liilH^'KuiMUHiiiiiiiii'^

REPORT

OP THE

Eighteenth Annual Meeting

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Being Volume XVll of the South African Journal of Science.

BU LAW AYO

1920.

JULY 1 4—1 7.

JOHANNESBURG :

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATIOX

19 2 1.

n

") o

CONTENTS.

Constitution of the Association ...
Tables: Past Annual Meetings: —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Local
Secretaries

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries

Evening Discourses
BULAWAYO MEETING, 1920: —

Meetings

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees

Proceedings of Eighteenth Annual General Meeting

Report of Council. 1919-20

Hon. Treasurer's Report and Accounts ...

Thirteenth Award of the South Africa Medal and Grant ...

Association Library

Officers and Council. 1920-21

Pkesident's Address : '' The Veld, its Resources and Dangers."
by I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

Addresses by Presidents of Sections :

Section A: "Recent Progress in Astronomv." bv H. E.

Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S. ... " ...'
Section B: " Geologv in Relation to Mining," by E. P.

Mennell, F.G.S*., M.I.M.M. ...
Section C : " Causes leading toward Progressive Evolution of

the Flora of South Africa," by T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S.
Section D: "Some Zoological Factors in the Economic

Development of South Africa," by C. W. Mallv, M.Sc,

F.E.S.
Section E: "The Magic Conception of Nature amongst

Bantus," by Rev. Henri A. Junod
Section F : " Labour Conditions in

R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc

Public Lecture : " The Nitrogen Problem,"
M.A.

List of Papers Rkad at the Sectional Meetings

]*AP£RS Read : —

"The Geological Section between Bulawavo and the
Victoria Falls," by H. B. Maufe, B.A. " ...
."Crime and Feeble-mindedness," bv G. T. Morice, K.C..
B.A. ... ... ... ' ...

" Ericoid Leaves," by D. Thoday, M.A (Cantab.)
" The Distribution of Accessorv Food Factors (Vitamines)
in Plants," by E. Marion Delf, D.Sc, F.L.S. ...

■ The Life-history of the African Sheep and Cattle Fluke,
Fasciola r/ifjaiitica,'' by Annie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S..

F.R.s. (s.A.) ... ... ... ... ..:

" Some Parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa. — III.,"

by H. B. Fantham, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Lond.). ...
" The Future of the Native Races of Southern Rhodesia,"

by N. H. Wilson ...
" A Short Note on Einstein's Planetary Equation," by

AV. N. Roseveare, M.A.
" Rainfall and Barom.etric Variation m Bulawayo," by

Father E. Goetz, S.J.. M.A.. F.R.A.S.
" Bat Guano Deposits of Rhodesia." bv Edmund Victor

Flack

South Africa," by
bv J. A. Wilkinson.

XV J

xvii

XX

xxiii
XX vi

XXX

xxxiii
xxxviii

1

3.5
43
51

64

76

95
110

113

116

120

121

126
131
136
151

155
158

CONTENTS. ^^^

Papers Read {continued) : —

PAGE

" Magnesia Impregnated Soils," by G. N. Blacksliaw,

O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C. ... ... 171

'• Note on Kimberlite from the Belgian Congo/"' by P. A.

Wagner, Ing. D., B.Sc. ... ... ... ... 179

" Constituents of the Flora of Southern Rhodesia," by

F. Eyles ... ... ... ... ... ... 181

" Additional Host-plauts of Loranthaceae occurring
around Durban," bv Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S. ... "... ... ... ... ... 185

•■ Note on the Crassulaceac found in Rhodesia," by

S. Schonland, M.A., Ph.D. ... ... ... ... 186

" Ripening of Seed in (Inetum gncnom and Gnetum

africaniim/' by Mary G. Thoday ... ... ... 189

•■ A note on Dasychira extorta and its Lepidopterous

Parasite," by C. P. van der Merwe ... ... ... 192

" Birds and Insects in Bushman Folk-lore," by D. F. Bleek 194

'' A Tachinid Parasite of the Honey Bee," by S. H. Skaife,

M.A., M.Sc. ... ... ... ... ... 196

■• Agricultural Economics — Cost of Production of Maize,"

by R. A. Lehfeldt, D.Sc. ... ... ... ... 201

•' Calibration of Gerber Milk Butyrometers," by C O.

Williams, B.Sc, A.R.C.S. ... " ... ... ... 205

" Note on Rock-gravings at Metsang, Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate," by A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S. ... ... 200

'■ Some Features of the Religion of the Ba-Venda," by

Rev. H. A. Junod ^ ... ... ... ... 207

■•The Occurrence of ' Terlilanz ' (Faurea Macnaughtonii,
Phill.) in Natal and Pondoland," by E. P. Phillips,
M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., and J. J. Kotze, B.A., D.Sc. ... 221

■• A Method of Veld Estimation," by A. O. D. Mogg, B.A. 222

" Note on a Diagram showing the amount of Available
Sunshine falling on a Horizontal Surface on any Day
of the Year at a Given Place, and showing also the
Sun's Elevation and its Times of Rising and Setting,"
by J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. ... ... 227

" Note on Older Palaeolithic Implements from the Umguza
and Bembesi Vallevs," bv A. W. Macgregor, B.A.,
F.G.S. ... .:. ■ ... ... ... . . 230

" The Effect of Elevation of Temperature and Altitude of
Aerodrome in the Taking-off of Aeroplanes," by P. G.
Gundry, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.Ae.S. ... ... ... 235

'• Karroo Rocks in the Mafungabusi, Southern Rhodesia,"

by A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S. ... ... ... 249

" On the Volumetric Determination of Phosphoric Oxide,"

by B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc ... ... ... 259

" Some Further Factors influencing the Solubility of
Phosphoric Oxide in Mixed Fertilisers containing
Superphosphates," by Edmund Victor Flack ... 268

■■ South African Fern Notes, with List of Ferns and Fern-
Allies found in Southern Rhodesia, and of Additional
Species recorded for other South African Phytographic
Areas," by T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 275

" The Leaves of Ilakea pectinata and H. stiaveolens," by

Horace A. Wager, A.R.C.Sc ... ... ... 284

" Note on the I-Kowe or Natal Kafir Mirshroom, Schiilzcria
Umkoicaan,'' by Paul A. van der Biil, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S. ... ■ 286

"A Paw-Paw Leaf-Soot caused by a Phyllnsticta sp.," by

Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 288

" An Exhibit of Stone Implements from Tiger Kloof and

Taungs, Cape Colony," by Rev. Neville Jones, F.E.S. 290

" .Some Factors in the Natural Control of the Wattle

Bagworm," by S. H. Skaife, M.A., M.Sc. ... ... 291

»-»<-* « wv ►**

IV

CONTENTS .

Papeus Read (continuecl) : — •

Index

Map of South Africa, showing the chief Native Languages

and Dialects," by Rev. G. Beyer
Notes relating to Aboriginal Tribes of the Eastern

Province," by John Hewitt, B.A.
The Economic Value of a Study of the Nematodes, with

Remarks on the Life History of Heterodera in South

Africa," by J. Sandground, M.Sc. ...
Hottentot Place-Names, ' by Rev. Charles Pettman
Snake-Venom and its Effects, especially on other Snakes,"

by F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S.. F.R.M.S.

302
304

322

334

353
355

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate
No.
I.— Coast Veld
11.— Low Veld
111.— Low Veld
IV. — Waterberg Sandveld

V. — Eastern Grassveld
VI. — Eastern Grassveld
Vll.— Bushveld
Vlll.— Bushveld^
IX. — Banken Veld

X.— Highveld
XI. — Griqualand West Thornveld
Xll. — Kaap Plateau Bushveld ...
Xlll. — Kaap Plateau Bushveld ...

XIV. — Vaal Kameeldoorn Veld of Asbestos Mountains
XV. — Vaal Kameeldoorn Veld of Asbestos Mountains
XVI.— Kalahari Sand Veld
XVIL— Damaraland Thorn Veld ...
XVIII. — Kameeldoorn Veld of Southern Damaraland
XIX.— Cape Veld or South- Western Veld

XX. — Karroo
XXI. — Karoo
XXil. — Upper Karroo
XXIII. — Kokerboom Veld of Namaqualand and Bushmanland
XXIV. — Kokerboom Veld of Namaqualand and Bushmanland
XXV. — Kokerboom Veld of Namaqualand and Bushmanland
XXVI.— The Namib
XXVIL— The Namib
XXVIIl.— The Namib

XXIX. — Page from " Harper's School Geography," published
in U.S.A. in 1876 ... ... ' ...

XXX. — Stone Implements from Umguza and Bembesi Valleys
XXXI.—" Strandlooper " Skulls from Port Alfred ...
XXXII. — " Strandlooper " Skull and Mandible from Port
Alfred

To face
Page
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34

74
234
320

320

Eirainm. — Owing to an error in the typing of the author's MS., the
figure 100 on line 14 of page 175 should read 1000.

E. H. Adlington, Ltd., Printers, Johannesburg— 10436

uj;library):3-!

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE,

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

South African Association for the
Advancement of Science.

(1920, BULAWAYO.)
VOL. XVII. NOVEMBER, 1920. No. 1.

CONSTITUTION

OF TH1-:

South African Association for the
Advancement of Science

[As atiip/ided at the Ui///itfent/t Annual Mcefinj/ at Bulawaijo, 1920],

I.— OBJECTS.

The objects of the Association are : — To give a stronger impulse and a
more systematic direction to scientific enquiry : to promote the intercourse
of societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of South
Africa ; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and applied
Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

II.— MEMBERSHIP.

(a) All persons interested in the objects of the Association are eligible
for Membership.

(6) Institutions, Societies, Government Departments and Public Bodies
are eligible as " Instituti<3nal Aleinbers.*'

(c) The Association shall consist of (a) Life Members, (b) Ordinary
Members (both of whom shall be included under the term " Members "[,
(c) Institutional Members, and (d) Temporary [Members, elected for a session,
hereinafter called "Associates."

(d) Members, Institutional Members, and Associates shall be elected
directly by the Council, but Associates may also be elected by Local
Committees. Members may also be elected by a majority of the Members of
Council resident in that centre at which the next ensuing session is to be
held.

(e) The Council shall have the power, by a two-thirds vote, to remove
the name of a member of any class whose Membership is no longer desirable
in the interests of the Association.

III.— PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.

(n) Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the Association, and
shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by the Association.

11 CONSTITUTIOX.

(6) Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices of the Association,
and shall receive yratmtoudy all ordinary publications issued by the
Association during the year of their admission, and during the years in
which they continue to pay, wifhoiit intti r mis-no n, their Annual Subscription.

(c) Institutional Members shall receive grut.iiitoiisly all ordinary
publications of the Association on the same conditions as ordinary members ;
and each Institutional Member shall be entitled to send one representative
to the Annual Session of the Association.

((■/) Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee, but are
not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to receive
gratuitously the publications of (he Association.

(e) Members and Institutional Members may purchase from the
Association (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the Annual
Reports of the Association, at a price to be fixed upon by the Council.

IV. —SUBSCRIPTIONS.

(a) Every Life ]\Ieniber .shall pay, on admission as such, the sum of
Ten Pounds.

(6) Ordinary and Institutional Members shall pay, on election, an
Annual Subscription of One Pound. Subsequent Annual Subscriptions shall
be payable on the first day of July in each year.

(c) An Ordinary Member may at any time become a Life Member by
one payment of Ten Pounds in lieu of future Annual Subscriptions. An
Ordinary Member may, after ten years, provided that his subscriptions have
been paid regularly without intermission, become a Life Member by one
payment of Five Pounds in lieu of future Annual Subscriptions.

{(1) The Subscription for Associates for a Session shall be Ten Shillings.

v.— MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet in Session Annually. The place of meeting
shall be appointed by the Council as far in advance as possible, and the
arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Local Committee, in conjunction
with the Council.

VI.— COUNCIL.

(«) The Management of the affairs of the Association shall be entrusted
to a Council, five to form a quorum.

(b) The Council shall consist of the President, Retiring President, four
Vice-Presidents, two General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Editor
of the publications of the Association, and the Librarian, together with
one Member of Council for every twenty Members of the Association.

(c) The President, ' Vice-Presidents, General Secretaries, General
Treasurer, the Editor of the publications of the Association and the
Librarian shall be nominated at a meeting of Council not later than two
months previous to the Annual Session, and shall be elected at the Annual
General Meeting.

((I) Ordinary Members of Council to represent centres having more than
twenty iMembers shall, not later than one month prior to the Annual Session of
the Association, be elected by each such Centre, in the proportion of one
representative for every twenty Members. The Annual General Meeting
shall elect other Ordinary Members of Council, in number so as to give,
together with the Members of Council already elected by the Centres, in all,
one Member of Council for every twenty Members of the Association.

(f) The Council shall have the power to co-opt Members, not exceeding
five in number, from among the Members of the Association resident in that
Centre at which the next ensuing Session is to be held.

(/) In the event of a vacancy occurring in the Council, or among the
Officers of the Association, in the intervals between the Annual Sessions, or
in the event of the Annual Meeting leaving vacancies, the Council shall have
the power to fill such vacancies.

(<yf) During any Session of the Association the Council shall meet at least
twice, and the Council shall meet at least six times during the year, in
addition to such INIeetings as may be necessary during the Annual vSession
of the Association.

COUNCIL. FINANCE. Ill

{h) The Council shall have the power to pay for the services of Assistant
General Secretaries, for such clerical assistance as it may consider necessary,
and for such assistance as may be needed for the publication of the
Association Report or Journal.

(j) The Council shall have power to frame Bye-laws to facilitate the
practical working of the Association, so long as these Bye-laws are not at
variance with the Constitution.

VII.— LOCAL AND RECEPTION COMMITTEES.

(a) A Local Committee shall be constituted for the Centre at which the
Annual Session is to be lield. and shall consist of the ^lembers of the Council
resident in that Centre, with such other ]\Iembers of the Association as the
said jMembers of Council may elect.

(b) The Local Committee shall form a Reception Committee to assist in
making arrangements for the reception and entertainment of visitors. Such
Reception Committee may include persons not necessarily Members or
Associates of the Association.*

(c) The Local Committee shall be responsible for all expenses in connec-
tion with the Annual Session of tlfe Association.

VIII.— HEADQUARTERS.

The Headquarters of the Association shall be in Johannesburg.

IX.— FINANCE.

{a) Tlie Financial Year shall end on the 31st of May.

(b] All sums received for Life Subscriptions and for Entrance Fees shall
be invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the Council, and
only the interest arising from such investment shall bei applied to the uses
of the Association, except by resolution of a General Meeting; provided that
any composition fee as a Life ]\Iember paid over to the Trustees of the
Endowment Fund after the 30th day of J\Iay, 1914, may, upon the death of
such Member, be repaid by the Trustees to the General Account of the
Association, if the Council shall so decide.

(c) The Local Committee of the Centre in which the next ensuing Session
is to be held shall have the power to expend money collen.'tied, or otherwise
obtained in that Centre, other than the subscriptions of Members. Such
disbursements shall be audited, and the financial statement and the surplus
funds forwarded to the General Treasurer within one month after the Annual
Session.

{(l) All cheques shall be signed by the General Treasurer and a General
Secretary, or by such other person or persons as may be authorised by the
Council.

(e) Whenever the balance in the hands of the Treasurer shall exceed the
sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Association, the
Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees.

if) On the request of the majority of the Members of Council of any
Centre in which two or more Members of Council reside, the Council shall
empower the local Members of Council in that Centre to expend sums not
exceeding in the aggregate 10 per cen.him of the amount of Annual Subscrip-
tions raised in that Centre.

ig) The whole of the accounts of the Association, i.e., the local as well
as the general accounts, shall be audited annually bv an auditor appointed
bv the Council, and the balance-sheet shall be submitted to the Council at
the first meeting thereafter, and be printed in the Annual Report of the
Association.

• The Heception Committee should make arrangements to provide: —

(1) A large hall for the delivery of the Presidential Address and evening lectures.

(2) A large room to be used as a Reception Boom for memher."! and otlwrs, at which
all information regarding the Association c:)n be obtained, and wliich shall have attach.?d
to it two Secretaries' Offices, a Writing Room for memb(rs and other.^. a Smoking Room,
and Ladies' Boom.

Ci) Six rooms, each capable of accommodatins about 30 or JO people, lo be used as
Sectional Meeting Booms, and, if pcFSible, to have rooms attached, or in close pioximity,
for the purpose of holding meetings of Scctumal Committ.es.

(4) Other requirements, such a^ office furniture, hbai-kboards, window blinds to darken
sectional meeting rooms for Lantern lectures, notice boards, etc.

IV COXSTITUTION.

X.— SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Scientific Work of the Association shall be transacted under such
eeotions as shall be constituted from time to time by the Council, and the
constitution of such Sections shall be published in the Journal.

The Sections shall deal with the following Sciences and such others as-
the Council may add thereto from time to time: — Agriculture; Anthropology
and Ethnology ; Archaeology ; Architecture ; Anatomy ; Astronomy ; Bacteri-
ology ; Botany; Chemistry ; Education; Engineering: Eugenics; Geodesy and
Surveying; Geography. Geology and Mineralogy; Irrigation; IMathematics ;
Mental Science; Meteorology; Philology; Physics; Physiology; Political
Economy ; Sanitary Science ; Sociology ; Statistics ; Zoology.

XI.— RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

(a) Grants may be made by the Association to Committees or to indi-
viduals for the promotion of Scientific research.

(h) Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of money in aid
of special research shall primarily be considered by the Sectional Conimittes
dealing with the science specially concerned, and if such proposal be approved,
shall be referred to the Council.

(c) A Sectional Committee may recommend to Council the appointment
of a Research Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to conduct
research or to administei' a grant in aid of research.

{d) In recommending the appointment of Research Committ.ees, the
Sectional Committee shall specifically name all Members of such Committees ;
and one of them, who has notified his willingness to accept the office, shall
be appointed to act as Secretary. The number of Members appointed to
serve on a Research Committee shall be as small as is consistent with its
efficient working.

(e) All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall be
forwarded without delay to the Council for consideration and decision.

if) Research Committees shall be appointed for one year only, but if the
work of a Research Committee cannot be completed in that year, application
may be made, through a Sectional Committee, at the next Annual Session for
re-appointment, with or without a grant — or a further grant — of money.

{g) Every Research Committee, and every individual, to whom a grant
had been made, shall present to the following Annual i\Ieeting a report of the
progress which has been made, together with a statement of the sums which
haA'e been expended. Any balance shall be returned to the General Treasurer.

{h) In each Research Committee, the Secretary thereof shall be the only
person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such portions of the sums granted
as may from time to time be required.

XII.— SPECIAL COMMITTEES.
The Council shall have power to appoint Special Committees to deal with
such subjects as it may approve, to draft regulations for any such Committees,
and to vote money to assist the Committees in their work.

XIII.— SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

{a) Tlie Sectional Committees shall consist of a President, two Vicc-
Presideiits. two or more Secretaiies, and such other persons as the Council
may consider necessary, who shall be elected by the Council. Of the
Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section, and at least one shall
be resident in the Centre where the Annual Session is to be held.

ih) From the time of their election, which shall take place as soon as
possible after the Session of the Association, they .shall form themselves into
an organising Committee for the purpose of obtaining information upon Papers
Ukely to be submitted to the Sections, and for the general furtherance of the
work of the Sectional Committees.

(c) The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their number
from among the INIembers nf the Association.

((7) The Committees of the several Sections shall determine the acceptance
of Papers before the beginning of the Session, keeping the General Secretaries
informed from time to time of their work. It is therefore desirable, in order
to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several
communications, that each author .should prepare an Abstract of his Paper,

THE vSOUTII AFRICA MEDAL. V

and he should send it, together with the original Paper, to the Secretary of
the Section before which it is to be read, so that it may reach him at least
a fortnight before the Session.

(e) Members may communicate to the Sections the Papers of non-
members.

(/■) The Author of any Paper is at liberty to reserve his right of property
tlierein.

(g) The Sectional Committees shall meet not later than the first day of
the Session in the Rooms of their respective Sections, and prepare the
progi'amme for their Sections and forward the same to the General Secretaries
for publication.

ih) The Council cannot guarantee the insertion of any Report, Paper or
Abstract in the Annual Volume unless it be handed to the Secretary of the
Section before the conclusion of the Session.

(i) The Sectional Committees shall report to the Council what Reports,
Papers or Abstracts it is thought advisable to print, but the final decision
shall rest with the Council.

XIV.— ALTERATION TO RULES.
Any proposed alteration of the Rules —

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months before the next

Session of the Association.

b. Shall be duly considered by the Council and communicated by

Circular to the j\l embers of the Association for their considera-
tion, and dealt with at the said Session of the Association.
During the interval between two Annual Sessions of the Association, any
alterations proposed to be made in the Rules shall be valid if agreed to by
two-thirds of the Members of Council. Such alteration of Rules shall not
be permanently incorporated in the Constitution until approved by the next
Annual Meeting.

XV.— VOTING.

In voting for Members of Council, or on questions connected with
Alterations to Rules, absent Members may record their vote in writing.

RULES FOR THE AWARD OF MEDALS.
A. The South Africa Medal.
I. — Constitution of Committee.

(a) The Council of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science shall, annually and within three months after the close of the
Annual Session, elect a Committee to be called " the South Africa Medal
Committee," on which, as far as possible, every Section of the Association and
each Province of South Africa shall have fair representation.

(6) This Committee shall consist of eight Members elected from amnngst
Council Membei's, together with four other Members, .■^elected from amongst
Members of the Association who are not on the Council.

(c) Each new Committee shall retain not less than four members who
have served on the previous Committee.

(d) The Chairman of the Committee .shall i)e appointed annually by the
Council from amongst its Members.

(e) Any casual vacancy in the Committee shall be filled by the Council.

II.— Duties.

(a) The duties of the Committee shall be to adminis-ter the Incume of
the Fund and to award the Medal, raised in commemoration of the visit of
the British Association to South Africa in 1905, in accordance with the
resolution of its Council.

