regard with more or less indiffer-
ence the losses sustained by the countr}^ in these ways ; little
thinking that they have a direct bearing on their lives, and those
of their children.

Any and every measure which can be brought to bear to
reduce these losses should be prosecuted with the utmost vigour
of which we are capable. South Africa's people are losing
millions sterling annually from preventable causes. A large
proportion of these losses can slowly but surely be overcome by
teaching our school children Economic Natural History, and
encouraging practical lines of research work. We can no longer
afford to muddle along, as in the past. South Africa is capable
of sustaining an infinitely larger population, and every branch of
science v/hich helps towards this end should certainly not be
neglected ; and the teaching of Economic Natural History is one
of the most practical of thost branches of science. Until the
prevailing ignorance in this department of knowledge is dis-
sipated, w'e shall make little real, lasting progress.

Beyond isolated articles in various journals, and references
here and there in a ifew books, there is no literature on South
African economic natural history. The Kafifir and Hottentot
traditions and beliefs, with those of illiterate Europeans, are
handed down and accepted as facts ; and no systematic sustained
efforts are made to counteract these erroneous and harmful
beliefs.

Isolated eft'orts are being made by a few school Principals
W'ho realise the importance of teaching economic natural history;
but their efforts are severely handicapped because of the dearth
of suitable literature on the subject. Until the teacher is pro-
vided with the raw material of facts by specialists, he can make
little or no headway. The efforts of teachers are. in consequence,
confined to imparting general natural history knowledge which is
of no economic value. Moreover, from lack of suitable literature.
teachers themselves are often agents in the dissemination of
erroneous information. A teacher in a first-grade school taught
her class that the bag worm and the Geko Lizard are highly
poisonous. That the Death's Head Moth has a sting, and is
capable of inoculating a man with a fatal dose of venom. Scores
of such errors, and analogous instances, have come under my
observation.

Insects breed with almost unbelievable rapidity, and the
damage they do to crops, fruit trees, the natural pasturage, and
native forests, is stupendous. Birds are the natural enemies of

582 TEACHING OF ECONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY.

these insect hosts. Without birds, the human race coald not live.
Man's puny, unaided efforts to combat the invasion of the insect
hordes would be about as effective as a single man shooting^ with
a rifle into an advancing army of a million armed men, with the
object of checking their progress. The direct and indirect
damage done by insects and other closely-allied forms of
life in South Africa amount to many millions sterling annually.
By dissipating the prevailing ignorance on the economic value of
our native birds, backed up by effective legislation, this loss could
be largely reduced. There are over 900 species and sub-species
of birds in South Africa, and of these not more than a score of
species can be regarded as more harmful than beneficial
to man. The number of birds which may be regarded
as vermin do not exceed a dozen species. Owing to
the scarcity of their natural diet, otherwise useful birds
become at times temporarily harmful. For instance, cer-
tain species of seed-eating birds are apt to increase unduly and
prove a pest to the agriculturalist. These same birds on a stack
,farm cannot increase to an abnormal extent in numbers owing to
lack of food, and in these conditions they render great service in
destroying insect life, and the seeds of noxious weeds. The
belief is general that seed-eating birds are of no economic value
beyond eating the seeds of weeds. This is far from being true.
Seed-eating birls readily devour -insects, and what is more im-
portant, they feed their nestlings on both the larvae and adult
insects. These birds rear their families in the spring and early
summer when insects are very active, and the young and tender
crops require the maximum amount of protection.

It is true that the majority of birds are protected by law in
the various Divisional centres of the Union, but no special eft'orts
are made to enforce the law, or to bring home to children the
reasons why birds are protected. In consequence, our feathered
iriends are wantonly destroyed in a wholesale manner all over
the Union.

The economic value of our native birds is inestimable, and
it would certainly be highly desirable to impart some information
to our children on this important branch of economic natural
history. The lack of knowledge in regard to the bearing of birds
on the prosperity of the people of South Africa extends to every
other branch of Natural History. There are, for instance, a larg<
number of rats and mice native to the countrv. in addition to the
imported rats and mice which infest our dwellino-s. These rodents
are a heavy handican on the country. The annual losses
traceable to them directly and indirectly in the Union
of South Africa would exceed a million pounds. These
vermin exact a heavy toll on the products of the farm,
ycung trees and native vegetation generally. In the
villages, towns and cities, they devour an appreciable per-
centage of all forms of foodstuffs ; and are an ever-present
menace in connection with the spread of plaofue. nnrl the dis-
semination of various forms of disease bacteria. Owls, hawks.

TliACHING OF ECONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY. 583,

and the smaller wild carnivora, and snakes, are the chief natural
enemies of these rodents. We, in our ignorance, shoot owls and
rob their nests under the belief that these birds are unlucky, or
because the larger owls occasionally destroy fowls, which, through
carelessness and improvidence, we allow to roost in trees, instead
of providing enclosures for them to take shelter in by night.

Because a hawk becomes a chicken thief, we forthwith
declare war on all the hawk tribe, and slay them at sight. We
do likewise with all the small carnivorous animals, including the
Mungoose and Muishond, although we may not have a single
fowl about the homestead. Under the belief that all snakes are
highly venomous, these most excellent rat and mouse destroyers
are done to death. " I take no risks," says the average man, '* I
kill, or try to kill, all snakes at sight." While this unreasoning
destruction of friend and foe alike goes on apace, can we wonder
why we make slow progress in the development of South Africa's
agricultural and pastoral resources?

Here again we see how necessary it is to educate our boys
and girls before allowing them to spread over the country. The
time to educate them on these subjects is while they are under
our authority at school, and at an age when their hrains are
impressionable and free of unreasoning prejudices.

Turning again to the harm wrought to the country by ignor-
ance of Economic Natural History, we have another order of
life of far-reaching economic value, viz., the lizards. Yet, owing
to the prevailing erroneous belief that lizards are venoinous, and
of no value, we allow and even encourage our children to destroy
them. No lizards in South Africa are poisonous, and without
exception, they feed upon insects and allied forms of life. Once
again we slay the friends which are helping us in our grim
struggle against the adverse forces of Nature which are ever
working to overwhelm us. Alas! the pity of it. This senseless
slaughter of the allies provided us by an All-Wise Creator could
be largely, if not entirely, prevented.

The House Fly : What of it ? This insect has been a com-
panion of man from times remote. Regarding it as a harmless
creature, he has taken no steps to reduce its numbers, except
when, by undue Increase, it plagues him and swanns into his fo'>d.
or disturbs his slumbers. We now know the House Fly to be the
chief carrier of the bacteria of the various diseases which are
prematurely cutting short the lives of the human race. If the
House Fly could be exterminated, we would at one stroke reduce
human sickness and premature death by at least one-half. Infants
are destroyed in great numbers by infantile diarrhoea, dysentry.
and other diseases carried to them by the House Fly. It is the
principal agent in the spread of enteric fever; and is largely in-
strumental in carrying the bacilli of tuberculosis from house to
house. Man is not the only victim of this terrible insect. His
domestic animals fall victims daily to diseases, the infective
bacteria of which are carried to them by the House Fly. We are
not vet half awakpnprl to the peril of tolerating the House Fly

584 TEACHING OF ECONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY.

in our midst. Efforts of progressive municipalities meet with
opposition irom the citizens because they do not realize the neces-
sity for combination and active, sustained warfare ag^ainst this
wholesale murderer of mankind. Aeain the necessity for teachincj
the future citizens of South Africa is stron2;'ly indicated. Teach-
ing- them while they are yet amenable to receiving;- and retainin,^
knowledge and actingf upon it when they take up their various
occupations in life. If no other form of Economic Natural His-
tory were taught to school-children than that in connection with the
life history of the House Fly, this one Subject alone would have
a far-reaching influence in the furtherence of the health, happi-
ness and general prosperity of the people of our country.

Second to the House Fly, in its ability to do evil to man and
his stock, is its cousin, the Blood-sucking Fly, which inoculates
men with sleeping sickness, and his animals with a variety of
diseases.

Another familiar pest is the Mosquito, which is responsible
for all the mortality and illness caused by malaria. In addition,
there is strong reason, amounting almost to certainty, for be-
lieving that horse sickness is caused by this insect. Yet, ask any
boy or girl in the higher standards of our schools to outline the
life-habits of flies and mosquitoes, and, with but few exceptions,
profound ignorance would be displayed.

.When in Graaff-Reinet one day, I called on a senior teacher
in a high-class school, who complained of a plague of mosquitoes
in her home. I remarked that she was probablv breeding them
in her back garden. She indignantly protested that this was not
so. I w^andered into the yard, and ten feet from the back door
there was an oblong cement sink of large size for the storage of
water for the garden. The water in this receptacle was a
veritable moving mass of mosquito larvae. I called her attention
to these larvae, and S'he innocently wanted to know what those
wriggling things had got to do with mosquitoes.

The Bloo'd-sucking Fly breeds lart^eH^ in the 'Iroppings of
game and those of domestic animals. G-'inea fowls and part-
ridges break this excrement asunder and fe^d upon the mag-^'ots
and chrysalides ; and we in our lack of wisdom shoot these birds
for sport.

Hares are a pest, without anv reHeemine ouality, and yet
they are given a large measure of protection imder the game laws.
Such is the inconsistency of human nature.

Migratorv Locusts breed aoace and <'1enurle the country of
the native herbage so badly needed for stock, and carry desolation
and ruin to farmers and their families. We continue to spend
money lavishly in our endeavour to destrov these pests, which
liave been devastating the countrv for the past 30 vears.

The partridge, quail, and guinea fowl feed greedily on locust
eggs, as well as the wingless voung and winsred adults. Here
we have a natural army of allies eager to fight, gratis, on our ■
behalf. Do we welcome and safeguard them, and encourage
their increase? No; only so far as to protect them during their

TEACHING OF FXONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY. 585

breeding season in order that we may be able to enjoy the sport
of shooting them later. A host of other birds prey upon locusts
and grasshoppers. The majority of these birds are under the
protection of the law ; but owing to the prevailing ignorance of
their identity and habits, the people continue, as of old, to
destro}' them wantonly.

For the past ten years it has been one of the departments of
our work at the Port Elizabeth Museum to write on Economic
Natural History to the South African Press, and disseminate
pamphlets on the subject. At intervals, my Board of Trustees
has kindly allowed me to make tours in various parts of the
Eastern Province of the Cape, and give lantern lectures to schools
and the general public on these subjects. Although this work is
entirely in the public interest. I have never received any conces-
sion in my railway fare, notwithstanding repeated rerpesentations
having been made to the Railway Department. This attitude is,
to sav the least, distinctly discouraging.

The curriculum of schools. I am aware, will not bear much
adding to. I would venture the opinion that in public schools
some of the teaching could, with advantage, be made more prac-
tical. Nature study is being encouraged in many of the schools,
but it needs directing. At present it, as a general rule, takes the ,
•form of trifling lessons of absolutely no economic value. The
trouble is due to the lack of suitable literature. No encourage-
ment isgixen authors to provide the necessarv literattire ; and men
who have made a life study of these subjects, which are of such
high importance to South Africa, are obliged to waste their time
carrying on work which a less experienced subordinate could do.
The services of such men should be utilised, so that future genera-
tions may benefit by their life's labours, instead of allowing them
to depart this life leaving no records.

A widespread system of teaching Economic Natural History
in the schools of the Union could be launched with the minimum
of exDen=p. For instance —

(i) The production of literature on South African Economic
Natural History could be encouraged by the Educa-
tional Department guaranteeing tO' take a certain
number of copies for distribution tO' schools in order to
partlv safeguard the author or publisher against
financial loss.
(2) (a) The Government could make it one of the denart-
ments of activity of all the public museums in the
Union to provide the schools within a given area with
suitable, named, collections of specimens of natural
history ; (b) to work up an exhibition department in the
museum on Economic Natural History ; (c) to make
the most of the natural history specimens in the
museum by providing explanatory labels with the same
obiect in view ; (d) to provide information to school
teachers on economic natural history subjects on
application.

586 TEACHING OF KCON'OMIC NATURAL HISTORY.

Last, but not least, the museums in the Union could be made
the centres of instruction on Economic Natural History by
mapping out the district to come under each museum, so that the
entire Lrnion might be covered. Then, make it one of the obliga-
tions of the museum Curator to give, say, two popular lantern
lectures to each school in his district annually. This would not
involve any change in the curriculum of the schools. The scholars
could be gathered together for the occasions. We would thus
have a steady stream of informed scholars issuing from the
schools annually, carrying knowledge with them of the
Economic Natural History of their country. Each of these
young men and maids would further the good cause by acting
upon it themselves, and imparting the knowledge they had gained
to others. By providing such in formation, and educating the
children in these ways, we would lay a solid and permanent
foundation of prosperity. The work would be slow, but all good,
solid, permanent work is necessarily slow. It could be expedited
by energy, system, and co-ordination. The time is past for
pulling against each other, and endeavouring to belittle and nullify
one another's efforts. We all belong to one big family, and in
the degree that we recognize the brotherhood of man and live up
to it, so, in that degree, will we triumph over the adverse forces
which are at work around us.

Good educational work could be done if the Agricultural
Department of Government supplied the various museums in the
Union with mounted series of all the well-known insect pests,
showing their life history. Then make it an obligation for the
museum management to place them in special exhibition cases
with mounted specimens of their natural enemies, supplemented
by explanatory labels wTitten in simple language. Such a series
of exhibits would have a far-reaching educational effect. The
annual attendance of visitors to the Port Elizabeth Museum has,
for the past eleven years, fluctuated from 100,000 to 132,000. and
it can, in consequence, be readily realized how good a medium
a public museum is for the sowing of the seed of Economic
Natural History.

In the past, coal was looked upon as a source of heat only ;
and even when used for that purpose, most of its energy was
allowed to go to waste. With the application of intelligence and
careful thought, coal is now made to produce a large variety of
valuable by-products. Public Museums can be compared with
coal in this respect. There are great possibilities in them, but
most of these are allowed to lie latent. In fact their by-products
are not utilized.

In conclusion it would not perchance be out of place to
quote a few axioms by that- far-seeing and advanced educationist,
Dr. Viljoen, given at a public dinner recently in Bloemfontein.

. (i) That the children were the best asset of the State, and
therefore no nation should stint itself in the matter of
expenditure for education.

TEACHING OF ECONOMIC NATURAL HISTORY. 587

(2) Every child should have every chance to fit himself for

service in the future.

(3) Extravagance in education is economy from a national

point of view.

(4) Better spend money on education than in building work-

houses, asylums, and reformatories.

(5) Every nation gets the educational system it deserves,

and therefore it is a national necessity to provide
adequately for schools and fully-qualified teachers —
especially with regard to the latter, who should be paid
adequately in order to attract the best men and women
to the noblest profession in the world.

The Museum^

Port Elizabeth.

PROBLEMS OF DEGENERATION AS REPRESENTED

BY THE OSTRICH.

By Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D.. A.R.C.S.
{Not printed.)

THE PINEAL BODY IN THE OSTRICH.

By Prof. T. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

{Not printed.)

CHARTS, PHOTOGRAPHS, AND REPORTS OF THE
RAND MINES SANITATION DEPARTMENT.

By Alexander Jeremiah Orenstein, M.D., M.R.C.S.,

L.R.C.P.

{Not printed.)

INTOXICATION BY GASTROPHILOUS LARV^.

By Gilles van de Wall de Kock, M.R.C.V.S.

{Not printed.)

ON THE ERADICATION OF VENEREAL DISEASES.
By Robert Thorburn Ayton Inne.s, F.R.A.S.. F.R;S.E.

{Not printed.)

SOME FEATURES OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
ODONATA AS A FAUNA.

By Stephen Gottheil Rich, M.A., B.Sc.

(Received for publication, November 7, 1918.)

A remarkable feature of the South African Odonata is their
uniformity throughout cHmatic and habitational differences. For
example, the following species are known, according to informa-
tion at my command, from both fast and slow streams, from the
Natal Coast, the Karroo, the High Veld, and the Cape (" Old
Colony ") :—

Orthetrum chrysostigma, var. capensis.
Trithemis anmilata.
Paiitala flavescens.
Mcsogomphiis cognatiis.

Several other species are known from all of these, save,
apparently, the Karroo : —

Palpopleura liicia.

Paipopleiira lucia, var. portia.

Anax rutherfordi.

Anax impcrator, var. manricianus.

What is most remarkable is the almost entire absence of
species limited by elevation or lowness of land. The two species
of the genus Chlorolestes, thus far unrecorded below the limit of
3,000 feet, are the sole exception thus far noted by me.

This distribution is the more remarkable because of its
sharp contrast with the specialised distribution of the species of
Odonata in Europe and Eastern North America.

A second feature of interest is the fact that although many
of our genera extend in range outside the Ethiopian region, very
few of our species or varieties do so.

Only two species known here extend thus : Syimpetritm fons-
colombei extends into Flanders and Germany, and Pantala
flavescens is found in all parts of the world save Europe.
These, coupled with Anax impcrator, of which we have the
variety uiauricianns, and Europe has the species proper, are the
sole exceptions.

The genus Orthetriim, represented by seven known species
and varieties in the sub-continent, illustrates the typical distribu-
tion. This genus extends throughout most of the Eastern Hemi-
sphere, and its individuals are plentiful nearly everywhere. Of
our seven representatives, three are East African forms, two are
distinctively South African varieties of species found throughout
all Africa south of the Sudan, and only one extends in its range
to the Mediterranean Sea (O. trinacria).

THE SOUTH AFRICAN ODONATA. 589

As a rule, our forms are found as far north as the KiHiuan-
jaro district. There are no distinctively South African species
of Odonata, but several South African varieties. Orthetnim
caffrum, for example, first described from Durban, extends from
Kihmanjaro to Capetown. In the " Selys Catalogue," over two-
thirds of our species in all genera are listed as coming also from
Kilimanjaro.

'he correspondence with the Indian insect fauna as to genera,
but not as to species, which is noted in other orders, is found
among the Odonata. Twenty of our genera, out of a total of
about thirty, have Indian representatives. Only one species, so
far as I have been able to find, is common to our Odonata fauna
and that of India, namely, Pantala flavescens.

Rather remarkable is the occurrence of all the subfamilies
of Odonata save one — the Cordulegasterimc — in our South
African fauna. (In the Indian fauna even this is found.)

The subfamilies Gontphinoe and Cordulitkc, dominantly
northern, are each represented by a few species. Remarkably
enough, the Goniphince are represented by many individuals, and
the Cordulincc bv very few. This I attribute to the adaptation of
Gomphine nymphs for burrowing in silt in rivers.

T wish to conclude by recording a protest against the whole-
sale elevation of varieties to species-rank, and of intergrading
variations to varietal-rank, which has been done by overseas
workers on South African Odonata. Orthetritm stemmalc, for
example, divides into several varieties in South Africa ; but as
I have in my collection different " varieties," taken in the same
spot on the same stream on the same day, I am loath to accept
them as separate forms. In the common red Trithcmis forms,

inulata, etc., there is much variation and intergra'ling. which
render the distinctions in the published descriptions impossible to
follow. It appears often as if the mere fact of a pair of specimens
being different in one cross-vein, and coming, one from Delagoa
Bay and another from Natal, had been deemed cause for erecting
each into a species. Against such " splitting," based on very small
series, I wish most emphatically to protest. My protest may,
perhaps have more value when I add that, in my own collection, I
have complete intergrading series for Trithemis anmdata and T.
artcriosa, as well as for the various forms of Orthetrmn- sfeiiunale.

CROSSING THE NORTH AFRICAN AND SOUTH
AFRICAN OSTRICH.

By Prof. J. K. Dui-kden. M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

(Not printed.)

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

By J. S. Marwick.

{Read, July 12, 1918.)

In attempting to deal with the commonplace subject of the
Natives in the larger towns, my purpose is not so much to notice
tlie differences which exist between their conditions of living, their
point? of view and our own, but rather to give a slight conception
of the development which lies beneath their presence in our towns,
and to treat of them as a problem, social and administrative, for
the solution of which the citizens and the Government of the
Union of South Africa are jointly responsible.

The problem is the regulation of the routine of human
existence in our larger towns, so that the Europeans and Natives
may live on such terms that mutually satisfactory relations shall
subsist between the two races. This foreshadows the necessity of
a finely adjusted organisation in which good legislation, good
administration, and good citizenship shall each bear a part.

In 1849, the late Lord Dufferin, speaking of Ireland, said.
" Legislation can do nothing when there is nothing for it to act
upon " ; and although we need not import any shade of pessimism
into this statement of fact, it is well for us to recognise its truth
in relation to the question of legislating for the Natives.

I well remember its being brought home to me some years
ago in the Transvaal. A Zulu of the old school was told in
Johaimesburg that the \ns\t of a health inspector to the room in
which the Natives slept was to result in a prosecution before the
Landdrost. because the room did not contain the requisite number
of cubic feet. His immediate reply was : " Cannot he suoply
them, since he knows of these cubic feet? " The charge conveyed
nothing to his mind, and although it was explained to him that for
health reasons there should be in ever}^ bedroom a specified cubic
air space for each human being, he remained mystified as to the
real necessity for a provision, which was wholly foreign to his
ideas of hygiene or common-sense.

In the large class of cases of which this is a type, the func-
tions of good administration and good citizenship should combine
to prevent the prosecution of innocent Natives, and to promote
among those who come to us for employment an improving know-
ledge of the conditions to which their residence in towns requires
them to conform.

Diversity of Race.

For many years the Natives, who first resorted to the towns
for employment, or on business, were drawn from the immediate
neighbourhood, and all belonged to one race, but the inter-
communication afforded by the railway system throughout South
Africa, and more recently the distribution of Native labourers
between the four Provinces by the employing departments of the
Union, have served to impart diversity of race and history to the
, already difficult character of the Native population in our towns.

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 59I

The gradual disintegration of tribal conditions, and the
attachment of some of the Natives to industrial habits, are in-
fluences which tend to give an element of permanency to the
Native urban population. Hitherto the changing^ character of
this population has been maintained by the ebb and flow of those
g[oing- from or comings to the town, but in their g-rowing preference
for residence in or near to towns, many of the Natives have given
a new direction to the lives of their fellows — a development which
needs to be guided and regulated.

If we are to attach a right value to continuity of history in
the consideration of the problem by which we are confronted, we
must try and understand the rudimentary character of the com-
posite population which we have to deal with.

Reports of Government Commissions appointed to enquire
into Native matters are replete with information as to the Native
mind and character. One of the earliest, the Natal Commission
of 24 members, 1852-3, contains the following unfavourable
description:—

When not effectually restrained and directed by the strong arm of
power, the true and universal character of the Kaffirs, as framed by their
education, habits, and associations, is at once superstitious and warlike.
Their estimate of human life is very low; plunder and bloodshed are
engagements with which their circumstances have rendered them familiar
from their childhood ; they are crafty and cunning ; at once indolent and
excitable ; averse to labour, but bloodthirsty and cruel when their passions
are inflamed. They pretend to no individual opinion of their own, but
show the most servile compliance to the rule of a despotic chief when it is
characterised by vigour and efficiency.

Cupidity is another strongly developed feature of the Kaffir
character; their general habits, like those of other savages, debased and
sensual to the last degree ; possessing but a confused, indistinct idea of a
future state, and of the existence of a Supreme Being, they cherish a
belief in the most degrading system of witchcraft.

The Kaffirs recognise no moral delinquency in deceit or falsehood,
but are remarkable for a disregard of truthfulness and gratitude.

Personal purity or chastity among the unmarried youth of

both sexes, in the European sense of that term, has no existence, and
married Kaffir men do not confine their attentions to their own wives.
On the contrary, the conduct of the married women in this respect is
generally correct.

For the management of these people as servants the Com-
mission advised : —

The only seemly and safe course for the employer is to exhibit a
temperate, uniform, and unyielding firmness, to perform to the letter
everything he promises, and to avoid all unnecessary intercourse and
conversation, which uniformly produce contempt.

The report of the Natal Native Commission of 15 members,
1881-2, records an improved opinion of the Natives: —

There is, we think, in the Natives not a little which the white gener-
ally feel to be attractive, and calculated to win friendliness towards a
people with whom they are so closely brought into contact.

Later reports — ^those of the South African Native Affairs
Commission of 11 members, 1903-5, and the Natal Native Affairs
Commission of seven members. 1906-7, furnish evidence of even
a milder and more sympathetic view of the Native's character.

B

592 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

The former report states : —
In their homes the Natives are a hospitable and social people, clever
and bright in repartee, fond of music, open-hearted and generous hosts,
imitative and tractable, and interesting in many ways. They are, speaking
generally, not energetic of disposition, but the struggle for life has not
been so hard with them as with the European nations, and there has in
their past history been little to make them continuous workers.

A subtle humour runs through a passag^e of the Natal Native
Affairs Commission's report (1906-7) in which some disabilities
of the Native are set off by his countervailing advantages as a
polygamist : —

He can . . . possess movable and immovable property, and if, for
his own good, he is restricted in the use of liquor, firearms, and the
franchise, he enjoys a much wider connubial experience than the Euro-
pean.

The report continues : —

These people are admitted by all competent judges to be wonderfully
easy to govern, if only they are dealt with in the right way. Allegiance
and dependence are amongst their most striking characteristics. These
sentiments owe their existence to the patriarchal system, and are the
product of close personal relationship and common interest.

Process of Evolution.

The progressive change in the tone of official reports on this
subject from 1852 to 1907 indicates either that the Native as a
member of the community has improved in the process of evolu-
tion more than is admitted by common consent, or that the same
p'-ocess has predisposed the investigators themselves to a more
charitable view of the Native's character.

What Robert Louis Stevenson wrote of another race will, by
the ordinary prompting of comparison, be found to be an apposite
epitome of the elemental qualities of the South African Native : —

Savagely surrounded, savagely descended . . . who should have
blamed him had he been of a piece with his destiny and a being merely
barbarous? And we look and behold him instead filled with imperfect
virtues; infinitely childish, often admirably valiant, often touchingly kind;
sitting down amidst his momentary life, to debate of right and wrong and
the attributes of deity ; rising up to do battle for an egg or die for an
idea; singling out his friends and his mate with cordial affection, bringing
forth in pain, rearing, with long-suffering solicitude, his young. To touch
the heart of his mystery we find in him one thought, strange to the point
of lunacy; the thought of duty, the thought of something owing to himself,,
to his neighbour, to his God ; an ideal of decency to which he would rise,
if it were possible ; a limit of shame below which, if it were possible, he will
not stoop.

Many students of the Native will, on their first acquaintance
with this passage, echo Stevenson's own words :

I could have thought that he had been eavesdropping at the doors of
my heart, so entire was the coincidence between his writing and my
thought.

As an antidote against too sentimental a view of the Natives.
it may be mentioned that Livingstone, though he saw their
splendid possibilities underneath their degradation, never expected
too much of them. His scientific mind appreciated all that they
owed to centuries of savagery and superstition.*

* C. Sylvester Home : " Dr. Livingstone."

the natives in the larger towns. 593

Native Self-Respect.

In addition to the qualities already referred to, a sense of law
and order has proved to be strong-ly developed among^ the Natives.
It is a common mistake to suppose that because they are a back-
ward people courtesy is wasted on them. In their own com-
munications they are punctilious to a degree, and if their attempts
to speak our lang^uage are sometimes marred by their delivery, I
fear that this is but too often a reflex of our own tone towards
them.

An atmosphere of self-respect and mutual respect is natural
to them.

By a whimsical custom mothers when hushing- children to
sleep address them by their surname or family totem, and the
same courtesy is observed by a visitor when thanking his host for
hospitality.

Among the BasutO' a married woman upon becoming a mother
ceases to be called by the name she has hitherto borne, and is
accorded a species of brevet-rank, being dignified by the name of
her child with a prefix denoting " mother of." These and other
admirable usages aiiford an earnest of the Natives' veneration for
custom, which is inseparable from respect for authority and other
qualities upon which any great improvement of mankind must
find a basis.

I believe that among all the Native races of South Africa
there is good material for the development of a civic sense or
consciousness, which, in itself, will form the strongest and most
universal check against social disorders on the part of their own
race.

Laws Applicable to Natives.

The legislation applicable to Natives in the larger towns to-
day has been built up by a piece-meal process which has not been
without advantage to the Natives.

The Municipal Corporations Law, under which the older
municipalities of the Union are constituted, is modelled on the
lines of the Municipal Corporation Act oif England and Wales,
1835. and although it endows the Town Council with wide powers
(including that of making " all such by-laws as to them shall seem
meet," .... for the good rule and government of the
"borough "), there is no provision therein for the making of by-
laws specially applicable to the Natives. Whenever the necessity
for any such by-laws has manifested itself Parliament has had to
be aporoached to pass an enabling statute. This course has given
time for more mature consideration of the remedies aimed at. and
for more careful review of the statute itself than if one compre-
hensive statute had been passed to confer upon Town Councils
power to make by-laws whenever the necessity might arise.

In the early history of the towns the presence of Natives was
not a matter that called for regulation by positive law, as their
numbers were not great, and their duties and obligations were not
easily evaded in a small community.

594 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

At that period the restraints provided by their Native laws
and customs were of more force than they are to-day, and the
liquor problem was unknown.

One of the first of the by-laws found necessary for Natives
was that of the Curfew or Nine O'clock Bell — a police regulation,
which even in more rig-orous form (the bell ring-ing at sunset)
was applicable to our own ancestors till the reign of Henry I.

Among others of the old by-laws one required the Natives to
be clothed from neck to knee — in expiation of the sin of our first
parents — whilst another forbade the Native custom of ukuqo-
misa, a practice favoured by young men (and doubtless attribut-
able to the " old Adam " in their nature) of impeding the progress
of a female to compel her to choose a lover from those standing
before her.

Pass System.

The system of requiring Natives in the towns to carry passes
or to be registered as servants did not come into vogue until their"
employment in large numbers at labour centres had demonstrated
the difficulties of identification and general control.

Under a Griqualand West Proclamation in 1874, all contracts
4>i service on the diamond fields, in respect of European and other
servants, had to be registered, and a fee of one shilling each oaid
therefor. The servant was required to carry, and produce on
demand, a certificate of registration.

Subsequently under the Mining Law in the Transvaal a
somewhat similar provision applying exclusively to Native
labourers made it obligatory for every Native to carry a one
shilling pass renewable monthly by the employer. The revenue
so produced was for many years applied to hospital purposes.

From the year 1895, in addition to the raising of revenue, the
Pass Law for the Transvaal goldfields, in its amended form, was
applied to repress Native vagrancy and facilitate the control and
regulation of Native labourers.

Li modified form it has been extended to the urban areas of
the Transvaal and Orange Free State.

A system of Native registration under Natal Law 21, of
1888, was introduced in the larger Natal towns in 1891. and was
subsequently allowed to fall into desuetude, but Native lawless-
ness became so positive a menace in IQ16 that registration had to
be reintroduced, and the town Natives are now under better
•control.

Town Councils in the four Provinces of the Union are all
empowered to set apart urban locations for occupation by Natives.
In the Cape Province, excepting in the cases of Kingwilliamstown,
'Ndabeni, and New Brighton Locations. Natives cannot be com-
pelled to reside in the areas set apart. Li Natal, the Transvaal
and Orange Free State this necessary power is conferred upon the
Town Councils.

In the Cape, Natal, and Orange Free State Provinces by-laws
for Native locations may be made by the Town Councils, but in
the Transvaal thev are framed by the Governor.

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 595

Town Councils in the Transvaal and Orange Free State can
only grant a right of occupation to Natives in locations. In the
Cape and Natal there is nothing to prevent the local authority
from leasing or selling land to Natives in such areas.

Factors for Civilisation.

Among the miscellaneous matters which Town Councils are
authorised to regulate are the use by Natives of side-walks, streets,
and open places, and the carrying of sticks and lethal weapons, the
licensing of ricksha haulers and "togt" men, or day labourers, and
in Natal the administration of the monopoly system for the sale
of Native beer.

The various laws, which empower Town Councils, present
some divergence not only in the powers conferred, but in the pro-
cedure prescribed. But if we bear in mind the different origin
of the four sets of laws, the points of agreement and not the
divergence will appear remarkable.

In each of the four Provinces of the Union the laws referred
to emphasise the necessity of three things : — Clothes, houses, and
work — factors for civilisation which, as we shall see. were in
America among the first things which the negroes — without much
alternative it is true — adopted to their ultimate benefit.

In speaking of the economic development of the negro, the
late Booker T. Washington, who had himself been a slave, says :^—

No one, willing to be frank and fair, can fail to see that the negro did
get certain benefits out of slavery.

The economic element not only made it necessary that the negro slave
should be clothed for the sake of decency, and in order to preserve his
health, but the same considerations made it necessary that he be housed
and taught the comforts to be found in a home. Within a few months,
then, after the arrival of the negro in America he was wearing clothes and
living in a house — no inconsiderable step in the direction of morality and
Christianity.

And again:

The American negro had, under the regime of slavery, his first lesson
in anjrthing like continuous, progressive systematic labour. I have said
that two of the signs of Christianity are clothes and houses, and now I
add a third, work.

Clothes, houses, and work are here referred to as three signs
of Christianity. And if the Natives can be taught that with these
signs must co-exist cleanliness, thrift, morality, sobriety and
honesty, we shall have provided for them a regimen that will be
more than the Law and the Prophets, and a programme which no
Town Council or community has yet carried out.

With regard to the South African Native it has been stated

trulv that : —

European clothing, which is coming more and more into general use,
has not been an unmixed blessing. . . . The use of cotton shirts by the
men, and the habit of allowing wet clothing to dry on the person, have
been particularly harmful. . . . A marked- increase in consumption,
pleurisv, inPammation of the lungs, and rheumatism has been the result.
European clothes, too, require much more frequent cleansing than their
ancestral garb, a fact which unfortunately is not sufficiently realised by

596 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

the Natives who have partially adopted our style of dress. . . . The
evils are not inseparable from European dress, but arise from an
imperfect understanding of the laws of health.*

The filthy rags, which uut too uxlc.i are made to pass muster
as Native clothing-, are not infrequently worn m ihat state because
any attempt to cleanse them would result m complete dissolution.
Clothing for what is known as the " Native trade "' is not always
durable enough to survive the casualties of the wash-tub, and the
owner naturally avoids unnecessary extravagance in wear and
tear.

It would be a great blessing to the Natives and ourselves if
clothing to be imported for them were to be standardised as to
material and make, so that it could be designed to stand rough
wear, and washing at frequent intervals.

Housing of Natives.

In all the larger towns of the Union the housing of Natives,
whether as families, domestic servants or workers in stores, ware-
houses, shops or factories, is a problem that demands immediate
attention. The conditions existing to-day are doing more to
propel the tide of demoralisation and discontent among the
Natives than any other factor in the body politic, but the subject
is one which does not admit of free discussion.

The conditions are in many instances a disgrace to civilisa-
tion, and they are not without their serious reactions on the Euro-
pean community.

Native families are in increasing numbers coming to live in
the towns, and when no dwellings are provided for them in loca-
tions they, by force of circumstances, drift into the meanest
quarters of the town, where their associations and home life
quickly find community with the lowest of the European or Indian
classes there.

The failure of the Town Councils to grapple with the problem
is attributable to the financial difficulty, and to the fact that the
Natives, not being ratepayers, have, naturally, received the kind
of consideration whidh is only second best.

The housing of Natives in urban locations has coiisequentlv
not attained a high standard. What was said of these locations
by the South African Native Afifairs Commission in 190.S, is true
of most of them to~day. . . .

In some respects their condition leaves much to he desired. The
Natives who reside in or frequent these locations are in the main working
people. The tendency of inadequate accommodation is to make them
dissatisfied and restless ; the standard of comfort is low, and they are
liable to be overcrowded and overcharged.

It is an important and encouraging point to observe that
wherever the financial difficulty is less acute, there a measure
of success in the establishment of urban locations has been
achieved.

* South African Native Affairs Commission.

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 597

(
LOCATTONS.

In the Cape Province tlie locations, in which a maximum of
comfort and consideration is provided, are those at Capetown
and Port Elizabeth, which were estabhshed not out of Municipal
funds, but by Government under the Native Reserve Locations
Act. Similarly in Natal, the most successful location is that in
Durban, where the Town Council has been able to build exten-
sively from the profits derived from the monopoly for the sale of
Native ibeer.

In the sino^le men's quarters, built at a cost of i.^3,000, each
Native is provided with a separate bed, and a generally improved
order of living is pointed out to him. The supervision, main-
tained without the aid O'f a single policeman, teaches habits of
cleanliness and gives a stimulus to the observance of punctuality,
good order and good conduct among the inmates of the quarters,
and eliminates gambling and vice. A large steam disinfector is
used to cleanse and disinfect all beds, blankets and wearing
apparel at regular intervals.

At the married Natives' quarters no tenants are admitted
except those of certified good character, and the result has been
satisfactory. The tenants keep their cottages in scrupulously
clean condition, and there is no appearance whatsoever of the
customary untidiness and neglect which characterised most \o^i-
tion dwellings. The 60 cottages were built at a cost of i 12,000.

The Native women's hostel, which provides sleepinfy accom-
modation for Native women visiting the town, or for those whose
employers have no suitable quarters for them, is extensively made
use of. It is under the supervision of a European matron, who
has two Native women as assistants.

Native Opinion.

At first a campaign of misrepresentation by the Native Press
deterred the Natives from going to live in the location, but now
the best elements of the Native community are being" drawn to
the settlement, and the tenants appear contented and readily
respond to efforts made for their well-being. Natives from other
parts of South Africa are alwavs favourably impressed by the
conditions in the location, and in this connection the followir'^
remarks are quoted from a letter written by the Rev. Edward
Motsamai. of Maseru, who spent a few days at the single men's
quarters : —

. . . . I am confident that T am not wrong in asserting that the
Native location of Durban, so well furnished with modern accommodations,
such as shower baths, electric light, etc., is the first of its kind, in fact
there is nothing of the sort in Basutoland ; nor have I ever heard of a
similar thing in all South Africa. The department seems to have left
nothing untried that would contribute to the comfort and happiness of
our Native people in the location.

The Native Market raised up by the department is actually a marvel ;
no one can eo there without being struck by the clever way in which it is
managed. There the Natives are accorded the full liberty to sell and do
all they like without hindrance, without being ousted by their superior
neighbours — the white people.

598 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

Moreover, even with regard to the question of strong drink in the
form of joala, though a minister of religion strongly opposed to the use
of strong drinks— yet I feel persuaded to admit the wisdom of the depart-
ment in making due allowance to the non-Christian people of a few
gallons of light Kaffir beer, which acts as a safety valve to their strong
propensity to strong drink.

In a word, everything made by the department for my Native people
in Durban has entirely given me much satisfaction and true confidence
in the department.

But this opinion must not be taken to alter the fact that even
in Durban the financial difficulty has not admitted of more than
the fring-e of the Native housing problem being touched. Onlv
i,ooo Natives are accommodated in the location, and the Native
population of the borough is 25,000 souls.

To all who examine the present state of affairs the conviction
will be borne home that if only the necessary funds were forth-
coming-, the Natives in the towns could be housed under conditions
which would provide them with an interest in their surroundings,
and a growing sense of self-respect at once uplifting to themselves,
and beneficial to the Europeans in minimising occasions of race
conflict, and the undesirable contact of the lowest of both races.

Work, which has been mentioned as one of the three out-
standing things required of the Natives by our town legislation,
has not yet become with them a habit of voluntary industry--, or it
would not be necessary constantly to enforce by-laws against the
idle and vagrant class.

The progress of the Native here compared with that of the
negro in America will be hampered through his being brought
only temporarily under civilising influences, the great part of his
life being that of a barbarian at his kraal. We shall have failed
to give the Native the best out of his sojourning in the towns if
we do not inculcate by precept and practice these simple lessons :
that his attachment to work will determine the measure of his
progress in life, that his work must therefore be more continuous,
and that education, intelligence and attention to his employers'
interests are factors which will make for his own advancement.

There are things that he must unlearn, too. Foremost among
these is polygamy, which, with its elaborate customs and expen-
sive menage, constitute so great a tax on the time and money of
the Native wage-earner that he finds himself in an impossible
position, though unable to define the immediate cause. He is not
yet ready to accept a prohibitive law, and he will learn by only a
slow process that polygamy is an economic impossibility.

A progressive influence in the direction of the abolition of
polyeamv, and the conversion of Native industry to more profit-
able ends, can be exercised by every Town Council and com-
munity, if only we can establish conditions in the towns favour-
able to the adoption of a civilised mode of living by the Natives.

These conditions should be such as will ensure that the
Natives are reasonably satisfied that they are inspired with im-
proving ideals of life. and. through being able to make ends meet,
are becoming self-reliant workers.

the natives in the larger towns. 599

Town Councils and Natives.

The relationship between Town Councils and the Natives in
the towns is of a special character. For though Town Councils
derive from the Provincial Councils all powers necessary to the
discharge of the functions of local administration, such powers
do not include the control and administration of Is^ative afifairs,
which are by Section 147 of the Act of Union vested in the
Govemor-General-in-Council.

Town Councils in dealing" with Native affairs act, therefore,
as agents of the Government, and may do so only within the
limitations of the special laws already enacted, and any future
Acts of Union Parliament. If all Town Councils would realise
that they stand for the Government in a fiduciary position towards
the Natives, a different and wider outlook than that hitherto
maintained would be brought to bear upon questions of local
Native management with benefit to all concerned.

The Government has formulated a policy, the success of
which will largely depend upon the intensity of interest of each
Town Council in the local administratioti of Native aft'airs.

A Bill to provide for the establishment and the better man-
agement and control of locations, and other places of residence
for Natives, and generally the administration of Native aft'airs in
urban areas, has been published, and I am assured that the
Government welcomes not only the fullest possible discussion of
the Bill, but all intelligent criticism and suggestion, with a view to
its amendment before introduction into Parliament.

The main purposes of the Bill are to define limits within
which municipalities may legitimately exert their activities in
regard to Native matters, and to furnish guidance as to the lines
upon which they should proceed.

Courses of Discipline.

Assuming the hypothesis that we stand in loco Parctitis to
the Natives, whom we must guide and restrain like children three
different courses of discipline come readily to mind for their
treatment, and they may be briefly considered here : —

The first, that principle of instruction recommended by King
Solomon, possesses the advantage of antiquity. It was carried to
the farthest point of which we have accurate knowledge in South
Africa bv Tshaka, but it is graduallv going out of fashion.

The second course is one which w^as suggested bv Miss
Colenso to the South African Native Aft'airs Commission, in
terms reminiscent of the imagery of Alice in Wonderland ; she
said :

In the nursery phrase, the fewer of those " nasty don'ts " we have
lying about the better. ... 1 say the fewer laws the happier for us all.

This course may be considered to have been tried in the towns
and found wanting, when the powers of the Town Councils were
limited by the Municinal Corporations Law. The police were
under that law controlled by the Town Council, and the only

t>00 TJtlE NATIVES IN THE LAKGER TOWNS.

discipline over the Natives was sucn as couia De exercised b}'
■ponce vigilance unsupported by special by-laws, i his led to what
iVir. Winston L^hurcnnl once called "" tne "gentie' stimulus of
cowhide " being used as an aid to control.

Ihe third course may be tersely expressed in the words of
ex-President Kooseveit: " bpeak gently! but carry the big stick "
— and the new Bill is to some extent conditioned by the principle
embodied in this short summary of a long experience of afifairs.
1 he " big stick " of legislative discipline is for use only when
occasion demands, and it is evident trom the framework of the
Bill that its primary policy is to " speak gently ! "

It will be remembered by those interested in the history of
the Natal system of municipal administration that the late Sir
Theophilus Shepstone, in 1874, initiated the principle of setting
apart for the promotion of the welfare of the Native " togt " or
day labourers the revenue contributed by such Natives as licence-
fees, and that this principle was given a wider application in con-
nection with the profits from the monopoly system for the sale of
Native beer under Act 22 of 1908.

The present Bill goes further and aims at the establishment,
by every l«cal authority coming under the Bill, of a Native
Revenue Account, to which all Native revenue shall be paid and
set apart 'for Native purposes.

Native Urban Areas Bill.

In this matter and in the provision for the establishment and
consultation of Native Advisory Boards in every urban area, and
for the establishment of Native servant registries, institutions for
the training of Native servants, location building societies, hos-
pitals, maternity homes, washing houses, recreation halls, rooms
and grounds^ the Bill is conditioned by a policy which, in its main
features, should be welcomed 'by the Natives.

In its other provisions the Bill contains a great deal that will
make for the improvement of conditions of living for Natives in
urban areas. But if the process of unifying the system of local
administration of Native afifairs is to be allowed to take its course
by such slow degrees as are indicated in the Bill, I 'fear that the
rrieasure will fail in what should be one of its main obiects,
namely, the introduction of a uniform system of Native by-laws
for all towns, which, if once understood by the Natives, would
obviate a great deal of hardship and consequent resentment by
the present conflicting laws and by-laws.

The option afforded to each local authority by the Bill of
continuing to govern its Natives under existing legislation, or of
adopting the provisions of the new Bill, will perpetuate the pre-
sent unnecessarv divergence of system, and should (except in
regard to Village Management Boards) be withdrawn.

A similar effect is to be anticipated from that provision in
the Bill which, though it properly reserves by-laws for the
annroval of the Governor-General, leaves the form of such by-
laws to bfe framed -by -the local authority, thus giving play -to an

THE NATIVES IN TJlJi LARGER TOWNS. 6oi

undesirable diversity of ideas being- applied to the treatment of
the Natives.

A course better calculated to improve relations between the
races w^ould be for the Government to take power to make regula-
tions, and after consultation of the municipal associations and such
representative Natives as could ofifer helpful opinions, to frame a
set of Native regulations for all municipalities in the Union.

Native Beer.

The extension of the monopoly system for the sale of Native
beer to all urban areas of the Union is part of the policy of the
Bill.

The monopoly system in Natal was not primarily designed to
provide funds for municipal Native administration. Nor can
it quite fairly be said to be an instan-ce of the " lesser evil " policy,
that bugbear of the truly militant. To view the matter in proper
perspective, it is necessary to know something of the Native's
.traditional idea of his beverage. The late Zulu King, Cetywayo,
when giving evidence before the Native Laws and Customs Com-
mission at Capetown in 1881, was asked: "Have you any law
ipreventing people from drinking or selling beer made in your own
country?" and he replied: " No; this is the food of the Zulus;
they drink it as the English drink cofYee." He made the frank
admission : " Some do get drunk when they drink too much."

The Natives in Natal have never been prohibited from the
use of their beer for precisely the same reasons which appeared
good to Cetywayo and fur the further one that the facility with
which the ingredients are obtained and the beer brewed at their
kraals would make prohibition an impossibility. To regulate the
sale in the towns and to prevent excess. Town Councils were
e:'itrusted with the monopoly system under which the beer is sold
and consumed under supervision, and amid healthy and whole-
some surroundings.

The misgivings of .'^ome, as to whether the monopoly system
for the sale of Native beer will or will not tend to an increase
of the drink habit among the Natives, are the doubts of honest
tnen, and I do not think thev can be resolved without longer ex-
perience and more watchfulness over the definite trend of the
svstem.

The last Missionary Conference in Natal passed^ resolution
drawing attention to the demoralisiuij and impoverishing effect
of the system upon the Natives, and requesting a restriction of
the hours for the sale of beer. Thev have been a.'^ked to furnish
specific information with a view \o the fullest enquiry being made
into the alleged evil effects of the svstem.

Hitherto the attitude of critics has been to maintain thatthe
Town Council, with the best motives, is pursuing a misguided
course, that, in other words, it is trying wrongly to do right.
Some have gone further, even condemning the use of the funds
derived from the sale of beer in the promotion o.f the well-being
of the Natives. The culpability of the Town Council is thus in

602 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

some sort made to resemble that of the Spanish character, whose
nature it was " to steal a sheep, and give away the trotters for
God's sake!"

Illicit Liquor Evil.

The latest development of the discussion of the important
question of the illicit liquor evil on the Witwatersrand, viz., the
report of the Select Committee of the House of Assembly recom-
mending the amendment of the Transvaal Liquor Laws in respect
of the sale of liquor to Natives and coloured persons so that the
sale of beer not exceeding ten per cent, of proof spirit, and light
wines of approved alcoholic strength, to such persons on the Wit-
watersrand may be legalised is one that must cause grave alarm.

This would, indeed, be to make two drunkards grow where
only one grew before !

Those who have been content to give a trial to the system for
the sale of Native beer as a means of regulating the moderate use
by Natives of their own beverage had been guided by con-
siderations of the Native's traditional idea of Native beer as a
food, his existing taste for that kind of food, and its low alcoholic
standard.

To give him facilities for acquiring a taste for our beer and
light wines would be a wild experiment, having neither basis of
ascertained fact nor colourable probability of success for iti
foundation. In other words, the one experiment, as I have always
understood it, is designed to take the Native as he is, and if we
cannot teach him moderation with his own beverage, at least tc>
take care that he does not acquire a taste for other and stronger
forms of alcohol, and to be in a position to reverse our experiment
at anv time. The alternative now suggested would be comparable
to relinquishing all proper control over the question and driving
post-haste to the devil.

A National Dutv.

The policy of the Bill with respect to financial provisions —
the most important matter relating to the improvement of Native
conditions in the towns — is a disappointing one.

Under the Bill the Government does not assume any financial
responsibility, but merely authorises the local authority : —

(a) To borrow money for Native purposes on the security

of the municipal rates, subject to repayment out of
revenue derived from Natives.

(b) To collect rents from Native tenants in locations and

hostels.

(c) To collect fees from employers for the registration of

Native contracts. _ .

(cH To administer a monopoly 'for the sale of Native beer.
(e) To invest any surplus money accruing to the Native

Revenue Account.
The whole of the financial provisions of the Bill are <i nega-
tion of the nrincinle that thp control and administration of Native
affairs is a national duty. It is made to appear as one of purely

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 603

municipal concern; money is to be borrowed on the security of
municipal rates, rents are to be collected from Native tenants, 'fees
from the employers of Natives, and profits from the sale of
Native beer.

In every one of these activities there is the dano:er that the
interests of the non-Native ratepayers will outweigh those of the
Natives, or that in the raising of revenue from the sale of beer
and collection of rents, the best interests of the Natives will suffer.

In view of Section 147 of the Act of Union, and of the dis-
tinction which in older countries is drawn between services of a
preponderatingly national character and those of an essentially
local character, it seems clear that the obligation of providing
capital funds for permanent works, or undertakings required
under the Bill, should unquestionably be assumed by the Central
Government.

The Government recognising the inability of the Natives of
Natal to combat the scourge of East Coast fever among their
cattle, advanced igo.ooo from the Land Bank to pay for the build-
ing" of dipping- tanks.

Loans to Municipalities.

A more devastating scourge — that of demoralisation, is
making its way among the Natives themselves through the condi-
tions in the towns, and if the Government will not grant the
money to establish better conditions, it surely cannot do less than
establish a Natives' (Capital) Works Loan Fund to meet the
financial responsibilities o^ local authorities in this particular
direction, the money to be repaid in easy instalments from the
Native Revenue Account.

As a quid pro quo for the financial burden to be accepted by
the Government, it could be provided in the Bill that no expendi-
ture from the Native Revenue Account should take place except
in accordance with estimates first submitted to and approved by
the Government. By this means there would be a thorough check
over all charges proposed against this account ; Town Councils
could not but deal strictly at arm's length with this fund in asses-
sing amounts against it for rent, etc., and the tendency would be
towards economy of administration.

The appointment by Government of one or more visiting
inspectors of locations would be a step to be welcomed by every
local authority as a means of stimulating progress and facilitating
comparison in methods of local Native administration throughout
the Union.

Every Town Council should be required to establish a depart-
ment or bureau to see to the control and well-being of the Native
population — and thus a great deal could be done in South Africa
to ensure improved conditions for the Natives employed in the
towns.

There are many matters of difficulty incidental to their resi-
dence and employment in which they, as an illiterate people, need
help and guidance. The department existing in Durban renders
assistance daily to Native parents and guardians in securing the

604 THE NATIVES IX THE LARGER TOWNS.

return to their homes of minors and others whose absence occa-
sions hardship or anxiety. Letters are written to other centres
to Native affairs officers with reference to the continued absence
of fathers, liusbands and brothers, who have left their people
destitute. Disputes between European employers and Natives
are enquired into with a constant view to an amicable settlement.
Advice is given in the large class of disputes arising between
Natives, and when the parties arrive at an agreement promissory
notes are drawn and attested before a Justice of the Peace.

Natives are assisted in the completion of petitions to Govern-
ment, letters to Government departments, claims against the
Railway Administration for lost goods, applications for cattle
permits, etc., and in tracing relatives in prisons or hospitals — and
whenever indigent, destitute, crippled or sick Natives are without
means of reaching their homes their railway fares are paid by the
department.

Native Chiefs visiting the borough are suitably accommo-
dated and fed at the Native location.

Deaths of Natives in the borough are notified to their rela-
tives, and in cases of Natives permanently disabled in machinery
accidents assistance is given with a view to the recovery of com-
pensation. Natives injured in street accidents are provided with
medical attention or hospital treatment at the expense of the
department. Where Natives are killed or injured through
culpable negligence in street accidents, or in the course of their
employment, the heirs of the deceased or injured Natives are often
out of reach, and when informed of the circumstances, are most
frequently in ignorance of their rights under the common law.

It is desirable that Town Councils should be constituted the
guardians in law of all Natives killed or injured in such circum-
stances, so that they may be legally warranted in acting for
absent heirs or incapacitated persons in the prosecution of claims
for compensation or in eliciting evidence on their behalf at
inquests, etc.

The control of the police system by Town Councils could be
made to minister to the betterment of the Natives.

Tn Durban the Natives are encouraged to represent to the
Chief Constable any legitimate catises of complaint against their
treatment, and proved instances of excess of authority are suitably
de^lt with. In such matters as the fixing of bails at an amount
sufficient onlv to mark the breach of the law and not necessarily
to penalise the individual heavily, or to have him locked up, and
in other matters of routine, the system of municipal police is more
elastic than that controlled from one centre of the Union.

Medical Examination.

The powers provided under the new Bill are insufficient to
authorise the medical examination of Natives.

TTnder the existing pass ree"ii1ations in Transvaal municipali-
ties all Natives applying for employment are examined, and may
be rejected if found to be suffering from syphilis in any form or
from tuberctilosi<; in an infective stage.

THE .NATIVES lis' THE LARGER TOWNS. 605

There has been some agitation on the part of educated
l^Iatives a.gainst any such medical examination being carried out
on the ground that Europeans are not also subjected to it. But
it has to be remembered that the large mass of Natives in the
country, unlike the Europeans, seldom come under clinical treat-
ment by qualified medical men, and that the ]X>ssible spread of
contagious diseases, including leprosy, syphilis and tuberculosis,
is an even greater menace to the Natives than to. the Europeans.

Pitiable cases have come under my notice shov^ing the need
for institutions for the treatment of the two last-mentioned dis- '
eases among the Natives.

, In the Transvaal and Orange Free State some opposition to
the registration of Native women has manifested itself among the
Natives, and the recent statement of the Transvaal Natives'
grievances to the Prime Minister mentioned a strong objection to
Native women having to conform to the Night Passes Ordinance.

It appears doubtful, however, from the statement' of no less
an authority than Mr. H. M. Taberer, General Manager of the
Native Recruiting Corporation, whether the women referred to
belong to a class who should be free to roam about after nine
o'clock at night. He says :

So far as the Native women of Johannesburg are concerned, I think
the position is an absolute scandal. There are probably from 15,000 to
20,000 Native women on the Rand, and I say that the sooner they are
turned out the better it will be.*

The Assaults on Women Commission in 1913 recommended
that the curfew ref^ulations be aonlied to both sexes, and the
obvious reason for this recommendation, the tendency of Native
males to impersonate fema^'^s has ^pen much emphasised of
recent years.

In the Cape Province, it is true. Native women of the age of
21 are considered to have attained the legal age of majority, and
are freed from any restriction thereafter. But in Basutoland, the
Native territory in which there is the nearest approach to Native
self-government, it has been proved that the Natives themselves
are in favour of certain restrictions being maintained in the
interests of morality.

The Basutoland Women's Restriction Proclamation, IQI.S,
passed in accordance with a resolution of the Basutoland National
Council, provides, under Section 2, that: —

No Native woman residing in the territory of Basutoland shall leave
the said territory without the consent (a) if she shall be married either
. according to European law or according to Native custom, of her husband,
and (&) if she be unmarried, of her father or natural guardian.

In Natal under the Identification Passes Act similar restric-
•tions are maintained with beneficial effects.

The new Bill provides for the exclusion from the urban area
of any Natives who are unable to give proof of their means of
honest livelihood. This provision owes its origin to a recom-

* Select Committee on Working of Transvaal Liquor Laws.

6o6 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

mendation contained in paragraph 253 of the report of the South
African Native Affairs Commission.

One disquieting development amongst Natives employed in
lOM'ns is the growing tendency on the part of the younger genera-
tion to band themselves together for the commission of crimes,
burglary, theft, public violence and for the carrying on of
sodomy. Those who are slaves to the latter vice are known
among their confederates as o'Nqingili and Izitabane.

The Nineveh organisation, whose existence is traceable to
the influence of Native criminals in the Transvaal prisons, not
only carries on sodomy, but furnishes favourable opportunities of
crime for its members, who include the most desperate of all
Native criminals of the country. They are organised under a
system which has borrowed features from the old Zulu regime
under which the power of capital punishment is exercised by the
" king," but by a ctirious vagary of ideas other features of the
organisation are a caricature of our own system of Government.
Landdrosts, judges, magistrates, doctors and generals all hold
office, but their order of precedence and general share in the
scheme of things is determined largely by their own personality
and driving power.

On the Rand the Nineveh gangs are very numerous, being
represented in every compound, and although prominent leaders
have been hanged 'for ghoulish murders, the authorities do not
seem able to stamp out the organisation itself.

The Bill should be made to include the power to expel Natives
proved to be members of any such gangs as I have mentioned,
for whom labour colonies or corrective institutions should be
formed w-ith a view to the limitation of their future activities.

The Natives' power of organisation in the past has been
developed chiefly in the direction of their patriarchal system of
government and the Zulu military power organised by Tshaka.
But there is no reason why their undoubted faculty for organisa-
tion and the freemasonry which exists between them should not
be turned to good account in connection with the social and
recreational work which needs to be carried out in the towns.

Their faculty for recreation is, in their native state, exceed-
ingly limited. Whatever can be done to engage them in the pursuit
of such amusement as affords healthy exercise or occupation of
mind will constitute a gain upon their tendency to drift into vice
and intemperance.

The ordinary round of amusement followed by the un-
educated Native is to meet with his fellows over a meal or pot of
beer and discuss matters of interest, chiefly courtship and mar-
riage.

Mimic war dances, or competitions in a species of cake-walk
with hand-clapping accompaniment, are almost the only forms
of exercise indulged in.

The educated Natives are being provided with recreation
grounds, and in some centres there is a growing number of
enthusiastic exponents of football and cricket.

TPIE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 607

An educated Native in a letter to the Ilanga lase Natal, dis-
cussing the comparative recreational advantages of the location
over those of the employer's yard, says : " The European does not
even wish to hear you singing the tonic sol-fa in his yard. He
does not wish you to stamp mealies and make a noise there."

Native Literature.

The range of literature available to them is not extensive,
and excepting in the case of the Basutos,, they cannot enjoy the
relaxation afforded by the reading of works of fiction. A Basuto
writer, Thomas Mofolo, was the first to issue a novel, " Moete oa
Bochabela '" (The Visitor from the East), and he has since issued
a second, " Pitseng " (Into the Pot).

He has been followed by the Rev. E. Sehoete with " Raphe-
pheng " (The Father of the Scorpion). Another writer, Sekese,
has made a more serious contribution to Sesutho literature in
" Maele a Basuto" (Proverbs of the Basuto).

The backwardness of the Zulus in becoming authors is not
due to want of ability. I was privileged some time ago to read
an appeal printed in Latin and Zulu addressed to His Holiness the
Pope by three Zulus on the subject of the mistranslation of the
present Zulu version of the Bible, and I readily acknowledge that
the whole matter contained in the appeal was excellently expressed,
and arranged.

The Chinese labourers, when employed on the Rand, displayed
great interest in play-acting as a means of recreation in the com-
pounds, and it may well be that this branch of amusement will in
time provide a variation from the concerts and tea-meetings which
form the customary programme of the Native's evening entertain-
ment.

DTsraeli tells us that " the origin of the theatrical representa-
tions of the ancients has been traced back to a Greek stroller
singing in a cart to the honour of .Bacchus." And if our immense
patronage of the theatre sprung from such a humble beginning,
the taste of the Natives with the more attractive material now
available will surely grow apace.

Mr. S. W. B. Shepstone. a grandson of the late Sir Theophilus
Shepstone, has written a play for the entertainment of working
Natives, and it is hoped that the first production will take place in
Durban. The licensing of Natives to carry on whatever trading
is done in Native markets and to act as caterers for their fellows
should be encouraged.

In this way the reasonable am'bition of Native tailors, barbers,
shoemakers, booksellers, tobacconists, etc., can be achieved among
members of their ov/n race, and what some American writers have
called " group economy " may be gradually brought about.

A Growing Need.

There is a growing need on the part of the better class
Natives for accommodation of a kind superior to that ordinarily
available to them in the locations or hostels. Provision should be
made in the new Bill for the establishment in location areas of

6o8 THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

hostels, or in other approved areas, of temperance hotels or board-
ing-houses to be conaucted by iNatives under licence of the local
authority.

The establishment of Advisory Boards of Natives in locations,
as contemplated by the Bill, will be regarded as a new departure
by most of the lown Councils in the Union,

An Advisory Committee of Natives has been in existence in
Durban, but untortunateiy the personnel of the committee has
been disappointmg, and its work cannot be said to have been satis-
factory or successful. The scope of an Advisory Board consisting-
of men able to otter sound opinions and advice would be exten-
sible to almost every relation in which the Natives are attected
by their residence in towns.

The Native members of the Advisory Board should assist in
such matters as the visiting of hospitals and gaols, the encourage-
ment of thrift and the social and recreational work of the Native
locations. These activities would give them a steadying sense of
responsibility and stewardship, a much-needed antidote to the
crazy and demagogic ideas by which some of them are inspired.

In what has been said, the duties of the Government, the
Town Councils and the Natives have been referred to. But the
people who determine the tone and standard of 'behaviour towards
■ the Natives in the towns are the large mass of citizens, and it is
UDon their attitude that the happiness or misery of the Natives
depends.

We are not all interested in the human problem which is
imperceptibly being either complicated or simplified by the sum
of our actions as a community. Individual responsibility on the
part of every European and Native for a right-minded attitude
on this question is the true ideal, but I fear that this is among
those things of which a writer in the i6th century said:

There are many things in the Commonwealth of Nowhere, wliich I
rather wish than hope to see adopted in our own.

What is to he said, for instance, of a European missionary,
identified with one of the largest Native schools in Natal, who is
carrying on the selfsame propaganda for which certain Inter-
national Socialists have been indicted in Johannesburg?

Missionary Effort.

Through a long acquaintance with missionary effort. I have
been whole-heartedly in favour of this agency for the enlighten-
ment of the Natives. I have not even entertained the mental
reservations of Miss Colenso, who, before the South African
Native Afifairs Commission, said, with that courage of conviction
which characterises all her opinions :

I have been a missionary myself, and am a missionary myself, so I
may say what I think about it. I think we have, many of us, meant well
and do mean well, but I think we make quite as many mistakes as any
other section of the community. I think, we have done as much harm as
good.

The propaganda I am about to refer to is calculated to do
more harm than good.

In the International Socialist Revietv — a journal which has

THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS. 609

not enjoyed a wide circulation since the war — the missionary to
whom I have referred, who may or may not be a naturaHsed
British subject, published in June, 1917, an article entitled " Notes
on Natal," in which the following remarks were made :

Thus far the Labour movement in Natal, and all of South Africa, has
neglected the Natives. It has been a mere conservative craft union move-
ment among the whites. Yet the Kaffirs are 93 per cent, of the working
class of the country. The International Socialist League, a new body of
Revolutionary Socialists, and industrial unionists, has at last started
to reach the Natives. . .

The Natives are ready for the message of Socialism whenever we can
give it to them. Our great difficulty is that of language. Few of us
speak Zulu, Sesuto, Shangaan, or other Native language well enough to
propagandise in it. There is no Socialist literature in these tongues ; the
lirst pamphlet, " Wage- Labour and Capital," is only now in process of
translation into Zulu.

Socialism and Syndicalism.

The effort of the " New Body of Revolutionary' Socialists "
t3 reach the Natives was brought to the notice of the authorities
by me twelve months ago, and the opinion was expressed that the
preaching of Socialism and syndicalism amongst the Natives in
their present backward state is wholly undesirable.

Those of us who assisted in controlling the Natives during
the Rand strikes of 1913-1914 were able to form an estimate of
the criminal folly of teaching the Natives to run riot.

To countenance the propagation, in any shape or form, of the
doctrines of the new body of " Revolutionary Socialists " among
the Natives would be to hasten this country towards eventualities,
the nature of which, as a serious-minded man, I forbear to in-
dicate in words.

Each citizen can do much for good citizenship if he will try
and understand something of the good or harmless purposes
which his Native employee has in view, and help him, not neces-
sarily on a familiar footing, towards their attainment — imparting
to him in the process such simple lessons as were in Livinfrstone's
mind when he said, " The true and honest discharge of everyday
life is a Divine service."

Improvidence.

It may be safely assumed that most of them come to ns to
earn money, but the improvidence of Natives of all ages is a
marked feature among those employed in the. towns, and the
authorities constantly receive appeals from the relatives of Natives
asking that they may be prevailed upon to recognise their obliga-
tions to their families or that they may ibe induced* to return to
their homes. It is stated with re.qard to the negroes of Jamaica
and Demerara that the "motive which was most relied on for
inducing them to work was their love of fine clothes and personal
ornaments." It cannot 'be said, however, that extravagance goes
hand in hand with industry amon^^ the South African Natives.
Usuallv the most thriftless are those of the idle and vicious class,
who never want to wort-.

In Durban efforts have been mndp to enrourao-e thrift by
giving lantenT lprturp<^ -^^ ron\rpniAr,f ronfmc ^rir\ offering prizes

6lO THE NATIVES IN THE LARGER TOWNS.

to the Natives whose remittances to their people are most constant
and regular.

If every householder would interest himself in the question
of Native thrift by constant enquiry and encouragement of his
Native employee incalculable good would result to the Natives
generally, and the good effect would most assuredly reach their
homes as well.

It seems to be desirable that a system of deferred pay for
Native youths employed in towns should be regularised under the
new Bill.

To 'focus attention and eft'ort in connection with Native aft'airs
into an effective channel there should be established in every large
town a European society having for its objects the fostering on
the part of the European population of a greater interest in, and
sense of responsibility for, the social, moral, material and religious
well-being of the Native people of the Province, and the taking
of such action as may be considered desirable to attain these
■0-bjects.

The personnel of such societies should be made as various as
possible, to include magistrates, doctors, missionaries, attorneys,
merchants, mechanics, clerks, etc., so that the influence of each on
his fellow-members may serve to correct sectional views, and
make the work practical instead of academic. The united efforts
of the society may then succeed in dissipating the prevailing
lethargy of mind which shows no thought of community with
those who recognise the magnitude of the Native problem.

The delivery of lectures on Native subjects, and the participa-
tion of the society in social and recreational work among the
Natives, will tend to tone down the asperities between the two
races and to bring about mutuallv satisfactory relations — that goal
of all those, on either side of the racial barrier, whose common
watchword is to " Carry on ! "

Paper Yarns. — The Bulletin of the Imperial Institute
has an article on the spinning of yarns from waste paper, long,
narrow strips of thin paper being loosely or tightly twisted for
the purpose. These yarns can be made of various thicknesses,
and have been employed for weaving a great variety of fabrics,
the cost of production being very low. The yarn may be tough-
ened by impregnation with size, tannin, or water glass. One of
the principal/ uses to which paper yarn has been put is for the
manufacture of cordage, ranging from fine twine up to coarse
rope. Another use is for the -manufacture of sacks and bags to
replace those made from jute or hemp. These sacks are em-
ployed for such articles of produce as grain, flour, potatoes,
wool, fertilisers, and cement. During the war enormous quan-
tities of paper yarn were used for making sand bags for army
purposes. Paper yarns have also been employed for the manu-
facture of tent canvas, tarpaulins, and as a leather substitute,
especially for machine belting.

ARE THE ODONATA OF ECONOMIC VALUE?

By Stephen Gottheil Rich, M.A., B.Sc.

(Read July lo, 1918.)

It is often stated — e.g., in Miall's " Natural History of
Aquatic Animals," that the Odonata have economic value as
destroyers of mosquitoes, flies, midges, and the like. So far as
the northern mosquitoes, which are found on the wing in daytime,
are concerned, this is probably correct; at Harpswell, Me., U.S.A.,
I have seen the dragon-fly Aeshna constricta hawking on a warm
morning along a road along which at the same time mosquitoes
of the genus Culex were annoying me to an excessive degree.

My observations of African dragon-flies, mainly in Natal,
during the last two and a half years, lead me to assign a much
less important role to them. In the matter of mosquitoes, for
example, I note that our Natal species are twilight-fliers, or are
nocturnal. But our dragon-flies are sun-lovers, and vanish from
flight as soon as the sun sets or long shadows of hills cover their
haunts.

At Durban, along Ridge Road, I have several times seen
swarms of the dragon-fly Pantala flavescens hawking, but always
at high noon. Their prey was entirely small Muscid flies. These
small Muscidas do not appear to have any economic importance,
however.

I am, therefore, not inclined to attribute economic value to
the dragon-flies of this country as adults.

In the nymphal stage, however, there is more to be said in
favour of the usefulness of dragon-flies. In the Amanzimtoti
River, Natal, dragon-fly nymphs are abundant. There are very
few mosquitoes found thereabouts, although the river has many
small pools which are ideal haunts of the mosquito larva. On
the other hand, there are fewer dragon-flies in the Umbilo River
and the spruits near Durban, and mosquitoes are plentiful. T
notice this same correlation of fewer dragon-flies and many mos-
quitoes in the Dorp Spruit at Maritzburg.

Needham, in 1903, noticed dragon-fly larvae as an occasional
constituent of trout-food, in North America. I do not know of
any evidence as to the food of fresh-water fish in this country;
but I have heard that at Nottingham Road, Natal, where trout-
fishing is good, dragon-flies are plentiful. I hope to be in a
position to investigate this matter further ere long.

In "The Life of Inland Waters" (1916), Needham and
Lloyd show a photograph of a dragon-fly nymph catching and
eating a young sunfish. I am of the opinion that this destruction
of fry by dragon-fly larvae, Dytiscid beetles, and other aquatic
carnivores, is of importance in preventing an increase of fish in
our streams. It is a remarkable coincidence that, except at Not-

DI2 ECONOxMIC VALUE OF ODONATA.

tingham Road, the Natal streams full of dragon-flies are sparsely
inhabited by fish.

The time is not yet ripe for any attempt at a definite evalua-
tion of the economic work of our African dragon-flies. What
evidence is at hand points to their playing no economic role at
all as adults, but possibly a fairly extensive one of both benefit and
iiarm as nymphs.

DRUG TREATMENT IN NUTTALLIOSIS OF EQUINES.

By GiLLEs VAN DE Wall de Kock. M.R.C.V.S.

(Not printed.)

BOVINE CONTAGIOUS ABORTION IN SOUTH

AFRICA.

By Eric Maxwell Robinson, M.R.C.V.S.
(Not printed.)

ON CERTAIN CHANGES IN THE EXTERNAL SEX-
CHARACTERS OF OSTRICHES, OCCURRING
AFTER REMOVAL OF THE REPRODUCTIVE
GLANDS.

Bv Sir Arnold Theiler. K.C.M.G., D.Sc, and
D. Kehoe, M.R.C.V.S.

(Not printed.)

SPECTROGRAPHY OF SEAVTEED AsHES. — E. Cornec,

in Coniptes rcndus,'^" gives an account of a spectrographic study of
the ashes of certain marine ])lants. In Laminaria ash, silver,
arsenic, cobalt, copper, manganese, nickel, lead, zinc, bismuth,
tin, gallium, molybdenum, gold, antimony, germanium, glucinum,
titanium, tungsten, and vanadium were found, the occurrence of
the last six not having been previously reported either in sea
water or in marine plants. Only spectrographic traces of gold,
bismuth, gallium, and germanium w6re observed.

*168. 513-514 (1919)-

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl 18.

A M. BoTTOMLEY.— A Disease of cupressus Plants.

^?

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. PL. 19.

A. M. BOTTOMLEY.-A DiSEASE OF CUPRBSSUS PLANTS.

A PRELLMINARY INVESTIGATION INTO A DISEASE
ATTACKING YOUNG CUPRESSUS PLANTS.

By Averil Maud Bottomley. B.A.

{Read, July to, iyi8.)

{Plaices i8-2T.)

History.

Serious attention was first directed towards the disease in
question in March, 191 5, when a severe outbreak of a disease in
young plants of Ciipressus forulosa and C. arisonica at Belfast,
Transvaal, was rei)orted to the Department. Examination of the
diseased plants revealed the presence of three fungus organisms
— Pestalossia sp., Phoma sp. with typical pycnidia and small
globose spores, and a Phoma sp. with unusually shaped pycnidia
and rather large fusoid spores. As a result of inoculation and
cultural experiments continued during 191 5, the first two
organisms were eliminated from the investigation, and the third
established as the cause of the trouble.

A more serious outbreak, identical with the first as regards
symptoms and results, but showing the presence of the second
Phoma only, and affecting a different species of Cupressus,
namely. C. macnocarpa, occurred in Pretoria in March of this
year (1918). The increasing demand for species of Cupressus
as hedge plants, and the devastation caused by the disease in
question, seemed to justify and necessitate a further study of
the trouble, a record of which is given in this paper.

Identification of the Fungus.

Although the above fungus has been referred to the genus
Phoma, doubt is felt as to this being its real identity on account
of the unusual shape and formation of the pycnidia. A sugges-
tion that it might be z Pliomopsis has been seriously considered,
but owing to the fact that it agrees entirely with neither genus.
and that its cultural characters are typical of a Pliouia, the ques-
tion of its identity is left open for the present until investigations
are complete.

On consulting availa])le literature it appeared that the only
described species which the Phoma in question at all resembled
was Phoma abietina Hartig* {Pusicoccuni abietinum. Prill and
Delacv).t and this had to be dismissed on account of essen-
tial differences not only in symptoms but in the organism itself,
so that until quite recently the fungus was regarded as a new
species. A short while ago. however, the writer's attention was
directed towards an article entitled, " A Nursery Blight of
Cedars," by Hahn, Hartley, and Pierce,J in which a Phoma is

* R. Hartig: "'Disease of Trees'' (trans, by William Somerville).
■\ Bulletin de la Socictc Mycologiauc de France, 6 [3], 176.
XJoum Auric. Research, 10 [10].

6l4 A DISEASE OF CUPRESSUS PLANTS.

described, which, except for a few points which will be noted
later, agrees so well with the Phoma on Cupressus sp. that one is
forced to admit that they must be identical. This discovery has,
of course, rather upset the author's calculations, but seeing that
the investigations have been carried on quite independently and
on rather different lines, it is still thought worth while to publish
the results, if only to make a record of the points of difference,
and the natural occurrence of the fungus on a new host.

Symptoms of the Disease.

Up to the present, the disease has been known to occur only
in those parts of the country where summer rains prevail, and
only in very wet seasons, pointing to moisture as an important
factor in its development. It is primarily a disease of nursery stock.
Plants up to four years old may be attacked, but it is seedling
plants that are most susceptible, plants in seedling and trans-
plant beds dying off in hundreds. In such cases the symptoms
are particularly characteristic. Infection may start anywhere on
the plant — at the base, in the middle, or at the top — but is always
indicated by the leaves and stems becoming discoloured, assum-
ingr a water-logged appearance, withering and finally dying.
When the stem tissues are badly attacked, the plant bends over at
that part {PI. i8), the disease spreads rapidly, and young plants
succumb to it in a very short while. Older plants {PI. 19, a) are
liable to attack in exceptionally wet seasons, but are much more
resistant, with the result that they often recover, though they are
much deformed in shape. Small black dots — the pycnidia of the
Phoma — are present on dead leaves and young stems {PI. 19, b).
Under abnormally wet artificial conditions, but not under natural
ones, spores are seen to exude from these in the form of small
white drops, not in tendrils as described for the fungus on red
cedars.

Transverse sections through diseased tissues show not only
Phoma pycnidia, but a very much deformed outline, and tissues
broken down and invaded by threads of a hyaline mycelium — in
the leaves, the palisade and spongy tissues, and in the stem the
cortical tissues {PI. 21, a and h).

Description of the Fungus.

The pycnidia are scattered and do not form spots. They
develop superficially just below the cuticle, and appear to be
erumpent only at maturity. In shape they may be globose, but
are usually lenticular. On specimens of C. Macrocarpa they were
found to be unilocular, but on C. arizonica and torulosa they were
occasionally indistinctly plurilocular. They vary in size, measur-
ing 122-290 /A wide X 105-192 fji high, a common size being
192 X 140 i".. The spores are borne on unbranched, persistent,
hyaline threads, and are continuous, hyaline, fusoid to ellipsoid,
i-celled with a highly refractive guttule at either end, and vary
in size from 7-14 X 3^ /t, a common size being 7 X 3^ m-

S.A, Assn. for Adv. of Science.