(6) This resolu'tion reads as follows:

(1) That, in accordance with the wishes of subscribers, the South
Africa Medal Fund be invested in the names of the Trustees
appointed by the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science.

(2) That the Dies for the Medal be transferred to the A.=;sociation, to
which, in its corporate capacity, the administration of the Fund

Vl CONSTITUTION.

and the award of the Medal shall be, and is hereby, entrusted,
under the conditions specified in the lleport to the Medal
Committee.

(c) The terms of conveyance are as follows: —

(1) That the Fund be devoted to the preparation of a Die for a Medal,
to be struck in Bronze, 2^ inches in diameter; and that the balance
be invested and the annual income held in trust.

(2) That the Medal and income of the Fund be awarded by the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science for achieve-
ment and promise in scientific research in South Africa. ^

(3) That, so far as circumstances admit, the award be made annually.

(cl) The British Association has expressed a desire that the award shall
be made only to those persons whose Scientific work is likely to be usefully
continued by them in the future.

III. — Awards.

{a) Any individual engaged in Scientific research in South Africa shall
be eligible to receive the award.

(b) The Medal and the available balance of on© year's income from the
Fund shall be awarded to one candidate only in each year (save in the case
of joint research) ; to any candidate once only; and to no member of the
Medal Committee.

(c) Nominations for the recipient of the award may be made by any
Member of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science,
and shall be submitted to the Medal Committee not later than six months
after the close of the Annual Session.

(d) Tlie Medal Committee shall recommend the recipient of the award
to the Council, provided the recommendation is carried by the vote of at
least a majority of three-fourtlis of its Members, voting verbally or by letter,
and submitted to the Council at least one month prior to the Annual Session
for confirmation.

(e) The award shall be made by the full Council of the South African
Association for the Advancement of Science after considering the recommenda-
tions of the Medal Commit^tee, provided it is carried by the vote of a majority
of its INlembers. given in writing or verbally.

{f} The Council shall have the light to withhjld the award in any
year, and to devoffe the funds rendered available thereby in a subsequent
award or awards, provided the stipulation contained in the second term of
conveyance of the British Association is adhered to.

{g) No alteration shall be made in these Rules except under the condition
specified in Chapter XIV. of the Association's Constitution, reading: —

Any proposed alteration of the Rules —

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months before the next

Session of the Association.

b. Shall be duly considered by the Council, and be communicated by

circular to the Members of the Association for their consideration,

and dealt with at the said Session of the Association.

{h) Should a Member of the iNIedal Committee accept nomination for the

Award or be absent from Soutli Africa at any time within four months before

the commencement of the ensuing Annual Session, he will, ipso facto, forfeit

his seat on the Committee.

B. The Goold- Adams Medals.*

(a) The Medals shall be awarded on the joint results of the Matriculation
and University Senior Certificate Examinations of the University of the Cape
of Good Hope.

(6) One Medal shall be awarded to the student who has taken the highest
place in each of the seven Science subjects: (1) Physics, (2) Chemistry,
(3) Elementary Physical Science, (4) Botany, (5) Zoology. (6) Elementary
Natural Science, and (7) Mathematics, as set forth in the L'niversity

• The award of these medals is at present suspended.

BYE-LAWS. Vll

Matriculation Examination and the University Senior Certificate Examination;
and who is not over the prescribed age for Exhi'oitio)is at the Mal'riculation
Examination.

(c) The standard of marks shall be not less 'than 65 per cent, of the
maximum.

(d) The Medals shall be struck in bronze.

BYE-LAWS.

I. Bye-laws under which the O.F.S. Philosophical Society was incorporated,

from 1st July, 1914, with, the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science, ivith the designation of " The Oraiige Free
State Branch " of the Association.

1. The O.F.S. Philosophical Society to be incorporated with the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science, tins being the only
course of procedure open under the existing Constitution.

2. The title of the Society so incorporated to be "The Orange Free
State Branch of the South African Association for the Ad\ancement of
Science."

3. All members of the South Afiican Association for the Advancement
of Science resident in the Orange Free State will, for purposes of these bye-
laws, be considered members of the Orange Free Sta^te Branch of the
Association.

4. The local Committee of the Branch to consist of the Council members
of the Association for the Orange Free State, together with such additional
members as the Branch may elect to serve on its local Committee.

5. Subscription notices to members of the Brarich to be circulated from the
Head Office of the Association in Johannesburg, and subscriptions to be paid
to the General Treasurer of the Association at Johannesburg, 10 per cent,
thereof being remitted to the Oran£);o Free State Brancli for local expenses.
Subscriptions of £1 per annum to entiiie to membersliio of the Association
as a whole, as well as of the Orange Free State Branch.

6. All members ati present on the books of the Orange Free State
Philosophical Society to be entitled to become member.s of the Association,
to receive its Journal, and to enjoy the full priviliges of membeiship, as soon
as their subscription of £1 for the financial year 1914-15 shall have Joeen paid.

7. Papers read before the Orange Free State Branch may either (Ij be
printed by title, abstract, or in extcnso, in the Journal of the Association for
the current year, after reference to the Presidents of the respective Sectional
Committees, or (2) be read at the next Aimual Session of the Association
(provided that they have not been jneviously jniblished in abstract or in
extenso), and thereafter printed in the Association's Journal, subject to the
ordinary conditions.

II. Bye-laws for the guidance of Sectioned Officers.

1. The afttention of all Sectional Officers is directed to Chapter XIII. of
the A.'jsociation's Constitution, relating to the Sectional Committees and their
functions.

2. The President and Recorxler (or Secretary) of a Section shall have
power during the Annual Session to act on behalf of the Seciion in any
matter of urgency which cannot be brought before the consideration of th?
whole Sectional Committee; and they shall report such action to the next
meeting of the Sectional Committee.

3. The President of the Section, or, in his absence, one of the two Vice-
Presidents, shall preside at all meetings of the Section or of the Sectional
Committee.

4. The President of the Section is expected to prepare a Presidential
Address, which shall be delivered during the Annual Session.

6. Prior to the commencement of the Session, the Recorder of each
Section shall prepare a list of all papers notified to be read during the Session,

Vm CONSTITUTION.

and shall also keep the Assistant Secretary of the Association informed of the
titles and authors of all such papers. The Assisiant Secretary shall, on his
part, keep the Recorder informed of all papers that may be notified to him
direct.

6. When a proposal is made for the reading of a paper at a joint meeting
of Sections, the President, Recorder and Secretary of each Section shall,
ax officio, attend a meeting convened by a General Secretary to consider the
same.

7. During the continuance of the Annual Session, the Local Secretary of
each Section shall be responsible for the punctual transmission to the Assistant
Secretary of the daily programme of his Section for early publication, and of
any other recommendations adopted by the Sectional Committee ; and shall,
at the close of the Session, furnish the Assistant Secretary with a list, showing
which of the papers notified for reading before the Section have been so read,
and which have been taken as read, and giving the dates in either case.
He shall, at the same time, indicate the recommendations of the Sectional
Committee with respect to each paper, i.e., whether it .'should be printer'' in
full, or in abstract, or by title only.

8. Each Sectional Committee shall cause to be prepared a record of the
discussion on each paper read at its meeting ; and such record shall be attached
to the paper and handed in with the same in terms oi Clause 11 of these
instructions.

9. Each Sectional Committee shall, during the continuance of the Annual
Session, meet daily, unless otherwise determined, to compleite the arrange-
ments for the next day.

10. In deciding on any recommendation regarding the printing of or
otherwise of a paper submitted to it, the Sectional Committee shall consider
only the merits of the paper, and not the financial condition of the Association.

11. The Local Secretary of each Section shall, at the close of each day,
collect the papers that have been read and hand them to the Assistant
Secretary, together with a note explaining the cause of absence of any paper
not so handed over.

12. Sectional Officers shall do their utmo.st to ensure punctual commence-
ment and termniation of the Section's daily proceedings; and, in drafting the
programme for the next day, the Committee shall endeavour to allot a
specified time to the reading and discussion of each paper, in order to prevent
other Sections or the Association as a whole being inconvenienced in conse-
quence of delays.

III. Bye-law< for the Affiliation of Scientific and Kindred Societies.

Philosophical and Scientific Societies, and other Associations of a kindred
character may. on application to, and with the approval of tho Council,
affiliate with the South African Association for the Advancement of Science
on the following conditions :

1. That as a Society can only be affiliated on the approval of the Council,
no minimum of membership of such Society need be specified.

2. That each Society shall pay the Association a minimum fee of £5 for
a strength of 50 members or less, and a further £1 for each additional 10 or
portion of 10 members.

3. That such Society shall be entitled to one copy of the South African
Journal of Scienca for each £1 paid to the Association.

4. That such Society may, if it has a strength of 50 members, be repre-
sented on the Council of the Associatdon by its President or such other
member as may be nominated for the purpose.

5. That all members of affiliated Societies may join the Association as
ordinary members, with full privileges, at a reduced annual subscription
of 15s.

6. That affiliated Societies shall be asked to take intO' consideration the
admission of members of the Association into their Societies at a reduced
subscription.

7. That papers contributed to affiliated Societies may, on recommendation
of both their own Council and that of the Association, be printed in the
Association's Journal of Science, after which the authors shall be entitled
to reprints on the usual terms.

TLACES, DATES AND OlFICERS OF PAST MEETINGS

(^

^ O

e ?;

K g

'^

^

(^

g
s

1

«

■~

cc

'^

•<s>

^

g

p^

o

S

'^

^j

^

CO

.«

5i

•^

*»

^

'^

«
K

o

^

^

^

s

^

«

^

o

:^

'^ -^

5 <•

: if*

M S ^. .2

CC S H Ci Y-^rjiirl-^

Jo

-'-..-as

J '". % J

^'^ r>ra

ce crj C t"

pa u^

Sag
H r -

S^^

; .^. a. :
IHn :

■ -d :

;l^ - :

«; w •:; '^

c^gpH p^^p^r

=8 C C.9

= aa;

a s

a> 00 C S
PQ C;g 2

• 'c .5^ :=

P "p -

.-age

^3=

;a,3.^

3j3g . O^ ..

K M^-r Mi's '

^

H

"fc^

S

H

?5s

a

■^

ca

H

^

«

pT^

as

Ph =>
1-5 2

a>?

'I

Pi
pa

P5

s ^-

COOQ

pi

a

PLACES, DATES AND OFFICERS OF PAST MEETINGS.

«3 :m

p -3 O O

o

■a Q g-

p

•«.■

r pd

H

•^ -Q -
-a •

1^^

-KM

^H^W

J: .«i

-i^i-i fHt/i&«ii ^i;c/j<i piUiCLitK

^ i> o ,;
-J s "^' ^^

^ 1^ 3J o

o o
. J- ^^ •

<1CUP4 E

. c3 : .

Ph*-;

^■■S
S .

■^ ^ £ r '^ ? Q ft

rS I— ^ c tH ,i y

Ph ■ „
. • . <u .

c p . p

coco
ti ^ ^ }-l

w>.

<JPQ

^ ; =

<5^

H
O !>>

P',^
tf

1- o^'

H ■

p

■ I-:

V.

>.

^

pi a

H a

Pf
P<

^ 2

PL, &

c

IS

'^.c

15? c

5«

ij

^J

•1.

p

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS. XI

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.

SECTION A.— ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS.
METEOROLOGY AND PHYSICS.

1903. Cape Town ... Prof. P. D. Hahn, M.A., Prof. L. Crawford.

Ph.D.

1904. Johannesburg* J. R. Williams, M.I.M.M., W. Cullen, R. T. A. Innes.

.AI.Amer.I.M.E.

1906. Kimberlev ... J. R. Sutton, M.A. W. Gasson, A. H. J. Bourne.

1907. Natalt .." ... E. N. Neville, F.R.S.. D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.C.S.

1908. Grahamstown ... A. W. Roberts, D.Sc, 'D. Williams, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS. PHYSICS, METEOROLOGY,

GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGINEERING, ARCHITE( TURUE

AND GEOGRAPHY.

1909. Bloemfontein ... Prof. W. A. D. Rudge, H. B. Austin, F. Masey.

M.A.

1910. Cape Town: ... Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, A. H. Reid, F. Flowers.

F.R.S.E.
191L Bulawayo ... Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., M.A., A. H. Reid, Rev. S. S. Dornan.

1912. Port Elizabeth H. J. Holder, M.I.E.E. A. H. Reid.

1913. Lourengo J. H. von Hafe. Prof. J. Orr, J. Vafi Gomes.

Marques

1914. Kimberley ... Prof. A. Ogg, I\I.A,, B.Sc, Prof. A. Brown, A. E. H. Din-

Ph.D. ham-Peren.

1915. Pretoria ... F. E. Kanthact, M.I.C.E., Prof. A. Brown, J. L. Soutter.

M.I.M.E.

1916. Maritzburg ... Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc, Prof. A. Brown, P. Mesham.

M.I.C.E.

1917. Stellenbosch ... Prof. W. N. Roseveare, Prof. A. Brown, L. Simons.

M.A.

1918. Johannesburg... Prof. J. T. Morrison. I\I.A., Prof. A. Brown. Prof. J. P.

B.Sc. F.R.S.E. Dalton.

1919. Kingwilliams- W. Ingham, M.LC.E., Dr. J. Lunt, T. G. Caink,

town. M.I.M.E. J. Powell.

1920. Bulawavo ... H E. Wood, M.Sc, Prof. J Orr, A. C. Jennings.

F.R.A.S.

SECTION B.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY,
BOTANY, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

190o. Cape Town ... R. Marloth, M.A., Ph.D. Prof. A. Dendy.

1904. Johannesburg... G. S. Corstorphine, B.Sc, Dr. W. C. C. Pakes, W. H.
Ph.D., F.G.S. Jollvman.

1906. Kimberlev ... Thos. Quentrall, M.I.M.E., C. E. Addams, H. Simpson.

F.G.S.

CHEMISTRY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY, ENGINEERING,
MINING AND ARCHITECTlfRE.

1907. Natal C. W. IMethven. .M.LC.E., R. G. Kirkbv, W. Paton.

F.R.S.E, F.R.I B.A.

1908. Grahamstown... Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, Prof. G. E. Cory, R. W.

A.R.C.S., F.G.S. Newman, J. Muller.

* Metallurgy added in 1904.

t Geography and Geodesy transferreil to Sfction X and Chr-mi&trv and Metallurgy to
Section B, ni 10O7.

t Irrigation added in 1910 and Geography transferred to Section B.

Date and Place.

OFFICERS OF SECTIOXS

Presidents.

Secretaries.

CHEMISTRY. BACTERIOLOGY. GEOLOGY. BOTANY, MINERALOGY,
ZOOLOGY. AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, SANITARY SCIENCE.

Dr. G. Potts, A. Stead.

1909. Bloemfontein .
CHEMISTRY

C. F. Juritz. M.A.. D.Sc.
F.I.C.

GEOLOGY. METALLURGY, MINERALOGY AND
GEOGRAPHY.

1910. Cape Town ...

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg

1917. Stellenbosch ...

1918. Johannesburg...

1919. Kingwilliams-

town.

1920. Bulawavo

A. W. Rogers, M.A.. J. G. Rose, G. F. Avers.

Sc.D.. F.G.S.
A. J. C. Molvneux. F.G.S., J. G. Rose, G. N. Blackshaw.

F.R.G.S. '
Prof. B. de St. J. van der J. G. Rose, J. E. Devlin.

Riet. :\I.A.. Ph.D.
Prof. R. B. Young, M.A., Prof. G. H. Stanlev, Capt. A.

D.Sc. F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Gratja.

Prof. G. H. Stanlev, J. G. Rose, J. Parry.
A.R.S.M., M.LM.E.,
.AI.I.M.M., F.I.C.
H. Kvnaston, .M.A., F.G.S. Dr H. C. J. Tietz. Prof. D.

F. du Toit I\Ialherbe.
Prof. .J. A Wilkinson, Dr. H. C. J. Tietz. Prof. J. W

M.A.. F.C.S. Bews.

Prof. M. :\I. Rindl, Ing.D. Dr. H. C. J. Tietz. Prof. B. de

St. J. van der Riet.
P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Dr. J.

B.Sc. Moir.

H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, T. H.

Harrison, W. G. Chubb.
F. P. ]\[ennell. F.G.S.. J. H. Hutcheon, A. M. Mac-
M.LM.M. Gregor.

SECTION C— AGRICULTURE, ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

1903. Cape Town ... Sir Chas. Metcalfe, Bart., A. H. Reid.

M.I.C.E.

1904. Johannesburg* I ieut.-Colonel Sir Percy G. S. Burt Andrews, E. J.

Girouard, K.C.M.G., Laschinger.

D.S.O.

1906. Kimberley ... S. J. Jennings, C.E., D. W Greatbatch, W. New-
M.Amer.I.M.E., M.LM.E. digate.

BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.
PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE.

I;ieut. -Colonel H. Watkins W. A. Squire, A. M. Neilson,

Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S. Dr. J. E. Duerden.

Prof. S. Schonland, M.A., Dr. J. Bruce Bavs, W. Robert-

Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. son, C. W. M'ally, Dr. L. H.

Gough.

Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, W. D. Severn, Dr. J. W. B.

:\I.A., Sc.D., F.L.S. Gunning.

F. Eyles, F.L.S. . INI.L.C. W. T. Saxton, H. G. Mundy.

F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S., W. T. Saxton, I L. Drege.

F.R.M.S.
A. L. I\I. Bonn. C.E.

1907. Natal

1908. Grahamstown...

110. Cape Townt ••

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourengo

Marques

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg

1917. Stellenbosch ...

F. Flowers, Lieut. J. B.

Botelho.
C. W. Mallv, W. J. Calder.

Prof. G. Potts. AI.Sc.

Ph.D.
C. P. Lounsburv. B.Sc.

F.E.S.
I. B. Pole-Evans. M.A.

J. Burtt-Davv, F.L.S.. C. W. Mally, C. S. Grobbelaar.
F.R.G.S.

C. W. Mally, A. K. Haagner
C. W. TNlally, Prof. E. Warren.

" Forestry added in 1904.

t Sanitary Science added in 1910.

OFFICERS OF SFXTIOXS. Xlll

Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.

BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, AND FORESTRY.

1918. Johannesburg... C. E. Legat. B.Sc. Dr. E. P. Phillips. J. Burtt-

Davy.
19m Kingwilliams- Ethel M. Doidge, I\I.A., Dr. E. P. Phillips, E. W.

town D.Sc. F.L.S. Dwyer, Dr. G. Rattray.

1920. Bulawayo ... T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S. Dr. E." P. Phillips, Prof. H. A.

Wager.

SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY. HYGIRNE, AND SANITARY

SCIENCE.

1918. Johannesburg... Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A.. C. W. Mallv, R. J. Ortlepp

D.Sc.

1919. Kingwilliams- Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc. C. W. Mally, Dr. J. I.

town Br' wnlee, B. H. Dodd.

1920. Bulawayo ... C. W. :Mally, M.Sc, F E.S. Dr. Anr.ie Porter, P. H. Taylor.

SECTION E.- ANTHROPOLOGY. ETHNOLOGY. ECONO:\riCS. SOCIOLOGY,

AND STATISTICS.

19C8. Grahamstown... W. Hammond Tooke. Prof. A. S. Kidd.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY,
AND NATIVE SOCIOLOGY.

1917. Stellenbosch ... Rev. N. Roberts. Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite,

Prof. J. J. Smith.

1918. Johannesburg... Rev. W. A. Norton B.A., Rev. E.^ W. H. Musselwhite,

B.Litt. Rev. G. Evans.

1919. Kingwilliams- Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite,

town M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. G. R. Spencer, M. Flem-

mer.

1920. Bulawayo ... Rev. H. A. Junod. N. H. Wilson, Rev. N. Jones.

SECTION F.— ARCH.ICOLOGY. EDUCATION. AlENTAL SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY,
POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

1903. Cape Town ... Tho.s. Muir, C.M.G.. M.A., Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

1904. Johannesburg... (Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, Howard Pirn, J. Robinson.

M.L.A.), E. B. Sargant,
M.A. (Acting).

1906. Kimberley ... A. H. Watkins, M.D , E. C. Lardner-Burke, E. W.

M.R.C.S. Mowbray.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGY, ECONOMICS. EDUCATION,
ETHNOLOGY, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY. PHILOLOGY,
SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1907. Natal R. D. Clark, M.A. R. A. Gowthorpe, A. S.

Langley, E. A. Belcher.

ARCHEOLOGY, EDUCATION, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND PHILOLOGY.

1908. Graham.stown... E. G. Gane, M.A. Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, W.

D. Neilson.

Date aiicl Place.

OFFICERS OF SECTIO]SrS.

Presidents.

Secretaries.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, EDUCATION. HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND
STATISTICS.

1909. Bloemfontein ... Hugh Gunn, M.A. C. G. Grant, Rev. W. A.

Norton.

1910. Cape Town ... Rev. W. Flint, D.D. G. B. Kipps, W. E. C. Clarke.
1911 Bulawayo ... G. Duthie, M.A., F.R.S.E. G. B. Kipps, W. J. Shepherd.

1912. Port Elizabeth W. A. Way, M.A., G. B. Kipps, E. G. Bryant.

1913. Lourengo J. A. Foote, F.G.J^ H. Pirn, J. Elvas.

JNIarques.

1914. Kimberley ... Prof. W. Ritchie, M.A. Prof. R. D. Nauta, A. H. J.

Bourne.

1915. Pretoria ... J. E. Adamson, 1\I.A. Prof. R. D. Nauta, R. G. L.

Austin.

1916. Maritzburg ... M. S. Evans, C.M.G., Prof. R. D. Nauta, Prof. 0.

F.Z.S. Waterhouse.

EDUCATION, HISTORY, jNIENTAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY,
GENERAL SOCIOLOGY, AND STATISTICS.

1917. Stellenbosch ... Rev. B. P. J. JNfarchand, Prof. R. D. Nauta, Dr. Bertha

B.A. Stoneman

1918. Johannesburg... Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., Prof. R. D. Nauta, J. Mitchell.

D.Phil.

1919. Kingwilliams- Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., Prof. R. D. Nauta, J. Wood,

town F.S.S. F. J. Cherrigh.

1920. Bulawayo ... Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., J. Mitchell, B. M. Narbeth.

D.Sc.

Date and Place.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.

1903. Cape Town ... Prof. W. S. Logeman, The Ruins of Persepolis and

B.A., L.H.C. how the Inscriptions were

read.

1904. Johannesburg... H. S. Hele Shaw, LL.D., Road Locomotion — Present and

F.R.S., M.I.C.E. Future.

1906. Kimberley ... Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., The Electrical Aspect of

D.Sc. Chemistry.

W. C. C. Pakes, L.R.C.P., The Immunisation against

M.R.C.S., D.P.H., F.I.C. Disease of Micro-organic

Origin.

1907. Maritzburg ... R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., Some Recent Problems in

F.R.S.E. Astronomy.

Durban ... Prof. R. B. Young, M.A., The Heroic Age of South

B.Sc, F.R.S.E.. F.G.S. African Geology.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place.
1908. Grahanistown ,

1909. Bloemfoiitein ..

Maseru

1910. Cape Town ..

1911. Bulawayo

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Louren50

Marques

1914. Kiniberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg ...
Durban

1917. Stellenbo.sch ...

1918. Johannesburg...

1919. Kingwilliams-

town

East London ...

1920. Bulawayo

Lecturer.
Prof. G. E. Tory, M.A.
A. Theiler, C.M.G.

Subject of Discourse.

The History of the Eastern
Province.

Tropical and Sub-tropical
Diseases of South Africa ;
their Causes and Propaga-
tion.

C. F. Juritz, ^LA.. D.Sc, Celestial Chemistry.
F.LC.

W. Cullen.

Explosives : their Manufacture
-md L^se.

R. T. A. Lines, F.R A.S., Astronomy.
F.R.S.E.

Piuf. H. Lfhle, M.LE.E. The Conquest of the Air.

,J. Brown. I\LD. , C.I\L. Electoral Reform — Proportional

F.R.C.S., L R.C.S.E. Representation.

W. II Logcman, M.A. The Gyroscope.

A. W. Roberts, D.Sc, Imperial Astronomv.
F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., Antarctica.
D.Sc.

S. Seruya. The History of Portuguese

Conquest and Discovery.

Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, The Kimberley Mines, their

A.R.C.S., F.G.S. DiscoveiT', and their relation

to other Volcanic Vents in
South Africa.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc, F.G.S., The Gold-bearing Conglomerates

M.I.M.M. of the Witwatersrand.

C. W. IMallv, :M.Sc., The House Fly under South

F.E.S., F.L.S. African conditions.

C. P. Lounsburv, B.Sc, Scale Insects and their travels.
F.E.S.

R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S , A.stronomy.
F.R.S.E.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc,
F R.Met.S.

Some Unsolved Problems of
Astronomy.

Pruf. J. D. F. Gilchrist, Some Marine Animals of South
IM.A., D.Sc. Ph.D., Africa.

F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.

Prof. H. B. Fantham, Evolution and Mankind.
M.A.. DSc, A.R.C.S.,
F.Z.S.

Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ostriches.
Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., Tlic Approaching South Afri-
D.Sc can Antarctic Expedition.

Early History of Kaffraria and
East London.

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, The Nitrogen Problem.
M.A., F.C.S.

(luIlibrary)^

XVI

MEETINGS AT BULAWAYO.

On Wednesdai/, Jvlij 14, 1920, at 11 a.m., the Associatiou
was ofiicially welcomed by His Worship the Mayor of Bulawayo
(Councillor Jas. Cowden) and the Borough Council in the
Eveline School. Dr. I. B. Pole Evans (President) and
Prof. J. A. Wilkinson (Vice-President) responded.

At 11.30 a.m., Mr. H. E. Wood, M.Sc, delivered an
address, as President of Section A, on " Eecent Progress in
Astronomy." Mr. C. W. Mally, M.Sc, followed with an
address, as President of Section D, on " Some Zoological Factors
in the Economic Development of South Africa."

At 2 p.m.. Members of the Association proceeded on motor
trips to the Khami Euins or to the Cement Works.

At 8.30 p.m., Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., E.L.S.,
President, delivered an address on " The Veld: Its Eesources
and Dangers," in the Grand Hotel, Mr. E. W. Miolee
presiding. (See page 1.)

The President subsequently presented the South Africa
Medal to Professor E. Warren, D.Sc. (See page xxx.)

On Thursday, July 15, at 9.30 a.m., Mr. F. P. Mennell
delivered an address, as President of Section B, on " Geology
in Eelation to Mining " in the Public Library. The
Eev. H. A. Junod followed with an address, as President of
Section E, on " The Magic Conception of Nature among
Bantus."

Sectional Meetings took place in the afternoon.

At 8.30 p.m.. Members attended a reception and con-
versazione, held bv His Worship the Mavor, in the Grand
Hotel.

On Friday, July 16, at 9.30 a.m., Dr. T. E. Sim delivered
an address, as President of Section C, on " Causes leading
toward Progressive Evolution of the Flora of South Africa."

At 11 a.m., Members proceeded by motor cars to the
Matopos and World's View.

At 8.15 p.m., Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., gave a
popular lecture on " The Xitrogen Problem," in the Public
Library, the President of the Association presiding.

On Saturday, July 17, at 9.30 a.m., the Eighteenth Annual
General Meeting was held in the Public Library, for Minutes
of which see page xx.

At 11.30 a.m., Prof. E. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc,
delivered an address, as President of Section F, on " Labour
Conditions in South Africa."

Sectional Meetings took place in the early afternoon.

At 4 p.m.. His Honour the Administrator of Southern
Ehodesia, Sir Drummond Chaplin, and Lady Chaplin gave a
Garden Partv to Members at Government House.

On the evening' of Saturday, July IT, the Members
proceeded to the Victoria Falls, and on Tuesday afternoon,
July 20. attended a Garden Party kindly given by His Honour
the Administrator of Northern Ehodesia, Sir Laurence
Wallace, at the Government House, Livingstone.

OFFICERS OF LOCAL AND SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES, BULAWAYO, 1920.

LOCAL CO]iIMITTEE.

Chairman, AY. F. Miolee; Members, G. Arnold, D.Sc,
G. J^. Blackshaw, B.Sc, Rev. H. Brown, C. Dixon, Rev. S. S.
Dornan, B.A., H. B. Douslin, F. Eyles, E. Y. Flack, Eev. E.
Goetz, M.A., A. M. MacGregor, B.A., IL B. Maiife, B.A.,
F. P. Mennell, A. J. C. Molvneiix, G. A. Ping-stone,
Mr. Justice Eussell, B.A., LL.BV, J. W. Sly, Dr. E. H.
Strong, N. H. Wilson, A. R. Welsh; Local Secretary , D. Niven.

EECEPTIOX COMMITTEE.

His Worship the Mayor, Councillor James Cowden
{Chairman), D. Xiven [Secretary), Councillors C. Dixon,
H. R. Barbour, ^\ . J. Bickle, J. H. Bookless, IL B. Ellen-
bogen, C. T. Eriksson, H. C. Fletcher, Dr. S. L. J. Steggall,
F. Fitch {Town Cleric), Dr. G. Arnold, R. Aserman, W. J.
Atterbury, J. H. Ayliug, F. R. Barnes, E. Basch, Col. C. F.
Birney, Lieut. -Col. J. Brady, G. N. Blackshaw, W^. A. Caton,
W. A. Carter, N. H. Chataway, H. A. CToete, Sir Charles
Coghlan M.L.C., J. C. Coghlan, Rev. M. I. Cohen, A. J. Cole,
Major J. C. Jesser Coope, C. E. G. Cumings, W^. Cunningham,
A. J. Davies, C. Davis, E. B. de Beer, H. A. de Beer, Rev.
S. S. Dornan, W. E. Dowsett, Major C. Duly, Dr. Eaton.

F. Eyles, F. Fisher. E. Y. Flack, C. D. Fleming, P. Fletcher,
R. X. Fletcher, M.L.C.. L. R. Forbes, Dr. A. F. Forrester.

G. Fortune, A. Eraser. A. M. Eraser, Rev. E. Goetz, jN". Gritfin,
H. T. Guerrier, F. L. Hadfield, YI.L.C, A. Harrington,
A. G. Hay, Capt. X. G. Hendrie, Capt. Bryce Hendrie,
Sir Melville Heyman, Capt. W\ C. Hoaten, G. R. Holgate,
H. S. Hopkins, Rev. Horn, Advocate Hudson, H. M. Huntley,
J. Hynd, F. Issels, H. M. G. Jackson, A. Jacobs, Rev.
Johanny, Lieut. -Col. D. Judson, G. G. Kempster, Rev. Kendal,
G. H. Laidman, L. Landau, H. T. Longden, H. T. Low,
J. G. Macdonald. O.B.E., D. MacGillivray. A. M. Macgregor,
F. A. Mallett, Dr. MacLaren, H. B. Maufe, T. Meikle, F. P.
Mennell, W\F . Miolee, A. H. Mitchell, A. J. C. Molyneux,
R. M. Kairn, C. H. Read, G. A. Pingstone, L. G. Puzey,
A. C. Ravmer. S. Redrup, Major Robertson, C. Rodney,
Mr. Justice Russell, F. Scott, J. W. Sly, T. Beach Smitii.
Rev. J. Stanlake, G. Stewart, Dr. E. H. Strong, G. Sutherland,
P. IL Taylor, H. B. Thomas, Lieut. -Col. A. Tomlinson,
Dr. A. Y^igne, Lieut. -Col. A. C. L. AYebb, F. L. Walkden,
A. R. Welsh, Dr. S. Wliite, N". H. W^ilson, C. F. de B.
Winslow, Rev. J. P. Y^oung.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGIN-
EERING, ARCHITECTURE AND IRRIGATION.

President, H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S., F.R.A.S.;
Vice-Presidents, Rev. E. Goetz, M.x\., E.R.A.S., J. Luiit,
D.Sc; Members, Sir J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Prof.
A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc, Percy Cazalet, M.I.M.M., Prof. L.
Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, E.R.S":E., Prof. A. E. du Toit, M.A.,
Prof. P. G. Gimdrv, B.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., C. J. Gyde,
A.M.I.C.E., W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., R. T. A.
Innes, E.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., D. Judson, M.I.E.E., F. E.
Kanthack, C.M.G., M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., S. de J. Lenfesty,
M.A., W. F. Miolee, Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc,
F.R.S.E., N. Mudd, M.A., Prof. A. Oo-g., M.A., B.Sc, Ph.D.,
A. H. Reid, F.R.I.B.A., A. W. Roberts, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,
F.R.S.E.; Recorder, Prof. J. Orr, O.B.E., B.Sc, M.I.C.E. ;
Ron. Secretary, A. C. Jennings, A. M.I.C.E.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
MINERALOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President, F. P. Mennell, F.G.S., M.I.M.M. ; Yice-Fresi-
dents, G. N. Bkckshaw, O.B.E., B.Sc, F.C.S., Prof. R. B.
Denison, ]).Sc ; Members, Prof. E. Anderson, 15. Sc, Ph.D.,
Clement Dixon, M.I.M.M., Jas, Grav, F.I.C., H. H. Green,
D.Sc, F.C.S., C. F. Jiiritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., E. T. MeUor,
D.Sc, F.G.S., J. McCrae, Ph.D., F.I.C., .1. Moir, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.I.C., B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc, Prof. D. F.
dii T. Malherbe, M.A., Ph.D., A. J. C. Moivneux, F.G.S.,
G. A. Pingstone, F.C.S., Prof. M. M. Rindl,' Ing.D., Prof.
E. H. L. Schwarz, A.R.C.S., F.G.S., Prof. H. Tietz, M.A.,
Ph.D., Prof. B. de S. J. van der Riet, M.A., Ph.D., P. A.
Wagner, Ing.D., B.Sc, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S.,
Prof. A. Young, M.A., D.Sc; Recorder, J. H. Hutcheon,
M.A., F.R.S.G.S.; Hon. Secretary, A. M. MacgTegor, B.A.,
F.G.S.

Section C— BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY.

President, T. R. Sim, D.Sc; Vice-Presidents. E. A.
Nobbs, Ph.D., Prof. D. Thodav, M.A. ; Members, Prof. A. M.
Bosman, B.Sc, Prof. R. II. Compton, M.A., MissE. M. Doidg-e,
M.A., D.vSc, F.L.S., Miss A. V. Diithie, M.A., F. Eyles,
F.L.S., E. Holmes-Smith, B.Sc, Miss M. Heatlev, M.A.,
R. A. Fletcher, Prof. J. M. Hector, B.Sc, C. E. Legat, B.Sc,
Prof. C. E. Moss. M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., G. H. Mundv, F.L.S.,
Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc, Ph.D., Prof. A. I. Perold, B.A., Ph.D.,
Yen. Archdeacon F. A. Rog-ers, M.A.. Mrs. Russell, B.A.,
Prof. S. Schonland, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. ; Recorder, E. P.
Phillips, M.A., D.Sc; Hon. Secretary, Prof. H. A. Wager,
A.R.C.S.

SECTIO-NAL COMMITTEES. XIX

Section D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE AND
SANITARY SCIENCE.

Fresidenf, C. AV. Mally, M.vSc, F.E.S. ; Vice-Presidents,
G. Arnold, D.Sc, E.E.S./A. J. Orensteiu, M.D. ; Mevihers,
H. G. Bieijer, Ph.D., A. G. Biinton, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
Prof. E. II. Cluver, P. A., M.B., B.Cli., Prof. T. E. Dreyer,
B.A., Ph.D., Prof. II. B. Fautham, M.A., D.Sc, E.Z.S.,
Prof. E. J. Goddard. ]5.A., D.Sc, Prof. J. D. F. Gikdirist.
M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S., J. Hewitt, B.A., W. M.
Hewetson, M.B., DP.H., A. K. Haagner, F.Z.S., A. J. T.
Janse, F.E.S. , C. P. Lcunsbiirv, B.Sc, F.E.S. , Sir F. Spencer
Lister, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,'D. T. Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S.,
H. U. Moffatt, M.L.C., Sir Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G., D.Sc,
E. H. Strong, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.. W. AYatkins-Pitchford,
M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H., Miss M. Wilman ; Recorder, Annie
Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S. ; Hon. Secveiary, P. II. Taylor.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION, P II I L O LOGY AND NATIVE
SOCIOLOGY.

President, Rev. Henri A. Jnnod ; Vice-Presidents,
Mr. Justice A. F. Russell, B.A., LL.B. ; Principal A. Kerr;
Members, Rev. S. G. Gilkes Aitchison, M.A., D.D., Rev. S. S.
Dornan, M.A., Prof. C. M. Drennan, M.A., Rev. G. Evans,
Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., H. S. Keigwin, M.A.,
J. McLaren, Prof. Morgan Watkin, M.A., L. es L., Ph.D.,
Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite, B.A., Prof. R. D. Nauta, Rev.
W. A. Norton, M.A., B. Lift., Rev. Noel Roberts, S. Sernya;
Recorder, N. H. Wilson; Hon. Secretary, Rev. Neville Jones.

Section F.— EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE,
PRACTICAL ECONOMY, GENERAL SOCIOLOGY
AND STATISTICS.

President, Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc; Vice-Presi-
dents, Sir Francis Newton, Iv.C.M.G.; Prof. 0. Waterhouse,
M.A.; Members, J. E. Adamson, M.A., A. Aiken, E. Chappell,
C.B.E., Prof. J. Clark, M.A., LL.D., G. Duthie, M.A.,
F.R.S.E., S. Evans, J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Prof.
T. M. Forsyth, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. J. H. Hofmevr, M.A.,
Prof. W. S. Johnson, M.A., J. W. Jagger, F.S.S., M.L.A.,
G. T. Morice, K.C., Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S., Prof.
W. A. Macfadven, M.A., LL.D., Miss B. Stoneman, D.Sc,
A. J. Somerville, M.A., H. A. Trubshaw, A. R. Welsh;
Recorder, J. Mitchell; Hon. Secretary, B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc

PROCEEDINGS OF THE EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL GENERAL
MEETING OF MEMBERS.

{Held in fhe Board l^oom. Library Buildings, Bulaicayo, on Saturday
July 17, 1920, at 9.30 a.m.)

Present: Dr. I. B. Pole Evans (President), in the chair, C. L.
Andrew, Miss D. Ball, Miss A. M. Bottomley, G. F. Britten, Rev. Holman
Brown, S. N. C. Collins, Dr. E. M. Delf, Prof. R. B. Denison, F. Evles,
Prof. H. B. Fantham. E. Farrar. J. A. Foote, D. F. Forsyth, Miss
Forsyth, Mrs. Gibson, Father E. Goetz, Dr. H. H. Green, C' J Gray
Lr C. Grice, Prof. P. Gundry, J. S. Henkel. Rev. H. A. Junod. E. J.
Laschinger, Prof. W. A. Macfadven. A. M. Mace;regor A. S Mclntyre
Mrs. H. M. McKay, C. W. MallV, Mrs. A. W. Marchand, Dr. B. de C.
Marchand, H. B. Maufe, Dr. A. Mavrogordato, ^Y. F. Miolee. A J. C.
Molyneux, Advocate G. T. Morice, H. G. Munday, B. M. Narbeth, Prof.
E. Newberry, Dr. E. A. Nobbs, Dr. A. J. Orenstein, Prof. A. C.
Paterson, Prof. H. H. Paine, Miss A. Robinson, Dr. A. W. Rogers,
Ven. Archdeacon F. A. Rogers, Prof. W N. Roseveare, Prof. I. J.
Roussean. Miss M. Roux, J. Sandground, Dr. T. R. Sim, S. H. Skaife,
Miss E. C. Steedman, D. P. Suttie, Prof. D. Thodav, Mrs. M. G. Thoday,
Miss M. Thomson. Prof. H. J. W. Tillvard, Dr.' P. A. van der Bijl,
G. Weeks, Prof. J. A. AYilkinson, Miss M. Wilman, N. H. Wilson,
H. E. Wood, Prof. A. W. Young and M. K. Carpenter (Assistant
General Secretary).

Minutes. — The Minutes of the Seventeenth Annual General Meeting,
held at Kingwilliamstown on July 9, 1919, and printed on pp. xxiv-xxviii
of the Report of the Kingwilliamstown Session (vol. xvi of the
Journal), were confirmed.

Annual Report of the Council. — The Annual Report of the
Council for the year 1919-20, which had been open for inspection by
Members in the Registration Room at the Eveline School, was, on the
proposal of Prof. D. Thoday, seconded by Mr. Fred Eyles, taken as read
and adopted. This Report will be found on p. xxiii of this issue.

Financial Statement and Balance Sheet for the Year 1919-1920. —
This Statement and Balance Sheet having been suspended for inspection
by the side of the Annual Report of Council, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson
moved that the same be passed, subject to audit. This was seconded by
Prof. D. Thoday and agreed to. (See pp. xxvi-xxix.)

Housing of Scientific and Technical Societies. — Prof. J. A.
Wilkinson, on behalf of Prof. J. Orr, moved tlie following motion,
standing in the name of the latter: —

" That a part of the Trust Funds of this Association be invested
with the ' Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South
Africa.' "

In speaking to the motion, the mover outlined the scheme whereby
the Scientific and Technical Societies on the Rand had provided them-
selves with a permanent home. He enlarged upon the advantages which
would accrue to the Association by becoming a participating body, the
minimising and centralisation of secretarial woik, the provision of rest,
committee and lecture rooms, of a reading-room containing the latest
scientific and technical literature, and of facilities for meeting our own
members as well as the members of other societies. Furthermore, this
Association, by becoming a participating body, would not only gain in
standing, but would materially assist in the co-operative movement
amongst scientific societies, and thus prevent much overlapping in
expense.

Dr. A. J. Orenstein, in seconding the motion, dwelt upon the
benefits members would derive, both individually and collectively, by
the Association becoming one of the foundation members of the scheme.

Dr. E. Nobbs. Mr. C. W. Mally and Prof. W. A. Macfadyen asked
questions respecting the soundness of the scheme and whether the
proposition was such as should be submitted to the Trustees for their
consideration.

rROCEEDIXGS OF AXXUAL MEETING. xxi

After tliese queries had been answered in the affirmative by Prof.
AVilkinson, Mr. Laschinger and Dr. Orenstein, it was agreed that the
Association should becom.^ a participating body, and tlie following
amendment was proposed by Prof. Macfadyen : —

" That in the event of debentures being raised to take the place of
the first mortgage, the Trustees be authorised and j-ecommended
to invest £500 of their Trust Funds in that form."
This was seconded by Mr. C. W. Mally.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson thereupon withdrew the original motion and
the amendment became the substantive motion before the meeting, and
was agreed to unanimously.

Election of Officers for the Year 1920-1921. — The following
Officers were elected: Fresidciit, Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D.,
A.R.C.S.: Vice-Presidents. Prof. G. E. Corv, M.A., Prof. R. Leslie,
M.A., F.S.S., T. R. Sim, D.Sc, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S. ;
Hon. General Secretaries, H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.Met.S., F.R.A.S.,
C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C. ; Hon. General Treasurer. J. A. Foote,
F.G.S., F.E.I.S.; Hon. Editor of Publications, Prof. H. B. Fantham,
M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S.

Election of Council Members for 1920-1921.— The following were
elected Members of Council for the year 1920-1921, the retiring President
Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, being also ex officio a Member of Council for the
year: —

I. Cape Province. — (1) Cape Penlnnda: Prof. L. Crawford, M.A.,
D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Dr. O. J. Currie, M.B., M.R.C.S., Rev. W. Flint,
D.D., J. Lunt, D.Sc, F.I.C, C. W. Mallv, M.Sc, F.E.S., A. H. Reid,
F.R.I.B.A., Prof. D. Thodav, M.A. (2) East London : E. Hill, M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., D.P.H. (3) Kimherley: Miss M. Wilinan. (4) KinqwiUiams-
town: E. B. Dwyer, B.A.. J. Leighton, F.R.H.S. (5) Port Elizabeth:
Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E. (6) SteUenbosch : Prbf. E. J.
Goddaid, B.A., D.Sc, Miss Alta Johnson, Ph.D.