918. PL. 20.

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A. M. BoTTOMLEY.— A Disease of cupressus Plants.

a disease of cupressus plants. 615

The Organism in Artificial Cultures.

Artificial cultures of the organism were obtained 'by
thoroughly washing portions of diseased tissue in running water,
and partially immersing them in prune agar. From the growth
which developed on these, portions were transferred to fresh
plates of the same medium, and on these Phoma pycnidia
developed. Mature spores from these were then planted out,
and resulting single spore colonies were transplanted to different
media. The medium on which the organism grew most success-
fully was prune agar, although carrot, beef-broth, potato and
cornmeal agars were also used with good results. In all cases
except beef-broth agar, growth was regular but not zoned, scanty^
matted, and of a greyish-green colour. Pycnidia began to develop
abundantly on the third day after the spores were plated out,
and were mature on the fifth or sixth day, the spores oozing
out in a pale salmon-pink drop, which emerged above the ve.o"eta-
tive growth. The pycnidia originated in the matted hyphae of
the aerial growth, but at maturity were found to be embedded in
the substratum. The growth on Beef-broth agar dift'ered in
being white, while the pycnidia were also of a white translucent
colour ; otherwise growth was the same. The optimum tempera-
ture .was found to be about 25° C. Growth at 20° C. was very
slow, and the formation of pycnidia was retarded.

Viewed microscopically, the pycnidia formed in artificial
cultures were usually globose and beaked, with a definite ostiole.
From the latter the spores oozed out in a vermiculate manner,
and were rather more oval in shape than when occurring natur-
ally {PL 20, a).

Germination Test.

Hanging drop cultures of spores produced in culture were
made in Ward tubes and incubated at 25° C., at which tempera-
ture they germinated readily in 24 hours. On germination, the
spore swells up considerably, and often divides into two, a tube
being given off either from both ends or from one only. These
tubes continue lengthening, but only occasionally 'branch. No
secondary spores were observed to form. (PI. 20. h.)

Inoculation Experiments.

Inoculation experiments made in 1915 on C. toriilosa and
C. arizonica failed to produce infections in plants not first
wounded, and injured plants were only infected under very wet
conditions. In experiments recently conducted on young plants
of C. macrocarpa, 25 per cent, infections were obtained on un-
injured plants under moist conditions. So per cent, on injured
plants under moist conditions, and no infections on plants kept
under normally dry conditions.

The experiments were carried out on the following lines :

(i) Plants were sprayed with water containing a heavy

suspension of spores^ or were sprayed with water

. _ alone and the spores painted on, and were then kept
in a moist chamber for a week.

■''l6 A DISEASE OF CUPRESSUS PLANTS.

(2) Plants were pricked with a sterile needle and spores

inserted in tne wounds, and the plants sprayed with
water and treated as in (i).

(3) Plants were treated as in (i) except that they were

removed from the moist chamber after two days.

As mentioned above, no infections were obtained in No. 3.

In both (i) and (2) typical infections were obtained, but
while the former took three weeks to show infection, the latter
took only from three to five days. From both of these the
organism was easily re-isolated, i'he poor results obtained in
the 1915 experiments were probably due to the fact that mycelial
growth only was used, the fruiting stage not having been obtained
in cultures at that time.

From the above results, it will be seen that artificial infec-
tion takes place readily when the plants are first injured, but
otherwise with difficulty, and further, that moisture is essential
for the development of the disease.

Although it has been found difficult to infect uninjured
plants, it seems unlikely, considering the rapidity with which the
disease spreads, that the fungus depends on wounds for
entrance. Unless rain and wind cause injuries by the plants rub-
bing against each other, the wound theory seems hardly tenable.
Further experiments are necessary to establish the method of
irjfection.

Control Measures.

With a view to finding out some means of controlling the
disease by spraying, the sensitiveness of the fungus to copper
salts was tested. Spores were germinated in different solutions
of copper sulphate, and found to be highly sensitive to this salt,
failing to germinate in a solution containing copper sulphate in
the proportion of i part to 10,000 parts water.

From the above result, it seems safe to recommend spraying
with Bordeaux Mixture, or other fungicides containing corner
salts, as an effective means of controlling the disease, although
actual experiments along this line are not yet complete. A pre-
liminary test was made in which plants were treated with
Bordeaux Mixture, sprayed with water containing a heavy sus-
pension of spores, and kept under conditions favourable for the
development of the disease. No infections occurred, but owing
to the difficulty with which uninjured plants are infected under
normal conditions, the test is not considered conclusive.

General preventative measures should, of course, also be
taken, such as the careful preparation and care of the seed beds,
the selection of clean, healthy plants, care in handling when
transplanting, the removing and burning of diseased material,
and care in not overwatering the plants.

In conclusion, it might be as well to sum up the few points
.in which the Phoma sp. reviewed above differs 'from that
described by Hahn, Hartley, and Pierce.

The pycnidia do not appear to break out before maturity.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science

1918 Pl. 21.

a.

A. M. BOTTOMLEY.— A DlSE^XSE OF CUPRBSSUS PLANTS-

A DISEASE OF CL'PRESSUS PLANTS. 617

nor have the spores been observed to exude from them in a
visible mass except under abnormal artificial conditions, when
they ooze out in tiny white drops, not in tendrils.

The spores differ slightly in shape and in size.

In artificial cultures, pycnidia form abundantly in every
i7iedium used, not only " sparingly on prune and corn-meal agars."

With regard to the fungus on the former, no dull orange-red
colouration was observed.

The natural hosts are different. The Phoma in (juestion
occurring on the three species of Cupressus — inacrocarpa,
ariconica, lorulosa — and the other on red cedars { Jiiulpcnis sjip.).

Summary.

1. As a result of inoculation and cultural experiments in
191 5 a Phoma (identity rather doubtful) was established as the
cause of a serious disease in young plants of Cupressus sp. This
has recently been identified with a Phoma on red cedars, described
by Hahn. Hartley, and Pierce.

2. Symptoms are described as characterized by a discolora-
tion followed by withering and death, the dead leaves and twigs
showing the presence of small black dots, which are the fruiting
bodies of the fungus.

3. The 'fungus is described as it occurs naturally, and in
artificial cultures.

4. Inoculation experiments resulted in injured plants becom-
incr readily infected in a few days, and uninjured ones only with
difficulty in a few weeks. Moisture was proved to be essential
for the development of the disease.

5. Control measures are given. Spraying with Bordeaux
Mixture is recommended on account of the spores being highlv
sensitive to copper sulphate.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

Plate 18. — Young plants in early stage of infection by Phoma sp.

Plate 19 a. — Older plants showing infection.

Plate 19 b. — Dead twig of Cupressus macroearpa, showing the presence

of Phoma pycnidia.
Plate 20 a. — Pycnidia formed in artificial culture.
Plate 20 h (i) . — iSpores before germination.
(ii). — Spores 24 hours after,
(m). — Spores 48 hours after.
Plate 21 a. — Tranverse section through diseased stem of C. }uacrocarpa,

showing pycnidia and mycelial threads invading the

broken-down cortical tissues.
Plate 21 b. — The same as Plate 21 a. through a leaf.

N.B. — (/) and (n') of Plate 20 /» were drawn with camera lucida; all
other drawings were made with a Leitz projection apparatus. The
paintings were done by Miss K. Lansdell.

Botanical Laboratories,

Union Department of .\(;ri(:ulture,
Pretoria.

ARE THE ORTHOPTERA AND NEUROPTERA ACTUAL
ORDERS OR CONGLOMERATIONS?

By Stephen Gottheil Rich, M.A., B.Sc.

{Read July lo, 19 18.)

In the museums of this country, with the single exception of
the Natal Museum, the orders of insects are separated according
to the Linnean scheme, or the slight modification of it devised by
Sharp, 1895. The orders Orthoptera and Nciiroptera accordingly
appear in their original extent. The former includes Forficulidac,
Gryllidae, Locustidae, Acrididac, Manfidae, Blattidae, Phas-
midae, and one or two minor families ; the latter includes Epheme-
ridae, Termitidae, PcrUdac, Odonata, Panorpidae, and the group
of families typified by the Myrmeleonidac.

I propose briefly to consider this assemblage as a whole, by
the criteria of recent work in the groups, and to show whether the
accepted grouping is in accordance with facts. In so doing, I
base my work mainly upon the recent articles of G. C. Cramptou
in various American journals of entomology. Crampton sums
up his comparative studies in anatomy in a paper, " The Lines of
Descent of the Lower Pterygotan Insects."* His other papers
are studies of particular parts through a number of families :
antennae, thoracic sclerites, abdominal appendages, etc.

At the start I may well admit a prejudice against the Linnean
classification. As a pupil of Needham and indirectly of Comstock,
I was brought up on eight orders in place of the Nciiroptera, and
on regarding Forficulidae as distinct from the Orthoptera. When
I came upon the older classification on arrival in Africa, it struck
me as a most peculiar " lumping "of diverse material.

Let us first consider these groups in respect to metamor-
phosis. One set of families, . typified by the Sialididae and
Myrmeleonidae, show " complete," or three-stage metamor-
phosis. There is no approach to it among the other families
now under consideration, so far as I can discover. Now this
character alone should, if we follow accepted canons of entomo-
logy, demarcate this group as an order. Lang, in 1889, and Com-
stock, in 1895, recognised this, and limited the term Neuroptera
to this group as an order. Handlirsch, 1908, and Enderlen, 1903,
uphold this grouping, though adding more cumbrous names.

The testimony of Handlirsch in its favour, based on fossil
insects, and that of Crampton, based on comparative anatomy,
should convince us of the justness of this grouping.

Superficially akin to the Neuroptera thus delimited are the
Odonata. This group, however, becomes less and less like the
Neuroptera as it is studied. The metamorphosis here is in two
stages only, but in two sharply separated stages. The genitalia are
unique among insects, in that the males possess accessory organs
on the second abdominal segment. The nymph is distinctly more
near the primitive adult forms of the Aptera than is the Neurop-

* Entomological News, June and July. 1916.

ORTIIOPTERA AND NEUROPTERA. 619

terous larva. The adult wing-venation is unusual. It is, I am
sure, most incorrect to " lump " this highly specialised group with
any others. The Odonata are justified in being given ordinal
rank.

Sharp "lumps," in his suborder Amphibiotica of the extended
Neuroptera, the Odonata, Perlidae, and Ephemeridae. The
aquatic larval life appears to me as most obviously an indepen-
dently-acquired adaptation in each case. The entire difference in
means of aquatic respiration between these groups is strong
evidence in point. The venation in adult wings is also evidence
against uniting these groups. The Odonate wing, with its crossed
medial and radial veins, dynamically specialised nodus, anal
region, etc.. is in strong contrast to the primitive Perlid wing and
the almost " orthopterous " Ephcmerid wing.

Crampton has shown, in the case of the Perlidae, a strong
resemblance to various Aptera in many features. This primitive
adult-form, coupled with a sharply-defined two-stage metamor-
phosis, may well justify us in adhering to this group's name as the
order Plecoptera, following Comstock.

The Ephemeridae are quite as distinct from the Plecoptera
as from the Odonata. To save time. I shall not give the
evidence here, but shall simply rank thenl as the order
Ephcnierida, as does Lang.

One constituent of the l^innean Neuroptera is the family
Terniitidae. An inspection of our adult winged termites in any
African museum will show others, as it has shown me, the falsity
of this classification. A detailed inspection of the various parts
of the body reveals mouth-parts, genitalia, etc., much after the
pattern of the Orthopterous Blattidae. Were it not for the high
specialisation of the Terniitidae, we might well group them into
one order with the Blattidae. But the caste-forms of the Termi-
tidae prevent this. Hence, I uphold the classification of these as
Isoptera, following Comstock and Lang. The name is well
chosen, for in no other group, save possibly a few Odonata of the
family Caloptcrygidae, are the fore and hind wings so exactly
alike.

Closely allied to the Blattidae is another group, the Mantidae.
If the Mantis pidae may be grouped in the Neuroptera along with
the Myrmeleonidac, we cannot justly split ofif the Mantidae as a
separate order, because they also possess grasping forelegs. The
ether characters are quite on the Blaltid model ; the two groups
are obviously in one order.

Enderlen, 1903, divides the OrtJioptera into three groups.
Oiie, OotJiecavia, includes Blattidae and Mantidae. His other
groups, Saltatoria and -Gressoria, depend simply upon whether
these Orthoptera walk or jump. This. I submit, is merely an
adaptive character, produced by the elongation of the hind-legs,
which are the longest pair in all groups of the lower winged
insects. Accordingly, I should prefer a somewhat djfferent
classification.

Between Gryllidae, Locustidae, and Acrididae there is much

020 ORTHOPTERA AND NEUROPTERA.

resemblance. This is more marked between the two first-named
famiHes, however, than between them and the third. Mouth-parts
and female genitaha illustrate this. The Acrididae, however,
approach more nearly the Phasmidae and Phyllidae in these
features.

I am of the opinion that we should properly' set off the
Blattidae and Mantidae, as an order, using Crampton's term
Endictyoptera. I must confess that I am not able to decide
whether the other families that I have mentioned should be one
order or more. Failing knowledge, I am satisfied to leave the
families Gryllidae, Locustidae, Acrididae, Phyllidae, and Phas-
midae in one order under the old name Orthoptera.. I might here
point out that the Orthoptera thus restricted are less akin to the
Eudictyoptera than are either the Isoptera or the Plecoptera.

The totally aberrant wings of the Forficididae are alone
enough to warrant their forming the order Deruiaptera, as in
Comstock's scheme of 1895. This order, of course, comes close
to the Eudictyoptera.

To save time, I omit considering in detail the interesting
smaller groups, such as the Panorpidae, which cannot be Neurop-
tera; and shall close by submitting that classification which
appears to me to represent the facts of relationship. I have
purposely omitted any grouping into superorders or subclasses.

Synopsis.

Orders.

Families.

Aptera

Lepismidae.

Machilidae, etc.

Plecoptera . . . .

Perlidae.

Ephemerida. . .

Ephemeridae.

Eudictyoptera .

Blattidae.

Mantidae.

Platyptera.. ..

Embiidae.

Isoptera

Termitidae.

Euplexoptera —

Forficulidae.

Orthoptera . . . .

Gryllidae.

Grylloblattidae.

Acrididae.

Locustidae.

Phyllidae.

Phasmidae.

Odonata

Agrionidae.

Calopterygidae.

Aeshnidae.

Libelludidae.

Corrodentia. ..

Psocidae.

Mallophaga. . .

Mallophagidae.

Neuroptera . . . .

(Holometab(5lic. net- veined.)

Myrmeleonidae.

Sialididae, Manlispidae.

Hemerobiidae.

et siniil.

Mecoptera. . . .

Panorpidae.

RHODES! AN MINERALS. 62 I

Rhodesian Minerals. — The Bulletin of the Imperial
Institute* publishes a short account of the mineral resources of
Rhodesia, together with a selection of reports on some of the
samples. Antimony sulphide carrying gold and silver occurs in
several localities, and the output of antimony from the Gwelo
district in 1916 amounted to 38 tons. Arsenical ores are treated
for their gold and silver in various districts, but only 76 tons
of arsenic is recorded as having been recovered. The output
of asbestos has increased from 290 tons in 1913 to over 9,500
tons in 191 7. Granular harytes occurs in extensive deposits
within two miles of Gado siding. Bismuth minerals occur in the
Mazoe district and elsewhere. Of chrome ore Rhodesia is now
the world's largest producer. The output of coal from the
Wankie colliery was nearly half a million tons in 1916, and,
in addition, 99,000 tons were converted into coke. Nearh^ 4,000
tons of copper were produced in 1917, diiefly from the Falcon
mine in the Umvuma district. Corundum of gem c|uality, in the
form of ruby, amethyst, and sapphire, is found in the Somabula
gem-bearing gravels, 80 miles north-east of Bulawayo. These
gravels also yield diamond, blue and white topaz, and other
stones. There are pipes of kimberlite near Bembesi in which
diamonds occur. Gold furnishes about 80 per cent, by value of
Rhodesia's mineral output. Graphite, usually imijure, occurs at a
number of places, iron ores are widely distributed, and galena is a
common mineral in the gold-bearing lodes. Limestones are found
in many districts, that at Broken Hill containing lead, zinc, and
vanadium minerals ; magnesite is reported from three or four
localities ; and manganese ore occurs near the Somabula diamond
workings. Molybdenite occurs in the Salisbury, Bulawayo, Mazoe
and other districts. Good-sized masses of muscovite occur in the
Tuli district, while lepidolite abounds near Salisbury. Nickel
occurs in small quantities in various parts of Rhodesia. Triplite, a
fluor-phosphate of manganese and iron, is found in considerable
quantities, associated with bismuth minerals. A platiniferous
deposit has been discovered in the norite dyke in the Gwelo
district. Potassium nitrate is recorded from Belingwe, and
potassium sulphate, in general composition resembling the Stass-
furt potash-magnesia salts, is said to occur in banded ironstone.
Silver occurs in various forms, and tin is found as tinstone, and
in stanniferous pegmatites. Zinc blende is known in a number
of localities, and vanadium is associated with the zinc and lead
ores of Broken Hill. Wolframite is found near Bulawayo, some-
times in masses of 2 cwt. Tantalite occurs in coarse radiating
masses in the Victoria tin field. Talc and steatite are of frequent
occurrence in the great intrusion of ultra-basic rocks.

*16 [4], pp. 456-476 (1918);

EPIC POETRY IN FRENCH LITERATURE.

By Prof. Renicus Dowe Nauta.

{Read July 9, 19 18.)

One Mr. Malezieux, a French mathematician of the early
part of the i8th century, who in his spare hours wrote poetry,
once said, in the course of a conversation on poets and poems, to
the Duchesse du Maine, at whose salon at Sceaux he seems to
have been a sedulous visitor: " Les Frangais n'ont pas la tete
epique."

\\'hen Voltaire had published his Henriade, he wrote a little
later on :

We never yet had any epic in French, and I am not even cocksure
v.'heth^T we have one now. It is true, that my " Henriade '' has been
reprinted several times, but it would smack too much of presumption on
my part, if I considered my poem to be valuable enough to pass to pos-
terity and obliterate the blemish, with which France has been tainted so
long, of not being able to produce an epic.

A little further on he mentioned this same Mr. Malezieux,
whom he app»ears to have consulted with regard to his Henriade.

The late Mr. Malezieux, a man of vast imagination and huge literary
attainments, said to me: " Vous entreprenez un ouvrage qui n'est pas
fait pour notre nation, les Frangais, n'ont pas la tete epique. Ce furent
ses propres paroles et il ajouta: Quand vous ecririez aussi bien que MM.
Racine et Despreaux, ce sera beaucoup si on vous lit."

In the present paper, I shall venture to attempt at showing
the fallacy of Malezieux's statement, endorsed as it stands by
\''oltaire, who apparently has not sufficiently discounted the " vast
imagination " of the poetical medico. The fact that France is
conspicuous by its absence from the traditional list of the eight
great world epics, on which we find Greece with the Iliad and
the Odyssey, Rome with the ALneid, Germany with the Nibelun-
gefi', Portugal with the Lusiad, Italy with Gierusalemme liberata
and the Divlna Commedia, and England with Paradise Lost, will
surely have carried weight with both Voltaire and Malezieux,
as it is bound to do with everyone. It would be utterly wrong,
however, to conclude from the doctor's obiter dictum and Vol-
taire's sweeping statement that nothing or next to nothing of the
epic species has been produced in France. Even if we rest satis-
fied that, down from the Chanson de Roland up to the Legende
des Siecles, no French production could be hall-marked and put
on a par with the transcendant eight mentioned above, it would
be positively incorrect to assert that, in the brilliant galaxy of
French poems, produced between the nth and the 19th
centuries, the epic element is lacking. Three French epics are, as
a rule, accepted as such. La Chanson de Roland, Voltaire's
Henriade, and Victor Hugo's Legende des Siecles. . Of these, the
first two are admitted, even by critics, whose strictly classical
minds make them very exacting with regard to the requirements
of the genuine epics. With kind permission of my learned col-

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 62(3

league, Dr. John Clark, who is one of our authorities on epic poetry,
1 beg to quote a few passages from his History of Epic Poetry*
First, where giving the term epic its most comprehensive meaning,
l;e says : " I define an epic as a tale of dignity about individuals,"
and a little further on :

An epic, as we understand the term, should have a lengthy and
satisfying story. Without length it is impossible to have the long vistas
of action and the variety of character that such a poem requires. And
the story cannot be commonplace, but must satisfy the grand emotions of
the soul. The traditional reputation and the internal necessaries of this
class of poem unite in tying the story down to the description ofl big;
if not momentous, action. We have only to interrogate our memories.
All our recollections of epics are recollections of actions that vitally
concerned a section of humanity; and the names of the great heroes of
epic are synonymous for brave and noble actors.

It is impossible to exhibit the character play of the high personages,
typical of epic, in, a petty action. Such actions enshrine nothing but
commonplace actors in earthly mould and paltry behaviour. A lofty
action lifts actors, it lifts a poet's manner and sustains his spirit at the
high general level of epic. An epic is not likely to be simple,' for
its interlacing of conflicting energies demands a modicum of complexity.

This is a sound definition of what, in main outline, an epic
ought to be. With regard to the Chanson de Roland, which, with
the Henriade, constitutes the chapter on the French epic in his
book. Dr. Clark gives us the following statement. I hope I shall
be able to show that it is much to be regretted that he did not
draw the Legendc des Siecles within the circle of his critical con-
siderations. He says : "The poet of the Chanson created out of his
material a noble argument, and he has treated this argument not
unworthily. He has power, he has fire, he has pathos, he can
enlist the sympathy, fire the feeling, and pierce the hearts of his
readers. France has reason to be proud of her epic. If anyone
has a desire to read something of virginal freshness, to drink for a
season of the integri fontes of the nobly simple and the intensely
human, to such a one I commend the perusal of the Chanson de
Roland." And with regard to the scathing dictum of "Voltaire, he
adds :

Luckily for France, her epic was produced in a far-away pre-Voltairian
time, when this assumed incapacity of the brilliant Gallic genius was not
ret discernible; for the song of Roland has much of the matter, and
store of the spirit of genuine epic.

On the strength of statements like these, we need not hesitate
in admitting that the Chanson de Roland is a good, sound epic
■which, if not worthy of ranking with the greatest, amply deserves
a good second class.

I should here like to say a good deal more about the French
mediaeval epic, about the Chansons de qeste, which have Charle-
magne, about the Romans courtois, which have King Arthur for
their central hero ; in short, about the whole of the outcome of
what Gaston Paris characterises as " la grande fermentation
epique " ; but my allotted space being limited, I will proceed at
once and try to give a brief synoptic view of what more or less

♦Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh (1900).
1)

624 FRENCH EPIC POETRY.

successful attempts in epic poetry have been made in France/
between the Middle Ages and the advent of that unique epic in
French literature that I would confidently put in the scales against
the Iliad, nay, against any of the eight great epics of the
world : Victor Hugo's Leg end e des Siecles.

Joachim du Bellay, in his Defence et Illustration de la Langue
frangaise, a book which is more or less the manifesto of the 16th-
century literary reformers in France, at the head of whom was
Pierre Ronsard, makes an enthusiastic appeal in favour of the
epic to the poets of his age. " You pick me," he says, " one of
those fine old French romances, a Lancelot or a Tristan or any
other, and give to the world a new and admirable Iliad and a well-
wrought Aineid." Ronsard, the brightest star in the Plciade
poetique, and the then recognised rival of Pindarus, Horace, and
Petrarch, took the hint. Ever since the days of his youth, it had
been his ambition to become the Virgil, nay, the Homer, of
France. Here, then, was his opportunity for what was to be his
magnum opusn. In the Illustrations des Gaules et Singularites
de Troie," by Jehan Lemaire de Beiges, he had been captivated by
the history of the Trojan Francus. After no end of hairbreadth
escapes, this fantastical Phrygian prince was said to have landed
in ancient Gaul, where he settled and became king of the land.
This was cut and dried material for a new sequel to the Iliad;
material, moreover, with which he could compose a national epic
without losing touch with classical antiquity. He was enraptured,
and wrote: "Seeing that the French people firmlv believe that-
Francis, Hector's son, followed by a company of picked Trojans,
landed after the Sack of Troy, in the Pahis Moeotides, and
thence pushed on into Hungary, I have boldly stretched the
canvas and made him enter Franconia, to whi'^h he gave his name,
and march into Gaul, where he founded Paris, in honour of
his uncle Paris." In 1572 the first four books of the Franciade were
published, the result of 20 years of strenuous and surely noble
effort on a purely imaginary theme. As a national epic, it was
bound to be a failure, as it contained nothing that was capable of
captivating the masses. A nation will naturally grow enthusiastic
over an Iliad which reminds them of their glorious origins. The
people will applaud, when the Joneleur, to the strains of vielle or
cifoine, declaims a Chanson de Roland with its warlike pageantry
of knights and paladins. But what was this Francus to them ;
and what were they to this Francus? The Franciade fell flat;
it could not have done otherwise. Ronsard was unequal to the
task of composition in the higher genres. His dream of Homeric
fame vanished into smoke. The poet became the victim of his
erudition. He admired the great masters of antiauity, and he
was quite right in doing so. He wanted to follow their example
in everything, without takinp- into account the huge differences
of civilisation and time, and there he was quite wrong. Beside
failing to strike the vein of national interest in his epic, he did
not succeed either in rousing the literary interest even with a

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 625

select public. Even while, borrowing, as he did, the externals .of
the ancient epic, he could have remained original. Milton has
proved the possibility by introducing religious sentiment in "hjs.
Paradise Lost. Tasso did the same thing by instilling the chival-
rous spirit of the Crusades into his Jerusalem Delivered. Kou-
sard, however, did nothing of the kind. He neither invented
something new, nor did he renovate anything that had outgrown
its time. He wrote with the Iliad, the Odyssey, and the Aineid
in front of him, incorporating next to all the episodes of these
poems in his Franciade. It should, moreover, not be forgotten
that Ronsard had badly chosen his time for the publication of a
national epic. It appeared in the days of St. Bartholomew's
Night, the horrible days of the noces vermeilles, the "bloody
wedding." How could the people be expected to show interest
in an epic poem, when they were living in circumstances of such
crushing stress, and one half of the nation exterminating the
other ?

And yet this signal failure of the master could not dis-
courage the disciples. Only they changed the theme. They
realised — what had been overlooked by Ronsard — that where
a fierce war was being waged for the faith and for religious free-
dom, the mythology of the Iliad and the JEneid must needs
appear flat and unendurable. They abandoned Homeric and Vir-
gilian paganism to attempt the religious epic. Being Protestants,
they did this so much the more readily. The chief of these
forerunners of Milton, whose lofty daring spirit we still admire,
was Guillaume de Salluste, Seigneur du Bartas. In his youth
he had indulged his love of writing sonnets after the model of
Petrarch, and odes in the strain of Pindar. As a Calvinist, he
had learned to scorn such frivolous writings ; and, burning with
the desire of composing something grand, he borrowed his
subject-matter from the Holy FJible, and told the tale of the
genesis of the world in an epic, the design of which, in his mind,
approached the colossal.

The first week : La premiere divine semaine appeared in
1578, and its continuation. La seconde semaine, in 1584. The first
semaine takes us on from chaos up to the period of rest after the
creation of man. The second semaine, which Du Bartas evidently
intended to become a kind of Legende dcs Siecles, was to go
from Eden to the final dissolution of our world. Death snatched
him away after the completion of the 15th canto of this stupen-
dous work. The popularity of this epic poem was immense.
Du Bartas was extolled to the skies, and his work was translated
into all the languages of Europe. His Protestant co-religionists
declared him to be far superior to the master-poet Ronsard, and
later on the semaines were sincerely admired and praised by
Milton, Byron, Bilderdyk, and Goethe. In Italy Tasso imitated
him in a poem on the same subject. I am sorry to state that, for
us, it is extremely difficult to share this contemporary and later
enthusiasm. We cannot enjoy his laboured and rhetorical
descriptions, however gladly we acknowledge that many a

(^26 FRENCH EPIC POETRY.

passage of sterling beauty can be found in the midst of this mass
of turgid and copious verse. Besides, there is unmistakable gran-
deur in the author's conception, genuine wholeheartedness in
his attempt, and noble honesty in his endeavour. So much
so that we need have no fear of belittling the poet of Paradise
Lost when, in saying Milton, we devote a flash of pious thought
to Du Bartas as his harbinger.

Alongside of the Divine Semaine, there is only one epic
poem to record in the i6th century. It is that quaint and curious
work, Les Tragiqnes, by Agrippa d'Aubigne, the grandfather of
Frangoise d'Aubigne, whom we know better as the widow of
Paul Scarron, and best as Mme. de Maintenon, the last Queen
of Louis XIV.

For the right understanding and appreciation of the poem,
which is a mixture of Christian mysticism, learned allegory,
satire, and apocalyptic visions, it is necessary to know the
complex personality of the author, who was a fervent disciple of
Ronsard. D'Aubigne was in his youth a specimen of the very
perfect, gentle knight of the Renaissance, a brilliant cavalier, a
talker full of wit, a gay rhymster, and a learned humanist. Later
on he becomes a fanatic of Calvinism careering through the fair
land of France, sword in hand and a Bible in his saddle-bag; an
irritable, surly, brutally intolerant man, stringing his alexandrines
together, as he says himself, in the trenches, on horseback with
jackboots on his legs. He began his poem when he lay griev-
ously wounded after the Battle of Castel-Jaloux in 1577, and
gave it to the light in 1616. As a whole, it presents a picture of
the calamities which afflicted France during the dark period of
the religious wars. In the first three 'cantos, bearing respectively
the significant titles of Miscresl, Princes,^ and La Chamhre^
Doree, D'Aubigne describes the civil wars, the conception of the
Court, and the infamy of the tribunals and jud.ges, ready to sell
Justice to the highest bidder. The last four cantos, Les Feux,
Les Fers, Vengeance, and Jugement, present the martyrs of the
new faith dying on the stake and in dungeons, or butchered
during St. Bartholomew's Night. They show, in spite of these
persecutions, the steady growth of the Reformed Church, and
how the executioners of these martyrs were either struck by
divine vengeance on this earth, or condemned to eternal torture
by the justice of the Lord of Hosts. The poem is in the truly
tpic strain, well planned and logically arranged. It contains, in
the shape of short, terse aphorisms, quite a number of racy and
delicate thoughts. Its style, which on the whole is energetic and
clear, is often impetuous in the author's outbursts of passion.

However, the same defects which clog and deface the Fran-
eiade and the Semaines are here in our way whenever we try to
enjoy this poem ; and we must needs come to the conclusion that,
in spite of their noble efforts, neither Ronsard, nor Du Bartas, nor
D'Aubigne, have succeeded in endowing French literature with
the grand epic, of which the Pleiad e had made such high-sounding
?nd pompous promises.

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 627

When orlancing over French Hterature of the early part of
ihe 17th century, it strikes us to find a period of about 30 years,
reckoning from the appearance of D'Aubigne's Tragiques, which
is an absolute blank as far as epics are concerned. The epic
seems to be dead in France. Could it be that there was no poet
to be found who dared attempt the perilous undertaking of a
new epic? That was quite possible. Besides, these years \ve re
the opening spell of the high day of French classical tragedy,
Corneille was bringing his immortal masterpieces to the stage.
Moreover, by his side, Racan was conquering with his pastorals
a thankful public, whom he had before edified with his psalms,
and Malherbe was publishing his odes. However, tovvards the
middle of the century there came a change. A school of heroic
poets arose. This revival was due partly to the fan,ie and success
of Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, in which he sung' in lofty,
glorious numbers the exploits of the Crusaders, and partly to
the 40,000 verses of Marino's Adone, which made many a poet
dream of a counterpart due to his epic genius. We may take it
for granted that these were the predisposing causes of this
revival. The proximate cause lay elsewhere : it was the extreme
popularity that had been gradually won by the contemporary
novel. Gomberville's Polexandrc, La Calprenede's Clcopaitrc,
Mile, de Scudery's Grand Cyrus and Clelie, were keeping the
select society under their spell by the marvellous adventures,
which they told by their skilfully interwoven history and fiction,
and the noble and lofty sentiment they fostered. If epics in mere
prose were capable of achieving such brilliant successes, what
enthusiasm ought, then, to be roused by genuine epics, the fruit
of the divine afflatus? And so it came about that the poets
resumed the tale of dignity about great individuals in the lan-
guage of the gods.

I need not point out here that it was a most fatal mistake
to consider an epic to be nothing but, say, a Polexandrc or a
Grand Cyrus done into verse. The consequences of this fallacy
were deplorable. Scudery's statement : " Le poeme epique a
beaucoup de rapports, quant a la constitution, avec ces ingenieuses
fables que nous appelons des romans," certainly did much harm
in this respect, many novel writers of the period being in the
liabit of distorting historical truth, depicting mere artificial and
would-be antique surroundings, in which contemporaries mas-
queraded about in toga and pallium. Desmarets and Le Pere
Lemoyne, who each wrote a national epic, the former Cluvis, the
latter Saint Louis, were both guilty of this error. Desmarets,
ventilating an authoritative dictum of Ronsard, exclaimed
proudly: "A poet is not an historian!" and Lemoyne went even
so far as to say : " The more you invent and fabricate outside
history, the more you are a poet !" Nothing of any superior
poetical or literary standing could be produced by such fallacious
methods. Much against their intentions, Scudery and Chapelain
have proved this ; the former with his epic Alaric, the latter with
his Pucelle.

628 ' FRENCH EPIC POETRY.

Ronsard had hoped that his Franciade would brino^ him
homeric immortality. Scudery reckoned on his Alaric to crown
him with a laureate's glory and make him rich to boot. The
opening verse, undoubtedly meant to strike our ear with some-
thing- like an echo — a very faint and feeble echo — of Virgil's
stately introitus : " Arma virnmque cano Troiae qui primus ab
oris," etc., has all the blustering ring in it characteristic of the
poet, who was a captain of the guards, and who, in literature,
played more or less the part of a Matamoro : " le cJiantc le
I'ainqneur des vain'quenrs de la terre!" Boileau has rightly made
game of this pompous introduction. Indeed, never has any
mountain in travail produced a more disappointing, ridiculous
mouse. And yet this Scudery is anything but a worthless poet.
His epic contains incontestably interesting episodes, and (\mtt a
number of sonorous, well-turned passages. But this is no suffi-
cient compensation for its defects, its painful distortion of his-
tory, its mawkish preciosity, its lengthy and tedious descriptions.
Besides, the author made the mistake of trying to immortalise a
foreign hero, in whom there was nothing to flatter in any way
the patriotic feelings of the French people. In this respect.
/Jlaric was a sheer repetition of Francus.

Almost contemporary with Scudery's Alaric, Chapelain gave
to the world his Pitcellc, which had been advertised beforehand
with great fuss. If ever any poet was courted, in his days, to the
same extent as Ronsard and Victor Hugo, for instance, were
courted in theirs, it was Chapelain. The Italian poet Marino
asked him to write a preface to his Adone ; he became one of the
most influential members of the Academic Franqaise, and was
looked upon as the prominent literary authority of his age. The
mainstay of this golden reputation was the pufling announce-
ment of his national epic of the Maid of Orleans, the first 12
books of which appeared after 20 years of hard work. The
Due de Longueville, who was pleased at the idea that his great
ancestor Dunois was going to be extolled in print, had promised
the poet an annuity of 2,oo(3 livres during the time he should be
occupied in writing his poem. Very probably this induced
Chapelain to put into useful practice Horace's precept : Festina
lente. However, in 1656 delay was no longer possible, and the
first part had to be published. Great was the disillusionment
?mong the admirers of this "' king of authors." Even his
staunchest friends were obliged to reserve their judgment;
and the Duchesse de Longueville exclaimed after a first
reading: " Cela est parfaitement beau, mais cela est bien ennuy-
eux!"' The poem is romanesque beyond all measure, and the
author displays a perfectly unwarrantable disregard for historical
truth. Incapable of captivating his readers by a pathetic account
of the great deeds of his heroine, he piles fiction upon fiction,
and, at the same time, greatly overworks the ordinary epic
machinery. France was deeply disappointed after the appear-
ance of the first 12 cantos, and Chapelain, very sensibly, never
published the remainder. However, in spite of serious and

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 629

incontestable drawbacks, and in the teeth of the harsh and
uncompromising criticism of the plucky young satirist Boileau,
we are bound to acknowledge that this much maligned poem
contains passages of intense beauty and cogent power. But to
do justice to the marvellous and heartrending history of the
Lorraine shepherdess, a fertile imagination and a warm heart
are indispensable requirement's. Chapelain must have been
sadly devoid of either. Hence the general frigidity of his epic.
A great defect of the poem is its disregard for externals and its
titter lack of beauty of form. With regard to external beauty,
Chapelain had not the faintest notion about genuine poetry.
How could such a thing be expected from a man who could
muster the sorry courage to write :

Quant aiix vers et un langage, ce sont des instruments de si petite
consideration dans I'epopee, qu'ils ne meritent pas que de si grands juges
s'y arretent. On les abandonne a la fureur de la nation grammairienne.

It Would be difficult indeed to imagine a more superciliously
shallow assertion. This incomplete sketch takes us up to the
i8th century, and to Voltaire's Henriade. In 1715, young
Arouet, then a mere stripling, happened to get into very hot
water. He had riddled certain important personages with his
caustic epigrams, and his father seriously thought of packing
him oil to America. M. de Caumartin intervened on his behalf,
succeeded in saving him from this disgrace, and took him to the
Chateau de Saint-Ange, where the two had the most enthusiastic
discussion about Henri IV and Louis XIV. One year after this,
v/hen the scapegrace had got himself into another scrape, he was
obliged to accept refuge at the hands of the Due de Sully. While
with this nobleman, he was again a witness of warm and frequent
eulogies of Henry of Navarre, and then it was that he conceived
the idea of writing a poem on this monarch. Such was the
origin of the Henriade, which records the struggles between the
Catholics and the Protestants, the efiforts of the party of the Due
de Guise to displace Henry III, the murder of this monarch, and
the progress of Henry of Navarre to the throne. Voltaire (then
still Arouet) began his poem in one of the dungeons of the
Bastille, where, for a couple of months, he had to expiate one
of the more serious of his youthful pranks.

\A'hen at large again, he continued his poem, which he
entitled La Ligifie. Not unlike Chapelain, when his Pucelle was
in statu nascend'i, Voltaire spoke to everybody about this new
poem of his. and advertised it with that propensity to pufif and
hankering after popularity which characterises him throughout
life. The complete edition, entitled La Henriade, was not pub-
lished until 1728. An exile in consequence of his adventure with
the Chevalier de Rohan, Voltaire had then been living for two
years in London, alternately a guest of Lord Bolingbroke, Lord
Peterborough. Lord Chesterfield, and Mr. Falkner, and warmly
befriended by Dr. Johnson, Pope, Swift, Gay, Congreve, and
other men of letters. Here, he had more or less recast his poem,
adding new episodes, and when he had found a sufficient number

630 FRENCH EPIC POETRY.

of subscribers, had it printed. Its success was instantaneous and
immense. Three hundred thousand copies were sold in France,
translations of it appeared in all languages, and the Crown Prince
of Prussia pronounced it worthy of being made into another
codex argenteus, and printed in silver characters. Voltaire soon
believed himself the equal of Virgil. As early as 1725, he confi-
dentially said to Thieriot: " L'epique est mon fait ou je me suis
bien trompe," and to R. P. Poree he wrote :

Je n'ose encore me flatter d'avoir lave le reproche qu'on fait a !a
France de n'avoir jamais pu produire un poeme epique, mais si la
Henriade voar plait, j'atteindrai aux astres: sublimi feriam sidera vortice.

The Henriade is incontestably a most interesting production,
far superior to the Franciade, the Semaines, the Tragiqnes, Alaric,
Clovis, and the Pncelle, in short, to all the post-medireval epics
I have alluded to above, but it is not yet the kind of epic that
stirs the soul of the people, and forces itself upon the whole
nation as a favourite. In the meantime it is a fact that in this
poem Voltaire foreshadowed some of the brilliant qualities he
was soon to display in more scientific work ; and his contempora-
ries must have foreseen in it the great historian he was to become.
The Henriade had a few decidedly weak spots. By selecting so
modern a hero as Henri IV, Voltaire had been obliged to break
the time-honoured rules and theories of the epic. He was a
fervent classicist and, in all his poetry, tied himself down to a
far too scrupulous application of the principles laid down by
Boileau and Le 'Bossu.* I once more take the liberty of quoting
Dr. Clark, who far more aptly than I could ever do it, illustrates
ihe reasons of Voltaire's failure in producing a great national
epic:

Instead of suiting his epic to its surroundings and writing a historico-
heroic poem, which might have approximated to an epic, Voltaire tried
to be epic to his finger-tips. He imported all the epical machinery,
travestied the epic manner, stole epic machines, and produced merely a tour
de force in verse. He did not succeed in the task he imposed on himself,
nor would he have succeeded, had he been less anxious to have the
externals of epic poetry. Apart from the difficulties of the subject he
chose, and the bad instrument he had in the conventional metre of the
Alexandrine, there were other obstacles to success. Voltaire was essen-
tially an unpoetical spirit, and his enthusiasm over his poem was volitional
and not of the temperament. He had some intuition of the heroic in
action, but not of the heroic in sentiment. His subject, moreover, had
more than its share of the drawbacks of historical subjects. Henry's
surroundings were not the surroundings to produce an epic hero; and
we can hardly say, that Henry is brilliantly superior to his surroundings.
These were too unheroic to permit of the growth of a heroism deserving
commemoration in a national epic. Indeed Voltaire was born to write
words like the S\icle dc Louis XIV, not to compose epics like the
Henriade. His Henriade proves, that not even a superlatively clever man
can write an epic poem.

That Voltaire was " essentially an unpractical sj^irit " is
characteristically corroborated by the following critical passage,
which has become famous. It flows from the vitriolic pen of

* ■' Traitt du Poeme Epique par le Pere Bossu" (1675).

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 6^1

Louis Veuillot, the author of Route ci Lorcttc and Parfuyns Je
Rome, and a boisterous defender of ultramontanism. This made
him ex atictoritate naturae, a deadly enemy of Voltaire :

Un hachis de centons, tries de mille ecrits,
Vingt auteurs imites, viiigt auteurs appauvris ;
Aucune invention nullepart; point de style,
Mais le cours clapotant d'une veine futile
Qui, sur tous le terrains jasant du meme ton,
S'ouvre et flue aussitot qu'un touche le piston ;
Bref, des vers de bureau; je crois que c'est tout dire.

The epics which now remain to be considered belong^ to the
19th century, and consequently are in no connection with the
verdict of Malezieux and Voltaire, to which I took exception.
Before proceeding with this final chapter of my paper, I would
like to propose the following conclusion, which I venture to
base on what I stated above. From the very beginning, the
French have been passionately fond of heroic tales about great
exploits and noble, beautiful actions, and if we take that into
account, they ought, de jure, to have their great epic. The
Middle Ages, in spite of their being replete with the loftiest
inspiration, failed to bring it because of the almost absolute lack
and absence of art. Meanwhile the Chanson- de Roland will for
ever be a glorious monument amongst a host of minor epics.
Between the Middle Ages and the period of Romanticism in the
beginning of the 19th century, French poets have repeatedly
endeavoured to produce an Iliad or an Acneid," or a De Nahira
Rerum-. Their intentions were of the noblest, their efforts
unflagging, of the best and most honest, but the forbidding
tyranny of the rules, to which the authors obstinately clung, their
servility in the imitation of the classics and other adverse circum-
stances, proved fatal to the accomplishment of their design. In
the i8th century, Voltaire achieved a creditable success with his
Henriade, which though superior to what had been produced
before, ranks as an epic, most decidedly below the Chanson dii
Roland. Reverting to my argument. I wish to add that the
verdict mentioned above with regard to the epic in France and
the alleged incapacity of the French, has no foundation in truth.*
This closes at the same time the controversial part of my paper.
What now remains tO be said will, I hope anrl trust, corr<;]jorate
and substantiate my conclusion.

One often wonders how it is that the period during which
Napoleon and his .soldiers were dazzling the world with aristeiai,
in comparison with which the perennial glories of Achilles, Ajax,
and Hector, ^naeas, Roland and Olivier wax dim and pale, that
this period of unparalleled military glory, so often alluded to
as I Epopee dh I'Aiglc, should have failed to bring France its
great epic. But could the victorious coiuiueror of .\usterlitz
and Jena become the hero of an epic, so shortly after his death ?
Evidently not ; for Edgar Ouinet made an essay in epic with

* Let us remember that in the Middle Ages France supplied epic poetry
to the whole of Europe

632 FRENCH EPIC POETRY,

his Napoleon; Auguste Barthelemy and Joseph Mery did the
same with their Napoleon en Egypte and Le Fils de l' Homme,
the latter occasioned by a visit to the Emperor's son, the Duke
of Reichstadt, and in spite of their merits these poems failed to
captivate the mind of the nation. They even passed into oblivion
long ago. However, the time when the dream of an entire nation
would be realised was drawing near. But first the shackles by
which the minds had been hampered for over 300 years had to
be shaken off ; the useless and cumbersome accessories, the hack-
neyed machines of the times of the Franciade had to be thrown
on the scrapheap and the main interest of poetry had to be vested
in the history of mankind and in the picture of purely himnan
passions. After the consummation of all this, and only then,
:it came to be proved, without the help of descents into Hades,
without phenomenal shipwrecks and conventional miracles,
without lengthy descriptions of bucklers and swords, that the
French had epic genius and were capable of writing an epic.

The literary revolution known as " Romanticism," which
either renovated or overthrew all literary genre, was bound to
lenovate the epic as well. Its influence on epic poetry, however,
makes itself felt at a comparatively late stage. The first note-
worthy epic we come across in the loth century is Les Martyrs,
Oil Triomphe de la Religion Chrctienne, by Chateaubriand
1809). It can hardly be said to represent the romantic school;
it is rather a work of transition ; for although Chateaubriand
may in some respects be called the father of romanticism, he
had lived in too frequent contact with men like Parny, the French
Tibullus, and Fontanes, the dispenser of Napoleon's literary
favours, not to have some very classical facets left in his mind.
The poem is important as an attempt to carry into effect the
literary principles which the author had laid down in his previous
^vork, Le genie dii Christ ianisme, a counterblast to the Encyclope-
distes, and a panegyric of the moral and poetic beauties of
Christianity. But in Chateaubriand's religion there is little of
profundity. He proves that Christianity is beautiful, but he is
not concerned, like Pascal, to prove that it is essential, or like
Bossuet, that it is real. He rejects ancient mythology as a degra-
dation of nature ; he admires the poetry of Homer and Virgil,
but maintains that it is inferior to the poetry of the Bible ; in his
opinion the stoic virtue of the Cornehan heroes pales before
the humility of Christian martyrs. The marvellous is, as we
know, an integral part of the pagan epic. Chateaubriand
holds that the mysteries of the Christian religion can more than
supply the place of heathen mythology. The influence of Milton
i- strongly marked. As an epic Les Martyrs is a failure. It is
the last poem we possess that is composed in accordance with
thie old sacred and conventional formulje. All the old machinery
is brought into play: tempests, battles, single fights between
heroes, who insult each other before dealing the final blow, roll-
calls of troops, love episodes, descriptions of Stygian regions,

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 633

retrospective accounts of travels, everything exactly as we can
find it in the ancient epics. In his Lettre a I'Acadcmie, Fenelon
had been the first to emphasise the wish that poets should devote
greater interest to the manners and customs of the nations they
are dealing with, as well as to what he calls " le costume;" and by
which he means local colour. It has been Chateaubriand's privi-
lege to fulfil that wish, which had remained a pitim votum for
so long a time, and in doing so, to render a signal service to
French literature, by presenting it with his Martyrs, which is,
in the first place, a true and gloriously coloured picture of the
reign of Diocletian. Its almost perfect truthfulness is one of
the main reasons why the literary world will never get tired of
studying this admirable production, in which' ' the most exact
erudition is found side by side with the most refined and gor-
geous poetry.

We have observed that the romanticists' were comparatively
slow in giving their attention to the epic. In the beginning, they
were mainly interested in lyrical poetry, in the novel, and the
drama. This partiality was quite natural because these genres,
by virtue of their greater popularity, especially the drama, were
more suitable to the furtherance of their aims and the spreading
of their doctrines.

In 183 1, however, Alphonse de Lamartine, whose Medita-
tions and Harmonics had already crowned him with fame, hap-
pened to be travelling from Naples to Rome. In the course of
jiis peregrinations in these classical regions, he conceived the
idea of a huge epic poem that was to embrace nothing less than
ihe history of mankind. The scheme before his mind's eye was
about as follows: In the final stage of time, an angel, who,
through his own fault, had formerly been doomed to become
human, was to relate what he had seen and witnessed on earth
during his successive incarnations. As each of these successive
existences of the angel coincided with a famous epoch in the
historv of mankind, there was to be evolved a string of poems
on the Creation, the Fall, the Deluge, the Patriarchs. Pythagoras
or Socrates, the Redemption, the Hermits of the Thebais, the
Aee of Chivalry, the Revolution, the Antichrist, and the Last
Judgment. Each of these fDoems was to be a unit in one great
ap^g-rep"ate, comprehensively entitled Les Visions. It appeared,
however, to be quite impracticable to carry a plan like this into
execution, and finally Lamartine gave it up. What it has come to
are two maenificcnt. fullv-linished parts : La Chute d'lin Ange
(11,000 verses), and Joeelyn. alono- with some disjecta membra,
nmong which Lc Chant des Chez'aliers is remarkable. La Chute
d'un Angc was published in 1S38. It was to have been the
second in the series of 12 Visions. Renunciation is its theme. It
is a specimen of the '' Seraphic School," as opposed to the
" Satanic School" of the Byronians. As a biblical epic it has
fine passages, but it is too unequal, too crude in some i)laces, to
bpar close scrutiny, and its story of an angel, who becomes a
human being through love of a mortal ' woman, appreciably

634 FRENCH EPIC POETRY,

weakens its power. However, its exquisite beauties amply out-
balance its defects.

Jocelyn, far superior to the Chute d'un Ange, was an
idealisation of an experience of the Abbe Dumont, a tutor of
Lamartine's youth. It was published in 1836, two years before
the Chute d'un Ange. In Jocelyn Lamartine has given us an epic
tale, which is alternatively familiar and sublime in its features,
in which he sings the bliss of country-life, the impressive scenery
of the Alps, and the sanctifying power of sacrifice and renuncia-
tion. It tells the history of " a human sensitive plant, crushed
in the heyday of its bloom, and exhaling its innermost fragrance
imder the heel of unspeakable grief." In Jocelyn, we have the
peasant's son, who gives up his inheritance to provide his sister's
dowry. He goes to the seminary and devotes himself entirely
to his theological studies. The Revolution drives him away, and
he finds a refuge up on the slopes of the Alps of Dauphine, in
a cavern, known as " La Grotte des Aigles." There he hospit-
ably receives a forlorn youngster, whose father had just died on
the slopes of the mountain. Fifteen months after he discovers
that his guest is a woman, and that her real name is Laurence.
They fall in love with each other. It is the idyll of Paul and
rirglnie and the pathetic story of Edzuin and Angelina over
again in the solitudes of an Alpine forest. An unforeseen catas-
trophe smashes their happiness. The Bishop of Grenoble sum-
mons Jocelyn, has him ordained, and a gulf is opened between
the two lovers, who are separated for ever. Seven years later.
Jocelyn is called to the bedside of a young woman, who is*
dying, and who turns out to be Laurence. He feels blessed tu
give her the extreme tmction and absolution, buries her on the
top of the Montagne des Aigles, and, in less than a year's time
is united with her in death. It is a marvellously beautiful idyll,
the pages of which are impregnated with what Pierre Lasserre
appropriately calls '' la grande ingenuite homerique," and which
has flown from the same poetic vein, from which the last jets
were poured out in Frederic Mistral's Mireilho, the vein that
had its origin in the Odyssey.

V/ith regard to Jocelyn, I should like to repeat w^hat Dr,
Clark says with respect to the Chanson de Roland: "If anyone
has a desire to read something of virginal freshness, to drink
for a season of the intcgri fontes of the nobly simple and the
intenselv human, to such a one I commend the perusal of Lamar-
t'Ue's Jocelyn."

I have now reached the final chapter of my paper, one epic
being left to comment upon. It is Victor Hugo's Legende des
Siecles, which, appearing in the second half of the 19th century,
darkened the lustre of all those that had appeared before. Its
first parts were pubHshed in 1859, but, as these left great gaps
in the groundplan of the w^ork, it was continued in 1877 and
1883, and finally comnleted bv the posthumous publication of
two chapters, entitled Dien and La Fin de Satan. Such as we
have it now, it is undoubtedly the most stupendous and colossal

FRENCH EPIC POETKY. 635

work that any poet ever undertook to compose. Victor Hugo
describes as follows the conception of his scheme : —

Exprimer rinimanite dans une espece d'oeuvre cyclique; la peindtc
successivement et simultanement sous tous ses aspects: histoire, fable,
philosophic, religion, science, lesqiiels se resument en un seul et immense
mouvement d'ascension vers la lumiere; faire apparaitre dans une sorte de
miroir sombre et clair, cette grande figure une et multiple, lugubre et
rayonnante, faible et sacree : l' Homme.

This conception is expressed in the opening poem, entitled,
La vision d'ou est sorti ce litre. The Legende is the huge epic
of humanity since the Creation, the tale of the long struggle
upwards to the Light, bound up with a number of episodic
poems, which figure forth its successive stages: a set of deli-
cately cut cameos strung upon a thread. There is little or no
history in it in the ordinary sense of the word ; but a good deal
of legend, some fiction and mythology. Hugo says himself :
■' C'est I'aspect legendaire qui prevaut dans ces deux volumes."
The poems are cast in divers forms : allegory, narrative, vision,
didactic poetry, lyric poetry, all of them find a place. Biblical
antiquity is represented by La Sa^re de la Fcmme, Les Lions.
and Boo:: endormi. Greek and Roman antiquity, though some-
what scantily treated, present some pages of exquisite beauty in
Le Titan and in Les Trois Cents, which is a splendid fragment
on Xerxes. The Christian and Mohammedan Middle Ages are
given a fair share of attention ; the manly virtues of Rodrigue
Bivar are spoken of with great complacency in the Romancero
du Cid; the Chansons de geste have been laid under contribution
for the fine tales of Aymerillot and the Manage de Roland; in
Bznmdnus and Le petit Roi de Galice we find highly attractive
I)ortraits of knights-errant coming to the rescue of a too trustful
princess and an unfortunate kinglet who had fallen into a terrible
ambu.sh. The Quatre jours d'Elciis, IVelf and Ratbert relate the
gruesome atrocities perpetrated on the eve of the Renaissance.
Then we see the dawn of the i6th century break over Europe,
and in Le Satyre, Hugo personifies the revolt of the human mind
against antiquated prejudices. It must be acknowledged that
the modern times are rather summarily handled; but it is incor-
rect to say that the poet seems to have entirely forgotten to give
contemporary society its share ; and in Pleine Mer and Plein
del he makes a very fine attempt at foretelling the future.
Hugo's views of the problem of evil and the destiny of humanity
become a good deal clearer w-hen the Legende is read in imme-
diate connection with the two posthumous parts, Dien and La
Fin de Satan, which, according to the preface, are designed to
form one huge trilogy with the main part. These two parts
were both planned in the days of the poet's exile, when, isolated
on a rocky island and severed from active life, he had frequent
occasions to meditate on the profound questions of life and
death. The leading thought of the philosophical part, Dieu,
is the fallacy of all positive systems of religion which have
inspired or burdened humanity. In a very striking way, the bat

636 FRENCH EPIC POETRY.

■■■,'■:.■■'■•■•■■■ ' f

is made to expound atheism, the owl scepticism, the raven
manicheism, the vulture paganism, the griffin Christianism, and
the angel rationalism, while the poet himsqlf proclaims the.
eternal truth : " God has but one face, and that face is Light ; and
one name only, which is Love," but only death will fully and
finally reveal that light. The theme of La Fin de Satan is the
ultimate reconciliation of good and evil.

The work as a whole might be appropriately called a reve-
lation of the maker. It appears that the choice of Hugo's
themes was to a large extent dictated by his own personal predi-
lections. Eviradniis, Ratbert, Lc Mariagc de Roland show us
his love of the picturesque, the heroic, the enormous, the bar-
barous, and the grotesque. Paiivrcs Gens, B002 endormi, Petit
Paul testify to his sympathy with the poor, the defenceless, and
the weak, to his affection for old people and for infants, so
profusely set forth in his poetical productions, as well as in his
prose works. It is with some reluctance that I terminate this
highly inadequate outline of a work, in which substance and
beauty, original thought and vivid expressions are found in such
perfect and harmonious combination. I hope, however, that I
may have succeeded in showing that the Legende constitutes the
most stupendous ensemble that ever poetical imagination has
visualised. In the grand conception of his P^'isions, Lamartin^
must have had a fleeting glimpse of what passed here through
Hugo's mind ; but he succeeded in crystallising only his Chute
d'lm Ange and Jocelyn. Hugo, with his superior, puissant
imagination, has been capable of objectivating the whole of his
vision, and of shaping it into the reality of a work which will
hold its place among the best that the 19th century produced in
poetry. And what about Hugo's philosophy as displayed in the
Legende? He speaks of Progress, of Justice, of the Angel
Liberty, and the giant Light. And how does he put all these
before us? By declaiming against gods, kings, and priests; by
arousing our sympathies oji behalf of the victims like IV elf,
Mehaud, and Little Tsora; by extolling siiblime and generous
heroes like Eviradniis and Roland, who protect the helpless and
the weak, and who chastise the guilty ; by making crime always
meet with its due retribution. Critics may call these methods
and procedures melodramatic expedients, but these procedures
strike infallibly home in the minds of the public. At the call of
the poet's voice the vanished generations rise from the grave and
return to life, with all their characteristic features ; society as
it was under the Patriarchs, Jud?ea of the time of Christ,
mediaeval Italy, Spain during the brilliant era of Cid. The
personages are before us in distinct outlines, brushed
with thoroughness and accuracy : Nemrod, Charlemagne, Philip
II of Spain. Then there is the occasional soaring away from
the real world, the revelation of the mythical and apocalyptic
side of things, the marvellous, as far as it is compatible with the
enlightenment of the 19th century. And owing to the numerous-

FRENCH EPIC POETRY. 637

Striking and truthful details, all this is brightly coloured and
sharply outlined; all this is full, of life, because the form in
which it is presented to us is so exquisitely beautiful. Alternately
familiar and humorous, or giving free scope to his lyrism and
eloquence, he seldom fails to rise to the diapason required by
the tale on which he is occupied. His lines of various lengths,
but so pregnant, so numerous and rich in melody, invariably
fit the ideas he wants to express. But the poet's great originality
in this huge production is shown by his discovery that our
modern world does not feel interested any longer in shipwrecks
and pitched battles, in roll-calls of armies, and descents into
Avernus, but in ideas ; and, further, by making it clearly under-
stood that the hero of an epic should not be a man, even if he be^
an Achilles, or an ^neas, a Godfrey of Bouillon, or a Roland,
but mankind itself.

By the universal interest roused by the contents, by the
supremely artistic disposal of rhythm and harmonious sonority,
by the force of high-wrought and thrilling images, by majestic
breadth of movement and winged periods, the author of the
Legende des Siecles has succeeded in achieving an imperishable
masterpiece, which entitles him to rank with the greatest of epic
poets. He has presented French literature with the only French
epic that can be placed side by side with any of the traditional
eight epics of the world. And if in time to come there is to be
such a thing as a revised list of world epics, we may rest assured
that Victor Hugo, with his Legende des Siecles, will appear on
that list as a representative for France not less noble and not less
glorious than John Milton for England.

University of Capetown.

SUGGESTION FOR THE EDUCATION OF PUBLIC
OPINION ON NATIVE AFFAIRS.

By Maurice Smethurst Evans^ C.M.G., F.Z.S.

{Not printed?)

SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF NATIVES ON THE RAND.

By Rev. Walter Francis Hill^ M.A.

{Not printed.)

PLACE NAMES OF AFRICA, No. 11.

By Rev. William Alfred Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

{Not printed.)

NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A PECULIAR
PHOSPHATE OF ALUMINIUM IN A DEPOSIT OF
BAT GUANO.

By Bernard DFi Coligny Marchand. B.A., D.Sc.

{Read July lo, 1918.)

In July, iyi6. a series of samples of bat guano, from a cave
n^ar Ermelo, were sent for analysis to the laboratory of the
Division of Chemistry. Two of the samples consisted of soft
white material found as nodules in the deposit. These samples
were found to contain large quantities of phosphoric oxide in the
form of aluminium phosphates.

From the centre of one of the nodules a piece of pure white
material was selected and analysed separately. The selected'
j)ortion was found to contain :

Per cent.

AlPO^ 46.00

(containing 26.78 per cent. P..O5)

P2O,, : ... 53.58

HoO 27.16

corresponding to the formula Al.,Os.2P.XJ.. .SH/), which may
he considered to be an acid aluminium phosphate. The substance
was soluble in mineral acids, insoluble in citric acid and in
ammonium citrate, but half the phosphoric oxide could be dis-
solved out in ammonia solution.

The mineral is white, and in some cases slightly yellowish,
very soft, rather softer than chalk, and no crystalline structure
was noticeable under the microscope.

Another specimen, which was slightly yellow, and contained
?. distinct trace of iron, was found to contain :

Per cent.

AlPO, 37-68

PoO, 55 -60

H26 28.48

The only reference I have been able to find in the literature
ht my disposal to an acid phosphate of alumina corresponding to
the formula deduced from the first analysis above, is in Comey's
" Dictionary of Chemical Solubilities," where the author quotes
Millot, Bulletin des Seances de la Societe ckimique, 22, 244,
(1874), which paper I have not had the opportunity of consult-
ing. The natural occurrence of this phosphate has apparently

ALUMINIUM PHOSPHATE IN BAT GUANO. 639

not previously been noted, as I was unable to find any reference
thereto in Dana's *' System of Mineralogy." It seems that this is
ii new mineral.

Chemical Laboratory,

Division of Chemistry,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

MORE SESUTO ETYMOLOGIES.

By Rev. William Alfred Norton, B.A., B.Litt.

(Not printed.)

RECONSTITUTION OE THE UNION SENATE.

By Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes, E.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

(Not printed.)

DECIMAL COINAGE.

Bv Prof. William Allison Macfadyen, M.A., LL.D.

(Not printed.)

VICARIOUS PARENTHOOD: A WAR SUGGESTION.

By Mrs. F. McLaren.

(Not printed.)

WAR AND THE VALUE OF MONEY.

By Prof. Robert Leslie, M.A., F.S.S.

{Printed in ilic Jounial of the Institute of Bankers in South
Africa. 15 [6], 177. Sept., 1918).

SOME EXPERIMENTS ON THE FATE OF ARSENIC
IN THE ANIMAL BODY.

By Henry Hamilton Green, D.Sc, and Cornelis
Derksen Dijkman, M.A.*

{Abbreviated Preliminary Paper.)

{Read, July ii, 1918.)

The data recorded in this paper represent the results of a
number of experiments carried out to extend our knowledge of
the fate of arsenic in the animal body. Apart from the purely
scientific interest of such data, they have a practical value in
such a country as South Africa, where arsenical preparations are
so commonly used for dipping purposes and for the treatment
of stock.f

The experimental work was for the most part carried out
on animals discharged from other experiments, and not sufficiently
valuable to put on to the market again.

Methods of Analysis.

Arsenic determinations were carried out by the microtitration
method elsewhere described by one of us, J a process which
allows of fairly accurate handling of the quantities of arsenic
dealt with in general physiological work.

Absorption of Arsenic through the Skin of Dipped

Stock.

In general the healthy skin absorbs small amounts of salts
offered to it in solution, and in the dipping O'f stock in arsenical
baths a small amount of arsenic finds its way into the blood-
stream, and is subsequently eliminated, chiefly in the urine. The
absorption from abraded or injured surfaces is much greater.

The only previous work, of which we are aware, dealing
with elimination of arsenic in the urine after dipping or spraying,

* Honorary Research Worker, University Long Vacation, 1917-1918.

t Compare: "The Fate of Ingested and Injected Arsenic in Sheep,
with Special Reference to Treatment of Hcemonchosis." H. H. Green.
Fifth Annual Report of the Director of Veterinary Research, Department
of Agriculture, Union South Africa.

It may be noted that in the year 1917-1918 over seven million doses of
" Wire-worm Remedy" were issued by the Division, and that it is esti-
mated that the demand for 1918-1919 will rise to ten million doses.

t H. H. Green: "The Micro-Titration of Arsenic." Fifth Annual
Report of the Director of Veterinary Research, Department of Agriculture,
Union of South Africa.

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY.

641

i; that of Lieut. -Col. H. Watkins-Pitchford,* whose data may
be quoted here — Table i, representing his Schedule " F," p. 61.

Table i.

Pitchford's Schrdulk " F." To show the Elimination of Arsenic i5Y

THE KiDVEYS AT VARIOUS PERIODS AFTER DIPPING.

Number of
Beast.

Percentage of

Arsenic

in T^rine at Intervals since Spraj'ing.

3hrs.

6hrs.

lOhrs.

24 hrs.

32 hrs.

48hrs

56 hrs.
•019

72 hrs.

20

•015

•021

•028

•024

•032

•027

•045

19

•06

•083

•0 9

•044

.022

•036

■043

•039

31

—

•053

•097

•057

•036

•023

•Oil

12

—

•077

•095

•027

■024

■004

•015

•024

On general physiological grounds these numbers appeared to
us as inordinately high, especially a figure such as .097 per cent.,
which should rather indicate an acute arsenical intoxication. If
we take the average elimination of this beast No. 31 for the first
day as .069 per cent. AsjOg, and assume that so little as 3 litres
of urine was passed in the 24 hours, we should have over 2 gm.
eliminated ; a quantity which, when passed straight into the
blood-stream in soluble form, may easily prove fatal. If we
consider that the daily output of urine is more likely to have been
three times as high as that taken for his calculation, and observe
the continued elimination on succeeding days, the animal is sug-
gested as absorbing several times the toxic dose every time it
is dipped.

Two regularly-dipped oxen were therefore put up for collec-
tion of urine, one whidh had been dipped at three-day intervals
for two months, and the other at five-day intervals for four
months. At the time it was not feasible to collect the total urine
eliminated with any degree of accuracy, and the figures may
therefore be given as analyses of samples in the form adopted
by Pitchford. Table 2; periods approximate:

*Pitchford: Pamplilet on "Tick Destruction by Dipping," reprinted
by P. Davis & Son. Natal.

642 the fate of arsenic in the rody.

Table 2.

V .S.B ■

o

tx,

c
"c.

P3

>

r:-C

Sen

« c

C V

C z.

-1"

1)

C

'S.

u

u
E

00

o
o
o

.9 ^

■— ^ ^

:i - Cm

(J i:« —

« -1" =

a. ~

o
6

o

in

CO

>o

0
0

0

0

0

.

■<»•

t-

0

-a

Q

0

•?

0

A

in

>o

«■- 0

g

g

x:

•

'yi

■>#

•*

QC ■=

0

-* ?;

0

^^

^ 0

0

Q

jr

'

-JO

«

"C

^ 3

cc 2

0
0

0

0

0

sz

•

m

CD

X

^ 5

0

0

0

0

0

x:

'

!«

U5

CT>

2 =

0

(^

0

'-' 0

Q

0

j:

tn

rjt

tM

•-r ^

2

0

0

0

0

x:

'

X

to

t-l

1^

(3

1—1

CO 3

g

8

x:

*

00

o

'5. 'C

D. W

CO

•a

I

It will be noted that Pitchford's figures (Table i) are from
40 times to well over 100 times as high as ours. Thus for the
urines passed ten hours, after dipping, his figures range from
.028 per cent, to .097 per cent. As^Oa. and ours from .0005 to
.0009 per cent. The discrepancy requires elucidation. We hope
to return to this at a later date and offer more detailed figures

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY.

643

in which the output can be accurately expressed on the total
quantity of urine passed, rather than upon unknown fractions
of the daily elimination.

It may be mentioned, however, that the quantities of urine
passed were abnormally low, usually being below 6 litres, and
that the ox showing the smaller percentages of AsoO.^ generally
passed a larger total quantity of urine per day. The estimate
of daily output of from 15 to 40 and from 20 to 50 milligrams
AS2O3, offered in the last column of Table 2, is only approxi-
mate, and derived by calculation from elimination over a few
timed short periods between successive micturitions. Such aa
estimate, however, serves to illustrate how small the elimination
actually is — ranging around one-tenth of a milligram per hour.

The urine of a horse dipped at regular weekly intervals in
arsenite of soda equivalent to .16 per cent. AsO (laboratory
strength) was also subjected to examination, approximate collec-
tion of total urinary output being secured. The results are given
in Table 3.

Table 3.

1st Dipping,
Dec. 15th, 1917

3rd Dipping,
Dec. 29th, 1917

5tii Di
Jan. 12

PPi"j4.
h, 19 18

20th Dipping,
April 2Sth, igiS

Days after

Immersion.

0/

lO

As,,0^

Total
As,,0.,

%
As„0.,

Total
As,0,

.AsJOs

Grams
•00021

Total
As.,0,

AS,0;,

Total
As,(X,

First

Grams
00032

Grams

002

Grams
•C0021

Grams
■013

Grams

•01-2

Grams

•00020

Grains
•02^J

Second ...

■00')25

•018

■00018

•Oil

•CO023

015

•00032

•01 'J

Third

0001 S

•015

•00015

•009

00018

012

■0CO34

•029

P'i)urth

OOOIG

•009

•00019

•108

•00021

•on

■00027

023

Filth

—

—

—

—

—

—

00023

015

Sixth

—

—

-^

—

—

—

•OOO22

•012

Seventh

■OO0C9

004

—

—

■03012

•007

•00024

009

It will be observed that the amount of arsenic eliminated
is always very small, ranging irom about one-tenth to one-third
of a milligram per 100 c.c, or only up to a maximum of 2t, milli-
grams in 24 hours. It is noticeable that the amount of arsenic
eliminated per day a week after dipping is less than that elimin-
ated during the first few days, but the falling-off is not as great
as might be expected. This might be interpreted in two ways-
fa) that when such small amounts reach the blood-stream
elimination is protracted by temporary fixation in the tissues^

644

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY,

or (b) that arsenite which has ostensibly dried upon the scurf
and hair continues to be absorbed in minute amount by the skin.
Further work would be required to elucidate this point.

It may also be added that arsenic can be detected in the
faeces of dipped cattle.

Arsenic Retained in the Skin and Hair of Dipped

Animals.

In the report already quoted (/. c, 3), data are also given
for the amount of arsenic fixed in the hides of dipped animals.
On general physiological grounds these figures also appeared to
us as much too high, and since what we regard as unjustifiable
conclusions have been drawn from them by Cooper & Laws* in
an article on the " Theor}^ and Practice of Dipping," three
analyses of our own may be oft'ered for comparison. Table 4:

Pitchford's Analyses.

Our

Own Analyses.

Period

elapsing

since

last

Dipping.

Grams

AS2O3 per

Square Foot.

Frequency

..f
Dipping.

Period
elapsing

since

la-t

Dipping

Grams
AS.2O3 per Square Foot.

Frequency
of

Hairand

Scur

Total.

■C041

■0035
■0033

Hide.

Dipping.

Hair

and

Scurf.

Hide.

Epider-
mis.

Connect-
ive Tis-ue

Every 5 days
tor several
months, last
sprayings
every third
day.

Every 5 days

for several

months.

Regularly

for several

months.

1

5
10

■527

352
-260

•224

251

■137

Kverv5days
for3montlis.

1

6

U

•085

051
•030

■0026

■0020
•0019

•001£
•0015

•oou

The differences between the earlier figures and our own data
are very striking. For the shaved hide, or skin proper, the
former are from 40 to 70 times as high as the latter — from 137
to 251 milligrams per square foot as against about 4 milligrams.
The only difference between the treatment of the animals was
that our cattle were dipped in plain aqueous arsenite of soda

* W. F. Cooper and H. E. Laws : " Some Observations on the Theory
and Practice of Dipping." Parasitology, 8, [2] (1915).

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY. 645

(.16 per cent. AS2O3), whereas in Pitchford's dip soft soap
and paraffin were also present.

Further consideration of the significance of these data, in
regard to the theory of tick destruction by arsenical dips, is post-
poned until further data are obtained. Meanwhile we are satis-
fied that the earlier figures for the amount of arsenic fixed in
the skin of dipped animals are vastly too high. Worked out for
the total superficies of the beast, the amount of arsenic fixed
in the shaved hide, or skin proper, would be about 7 to 12 grams
from Pitchford's data, but only o. 16 to 0.2 grams from our own
data. It is noteworthy that the small amount of fixed arsenic
recorded by us is much the same ten days after dipping as it is
one day after.

The differences recorded for the hair and scurf are less
worthy of comment since the arsenic concerned is mainly arsenite,
which has dried on, and the presence of soap in Pitchford's dip
might account for the higher figures for merely adherent arsenic.

For the sake of getting an approximate idea of the amount
of arsenic adhering to the hair and scurf, the carcase of another
regularly dipped ox was examined. One square foot was marked
ofl (Ihind quarter), clipped, then shaved, and then cut out.

The clipped hair was soaked in water ifor half an hour,
filtered, and washed. The filtrate showed .052 gm. AsgOg, and
the rinsed hair showed .028 gm — per square foot. The residue
of short hair and scurf removed by shaving (with soap) showed
.011 gm. AsgO, per square foot more or less "fixed," and .035
gm. readily removed by washing with water.

The greater proportion of the arsenic in the hair and scurf
(total .126 gm. per square foot) is therefore not fixed," but
merely adherent. The shaved hide, or skin proper, showed only
.006 gm. AS2O3 per square foot, of which .0033 was present in
the epidermis, and .0027 gm. in the underlying connective tissue.

Elimination of Arsenic after Oral Dosing and after
Intravenous Injection.

Oral Dosing : Two experiments were carried out — one on
a sheep* and one on a horse — in which known doses of sodium
arsenite were administered, and the daily elimination in faeces
and urine then followed for eight days. Table 5 shows the
results :

*For extensive data on the sheep, loc. cit. i.

646

the fate of arsenic in the body.
Table 5.

Time

after

Dosing.

First day
Second ,,
Third ,,
Fourth ,,
Fifth

Sixth ,,
Seventh ,,
Eighth ,,

Total in 8 days

Sheep : Weight 40 Kilos.

Dosed with sodium arsenite

equivalent to 02 gm. AsjO^,

in rice-dough ball.

Horse : Weight 390 Kilos.

Total AS2O3 in

Urine.

Gram.
•023

•071

•038

•013

•0061

•0034

•0025

•COlO

) -158
( == 79%

Faeces.

Gram,
trace

■0059

•OIU

•0035

•0029

•0021

•0015

•0009

•028

- 14%

Dosed with sodium arsenite

equivalent to 2.0 gm. As.^0.,

in rice-dough ball.

Total AsjOy in

Urine.

Gram.
•026

•124

•135

•008

•035

■021

•Oil

•C05

•445
= 23%

Fteces.

Gram.
■008

•061

•981

slight
diarrhoea

•085

048

•003

1186
= 59%

Together

93% of the dose

82% of the dose

It will be noted that for the sheep the elimination of arsenic
in the urine rises for the first 48 hours, then diminishes until at
the end of eight days it is down to i milligram for the whole
24 hours' output. By this time 93 per cent, of the dose has been
excreted, of which 79 per cent, appears in the urine and 14 per
cent, in the faeces. With the horse on the other hand, the greater
part of the dose has been eliminated in the faeces ; 23 per cent, in
the urine and 59 per cent, in the faeces, together accounting for
82 per cent, of the dose. Whether the remaining 18 per cent,
unaccounted for is still present in the body, or is largely attribut-
able to experimental error, cannot be stated. The margin of error
in such " balance experiments " is often considerable.

The behaviour of the horse is interesting and rather un-
expected. The data for the sheep are undoubtedly representa-
tive since they are amply confirmed by similar results, published
b}'' one of us in another connection (/. c, i). A priori, one would
have expected the major proportion of soluble arsenite adminis-
tered to the horse to have been also eliminated in the urine, and

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY. 647

it remains to be seen whether the behaviour recorded in this case
is general or idiosyncratic. Provisionally we are inclined to con-
sider it abnormal, although it is possible that the intestinal mucosa
of the horse is more sensitive to arsenic than in the case of the
sheep, and that by stimulation of peristaltic movement the
arsenical contents of the first intestine are swept on into the
second, and opportunity for absorption thereby reduced. The
dose given (2 gm. may, in some cases, prove fatal) was some-,
what high for the horse, which in general appears to be more
susceptible to soluble arsenite than the sheep when dosage is
calculated per kilo body-weight. Probaljly the elimination of
smaller doses would follow more closely the channel shown for
the sheep. It may be mentioned, however, that a second experi-
ment was carried out upon a horse, using i gm. AsoOo as arsenite,
and that although the protocols are not sufficiently reliable for
detailed record (owing to breakage of the collecting- apparatus)
they point in the same direction and suggest a less perfect intes-
tinal absorption of soluble arsenic in the horse than in the sheep.
Whatever be the explanation in the individual cases recorded
here, the matter is worthy of further investigation. It should
be added, of course, that the rate of passage of arsenic into the
intestine is ])robably greater in the horse.' which has only one
stomach-compartment, than in the case of ruminants, such as
the sheep, with a four-compartment stomach system.