II. Traxsva.\l (1) Witwatersrand: C. Aburrow, M.I.C.E., M.S.A.,

N. O. Curry, J. H. Dobson, D.S.O., M.Sc, E. Farrar, J. Gray, F.I.C,
J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., R. T. A.
Innes, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.. J. McCrae, Ph.D., F.I.C, E. T. Mellor,
D.Sc, M.I.M.M., F.G.S., J. Mitchell, .J. Moir, M.A„ D.Sc. F.I.C, Prof.
J. Orr, O.B.E., B.Sc, Annie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S., W. Reid, F.R.I.B.A.,
(2) ]'reti,rm: Ethel M. Doidge. M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S.. B. de C
Marchand, B.A., D.Sc, E. P. Phillips, M.A., D.Sc, Sir Arnold Theiler,
K.C.M.G.. D.Sc

III. Orange Free St.\te.— Prof. T. F. Drever, B.A., Ph.D., F. W.
Storey, B.Sc, F.C.S.

IV. N.atal.— (1) Durban: J. Kirkman. J. P.. B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc.
(2) Pietermaritzburg: Prof. J. W. Bews, M.A.. D.Sc, Prof. E. Warren,
D.Sc.

V. Rhodesia. — (1) Bulawauo: Rev. E. Goetz, S.J. (2) Salisbury:
H. B. Maufe, B.A., F.G.S.

VI. Mozambique. — S. Seruya.

There are still a few vacancies, and elections to fill them will be
made by the Council.

Creation of Office of Honorary Librarian.— Prof. J. A. W^ilkinson
moved, in accordance with notice, that a new office of Honorary Librarian
be created, that the person elected he given a seat on the Council, and
that the Constitution be altered accordingly. If Members decided on
this course, he fuither proposed that Dr. Annie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.,
be appointed Honorary Librarian. Dr. Porter, at the request of the
Council, had been in charge of the Association's Library for some
months past.

The motion was secor.ded by Mrs. Thoday, supported by
Prof. Macfadyen, and carried unanimously.

Annual Session, 1921.— Dr. I. B. Pole Evans stated that an invita-
tion had been received from the Mayor of Durban, through Mr. B. M.

XXll PROCEEDIXGS OF AXXUAL MEJ:TING.

Narbeth, for the Association to liold it^s Annual General Meeting in 1921
at that city, and he propased that the invitation be accepted.
This was agreed to unanimously.

President, 1922. — Dr. I. B. Pole Evans proposed that Dr. A. AV.
Rogers, M.A., F.R.S., be asked to accept the Presidency of the Associa-
tion for the year 1922. This was agreed to unanimously, and Dr. Rogers
accepted.

Proposed Increase of Annual Subscription. — In the absence of
Prof. C E. Moss, and for the purpose of discussion, Prof. J. A. \Vilkinson
proposed that the meeting now proceed to consider the advisability of
increasing the annual subscription to 30s.

Mr. E. J. Laschinger seconded the proposal.

Prof. H. B. Fantham emphasised the need of more funds for the
publication of the Journal on account of tlie increased cost of materials
and labour. The Journal during the coming vear would cost at least
£1,000, probably £1,200.

Mr. B. M. Narbeth strongly opposed any increase in the annual
subscription on the grou'id that it would restrict the activities of the
Asociation by a reduction in the number of Members. He was of the
opinion tliat tlie additional money required to meet the cost of the
Journal could be raised by other means.

Dr. A. W. Rogers hoped that the Journal, v.liich served a very
useful purpose in disseminating scientific knowledge, would not be
greatly reduced or curtailed on account of the lack of funds.

The question of printing advertisements with the Journal was
mentioned as a possible source of revenue, but it seemed to ))e considered
by some Members that little profit would accrue after paying commission
and printing, unless a large numljer of advertisements could be obtained.

The possibility of increasing the annual subscription to 25s. was
also discussed.

Dr. A. J. Orenstein proposed that, in view of the increased cost of
the Journal, the matter be referred to the new Council for consideration
and definite action, if tliis were constitutional.

Mr. H. E. Vv'^cod seconded this motion, which was carried.

In the course of the discussion, Miss Steedman suggested that the
Government be approached for an increased grant. Mr. F. Eyles
suggested that the Rhodesia n Government be also approached for a
grant towards the expense of pu1)li.shing the Journal. Mrs. Thoday
recommended that agriculturalists and machinery merchants be
approached for donations for this purpose.

The meeting agreed that these recommendations be referred to the
Council.

Wireless Telegraphy. — Mi-. H. E. Wood sul)mitted the following
motion : —

" That the Government be requested to erect forthwith a wireless
telegraph station of sufficient power to receive and transmit
messages to Europe and North America, and that copies of this
resolution be sent to the Prime Minister, the Minister for
Industries and the Daily Press."

This was agreed to unanimously.

Votes of Thanks. — On the motion of Mr. C. W. Mally, it was
unanimorsly resolved that the liearty thanks of the Association should
be accorded to : —

(1) The Administrator and Ladv Chr.Dlin for their kindly interest
in the Association and for the Garden Party given in honour of its
Members.

(2) His Worship the Mayor and Town Council and Citizens of
Bulawavo for their cordial welcome to the Association, for the evening
rece7)tion. and for the general facilities afforded to the Members.

rROCEEDIXGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. - XXIU

(3) Tlic members of tlie Local Reception Committee for their
excellent arrangements for the meetinp; and for their untiring efforts
on behalf of every visiting Member of the Association.

(4) The Ladies of Bulawayo for their kind hospitality in providing
tea.

(5) The Governing Bodies" or Committees of many local institutions,
especially the Bulawayo Club, the Eveline School, the Pulilic Library
and the St. George's School.

(6) All those who provided transport for the exciirsions to the Khami
Ruins, the Cement ^Yorks and the World's View.

(7) The Boy Scouts for many favour;; to members.

(8) The Press for their efforts in bringing the work of the Association
prominently before the public.

(9) Mr. D. Niven, Secretary to the Reception Committee, for his
kindly activities in preparation for and during the visit of the
Association.

A hearty vote of thanks was unanimously accorded the retiring
President, Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, for his services during the past year. -

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING

30th June, 1920.

1. Obituary : Your Council has lo leport, with great regret, the deaths
of the following members : — Sir Hamilton Goold-Adams, G.C.M.G.,
President of the Association 1909; Mr. Maurice S. Evans, C.M.G., President
of Section D in 1916 ; the Hon. Justice Jackson, who has taken a deep
interest in the Association for several years and was nominated as President
of Section E this year; also Mr. Jas. Bisset; the Rev. Jas. Campbell;
Dr. J. M. Coutts; Dr. J. Schlesinger Delmore ; Mr. H. G. Flanagan, F.L.S. ;
Mr. Hennen Jennings; Mr. C. D. Leslie; Senator the Hon. S. Marks and
Mr. F. S. Watermeyer.

2. Membership : Since the last report 143 new members have joined the
Association, 10 have died, and 14 have been removed from ihe registea* by
resignation or by resolution of the Council. The nett increase in membership
has therefore been 119.

The following comparative table, as from the 1st July in each year,
shows the various Provinces from which members are drawn :—

1919.

1920.

Transvaal

410

474

Cape Province

281

294

Orange Free State

40

45

Natal

82

92

Rhodesia

17

43

Mozambique

9

10

South-West Africa

Protectorata •

1

1

Abroad

21

21

Unknown

2

2

863 982

3. Change of Headquarters : In accordance with the resolution passed
at the Annual General Meeting of members at Kingwilliamstown last year,
the Headcjuarters of the Association were removed to Johannesburg. Office
and Library accommodation was generously provided by the administration
of the Public Library in their building, which is centrally situated in Kerk
Street, at the nominal rental of £2 10s. per month, and your Council desires
to place on record its gratitude for this benefaction.

4. The Journal : Unfortunately, the publication of Volume XV. of the
Johannesburg 1918 Meeting, was not completed until the end of November,
1919. Under the Editorship of Dr. .Juritz. the first number of Volume XVI.,
containing papers read at the Kingwilliamstown 1919 Meeting, was published
at the beginning of January, 1920, and the second number of that volume
at the beginning of April, 1920. Dr. Juritz at this time resigned the
Editorship, and the thanks (jf the Council were tendered to him for liis

XXIY EErORT OF COUNCIL .

services. The duties of Editor were undertaken by Dr. H. B. Fantham.
A third number of Volume XVI. appeared at the end of April, under the
designation of October-Djcember, 1919. A fourth number called January-
March, 1920, did not appear until the end of June, owing to a month's
delay in the printer's office, after the page proofs were passed. At the
present time, the galley proofs of the remaining Kingwilliamstown papers,
to form an April-July, 1920, number, are being corrected. Owing to the
great delay, it has been found impracticable to submit galley proofs of the
forthcoming issue to some of the authors, though this step was taken with
great reluctance. An index is in preparation.

In view of the high cost of printing and the paper shortage, it is
strongly recommended that either r.n annual volume be issued or quarterly
numbers. It is intended to endeavour to secure advertisements, but
commission will probably have to be paid to obtain them, and the cost of
printing them will be heavy. Even with the aid of advertisements, in view
of tlie increased cost of postage, the Editor is unable to recommend
for the present the continuance of monthly parts, which have nearl}- always
been behind their date of publication; further, such irregular publication
does not commend itself to advertisers. Money could also be saved by
condensing or omitting some of the matter usuaily printed at the beginning
of a new volume.

5. Library : The Library, as received from Capetown, was unfortunately
not in a satisfactory condition. The Journals were not arranged, nor was
it possible to find some of the books and periodicaJs listed. On the other
hand, a large bulk of old correspondence and circulars of meetings held
many years ago, was received. An enormous weight, amounting to several
tons, of the Journals of the Association, both bound volumes and separate
monthly parts, was also received. It would appear that far too many copies
of the Journal were printed in the past, except in the case of the Meetings
of 1908 and 1909. This collection of old papers and the excess number of
Science Journals involved the Association in much needless expense for
removal, and they are occupying space in the Library which could be more
usefully filled by journals and publications obtained in exchange. Attempts
are being made to utilise this excess of old literature of the Association in
obtaining further exchanges, but in these days of costly printing and a
world shortage of paper, it is very difficult to obtain new exchanges.

It appears that little has been done in the way of binding volumes in
the Association's Library for a long tim.'! past, : nd loose numbers are
deteriorating and getting lost. Money is urgently needed for binding.

6. Assistant General Secretary : Owing to the change of Headquarters
of the Association from Capetown to Johannesburg, as decided by the
resolution passed at the Annual General Meeting of members held at
Kingwilliamstown, the post of Assistant General Secretary became vacant by
the "resignation of Mr. J. P. Starke, who had held the office since the
resignation of Mr. H. Tucker, mentioned in last year's report. The Council
decided to advertise the post, and as a result 5\Ir. INI. K. Carpenter was
chosen out of 108 applicants, and he took up the:' duties of Irhe poet on
1st September, 1919.

7. Affiliation to British Association : No reply has yet been received
regarding this matter mentioned in last year's report.

8. Donations ; The thanks of the Association are due to the Hon. The
Minister of Mines and Industries for the renewal of the grant of £150 for
the year ending 30th June, 1919, towards defraying the expenses of
publishing the Association's Journal, and £50 in aid of the expenses incurred
in connection with the Annual General Meeting. A further grant of £250
was made for the year ending June, 1920, of which £150 has already been
received. In addition to the above, your Council is pleased to be able to
record its thanks to the Witwatersrand Council of Education for a grant of
£100, and to Mr. W. Ingham for a donation of £50 towards defraying the
expenses of removal of the library from Capetown to Johannesburg.

9. South Africa Medal and Grant, 1920 : On the recommendation of
the South Africa Medal Committee consisting of Professor H. B. Fantham
(Chairman), Sir Arnold Theiler, Principal Sir Carruthers Beattie, Professor
L. Crawford, Dr. I. B. Pole-Evans, Dr. H. H. Green, Professor P. Leslie.

RErORT OF COU-XCIL. XXV

Mr. C. P. Lounsbury, Professor J. Orr, Dr. i^nnie Porter, Dr. A.
W. Roberts and Professor J. A. Wilkinson, your Council has awarded the
South Africa Medal, together with a grant of £50, to Professor Ernest
Warren, D.Sc, F.Z.S., Director of the Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg,
and Professor of Zoology in the Natal University College' (see p. xxx).

10. Closeb, Union and joint Housing of Learned Societies : It is
gratifying to be able to report that the scheme, the principle of which was
approved by members at the last Annual General Meeting, has attained
fruition, a suitable building in Johannesburg having been secured by the
generosity of the Transvaal Chamber of Mines for this purpose. As resolved.
Professors Orr and Watkin represented this Association on the Committee
dealing with this question, and it is hoped that the Association will become
a foundation member. This matter, which is of great importance, will be
discussed at the Annual General Meeting of members.

11. Zoological Survey : With respect to the resolutions mentioned in
last year's report, a conference on this matter was held in Pretoria in
January, representatives of the Clniversities, Museums, and Government
Scientihc Departments of the Union and Rhodesia being present at the
invitation of the Hon. The Minister of INIines and Industries, who opened
the proceedings. Dr. Gilchrist was elected Chairman, and the report of the
conference waS; by the Minister's request, forwarded to the Advisory Board
of Industries and Science, which has not yet reported. Your Council feels
that the time has now arrived to take further steps in this matter.

12. Reconstruction of the Union Senate : Messrs. R. T. A. Innes
and J. A. Foote were appointed a committee to communicate to the Press
an article embodying the whole course of action taken by the Association
concerning the constitution of the Senate, fiom the inception of the idea by
51 r. Watkins, of Kimberley, up to the present.

13. International Research Council : As no steps had been taken by
any Institution of Learned Societies in the Union to collaborate with the
International Research Council formed in Europe for the international
co-operation and promotion of research, your Council resolved that the
Government of the Union be recommended to become a member of this
International Council, and that the Association be grouped with it. A copy
of this resolution was addressed to the Hon. The Minister of Education,
but so far no reply has been received.

14. The New Council : On the basis of membership provided for in the
Constitution of the Association, Section VI. (d), the number of members of
Council assigned for the representation of each centre during the ensuing
twelve months should be distributed a^ follows : —

Cupe Province :

Cape Peninsula ... ... ... ... 7

East London ... ... .. ... 1

Kimberley ... ... ... ... 2

Kingwilliamstown ... ... . . ... 1

Port Elizabeth ... ... ... ... 2

Stellenbosch ... ... ... ... ... 2

Transvaal :

W'itwatersrand ... ... ... ... 17

Pretoria ... ... ... ... ... 4

Potchefstroom ... ... ... ... ... 1

Transvaal Outside ... ... ... ... 1

Orange Free State :

Bloemfontein .. ... ... ... ... 2

A^atal :

Maritzburg ... ... ... ... ... 2

Durban ... ... ... ... ... 2

Natal Outside ... ... ... ... 1

Rhodesia :

Bulawayo ... ... ., ... ... 1

Salisbury ... .. ... ... ... 1

Mozambique ... ... ... ... ... ... 1

48

XXVI

REPORT OF THE HONORARY TREASURER FOR THE YEAR
ENDING MAY 31. 1920.

In view of the serious nature of the finances of the Association, the Council
has requested me to pUice the following facts before the members.

The only really permanent and regular source of income which the
AsBociation possesses is that which is derived from members' annual
subscriptions. At present these amount to about £900.

The chief item of exi^puditure is that of printing and publishing the
Journal. If the JouuN.vr, iiad appeared regularly once per month, the cost
this year would have been at least £1.200.

The cost of paper, of printing, of producing illustrations, and of liinding
has increased enormously of late; and there is no prospect of any marked
reduction coming about for some time to come. On the contrary, there is
every likelihood of further increases.

Th(B Government has recently increased its postal letter charges by 50 per
cent., and this entails more office exjDenses.

The Council recently appointed a sub-committee to consider the almost
precarious condition of the finances of the Association, and the following
methods of reducing expenditure and of increasing revenue were considered : —

1. Beducing the Size of tltc Journal.- — Tt was felt that to reduce the size
of the Journal at present would be a questionable policy, as the Journal
represents the best means of retaining our present memliers and of attracting
new members.

2. Inserting Advertisements in the Journal. — Tt was decided to endeavour
to obtain advertisements for insertion in the Journal as soon as regular issues
could be guaranteed, and it was hoped that this could be done next year.

3. Increasing the Number of Members. — All members of Council were
specially urged to do their utmost to oI)tain new members. The result of this
appeal, however, has not been so satisfactory as it might have been.

4. Securing an Increased Grant from the Government. — The Minister of
Education was approached, and, as a result, the Government's grant to the
Association has been increased from £150 to £250.

5. Obtaining Private Donations. — The amount secured under this heading
now amounts to £175.

6. Increasing the Amount Fayable b]i Life Memhcrs. — The consideration
of this matter was left over for the present, but the matter should be considered
at an early date, as the payments made now by life members are much too low.

7. Increasing the Annual Subscriiition . — After much discussion, the Council
felt they had no other course oi^en to them than to request the members at the
Annual General Meeting, to be held at Bulawayo in July next, to agree to an
increase in the annual subscription from twenty to thirty shillings.

It should be mentioned that other Societies (e.g., the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, the Linnean Society of London, and the
British Ecological Society) have already found it necessary to increase their
annual subscription. In addition, the Linnean Society has, for the present,
ceased to issue its Transactions. Other Societies (('.;/., the Royal Geographical
Society) have reduced the size of their Journals. Economies hare been effected
in connection with most Journals unconnected with Societies, or the price of
such Journals has been increased.

The above-mentioned Societies Avere self-supporting before the cost of
labour and of commodities generally reached their present high level, and it
is even more essential for our Association, which is not self-supporting, to
consider, and to consider seriously, how it can reduce its expenses and augment
its income.

C. E. MOSS,

Hon. General Treasurer.

June 25, 1920.

H

0

r.

CJ

^

C5

^

tH

^

^

£5

fcl

o

CO
H

t-H

X

^

*^

q

H

H

<<5

P^

5

H

0

ta

CZi

^

f^q

^

0

<

1>^

0

t— 4

<

«

■^

0

(M ® C' CO

0

CO -too

rH I— 1

0
0

00 C' COO
(M 0 t- 0

0 iO r-H

c: 0

<M

oc

OCD

r— 1 I— H

00

oci

10 CO

C2

00

C2

30 Qj-w

tl' 1- ~ 'E

'C "^ ""

"^ s -^^

. "^

,^ -e o >^

§ si ="§

si;

.■if O >i g
OK °

3^ J-"^

id ^

? C « P

= Sr^ =

r=-&-

c/T 0) '^- S! S' ^^

i::;'^ : >^^ ^

O C -j: '^ i-5

b r ■ ~ <^ ^- ■ r

^5

•^

1
i

HH

CI

coo

00

CI

-+ 0
I— 1

;o

CO

0

CO

CO
10 CO^

r— '>— i

I--

03"

c

~

—

CI

0

~

^

CI

irJ

CO

~

1--

Cl

0

i

c

0

'Sl

•3 S

=■ ^^

^ « 1— i
CO

? O Q;

^ CI ■-•

^ ii;

O

P5

^1

= — o

O x

CO O t»

O ;^ M

-^,0 s

O O) a

o I* 3

o55 o

aj ci r

a: ^ 3

> -A^

5* o

o

^ I

XXVlll

X C:

ccc:

o?

o

r— 1

^^

<

K

li^

O

f^

1-4

1-H

Q

CC

w.

Pn

O

P^

/— ^

w

P^

§

K

Ph

O

<

1^;

K

<
>

>^

Q

K

*<

W

W

H

P^

C

Pi
o

f^

^

H

"^

^^

o

t

1 — 1

.■^

H

^^

-<

C-

^^

o

o
o

<:

CC

^^^

cc

^^

<

1^

h-

;?:

t— '

<

f^

o

^

1-^

p

H

^

t —

I—'

*^

O

6

K^

s

p^

ff

(^

vl

I "^

■^tJ

V.

UL

c:.5

ffi

^

<!

X

:^

: c g

•■-+3 O

H

&.>■.

1—1

S'S^-:

CC

c: ^-.S

r-Hr^O C

P

,/— \

i^ »-^"C^

S-= J:

m

p^

<:

K

c: o <i^

kH

-— iji +j

K

!^

P

P=2

i^co

■^

V

c^i a: 1— I o X CO c o

i-C IC -M »C C 1

r— I- cc o -+ x c; cc

o; CD :m CC r- r—
X

'^

X :r)

cox

=t^

X CO

rH-M

o o

t-H T— i

CO
CO

I— I

= •^^■^'

.2 -^^ K

5 <V C

Or"
H

[^

!<;

ci +3

^ C

■*^ ;3

O

^H CJ

~ X CD

J j: c; S >^ o -

i^ -i 5

C ." c: CT' — ' K ::;

t^.r .ie

1^ a; X -=

f^r? >^£

S ""^ "" -^

^^aili;:c 5 5

•■^'^ S^

and
and
ees,
(iene
nder
Meet
tion

>. .^ = i.

-*^ ^."tf — "S :; ?^

P^a:-<xo-<C 2=

O c

2 ir i^K

^'

XXX

THIRTEENTH AWAUD OF THE SOUTH AFllICA
MEDAL AND GRANT.

{Fund raised by Meinhers of the Britisli Association in com-
viemoration of tlieir visit to South Africa in 1905.)

After the conclusion of the Presidential Address in the
large hall of the Grand Hotel, Bulawayo, on Wednesday,
July 14, 1920, the President, Dr. I. B. Pole Evans, presented
the South Africa Medal, together with a grant of £50, to
Prof. Eknest Waehen, D.Sc, Director of the Natal Museum
and Head of the Department of Zoology in the Natal TTniversity
College, Pietermaritzburg. In making the presentation, the
President said:' —

Dr. Warren was educated at University College, London,
where he studied from 1891 to 1894. He graduated first in
First Class Honours, qualifying for the Scholarship at the
London University B.Sc. examination in 1894. He was
appointed Demonstrator in Zoology at the College under the
late Professor W. F. R. Weldon. In 1898 he obtained the
degree of Doctor of Science at London University for a thesis
on the variability of the human skeleton. In 1899 lie became
Assistant Lecturer and Museum Curator at University College,
and in the same year was elected Fellow of the College. In
1903 he was appointed Director of the Natal Government
Museum, and in 1908 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society of ^South Africa. He was appointed Professor of
Zoology in the Natal University College in~^1910.

Dr. AVarren has especially worked on biometrics, Coelen-
terata and breeding. Some of his chief researches may be
briefly mentioned: —

Dr. Warren undertook an extensive statistical investigation on the
variability and inter-relationships of the skeleton of an ancient
homogeneons human race from Naqada, Egypt, the remains of which
were excavated by Professor Flinders Petrie. The very numerons
measurements obtained were treated by the modern statistical methods
introduced by Professor Karl Pearson. It was demonstrated that the
dispersion of the variations about the mean could not be represented
by the normal curve of errors, but the theoretical curves which fitted
the observations were distinctly skew and had a limited range. The
variation in certain dimensions of the body of a population of a species
of crab was siinilarly treated. In order to determine the nature of the
variability and strength of inheritance in parthenogenetic generations,
breeding experiments were undertaken with Baphiiin and Ajihis. On
theoretical grounds. Weismann believed that the members of a
partlienogenetic family exhi1)ited little variability. It was conclusively
shown, however, that very considerable variation occurred and the
strength of inlieritance between the parthenogenetic mother and
offspring Avas practically the same as in sexual reproduction.

During the last few years, Dr. "Warren undertook certain breeding
experiments with nasturtiums and foxgloves. The experiments indicate
that Mendelian factors must not be regarded as fixed inimutable units,
but that they are variable in nature and can be transmitted as such to
the next generation.

An investigation on the nature of the horny teeth of lampreys and
hagfishes showed that these structures are not to be regarded as

SOUTH Al'KICA MEDAL. XXXI

degenerate calcified teeth, but rather as primitive, purely ectodermal
striictures. They mav be considered as the first stage in the evolution
of the ordinary calcified teeth of vertebrates. Dr. ^Yarren also showed
that the maxillary gland .of the free-swimming Nauplius larva of a
freshwater Crustacean, Leptodora hyaJina. was purely ectodermal in
origin and thus may be homologised embryologically with the nephridia
of Cheetopoda.

Since his appointment to the Natal Museum, in 1903, Dr. Warren
has founded and edited a well-illustrated scientific .iournal. the " Annals
of the Natal Museum," in which, in addition to contril)utions by himself,
important papers have appeared on South African biological research.

Considerable attention has lioen given by Dr. "Warren to the Hydroid
fauna of the South African coast. Many new species have been described,
and true parasitism among the Hydroids was demonstrated for the first
time.

Of a more popular character. Dr. Warren has written articles on
"Mammals and Birds of Natal," '' Soutli African Birds of Economic
Value," and various museum reports and catalogues.

The following- is a list of Dr. Warren's published papers : —

1. " Variation in rortiuiiis dcpuiator.'' Proc. Boyal Soc, London

(1896).

2. '• An investigation on the vnriabilitv of the human skeleton." Phil.

Trans. Poyal Soc, London (1898).

3. '• An abnoi-mality in Bona tempomria." Anat. Anzeiger (1898).

4. " An observation on inheritance in parthenogenesis." Proc. Porjal

Soc, London (1899).

5. " On the reaction of Daphnia magna (Straus) to certain changes in

its environment." Quart. Joirrn. Micro. Science (1900).

6. " A preliminary account of the development of the free-swimming

Nauplius of Leptodora hijalina Lillj." Proc. Poyal Soc,
London (1901).

7. " On the teeth of Myj'inc and Pet roimizon.''' Quart. Journ. Micro.

Science (1902),

8. *' On the anatomy and development of the Fluke, Vistomuin.

cirrigerum v. Baer." Quart. Journ. Micro. Science (1903).

9. " Preliminary attempt to ascertain the relationship between the

size of cell and the size of body in Daplinia magna Straus."
Jiionietrila, London, vol. ii, pt. 3 (1903).

10. " On Jiertraniid hirhnioni sp. n. a Myxosporidium occurring in a

South African Rotifer." Annah XataJ Museum, vol. i. pt. 1
(1906).

11. '• On Tuhularia solitaria sp. n. a Hydroid from the Natal Coast."

Annals Xatcd Museum, vol. i, pt. 1 (1906).

12. " On Hedocordyle cooperi sp. n. a Hydroid from the Natal Coast."

Anncds Natcd Muscu7n, vol. i, pt. 1 (1906).

13. " Note on Conroluta roscoffensis Graff collected on the Natal Coast."

Arneds Xatcd Museum, vol. i, pt. 1 (1906).

14. " Note on the abnormal hoofs of a Sheep." Anncds Xatal Museum,

vol. i, pt. 1 (1906).

15. '' On Parawrightia rohusta sp. n. a Hydroid from the Natal Coast ;

and also an account of a supposed Schizopl) yte occurring in
the gonophores." Anncds Xatal Museum, vol. i, pt. 2 (1907).

16. '■ Note on the variation in the arrangement of the capitate

tentacles in the Hydroid Iledocordyle cooperi.'" Annals Xatal
Museum, vol. i, pt. 2 (1907).

17. " Note on the larva of a Fly {Sarcophaga sp.) occurring in the

Human Intestine." Anncds Xatcd Museum, vol. i (1907).

18. " On a collection of Hvdroids mostly from the Natal Coast."

Annals Xatal Museum, vol. i, pt! 3 (1908).

19. " On Lafcea dispolians sp. n. a Hydroid parasite on Sertnla ria

hidens Bale." Annals Xatal Museum, vol. ii, pt. 1 (1909).

20. " Notes on the life-histories of Natal Termites, based on the

observations of the late Mr. G. D. Haviland." Annals Xatal
Museum, vol. ii, pt. 1 (1910).

XXXn SOUTH AFEICA MEDAL.

21. " Some statistical observations on Termites, mainlv based on the

work of the late Mr. G. D. Haviland." Blomeirika, London,
vol. No. 4 (1909).

22. " On a black, hairless duiker and dog and a bulldog-headed calf."

Annals, Xatal Museum, vol. ii, pt. 2 (1910).

23. " Mammals and birds of Natal." Article in Natal Province

Descriptive Guide and Official Hand-l)ook, 1911.

24. " On some specxiens of fossil woods in the Natal Museum." Annals

Natal Museum, vol. ii, pt. 3 (1912).

25. " A case of H.vbridism among Cockatoos." Annals Xatal Museum

vol. iii, pt. 1 (1914).

26. " On the development of the Planula in a certain species of

Plumularian Hydroid." Annals Xntal Museum, vol. iii, pt. 1
(1914).

27. •' Note on the occurrence in South Africa of a Termitophilous Beetle

of the genus Crjwtoea.'" Annals Xatal Museum, vol. iii, pt. 1
(1914). "

28. " The parthenogenetic tendency in the Moth Melanocera menippe

(Westwood)." Annals Xatal Museum, vol. iii. pt. 2 (1915).

29. •' A further note on Hybrid Cockatoos." Annals Xatal Museum

vol. iii. pt. 2 (1915).

30. " On II]i<] r'lelithjis hoycei. a Hydroid parasite on fishes." Annals

Durban Museum, vol. i, pt. 3 (1916).

31. " A i^reliminary report on some breeding experiments with Fox-
gloves." Jiiometiika, London, vol. xi. No. 4 (1917).

On the anatomy of a new South African Hydroid, Bimcria rigida
sp. n." Annals Xatal Museum, vol. iv, pt. 1 (1918).

33. " Observations on cellular degeneration and the formation of

pigment in certain Hydroids." Annals of Xatal Museuvi,
vol. iv, pt. 1 (1918).

34. " The Pure Line Hypothesis and the inheritance of small varia-

tions." S.A. Journ. Seience, vol. xv, pp. 535-567 (1918).

32

Previous Recipients.

1908. C rah a m st a u-n.— Arnold Tlieiler, C.M.G., V.M.D., Bacteriologist to

the Transvaal Government, Pretoria.

1909. ]{lne mf oiitei n.— Harry Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S., of Sherwood, Kenil-

worth. Cape Division.

1910. ('ai>etou-n.— John Carruthers Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor

of Physics, South African College, Capetown.

1911. 7^//r/icayo.— Louis Peringuey, D.Sc^, F.E.S., F.Z.S., Director of

the South African Museum, Capetown.

1912. ]',nt Elizabeth.— Alexander William Roberts, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

F.R.S.E., of Lovedale Observatory, C.P.

1913. Loureiico Mareiues. — Arthur William Rogers, M.A.. Sc.D., F.G.S.,

Assistant Director of tlie Union Geological Survey, Capetown.

1914. Kimhe rle I/.— Rudolph Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Capetown.

1915. Pretoria. — Charles Pugsley Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S., Chief of

the Division of Entomology, Union Department of Agriculture,
Pretoria.

1916. Maritzhunj.—Thomafi Robertson Sim, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., foimerly

Conservator of Forests for Natal.

1917. Stellenbaseh.— John Dow Fisher GdchrLst, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.,

F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoologj-, South African College,
Capetown.

1918. Juliannesbunj. — Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes, F.R.S.E.,

F.R.A.S., Union Astronomer, Johannesburg.

1919. Kinuu-illiamstou-n. — James Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Government

Mining Chemist, Johannesburg.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

The following publications are filed at the Association's Room in the
Public Library, Johannesburg.

General Science.

Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings.
Royal Society of South Africa : Trarsactions.
Royal Society of South Australia : Memoirs.
Royal Society of South Australia : Transactions.
Royal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.
Royal Society of Canada : Proceedings and Transactions.
Royal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.
Royal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.
Royal Dublin Society : Scientific Proceedings.
Royal Institution of Great Britain : Proceedings.
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.
Royal Society gf Arts : Journal.
Michigan Academy of Science : Reports.
-Chicago Academy of Sciences :
Bulletins

Special Publications.
Reale Academia dei Lincei, Rome : Atti.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :
Handlingar.
Arsbok.
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetfnschappen, 'Amsterdam :
Proceedings of the Section of Sciences.
Verhandelingen.
Real Academia de Cicncias de Madrid : Revista.
British Association for the Advancement of Science : Reports.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science : Reports.
American Association for the Advancement of Science : Proceedings.
Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science :
Proceedings.
Reports.
Bulletins.
Societa Italiana por il progresso delle Scienze : Atti.
Association Frangaise pour I'avancement des Sciences : Conferences.
Cambridge Philosophical Society:
Transactions.
Proceedings.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society : ^Memoirs and Proceedings.
American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
University of California :
Bulletins.
Memoirs.
University of Virginia : Philosophical Society Bulletins.
Tohoku Imperial University : Science Reports.
New York Academy of Sciences : Annals.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences : Proceedings.
Tonnecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences : Transactions.
Meddelanden fran K. Vetenskapsakademien Nobelinstitut.
California Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.
Academy of Science of St. Louis : Transactions.
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia : Proceedings.
American Journal of Science.
Ohio Journal of Science.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science : Proceedings and Transactions.
Revue Generale des Sciences.

Archives Neerlandaises des sciences exactes et natnrelles.
Annaes scientiiicos da Academia polytechnica do Porto.

^XXIV ASSOCIATIO-V LIBRARY.

Pihodesia Scientific Association :

Proceedings.

Annual Reports.
Societe de physique et d'histoire natureile de Geneve :

Memoires

Comptes rendus.
Det Kongelige Norske Videnskapers Selskaps Skrifter.
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab : Uversigt.
Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
Imperial Institute : Bulletins.

New Zealand Institute : Transactions and Proceedings.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (United States National

Museum).
South African Museum :

Annals.

Annual Reports.
Transvaal jNIuseum : Annuals.
Natal Museum : Annals.
Queensland Museum :

Annals.

Memoirs.
Field Museum of Natural History Publications.
University of Pennsylvania Museum .Torrnal.
Public Museum of Milwaukee : Bulletins.
Albany Museum :

Annual Reports.

Records.
Knowledge.
Science.

Franklin Institute : Journal.
University of Minnesota : Current Problems.

Chemistry. ^Metallurgy, and Geology.

Chemical, Metallurgical, and Mining Society of South Africa : Journal.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien : Arkiv for Kemi, Mineralogi, och

Geologi.
Geological Society of South Africa : Transactions.
Geological Society of Tokyo : Journal.
Geological Survey of New South Wales : Reports.

Memoirs.

Mineral Resources.
Geological Institution of the University of Upsala : Bulletins.
Geological Society, London : Abstracts of Proceedings
Bulletins of the Wj'oming State Geologist.
United States Geological Survey :

Annual Reports.

Mineral Resources.

Bulletins.

Monographs.

Professional Papers.
Florida State Geological Survey : Annual Reports.
Servico geologico e mineralogico do Brasil : ]\Ionographias.
Union of South Africa Mines Department : Annual Reports.
Canada Department of Mines :

Museum Bulletins.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

Reports.
New South Wales Department of Mines : Annual Reports.
The Mineralogical Magazine.

Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Geological Reports.
Geological Survey of Western Australia :

Annual Progress Reports.

Bulletins.
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistrv.

ASSOCIATION LIBEARY. XXXV

Journal of Chemical Technology.

The Chemical News.

University of Minnesota : Studies in Chemistry.

South African Association of Analytical Chemists : Proceedings.

Meteorology,

Royal Meteorological Society : Quarterly Journal.
Mount Weather Observatory : Bulletins.
Observatorio Campos Eodrigues :

Relatorio.

Resumo mensal.
Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Meteorological Reports.

Agriculture

Regia Scuola superiore agricoltura di Portici : Annali.
International Institute of Agriculture, Rome :

International Crop Report and Agricultural Statistics.

International Review of the Science and Practice of Agriculture.

Documentary Leaflets.

Statistical Notes on the Cereals.
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.

Bulletins.
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station: Annual Reports.
Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales.

Department of Agriculture, New South Wales : Science Bulletins.
United States Department of Agriculture :

Experiment Station Record.

Year Book.
New York State College of Agriculture and Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.
Journal of Agricultural Research.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal.

Revista de Agricultura, Comercio y Trabajo, Cuba.
Bulletin Agricole de I'Algerie-Tunisie-Maroc.
Station agronomique de la Guadeloupe : Bulletin.
Union of South Africa Agricultural Journal.

Biology and Physiology.

Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des naturalistes de Moscou.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :

Arkiv for Botanik.

Arkiv for Zoologi.
Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany.
Bulletin of the W^isconsin Natural History Society.
The Medical Journal of South Africa.
University of California : Publications in Botanv.
Linnean Society of New South Wales : Proceedii gs.
Missouri Botanical Garden :

Annual Reports.

Annals.
Bolus Herbarium : Annals.
Smithsonian Institution (United States National ^Museum) : Contributions

from the United States National Herbarium.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew : Bulletins.

Union of South Africa : Reports of tlie Director of Veterinary Research.
The Australian Zoologist.

LTniversitv of INIichigan, Museum of Zoology :
^liscellaneous Publications.
Occasional Papers.
Lloyd Library :

Bibliographical contributions.

Mycolf)a:ical Notes.
South African Biological Society : Bulletins.

XXXVl ASSOCIATIOX LIBRAE Y.

Entomology.

Bulletin of Entomological Research.
Review of Applied Entomology.

Bacteriology.
Abstracts of Bacteriology.

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics.

Royal Astronomical Society

Memoirs.

Monthly Notic3S.
Journal of the Eoyal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Harvard College Astronomical Observatory :

Circulars.

Annals.

Annual Reports.
Leyden Sterrenwacht : Annalen.
Union Observatory Circulars.
Cape Observatory :

Annals.

Reports.

Cape Astrographic Zones.
Observatoire Royal de Belgique ; annuaire astronomique.
Khedivial Observatory, Helwan, Egypt : Bulletins.
Kodaikanal Obsei-vatory : Bulletins.

Kodaikanal and Madras Observatories : Annual Reports.
British Astronomical Association.

Journal.

Memoirs.
Lick Observatory : Bulletins.
Nizamiah Observatory : Reports.
Astronomical Society of India :

Journal.

Monthly Notice's.
United States Naval Observatory Publications.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.
Western Australian Astronomical Society : Proceedings.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien : Arkiv for Matematik, Astronnmi

och Fysik.
London Mathematical Society : Proceedings.
Tohoku Mathematical Journal.
National Physical Laboratory, ^Middlesex :

Collected Researches.

Reports.
University of Minnesota : Studie.'! in the Physical Sciences and Mathematics.
Universidad Nacional de la Plata : Contribucion al estudio de las Ciencias

fisicas y matematicas.
Physical Society of London : Proceedings.

Education \L, Political Economy and .Sociology.
United Empire.
South Africa.

Ohio State University Bulletin.
International Institute of Agriculture, Rome : International Review of

Agricultural Economics.
Royal Dublin Society : Economic Proceedings.
Athenfeum subject index to Periodicals.
Municipal Journal of South Afnca.
Universitv of Minne.sota :

Studies in Economics.

Studies in Public Health.

Studies in the Social Sciences.

Geoge.aphy, Oceanography and Hydrography.
Societa Italiana per il progress© delle Scienze : Comitato talassografico :

BoUetinos.

Memorias.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY,

XXXV II

The Geographical Journal.

The Geographical Review.

United States Geological Survey : Water Supply Papers.

Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Survey Department Papers.

Instituto di geografia fisica e vulcanologica della R. Universita di Catania ;

Pubblicazioni.
United States Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey :

Special Publications.

Annual Reports.

Engineering.

Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Journal of the South African Institution of Engineers.

Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers.

South African Society of Civil Engineers : Proceedings.

South African Engineering.

University of Minnesota : Studies in Engineering.

Technology.

Patents for Inventions : Abridgments of Specifications.
The Illustrated Official Patents Journal.
South African Journal of Industries.

Anthropology and Ethnology.
Journal of the African Society.
University of Minnesota : Studies in Language and Literature.

Archeology.
Bulletins of the Archaeological Survev of Nubia.

XXXVUl

OFFICEKS AXD COUNCIL, 1920-21.

Honorary President:

1[IS MAJESTY THE KING.

President:

Prof. J. E. DuEKDEN, M.Sc. Ph.D.

Ex-President:

B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc.

Vice-Presidents:

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A.
Prof. R. Leslie, M.A.

T. R. Sim, D.Sp.

Prof. J. A. WiLK.NSON,

M.A.

Hon. General Secretaries:

H. E. Wood. M.Sc.

Union Observatory,

Johannesburg.

Hon General Treasurer:

J. A. FooTE. F.O.S.,

Commeifial High School,

Johannesburg.

Hon. Librarian:

An.nie Porter, D.Sc,

S.A. Institure for Medical Research.

Johannesburg.

C. F. JiiRiTZ. M.A.. D.Sc.

Agricultural Chemical Research

Laboratory, Capetown.

Hon. Editor of Publications:

Prof. H. B. Faniham, M.A., D.Sc.
University College,

Johannesburg.

Assistant General Secretary:

H. A. G. Jefereys,

P.O. Box 6394. Johannesburg.
(Telegraphic Address : " Science.")

Ordinary Members of Council:

I.-

-CAPE PROVINCE.

('((/)(■ Peninsula.
Prof. L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc.
O. J. Currie. M.B.. M.R.C.S.
Rev. W. Flint, D.D.
J. LuNT, D.Sc.
C. W. Mally, M.Sc.
A. H. Reid, F.R.I.B.A.
Prof. D. Thoday, M.A.

E(it:t London.
E. Hill, M.R C.S. L.R.C.P., D.P.H.

Kimberlcij.
Miss M. Wilman.

Kingirillid m ^toicn.
E. B. Dwyi;r, B.A.
J. Leighion, F.R.H.S.

Port Elizahcth.
Rev. J. R. L. KiNGON. M.A.

StcUen^iosch.
Prof. E. J. GoDDARD B.A., D.Sc
Miss Alia Johnson. Ph.B.

II.-TRANSVAAL.

Witiratcrsrand.
C. Aburrow. M.I.C.E.

P. CAZ.ALET, M.I.M.M.

E. A. E. Collins.

N. O. Curry.

J. H. Dobson. D.S.O., M.Sc

E. Farrar.

J. Gray. F.I.C.

v.. Ingham. M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E.

R. T. A. INNES. F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S.

J. McCrae. Ph.D.. F.I.C.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc

J. Mitchell.

J. MoiR, M.A., D.Sc.

Endoirmrnt Fund.

Principal Sir J. C. Beattie, D.Sc
J. W. Jagger, F.S.S., M.L.A.
W. RUNCIMAN, M.L.A.

Advocate G. T. Morice, K.C, B.A.

A. J. Orenstein, M.D.

Prof. J. Orr. O.B.E., B.Sc, M.I.C.E.
Walter Reid, F.R.I.B.A.

Pretoria.
Miss Ethel Doidge, M.A.. D.Sc.

B. DE C. Marchand, B.A.. D.Sc.
E. P. Phillips, M.A., D.Sc.

Sir Arnold Theiler, K.C.M.G., D.Sc.

F. G. Tyers,

Potchefstroom.
M.A.

Transvaal- Outside.

A. W. Rogers, Sc.D., F.R.S.

III.— ORANGE FREE STATE.
Blocmfontein.
Prof. T. F. Dreyer, B.A., Ph.D.
F. W. Storey, B.Sc.

IV.— NATAL.

Durban.

J. KiRKMAN, J. P.

B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc.

Pietc rm a ritzh u rg.
Prof. J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc.
Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc.

V.-RHODESIA.

Balairayo.
Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., M.A.

Salisbury.
H. B. Maufe. B.A.

VI.— MOZAMBIQUE.

S. Seruya.

Trustees:

.S..4. Medal Fund.

J. DE V. Roos. B.A.. LL.B.

W. Thomson, M.A.. B.Sc. LL.D.

W. J. ViLJOEN, M.A., Ph.D.

THE VELD: ITS EESOURCES AND DANGERS.*

BY

I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,

I'lIKSIDKNT,

Chief, DlvisiO)i of Boianij if PUnit Puthologij und Diicctur of ilic
Botanical Survey, Ui}io)i of SoiitJi Afriea.