Intravenous administration: Four experiments were carried
out — one tO' determine the rate of elimination of injected arsenic
in the horse and compare' it with the corresponding data pre-
viously obtained for the sheep (/. c, i, Table 9) ; and three to
determine and compare the distribution of injected arsenic over
the tissues.

In the experiment designed to determine rate of elimination
after injection^ only 0.3 gm. AS0O3 as arsenite was administered,
but in spite of this the horse suffered irom shock, lay down and
damaged tli^ collecting apparatus, so that collection of urine was
not quantitative for the first 48 hours. The protocols of this ex-
]:)eriment must therefore be left over for confirmation. Of the
three experiments showing the distribution over the tissues after
intravenous injection of arsenic, one was carried out on a cow.
one on a sheep, and one on a horse. The data for all three
cases are given in Table 6, in which the arsenic is expressed lin
milligrams per 100 grams of tissue, i.e., parts per hundred
thousand, and in milligrams total in the whole organ concerned.
The totals for blood and muscular tissue, given in brackets, are
approximately assessed on the assumption that the blood con-
stitutes about i/i2th of the body-weight and the total muscu-
lar tissues about half (lean animals). This serves to give a rough
notion of the absolute distrilnition over the bodv.

648

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY.

Table 6.

Showing Distribution
of Arsenic in the Tissues
after Intraju^ular Injec-
tion of Sodium Arsenite.

Cow.
Weight 560 Kilos.
Injected with
arsenite equiva-
lent to 1 gin.
AS2O3. Did not
die, but was shot
8 hours later.

Sheep.
Weight 32 Kilos.
Injected with
arsenite equiva-
lent to 0^3 gm.
ASyOg Died 4
hours later.

Horse.
Weight 39J Kilos.
Injected with
arsenite equiva-
lent to 2 gm.
AS2O3. Diedii
hours later.

Milligrams
As,03.

Milligrams
AsoO,.

Milligrams
As.,03.

T'icciip

X lOOU^ •

Per
100 gm.

Total.

Per
ICOgm.

1
Total. ;

Per
100 gm.

Total.

Liver

■95

69

8-5

47

3-5

175

Kidneys

•90

17

2-6

2-9

2-5

34

Spleen

•42

6-5

2-6

33

•91

11-6

Heart

•2G

12

•80

11-2

•43

15

Muscle

•22

(616 })

•80

(128 ?)

•43

(830?)

Lung.*;

•2G

13

14

9-8

•48

18

Blood

•08

(37 :-)

51

(13 r)

•20

65

Suprarenal Glands

•28

•14

—

—

90

•4

Nerve (Sciatic)

(•05)

—

—

—

(•05)

—

Brain

(•08)

••36

(•03)

(03)

•10

•6

Bone (Kemur)
Pericardial Fluid

trace

appre-
ciable

trace

appre-
ciable

trace
•30

appre-
ciable

r4

Bile

•26

2^1

— — -

—

—

Intestinal Contents

•07

17

•18 -28

•15

39

Urine up to Death

5 0

39

7-3 16

-

44

Total accounted for
in about fourth-fifths of

829

232

1,234

the body- weight

— 83 percent,
of dose

= 77 percent,
of dose

= 62 percent,
of dose

The table explains itself and little comment is required. It
will be noted that in all cases liver tissue has fixed most arsenic
per unit mass, but that the muscular tissues owing to- their domi-
nant bulk have fixed the largest absolute amount. The fixation
by the kidneys is also high when expressed per unit mass, but

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY.

649

that by the blood low, and by brain, nerve, and bone very low
indeed.

A point of special interest is the fact that although the
arsenic was injected straight into the blood-stream, small but
easily detected quantities appear in the faeces, thus pointing either
to a slight intestinal-hepatic circulation or to slight endosmosis
from the mesenteric blood; or to both.

In regard to the projx>rtion of the injected arsenic which
is recovered in the tissues analysed, it is probable that the balance
unaccounted for is distributed over the tissues not examined,,
which still amount to alxjut one-fifth of the body weight. A fair
margin of experimental error must be allowed, however, in this
class of work, where a very small amount of arsenic is distribtited
over a very large bulk of animal tissues. The data for organs
such as the liver, have a much higher degree of accuracy than
those for muscular tissue, which cannot be properly determined
without inordinate labour. A mixed sample of miscellaneous
m.uscle is unsatisfactory, and althotigh the analytical determina-
tions may be made with reasonable accuracy, there is no
guarantee that different muscles do not vary considerably in the
extent of arsenic fixation.

These data only give us information concerning the dis-
tribution of arsenic after intravenous injection. We hope to
extend the work and follow up the distribution with varying
closes and varying mode of entry into the body. Further dis-
cussion may therefore be postponed until more extensive data .
are acquired.

In passing, however, the data for arsenic in the alimentary
tract, liver, spleen, and kidneys, of a horse destroyed by oral
administration of arsenic, may be given.

Table 7.

HoK'SE : Wei.^ht 357 Kilos. Drenched with 7'6 «m. of sodium arsenite,
equivalent to 6 gm. As.tO.,. Died '.) hours later.

Material.

Milligrams As.^jO^
per 100 grams

Grams AS.2O;,.
Total.

Stomach Contents
I.ariie Intestine Contents ..
Small Intestine Contents ..
Total still in the Tract

4-4
9-7
4-3

39
4-34
•13
4-86 grams

Liver

Kidneys

Spleen

3-25

1-22

•75

•121
•019

•0069

6so

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY.

Fortunately, although the intestines showed marked
hypersemia, and the contents of the colon were unusually tiuid.
there had been no diarrhoea and no loss of arsenic. Deductinj^-.
therefore, the amount of arsenic still found in the alimentary tract
from the amount administered, we get 1.12 gm. ASoO, absorbed.
Of this, .121 gm. is found in the liver; concentration 3.25 parts
per hundred thousand. The quantity per unit mass of tissue is
notably lower in the case of the kidneys and spleen.

Toxic Dose.

The toxic doses given in the text-books for arsenic usually
refer to arsenic trioxide powder, the generally accepted fatal,
doses being those of Kaufmann : —

Aisenious 0.\ide Powder.

By the Mouth, By a Wound.

I \ orse
Ox-
Sheep

(irams.
10-45

15-45

5

Grams.
2-4

2-4

0-20'4

Pigs, dogs, and human subjects, being regarded as mure sus-
ceptible when dosage is expressed per kilo body-weight.

The big differences between oral dosing and wound admis-
sion, are accounted for b}- the fact that arsenious oxide, although
fairly soluble in water, dissolves so slotvly that the greater part
of the dose is eliminated in the faeces unabsorbed. For the
dissolved oxide, Kaufmann's figure is 3 — 4 grams for the horse.

A few animals which have had to be destroyed from time to
time, have been used for testing the toxicity of sodium arsenite.
i.e.^ dissolved oxide. According tO' the results obtained i gram
AS2O3 as sodium arsenite, rapidly absorbed intO' the blood-stream,
may easily prove fatal fur the horse, although occasional horses
can Stand considerably higher amounts.

When administration is oral the results are uncertain. For
horses of medium weight, one gram may kill, two grams is very
likely to kill, and three grams is generalh' certain. We have one
case on record, however, in which a drench containing 6 grams
AS2O3 as arsenite was given l)y the mouth with no apparent ill
effect. When intravenous injection is adopted there is no
ambiguity about the absorption and i gram As^O, as arsenite
(about 2.5 mgs. per kilo) usually proves fatal on the day of
administration — sometimes within a few hours. One horse
indeed showed marked symptoms of intoxication ( non- fatal i
after so small an injection as 0.3 gm., while another showed less
marked symptoms and recovered after an injection of 2 gm.
Individual idiosyncrasy can therefore ])lay a considerable role.

In regard to arsenious oxide it is interesting to note that ou^

THE FATE OF ARSENIC IN THE BODY., 65 1

horse was dosed with i gm. of the powder, and another with
2 gm. of the powder, every day for a fortnight without being
any the worse for it. Another liorse received 4 gms. daily and
died by the time 24 gms. had been administered. A fourth re-
ceived 5 gms. twice weekly and died after the fourth dose.

It seems not improbable that moderately large doses
repeated daily would be more toxic than the same total amount
administered in one big dose, since b\- repeated administration
the alimentary tract would be afforded no opportunity of freeing
itself from the slowdy soluble powder. This, of course, would
not hold for repeated administrations of definitely sub-toxic doses
either of arsenious oxide or sodium arsenite, and the question of
" acquired tolerance "would then enter.

In experimental work on sheej) {/. c, i) it was found that
death was uncertain with anything less than 0.5 gm. As^O, as
arsenite ( 10 mg. per kilo) administered orally, or 0.3 gm. (6
mgs. per kilo) intrajugularly. In most cases 0.2 gm.-o.3 gm. is
safe by the mouth (5 mg. per kilo), and as the experience with
"wire-worm remedy" shows, o.i gm. (2-3 mg. per kilo) can be
safely adimnistered medicinally in dosing flocks against hccmou-
chus conforfjis.

0.1 gm. has been injected intrajugularly in over half a dozen
different cases without symptoms of intoxication being shown.
and three sheep were injected with 0.2 gm. without disaster. 0.3
gm. injected intrajugularly was rapidly fatal in tAvo cases, but
non-fatal in a third, although symptoms of intoxication were
5hov;n.

From the limited data at disposal for cattle, i gm. (2 mg.
per kilo) appears moderately safe by iiUrajugular injection while
2 gm. is uncertain — some animals tolerating it and others suc-
cumbing on the day of injection. Effects of oral administration
of soluble arsenic are more erratic with cattle, owing partly to
idiosyncrasy and partly to the fact that tlie dose may pass direct
to the abomasum in one case and indirectly through the rumen in
another. In the former case the arsenic reaches the intestine
sooner and is more rapidly absorbed ; in the latter the dose may
be diluted down in the rumen and passed on for absorption much
more slowly.

Veterinary Research Laboratories,
Pretoria.

National Chemical. Service. — Mr. Kenneth B.

Quinan. C.H.. of the Cape Explosives Works. Somerset V/est,
C.P.. has recently received the following letter from Sir Herbert
Jackson, K.B.E.. F.R.S.. President, and Mr. R. B. Pilcher,
F.C.I. S., Registrar and Secretary, representing the Institute of
Chemistry : —

On behalf of the Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chemistry
of Great Britain and Ireland, we desire to convey to you an expression
of high appreciation of your valuable services to the British Empire and
to the Allies during the Great War.

652 NATIONAL CHEMICAL SERVICE.

From all Departments and Establishments of the vast organisation
for the production of explosives, which has been built up so largely under
your constructive genius, British chemists imite in acclaiming the
example which you have set by your zeal and energy, your wide outlook,
and your eminently practical methods of dealing with men and material.

Apart from the fact that this great work has very substantially con-
tributed to the success of the allied arms, the Institute recognises thai
through the technical training which j'ou have initiated for chemists
engaged imder you, many have gained experience which must prove of
great benefit to them when they come to devote their energies to the
furtherance of the arts of peace. Your woric with the Ministry should,
therefore, be reflected for many years in the progress of chemical industry
in this countrj^

The Institute congratulates you heartily on the success that has
followed your efforts, and on behalf of British chemists desires to add
that you carry with you their warm regard and their best wishes for the
future.

Among Mr. Quinan's many friends in South Africa few-
realise the actual magnitude of the services rendered by him and
his staff of chemical engineers to the Allied cause, but all will
agree that those services must have been immense in order 10
have evoked such a tribute.

In the course of his reply Mr. Quinan wrote: —

I feel with you that the events of the past four years of war have
completely altered the position of the (fhemist in Great Britain,, and I
confidently predict that the eyes of the manufacturers of the country will
be opened to see the urgency of the need for highly-trained chemical
supervision of manufacture, and also that the chemists and the teaching
institutions of England, and I hope of the Empire, will view their
obligations to industry in an entirely new light.*

It will be recollected that when Mr, Quinan's services were
placed at the disposal of the Imperial Government he left South
Africa at barely an hour's notice. On arrival in England he
found that the output of trinitrototuol did not exceed a few tons
per week. He was authorized to inaugurate explosive works,
which eventually employed nearly half a million hands, and his
organising and constructive ability had a larger share than most
people imagine in silencing the German artillery. It is a matter
for much gratification that a South African chemical engmeer
should have contributed so conspicuously to the, ultimate triumph
of the Allied cause.

One of the most interesting documents of the war [said Sir William
Pope in his presidential address on "^Chemistry in the National Service,"
delivered to the Chemical Society on March 27, 1919] is the second report
on the costs and efficiencies for H.M. factories controlled by the Depart-
ment of Explosives Supplies, which has been recently issued. This report
contains a minute analysis of the working costs for each period of each
factory engaged on individual items of manufacture; it states what pro-
portion of the cost per ton of product is borne by labour, raw materials,
fuel, maintenance, etc., and provides an incitement to further eiTorr
towards economy of working by giving a "bogey" cost-sheet made up of
the most efficient details of cost selected from the complete analysis of
expenses. It will be clear that an immense amount of organising power
was required to achieve this stupendous result; it was due largely to the
genius and energy of Mr. K. B. Quinan,

^ Proc. Inst, of Chemistry (1919) [r] 25.

SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON UN-
SEASONABLE VELD-BURNING; AND ITS POS-
SIBLE RELATION TO SOME STOCK DISEASES.

By Albert Oliver Dean Mogg, B.A.

(Abstract.)

Investigations on some stock diseases definitely Ijcnown to be
caused by plants necessitated a detailed study of the veld botani-
cally, and the causes producing veld-change.

Ecological surveys in extreme detail, of the various pad-
docks of a single farm (keeping the records separate), throughout
one season, and then comparing the results, elicited most astonish-
ing and interesting results.

These results were accentuated when several farms in one
district, similarly treated, were compared.

And further, when the farms of entirely different ana
widely separated districts, carrying the same disease, were com-
pared, the facts concerning the powerful effect of veld-burning in
producing veld-change became of a graver nature.

These facts elicited have led the writer to the conviction that
at least in the case of Dunziekte (" Grass Staggers ") in horses
(a disease associated with a geological formation), all velds in a
Dunziekte district are only potentially so (Dunsick), but may
become actively so by extensive velu-burmng at unseasonable
times, particularly if the farm be overstocked. The annual loss
of horses due to this disease amounts to several hundreds.

It was also indicated how that on some physiological forma-
lions a sweet veld may be made sour in a comparatively short
time by indiscriminate burning (particularly spring and summer
burning).

Division of Veterinary Research,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

THE PHILOLOGY OF THE NATIVE LANGUAGES
(ZULU AND XOSA).

By Rev. Samuel Gershom Gilkes Aitchison, M.A., D.D.

(Not printed.)

WASTED SOUTH AFRICAN RESOURCES— COAL AND

ITS BYE-PRODUCTS.

By Alfred Kloot, B.Sc, AT.C.

(Read July lo, 1918.)

{Abstract.)

The paper opens with a disclaimer as to originahty of its
contents, but is written to call public attention to the fact that
coal — which is really South Africa's best asset — has hitherto been
merely wasted by direct burning, instead of being utilised to make
fertilisers, disinfectants, coke, power-gas, tar and possibly petrol
substitutes — for all of which there is an immediate and lucrative
market. Coal distillation being once started, the more developed
subsidiary industries (such as carbolic acid, coal-creosote, simple
drugs and dyes, naphthalene, lampblack, and printers' ink, photo-
graphic chemicals and electrical carbons) would have a chance to
get started, with much benefit to the country.

So far the only utilisation of coal, except for burning, has
lain in the manufacture of ammonium sulphate at Mount Ngwibi
( Natal j, and of coke at various mines, and of these it may be
said that the coke-makers waste the tar, ammonia, and gas of
the coal, whilst the ammonia-makers waste the coke and gas —
although it is true that many of our coals are so ashy that this is
almost the only purpose they can be used for. This sort of thing
loses to the country materials which are really more valuable than
the coke or ammonia produced.

There is no doulDt about the immensity of the coal-fields,
and little doubt that the pithead cost of the coal can be brought
down to about 5s. per ton. Unfortunately, no preliminary
research-work has been done (or at least published) to prove
whether the distillation products of South African coal are of
precisely the same nature as, and of similar quantity to, those
from European coal, but the presumption is in favour of such a
view. The average result of the heating of four different coals
from this country given by the author is (samples air-dried with
I per cent, moisture) : 23 per cent, volatile matler, 13^^ per cent,
of ash, and 62 per cent, carbon, as against 20 per cent., 2 per
cent., and 80 per cent, respectively for these data in Welsh coal,
thus showing that as regards light and heavy oils the African
coal is not likely to be inferior, whereas its coke (carbon plus
ash) is markedly inferior. Even for our metallurgical purposes
it is only coke from coal specially picked, so as to have much less
ash than the average, that is of any use, and even then the sulphur
is usually too high. Such coke fetches about £4 per ton in
Johannesburg. Metallurgical coke is, therefore, not at present
a large-scale proposition in the Union, and it is the other products

WASTED COAL PRODUCTS. 655

on which industry must concentrate. As a preHminary, a survey
and classification of our coals ought to be made. The term
" bituminous " is recommended to be subdivided into " Jong-
flame," " normal," and " short-flame," according as the percent-
age of volatile matter (i) exceeds 32 per cent., (2) Hes between
26 and 32 per cent., and (3) lies between 16 and 26 per cent.,
respectively. The author also recommends the co-operation of
competent chemist and engineer in laying down standard types
of plant for treating these three classes, and also for the semi-
anthracitic type of African coal. Some of the data of European
retorting practice are repeated in the paper. The temperature
is about 800 to 1,000 degrees C, and the tar yield is about 4}^
per cent., and in addition about ii/4 per cent, of " benzol " is reco-
verable from the gas by efficient extraction. The yield of ammo-
nium sulphate is very low in this process, say i per cent., as
against 5 or 6 per cent, by the Mond process, a variety of which
is in use by the Natal Ammonium, Ltd. Even at pre-war prices
for the products there appears to be ample profit in coal-distilla-
tion, despite the capital cost. The beehive coking-oven is con-
demned, among other reasons, be^cause proper recovery of
" benzol " and other volatile bye-products is impossible. For tar-
production the Otto-Hilgenstock furnace (heated by waste gas in
bunsen-burners ) and the Elliott-Jones retort (which is vertical
dnd four inches wider below than above) are specially men-
tioned as efficient and economical.

A fairly low temperature of distillation (500-600 degrees C)
tends to increase the yield of tar, and it further appears from
small-scale experiments that it is even possible to obtain liquids
of the petroleum and " petrol " type from coal by distillation at
an even lower temperature inider reduced pressure. In addition,
oils suitable for lubrication, and better yields of phenolic sub-
stances (for disinfectants) and of pyridine (for denaturing
alcohol) result. The yields of these special substances are, of
course, small, since tar contains 50 to 70 per cent, of pitch and
carbon, and success would depend to some extent on a satisfac-
tory disposal of the creosote and anthracene oils which result in
much larger, quantity. Similarly, the potential manufacture of
aniline for drugs and dyes from benzene is an economic rather
than a scientific question. Probably the local market is insuffi-
cient, and the aniline would have to go overseas.

THE EVOLUTION OF A NATIVE ADMINISTRATION.

By Rev. John Robert Lewis Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

(Not printed.)

NOTES ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY
OF UROMYCES ALOES COOKE.

By Victor Armsby Putterill, B.A.

{Read, July lo, 1918.)

(Plates 22, 23, and six text figures.)

The fungus which causes " rust " in Aloes was first described
by Cooke in September, 1891, from material sent him by the
late Dr. Medley Wood, collected at Mooi River, Natal, and was
named by him Uredo (UromycesF) Aloes Cooke. Some two
months later the same fungus was described by P. Hennings from
material collected by Schweinfurth in Abyssinia, and given the
name Uromyces aloicola. This dual nomenclature was noticed in
1892 by P. Magnus, and seeing that Cooke's species name had
the priority, the fungus was accordingly called Uromyces Aloes
Cooke, Magn.

The existing descriptions of the fungus are occupied entirely
with, its field characters and the nature of the spores. Cooke's
description reads as follows : —

Spots suborbicular or confluent; pallid; sori convex; large circinating
or clustered on the spots, often confluent ; for a long time covered ;
spores elliptical or subglobose. Smooth with a thick epispore (25 — 30 X
30/i) ; pedicels hyaline.

As nothing further was known of the morphology and life-
history of the fungus, this investigation was undertaken on the
suggestion of Dr. Pole Evans, Chief of the Division of Botany,
at the Botanical and Pathological Laboratories, Pretoria. The
disease is abundant on the Aloes planted out on the rockeries and
in the gardens. The fungus has a wide distribution, similar
to that of its host.

Appearance of the Disease.

In leaves not badly afifected, in contrast to the appearance of
the healthy leaf, isolated circular patches of a pallid yellow
colour, anything up to 2 cm. in diameter, stand out clearly. The
edges of these patches mark within a millimetre or two the limits
of the spread of the mycelium in the tissues of the host. In
badly attacked leaves, these areas become confluent. (PI. 23 a
and h.) Dome-shaped pustules, a millimetre more or less high,
mark the position of the teleutospore sori ; at first they have the
appearance of white blisters; later they darken and rupture,
liberating the spores, which are produced in vast numbers. {PI
23 a and h; Fig. i a.)

The vegetative cells of the mycelium are uninucleate; the
nuclei are typical, having a large deeply-staining nucleolus, the
rest of the nucleus appearing as a rule as a clear vacuole around
it. Haustoria take the form of branched tubes within the cells.

URU .i^L-h ALOhS COOKE.

657

one or more of the branches comin^i^ into intimate contact with
the cell nucleus, which often assumes abnormal shape. {Fig.
2 a.)

Fig. r.

In the formation of spores (^Fig. i ■«) certain of the hyphse
become densely filled with cytoplasm, ^g^row erect and branch

Fig. 2.

rise above to a layer, several cells thick, of large spherical cells
copiously. The cells of the branches are short and wide, and give

658

UROMYCES ALOES COOKE.

Fig. 3.

Fig. .4.

UROMYCES ALOES COOKE.

659

which lose their contents. (Fig. lb.) A binucleate condition of
the cells below this layer becomes apparent, probably arising
from the absorption of the cell wall between two contiguous
vegetative cells. (Fig. i b, c, and Fig. 3.)

The binucleate teleutospore mother cell gives rise, by a process
of conjugate division, to the teleutospore cell, and a stalk cell.
The former swells and at first contains two nuclei ; these latter
fuse, and the teleutospore ultimately assumes its mature form.

(Pig- 5-)

Telentosporcs. — P. Magnus figures a teleutospore from Aloe

maculata; he showed the presence of very minute outgrowths on

the epispore, a structure which had been missed by both Cooke

and Hennings. There is a certain amount of difiference between

the spores obtained from Uromyces Aloes growing on Aloe

arborescens, and those from Uromyces Aloes on other species

%

Fig. 5-

of Aloe, e.g., A. Transvaalensis. Dimensions of spore from Aloe
Transvaalensis are 20 X 30 /x. Dimensions of spore from Aloe
arborescens, 19 X 20 yu, ; the latter is thus smaller, and is a shade
lighter in colour. (Fig. 6 a and b.)

Germination takes place best at room temperature. Spores
from Aloe Transvaalensis show good germination in distilled
water after eight hours, a goodly proportion having formed germ
tubes of about three spore lengths long. (Fig. 6 c.) Whereas
spores from Uromyces on Aloe arborescens, after similar treat-
ment, show no germination, though germination after 24 hours is
good. Moreover, the germ tube or basidium is narrower and
has an invariable tendency to coil. (Fig. 6 (/.)

The distal end of the basidium receives the cell contents,
and divides to form as a rule four cells, the basidiospores ; there
appears to be a certain amount of variation in the order of origin
of these four cells, as can be seen from the Fig. 6 e and /. Each
of the basidiospores may give rise to a delicate germ tube. I have
been unable to notice the formation of sporidia, nor have I been
able to obtain their formation experimentally. In water
with abundant supply of air the germ tubes grow until their

66o

UROMYCES ALOES COOKE.

Stored food is exhausted by their own growth or the growth of
parasites. The nearest approach to typical sporidia formation is
shown in Fig. 6, g'^ and g'.

Spermogonia. — Spermogonia have not been recorded
hitherto; but they appear to be plentiful, occurring on the leaves
with the teleutospore sori, but in groups distinct from the latter.
Occasionally a zone of leaf covered exclusively by spermogonia
merges into a zone on which only teleutospore sori are formed ;
sometimes a patch of the leaf bears spermogonia in the centre,,
surrounded by spore pustules

The spermogonia occur in yellowish oval patches on the leaf,
which might easily be mistaken for the place of origin of teleuto-
spores. They differ from the latter, however in that the epider-
mis is firm and compact, never becoming abnormally raised ; the
spermogonia themselves are apparent as numerous orangc-

FiG. 6.

coloured specks, which turn dark brown on maturity. They are
of typical flask-shaped structure, opening to the exterior through
the stomata. {Fig. 5 a and b.) There are no ostiolar filaments.
Each spermatium {Fig. 5 r) is a minute oval cell (2 X 2.4 11),
with hyaline cell wall, and solitary nucleus occupying about Ys
diameter of the cell, with nuclear membrane and a few chromatin
granules.

Inoculation. — In a number of artificial inoculation experi-

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UROMYCES ALOES COOKE. 66l

ments I succeeded in establishing the fungus on Aloe leaves ir.
one or two cases, though in many cases I was unsuccessful.

The time from date of inoculation to the date of first appear-
ance of small whitish blisters on the inoculated leaves was about
a month ; the darkening of these pustules due to the ripening of
the spores was first noticeable about lo days later.

I have failed up to now to discover the mode of entrance of
the fungus into the leaf, whether it be through the stoma, or
directly through the epidermis. Considering the thickness and
toughness of the latter in most Aloes, one would expect the
fungus to gain an entrance through the stomata.

luuniDiity. — Biological varieties of Uromyces Aloes, if not
true morphological ones, may be found to exist within the
species, and this might account for the fact that some species of
the Aloe appear to be not as readily attacked as others.

This is so in the case of Aloe arborescens, a rather succulent
soft Aloe. Plate i, however, shows a specimen of this Aloe which
is particularly badly attacked. The comparative immunitv which
this species enjoys ( i.e., those specimens of the species which are
growing on the rockeries in Pretoria) may be due to the fact that
the badlv attacked one mentioned above is growing only at some
distance from most of the specimens of the same species,
although these latter are themselves surrounded by very badly
diseased Aloes of various species. In this case it is probably a
varietal difference of morphological character in the fungus with
which we have to deal, evidence for which was brought forward
in the description of the TeleutoSpores.

LITERATURE.

T Cooke: Grc^illea. 20. i6 (Sept. t8oi).

2. Hennines: Eneler : Botan.. Jahrb. Pd. 14 [4] (Dec. 1891).

3. Magnus: Botan. GescUschaft 10, 48 (i8g2).

4. W. B. Grove: "The British Rust Fungi."

5 W. B. Grove: "The Evolution of the Higher Uredineae," New Phytolo-

gist (191.3). . ^, . ^ „ . .

6. Blackman : " On the Fertihsation. Alternation of Generations and

General Cytology of the Uredinse." Ann. Bot., 18.

7. Blackman: "On the conditions of Teleutospore Germination and

Sporidia Formation in the Uredinese." New Phytologist',, 2

(1903^

8. Christman: ''Alternation of Generations and Morphology of bpore

Formation in Rusts." Bot. Gas. (1907)- ,^

9. Blackman & Eraser: "Further Studies on Sexuality of the Uredineaa, '

Anyi. Bot. 20.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES AND TEXT FIGURES.

Plate 22 fl.— Photo of badly-attacked specimen of Aloe arborescens.

Botanical Laboratories, Pretoria. Photo by Miss A.

Bottomlev.
Plate 22 h. — Photo of leaf of Aloe arborescens; s shows positions of

groups of spermogonia.

662 UROMYCES ALOES COOKE.

Plate 23 a-b. — Photo of leaves of Aloe sp. attacked bv Uromyces Aloes.

Photo by Dr. I. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. I a. — Teleutospore sorus of Uromyces Aloes. X 48.

b. — Teleutospore sorus of Uromyces from Aloe arborcscens just
forming,, showing layer of large empty cells above. X I35.
c. — Portion of {b) showing binucleate condition of some of the
cells. X 590.
Fig. 2 a. — Haustorium in epidermal cell of Aloe Transvaal ensis. X 1000.
b. — Haustoria showiJiy their intimate relation with host cell
nucleus. X 1000.
Fig. 3. — Portion of sorus of Uromyces Aloes from Aloe Traiisvaalensis,
showing origin of the teleutospore and stalk cell (s).
X 1000.
Fig. 4. — Portion of sorus of Uromyces Aloes from Aloe Transvaal ensis.
Later stage, showing elongated stalk cells and thickening of
teleutospore cell walls.
Fig. 5 a. — Spermogoniuin of Urom\ces Aloes from Aloe arborcscens.

X 135-

b. — Spermogonium from Aloe Transvaal ensis. X I35-

c. — Spermatium from latter. X 590.
Fir. 6 a. — Teleutospores of Uromyces .4locs Cooke from Aloe Transiaal-
ensis. X 220. a' in air ; a" in water.

b. — Teleutospores of Uromyces Aloes Cooke from Aloe arbor-
cscens. h' in air; b" in water.

c. — Germinating teleutospore of Uromyces Aloes from Aloe Traiis-
vaalensis. X 220.

d. — Genninating teleutospores from Aloe arborcscens. X 2'20.

e. — Distal end of basidium of germinated teleutospore from Aloe
Transvaalensis, fixed and stained. X 480.

f. — Distal end of basidium of germinated teleutospore from Aloe
Transvaalensis, fixed and stained. X 220.

g. — g' shows end of basidium 24 hours after germination of teleuto-
spore; g^ same after 40 hours. X 220.

Botanical Laboratories,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

Scientific Labour Union. — According to the Neiv

York Gall of May 11, 1919, three hundred and seventeen scientific
and technical experts in the employ of the United States Govern-
ment at Washington have formed a labour union to protect their
personal interests and to promote the cause of science. Dr.
Rodney H. True, of the Department of Agriculture, is president
of the new union. Its objects are —

1. To improve conditions and facilities for scientific work
in the government.

2. To present the needs and the results of such work to the
public and to legislative and administrative public ofificials.

3. To secure greater freedom of the members in official and
unofficial action.

4. To secure reasonable and just salaries for services per-
formed and in accordance with present economic and social con-
ditions.

5. To secure greater recognition in America of the research
advancement performed by the scientists and technical experts
as essential elements in our national life.

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THE KAP-TENT V/AGON.

By James Young Gibson.

{Read, July 13, 1918.)

(Plate 24.)

According to an observation of Froude in his "Life of Caesar,"
there would appear to have been three epochs known to history
which were characterised by wagon-dweUino-. He says of the
Teutons and Cimbri, that they " travelled with their wives and
children, their wagons, as with the ancient Scythians and with
the modern South African Dutch, being at once their conveyance
and their homes." The period of time which divided the first
of these two epochs may not be easily definable. The Scythians,
having had their day, are said to have " disappeared from his-
tory," or so far lost their national identity that writers were no
longer able to refer to them as a distinct people, about 100 B.C. ;
the final suppression by the Romans of the Teutons and Cimbri
occurred about the same time, but one understands that the wagon-
dwelling habits of the Scythians is referred to as " ancient " in
relation to it. Whatever interest may attach to this question, it
is clear that between the second and the last, or Dutch epoch, well-
nigh 2,000 years elapsed. Whether it may be possible to recon-
struct a type of these ancient wagons, or of either of them, I
do not know ; that which served a temporary and important
purpose in modern Dutch pioneering fell out of use during the
19th century, and has so far disappeared that the preservation
of a likeness of it has become an object of some interest.

The time at which wagon-dwelling became a habit in South
Africa has not been definitely noted by historians. One gathers
from the diary of Adam Tas, written in the first decade of the
i8th century, that the vehicles then in use at the Cape had
carrying for their object, and that their carrying capacity was
small. On the ist of July, 179S, he writes: "Despatched three
leggers of wine to the Cape, two wagons hired from Barend
Lubbe and one of our own." From this it would appear that
about three hogsheads constituted a load. Although the diarist
notes with considerable detail the events of his daily life, he
makes no mention anywhere of the wagon as a travelling convey-
ance. Its purpose, so far as indicated, was to carry produce to
the market town, and to bring thence the things needed at the
farm home. It is noteworthy also that it was driven by his
" man," from which one infers that the farmer did not at that
time drive his own wagon. The diary contains no reference
to a " tent " or tilt, nor does it indicate what protection was
afforded by the vehicle to the carried goods or driver from rain.
The period covered by Tas's diary was one of transition in
the economics of the Cape. The original scheme of settlement
had had for its object the victuallinor of ships through agriculture
performed by servants of the East India Company. This had

664 THE KAP-TENT WAGON.

been expanded by the introduction of a certain number of Free
Burghers with the right to cultivate the soil and rear cattle for
their own profit, the Company 'beinor the purchaser oi the pro-
duce. Of these Free Burghers Tas was one, and the chief interest
which historians have attached to his diary has been in the light
which it throws upon the subject of a dispute in which they
became involved with the Governor, whom they accused of
assuming a monopoly in his private interests. Another impor-
tant thing had happened. At the time when his diary opens some
twenty years had elapsed since the revocation of the Edict of
Nantes, and a certain number of expatriated Huguenots had
firmly established themselves as settlers at the Cape. They had
gone somewhat farther afield than the Free Burghers, but Tas
numbered certain of them amongst his neighbours, and one
gathers that they had already identified themselves with the con-
cerns of the settlement. To what extent they may have contri-
buted to the development of the wagon which was destined to
play so important a part in its ultimate form is, however, not
indicated.

Nearly a century later, in October, I7Q7, Lady Anne Barnard
writes : —

Last month has sent in from the country quantities of wagons chiefly
loaded with wine, butter, skins, feathers, and oranges; grain is sometimes
added as the farmers happen to have it. The wagons are very narrow,
about the size of a large pipe of wine, and long enough to hold three in
the length.

As a pipe is of the capacity of about two hogsheads, the
carrying capacity of the wagon would appear to have been
doubled. By this time it would appear also that the owner of
the wagon drove it himself. Lady Anne Barnard says :

They [the wagons] are drawn by sixteen oxen and driven by one
man, a Hottentot l>esides generally walking at the head of the first pair,

the guiding Hottentot being thus distinguished by his nationality,
apparently, from the driver. Barrow, who travelled in a Dutch
wagon at this time, described the treatment to which he saw an
ox subjected, presenting the incident as evidence of Dutch cruelty.
By this time a detached settlement had been effected, with
the town of Graafif-Reinet as its capital, much intervening terri-
tory being waste, and there is abundant evidence that the tilted
wagon had fully established itself as a travelling home. It mav,
indeed, be said to have then attained, for practical purposes, its
final form. The process of its evolution cannot, perhaps, be
traced. The late John Bird says, in a paper on " Natal from
1846 to 1856," that its final perfection had been attained through
" long practice." Burchell, describing one which he had
acquired in 1811, says that "The framework of the tilt was
made of bamboo cane," that the sides or leeren were painted
on the outlside, but that the lower parts, called the onder stel,
were " well covered with tar." Symmetrically bent stinkwood,
tent-boogen (or hood-bows), and decorative painting through-
out, were to become objects of great importance ; but, perhaps.

THE KAP-TENT WAGON. 665

the highly finished vehicle was attainable at all times only by the
comparatively wealthy.

The migration to the region bounded on the east by the
Great Fish River may perhaps be regarded as the first trek,
but no particular account of it is to be found, owing, conceivably,
to its having been so gradual as to present no outstanding event.
It was visited in 1778 by Governor van Plettenberg with the
object of establishing some order amongst the settlers and fixing
their relations with the black tribes.

The settlers had made their way across the 600 miles of
rough, trackless country which separated them from the Penin-
sula by means of their wagons. These wagons had been their
family homes during their slow progress, while they nomadically
depastured their flocks and herds and followed the chase. The
disposal of the proceeds of the latter occupation would have
necessitated an occasional trip to the Peninsula unless, as is likely,
they were followed by traders. Upon this subject information
is lacking, but until late in the igth century the " smous," or
itinerant trade, was a common visitant, carrying his wares in
the Kap-tent wagon to the remote habitations of trekkers and
settlers.

The Kap-tent was to be gradually superseded by the Buck
wagon, and the coming into existence of the latter was probably
due originally to the nitroduction of wool-bearing sheep. This
took place in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. The
supply of mutton had previously been the only object of sheep-
rearing. They were of fat-tailed parti-coloured kind, which the
Boers called " Afrikaansche schaapen," strong and active, and
capable of being driven 600 miles to the market. The tent-wagon
was too restricted in its holding canacity for the conveyance of
bulky wool bales, and the open, railed superstructure was sub-
stituted for the tall, straight sides and the canvas roof. As
trade expanded the vehicle was suited by increased size and
strength to the conveyance of heavy loads of merchandise, com-
fort being sacrificed to utility, and the change effected in the
course of time an important modification in the condition of the
people. Substituting the buck for the kap-tent, the men engaged
in the carrying trade, leaving their families at home, subjecting
themselves to a very coarsening form of life, which led to a
disparity in culture between themselves and the women of their
race. The passing of the wagon-transport consequent upon the
gradual extension of railways resulted in the coming into exis-
tence of a class lacking in culture, without means and without
skill above that of the ordinary labourer, whereby they were
placed at a disadvantage in the new form of struggle which
arose with the discovery of gold.

Of the Kap-tent wagon the illustration furnished with this
paper represents the final type. In this form it was regarded
by general agreement as having attained perfection, and although
improved in certain respects, in the substitution of iron for the
wooden axle for instance, and in general finish, the type is
essentially that which formed the travelling home of the voor-

666 THE KAP-TENT WAGON.

trekkers. It was for longf regarded as indispensable to farmers
in remote reg-ions, whatever their nationality : except for the
Cape-cart, the possession of which was restricted to a fortunate
few, it was the sole means whereby families were enabled to
visit their always somewhat distant neighbours, upon which occa-
sions it also obviated the tax upon sleeping accommodation to
which the primitive farm-houses were often unequal ; it formed
the only means of repairing for a season to the centres of
civilization. Bird, in the paper quoted, says that it was, at the
time to which he refers, the " only mode of conveyance " by
which a lady could then perform the journey of 54 miles between
Pietermaritzburg and Durban. It was by means of a wagon like
this, presented to him by his friend Oswell, that Livingstone
was enabled to seriously embark upon the exploration of the
interior, and in it a son was born to him, and named after his
benefactor, somewhere near the Zambezi.

The wagon was one of the Boer's most cherished possessions.
He drove it himself, taking pride in the skill which he attained
in the use of the long whip ; in the co-ordination of the
animals' strength' when confronted 'with heavy obstructions.
When the road was good he sat upon the voor-kist. calling out
the names of his beasts as they happened to slacken in exertion
or speed. The oxen knew their respective names, and instantly
responded to the call. They had been named when born for
another more happy purpose. The cattle-kraal was furnished
with a separate compartment called the kalver hok, or calves'
pen, from which they were called by name in turn for the pur-
pose, first of inducing their mothers to yield their milk, and next
of taking what remained for them after their owner had drawn
his share. The name which thus began as a joyous call assumed
a more stern purpose in mature life.

The oxen were objects of as much pride as the wagon which
' it was their duty to draw. The owner was precisely acquainted
with the characteristics of each, and he was prone to boast of
them in so far as they approached his ideal of perfection. To
his description of their performances was added that of their
colour and general appearance, which he accomplished partly
with the aid of gesture. Their merits were measured by quick-
ness of step, drawing power, and the readiness with which they
responded to a call, vocal or physical. The class of cattle classi-
fied as " Afrikander " was doubtless the result largely of selective
breeding, having strength and speed for its object.

The names of oxen became somewhat stereotyped, and were
not of very great variety. Although some of them would appear
to suggest an earlier association with particular places, such as
Tafelhcrg, Blaamvherg or JVitzcnherg, it is remarkable that they
were generally associated in application with the colour of the
animal named ; thus the second was invariably given to a grey
animal, a colour which the Boers described as blue, and the third
to one mostly or entirely white. They were chosen chiefly with
the view to ease and distinctness in enunciation. Common names
were Bontman, for a parti-coloured animal, Bandom for one

THE KAI'-TKNT \VA(;oN. 66/

with a belt across it, Donkey for a dark brown, Jan Bloed for one
of a peculiar shade of redness (the meaning being "John Blood"),
Rodeland for an ordinary red, Kruisman for one with a white
back suggesting a cross, Vaaltyn (or possibly Vaaltuijn, " Fallow
garden ' ) for a vaal or dun-coloured beast, and Geelbek for one
with a yellow muzzle. Then there were such neutral names as
Akkcnnan (Ploughman) ; Opperman (Hodman or Labourer) ;
Bloem (Flower) ; Bock-houder (Book-keeper) ; Dwengeland
(Tyrant) ; England ; Fransnian; Jonkman (Youth) ; Koopman
( Merchant) ; Landman (Rustic) ; and Makman (Tameman).

Although these names do not recall in any important measure
the events or scenes of past endeavours, they are interesting- to
the extent to which they show the animals to have been associated
with the lives and thoughts of the people.

Each ox had a fixed place in the team; the hind and fore-
most pairs were chosen from characteristics which they had
exhibited during the process of training. The words hot and
haar described whether they were on the near or off side ; thus
hot or haar achter signified left or right wheeler, and naast achter,
op aes, op acht, naast voor and voor completed the team of
twelve, the sides upon which they were yoked being indicated as
before. The descriptive hot and haar was employed in calling
the names ; thus Hot Bandom ! or Haar Donker !

A silveriness of tone was cultivated for the calling of names,
and the voice was usually raised in the utterance of the final
syllable. There was a softening influence in this respect in the
Ijresence of the fair members of the family ; this form of delicacy
was abandoned when the carrying of heavy loads over muddy
roads became an occupation : the reverse became then the object
of voice-culture, and the terminal portion of the name was given
out in a groan from th6 middle of the chest^. It seem.ed
as if all love for the animals had vanished.

The incident in history in which the Kap-tent wagon played
the most important part was the Great Trek, which attained its
full volume in 1837. It was needful that each 'family joining
in that exodus should have at least one ; some had two or more.
The Kruger family left in 1835. The famous President of the
South African Repubhc says in his Memoirs : " My parents and
relatives left house and home for a wild and unknown country,
and set out, about twenty of them, with nearly thirty thousand
African sheep and a few hundred horses and cattle, which they
had received largely in exchange for the goods they had left
behind." At the Orange River his father sold 3.000 wethers at
a dikketon apiece, the value of that coin being then equal to about
two shillings sterling. This is interesting as showing the value
of sheep (the principal property of the Boers) in relation to the
price of a wagon. For the one which he had made in 181 1
Burchell records that he paid in rix-dollars a sum equal to about
£80, " exclusive of the tilt and all the other separate articles
required in travelling " ; a wagon would thus represent the value
of about 800 sheep. There was much poverty amongst the
emigrants after their arrival in Natal, which may be partly

668 THE KAP-TRNT WAGON.

accounted for, no doubt, by the expenditure of stock in the
acquisition of wagons before they set out.

Till the defeat of the Zulus at Blood River in December.
1838, the majority of the migratory Boer nopulation were pre-
vented by danger of attack from separate . settlement and the
building of ordinary habitations, and had to depend for shelter
upon the wagon-tilt and such tents and screens as they had been
able to supplement it with. The principal period of wagon-
dwelling may therefore be set down approximately at two years,
during which time the vehicles freciuently formed effective fortifi-
cation against on-rushing Zulus and other Africans by being placed
ends together round the space to be defended, although in the
case of the more restless individuals it was doubtless much longer.

Burchell described his wagon with some minuteness, and his
description is available to students of history. Its general scheme
was divided thus :

I. The VooR Stel, consisting of

(i) Voor widen, front wheels, less in diameter than the
hind ones.

(2) As, axle-tree.

(3) Voor-tang, with jaws projecting vertically forward

to receive the pole or disselhoom, and horizontally
backward to receive the connecting pole or lange-
zvagen.

(4) Draai-bord, swivel-board, between which and the

axle-tree the voor-tang was gripped.

(5) Schammel, which pivoted on the slightly convex

surface of the draai-bord.

(6) Ron gen.

II. AcHTER Stel, the parts of which were :

(i) Achter zvielen, hind wheels.

(2) As.

(3) Schammel.

(4) Achter-tang, or coupling.

(5) Rongen.

These were connected by the Langczoagen and became :
III., the Onder Stel;

IV., the BovEN Stel :

(i) Buik-plank, or floor,

(2) Leer en, or sides.

(3) Kap, or hood. ,

The scheme of III has prevailed in the ordinary type of
wagon still in use for carrying purposes, so that an exact descrip-
tion of its parts may be superfluous at the present time. Such
modifications as have taken place may be discerned by compari-
son with Burchell's description. It need only be noted that every
part, of whatever degree of importance, was known to the Boer
by a name.

An example of the Boven Stel has not apparently been pre-

THE KAP-TENT WAGON. 669

served, except, perhaps, in the form of a reduced model. The
length ot the wa^on was about 15 feet ; the heiglit of the tilt from
the fioor 5 feet 5 inches. Ihe upper rails of the sides, leer-
boumen, were curved upwards from about the second third, this
being compensated by the kap leer, so that the height of the' roof
was the same throughout. The sides stood upon the schammels,
and were supported outwardly by the rongen, or struts, which
were tightly morticed into the projecting ends of these; inward
pressure was resisted by a board through which the posterior
projections of the leerboomen were passed. The boogen, or tent
bows, arched between standcrs, or standards, which were fastened
on the outer sides of the leer-boomen ; two bows to each standard,
holding between them the laths which supported the canvas
covering or zeil. This was double, the onder ::eil being painted
to render it water-proof, the boven sell, or upper covering, being
of white canvas and furnished with voor and achter klaps, fore
and hind flaps, to be let down when it rained, or at night. The
principal furniture consisted of the kartel, or bunk, suspended
between the two sides, and the voor-kist, or fore-chest, which
served the double purpose of providing the driver with a seat
and preserving the more precious of the family goods.

The Geophone.— The Journal of the Franklin Institute'^
contains a communication from the United States Bureau of
Mines descriptive of the geophone, a listening instrument in-
vented by the French during the war to detect sapping and
mxining operations, and for the location of enemy artillery. It is
now being used by the United States Bureau of Mines as a
possible aid in locating miners who have been entombed after a
disaster. The instrument is essentially a small seismograph. It
consists of an iron ring about 3/^ in. in diameter, within which
is suspended a lead disc fastened by a single bolt concentrically
to two mica discs, one of which covers the top and the other the
bottom of the ring. Two brass cai>pieces cover the discs, the
top one having an opening in its centre, to which is attached a
rubber tube leading to a stethoscopic ear-piece. These cap-pieces
are fastened with bolts to the iron ring, and serve to hold the
mica discs in place. Essentially the apparatus is merely a lead
weight suspended between two mica discs cutting across a small
air-tight box. If the instrument is placed on the ground, and
anyone is jxDunding or digging in the vicinity, earth waves
shake the geophone case, the lead weight, however, remaining
comparatively motionless. A relative motion is thus produced
between the instrument case and the lead weight, and as a result,
a compression and rarefaction of the air in the instrument takes
place. Through the rubber tube this compression and rarefac-
tion is carried to the ear-piece.' Direction of the source of dis-
turbance may be quite accurately ascertained by using two
instruments, as the sound is apparentl}^ louder from the instru-
ment nearer that source.

187 [5], 580 (1919).

NOTES ON THE GENUS BALANSIA.

By Miss A. M. King, B.A.

(Read July lo, 1918.)

(Plat/:? 25 and four text figures.)

About the month of September of last year I was much
struck by the pecuhar appearance of much of the common grass
— Cynodon dactylon, which grows in great abundance about
Pretoria. Here and there, in patches of perfectly normal grass,
clumps of pale yellowish green grass were to be seen standing up
very erect. As time went on these abnormal shoots continued to
grow rapidly, and some of them even reached a length of 3 feet.
1 also noticed that they had far more nodes and far shorter inter-
nodes than the normal shoots, and that their leaves were com-

FlG. I.

paratively poorly developed. Also, no signs of inflorescences
were to be found except in very rare cases where much deformed,
shrivelled up structures were observed at the tips of shoots.

Thinking that this abnormality might possibly be caused by a
fungus, I decided to investigate the matter, and collected material
for the purpose. Bits of root, stem, underground stem, and leaves
were sectioned and stained, but no trace of a mycelium could
be found. For several weeks I continued to section fresh material,
but still no mycelium was detected, and I began to think that
perhaps after all the trouble was a. physiological one. However,
about the beginning of December peculiar little black bodies
began to make their appearance in the axils of some of the leaves.
These little bodies averaged about i cm. in length, and were very
pointed and horny. On being sectioned, they were found to
v'onsist of a mass of hyphal tissue, in which were embedded leaves

S A. Assn. for Adv^ of Science.

1918 Pl. 25.

A. M. King.— The Genus balansia*

NOTES ON THK GENUS BALANSIA.

671

and axillary buds of the host. These host elements were quite
intact and uncrushed, and seemed to line the walls of cavities that
occurred in the fungal tissue.

The whole appearance of these black bodies, together with
the discovery that they consisted to a large extent of interwoven
hyphas, at once suggested that they were sclerotia. I continued
to examine fresh sclerotia till eventually slight ridges began to

/ \

y

^\

Fig. 2.

be formed, extending from near the tip to about two-thirds of the
way down the sclerotium. The usual number of ridges formed
on a sclerotium was two, though in some cases several little
cushion-shaped protuberances took the place of the ridges. These
ridges, like the sclerotia, were black and horny externally, but
white and soft internally, and consisted entirely of interwoven
hyphse. They measured about i mm. high and i mm. broad.

Fig. 3.

After a while indications of the formation of perithecia
began to appear in the tissue of the ridges. From this it wat
concluded that the ridges were fruiting stromata.

Gradually the perithecia increased in size and formed definite
walls, the walls being of a darker colour than the surrounding
hyphae tissue. When mature, the perithecia were flask-shaped,
and measured 250-300 X 70-100 fi. Long, thin, cylindrical,
hyaline asci were next formed. When mature, they measur'.^d

672

NOTES ON THE GENUS BALANSIA.

120-300 X 6-7 jx, and each had a peculiar little cap " cell " at the
t:p, and tapered at the base. No paraphyses were present. The
ascospores proved to be thread-like, measuring about the length
of the ascus and i fi across. Each ascus contained eight of these
spores.

Having thus observed all the characteristics of the mature
sclerotium, the fungus was identified as a species of Balansia, a
genus allied to the genera Claviceps and Epichloe.

Attempts were made to germinate the ascospores in drops of
sterile water in Ward tubes, but without results. When, how-
ever, stigmas of normal flowers of Cynodon dactylon were intro-

FlG. 4.

duced into the water, the spores began to germinate within a few
hours. Two germ tubes were pushed out from near the ends of
the spore, but after two days no growth of the germ tube was
observed.

No signs of the conidial stage of the fungus were observed
at any time.

The genus Balansia has been known for about 38 years, its
discoverer being Spegazzini. It has the general characters of the
order ClaT/icipitecF, to which it belongs, but in addition it has, of
course, its own peculiar characters. These are a composite sclero-
tium, that is one formed of host elements and hyphal tissues, and
asci with the so-called cap " cell."

Several species of Balansia have been recorded on various
grasses. Some of these species have septate spores, or spores
which separate into segments at maturity. In others, a conidial
stage has been observed, while in others the host elements of the
sclerotium become disintegrated. No species has, however, as far
as I know, been described on Cynodon dactylon, and no descrip-
tion of recorded species agrees entirely with the above. It is
probable, therefore, that we have here on Cynodon a new
species.

NOTES ON THE GENUS BALANSIA. 6/3

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE AND TEXT FIGURES.

Plate 25. — Shoot of abnormal grass {Cynodon dactyl on), showing

deformed inflorescence at tip, s/clerotia, and imperfectly

developed leaves.
Fig. I. — Cross section through a sclerotium, showing fruiting stromata,

perithecia, cavities in fungal mass and embedded leaves of

host.
Fig. 2. — Perithecia, with ripening asci.
Fig- 3 a. — A single ascus, showing cap " cell," and tapering at base.

b. — A single filiform ascospore.
Fig. 4. — Germinating ascospores, showing germ tubes being pushed out.

Botanical Laboratories,

Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

Paper from Sugar-cane Leaves. — An invention

has been patented in Japan for manufacturing pulp for paper-
making from sugar-cane leaves. The leaves are chopped up and
cleaned by air, boiled with caustic soda and lime for four hours,
washed in a special vat, and beaten in a beating- machine. The
fibres are next bleached for four hours by means of chloride of
lime and sulphuric acid, being meanwhile steamed at a temperature
of 75° to 80° C. The bleached fibre is rinsed with water in an
oscillating strainer, and is then sized and transferred to a mill-
board machine.

Smoke Screens. — G. A. Richter, in the Proceedings of
the American Electrochemical Soci(^ty^ says that when smoke
screens were found to be necessary for the purposes of the
American fighting forces, a smoke having satisfactory obscuring
power was produced by the action of ammonia vapour on hydro-
chloric acid gas, but the difficulty of handling large quantities
of hydrochloric acid led to advantage being taken of the pro-
perty of silicon tetrachloride to hydrolyse readily, forming
hydrochloric acid. The tetrachloride, if suddenly dispersed by
means of an explosive charge, produces a large cloud, the inten-
sity of which is increased in the presence of ammonia. The
conditions necessary for maximum obscuring power are — (i)
The tetrachloride and ammonia must be sprayed into the air in
a finely atomised state; (2) both ingredients must be greatly
diluted with air before they are allowed to mix; (3) there must
be enough moisture in the air to hydrolyse the tetrachloride com-
pletely before it mixes with the ammonia.

NATIVE CHILD LIFE.

By Rev. Samuel Gershom Gilkes Aitchison, M.A., D.D.

The details of Native Child Life are not only numerous,
humorous, and heterogeneous, but exceedingly interesting and
instructive, specially from an educational point of view. The
following is intended to be a brief description of some of these
details. The writer approaches the subject, not with the attitude
of an expert, but with that of the earnest student seeking more
light and information on a fascinating and important topic for
all who are concerned in the welfare and uplifting of the South
African Bantu.

That the Native mind is steeped in superstition may be
readily traced from the precautions constantly taken to protect
tliemselves and their children from the machinations of some
supposed enemy. Natural death, except from senile decay, is
regarded as an impossibility. Consequently when death inter-
venes before a ripe old age is reached the departed one is looked
upon as a victim of the abafakati (wizards and witches), who
are supposed to be continually exercising a malevolent influence
over the community. The belief in witchcraft is a very real and
definite conviction, and the attendant customs are a constant
source of unrest and fear. No matter how absurd and ridiculous
the ideas are in regard to this superstition, they are given
credence to with a faith worthy of a better object. From child-
hood to old age the Native lives in constant apprehension concern -
mg the designs of an " enemy,'' who is supposed to possess occult
powers and to exercise his spell by means of invisible baboons,
S'lakes, dogs, owls, etc., which act as his messengers. Such is the
environment of the Bantu child in his kraal, which, with many
rites and ceremonies too numerous to mention, is most detri-
mental to his mental and spiritual development. It may be well
to state at this juncture that the foregoing remarks, as well as
those that follow, refer to the children of the raw or heathen
Native.

As a rule the advent of an addition to the family is hailed
with great rejoicing. In the event of the child being a boy, the
inkosa}va yckaya (the young master of the kraal) is heralded; if
a girl, the umvusi zvomai (the raiser up of the kraal) is pro-
claimed. The words umvusj. womzi have reference to the fact
that on some future occasion ten head of cattle will be received
for her !

In former times the father was expected to be absent from
home when his children were born. A great chief did not return
bffore the expiration of three months, a headman absented him-
self for a month, and a commoner for about a fortnight. O'n the
father's return, a feast (called the umdhliwa-zandhla) was held,
and the child's relatives were expected to bring it presents.
During the feast a goat was slain as an offering to the ancestral
spirits (aiiiatongo), and the skin of the slaughtered animal was

NATIVE CHILD LIFE. 6/5

prepared as follows : On the day after the feast, the integ-ument
was smeared over with red clay, and after being pegged out lo
dry was carefully rubbed over with a smooth stone {imbogodo).
When ready the hide was used as a sleeping mat for the baby.
Prior to the festival referred to the father was prohibited from
seeing his child, but as a matter of fact, many a stolen peep at
the infant was taken! In the event of his being caught in the
act of admiring his oiTspring, fines were imposed. These were
paid to the old women of the kraal, who were always on the look-
out not to lose any opportunity that might present itself of
obtaining this perquisite ! The custom, however, that prohibited
the father from being present at the birth of his child has now
become obsolete.

Soon after seeing the light the infant undergoes the following
process of being smoked (called iikufntiva). Several varieties
of medicinal herbs are placed in an earthenware vessel with some
live coals to produce a dense smoke, and the child is swayed to
and fro in the fumes. This procedure is carried out every morn-
ing at sunrise, and is continued until the infant is about two or
three months old. At this period the process is changed ; and
roots of a medicinal nature are hung round the baby's neck, with
pieces of skin cut from the hide of an eland ; failing this, pieces
of goat or sheep skin are used. In some tribes the first joint of
the fourth finger of the left hand is amputated when the infant
is about three days old, and the portion is buried in the floor of
the hut, the exact spot being known only to the parents. Should
the finger joint by any chance be disturbed by an unseen hand,
the kraal owner immediately consults a " witch-doctor," who is
supposed to be able to clear up the mystery. In regard to the
operation alluded to, it is believed that unless the custom is
carried out, the child will be constantly fretful, and may grow
up weak and puny.

At the age of about four months, the ceremony of removing
the hair is gone through. Beer and food are prepared for the in-
mates of the kraal only, and during the feast the baby's head is
carefully shaved by the father with a well-sharpened knife. The
hair is handed to the mother, who ties it up in a small piece of
hide, and attaches the bundle to her neck. This tiny parcel will
be worn by her, day and night, until the second crop of hair has
grown and been shaved oil. The two lots of hair are then buried
by the side of the finger joint. The first " crop " is carefully
guarded by the mother until the second has appeared, in order
to prevent it falling into the hands of an enemy, who. by anoint-
ing it with poison, and burning it, would cause the child to be
permanently bald !

When the mother returns from the fields, or has been out
visiting, she takes- a bite from a root (called inqawaiie) , which
she wears suspended from her neck, and gently expectorates on
her, little one's face to neutralise the evil designs of an enemy.
On one occasion a Native woman called at the writer's house with
her baby boy, who was quite nude with .the exception of a strip

676 NATIVE CHILD LIFE,

of hide tied round the hips, and another piece knotted at the top
of the little woolly head. A visitor asked why the child was thus
adorned, and the mother promptly explained that the pieces C)f
hide prevented the abatakati (wizards and witches) from causing
the food to go up or down before the process of digestion wis
properly completed !

Shortly after the shaving ceremony, the infant is subjected
to the process of blood-letting. The child is placed on a sheep-
skin, in the hut, and small gashes are made all over the body,
including the face and hands ; the wounds are then covered with
red clay to stop the haemorrhage. This operation is supposed,
first, to make the child healthy by removing- impure blood ;
secondly, to increase circulation ; and thirdly, to make the
infant beautiful and comely. Naughty, unruly children,
up to the age of four years, are subjected to phlebo-
tomy as a punishment for their misbehaviour. One good
gash is often considered sufficient. This is a most effectual
method of chastisement, and seldom has to be resorted to more
tb.an once. Blood-letting is again repeated at the age of five or
six years, not as a punishment, but for medical purposes. After
the age of four, correction (when considered necessary) is ad-
ministered by means of a good birching.

In the event of the child becoming seriously ill, a goat is
slaughtered tO' propitiate the ancestral spirits (amatonga). Some
of the entrails are tossed over the principal post of the hut,
facing the door, and the ancestral spirits are sup|>osed to descend
during the night and appease their appetite. A strip of flesh
from the sacrificial animal is roasted over the coals, sprinkled
over with a powdered herb specially prepared by the " doctor,"
cut into pieces, and every child in the kraal is given a morsel,
which must be hurriedly chewed and speedily ejected, the children
being instructed to beseech the ancestral spirits to remove their
displeasure from the home.

Najii^ing the Child. — The names of children are often given
f'-onl some incident connected with the birth, the peculiarity of
tlie locality, or the employment of the parents at the time, con-
sequently the names are sometimes very ridiculous and sometimes
very appropriate.

A baby is washed immediately after birth, and this exper-
ience is not repeated for sonle considerable time. It is thought
that continual ablution would be extremely detrimental to the
child's health, the natural filth that accumulates on the body
being regarded as necessary, and any process that would
periodically remove this is considered contrary to the laws of
hvgiene. The infant is not, burdened with too much clothing.
The little boys run about in all their pristine beauty, and the little
girls are also unclothed, a tiny " sporran " of beads being the
only " dress." A sheep-skin, with the woolly side next the wearer,
is used by the herd-boys on cold wet days, but the younger
children are not so fortunate. Red clay is liberally used to pre-
vent the skin fmm being blistered by the sun's rays.

NATIVE CHILD LIFE. 677

At the age of puberty the girls are given a cotton blanket to
wrap round themselves, and at this period practices are indulged
in which, to say the least, are not calculated to promote the
purity of the young people.

Native children are extremely " old-fashioned " in their
knowledge of erotic matters, and their environment is such that
they are being continually reminded of these things.

In some tribes circumcision is carried out with subsequent
rites degrading to both sexes.

Discipline is exceedingly lax. With the exception of the
very young child, who is punished by phlebotomy, the older
children are allowed to do almost as they please. The occasions
on which the boys may sustain a good whipping are when the
herding has been neglected and the stock has been in the gardens,
or the calves have drained their mothers of milk. In such cases
the umnmnzana usually bides his time, and restrains his wrath
until the youngsters come home tired and hungry from the fields.
A tempting dish of curds and whey (called amusi) is placed in
the hut, and the boys invited to enjoy a good meal. No sooner
have they sat down to the appetising repast than the irate parent
comes in. armed with a supple switch, blocks the doorway, and
lays on lustily ! As a rule. Native parents are very affectionate
towards their children, and the young people themselves love
their homes, their relatives and their surroundings. On the
whole there is no idea of respect instilled, nor is obedience en-
forced.

The little boys are expected to tend the calves ; the youths
herd the stock and assist in the ploughing or in any work that
may be considered necessary for the time being.

Labour of any kind is looked upon as an unfortunate neces-
sity, to be got through with as speedily as possible. The little
g:rls are seldom punished, but they are expected to learn how to
cook, sweep, prepare grain for umvubo, make amasi, brew beer,
tend the babies, fetch and carry, and perform all the necessary
household duties. The girl will become in time the burden-
bearer ; she will be called upon to accomplish most of the work
in the home, including the weeding of the gardens, etc., conse-
quently she must know what to do, and recognise her position
as the worker. On one occasion the writer met a Native on
horseback coming along a path followed by his wife, who carried
a bundle on her head, a baby on her back, and several articles
in each hand. When it was suggested to the husband that he
should assist in bearing the burdens, he replied, with the greatest
astonishment depicted on his swarthy countenance. " I am not a
woman, I am a man!" On another occasion the writer saw
some girls attempting to lift large bundles of faggots on to their
heads, while several youths sat by looking on quite unconcerned.
" They are the workers ! " was the retort given to a reprimand
for their lack of courtesy. I submit that the above are no doubt
extreme cases, nevertheless the fact remains that the principle
pervades the Native mind, beginning in childhood to manifest
itself by the absence of respect towards the weaker sex.

678 NATIVE CHILD LIFE.

Sports and Pastilmes. — The following are some of the
pastimes indulged in by Native children.

Bird and rat hunting, the quarry being taken home, roasted
over the coals, and eaten with great relish.

Tobogganing (the toboggan being constructed from the
forked branch of a tree, to serve as runners).

Games of skill, e.g., ukuhlaba intsema. The root of a bulbi-
ferous plant is used. The boys stand in a row about three or
four yards apart, on an inclined plane. One of their number
is told off to start the bulb, and as it passes down the line,
sharpened sticks are thrown at it. The boy who succeeds in
transfixing the bulb is given the highest place.

Tops are made from various bulbs through which a
sharpened stick is thrust. These are spun by twirling the stick
between the hands, and are allowed to revolve on a sheepskin
prepared for the purpose. The little girls make dolls from clay
and dress them up in any rags that may be found lying about,
and the boys make little models of oxen, etc., from clay.

Education. — I do not wish it to be understood that the few
foregoing details are in every case meant to be used as an index
to the methods of education necessary for the Native, for it has
been aptly said in reference to anecdotes of child life that " a
great deal of material, which even if intelligently collected is
simply data for the scientific specialist, is often presented as if
educational practice could be guided by it." However, it is most
desirable that the instructor should have some knowledge of his
pupil. Fifty years ago it was considered sufficient for the
teacher merely to know his subject in order to impart it
efficiently ; at the present day it is recognized as very necessary
that he should know his pupil as well. This principle was taken
cognizance of by Plato in his " Republic," where he discusses
the Theory of Education, and in more modern times the same
idea has been put forth by Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel.
Some of the undesirable results in reference to Native education
in South Africa may be due, in large measure, to the fact that
we do not knoiv our pupils as we ought.

Educationalists are aware of the fact that home influence is
a great power for good or evil in the direction of develop)ing
the child's mental and moral faculties. Raymont, in his
admirable work entitled " The Principles of Education,'' states
that "the school is almost helpless when the home influence is
on the wrong side." In studying the c^uestion we come to the
conclusion that during the most impfessionable period in the
life of the Native child his whole .social surroundings are not
calculated to uplift or enlighten him in the principles of integ-
rity, purity, honesty, truthfulness and industry.

When a young Native straight from a kraal comes to
school, he finds himself surrounded by a totally different environ-
ment from that which obtains in his home, and he cannot but
gaze with astonishment at the strange new things around him
which he has never seen before. Here he finds that what was

NATIVE CHILD LIFE. - . . 6/9

taken no notice of in the way of 'behaviour by his parents is
vigorously deprecated by his instructor.

And yet it is creditable to observe how quickly the tyro
begins to adjust himself to the new conditions. In the case
of the Native child, unlike the majority of Europeans, a totally
new environment must be created for him. His mind has to be
gradually weaned from the mental and moral atmosphere to
which he has been accustomed. Rather than that the home of
the Bantu youth should be regarded as " the one indispensable
factor in the child's training," one would venture to suggest that
better results might follow if it were possible for the young-
people to be entirely removed from their kraal life for a number
of years, particularly during the most impressionable period, and
placed in some scholastic establishment where they would be
constantly under careful discipline, not merely during school
hours, but from the time of their admission to the time oif their
departure. It has been said of Europeans that " during the
first six years, the child's proper place is at home, or in some
institution which seeks to realise as far as possible the free-
dom, the spontaneity, and the affectionate intercourse of a
good home," and the writer's suggestion is that the latter course
would be by far the better one for Native children, exceptions
being made in some cases with the children of educated Chris-
tian parents.

In connection with Native child life it is well to bear in
mind that one of the principal objects of education is the forma-
tion and development of character, and to this end mere book
work is inadequate. The suggestions put forth by Dr. C. T.
Loram, in his splendid work entitled " The Education of the
South African Native," which deals exhaustively with this
important subject, are well worth the consideration of all those
interested in the welfare of these people.

Concrete Sleepers — On the railway line between
Asti and Altavilla in Italy a system of interlinked sleepers of rein-
forced concrete has been adopted. The sleepers are arranged
lengthwise beneath each rail. They are triangular in cross
section, and each rests on a pedestal along the centre of its
base, so that they are capable of a rocking motion which imparts
some resiliency to the rails. Each sleeper supports the rail at
two points, about as far apart as in the case of ordinary trans-
verse sleepers, and at each point a cushion of hard wood is
interposed between the rail and the sleeper. The advantages of
the system are said to comprise uniform elasticity; greater
exactness in, and better maintenance of the level of the line and
the gauge ; resistance by canting at least equal to that possessed
by lines as now constructed ; and less creeping of the rails.

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION IN A FEW
MAMMALIAN GROUPS.

By Thomas F. Dreyer^ B.A., Ph.D.

(Received for publication, October 22, igi8.)

As our knowledge of living^ animals and of their fossil fore-
runners increase, our classification of them becomes ever more
complex. If this classification were merely to serve the purpose
of a catalogue, it would no doubt serve its purpose excellently ;
but it pretends to be more than such a catalogue. It aims at being
as nearly natural as our knowledge allows in that every individual
group is meant to contain only species having the same origin, i.e.,
only monophyletic species.

A good example of the methods of systematists, and one that
will clearly illustrate the above, is the change made in the
orientation of the Solenodons of the West Indian Islands. The
genus Solcnodon is represented by two species, one in Cuba and
one in Hayti, and these bear such striking resemblances to a
Mascarene group of Insectivores, the Centetid.?e. that
they were formerly included in this family. But if this
family is to include both the West Indian and the
Mascarene forms, it is to be supposed that these forms
are derived immediately from a common ancestor. Now,
if the two localities of their occurrence had been close
together, they would, I venture to say. have remained comfortably
coupled together ; but since they are so widely separated from
each other geographically, it had to be supposed that they are
" both survivors oi an ancient group of Insectivores, extinct else-
where." With this natural bias established, it was easy to find a
number of variable characters to sur«Tx>rt their separation, so that
now they rank as separate families, i.e., their common ancestor
has been pushed back by one step into the distant past.

This procedure is sanctioned by long usage, and the separa-
tion, phyletically, of two such geographically widely separated
genera as Solcnodon and Centetis into entities of a higher order
than, the genus is almost certainly correct ; and it is of course best
to be conservative and to push back the theoretical connection by
the smallest possible degrees. It is, however, conceivable that
the innumerable twigs formed in this way may completely obscure
the larger branches and even the main trunk. The present method
seems to me to aim at defining the number of phyletic leaves and
to limit further enquiries to the petioles of these leaves, but to
take it as understood that these petioles will, if followed down
their twngs, end in one or other of the branches which has been
labelled as some mammalian order.

What I propose to do is to attempt to find data which will
indicate whether or not the accepted mammalian orders originated
from the main mammalian stem as single or multiple branches.
I will not attempt to make the enquirv detailed : that, in fact, would
be impossible. I want to limit mvself to Creodont mammals
(Lemurs, Primates, Carnivora and Insectivora), and -these I want

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS. 68 1

to inspect and review only in such isolated regions as Australia
and Madagascar, where the process can be reconstructed with
more certitude.

The orders have been established on the basis of the
universal possession by the members included in it, of certain
complexes of characters ; but I want to instance a few cases
for which it is possible to believe that whole complexes of
characters have been developed separately.

My first case is that of the marsupials in general, of which
we know that they have become differentiated into forms, strik-
ingly similar to those of the placental mammals. And in par-
ticular I want to instance the marsupial mole {Notoryctes) and its
parallel the golden mole {Chrysochloris) of South Africa. The
two animals are so strikingly similar, not only in fur and general
appearance but also in skeletal characters, that Professor Cope
has insisted on the genetic affinity between them. Such an
afifinity, in the sense that both are descended from a common
ancestor of more or less similar structure is absolutely out of
the question, and we must conclude that the characteristic struc-
ture has, as a whole, been evolved twice in the two distant
localities.

My second example is that of the horse. Starting from
the Eocene, we have in both America and in Europe a series of
parallel forms culminating in the Equidse in Europe and in
America in a horse-like creature, which, in fact, seems to have
been recognised as a horse in the Argentine by John Cabot in
1530, i.e.^ at a date apparently too early for the European horses
to have established themselves there.

The series are so similar that we have either to imagine a con-
stant migration between the twO' continents, which is, of course,
not impossible, or to assume that the two series represent a case
of very exactly parallel evolution.

The third case is that of the African Otocyon, which has
one grinder more than the Canidge are defined as possessing, and
has, moreover, an inflected lower jaw. Mr. Beddard* states in
effect, that we must either assume that this dog has gained a
molar (which is improbable judging from what we know of the
course of evolution as regards dentition) or must believe that
Otocyon has evolved separately from other dogs, and in doing
so has reproduced the true dogs in the minutest details.

Further instances of such parallel evolution will be men-
tioned further on. but enough has been said to make out a case
in its favour, and we may now proceed to our review of the
Creodont-like mammals.

The unspecialised Creodonts were animals with a full denti-
tion, imoerfectly ossified palate, and Ion?, powerful, orobablv
prehensile tails. It is, however, doubtful whether the early
marsupials can be separated from these Creodonts : and when
we bear in mind the dif^cultv at present experienced in defining
the living marsunials. for which purpose not onlv the skeleton

♦"Mammalia." Camb. Nat. Hist.

682 DISCONTINUOUS DISTKIUUTION OF AIAMMALS.

but also the soft parts are available, it seems rather questionable
whether such a aistmction can be upheld. As examples, I may
mention the discovery of a placenta in Perameles ; the non-
inflected lower jaw of Tarsipcs; the absence, or, at least, vesti-
geal nature, of the epipubes in T/iylacinus; epipubic-like bones
m Oanis; palatal vacuities in Insectivora ; and marsupial vestiges
in many Euthena, especially in Lemur catta.

Such anomalies have induced the belief that marsupials have
evolved from placental mammals. But although this opinion
has crystallised, it is still believed that the marsupials of Aus-
tralia and of America represent a single monophyletic group ;
and there are several theories to account for their present distri-
bution. The obvious explanation is naturally the one which
has received most support, viz., that Australia and South America
were formerly both united to the Antarctic continent. A strong
support of this theory was the belief that the separation of mar-
supials into Poly- and DiJ protbdontia was a natural one. and
that both groups occurred in, both regions. There are here two
hypotheses, neither of which is conclusively proved : the
American Polyprotodont opossums approximate towards the
Australian Diprotodont phalangers in general appearance
rather than to any Australian group of Polyprotodonts.
It may be said that this general resemblance is but skin-
deep, but there has been no change of habit ; the climbing habit
is retained in both, so that the approximation in form cannot
be adaptive, but must have some phyletic significance. It is said
(Mr. Thomas) that the American opossum is " very closely
allied to the Dasyuridse, from which, were it not for its isolated
geographical position, it w^ould be very doubtfully separable."
It seems to me, however, that the prehensile tail, so common in
living archaic forms, usually said to have retained Creodont
characters, distinguishes the more archaic opossums from the
less archaic Dasyuridge. Moreover, the American Ccenolestes
was at first referred to the Diprotodontia, but it is now referred
to the Polyprotodoiitia owing to mutual similarities between it,
the Australian Pouched Mice and the American opossums. The
above indicates that the subdivision of the marsupials is a merely
arbitrary one, based on Australian forms, and that the American
forms can only with difficulty be squeezed into the arrangement.
This first support for the Antarctic theory is therefore far from
being convincing. f'~*~

A second series of evidence is 'the occurrence among Ameri-
can fossils of forms recalling definitely Thylacinns and Dasyurits.
Beddard, however, mentions that these so-called marsupials
show no lack of ossification of the palate, and that their inclu-
sion amongst marsupials is oi doubtful validity.

Thirdly, if is said that there' are' reasons to believe "that
the Diprotodonts are not to be recognised with certainty amongst
the earlier European marsupials, so that migration could not
have occurred by the Northern route. It may no doubt be un-
certain whether the Plaeiaulacidie were Diprotodonts, but if we
take this group (the Diprotodonts) as merely a , type adapted

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS. 683

to a graminivorous existence the argument has no cogency, since
we know that similar types may be evolved separately under
similar conditions from similar ancestors, or even from distinct
ancestors, a southern bridge being thus unnecessary.

A second theory to account for the present localisation of
the marsupials is the polar theory, according to which all forms
originate in the Northern Arctic region, from which the older
forms are constantly pressed southwards by the newly-evolved
forms. Thus the oldest mammals, the marsupials, have been
pressed back to the two Southern points, where they are found
at present. This theory, however, leaves unexplained the
absence of marsupials from Africa, for it has been shown that
the data on which the occurrence of a sea in the region of the
present Sahara was postulated was erroneous.

Beddard* discusses both views, and they are so little con-
vincing to him that he establishes a third theory, viz., that mar-
supials originated in the region of their greatest density — Aus-
tralia ; and from here wandered to Europe and America. He
mentions the difficulty presented by the absence of marsupials
from Africa, but ends up by saying that this absence may even
be used to support his theory ; for the emigrants from Australia
were so comparatively weak in numbers in Europe that colonies
were not pressed down into Africa. To this the obvious answer
would, of course, be the question : How is it, then, that they
were numerous enough to exert pressure in the direction of
America?

From the above it will be seen that our conception of the
course followed by nature in leaving the marsupials stranded
in the two distant Southern regions is far from clear or unani-
mous. .

The two forms of Australian marsupials which have the
greatest claims to being the ancestral form are probably the
Cuscuses and the Pouched Mice. Their claims I base on their
full dentition, long tails, general resemblance to living Creodont-
like Eutheria, and to the American marsupials, as also on their
distribution. The Cuscuses are on the borders of, and even in,
the Oriental region, and the Pouched Mice are widely distributed
over the Australian region, even to the Aru Islands. The
Cuscuses have retained the archaic prehensile tail, but one species
of Australian mice has also done so. The Pouched Mice have
retained the full dentition, whereas in the Cuscuses some of the
premolars have become functionless and vestigeal. The Pouched
Mice are more archaic in having a rudimentary marsupium, and
it is probable that both are somewhat specialised descendants of
the ancestral Australian marsupial. But if this view of the
origin of Australian marsupials be correct, i.e., that they became
diflferentiated in the Australasian region from a generalised
Creodont ancestor, and if. further, the American marsupials
originated in a similar manner from a like Creodont, we need
not be surprised that Africa has no marsupials, since we see

* " Zoogeography."