With Plates I— XXVIII, and 1 Map.

Presidential Addresi^ deJicercd Julij 14, ll>2n

As is customary on occasions like this I have several short
and time-honoured digressions to make before coming to the
subject of my address First of all it is. my painful duty to refer
to the loss which the country has sustained, since we last met,
in the death of two distinguished South Africans. One of these
was a past President of this Association, Sir Hamilton
Goold-Adams — formerly Governor * of the Orange Free State —
who took the chair at the meetings of this?, Association at
Bloemfontein in 1909. Sir Hamilton was keenly interested in
science and all its applications, and anyone who reads his
presidential address, delivered just over ten years ago, cannot help
being forcibly impressed by the wisdom of his words and the
urgent need which then existed for their application.

Then in the death of General Botha, not only South Africa,
but the world at large has sufferi'd a very grievous loss. Although
the first Union Premier was not a member of this Association he
took a most active part in the scientific development of the
country, and as one who speaks from personal experience, having
been privileged to serve under him, I can say without fear of
contradiction that he ha* been largely responsible for the rapid
agricultural development of the Union through the unstinted and
encouraging support which he always rendered his technical
advisers. He gave more than careful and sympathetic
consideration to any reasonable proposals for the advancement of
the country's prosperity. Although he is regarded by the majority
only as a great politician, in reality he was nnbued with the true
scientific spirit, and like Science herself took no cognisance of
race, nationality or party where questions of truth, knowledge and
the world's welfare were concerned. His was a marvellous
personality, he was everyone's friend. Ill can South Africa and
Science in general afford to lose s.o noble a statesman.

Secondly, I wish to convey to the members of this Association
my very great appreciation of the honoau" which they have done

* Illustrated by lantern slides from the author's photographs.

2 rRESIDENX's ADDRESS.

me in electing me to the Presidential Chair, and 1 trust to their
kindlj' forbearance in overlooking any shortcomings m my attempt
to fill worthily so responsible a position.

Finally, it is with unbounded pleasure that I extend to you,
Mr. Chairman, and to the citizens of Bulawayo our deep
appreciation of the compliment you have paid us in inviting us
to return tO' this city when so short a period has elapsed since our
last visit. South Africa is essentially a country of surprises, and
1 feel is destined to become one of rapid progress. I am sure,
therefore, that after we have availed ourselves of your cordial
hospitality, those of us who were here some nine years ago will
leave your "land of ancient ruins" more impressed than ever
with its surging progress, its vast potentialities and the enormous
possibilities which exist for the application of science in all its
phases.

As regards this Association the period since we last met here
has been one of steady progress, and its objects are being slowly
but surely achieved. In this connection I can not do better tlian
refer you to the able review of the Association's history and
activities given by Prof. John Orr in his Presidential Address at
Stellenbosch some three years ago. I cannot, however, refrain
from drawing particular attention to the remarkable growth in
the nuinber of papers which in the past few years have dealt with
some aspect of biology. This m.ay be taken as a sign of the
times, and might be quoted as an encouraging symptom, showing
that South Africa is fully alive to the importance of the study
of the biological sciences.

In looking through the list of our past Presidents, I find that
Botany has only once before been honoured with the Presidential
Chair. This was some six years ago, at Ivimberley, when our
distinguished botanist, Dr. Marloth, presided over the meeting
and was at the same time awarded the Society's medal for his
services to Botanical Science. Dr. Marloth took as the subject
of his address — " Some Problems of Botanical Research in South
Africa" — and his opening sentences were as follows: —

" I shall, for the sake of convenience, deal first with
such questions as are specially connected with the material
welfare of the country. It is too often overlooked that there
is nothing of greater importance to us in a country than its
vegetation, that the vegetation ;>f a country is tlie basis of
all life, and withovit :t neither animal nor man could live
there, unless maintained by artificial means and imports."

Well may we pause and ask ourselves how many of us realise
to the full the significance of these words. Those of us who toil
in the Public Service know to our cost the views held by the
average pedantic otficiab. who regards the study of botany as an
expensive hobby, to be looked upon with condescending tolerance
rather than as a vital necessity of an agricultural country and as
such demanding every support and encouragement. If some of
our oflficials are still diill and antiquated in this respect, we can

riiESIUEXT S AIJDRESS. O

congratulate ourselves that our landowners, legislators, and
labourers are alive to its vast importance and in recent years have
taken steps tO' provide facilities for the study of the vegetation
of the country. South Africa has during the last few years
attained so worthy a place in the ranks of scientific progress that
a well-known scientific publication recently referred to " the
enlightenment of outlook in matters connected with the bearing
of scientific knowledge on practical affairs, which experience has
taught us to expect on the part of the Government of the Union
of bouth Africa."

Marloth in his address alluded to the many problems awaiting
investigation, pointed out the difficulties under which the early
botanists laboured and drew attention to the backwardness of
South Africa as compared with other countries with regard to
facilities provided by the State for botanical research. He was,
however, suthciently alert to detect a silver lining to the cloud,
and mentioned, among other things, the recent establishment of
the National Gardens at Kirstenbosch, and the provision of graats
for research by the Union Government.

Although it is only six years since his address was delivered,
considerable progress has been made in the interval, and I
propose briefly to take up the subject where Marloth left it, and
give a short resume of what has been done since those days.
First and foremost, the Government of the Union of South Africa
has established a Botanical Survey for the purposes of which the
Union has been divided into definite areas. The survey of each
area, is being carried out under the supervision of an experienced
botanist, and funds are pro'vided by the State to give facilities
for research and survey to those working in co-operation with the
botanists in charge. This is a great step in advance of former
times and is one of which those botanists who worked together in
loyal co-operation have every reason to be proud. It is also
pleasing to report that the progress already achieved is more than
gratifying and assuring.

While the State has been carrying out its obligations to the
country, I think I shall have no' difficulty in convincing you that
the workers — few though they are — have not been backward in
doing their part.

During the period under review Marloth has continued his
magnificent work on the flora of South Africa, Bews has made
an exhaustive study of the vegetation of Natal, Pearson has
botanically explored South-West Africa, and Schonland has
published a Memoir on the flora of Uitenhage and Port Elizabeth.
Mrs. Bolus is engaged on a study of the flora of the Cape
Peninsula, Phillips has made a botanical survey of Basutoland,
French Hoek and the Great Winterhoek, and Hepburn has
published a paper on the flora of Herschel.

In addition to the description of botanical regions detailed
above a number of monographs on genera and families of
phanerogamic plants have been published, or are in course of

4 rKKSIDENT S A1)])KKSS.

preparation. Schonland has worked up one of the most important
iamilies of succulents, the Crassulaccac, and has revised the genus
Rhus and is making a study of the Cypcraceae. Mrs. Bolus is
studying the Mcsembiyanthonuiiis, while Pillans, another worker
in the South Western area, is busy with the Restiaccae. Phillips
has added to our knowledge of the S.A. Proteaceae and has pub-
lished monographs on the genera Calpvrnia, Cyphia and Borbonia;
in collaboration with Kotze he has reviewed the genus Faurea,
and Pteronia in collaboration with Hutchinson. Miss Verdoorn,
one of the assistants in the National Herbarium, has worked on the
Transvaal Primnlines and the genus Fagara. From the economic
standpoint one of the most important pieces of work is the veld
burning experiments which Pliillips has in hand at Groeiikloof,
near Pretoria, and on which he has published a preliminary
report. Also' of great importance from an economic standpoint
is the work which is being carried out by Miss Stent on indigenous
grasses and their distribution throughout the Union and on the
plants poisonous to stock.

In addition tO' the workers mentioned above who are making
a study of the distribution and classification of plants, there are
a large number of enthusiastic and careful collectors who have
rendered valuable assistance and who have donated their
collections to public institutions. One of the foremost of these
is Mr. E. E. Galpin, who has presented his unique herbarium of
Transvaal and Cape plants to the National Herbarium and is now
making further collections and studying the vegetation of the
Waterberg District of the Transvaal. Amongst numerous other
collectors might be mentioned Madame Dieterlen whose
Basutoland plants form an invaluable addition to the National
Herbarium, and ]Madame Borle and the Rev. Junod who are
making exhaustive collections in Portuguese East Africa. Dr.
Eattray, Miss Guthrie, and J. D. Keet have made their
contributions from the Cape Province, Pierce is collecting in
Swaziland, IMogg is specialising in areas, where cattle diseases are
prevalent, E. G. Bryant, Mrs. Jones, and Miss McCallum are
keenly interested in Transvaal plants, Potgieter and Putterill
have done useful work in the Free State, and Archdeacon Rogers
is well known as an enthusiastic and intelligent collector. Mr.
F'red Eyles has added very considerably to O'ur knowledge of the
flora of Rhodesia and has published a valuable list of the plants
known to occur in that country.

Although the bulk of the work accomplished has been in
connection with the phanerogamic flora, the study of the
cryptograms has. not been altogether neglected. Sim is making a
study of the mosses and hepatics and has published the first
section of his monograph on the subject. A study of the fungi
of the country is greatly facilitated by the unique and invaluable
collection in the cryptogamic section of the National Herbarium,
which is assuming vast proportions under the care of Miss
Bottomley. I have continued my study of the rust fungi, having
published a paper on the rusts affecting the Compositae, and in
collaboration witli jNIiss Boftomlev have written on the genera

PKKSIJ)KXT S ADDRESS. O

Dililocjjstif; and Brooiucia and have compiled a list of the fungi
collected by Miss Pegler at Kentani. Miss Pegler has been one
of the keenest and most enthusiastic of the collectors who have
contributed valuable specimens to the cryptogamic lieii)aiium ;
others who' have made important contributions are Cruden, also
in the Eastern Province, Eyles and Swynnerton in Ehodesia,
Junod in Portuguese East Africa and Potts in the Free State.

Van der Bijl has made a study of the Polyporaceae. Several
papers have been published dealing particularly with the economic
aspect of this group and their influence on the forest vegetation,
and a contribution to our knowledge of the distribution and
classification of the group will be laid before the present meeting.

Dr. Ethel Doidge is devoting lier attention to certain groups
of the Ascomycetes and has published several papers dealing with
the South African species of Enjsiphaceae, Perisporiaceae and
Microthyriaceae.

I should not omit to mention, with deep regret, that during
this period our ranks have been depleted by the death of that
strenuous and able botanist, Pearson, of that careful and
enthusiastic collector, H. G. Flanagan, and of W. Tyson, who has
made large and valuable collections of marine Algae. We have
alsO' lost during the past year Maurice Evans, whose name will
always be associated with that of Medley Wood in Natal. On
the other hand we wish to welcome to our midst such well-known
colleagues as Professors Moss, Thoday and Compton, and Mrs.
Thoday (M. G. Sykes).

I must no'W proceed to' the subject of my address. To one
whose duties are of a wide and varying character the choice of a
subject must alwaj's be somewhat bewildering. For from the
nature of things where the subjects are numerous the knowledge
of each can but be superficial. My duties include the supervision
of the Botanical Svu-vey, advice on all matters of a botanical
nature, and the investigation, prevention, control, and
eradication of plant diseases within the Union. It is
obvious that much of this work carries me into the
veld, and I have therefore had exceptional opportu-
nities ot making observations on the veld throughout
South Africa during the past 15 years. Many oi these journeys
have been of a very hurried nature, but by means of the series of
photographs which I have accumulated, and some of which I
hope to put on the screen, I have obtained a general knowledge
of the veld conditions in some of the less known parts of the
country. I propose therefore to give briefly some account of: —

The Veld : Its Eesources and Dangers.

It is hardly necessary to attempt to explain to a South
African audience the meaning of the word " veld," but in order
to avoid misapprehension I may say that by the word " veld " I
mean merely the nat iral vegetation of the country. The word
therefore implies not only the plant growth of any locality, but
also has reference to' the habitat in which the plants grow. The

0 teesident's addeess.

study of the veld is not new, it has received considerable attention
at the hands of the botanists and travellers from the earliest
times. Some 17 years ago- Marloth gave this i\ssociation an
admirable account of these early explorers, including such men as
Burchell, Drege and Rehmann, and in that magnificently
illustrated work " Das Kapland " published in 1908, he reviewed
in detail the valuable additions to our knowledge of the veld
which have been made by Bolus, Medley Wood, and Sim; and
at the same time places on record a vast accumulation of facts
embodying his own detailed observations.

The main types of vegetation throughout the world are largely
determined by rainfall and climate, and as both of these are
influenced by the topography of the country any attempt to
classify the different types of veld must take all these facts into
consideration. I therefore consulted my colleague Dr. Rogers,
Director of the Geological Survey, who at once kindly furnished
me with a map and an account of the chief physical features of
South Africa. He recognises three main physical features. —

I. The Interior Plateau.
II. The Great Escarpment.
III. The country between the Great Escarpment and
the sea.

I. — The Interior Plateau.

In the Interior Plateau Rogers recognised ten main regions : —

1. The High Veld.

2. The Middle Veld.

3. The Upper Karroo.

4. The Basuto Highland.

5. The Limpopo' Highland.

6. The Bushveld.

7. The Kalahari and Bushmanland.

8. The Kaap Plateau.

9. The Namaqua Highland.

10. The Low Country (including much country below
the escarpment).

The country below the escarpment he divides into four
regions : —

1. The Great Karroo.

2. The South-Eastern Region.

3. The Folded Belt.

4. Coastal Belt.

These divisions were, of course, made from a consideration of
their geological formation, altitude and past geological history.
If, however, they are examined from the point of view
of the vegetation it- will be found that they form a very satisfactory
basis for the division of the country into plant regions, and many
-of the divisions correspond very closely with vegetation maps of

PRESIJJKNT S AI)])RKSS.

South Africa published by Bolus, ]\Iarloth and myself. I propose
now to give a brief characterisation of each botanical region to
show that the main types of vegetation occurring in South Africa
are intimately associated with the physical features of the
country, and shall then deal with each region in somewhat
greater detail. (See map on page 9.)

1. The Coast Veld. — Identical in extent with portions of
Dr. Eogers' coast belt, a region of drowned valleys and sandy
dunes which are covered with dense impenetrable bush, tall
grasses and palms. Isolated evergreen forests are frequent.

2. The Lo2c Veld or low country. — A region of low relief, of
wide open river valleys with perennial streams and deep alluvial
soils, which are covered with gigantic thorn and other deciduous
trees beneath which a rank growth of grass persists.

3. The Eastern Grass Veld. — Including the South-eastern
region, the Great Escarpment and the Basuto Highlands, a region
of terraced landscapes and deep valleys with perennial streams.
The soil is well covered with a grassy turf in which scattered
thom trees occur in the more open country and evergreen forests
in the sheltered kloofs^.

4. The Bushveld. — A region of flat low-lying country with
perennial streams and deep soils. It is covered witli grass, hut
well overgrown with deciduous bush and trees.

5. The Middle or Banhen Veld. — A region of gently sloping
hills, from which more or less straight belts or escarpments of
harder rock project'. The hill slopes are covered with grass, while
the rocky belts are clothed with stunted deciduous trees and
sclerophyllous bush.

6. The High Veld. — A region of vast rolling tablelands, of
horizontal strata and deep soils which are covered with a dense
grassy turf and devoid of indigenous trees and bush ; well supplied
with perennial streams.

7. Tlie Fictershurg Highveld. — An undulating plateau of
deep sandy soil, covered with grass and scattered bush.

8. Tlie Waterherg Sandveld. — A mountainous tract of
country, devoid of perennial streams, and with shallow, sandy
soil which is covered with grass. On the hill slopes there are
scattered deciduous trees and sclerophyllous bush.

9. The Griqualand West Thorn Veld. — A region of long, open
river valleys — the chief of which are the valleys of the Dry Harts,
the Harts and Vaal Rivers — with deep alluvial soil and gravels
which support- a park-like growth of thoi-n trees and tufted grasses.

10. The Kaap Plateau B^isli Veld. — A region composed of an
extensive dolomite and limestone plateau, devodd of rivers but
well supplied with pans which are usually dry. The soil is
shallow, and covered with bush, xerophytic shrub, shrublets and
grass.

11. The Vaal Kameeldoorn Veld of the Asbestos Mountains.
— A region of undulating country, stony and rooky hills, sandy

» PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

plains and dry river valleys. The hills are covered with scrub
in which the Ijstervark bos (Lebcckia macracantlia) and Vaal
bos {Torclionanthus camplioratus) predominate. On the sandy
plains there are grass and Vaal Kameeldoorn, while the low-
lying valleys support a growth of " bralc " and xeropbytic
shrublets.

12. TJie Kalahari Sand Veld. — A region of undulating sandy
plains and dunes, dry river beds and internal drainage. In some
places the plains support only a growth of brak plants, on others
grass and thorn trees, while the dunes are covered with coarse
grass and isolated Witgat trees.

13. The Damaraland Thorn Veld. — A region of mountainous
country with a dry and arid appearance. The vegetation is
composed mainly of thorn bush and succulents, with a scanty
clothing of grass.

14. The Kavieeldoorn Veld of Scuth Damaraland. — A region
of vast deep sandy plains which support a park-like growtli of
gigantic thorn trees, below which low thorn scrub and scanty
grass subsist.

15. The South Western Veld. — A region of mountainous
character with a great variety of soil and climate, in which the
vegetation is composed mainly of sclerophyllous bush and
shrublets, with an abundance of bulbous and sedge-like plants
(Restiads).

16. The Karroo. — A region of low-lying relief in the north,
but somewhat broken in the south by the Cape ranges,
characterised by dry river beds, shallow soils and rock-exposed
surfaces. The vegetation is composed mainly of succulents,
bulbous and tuberous plants.

17. The Upper Karroo. — A region of wide plains broken by
table-topped hills and spitzkops, with dry river valleys, shallow-
soils and rocky surfaces. The vegetation is composed of
low-growing and scattered xerophytic shrublets.

18. The Kokerboom Veld of Na7}iaqualand and BusJimanland.
—A region of vast arid plateaux and plains, dry river beds and
bare stony or sandy surfaces. The vegetation is scanty and
consists of isolated tufts of grass, stunted bushes and shrublets
on the plateaux and plains, and the Kokerboom (Aloe dicJiotoma)
and Giftboom (Euphorbia virosa) on the rocky hills.

19. The Namib or Western Littoral Belt. — A region of
drifting and shifting sand dunes, of gravel plains and barren rock
surfaces. The vegetation is extremely scanty and consists of a
few grasses and succulents on the dunes and gravel plains, of
xerophytic shrubs and succulents on the rock surfaces, of the
Narras (Acanthosicyos horrida) and Tamarisk (Tamarix articnlata)
on the submerged river mouths and of the Aggenys Euphorbia
(E. gregaria) in the open valleys.

PRP;.Sir)K.VT S AIIDRKSS.

-Map showing Distribution of Types of Veld in South Africa.

10 president's addkess.

I.— The Coast Veld {Plate I).

Fringing the shore and covering the littoral dunes from Algca
Bay to our northern boundary is a type of veld more luxuriant
and tropical in character than that seen in any other part of
South Africa.

This is due to the fact that the rainfall along this coast belt
is heavier than elsewhere, the greater portion of it falling during
the summer months. The temperature along the coast is
comparatively uniform and sub-tropical; frosts seldom, if ever,
occur.

This type of veld extends from the sea-level to an altitude O'f
about 1,000 feet, and is comiposed mainly of dense bush and
evergreen forest patches. Growing just at and above high water
mark in the loose sand is the Scaevola lobelia and Ipomaea hiloba
association, and between this and the dense bush the sand is often
covered with Gazania uniflora, Cyperus naialensis, Cyanchum
ohtusifolhim, Passerina ericoides, Samolus porosus, Osteospermuni
moniliferum, Dimorphotheca fruiicosa, Strelitzia augusta, Phoenix
reclinata, Hyplianc crinita, Braclujlana discolor and Carissa
grandiflora.

The Coastal bush ranges from 10 to 30 ft. in height, and
forms a dense almost impenetrable growth, in which such trees
as the Eed Milkwood (Mimusops caffra), the Thorn Pear {Scolopia
Zeyheri), the White Pear (Apodytes dimidiata), the Wild Coffee
{Kraussia lanceolata), the Kaffir Boom {Erythrina caffra), the
Bitter Blaar {Brachyloena elliptica), the Kaffir Plum
(Harpepliyllum caffrum), the Saffraan (Elaeodcndron croce^im),
Schmidelia erosa, Euclea natalensis are woven together by
climbing plants such as Vitis capensis, Entada natalensis, Dregea
fiorihinida, Heliniiii ovatus, Sciitia ConDuersouH , FlageUarin
guiniensis and Greuna lasiocarpa. Closely associated with this
bush, but usually growing on the inland side and in more open
country, is the tlat-crown Alhizzia faxfigiata which is typical oi
this buish veld.

Wherever lagoons occur along the coast the mangroves
(Avicennia officinalis, Rliizopliora mucronata, and Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza) are characteristic of the mud swamps, while
Hibiscus tiliaceiis fringes the edge of the river estuaries.

There are several important forests in this East Coast Veld.
Chief amongst these are the forests in the neighbourhood of East
London, which are peculiar in that they consist in places of almO'St
pure associations of Cape Box {Bu-rus MacOirani), the Saffraan
(Elaeodcndron croccum), the Sneezewood {Ptacroxylon utile) and
Umbiza (Umbiza Listeriana).

The Manubi Forest, which is situated a little further north
along the coast, contains most of the trees common to the forests
of the Transkei and in addition yields fine specimens of
Umzimbeet (Millctia caffra). Cape JMahogany (Trichilia evietica)
and Essenho'Ut (Ehebergia capensis).