684 DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS.

that the process of differentiation has not followed exactly
similar lines in Australia and America, and we can therefore
expect that in Africa the process will also have been charac-
teristic. 'But on such a view we must accept that the Creodont
stock which populated Australia and America would also have
emigrated to Africa; and we must be able to find traces of this
emigration. Now Africa has, near its Southern end, an island
whose relation to the continent is similar to that of Australia to
Asia. Has this island any mammals which may be compared
to the Australian marsupials? I venture to affirm that it does
possess such mammals in the Lemurs. This opinion I base on
the following features : —

1. The Galagininge, the members of which are generalised
in structure, and which is the only group occurring in both
Africa and Madagascar, must be considered to be nearest the
ancestral Lemur. In this group the palate is imperfectly ossi-
fied, as it also is in Insectivores and Marsupials.

2. In Creodonts the tail was long, powerful, and therefore
possibly prehensile. That it was prehensile is indicated by its
possession by numerous living forms usually labelled Creodont-
like, e.g., Arctitis, Cercolcptis, Aelurus, Ptilocercus, Capromys,
etc. Both the Marsupials (phalangers and Cuscuses) and the
Lemurs (Galagininae and others) are still so generalised as to
retain this prehensile tail.

3. The marsupials being apparently descended from placental
mammals, must originally have had only a rudimentary mar-
supium. The marsupials have developed this structure into a
pouch, and of all the Eutherian mammals the Lemur catta has
the marsupium best developed.

4. Of the Creodont mammals, i.e., those — namely, the Insec-
tivora, Carnivora, and Lemuroidea — descended from the Creo-
donts, projecting incisor teeth are found only in Marsupials^
Lemurs, and the New World monkeys.

5. The forms originated by the two groups are comparable.
It is a deeply significant fact that the marsupials have given
rise to forms analogous with a very large number of Creodont-
like Eutheria, whereas the Ungulates and Primates are totally un"
represented. The former group, judging from their high degree
of specialisation in very early periods, did not originate from
the Creodonts. although it is possible that the two groups are
descended from similar ancestors. But if they and Creodonts
are ultimately monophyletic, we have to explain how the Creo-
donts lost the potentiality for producing the Ungulate- form a
second time. The ordinarily used explanation would be that the
Creodonts were too much specialised in a direction different to
that oi the Ungulates, but such an answer does not atteinpt to
explain.

The case of Primates is more anomalous, since they are
u«inlly considered to be descendants of Lemuroid ancestors ;
so that if the primitive marsupial was similar to the primitive
Lprniir, we should exnect to find both producine Primates.
A ^-^ in St this we mav answer that the Lemurs in Madagascar

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MA;MMALS.

685

have also been unable to produce a Primate-like form. It is true
that one such has been found fossil, but this form is not similar
to the Old- World Primates, as we should have expected, but so
similar to the New-World Primates that a land connection between
Madagascar and South America over Africa has even been
postulated. Now, in Europe fossil Lemuroids (Microchccrus and
Adapis) have been found which differ from Lemurs and agree
with the Primates in having the lower canines caniniform,
whereas in the Lemurs they are incisiform, the first lower pre-
molar being caniniform. It is therefore evident that the Old-
World Primates are not descended from the Southern Lemurs,
but form a parallel series with them, the area of their origin
having apparently been Southern Asia, if we are to judge by
the assemblage of forms found ifossil in India. The American
Primates, as I have already mentioned, are particularly like the
Lemurs, and the only way in which we can represent the ancestry
of the whole group would be thus : —

A^. AMERICA

EUROPE

ASIA

S.AMERICA

AFRICA

lAOAOASCM

AUSTRALASIA

Leaving, then, the absence of Ungulates and Primates from
Madagascar and Australia, we may compare the forms actually
produced.

The similarity between the Cuscuses and Galagininae is most
probable the similarity of the original forms.

Insectivora. — The only convincingly . Insectivoran-like
animal of Australia is the marsupial mole (Notoryctes), and it
is very suggestive that an authority on mammals should have
insisted on its relationship to the Cape Golden Moles (Chryso-
chloris), an insectivoran in the Lemur region, and one, more-
over, differing very widely from the Northern Talpidse in the
method of fitting the front limb to the breast. Madagascar,
however, has typical Insectivores in the Centetidse, and again, it
is curious that their nearest relations should be in the American
region (also a marsupial region), namely, the Solenodons of

686 DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIRUTION OF MAMMALS.

Cuba. It is, of course, open to us to believe that this kind of
Insectivore is an archaic remnant of a stock formerly found con-
tinuously over the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Such is, of
course, the usual opinion. But, when considering the Carnivora,
I shall show that in that group there is a form combining the
characters of the Lemurs, Insectivores, and Carnivores ; also,
the Insectivores are lowly descendants of the Creodonts, and the
Creodont immigrant into Madagascar was the Galago-like
ancestor of the Lemurs. What, therefore, is the difficulty of
assuming that a definitely Lemur-like ancestor could still give
origin to an Insectivore?

Carnivora. — The dog-form we only meet with in Australia
(Thylacintis) . The Dingo is said to be a truly wild and not
feral species, but it, like the native humans, may have been an
immigrant. In Madagascar the type has not appeared. We may
either assume that the Lemur stock has been incapable of assum-
ing this form, or we may suppose that the environment in Mada-
gascar is not such as to allow of the production of the steppe-
loving dog- form. It is at least suggestive that Australia should
certainly have evolved the dog-form, whilst both Africa (the
home of the Lemurs) and America (the home of Marsupials)
should possess archaic dogs. Thus America has the Bush Dog
(Icticyon) of British Guiana, which is said to resemble the
Oriental Palm Civets (Paradoxurus) , and Africa has Otocyon,
in the sandy regions, which has an inflected mandible, and of
which Beddard says: " It is possible that Otocyon is a persistent
Creodont-like form, which has developed in a direction curiously,
and in most detailed fashion, parallel to the dogs. If, however,
we may assume the addition of the molar (it has one more than
in dogs), then this anomalous but not necessarily untenable con-
clusion is obviated.'' Further light will be thrown on this case
by a consideration of the cats.

Aeluroids. — The cat-form is found in Australia (Dasyurus)
and in Madagascar (Cryptoprocta). It has, however, not yet
iDeen suggested that Cryptoprocta has any relation to the
Lemurs. In Madagascar, " where all the most peculiar
Viverridcr live," as Beddard says, we find also Eupleres.
This animal has an insectivore-like dentition, agrees with the
Lemurs in having the premolars caniniform, and is included in
the Viverridcu. In labelling the Mascarene Viverrids "peculiar."
their aloofness from the other Carnivora is tacitly accepted, and
bearing in mind the presence of such an ideal transition form as
Eupleres, one has no difficulty in believing that the present order
Carnivora is not monophyletic, but that Madagascar has evolved
its own " Viverrids," just as Australia did its Dasyurus. It is
also curious that the Fossa (Cryptoprocta) of Madagascar is said
to bear a striking resemblance to the Evra cat of America.

Arctoids. — The Koala (Phascolarctos) of Australia vaguelv
suggests the bears, but the resemblance of the Tasmanian devil
(Sarcophilus arsinus) to some of the lower Arctoids is much
more convincing. In Madagascar, however, there are no Arctoid
forms, although they are all well represented in Africa.

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MAfMMALS, 687

We see thus that Madagascar has, of the three groups of
land Carnivores, only succeeded in giving us the Cat group. The
environment in Madagascar has not either the extent or the
variety of that of Australia, and we can reasonably assume that
the process of differentiation has been much slower in the former
than in the latter.

Rodents. — For our purpose this is a most interesting group.
Their linkage is still dubious, although the fossil Tillodontia
possess a complex of characters, some of which are also found
in Rodents, whilst others are to be found again in the Ungulata.
Huxley (says Beddard) used to insist on certain likenesses shown
by such apparently diverse animals as the rabbit and the elephant.
It is not said what these characters are, but anyone who has
before him the skull of a Springha<as (Pedetes), a dassie
(Hyrax), and an antelope will find such similarities. It will be
noticed that the palatine and pterygoid are sutured to each other,
and to the pre- and basi-sphenoid in such a way that in the
group with Creodont ancestry the roof of the mouth is com-
pletely separated from the orbit. In the above animals, however,
there remains a longitudinal slit between these bones through
which the obit of the skull communicates with the mouth cavity.
Also, if attention is fixed on a point in front of the articulation of
the lower jaw, just where the squamosal meets the alisphenoid. a
projection will be noticed in the skull of the antelope, and this
projection points straight forwards to a backwardly-directed pro-
cess of the palatine, starting from the outer edge of the last
grinder. This incipient bar of bone is complete in the skulls
of the dassie, of the springhaas, of the vlaktehaas, and is com-
pletely absent in Creodont-Eutheria, and also' in the horse.

The Rodent-like appearance of the dassie seems thus to be
more than skin-deep ; the affinities of the Duplicidentate Rodents
to Ungulates, indicated by the fossil Tillodontia, seems to be
borne out by similarities, apparently not of an adaptive nature,
between those Rodents and the archaic Ungulate, Hyrax.

On the other hand the Simplicidentate Rodents are
apparently to be linked to the Creodonts.

One of the oldest groups of Rodents is said to be the Ham-
sters (Sigmodontincc) , which is represented by peculiar forms
in all three of our Creodont regions. In Madagascar it is the
only group of Rodents. In America it is represented by a num-
ber of genera. One particular one (Ichthyojuys) of Peru has a
skull said to show likenesses to that of the Australian Hydro niys.
Now. when we bear in mind the tendency of small marsupials to
lose the marsupium and the inflection of the lower jaw, can we
not consider the probability of the Australian mice being mar-
supial in origin ?

Another interesting group of Rodents is the family Octo-
dontidae. This family has representatives both in Africa and in
America; and Lyddeker ("Royal Natural History" and "Harms-
worth Natural History ") does not separate the African and
American generi as Beddard ("Cambridge Natural History")

H

688 DISCONTINUOUS DISTKIBUTION OF MA,MMALS.

does. Lydekker says : " Some naturalists separate the African
genera from the Octodontidse as a separate family, Ctenodacty-
iidae. Such an arrangement, however, tends to obscure the inti-
mate connection existing between the African and American
forms, and is therefore undesirable." Beddard still includes one
African genus, Pteromys, in the Octodontidae (American genera),
but says that it should be, rather, as it is by Thomas,
referred to the Ctenodactylidas, which would clear up
the geographical anomaly. This is again a case of discontinuous
distribution, such as that of the Lemurs, Marsupials, and
Primates, and also here we find the group showing archaic
characters ; such are, firstly, the teeth, which in Pteromys are
described thus by Beddard : " Their surface is uneven, and differs
from other Hystricomorphs in that the enamel to the inside
of each upper jaw-tooth and outside on each lower jaw-tooth
forms two tubercles " ; secondly, in that a prehensile tail is still
retained by the Cuban Hutia (Capromys prehensilis).

That these very similar animals have been divided according
to their geographical occurrence is, of course, a tacit acceptance
of the hypothesis that they are phyletically distinct, but have fol-
lowed parallel lines in their evolution.

Further, the above families of Hystricomorphs more or less
lead over to the Porcupines ; and the singular fact in this is that
the Octodontidae merge into the American Tree Porcupines (Cer-
colabidas), whereas the Ctenodactylidas must be connected to the
Old-World Porcupines (Hystricid^e).

Now these animals have tails of variable length, and the
American forms have still the Creodont prehensile tail ; we can
illustrate their possible ancestry thus : —

A. Creodont ancestor in America

(also ancestor of the Marsupials?)

ITutia-like ancestor

Tree porcupines. Octodontidse. Cricetidae.

(white- footed mice
of America)
B. Creodont ancestor in Africa

y (also ancestor of Lemurs?)

Pectinator-like form
(somewhat Squirrel-like )s.

'^^ Ctenodactylidae.

Aulacodus-like ancestor.

I , - .

Porcupines.

DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS, 689

111 the American forms all three families show a develop-
ment of spines ; in the African group also both families are spiny.
The group corresponding to the Cricetidae is apparently only re-
presented in Northern Africa, i.e., really in the European area,
but it is, as already mentioned, represented by peculiar genera in
Madagascar. Is it not possible that the Aye- Aye (Chiixfmys)
is a specialised descendant of the squirrel-like Lemuroid, which
has also given rise to the Mascarene Hamster-like mice?

From the above it will have been noticed, and such cases may
be much multiplied, that again and again we come to similar
groups at present widely separated geographically ; the usual
comment for such is that they are isolated survivals of old groups
formerly much more widely separated. Against this is the case of
modem groups (see Beddard, "Zoogeography"), showing the same
phenomenon : discontinuity of distribution, and also the absence
of proof of their former wider distribution. In connection here-
with one has only to call to mind that Old-World Catarrhina are
not found fossil in America, and the New-World Platyrrhina only
in America ; that it is doubtful whether any present Australian
Marsupials are fotmd fossil outside of Australia — ^the forms found
in Europe and America, if marsupials at all, may just as likely as
not be cases of parallel evolution ; that Lemurs are only found
fossil in Madagascar, the Lemuroids found elsewhere being still
ver}' generalised, showing both Lemur- and Primate- characters.

I believe that the above considerations are sufifiiciently sug-
gestive to procure the extension of the scope of the already
accepted (think of the Edentata and Ratitae) theory of parallel
evolution in such a way that morphology will not remain the sole
guide of systematists in so far as they are dealing with groups of
a high order, but !hat the geographical destruction of the animals
concerned will receive at least as much attention. If this should
'be done — something I hardly dare to hope — there will be less like-
lihood of zoologists regarding comparative anatomy as the only,
or at any rate the chief, truly scientific part of their subject ; then
there would be some hope of revivifying this intensely interesting
subject.

Grey University College,
Bloemfontein.

CENTRAL AFRICAN FOLK-LORE TALES.

By Rev. John Robert Lewis Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

{Not printed.)

A NEW TYPE OF ACCURATE SUNDIAL OR SOLAR

CLOCK.

By James Moir, M.A., D.Sc.
{Plate 26.)

(Read July 10, 1918.)

As is well known, the time as shown by a common sundial is
usually incorrect, the error* being, as a maximum, as much as
22 minutes, whilst it can also vary to the other side of correctness
to the extent of 9 minutes, giving a total variation during the year
of 31 minutes. This error, it may be mentioned for the sake of
amateurs, is due to the non-circular form of the earth's orbit
round the sun, and to the eccentric position of the sun in that
orbit.

Now there are several types of sun-clock on the market, in
which, by means of a graduated mechanism, the sun's irregular
motion can be compensated so that the instrument gives the
correct time. Examples of these can be seen in Johannesburg
at the Union Observatory and at the Country Club : their only
fault is their grossly excessive cost, which is quite beyond the
pocket of most private persons — particularly scientists.

About 15 years ago I had the idea that this problem could be
solved by means of the equatorial sundial. The latter is merely
a circular plate of metal, with a central axis of stout wire at
right angles to the plane of the plate. If such an arrangement is
supported at the ends of the wire so that the plate is parallel
to the equator (i.e., the wire points to the visible celestial
pole), then the sun in its apparent daily motion moves uniformly
round the wire, and the shadow of the latter on the plate also
moves uniformly, so that all that is necessary is to subdivide the
perimeter of the plate into equal divisions at the rate of 1° of
arc for every four minutes of time.

A simple dial of this kind was constructed for me in 1903 in
the engineering shops of the Kleinfontein Mine, and stood for
several years in my late brother's garden there. In this case, the
permanent sundial-error of eight minutes — due to its being set up
in longitude 28 E., whereas the clocks go by 30 E. — was compen-
sated for by setting it up so that the axial wire did not point
exactly at the south pole, but 2° off. This dial did not, of course,
give correct time, but the latter could always be obtained by
applying the correction called the " equation of time " (as given
in " Whitaker's Almanac," for example) to the observed time.

Within the past few years I have made two further improve-
ments on this type of dial, and* have now an instrument which,
made at small cost, is constantly reliable within one minute of
time, i.e., is much more correct than any of the clocks in town

'*/.^., in the Central Transvaal.

S.A. Assn. for Adv. of Science.

1918. Pl. 26

J MoiR.— A New Type of Sundial-

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A NEW TYPE OF SUNDIAL.

691

except those directly controlled by the Observatory. In this
instrument the axis points exactly north and south, but its socket
is loose enough to permit of rotating the plate. The stand, which
is exceedingly rigid, carries a projecting clamp on one side, which
enables the plate of the dial to be fixed after rotation, and, on
the other side, a small flat plate graduated into divisions, each
representing one minute of time on the dial. This is the " correct-
ing-plate,'" and is rigidly fixed into position so that its zero is
opposite a fixed point on the dial (I use 2 p.m. on the dial for
this purpose*) on those days of the year when the correction is
zero, and all sundials (in 28° E.) read correctly, vis.^ 23rd
September and 9th December. Finally, in the centre of the dial
there is inscribed a list of the corrections throughout the year,
and, owing to the slow variation of these corrections, only about
30 of these figures require to be engraved on the dial. The method
of using the dial is : ( i ) Find the nearest day to the date in this
list of corrections, and note the correction, say, -f- 7 minutes ;
(2) unclamp the dial and rotate it slightly until the 2 p.m. mark
is opposite + 7 on the correcting-plate, then reclamp the dial. The
time may then be read ofi: from the upper&dge of the shadow of the
axial wire where this shadow comes ofif the dial. Once adjusted,
the dial gives the correct time throiighout the day and for several
successive days, until the amount of the correction has changed ;
and, during those periods of the year when the correction is at
a maximum or minimum, it does not require readjustment for a
month.

The following is the table of corrections for Johannesburg,
the correction for any place being equation of time plus (4 X
(30° — longitude)) : —

Date.

Minutes.

Date.

Minutes.

I January

.+ 11

27 July

-\- I4(max.)

8 .. ' ...

+ 14

8 August

+ 13

18 ,.

+ 18

20 „

+ 11

25 ..

+ 20

27 „

+ 9

31

+ 21

6 September. . .

+ 6

1 1 February . . .

+ 22 (max

•)i7 „

+ 2

24 ,. ' ...

+ 21

23 „

zero

I March

+ 20

29 „

— 2

10 „

+ 18

5 October

4

24 ..

+ 14

17 M

— 7

3 April

+ 11

3 November. . .

— 9 (min.)

14 ,,

+ 8

14 M

— 8

28

+ 5

23 .,

— 6

All Ma>-

+ 4 (min.

.) 3 December . . .

3

I June

+ 5

9 „

zero

12

+ 7

16 „

+ 3

26

+ 10

22 „

+ 6

6 July

+ 12

.28 „

+ 9

14 ..

+ 13

* See Plate 26.

692 A NEW TYPE OF SUNDIAL.

It should be noted in graduating the correction-plate that
the plus side must be to the left and the minus side to the
right in the Southern Hemisphere. As regards the subdivision
of the dial-plate itself, there is one point to be noticed, namely,
that since the upper edge of the shadow is to be used (for the
sake of sharpness of reading), whether it is fore-
noon or afternoon, it is necessary to leave a space
at 12 o'clock to represent the thickness of the shadow,
i.e., both edges of the shadow must read 12 o'clock at noon. The
graduations for the forenoon hours must work to the left,
starting at the left edge of the noon shadow, whilst the after-
noon graduations start from its right edge, and go to the right-
Since the shadow is narrower than the wire which causes it, the
amount of space to leave at noon must be ascertained by observa-
tion. It is convenient to make the dial exactly 18 inches in
diameter, and the axial wire not less than ^^5 inch. In this case
the divisions on the perimeter work out at exactly i mm. per
minute of time, and the space at noon is about 4 mm., so that a
graduated steel tape can be curved round the pernneter and
used for finding the position of the hour marks and their sub-
divisions: e.g., 12 cm. to left of the left edge of the noon mark
gives the position of the 10 a.m. mark.

The correct mounting of the dial in its stand presents some
difficulties. An approximate north is first found by slowly
rotating a horizontal compass until the marked end of the needle
lies on 340°, when the N. and S. marks (360° and 180°) on its
dial will be in a line with the geographical north and south.
This can be verified and improved on at night by finding the
pole-star <r Octantis with field-glasses. The axial wire of the dial
has to lie in this line, yet not horizontally, but so that the north
end is lower, the angle of slope being the latitude of the place.
For Johannesburg and the Reef we have the Coincidence that this
angle is tan ~H, so that when correctly adjusted (with a spirit-level
below) the vertical height of any point on the wire is half the
horizontal distance along the level.

The axial wire must, of course, project from both sides of
the dial, partly for support and partly because in winter the sun
is below the level of the equatorial dial-plate, and consequently
it is the lower half of the axial wire which casts the shadow on
the dial in winter, whereas the upper half acts in summer. It
is desirable, however, for the sake of strength and rigidity, to
have the wire as short as possible, but with an 18" dial the
minimum length that can be used is 10", i.e., 5" on each side of
the dial-plate. The plate used to rivet the wire into the dial must
be thin, otherwise in March and September (when the sun is
nearly in line with the plate) it will itself cast a shadow on the
dial and prevent the time from being read.

The main drawback of an equatorial dial is this very fact that
it is somewhat troublesome to read in winter, when the shadow
is on the under-side of the dial-plate. There are, however, three

A NEW TYPE OF SUNDIAL. 693

methods of counteracting this. The first and simplest is to mount
the dial on supports 5>4 ft. to 6 ft. high, so that even the under-
side is easily accessible to the eye. The second method is to
cement on to the periphery of the dial an inch-wide strip of
celluloid roughened like ground-glass. This takes the shadow
when it is on the under-side, as in winter, and enables it to be
compared with the time-graduations on the upper-side of the
dial. The third method which I have found successful" is raJther in-
genious, consisting as it does of the use of a small mirror mounted
on the south half of the axial wire, parallel to the dial. This
makes a northern sun behave as if it were a southern one, casting
a spot of light (crossed by the shadow of the wire) on the upper
convenient surface of the dial. The mirror is circular, with a
central hole to take the wire, and a bored rubber cork cemented
on to its back to steady it. It must be capable of motion up and
down the wire, being usually 43^ inches from the dial-plate near
midwinter, and brought nearer (so as to catch the sun) at the
mid-seasons. In summer-time it is not required, and is left in
contact with the dial. In plate 26 this mirror is seen partially
projecting from behind the top end of the support, and the
semicircular spot of light cast by it is round 2 p.m. This spot
has the shadow of the wire across it, and the upper edge of this
shadow gives the time. The photograph was taken at midwinter,
hence the dial is dark. In summer the dial is illuminated and
the shadow comes from the centre. The correcting-plate is also
opposite 2 p.m., and is fixed to an arm projecting from the
stand. The clamp is on the left, concealed by the stand.
The holes in the dial are merely to diminish the risk of injury
from wind.

SOME PHOTOGRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS OF SOUTH
AFRICAN VEGETATION.

By Iltyd Buller Pole-Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

{Not printed.)

Synthesis of Sugars. -Dr. A. J. Ewart, Professor
of Botany and Plant Physiology in Melbourne University, has
contributed to the Royal Society of Victoria a paper on the
synthesis of sugars from formaldehyde, carbon dioxide and
water.* The main conditions for a high proportion of sugar
are appropriate dilution and a temperature of from 100° C. to
110° C. The by-products are formates and methyl alcohol
mainly. At low temperatures little or no sugar is produced. The
best method is to nm 7 to 8 c.c. of 3 . 5 per cent, sodium hydroxide
into 250 c.c. of 0.8 per cent, calcium formate containing 5 c.c.
of 40 per cent, formaldehyde while boiling in a condensing flask.
The reaction is completed in a few minutes, and as soon as a
pale yellowish tinge appears, all the formaldehyde has dis-
appeared.

'■' Proc. Roy. Snc. Jlct.. 31 ( X.S.) [2], 37o-39>7 (191c).

NATIVE CUSTOMS IN RELATION TO SMALL-POX
AMONGST THE BA-RONGA.

By Rev. Henri A. Junod.
(Read, July 9, 1918.)

There has latelv been a serious outbreak of small-pox around
Lourengo Marques. The authorities tried to vaccinate the popu-
lation, which readily consented to the inoculation ; but it seems
that the serum w^as of bad quality ; at any rate, it had no result.
The disease was spreading- w^ith alarming rapidity. The Natives
then decided to have recourse to the remedy which they have
employed for many decades, viz., to inoculation with the virus
itself. This is their old way of coping with that dreadful
disease. They practise " variolisation," just as it was done
in European countries before Jenner's wonderful discovery.
They mostly fear smallpox when it " flies to somebody "
{hahela), as they say. When inoculated, they think it is much
niilder, and such is certainly the case, as I was able to ascertain
myself ; however, many deaths have taken place.

As regards the history of the disease in the country, old
people speak of " the small-pox of Mawewe " as having been
the most serious outbreak on record. This Mawewe was the
son of Manukosi, the Ngoni invader of the Ba-Thonga Country.
He reigned over the Lower Limpopo plain from 1859 to 1862.
Some say that this was not the first epidemic, and that other
outbreaks took place before. Information is, however, not per-
fectly clear on this point. The fact that a great number of
people died on that occasion seems to show that this was the
first visit of the terrible scourge, for it is well known that, as
regards these infectious diseases, the first meeting of the virus
with a tribe is the most deadly. One of my informants, how-
ever, puts the matter in a different light. Hesay.s: " It is because
at that time people did not yet know how to cope with the disease.
They did not proclaim the law of continence : hence the 'frightful
mortality !"

What are the powerful means which Ba-Ronga Natives
found to fight the scourge? Studying them will prove a most
interesting illustration of native medical art ; more than that : it
will throw a curious light on some of the most important features
of the Native mind.

This study, if it pretends to be of scientific value at all,
must be complete, and describe the rites from the first to the last,
entering into all the details, even those which are generally
omitted as belonging to subjects of which one does not like to
speak. I must ask pardon if I mention some of those in this
paper : Ethnography must be as precise and complete as Phy-
siology.

I. The Initial Proclamation.

When small-pox (nyedsana) has invaded the country and
reached the border of the territory of the clan, headmen assemble

SMALL- POX AMONGST THK BA-RONGA. 695

at the chief's residence and decide to proceed to the general
inoculation.

A regular religious act is performed by the man indicated
'by the divinatory bone.'^ ; it may be the chief himself, or his son,
or his uterine nephew. In his prayer the officiant will say : " We
want to go and take small-]x>x. May it not do too much harm !
Let it pass away soon and go to Shiburi, to Nkhabelane !" —
Shiburi and Nkhabelane are two very remote districts of the
Ba-Thonga country.

Then the first proclamation is made, which each of the
headmen will bring back to his village: " Tlulan psilaiven," z'ic,
Keep each of you in his sleeping place. The sh\ilao (pi. psilao)
means the part of the hut occupied by the husband and the wife
respectively. Each hut has tv^'o' psilao, the one of the husband,
at the right side, the side on which the door is opened, and that
of tlie wife, at the left side. The signification of the proclama-
tion is therefore the following: Let husband and wife keep apart
from each other without sexual intercourse during the whole
period of the epidemic. There is another term of a more
euphemistic character to express the same thing, z'/r., Kiikulaii
tiyindlu — Sweep the huts! This is taboo! (Psa yila). What is
the reason of this prohibition ?

•This strange law is enforced in many other circumstances,
as I explained in another place.* From a general study of the
subject one must infer that, in ihe eyes of the Ba-Ronga and
]>robably of most o'f the Native Tribes of South x\frica, conjugal
relations place married people in a state of defilement, which is
•most dangerous for people suffering from certain diseases. For
ir.stance, married people must- not enter the hut of a patient
seriously ill : he would die. They must not take in their arms
a newly-born child: its uml)ilical cord would get swollen and
infected. They must not jienetrate into the circumcision lodge:
this may prevent the wound of the initiated youths from heal-
ing. In the case of small-pox the disease may prove fatal if
there were a breaking of the law of continence inside the huts.
Llence the taboo, yila. a term which always indicates danger.

But is this the only explanation? There seems to be
another, deeper reason for the prohibition. It sometimes hap-
pens that the ordinary course of life is su.spended amongst the
tribe, and that the whole communit>- or part of it is in a way
put outside of the pale of society, and remains for a time as it
were " in the margin." These periods are therefore called
" Marginal Periods." Strange to say. the law of continence is
enforced in all these ]>eriods. even when there is no disease to
fear, and one may infer from this fact that when Native society
passes through abnormal circumstances necessitating the pro-
clamation of such a marginal period, the act upon which the
continuity of the life of the tribe depends is, and must be, sus-
pended also. There are amongst Natives certain rites which a

* Revue de Socioloffic et d'Ethnographie: Paris. Ernest Leroux
(1910).

696 SMALL-POX AMONGST THE IJA-RONGA.

superficial observer would call queer, absurd, but which find
their explanation in such deep, more or less conscious, intuitions
of their mind. It is evident that in this case the prohibition has
no scientific foundation whatever, and is the direct outcome of
superstition.

2. The Way of Proceeding to the Inoculation.

The next act is the consultation of the bones and the choice
of the nepheivs, and here we shall meet again with two of the
characteristic customs of the Ba-Ronga.

Those nephews (batukulu) are the sons of the chief's
sisters. They call the chief Malume, a term which, according
to Bantu etymology, means the male mother: he is the brother
of their mother. At a remote time in the evolution of the kinship
system, when the actual patriarchy was absent, that man probably
was the protector of the children of his sister. At any rate, this
is the supposition in the matriarchy theory. Nowadays the
state of things has totally changed, but the relations of a
child with his maternal uncle still bear quite a peculiar character,
and are wholly different from what they are with his paternal
uncle. They are most free and friendly ; a uterine nephew, as
he is called in ethnography, can do all that he likes to his
maternal uncle ; this want of resoect will never be taken in bad
part and be considered as unbecoming: Is he not the ntukulu?
This is one of the most striking features of family relations
amongst the Ba-Ronga; in other tribes the prerogatives of the
H'tukulu are pushed even further: for example, amongst all the
Ba-Suto, including Ba-Pedi and Ba-Venda, he has a primordial
right of marrying his cousin, the daughter of his malume. Now,
as it is necessary that somebody be chosen to act as an inter-
mediary to bring the virus to the clan, who could better perform
that office than the uterine nephew whose heart is pure towards
the chief, and who will certainly act in a spirit of friendliness?
That is the reason why the batukulu are first of all put apart ,0
go and fetch the virus.

But the sons of the chief's sisters are many, and a choice
must be made amongst them. Who will have to go, and who is
the one who will play the principal part ? That question has to
be solved by the divinatorv bones. The importance of the
divinatory bones in Native aft'airs is enormous. Scarcely anvthing
is done without asking their guidance. I cannot enter into the
description of the marvellous system of divination of the Ba-
Ronga. A full explanation of the principles and practice of
Thonga astragalomancy has been published elsewhere.* The set
of bones is much more complete than amongst Ba-Suto and
Ba-Venda, who use only their four dice of carved ivory, two
male and two 'female ones. Here one counts as many as 25 or
30 different objects, most of them being astragalus bones of
domestic or wild animals, and each bone represents one or more
of the components of the village life. When ritually projected

* See " The Life of a South African Tribe," 2.

SMALL-POX AMONGST THE BA-RONGA. 697

to the ground, they can fall on two principal sides, the concave
side, which means inactivity, death (as an animal lying on his
back), or on the convex side, which means activity, life (as an
animal on his legs).

Suppose now that the bones are thrown to make a choice
amongst the batukulu. The name of one of them will first
be pronounced and the bones be consulted in relation to him.
The astragalus of the wild pig will be especially w-atched. The
wild pig means many things . . . doctors who dig the ground to
find medicinal roots, just like pigs with their snouts, but also
any kind of angry i>eople ready to bite. Should then the wild
pig's astragalus fall on its convex side, it indicates that the
ntukulu, whose name has just been pronounced, may bring a
malignant form of the disease. Better try another! The name
•of the second one is then brought 'forward. If the bone falls
on the concave side, it shows that that boy will bring a mild
form of small-pox. Let him be trusted with the errand 1

The bones are also consulted in the same manner to choose
the village of the neighbouring clan where the bdtiikulu must
'go to fetch the virus. There will be no objection on the part
of the neighbours ; they are always ready to provide the serous
fluid required. But it will never be taken from married people
for the reason indicated above, only from old people or from
children, from those that one may call " asexuate."

The ntukulu designated by the bones inoculates himself
first ; then he inoculates his comrades, making an incision or two
on their forearms. The stem of a dry grass is used for the
purpose of carrying the virus from one ami to the other. No fee
IS paid to the providers of the fluid.

On their return home the batukulu wait a week till the
pimple has become a pustule ; then the whole |x>pulation i ?
assembled, and all the members of the clan who have not yet
suffered from the disease are inoculated in the same manner
from the batukulu s arms.

3. The Taboos of tiie Marginal Period.

From this day up to the end of the marginal period severe
taboos are imposed on all the members of the community. Some
are the same as observ-ed in other similar circumstances; some
are directly related to small-pox.

First of all, nobody is allowed to zvash his body during the
whole period. People are reminded by the dirt of their bodies
that they are subjected to the taboos.

Besides sexual taboos, previously explained, the most
stringent are the alimentary taboos. The use of salt in food is
strongly prohibited, a taboo which is met with also in the circum-
cision rites, in the piercing of ears, which is {performed by boys,
and in the tattooing of girls. The reason of this prohibition is
tliat salt makes the blood run quicker in the body and may cause
the wounds to get sore.

In the same way, any kind of meat is excluded, except fish.

698 SMALL-POX AMONGST THE BA-RONGA.

The flesh of the ox, sheep, goat, pig must not be eaten, because
these animals have blood in their flesh. That blood entering the
tody of small-pox patients may have the same bad results as salt ;
moreover, that blood is black, whilst fish meat is white. Black
must be avoided, because black small-pox is much more deadly
th.an white small-pox. There are, in fact, two kinds of pustules.
Sometimes they are broad, superficial ; the epiderm of the black
skin is curiously discoloured over them and becomes whitish.
1 his is the mild or discrete form of the disease ; in this case
pustules are scattered all over the body, well separated from each
other and not confluent, whilst in other cases the pustules are
black, narrow, near each other, which is the confluent or hsemor-
rhagic form of the disease, and it is then very serious. The aim
of the whole medication is to foster t'he white form and to
prevent the black one. And here is another curious device of
native doctors to obtain this result : There is a resemblance
between the white pustules and grains of mealies, and it is not
less striking between the black pustules and the grains of Kafir
corn. For that reason one must put mealies under the eyes of
patients and remove any Kafir corn far from them. In each hut
there are a few spikes of millet, the black Kafir corn, which are
kept there fixed in the reeds of the roof as seeds for the next
season. They are carefully taken away and hidden somewhere
in the bush during the whole time of the epidemic. On the other
hand, white grains of mealies are chosen, softened in water,
carefully pierced, attached together with a string, and inade into
necklaces, which are tied round the throat of each of the patients
as long as the disease lasts.

This rite is a characteristic example of Bantu medical art.
This art may sometimes have a therapeutic value ; but in most
cases it is pure magic. The principle on which it is based is the
old saying: Simitia similibus curantur. There is a mutual influence-
between things which bear the same external- appearance. Thus
the mealie necklace will produce white pustules ! This is one
of the main features of Bantu conception of Nature. Sympa
ihetic Magic, as it has been called, is at the root of most of their
medical rites, and this is indeed a very good illustration of the
principle.

4. The Religious Act.

But notwithstanding the mealie necklace, it may happen, and
frequently does happen, that the disease takes that malignant
form which is so much dreaded. The patient is covered with pus.
tules ; fever is high, pain very great. He no longer sleeps on
an ordinary mat ; it becomes necessary to put banana or mafureira
leaves under his body owing to the discharge of nasty fluid,
and this is considered as a very bad sign indeed. The sores are
covered with ochre, and the patient will have to be fed not with
the ordinary plates which he would be hardly able to hold, but
with a calabash cut into two (shihambasi). The headman
shakes his head, and tells his parents: Hahlani! .

Ku hahla is the proper term to designate sacrifices to the

SMALL- POX AMONGST THE BA-RONGA. 699

ance'^tral spirits. They generally consist of a pi'ayer introduced
by an offering. But in this special hahla of small-pox there is no.
sacrifice of any kind, and, strange to say, the ])rayer is not
directed to the official gods, the psi kivembu, the spirits of the
departed ancestors, but to Mavnzanc or Mahufysc, which means
the Questioner. This questioner is nobody else than Nyedzane,
the small-pox itself, which is thus personalised and considered as
a real and frightful visitor coming at given intervals to examine
the country and to search for the sinners. The great sin which
Questioner especially wants to discover is Buloyi. witchcraft.
vis., mvirder by magical means. Confess your favilt, and you
will be spared! If you conceal any act of bewitching you may
have committed, you are a dead man !

Suppose the patient so seriously ill is a grown-up woman,
the wife of one of the men of the village. Her parents will first
be called. The headman and all the inmates of the village will
attend the meeting in the hut : " Confess your guilt !" they will
all say to the woman. She may answer: "No! I am not a
witch'' (A ndi noyi!) They insist: "Do not hide anything.''
And under the strain of their questions she may say : " Yes ! I
am a walker in the night! I have eaten so-and-so! I have
eaten my own child." If the patient is a little child, his father
will have to make the confession in his stead. He will take the
infant in his arms and say: " Mavuaane dhlula! Questioner,
pass on your way ! Yes ! We are Baloyi. I have taught my
cliild to eat human bodies ! But we will not persist in our bad
doings ! Go away and leave us in peace ! "

I have gathered the words of the confession of a certain
Charley Barika, of the Gwaba clan, who made the following
declaration the other day : " So-and-so did not die a natural death.
I bewitched him. I killed Gwaba's mother and Gwaba's wife.
as I had made her bad proposals, and she did not accept them.
I went on my wings- to the Manyisa country (a place ^o miles
north of Gwaba's clan, where the epidemic began), and bought
there a bottle full of the malignant small-ix>x, which I spread all
over the land." Though he had thus satisfied the curiosity of
Questioner, this poor man died. Sometimes patients will confess
other sins, thefts, or especially adultery and hatred. A converted
woman (more or less converted, I may say) said she had sinned
with six different men, and her teacher was very much astonished
to see that disease had been more powerful than God in awaken-
ing her conscience! But this kind of confession is much rarer,
and I have some idea that it is modem, a result of the education
of the moral sense already begun in some natives. The great sin
which Questioner wants to discover is without any doubt Bulo\i
— witchcraft. It must be revealed at any cost. Should the
family chief refuse to perform the religious act, he is very
severely judged, accused of killing his dying child, accused, more-
OA-er, of being a wizard who fears to disclose his true character.
I know two cases in which such men were expelled from their
villages, and they were never able to get rid of the repu(tation of
witchcraft.

;'00 SMALL-POX AMONGST THE BA-RONGA.

This strange rite throws a very interesting light on the ideas
of the Natives on religion and witchcraft, and opens a wide field
for the curiosity of the ethnographer.

Let us first consider the religious act. As already pointed
out, it is altogether different from the ordinary hahla of the Ba-
Ronga. Ba-Ronga, as well as all the South African Bantu, are
distinctly " ancestrolatrists." They worship ancestral spirits or
other spirits of departed people which they have exorcised, and-
which have become a kind of protecting gods for them. They
A-ery rarely worship Nature spirits, material objects, or imper-
sonal powers. Fetichism is almost entirely absent. And here
we meet with a strange being, named the Questioner, a kind of
angel of judgment, who passes through the country very much
I'.ke the Messenger of God who visited the Egyptians in the
famous Paschal night! This is so different from the regular
ancestor worship that I first wondered if the idea was not alto-
gether foreign. Notice that the Questioner is called Mavusanc,
a Zulu word ; and the term employed to expel him, dhlida, is also
Zulu. Is not this rite a Zulu importation? My informants deny
it, and assert that Mavusane is also called Mabutise, the Ronga
equivalent of the word Maznisane. On the other hand, the wiiole
rite is so eminently Bantu, especially the part played in it by
witchcraft, that one must altogether abandon the idea of an
European origin. The use of Zulu terms can be explained by the
fact that the Questioner is considered as coming from another
country, and is therefore addressed in a foreign tongue, just as
the possessing spirits, which are exorcised by means of songs
and exhortations in the Zulu or Ndjao languages according to
their supposed origin. The fact remains that, apart from the
common and well-defined belief in ancestrolatry, there are in the
Ronga religion intuitions of a different nature, and that the hahla
is occasionally addressed to beings or forces which are not
ancestors' spirits. I have already given an example of thai
Avorship in my paper on " The Sacrifice of Reconciliation."*
In that case we have seen a Ronga addressing a prayer to his
djleta, viz., to the oath with imprecation which he had made, and
from which he wanted to be freed. There may also be a relation
between Questioner and Tilo, Heaven, this vague, more or less
impersonal power which amongst the Ba-Ronga represents the
monotheistic idea, much more developed amongst other Bantu
tribes. Whatever may be the origin of this small-pox religious
rite, it proves that Bantu religion is much more complicated and
perhaps deeper than one generally admits.

The part played by Witchcraft is wonderful, and it reveals
the undeniable presence of moral conscience as well as its extra-
ordinary rudimentary state amongst Natives. A great calamity
has arisen. The clan is under the threat of death. Conscience
is awakened, because conscience exists. But the only sin which
patients near death are expected to confess is witchcraft, which
IS certainly the crime par excellence for the Bantu, but which is

* Rept. 8.A.A.A.8., Cape Town, 179-182 (1910).

SMALL-POX AMONGST THE BA-RONGA. 7OI

in the meantime a purely imaginary offence ! The more I study
the question, the more 1 come to the conclusion that that crime
does not really exist. There is no Buloyi, at any rate, in the
sense in which Ba-Ronga believe in it. The position may be
dift'erent amongst Zulus or Ba-Suto. In a paper sent to South
African missionaries, Dr. Loram asserted lately that there are
really witches in Zululand. Amongst the Ba-Ronga I deny it.
Why? Because the definition of the crime itself proves to any
scientific mind that it does not exist. Buloyi, as I explained it in
my paper on " The Theory of Witchcraft,"* is a special
kind o'f murder accomplished during the night by cer-
tain individuals who possess the faculty of unsheath-
ing themselves : their " double " gets out of their bodies,
flies with large wings through the air to the hut in
which their victim is asleep ; they rob his interior organs, and go
and eat them together with their baloyi comrades in remote
places. The person thus bewitched soon loses his health, gets
thin, and finally dies. Notice that the crime is unconscious ; the
wizard in his state of consciousness does not know, or knows
only very indistinctly, that he is a noyi. The divinatory bones
alone have the power to reveal his crimes to the diviner, and
through the diviner to him. But the belief in witchcraft is so
strong that nobody dares to contradict the verdict of the bones.
Owing to the autosuggestion fostered by this universal belief,
people may come to the persuasion that they are really guilty of
the horrible criine which combines together murder and anthro-
pophagy, and when the mysterious Questioner passes through
the country, they sincerely confess their presumed offence. One
can judge by this fact of the extreme power of superstition on
the native mind, and what immense evolution must take place to
elevate it to the true and spiritual conception of moral wrong.

5. The Concluding Rites.

When the disease has achieved its course, when the pustules
have dried up, a day is appointed on which the marginal period
will come to an end, and the clan return to its regular life. This
return is marked by special rites, which may be called Reintegra-
tiun or Purification rites, their aim being evidently to remove
the defilement acquired by the disease.

The main purificatory rite, the one which regularly closes
a marginal period, is the smearing of all the huts with a new layer
of clay, either mixed with cow's dung or not. The old ground
is for ever covered. It is a way of saying: " Behold, the former
things are passed away, everything has become new."

On the morning of that day, every patient must go and
wash his body on the road, as if to pour all the filth of the disease
on it.

Moreover, the ashes found in the fire-places inside the huts,
the necklaces of mealie grains, the implements used by the people
who have been seriously ill, eventually their garments, the ochre

* Rept. S.A.A.A.8., Kimberley, 230-241 (1906).

7C'2 SMALL-POX AMONGST THI': DA-RONGA.

v;ith which they anointed themselves, all the thing*
which were employed in connection with the scoarge, arc
collected and thrown indiscriminately on the large paths, pre-
ferably on the places where two roads cross each other, the idea
being that the disease will attach itself to the feet of the traveller.-
and be taken by them far away. This rite is by no means
altruistic, and still less antiseptic ! Perhaps the desire for con-
taminating others is not so great as the wish to get rid for
ever of the scourge by sending it to the end of the world, to
Nkhabelane, to Shiburi, as the chief said in his prayer the first
day. Disease, for Natives, is something concrete, an inimical
force which must be dealt with as if it were a living being, a
lion or a panther, which you expel from your country into
another. All the worse for the agent who delivered you from
the plague !

In former times neighbouring clans used to protect them-
selves by closing their borders. Now there are so many travel-
lers, women going to town to sell their produce, boys returning
from Johannesburg, that it is no longer possible. But let us
hope that the epidemic of 191 8 will be the last one, and that
prophylactic measures taken by the authorities will prevent for
ever the spread of this terrible disease. Some rites, interesting
for the ethnographer, will disappear, but this is of little im-
portance after all if the blessings of a higher civilisation, hygiene
and morality are obtained by the South African tribes.

Infantile Paralysis. — M. W. Richardson has con-
tributed to the American Journal of Piibiic Health* the results
of observations made during the epidemic of infantile paralysis
in New York City in 1916. He concludes that the epidemiology
of infantile paralysis corresponds so remarkably with that of
bubonic plague, a disease known to be due to the rat and flea,
that it can be stated with great probability that human infantile
paralysis is due to a precedent and underlying infection of
rodents. Final proof must, of course, rest in elaborate laboratory
investigations.

Nitrogenous Products. — It is stated by Dr. G. W.

Anderson, in an article on " The World's Supply of Nitrogenous
Fertilisers," in the Gas Journal of June 10, 1919, that the
production of nitrogenous products in Germany has been greatly
promoted during the war, and that, as Germany will not be able
to absorb the total production herself after the demand for
munitions has ceased, a strong competition may be expected.
Although the cost of production has gone up considerably, Ger-
man manufacturers were able to write off their plant during the •
war. and thus have the great advantage of low capital costs.

*8 1 8], 564-579 (1918).

A PHILOLOGICAL METHOD OF EXHIBITING
CLASSICAL DECLENSIONS AND CONJUGATIONS.

Bv Rev. William Alfred Norton, B.A.. B.Litt.

Finally received, Ad arch ii, 19 19.

By way of introduction to these few notes upon a closer-
knit conspectus of Latin declensions and conjugations than we
find in our present grammars, I beg to quote some paragraphs
I was moved to write when I was recently in England, bearing
on the grave question, then imminent, and grave enough in educa-
tion surely, of the continuance of the demand of Greek at
Oxford :—

" It is difificult for one who returns to England and its
education difficulties, after eight years of wandering in the world,
to understand how it is that the Greek question has got no farther,
and especially that so little compromise has been offered. It is
useless to go on peddling at the matter, and the whole method of
classical teaching needs to be overhauled, beginning" with elemen-
tary teaching in schools ; which should, on the one hand, lead to
modern languages, and the use of the classics in general literature
and scientific terminology — ^this for the benefit of the modern
side : and on the other side, to the developed learning required by
classical scholars.

" Greek, as it has so long been taught in England, is, it is to
be hoped, doomed. Anyone who has tried to converse with
Greeks knows the maddening experience of finding that his
ancient Greek, so far from being a help, at least with the
educated, by reason of its nearness to the modern, is a positive
hindrance, and often unintelligible from its English vowels and
total neglect of accent. I remember well a Greek officer's tirade
against this upon a boat bound for Zanzibar, and the similar
trouble of an English traveller who had, in conversing with a
Bishop of Angola, to write his Latin before it could be followed.
Our Latin teaching has since then, happily, been somewhat taken
in hand, but has still in most English and indeed African schools,
to be taught as a spoken or speakable language, by insisting on
the passage being read in the original, either before or after it is
construed (preferably both), that the balance of the rhythm may
tell out its own meaning.

" Is not the very reasonable objection of the ' modern side '
to go on spending time over Latin and Greek, taught as dead and
buried languages in a way less and less tolerated, say, for French,
a call to overhaul the whole method of ancient language study
on the lines of modern teaching and as a help to the acquiring of
modern languages also?

704 CLASSICAL DECLKNSIONS AND CON J rCATlONS.

" Philology has now become something of an exact and
developed science. Why should not the time, formerly expended
on driving youths, who never would be scholars, to learn para-
digms like parrots, but now more and more given to entirely
modern subjects, be partly used to give them an introduction to
elementary Aryan philology, together with vocabularies of Ger-
man, on the one side, and Latin, Greek on the other, this illus-
trating, with English or Dutch, the working of Grimm's and
similar laws?

■ " I was once teaching Latin at Cape Town, in a very polyglot
class, to a Mohammedan boy from Bombay, with the help of
English and Dutch, and illustrations from his Hindustani. Just
as no one who had to learn the Romance tongue would wisely
attempt them without first learning the original Latin (especially
as phonetics has now made it possible to reduce the changes from
late Latin, in each derived tongue, to something like exact law),
so a simple course of comparative Aryan is surely a natural intro-
duction, even to the modern side, leading e.g. to Slavonic and other
languages, such as are needed, more than before, both during and
(in business) after the war; and on the other hand, providing the
Latin vocabulary, so necessary for real understanding and true
use of even colloquial English, and the Greek involved in scientific
and other technical nomenclature.

" It may seem a long way round, but is really the shortest way
home. Only an hour's systematic but simple philological teaching
a week would do wonders for the language lessons, which might
be cut down themselves in consequence. Even school-teaching of
Sanskrit has, I hear, justified itself in one school, especially in
view to feeding our Indian Service ; but short O'f that, the
philological method and interest engendered will prove a most
valuable encouragement in attacking oriental, Semitic, and
African philology, so di rely needed, as travelling experience has
shown one, in a world-wide Empire. The needs of which we
British so tragically ignore."

A form of the comparative vocabularies, referred to above,
v/as ]irovided by me in a ])a]:)er handed in at the Lourenco
Marques meeting of the Association, under a title wdiich puzzled
some at the time : " The Humour of Indo-German Cognates."
This paper consists of parallel vocabularies of (hypo-
thetic) Aryan, Greek, Latin, German, Dutch and English, ranged
under Hirt's symbolic bases representing the philological i)ossi
bilities in the way of combination of sounds (a glance .tl the
paper itself will explain), together with somewhat comic illustra-
tions and examples, in the form of sentences of an ultra
" Chardenal " pattern, intended to rouse the interest of youth.
The whole was, I fear, rather Macabre, but the Association, with
some initial hesitation about the sanity of the compiler, were good
enough to publish the paper in extcnso. It is obvious, however,
that some grammar must be added, of more importance to philo-

CLASSICAL DECLi:XSI()XS AND CONJ I'C-ATIONS.

705

logy, really, than vocabulary but, unless the old dreary grind is
to continue, leading nowhere unless the languages are to be
thoroughly learnt (which is, by hypothesis, not contemplated;,
the accidence must be reduced to the simplest form, without
rtgard to the exceptions. My figures give this in Greek and
Latin for the noun and the verb, and with this short introduction
I leave them to speak, as a conspectus of classical accidence, on
the system, somewhat, of the parallel grammars, but in a highly
condensed form, from which the learner is intended to develop
himself the usual declensions and conjugations, but instead of
these apearing to him as disconnected puzzles, they will now have
a consistence which they had not before, and contribute to the
formation of that which would so greatly encourage taste for
lang^iage-learning, and provide ease therein — I mean, the philo-
logical sense, so far to seek amonc ns Britishers.

Table I.

CONSPECTUS OF THE DECLENSIONS
(LATIN AND GREEK).

^atin

N

. A.

G.Loc. D. Ab.

Instr.

Greek.

N.

A.

G.

D.Loc.

Instr.

,g. -A

m

i

i —

-A

(^)

V

s-

I

-E

s

))

^ ^

V

-H

n

?)

)>

5>

-O

if

>>

-i

-O

?

)>

u*

^J

-I

5)

, ,

s

-I

J'

1)

09

tf

-U

JJ

J5

>>

i —

-Y

>»

<)

))

)>

'onsn.

^ .

em

is

„ e

Consn

• )J

a

?>

»»

iryan :

S M OS I
ES NSOM

AI.ED

IS

S
ES

M

NS

OS

6m

AI
iSU

M. „

BHYAS

IS

^onsn.

>>

as

um

ibus
bus

Consn
-Y

a?

-U

s ■

f

-I

)>

jj

)»

-I

j>

)>

5>

„>

-E

>>

rum

>»

-A

e

s

»j

-is

-A

I

-a?

-coif

t?

-O

-i

))

>>

>>

-O

)>

1^9

J»

M

These nom-

Plural

endings in 1 and

e borrowed from the

pronoun

•

* ou for o[.s>']o, used also for the gen. of masc. — A nouns.

t The character -Y or -I is here weakened to €. as also in G. (ew?), D. Sg. and in Dual.

N.B. — A hyphen precedes the ending only when this absorbs the character of the stem.
Duals are omitted throughout out of regard to Latin. Also the Voc. as stem, and neut. sing.
IS stem, or {in O nouns) accus., and in plur. fern — A noun of multitude.

7o6

CLASSICAL DECLKNSrciXS AND CON T UCATK )NS.

Table II. CONSPECTUS OF GREEK PERSON

ENDINGS.

(For Latin, cp. V\'^. I\\, 1.)

__

Sg. 1

2

3

PI. 1

2

3

Act. Pres* ...

(o or Wi

€ll

€(T}1

oMe/^

eTe

ourr/ = oNTi

Impf.'

oX

6^

eCV)

» J

) »

oN(Tj

Iniper.

€

or Ol

eTc48)

»»

oNTcoi'

Mid. & Pass.

O^idl

e{:ia)t

eTai

oMeda

eaOe

oNTat

Pres.* ...

Pastt

6yi7]j>

€\1)0

eVo

»»

>»

oNTo

Iinper.

»'

eaO(o

> »

eo-dwv

N.B. — Note tlie correspondence ol tlie personal post-positions (sing, and
plur.) with yLie, ae, to ; and the lisping modifications in the imperative.

* Lengthened in Subj.

tThus also in 2 Aor. and (with a for stem-vowel, except in Sg. 1 and 3)
in 1 Aor. and Pf. (PI. 3 dat, Lat. ^re); and with these lengthened in Aor. Pass.,
exc. Sg. l{6)t]V, PI. 3 {6)r}aai>, and plnpf. The Act. endings are shortened to
leave augment and reduplication, when possible, accented.

* So in Impf. and Aorists (the weak with stem vowel a). So, too,inPlupf.
Tliis and the pf. omit thematic vowels in Mid-Pass.

Table III. CONSPECTUS OF GREEK MOOD
AND TENSE FORMATION.

Ind.

Opt.

Part.

■ Inf.

Pf. Act.

d or («:)«

Ol/Xl

6t-

evai

Pass and Mid.

fjLOl

-M^'

uev-*

{(t) Oat

1 Aor. Act.

a

ai/xi

avT-

ai

Mid.

(i/ur]v

-fX7]V

dfjLev-

aaOai

Inipf. and

2 Aor. Act.

ov

OlfJLl

OVT-

€iV

Mid.

o/i,?;i'

-fll]l>

o/xei'-

eaOat

Aor. Pass.

{0) ip>

iO) ei7]v

(0) t'/'T-

{0) rjvai

* Cp. the Latin 2nd person ending in the Plur. Pass.

CLASSICAL D1-:CL1':XSI()NS AND CONJUGATIONS.

707

Tabu: IV. CONSPECTUS OF -ESSE" AND THE
LATIN CONJUGATIONS.

1. FrofH the Per fret Stem-

Tense Sg. 1. 2 3

Pl. 1

2. 3.

Pf., e.g., FU- i isti iT

iMus

isTis eRe (Gk. acri)
or eRuNT

Past (Pf.FU^) era- M S T

Mus

Tis NT

Subj. Pf* FU eri- „ „

,,

J' > J •

,, Imj). (Pf.FU) isse-,, ,.

• J

" M

-=■ iPf.) inf. So all

Pf. Tenses

,

Pass, tenses have Rt RiSJ TuR

MuR

§ mini NTuR

•Same as Fut. (PL), except that this has 1 Sg. (FU) ero : Fut. also evtn
in 3 PI., like futures in -bo.

+ Added to -o ; instead of -;;;.

I Of Re, both connected with consonantal stems by e in the Pres. ind.
The other endings are connected with /, like the Pres. Act. (except 3 PI. 11).

S Cp. Greek Part, -/uevni.

2. From the Present Stem.
Conjugation, Stem and Suffixes.

Imper. Impf. Fut. Subj. Gerund. I'art.

. ' , Pres. — -

Subj. Ind. .\ct. Pas^.

i am-o

am A — re '^'"-

ba - bi- -e-

nd - lit - t- +

n. moneo ...

monE — ,,

H -

? ^ " < * 1

iv- audio ...
(3 pl.

aud I — ,,
— unt)

eba - e- i ,,

end - ent - ..

ni. rego

rcG - e - re -

• • . . , «

cp:

Sg. 1 (E) SuM

2 ES(S)

3 EST
pl. 1-Su Mus

2 Es Tis

ES-se( = re)inf.
ES imi)er.
., To

,, Tote

ERaT^Ro(E)Si-
v.s.

Subj.

Pf.
Cp. reGiTote,

pass. reGi-

3-SuNT

-SuNTo
Cp. re Gu-

NTO and Pass.

mini
aud lu-NTOR

but aniA-

moiiE-

* Inf. Act. and Imper. Pass. Inf. Pass. ;•/ after \()\vel, / after consonant.

t 1 Sg. am like subj.

I Shbrtens char. E to ) . assimilates consonant characters.

ON THE HETEROCEROUS FAUNA OF SOUTHERN

RHODESIA.

By Antonius Johannes Theodorus Janse, F.E.S.

{Read, July lo, 1918.)

The recognised faunal boundary for South Africa is the
southern banks of the Zambesi and Cunene Rivers and the
northern boundary of Ovamboland. We thus ol)tain a sub-
continent of great cHmatic diversity, and it would probablv be
possible to divide this whole country into at least five more or
less natural faunal regions : —

(a) The Western fauna, comprising a portion of Damara-
land and the whole of Nama(|ualand ;

{b) The Southern coastal region, which extends from near
the mouth of the Orange River to near Port Elizabeth ;

(c) The South-Eastern coastal region, which reaches from
near Port Elizabeth to near Delagoa Bay and rises inland to an
altitude of about 3,000 feet ;

{d) The Highveld region, which includes ])racticallv the
whole of the Orange Free State, a part of Natal and the Trans-
vaal, perhaps nearly the whole of British Bechuanaland, and the
higher parts of Southern Rhodesia :

{e) The Northern region, which is made U]> of the lower
lands near the two rivers which form the Northern boundarv for
South Africa, and which is perhaps the least known yet most
important in proving that after all there is in reality no natural
boundary for South Africa.

To these perhaps another may be added for the Karroo, but
I am not sufficiently acc|uaintcd with its fauna to express any
views on that i)art of the couiitrv.

Of course, no hard and fast lines of demarcation can be
drawn between any of these regions, but judging from the
material which I have studied during the last 18 years, I feel
sure that such regions exist, and that in the main they follow
the contour-lines of the country. Wherever these regions meet
there is naturally a merging of the one into the other, and we
may even find what might be called faunal islands, such as
the Barberton region, which rs. (judging by its lepidoi>tera,
distinctly East Coastal, notwithstanding the fact that it is sur-
rounded on |)ractically all sides by high lands. A similar
island we find in Natal in the Karkloof Valley.

It would take too long to deal with each of these faunal
regions separately, and it would involve the compilation of long
lists of names in order to bring out mv \ iews on the interesting
geographical distribution of -our Soutli African lepidojjtera, so
I have selected one Province to make my point clear, or, rather,
to draw attention to the fact that we know as vet so verv little

MOTHS OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 7O9

aix)Ut this subject. To demonstrate this last i^oint no better
part of South Africa could be selected than Southern Rhodesia,
a country which is practically new s^round for every Ijranch of
investigation in natural history.

For the last two or three years my attention was specially
directed to this country by a few j)apers published on its
heterocerous fauna, and also by the specimens which were sent
by different collectors to the Transvaal Museum and to myself.
These pointed decidedly to a unique South African fauna, and
the large number of species new to science, and not found
further south, was simply astonishing.

Instead of compiling a list of names of these typical
Southern Rhodesian forms, I thought it more instructive to
make up a collection of specimens which, as far as I know, have
Ijeen found so far hi Southern Rhodesia only, or if they occur
elsewhere, it is in Central and North Africa.

This collection was arranged in four boxes, and comprised
not less than 560 species belonging to the following families : —

Amatidre 6, Arctiadae- 22, Noctuidae 116. Lymantriada^
13, Sphingidje 4, Ceratocampidge (?) i, Striphnopterygidje 5,
Notodontidse 2/, Geometridae 47, Saturniad?e 15, Arbelidse 7,
Cossid?e i. Lasiocampidre 18, Chrysopolomidse 4, Limacodid?e
7, Zygcenidcne 4, Thyridids 6, Pyralidse 117, Ptero])horida 14,
Orneodidce 4, Tortricidge 27, Tineina 192. and Hepialidai 2.

This collection, tliough perhaps the largest of Southern
Rhodesian moths in existence, is by no means exhaustive or even
representative of this peculiar fauna, for it is i^rincipally made
up of specimens obtained during mv last collecting-trip. Only
an odd specimen here and there was presented to me by some
of the Rhodesian entomologists, of which the Rev. Father
O'Neil, Mr. Rupert Jack, and the Rev. Neville Jones were the
principal contributors.

This trip, which lasted only two months, December and

January, will also give a fair idea of the richness of the

Southern Rhodesian fauna, when it is mentioned that over

4,500 heterocerous specimens were secured, com]>rising over

1. 000 species, of which at least 300 are new to science.

This collection shows that onlv 40 per cent, of the species
captured are found elsewhere in South Africa, and of the species
typical to Southern Rhodesia nea.rly 50 per cent, are new to
science.

The species that are common to Southern Rhodesia and
other parts of South Africa correspond to the following re^-ion
as sketched above :

Specimens secured near Bulawayo correspond mainlv to
the Highveld Transvaal fauna ; those caught near Umtali con-
tained manv Barberton and East Coast forms, especially among
the Pvralidae ; Umvuma and Salisburv are, I think, very similar
to each other, and at the same time differ from the Umtali fauna,
but my stay at these places was too short to sa-y anything con-
clusive ab()ut it ; the North-Western parts of Rhodesia, like

/lO MOTHS OF SOUTHERN KHCJDKSIA.

t, '

Victoria Falls and Sawmills, yielded less typical forms than
I anticipated from the flora.

In formino- any opinion about the collection, one or two
points should be borne in mind : firstly, the trip on which the
collection was made was more or less a survey to ffain informa-
tion for further detailed research work, and consenuentl}' a
g"reat deal of time had to be wasted in unprofitable travelling^ ;
secondly, the time of the year during^ which the collecting had
to be done was not the best time, as it was between the first
and the second 'brood, October and November. February and
March would have been better, but being tied down to Decem-
ber and January, I have always to make the best of it ; thirdly.
the season was abnormally wet, so much so that at Umtali, for
instance, where I camped out for 12 days, it rained ten nights
and practically every day between 12 and 5 P-ni., and as the
day-time had to be used for preparing the specimens caught
at night, very little daylight collecting could be done.

The above will, I, think, show sufficiently what results could
be obtained if such research work could be carried out — as it
should be — on a larger scale.

If we wish to have some clear insight into the original
fauna and flora of our beautiful South Africa, it is important
that no more time be lost ; for it is certain that in the near
future, not only will the mammalian fauna have been completely
changed or, shall I say, wijjed out, even in remote parts of
South Africa, such as Southern Rhodesia, Imt the northward
march of the agriculturist will have destroyed or changed the
original flora, and consequently much of the original insect life
which cannot adapt itself to the new conditions will have dis-
appeared.

In view of this I was verv pleased to hear that a botanical
survey was g'oing to be organised shortly, and judging by the
people who have interested themselves in it, I feel sure that
it will be a success. But why should not also a zoological survey
be organised? I think we shall all agree that animals adapt
themselves even less than plants to changed conditions, and it
is also certain that up to the present our fauna is far less per-
fectly known than our flora. With an organised, zoological
survey many of the disadvantages of the present system of
research, perhaps the most unnatural system in existence", and
certainly not worthy of men of science, would fall away. To
begin with, overlapping — a typical feature of the present system
— would be avoided, and thus more and better results could be
produced with the same amount of labour; many now neglected
branches of research could be attended to, and each branch could
work in co-operation with another allied branch ; perhaos
government support could be secured, if not now, then in the
near future, and, what is perhaps worth more than all of these
combined, the separate institutions and jirivate workers con-
cerned would be stimulated to produce the highest qualitv and
quantity. Especially in this country, where pure scientific work

MOTHS OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA. /I I

which has no apparent bearing on economic problems is not as
well supported by the Government and the public as it deserves
and enjoys in older countries, it is important to strengthen our-
selves by combining in the effort of lifting the veil of mystery
which covers so many of Nature's truths. I feel sure that an
effort to organise a zoological survey would receive the moral
support of this Association, the Royal Society, and the South
African Biological Society, and if only the different museums and
the private workers would resolve to assist each other, it ought
not to be difficult to materialise a well-organised zoological survey
for South Africa.

May the richness of the lepidopterous fauna of Southern
Rhodesia, as represented by my collection, stimulate us all to
more energetic work.

Bacteriological Production of Acetone —At

a meeting of the Canadian Section of the vSociety
of Chemical Industry, held at Montreal on May 17th, 1919,
Professor H. B. Speakman, Director of the Department
of Zymology of Toronto University, described the i)ro-
duction of acetone by a bacteriological process as carried
on at the British Acetones Plant in Toronto. The work repre-
sents another stage in the use off the organic catalysts in
industrial methods. About ten years ago numerous investigations
were in progress in Europe in connection with the synthesis of
rubber, and eventually it was demonstrated that rubber could be
synthesised by the polymerisation of isoprene. The problem was
then how to obtain liberal supplies of butyl alcohol and acetone,
starting from cheap and abundant materials. Advantage was
taken of the fact that certain organisms are able to decompose
carbohydrates with the production of acetone and alcohols, and
an organism was isolated which was capable of fermenting potato
starch. Relying on supplies of this material, the work of
building up the synthetic rubber industry proceeded. Subse-
quently a new and more abundant supply of raw material, namely-
maize, replaced potatoes, and an organism was isolated which
would ferment actively a fairly concentrated mash, and give good
constant yields of acetone and butyl alcohol. It was realised that
such a development might possibly be of assistance to the War
Departments, and in the latter part of 191 5 the investigation
assumed the character of a piece of Admiralty research work.
About Christmas, 191 5, an experimental plant was installed at
the Royal Naval Cordite Factory, Poole, and in May. 1Q16.
operations were commenced at the works of the British Acetones,
Toronto, Ltd.

A SURVEY OF ABORIGINAL PLACE-NAMES.

■>y Rov. John Robert Lewis Kingon. M.A.. F.R.S.E., F.L.S.

1. Preliminary.

2. The wealth of rletaU

3. Wrong- perspective in naming.

4. European 7's. Bantu principles of naming.
.> Personal names.

6. Animal names.

7. Relationsliip to Hebrew.

8. Uniform orthography needed.

9. Difficulties of spelling.
10. Arrangement.

ir. Aboriginal place-names lists.

I. Distribution.

II. Transkeian List.

a Alilireviations used.
8 Alphabetical list.
y Observations.

III. Ciskeian List.

a Preliminary considerations.
8 Alphabetical list.

1\". Mdttcntiit-llusbman place-names.

A. Critical examination of names.

a Preliminaries.

B Clicks.

V Other non-Bantu sounds.

. B. Alphal)ctical list.

a Transkeian.
S Ciskeian.

C. Detailed study of specific groups.

a The -ra group.

S The -kama group.

y Other typical H.-B. groups.

D. The need for further research.
12. Classification.

A. According to suffixes.

B. Groups of compound names.

C. General classitication.

D. Conclusions.

The past five years of world-conflict have called ns all to
bear a share of the common burden, and in consequence the fulfil-
ment of many a cherished purpose has necessarily been delayed.
It was at the Kimberley Session of the Association, so long ago
a? July, 1914. that the interesting paper on " South African
Place-names " suggested to my mind the desirability of ttnder-
taking a systematic survey of the aboriginal place-names. The
Declaration of War in the following month, however, and absence

ABOKl(;iXAL I'LACR NAMES. 713

overseas, precluded me from making any effort until 1917, when,
as a preliminary study, I ventured upon " The Place-names of
Tsolo District."

The interesting and valuable philological results which came
to light in the course of the study of the place-names of this
single Transkeian district so im])ressed me with the possibilities
of new discoveries in this unprospected realm, that I determined
to carry out the extended study 1 had in mind at the earliest
rpportunity. But at the very outset one was faced with very
serious difficulty. Everyone who has had any insight into the
Native mind and method will be familiar with the immense
detail which burdens their narratives of even sim])le events —
and, naturally, this immense detail is to be reckoned with in any
^tudy of the place-names, for the smallest of places seems to
have its name. It will be readily understood that just because
it is their custom to recount every little detail, including a minute
description of the localities concerned, places which very often
would remain unnamed in any ICuropean area are certain of a
name in Kaffirland, and it is to be observed that in just such little-
noticed places we are most likely to find the gems of which we
are in search. The importance, therefore, of examining these
}>lace-names exhaustively is not to be underestimated ; and the
detail work involved in such a comprehensive study indicates
the very real and serious difficulties of the task. In a territory
like the Transkei, still largely undeveloped, places are apt to
become important from a European standpoint only when such
place is the seat of a Magistracy, or a Mission Station, or a
Trading Station ; and. speaking generally, we take note of a place
because there happens to be a school in that particular location,
and quite lose sight of other places because there does not happen
to be a school at hand. Then, when in due course the map-maker
comes along, the one name is recorded rather than the other,
which, being continually overlooked, at last is lost. Many such
names are in serious danger of being lost for ever, unless we
make haste to collect the data from the old generation, which is
rapidly passing aw^ay, a task that is quite impracticable for any
one man to accomplish. A])art from the difficulties of travel and
time involved in such a survey, there is also the underlying
suspicion of the native mind to overcome if one is to gather
reliable information rather than inaccurate details given design-
edly to confuse the enquirer. Even yet the native mind cannot
understand what interest and value there can possibly be in
enquiries of the kind, and thinks that the white man must be
after something detrimental to the natives. Perhaps even, and
most likely, he fears that the white man is going to take away
his land, and. in consequence, he either knows nothing, or else
he shrewdly gives misleading information! It is therefore to
those who dwdl amoug the natives that one appeals for co-opera-
tion in order to complete this survey, and I shall be most
grateful for any assistance rendered by one and another who

714 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

may come across this paper and be in a position to help. Perhaps
I may be permitted to acknowledge here the prompt help given
by tne kev. R. Godfrey, M.A., of Somerville Mission, m
response to my appeal m tne i solo Place-names paper, to which
reference has already been made, and to express tne hope that
others may show similar interest.

Another interesting point which is, I think, established by a
review of the facts before us, is the divergence m the methods
of naming places as between the white and the black races. Thus
it is that we delight to honour our great men by giving their
names to specific places, and in this way some of Scotland's and
England's greatest names have come to be associated with
Mission Stations on the lonely veld, and in other cases we have
sought to honour one and another outstanding pioneer figure.-
or, again, religious sentiment has operated to transfer Biblical
place-names, or the names of sundry saints, to some primitive
sanctuary in the heart of Kaftirland. I sometimes wonder how
much the memories of our noble dead are honoured by this
custom, for, to the vast mass of the native peoples, the place is
known only by the native name, and any stranger not knowing
the road, travelling to such a mission, would be in danger of
seriously prolonging his travels unless he used the nathe name
in his enquiries.

Equally — nay, more- — ridiculous is it to have all the public
notices and stationery of the Post Offices and Railways blazoned
in English and Dutch, and not in the one language understood
of all natives and read by not a few. But that is another story.
and not to be enlarged upon here !

In contradistinction to this practice of ours we find, then,
that the natives do not generally name places after their great
departed leaders, or if they do so, it is the exception rather than
the rule. They prefer to lay hold of some natural feature, or
special characteristic, or circumstance, for the jiurposes of place-
naming; and when we do find places named after individuals, I
am inclined to think that this is due not so much to the natives
as to the Europeans who associated the individual with a locality.
Examples illustrating this point are to be found in Gaika's Kop,
in the Ciskei ; Matiwane's Range, Sigonyela's Location, as well
as many others whiph will be given later.

For purposes of convenience, however, the residence of a
chief or other important man may be designated by the use of a
locative form of his name, and since every member of the tribe
knows the name all are aware of the place intended, and in con-
sequence a place-name crystallises, lingers for a time, and gives
place to that of his successor, unless in the meanwhile official
documents, and map-makers, and recorders of all kir,ds, have
stereotyped the name for all time, quite regardless of the fact
that the natives themselves have long since passed on to another
name, thus elevating the living celebrity to a transient fame, and
assisting the honoured dead to a speedy oblivion. A number of

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. /1 5

such names (all those in our list ending with an apostrophe s)
are given by way of illustration, though with the exception of
the three already given, and perhaps a few more, they may be
regarded as temporary place-names. Sometimes circumstances
have focussed our attention on some Kaffir chief and given him
undue prominence in our minds; and too often in our British
way we have admired the heroism or the good lighting of some
dusky warrior, and have i)erpetuated his memory rather than
that of some greater chief who had caused us less trouble. But,
be that as it may, we may generalise safely and say that those
few place-names which are obviously direct personal names
have usually been the result of European influence, though by
constant usage they are now gradually becoming fixed amongst
the school natives, and in time will be accejjted. no doubt, by the
mass of the people.

This does not, however, niean that the natives are entirely
without remembrances of their great, and, by now, long-departed
heroes. As a matter of fact, in their native way. their own
native name for the individual is i)erpetuated with or without
adaptation, and so serves the same purpose. A typical example
of this is to be found in Umgungundhlovu, which means the
])lace of the elephant. Both Tshaka and Dingane were called the
elephant, and so the place where each dwelt in turn came to be
Called " the place of the elephant." Umgungundhlovu is to-day
the native name for that city which perpetuates the name of two
Dutch South Africans, Pieter Retief and Gert Maritz. and is
known to the white man as Pietermaritzburg. To the native
mind the memories of Tshaka and his brother are enshrined
Avithin the name. No doubt some of those names which refer to
the lion, the tiger, the bull, the wolf, and other animals having
characteristics that could be applied with acceptance to primitive
men (as indicative of power, courage, tenacity, cunning, and
other qualities in which primitive men are wont to take pride)
indicate not so much the fact that the particular animal was to
be found in that locality, as might be imagined, but rather that
some individual lived there who w-as characterised by the name
of one of these animals. In most cases, however, the sense
clearly determines the intention ; thus " Ntabengwe " means " the
ridge of the tiger"; " Isincuka/' "the home of the wolves";
" Ndzche." " the antelope." This last is a name that bafified me
for years, and everv inquiry on the spot consistently gave a
negative result, until quite recently I found in Kay's " CafTra-
rian Researches" (published in 1833, p. 201) a reference made
to the tzcbe. Allowing for differences between the old spelling
and the present form of the word, there can be no doubt that
this place-name hides a word hitherto not recorded in our Stan-
dard Dictionary.

The name of that beautiful animal, the springbok {Antelope
pygarga), is f::ebe in the Amakosa tongue; and it is a curious fact
that the very same word is used in Hebrew to denote an antelope

7l6 Ai;OKlG[.\AL PLACE NAMES.

of the same description, if nut the precise species, erroneously
rendered "roe" by our translators: •'like a roe (tccbe), or a
young- hart upon the mountains of Bether." ("rringle's Notes,"
quoted by Kay, })p. 201-2.) Kay adds sionificantly in a foot-
note. " This is by no means the most common name. Ibadi is the
one by which the animal in question is most generally known
amongst the Kaffirs." Perhaps we may venture to correct
t'ringle to the extent of pointing out that the actual Hebrew word
in Song of Solomon, ii : 17, is 'J V and the EngHsh equivalent

should be " tsebi," but, even so, the parallel is a striking one.

This word, then, serves to draw our attention to the question
of spelling in its relation to our study. In gathering together all
the names available in Kaffirland, we are not altogetlier surprised
to find a veritable harvest of errors. In the first place we need
to remind ourselves that the names have been recorded over about
130 years, by men of several nationalities and varying degrees
of education ; and when Kaffir sounds were expressed' by their
Dutch equivalents and the British colonial pronounced them in
terms of their English values, the result was confusion. To add
to this state of affairs, the missionaries in one area, intent upon
completing the great task of reducing the language to writing —
especially at a time when every journey was by means of the
tedious ox-wakon, and missionaries being separated by hundreds
of miles were compelled to work in isolation — did so without any
thought as to how others were tackling similar tasks in neigh-
bouring areas.

In conseqttence it is the great misfortune of South Africa
that there is not a uniform orthography for the different Bantu
languages. Something has already been done to improve the
position, but the whole question of a uniform orthography
remains as a challenge to our scholars, and more still to the
missionary societies, who are not, I fear, prepared to tackle the
problem — with all that it will imdoubtedly mean of surrendering
cherished points and making certain changes. The valuable
work recently done in Rhodesia along these lines is worthy of
attention and emulation. It is, I fear, a counsel of perfection to
even suggest that an earnest attempt should be made by all
concerned to face the problem, even at this late stage — surely it
is not incapable of solution. It is. indeed, a matter in which
the Government should take the initiative in view of the great
advantages which would be secured in administration alone, not
tc mention the great questions of native education, the produc-
tion of a native literature^a work as yet but scarce begun, and
other important issues which are involved.

Illustrative of this point is the discussion in connection with
the Hottentot-Bushman names at a later stage in this paper, a
discussion to which we venture to direct attention in order to
emphasise the importance of a resolute attempt at this juncture
to secure a uniform orthography. The difficulties are not so
great that they cannot be overcome, if not wholly, at any rate

AUOKIGINAL PLACE XAMES, JI"

to a large extent, and missionary statesmanship and scholarship
should be equal to the task.

As the tide of invasion flowed from the west in an easterly
direction, we should naturally expect to find the most inaccura-
cies and the greatest diversities m those regions where contact
Avas lirst established, and our expectations are fulfilled, for the
spelling difficulties are best exemplified by the names we find
in the Ciskei, especially because some recur in the Transkei, and
comparisons are possible. Thus the Dutch pioneers, hearing
the aboriginal place-names, expressed the aboriginal sounds in
the equivalents of the Dutch alphabet. In this way Ramka and
Ramtoos became damka and damtoos. Kinira became Kenesrha.
and Coega and Coerney remain to puzzle us to this day.

There are also numerous cases in which the click has been
mistaken, and to this day the mispelling jjerpetuated. These,
however, are all points w'hich w^ill find exemplification in the
course of our study, so that we are content for the present to
merely indicate in a preliminary way a few of the perplexities
to be borne in mind.

As a first instalment of these spelling difiiculties, we mention
in brief a few illustrative instances at this stage, reserving
a fuller discussion of the points raised until we deal with the
important -ra group of the H-B place-names. Bearing in mind,
then, what has already bten said, it will be realised that the early
spellers went wrong, not merely over the clicks, but in the vowel
sounds, if our modern usage is to be accepted, for in both such
Vv^ords as Coega and Coerney, already mentioned, one vowel is
sufficient in the middle syllables, and the use of the Kaffir u in
the case of Kasoiiga; for if -ga is the Dutch equivalent for -ra,
ou certainly is not the Dutch equivalent for the sound intended,.
oe (as in Dutch, koe, a cow) being the correct form. Thus the
least we might have expected was the more consistent rendering
Kasoega — and significantly enough the oc is retained, as we have
seen in Coega, showing the strength of ni}- contention. As a
matter of fact, I think that probably the English settlers of 1820
w^ere responsible for perpetuating, perhaps even altering the
Dutch oe to the English o^l in the word, and so kasouga remains
a double hybrid, while Coega in a Dutch area retained tlie
evidence of a single hybridisation. Either name would have
been correctly rendered with the English u simpliciter.

As a guide, then, to important principles required in the
determination of the original spelling of corrupted place-names,
this small group of words is seen to be of some importance.

But errors in spelling may also arise through an inaccurate
apprehension of specific clicks. It is well known that many
clicks have been lost — some designedly, others accidentally — and
while it is usual to accept only three of these, c, q, and x, in
si-Xosa, yet many more are in general use amongst the natives
themselves, especially in the backward areas. There is, of course,
the very large class of natives educated in our ways who have

->Q

r6 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

got accustomed, by much contact with the white man, to use
only the three chcks specified. It is, therefore, not surprising
to find subtle differences in the clicks as enunciated in different
areas, and perhaps it was this fact which largely contributed to
the making of mistakes in the writing of place-names.

A case in point is that of the Inxu River. For a consider-
able time I made efforts to find out the meaning of the name, all
without result, until one day, in looking at the map, I saw that
the river was named Wildebeeste, the Dytch name for the white-
tailed gnu. Thinking it possible that the pioneers had taken
over the Kaffir name by the simple process of translation, I
found my expectations realised, for the Kaffir word for this
]K-irticular antelope is i-Nqu. Yet in all ofiicial documents the
old and incorrect spelling is perpetuated.

Illustrative of the misuse of the c click is the place-name
Ngcele, only a mile or two from the Inqu river. Possibly the
same man who perpetuated the Inxu error was responsible for
Ngcele. Situate on the top of the mountains above Somerville
Alission, subject to extremely severe frosts, it is quite clear to
nie that the name was intended for i-Ngqclc, meaning frost,
cold. With these examples before us, the matter of errors in
regard to clicks is seen to be a consideration for the purposes of
our study. The significance of certain letters in si-Xosa has also
been responsible for some confusion. The c, being pronoimced
more like the English short a, is rightly used, especially at the
termination of names, but other folk, hearing the English a
sound, will persist in writing a, forgetting that they are handling
a Kaffir word. In this way we get Bokotwa and Bokotwe,
Cegcutvana and Cegcuzuane, and others ; while other series of
names illustrating the same point of difiiculty in determining
specific soimds are to be found in Kaboli. Kabolc, and Kobole;
also Oobosheaneng, Qhobosheaneng, and Onoboshcancng, all
taken from official publications.

The Forest Department's efforts, it should be stated, are
always indicated in my list by the abbreviation Fsf after the
name.

A large group of se-Suto place-na-mes are obviously distin-
guished by their pronounced characteristics, and the ortho-
graphical differences are sometimes indicated by the same name
appearing in si-Xosa garb alongside the se-Suto original. Illus-
trating this class are Ranihlakwajia, and RamotJilakoana, in
which the contrast, together with contraction, is shown; and
other names, such as Seghobong, Oobosheaneng, and Povtseng.

lo. — Arrangement.

In the arrangement of an alphabetical list of place-names
the question naturally arises as to how the classification is to be
effected. How are we to decide upon the initial letter of the
name, for in most names there is quite a choice? Thus, for
example, we have the small stream in the Umtata District named

AliORlGINAL PLACE NAMES, 719

um-Bolomi30, and the point is whether we are to arrange it
under it, or c, or m, or B, or all. As a matter of fact, the prefix
itm might well be eliminated, in which case the word would be
Bolompo, but if we think it necessary to write the whole word,
the strictly accurate way would be em-Bolompo, the locative.
According to our English way, however, the temptation to write
Emboloiiipo is irresistible to many, while the common practice is
to simply crystallise the name into Mbolompo!

An illustration which brings out another point is the place-
name Cumngcc. i-Cumngce is a tributary of the Umtata River,
and Buntingville, the Teacher Training Institution which has
grown up on the banks of the river, drawing its pupils from
far and near, is come to be spoken of as " At the i-Cumngce."
Now, in Kaffir, the locative case is formed by the substitution of
ktva for //, or c for the first letter of the prefix. Thus i-Cumngce
becomes c-Ciimngcc, and, similarly, Umgzvali becomes Emgivali.
So, to avoid unnecessary duplication, and even confusion, it has
seemed wiser to adopt the neutral form, such as Citmngce, and
Mgzvali, in the names mentioned, unless some one other form
has come to be widely used and better known, or the purposes
of clearness are better served by the showing of the prefix.

Mr. Godfrey, in an appendix to his Dictionary, has faith-
fully given the prefix in every case, entering the place-name
under the initial letter of the root. Since the general usage (so'
far as postal addresses, official records, place-names on maps,
and all the usual places. where names are written, are concerned)
is to eliminate only the initial vowel and to capitalise the con-
sonant following, we have followed out this practice, except
where other forms have also gained currency. In some few cases
we have not hesitated to give more than one form if these were
well known, or any other good purpose were served by so
doing.

The advantage of this decision wall be observed by reference
to the following extract from Bryant's Zulu-English Dictionary :

" Capitals and Proper Names. — So far Grout seems to have
been the only one who attempted to formulate for us any fixed
rules in regard to this matter. The practice of Colenso was
constantly varying, showing that his own mind was not quite
settled on the subject. . . . Unhappily, Grout's system is
inconvenient and irregular. . . . He advises (Rule 5, para. 64,
Zulu Grammar) that ' All proper nouns, as names of persons,
])laces. rivers, and tribes ' be commniced with a capital letter,
that is to say, that tlie capital letter should appear as the initial
letter of the prefix of the word, not of the root. Thus : Umuti
(a person), Utukela (a river), Inkandhia (a place).

" He then proceeds to direct that, when such names of places
appear in the locative case, the first letter is still that to be
capitalised. Thus Otukela, Enkandhla.

"Again, he directs that, when such a ])roper name is preceded
by a particle whose final vowel coalesces with the initial vowel

K

720 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

of the proper name, then the letter ,to be capitahsed is that next
following after the crasis. Thus, NgoTukela (along the Tukela),
neNkandhla (and the Nkandhla)':, . . Further on, in his notes
upon these above-mentioned rules, he proceeds : — ' After much
study ... I see no reason to change or modify the foregoing
rules. . . . They are in the best possible accord with good
taste, do not mar or break up the word, or disturb its integrity.
. . . . Much less do they involve any arbitrary, difficult, or
needlessly minute division in a name.'

" By the above eulogy of his system, Gjrout seems to
have unwittingly stated to us some of its most conspicuous
defects. For just what it does involve is an arbitrary, compli-
cated, and needless ' chopping about of the names ' ; just what it
does do is ' to mar and break up the words and destroy their
integrity,' at least in so far as it makes the name of a particular
river appear at one time as though it were Utiikela, at another as
though it were Otukela, and at another as though it were Tnkela,
and so on with all names written according to this changeable
method — the capital letter, which most people would take to
indicate the commencement of the actual name, would be inces-
santly altering. ... at one time Inkandhla, then Enkandhla,
and finally neNkandhla!" (Introduction, pp. 92-93.)

The main point, then, is to have a system, and to adhere to
ir as far as possible. But while Mr. Godfrey is consistent
throughout, and rightly so from the strictly philological point of
view, yet place-names which are commonly current have a way
of getting down to a working level, and so for general ])urposes
adherence to prefixes is not practicable, the whole tendency being
to eliminate them as far as possible. With all this in mind, we
have ventured to fix the place-names as we found them, the
elifort being to get at the most generally accepted form, consistent,
of course, with accuracy, and, in any case, the acceptance of
the single neutral form is sufficient in itself and avoids the over-
burdening of the lists.

The name Indwe, for instance, if we adhered to the strict
rule, should be written in-Dwe, and be classified under the
letter D — an arrangement that would effectively disguise an old
friend. At the risk of some inconsistency, which we fear is
unavoidable in the circumstances, we have adhered to the better
known forms in all similar words.

II. — Aboriginal Place-names Lists.

I. — Distribution.

A further point that has no slight value and interest is that
of the Distribution of Place-names, especially as between the
Hottentot-Bushman names and the Bantu names.* So long ago
as 1833 Kay committed himself to the statement that the Kei
was the dividing line, a statement that has come to be accepted
in a general way. He tells us that: — • ,

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 721

" The names of the different rivers to the eastward of this
point (Butterworth) are purely Kaffir; whereas those to the
westward are ahiiost all distinguished by terms of Hottentot
origin. This fact renders it more than probable that the different
divisions of the Hottentot tribe were, at one period or other,
scattered over the face of the country, as far as the Kae, at
least. Indeed, numbers of this class are still everywhere met with
amongst the Kaffirs ; who, however, generally look down upon
them with a degree of contempt." (P. 268.)

We now know that, as a matter of fact, certain Hottentot
tribes — the Gonaqua certainly, and also a large part of the
Damaqua — were assimilated into the Kaffir tribes. The lighter
colour and other. Hottentot characteristics, apparent in the
Kaffirs in certain areas, remain as evidence to that fact even in
our own day.

Moreover, the very derivation of the name Kciskama (ori-
ginally i-Xesi) indicates an agreement arrived at, as between the
Kaffirs and Hottentots, by which the fourth river from the Kei
was to be the dividing line between the races. Perhaps it was
this fact which gave rise to the generally received idea that the
Kei marked the eastern limit of Hottentot-Bushman advance.

Nevertheless, Kay needs to be corrected. It cannot be said
that " the names of the dift'erent rivers to the eastward of this
point are purely Kaft'er," for they are not. It is true to say that
the great rivers east of the Kei are all purely Bantu, but a
glance at the following list of the rivers, arranged in order, will
at once prove the necessity of qualifying the statefhent to which
exception is taken.

Rivers West of Kei. Rivers East of Kei.

Great Kei River Great Kei (Nciba)

Kwelegha Gxara

Gonubie (i-Gqunube) Qobonqaba

Nahoon (i-Nxaruni) Nxaxa

Buffalo Qora

Chalumna (i-Tyolomnqa) Jujura

Keiskama (Ixesi) Qwaninga

•Beka (i-Bira) Shixini

• Nqabara

Bashec (Bashe)

Great Fish (^Inxuba) Nthlongane

Xora

• Mncwasa

Kowie (Icawa) Ntshontini

Kasouga IMapuzi

Kareiga Um-tata

Bushmans (Iqora) Umdumbi

Sundays (Inqweba) Umtakatyi

Coega Mneno

Zwartkops Sinangwana

"^IZ AliORIGINAL PLACE NAMKS.

Rivers West of Kei. Rivers East of Kici.

Baakens Umgazana

Gamtoos Umgazi

Karadoiuv U mzimvuhu

um-Zitsikania (or Keurbooms) Nkadisweni
Kiu'sna Ntafufu

Gau-ritz Umziiitlavana

Kafferkuil Umsikaba

Brccdc Unitentu

Unin3'anieni

Umzamba

Umtamvuna

Umzimkiilu

The most, then, that can be said is that, as far as the Bashee,
all the coastal rivers, with the rarest exceptions, have nariies
containing H-B sounds, and just east of the Bashee we find two
more small rivers exhibiting the same characteristics, but from
the ]\Incwasa all the others are of purely Bantu derivation.

This, however, is by no means true of the interior place-
uames. Alan}- names containing H-B sounds are found as far
east as the Umzimvubu and its tributary the Tina, and compara-
tively few beyond, so that Kay's great dividing line must be
shifted from the Kei to the Umzimvubu. The point is of some
miportance on account of the idea we have alread}- mentioned
as being fairly generally accepted, namely, that the Hottentots
and Bushmen overran the country west of the Kei. Judging by
the nomenclature, we are compelled to the view that they pene-
trated much further east, and in any case we have already seen
that Hottentots were actually assimilated into the Kaffir tribes;
while, so far as the Bushmen are concerned, positive evidence
exists even at the present day of Bushman paintings, implements,
and colonies in the heart of Kaffirland. Those who have interest
in this point are referred to my paper on " Some Place-names of
Tsolo'"*; also to the paper on "Cattle as a Factor in South
African Economic De\-elopment."t

It is, indeed, abundantly clear that many such names would
be accounted for in this way. Others, however, would arise by
the Bantu adopting Hottentot-Bushman words and clicks, and*
so themselves giving names of H-B derivation to places in their
own territories. As a matter of fact, some Kaffir words have
been influenced to the extent that the initial consonant has been
sympathetically altered into a click, and it is more than probable
tiiat as we enter into the minutise of the place-names we shall
find some wearing an H-B garment over a purely Bantu form.

In view, however, of the fact that the Transkei was annexed
much later than British Kaffraria, and that the Transkeian Terri-
tories are separately administered, and especially for the further
reasons that the names across the Kei are less corrupted by

* Rcpt. S.A. Ass. for Adv. ofSc. Maritzburg (1916). 603-619.
t See ante, p. 429.

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

7^3

the conflict as between the EngHsh and Dutch languages, diver-
gent spelHngs, and bad spelHng, we prefer to classify the place-
names under the two groups, Transkeian and Ciskeian. In the
Transkeian group the districts in which the names occur are
indicated in almost all cases by carefully chosen abbreviations in
accordance with the accompanying table ; but sundry difficulties
of a practical nature have precluded us from following out this
procedure in the Ciskeian group with thoroughness.

11.-

I. — Traiiskci.

Butterworth = Bu
Idutywa = Id.
Kentani = K.
Nqamakwe -= Nq.
Tsomo = Tm.
Willowvale = W.

II. — Tembuland.

Elhotdale = Ed.
Engcobo = Ec.
Mqanduli = Mq.
St. Mark's = Mk.
Umtata = Unit.
Xalanga = X

-'1 111-: Transkeian List.

a Tabic of Districts.

III. — East Griquala)id.

Matatiele = Mat.
Mount Ay lift' = Ma.
Mount Currie = Mc.
Mount Fletcher = Mfl.
Mount Frere~= Mfr.
Qumbu = Q.
/ Tsolo = Tl.

Umzimkulu = Umz.

lY. — Pondoland.

Bizana = B.
Flagstaff = F.
Libode = Lb.
Lusikisiki = Lk.
Ngqeleni = Ng.
Tabankulu = Tb.

V. — St. Johns = J.

ji The Transkeian List.

A
Adam (F. Umz.) Amakonjwayo (Bu.)

Ade (Mat.) Amanganda (Bu.)

Amabele Hills (Bu.) Amangeni Est. (Umz.j

Amabomvana (Bu.) Amanzamnyama Est. (Mfr.)

B

Bacela (Mq.)
Bakuba (Mq.)
Balasi (F. Q. Tl.)
Bancolo

Banganyama (Umz.)
" BangiHzwe (Mq.)
Bangweni Est. (Ma.)
Bantsa Est. (Q.)
Banzi (Mk. Ec.)
Bashee (Eg.)
Batwana Hill (Mfr.)
Bava (Tl.)

Bawa (Bu)
Baxa (Tl.)
Baziya Mt. (Umt.)
Bedlana (Tl.)
Bele (Tl.)
Belentombi ( Mk.}
Bencuti (Q.) [Shawbury]
um-Benge (Tm.)
u-Bengu (X.)
Betshwana (Ma.)
Bevele (Ec.)
Bikitsi (Ng.)

724

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Bini (Ed.)

Bongitoe (Nq.)

Binta (Tl.)

Bongitoli (Nq.)

i Bisa (Umz.)

Bongotoli (Nq.)

i-Bisi (Umz.)

Bomvanaland (EUioldale Di.^l.)

Bisi (Trib. of Indwe)

Bonxa (Trib. of Qora)

Biyana's (Nq.)

Botsebelo (Q.)

Bikana (W.)

Bosha (Trib. of Qora.)

Bizana (Bz. J.)

Bovube (Ti.)

Bodweni (Lk.)

Boya

Bo j ana (Eg.)

Bubesi (Mat.)

Bojeni (W.)

Bufumba (Ed.)^

Bokotwa

Bulalisilo (Tm.)

Bokotwe (Q. Eg.)

Bulemba (Ma.)

Bokwana (TI.)

Bulembii (T. Bu.)

Bokwe (Bu.)

i-Bulu (Trib. of Tyelera.)

Bokweni (F.)

em-Bulu (Paterson U.F.Ch.

Bolana's (Tm.)

Mission.)

Bolo (Trib. of Kei.)

im-Bulu (Trib. of Tsomo.)

Bolota (Bu.)

Bulukweza (Trib. of Tsomo.)

Bolotwa (Id.)

Bumbana (X. Bu.)

Bolwana

Bumbuhvana (Umt.)

Bombasi (Umz.)

Bushula's (Lk.)

Bombazela Est. (K.)

Busila (W.)

Bombombo Est. (Tl.)

Buswayo Est. (Eg.)

Bombovvemfene (Nq.)

Buwa (Nq. Umt.)

Mbonda (Mp.)

Caba (Eq. Mat. Trib. Q.

C

Tm.) Cegcuwana (Nq. Umt. Bu.)

Cabane (Umt. Mfr.)

Cegcuwane (Nq. Umt. Bu.)

Cabazana (Ma.)

Ceka (TI.)

Cabaze (Mfr.)

Cekwayo (Q.)

Caca Drift (Eg.)

Cengane (Tl.)

Cacadu (Mq. Tb.)

Cengcani (Q.)

Cala (X.)

Cengcu (Elliot)

Cambalala (Bii.)

Centane (K.)

Camama (Mk.)

Centuli (Umt. K.)

Camandashe (Id.)

Cepani ( Umz. )

Camata

Ceru (Bu.)

Cammama Est. (Ed.)

Cibala

Cancele (Mfr.)

Cibeni (Ek.)

Candu (Id.)

Cibini (Umt.)

Capane (Umt.)

Cicela (Bu.)

Capoti (Mfr.)

Cicira (Umt.)

Caquba (J.)

Ciko (W.)

Casa (Eg.) {cf. Caca)

Cinq CO (Tl.)

Cebe (K.)

Cizela Est. (W.)

Cebence (T.)

Cofimvaba (Mk. Tl.)

Cefane (Eg.)

Colana (Mfr.)

Cefani (Eg.)

Collywobbles (Id.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

7^5

Colosa (?) (Id.) Ciimngce (Unit.) (Buntingville)

Colossa (Bu.) (Police Station) ulu-Cwe (Eg.)

Columba Fst. (K.) Cwebe Forest (Eg.)

Corana (Lb. Ng. ) Cvvebeni (Mfr.)

Couta's Bush (K.) i-Cwe-Cwe (Trib. Emgwali)

Cucu (Trib. Qora.) Cwecweni (Eg.)

Culungca (Q.) Cwengcwana

Cunigce (Bu.j Cxwaleni Fst. (Mq.)

D

Dadamba. ( W. )
Dakana (Nq.)
Dambeni (Tb.)
Dangwana (Mfr.)
Dangwane (J.)
Darabe (Mq.)
Debera (Eg.) {cf. Debe)
Dedelo (Ma., F.)
Delamuzi's (Uniz.)
Dehve (Bu.)
Dengwane (Mfl.)
Detyana (Q.)
Diaho (Mat.)
Dikidiki (Tl.)
Dingesweni's (Mfr.)
Dingezweni Forest (TI.)
Dingiswayo's ( Nq. )
Dinizulu (Id.)

Diva (Diyo) (Bu.)
Dlepu's (Bu.)
Dlumbini
Dswaka's (Mfl.)
Duba (Tl. Umz.)
Dudinlazi (Eg.)
Dudumayo (Mq.)
Duleni

Dumalisili's (W.)
Dumaneni (Q.)
Dumasi (J.)
Dumezvveni's ( Ng. )
Dumisa (Umz.)
Dumrana (Umt.)
Dumsi (Tb.)
esi-Dutyini (Mk.)
Dwabe Forest (Q.)
Dwessa Forest ( W.

Bu.)

E

Ebendi (Id.) (cf. Tvelebendij

(Id.)
Ebuhlanyanga (Lu.)
Ebuta (Umz.)
Ecibeni Hill (Lb).
Edutyini (Ma.)
Egoso (Eg.)
PZgoxe (Mc.)
Egqubeni (Mfr. Mq.)
Egugweni (Umz.)
Elabafazi Fst. (G.)
Elenkawa Fst. (Tm.)
Elide Fst. (Tm.)
Elikadinana Fst. (O.)
Eliweni Fst. (Eg.)
Elubaleko (Ma.)
Elucwecwe (Eg).
Eluhoweni (Eg.)
Elujecweni (Tl.)
Elukolvveni (Mat. Umz.)

Eluxolweni ( Mq. )
Elunyaweni (Tl.)
Emangquzu ( F. )
Emarambeni (Q.)
Emaxegweni (Mfr.)
Embizeni (Mat.)
Embobini (B.)
Embokotwana (Tl.)
Embongweni (Ma.)
Embotyi (Lu.)
Emdeni (Mfl.)
Emdikisvveni (B.)
Emfundisweni (F.)
Emgwalana (Eg.)
Em j any ana (Eg.)
Emjikweni (O.)
Emhlabati (fl.)
Emhlanga (B.)
Emkanzi (Eg.)
Emkozweni Fst. (W.)

726

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Emnyameni (Lb.)
Empa (Umt.)
Empehlo (Q.)
Empindweni (Umz.)
Emqekezweni (Ma. Umt.)
Emseleni (Lu.)
Emtamvuma (B.)
Emtumasi (Mfl.)
Emvalweni (Ma.)
Emvubakazi (Umz.)
Emzenge (F.)
Emzinto (Ma.)
Emzinthlavana (Lu.)
Emzintlanya (Mc.)
Endakeni (F. Ma.)
Engcobo (Eg".)
Engesenges (Tl.)
Engwaqa (Umz.)
Engwangwana (Umz.)
Engvvekazana (Ma.)
Engxogi (Eg.)
En j any ana (Eg.)
Enkalweni (Tl.)
Enqabeni (F.)
Ensikeni (Umz.)
Entlenzi (F.)

Entsweleni Est. (Mfr.j
Entumasi (Mfl.)
Enyanisweni (Umz.)
Esgidini (Ma.)
Esigibudweni (Tm.)
Esidwadweni (Tl.)
Esihlontlweni i^Umz.)
Esikwayeni (Q.)
Esikobeni (Umt. Eg. Ed.)
Esilindini (Mfl.)
Esingeni (F.)
Esinqnmeni (Mfl. Id.)
Esinxago (Tl.)
Esipaqeni (F.)
Esiqumeni (Id.)
Esiqungqwini (Tl.)
Esitoleni ( Eg. )
Etembeni (Q. Umz.)
Etwa Est. (Q.)
Etyeni (Mfr. Q. Tl.)
F.xgwalani ( Bii. )
Ezimpungeni (Umz.)
Ezincuka (Mfl.)
Ezingonyameni (Mfl.)
Ezinxaku (Tl.)
Ezolo (Nq.)

Fobane (Mfl.)
Fodo (Umt.)
Fononondile (X.)

Fula (Gcalekaland)
Fimdweni ( Umz. )
uki-Futa (Tm.)

Gabazi (Lb.)

Gagasi (Bu.)

Galagala Est. (W.)

Gandana (Q.)

Gangala (E.)

Ganyati (B.)

Gasa (Mq.)

Gatyana (W.)

Gcebeni (Mc.)

Gcibala (Tm.)

Gcilitshana (Bu.)

Gcina (K.)

Gcua (Bu.)

Gcuwa (Bu.)

Gcwe (Trib. of Gcuwe.)

Gcwensa (Umz.)

Gebevi

Gelani (Tl.)

Gele Mts. (near Kokstad.)

Gem f ana (Tl.)

Gengqe (Mq.)

Gnxamagela (Eg.)

Gobe (K.) ^

Gobi Fst. (K.)

Godidi (K.)

Gogella's (Ma.)

Gogozayo (Ed.)

Gongo (Tm.)

Gongqogongqo Fst. (LImz.)

Gonyama (Tm.)' (Lion shot

there in 1858.)
e-Goqwana (Tl. Lu.)
Gora Fst. (Eg.)
Gosani's (W.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

7^7

i-Gosi Fst. ( Romvanaland.)

i- Goso ( Tenibuland. )

Govan ( Nq. )

Govane (Tl. )

Goxa (Ma.)

in-Gqaba (Tenibuland.)

Gqaba Peak (Eg.)

Gqaka (Eg.)

Gqaqala ( Tl ) .

Gqobonco (Eg.)

Gqogqora (Tl. TnLj

Gqolu Fst. (K.)

Gqolweni (Mfr.)

Gqoroagqora (Tm. )

Gqibitole (Ed.)

Gqubu (Eg.)

Gqukunga (O)

Gqungqe (K.)

Gqimu (Q.)

Gqutyini (Eg.)

Gqwesa (Q.)

Gsitsana (Mfl.)

Guataba (or Mahlinge Fst.)

(Eg.)
Giibenxa (Eg.)
Gubudu (Eg.)
Gubuzi (Mfr.)
Gudla's (Nq.)
Gudlulwandle ( Ed. j
Gudwana (Alk.j
Gugu (Nq. )
Gugweni (Unig. Xq.)
Gulandoda (Eg.)

Gungini Fst. ( Umz.)

Gvmgwane (Q.)

Gungqwane (Tl.)

Gungubele (Mk.)

Gungululu (Tl. Umz.)

Gungundhlovu (Mfr.) (^Ala-
kaiila's Great Place — of
Zulu origin. (C/. Pieter-
Maritzburg's native name.;

Gura (Q.) ^ .

Gusi (Ed.)

Gwadana (Id.)

Gwadu (Id.)

Gwangwane (on Xatal Border)

(iwatyu (Mq.j

Gwebindlala's (Ed.)

Gwecweni Range (Bu.) Cf.

Xwexweni, Cwecweni.
Gwenibetshe (Umz.)
Gxakagxaka (Ed.)
Gxakaxa ( Id. )
Gxaku (Mfl.)
Gxalibomvu (Mq.)
(jxalingenwa Fst. (Umz.)
Gxara (K.)
Gxebe Hill (Tl.)
Gxididi (Lb.)
Gxobani (Bu.)
Gxojana (X^q.)
Gxoxowe Fst. (Tl.)
Gxuba Fst. (Q.)
Gxwaleni Fst. (Ma.)
Gxwalibomvu (Tl.)

u-Hange (Trib. Neon

Tm.)
Hartebeeste Kop (Bu.)
Hebehebana (Nq.)
Hebehebe (Nq.)
Hebese (or Nqadu) Fst.
Hehewu (Eg.)
e-Hewu (see Godfrey.)
u-Hewukile (Trib. Kei.)
Hlabati (Lu. Tb.) (r/

bati (Ts.) )
Hlabakazi (Mfr.)
Hlalu Fst. (Ma.)
Hlane (Mfr.)
Hlangabezu (K.)

H
colora Hlangasa (Mq.)

Hlan'komo (Mfl )

Hlatikulu (Mq.)

Hlavana (J.)

Hleke (Eg.)
(Tl.) Hlobo (Nq.)

un-Hlonyane (Nq.) ( ?)

Hoha Fst. (Umz.)

Hoita (Mk.)
Mhla- Holela (K.)

i-FIota (Bu.)

Hotolo (Mat.)

Hoyana Fst. (Ed.)

Hoyle (Mk.).

72S ABORIGINAL

PLACE NAMES.

Ibeka (Bu.)

I

Inxu (Tl.)

Ibisi (Umz.)

luxuwana (Tl.)

Idutywa (Id.)

Inyaka Fst. (Umz.)

Imbiza (Bu.)

Invati Fst. (or Kongoloshe)

Imgqaba Fst. (Eg.)

^(K.)

Impukunkona (Tl.)

Isencuka (Mfl.)

Impuluse (Bu.)

Isibango (Bu.)

Incilindine (Mfl.)

Isibanqo (Bu.)

Incuncusa (Bu.)

Isigangala (K.)

Indawana (Umz.)

Isigogo (Mat.)

Indenxa (Mac.)

Isikoba (Mk.j

Indenxana (Mac.)

Isilindini (Tb.)

Indlukulu Fst. (Eg.)

Isingayi (Bu.)

Indwana (X.)

Isiqubud weni ( Nq. )

Indwe (X.)

Isityam (Bu.)

Ingeli (Ma.)

Itemba (J.)

Ingoma Fst. (W.)

Itembeiii (Umz.)

Insikeni (Umz.)

Izagwityi (Bu.)

Insiswa (or Xaka) Fst. (Ma.

) Izazulwana (Bu.)

Intozane (Tl.)

Izincuka (Tl.)

Intywenka (Tl.)

Jekezi (Nq.)

Jenca (T.)

um-Jika (Umt.)

Jixini (Mq.) {cf. Shixini.)

Toyi (Bu.)

(W.)

J

i-Jujura (between Qora and

Shixini Rivers.)
Jumba Mt. (Engcobo on one of

its spurs.)
Jumbla Range (Mat.)

K

Kabakazana Fst
Kabakazi (K.)
Kabole Fst. (Bu.)
Kaboli Fst. (W.) (cf.

Fst.iW.))
Kabousie
Kaffraria
Kakamas (J.)
Kalana Fst. (Tm.)
u-Kalolwenyanga Mt.
Kambi (Umt. Tl.)
Kei
Kenegha Poort

Kinira.)
Kentaiii (K,~)
Keswa (Umz.)
Ketekete (Mfl.)
Keti (Id.)
Khambi (Umt.)

Kholopong (Q.)
Khotsong (Mat.)
Kleena (Bu.)
Kobole Kinira (Mfl.) (cf. Kenegha.)
isi-Koba (Eg.)
Kobangaba Causeway (K. )
Kobodi (Bu.)
i-Kobonqaba (K.)
Kogha (or Kora, or i-Kogha.)
(Eg.) Konini's (Bu.)
Kokstad

Komgha (or Qumra.)
(Mfl.) (See Khomodihari (Mfl.)
Komilihari (Mfl.)
Kongoloshe Fst. (or Inyati

(Tl.))
Konkabi (Q.)
Koshe Fst. (Eg.)
Kotana (Nq.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

729

Kovuti Fst. (Eg.)
Kreli (Bu.)
Kubusi (Q.)
Kubusana (Q.)
Kuebung (Mfl.J
Kuze (Tm.)
Kwababa (Mk.)
Kwam (Lb.)

Kwa-Lehana ( Fletcherville. )
Kwanyana (Ng.)
Kwazibumi (K.)
Kwenxura (Komgha.)
Kweqana (Mfl.)
um-Kwinti (Eq.)
Kwintshi (Lb.)

Lahlagubo (Eg.j
Laleni (Q. Nq.)
Lehana's Pass (Mfl.)
Lekhalong (Mfl.)
Libode (Lb.)
Likhalong (Mat.)
Likhetlane (Mfl.j
Limkhonjana (Bu.)
Lindinxiwa (Ng.)
Liqalabeng (Mfl.)
Lochenberg (Tl.)
Lota (Id.)
Lotana (Q.)
Ludaga (Nq.)
Ludaka (Tl.)
Ludalasi (J.)
Ludeka (B.)
Ludenge (Lu.)
Ludiza (W.)
Ludondolo (Id.)
LuduH (Tl.)
Lufuta (X.)
J Alga da (Mat.)
Luhlekweni ( Mat. )

Mabaku (K.)

Mabala Fst. (Ma.)

Mabehana (Mq.)

Mabele (Mat.)

Mabetshe (Ng.)

Mabulu (Tl.)

Mabululu Fst. (K.)

(Mabulu — a great pulladder.

Mabobo (Mfr.)

Maca's (Mq.)

Macibe (K.)

Macibini (Nq.)

Macosa (Mq.)

Macwi's (Mq.)

Lukalana (Tl.)
lAikasini (Umz.)
Lukanyisvveni (Lu.)
Lumani's (Tm.)
Lunda Nek (Bu.)
Lungulu (Bu.)
Lupapasi (Bu.)
Lurwayizo (W.)*
Lusikisiki (Lk.)
Lusizi (K.)
Luswazi (Mq.)
Lutaka Fst. (Tl.)
Lutateni (Mfr.)
Lutoli (Lb.)
Lutubeni (Mq.)
Lutuli (Tm.)
Lutshintsho (Tl.)
Lutshikeni (Mfr.)
lAivundu Fst. (W.)
Luzi (Mfl.) .
Luzie Drift (Mfl.)
Lwandile (Ng.)
Lwandlana (Mq. Mfr.)

M

Madadasa Fst. (Mfr.)

Madukuda (Q.)

Madwaleni (Tl.)

Mafube (Mat.)

Magadla (Mat.)

Magodla's (Nq.)

Magopeni (Eg.)
) Magutyvva (Tl.)

Magwa Falls (Lu.)

Mahamane (Mfl.)

Mahambehlala (Mc.)

Mahlake (Mfl.)

Mahlinfe Fst. (or Guataba)

(Eg.)

730

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Mahliwane (Id.)
Mahlubini (Tm.)
Mahlungulu ( Mq. (J.)
Majaba (Tl.)
Majosa (J.)
Majuba (Mfl.)
Makaula (Unit.)
Makhwatlane (Mfl.)
Makinando ( Bu.)
Maki's (K.j
Makvvababa (Mk.)
Makwabala (Mk.)
Malake (Mfl.)
Malepelepe (Tl.)
Malgas (Tm.)
Maliwa (F.)
Malowe Fst. (Umz.)
Malubelube (Mat.)
Malungu (Id.)
Maine's Kloof (Tm.)
Mancani (Mq.)
Mandela (Umt.)
Mandileni (Mfl. Mfr.j
Mandleni (Umt.)
Mangeni (Umz.)
Mangati (Id.)
Mango (Mat.)
Mangoloaneng (Mfl.)
Mangolong (Mfl.)
Manguzela (Mat.)
Manina Fst. ( Eg.)
Mankihlane (Nq.)
Manqolo (Bu.)
Manqondo (Mq.)
Manquezele (Mat.)
Manqulo (Bu.)
Manubi Fst. (K.)
Manubie (K.)
Manzana (Eg.)
Manzimd.aga (Bu.)
Manzimdaka (X. Eg.)
Mapuzi (Mq.)
Maqebevu ( Ng.)
Maqoloba Fst. (Q.)
Maqubini (Q.)
Maquerana Fst. (W.)
Martini's Busb (Tm.)
Marubeni (Lb.)
Masakala (Mat.)
Masam (Mfl.)

Alatanzima (Ng.)
Matatiele (Mat.)
Mathelesi (Bu.)
Matiwana Fst. (Tm.)
Matiwane (Tl.)
Matolweni's (Nq.)
Matoleanyile (Mk.)
Matshona (Q.)
Alatumba (Mfl.)
Matyeba (Tl.)
Maxakala (Mat.)
Maxongo's Hoek (Bu.)
Maza (Bu).
Mazeppa Bay (K.)
Mbala (Umz.)
A4alisweni (Lb.)
Mbancolo (VV.)
Mbanga (Eg.)
Mbaiigo (Tl.)
Mbangiso (Id.)
Mbanyana (Ed.)
Mbasa Ridge (Bu.)
Mbawelanga (Tl.)
Mbaxa Est. (W.)
Mbaxa (Mk.)
Mbayane (Bu.)
Mbebuzi (Tm.)
Mbekedana (Lb.)
Mbekeni (Eg.)
Mbeko (Lb.)
Mbidlana (Tl.)
Mbineni Fst. ( 1^2". )
Mbinja (Tl.) '
Mbisawe (Bu.)
Mbodleni (Mfr.)
Mbokotwana (Tl.)
Mboleni (Eg.)
Mbolompeni (Umt.)
M'bolompo (Unit."*
Mbonda (Mfr.)
•Mbonqweni (Ma.) ( ?)
Mbotyi (Lu.)
Mbozisa (Umt. Mq.)
Mbumbulwana (Umz.)
Mbulu (Tm. W.)
Mbulukweza (Tm.)
Mbululu (\y.) ■
Mbumbazi (Ma.)
Mbutu (Tm.)
Mcaza Fst. (W.)

ABORIGINAL FT.ACE NAMES.

7?>^

Mcelo (F.)
Mcetyana (Tl.)
Mceula (X.)
Mconco (Nq.)
Mcumgco (Mk.)
Mdabukweni (Q.)
Mdakeni (Mfr.)
Mdedehva (Lb.)
Mdibanisweni (Tl.)
Mdlankonio (Lb.)
Mdlunga's (Id.)
Mdumbi (Nq.)
Mechaeling (Mat.)
Mehlobaneng ( Mti. )
Alehbhloaneno- (MM.) (^ ?)
Mendu (W.) '
Mente (VV.)
Meting (Q.)
Mevana (\V.)
Mewasa (Bu.)
Mfabane's (Lb.)
Mfabantu (O. TL)
Mfezani (W7)
Mfula (Tm.)
Mfulani (Ed.)
Mfulamhle (Umt.)
Mfulannihle (Umz.)
Mfulande (Bu.)
Mfulu (Tm. W.)
Alfundweni (Umz.)
Mgagasi (Bu.)
Mgano Fst. (Umz. Mfr.)
Mgazana (J.)

Mgazi

Mgcoso Fst. (Eg.)
Mgcula (Bu.)
Mgcwe (Nq.)
Mgomanzi (Bu.)
Mgonci (Id.)
Mgqoloma Fst. (Tm.)
]\Igqongo (Tb.)
Mgubu'lu's (Umt.)
Mgudu (Eg.)
Mgungundkivu ( Mfr.)
Algwakwa
Mgwakwe (Tk)
Mgwenya (Mq.)
Mgwenyana (Ng.)
Mgwenyane (Tm.)
Mgxabakazi (W. )
MgxobozAven i ( Tm . )

Mkanzi (Eg.)
Mkuhlu Fst. (W.).
Mkwenkwe (Mfr.)
Mkwinti (Tm.)
Mhlaba's
u-Mhlabati (Tk)
Mhkihlaiie (Tm. W.)
Mhlanga (Lu.)
Mhkingaka (Mfr.)
Mhlakulo (Tk)
Mhlengama Rock (Lb.)
Mhlonga Fst (Umz.)
Mhlopekazi (Eg.)
Mhk3pokaze Fst. (Eg.)
Mhlotsheni (Mfr.)
Mhobo (Mk.)
Mimosa (Bu.)
Miti (Eg.)
Mjamkulu (Bu.)
Mj any an a (Eg.)
Mjanvelwa (Bz.)
Mjika (Tk)
Mjila's Ridge (Tb.)
Mjilana (Lb.)
Mjozi ( Bz.)
Mkamela (Lu.)
Mkanzi (Eg.)
Mkata (Lu.)
Mkataza (Ed.)
Mkatazo (Ed.)
Mkemane (Mat.)
Mkemani (Mfr.)
Mkomanzi. (Ma.)
Mkonkoto Fst. (Eg.)
Mkonqo (Tb.)
Mkosana Mat.
Mkwa's (Nq.)
Mkumenge (Tk)
Mkwinti (Tm.)
Mlenze (Umt.)
Mlinde (Mq.)
Mlondleni's (Tm.)
Mnceba (Tb.)
Mncema (Tk)
Mncetyana (Tk)
, Mncwangele (Tk)
Mncwasa (Mo. Ed.)
Mndundu (W.')
Mngamnye (Nq.)
Mngtmyana (Mfr.) ( ?)
Mnikwa (Ma.)

72>2-

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES,

Mnqunyana (Mfr.)
Mntuntloni (Eg.)
Mnyamana's (Mfr.)
Mnyani Fst. (Umz.)
Mnyolo (Eg.)
Mnxe (X.)
Mnxekazi (Tb.)
Mocaneng (Mfl.)
Mohobotsana (Mfl.)
Mohohtsane (Mfl.)
Moiketsi (Mat.)
Moiteri's Kop (Mat.)
Mombini (Ma.)
Monzi (Mfr-^
MoniFst. (Bu.)
Moroko (Mfl.)
Morulane (Mfl.)
Mosana (Mfl.j
Moshesh (Mat.)
Motaleanyile (Mk.)
Mpafana (Umt.j
Mpafane (Tl.)
Mpahleni's ( Nq.)
Mpako (Mq.)

Mpambu (Alq.)

Mpame (Ed.)

Mpandi (J.)

Mparane (Mfl.)

Mpatoane (Mc.j

Mpaxa Fst. (Q.)

Mpehlo Fst. (O.)

Mpeko (Umt.)

Mpemba (Mfr.)

Mpenduza (Bu.)

Mpeni (Ma.)

Mpentsa's (K.)

Mpharane (Mat. Mfr.)

Mpikilili's (Ng.)

Mpindweni (Mfr.)

Mpoza (Mfr.)

Mpozolo (W.)

Mpukane (Tl. Nq.)

Mpuluse (Bu.)

Mpume (W.)

Mpunga (Mk.)

Mpunqutyana (Mfr.)

Mpunzana (Umt.)

Mqabo (Eg.)

Mqakama (J.)
Mqambeli's (Bu.)
Mqandi (J.)

Mqanduli (Mq.)
Mqeka (Id.)
Mqekezvveni ( Umt. )
Mqobiso (Tl.)
Mqokohveni (Tl.)
Mqokvveni (Ma.)
Mqonci ( Eg. )
Mqunye (Tl.)
Mqwashu (Mk.)
Mrobe (Mfr.)
Msalakala (Mat.)
Msendo (W.)
Msendu Fst. (W.)
Msingapantsi (Umz.)
Msintsana (Eg.)
Msongwana (Mat.)
Mtakatye (Lb.)
Mtambalala ( Lu. )
Mtanjana (Mq.)
Mtatini Fst. (Umz.)
Mtenetvana (Mfr.)
Mtimkulu Fst. (Umz.)
Mtingwevu (X. Mk.)
Mtonjeni (Mk.)
Mtshabi (Tm.)
Mtsintsana (Eg.)
Mtukukazi (Tb. )
Mtushuntushu (Tl.)
Mtyamda Mt. (Bu.j
Mtvamde (Tm.)
Mtobisi (tl.)
Mtonjeni (Mk.)
Mtubu (Bu.)
Mtunzi's (K.)
Mtshazi (Mfr.)
Mtwaba (Mat.)
Mtwaku (Nq.)
Mvahveni Fst. (Umz.)
Mvenyane (Mat. Mfr.)
Mvezo (Umr.)
Mvume Springs (J-)
Mvumelwana (Q.)
Mvuzi (Mfr.)
Mweli's (Nq.)
Mwhonyane Fst. (W.)
Mxu (Tl.)
Mxambuli (Mq.)
Myeze (Lu.)
Myezvveni (Tl.)
Myolo (Bu.)
Mzamo (Nq.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

/.>o

Mzimba Fst. ^VV.)
Mzintlava (Lu.)
Mzizi (Bz.)

Mzuzanto (Q.)
Mzwali (Id.)

Nabileyo (Mq.)
Namadamba (Mk.)
Natafeni
Ncakubeni (Tl.)
Ncambele (Tl.)
Ncambedlana (Lb.)
Ncanasini (Mq.)
Ncataru (Eg.)
Ncembu (Tl.)
Ncedana (W.)
Ncemana (Ed.)
Ncerana

Nciba (Mk.) (The Great
Ncehana (Ed.)
Ncikazi (Mq.j
Ncincinikwe (Nq.)
Ngcingane (K.)
Ncise (Umt.)
Ncisininde (Nq.)
Ncizele (K.)
Ncora (Mk.)
Ncolora (Lb.)
Niconcqlora (Tl.)
Ncongwane (Mat.)
Ncolosi (Tl.)
Ncome Springs (Mfr.)
Ncoti (Q. Nq.)
Ncuka Fst. (W.)
Nculti (Nq.)
Ncumbe (Tb.)
Ncwala (Mq.)
Ncwana's (Tm.)
Ndabakazi (Bu.)
Ndakana (K. Nq.)
Ndakeni (Ma.)
Ndamba (K.)
Ndarala's (Mfr.)
Ndawose's (Mfr.)
Ndema (Tm.)
Ndenxa
Ndevu (J.)
Ndhlova Fst. (Q.)
Ndibela (Umt.)
Ndlozana Fst. (Umz.)
Ndlunkulii (Mq. Mk.)

N
Ndondo's (Tm.)
Nduku Fst. (VV. Kg.)
Ndulini (Lu.)
Ndumndum (Ma.)
Ndzebe (Tl.)
Ndzonqiseni (Ma.)
Nenga Fst. (Mq.)
Ngaba (Nq.)
Ngadla (W.)
Ngcaca (Eg.)
Ngcele (Tl.)
Ngcingwane (Id.)
Kei.) Ngcizile (W.)
Ngcolokeni (Q.)
Ngculi (Nq.)
Ngcuki (Nq.)
Ngcumbe (Ng.)
Ngcungcwini ( Id. J
Ngcwangube (Mq.)
Ngede (K.)
Ngela Fst. (Eg.)
Ngodiloe (Mfl.J
Ngokwe (Tl.)
Ngoma (W.)

Ngonyama (Ng. Tm. Alq.)
NVub'u Fst {\V.)
Ngqaqini (Umz.)
Ngqeleni (Ng.)
Ngqhai Hills (Q.)
Ngqokoto (Eg.)
Ngqokwe (Tl.)
Ngqongweni (Ng.)
Ngqvinge (Umt.)
Ngqungqu (Mq.)
Ngquiii (Bu.)
Ngqwaru (Mk.)
Ngubo

Ngubu Fst. (Umt.)
Ngudle's (Tm.)
Ngunduza (K.)
Ngutu Fst. (Ma.)
Nguza (Bu.)
Ngvvana (Bu.)
Ngwane (W.)
Ngwanglele

34

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Ngwati (Umt.)
Xg\veg\veni (Ma.)
Ngwemnyama (Q.)
NgAvele Fst. (O.)
Ngweleni (J.)
Ngxabangu (Mk.)
Ngxakaxa (Id).
Ngxakolo (Q.)
K'gxamagele (Eg.)
Ngxamangele (Eg.)
Ngxangxasi (Bii.)
Ngxaza (Tl.j
Agxebe (Eg.j
Ngxeko (Eg.j
Ngxeteya (Tl.)
Ngxetuza (Q.)
Ngxoto (Tl.)
Ngxutvana (W.)
Nhlambe (Bu.)
Nhlobova Fst. (K.)
Nieke Hill (Tl.)
Njakazi (K.)
Njijini (Mfr.)
Njombela (Lii.)
Nkanga (Lb. W.)
Xkangala (Eg.)
Nkanye (Ed.)
Nkau (Mat.)
Xkankazi (Ng.)
Nkawakazi
Xkebendu (Ng.)
Xkelekete (Lu.)
Xkodnsweni (Lu.)
Xkomeni Fst. (Umz.)
Xkondlo (Eg.)
Nkonkoto (Eg.)
Nkozo (F.)
Xkungwini (Ng.)
Xkunjani (Eg.)
Nkupelweni (Mat.)
Xkwanca (Tl.)
Xkwenkwana ( Eg. )
Xkwenkwezi (Eg.)
Xlangula (Bu.)
Xobanda (Nq.)
Xocu Fst. (Tl.) (or Qoqora.)
Xodlangala (Mat.)
Xogunibe Fst. (Tl.)
Xolangeni Mts. (Ma.)
Xomadamba (Mk.)
Nomadola (Ng.)

Nomaheya (Nq.)
Nomaletshe (Mfr.)
Nomandi (J.)
Nomansland
Nomcamba (Ng.)
Nomhala (Tl.)
Nomkolokoto (Mfr.)
Nompaxa Fst. (Umz.)
Nompenge (Umt.)
Noncamba (Ng. )
Nongxola (Tl.)
Nonjiko's (Mat.)
Nonyembezi (K.)
Nonyikela (Q.)
Norusa Fst. (Q.)
Notanaza (Tb.)
Nowaxa Drift (Tl.)
Nozitsheni (Mfr.)
Noziyongwana (Tl.)
Nozozo (Lu.)
Nqaba (Tl.)
Nqabane (Id.)
Nqabara (W.)
Nqabarana (Tl.)
Nqadu (T.)
Nqahveni ( Q. ) lAIfr.)
Nqanqadu (W.)
Nqanculi (Nq.)
Nqanqani (W.)

Nqamakvve (Nq.)

Nqayi (Q.)

Nqencu (Umt.)

Nqeqeni (W.)

Nqolosa (Ts.)

Nququ (Mk. Ed.)

Nqusi (K.)

Nqutu (Bu.)

Nqutura (Eg.)

Nqwara (Id. K. Mq.)

Nqwaru (Mk.)

Nqwashu (Tb. Lb. Mk.)

Nqwati (Umt.)

Nrwaga (Bu.)

Nsitzwa Range — (Ma.)

Ntabankulu (Tb.)

Ntabazulu (Ed. )

Ntabengwe (Tl.)

NtaboduH Fst. (Q.)

Ntabondati Fst. (Q.)

Ntafufu (Lu.)

Ntcunzimbimi (Ng.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

735

Ntebe (Mat.)
Ntenetyana ( M f r. )
Nthlalukana { Jtg. )
Nthlokozabantu P^st. ( W. )
Ntibane (Tl.)
Ntihani ( Ng. )
Ntlal)ani ( VV. )
Ntlahlane (W.)
Ntlakuhla (Unit.)
Ntkilwana (Umz.)
Ntlambe (Bu.)
Ntlanivukazi (Bz.)
Ntlangano (Tk)
Ntlaza ( Ne^. )
Ntlekiseni ( Nq.^
Ntlola (Mat.)
Ntlonze ( O. )
Ntonijana ('1^1.)
Ntozanl ( TL )
Ntsazo (Eg.)
Ntseshe (Nq. X.)
Ntshamanzi (TIj.)
Ntsheshe (Nq.)
Ntshetu ( M(|.)
Ntshilini (Ng.)
Ntshingeni ( Mk.)
Ntshiqo [Tl).
Xtshongweni (L.b.)
Ntshumane
Xtsimba ( 1^2g. )
Ntsimbakazi (W.)
Ntsimbini (J. Ng.)

Ntsito ( Tm.)
Ntsizvva (Ma.)
Ntsoyi Fst. (Mfr.)
Ntsukumbeni Fst. (Eg.)
Ntsundwane ( Ng. )
Ntiibeni (W.)
Ntywenka (Tk)
Nxabaxa Fst. (O.)
Nxamageie ( Eg. )
Nxanxadi (O.)
Nxanxawi (Eg.)
Nxaxa Gorge (Q.)
Nxaxa (K.)
Nxaxo (K. )
Nxotshana (Mti.)
Nxotshane (Mfl.)
Nxotwe (Q.)
X^yalasa (X.)
Nyandu Fst. (W.)
Nyanisweni (O.)
Nyanizwe (Umz).
Nyembezi ( Tk )
Nyenyezi (Umz.)
Nyidlana (Nq.)
Nyityaba {K.)
xXynsheni Fst. (Mfr.)
Nyonywana ( Bu. )
Nyosini (Mfr.)
Nyotwane (Bu.)
Nyulula (Nq.)
Nyutura (K.)

7J

Paballong (Mfl.)
Pabalong (Mfl.)
Pakkie's Locn. (Mc.)
Pamlaville (Mat.)
Papasi (X.)
Pecu Fst. (W.)
Pehong (Mat.)
Pepelo (Tk)

Pondumsini (Ng.)
Pirintsu (Mfl.)
Pirmntsu (Mfl. J
Piyose (Ed.)
Polokong (Mat.)
Poiiie (Mat.)
Pontseng (Mat.)
Pundlwayo ( Unit. )

Qakazana (W.)
Qakancu (Umt.)
Qamanca (Eg.)
Qamata (Mk).
Qanda (Tk)
Qanqaru (Maclear.)
Oancieni ( Lu.)

Q

Qanqiso (Lb.)
Qanqu (Q. Mfr.)
Oebe (Eg.)
Qebedu (Lu. )
Qebeyi (Tk)
Qelana (Tk)
Qengqeleka (Eg.)

736

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Qeqe (Bu.)
Qhife (Bu.)
Qiba (X.)
Qina (K.
Qinqana (Ed.)
gingqolo (Mq.)
Qiti (Ng.)
Qitsi (Mk.)
Qobonqaba (K.)
Qobosheaneng (Mfl.)
Qhobosheaneng (Mfl.)
Quobosheaneng ( Mfl. )
Qokama (Ng.)
Ookolweni (Mq.)
Qoliwe (Nq.)
Qolombana (Tl.)
Qolora (K.)
Qombolo (Tm. K.)
Qoqa (Mfr.)
Qoqora (or Nocu) (Tl).
Qora (Id. W.)
Qota (Eg.)

Rabuxa Est. (Tl. )
Rafuza (Nq.)
Ramhlakwana (Mat.)
Rabothfakoana (Mat.)
Ramra (W.)
Rasmeni (Eg.)
Reletye (Mq.)

Qotira (O.)
Qoto (Bu.)
Quaninga (Bu.)
Qubusini (Q.)
Quebueng ("Mfl.)
Quintana (Bu.)
Qukanqu (Umt.)
Qulunqu (Eg.)
Qumanco (Eg.)
Qumancu (Mk.)
Qumati Poort (Mk.)
Qmnato Poort (Mk.)
Oumbu (Q.)
Qungu (Tl.)
Qunu (Umt.)
Qurana (Tl. )
Qutsa (Tm.)
Qutubeni (Tl.)
Qutyeni Est. (Eg.)
Qwaninga (W.)
Qweqwe (Umt.)
Qwiliqwili (Tm.)

R

Rode (Ma.)

Rolweni (Mat.)

Roza (Mq. O.)

Ruze (Lb.)

Rwanyana (Bu.)

Rwantsana (K. Nq. Mk.)

Sabalele (Mk. Bu.)
Saliwa (Mk.)
Sandile (Mq.)
Sandili (Eg.)
Sangoni (Umt.)
Sangulo (W.)
Sapukunduku ( Tb. )
Sebeni (Tl. W.)
Seferong (Mfl.)
Seghobong (Mfl.)
Sentubi (Eg.)
Seplan (X.)
Shixini (W.)
Shukunxa (Q.)
Sibonta Est. (W.)
Sicengu (Ed.)
Sidakeni (Mat.)
Sidekeni (Mat.)

Sigoga (Mat.)
Siqonyela (Tl.)
Sixantu (Eg.)
Sigubudu (Umt.)
Sigxojeni (Tl.)
Sihlahleni (Mfr.)
Sihlabeni (Mfr. Nq.)
Sihleza (Umz.)
Sihlesa Est. (Umz.)
Si j oka (Mat.)
Sijako's (W.)
Sikoma (Mq.)
Siko (Nq.)
Sikhovana (Bu.)
Silo (Eg.)
Sinangwane (J.)
Sindeko (Tl.)^
Singxoto

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

in

Siiiqumeni (Eg.)
Sinxago (Tl.)
Sinyaqa (Mfr.)
Sipafa (X.)
Siqingidi (Mfr.
Sitebe ( Eq.)
Siteto (,Umt.)
Sitsetshe (Lu.)
Sitinibili (Ed.)
Sitolini (Eg.)
Sitonga ( Eg. )
Sitoza ( I'lg. )

Tabase (Unit.)
Tabandiili (O.)
Tafelehashe. (E.)
Tafeni (Mk.)
Tafileni ( 11 )
Takata (Ng.)
Tala Est. (K.)
Taleni (Id. F.)
Tanga (Bu.)
Tangwane (Bu.)
Tywuka (F.)
Teko Springs (K.)
Telgte (Mc. )r
Tembu Est. ( W. )
Tex Tvbert ( Umz.)
Thaba^ Chicha (Mfl.)
Thabakubeni (Mfl.)
Thabakhiiberu (Mfl.)
Tbotaneng (Mat.)
Tikitiki (Tl.)
Tina (Mfr.)
Tinana (Mfl.)
Tintwa (O.)
Tobotshana (Bii.)
Toboyi (Nq.)
Tokoana, or (Mfl.)
Togwana, or (Mfl.)
Tokwana (Mfl. )
Toleni (Mfr. Bu.)
Tolweni (Tb.)
Tongeni (Umz.)
Tongwana (Bu.)
Tongwane ( Bu. )
Tora (Bu. Eg.)
Tsazo Est. (Umz.)
Tsakana (Mk. )
Tsekong ( Mfl. )

Sixuzulu (Unit.)
Sizana (Mq.)
Sizini (Id.j
Skanseni (Q.)
Sobekvva's (Nq.)
Sokapase (Nq.)
Solotyeni (Q.)
Sontvvarane (Lb.)
Sshangane (Tm.)
Sundwana (Eg.)
Sungulo (\V.)
Sulenkama ( Ou. )

T
Tsengiwe (X.)
Tsekisong (Mat.)
T.shamate ( Bz.)
Tshapile (Eg.)
Tshazibana ( Nq.)
Tshisane ( Tl. )
Tshontsho Est. (Mfr).
Tshungwana (Mfr.)
Tsibiyana ( Mfr.)
Tsikarong ( Mat.)
Tsilitwa"(Q.)
Tsitsa (Tl.)
Tsitsana (Mfl.)
Tsitsong (Mat.)
Tsobo Est. (Umt.)
Tsoelike (Mat.)
Tsojana (Tm.)
Tsolo (Tl.)
Tsolobeng Kop (Mfl.)
Tsomo (Tm.)
Tsuilika (Mat.)
Tsume's (Tm.)
Tutura (K.)
Tvvazi (E.)
Tyalara (Umt.)
Tyeni (B. Tl.)
Tyinira (Nq. Bu.')
Tyira (Q.)
Tyolo ( Mq. )
Tyuml)U (Umt.)
Toboyi (Nq.)
Tonto (Ma.)
Tungwana ( Mq. )
Tyande (Tm.)

Tyelebendi (Id.) (c/. Ebendij
Tyelinzima (Mq.)
Tvwaka ' W.)

73^

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES,

Ulundi (Alfl.j
Umfanta (Mfl.j
I'mgana Mt. (Uniz.)
Umgano (Alfrj
Umgazi ( j . l
l^'mgwali ( IZg.)
Umhlahlani (/H.)
Umhlonga Fst. ( Uniz.)
Umlenge ( Tl. )
Umlengana (Lb. J
I nilenxana (Ne. )
Uninga (TI.)
Unitai (Mat.)

\'ana (Bu.j
Xelcliiiaii's ( Hu.)
Vete Fst. (Tl.)
X'inindwe ( Id.)

Waka Fst. (Unit.)
Weza (W.)
Wilo (Mq.)

Xabane (Tl.)
Xabano ( Tl.)
Xakanqu ( Unit.)
Xalanga (X.)
Xanxasi (Eg.)
Xauka (Id.)
Xaxashimlja ( Bu.)
Xaxazana (Mfl.)
Xentit ( Eg. )
Xilinxa ( Nq.)
Xobani ( K. >
Xobo (Id.)
Xolobe fTm.)
Xongora (Unit.)

Zabasa (Eg.)
Zad.iingeni (Eg.)
Zalzalwana
Zanci (-\I(|.)
Zandukwaiie (Lb.)
Zanpfianqu (Id.)
Zang(|inqi (Id.)
/'.aucTdolwane (Ed.)
Zangwa (Bu.)
■ Zanyeni (Mfl.)
Zazela (Nq.)

U

L'nitata (Unit.)
Umtamvuna (B.)
U nitingwevu ( Alk. )
Umtinthloni Fst. (Eg.)
Umtolo (R. Eg.)
Umtomasi ( Mfl.)
Umvahveni (Ma.)
Umvubiigazi ( Uniz. )
Umzimblava ( Ma. )
Unizimknlu (Uniz.)
L nizimvnbu (Mfr. )
Uvete (Tl.j

V

Vtiba's ( Xq.)
\ubu (Mfl.)
\'nsani (Bu.)
\uvu (Mfl.)

W

W'ili (K.)
Willeary (Mat.)

X

Xonya (Eg.)

Xunye ( Eg.)

Xonyeni (W.)

Xopozo ( F.)

Xora

Xorana ( Mq.)

Xpsa (K.)

Xugxwala (Unit.)

Xuka (F.s.r.)

Xume ( Tm. )

Xunii ( Nci.)

Xwexweni Range (Eg.)

Xwili (Unit/) (cf. Will)

Zazin(|o (Bu.)
Zazulwana (Bu.).
Zibungu ( Lb.)
Zibodla (Mfi.^
Zigudu (Mk.)
Zimankulu Fst. (Uniz.)
Zimbane (Unit.)
Zingcuka (Tl.)
Zincaku (Tl.)
Zinja (Ng.)
Zilindlovu (Mq.)

ALKJRIGINAL I'LACli XAMES. "J 2^^)

Zinqayi { Ru. ) Zixinene Fst. (Ed.)

Zinton.ya (].) Ziwundwane (Id.)

Zitiiiibile (Ed J. Zwelihanzi (Edw.)

(3r.si':RVATi()Ns.

A glance through the Hsts impresses one with a remarkable,
feature. The names before us are, except in the rarest cases,
the names of streams, and often enough even the rare exceptions
are derived from the names of rivers or streams. Many names,
there must still be, not appearing in our lists, yet common enough
in Kaffirland, names referring to natural features and special
characterisltics. But, even so, our survey of the aboriginal place-
nam'es would be almost complete if we followed every river,
every tributary, and. every stream, from mouth to source, for the
tiniest stream in Kaffirland has its own name. It is not too much
to say that the recorded i)lace-names of Kaffirland are the names
of the rivers and streams of Kaffirland. The main task which
remains is that of collecting the little-known names given to
minor places, and now in danger of being for ever lost, and if
I may repeat what has been said elsewhere, it is in just such
little known names that w^e may expect to hnd the gems of
v^•hich we are in search. That our expectations in this direction
are not unduly optimistic is ])roved b}- the results attained in
connection with those names which we do know and ha\'^
examined.

in. — The C'lSKEiAx List.

a Prclliiiliiarx Considerations.

It w^ill be api^arent at a glance that tlie Ciskeian list of
place-names is much shorter tlian that for the Transkeian area.
This is due to the fact that the Bantu invasion proceeded from
the east, in a westerly direction, and. in consequence, the Ciskei
was occupied by the Bantu at a much later date. Previous to
that, it was peopled, though sparsely, by the Hottentots, and
earlier by the Bushmen, and no doubt many of the names were
lost by reason of the confusion on the eastern frontier, which
lasted over a long ])eriod of years, during which the aborigines
resident there were scattered and rescattered and exterminated.

The Dutch pioneers, and the English settlers, busied them-
selves giving new names throughout the countryside as their con-
venience was suited, so that the more recent names replaced the
old.

Then, again, as we have seen elsewhere, the conflict of
languages was responsible for much corruption. All these
circumstances, then, conspired to make the Ciskeian names so
much fewer in number that we have not worried for the jiresent
to classify them as in the case of the Transkeian names.

In order to get whatever guidance was available, we have
included some few names from the remote north and west of the
Province, names that are scarcely Ciskeian in the strict sense, and
vet being obviously H.-B. are a guide and help in examining
the h\-brids and corruptions.

740

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Amabele (Kwt.)
Amalinda (E.L.)

Badikazi

Bakala

Balassi (Kwt.)

Balura

Bambani (O.)

Ban^ola

Banzi

Baroda (Cdk.)

Barroe (Steytl.)

Bayi (P.E.)

Baza

Bede

Belekazana

Benbecula (Ell.)

Beneaga (Kga.)

Bengu (G.G.)

Berea (E.L.)

Biedouw (ClanW.)

Bikamma (Steyl.)

Bikizana (Hsl.)

Bilatye (G.G.)

Caba (Alex.)
Cacada (G.G.)
Cata (Kwt.)
Cawa
Cenyu

Cesira (Ped.)
Chalumna (E.L.)
Chuinie (V.E.)
Cimezile (Q.)
Cintsa (E.L.)
Cisira (Ped.)
Coloni

Dabadaba

Daka

Dakana

um-Dala

Daninge (Ped.)

Dantsana

e-Dauwa (Kwt.)

Debe Nek (Kwt.)

Didima

Didimana (Q.)

Dikidikana (Kwt.)

p. The Ciskeian List.

Amatola (Kwt.)

Binqala
Binzana
Bira (Ped.)
Blakana
Blanev (Kwt.)
Blikana (Hsl.)
Bolo (Sthm.)
Bolotwa (G.Ci.)
Bolwana (Sthm.)
Boma Pass (Kwt.)
Bombombo
Bomeni (G.G.)
Bomvana
Bona we (Ell.)
Bongolo (Q.)
Boniswa (G.G.)
Boqo (G.G.)
Bukazana
Bulu^ha (E.L.)
Bulura (E.L.)
Busi.

Coega (Wme.)
Coega Kamma (Uit.)
Coega Kop (Uit.)
Cofimvaba
Comdomo (Hmdp.)
Commadagga (S.E.)
Coyi (Alb.)

Cumakala ( G.G. SthiiL )
Cwaru (Kwt.)
Cwencwe
Cwengcwana (Sthm.)

Dikidiki

Dikido

Diyane

Diza

Dolopiiii

Donqaba (Kwt.)

Dontsa (Kwt.)

Dube

Uungala (Q.)

Dywahele

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

741

Embaba (Kga.)
Embokotwa (Ell.)
Emdeni

Emdizeni (Kwt.)
Emgq vvakwebi ( Kwt. )
Emgwali (Sthm.)
Emncotsho (Kwt.)
Emnqesha (Kwt. J
Emityameni (Kwt.)

Gaga (V.E.)
Gaikaford (Sthm.)
Gambushe (Kwt.)
Gamka (Cdp.)
Gamtoos
Ganda (V.E.)
Gengqeni

Ganna aar (Hay.)
Garieb
Gazip (Hay)
Gcato (V.E.)
Gcebula ', Fed.)
Gcina (Hsl.)
Gcinisa (Fed.)
Gobogobo (Kwt.)
Gobozana ( Kwt. )
Gonnakraal ( Msl.B.)
Gonubie (E.L. )
Gorrie Koppen (Uit.)
Goudini (Wore.)
Gouna (Kny.)
Gouritz (Rdle.)
Gouwkama (Knv.)
Goxa Foort (Fed.)
Kwa-Gqadushe
Gqakwebe

Gqainaha.she (V.E.)
Gqebenya (G.G.)
Gqeqe
i-Gqili
Gqolonci
Gqora (Fed.)
Gqubushane

Hagahaga (Kga.)
um-Hlanga
Hlosini (Fed.)
isi-Hoboti
Hoeko

Hoekoe (S.E.)
Hoeree (Udle.)

F.ngotini (Q.)
Engquleni (Sthm.)
Enqobokeni (Q.)
Enqonqweni (E.L.)
Esikopeni (Hsl.j
Etyeni (Kwt.)
Exonxa (G.G.)
Ezincuka (Kwt.)

Gqugesi

Gqume (Alb.)

Gqunube

e-Gqurhura

Guba Hoek (G.G.)

Gubenxa (Ell.)

elu-Gudwini

Gulaiia

Guluguqu

Gulukuqawe

Graboiiw (Cldn.)

Gwaas (Jole.)

Gwaba (E.L.)

Gwabini (Fed.)

i-Gwali (trib. Tyumie)

um-Gwali (trib. Bashee)

em-Gwali (Clarkebury)

em-Gwali (Tiyo Soga's Mission

Station)
Gwanga (Fed.)
Gwangwa (Fed.)
kwa-Gwanugwanu (Kwt.)
Gwarrie Laagte (Jole.)
Gwenkala
Gwevana (Kga.)
Gwiligwili (Kwt.)
Gxakaxa
Gxokolo (Kwt.)
Gxonde

Gxotyeni (Kwt.)
Gxulu (Kwt.)
Gxwaba

i-Hohita

kwa-Hoho (Kwt.)
Holi (G.G.)
Hou Hoek (F.Bft.)
Houw Hoek (Cldn.)
Hukiiwa (Q.)

742

ABORICilNAL PLACE NAMES.

Impetu (Kga.)
Imvani (Q.)
Incobo (Sthm.)
Ingwenye (Kwt.)
Intsikizini (Kwt.)

i-Jadu
u-Jilo

Kadie (Swdni.j
Kaga (Bfd.)
ezin-Kahlanibeni
elu-Kalweni (Kwt.)
Kanianga (Kwt.)
Kama's Kraal (Ped.)
Kamastone (Q.)
Kandhla

Kanian issie (Odsn.)
Kamnatie (Udsn.)
Kanqiso
ulu-Kanji (O.)
Kannaland
Kapusi (G.G.)
Karabee (Pska.)
Kareedouw (Hnidp.)
Kareefontciii (Alrbg. )
Karee Ki.nia (Lnith.)
Kareelaagte (S.E.)
Kareepan (Hay.)
Kareepiit (Hay.)
Karroo

Katala (Snir.)
Kefani (E.L.)
Khiba (Hsl.)
Kkiklu (F.Bft.)
Knvsna
Kobodi

Ko1)ongo (Kwt.)
Kobonqaba (F.Bft.)

Lahlangubo (Q.)
Lenya (Kwt.)

Mal)e]a (Hsl.)
Macacnnia (Hsl.)
Macibi (E.L.)
Macil)ini (G.G.)
Macul)eni (G.G.)
Macomo's Kraal (V.E.)
Madliki
Madubela

Inybara ( Kga. )
Iquibica (Kwt.)
Isidenge ( Stbni.)
Izeleni (Kwt. J
Izele (Kwt. J

i-Jojo
]njicaiie

Koedoes Kloof (Lnith.)
> Koegas ( Hay. )
' Koegerve ( W'nire. )

Koeranna (I kip.)

Kokenajj (vRdp.)

Kologa ( Stlim. )

Kologha (Sthni.j

Kolonga (G.G.)

Komana (Cj.G.)

Koniani ( O. )

Koingha ( Kga. )

Kontsiwe ( II si. )

Koonap ( F.Bft. )

Kowa (Ell. )

Kragga ( Rdle. )

Krakeel ( Udle. )

Kiibusi ( .Stbni.)

Kubusie ( Stlim.)

Kubusana (Sthm.)

em-Kvibiso (Kwt.)

Kukii ( Kga.)

Kundulu (G.G.)

Kutuka

Kwababa

Kwelegha (E.L. Kga.)

Kwelera (E.L. Kga.)

Kwelerana (Kwt.)

Kwenxura (Kga.)

Kwezana ( A' E.)

Luji'lo (Stbm.)
T,iizana (Stlim.)

Mafongosana (Kwt.)
Maitiba Nek (Hsl.)
Makumtsha (Hsl.)
Mancazana (F.Bft.)
Manxeba (HLsl.)
Mapassa's Kraal (O.)
Mac|ashii (G.G.)
:Mariba (F.Bft.)

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

743

Masele (Kwt.)
Matyanta (G.G.)
Matyantya (G.G.)
Maxongo's Hoek (Ell.)
Mbavanieni (Kwt.)
Mbinzana ((i.G.j
IVlcambalaleni
Mcenla (O. )
Mdizeni ( Kwt. )
Mdlankoiiio (Kwt.)
Mdogo (Hsl.)
Meyi (Hsl.)
Mfiki (Kwt.)
Mgvvalana ( Ped. )
Mgqwakwebe
Mjilo (V.E.)
Mkapusi (G.G.)
Mkonjana ( G.G. )
Mkunyaze ( Hsl.)
Mlalandle
Mnandi (Kwt.)
Mngaba (Kwt.)

Miuiaba (Kwt. )
Mnqesha ( Kwt. )
Mnxesha ( Kwt. )
l\Inxumubn ( Kwt. )
Moeras ((Jtlsn. )
Mpeko ( I'ed. )
Mpofu

ivipotula ( ( i.( i. )
Mpotulo (G.G. ^
Mc|ukwane (Kwt.)
Mqwashu ( I'ed.)
Msiudo ( J^sl.)
Mtati ( Kwt. )
Altebele ((i.li. )
Aitombe ( Kwt. )
Mtwakazi (O.)
Mtyintyini (G.G.)
Mtyolo ( Kwt. )
Muragie ( Odsn. )
iAlusa (O.)
Mxnmlni (Kwt.)
M Zondek i (Hsl.)

Nanaga (Alex.)
Napkij (Swdm.)
Ncabassa (Kwt.)
Ncara

Ncemeiie ( Sthm.)
Ncera ( V.E.)
Ncwazi ( Kwt.)
N'dilika iKwt.)
N'Dimba (Kga.)
Ndlagavn ( (^.G.)
Ndlovini (Kwt.)
Ndonga (G.G., Kwt.)
Ndofela (Hsl.)
Xdungunya (Hsl )
Nd wa ya: 1 a ( Pe d . ")
Ngcaba-^a
Ngcuka (G.G.)
Ngcwazi ('Kwt.)
Nffobozana
Ngolongolo ('Kwt.)
Ngolowa (Kwt.)
Ngqanda (G.(t.)
NeDokweni (Kwt.)
Ngqiidela (Kwt.)

Ng(|unK-ya (Kwt.)
Ngwenkala (Kpa.)
Ngxalawe ( Kwt. )
Njv.-axa (Kwt.)
Nobanda ( E.l-)ft.)
Nobuirl)a ( Perl.)
Noncaniija (Kwt.)
Noree ( Rbsn.)
Nooitzekamma ( Geo.)
Nqantosi ( Sthm.)
Nqolonqolo (Kw^t.)
^!qon(|wepi (E.L.)
Nfiunieya (Kwt.)
Nqiiqu

Nqwenkala ( Kga.)
Nswaxa (Kwt.)
Ntloko (Ped.)
\tovi (Hsl.)
Ntiiiija ( Hsl.)
Nxalawe ( Kw "l
Nxelo

Nyaba (Sthm.'i
Xvatella A'allev ( Kwl )

Op d.e Tradouw (Swdm.)
Outeniquas Drift (Msl.R.~:

Oril)e (Swdni.)

744

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Penleni Kwt. )
Pera (Fed.)

(Jaka (F.Bft.)
Oamba Basin
(jamndobowa (Kwt.)
Oanmyana (Ped.)
Oanda (Kwt.)
Oanti (Sthm.)
Oeto (Ped.)
Oiba

Oibera (Kwt.)
Oibira (Hsl.)
Ooboshane (Hsl.)
Oomfo

Oongqota (Kw^t.)
Ooqodala (Q.)

Rabiila (Kwt.)
Raninyibe (Kwt.)
Regu '(Kwt.)
Rodana (G.G.)

Sandile

Sapkamma (Uit.)
Sheshegu (V.E.)
Sidaka (G.G.)
Sikoba

Tafeni (Kwt.)
Tamacha Post (Kwt.)
Tamara Hill (Kwt.)
Tanga (Kga.)
Tapoleng (Hsl.)
Tarka (Msl.B.)
Traka (Wmre.)
Trawal (v.Rdp.)
Tsembeyi (G.G.)
Tshabo (Kwt.)
Tshatshii (Kwt.)
Tshoxa (Kwt.)
Tsitsikania (Q.)

Udaba
Umdanzani (E.L.)

Voyizana (Hsl.)

Walaza (Hsl.)

Xonxa (G.G.)

Yamela (V.E.