Still further north the Egossa forest occupies a coastal belt
of about 20 miles in Pondoland, north of Port St. John, and is
about two miles in width. Conspicuous trees in the Egossa are

rilKSIiJENl's ADDRESS. 11

the Beukeuliout (Faurca McNaiightonii), the Cape ^Mahogany
[Trichilia oiictica), tlie Umzimbeet (MiUctiii caffra), the.
Umkunye (MiUetia SiitlierJandi), the Bastard White Ironwood
(Cyclostemon arqutus) and the Cape Ebor.y (Heyivoodia lucens).
In spite of the high rainfall in this, region, it is not devoid of
succulents, and several interesting and typical species are found
there. The chief amongst these in the southern portion are two
species of Euphorbia {E. grandidcns, E. tetiagona) and Aloe
africana. Euphorbia ingens and Aloe Thraskii occur in the north.

The chief economic products of the Coast Veld are: —

1. Timber from the Cape Box, Sneezewood, Saffraan, Vlier,
Unitiza, \Yhite ^lilkwood, Kaffir Plum, White Ironwood, Cape
Mahogany, Umzimbeet, Wild Chestnut, Red Currant, Hard Pear,
and Cape Ebony.

2. Tanning materials from the mangroves : — Avicennia
officinalis, Ehizopiiora mucronata, Bniguicra gijmnorrhiza and
Ceriops Candolleana.

3. Fibre weaving materials fro^m the palms Phoenix reclinata
and Hyphcene criniia, and also from Urcra tenax and the so-called
Wild Banana, Strelitzia aiigusta.

4. Rubber from Landolphia Kirliii and Eitpliorbia Tirucalli.

5. Oil from Telfaria ped-ita and TrichiUa emetica.

2.— The Low Veld (Plates II, III).

The Low Veld comprises the country situated in the north-
eastern comer of the area under review. It inckides part of the
northern and north-eastern Transvaal, the southern corner of
Portuguese East Africa, the eastern portion of Swaziland, and
the greater part of Zululand. The Tugela River forms the
southern boundary, while the Limpopo must be taken as its
northern limit so far as this address is concerned.

On the whole the Low Veld consists mainly of flat low-lying
country, which ranges from an altitude of 400 ft. tO' 2,000 ft.
above sea level. It is well supplied with perennial streams and
rivers, amongst which the most important are the Tugela, the
Umhlatusi, the Umfolosi, the Pongola, the Maputa, the
Umbelusi, the Komati, the OHfants, the Letaba and the Limpopo
with their tributaries.

Between the two boundaries just mentioned, the Low Veld,
except for a narrow coastal strip, stretches from the Indian Ocean
on the east to the foothills of the Great Escarpment formed by
the Drakensberg Range on the west. In the extreme iiorth,
where the Limpopo Valley has worn through the range, the Low
Veld extends for some little distance behind the Escarpment, as
far as the valley of the Crocodile River.

The larger portion lying between the Great Escarpment and
the Indian Ocean is traversed almost throughout its. entire length
by the Lebombo Range, a low-lying range of mountains which
run almost due south and north.

Apart from this range of mountains the general unifonnity
of the country is seldom broken, except here and there by a few

12 rRKSIJ)ENT S ADDEKSS.

out-cropping kopjes usually composed of massive boulders of
granite. The rainfall in this area varies very considerably and
may be from 70 inches in the eastern portion to 15 inches in the
extreme western.

The general aspect of the veld is park-like, that is to say, \i)
is covered witJi tree.s which vary m height from 30 tO' 50 ft., but
which are sufficiently far apart to allow means of existence for a
dense growth of grass, undershrubs and herbs. Along the river
valleys the vegetation is much more luxuriant in character.

Inland lakes, pans, and lagoons are also not uncommon in
this area.

The greater part of the vegetation in the Low Veld can be
described as a Thorn Veld, in which the Knoppiesdoorn {Acacia
pallens) is one of the most characteristic and dominant trees,
especially in the dry open country. Other common trees typical
of the Low Veld are: — The Maroola {Sclerocarya caffra), the
Tambootie {Excoecaria africana), the Jakhalsbossie (Diospyros
mespiliformis), the Hardekool {Combretu>n porphyrolepis), the
Waterhout (Syzygiinn rordatum), the Van Wyk's bout
(Bolusanthus speciosiis) the Boerboom [Scliotia hrachypetah),
the Huilbos {Peltuphonim africanum), the Silckelbos
(Dichrostachys nutans), the Haaken-steek (Acacia spirocarpoides),
the Fever tree (Acacia xanthopliJoea), the ^Nlingerhout (Adina
Galpini), the liuikpcul (Acacia arabica var. kraiissiana),
Loncliocarpus inossa)nbiccnsis and Androstacliys Johnsoni.

On the deep alluvial flats in Portuguese East Africa the
Mahogany tree (Afzelia quanzensis), the Rooi Essehout (Trichilia
cmetica), the Sausage-tree (KigeJia pinnata) the Hardepeer
[Stryclniofi Henningsii) and Brachystegia appendiculata occur
more frequently.

At liigher altitudes just below the foothills of the
Drakensberg the Kajatenhout (Pterocarpus erinaceus) and
Bastard Kameel Doom (Acacia lasiopetala) are common, the
former often becoming the most abundant tree in the veld. With
these two the Grijsappelboom (Parinarium mobala) is frequently
associated.

On the Olifaiits. Eiver, Croton Gubonga is plentiful along the
banks, while Terminalia pruinoides and Balsa modendron
Africanu)}) dominate the bush in the drier valleys.

In the Limpopo Valley in the Northern Transvaal the
Baobab (Adansoriia digitata) and Mopane (Copaifera mopane) are
characteristic of the Low Veld.

The Low Veld is undoubtedly the most fertile tract of
country in South Africa. Its variety of soils and sub-ti'opical or
tropical climate render it eminently suitable for agricultural
purposes.

Sugar is the main crop cultivated in the southern portion,
while much of the land towards the north is suitable for ranching
and the cultivation of fibre and oil crops.

The natural resources in this area include much valuable
timber, wliicli is yielded by sucli trees as the Kajatenhout —
Piciornrpiis rrinaccus, the ^Mahogany Afzelia quanzensis

piiesidknt's address. 13

Mull., the Ebony Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. , the Kooi
Essehout TricJiilia emetica Valii., the ^Nlingerhout Adina Golpinii
Oliv., the White Pear Apochjtes dimidiata E. Mey., and the
bastard ironwood Cijclostemon arcfUHtus Muell. Eirst-rate timber
for poles and mine props can be obtained from the Knoppiesdoco,
Acacia pollens, or from Acacia Welivitschii and Acacia rostrata.

Tanning materials are obtainable from at leaiSt three different
kinds of Mangrove, viz. : — Rhizophora mucronata Lam.,
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Lam., and Ceriops Ca^idolleana Arn.
Trees of Acacia Bcnthami are extremely plentiful throughout the
area and yield an abundance of pods w^hich serve as a valuable
article for tanning purposes and also as a cattle food.

Fibres are obtained from the bark of the trees Ficus utilis
Sim, and Seciiridaca loiigipcdiDiculata Fres., and from the stems
of Hibiscus cainuthiniis and otlier members of the order
Malvaceae.

The tall grasses in this region furnish material which is
eminently suitable for paper-making.

The fruits of Trichilia emetica Vahl., Ximenia americana
Linn., and XantJwxyluni capense Sim., all yield a high percentage
of oil.

Landolphia Kirkii, Dyer, which occurs from the Umhlatusi
in Natal to the Limpopo, yields excellent rubber, while gums of
good quality might well be obtained from the different species of
Acacia, Comhretum, and Commiphora.

3.— The Eastern Grass Veld {Plates F, VI).

Lying between the coast veld and the Great Escarpment,
fro^m an altitude of 1,000 ft. upwards, is a fairly extensive tract of
terraced country, well covered with grass, which may be termed
the Eastern Grass Veld.

The Sundays River may be taken as its southern l)oundary,
while its northern limit extends to the Tugela River Valley and
is cO'Utinued thence along the north-eastern slopes and foothills
of the Drakensberg.

The country on the whole is much dissected by streams and
rivers which rise on the Great Escarpment and flow direct to the
Indian Ocean. In the south the veld produces many plants
which are typical of the Cape, the Karroo' and the Karroo boschjes
veld, while in the north many tropical forms occur.

The average rainfall throughout the region is between 25 and
40 inches, most of which fallsi during the summer months, and
as both rainfall and temperatvu'e increase northwards, the
vegetation becomes correspondingly more luxuriant.

The Eastern Grass Veld may be sub-divided into a lower and
upper region — The Thorn Veld and the Berg Veld respectively-

The Thorn Veld occupies the country between the coast veld
and the foothills O'f the escarpment up to an altitude of 4,000 ft.,
while the Berg Veld comprises the vegetation on the eastern
slopes of the escarpment from 4,000 ft. upwards. The former is
frequently referred to as " sweet veld," while the latter is spoken
of as " sour veld. "

14 president's A])])11ESS.

The dominant grasses in the Thorn Veld are Eragrostis plana,
Sporobolus indicus, Theyneda triandra, Andropogon hirtus, A.
pcrtusus, A. uDiplcctens, and .4. Schoenanfltus.

The thorn bush which gives the country a park-hke
appearance is chiefly the sweet thorn {Acacia Karroo). Other
common trees and bushes occurring in the open grass veld are
Acacia caffra, A. Benthami, Dichrostachys nutans, Celasfrus
bnxijolius, Elirctia lioffcidofica, Trichilia Diegeana, PtacroxyJo)i
utile, Zizyphus mucronata, Erythrina caffra, Cussonia spicata,
and Sclcrucanja caffra.

In the sheltered i^loofs on the south-eastern slopes of the
thorn veld thick bush frequently occurs. Of the larger trees in
this bush the chief are Covibrcturn Kravssii, Calodcndron capense,
Xynialos monospora, Celtis kraussiana, Pygaenm africanum,
Ficus natalensis, Podocarp'tis Thvnhergii, and Rhus longifolia.

Typical and conspicuous succulents in the southern portion
of the thorn veld, are the Spekboom (Portulacaria afra), the
Naabooms (Euphorbia grandidens and E. tetragona), and the
Alwijn {Aloe ferox), while the Naaboom {Euphorbia' Tirucalli),
Aloe Marlofliii, Aloe candelabriDn and Aloe lufcns'nre cliaracteiistic
of the northern portion.

The Berg Veld or " Sour Veld " including the Basuto
Highlands is characterised by the presence of scattered Protea
bush in the grass, and yellow-wood forests in the sheltered kloofs.
The chief grasses in the " sour veld " are the Eooi Grass
(Themcda triandra), Andropogon ccresiaeformis, Tristachya
leucothrix, Trachypogon polymorphus and Harpechloa capensis.

Taller grasses in moist situations are the Tambootie Grasses
i Andropogon nardus var. marginatus and .1. fiUpendulus).

Towards the top of the escarpment the grasses tend to grow
more in tufts and tussocks than below.

Closely associated with the Proteas in the escarpment are
the tree ferns {Cyathea Drcgii) and Kaffir bread trees
(Encephalartos ghellinchii) .

The chief trees composing the yellow-wood forests are
Podocarpus elongata, P. Thunbergii, Olea laurifoUa, Myrsine
vielanophleos, Rhus Icevigata and KiggeJaria dregeana.

In addition to the yellow-wood bush or forest, one of the most
conspicuous plant associations in the Berg Veld is the Oudehout
[Leucosidea sericea) sci*ub which occurs throughout the
Drakensberg range.

The Eastern Grass Veld embraces the most important forests
in South Africa, viz,, those that are situated on the slopes of
the Kaga Berg, the Great Winterberg, and the Amatola Mountains
and their foothills. They include the Katberg, Amatola and
Perie forests.

These forests are good examples of mixed forests, although
the larger portion of the trees are composed of the common and
the true Yellow-woods {Podocarpus elongata and Podocarpus
Thunbergii), the latter occurring in the higher regions, the former
on the lower slopes of the forest.

trksidext's address. 15

Other common timber trees in these forests are the Black
Ironwood {Olea JaurifoJia), the Assegai (Curtisia faginea), the
White Pear (Apodytes dimidiata), the White Ironwood {Toddalia
lanceolata), the Eed Currant [Rlius IcEvigaia), the Lemon Wood
(Xymalos monospora), the Thorn Pear {Scolopia Miindtn), the
Eed Els (Ciinonia capensis), the Red Milkwood (Minusops
obovata) and 8neezewood (Fiaeroxylon utile).

Next in size and importance in this area are the forests of
the Transkei, Griqualand East and Pondoland. Chief amongst
these ai'B the Zuurberg Forests. Tliey occupy a large belt ot
country on the Transkeian Zuurberg Rai-ge. The forest is very
similar in co-mposition to that on the Amatolas, except that the
Black Stinkwood {Ocotea bullata) is here more frequent.

The forests of Natal and the Transvaal are alsO' confined to
the higher slopes of the Drakensberg and differ little in
composition from those of the Transkei and Pondoland.

In some of the Transvaal forests the Cabbage Tree
{Anthoclcista zambcsiaca) frequently occurs, but it is more
abundant in the Low Veld forests of Swaziland.

The Eastern Grass Veld is rich in natural resources. Many
valuable timber trees occur in the forests, including the Common
and Real Yellow-woods, the Black Ironwood, the Assegai Wood,
the White Pear, the White Ironwood, the Red Cun-ant, the
Sneezewood, the Black Stinkwood, and the Cabbage Tree.

Tlje " Sweet Veld "' is eminently suitable lor pasturage, and
amongst the pasture grasses occurring in this region may be
mentioned: — Eragrostis plana, Eiagrostis curvula^ var. valida,
Themeda triandra, Panicum laevifoliwm, Tricholaena rosea and
T. setifolia, Setaria sulcata, Pennisetum unisetum, Pennisetum
Tliunbergii, Pennisetutn sphacelatutn, Pennisetum typhoideum
and Sporobolus indicus.

There are also' a number of grasses suitable for paper-making,
including the turpentine grass (Cymbopogon excavatus), the
lemou-scented grass (Cymbopogon naidus validus), Andropogon
liirtus, Andropogon Scliocnantlius, A. Drcgeanus, and Themeda
triandra.

Aloe ferox. Aloe Marlotliii and Aloe candelabrum are valuable
as medicinal plants.

A number of plants in the eastern thorn veld have been
found to be poisonous to slocli, the chief of these are Crotalaria
globifera and Crotalaria dura the cause of Jagtziekte, Matricaria
7iigellae folia causing bovine staggers, the Natal Slangkop, Urginea
niacrocenfra, and the blue and yellow tulps.

4.— The Bush Veld (Plates VII, VIII).

The Bush Veld occupies a narrow strip of country which
traverses the centre of the Transvaal. It is roughly about 300
miles long and 80 miles broad.

On the north it is bounded by the Waterberg and Pietersburg
plateaux, on the south by the Banken Veld and on the east by
the angle of the Great Escarpment, while on the west and north-
west it merges into the Kalahari and the Low Veld of the

lU phesidext's ajjukess.

Lim'popo Valley. On the whole it is a low-lying tract of country,
which has an elevation of 2,500 to 4,000 ft., although in the
eastern portion the elevation varies considerably and is some
6,y00 It. on the Lulu range, while at the junction of the
Steelpoort and Olif ant's Eiver it is only 1,800 ft. above sea level.

The eastern portion consists of broken and hilly country,
while the centre is flat and undulating. In the west the general
uniformity of the land surface has been interfered with by past
volcanic activity of the Pilansberg.

The rainfall varies considerably in this area, and is erratic
in its distribution. In the low-lying valleys to the east it is
extremely scanty, over the central portion it ranges from 20 to
30 inches per annum, and becoines rather less to the west. The-
soils thro'Ughout are mostl}' deep and sandy, but large areas are
also composed of black "turf" soil, which is typical of this
region.

The " turf " usually only supports grass and thorn bush,
whereas grass, trees and bush cover the sandy soils. Bush veld is
characterised by a fairly uniform growth of bush, which ranges
from 15 tO' 30 ft. in height. As a rule there is considerable space
betwee-n the trees and bushes, but the country is of such a nature
that without a compass it is extremely difficult to find one's way
or bearings when surrounded by bush on all sides. The character
and composition of the bush varies considerably. Thom trees
dominate the veld throughout, but in the broken country to the
east arborescent Nabooins (Euphorbia ingens and E. Couperi) are
the most characteristic trees. The thorn trees consist chiefly of
the Haak-en-steek {Acacia spirocarpoides), the Kameeldoorn (.4.
Giraffae), the Haakdoorn (.4. detinens), the Doornboom (.4.
Karroo), the Aapiesdoorn (.4. Burhci), the Kaffir Wacht-een-bietje
(^4. caffra), the Ruikpeul [A. Benthami), Acacia hebeclada, the
Sikkelbos (DicJirostaclnjs niitaiis) and the Huilbos (Pcltoplionini
africanum).

Other typical trees are the Wilde Sering (Burkea africana),
the Beukenhout (Faurea saligna), the Vaalboom (Terminalia
sericea), the Maroola (Sclerocarya caffra), the Wonderboom
(Boscia Rchuianniana), the Drolpeer (Doinbcya dcusifiora), the
Olijvehout (Olea verrucosa), the Red Ivory (Rhamnvs Zeyheri),
the Guarri (E^iclea nndidata), the Oliepitten {Pappea capensis),
the Zuurpruim (Ximenia americana), the Respies (Heeria
panicuJata,), the Eooibosch (Couibrctum Guenzii and ('. Zcylicri),
the Kiepersol (Cussonia panicidata, C. spicata and C. natalensis) ,
the Blinkhlaar wacht-een-bietje (Zizy pints mucronata), the
Vaalbos {Tarchonanthus camphoratus), Odina discolor, Kirkia
Wihnsii, and Ochna pulchra.

Typical succulents in this area, apart from the Xaabooms-
{Euphorbia ingens and E. Cooperi), are Eupliorbia Tirucalli, Aloe
Marlothii, Aloe Wickensii, Aloe Pienaarii, Aloe globnligemma.
Aloe Greatheadii, Aloe Davyana, Aloe castanea, and Aloe
transvaalensis.

In the western portion of the Bush Veld, in addition to the
thorn trees mentioned above, several species ol Kareeboom (Rhus
lancea, R. Gueinzii and R. incana) are conspicuous in the veld.

prksidext's address. 17

The comniun grasses of the Bush Veld are Thcmcda friandra,
Elionurus argente^is, Panicum obscurens, Chioris virgata, Chloris
petraea, Panicum Jaevifoliuni, Cymbopogon nardus, Cymbopogon
pliirinodis, Crossotropis grandiglumis, Andropogon hirtus,
Andropogon liirtifiorus, Eragiostis superba, Eragrostis brizoides,
Eragrostis curvula, Eragrostis chloromclas, Trachypogon
poJyniorplius, Urchjfru))t sqiiarrosuiii , Tristacli ya Icvcotlirix,
Triraphin rcliDUDi ni , Cyiubopogoii Rii preciifii, Tristnclnjd
rchmanni, Cyntbopogon auctua, Pcnuisction ccnchrvidcs.

In the Bush Veld timber is obtained from the Aapiesdooni,
the Wilde Sering, the Beukenhout, the Maroola, the Vaalboom,
the Drol l^eer, and the Red Ivory.

The Berg Bastj the Elandsboontjes, the Doornboom, and the
Huikpeul yield tanning materials.

Fibre is obtained from the Wilde Stok Eoos, and from
Triiuiifcttu rlioDiboidcu, Sida rhoinbijolia and Sanscvicria Dcserti.

The seeds of the Zuurpruini (Ximenia cafjra) and the
Oliepitten (Pappea capensis) are rich in oil.

Excellent grazing and pssturage for stock is provided by the
Rooi Grass (Themeda triandra), Sorghum versicolor, Tricholaena
rosea, Tricholaena setifolia, Andropogon amplectens, Panicum
laevijolium.

Paper-maliing material is furnished by the Dek Grass
[Andropogon Jiirtiflorus), Cymbopogon Buchanani, Cymbopogon
Dregeanus, Trachypogon polymorphus, Cymbopogon Ruprechtii,
Tristachya Rehmanni and Cymbopogon aiictus, and valuable
gums may be obtained from Combretum erythrophyllum , and
Co)nbretum Zcyhcri.

5. — The Banken Veld {Plate IX).

In the broken hilly country between the Bush Veld and
High Veld is a type of veld which is commonly known as Banken
Veld or Banken scenery. It consists mainly of grass covered
slopes on which stunted deciduous trees and sclerophyllous bush
occur on the rocky outcrops or " banken."

The grasses include many of those which are common to both
Bush Veld and High Veld, while the trees and bush consist
mainly of the Rooibosch (Combretum Zeyheri), the Wilde Sering
(Burkea africana), the Kaflfir Wacht-een-bietje (Acacia cafjra), the
Kiepersol (Cussonia spicata, C. paniculata and C. natalensis),
the Witstinkhout Boom (Celtis rhamnifolia), the Guarri (Euclea
lanceolata), the Witte salie (Nuxia congesta), the Klipels
(Plcctronia Mundtiana), the Suikerbos (Protea abyssinica and P.
Jiirta), the Blinkblaar (Rhamnns prunoides), the Olie Pitten
(Pappca capensis), the Boog (Croton gratissimiis), the Karee
(Rhus lancca), the MIspel (Vangueria infansfa), the Praamdoorn
(Fagara capensis), the Klapper (Strychnos pungens), the
Stamvruchte (Chrysophylhim m.agaUsmontanuvi), and the Wild
Apricot (Landolphia capensis).

The common succulents include Aloe Marlothii, Aloe
Davyana, Aloe transvaalensis, and Aloe Pretoriensis, the Honde
■oov (Cotyledon orbicnlata), Kalanchoe thyrsiflora. Euphorbia
Bchinzii and Senccio orbicularis.

18 PEESIDEXt's ADDRESvS.

On the whole, the Banken Veld affords poor grazing and
pasturage for stock, and the trees and bushes are as a rule too
small and stunted to be of much value for timber In some
places ElepJiantorrhiza Bm'kei is fairly plentiful and the bark ia
eagerly sought after for local tanning purposes. The Bergbast
(Osyris abyssinica) and the Elandsboontje {Elephantorrhiza
Burchellii) are also common and are used for tanning.