Peuleni (Kwr.)
Pirie (l.wt )

Quagga (Hmdp.)
Ouagga's Flats (Alex.)
Quagga Kuil (Bdf.)
Quantosi (Sthm.)
Quarrie Kraal (Hmdp.)
Quebequebe (Q.)
Quenera (E.L.)
Qugqwala (Kwt.)
Qugqwara (G.G.)
Quigney (E.L.)
Qukwane (Kwt.)
Qiimanco
Qume

Rode (Kwt.)
Roxeni (V.E.)
Rura (Ped.)
Rwantsana (G.G.)

Sityi

Skisezaiia (Hsl.)
Skobeni (Kwt.)
Spambo Basin (Hsl.)

Tsolokazi (G.G.)
Tuku (Ped.)
Tmigelu (Ell.)
Tuwa (Ped.)
Twecu (Kwt.)
Twexu (Kwt.)
Tyelera
Tyeni (Kwt.)
Tyityaba (Ped.)
Tyolomnqa
Tyusha (Kwt.)
Tyiityuza (Kwt.)

Umgana (Mac.)
Uxongora

Wezo (F.Bft.)

ABOKUIIXAL PLACP: NAMES. 745

Zalara (E.L.) Zinii)al)a (Kwt.)

Zangqokvve (Q-) Zinj^^qutu (G.G.)

Zanyokwe (Kwt.) Ziii(|utii (G.G.)

Zio;odlo (Kwt.) Zitun<ju (O.)

Zihlalileni (Kwt.) Znluinema (O.)
Zikiziki

IV - — Hottentot-Bushman Place- Name.s.

A. Critical Exa urination of Names.

a Pr'ieliminarics.

Before we can enter into the discussion concerning the origin
(^■f these corrvipted nanie>. it is essential that we should have
some knowledge concerning the Bushman, and the Hottentot,
languages, especiall}- in relation to tlie transcription and the
subsequent transition. It is not eas}- to understand at this date
how the X click has come to be Jhxed in. say, Inxu, instead of the
q click; or why in certain words we may find c. q, and x used
in successive spellings ;• or to give an almost more remarkable
variation by citing the various attem])ts to deprive the -ra sound.
In this last case we have words in which this suffix appears,
expressed -ra, -ka, -ga. -gha, -qa -(|ua. -cha. Could confusion
be worse confounded r

The fact of the matter is that Bushman tribes, often appa-
rently numbering under 50. acquired dialectical peculiarities of
such degree as to render them iimnderstandable to their own
reighbours. The language abounded in clicks, and by contact
Vxith other tribes, words were adopted from without. This was
notably so in the case of their contact with the white man, for
the early pioneers, utterly confused by the multitude -of clicks,
simply made no effort to learn tlie Bushman language. In con-
se(|uence the Bushman had to make himself understood, and he
did so by adapting himself to the one with whom he sought to,
o])en u]) communications; and the result was pigeon Bushman,
pigeon Dutch, pigeon English, pigeon Kaffir, pigeon Hottentot,
Since Bushiuen and Hottentots were in close contact for a long
period, very many Hottentot words and sounds were introduced.
Of all the clicks, nine were originally fixed, and of these nine only
three remain in use to-day. so far as our grammar-books are
concerned !

Cerebrd.1 ! Pd^Ut^,.! i

Den^<^! 1 Fd^ucd.! u

Cultural -] Levbia.1 D

5piro-denfe.i7 L'n^uo-p&UtAl D

Undefined X

It is also to be noted that the clicks were not immtitable. and
thus the cerebral ! and the palatal i were interchanged to some
extent, as also was the faucal i| and the guttural ]. The last

746 AlJOKlCilNAL I'l.ACl-: NAMES.

click is, says Dr. Bleek, " u most unpronounceable click " — and
he does not even attenii)t to detine it. The variation of language
as between the tribes was even so great as to make it " individual
in its peculiarities." All this, therefore, is of great importance
when we come to the interjiretation of place-names occurring in
<lifferent areas of so extensive a Province as that of the Cape.

Two words, for instance, both of which will come before us
later in connection with specific place-names, have diffC'rent
equivalents in different tribes. Tluis for " nose," Argousset
gives nuen. Bleek gives tu, liahn and Lichtenstein give 'nudu;
while for " lion," Arbousset gives Koet'i., Bleek gives l|ka, and
Lichtenstein kan. No doubt if other dialects had been ])rc-
served to us, still further variation could be established, for it
must never be forgotten that the acttial materials in the way of
Bushman literature are, most unfortunately, very meagre, and
by reason of their inaccessibility, little known.

Into all the details of the question we cannot possibly enter
beyond those facts which establish our present contention con-
cerning the hopeless confusion caused by conflicting languages
and orthographies, coupled with the rank illiteracy of many of
the early pioneers on the one hand, and on the other, the isolation
in which able workers in contact with different tribes (and so
dialects) sought to fix liewildcring and Ijaffling clicks, vari-
ously pronounced according to locality and other influences.

There was even, as a matter of fact,, a good deal of variation
in the pronunciation of the same click, and in consequence clicks
were frequently mistaken and mis written (cf. Jnxu instead of
Inqu, and Ngcele, Ngxele, instead of Ngqele. ), and in any case
the difficulties of pronunciation operated in the direction of
limiting their number. Most of the pioneers would not worry
with the language at all, and the missionaries felt that they were
doing well in confining their attention to the main clicks in the
great work of reducing the Hottentot and Bushman languages to
writing.

The result was that attention came to be focussed upon the
retention of three clicks, namely the c, q, and x, of our modern
orthography. This, one might imagine, would be simple enough,
and yet to demonstrate the actual and practical difficulties of the
situation, so little realised by those who have not come in actual
contact with it, we draw attention to the variations, so far as
these three clicks are concerned.

1. The Dcutal Click — c in modern si-Xosa and Zuhi ; (| in
se-Suto ; ^ of I.e Vaillant ; t" of Lichtenstein; — of .Schmelen :
• of Knudsen, I of Bleek.

2. llic Cerebral Click — q in modern si-Xosa and Zulu; ' of

Schmelen ;' of Knudsen ; > of Schreuder; -f- of the Rhenish

Missionary Society ; ! of Bleek.

X. The Faitcal Click — x in motlcrn si-Xosa and Zulu, \" of
Le Vaillant ; t" of Lichtenstein ; ' of Schmelen and Knudsen ;

> of .Schreuder; || of Bleek.

-MUJRICIXAI. t'LACK NAMES.

74;

It will thus be readily appreciated that an adeqtiate survey
of the aboriginal place-names of the Cape Province demands very-
careful and highly specialised philological knowledge, and is by
MO means exhausted by a j)aper or two on the subject. This
present paper will have more than justified its'elf if it draws
attention to the need for such a detailed study, and gives some
nidication of the necessity for, and values attaching to, research
in this domain, (jur knowledge concerning the Bushman-Hot-
tentot languages is so meagre that scholarly research, as sug-
gested, could hardly fail to produce rich gems, and one can only
urge upon those in strategic positions in our South African
Universities the high desiral)ility of encouraging and stimulating
our younger scholars to take up the researches associated with
the honovired names of Bleek and Llo3'd — who now, long since,
have ceased from their labours, and. have no successors !

Before j^roceeding to give a list of the Hottentot-Bushmen
place-names, jjerhaps we should here mention one other charac-
teristic sound, the r sound. In connection with the -ra group of
names, we shall enter into a full discussion of the difficulties and
inconsistencies raised by this sound, but here it is mentioned in
connection with the clicks only bec^tise it is another indication
by means of which H-B place-names may be determined.

Thus armed, we proceed to select from our general list all
those names in which non-Bantu soimds occur, and these may be
regarded as relics of an earlier distribution of the aboriginal
population in which the Hottentot- Bushman tribes dwelt where
the Bantu now dwell. The scantiness of the material at our dis-
])osal makes it well-nigh impossible to distinguish as between
Hottentot and Bushman names at this late date, or to specifically
assign particular data to the Bushman, especially in view of the
camouflage acquired in generations of conflicting and corrupting
elements. We are, therefore, com])elled, and, indeed, rejoice, that
even that much is possible, to grouj) all the names together as
Hottentot- Bushman.

Bacela

B. — Alhliahctiral [Jsf of H.-B. Names.

I. Trauskcian List.

Ban col o I];',.\a

* Bonxa

Caba

Cabane

Cabazani

Labaze

Caca

Cacadu

Cala

Cambalala

Camama

Camata

Cammama

Cancele

Candu

Capane

Cajjoti

Caquba

Casa

Cebc

Cebencc

Cefane

Cefani

Cegcuwana

Cegcuwane

Ceka

Cekwayo

Cengane

Cengcane

Centane

Centuli

Ceru

748

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Cibala

Colana

ulu-Cwe

Cibeni

Colosa

Cwebe

Cibini

Colossa

Cwebeni

Cicela

Corana

i-Cwe-cwe

Cicira

Coma's Bush

Cvvecvveni

Ciko

Cucii

Cwengcwana

Cingco

Culunca

Cxwaleni

Cizela

Cunigce

Cofimvaba

Ciiningce

•

Darabe

Elujecwcni

I-'.ncabeni

Debera

Emangquzu

Ksinqumeni

Dumrana

Emarambcni

Ezinxakii

Egoxe

Emaxegwcni

Esiqungqwini

Egqubeni

Engcobo

Exgwaleni

Elucwecwe

Engwaqa

Ezimcitka

Gcebeni

Gqaka

Gungqwane

Gcibala

Gqaqala

Gura

Gcilitshana

Gqobonco

Gwecweni

Gcina

Gqogqora

Gxakaqxaka

GcLia

Gqolti

Gxakaxa

Gcuvva

Gqolweni

Gxaku

Gcwe

Gqoroagqora

Gxalibonivii

Gcwensa

Gqibitole

Gxalingenwa

Gengqe

(jciubii

Gxebe

Gongqogongqo

Gquktiiiga

Gxididi

Goqwana

Gqungqc

Gxojana

Gora

Gqunu

Gxoxowe

Goxe

Gqutyini

Gxuba

in-Gqaba

Gqwesa

Gxwaleni

Gqaga

Gubenxa

Gxwalibomvu

Imgqaba

Inxu

Isibanqo

Incilindine

Inxuwana

Isiqubudweiii

Incunciisa

Izincuka

Jenca

Jixini

i-Jujura

Kenegha

Kogha

Kreli

Kinira

Komgha

Kwenxura

i-Kononqaba

Komilihari

Kweqana

Lindinxiwa

Liqalabeiig

Lurwayizo

Maca's

Malgas

Manqulo

Macibe

Mancam

Marubeni

Macibini

Manqolo

Maqe])evu

Macosa

Manqondo

Maqoloba

Macwi's

Manquezele

Maqubini

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

749

Maquerana

Mgqongo

Mqabo

Maxakala

.\rgxabakazi

Mqakania

Maxongo's Hoek

Mgxobozweni

Mqambeli's

Mbancolo

Mkonqo

Mqandi

Mbaxa

Mnceba

Mqanduli

Mbonqweni

Mncema

Mqeka

Mcaza

Mncetyana

Mqekezweni

Mcelu

Mncwangele

Mqobiso

Alcetyana

Mncwasa

Mqokolweni

Mceula

Mnxe

Mqokweni

Mconco

Mnxekazi

Mqonci

Mcuinngco

Morulanc

Mqunye

Mechalling

Moroko

Mqwashu

Mgcoso

Alparane

Mrobe

Mgcula

Mpaxa

Mxu

Mgcwe

Mpharane

Mxambuli

Mgqoloma

Mpunqntyana

Ncakubeni

Ngcolokeni

Norusa

Ncambele

Ngcnli

Novvaxa Drift

Ncambedlana

Ngculu

Nqaba

Ncanasini

Ngcumbe

Nqabane

Ncataru

Ngcungc^'^ini

Nqabara

Ncedana

Ngcvvangube

rsTqabarana

Ncenana

Ngqaqini

Nqadu

Ncerana

Ngqeleni

Nqanqadu

Nciba

Ngqokoto

.""vqanculi

Ncihana

Ngqokwe

Nqanqani

Ncikazi

r''gqong\veni

Nqalweni

Ncincinikwe

I\ gqunge

Nqam?.kwe

Ncise

Ngqungqu

Nqayi

Ncisininde

Ngquni

Nqeqeni

Ncizele

Ngqwaru

Nqolosa

Ncora

Ngxabangu

NquQU

Ncolora

Ngxaknxn

Nqusi

Nconcolora

Ngxakolo

Nqutu

Ncolosi

Ngxamagele

Nqutura

Ncome Springs

Ngxamangele

Nqwara

Ncoti

Ygxangxasi

Nqwashu

Ncuka

Ngxaza

Nqwati

Nculu

ivgxeba

Nrwaga

Ncumbe

Ngxebe

Ntcunzimbimi

Ncwala

Xgxeteya

Ntsbiqo

Ncwana's

Ngxettiza

Nxabaxa

Ndarala's

Ngxoto

Nxaxa

Ndenxa

Ngxutyana

Nxaxo

Ndzonqiseni

Nkwanca

Nxotshana

Ngcacu

Nocn

Nxotshane'

Ngcele

Nonipaxa

Nxotwe

Mgcizile

Noncamba
Nongxola

Nyutura

750

ABORIGINAL PLACE

NAxMES.

Pecu

Pirintsu

Pinnntsu ^

Qakazana

Qitsi

Quebueng

( )akancu

Qobonqobo

Quintana

Oamata

Qobosbeaneng

Oukanqu

Qanda

Qhoboscheaneng

Oukinqu

Oanqeiii

Oiiobosheaneng

CHinianco

Oaiifjiso

Ookolweni

Ou niar.cn

()anqu

Ooliwe

Oumati

Oebe

Qolombana

Qumato

Oebeyi

Oolora

Oumbn

Oelana

Oombolo

Qungu

Oengqeleka

Qoqa

Onnu

Qeqe

Ooqora

Qurana

Ohife

Qora

Outsa

Oiba

Qota

gntnbeni

Oil! a

Ootira

Outyeni

Oinqana

Goto

Owaninga

Oingqolo

Quaninga

Qweqwe

giti

Oubusini

UwiHqwiH

Rabuxa

kanira

Roza

Rafuza

Rasceni

Ruze

Ramhlakwana

Reletye

Rwanyana

Raniotlilakoana

Rode
Rolweni

Rwantsana

Seferong

Siqubudu

Sinyaqa

Shixini

Sigxojeni

Siqingidi

Shuknnxa

Singxoto

Sixuzuli

Sicengu

Sinqumeni

Sontvvarane

Sixantu

Sinxago

Tex Tybert

Tora

Tyalara

Thaba Chicba

Tsikarong

Tyinira

Tliaba Kuberu

Tiitiira
Umlenxana

Tyira

Xabanc

Xobani

Xora

XabaiK|u

Xobo

Xorana

Xalanga

Xolobe

Xosa

Xanxasi

Xongora

Xugxwala

Xanka

Xonya

Xuka

Xaxashimba

Xonye

Xume

X en til

Xonyeni

Xnmi

Xibnxa

Xopozo

Xv/ili

Zanci

Zangqinqi

Zinqaye

Zangqanqu

Zangqolwane
Zingcuka

Zixinene

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

751

Corrupted and non-aboriginal Names.

Ilubisi

Tsakana

Willeary

Seplan

Vete

Lochenberg

Textybert

2. Ciskeian List.

Veldman

Balura

Berea

Bira

Baroda

Biedouw

Boqo

Barroe

Bikamma

Bulugha

Beneaga

Binqala

Bulura

Caba

Cintsa

■Comdomo

Cacadu

Cisira

Gommadagga

Cata

Coloru

Cqyi

Cawa

Co€ga

Cumakala

Cenyu

Coega Kamma

Cwaru

Cesira

Coega Kop

Cwencwc

Cimezile

Cofimvaba
Donqaba

C^wengcwana

Emgqwakwebi

Engquleri

Enqonqweni

Emncotsho

Enqobokeni

Exonxa

Emnqesha

^

Ezincuka

Gangqeni

Gouritz

Gqunube

Ganna Dar

Gomvkania

e-Gqurhura

Garieb

Goxa Poort

Gubenxa

Gazip

Gqadushe

Guluguqu

Gcato

Gtqakwebe

Grabouw

Gcebula

Gqamahashe

Gwaas

Gcina

Gqebenya

Gwarrie Laagte

Gcinisa

Gqeqe

Gxakaxa

Gonnalcraal

Gqili

Gxokolo

Gonubie

Gqolonci

Gxonde

Gorrie Koppen

Gqora

Gxotyeni

Goudini

Gqiibushane

Gxula

Gouna

Gqugesi
Gqume

Hoeree

Gxwaba

Incobo

Inyhara

Iquibira

Jnyara

jquibica

Injicane

Kaga -

^ Karabee

Karee Laagre

Kamanassie

Kareedouw

Kareepan

Kamnatie

Kareefontein

Kareeput

Kanqiso

. M

Kareekama

Karroo

752

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Kluklu

Kokenap

Krakeel

Knysna

Kologa

Kwelegha

Kobonqaba

Kologha

Kwelera

Koedoe's Kloof

Kolonga

Kwelerana

Koegas

Komgha

Kwenxura

Koegerve

Koonap

Kc.ranna

Kragga

Macacuma

Maqashu

Mnxesha

Macibi

Mariba

Mnxumubu

Macibini

Maxonqo's

Moeras

Macubeni

Mcainbafaieni

Mqukvvane

Macomo's

Mceula

Mqvvashu

Mancazana

Mgqwakwebe

Mtiragie

Manxeba

Mnqaba
Mnqesha

Mxumbu

Nanaga

Ngcwazi

Nqantosi

Napkij

Ngqanda

Nqolonqolo

Ncabassa

Ngqokweni

Nqonqvveni

Ncara

Ngqudela

Nqumeya

Nceniene

Ngqiimeya

Nququ

Ncera

Ngxalawe

Nqwenkala

Ncwazi

Njwaxa

Nswaxa

Ngcabasa

.Noncampa

Nxalawe

Ngciika

Noree
Nooitzekamma

K'xelo

Op de Tradouw

Oribe

Outeniqua's

Pera

Pirie

Oaka

Qibera

Quebequebe

Qamba

Qibira

Quenera

Qamndobowa

Ooboshane

Ougqwala

Qamnyana

Qomfo

Qugqvvaru

Can da

Qongqota

Quigney

Qanti

Ooqodala

Qukwane

Qeto

Ouagga _

Qumanco

Oiba

Ouantosi
Ouarrie Kraal.

Oume

Rabula

Rodana

Rura

Raninyibe

_ Rode

Rwantsana

Ixegu

' I Roxeni
Sapkamnia

lamacha

Trawal

Twecu

Tamara

Tshoxa

Twexu

Tarka

Tsitsikama

Tyelera

Traka

Tyoloninqa

Uxongora

Zalora

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES,

Xonxa Xebecca

75.',

Zangqokwe
Zingqutu

Zinqutu

C. — Detailed Study of Specific Groups.
Proceeding to a closer examination of the names in these
lists, one is impressed by the frequency with which certain termi-
nations occur, and so in the case of several of the more important
ones the names have been gathered together into groups.

a. The -ra Group of Place-names.

The -ra group is perhaps the most interesting, and even the
most valuable, for in no other grou]) is the conflict as between the
various languages more clearly revealed, and the principles at
work better illustrated.

We shall, ther^gfore, give complete lists of the names, Cis-
keian and Transkeian, proceeding on the basis of these lists to
enquire into the derivation of the various names which now are
so effectively camouflaged. ' In the case of the Ciskeian list, the
district in which places occur are indicated by a simple contrac-
tion of the name of the ordinary magisterial district, and the
Transkeian districts will be found as required by reference to
the alphabetical list of place-names.

The -ra Group of Placc-iuniies.

I. Ciskei.

Balura (\\E.)

Beneaga

Bira (Fed.)

Bootecha (Beaufort)

Bulura (E.L.)

Cesira (Ped.)

Cisira (Ped.)

Coega (Uit.)

Commadagga (S.E.)

Cunqua (Uit.)

Dwyka (Alb.)

Gaga (V.E.)

Gamka

Glenora (G.G.)

Ibikha

Inyara

Inyhara

Iquibeka •

Iquibica

Iquibira

Kaga

Kareiga ( Bath.)

2. Transkei.

Cicira

Debera

Gqogqora

( kjoroagqora

(jura

Gxara

Jujura

Kinira

Kenegha

Kwenxura

Kogha

Ncora

Ncolora

Nconcolora

Nqwara

Nrwaga

Nyutura

Qolora

Ooqora

Qora

Ootira

Ramra

754 .ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

I. Ciskei. 2. Trans kei.

Kariega (G.-R.) Sigoga

Kasouga (Bath.) Tora

Kenegha Tutura

Kinira Tyalara

Kologo (Sthm.) Tyinira

Kolonga (G.G.) Tyira ^

Komgha (Kga.) Xongora

Konga (Uit.) Xora.

Kouka
Kragga
Kraka
Kwelegha
Kwelera

Kwenxura (Kga.)
•Ncera (V.E.)
Ncemera
Noaga (Stvl.)
Norka
Pera

Prieska (Pka.)
I'anqua (Tbgh.)
Oibera (Kga.)
Oibira (Ped.)
Ouagga

Ouenera (E.L.)
ii-Ralara
i-Rilira
Rura ( Ped.)
Tamacha
Tamara (Kwt.)
Tarka (Msl.B.)
Tarka (Tka.)
Traka
Tyclera
Xebecca

The first point, then, which calls for attention is the curious
variation in the spelling of the last syllable. Thus we have Com-
madagga, ■ Coega, Kariega. Gamka, Ibikha, Kenegha, Komgha,
Kwelera, Tamacha. Cnnqua; Xebecca. all of them apparently
attempts to fix the same sound.

This, however, may be, and, in point of fact, is, disputed.
We sliall, therefore, lay siege to the city with all thoroughness,
proceeding step by step to present the facts in a form that it at
once graphic and distributive, examining the data, and then
coming to our conclusions.

The best means of attaining our purpose is to begin by group-
ing the rivers, with their tributaries, in systematic fashion, omit-
ting those names which obviously are not of aboriginal derivation,
since their inclusion would only confuse the issue. Beginning,

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

755

then, from the Kei River, and proceeding westwards, the rivers,
with main trihntarics, are as follows : —

CISKEIAN RIVERS.

1

Aboriginal Name.

Modern Name.

Tributaries.

Kwelegha

Gqunube

Gonubie

Nxaruni

Nahoon

Buffalo

Ngqoko

Tyolomnqa

Cbalunma

i-Xesi

Keiskama

Oauka

i-Bira

Beka

i-Nxuba

Great Fish

Tarka
1 Koonap Kaga

i-Cawa

Kowie

Kasouga

Kareiga

i-Qora

Bushman's

Commadagga

1 i-Nqweba

Sundays

Coernev '
Milk

1

Camdeboo
Cunqua

Coega

Zwartkops

Baakens

Gamtoos

Kouga
Kariega

Zitsikama

Keurbooms

, I.xaxe

Knysna

Kammanassie
Olifants ■] Kouka
( Traka

Gouritz

i Gainka — Bootecha
Dwyka
\Tou\vs Kragga

A further link in the chain of evider.cc is to ])c found in the
lara:e number of aborioinal names now lost to ns, these havinp-
been replaced on our maps by Dutch names, some of which have
within recent years been translated into their English equivalents.
This establishes the fact of the predominance of Dutch influence
in» the pioneer days, which is of nO' slight importance, since
the Dutch names of many of these rivers may hold unex-
pected significance. Careful cn(|uiry should be made to see how
much, or liow little, there is in the suggestion. Li another place
I have shown thcit the vcr\' ])nzzling nrune Inxu was explained

756 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

only when I realised that the Dutch name, W'ildebeeste. v^as a
translation of the aboriginal name, the Hottentot name for the
Wildebeeste being the i-Nqu. Probably, then, many other of the
existing Dutch names are smiple translation.s of the original name.
In this way Koedoe's Kloof, the Koodoo's Kloof in Ladismith
District, is named after the Hottentot iqudu ; and the name
Wildebeeste, translated from i-N(|U, also Hottentot, gives us the
English word Gnu; and sundry names associated with our word
Ouagga come through the Dutch from the Hottentot iqwaia.

Perhaps our greatest authorit}'. Dr. Skeat, tells us in his
Concise Etymological Dictionary that " Quagga is a quadruped
(Kaffir). A Xosa-Kaffir word. — Kaffir iqivara (W. J. Davis) ;
where the r is guttural." This, however, is not the case, for both
the q and the r are non-Bantu sounds. exce])t by much later
assimilation, and the Kaffir word for Quagga, as a matter of fact,
i;- Idube, the other form being the H.-B. word, and perhaps more
likely Hottentot than Bushman, if we accept f as Tlottentot, and
r as Bushman. Personally, however. I am not prepared to draw
the line there so definitely as to determine on the strength of that
alone the ultimate origin of the word.

We are thus confronted witli the difficulty of determining
the exact significance of the r sound, and so, as a basis for the
discussion of this interesting ])oini, it is necessary to draw atten-
tion to the valuer of the letter, which represents no less than
four distinct sounds in modern Kaffir. In the first place, the
ordinary English sound is found only in foreign words assimi-
lated into the language — and then in ]:)ractice it is usually changed
to 1, as in orange, which the native usually contrives to call
i-olingc. Perhaps better examples are found in Scripture names,
such as u-Petros for Peter. Martini's Hush in Tsomo. and other
proper names.

The ordinary Kaffir sound i> e(|ui\alent to ch in the Scottish
loch, -or as we have already seen, the Dutch g ; but there is a
slightly different, though quite distinct, sound produced by strong
out-breathing-, written with an aspirate over the r. The final
form is r. the sound being formed shar])ly at the back of the
throat, the breath being expelled. An example of the former is
u-rano, suspicion ; and of the latter, rapcla, to throw water at.

With these considerations, then, in mind, we proceed to a
detailed and critical study of the selected names. Certain names
in which the conflict of the languages are best illustrated should,
perhaps, be considered together, namely. Coega, Kareiga, Ka-
.'^ouga, and Kenegha ; and the questions raised concern the follow-
ing two ])oints : —

( i) Does the initial k stanfl for a click?

(2) Is the -ga suffix e(|uivalent to -ka or -fa?

In the first place, then, we are i)uzzled over the significance
of the initial letter of the word. A golden rule, which settles
many difficulties, is to follow the ordinary pronunciation in the

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 75/

locality, but in this case we get no guidance on the issue, apart
from the fact tliat there is no suggestion of a click. A second
guiding principle is whether the letter signifies a click ,m the
aboriginal language.

Now c is one of the three fundamental clicks of si-Xosa, but
in Coega it is pronounced k. Hut k in Keiskama is a relic of the
H.-B. click, so why should it not just as well be a relic of the
same click in the names mentioned? Moreover, Komgha is the
universally-adoptefl spelling for the Kaffir Oumra, and Kogha is
given as the equivalent for Xora ; and what is nowadays spelt
Commadagga was given as Quamedacka by Paterson in his
"Travels" (published 1790). Concerning Coega, he gives us
the following information: —

" Here {i.e., at Zout Pan, P.E.) we were visited by 2 CafYres,
the firft we had feen; for they very feldom venture fo far out of
their own country. At night we arrived at a place called by the
Hottentots Kow Cha (Koega), which is much frequented by
Lions, Rhinoceroses, and Buffaloes." (P. 83.)

Making due allowance for some initial k's being unclicked,
I am inclined to the view that the early pioneers were at a loss to
express the click either by speech or in writing, and were
content to use and ])erpetuate the nearest English or Dutch
equivalent. It is this ignorance, or the inability to distinguish
sounds, whicli gives us a series like Iquibeka, Iquibica, Iquibira,
and Xebecca, all attempts at one name ! The correct form is
Oibira.

Puzzling over Coega. we are interested to lind this river
spelt Coaga by Hall, in his maj) ])ublished in 1852. He also
gives us the river Noaga, wiiich by analogy should surely be
spelt Xoega. Paterson, however, gives Norka as the original
name, so that if we again analogise, Coega should become Corka
— a truly delightful instance of the tangles and snares awaiting
the un\var\-. With regard to the pronunciation of this name,
Coega, the oe must l)e acce])ted according to the Dutch values,
the coe being equivalent to Dutch koe, provided no click is
present. Very nmch further west we come across another river,
a tributary of the ( Hifant's, named Kouka This ]M-obably
represents another attempt at the same name, and only helps to
confuse the issue further by reason of its termination. There is
also a Kouga in Uitenhage District, probably a different sj)elling
of the original Coega. On this showing, then, we are able to
narrow down the issue considerabl}-, for the only point really at
issue in the word is the initial letter, and the correct form must
be either Kura, Oura, or Xura. with the ])robabilities upon the
second, and most of all upon the third form.

The name I'oega also brings us to our second point, concern-
ing the values of the suffix. \\'ith the variant spellings. Coega,
Koega, Kouka, Koi;ga, we see the ])Ossil)ilit)- of the -ga being
ctjuivalent either to -ra or -ka.

758 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMKS.

If the g is to be pronounced according to its Dutch value, then
it is clear that the correct spelling should be -fa, and that the
original Bushman sound was given as nearly as possible in terms y
of the Dutch alphabet. It is in the last degree unlikely that the g
represents the EngHsh sound of that letter. But then, in that
case, the r in the middle of Kareiga should surely also have been
similarly expressed, for the English r sound is not found in
si-Xosa, and the spelling would more consistently be Kagiga,
using Dutch equivalents, and most correct of all Kafira.

In the name Kasouga, as pronounced in that area, there is
the same suggestion as if the final -ga were nearer to -ka than
-la. By a process of " boiling down," we get a stew that is not
without its values. Kasouga thus becomes Kasouka, betttr
Kasuka, perhaps Kasura, none of which, however, are so satis-
fying as Xasura. Similarly Kariega, as also the other form
Kareiga, might be carried a step further. In' adopting an initial
click, and so becoming Xarira. As suggestions — no more — thcv
are allowed to stand.

But the -ra, -ka. question is one that cannot be lightly passed
over, for there is all the dilTerence between the two, since -ra
is diminutive in force, and -ka — according to Mr. Pettman — is
expressive of abundance, plenty. Thus, in his " Notes on South
[African Place-names," p. 4, he classifies as Hottentot names
" Place and river names ending in -ka, e.g., Gamka, abounding in
lions; Dwyka, Tarka. Coega, Kariega, Prieska, the place of the
lost goat."

But if Gamka is abounding in lions, why is not Prieska
abounding in goats — and, in any case, what is the English r doing-
there? The interesting point, however, is that Coega and
Kariega are classified as if they belonged to the -ka rather than
the -ra class, and as -ra is Bushman rather than Hottentot, these
names must be regarded as of Bushman origin, if we take the
other view, though adopted (and perhaps adapted) later by the
I.'ottentots.

As a matter of fact, and for the guidance of enquirers, it
should be mentioned that there is an alternative name in
general use in the locality for the river Kinira. namely,
Keneglia. 1'his. again introduces another diversion,

namely, ihe introduction of an h, and the h, ]jrobably
present owing to the influence of the English settlers, determines,
I think, the fact that the final syllable must be associated with
the -fa, rather than the -ka, sound. In any case the comparatively
large number of names ending in -fa in the Transkei are all of
them pronounced in accordance with the view put forward here,
as opposed to that of Mr. Pettman, and some one or two at least
si>elt in the Dutch way confirm the whole argument conclusively.
In particular, the Ramra, of Butterworth District, throws an
interesting sidelight vipon the Ciskeian Gamka, to which refer-
ence has already been made, especially upon the value of the
suffix. Taking all in all, and not even ruling out the tw'o suffixes,.

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 759

VIZ., -ra, and -ka, in spite of the fact that in Godfrey's standard
and most accurate Dictionary -ka is not given as having the force
of plenty, and remembering the constant use of -ga and -gha in
the oldest Ciskeian names, which occur also in the Transkei,
where some are still spelt both ways, it seems certain that all
these different spellings were attempts to fix one and the same
sound, the sound which we designate nowadays as -ra.

P The -Kama Group.

Another interesting, though much smaller, group of place-
names is that ending with the suffix -kama. Here, as elsewhere,
we must be prepared for misspellings and corruptions, and even
the impenetrable veil. We have ventured to add two doubtful
names to the list of i6, and of these i6 one has the distinction
of being a " booby-trap," while three only are found in the
Transkei. The true character of our deceptive friend is at once
revealed when we write it kwa-Kama, that is, simply Kama with
the locative prefix, indicating at the place of Kama, an ancient
chief.

Bikamma Noetzekamma (George)

Coegakamma (Uitenhage) Nooitzekamma (George;

Gattikamma Qokama (Ngqeleni)

Gouwkama (Knysna) Sapkamma (Uitenhage)

Kareekama (Ladismith) Sulenkama (Qumbu)

Keiskama (Vict. East) Tsitsikama (Queenstown)

Kraggakamma (Uitenhage) Zitzikama (George)
K wakama ( Kamastone ) ( Oueens-Kammanassie

town) Kammie Vlei
Mqakama (St. Johns)

Various names in this list have already engaged our attention
in another connection, and we need not dwell upon them further,
except to indicate the variant spelling of Kamma, Kama, the
latter of which has prevailed as the more correct form, while the
other is unfortunately perpetuated. Zitzikama. in George Dis-
trict, is repeated under the modern form of Tsitsikama. in the
Queenstown District. I'aterson, our ancient friend, who travelled
in 1777, 1778, 1779, has recorded it as Sitsicamma, and he gives
us Krake Kamma for Kraggakamma. Nooitzekamma, as
recorded in Education Department records, also i;;)pears else-
where as Noetzekamma, and best of all in the form of Nukskama,
by Paterson.

Another river he mention__s in his map as the Becka Kam,
running into the Great Fish River, and in the letterpress he
perpetrates the inconsistency of mentioning the Becha Cum. the
reference in all probability being to our Milk River.

The inclusion of the two doubtful names is due to the prob-
ability of the corruption of the Kama into the form^^ recorded.
Thus the Kammanassie of the i^resent is recorded In- Paterson

rrx)

AliORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

a? t'Kani t'Nasi, evidently an attempt to fix the clicks. Were
these two reversed, one might be tempted to think there might
be some connection between the names which are handed down
to us as Kammanassie, Nukskama, Noetiiekamma, and Nooitze-
kamma, for Nassie Kamma is not very far distant from the
others; in any case the ancient spelling reminds us of the
presence of the click, now long since quite lost in the -Kama
names.

y Other Typical H.-B. Names.

In this, the concluding group, we gather together those
names ending -ouw, -quas. -as, and sundry hybrid and corrupted
forms. Of these, the -ouw group is interesting, if baffling, and
apt to lead one into serious error on account of the similar
Dutch termination, unless due care is taken.

(a) -0U7C Group.

Biedouw (Clan W'm.)

Bittouwsfontein ( Som. East )

Camdeboo

Coerney

Gouw Kama (Knysna)

Grabouw ( Caledon )

Kabeltouw ( Worcester)

Kardouw

(b) -quas Group.

Attacquas Berg
Hessacjuas Kloof

{c)-as Group.

Koegas
Malagas

(d) Hybrid Group.

Ganna Hoek

Gonna Kraal

Kannaland

Hoeree

Koeranna

Gorriekoppen

Gwarrie Laagte

Koegerve

Napkij

Noree

Oribe

Trawal

Kareedouw

Krakadouw

Nardouw (Clan Wm.)

Spandau ( (iraatt'-lveinet )

Wiedouw (Clan Wm.)

Touws River

Oyt de Tradouw ( Swellendam)

Outeniqua Mts.

Moeras R.
Naugas Hills

Karreepan

Krakeel

Koedoes Kloof

Ouagga fontein

Karabee

Gonubie

Goudine (or Goudini)

Houtini

Kubusie

Manubie

Muragie

Sentubi

To enter into anything like a detailed discussion of all these
rames at this juncture is not a practical proposition, especially
in view of the extremely meagre data available. It will be noted,
however, that Camdeboo is included among the -douw names. I

ABORIGINAL PLACK NAMES. 761

think it is a corrupted form, and it is significant that Paterson
speaks of arrivino- " at a place called the Ka Cha Chow, one of
the branches of the Bushman's River," which is identifiable
with the Camdeboo. Paterson also is responsible for tiie inclusion
of Coerney, a name which is most baffliiio until we are in posses-
sion of the key to the citadel. He says: "At noon we overtook
our wagon at a place which in the Hottentot language 's called
I'urnow." Four i)uzzling names are ])ut into sul:>-grou]) { c ) , in
the hope that the mere grouping might suggest light ; while under
(d) we have brought together ( ianna Hoek, in Bedford District,
and Gonna Kraal, near Mossel I->a\-. and Kannaland. all three
being an attempt after the correct ))r()nunciation of the Hottentot
name for the eland. Remembering the Dutch equivalent of the
fTottentot r, perhaps we should add Koeranna. Koedoe's Kloof
and Ouaggafontein and many derivatives arise out of the
Plottentot i-Qudii and i-O^i'aru. botli of which give us the
names of animals new to the white man at the time of discovery,
and accordingly called by the Dutch e(|uivalents of the Hottentot
names.

A concluding family of names w liich also takes shelter in this
group is to be found in Gonubie. (ioudini, Houtini, Kuljusie,
Muragie, Manubie, Sentubi. Whether the relationship is more
real than apparent depends, of course, upon the derivation, and
our problem is to determine the original in each case, to see
whether these names are but corruptions. Gonubie, of course,
is a corruption of Gqunube. Goudini was originally s]ielt Gou-
dine, and situate in a Dutch neighbourhood, the g may well be
a corruption of an original r, and the whole word an attem|)t to
spell an aboriginal name in Dutch equivalents, who shall say?
Perhaps it is to be accepted sim])ly as a Dutch name corrupted.
Kubusie and Manubie, in the correct forms, Kabusi and Man-
yube, and Sentubi, are all Kaffir names. Muragie, the remaining
one, occurs in Oudtshoorn. and reminds us irresistil)l>- of the
Muqu Ranie River mentioned b}- i'aierson as l)eing in that region,
not to mention the names of Hall's map, in the -as groitj).

It will thus be seen that the only relationshi]) between the
members of this family is that which can be traced in tbc simi-
larity of their clothes.

D. — 7 hi' Need for Further Research.

Having thus |)resented the results of our en(|uiry to date, the
main impression left upon our minds is that of the vast field as
yet untouched, the harvests yet ungathered. ( )ne of the main
reasons for this is the meagre data which is available. Very
little is known of the Hottentot language, and still less of the
Bushman, and comparatively little material has been gathered.
F.ertin. in his paper on " The Bushmen and Their Language."
says : —

" A survey of this language offers the greatest difficulties.
tlie principal one being the scarcity of docutnents to be found

762 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

regarding- it in Europe. When reading in Bleek's report that he
has collected 84 volumes of 7,200 manuscript half -pages— and his
unfinished manuscript Dictionary contains 11,000 entries — the
reader must be pained to know that such treasure is out of reach,
buried in Sir G. Grey's Library in Capetown" (p. 57).

Apparently Rertin was mistaken in his statement concerning
the extent of unworked material in the Grey collection, but in any
case, from a South African point of view, the misfortune is that
so little attention, and still less encouragement, has been given to
the study of the Hottentot Bushman materials. Realising the
difficulties, and how little data has been collected, the study seems
to be generally regarded as a well-nigh impossible one, and in
consequence is neglected. It is most earnestly hoped that this
appeal will catch the eye of those professors and others who are
directing the researches of our younger scholars, so that some of
our best South African students may be interested, and devote
long years to the work. Since it is, in its very nature, a study
requiring special qualification, it cannot be undertaken by anyone,
and the best results will be attained by those who have the
patience to allow their knowledge to accunuilate and their expe-
rience to mature. It is, moreover, a practical study to be prose-
cuted in South Africa, rather than an academic enquiry to be
attempted necessarily on theoretical lines across the seas.

12. Classification.

The concluding section of our enquiry is concerned with the
question of classification, which may be approached from two
])oints of view.

In the first place, we have gathered together, in alphabetical
order, the various names according to a philological classification,
based on the suffixes. As an analysis of the place-names, this
arrangement has value, though it only affects less than one-third
of the 1,400 Transkeian names recorded. The following figures
are not without interest in this connection, provided that it is
remembered that the H.-B. names are not confined to the figures
of that group, since certain of them ap])ear imder the suffix
grouping also, and that the Ciskeian figures are not included in
the suffix groupings : —

Total Transkeian Names 1,400

H.-B. Names in Transkei 456 (i.c, 33^6 %)

Total Ciskeian Names 44.3

H.-B. Names in Ciskei 226 (i.e.. 50 %)

Names ending in -ana, -wana ... 124

Names ending in -ane 49

Names ending in -ani. -ini 42

Names ending in -azi 19

Names ending in -eni. -weni . . . 135

Names ending -wa, -we 34

Names ending in -wayo 7

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

763

Another group of some importance is that which harbours
the compound and general names, to which we shall devote atten-
tion at a later stage. In the meantime we present the lists for
examination as follows, after safeguarding ourselves again by
pointing out that the classification is by no means adequate as it
stands, its main value being analytical and suggestive.

A. — According to Suffixes.
(i) Those ending in -ana, and -wana.

Amabomvaha

Bedlana

Bizana

Bohvana

Betshwana

Bo j ana

Bolana's

Biyana's

Bokwana

Bumbana

Bikana

Bumbulwana

Cegcuwana

Co Ian a
Corana

Cwengcwana

Dakana

Oangwana
!Oetyana

Dumrana

Elikadinana Fst.

Emgwalaiia

Emjanyana

Embotwana

Emjanyana

JLngwangwana

Emzinthlavana

Engwekazana

Gandana

Gcilitshana

Gwadana

Gatyana

Gem tana
Gsitsana

Gxojana

Hebehebana

Hlavana

Hoyana Fst.

Indawana

Indwana
J iixuwana

Izazulwana

Kabakazana

Kotana

Kwanyana

Kalana

Kweqana

Limkhonjana

Lotana
Eukalana

Lwandlana

?.labehana

Me van a

M pa fan a

Manzana

Mgazana

Mpunqutyana

Alaquerana

Mj any an a

Alpunzana

Mativvana

Mjilana

Msintsana

Albanyana

Mncetyana

Msongwana

Mbekedana

Mngunyana

M tan j ana

Mbidlana

Mnyamana's

Mtenetyap.a

Mbokotwana

Mohobotsana

AfvumeUvan?

l^dcetvana

■Mosana.

Mwhonyane Est

764

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Ncedana

Mcenana

Ncerana

Ncihana

.|>Jcwana's

Ndakana

Oelana

Ranihlakwana

Sikhovana

Tinana
Tobotsliana
Tokoana
Togv/ana

Umlengana
Van a

Cabnne

Cabazana

(Capane)

uovane

Mahamane

Makhvvatlane

Mankihlaue

Matiwaiie

Mbayanc

Mfabane's

Ncongwane

Ngwane

Nqabane

Sinangwane

angwane

Zandukwane

Ndlozana

Ngwana

N(|xutyana

Nkwenkwaiia

Noziyongvvana

Nqabarana

Pokwana

Ointana

Rwanyana

Sizana

Tok\'/a!ni
Tongvvana
Tsakana
I shazibana
Tshungwana

Umlenxana

Xorana

Ntentyana

rs'thlalukraia

Ntlawara

Ntongana

Nxotshana

Nyidlana

Ourana

Rwantsana

Siind\vana

Tsibiyana
Tsitsana
Tsojana
Tungwana

Zazulwana

(2j Those ending in -ane.

Cefane Cengcane

Cengatie Centane

Fobane

(jimgwane
• jangqvane

Hlonyanc

■VIgwenyane

Mhlatlane

Mkemane

Mohohtsane

Morulane

Mpafane

Ntibane
Ntlahlane

Sontwarane

Tongwanc

Xabane

Zaiigqolwanc
Zimbane

•.juvangwane

Mpame

Mparane

Mpharane

Mpukane

Mvenyane

Xlshumane

Ntsundwane

Nxotshane

Shangane
Tshisane

''.iwundwane

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

(3) Those ending m -em, -xvcni.
(i) -eni Names.

7(^5

Ainangeni

Bojeni

Cibeni

Cwebeni

Cxwal:;ai Est.

Danibeni

Dunianeni

Egqubeni

Emaranibeni

Embizeni

Emdoni

Endakeni

Enqabeni

Ensikeni

Cntsvveleni

Esikwayeni

Esingeni

Esinqumeni

Esiqunieni

Etembeni

Etyeni

Ezinipungeni

Ezin([onvanu*ni

Gcebeni

Gxwaleni

Insiireni

Lai eni

Lutateni
1 Aitubeni

lAitshikeni

Madwaleni

Al!anopenf

Mandileni

Mandleni

Xfangeni

.^Jarubeni

^^Ibekeni

Mbineiii

?vJbodleni

Mboleni

Mbolompeni

Mdakeni

Mhlotsheni

Mlondl'^ni's

Moni])eni

Mpahleni's

Mpeni

Mtonjeni

Natafeni

Nc.'ikubeni

Ndakeni

Nd3onqiseni

Ngcolokeni

Ngcjeleni

Ngweleni

?\komeni

Nolangeni

Nozitsheni

Ntlekiseni
Ntshingeni
Ntsukumbeni
Nynsheni Est.

Qanqeni

Rasmeni

Sebeni
Sidakeni

Sidekeni

Sigxojeni

Sihlabeni

Sin(|umeni
Solotyeni

Tafeni

Tafileni

Taleni

Thabakubeni
Toleni

Tolweni
Tongeiii
Tyeni

Xonyeni

Zadiingeni
(ii) -zveni Names.

Zanyeni

Bangweni

Bodweni
Cwecweni

Bokweni

Dingesweni's

Dingezweni Est.

Dumezweni's

Egugweni

Eliweni

Eluheweni

Elujecweni
EhikoUveni
Elunyaweni

Emaxegweni
Embongweni
J'^mdikisweni

?66

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

EmfuncTisweni
Emjikweni
Emkozweni Est.
Empindweni

Emqekezweni
Emqokolweni
Emvnhvcni
Enkalweni

Eundweni

Enyanisweni

Esigibiidweiii

Esihlontlweni

vj-qolweni

Gngweni

Gweevveni

Isiqnbudweni

Liihlekv/eni

Matolweni's
Malisweni
Mbonqweni
]\Idabukweni

Mdibanisweni
Mgxobozweni
Alqekezweni
Mqokolweni

Mqokvveni
Mvalweni
Myezweni

Ngqongweni
Ngwegfyveni

Nkodusweni
Nkupiilweni
ICqahveni

Ntshongweni
Nyanisv.'cni

Ookohveni

Kolvvcni

(4) Those ending in -zvOj,

and -TC'c.

Bangilizwe
Bliwa

Eokotwa
Bokwe

Rolotwa
Buwa

Gxalingcnwa Est.

Gxoxovve Est

Idutywa

Indwe

Insiswa

Keswa

Lindinxiwa

Magiitywa

Mgwakwa
Mkwenkwe

Mjanyelwa

Ncincinikwe

Ngokwe

Ngqokwe

Nqamakwe
Ntabengwe

Ntsizvva
.N^xotwe
Nyaniswe

Ooliwe

Qweqw^e

Saliwa

Sobekwa's

Tintwa

Tsenqiwe

Tsilitwa

Vinindwe

Zangwa

(5)

Those ending in -asi, -kasi.

Dudinlazi

Elabafazi

Emvubakazi

Gabazi

Hlabakazi

Kabakazi

Mbumbazi

Mgxabakazi
Mhlopekazi

Mnxekazi

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

767

Ncikazi
Ndabakazi

Umgazi

Njakazi

XtlanivLikazi

Nkaukazi

Ntsimbakazi

Nkawakazi

Umvubugazi

Cefani

Cepani

Exgwalani

Gelani

Gosani's

Nkimjani
Nqanqani

Ntihani
NUabani

Ntozani

Umhlahlani

Vusani

-ini

Xobani

Cibini

Dlitmbini

Dittyini

Edutyini

Embobini
Esiqungqwini

Esilindini

Gqutyini

Gungini

Isilindini

jixini

Konini's

Lukasini

Macibini
^.Tahlnbnii

Maqubini
Martini's

Mpindwint

Ngcungcwini
Ngqaqini

Njijini
Nkungwini

Ntshilini
Ntsimbini

Pimdunisini

Sitolini

Sizini

Shixini

Qubusini

(7) Those ending in

-wayo.

Amakcnjwayo

Buswayo

Cek\^'ayo

Dingiswayo's

Dudumayo

Gogozayo

Pundlwayo

B. — Groups and Compound Names.
This section promises to be one of the most important and
interesting of all the groups, especially if we include under the
Litter designation those names which have been compounded by
corruption. In more than one instance the evolution of a name
stands revealed as we find the separate links of differing names
scattered over a wide area, yet obviously related to each other.
Moreover, when puzzling names are found to be one of a series,
light as to the origin is sometimes suggested by the series.

N

768 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

(a) Name-Groups.

It is. of course, impossible to give more than a few groups
of names, these being sufficient to iUustrate the principle. One
such group is seen in the names Nkau, Nkaukasi, and Nkazvn-
kasi. The first is the name of the vervet monkey {Cercopivhccus
pygerythrus Cuv.), and the suffix kazi forming feminine nouns
from the masculine. Nkaukazi represents the female. Nkawa-
hazi, then, remains to puzzle us, unless we conclude that the
spelling is at fault. A glance at the list of names reveals the
interesting fact that the hrst name occurs in Matatiele District,
and the second in Ngqeleni, in Western Pondoland.

Another group for which I am not in a position to offer any
explanation at present is Ntsimba, Ntsimbakazi, Ntsimbini. The
first occurs in Engcobo, the second in Willowvale, and the last in
St. John's and Ngqeleni.

A third group consists of Nqaba, Nqabane, Nqabara,
Nqbarana, and Kobonqaba, occurring respectively in the Districts
of Tsolo, Idutywa, Willowvale, Tsolo, and the Ciskei. From our
experience of other words, where we get duplications, such as in
Nqadu and Nqanqadu, Ncolora and Nconcolora, one mig'.it
rtasonably expect to find also a Nqanqaba. If such a place exists,
J have not yet come across it, but there is such a H.-B. word,
meaning a steep ascent, and this is an exact description of the
Nqaba Valley ! It becomes steeper and steeper, until a high
waterfall is encountered, and in any case the sides are strikingly
steep. Nqaba comes to mean a stronghold, so that Inkobonqaba
would be an empty fortress, a deserted stronghold. As a matter
of fact, by a process of corruption, the Inkobonqaba is known to
us as the Koonap, so far as the Ciskeian river is concerned, though
the correct Kaffir form of the name persists in Kentani.

In the case of Nqabara, the suffix, as we have seen, is H.-B.
in origin, and has the force of toning down, and giving an impres-
sion that at the stream the ascent is steepish. Nqabarana being
possessed of the additional diminutive suffix ana, indicates the
small stream at the steepish ascent. Nqabane is not so clear since
one is not sure of the sense, but seems to indicate some difficulty
encountered by the stream at a given place.

(b) Duplications.

Another class of names are those which are duplications.
Probably quite a number of those which are now single syllable,
or single syllable + a suffix, are to be regarded as belonging to
this class originally, for there is a strong tendency to eliminate
the duplication, and the result has frequently been that the
tendency prevailed. While the evidence does not confine duplica-
tion to the Hottentots and Bushmen, and the names originating
Irom these sources, yet we know enough to be able to say that it
was a very usual device of theirs. In presenting a list of some
such name "ome purely Bantu forms are noticeable amongst the
H.-B. ones.

ABORIGINAr. i'LACE NAMKS. 769

Cicira Ndumnduni

Dadamba Ngcagca

Elucwecwe N'^qungqn

Gqaqala Nqanqadu

Gqogqora Nqeqeni

Malepelepe Oweqwe

Nconcolora Owilis^wili

Ncise from Ncincise.

Ncolosi from Nconcolosi.

Nqadu from Nqanqadu.

(c) Compound Names.

In the case of compound names, it is necessary to distinguish
between those which are simple and those which are comple.N.
Included in the first category are those which are compounded as
between two words, examples of which are U m^sunvubu , Utn-
zimkuiu, derived respectively from iim-Zi. a group of houses, a
village, town, and im-l^ubii^ a hoppopotamus, and knhi, meaning
great, large. Other such names are Umtingivevu, from um-Ti, a
tree, and Ngivcvu, meaning grey; Ndlunkuiu, a most interestmg
name, signifying literally " large house,'' and being, as a matter
of fact, the name of the Cape sparrow. Passer melanurus (st.
Mull.), derived originally from the largeness, of its nest; Nta-
bengivc, " the mountain of the tiger " ; Ntabanknlu, " the great
mountain," and many others.

Amongst the complex names are those which are expressed
in a phrase. One of the most interesting of these is Eliinyaweni
hvenkukn, " at the foot of the fowl," a name derived from the
threefold impress of the surveyor's mark (the arrow head),
which in the early days reminded the natives of the " spoor " left
on the ground by a fowl ! This, however, is fully dealt with in
my Tsolo Place-names paper. Another such name is Ubala
ainatwa, " writing of Bushmen,'' a name given to the place where
the Bushman paintings occur in Tsolo District. Precisely what is
wrong with the name is not easy to determine, though Mr.
Godfrey draws my attention to it. On the same principle as that
illustrated by the previous name, the locative would be more
satisfying.

A third illustration of the kind is to be found in u~Kalolwc
iiyanga. from ii-kalo, a chasm, and i-Nyanga, the moon. In this
connection Godfrey's note on inkalo is worthy of attention. He
says that it means " a gap, neck, or opening in a mountain ridge ;
the upper part of a long rising land, elevation, or eminence of
ground; a ridge: inkalo yentaba aph inyanga itshona kona, a neck
or opening in the mountain, where the moon is visible at setting;
the hollow in the crescent-shaped moon." (P. 170 )

(d) Pairs.

Before passing from this section of place-names, we desire
to draw attention to the large number of paired names. Some of

//

0

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

these are due to wrong spelling, others to variations in the dif-
ferent localities ; while others, again, are due to genuine alterna-
tives, and some few represent quite different words, though only
a single letter is changed. As examples of these we append the
■following list: —

Amalinde

Benge

Cxwaleni

Dangwana

Gqaka

Gxula

Karadouw

Kenira

Msinsana

Mhlakulo

Ngcaca

Ngxoto

Ngqungqu

Ngokwe

Ngcungcwini

Nqaba

Nkobonqaba

Ntseshe

Zinxaku

Ramothlakoana

Tokoana

Tokoana

Mangoloaneng

Xabane

and

>)

Amalindi

Bengu

Exgwaleni

Dangwane

Gqaga

Gxulu

Karedouw

Kinira

Mtsintsana

Mhlakulu

Ngcacu

Singsxoto

Esiqungqwini

Ngqokwe

EsiqungQwini

Imgqaba

Qobonqaba

Ntsheshe

Sinxago

Ramhlakwana

Tokwana

Toguana

Mangolong

Xabano

In connection with Ramhlakwana and Tokwana and Man-
golong, it is to be noted that all three are contractions for the
longer se-Suto forms, the first two representing the si-Xosa
equivalent of the much longer originals ; they also' illustrate
orthographical dift'erences as between the two languages.

C. — General Classification.

In a paper restricted as this one necessarily is, and already
outrunning the reasonable restrictions, it is not possible to more
than indicate and illustrate, and in consequence we cannot deal
exhaustively with the data before us. Nevertheless, it is hoped
to carry on the enquiry, adding fresh data from time to time, and
garnering the results, and working on the basis of this present
effort. We cannot, however, conclude without attempting a
more general classification, and we see no reason to depart from
that suggested in my Tsolo Place-names study, except for the
addition of a section for names connected with superstition and
customs.

I. — Names with historical associations.
II. — Names according to shape or special characteristics.

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 77 1

III. — Names after trees or plants.
IV. — Names after animals.

V. — Names connected with superstitions and customs.
VI. — Names after parts of the body.
VII. — European names —

1. Mission Stations.

2. Farms.

3. Tradin^s^ Stations.

4. Dutch Names.

VIII, — General Names.
IX. — Names derived from non-native sources.
X. — Names whose derivation is remote and not yet
traced.

/. — Names zvitli Historical dissociations.

The long series of Kaffir wars played no small part in the
history of South Africa, and it is only to be expected that the
names of the foremost chiefs would come to be associated with
specific places. From an historical point of view it is a pleasure
to record such names as Gaika's Kop, and Sandili's Kop, and
Nhlambe. Bomvanaland and Gcalckaland are, alas ! in danger
of being forgotten because of their general character, but Kreli
is remembered, and the grand old warrior Matiwane has a stately
range of mountains for his memorial. Fakit and Gangcli::xcc, and
Sic/can also are in danger. Kokstad marks a most remarkable
chapter in our history, when Adam Kok, at the head of his
Griquas, founded a quaint settlement in Nonmnsland. appointing
Judges, and having a written code of laws, and even banknotes.
By a great misfortune the Courthouse was burned, and this
unique code of laws was lost, the whole venture ending in disaster,
owing 10 the people selling their lands to white speculators. No-
manslaiid gets its name from the fact that though it formed a
part of Faku's Dominions, yet the extreme cold made it impos-
sible for his people to dwell there, except during the summer
months, when the cattle were driven thither for grazing. The
veteran Rev. ^^'m. Dower, whose name is so honourably and
nobly associated with the Griquas, amongst whom he laboured
for many years, tells me that when he first made his way thither
from the Colony proper, in 1869, he travelled all the way from
Gatberg to Lchana's (near Mount Fletcher) without seeing the
smoke rise from a single chimney. His wife added that the only
person they met was a native runner with a letter in a cleft stick.
Mr. Dower, faithful to principle, and with unfaihng altruism,
absolutely refused to take advantage of the great opportunities of
securing land for a mere song when ruin faced the people, though
many such came his way, and many other white men were laying
the foundations of their fortunes. Lehana's settlement had been
due to a quarrel with Moshesh, the i^aramount chief of Basuto-
land, and a branch tribe made its way across the Drakensberg

772. ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Mountains. This accounts for the number of se-Suto names in
tliat part of the Transkei. Lesser names, like Nondzaha and
Sigonyela, and others, might be inckided, and also for the sake of
completeness one should also mention that large class of names
which arose out of sundry wars, such as Emfabantu, Oelana
Xokonxa, ct hos genus oinne.

II. — Names according -to Shape or Special Characteristics.

The first name calling for attention in this connection is Ama-
linde, or Amalindi, a name given to the most remarkable surface
formation found near Kingwilliamstown and elsewhere, the
origin of which geologically remains unexplained. Over fairly
wide areas there are curious cup-shaped depressions in the ground,
a few feet deep and a few feet across, suggesting to the
native mind the idea of a person marked by small-pox. Com-
mittee's Drift, on the Great Fish River, is really a misnomer,
arising mistakenly from the Dutch way of describing this forma-
tion.

The Dutch pioneers were impressed with the numerous small
basin-like depressions, and called the jjlace Kontinetjes Drift,
which was erroneously anglicized to Committee's Drift.

Caba is derived from tlie flatness of the locality from ukiiti-
caba, and Tsolo is tlie name given to the conical mountain near
Somerville Mission, and thence transferred to the Magistracy and
District. In the case of Cive-cive, there might possibly have been
a doubt as to whether the place was named after a certain flat
shell, or whether the liat character of the locality determined the
name, but, fortunately, the prefix is preserved, and we know that
it is i-civecive and not u-cufeczife, and therefore the second expla-
nation is the correct one. Civectveni, expressing the locative, and
other forms are also to be found.

Dikidiki and the name Tikitiki are both derived from the
former word, niean'n-^ lukewarmness, and altered slightly in the
second name by dialectical variation.

Elujeciveni comes from uku-jeca, to cut through at a stroke
(as with an axe), and refers to a locality in the mountains sug-
gesting such a cut. In its nasalised form, Jenca, we get the same
idea. Such nasalising is a feature of tribes in the locality, as Mr.
( iodf rey points out, and " on the contrary, where true Kaffir has
n in front of another consonant, the n is often omitted here "
{i.e., in Tsolo District).

Mncetyana appears to be another nasalising, and in this case
i^ to be regarded as an alternative to Cetshana. a diminutive of
vm-Cepc, a half calabash, used for ladling.

Esiqungqzvini, a name of H.-B. origin, ai)pareiitly conceals
a new word, meaning a hump, nose, and arises from the curious
nose-like hill.

Hlatiknht deroies a large forest; Elitiiibeni, at the opening,
gap ; Madwaleni, at the place of the large exposed flat stones.

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 773

Mhokotivana. — The rounded stones used as grindstones by
the natives are called i-Mbokoto, and the place-name is the
diminutive form. As a matter of fact, a doleritic outcro]) in the
neighbourhood has produced numerous hard dolerite nodules, and
this has given the place its name.

Mdihanisiveni comes from um-dibamso n.6., meaning a colli-
sion, or battle, and indicates, no doubt, the place of some early
conHict.

Mhlakido, a place evidently shaped like a hoe, or spade.

Ngadla, a place taking its name from some natural feature
in the vicinty, resembling " a lancet."

Ngcele, a misspelling for Ngqele, meaning frost, and given
to an intensely cold place above the Matiwana Range, at the head
of the Ntywenka Pass. It reappears in the locative form as
Ngqeleni, appropriately known to us as Coldstream.

Nkungzvini is evidently a place subject to much fog, or mist,
from in-kungii, and is quite a Hkely name anywhere along the
first coastal ridge, where mist is so frequently experienced at
certain seasons.

Nkwoikzi/ecl is a refreshing reference to the heavenly bodies,
of which there are all too few in the place-names. The word
means " a star."

Oanda refers to the rock shapes in the vicinity, which repre-
sent amaqanda, or eggs. I am not sure that the reference is not
to some one single hump thus shaped.

Qiti, again, indicates an open space in the midst of a forest.

Qoqa refers to some natural feature representing, or thought
to represent, a particular kind of assegai.

7.^afileni brings us back again to the idea of a flat tableland.

Tyeni, better still Etycni, signifies " at the stones," and prob-
ably refers to some historical event, or to some special stone.

Lukalaiw, from ulukalo, alternative form of Inkalo, a gap,
or neck, in tlie mountain ridge.

Maqufywa " is a passive noun from the verb guba, with its
Zulu meaning of ' scoop out.' It is * the country scooped out by
dongas.' " This is an explanation sent on by Mr. Godfrey, and
obtained from a native source. The same explanation had pre-
viously been given me by the same man.

Xanka indicates a stony mountain, difficult to climb, perhaps
including a refuge in the inaccessible mountain.

XohO also carries with it the idea of a desolate rocky region.

Xwexzveni, related to civecivc, carries with it the same idea
of flatness as of a table, and is of course in the locative.

Many other names included in this class may be given, but
these examples are sufficient for the present ])urposes of illustra-
tion.

///. — Named after Trees or Planis.

Dakana, the name for the white pear tree, Apodytes dinir
diata, Mey., is necessarily a name of comparatively recent date.

774 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

Dwahe, from i-dwaba, is the name of the creeping plants
Fopowia caffra, much prized on account of its use in connection
with certain superstitions connected with hunting-, in which the
creeper is used as a charm.

Esikoheni, from isikoba, a cknnp of yellowwood trees, and in
the locative form here signifying " at the yellowwood trees," a
name met with in different places. Another form is Isikoba.

Eingzuali comes from umgwali, the native name for the
Hottentot gwarri bush, which was used in order to make a kind
of medicinal tea. It also indicates a bush whose fruit is eaten by
the natives. The name would be given to the stream flowing
through the locality where the gwarri grew, and the place Emgwall
would be some specific place at the umg-zvali, in this case a
mission station. In this connection, the Ciskeian name Gwarrie
Laagte should be borne in mind

Gonubie, wrongly spelt Gunubi by Pettman, is from
i-gqunube, the bramble-bush, Rubus pinnatus W'illd.

Kwababa tells of the presence of the African rook Hctero-
corax capensis Licht., in the vicinity.

Marubeni indicates where the edible roots, i-ritbc, may be
found.

Mncivangdc tells of the haunt of the Bald Ibis, the um-
cwangele, so that our place-name is another nasalisation.

Mimosa also appears, as does uwga, the Kaffir word for
the mimosa tree.

Nkanga reminds us of the presence of the Kaffir ragwort,
Senecio juniperinus L.

Qokolweni and Emqokohveni both tell of a certain kei-
apple tree Dovyalis caffra Hook, indicated by the locative.

Qitngu signifies the Tambookie grass, Andropogon margi-
natus Steud., a long grass in much demand for thatching.

Qwiliqwili is of interest, because it is mixed up with two
other place-names, vis., Xmili and XwiUxivili. Now i-Qwili is
the name for the kalmoes, or sweet rush, Alepidea amatynvbica
E. and Z., which is used medicinally in stomach complaints.
i-Xmili, on the other hand, is the name of the Cape hunting dog,
Lycaon pictus venaticns Burch. These names are therefore to
be regarded as a duplicate form, and probably because of their
obvious H.-B. origin, the older form is the duplicated one.

Tyolo tells us of a small clump of trees standing apart.

Tungwane names the Chrysophyllum natalcnsc Sond., which
would be growing in the neighbourhood.

Xonye and Xonyeni mark the places where the grass needed
for rope-making is wont to grow.

IV. — Ahiiiics offer A)!imals.
Bokwe, and the diniinntive Bokwana, and the locative Bok-
weni, all refer to the .i^oat.

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES, "JJ^

Bombo wemfene {lit., the baboon's snout), which should.'
perhaps, have been classified under the second class of names, i-
the name given to a hill.

Bongolo, the name for the wild ass, applied also to the mule.

Dambeni, if indeed it comes from i-damba, shows us that we
may find the fish of that name at that spot.

Esincuka and Ncuka are to be considered together witti
Zingcuka. Ngcuka is the Fingo form, and Ncuka, as is usual,
the Xosa, for the brown hyena {Hycsna brwmea Thunb.), an'l
the longer forms given signify the home of the wolves.

Impukunkona, " the mice are here."

Gungundhlovu, though indirectly, informs us of the presence
of elephants. It is the name of the Great Place of Makaula, in
Mount Frere, and may be regarded as of Zulu origin. Cf. tht
native name for Pietermaritzburg.

Indzve, the blue crane, Anthropoides paradisea Licht.

Ntibane is an mteresting name, and I am grateful to Mr.'
Godfrey for additional notes on the point, in-tibane is Xosa ;
in-tutyane is Tembu, and these are names for the red-capped
lark {Calandrella cinera Gm.) Now the problem about Ntibane
is this, that the place is so called, and the bird (known to the
Kaffirs by this name) is there, but the bird is known locally as
Ntntyane. Perhaps the name was introduced by a rearrangement
of tribes — which, as a matter of fact, did take place. This would
dismiss the alternative that Ntibane was so named from the plant
of that name.

Inyati, the Cape buffalo, Bos caffcr Sparr.

Mbidlana, the name of the small wild cat.

Inxu, and the also misspelt M.vu, both are attempts ac
i-Nqu, the white-tailed gnu, Connochaetes gnu H. Smith. This
is a name that ought to be correctly rendered in all futur^
records, maps, documents.

Nccdatia is diminutive from i-Ncedc, the tavvny-heade<i
grass-warbler, Cisticolla fulvicapilla Vicill., a name which is ono-
matopoeic.

Ncikazi. from i-Nci, the aard wolf, Protelcs cristatiis Sparr.

Ndsebe, a name described in detail elsewhere, and constitut-
ing quite a discovery, and certainly a new word.

Ngcaca is a relic of the days when the cowrie shell was used
extensively in barter, and for ornament, and is derived from
i-Ngcaca, a cowrie.

Ngonvaimt is a graceful remembrance of our old friend Ic ,
now, alas, extinct !

Ngzvane, curiously enough, tells us of the octopus — a sur-
prising name.

Ndlnnkuln (lit., large house) is the name for the Cape spar-
row, Passer mellanitrus'Sx. Mull, a name it gets from the size of
its nest.

Nkau and Nkankazi are the male and female respectively of
the vervet monkey, Cercopithecus pygerythus Cuv., the former

776 ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

name occurring in Matatiele District, and the latter down in
>sgqeleni.

Ntenetyana comes apparently from i-Ntenetya, the rock hare,
Lepus scLvaMlis Cuv. Godfrey adds : " The name is probably
applied also to the red hare. Pronolagiis crassicaudatns Geoff."
In this case the name appears in diminutive form, and so may
indicate another smaller species not yet identified.

Ntshilini, from i-Ntshili, the red-faced mouse-bird. Colitis
iitdicus Lath.

l^sliisauc is the Pondomisi name for the black-shouldered
kite.

Si(/cau. from isi-Gcau, a spider, is the name of the late
Pondo chief, and the place-name, no doubt, comes from the chief
rather than from the spider.

Umcimvitbu, the home of the hippopotamus, Hippopotamus
amphibius L., still perpetuates the memory of the extinct race.

Xalflnga, the name of a district, comes from i-Xalanga, the
generic name for vultures.

Zibodla, the African wild cat. Felis ocrcahr cajfra Desm.
Mbidlana gives the diminutive, and probably indicates a smaller
species not yet identified.

V. — Names connected ivitli Superstitions and Customs.

Among these we select the following names, bv way of
example : —

Nkondlo is the concluding dance of the N ton jane. The
Ntonjane is the female initiatory rite corresponding to the cir-
cumcision rites of the boys, and takes us into the heart of the
evils of heathenism. Much remains to be done before the
Ntonjane, with all its vile accompaniments, is efi^ectively sup-
jj'cssed.

Mbiilu, a j)urely mythical beast, having the power of assum-
ing human shape, and yet unable to keep his tail hidden.

Mc/zcakwa is obscure, but I think not unconnected with the
superstition associated with the much-feared snake. Inkwakwa is
a long cobra, very venomous, and no doubt the superstition has
arisen from that fact.

Fnndhcayo reminds us of a shamefu,! custom., common
enough in the early days, when a chief in passing through any
given district allotted girls to members of his company during
the period of their stay. Gaika is said to have established the
custom about 1810. The name indicates the place where some
such seizure took place.

Oamata is a name worthy of a lengthy note, on accoiuit of
its usage as an invocation in connection with sacrifice. It is a
word whose depth has not yet, I think, been fully sounded, and
for the present I prefer to merely note. i-Oamata is a name (of
H.-B. origin) for God, and is used in the aboriginal prayers, of
which so little is definitely known.

auokk;i.\al cr.Ai)-: names. 'J'J'J

Qebeyi, a certain brick-red snake, is another object of super-
stitious fear, probably because the witch-doctors are supposed to
use it. In certain districts the natives of the tribe seem to
"worship" it. and no member of the tribe or ckm woukl dare
injure it. Contrariwise, the idea is that this particuhu" snake
protects the members of the tribe. (Jcbcyi is also used to indicate
a certain grass, which gives the characteristic brick-red colour to
various Transkeian localities, when the frost has dried up th^'
veld in the winter.

Qwaninge is a root used whcTi death occurs in a kraal. 'I"he
root is eaten to ward off death.

VI. — Named after Paris of the Body.

This section appears to be small, but we are not to be
deceived by appearances. As a matter of fact, the natives are by
no means particular in their general .conversation ; indeed, the
utmost freedom obtains even concerning the most personal rela-
tionships in mixed company, and in consequence they have no
hesitation in naming places according to the caprice of evil sug-
gestion. Many of these are suppressed, fortunately, since in the
].resence of the white man they are not mentioned, ihough there
can be little doubt that many such names do occur. We give a
few examples : —

Amabele, Bele, Bedlana, and Belentombi, together with
Ncamhele and Ncambedlana, form one group and ring the changes
upon i-bcle, the female breast. Amabele, in the plural form,
indicates two hills suggesting that shape ; Bele, the second, is
applied to a high mountain in Tsolo District, which is a landmark
in the neighbourhood. Bedlana is diminutive, and tells of a small
h.ill; whiie Belentombi makes it ])lain that the female breast is
intended, for its Hteral meaning is " the girl's breasts."

Neaiubcle is somewhat obscure, but apparently conies from
tlie words i-neam, the end or ];oint of a thing, and i-bele; and
ncambedlana has the same derivation, but is in the diniitiutive
form.

Nkzvenkzvana suggests the likeness of a small boy.

Oumbu is the name given to the large intestine of cattle.

IX. — Names from Non-native Sources.

In this concluding section we find many names worthy of
attention on account of their associations. Nevertheless «we
cannot but protest against the hopeless hybrids, some of which
are a blot on the landscape and a reproach to the map.

One such is Willearw an attempt to be deprecated, which is
Tormed bv the fusion of" the two names of a distinguished mis-
sronary. Another is PahnhwiUc, more undesirable than tuifortu-
natc. and many others of the same type.

Names like Somerznlle, Rainy, and Buchanan, and others
perpetuating the name of great divines, are far better in the

yy^ ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES.

dignity of their simplicity. Shazvbury is also a worthy memorial.
Many of the saints' names are met with, such as St. Cuthbert's,
St. Bartholomew's, and others, and of conrse there are many other
European names of both Dutch and British origin, whicn we ao
i^ot propose to enlarge upon here, as they fall under Section VII.

Certain names, however, have come to us by corruption, such
as Engesenges. It appears that this name embodies something
of a tragedy. By special arrangement, a detachment of troops
had been sent up to aid Matiwane, then hard pushed by his
enemies, and the soldiers, coming upon Matiwane's men, mistook
them for the enemy, and launching an attack, dispersed them
with heavy losses. Portions of old cannon still remain on the
mountain-side, and the natives call the place Engesenges, an
attempt at the cry of the people in terror and dismay, " English !
EngHsh !" It is a little incident not recorded in our history
books, and had much to do with the undoing of Matiwane, who
shortly after crossed the Qathlamba Mountains into Basutoland,
and eventually returned to Natal, where he died. Mbazvelanga,
high up on the mountain-side, catching the first rays of the rising-
sun, and meaning literally " the way of the sun," is the place
where he was reputed, and quite mistakenly, to have been killed.

Lutshintsho, another corruption, is the place where the post-
cart horses were usually changed, the name being the Kaffir
attempt to say our English word " change."

Uvete, again, is an efi^ort after the Dutch word zvitle, applied
to the snow-capped mountains as an indication of their whiteness.

Two other names cannot be left out of this surve)', on
account of their historic interest, these being Kaffraria and No-
mansland. In the earliest days Caffraria was the name given to
the area in which, by special treaty, Caffres were to dwell. Later,
it came to be extended from British Caffraria (as opposed to
Cafifre Cafl'raria ) to the whole Cafifraria, and then the spelling,
probably to prevent confusion with the c click, hardened into k,
and one f was eliminated, in sympathy with the Arab Kafir. The
name is now frequently spelt Kafraria, though we have adhered
throughout to the longer form distinctive of South Africa.

Nonumsland, a name which has of late come, in the great
war, to have such tragic content, was once applied to tlie northern
portion of Faku's Pondo Dominions. The intense cold of the
inland plateau made it uninhabitable, and for long the region
was a desolation, until Adam Kok's Griquas were settled there in
1863, or thereabouts, and so Nomansland came to be called E.ast
Griquaiand.

Tsakana, a tributary of the Indwe, derives its name from
one of the early pioneers who lived thereabouts a century ago.

Seplan, another tributary of the Indwe, derived its name,
from Sybrandt, another member of the same party.

Ilubisi and i-Bisi come from a third member of the same
party, one named Lewis. All three of these pioneers were dis-

ABORIGINAL PLACE NAMES. 779

turbed by tbc Mfecane invasion, in which Mativvane was con-
cerned, to whom reference has already been made.

Other examples of this class of name are Te.v Tyhert, Bdasi,
and Lochenberg.

D. — Conclusions-

For tiie present, then, the data, together with these results,
must stand as a preliminar)'^ contribution towards our store of
knowledge in this sphere of enquiry. The" work represents at
least an entrance into a lield that is wholly untouched, and shows
almost at a glance how much remains to be done, and the value
attaching to serious effort in this direction.

May many others follow in order to the completion and
perfection of the work which, by example and suggestion, has
been illustrated and indicated, for perhaps it should be empha-
sised that, in spite of the length of this paper, it has not been
possible to do more than indicate some of the main avenues by
which this rich treasure-house may be ap])roached.

Helium for Dirigibles. — It is stated in the Revue
Gencraic des Sciences* that the preparation of helium on a
large scale for inflating dirigible balloons has been one of the
most remarkable technical performances of the war. Helium
is ahuost as light as hydrogen, over which it has the advantage
of being neither inflammable nor explosive, and. its losses by
diffusion are less. Helium gas abounds in the sun, but on earth
only very small quantities had been collected at great expense.
It was found, however, that some Canadian natural gases con-
tain about .^;^ per cent, of helium, and a research laboratory
was accordingly established at Toronto, the British Admiralty
having undertaken to develop the matter. Subsequently tlie
United States Bureau of Mines began exploiting sources of
helium. The result was that at the close of the war 4,100 cubic
metres of heHum were compressed and ready for transport, and
plants were under construction for the manufacture of 1,400
cubic metres daily at not more than 18 francs per cubic metre.

The war has probably afforded no more striking instance
than the above of the practical bearing of pure scientific research.
When Lockyer, forty years ago, found an unknown gas in the
sun, no prospect seemed more remote than that within half a
century that gas would be used for inflating man's airships.
Even when Ramsay, in 1903, discovered that the same gas
existed on earth in the mjneral cleveite, such a prospect was
outside the limit of sober imagination. To-day the practical
man, who enquired into the use of Lockyer's discovery, has as
complete an answer as he could desire.

* 30 [7] 195 (1919)-

A RAPID APPROXIMATE METHOD OF CALCULATINC;
THE OCCULTATION OF STARS BY THE MOON (FOR
THE CENTRAL TRANSVAAL).

By James Moir, M.A., D.Sc.

{With one text figure.)

(Read July lo, igi8.)

OccuLTATiONS are, I imagine, amongst the amateur astroncmer's
most favourite observations. The easily visible movement of
the moon towards the " doomed " star and its wink-like dis-
appearance are phenomena not only unique in the heavens, but
accessible to the weakest of instruments, even to lield-glasses.
and — in the case of very bright stars — to the naked eye. Seme
of you will recollect the remarkable daylight occultaticn of Verus
here two years ago, v hen it was easy to see where cur enemy
the Turk got his national S3 mbol — although the progress of Turkish
heraldic science has since led to the st^r being depicted in the
ridiculous position of being inside the horns of the mocn, just
as our British heraldic experts have converted the rhinoceros
into the unicorn.

Now the only fault of occulta tions is that they are very

difficult to predict. The Nautical Almanac gives a list of those

visible at Greenwich, but this is quite useless for the Southern

Hemisphere : in fact, I remember long ago that certain of those

predicted for Greenwich did not ccme off in Aberdeen, which

is only 500 miles away. Here in Johannesburg, the apparent

path of the moon among the stars is displaced (as ccmpared with

Greenwich) to the north by an amount which is more than two

diameters of the moon, so that the Greenwich cccultation stars

all lie a long way above the moon's path. The Almanac, however,

also gives a hst of occulta ble stars for the w hole earth, in connection

with which limits of latitude are laid down in each case, whereby

an observer can at least see whether his latitude lies cutside these

limits, in which case the occultation will noL be visible in his locality.

It does not follow, however, that, even if his latitude lies within

the limits, the occultation will be visible : such an occultation

may be visible only on the other side of the Southern Hemisphere

when the moon is not above our horizon, or the moon, even if

visible, may be so displaced by parallax, being ccmparatively

near the earth, that it misses the star if it is near its rising or setting.

The official and accurate method of calculating occultaticns

is a ven/ lengthy and cumbrous affair, quite unsuited for the use

of amateurs. If the amateur has no local tables giving the value

of the constants in the formulae for his locahty, the calculation

takes the best part of an hour, and is also liable to error due to

the trickiness of working with Icgaritfms of minus quantities.

Now all that the amateur wants is (i) to know w hether such-and-such

an occultation will take place and be conveniently visible from

CALCULATJNC. THE OCCULTATION OF STARS BY THE MOON. 781

his locality, and (2) when (within five minutes) to expect the
disappearance and re-appear?nce of the star.

If one could be certain that any particular occultation wiii
come off, there is fortunately an easy way of roughlj? predicting
the times of immersion and emersion, viz., the use of DGv\nes'
Tables. These give the displacement of conjunction* due to
parallax when the moon's rate of motion east {x' in the Almanac)
and its local hour-angle H (H in the Almanac plus the longitude
of the locality) are given. The displacement of conjunction is
generally called by the Greek letter t, and may be roughly calculated
from the formula :

(minutes)

54

sir.

(f)

where h is in minutes and the bracketted quantity is to be treated
as degrees. This is an operation which can be done in ten seconds
on the slide-rule.

For the benefit of those who wish a more exact value I append
the following table :

Table for t for the Southern Transvaal.

Use x' from Almanac and (H + longitude) = h in foregoing
formula.

Value of H+L

Value of ,1

' (two places of decimals only)

. (in minutes)

horizontally :

downwards :

0-50

0-53

0-56

0-59

0

0

0

0

0

20

18

15

14

12

40

34

31

28

26

60

50

45

41

38

80

63

57

52

49

100

74

68

62

59

120

84

77

71

67

140

92

84

78

74

160

98

90

84

79

180

102

95

89

84

200

104

98

92

87

220

106

100

94

89

240

108

102

96

91

260

108

102

96

92

280

107

lOI

95

92

300

106

100

95

91

360

102

95

89

85

420

91

83

78

74

*Conj unction is when the star, the moon's centre and the celestial
pole are in Une. The Greenwich conjunction is given in the Almanac.

782 ( AL( ULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS V.Y THE MOON.

It may he noted that when the hour-angle (+ longitude) is
small, the value of 7 can be obtained b}' simple proportion from

the formula: t (minutes) = -40 , '"""' "-^ qy even (for rough

purposes) assuming r to be | h.

The first rough criterion for an occultation in the Transvaal
may now be stated ; viz. : If the average of the limiting parallels
lies between —16 and —38, an occultation is almost certain.
The Greenwich hour-angle H is next to be examined and com-
pared with the mean time of conjunction, adding 2 hours to the
latter to get South x\frican time : this is for the purpose of ascer-
taining whether the occultation occurs at night or with the sun
still up. Remembering that h is H+longitude (=H-l-ii2 in
Johannesburg), we can roughly ascertain the local hour-angle
at conjunction by multiplying H from the Almanac by 7/4 and
adding to the result 3^ hours. This shows that the only really
favourable values of H range between — 5^ hours and +2^ hours,
for if H is just outside these limits the moon will be too near the
horizon to observe, and if H is much outside these limits the moon
will not be in our sky when the occultation occurs, i.e., the occulta-
tion, is visible in Australia or South America. Again, the local
time of conjunction is approximately (Greenwich mean-time of
conjunction + 2 hours + - ) from which it can easily be seen
whether the sky will be dark enough to enable the occultation
to be seen. Thus if the Greenwich conjunction is at 3 hours,
..nd H_is -f- ih hours, t is about +gS minutes (H-I-112 being large,
the |h formula is not applicable here), we find the approximate
local conjunction to be at 6.35 p.m., and the moon will be
oo-f 112 4-95 minutes, or about 5 hours past the meridian. In
^uch a case the disappearance of the star, which in a central
occultation occurs about 40 minutes before conjunction, may
not be visible owing to twilight, and there is the possibility that
the moon will set before the re-api)earance occurs. This is common-
ly the case with occultations at new moon, which constitute the
most beautiful form of the phenomenon owing to the visibiUty
of the " dark " portion of the moon as it approaches the star.
If, on the other hand, the hour-angle H had been — 1| hours in
the case just discussed, t would have been -f-15 minutes only,
and the local conjunction time would have been 5.15 p.m., so
That only the re-appearance (about 40 minutes later) could be
observed even in winter and nothing in summer, unless the star
were an uncommonh' bright one.

Before passing on to a discussion of the more accurate criteria
lor deciding whether an occultation will come oft or not, I will
describe my first rough method of finding the time of immersion
(disappearance) and emersion (re-appearance) in the case of an
occultation which is known a priori to be a fairly central one :
I use the Johannesburg longitude for brevity.

Immersion.- — Express H in minutes and add 75, paying
attention to the sign of H. Take the result and x' to the table
for T, and take out t, giving it the same sign as (H + 75). Calling

CALCULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS BY THE MOON.

^Q

«3

this T, the time of immersion is (Greenwich conjunction + t, + li
hours).

Emersion. — Proceed as above, only add 150 to H (instead
of 75) and take out a new value of - say t^. The time of emersion
is (Greenwich conjunction + to + 2| hours).

For example, take the occultation of // Piscium on 15th
February, 1918. From the Almanac H = - 1, a;' = -57, Greenwich
conjunction 3 hours 47 minutes, tj for + 74 is + 48 and t., for
+ 149 is + 80. Calculated immersion, 6.5 p.m. ; calculated
emersion, 7.37 p.m. The observed times were about 6.16 and
7.33. The advantage of this rough method is that it generally
leaves a five or ten minutes margin in which the observer can
pick up the star before occultation. It may be noted that at
first glance this was not a promising occultation, as its " average
of limits " was —41 (see page 782)» and I will now proceed to describe
the proper criteria for an occultation.

It is first of all obvious that an occultation will not take
place unless the star's apparent angular distance from the moon's
centre becomes less than the latter's radius, and it remains to
find out what the moon's radius is in terms of the other quantities
given in the Almanac. Now all these quantities in the Almanac
(stated as units and decimals) are founded on the earth's radius
as unity. This convention avoids the effects of the varying
distance of the moon from the earth. On this scale the moon's
radius is ^^\ or -273. Now the nearest approach of star and
moon is naturally near conjunction but is not coincident with
conjunction unless the quantity y' is zero (moon in (iemini or
Scorpio, with its decHnation invariable). Usually the moon is
elsewhere and its declination is changing, consequently the star
does not cross the moon straight east and west, but obHquely.
The angle of slope is given approximately by y'/x' = tan 0 (y' and
x' from Almanac).

West^

b-asi

In the diagram BMCA is a line representing the apparent
motion of a star which disappears at B and re-appears at A. We
see from the diagram that another star, a Uttle further south,
which just misses the moon at S (its nearest point of approach)

o

784 CALCULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS UY TIIK MOON.

will be slightly further off when it gets to K which is the position

\/ v'^~4- x'-

of conjunction. Now OK /OS = s c ^ or v. - so if a star

x'

is to graze the moon at S its distance will be W unit, and at

conjunction, since the angle is never very great, it can be assumed

to be tW unit away. This is the condition for an occulta tion :

the distance at conjunction of star and moon's centre in list not exceed

o -30 unit.

,It remains to calculate this distance (OC in the diagrcm)

from the data given in the Almanac. The official complicated

formula is: A=Y + y'T — p sin \ cosD + p cos \ sin D cos (HA)

(wherein p is local radius and X local latitude, and D the star's

dechnation and (HA) the corrected local hour-angle).*^ I propose

to simplify this for amateurs' use. The expression cosD varies

between i and o -88, and I shall assume it to be constant at about

o -95. The third term in the above expression then simply becomes

+ -42. The last term may be similarly simplified into the form

r X D where D is in degrees + or — (from Almanac) and c is

taken from the following small t^ble in which [HA] means

(H-I-112+T).

Table for r (always +).

[HA] c

A = Y 4- -42 + A'' T '" + c D ' and
A must be|less than''± 30
for an occultation.

0 to li hours .

• -^15

At 2 hours .

. -013

At 3 hours .

•on

At 4 hours

• -0075

At 5 hours .

•004

At 5| hours .

•002

At 6 hours

0

As an example, consider the occultation of ?/ Piscium of
15th February, igi8. From the Almanac Y= - -84, v' = + •20.,
D= 4-15, H= — I .-. H = +111 and this with x' gives -r= +65m.
= 1-1 hours : hence y'T=4--22, and a=— •20 4-cD. To get
c find [H A] = IT + -r = nearlv 3 hours, hence c= -on and c D = + -16
.-. finalh' a = — o -04. This being nearly zero, a good occultation,
nearly central, is to be expected. Another example showing
the possibility of slight fallacies in the method is 115 B Sagittarii
of 24th June, iqi8, where a = — -37+ -42 — -lo — -24= — -29,,
and as a matter of fact the star just missed the moon : this was
probably because y' (and therefore the angle of slope 6') was small,
in which case a should not exceed ± o -28 or a quantity very
close to the moon's radius.

It should be noted that if a is negative, the star passes t»
the south of the moon's centre {i.e., above in these latitudes).
This may also be ascertained from the " limits of latitude " given
in the Almanac : if the average of these limits is a greater minus
quantity than say —40 the star will pass below the moon's centre :
similarly, if the hmit-average is above —10, the star passes above
the moon's centre.

r in hours, not minutes.

CALCULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS I'.Y THE MOON. yH^

We hnve now (i) an accurate method of telling whether an
occultation coni'-s off or not, together with its approxirmte central
tim3 (Greenwich conjunction + 2 hours + t). and (2) a rough
method of predicting the beginning and end of the phenomenon.
It remains to investigate more accurately the latter point, so
as to get a result which is reliable to a minute or two. There
are two cases, one easy, the other rather troublesome, the former
being that of i?k]y central occultation.

Time 0/ ]airiy-cevtral occitUaiion. — If the diagram be

exammed, it \\ill be seen that if the path be fairly central

the points C and M ccme quite close together and the distance

ACMB becomes greater and is approximately the moon's diameter.

If OC, which in the dirgrrm represents the quantity a in the

calculation, is less th?n | of the radius, the difference between

AB and the diameter becomes insignificant. Hence, if a is less

than ± o -10, no appreciable error is made in assuming that the

occultation is exactly central, in which case the simple formula

33 cos 6 . , . .

T= — T~ gives the time m mmutes required for the star to

cross behind the moon. Cos 0, by the way, is generally omissible :
it is equal to i when y' is smrll, and equals 0-98 w'hen y' is o -i
and goes down to -92 when y' is at its maximum, whether +or- .
It ma3^ be obtained sufficiently nearly by mental arithmetic from
the expression cos (9 = i - 1-5 [v'y. The term c is taken from
the table on page 784, and x' from the Almanac. We have there-
fore finally —

Time of immersion in " central " occultation = G T 6 +
^ hours + - - i T.

Time of emersion in " central " occultation = G T 6 -
2 hours + T + ^T.

For example, consider the case of ?; Piscium already mentioned,
in which a was found to be less than -o- 10. Taking cos B =
1-1-5 ( '^4) =^ 94> ^nd c to be -011 for 3 hours, we have T =

^-^ = 80 minutes for the star to cross. Central occultation,

•57--I8

which is practically the same as conjunction since the point M

which is the centre of occultation is very close to C, was at 3 hours

47 minutes (Greenwich time of conjunction) + 2 hours + i hour

5 minutes or 6.52 p.m., hence predicted immersion was at 6 hours

52 minutes —40 minutes or 6.12 p.m., and predicted emersion

at 6 hours 52 minutes 4- 40 minutes or 7.32 p.m. [Observed,

6.16 and 7.33.]

Non-central occultation. — When a is found to lie between
o 10 and 0-30 either plus or minus, the occultation is not central
and the calculation is more complicated. It amounts to finding
the lengths of CM and AB in terms of OC which is a, and is
therefore merely an exercise in the geometry of the circle.

A. To consider CM first, the difference of time between
mid-occultation and conjunction : CM is OC sin 6, which irt terms

786 CALCULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS BY THE MOON.

of time becomes i= -. — ^ — . As this is troublesome to

X - IDC

work out, and as CM is always small, I ha\'e found an approximation
sufficient : this is, t (displacement of ' central occultation) =

~ — (2 H* — 100 y') and the jn'oper signs + or - of a and y'

must be observed. For example, in the </ Piscium case a was

-0-04 and y = + -2, hence t^ H = + 2 mmutes.

•57- -2

The time of mid-occultation is (G T <5 +2 hours +- + /), and
in the above case was therefore 6.54 p.m. when all corrections
are applied, giving 6.14 and 7.34 as the corrected times of immersion
" and emersion .

B. To find the true value of AB or T in the formula on

page 785, we have the complete formula T - ^^ \/"i - k- cos'-' 6,

k being a h- rV- Alternatively, this may be stated as

T =^-, ;r- sin fcos"^ — A cos OV, and in this form can be worked

.V - i6c

out on the slide-rule in a minute, using the sin scale on the back,

marked S., mentally subtracting the angle obtained by using

'tt a cos H from 90° and taking the sin of the latter angle : Thus

if A is - 0-04, V A cos H is -14, op}wsite to which is 8°.

T is .-. ^^ ;r-5i;i82° = 7Q minutes. By the square-root formula

.r -i6c '^ '

33 cos ft" , , ^., ... . ^, .^

= ^ -p- V I -(-14)- which gives the same result.

X - IOC

It ma}- be useful if I give a table showing the values of this
correcting- factor for T, viz. s/ 1 - ( V a cos B)- or sin \cos ' V a cos ^]°.
For this purpose cos H will be assumed constant = -95, and
the table serves b}' comparison to ehminate arithmetical errors
when cos H is taken into account.

Table for Correcting-Factor to Dur.a.tion of Occultation.

When A is ± o 10 or less, factor lies between i and o ■ 94

,, A is ± 0-136 (half moon's radius), factor is 0-88

,, A is ± o-i6 . .

,, A is ± 0-20 . .

„ A is ± 0-23 . .

„ A is ± 0-25 . .

,, A is ± o -26 . .

,, A is ± 0-27 . .

,, A is ± 0-28 . .

,, A is ± 0-29 . .

Applying the approximate value for cos ^, and calling this

factor F we have finally T = '^■-' \ 2^ ) giving the duration

x' - i6c
of the occultation in minutes.

*H=hour angle to the nearest hour.

0-83

0-72

0-60

0-49

0 -42

0-34

0-22

Zero

CALCULATING THE OCCULTATION OF STARS BY THE MOON. 'j'^J

A note may be added on the " limits of latitude " given in
the Almanac, and the possibiht}^ of using them as a rough-and-ready
guide to the quantity a on which almost everything in an occulta-
tion depends. Now I am not acquainted with the exact formula
by which these limits are calculated, but I find that their average
corresponds closely with the approximate formula : L = 60 Y + \ D,
in which L is the algebraic average or " central latitude." and
D the declination. Probably the factor 60 is the moon's distance
with the earth's radius as unity. The upper and lower limits
are obtained from L by adding or subtracting a range which
depends on the moon's distance from the equator, being the same
whether this distance is + or - . This range is given approxi-
mately by R2 = 432- 1-450%

Now in the formula for a (page 784) it will be seen that nothing
can be done with the term y' t, so I have attempted to express
(a — y' t) in terms of the latitudes [i.e., in terms of L) and the
declination only, but find that this does not give reasonably correct
results unless the hour-angle is of medium size. An approximate
formula which is generally right within 0-05 on a is a = y'

-f •4+;^ + — (H+4). in which H is the Greenwich hour-angle
60 300 ^

rounded off to the nearest half-hour. Much the same results are

given by a = y' v-l-ynu (4«+/ + D (H -f 4) ), in which u and / are

the upper and lower limits from the Almanac with / always negative,

and li positive unless south. These formula- will probably be

of some use for quick selection of probable occultations.

I wish to express my best thanks to Mr. H. E. Wood, M.Sc,

for providing me with numerical and calculative data about

observed occultations, without which this paper could not have

been written.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

South African Society of Civil Engineers. — Wednesday, November
13th: A. D. Tudhope, M.I.C.E., Vice-President, in the chair.— Presidential
address: M. R. Robinson. The address dealt with some of the prob-
lems of railwaj' construction in South Africa, and, in particular, with the
subjects of standard of construction, branch lines, the departmental system
of construction, and main line improvements.

Wednesday, March 12th : W. Crai.ar, M.I.C.E., President, in the cliair-—
Presidential address : Vv^ Craig. A discussion of some of the problems
to be dealt with in the future in South Africa by the engineer. Attention
was specially directed to railways, harbours, irrigation, roads, bridges,
water supply, and sewerage, land reclamation, and street construction
and maintenance.

Wednesday, April gth : W. Craig, M.I.C.E., President, in the cliair.—
"Some road and bridge work in the East African Campaign" : Capt. H. M.
Ladell. An account of the operations of the ist Road Corps in East
Africa. The corps comprised nine officers, 61 European non-commissioned
officers and men, and 1.240 natives. The subject of labour and rationing
was briefly dealt with, details of organisation and equipment were given,
and a detailed description communicated, together with plans and sketches
of between 500 and 600 miles of road constructed and maintained.

Wednesday, May 14th : W. Craig, M.I.C.E., President, in the cliair. —
" Kalk Bav Harbour ll'orks": C. le S. Furlong. Details of the con-

/SS TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES.

struction, commenced in 1913, of a lishery harbour at Kalk Bay, five miles
north of the naval base for the Cape of Good Hope Squadron at Simon's
Bay. The scheme carried out, at a cost originally estimated at £55,766,
comprised a breakwater, 783 feet long, a fish-landing quay, 260 feet long,
reclaiming an area of three-fourths of an acre, and a slipway for small
craft. The harbour works, bej'ond their original object, may serve (i)
as a base for trawlers, which would thus save 50 miles of steaming per
trip ; (2) as a means of loading coal for the squadron and naval dock-
yard in Simon's Bay; (3) as a base for pleasure steamers of moderate
size.

Wednesday, nth June: W. Craig, M.I.C.E., President, in the chair. —
"Railway location": G. Whitehouse. A descriptive account of recon-
naissances, inspection, survey, and location of proposed new lines of rail-
way in tne 1 ransvaai and Orange Free State. — "Earthworks on Pricska-
Kalkfontein railway construction " : H. J. Walker A description of
the works and of the construction difficulties met with.

South African Institution of Engineeirs. — Wednesday, December
i8th : C. D. Leslie, President, in the chair. — *" Hammer drills : their
history, design, and operation. Fart II " : H. S. Potter A fully detailed
description of the materials, construction, and special features of hammer
drills. — "Economies in mining engineering supplies": W. Elsdon-Dew.
A summary of 48 heads of economies effected in mining engineering prac-
tice, by reason of the war, in regard to local manufacture of mining
supplies, quality of material required for manufactured articles, and
supplies to be imported.

Wednesday, January 15th; W. Elsdon-Dew, M.I.E.E., Vice-President,
in the chair. — ''Seven-compartment rectangular shafts'' : A discussion of
the merits of the seven-compartment rectangular type of shaft, as applied
to the conditions prevalent in the Far-East Rand, especially east of the
Brakpan-Government Areas section. — " Circular shafts" : H. S. Martin
A similar discussion of the advantages of circular shafts as compared with
other types. — "Notes on rectangular shafts at Randfontein Central Gold
Mining Co.. Ltd., and New State Areas. Ltd.": W. L. White. A
description of two vertical shafts recently started which are of a shape
that is entirely new in South African mining operations.

Wednesday, March 12th: J. W. Kirkland, M.Am.I.E.E,, Vice-Presi-
dent, in the chair. — ''A form of Mollicr steam diagram" : G. M. Clark.
Description of a steam-slide rule for calculating the mechanical work
that can be obtained from the steam, assuming an engine of 100 per cent,
efficiency, and the minimum energy required to be supplied by the coal,
assuming a boiler of 100 per cent, efficiency.

'Wednesday, April i6th : C. D. Leslie, President, in the chair. — " The
increase in the average length of a round in modern developnicnt " : J. P.
Bilbrough. High working costs, and consequent raising of the pay
limit of ore resources, together with blasting regulations limiting the
number of rounds obtainable, render efficient development a matter of
urgency in many mines. The author, tlierefore, described the modified
practice in the Village Deep Mine, whereby the average length of round
broken in blastin'-> has been increased from 3 feet 6 inches to over 6 ieet

Wednesday, May 14th ; C. D. Leslie, President, in the chair. — " Azotes
on the preparation of irrigation projects, with special reference to the run-
off from semi-arid catchment.\- " : V. E. Kanthack. Irrigation develop-
ment is essential for South Africa if the country is to make any progress,
but any irripat-'on orojVct must be bnsed on sound engineering, sound
agriculture, and sound finance. Available watei supply being, as regards
total volume and distribution, both regional c.nd seasonal, wholly insuffi-
cient, conservation is essential, and must De practised to the fullest
extent possible. The most important problem which engineers have had
to decide, when formulating and designing a work, is a correct estimation
of the '■ run-off." The author oroceeded to point out how engineers may
be misled by studying the rainfall of a catchment, and how essential it is
that the mode of erratic precipitation should be taken into account.
Attention to the record of individual rainfalls is, moreover, essential, and
one must avoid generalising from animal averages. — " Tlic chemical treat-

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIKTTES. 789

iHCiii of rorrosivc cooling water": W. O. Andrews Two cases of the
corrosion of metals by faintly acid cooling- water were discussed : one of
these was successfully treated by means of quicklime, and the other by
air-separated lime. Where the composition can be controlled it is desir-
able to make the water truly neutral. Neutral point indicators, such as
methyl red, rosolic acid, and litmus are necessary, but methyl orange and
phenolphthalein are unsuitable.

South African Institute of Electrical Engineers. — Thursday,
December 19th: Prof. J. H. Dobson, D.S.O., M.Sc. M.Eng., M.I.xMech.B:.,
]\1.I.E.E., A Al.LC.E., President, in the chair. — "Illumination and some
of its fundamental considerations " : H. A. Tinson A discussion of
illumination problems, and some of the considerations governing their
solution.

Thursday, March 2)oth : R. F. Botting, A.M.I.E.E., Vice-President, in
the chair. — "Notes on the application of synchronous condensers to large
power systems " : G. V. AdendorfF. The author discussed the practical
advantages which result from the use 01 rotary condensers on any large
system of power transmission.

Thursday, May 15th : A. E. du Pasquier, M.I.E.E., President, in the
chair. — "Notes on the electrical equipment at t.iC circular shaft. New
Modderfontein Gold Mining Co., Ltd.": R. H. Copeland. A description of
one of the largest electrical equipments on the Witwatersrand, recently
installed, the power being supplied by the Rand Mines Power Supply Co.,
Ltd.

Thursday, June loth : A. E. du Pasquier, M.I.E.E., President, in the
chair. — Presidential Address: A. E. Du Pasquier. The address dealt
with the essential importance of British oversea trade ; the difficulties of
expanding it, or even of retaining it under present labour conditions ; the
importance of coal as the principal factor in commercial supremacy, and
the necessity for conserving existing reserves.

Chemical, Metallukgical, and Mining Society of South Africa. —
Saturday, February 15th : H. S. Meyer, A.R.S.M., President, in the chair.
— "Ancient tin mines of the Transvaal" : M. Baumann. The workings
described are situated in the Rooiberg-Leeuwpoort area, in the Waterberg
District, about 40 miles west of the Pretoria-Pietersburg Railwaiy.
.iiardly a lode of any importance in the vicinity has been worked in
iriodern times on which the ancients have not been down in one or more
places. Where, in the course of their prospecting, the ancients came upon
rich ore, they followed it down until beaten by water, or the rock
became too hard. Where ore occurred in pockets, flats, or pipes, it was
followed and taken out with astonishing cleanness. The ore was broken
away with hammers and gads, specimens of the former found ))eing of
mild steel of exceptional purity. The principal smelting centre appears
to have been an outlier of the Elandsberg Range, known as Smelters Kop,
but remains of slag and broken nozzles have been found in several other
localities. A careful estimate shows that 18,000 tons of ore were taken
from the Rooiberg area alone, and about 6o,coo,coo lbs. of bronze must
have been produced. The author concludes that the mining, though some
of it is recent, must have extended over a very much longer period than
1. 000 years. — " Tlic application of the theory of probability in the deter-
mination of ore reserves": G. A. Watermeyer. It has been the custom
to determine ore reserves by the individual valuation of each block of ore,
based on samples taken at uniform intervals, or otherwise on the peri-
meter of the block where accessible. The assay results are reduced to
graphs and averages taken according to definite system. The author
proceeded to discuss simple applications of the theory of probability, and
then, taking a given value occurring over a width as abscissa, and the
frequency of occurrence as ordinate, curves can be deduced by the com-
pound Gaussian Law based upon sample sections taken during some agreed
period.

Saturday, Marcli isth: H. S. Meyer. .K.R.S.M.. President, in the chair-
—"■Chemical Ewiiucrring" : Prof. I. A. Wilkinson The author
emphasised the fact that the experiences., .«)f tlic last tour years have

790 TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIF.S.

brought into great prominence the part played by the chemist and engineei
in the national welfare. The manufacturer will expect the Universities to
train not only chemists and engineers, but preferably that combination
connoted by the term "chemical engineer." The South African School
of Mines and Technology at Johannesburg was, it was pointed out, the
only South African institution of University rank that had hitherto
attempted to deal with this problem. The special requirements for the
essential University course were summarised by the author, the problem
of laboratory equipment discussed, and the personal qualifications for
success in the profession of chemical engineering enumerated. — " Some
economics in hand-drill steel " : H A. Read. The consumption of steel
was classified under different heads, and details were given of experi-
ments tried with an improved form of drill-head, which resulted, inter
alia, in the saving of steel by preventmg the crushing of the shank end ;
obviated the discarding of short ends by enabling the permanent heads to
be welded on to other steel when the starter became too short.

Saturday, April 26th: H. S. Meyer. A.R.S.M.. President, in the chair.—
" Agricultu'-al Motor Tractors" : G. HildickSmith. The author was
employed by the Imperial Government during the war as head (;f the
Technical Section of the Food Production Department of the Board of
Agriculture, and in that position had unique experience of the working
of motor tractors. A short account of some of the tractors employed
for agricultural purposes was given.

Saturday, May 17th: H. S. Meyer, A.R.S.M., President, in the chair. —
"Note on the closer working and joint housing of technical and scientific
societies on the Rand": P. Cazalet A scheme^ was outlined, proposing
joint ownership of an institute building, containing offices for each society,
at a cost of £110,000, the total membership being assumed at 3,860. — "Notes
on defective air in disused raises and backstopes" : C. J. Gray. It is not
generally realised that, owing to possible accumulation of carbon dioxide,
precautions should be taken when entering disused raises and similar
places in Witwatersrand mines. In January, 1918, the dead body of a
native was found about 65 ft. up a raise in the Wolhuter Gold Mine, afte^
having been m.ssing for six days. A sample of air taken at the spot
contained 16.4 per cent, of oxygen and .60 per cent, of carbon dioxide.
In May, 1917, the dead body of a missing native was found in a disused
backstope on the Knights Deep Gold Mine, and could not be recovered
until compressed air pipes had been installed and used. Further investi-
gations showed that disused raises and backstopes in various mines con-
tained lethal quantities of carbon dioxide. — " A ' safety-first ' method for
estimation of carbon dioxide in mine air " : 11. R. S. Wilkes. An eight-
ounce bottle is filled with air by means of bellows, connected with a
reagent bottle containing decinormal baryta water, and shaken, after
inversion, until the pink colour, due to phenolphthalein as indicator is
discharged or remains unchanged after seven minutes. Several num-
bered reagent bottles are provided containing different quantities of
baryta water, and from the the number of the bottle used the quantity nf
carbon dioxide is calculated by nieans of tables.

Geological Society of South Africa. — Monday, March 17th : II. B.
Maufe, B.A.. F.G.S., President, in the chair. — "Recent advances in
Rhodesian Geology" (Presidential address) : H. B. Maufe. The geology
of Rhodesia was comprehensively co-ordinated under/.the. following
heads: — The Crystalline schists; The Lomagundi System, a succession of
rocks above the Crystalline schists, comprising the quartzite, dolomite, anr!
slates of the Hunyani Range, and the beds overlying these ; The Umkondo
formation, a series of indurated sediments, resting unconformably upon
the ancient granite in the Sabi Valley, and particularly near the Umkondo
Copper Mine; The Karroo System, the basal beds of which rest on the
ancient gneisses in the Wankie District ; Tlie Kalahari System — uncon-
solidated or loosely consolidated land deposits, most widespread as the
red or white Kalahari sand, to a thickness of from 100 to possibly 240
feet, and of later date than the Karroo System ; Superficial deposits of
pleistocene and recent alluvia.

TRANSACTIONS OF SOCIETIES. . JQI

Royal Society of South Africa. — Wednesday, April i6th: Prof.
J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., President, in the
chair. — "Some controversial notes on the diamond": Dr. J. R. Suttojn.
The spontaneous breaking of diamonds was discussed, and the previous
conclusions of the author on the subject re-affirmed. It was claimed that
there is no fundamental difference of process between the breaking of a
pure colourless crystal, containing an inclusion of foreign mineral, and
that of opaque or clouded diamond. The probable derivation of distorted
diamonds from groups and clusters was also discussed. It was stated
that the hardness of the diamond is generally overestimated.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1918-19

HONORARY PRESIDENT.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.

Rev. W. FLINT. D.D.

P. Cazalei',

Prof. J. E.

A.R.CS.

M.I.M.M.

DUEKDEN,

EX-PRESIDENT.

C. F. JURITZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.l.C.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

' U'. LvGHAM. .M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.
M.Sc, Ph.D., Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc.

HON.

C. F. JuRiTZ. M.A., D.Sc, F.l.C, Agri
cultural Chemical Research Labora
tory, Capetown.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

I J. A. FooTE, l-.C.S.. F.E.I. S., Cominrr-
! cial High School, Auckland Parle.

.Tohannesburg.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.

Prof. .\. Bkow.n', M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E., Kincora. BoDair KoikI, l<on(le!>.)sch.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

W. Stark, Cape of Good Hope Savings Bank Buildings, St. George's Street,
Capetown. P.O. Box :497- (Telegraphic .\ddress: " Soientific.")

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF COUNCIL.

I. CAPE PROVINCE.
Cape Penntsuia.

M.A.,

Prof. L. Crawford

F.R.S.E.
Prof. K. Leslie, M.A.. F.S.S.
J. LuNT, D.Sc, F.l.C.
C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S
A. Walsh.

Kimherlcy.
Miss M. Wilman.

l\iuguiittiainsto~vu.
T. Leighto.v, F.R.H.S.
Dr. J. I. BuowNLEE, M.B., CM.

E. B. Dwyer, B.A.
T. H. Harrison.

F. A. O. Pym.
Tas. Wood. M.A.

D.Sc,

Middelburg.

W. J. Lamont.

Rev. J. R.
F.L.S.

Port Elisabeth.
L. KiKCON, M.A.

F.R.S.E.

Stellenbosch.
Prof. E. J. GoDDARD, B.A., D.Sc.

Prof. l!. 01: ."^r. I. VAN DKR RiET, .\1.A.,

Ph.D.

II. I-RANSVAAL.

IVitwatersrand.
C. Aburrow, M.I.C.E., M.S.A.
I. Buktt-Davy, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
Lt.-Col. J. H. DoBsoN, D.S.O., M.Sc,

M.I.Mech.E., M.l'.E.E., A.M.I.CE.
Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc,

A.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
Jas. Gray, F.l.C

K. T. A. In-nes. F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.
T. W. KiRicL.-.M). M.Am. I.E. E.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc. M.I.M.M,, F.G.S.
Prof. C E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,

F R C S
Prof. J.' Orr, B.Sc, M.r.C.E..

M.I.Mech.E
Ven Archdeacon Rogers,
H. A. Trubshaw.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C3.
H. E. Woon, .M.Sc, F.R.Mct.b.

Pretoria.

1. B. Pole I'.vans. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.G.S.

A. J. T. Janse, F.E.S.

R. E. Montgomery, M.R.C.V.S.

Pctchefstroom.
E. Holmes S.Mnn, J5.Sc.

III. ORANGE FREE STATE.

Bloeiitfontein.

T. F. Dreyer. r..A., Ph.D.
Prof. M. .\I. KiNin., Ing.l).

JV. NATAL.

Durban.

Hon. Senator F. F. Churchili..
M. S. Evans, C.M.G.. F.Z.S.

Mtiritcburg.

Prof. T. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc.
T. S. Henkel.

Rev. S
F.R.G.S.

\'. KIIODESIA.
Buiaivayo.

S. DORNAN, M.A.,

F.G.S.,

VI. MOZ.VMBIQUE.
S. Seruya.

Endowment Fund.

Principal J. C Beattis.
E T"* S F*

1. W. Jagger, F.S.S. . M.L.j»
W. RuNciMAN. M.L.A.

TRUSTEES.

S.A. Medal Fund.

D.Sc, T. de V. Roos. B.A., LL.B.

W. Thomson, M.A., B.Sc, LL.r».

F.R.S.E.
W J. Viljoek. M..^., r,.\.C., Ph.D.

LIST Oh MEMBERS

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

1ST JULY. 1919.

• Indicates Foundation Members (SOth June. 1902).

+ Indicates Life Members.

Names of PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION

are printed in THICK CAPITALS.

Names of Members ok Council for the ]9\9 (Kingwilliamstown) Session

are printed in Small Caimtals.
Names of Members whose addresses are incompli ti or not kiw7im

are printed in italics.

Members arc requested to notify the Assistant General Sccietary (P.O. Box I^g^,
Cape To'a-n) of au\ chaiii^cs in address. or ailditions which may f>c necessary,
as soon (IS possihle .

Year of — -

Election.

1902. fa-Ababrelton, T^obert, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., Royal
Institute, Northumberland Avenue, London, W.C.

igi6. Abbit, William. B.A., Maritzburg College, Pietermaritz-
burg, Natal.

1918. Aberdeen, James, 5, White's Road, Bloemfontein.

1916. Abrahams, Abraham Mark, Jewish Government School,

End Street. Tohanneshurg.
1902. *Aburrow, Charles, M.I.C.E., M.S. A.. P.O. Box 534,

Johannesburg.
1905. Adamson, John E.. M.A. (Pres. D, 1915), Education

Department. Pretoria.
1918. Aders, Walter Mansfield. Zanzibar Government. Zanzibar.
1917 Affleck, Arthur, A.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1032, Johannesburg.
1904. Aiken, Alexander, P.O.' Box 2636, Johannesburg.

1904. Ainsworth, Herbert, P.O. Box 1553, Johannesburg.

1917. Aitchison. Rez'. Samuel Gershom Gilkes. ^I.A., D.D,,

Harding, Natal.

1915. tAkerman, Conrad, M.A.. M.B.. B.C.. Conethmoar, Alex-

andra Road, Pietermaritzburg.

1905. fAlbu, Sir George, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1910. Anderson, Alfred Jasper, M.A., M.B., D.P.H., M.R.C.S.
City Hall, Capetown.

1917. Anderson, Ernest, B.S., M.S., Ph.D., Professor of Agri-
cultural Chemistry. Transvaal University College, Pre-
toria.

1916. Anderson, Peter M., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1156, Johannesburg.

tV LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1918. Anderssen, Mark, P.O. Box 4066, lohannesbur^-.

1902. *Andrews, G. S. Burt, M.I.C.E., "M.I.Mech.E!, M.S. A.,

P.O. Box 1049, Johannesburg.

1917. Andrews, George J., P.O. Box 27, Jeppes, Johannesburg.

1903. Arnold, Frank Arthur, M.B., D.P.H., L.S.A.. Y\(\ Hox

211, Pretoria.
1916. Ashkanazy, A. W., Castle Mansions, Eloif Street, Johan-
nesburg.

1919. Aslaksen, Adolf Anton Bernhard, M.I.C.E., Norway, c|o

W. Brooker, Zwartkops, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1904. Auret, A. A., P.O. Box 838, Johannesburg.

1916. Austin, Kenneth, M.Am.I.M.E.; P.O. Box 4305, Johan-
nesburg.

1906. Bailey, Sir Abe, Kt., P.O. Box 50, Johannesburg.

1902. *Baker, Herbert, F.R.I.B.A., 14, Barton Street. West-

minster, London, S.VV., England.

1918. Baker, Norman Thomas, P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg.
1916. Ball, Mrs. Olivia Wolfenden", Amberley, Shafton Grange,

Howick, Natai.

1919. Ballantine, Major Robert, Keiskama Hoek, Kingwilliams-

town, C.P.
T903. fBalmforth, Rev. Ramsden, '" Shirley," 6, Stephen Street,
Capetown.

1914. Bancroft, Alfred Ernest. M.A., M.Sc., South African

College High School, Capetown.

1916. Barkby, Ernest Arthur, M.I.M.E., P.O. Box 3286, Johan-

nesburg.

1917. fBarker, William Edward, A.I.E.E., P.O. Dynamite Fac-

tory, Somerset West, C.P.
1919. Barnes, Frederic Crouch, P.O Box 29, Kingwilliamstown,

C.P.
191 1. Barratt, Gaston Frederick Sharpe, Bembezaan, Queque,

Southern Rhodesia.
191 1. Barratt, Rowland Lorraine, Bembezaan, Queque, Southern

Rhodesia.

1905. fBasto, H. E. Alberto Celestine Ferreira Pinto, 95, Rua

Luiz-de-Camoes, Lisbon, Portugal.

1903. fBaxter, William, M.A., South African College High

School, Capetown.

1902. *tBeattie, John Carruthers, D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Pres. A.,
1910), Principal of the University of Capetown.

1916. Beatty, J., Consolidated Buildings, P.O. Box 92, Johannes-
burg.

191 5. Bedford, Gerald Augustus Harold, F.E.S., Veterinary

Research Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.
1913. Beerstecher. Leonard, P.O. Box 2888, Johannesburg.

LIST OF MEMBERS. V

Year of
Election.

1918. Beresford, Herbert, 11, Harley Street, Yeoville, Johannes-
burg.

1916. Bertram, T., 134, Market Avenue, Benoni, Transvaal.

1916. Bertram, Reginald Hermanns, P.O. Box 3518, Johannes-
burg.

1916. Bews, John William, M.A., D.Sc. (Vice-Pres. C), Pro-
fessor of Botany, Natal University College, P.O. Box
375, Pietermaritzburg.

1918. Bigalke, Rudolph, B.A., College House, Breda Street,

Capetown.

1916. Bird, Fred William, Government School, Benoni, Trans-

vaal.

1919. Bissaker, John, P.O. Box 118, East London.

1910. Bisset, James, M.I.C.E., M.R.San.L, Beau^eigh, Keml-

worth, Capetown.

1905. Blackshaw, George N., B.Sc, F.C.S., Department of Agri-

culture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1915. Blundell, Frederick Moss, 308, Orient Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1906. Bohle, Hermann, M.I.E.E., Corporation Professor of

Electrotechnics, University of Capetown.

1911. Bolus, Charles Arthur, 20, Steytler's Buildings, P.O. Box

232, Johannesburg,
1905. fBolus, Mrs. F., B.A., Sunning Hill, Eyton Road, Clare-
mont, Capetown,

1917. Bosman, Andrew Murray, B.Sc. A., B.S/C., Professor of

Agriculture, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
191 3. Botelho, Lieut. Joao Baptista, Chief Veterinary Officer,

Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 255, Lourengo

Marques.
1919. Botha, Colin Graham, P.O. Box 6, Capetown.

1916. Botting, Robert Frederick, A.M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 7«>j,

Johannesburg.

1916. Bottomley, Averil Maud, B.A., P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.

1913. Bracht, Oscar, P.O. Box 134, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

191 5. Breijer, Hermann Gottfried, Ph.D., Director of the Trans-
vaal Museum, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.
191 5. Briggs, H. Fielden, M.D., B.Sc, L.D.S., D.D.S., P.O. Box
734, Johannesburg.

1917. Brigham, A. F., c|o National Bank of South Africa, Ltd..

ID, Wall Street, New York, U.S.A.
1910. Brill, J., Litt.D., L.H.D., Ph.Th.M., Lorothwana, 65, Park

Road, Bloemfontein.
1905. Brincker, J. C. H., c/o The Montagu Co-operative Wines,

Ltd., Montagu, C.P.

1914. Brinton, Arthur Greene, F.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P., F.R.S.M..

P.O. Box 4.397, Johannesbnrg.
1910. Britten, Gilbert Frederick, B.A.. Government Chemical
Laboratory, Capetown.

Vi LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Elect ion.

1918. Britten, Lilian Louise, B.A., Rhodes University College,

Grahamstown, C.P.
1903. Brown, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. (General

Treasurer), Professor of Applied Mathematics,

University of Capetown.
1914. Brown, Rev. Holman, 17 Casualty Clearing- Station, British

Expeditionary Force.
1917. Brown, James Thomson, P.O. Box 927, Capetown.

1907. fBrown, William Bridgman, M.A., Penryn, Cyphergat,

C.P.
1009. Brownlee, John Innes, M.B., CM., Tembani, Alexandra

Road, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.
191 2. Briimmer, Rev. Prof. N. J., M.A., B.D., University of
Stellenbosch, C.P.

1919. Bryson, James Watson, P.O. Box 134, Kingwilliamstown.

1902. *Buchan, James, Assistant Resident Engineer, Rhodes

Buildings, Bulawayo.

1916. Bull, Henry Walter, 352, Burger Street, Ptetermaritzburg.

1917. Buller, Arthur Cheverton, Dwarsriviers Hoek, Stellen-

bosch.
1905. Burroughs, Herbert John, ioa, Clarence Street, Troyeville,
Johannesburg.

1903. iBuRTT-DAVY, Joseph, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. C, 1917),

Burttholm, Vereeniging, Transvaal.
1916. Burtt-Davy, Airs. J., Burttholm. \^ereeniging, Transvaal.

1916. Bush, Herbert Henry, M.Sc, A.M.I.C-E. {address

wanted) .

1919. Caink, Thomas George, M.Inst. M. & CLE., M.R.San.L,
Borough Engineer, KingwiUiamstown, C.P.

1903. Caldecott, W. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.C.S., P.O. Box 67, Johan-
nesburg.

1902. *-fCampbeU, Allan McDowell McLeod, B.A. (address
wanted) .

1917. Campbell, Colin M., Mount Edgecombe, Durban, Natal.
1 916. Campbell, Edmund, P.O. Box 688, Durban, Natal,

1919. Campbell, Rev. James A., M.A., The Manse, Kingwilliams-
town, C.P.

1916. Campbell. Samuel George. M.D., M.Ch., F.R.C.S.E.,
M.R.C.S., D.P.H., 28, Musgrave Road, Durban, Natal.

1919. Canard, Nathan, P.O. Box 313, Capetown.

1908. Carlson, K. A., Forestry Division, Department of Agri-

culture, Bloemfontein.
1919. Carrington, John, P.O. Box 48, East London, C.P.
1 916. Carruthers, Somerville Craig, M.LA.A., P.O. Box 266,

Johannesburg.
1919. Cartwright, John Dean, M.P.C., cjo Cartwright's, Ltd.,

Adderley Street, Capetown.

LIST OF MEMBERS. vii

Year of
Election.

1919. Carveth, Frederick Charles, 26, Carrington Road, Kini-
berley.

1917. Cassell, Myer, P.O. Box 5992, Johannesburg.

iqi6. Cawston, Capt. Frederick Gordon, B.A. M.B., B.C.,
M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., No. 4, Military Hospital, Potchef-
stroom, Transvaal.

7903. tCAZALET, Percy, M.I.M.M. (Vice-President), P.O. Box
1056, Johannesburg.

1906. ■'(Champion, Ivor Edzvard {address zvanted).

1914. Chandler, Right Rev. Arthur, M.A., D.D., Bisho]) of
Bloemfontein, Bishop's Lodge, Bloemfontein.

1918. Chapman, Thomas Henry, P.O. Box 5291, Johannesburg.
191 7. Chappell, Ernest, P.O. Box 1124, Johannesburg.

1913. Charters, Robert Heame, M.I.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 11 76, Johannesburg.

1917. Chiappini, Alexander John, P.O. Retreat, C.P.

1919. Chubb, Walter George, B.A., LL.B., P.O. Box 387, East

London, C.P.

1918. Churchill, Hon. Senator Frank F., 69, Berea Park Road,

Durban, Natal.
1918, Clark, George Muirhead, 15, Meischke's Buildings, Johan-

burg.
1916. Clark, Gowan Creswell Strange, C.M.G., Railway Offices,

J ohannesburg.

1916. Clark, Hugh, B.Sc, A.M.LE.E., Technical College,

Durban, Natal.

1903. Clark, John, M.A., LL.D., Arderne Professor of English

Laviguage and Literature, University of Capetown.

1917. Clarke, Frederick, M.A., Professor of Eflucation, Univer-

sity of Capetown.

1916. Clayden, Harold Wilham, A.M.LE.E., A.M.LM.E., P.O.

Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1917. Cleghorne, William Shaw Hamilton, B.Sc, A.M.LMech.E.,

P.O. Box 181, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

1916. Clephan, Ethel Hunter, Girls' High School, Park Street,

Pretoria.

1917. Cluver, Frederick William Paul, B.A., Leyds Street,

Joubert Park, Johannesburg.

1917. Cogan, Eric Sydney Earle, M.A., Ph.D., University of

Stellenbosch.

1918. Coleman, Percy, M.A., 208, Union Buildings, Pretoria.
1916. Collard, J. Aldred, P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.
1908. Collie, J., 274, Eastwood Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.

1904. fCollins, Ernest A. E., 66, Pritchard Street, P.O. Box 723,

Johannesburg.
1906. Collins, M. R., Irrigation Department, P.O. Box 399. Pre
toria.

VUl LIST Oi-' MLlMmiKS.

Year of
Election.

1917. Colquhoun, Ludovic, Dynamite Factory, Modderfoutein,
Transvaal.

1917. Constangon, C, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1904. Cooper, Fred W., Public Library, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1918. Cooper, Messrs. William, and Nephews, P.O. Box 4557,

Johannesburg.

1919. Cordeaux, Herbert John Charles, F.R.I. B.A., 45, Oxford

Street, East London, C.P.

1915. Cordiner, William Smallie, 121, Loveday Street, Wander-

ers' View, Johannesburg.
1914. Cory, George Edward, M.A. (Vice-Pres. B), Professor of
Chemistry and Metallurgy, Rhodes University College,
Grahamstown, C.P.

1904. fCoutts, John Morton Sim, M.D., L.R.C.P., D.P.H.,

M.R.C.S., Erinville Cottage, Grahamstown, C.P.

1916. Cox, George Walter, F.R.Met.S., P.O. Box 399, Pretoria.
1902. *tCox, Walter Hubert, Royal Observatory, Capetown.
1909. Crawford, David Chalmers, M.A., B.Sc, B.Sc.Agr.,

Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.

1902. *tCRAWFORD, LAWRENCE, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.

(President, 1916), Professor of Pure Mathematics,

University of Capetown.
1918. Crawford, William Heron. P.O. Box 15, Langlaagte.

Transvaal.
1918. Crinsoz de Cottens, Frangois E., M.D., Ph.D., M.R.C.S.,

P.O. Box 5975, Johannesburg.

1918. Crinsoz de Cottens, Marguerite, M.D., P.O. Box 5975,

Johannesburg.
1916. Croghan, Dr., 28, High Road, Fordsburg, Transvaal.
1916. jCrookes, George Joseph, The Cedars, Renishaw. per

Private Bag, Durban, Natal.

1919. Crosby, William, Editor, Daily Dispatch, P.O. Box 141,

East London, C.P.
1918. Crosse, Andrew Frederick, M.LM.M., P.O. Box 2187,

Johannesburg.
1916. Cruden, Frank, Alicedale, C.P.

1903. fCullen, William, M.LM.M. (General Secretary,

1905- 1908), Cumbernauld, Feltham Hill, Middlesex,

England.
1916. Currie, Richard. it2. Commissioner Street, Johannesburg.
1903. Currie, O. J., M.B., M.R.C.S., Claremont, Capetown.
1916. Curry, N. O., P.O. Box 2303, Johannesburg.

1905. Dale, Hubert, P.O. Box 632, Johannesburg.

1903. Dalrymple. Hon. W.. P.O. Box 2927, Johannesburg.

191 5. Dalton, John Patrick, M.A., D.Sc, Professor of Mathe-
matics, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1913. Damant, E. L., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

LIST 01- MF.Mi;i;us. iX

i^ear of
Election.

1916. Danckvverts, Ernst, P.O. Box 486, Johannesburg.

1913. Daniel, John, Armley House, 30, Plein Street, Johannes-

burg.

1916. Davidson, D. M., P.O. Box 455, Gerniiston, Transvaal

1917. Davidson, John, P.O. Box 1146, Johannesburg.

1918. Davies, David Ernest Lloyd, M.I.C.E., F.R.San. I., City

Hall, Capetown.
1903. Davies, J. Hubert, M.I.E.E., M.I.Mech.E., A.M.I.C.E.,

P.O. Box 1386, Johannesburg.
1916. Davis, Carl Raymond, E.M., M.Am.I.M.E., P.O. Box 3,

Brakpan, Transvaal.

1903. Davis, Frederick PL, B.Sc, M.LE.E., P.O. Box 1934,

Johannesburg.
1916. Dayniond, William Henry, P.O. Nigel, Transvaal.
1916. Deakin, James Alfred, Dunswarr Iron and .Steel Works,

P.O. Box 290, Benoni, Transvaal.

1916. De Fenton, John, Ph.D., Seyniour Aleniorial Library. P.O.

Box 2561, Johannesburjj.
1915. De Klerk, Arie, 486, Schoeiran Strei-t. Pretoria.

191 5. De Kock, Gilles van de Wall, M.R.C.V.S., A^eterinary

Research Office, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1914. De Kock. Dr. Servaas Meyer. P.O. Box ^21. Bloemfontein.

1917. De Korte, William Edmond. M.B., m'.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

Lloyd's Buildings, Burg Street. Capetov^^n.
1913. Delbridge, William John, A.R.LB.A.. P.O. Box 120,
Capetown.

1915. Delfos, Cornelis Fredriic, P.O. Box 24. Pretoria.

1904. Delmore. Dr. J. Schlesinger, Delmore, Transvaal.

1916. De Ropp, Stephen Edward, Baron, B.Sc, F.G.S.. Univer-

sity College, Johannesburg.

1916. Des Clayes, Raymond, P.O. Box 155, Johannesburg.

1915. De Villiers, C. G. S.. M.A., 681, Pretorius Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1916. De Villiers. Rt. ffoii. Charles Percy, Baron, Rustenburg.

Stellenbosch, C.P.
1915. De Villiers. Louis Celliers, Ph.D.. M.E., Lecturer \:\
Geology and Mineralogy, Transvaal University Col-
lege, Pretoria.

1918. De Wet. Frances Cole, M.A., Huguenot University College,

Wellington, C.P.

1915. fDick, Colonel James, St. Thomas Road. Durban. Natal.

1916. Diethelm, Carl Robert. P.O. Box 3228. Johannesburg

1917. DoBSON, Lt-CoL, Joseph Henry. D.S.O., M.Sc. -SLEng.,

M.LMech.E.. M.LE.E.. A.M.I.C.E.. P.O Box 699.
Johannesburg.

1919. Dodd. Benjamin Herbert, M.A., 7:>fli/v Dispatch Office.

East London, C.P.
1916. Dodds. Herbert Henrv. M.Sc. F.C.S., c /o Messrs. Kynoch,
Ltd., Umbogintwini, Durban, Natal.

;» LIST oi' mi:m i;i-:ks.

Year of
Election. /

1909. Dodt, J. J., National Museum, Bloemfontein.

1917. Doering, F. Emanuel, iM.D., D.D.S., P.O. Box 2165.

Johannesburg.
1915. Doidge, Ethel Mary, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. (Pres. C), P.O.

Box 1294, Pretoria.
191 1. DoRNAN, Rev. Samuel S., M.A.. F.G.S., P.O. Box 106,

Bulawayo.
191)8. Dowling. Walford Robert, M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 1167,

Johannesburg.
1918. Downing, Alfred, P.O. Box 1020, Johannesburg.

1908. Drege, Isaac Louis, P.O. Box 148, Port Elizabeth. C.P.
1917. Drennan, Charles Maxwell, M.A., Professor of English,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176. Johannesburg.

1914. Dreyer, P., Resident Magistrate's ( )ftice. Cajietown.

1915. Dreyer, Thomas F.. B.A.. Ph.D., Professor of Zoology,

Grey University College. Bloemfontein.

1917. Dreyfus, Paul. P.O. Box 5836, Johannesburg.

1906. fDruce, P. M.. M.A., The College, Potchcfstroom, Trans-
vaal. ,

1902. *Drury, Edward Guy Dru, M.D., B.S., D.P.H.. Grahams-
towai, C.P.

1917. Dryden. Thomas Alexander Wemyss, Mines Department,
Krugersdorp. Transvaal.

1917. Du Pasquier, Arthur Edmund, M.T.M.E., M.LE.E., P.O.
Box 3633. Johannesburg.

1917. Du Plessis. Rc7\ Prof. Johannes. B.A.. B.D., Theological
Seminary. Stellenbosch, C.P.

1917. Du Toit. Alexander Logic, B.A.. D.Sc. F.Cr.S., Irrigation
Department. Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1913. Du Toit. A. E.,M. A. .Professor of Mathematics, Transvaal
University College, Pretoria.

1917. Du Toit. Andries Francois, P.O. Box 463, Capetown.

1917. Du Toit, Hendrik Lodewijk. Michville. via Honev Nest
Kloof, C.P.

1917. Du Toit. Pieter Jacobus, B.A., Hilton College, Hilton Road,
Natal.

191 5. Du Toit, Pieter Johannes, Under-Secretary for Agricul-
ture, Union Buildings. Pretoria.

1906. DuERDEN, James E., M.Sc. Ph.D., A.R.C.S. (Vice-Presi-
dent: Vice-Pres. D), Professor of Zoolog)--, Rhodes
University College, Grahamstown, C.P.

191 5. Dumat. Henry Aylmer. M.D., F.R.C.P.E.. 7. Devonshire
Place. Durban, Natal.

1910. Duncan, A., P.O. Box 1214, Johannesburg.

1904. Duncan, Patrick, C.M.G., M.L.A., Sauer's Buildings,
Johannesburg.

1909. Dunkerton, Edward B., c/o Messrs. Lennon, Ltd., West

Street, P.O. Box 266, Durban, Natal.

LIST OF MEMBEKS. M

Year of
Election.

1918. Dusheiko, Abraham, 12, Struben's Road, Mowbray, Cape-

town.
1917. Duthie, Augusta Vera, M.A., University of Stellenbosch.

191 1. fDuthie, George, M.A., F.R.S.E. (Pres. D., 191 1), Conces-

sion Siding, Private Bag, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1912. DwYER, Edward Burroughs, B.A., Forest Department,

Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1919. Dyer, Herbert Sydney, P.O. Box 107, Kingwilliamstown,

C.P.

1916. Eadie, Duncan Maclntyre, 669, Currie Street, Durban,

Natal.
1918. Earle. Frank Maynard, Rhodes University College,
Grahamstown, C.P.

191 7. East London Public Library, East London, C.P.

1904. Eaton, William Arthur, 74, St. George's Street, Capetown.

1909. Edwards, Charles J., c/o Messrs. Fleynes Mathew & Co.,

P.O. Box 242, Capetown.
1914. Elsdon-Dew, William, M.LE.E., P.O. Box 4563. Johan-
nesburg.

1918. Entomologist, Cape Province, Department of Agriculture,

Parliament Street, Capetown.

1910. fEngelenburg, Dr. F. V., Editor, De Volksstcm, Pretoria.
1918. Epton, W. Martin, P.O. Box 2288, Johannesburg.

1910. Erskine, J. K., F.C.S., P.O., Willowdene, near Johannes-
burg. Pi
1918. Evans, Rev. Gregory, The Priory, Rosettenville, Johan-
nesburg.

1905. fEvANs, Iltyd Buller Pole, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. (Pres.

C, 1916), Chief of the Division of Plant Pathology,
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 994, Pretoria.
1905. Evans, Maurice Smethurst, C.M.G., F.Z.S. (Pres. D.,
1916), Hillcrest, Berea Ridge, Durban, Natal.

1905. tEvans, Samuel, 153, Nuggett, Street, Johannesburg.
1916. Evans, S., Modder B Gold Mining Co.. Benoni, Transvnal.

1918. Evans, Rev. William Frederick, Wesleyan Parsonage,

Simonstown, C.P.
1914. Eveleigh, Rev. William, Seymour, C.P.

1919. Everitt, Alfred Page, P.O. Box 20, Kingwilliamstown.
1904. Ewing, Sydney Edward Thacker, M.LE.E., P.O. Box

226q. Johannesburg.

1906. Eyles, Frederick, F.L.S. , M.L.C. TPres. C. 1911). c/o

Department of Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1915. Fairbridije. Wilham Ernest, P.O. Box 1518, Capetown.

1916. Falcon, William, M.A., Hilton College, Hilton Road, Natal.

xn LIST DF Mr-:Mi!ii:KS.

)'ear of
Election.

igi/. Fantham, Harold Benjamin, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S..
F.Z.S. (Vice-Pres. D)., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy, South African School of
Mines and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1905. Farrar, Edward, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

.914. Farrow, Frederick Denny, M.Sc, Rhodes University Col-
lege, Grahamstown, C.P.

1905. Feetham, Richard, Sauer's Buildings, c/o Loveday and
Market Streets, Johannesburg.

1 9 19. Ferguson, Howard, cjo Petersen, Ltd., Barrack Street,"
Capetown.

1918. Fernbank, Charles J.. P.O. Box 533, Johannesburg.

1915. Ferreira, Frederick Herbert, Resident Magistrate s Office,
Herschel, C.P.

1903. Ffennell, R. W., c/o Central Mining and Investment Cor-
poration, Ltd., I, London Wall Buildings, London,
E.C., England.

1915. Findlay, George Schreiner, 151, Esselen Street, Pretoria.

1916. Finlay, Professor James, South African School of Mines'

and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
1912. FitzSimons, F. W., F.Z.S. , F.R.M.S. (Pres. C. 1912),
Director, Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth,
C.P.
iQiS. FitzSimons, Mrs., Port Elizabeth Public Museum, Port

Elizabeth, C.P.
1902. *Flack, Rez'. Oan-c-n Francis Walter, M.A., The Rectory,

Uitenhage, C.P.
1902. Flanagan, Henrv George, F.L.S., Prospect Farm, Komgha,
C.P.

1919. Flemmer, Marius T., P.O. Box 44, East London, C.P.

1916. Fletcher,- Riciiard Evelyn, King Edward VH School,

Johannesburg.
1902. *t Flint. Rev. W'illiam, D.D. (President : General

Secretary, 1918; Pres. D, 1910), Wolmunster Park,

Rosebank, Capetown.
1902. *IFlowers, Frank, C.E., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S., P.O. Box

1,878, Johannesburg.
1918. Foote, H. J.. M.B., Ch.B., L.D.S., 38, Estcourt Buildings,

Johannesburg.
1907. Foote, J. A., F.G.S., F.E.LS. (General Secretary 1917-

1918. Pres. D, 1913), Principal, Commercial High

School, Auckland Park, Johannesburg.
1914. Ford, Thurston James, Secretary, De Beers Benefit
Society, Kimberley, C.P.

1917. Forest Department, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1918. Forrest, Bryce Charles, A.LALM., P.O. Box tig. Roode-

poort, Transvaal.

LIST OF MEMBERS. Xtlt

Year of

Election.

1914. Forsyth, Thomas M., M.A., D.Phil. (Pres. F, 1918), Pro-
fessor of Philosophy, Grey University College, Bloem-
fontein.

1914. Forsyth, Mrs. T. M., Eagle's Nest, P.O. Box 238, Bloem-
fontein.

1916. Foiiche, Carl Flercules, M.A., P.O. Box 1176, Johannes-
burg.

1919. Fowles. T"Han, Avoca, Queen's Road, Kingwilliamstown,
C.P."

1905. iFrames, P. Ross, P.O. Box 148, Johannesburg."

1906. tFrankenstein, Miss Adelia, B.A., 9, Knight Street, Kim-

berley, C.P.
1916. Fraser. John. J. P.. P.O. iiox 149, Pietermaritzlnirg.
1916. Freeland, Hubert, P.O. Box 2863, Johannesburg.
1902. Fremantle, Henry Eardley Stephen, M.A., F.S.S., Upper

Avenue, Stellenbosch, C.P.
igi6. Frerichs, J. A., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1913. Frew, JohUj P.O. Box i, Johannesburg.

1916. Frood, George Edward Bell, M.A., M.I.M.M., Mines De-

partment. Bloemfontein.

1914. Frood, Dr. T. M.. Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1902. *Fuhr. Harry A., A.M.I.C.E., Public Works Department,

Bloemfontein.
1918. Fulton, James Renwick, South African Railways Offices,
Johannesburg.

1907. (jairdner. Dr. J. Francis R., 754, Church Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.

1903. tGalpin, Ernest Edward, F.L.S., Mosdene, Naboomspruit,

Transvaal.
1918. Gardner, Elinor Wright, Professor of Geology, University
of Stellenbosch, C.P.

191 5. Garlick, Miss Winifred Marguerite, Thornibrae, Green

Point, Capetown.

191S. Garrard, John Jarvis, M.I.M.M., A.M.T.C.E.. F.G.S., P.O.
Box 4303. Johannesburg.

1902. *tGasson. William. F.C.S., Dutoitspan Road, Kimberley,
C.P.

I()i5. Gatherer, John Frederick William, P.O. Box 433, Bloem-
fontein.

1918. Geldenhuys, Frans Eduard, B.A., B.Sc. Ph.D., P.O. Box
82, Johannesburg.

1904. Gellatlv. ^Tohn T. B., M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 37, Bethulie,

O.F.S.
1918. George. Ernest, B.A., F.C.S., P.O. Box 1176, Johannes-
burg.

1917. fGericke, Capt. Onev Mortimer, M.B., Ch.B.. L.R.C.P.,

L.R.C.S., S.A.M.C, S.A.P. Chib, Pretorius Street,
Pretoria.

XIV LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1912. Gibson, Harry, J.P., F.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1643, 85, St.
George's Street, Capetown.

1916. Gibson, James Young, 380, Longmarket Street, Pieter-

maritzburg.

1917. Gie, Johan Coenraad, Dunkeld, Weltevreden Avenue,

Glebe Road, Rondebosch, Capetown.

1902. *Gilchrist, John Dow Fisher, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S.,

C.M.Z.S. (General Secretary, 1903-1908), Pro-
fessor of Zoology, University of Capetown.
1917. Gilchrist, Thomas B., M.D., CM., J.P., P.O. Box 161,
Fordsburg, Transvaal.

1903. Gilchrist, W., M.S.A., Mariendahl, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.

1916. Gill, Harold Warren, B.Sc, F.I.C., Chief Resident

Chemist, Magadi Soda Co., Lake Magadi, British East
Africa.

1917. Gimkewitz, Fred., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
1910. Ginsberg, Franz, P.O. Box 3, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1916. Glyn, Charles, M.E., P.O. Box no, Roodepoort, Trans-

vaal.
1912. GoDDARD, Ernest James, B.A., D.Sc. (Pres. D, 1918),

Professor of Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1902. fGodfrey, Rev. Robert, M.A., Somei-ville Mission, Tsolo,

C.P.

1917. Gofife, Edward, P.O. Box 1899, Johannesburg.

1916. Goldstein, Benjamin, L.D.S., Walter Mansions, Johannes-
burg.

1916. Goodall, Frederick, P.O. Box 909, Durban, Natal.

1904. Gorges, Sir Edmond Howard Lacam, K.C.M.G., M.V.O.,

Administrator, South-West African Protectorate,
Windhuk.
191 5. Gould, Robert Howe, P.O. Box 4941, Johannesburg.

1918. Grahamstown Public Library, P.O. Box 30, Grahamstown,

C.P.
1908. Grant, Charles C, M.A., Education Department, Bloem-
fontein.

1919. Grant, George, General Manager's Office, African Banking

Corporation, Capetown.

1914. Grant. William Frank, B.Sc, Normal College, Bloemfon-

tein.
1907. Gray, Charles Joseph, P.O. Box 1072, Johannesburg.
1907. Gray. James, F.LC, P.O. Box 5254, Johannesburg.

1917. Greathead. Percy, P.O. Box 4303, Johannesburg.

1915. Green, Henry Hamilton, D.Sc, F.C.S. (Pres. B),

Veterinary Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.

1916. Greenacre, Walter, " W^aveney," Musgrave Road. Durban,

Natal.
1919. Grey, Edgar Robert, B.A.. M.D., Ch.B.. 26. Invcrlcith Ter-
race, East London, C.P.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XV

Year of
LLlection.

1916. Griffin, Joseph D., P.O. Box 2155, Johannesbvirg.
1906. Grimmer, Irvine Rowell, Assistant General Manager, De
Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Kimberlev. C.P.

1916. Grindley-Ferris, Vyvyan, Consolidated Gold Fields of

South Africa, Ltd., Johannesburg.

1917. Grobbelaar, Coert Smit, M.A., Heemstede, Riebeek Street,

Stellenbosch, C.P.

191 2. Gubbins, John Gaspard, B.A., Ottoshoop, Transvaal.

1913. Gundry, Philip G., B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of

Physics, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
1915. Gunn, David, P.O. Box 597, Port Elizabeth.
1905. fGutsche, Phillipp, M.D., Villa Torrita, Kingwilliamstown,

C.P.
1903. Gyde, Charles J., A.M.LC.E., Public Works Department,

Union Buildings. Pretoria.

1904. Haagner, Alwyn K., F.Z.S., Zoological Gardens, P.O. Box
754, Pretoria.

1916. Haig, W., c/o Messrs. Fraser & Chalmers, Ltd., Corner

House, Johannesburg.
1907. Hall. Carl, A.M.LC.E., F.G.S., 28, Club Arcade, Durban,

Natal.
1910. Halm. Jacob K. E., Ph.D.. F.R.S.E., Royal Observatory,
C.P.

1917. Hamlin. Ernest John, B.Sc, P.O. Box 17, Stellenbosch,

C.P.
1907. Hammar, August, 441, Burger Street, Pietermaritzburg.
Natal.

1902. *Hancock, H., A.M.LC.E., P.O. Box 192, Klerksdorp,

Transvaal.

1903. fHancock, Strangman, M.Am.LM.E., Kennel Holt, Cran-

brook, Kent, England.
1916. Hardtenberg. Christiaan Bernha,rdus, M.A., q|o Trades
School. Smith Street, Johannesburg.

1904. Harries, W. M., P.O. Pox 2189, Johannesburg.

1905. Harris, Lionel. M.E., B.Sc, 113, Sivewright Avenue,

Doornfontein, P.O. Box 131 1, Johannesburg.

1915. Harrison, Charles William Francis, F.R.G..S., F.R.S.S.,

Nel's Rust, Natal.

1916. Hastings. Isabel, Wykeham School. Pietermaritzburc.
1905. Hatchard, John George. F.R.A.S., P.O. Box 499. Blocm-

fontein.

1917. Hawkins. John Charles, A.M.LC.E., A.M.I.Mech.E., P.O.

Box 54, Vereeniging, Transvaal.
1916. Hawthorne, Sydney Charles James, P.O. Box 619,

berley, C.P.
1916. Hay, William, J. P., P.O. Box ^21. Capetown. /CS^^^os L^ /

UJ ( L I r V ":

XVI LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1918. Harrison, Thomas Henry, P.O. Box 74, Kingwilliams-

town, C.P.
1916. Heather, Henry Jaraes Shedlock, B.A., M.I.C.E., M.I.E.E.,

F.Am.I.E.E., i-*rofessor of Electrotechnics, South

African School of Mines and Technology, I'.iJ. Box

1176, Johannesburg.

1 916. Healey, John Edward, P.O. Box 2, Maraisburg, Transvaal.
191S. Hector, James Masson, B.Sc, Professor of Agricultural

Botany, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1 914. Henderson, Miss Janetta, c/o Dr. J. B. H. Ruthven, P.O.

Box 6253, Johannesburg.
1902. *Henkel, John Spurgeon, Conservator of Forests,
Pietermaritzburg.

1918. Hepburn, Re7>. Ivan Dawson, B.A., c|o Sudan United Mis-

sion, Muri Province, Northern Nigeria.

1904. fHerdman, G. W., M.A., M.LC.E., Assistant Director of

Irrigation, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1919. Hessenauer, Herman Charles, L.D.S., 108, Oxford Street,

East London, C.P.
191 1. Hewetson. W. M., M.B., D.P.H., J.P., Sinoia. Southern

Rhodesia.
1909. Hewitt, John, B.A., Director of the Albany Museum,

Grahamstown, C.P.

191 5. Hewitt, Strafiford Smith. P.O. Box 192. Bloemfontein.

1905. Heymann, Alexander, M.Ph., M.Ch., M.A., P.O. Box 3427,

Johannesburg.
1909. Heymans, Dr. G. M. A., 702, Church Street, Arcadia,

Pretoria.
J919. Hill, Ernest, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.P.H., Medical Officer

of Health, City Hall, East London, C.P.
1918. Hill, Rev. Walter Francis, M.A., The Priory, Rosetten-
ville, Johannesburg.

1917. Hilhorst, Henri, P.O. Box 484, Pretoria.

1918. Hirschhorn, Friedrich, P.O. Box 40, Kimberley, C.P.

1916. Hodges, Ruth Mary, B.Sc, Wykeham School, Maritzburg.

1917. Hofmeyr, Jan Hendrik, M.A., Principal, South African

School of Mines and Technology. P.O. Box 1176.
Johannesburg.
1019. Hofmeyr, Rez>. Hendrik, ^loleps. Private Bag. Pietersburg,
Transvaal.

1914. Holdsworth, J. W., c/o Irrigation Department, Uitenhage.

C.P.

1905. Holm, Alexander, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1916. Holmes, George G., A.R.S.M., P.O. Box 1096, Johannes-
burg.

191 5. Honey, Thomas, Superintendent, Municipal Gardens, P.O.

Box 403. LourenQo Marques.

1918. Honicke, Wilhelm, P.O. Box 234, Bloemfontein.

LIST 01-" MliMIilikS. XVll

Year of
Election.

1902. fHonnold, VV. L., Hyde Park Hotel, 66. Kuightsbridge,
London, S.W., England.

1902. *Horne, William James, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.E.E., Educa-
tion Department, P.O. Box 432, Pretoria.

1918. Hortor, William Edward, Trevadlock, Campbell Road»
Parktown West, Johannesburg.

1902. *Hough, Sydney Samuel, M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer
Royal, Royal Observatory, near Capetown.

1916. Hughes, Archibald Charles, Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1917. Hull, John William, P.O. Box 1178, Capetown.

1905. jHumphrey, William Alvara. R.A.. Ph.D., F.G.S., Vry-
heid, Nataj.

1912. Hunt, Donald Rolfe, Sub-Native Commissioner, Secocoeni-

land, via Lydenburg, Transvaal.

1913. Hutcheon, James. M.A.. F.R.S.G.S., P.O. Box 1176,

Johannesburg.

1916. Hutton, C.E., P.O. Box 164, Germiston, Transvaal.

1918. Hutton, Herbert Beavor. P.O. Box 44, Kingwilliamsiown^

C.P.

1917. Hynd, John, P.O. Box 44, Bulawayo.

1916. Imroth, G., Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Build-
ings, Johannesburg.

1918. Industries Section. Department of Mines and Industries,

Union Buildings, Pretoria.
1913. Ingham, William, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. (Vice President,
Pres. A), Chief Engineer's Office, Rand Water Board»
P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.

1907. Innes, Hon. Sir James Rose-, K.C.M.G., B.A., LL.B.,

Chief Justice of the Union of South Africa, Capetown
1902. 'INNES, ROBERT THORBURN AYTON, ERAS..
F.R.S.E. ((iF.NERAL .Skcret.VRV. I909-I912; PRESI-
DENT, 191.S), Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

1908. Institute of Government Land Surveyors, Cape of Good

Hope Savings Bank Buildings,' Capetown.

1916. Jackson, Hon. Justice Cecil Gower (Vice-Pres. E), 185,

Prince Alfred Street, Maritzburg.
1915. Jack.son, Harry Percival. M.Sc, Jeppe High School,

Tohannesburg.
1904. Jagger, J. W., F.S.S., M.L.A., P.O. Box 258, Capetown.
1915. Jansi:, Antonius Johannes Theodorus, F.E.S., Lecture!

in Biology. Normal College, Pretoria, ist Street

Gezina. Pretoria.

1917. Jardine. Alfred Edward. M.E., P.O. Box 107, East Rand,

Transvaal.
191 1. Jarvis, E. M.. F.R.C.\'.S.. Jelf Estate, P.O. Box 14.
Umtali, Rhodesia.

XVin I 1ST OF MFMliERS.

Year of
Election.

1910. Jeffery, John, P.O. Box 40, Capetown.

1916. Jenner, Alice, Girls' HigU Scnool, Oudtshoorn, C.P.
1903. Jennings, Hennen, 2221, Massachusetts Avenue, Wash-
ington, U.S.A.

1913. Jensen, Axel Kmil, 24, Maddison Street, Jeppestown,

Johannesburg.
1916. Jensen, Ragnvald, C.E., P.O. Box 1361, Johannesburg.
1918. Jerrard, Edmund Paul, Kopfontein 262, Marico District,

Transvaal.

1916. tJoel, Solomon Barnato, P.O. Box 433, Johannesburg.
1912. Johnson, Miss Alta, Ph.B., New Street, Wellington, C.P.
1912. Johnson, George Lindsay, M.A., M.D., 5 and 6, Castle

Mansions, Eloff Street, Johannesburg.
1909. Johnson, VV., L.R.C.P., L.K.C.S., 3, Link Road, Bloem-
fontein.

1914. Johnson, W. S., M.A., Professor of English, Grey Univer-

sity College, Bloemfontein.

1915. Jolly, William Adam, M.B., Ch.B., D.Sc, Professor of

Physiology, University of Capetown.

1917. Jones, Daniel Johnes, Government School, Roodepoort,

Transvaal.

1916. Jones, J. E., P.O. Box 2354, Johannesburg.

1917. tJoi^cs, Levi David, B.Sc, 57, Long Street, Germiston,

Transvaal.

191 1. Joubert, M. J., B.Sc.Agr.. Department of Agriculture,

Bloemfontein.

1905. tjunod. /i^cz'. Ilenri A.. P.O. Box 21, Lourenoo Marcjues.

1903. t JURITZ, CHARLES FREDERICK, M.A., D.Sc. F.LC.
(President, 1918, Pres. B, 1909, General Secretary,
1910-1917, 1919), Agricultural Chemical Research
Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Capetown.

1907. Kanthack, Francis Edgar, C.M.G., M.LC.E., M.LM.E.,
(Pres. A, 1915). Director of Irrigation, Union Build-
ings, Pretoria.

1918. Karnovsky, Plerman Louis, P.O. Box 5933, Johannesburg.

1912. Kehoe, D., M.R.C.V.S.. Royal Veterinary College of Ire-

land, Ballsbridge, Dn])lin, Ireland.

1919. Kemp, Caroline Louisa, M.A., Girls' High .School, Ronde-

bosch, Capetown.

1918. Kennedy, Capt., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1903. Kent, Professor Thomas Parkes, M.A., University of
Capetown.

1919. Kerr, Alexander, M.A.. Pt-'iicip-'l South African X^ative

College, Fort Hare, Alice, C.P.

1918. King, Amelia Millicent, B.A., Division of Botany, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1905. King, Austin, Director of Mines, Macequege,, Portuguese
East Africa.

LIST Of MKMliliKS. XIX

Year of
Election.

1915. King, Edith Louise Mary, Eunice High School, Bloemfon-
tein.

191 5. King, Francis Edward, P.O. 802. Pretoria.

1916. King, James, Lynedoch, Nottingham Road, Natal.

1914. KiNGON, Rev. John Robert Lewis, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S. (Pres. E.), St. Andrew's Manse, 7, Victoria
Park Drive, South End, Port Elizabeth.

1919. Kingwilliamstown Public Library, KingwilHamstown, C.P.

1913. KiRKLAND, John Wilkinson, M.Am.LE.E.. P.O. Box
1905, Johannesburg.

1907. Kirkman, John, J. P.. M.P.C.. 331, Musgrave Road, Dur-
ban.

1916. Kleudgen, Caesar, P.O. Box 1164, Johannesburg.

1918. Kloot, Alfred Aaron, B.Sc. A.LC," P.O. Box 1080, Johan-
nesburg.

1902. *fKnapp, Arthur D., Chikondi Estate, Neno Post Office,
British Central Africa.

1902. Kolbe, Rev. Frederick Charles, B.A., D.D., St. Mary's

Presbytery, Capetown.

1903. Kotze, Sir Robert W. N., Kt., B.A., P.O. Box 1132. New

Law Courts, Johannesburg.
1918. Krause, Frederick Edward Trangott, B.A., LL.D., K.C..
P.O. Box 2345, Johannesburg.

1916. Krause, Herbert Louis, A.S.M., P.O. Box 193, Germiston,

Transvaal.

1917. Krige, Jacob Daniel Alphonse, Ph.D., Professor of Dutch,

South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

^toj )

1917. Laidler. Percy Ward. L.D.S., L.R.C.P.. L.R.C.S., F.S.A.,

Seaford, Main Road. Sea Point. Capetown.

1919. Lambe, John Mordy, City Electrical Engineer, Town Hall,
East London, C.P.

1916. Lamont, William John, Grootfontein School of Agri-
culture. Middelburg, C.P.

1918. Landau. Arthur, P.O. Box 3378. Johannesburg.

1913. Landau, Nathan, Survev Office, Modder Deep Level, P.O.

Box 326, Benoni, Transvaal.

1914. Langc, Hon. Justice Sir Johannes H.. Kt., LL.B., Judge's

Chambers, Kimberley, C.P.
1916. Lanvon, John E., P.O. Box 25, Benoni. Transvaal.
7903. tLa.schinger. E. J.. B.A.Sc, M.E., M.T.M.M., P.O. Box

4563, Johannesburg.
1918. Le Roy, ^Rcv. Albert E., B.A., B.D.. Adams Mission
Station. Natal.

1903. Legat, C. E.. B.Sc. (Pres. C. 1918). Chief Conservator of

Forests, Pretoria.

1904. Leech. Dr. John Richard, Union Club, P.O. Box it 12.

Johannesburg.

X^ LIST OF MEMUlikS.

Year of
Election.

1904. fLeeds, R. Q., P.O. Box 928, Johannesburg.

1907. Lehfeldt, Robert A., B.A., D.Sc. (Vice Pres. F, General

Treasurer, 1909-1910), Professor of Economics,
South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1908. Leighton, James, F.R.H.S., P.O. Box 86, Kingwilliams-

town, C.P.

1902. *Lenz, Otto, P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1919. Leonard, Charles Henrv Rranold, Mount Nelson Hotel,
Capetown.

1916, Leslie, Charles Duff, P.O. Box 1167, Johannesburg.

1916. fLESLiE, Robert, M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F), Jagger Pro-
fessor of Economics, University of Capetown.

1903. Leslie, T. N., C.E., F.G.S., P.O. Box 23, Vereeniging,

Transvaal.
1908. Leviseur, M., Bloemfontein.
1918. Levy, Joseph Langley, P.O. Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1905. fLewis, Mrs. Helen R., Zeven Rivieren, Ban Hoek, Stellen"

bosch, C.P.

1903. fLewis, Leon, Zeven Rivieren, Ban Hoek, .Stellenbosch.

1916. Linscott, Arthur Burrow, A.M.LC.E., A.M.LM.E.. P.O.
Box 4013, Johannesburg.

1918. Lister, Frederick Spencer, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., " Cran-
brook," Jan Smuts Avenue, Westcliff, Johannesburg.

1916. Loeser, Dr. H. F., Crown Mines, Ltd., Johannesburg.

1918. Logan, James Patteson, F.S.A.A., Town Hall, Bloemfon-
tein.

1903. Logeman, William H., M.A., Professor of Physics, Grey
University College, Bloemfontein.

1916. J Oram, Charles Templeman, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D. (Vice-

Pres. E), Education Department, Maritzburg.

T903. Lorentz, Henri, P.O., Box 55, Johannesburg.

1902. Lounsbury, Charles Pugsley, B.Sc, F.E.S., (Pres. C.
1915), Chief of the Division of Entomology, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, P.O. Box 513, Pretoria.

1902. *LuNT, Joseph, D.Sc, F.I.C., Royal Observatory, C.P.

1914. Lyle, James, M.A., Grey College School, Bloemfontein.

1902, *Lynch, Major F. S., J. P., Kimberley Waterworks Co.,
Ltd., P.O. Box 630, Kimberley, C.P.

1917. Lyons, Joseph, A.R.C.S., c|o [oseph Baynes, Ltd., Nels

Rust, Natal.

1905. tMcArthur, Duncan Campbell, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
Muizenberg, Capetown.

1917. MacColl, Rev. John A., M.A., c/o Mr. J. J. Simpson. P.O.
Box 64, Johannesburg.

T918. McCowat, Dr. W. M., 25, Van der Merwe Street. Johan-
nesburg.

LIST OK MEMISliKS. XJ(t

year of
tiection.

1917. McCrae, John, Ph.D., F.I.C., P.O. Box 1080, Johannes-
^ burg.

1917. McCracken, John, C/O Mes.srs. Fraser & Chalmers, Corner

House, Johannesburg.

I919. McCurdy, Joseph Campbell, P.O. Box 6, Kingwilliams-

town.
1916. McDavid, W., Trades School, Smit Street, Johannesburg.
1916. McDonald, David Paterson, M.A., B.Sc, P.O. Box 11 70,

Johannesburg.
1909. Macdonald, G., M.A., Normal Training College, Bloemfon-

tein.
1902. *McEwen, T. S., A.M.I.C.E., " The Links," Rondebosch,
C.P.

1918. Macfadyen, William AUison, M.A., LL.D. (Vice-Pres. F.),

Professor of Philosophy, Transvaal University College,
Pretoria.
1909. McFeggans, Alexander, P.O. Box 26, Umtata, C.P.

1914. McGregor, Rev. Andrew Murray, M.A., B.D., Blcmme-

stein. Three Anchor Bay, Capetown.
1918. Maclntyre, Alexander Stewart, Government Industrial

School, Maseru, Basutoland.
1916. Maclntyre, Joseph Mansfield Bell, M.A., Twist Street,
Government School, Johannesburg.

1916. McKay, Mrs. Helen Millar, Malvern Government School,

Johannesburg.
1904. McKenzie, Archibald, M.D., CM., M.R.C.S., Glen Lyon,
Musgrave Road, Durban, Natal.

1918. McKowen, Frank, Victoria Falls and Transvaal Power

Co., Consolidated Buildings, Johannesburg.

1917. MacLachlan,, James, P.O. Box 1876, Johannesburg.

1918. McLaren, Mrs. Florence V., 36, St. George's Street, Yeo

ville, Johannesburg.
1917. McLaren, James, M.A., Fintalich Farm, Crieff, Scotland.

191 5. fMcLoughlin. Alfred George, Chief Magistrate's Office,

Umtata, C.P.

1916. McLove, L G., P.O. Box 899, Johannesburg.

1919. McMillan, David, J.P., 47, St. Peter's Road, P.O. Box 109.

East London, C.P.,
1914. Macmillan, William Miller. B.A., Professor of History,
South African School of Mines and Technology, P.O.
Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1913. Macpherson, Henry Wingate, P.O. Box 519, Johannes-
burg.
1908. Macrae, H. J., P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg.

1919. Main, John, P.O. Box 38, Capetown.

1919. Maisels, Israel, M.B., Ch.B., L.M., 74, Kruis Street, Johan-
nesburg.

AXn LIST OF MI:MI5ERS.

Year of
Election.

loio. Malan, Hon. Frangais Stephanus, B.A., LL.D., M.L.A.,

P.O. Box 450, Pretoria.
1912. fMalherbe, D. F. du Toit, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of

Chemistry, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
1904. Malherbe, H.L,, P.O. Box 208, Pretoria.
1917. Malherbe, Willem Elisa, B.A., B.Sc, Professor of Physics,

University of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1917. Malleson, Percy Rodburd, F.R.H.S., Ida's Valley, Stellen-
bosch, C.P.
1902. fMALLY^ Charles William^ M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S., Divi-
sion of Entomology. Department of Agriculture,
Capetown.
191 5. Manning, Charles Nicolson, P.O. Box 98, Pietersburg,

Transvaal.
1919. Marchand, Mrs. x\nnabel W., Parsonage, Vredenburg, C.P.

1915. Marchand, Bernard de Coligny, B.A., D.Sc, Chemical

Laboratory, Department of y\griculture, Pretoria.
1904. Marks, Hon. Senator Samuel, Hatherley Buildings, P.O.

Box 379, Pretoria.
1902. * 'MARLOTH, Professor RUDOLF, M.A., Ph.D. (Pros
B, 1903, President, 1914), P.O. Box 359, Capetown.

1916. Marshall, William Benjamin, P.O. Box 159, Maritzburg.
191 1. Maufe, Herbert Brantwood, B.A., F.G.S.'. P.O. Box 366.

Salisbury, Rhodesia.
1902. Melle, G. J. McCarthy, M.B., CM., cjo Zaaiplaats Tin

Mining Co., Ltd., Potgietersrust, Transvaal.
J903. Mellor, Edward, T, D.Sc, M.LM.M., F.G.S., P.O. Box

1056, Johannesburg.
1902. *Menmuir, R. W., A.M.I.C.E., National Mutual Buildings,

Church Square, Capetown.

1917. Mercier, David Pyne, B.A., Secondarv School, Winburg,

O.F.S.

1914. Mesham, Paul. M.A., M.Sc, Natal University College,

Maritzburg.
1902.*! METCALFE, Sir CHARLES, Bart., M.LC.E. (PRESI-
DENT, 1904; Pres. C, 1903), 21, Pall Mall, London,
S.W., England.

1916. Meyer, Edward C. J., B.Sc, P.O. Box 57, East Rand,

Transvaal.

1917. Miller, Thomas Maskew, M.B.E., P.O. Box 396, Capetown.
1917. Mills, Frederick William, M.LE.E., Headquarters, South

African Railways, Johannesburg.

1 91 5. Mitchell, David Thomas, M.R.C.V.S., Veterinary Research

Office, P.O. Box 405, Department of Agriculture,
Maritzburg.

1916. Mitchell, Hugh, P.O. Box 98, Langlaagte, Transvaal.
1916. Mitchell, John, Jeppes Central Government School, Johan-
nesburg.

LIST Ol' MEMBERS. XXlll

Year of
Election.

1918. Mitchell. William John. P.O. Box 1696, Johannesburg,

1915. Mogg-, Albert Oliver Dean, B.A., P.O. Box 593, Pretoria,

1917. Moir, James, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. (Vice-Pres. B), P.O.

Box 1080, Johannesburg.

1912. Moll, Dr. A. M., P.O. Box 4708, Johannesburg.

1918. Montgomery, Robert Eustace, M.R.C.V.S., Director of

Veterinary Research, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.
1916; Moore. Mary Elizabeth (Constance. Wykeham School,
Maritzburg.

1919. Moore, Wilhe Paton, Rexton, Bonair Road, Rondebosch,

Capetown.

1903. ]\Iorice. George T., B.A., K.C., 48. Sauer's Buildings,

Johannesburg.

1916. Morrison, John Todd, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E., A.M.I.E.E.

(Pres. A, 1918), Professor of Applied Mathematics,
University of Stellenbosch, C.P.

1916. Morton. David Thomas. West Rand Consolidated Mines,

Transvaal.

1917. Moss, Charles Edward, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.

Professor of Botany, South African School of Mines
and Technology, Johannesburg.

1918. Moss-Morris, Bernard, P.O. Box 4800, Johannesburg.
191 5. Mudd, Norman, M.A., Grey University College, Bloem-

fontein.
1902. *MUIR, Sir THOMAS, Kt., C.M.G., M.A., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (President, 1910), Elmcote, San-
down Road, Rondebosch, Capetown.

191 5. Munro. Thigh Kenneth, Division of Entomology, P.O. Box

513, Pretoria.

1913. Munro, James, P.O. Box 19, Lourengo Marques.

1916. Munro, John, P.O. Box 433, Johannesburg.

1917. Murray. Charles, M.A., Herold Street, Stellenbosch, C.P.

1904. Murray, George Alfred Everett, M.D., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

P.O. Box 105, Johannesburg.

1918. Murray, John, M.I.Mech.E, c|o The African Agricultural

Estates, Ltd., Movene Estates, Bohane, Lourenco
Marques.
191 1. Musselwhite, Rev. E. W. H., B.A.. Zonnebloem College,
Capetown.

1919. Myers, Benjamin, 88, Oxford Street, East London, C.P.

1916. Narbeth. Benjamin Mason. B.Sc, F.C.S., Principal, Tech-

nical Colleg-e, Durban, Natal.
1910. Nauta. Prof. Renicus Dowe, University of Capetown.

1917. Nay, Arthur Mac, M.LMech.E., P.O. Box 951, Durban,

Natal. _

1916. Neame. Hugh Austin, P.O. Box 3921, Johannesburg. /'r\Q>\Ci^^
T918. Neaves-Little, William Henry, F.c5. Box 1703, JohanrL^Sc? ^oS Af.

burg. '^

\^/

XXtV LIST OF MEMBEKS.

Year of
Election.

igi/. Neethling", Prof. Johannes Henoch, Al.Sc, University of

Stellenbosch, C.P.
1905. Neilson, A. M., Manager, Safco Fertilizers Co., Umbilo.
Natal.

1916. Neitz, Rcc'. Johannes, P. (J). Box ly, Potgietersrust, Tran.«-

vaal.
1918. Nelson, George William, P. (J. Box 841, Johannesburg.
f9i9. Nettelton, George Augustus. Keiskania Hoek, Kingwil-

liamstown, C.P.

1915. New Vorl< Public Library, 42ncl Street and Fifth Avenue,

New York City, U.S.A.

1917. Newbery, H., P.O. Box 225, Benoni, Transvaal.

1914. Newhall, Percy Melrose, B.Sc, P.O. Box 485, Johannes-

burg.

1916. Newhouse, Jians. P.O. Box ii5(), Johannesburg.

1916. Newman, Arthur l])udley, P.O. Box 231, Johannesburg.

1918. Newton, Sir Francis Jam.es, K.C.M.G., M. A.. The Treas-

ury, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1917. Nicholson. Alfred, Schoongezicht, Stellenbosch, C.P.
1902. *Nicholson, Colonel George Taylor, M.LC.E., Resident

Engineer, Docks, Cajjetown.

191 3. Nicol, John, M.R.C.V.S., (jovernment Veterinary Sur-
geon, P.O. Box 99, Kingwilliamstown. C.P.

1917. Nicolson, John Gregory, F.G.S., P.O. Box 181, Krugers-
dorp, Transvaal.

1916. Niven, James Just, M.T.C.E., M.R.SanJ.. P.O. Box 205,
Maritzburg.

1904. Nixon, Edward John, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., P.O. Box 57,
Heidelberg, Transvaal.

1902. Nolibs, Eric Arthur, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.R.H.S., Director of
Agriculture, Salisbury. Rhodesia.

1915. Norton, Rcz: William Alfred, B.A., B.Litt. (Pres. E.,

1918), University of Ca]~)etown.

1908. O'Connor, James, Railway Hotel and Stores, Ashton, Cape.

1917. Odgers, \¥.. Rand Club. Johannesburg.

1907. Ogg. Alexander, M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D. (Pres. A, 1914),
Professor of Physics, South African .""School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1918. Ordbrown, .Vlbert Edward, P.O. Box 2895, Johannesburg.
191 5. Orenstein, Alexander Jeremiah, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.
1914. Orford, Rev. Canon Horace William, M.A., Church House.

61, Burg Street, Capetown.
1906. Orjien, Joseph Millerd. ]\Ion Asile, 43, St. Mark's Road.

East London.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXV

Year of
Election.

1902. * ORR, JOHN, U.B.E,. B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E.
(President, 1917, Pres. A, 1916), Professor of Mecha-
nical Engineering, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1913. Orr, Mrs. J., c/o Professor Orr, P.O. Box 1176, Johannes-

burg.
1918. Orr, Robert, P.O. Box 1099, Johannesburg.

1918. Ortlepp, Reinhold Johannes, M.A., P.O. Box 1176,

Johannesburg.

1916. Otto, Cyril Saxon Douglas, Otto's Bluff, Natal.

1917. Ottley, Thomas George, P.O. Box 2671, Johannesburg.

1919. Owen. M'illiam Alfred. P.O. Box iii, Kingwilliamstown,

C.P.

1905. tPaisley, William, M.B., B.Ch., P.O. Box 127, Queens-
Town, C.P.
1908. Palmer. \\\ Jarvis, B.Sc. A., P.O. Box 4557, Johannesburg.
1905. fPapenfus, H. B., K.C., P.O. Box 5155, Johannesburg.

1914. Parry. John, c/o De Beers Mines, Ltd., 17, Hull Street,

Kimberley, C.P.

1912. Paterson, Mrs. T. V., Redhouse, near Port Elizabeth, C.P.
1916. Paterson, William, 103, Eloff Street. Johannesburg.

1902. tPattrick. C. Ijeaufoy. A.M.I.C.E., King Edward Man-

•iions. Port Elizabeth. C.P.

1903. fPayne, Albert E., A.R.S.M., P.O. Box 15. Langlaagte,

Transvaal.
1919. Peacock, Henry Christopher, East London. C.P.
1916. Pearce. William, Lower Illovo. Natal.

1916. Pellissier. Rev. George Murray, B.A., B.D.. Dimdee, Natal.

1913. Perez. Manoel A. Jr.. Chief Assistant, Observatorio Cam-

pos Rodriguez. P.O. Box 256. Lourenqo Marques.
1907. Peringuey, Louis Albert, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Director

South African Museum. Capetown.
1910. fPerold. Al)raham Izak, B.A.. Ph.D., Professor of Viti-
culture and Oenolog\-. University of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1912. Perrins, George Richard, " Grange," 106. Cape Road,

Port Elizabeth, C.P.
1905. Petersen Carl Olief, P.O. Box 4938, Johannesburg.

1917. Petersen, Henry Alfred, P.O. Box 3696. Johannesburg.

1917. Petrie, Alexander, M.A., Professor of Classics, Natal

University College, Maritzburg.

191 5. Pettey. Franklin William. B.A.. Ph.D.. Entomologist. Gov-

ernment School of Agriculture. Elsenburg. Mulder's
Vlei, C.P.

1904. Pettman. Rez'. Charles. 6. Loch Street, North' End. Port

Elizabeth.

1918. Philip. Ehivid R. C, P.O. Box 143, Johannesburg.

XXVt LIST, OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

191 5. Phillips, Edwin Percy, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., P.O. Box 1294,

Pretoria.

1916. Phillips, Martin, M.A., P.O. Gezina, Pretoria.

1912. Pickstone, Harry Ernest Victor, Lekkerwyn, Groot

Drakenstein, C.P.
1903. Pirn, James Howard, C.B.E., B.A., F.C.A. (General

Treasurer, 1906-1907), P.O. Box 1331, Johannesburg.
1915. Plowman, George Thomas, C.M.G., Provincial Secretary,

Maritzburg.
1918. Pocock, Adiss E.D., B..Sc., Rusdon, College Road, Ronde-

bosch.

1915. Pollard, Miss Grace E., F.R.H.S., Huguenot College,

Wellington, C.P.
1918. Porter. Annie (Mrs. H. B. Fantham), D.Sc. F.L.S., P.O.
Box 1038, Johannesburg.

1918. Potter, Henry Samuel, M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 5510,

Johannesburg.

1916. Potts, Alexander, P.O. Box 2863, Johannesburg.

1905. fPotts, George, M.Sc, Ph.D. (Pres. C, 1914), Professor

of Botany, Grey University College, 91, Park Road,
Bloemfontein.

1919. Powell, John, M.Inst.M. <Nr k^.E., City Engineer, Town Hall,

East London, C.Jf.
1916. Powell, Owen Price, P.O. Box 192, Germiston, Transvaal.
1916. Price, Bernard, M.I.E.E., AM-LCE., A.M.Am.I.E.E.,

P.O. Box 2671, Johannesburg.

1916. Price, Roger, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1913. Provay, Giuseppe, Chief Electrical Engineer of Harbours

and Railways, P.O. Box 1479, Lourengo Marques.
1910. Purcell, William Frederick, M.A., Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., Berg-
vliet, Diep River, C.P.

1917. Purchas, Thomas Alfred Rufus, P.O. Box 272, Johannes-

burg.

1906. Pym, Frank Arthur Oakley, Public Museum, P.O. Box

51, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1919. Pyper, Adrianus, M.D.. L.S.A., A.R.T.S., P.O. Box 12,

Bethal, Transvaal.
1917. Pyper, Dr. Cornells, P.O. Box 21, Lydenburg, Transvaal.

1902. tQuinan, Kenneth B. C.H., Chemist and Engineer, Cape
Explosive Works, Somerset West, C.P.

191 5. Ramsbottom. Kathleen Nora, B.A., Eunice High School.

Bloemfontein.
1919. Rattray, George, M.A., D.Sc. F.R.G.S., Principal, Selborne

College, East London, C.P.

LIST OF MKM15EUS. XXVtl

Year of
Election.

1919. Rayner, Charles Tainton, P.O. Box 113, Goold Street, West
Bank, Kingwilliamstown.

1916. Read, Herbert Alfred, F.R.S.A., P.O. Box 1056, Johan-
nesburg.

1916. Reeve, Herbert C, M.A., High School, Krugersdorp,

Transvaal.
1902. *Reid, Arthur Henry, F.R.I. B.A., F.R.San. I., P.O. Box
120, Capetown.

1914. Reid, Walter, F.R.I. B. A., P.O. Box 746, Johannesburg.

1917. Reinecke, Theodore Gerald Wellesley, B.A., M.Sc, School

of Agriculture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
1916. Reunert, Jack, Messrs. Reunert & Lenz, Consolidated
Buildings. Johannesburg.

1902. *REUNERT, THEODORE, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., (PRESI-

DENT, 1905), P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1905. Reunert, Mrs. Theodore, P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
1907. Renter, Rev. Fritz L., Medingen, P.O. Duivelskloof, Trans-
vaal.

1903. fReyersbach, Louis J., 29 and 30, Holborn Viaduct, Lon-

don, E.C.
1913. Reyneke, Andries Adriaan Louw, B.A., Durbanville, C.P.

1913. Revneke. Rev. Jacobus Cornelius, De Pastorie, Cradock,

C.P.
1916. Reynolds, Sir Frank, LTmhlali, Esperanza, Natal.
1916. Reynolds, H., M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
1916. Reynolds-Tait, Joseph St. Guido, P.O. Box 502. Durban,

' Natal.
1916. Rice, Frank Peabody, P.O. Box 930, Johannesburg,
1916. Rich, Stephen Gottheil, M.A., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1126, Dur-
ban, Natal.
1909. RiNDL, Max Morris, Ing.D. (Pres. B, 1917), Professor

of Chemistry, Grey University College, Bloemfontein.
1903. Ritchie, William, M.A. (Pres. D, 1914), Professor of
Latin, University of Capetown.

1916. Robb, Andrew D., Trades School, Smit Street, Johannes-

burg.

1917. Robb, A. Moir. M.A., P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.
1902. *ROBERTS, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E. (Pres. A 1908; President, 191 3), Lovedale,
C.P

1915. Roberts, Austin, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1919. Roberts, Hamilton Mills Goldfinch, P.O. Box 95. Downing
Street, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1913. Roberts, Rev. Noel (Pres. E, 1917). The Vicarage,
Orchards, Johannesburg.

1909. Robertson, Colin C, M.F., c/o Forest Department, Pre-
toria.

1906. Robertson, John, P.O. Box 138, Bloemfontein.

XXVm LIST 01-" MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1915. Robinson, Eric Maxwell, M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box 593, Pre-
toria.

1902. fRogers, Arthur William, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S. ( Pres. B,
1910), P.O. Box 206, Heidelberg, Transvaal.

1918. Rogers, Ven. Archdeacon Frederick Arundel, P.O. Box

1 1 3 1 , Johannesburg.
191 5. Romyn, Mrs. Elizabeth, Zonnehoek, 157, Troye Street,

Pretoria.
1902. *Rose, James Wilmot Andreas, M.I.C.E., Municipal

Offices. Stellenbosch. C.P.
1905. fRose, Lieut. -Col. John George, D.S.O.,F.C.S., Government

Chemical Laboratory, Capetown.

1912. Roseveare, W. N., M.A. (Vice-President; Pres. A, 1917),

Professor of Mathematics, Natal University College,
P.O. Box 375, Maritzburg.
1917. Ross. Charles Richard. Forest Department. Capetown.

1914. Ross, John. P.O. Box 636, Kimberley, C.P.

1917. Ross, "John Carl, B.A.,' M.S.. Ph.D., School of. Agricul-

ture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.

1919. Roux, Paul, 124. 8th Aveiuie. May fair, Johannesburg.
1902. *Runciman, William, M.L.A., Simonstown, C.P.

191 5. Ruthven. Jane Buchanan Henderson, M.D., L.R.C.P.,

L.R.C.S., F.R.S.A., P.O. Box Q2S?,, Johannesburg.

1918. Satchel. Oscar John Soley, M.A., Boys' High School,

• Kimberley, C.P.
191 5. Schlupp, William Francis, B.Sc, Lecturer in Zoology and
Entomology. Government School of Agriculture, P.O.
Box 181, Potchefstroom. Transvaal.

1917. Schoch, Edward Rengers, M.LM.M.. P.O. Box 2927,

Johannesburg.
1902. *Sch5nland. Selmar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. (Vice-
Pres. C; Pres., C, 1908), Professor of Botany, Rhodes
University College, Grahamstown, C.P.

1 91 3. School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

1913. School of Agriculture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
191 3. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Glen,

O.F.S.
1913. School of Agriculture and Experimental Station, Groot-

fontein, Middelburg,_ C.P.
1913. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm, Potchef-
stroom. Transvaal.
J916. Schreiber, Oscar Albert Egmont, P.O. Box 396, Maritz-
burg.

1918. Schultz. Mark, C.E., P.O. Box 19, Breyten, Transvaal.
1902. Schwarz. Ernest H. L.. A.R.C.S.. F.G.S. (Pres. B., 1908'),

Professor of Geology, Rhodes University College,
P.O.Box 116, Grahamstown, C.P.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXIX

Year of
Election.

916. Scott. Rev. James, Claridge, Natal.

914. Searle, Mrs. Amy M., B.A., Great Brak River, C.P.

918. Selvey, Edgar Harold Ernest, B.Sc., c/o Kynochs, Ltd.,
Umbogintwini, Natal.

912. Sekuya, Salomon. Vice-Consul for Portugtial, P.O. Box
5633, Johannesburg.

912. Shand, Samuel James, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., Professor of
Geology, University of Stellenbosch, C.P.

903. Shanks. Robert, 20, Graf Street, Johannesburg.

916. Sheridan, Norman, M.D., B.S., Chudleigh's Buildings,
Johannesburg.

916. Sherwell. Percy W., City Deep Gold Mining Co., Johannes-
burg.

916. Shore, John, P.O. Box 2997, Johannesburg.

902. ^Shores, J. W., 'C.M.G., M.I.C.E., Rutland, Scottsville,
Maritzburg.

918. Sibbett. Cecil James, P.O. Box 914, Capetown.

916. Siedle. Otto, P.O. Box 931, Durban, Natal.

918. Silttie, David. Pollock, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
916. Sim, Thomas Robertson, 168, Burger Street, Maritzburg.

916. fSimon, Frank, M.I.M.E., P.O., Minnaar, Transvaal

917. Simons, Lewis, B.Sc, Professor of Physics, University of
Capetown.

916. Simpson, Archibald James Grant, A.M.LE.E., P.O. Box
239, Capetown.

917. Skaife, Svdney Harold, B.A., Government E.xpcrimental
Station, Rosebank, Capetown.

919. Sloman, Leman Saunders, P.O. Box 894, Capetown.

902. *Smartt, Hon. Sir Thomas William. K.C.M G.. L.R.C.S.L,
L.K.Q.C.P.L, M.L.A., Glen Ban, Stellenbosch, C.P.

916. Smith, Arthur Herbert, P.O. Box 141. Durban, Natal.

916. Smith, Hon. Charles G., P.O. Box 43, Durban, Natal.

915. Smith, Edward Holmfs, B.Sr.. S'^'-'onl r^f Agriculture,

P.O. Box 181. Potchefstroom, Transvaal.

906. Smith, Frank Braybrooke, C.M.G., Secretary for Agricul-
ture. Union Buildings. Pretoria.

915. Smith. Frank Cummine. Grootfontein School of Agricul-
ture Middelburg, C.P.

917. Smith, 6^?;' Frederick William, Kt., P.O. Box 84, Cape-

town.
912. Smith, George William, A.M.LC.E., 11, Constitution Hill,
Port Elizabeth, C.P.

918. Smith, Grace Annie. 2^,, Kensington Flats, Noord Street,

Johannesburg.

903. Smith, James, M.A., Normal College, Capetown.
917. Smith, Johannes Jacobus, B.A.. Professor of French and

German, University of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1905. Smuts. Lieut. -General Kt. Hon. Tan Chr'.stiaan, K.C..
C.H., B.A., LL.D., Minister of Defence, P.O. Box
1081, Pretoria.

XXX LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1914. fSmyth, Right Rev. Bishop William Edmund, M.A.,, M.B.,
The Rectory, Woodstock.

1916. Smyth, Robert Milner, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.I.P.H.,
Government Hospital, Durban, Natal.

1919. Snape, Alfred Ernest, M.Sc, A.M.I.C.E., F.R.San.I., Pro-
fessor of Civil Engineering, University of Capetown.

1903. Solly, Mrs. Julia F., Knor Hoek, Sir Lowry's Pass, C.P.

1903. Solomon, Hun. Justice Sir W. H., High Court of Appeal.
Capetown.

1908. Somerville, Alfred James^ M.A., P.O. Box 126, Salisbury,
Rhodesia.

1 910. fSoutter, John Lyall, P.O. Box 403, Pretoria.

1916. Sowter, Godfrey Dennis, P.O. Box 1020, Johannesburg.

1918. Spencer, G. Ross, L.D.S., Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1906. tSpencer, Dr. Henry Alexander, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Mid-

delburg, Transvaal.
1905. Sperryn, Arthur James, J. P., P.O. Box i, Ermelo, Trans

vaal.

1903. Spilhaus, William, c/o Messrs. W. Spilhaus & Co., Strand

Street, Capetown.

1919. Squire-Smith, Henry, P.O. Box 21, KingwiUiamstown,

C.P.

1913. Stafford, Miss Susan, M.A., Pluguenot College, Wellington,
C.P.

1905. Stallard, C. F., K.C., P.O. Box 5156, Johannesburg.

1905. fStanley, George Hardy, A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E., M.I.M.M.,
F.I.C. (Pres. B, 1914), Professor of Metallurgy and
Assaying, South African School of Mines and
Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1904. Stead, Arthur, B.Sc, F.C.S., School of Agriculture, Groot-

fontein, Middelburg, C.P.

1908. Steedman, Miss E. C, M.A., Gando Farm. Gwelo, South-

ern Rhodesia.

1917. Stegmann, Ebenezer Theodorus, B.A.. D.Sc, Lichfield,

Stellenbosch, C.P.
1917. Stein. PhiHp, B.A.. Natal University College, Pietermaritz—
burg.

1917. fStephens, Edith Layard, B.A., F.L.S., University of Cape-

town.
1903. fStevens, J. D., P.O. Box 1782, Johannesburg.

1909. Stewart, G. A., City Engineer, Bloemfontein.

1918. Stirling. Matthew Miller, P.O. Box 246. Germiston, Trans-

vaal.
1917. Stokes, Frank Torrens, M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 699,
Johannesburg.

1905. tStoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc, Huguenot College, Wel-

lington, C P.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXXI

Year of
Election.

1917. Storey, Francis Wylie, B.Sc, F.C.S., 31, Monument Road,

Bloemfontein.
igo2. *tStott, Clement H., F.G.S., M.S.A., P.O. Box 7, Maritz-

burg.
1916. Strapp, Walter Russell, M.D.. 248, Loop Street, Maritz-

hmg.

1904. Struben, A. M. A.. A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 317, Pretoria.
1906. Stuart, James, 34, Ijjop Street, Maritzburjj.

1906. Stucke, W. H., P.O. Box 2271, Johannesburg.

1919. Sutton, Rev. Francis Joseph. M.A., Dale College. King-
williamstown, C.P.

1915. Swierstra, Cornelis jacobus. F.E.S.. P.O. Box 413, Pre-

toria.
1915. Swvnnerton, Charles Francis Massy, F.L.S.. F.E.S.,
F.R.H.S., Gungunyana. Melserter. Southern Rhodesia.

1918. Taberer, Henry Melville. BJK.. P.O. Box 1251, Johannes-

burg.

1905. tTannahill, Thomas Findlay, M.D., CM., D.P.H.. Queens-

town, C.P.
1913. Tannock. John Porter. M.B.. CM., D.P.H., P.O. Box
5315, Johannesburg.

1918. Tapscott. Sidney, B.Sc, " Tipperary." Riverton Road, C.P.
i'909. Teasdale, Miss Emma L.. Government School, Marais-

burg, Transvaal.

1913. Teixeira, Capt. Augusto D'Almeida, Observatorio Cam-

pos Rodrigues, P.O. Box 256, Lourengo Marques.

1906. Tennant, Sydney Dennison, P.O. Box 132, Ermelo, Trans-

vaal.
'904. * THEILER, Sir ARNOLD, K.CM.G.. D.Sc. (PRESI-
DENT, 19121. Armocdsvlakte. Vryburg. C.P.

1919. Thesen, N. P.. c|o Thesen & Co., Capetown.

1918. Thom, James Ritchie, P.O. Box 42. Brakpan, Transvaal.
1903. Thomas, Walwyn, B.C. M.B., B.A., 2, Greenham Villas.
Annandale Street, Capetown.

1914. Thompson, Frederick Handel, B.A., Inspector of Schools,

P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.

1916. Thompson, James. 6. Rissik Street, Johannesburg.
1913. Thomson, Samuel. CA.. P.O. Box 228, Johannesburg.

1902. Thomson, William, M.A.. B.Sc, LL.D.. F.R.S.E.. Regis-

trar, University of South Africa. Pretoria.
1910. Thornton, Russel William, Principal. Government School
of Agricuhure, Grootfontein. Middelburg. C.P.

1903. fTietz, Heinrich C J.. M.A., Ph.D.. Buona Vista, Burham

Road, Observatory Road, Capetown.

1 91 7. Tindall, Rory Joseph Eaidman, B.A., P.O. Box 4331,

Johannesburg.

XXXll LIST OF MliMBEKS.

Year of
Election.

1916. Tomes, Rev. AUred Edmund Godfrey, B.A., 181, Loop

Street, Maritzburg^.

1902. *Townsend. Stephen Frank, C.E.. Suevic, Southfield Road,

Plumstead, C.P .

1917. Tribolet, Isaac, F.R.H.S., Elsenburg School of Agricul-

ture, Mulder's Vlei, C.P.
1919. Trill, George William Charles, cjo Findlay & Co., Ltd..

Parliament Street, Capetown.
1910. Trollip, W. L., Ofifice of the Hon. the Administrator of

the Cape Province, Capetown.
1917. Tromp, Felix Johan, B.A., F.C.S., Transvaal LTniversity

College, Pretoria.
1906. Troup, James Macdonald, M.B., Ch.B., L.S.A., 230, Esse-

len Street, Sunnyside, Pretoria.
1916. Trubshaw, Henry Arthur, Twelfth Avenue, Mayfair,

Johannesburg.

1903. Tucker, William Kidger, C.M.G., P.O. Box 9, Johannes-

burg.
1916. Tucker, William -Petre, Reunion Estate, Reunion, .Sc»uth

Coast, Natal.
1916. Turner, F. E., P.O. Box 407. Johannesburg.

1906. Tyers, F. G., M.A., The College. P.O. Box 93, Potchef-
stroom, Transvaal.

1916. Udwin, M., Rand Water Board, Johannesburg.

191 7. Union Department of Education, Pretoria.

1917. Union Observatory, c/o Union Astronomer, Johannesburg.

1915. Van der Byl, Paul Andries. M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.. Xatal

Herbarium, Berea, Durban, Natal.
1912. Van der Lingen, Jan Stephanus, P)..\., Erinville. Milton

Road, vSea Point, Capetown.
191 7. Van der Merwe, Charl Daniel, 'B.A.. Ph.D., Professor of
Inorganic Chemistry, University of Stellenbosch, C.P.

1909. Van der Merwe, C. P., Government Entomologist. Point,

Durban, Natal.
1917. Van der Merwe, W. J., Government School, Bramlev,
Johannesburg.

1910. Van der Riet, Berthault de St. Jean, M.A., Ph.D.,

(Pres. B, 1912), Professor of Chemistry, University

of Stellenbosch, C.P.
1904. Van der Sterr, W. C, P.O. Box 1066, Johannesburg.
1917. Van Niekerk, John, M.B., CM., P.O. Box 473, Johannes-
burg.

LIST OF MEM HERS. .VS.ini

Year of
Election.

1918. Van Niekerk, Sebastian Valentyn, M.D., B.S., P.O. Box

1 132, Johanne.sburg.
1918. Van Walbeck, A. J., P.O. Box 199, Bloenifontein.
1918. Van Wyk, j)aniel Jacobus Roselt, B.A., 234. Kotze Street,

Sunnyside, Pretoria.

1918. Varder, Richard William, M.A. (Vice-Pres. A), Professor

of Physics, Rhodes University College, Grahanistown,
C.P.
1903. Vaughan, j. A., M.I.C.E., M.l.Mech.E., P.O. Box 1132,
Johannesburg.

1917. Viljoen, Hendrik Geldenhuys, B.A., D.Litt., Market Street,

Stellenbosch, C.P.

1916. Visser, Cornells Frant^ois, B.A., Ph.D., 130, Zastron
Street, Bloenifontein.

1916. Visser, Wilhelnius Hendrikus, B.Sc, P.O. Box 231, Johan-
nesburg.

1919. Vogts, Ferdinand Carl Louis, P.O. Box 6, Kingvvilliams-,

town, C.P.

191 5. Von Mengershausen, Fredench Karl, B.Sc, Lecturer in

Mining Engineering, .South African School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Joliannesburg.
1903. Von Oppell, Otto Karl Adolf, Department of Lands, Pre-
toria.

1916. Wade, Walter B., P.O. Box 932, Durban, Natal.

1912. Wager, Horace Athelstan, A.R.C.S., Professor of Botany

and Zoology, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1918. Wagner, A., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1916. Wagner, Percy Albert, Ing.D., B.Sc. (Pres. B, 1918), P.O.
Box 846, Pretoria.

1913. Wahl, R. Owen, B.A., Grootfontein School of Agriculture,

Middelburg, C.P.

1919. Wakefield, Samuel Thomas, B.A., 62a Union Street, East

London, C.P.

1912. Walker, James, M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box 323, Nairobi, British
East Africa.

1902. *Waller, Arthur H., A.M.LC.E., F.R.Met.S., Town Engi-
neer. Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1918. Walhs, John Peter Richard, M.A., Professor of English,
Transvaal University College, Pretoria

1902. *Walsh, Albert (General Treasurer, 1910-18), P.O.
Box 39. Capetown.

1916. W'alton. Arthur John. Rose Deep, P.( >. Box 6, Germiston,
Transvaal.

1914. Wark. Rev. David, M.A.. D.D., The Manse, WcK:)dley

Street, Kimberlev, C.P.

■:\;jcxiv LIST of members.

Year of
Election.

1907. Warren, Ernest, D.Sc. (Vice-President; Pres. D.), Pro-
fessor of Zoology, Natal University College, Maritz-
burg.

1916. Waterhouse, Osborn, M.A., Professor of English and

Philosophy, Natal University College, Maritzburg.
1906. Watermeyer, Frederick Stephanus, P.O. Box 973, Pretoria.

1917. Watkin, 'Morgan, M.A., L. es L., Ph.D., Professor of

French, South African School of Mines and Techno-
logy, P.O. Box 1 176, Johannesburg.

1902. *VVatkins, Arnold Hirst, M.D., M.R.C.S., M.L.A., (Pres.

D. TQ06). Ingle Nook, Kimberley, C.P.
1906. Watkins-Pitchford, Wilfred. M.D., F.R.C.S.. D.P.H.,
South African Institute for Medical Research,
P.O. Box 1038, Johannesburg.
1916. Watson, Frederick William, B.Sc, F.I.C., P.O. Box 108,
Germiston, Transvaal.

1914. Watson, Thomas Plunter, P.O., Box 1400. Capetown.

1915. Watson, William Cruickshank, 13, Yeo Street. Yeoville,

Johannesburg.

1918. Watson, John, F.I.C., Magadi Soda Co.. Ltd., cjo Messrs.

Andrew Yull & Co., Calcutta, India.

1906. Watt, Dugald Campbell, M.D., 131, Pietermaritzburg St.,
Maritzburg.

1912. Way, William Archer, M.A. (Pres. D. 1912), Grey Insti-
tute, Port Elizabeth, C.P.

1914 Webb, George Arthur, A.I.E.E., M.S.A., P.O. Box 3136,
Johannesburg.

1916. fWebber. Walter Solomon, B..^., PO. Box 1088, Johan-

nesburi^.

1919. Weidner, Charles, Goodhouse Farm, Steinkopf, C.P.

1917. Weinberg. Ceo, B.A., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
1919. Weir, John Govan, P.O. Box 109, KingwilHamstown, C.P.
191 1. W'elch, Rev. Sidney Read, B.A.. D.D., Ph.D., St. Mary's,

Bouquet Street, Capetown.
1916. Wertheim, Louis. P.O. Box 354, Johannesburg.

1903. Wessels, Hon. .Justice Sir J. W., Kt., B.A., LL.B.. Pretoria.
1916. W'essels, Johannes Jacobus, M.E., P.O. Box 1392, Johan-
nesburg.

1918. Wetherby, Ellis Wynne, P.O. Box 40, Kimberley, C.P.
igi6. White, Mrs. E. L., King Edward Mansions. Port Eliza-
beth, C.P.

1902. jWhite, Miss Francis Margaret, Shawnigan, Bellville. C.P.
1910. White, H. A.. P.O. Dersley. via Germiston. Transvaal.
Jg02. fWhite, Miss Henrietta Mary, B.A., Shawnigan, Bellville,

C.P.
1902. *White-Cooper, William, M.A., F.R.I.B.A., P.O. Box. 11,
Cradock, C.P.

LIST OF MEMBERS. XXXV

Year of .

Election. '

1909. Whitworth,. Walter S., Koffyfontein Diamond Mine.

O.F.S.

1910. Wiener, Ludvvig, F.R.G.S., Riebeek Street, P.O. Box 365,

Capetown.
1904. Wilhelm, A. R. A., M.B., CM., Barkly East, C.P.

1904. fWiLKiNsoN, J. A., M.A., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1916), Pro-

fessor of Chemistry, South African School of Mines
and Technology, P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.
1902. *Williams, Alpheus Fuller, B.Sc, Mining lilngineer,
De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., P.O. Box 616,,
Kimberley, C.P.

1916. Williams, Charles Herbert, P.O. Box 2155, Johannesburg.
1912. Williams, Cornelius, B.Sc., A.R.C.S., Government School

of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.
1902. Williams, Prof. D., B.Sc, Rhodes University College,
Grahamstown, C.P.

1902. * WILLIAMS, GARDNER F., M.A., LL.D. (PRESIDENT,

1906), 2201, R. Street, N.W. Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1917. Williams. John Elias. P.O. Box 3552, Braamfontein,

Johannesburg.

1918. Williamson, Sidney, Ph.D., F.I.C., F.C.S. , Cooper Tech-

nical Bureau, Bloomsbury, London, W.C. 2, England.

1903. fWiLMAN. Miss M.. McGregor Memorial Museum, Kim-

berley, C.P.
1903. fWilson. Arthur Marius, M.D., B.S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S..
Jesmond House, Hof Street, Capetown.

1916. Wilson, Charles Edmund, A.M.LE.E., P.O. Box 930.

Johannesburg.

191 7. Wilson, James Flugh Elwes, P.O. Box 4303, Tohanne.sburg.
1909. Windram, James Thomas, P.O. Box 3547, Johannesburg.
1912. Winter, Rev. Johannes August, Onverwacht, P.O., Seku-

kuni. District Lydenburg, Transvaal.
1903. fWinterton, Albert Wyle, F.C.S., Lemoenfontein, near

Beaufort West, C.P.
1906. Wood, H. E., M.Sc, F.R.Met.S. (Vice-President, 1918 ;

General Secretary, 1913-1916), Union Observatory,

Johannesburg.

1905. fWooD, James, M.A., P.O. Box 2, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1919. Woodrow, Edwin James Carr, J. P., Town Clerk and

Treasurer. Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1916. Woods, Mrs. Sarah Ann, 211, Commercial Road, Maritz-
burg.

1919. Wormald, William Henry, F.R.H.S., Town Office, East
London, C.P.

1916. Wright, Kathleen Margaret, B.Sc, Normal College, Pre-
toria.

1915. Wyatt, Stanley. M.Sc, M.Ed.. Normal College, P.O. Box
855, Pretoria,

A'XXVl LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1916. Wylie, James Scott, K.C., Scotswood, Ridge Road, Durban

Natal.

1917. Yaldwyn, Sibert Halcott, Government School, Malvern

(Denver Delivery), Johannesburg.

1917. Young, Allan Brownlie, P.O. Box 1242, Tohannesburg.
1904. Young, Professor Robert B., M.A., D.Sc'F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,

(Pres. B, 1913), P.O. Box 11 76, Johannesburg.

1918. Zoccola, Michele Angelo, Grand National Hotel, Johannes-

burg.

INDEX.

Aboriginal place names, A survey of (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) ..
Abortion, Contagious, of cattle in South Africa ( E. M. Robinson).

Acetone. Bacteriological production of

Address by the President of the Association (Dr. C. F. Juritz) .

Section A (Prof. J. T. Morrison) ..

Section B (Dr. P. A. Wagner) ..

■ Section C (C. E. Leg-at)

Section D (Prof. E. J. Cioddard) ..

Section E (Rev. W. A. Norton) ..

— Section F (Prof. T. M. Forsyth) ..

Africa, Place-names of (Rev. W. A. Norton)

, Some early geographers and explorers of ( Rev. \V

Norton)
-. The desiccation of : the
E. H. L. Schwarz) .

cause and the remedv

A
(Prof

Ageing of chemical elements

AiTCHisoN (Rev. Dr. S. G. G.), Native child life

, The philology of the native Ian

guages (Zulu and Nosn)

Alcohol from seaweed

Alligators as food

Aluminium, Note on the occurrence f)f a peculiar phospliate of, in a

deposit of Bat guano ( Dr. B. de C. Marchand)
Amphibians and fishes. South African. Some parasitic protozoa

found in (Prof. H. B. Fantham)
Animal body, The, Fate of arsenic in (Dr. H. II. (jreen and C. D

Dykman)

Annual Meeting, Sixteenth, Proceedings of

Aquila. A new star in

Arizona, Ostriches in

Atsenic, Behaviour of bacteria towards (Dr. H. H. Green and N. H

Kestell)
, The fate of, in the animal body (Dr. II. H. Green and

C. D. Dykman)

Arsenite of soda, On the persistence of, in the soil (C. W. Mally)
Arts and crafts of the Xosas (J. McLaren)
Ashes of seaweed, Spectrography of ...

Association Library

Atmospheric nitrogen

Atomic weight of nebulium

Bact

eria.

arsenic (Dr. IT. TT. Green and

Behaviour of, towards

N. H. Kestell)...
Bacterial blight of beans, The (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge)

Bacteriological production of acetone

Bacteriosis of the walnut (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge ) .
Bacterimn jiiglandis Pierce (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge) ..

phascoli Erw. Sm. (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge..

Bagasse, Paper from

Balansia, Notes on the genus (Miss A. M. King)

Bantu place-names, Classification of (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon)

Ba-Ronga, The, Native customs in relation to small pox amongst

(Rev. H. A. Junod)
Bat guano, Occurrence of a peculiar phosphate of aluminium in (Dr

B. de C. Marchand)

Beans, The bacterial blight of (Dr. Ethel M. l^oidge)
Bechuanaland Protectorate: The engraved rock ni Loe (Miss

Wilman)

Blight, Bacterial, of beans (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge)

M

PAGE
712
612
7It

r

3t

45

79

100

107

121

6.37

479

139
534
674

653
505
363

638

337

640
xiv
329
393

369

640

325
441

612

XXX

216
499

369
503
711

407
407

503
374
670
712

694

638
503

531
503

.r.r.i-t7/: ii\Di':x-

PAGE

Botanical collecting trip, A, to Krench Hoek (Dr. E. P. Phillips).. 450

Survey 318

BoTTOMLEY (Miss A. AI.), A preliminary investigation into a disease

attacking young Cifprcssus plants 613

Bovine contagious abortion in South Africa ( K. M. Robinson) . . . 612

British Association, The 417

Burning of the veld in relation to stock diseases (A. O. D. Mogg) 653
BuRTT-D.wv (J.), Additions and corrections to the recorded flora

of the Transvaal and Swaziland 570

Calcium clouds in stellar space 440

Capetown, Equatorial sundial at the Castle (Dr. J. Lunt) 568

Castle, The, Capetown, Equatorial sundial at (Dr. J. Lunt) 568

Catarrhal fever, Epidemic 324

Cattle as a factor in the economic development of South Africa

(Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 425

Cawston (Dr. P'. G.), Some South African snails and the Cercaria;

which attack them 375

Central African folklore tales (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 689

Cercarise, The, which attack some South African snails (Dr. F. G.

Cawston) sys

Charts, photographs, and reports of the Rand Mines Sanitation

Department (Dr. A. J. Orenstein) 587

Chemical elements, x'X.geing of 534

service. National 651

warfare service • ... 334-

Child-life, Native (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) 674

Classical declensions and conjugations, A philological method of

exhibiting (Rev. W. A. Norton) 703

Clerk Maxwell's theory of light 285

Clock, Solar. A new type of (Dr. J. Moir) . . 6q<)

Clouds, Calcium, in stellar space ... 440

Coal and its bye-products. Waste of (A. Kloot) 654

Coccidse, South African ^^^

Coinage, Decimal (Prof W. A. Macfadyen) .. 639

Colouring, Radioactive, of minerals .. .. 412

Concrete Sleepers ... 670

Conductivity, Electrical, of milk 318

Contagious abortion of cattle in South Africa (E. M. Robinson) 612

Council, 1917-18 i

, 1918-19 i

, Report of, 1917-18 xviii

Country districts of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, Health

problems in (Dr. Jane B. H. Ruthven) 400

Crookes, Sir William 572

Crossing the North African and South African Ostrich (Prof. J. E.

Duerden) 589

Cup-and-Ring engravings on stones in South Africa (Dr. C. Pyper) 416

Cupressus plants, A disease of (Miss A. M. Bottomley) 613

Customs and traditional history of the Makaranga (E. G. Howman) 383
, Native, in relation to small-pox amongst the Ba-Ronga

(Rev. H. A. Junod) 694

Cyanella capcnsis Linn., A note on the pollination of (Dr. E. P.

Phillips) 500

De Kock (G. van de Wall), Drug treatment in Nuttalliosis of equines 612

, Intoxication by gastrophilous larvae. . 587

Decimal coinage (Prof. W. A. Macfadyen) 639-

Degeneration problems as represented by the ostrich (Prof. J. E.

Duerden) 587

Desiccation, The, of Africa (Prof. E. PL L. Schwarz) 1,39

Dirisibles, Helium for 779

Discontinuous distribution in a few mammalian types (Dr. T. F.

Dreyer) 680

Disease, A, of young Cupressus plants (Miss A. M. Bottomley) . . . 613

INDEX. XXxix

PAGE

Diseases of stock, and their relation to veld burning (A. O. D.

Mogg) 653

— , Venereal, The eradication of (R. T. A. Innes) , 587

Distances and magnitude of the stars 246

DoiDGE (Dr. Ethel _M.), Tlie bacterial hlight of beans : Bacterium

phaseoli Erw. Sm i:;o3

;■ — . The diagnostic characters of some super-
ficial fungi -ifxA

, Walnut bacteriosis ; Bacterium juglandis

Pierce 4P7

DoRN\\N (Rev. S. S.X The killing of the Divine King in South

Africa 394

Dressings. Paper, in surgery 4.12

Dkeyer (Dr. T. F.) Discontinuous distribution in a few mammalian

types 680

Drug treatment in Nuttalliosis of equines (G. van de Wall de

Kock) 612

DUERDEN (Prof. J. E.), Crossing the North African and South

African ostrich 589

, Problems of degeneration' as represented

by the ostrich 587

, Some results of ostrich investigations . . . 247

-, The pineal body in the ostrich 587

Dykm.\x (C. D.) and Dr._ H. H. Green: Some experiments on the

fate of arsenic in the animal body 640

Economic development, Native, Unrealised factors in (Rev. J. R. L.

Kingon) 506

of South Africa, The, Cattle as a factor in

(Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 42S

natural history, and why it should be taught in schools

(F. W. FitzSimons) 5S0

value of Odonata (S. G. Rich) 611

Education of the Native (Rev. A. E. Le Roy) ..." 339

, Purpose in (H. C. Reeve) 48."?

Electrical conductivity of milk 318

Electro-magnetic theory, The, of light 285

Elements, Chemical, Ageing of 534

Engraved rock, The, of Loe, Bechuanaland Protectorate (Miss M.

Wilman) $3^^

stones of the Lydenburg district and North-East Trans-

vaal (Dr. C. Pyper) 416

Epic Poetry in French literature (Prof. R. D. Nauta) 622

Epidemic catarrhal fever 324

hay fever. The pepper tree- (Schinus molle) in its rela-
tion to (Prof. G. Potts) 525

influenza in the United States 4^5

, Salt water as a preventive of 449

, Vaccine prophylaxis in " 368

Equatorial sundial. The, at the Castle, Capetown (Dr. J. Lunt) . . . 568
Equines, Drug treatment in Nuttalliosis of (G. van de Wall de

Kock) 612

Equity, The ethical principle of (Rev. Dr. S. R. Welch) 330

Ethical principle. The, of equity (Rev. Dr. S. R. Welch) 330

Etymologies, Sesuto (Rev. W. A. Norton) 639

Ev.^NS (M. S.), Suggestion for the education of public opinion on

native afifairs 637

, The Natives of Natal in relation to the land . . . 235

Evening discourses viii

Evolution and mankind fProf. H. B. Fantham) 287

Experiments used in the rudimentarv teaching of botanv (Rev. Dr.

F. C. Kolbe) ' 575

Explorers and geographers of Africa (Rev. W. A. Norton) 470

R

Xl INDEX.

PAGE

Fantham (Prof. H. B.). Evolution and mankind 287

. Some parasitic protozoa found in South

African fishes and amphibians 337

Fauna, The heterocerous, of Southern Rhodesia (A. J. T. Janse) 708

Faunal features of the South African Odonata (S. G. Rich)" ... 588
Fertilisers and soil extracts, The determination of phosphoric oxide

in (Dr. B. de C. ]\rarchand) 357

Fever, Epidemic catarrhal 324

— , Hay, The pepper tree in its relation to (Prof. G. Potts) ... 525

Fishes and amphibians, Soutji African, Some parasitic protozoa

found in (Prof. H. B. Fantham) 337

FiTzSiMONs (F. W.), Economic natural history, and why it should

be taught in schools 580

Flora of the Transvaal and Swaziland ; Additions and corrections

(J. Burtt-Davy) 570

, The, of the Great Wintcrhoek Range (Dr. E. P. Phillips)... 226

Folk-lore tales, Central African fRcv. J. R. L. Kingon) 689

Food, Alligators as 363

PoRSYTH (Prof. T. M.), Presidential address to Section F 121

French Hoek. Some notes of a collection trip to (Dr. E. P. Phillips) 450

French literature. Epic poetry in (Prof. R. D. Nauta) 622

Fumigation, Liquid hydrocyanic acid for 569

Fungi, Superficial, Diagnostic characters of (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge) 364

Gastrophilous larvae. Intoxication by (G. van de Wall de Kock) . . . 587

Geographers and explorers of .Africa (Rev. W. A. Norton) ... 479

Geophone, The 669

Gibson (J. Y.), The Kaptent wagon 663

GoDDARD (Prof. E. J.), Presidential address to Section D 100

Grants for research 216

Great Winterhoek Range, The, Flora oi (Dr. K. P. Phillips; ... 226
Green (Dr. H. H.) and C. D. Dykman: Some experiments on the

fate of arsenic in the animal body 640

Green (Dr. H. H.) and N. H. Kestell : Behaviour of bacteria

towards arsenic 369

Guano. Bat. Occurrence of phosphate of aluminium in (Dr. B. de C.

Marchand) 638

Hav fever, Epidemic, The pepper tree (Srhinits moUc) in its relation

to (Prof. G. Potts) 525

Health problems in country districts, Transvaal and Orange Free

State (Dr. Jane B. H. Ruthven) .. 400

Helium for dirigibles . . . ... 770

Heterocerous fauna, The, of Southern Rhodesia (A. J. T. Janse) 708
Hill (Rev. W. F.), Social conditions of Natives on the Rand ... 637
History, Traditional, and customs of the Makaranga ( E. G. How-
man) 383

HovvMAN (E. G.), The traditional history and customs of the Maka-
ranga (\'arozwe) 383

Hydrocyanic acid. Liquid, for fumigation 569

InfatntiVe paralysis '. 702

Influenza, Epidemic, in the United States 4^5

, Salt water as a preventive of 449

, Vaccine prophylaxis in 368

Inheritance. The, of small variations (Prof. E. Warren) 535

Innes, R. T. A., Award of South African Medal to xxvii

Innes (R. T. A.), On the eradication of venereal diseases 587

, Reconstitution of the Union Senate 639

Intoxication by gastrophilous larvae (G. van de Wall de Kock) ... 587

Jackson (Hon. Mr. Justice C. G.). The medicine-man in Natal

and Zululand 191

Janse (A. J. T.), On the heterocerous fauna of Southern Rhodesia 708

INDEX. xli

PAGE

jolianncsbiug, General Meetings at ix

, Officers of Local and Sectional Committees, 1918. . . x

Jovian prominence, A 569

JUNOD (Rev. \l. A.), Native customs in relation to small-po.\ amongst

tiic Ba-Ronga 694

Jupiter, A prominence on 569

JURiTZ (Dr. C. F.), Presidential address of I

Kehoe (D.). and Sir A. Theiler: On certain changes in the external
sex-characters of ostriches, occurring after removal of

the reproductive glands 612

Kelp potash, The collapse of 399

KisTELL (N. ![.), and J)r. irl. H. Green: Jk'haviour of bacteria

towards arsenic 369

King (Miss A. IM.), Xotes on the genus Balaiisia 670

King, The Divine, Killing of, in South Africa (Rev. S. S. Dornan) 394
KiNGON (Rc\-. J. R. L.), A surve}' of aboriginal place-names ... 712
, Cattle as a factor in the economic deve-
lopment of South Africa 425

, Central African folk-lore talcs 689

. ^ 'fhe evolution of a Native administration 655

Unrealised factors in Native economic

development 506

KxouT (A. ), Wasted South African resources: coal and its bye-
products 654

Labour Union, Scientific 662

Land, The, Occupation of, by Natives in Natal (M. S. Evans) ... 235

Languages, The Native, Philology of (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) 653

Larvae, Gastrophilous, Intoxication by (G. van der Wall de Kock) 587

Le Roy (Rev. A. E.), Does it pay to educate the Native? 339

Legat (C. E.), Presidential address to Section C 79

Leslie (Prof. R.), War and the value of money 639

Leucocytogregarines, and their occurrence in South Africa (Dr. Annie

Porter) ... 335

Library of the Association xxx

Light, The electro-magnetic theory of 285

Loc, Bechuanaland Protectorate, The engraved rock of (Miss M.

Wilman) 531

LcRA.At (Dr. C. T.), Suggestions towards a better provision for the

medical needs of the natives 319

LuNT (Dr. J.), Note on the equatorial sundial at the Castle, Cape-
town 568

Lydenburg district, The, Engraved stones of (Dr. C. Pyper) ... 416

McCoRD (Dr. J. B.), The Zulu witch-doctor and medicine-man ... 306

Macfadven (Prof. W. A.), Decimal coinage 639

McL.\REN (J.), Arts and crafts of the Xosas : a study based on

philology 441

, Religions beliefs and superstitions of the Xosas : a

study in philology 4l8

McLaren (Mrs. E.), Vicarious parenthood: a war suggestion ... 639

Magnetic theory of light 285

Aiagnitude and distances of the stars _ 240

Makaranga, The, Traditional history and customs of (E. G. How-
man) . • • • 303

^^\LLV (C. W.), On the persistence of arsenite of soda in the sod. . . 325

Mammals, Discontinuous distribution of (Dr. T. F. Dreycr) ... 680

Mankind, Evolution and (Prof. H. B. Fantham) . 287

Marchand (Dr. B. de C), Note on the occurrence of a peculiar

phosphate of aluminium in a deposit of Bat guano . . 638

— __ ■ — — , The determination of phosphoric

oxide, particularly in fertilisers, soil extracts, and the

like 35;

•*/''' INDEX.

PAGE

Marwick (J. S.). 'I'lic Natives in the larger towns 590

Medal, South Africa xxvii

Medical needs of the Natives, Suggestions towards a better provision

for {Dv. C. T. Loram) 319

Medicinal springs, The, of South Africa (Prof. M. AI. Rindl) ... 217
Medicine Man, The, in Natal and Zululand (Hon.. Mr. Justice C. G.

Jackson) igi

, The Zulu ( Dr. J. B. .McCord) 306

Megass, Paper from 374

Members, List of ... Hi

Milk, Electrical conductivity of 318

Minerals, Radioactive colouring of 412

, Rhodesiau 621

Mirabilis jalapa, Uses of 190

MoGG (A. O. D.), Some preliminary observations on unseasonable
veld-burning, and its possible relation to some stock

diseases 653

Mom (Dr. J.), A new type of accurate sundial, or solar clock . . . 690

, A rapid approximate method of calculating the

occultation of stars by the moon (for the Central Trans-

A'aal) 780

Money, War and the value of (Prof. R. .Leslie) 639

Moon, The, Occultation of stars by (Dr. J. Moir) ■. ... 779

Morrison (Prof. J. T. ), Presidential address to Section A 31

Moths of Southern Rliodesia (A. J. T. Janse) 708

Natal, The medicine man in (Hon. Mr. Justice C. G. Jackson) ... 191

, The Natives of, in relation to the land (M. S. Evans) 235

Native administration. A, The evolution of (Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 655

affairs. Suggestion for the education of public opinion on

(M. S. Evans) 637

child life (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) 674

customs in relation to small-pox amongst the Ba-Ronga

(Rev. H. A. Junod) ' 694

— economic development, Unrealised factors in (Rev. J. R. L.

Kingon)... 5o()

languages, Tlie Philology of (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) . . 653

, The, Does it pay to educate? (Rev. A. E. Le Roy) 339

Natives on the Rand, Social conditions of (Rev. W. F. Hill) . . . 637

, The. in the larger towns (J. S. IMarwick) 590

, of Natal, in relation to the land (M. S. Evans) . . . 235

, Suggestions towards a better provision for the medical

needs of (Dr. C .T. Loram) 319

National Chemical Service 651

Natural history. Economic : why it should be taught in schools

(F. W. FitzSimons) 580

Nauta (Prof. R. D.). Epic poetry in French literature 622

Nebulium, Atomic weight of 499

Neuroptera and Orthoptera : arc they orders or conglomerations?

(S. G. Rich) 618

Nitrogen, Atmospheric 216

Nitrogenous products 702

Norton (Rev. W. A.j, A philological method of exhibiting classical

declensions and conjugations 703

, IMore Sesuto etymologies 639

— , Place-names of Africa 637

— , Presidential address to Section E 107

, Some early geographers and explorers of

Africa 479

North African and South .\frican ostrich, Crossing of (Prof. j. E.

Ducrden ) 589

Nova Aquilse 329

Novae, The origin of 406

INDEX. - ^liii

PAGE

Nuttalliosis of equincs, Drug treatment in (G. van dc Wall do

Kock) 6x2

Occultation of stars by the moon, A rapid method uf cakulaiing

(Dr. J. Moir)... ' 779

Odonata, South African, Some features of, as a fauna (S. G. Rich) 588

, The, Econonn'c vahte of (S. G. Rich) On

Officers and Council, 1917-18 i

, 1918-19 i

Orange PYee State country districts, Health problems in (Dr. Jane

B. H. Ruthven).. . .' 400

Okensteix (Dr. A. J.), Charts, photographs, and reports of the

Rand Mines Sanitation Department ... 587

Orthoptera and Neuroptera : arc thev orders or conglomerations?

(S. G. Rich) " 6r8

Ortlepp (R. J.). Xote on the persistence of the right posterior car-
dinal vein in Xcnopus Icriis, and its signilicance . . . 413
Ostrich investigations, some results of (Prof. J. E. Duerden) ... 247
, North and South African, Crossing of (Prof. J. E. Duer-
den) 589

■ , The, Problems of degeneration as represented bv i,Prof.

J. E. Duerden) .'.. ... 587

, The pineal body in (Prof. J. E. Duerden) ... ... 587

Ostriches, Changes in the sex-characters of, occurring after removal
of the reproductive glands (Sir A. Theiler and D.

Kehoe) 612

Pandemic, The, in the United States 415

Paper dressings in surgery 412

from megass 374

sugar-cane leaves 673

yarns 610

Papers read at Sectional Meetings I35

Paraffin paper dressings in surgery 412

Paralysis, Infantile 702

Parasitic protozoa found in South African hshes and amphibians

(Prof. H. B. Fantham) 337

Parenthood, Vicarious (Mrs. F. IMcLaren) 639

Past meetings of the Association ii

Pepper Tree, The, in its relation to epidemic hay fever (Prof. G.

Potts) 5-^5

Phillips (Dr. E. P.), A note on the flora of the Great Winterlioek

Range 226

, A note on the pollination of Cyanella capensis

Linn 500

-, Some notes on a collecting trip to French Hoek 450

Philological method, A, of e.xiiibiting classical declensions and con-
jugations (Rev. W. A. Norton) 703

study of the arts and crafts of the Xosas (J. McLaren) 441

religious beliefs and superstitions of the

Xosas (J. McLaren) 418

Philology, The, of the Native languages — Zulu and Xosa (Rev. Dr.

S. G. G. Aitchison) 653

Phosphate of aluminium, Occurrence of, in a deposit of Bat guano

(Dr. B. de C. Marchand) ...... 63S

Phosphoric oxide. The determination of, particularly in fertilisers,

soil extracts, and the hke (Dr. B. de C. Marchand) ... 357

Photographic illustrations of South African vegetation (Dr. 1. B.

Pole Evans) 693

Photographs and reports of tlie Rand Mines Sanitation Department

(Dr. A. J. Orensteiu) 587

i'hysics. Solar 393

Pineal body, The, in the ostrich (Prof. J. E. Duerden; 587

.I'/if

INDEX.

riace-nanies, Aboriyiuai. A survey of (R<jv. J. R. L. Kingon)

of Africa (Rev. W. A. Norton)

Pole Evans (Dr. I. P>.), Some photographic illustrations of South

African vegetation

Pollination of Cyanclla capcnsis Linn. (Dr. E. P. Phillips)

PoKTKP. (Dr. Annie), Leucocytogregarines, and their occurrence in

South Africa

Potash, Kelp. The collapse of ...

Potts (Prof. G.), The pepper tree {Schiiuts mollc) in its relation to

epidemic hay-fever

Presidential address to Section A ( I^rof. J. T. Morrison)

Section K (Dr. P. A. Wagner)

_ Section C

• Section D

^ ■ Section E

• • Section F

(C. E. Legat)
(Prof. E. J. Goddard)
(Rev. W. .\. Xortcn)
(Prof. T. M. Forsyth)

President's address

Presidents of former years . .,.

Prominence, A, on Jupiter

Protozoa, Parasitic, found in South African fishes and amphibians

( Prof. H. B. Fanthani )

Pure-line hypothesis, The, and the inheritance of small variations

(Prof. E. Warren)

PuTTF.Rii.i. fV. A.), Notes on the morphology and life-history of

Uroinyccs aloes Cooke

Pyper (Dr. C), Some engraved stones of the Lydenburg district

and North-East Transvaal : the occurrence of cup-and"

ring markings in South Africa

Quinan, K. P>

Radioactive colouring of minerals

Ratliotelephony

Radium production

Rand Mines Sanitation Dei)artnR'nl ; charts, photograplis, and reports

(Dr. A. J. Orenslein)

— — , The, Social condition of Natives on (Rev. W. F. Hill)

Rh.E\i;. ( ii. C.), Purpose of education

Religious beliefs and superstitions of the Xosas (J. ^IcLarcn)

Report of Council, 1917-18

Reproductive glands of ostriches. Effect of removal of, on sex-

cliaracters (Sir A. Theiler and D. Kehoe)

Research grants

Rhodesia, I he hcterocerous fauna of (A. J. T. Janse)

Rhodesian minerals

ruins, Ihe; by whom built (W. H. Tooke)

Rich (S. G.), Are the Odonata of economic value?

, Are the Orthoptera and Neuroptera actual orders or

conglomerations .''
— , Some features

PAGE
712
637

693
500

335
399

525

31

45

79

100

10/

121

I

ii

569

337

535

656

416

651

412

+24
534

587
()37
483
418
xviii

612
216
708
621
492
611

618

>i the South African Odonata as a

588
217
612

launa

Ri.xDL (Prof. M. M.), The medicinal springs of South Africa
Robinson (E. M.), Bovine contagious abortion in South Africa ...
Rock, The engraved, of Loe, Bechuanaland Protectorate (Miss M.

Wilman) 531

Royal Society of South Africa 190,216

Ruthven (Dr. Jane B. H.), Health problems in country districts,

Transvaal and Orahge Free State

Suit water as a preventive of epidemic influenza

Sanitation Department, Rand Alines: chart.s, photographs, and

reports (Dr. A. J. Urenstein)

ScHWARZ (Prof. E. H. L.), The desiccation of Africa: the cause and

the remedy

400

449

587
139

INDEX. xlv

PAGE

Scientific Labour Union 662

Seaweed, Alcohol from 505

Ashes, Spectrography of 612

Sectional Meetings, List of papers read at 135

Ofificers of former years iv

Senate, The Union, Reconstitution of (R. T. A. Innes) 630

Sesuto etymologies (Rev. W. A. Norton) 639

Sox-characters of ostriches, Changes in, occurring after removal of

the reproductive glands (Sir A. Theiler and D. Kehoe) 6x2

Sleepers, Concrete ... 679

Small-pox, Native customs in relation to, amongst tiie Ba-Ronga

(Rev. H. A. Junod) 694

Smoke screens 673

Snails, South African, and the cercarisc which attack them (Dr. F.

G. Cawston) 375

Social conditions of Natives on the Rand (Rev. W. F. Hill) ... 637

Societies, Transactions of 286, ^,77, -178. 574, 786

Soil extracts and fertilisers. The determination of phosphoric oxide

in (Dr. B. de C. Marchand) 357

, The, On the persistence of arsenite of soda in (C. W. Mally) 325

Solar bombs , 225

clock, A new type of (Dr. J. Moir) 6go

physics ... 393

South Africa. Bovine contagious abortion in ( E. M. Robinson) . . . 6x2
^ Cattle as a factor in the economic development of

(Rev. J. R. L. Kingon) 425

, Killing the Divine King in (Rev. S. S. Dornan) ... 394

Medal, The, Eleventh award of xxvii

. Occurrence of loucocytogregarines in (Dr. Annie

Porter) 335

■, Royal Society of 190, 216

, The medicinal springs of (Prof. M. M. Rindl) ... 217

The occurrence of cup-and-ring stone engravings in

(Dr. C. Pyper) 416

South African and North African Ostrich, Crossing of (Prof. J. E.

Duerden) 589

coccidje 3.?8

fishes and amphiliians. Some parasitic protozoa found

in (Prof. H. B. Fantham) 3.V

Odonata. The, Some features of, as a fauna (S. G.

Rich) 588

: resources. Wasted (A. Kloot) 654

" snails, and the cercari^e which attack them (Dr. F. G.

Cawston) 375

vegetation. Photographic illustrations of (Dr. L B.

Pole Evans ) 693

Southern Rhodesia, The heterocerous fauna of (A. J. T. Janse) ... 708

.Spectrography of seaweed ashes 612

Springs, Medicinal, of South Africa (Prof. M. M. Rindl) 217

Star, New, in Aquila 329

Stellar catastrophes 33^

distances and magnitudes 246

space. Calcium clouds in -140

Stock diseases and their relation to veld burning (A. O. D. Mogg) 653
Stones, Engraved, of the Lvdenburg District and North-East Trans-
vaal (Dr. C. Pyper) 416

Sugar-cane leaves, Paper from ^7i

Sugars, Synthesis of 693

Sundial, k new type of (Dr. j. Moirj *" ■ ■ s ' ' ' ^

, The equatorial, at the Castle. Capetown (Dr. T. Lunt) ... 508

Superstitions and religious beliefs of the Xosas (J. McLaren) ... 418

Surgery. Paraffin paper dressings in 4^2

:Vhi INDEX.

PAGE

Survey. Botanical 318

Synthesis <■>( sugars 693

Teaching. The, of botany, Experiments used in (Rev. Dr. F. C.

Kolbe ) . . " • • • 575

— , of economic natural history (F. W. FitzSimons) ... 580

Theiler (Sir A.) and D. Kehoe: On certain changes in the external

sex-cliaracters of ostriches, occurring after removal of

the reproductive glands 612

TooKE (W. li.), Who built the Rhodesian ruins? 492

Traditional history and customs of the Makaranga (E. G. Howman) t;8^

Transactions of Societies 286, ;^/y, 478, 574, yS"

Transvaal country districts, Health problems in (Dr. Jane B. H.

Ruthven) 400

. The, Additions and corrections to the recorded flora of

(J. Burtt-Davy) 570

' , The North-East, Engraved stones of (Dr. C. P^'per) ... 416

Treasurer's statement, 1917-18 xxiii

Union Senate, The, Reconstitution of (R. T. A. Tnucs) 6^C)

United States, The, Pandemic in 41.=?

Vroniyces aloes Cooke, Notes on the morphologv and life historv of

(V. A. Putterill) ' '. . '. 650

Vaccine prophylaxis in influenza 368

Varozwe, The, Traditional history and customs of ( E. G. Ilowman) 383

Vaughan (J. A.), Safety in winding operations 305

Vegetation, South African, Photographic illustration^ of ( Dr. T. P..

Pole Evans) 693

Vein, The right posterior cardinal. Persistence of. in Xciiopits Uciis

(R. J. Ortlepp) 413

Veld burning and its relation to stock diseases (A. O. D. Mogg) . . . 653

Venereal diseases. The eradication of (R. T. A. Innes ) ... ... 587

Wagner (Dr. P. A.), Presidential address tn Section B 45

Wagon, The Kap-tent (J. Y. Gibson) 663

Walnut bacteriosis (Dr. Ethel M. Doidge) 407

War and the value of money (Prof. R. Leslie) 639

Warfare service. Chemical 334

Warozvvi, The, Traditional history and customs of (E. G. Howman) 38^
W.NRREN (Prof. E.), The pure-line hypothesis and the inheritance of

small variations 535

Wasted South African resources (A. Kloot) 654

Welch (Rev. Dr. S. R.), The ethical principle of equity 330

Wheat crops. The world's 2t6

WiLiiAx (Miss ]Nr.), The engraved rock of Loe, Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate 531

Winding operations, Safety in (J. A. Vaughan) 205

Winterhoek Range, The, Flora of (Dr. E. P. Phillips) 226

Witch doctor. The Zulu (Dr. J. R. McCo.rd) 306

Xenopus lavis. Persistence of the risht posterior cardinal vein in

(R. J. Ortlepp) ... 413

Xosa language. The, Philology of (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) . . . 653

Xosas, The, .\rts and crafts of (J. McLaren) 44i

, Religious beliefs and superstitions of (J. McLaren) . . . 418

Zulu language. The, Philology of (Rev. Dr. S. G. G. Aitchison) ... 653

witch doctors and medicine men (Dr. J. B. McCord) 306

Zululand, The medicine man in (Hon. Mr. Justice C. G. Jackson).. 191

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