The Banken Veld abounds in one of the most deadly stock
poisons kno'wn in South Africa, the Gift-blaar {Dichapetalum
cymosum), which nearly every spring causes considerable loss
amongst cattle.

Other poisonous plants include the Gift-bol {Buphanc ioxi-
caria), and the Hondeoor (Cofu'lcdon orhiciila-ta).

G. — The High Veld (Plate X).

The High Veld includes, the southern portion of the Transvaal
and practically the whole of the Orange Free State. It is bounded
on the north by the Banken Veld, on the east by the
Drakensberg Kange, on the south by the Upper Karroo, and on
the west by the Valleys of the Vaal and Harts Eivers. It is a
high-lying tableland whose average height above sea level is
between 4,000 and 5,000 ft., with a gentle slope to the west.

The rainfall varies from 35 inches in the eastern portion to
25 or 20 in the western.

Throughout the greater portion of the area the underlying
rocks are parallel with the surface, while the soil is mostly deep
and of a loamy nature.

The surface is covered with grass, which forms a distinct turf,
except towards the western and southern boundaries, where it
becomes more open and the grass forms tufts and is often
associated with small shrublets. Indigenous trees are entirely
absent in this area, except on broken or rocky ground, and along
the sides of the streams.

The dominant grass covering the veld is the Rooi Gras
(Themeda triandra), other common grasses are Andropogon cere-
siaeformis, Andropogon amplectens, A. kirtiflorus, A. schirensis>
Axonopns semialatus, Cymhopogon elegans, Digitaria eriantha, D.
tricholaenoides, Panicum yiatalense, P. serratum, Eragrostis
hrizoides, E. clialcantlia, Cynodon Dactylon, Tristachya Ecli-
manni, Harpccldoa capcnsis and Panicum laevifolium.

Common shrublets and herbaceous plants which grow
amongst the grass are the Elandsboontje (ElcphantorrJiiza
BurcJielUi), Vigna angustifoJia, Rhus discolor, Pentanisia
variabilis, Acalypha dcpressinervis, Pachycarpus scJiinzianus,
Vangueria pygfnaca, Pacliystiqrna Zeyheri, Gerbera discolor, G.
piloselloides, Berkheya setifera, Gazania pygmaea, Arctotis
scaposa, Senecio latifolius, 8. serra, 8. coronatus, Dimorphotheca
spcctahilis, Heliclirysum floccosuni , Vernonia hraiissiif V.
monocephala, V. natalensis, 8cabiosa Columbaria, Becium
obovatum, Clerodendron triphyllum, Ipomaea GreenstocMi,
Gnidia 7nicrocephala, Erythrina Zeyheri.

prksi])ent's address. 19

Tuberous and bulbous plants common amongst the grass
include Brachystehxa foetidum, Raphionacme divaricata,
Euphorbia truncata, Eulophia rohusta, Bupliane toxicaria.
Gladiolus rigidifoliiis, Hypoxia costata and Hatcorthia tenuifolia.

The common trees along the streams and rivers are the
Doornboom (Acacia liairoo), the Wilgeboom {Salix capmsis), and
the Vaterlands wilg {Comhretnm cnjthrophyWum).

The High Veld affords excellent grazing and pasturage for
all kinds of stock. The chief pasture grasses are the Rooa Gras
{Thcmeda triandra), Digitaria criantha, Panicum natalensc,
Panicwm Jcevifolium, Panicum serratum, Tricholaena rosea,
Triciiolaena sctifolia, and Cijnodnn dactylon. Other valuable
fodder plants include Trifoliuni afiicanu)n and Ipomaea
Greenstockii.

The chief poisonous plants of the High Veld are the TuIpSi
(Homeria pallida) and Moraca spp., which are poisonous chiefly
to cattle, and Pachystigma pygmaca, which, during certain
seasons, causes heavy mortality amongst sheep.

Overstocking on the High Veld invariably results in the veld
becoming overrun with Stocbe cinerea, which crowds out the
pasture grasses.

7 AND 8. — The Waterberg Sand Veld (Plate IV) and
The Pietersburg High Veld.

The Limpopo Highlands as delimited by Rogers include the
high-lying country which lies to the north and east of the northern
extension of the Drakensberg. They comprise the Waterberg,
Pietersburg, and Zoutpansberg plateaux, with their surrounding
country. Three distinct plant regions are recognisable : (1) A
western portion, which may be called the Waterberg Sand Veld,
occupied mainly by the Waterberg plateau is, on the whole, hilly
and rugged country with scanty and sandy soil. The sandy
valley's are mostly covered with grass, in which Elionurus
argenteus, Eragrostis superba, and tall species of Andropogon are
common, while the dominant trees are the Beukenhout [Faurea
saligna) and Suikerbos (Protea abyssinica) on the stiff close-
grained soils and the Vaal boom [Terrninalia scricea) on the deep,
loose, sandy soils. The deadl}' Giftblaar (Dichapetalum.
cymosum) is extremely plentiful in this region and is nearly
always, associated with the Wilde Sering.

(2) An eastern portion, comprising the Pietersburg plateau,
and which may be termed the Pietersburg High Veld, consists
chiefly of flat rolling country, which resembles typical High Veld
scenery, and on which the Eooi Grass (Themcda triandra)
dominates. To the south the plateau slopes away to the
Busli Veld, and as soon as the altitude drops to 3,000 ft., grass and
vegetation gives way to bush.

To the north the grassveld of the Pietersburg plateau merges-
into the thorn veld of the low country of the Limpopo Valley. It
is characterised by the dominance of Acacia pallens, A.
spirocarpoides, A. karroo and Combretnm porpliyrolepis.

20 president's address.

(3) The northern portion of the Zoutpansberg phiteau, which
is composed of parallel ranges of sandstone, lies at a lower altitude
than the Water berg and Pietensburg plateaux. The vegetation is
similar to that of the Low Veld, and from a ph^^togeographical
point of view may be included in the Jatter region.

0. — The Griqualaxd West Thoux Veld (Plate XI).

In the centre of the inland plateau and bounded on the south
by the Orange Eiver, on the west by the Kalahari, and on the
east by the High Veld, is a somewhat triangular block of country
which is usually included under the term " The Kaap Plateau."
Botanically this region is perhaps less known than any other part
of tlie inland plateau, but from what little information is available,
its affinities undoubtedly lie with the western portion of the
plateau rather than with the eastern.

The whole area falls naturally into three distinct types of
veld. The eastern portion consists of long, open river valleys (the
valleys of the Dry Harts, Harts and Vaal Piivers), with deep
alluvial soils and gravels, which are covered with a park-like
growth of thorn trees and tufted grasses. This I shall describe as
the Griqualand West Thorn Veld.

The central portion, the Kaap Plateau proper, consists of an
extensive dolomite and limestone plateau of shallow soils which
are covered with bush, xerophytic shrubs and shrublets. This I
shall refer to as the Kaap Plateau Bush Veld.

Between the Kaap Plateau Bush Veld and the Kalahari is a
tract of undulating veld composed of stony and rocky hills, sandy
plains and dry river valleys. The hills are covered with bush and
scrub, the sandy plains with grass and the Vaal Kameel Thorn,
^hile the low-lying valleys contain many brak and xerophytic
shrublets. This tract of country I have included under the title
" The Vaal Kameel Veld of the Asbestos Mountains."

The Griqualand West Thorn Veld includes the valleys of the
Orange, Vaal, Harts and Dry Harts Pvivers lying in the districts
of Herbert, Kimberley, Barkly West, Bloemhof, Taungs, and
Vryburg.

The veld isi park-like throughout. This type of scenery is
produced by various thorn trees growing amongst Karroo bush and
grass in the south, but chiefly amongst grass only in the north.

The common thorn trees are the Haak-en-steek {Acacia:
spirocarpoides), the Kameeldoorn (Acacia Girafjae), the Doorn-
boom (Acacia Karroo), the Haakdoorn (Acacia dcfincns) and the
TerassibO'S (Acacia stohnifcra).

Other typical trees, bushes, and shrublets found in this veld
are the Witgats (Boscia albitrunca and Boscia transvaalenfiis),
the Vaal Bos (Tarchonanthus camphoratus), the Blauwbosch
(Roycna pallens), the Driedoorn (Rhigozum triciiotoynum), the
Zuur-karree (Rlivs ciliata), the Eozijntjebosch (Greicia cana), the
Bitterbossie (CJirysocoma teniafolia), the Schaap Bos (Penfzia
incana), and the Harpuis-bos (Euryops multifidvs).

Typical and dominant grasses are Sclnnidtia hidbosa, Cldoris
virgata, Eragrostis Iclimanniana, Aristida adsccnsionis, Eragrostis

rRESIIJENT's A])1)11KSS. 21

tnincata, Panicum Marlothii, Themeda triandra, Eragrostis
demidata, AnthepJiora pubescens, Fingerlnithia africana, Panicum
Hohibii, Eragrostis superba, Aristida congesta, A. brevifolia, A.
Burkei, A. uniplumis, A. stipiformis, A. niolUssima, Pogonarthia
falcata, Tragus koelerioides, and Chrysopogon serridafus.

Other characteristic plants occurring in this region are the
Wilde Kalabas (Hibiscus urens), the Wild Senna [Cassia obovata),
the Cape Slangkop (Ornithoglossum glaucuiii), the Slangkop
(Urginea Burkei), the Dubbeltjedoorn (Tribvlus terrestris and T.
zcyheri), the Stijfziekte Bos (CrotaJaria Burkeana), the Gousblom
(Gazania uni flora), the Pakkiesblom [Herinannia brachypetala),
the Duiveitjea (Pretrea zanguebarica), the Kriedoon (Lycium
tetrandrutn), and the Vomeerbossie (Geigeria passerinoides).

Tulps are extremely plentiful and often give the veld a blue
or yellow hue due to Moraea polystachya and Homeria pallida.

The chief succulents are Aloe grandldentata and Aloe
Schlecteri var. Orpcniae.

The pasture and hay grasses of the Griqualand West Thorn
Veld are practically the same as those found on the Kaap plateau.
One of the most important poisonous plants is Ornithoglossum
glaucutn, the Cape Slangkop. Lebeckia psiloloba is suspected of
poisonous properties, and Tribulus terrestris, under certain
conditions, produces Geel dik-kop in sheep.

In the tliorn veld of the Harts River Valley, Acacia Giraffac
is plentiful and the pods of this tree provide an excellent stock
food.

10. — The Kaap Plateau Bushveld (Plates XII, XIII).

The Kaap Plateau Bushveld occupies the wide limestone
plain which stretches froan a little south of Griquatown to the
north of Vryburg. On the east it is bounded by the escarpment
of the Campbell Rand, which overlooks the valleys of the Vaal
and the Harts Rivers, and on the west by the Asbestos and
Kuruman Hills.

The whole area is remarkably flat, and is characterised by the
presence of numerous pans, whose floors are composed of
tufaceous limestone. The surface of the ground is hard and
uneven and consists very largely of dolomite outcrop. Here and
there, however, soil of a sandy nature occurs.

The plateau throughout is covered by bush or scrub which
ranges in height from 6 to 15 ft. This bush is composed mainly
of the Olijvehout (Olea verrucosa), the Zuurkaree (Rhus
tridactxjla) , the Haakdoorn (Acacia detinens) and the Vaalbos
(Tarchonanthus camphoratus). The Haakdoorn is dominant in
the south, the Olijvehout and Zuurkaree in the central portion,
and the Vaalbos in the north.

Karroo bush, composed of L'Jiiy.socoina tcnuifoUa and Pentzia
incana, is mainly associated with the Haakdoorn, the Olijvehout
and the Zuurkaree on tlie shallow dolomite outcrops, while grass
veld is more commonly associated with the Vaalbos where the
Boil is sandy and deeper.

22 pkksiukm's address.

The dominant grasses are the Eooi Gras (Themeda triandra),
Eragrostis Ichmanniana, and Aristida spp.

Often associated with Olijvehout and the Zuurkaree are large
trees of the Kareeboom (Elms vi^ninaUs) and the Bhnkblaar
wacht-een-bietje (Zizyplms mucronafa).

The blue tulp (Moraea polystachya var. hrevicaidis) is
extremely common throughout the plateau, as well as the Trans-
vaal Slangkop Urginea Burhci. The latter is iiearly related to' the
European plant producing " squills " and may be of equal
medicinal value. Crotalaria Burkeana is prevalent in this region,
and is the cause of Stijf-ziekte in cattle. The Vormeer-bosje
[Geigeria passcrinoidcs) is another well-known jooisonous plant in
this area.

The most important timber trees are the Wild Olive ( Olea
verrucosa), the Transvaal Beukenhout {Faurea saligna), and the
Transvaal Kajatenhout {PeltupJtuium africanum). Large tracts
of country are covered with Euryops multifidus, a plant which is
becoming a pest to stock farmers, as it is crowding out the pasture
grasses, but which yields a resin which might be exploited
commercially.

The principal pasture and hay grasses in this region are
Eragrostis lehmanniana, ScJimidtia hiilbosa, Themeda triandra,
Eragrostis brizoides, E. cbtusa, E. superba, E. chalcantha,
Chrysopogon serrulatus, AntJiepJiura pubescens, Digitaria eriantha
and Fingerhiithia africana.

11. — The V.^al Kameel Veld of the Asbestos ]\Iountaixs
{PJafcs XIV, XT').

The Vaal Kameel Veld of the Asbestos Mountains includes
the strip of country from the Asbestos Mountains and Kuruman
hills on the east to the Laugeberg and Kalahari in the west. The
Asbestos ^fountains, are low-lying and rounded hills which rise
about 1,000 ft. above the surrounding country. The surface soil
on the hills is reddish and is covered with small flat loose stones.
Along the foothills of the mountains there is frequently a belt of
deep I'ed sand. Between the Asbestos and Langeberg ranges the
soil is also mostly deep red sand, but in the northern j^ortion of
this area there is a small limestone plain similar to that on the
Kaap Plateau. This also lias numerous pans, and the veld closely
resembles that on the Kaap Plateau in composition and scenery.

The Asbestos hills are covered with scrub which varies in
height from 3 tO' 10 ft. The scrub is composed mainly of the
Ijstervarkbos (Lebeckia macracantha), the Vaalbos (Tarchon-
anthus camphoratus), the Zuurkaree {Rhus tridactyla), the
Olijvehout (Olea verrucosa), the Haakdoorn (Acacia detinens), the
Terassibos (Acacia stolonifera), the Blinkblaar wacht-een-bietje
{Zizyphus mncronata), the Klapper Bos (Xipnnnia capcnsis) and
the Driedoorn (Rhigozum trichotomnm and B. oJwvaiuiii).

Other common plants occurring on these hills are the Bitter
KarroO' (Clirysocoma tenuifolia), the Schaapbos (Pentzia incana),
the Wild Senna (Cassia obovata). tlie Vormc'erbo.''sie (Gcigeria
passerinoides), the Cape Slangkop (OniitJioglossiim glaucum), and
Sesamiini capense.

president's address. 23

The sandy beltsi along the foothills are, after rain, covered
with a luxuriant growth of grass, which is composed mainly of
Eragrostis lehmanniana, E. supcrba, Anthephora pubescens and
Aristida spp. Scattered through this sandy grass veld are
numerous trees of the Vaal Kameel thorn (Acacia haernatoxylou)
which range in height from 10 tO' 15 ft., and often give the veld
a dull glaucous grey appearance.

In the plains and valleys Karroo bush (Clirysoco)na tenuifolia
and Pentzia incana) and shrublets of Hai-puis (Euryops mulfifldus)
and Kapokbo'ssie (Eriocephalus pubescens) dominate the veld,
while scattered trees of Kameeldoom {Acacia Giraffae), Vaal
Kameel (A. hacmatoxylon), Haakdoorn {Acacia dctincns), Witgat
{Boscia albitrunca), Vaalbos {Tarchonanfhus camphoratus),
Blinkblaar wacht-een-bietje (ZizypJiiis mucronata), and Kriedoorn
{Lyciinn spp.) occur throughout.

Towards the north of the limestone plateau almost park-like
scenery is produced by bushes or t)'ees of the Olijvehout, the
Zuurkaree, the Haakdoorn and the Vaalbos. Grass is almost
entirely absent from the limestone plateau, where its place is
taken by Karroo bush. On the western edge of the plateau large
Witgat trees {Boscia albitrunca) form a conspicuous feature in the
veld.

The low-lying portions of the sandy veld between the Asbestos
Mountains and the Langeberg range are characterised by the
prevalence and abundance of bi'ak plants, while grass only occurs
on the well drained sandy slopes.

The vegetation on the Langeberg range differs from that of
the Asbestos, in that it is covered with bush or scrub from abont
6 to 10 ft. high, in which bushes of Croton gratissimum dominate.
Associated with this are bushes of RIius tridactyla, Grewia flavaf
and Tarchonanthus campJioratiis, in fact the Vaalbosch
(Tarchonanthus camphoratus) often dominates the vegetation on
the top of the range, while Croton gratissimus is dominant on the
mountain slopes.

A great variety of grasses occur on the Langeberg, chief
amongst which are: — Digitaria eriantha, Panicuni maximum,
Chloris petraea, Panicum nigropedatum , Sporobolus fimbriatxis,
Enneapogon tnollis, Pennisetum cencJiroidcs, Hctcropogori
contortus, Eragrostis gummifiua and Aristida spp.

12. — The Kalah.JiKi Sand Veld {Plate XVI).

North of the Orange Eiver and separating the South-West
Protectorate from the Union of South Africa is a large stretch
of sandy country lying at an altitude of 2,000 to 3,000 ft. It
includes the greater portion of the districts of Gordonia, Kuruman
and Vryburg. This area is the southern portion of the great
Kalahari region, and as it just falls within the scope of this
review, I shall refer to it as the Kalahari Sand Veld. It is
covered with deep sand throughout, which is in the greater part
of the area throavn up into long dunes which lie in a west-north-
west direction.

24 prksij^ext's addrkss.

Unlike the adjoining region of Bushmanland, the vegetation
here is much more pronounced and conspicuous ; instead of small
stunted shrubs, the Kalahari often supports a growth of well-
developed trees, amongst which the Camel Thorn dominates, and
under which a luxuriant growth of various grasses is usually
found.

The majority of the dunes are covered with coarse grass, —
the Pijpgras, — amongst which scattered " Witgat " trees {Boscia
rehmannlana, B. albitninca and B. Pcclniclii) are dotted about.
Some of the more common grasses in this veld are Eragrostis
superba, Eragrostis denudata, Eragrostis pallens, Aristida
uniplumis, Aristida. stipiformis, Aristida mollissinia, ScJiniidtia
bulbosa and Anthephora pubescens, while the low-lying sandy
plains with internal drainage support only a scanty growth of
brak plants, such as the Brak bos {Atriplex Halirnns), the Brak
Ganna [Salota aphylla), the Kapokbossie {Eriocephalus
miibeUatus) and tlie Harpuis bos {Euryops vinjtifidns).

The fact of the presence of numerous brak plants in this
region has an important bearing on Prof. Schwarz's Kalahari
scheme. Even if it were possible to irrigate the Kalahari, this
ground would be useless for agricultural purposes, as wheat and
similar crops will not grow in a brak soil.

One of the most characteristic plants of certain parts of this
sand veld is the Tsamma (Citrullus vulgaris), a melon which
furnishes a valuable stock food in times of drought.

13.— The Dam.\ralaxd Thorn Yeld {Plate XVII).

In the north-west corner of the inland plateau dealt with
within the scope of tliis address are situated the Highlands of
Central Damaraland, which consist of rugged mountainous
country with an average rainfall of 15 inches.

The vegetation is fairly uniform throughout and may be
described as the Damaraland Thorn Veld.

It is essentially a thorn scrub made up of bushes and trees
which range from 10 to 20 ft. in height and is composed of
Haakdoom (Acacia detinens), Acacia Maras, Acacia heteracantha,
A. dulcis, the Sikkelbos (Dichrostachys nutans), the VaalbO'S
(Tarchonanthus camphor atus), the Witgat (Boscia Pechuelii) and
Combretum apiculatuni.

Common succulents in this scrub, especially on the steep
hill slopes, are Aloe rubrolutca , A. hcreroensis and Senecio
longiflorus.

In the dry river valleys the trees attain a great size, and
consist chiefly of the Kameeldoom (Acacia Giraffac), the Doorn-
boom (A. karroo), the Blinkblaar-wacht-een-bietje (Zizyphus
niucronafa), Combretum primigenum and Acacia Jiebeclada. On
the open sandy flats the Stinkbosch (Boscia foetida), Kriedoorn
(Lyciu7n spp.) and Cataphractes Alexandri often dominate the
veld.

Towards the east the thorn scrub merges into tlie Kalnliari,
where the Haakdoorn becomes the dominant bush.

ri{KSI])ENT S ADDRESS. 40

14. — The Cameel Thorn Veld of Southern Damaraland
(Plate XVIII).

Occupying a comparatively small tract of country in Southern
Damaraland, a type of veld is found very different from that which
occurs in the adjoining region to- the south, in Great Namaqualand.

Instead of low xerophytic bush and scrub, a distinct park-like
or even forest type of scenery prevails. This type of veld.
coincides very closely with that part of the country which is
commonly known as Bastardland. It consists of deep sandy
flats well covered with high trees and grass. The dominant tree
is the Kameeldoorn (Acacia Giraffae), which is responsible for
giving the country the appearance of being densely wooded.
Other common thorn trees and bushes in this, veld are the
Doornboom (Acacia Karroo), the Haakdoom (Acacia dctincns),
the Terassi Bos (Acacia stolonifera), and Acacia hebeclada and the
Kriedoorn (Lyciitm sp.)

The grass is mainly Aristida ciliata and other species of the
same genus. On the southern outskirts of this Camel Thorn
Veld, where the soil is a little shallower, the veld is composed of
grass in which stunted Haakdoorn bushes and large Witgat
(Boscia albitrunca and B. Transvaalensis) trees are scattered
about.

15. — The Cape Veld ou South Western Veld (Phtic XIX).

Occupying a narrow angular strip of country in the extreme
south-west corner of the Capei Province is a type of veld unlike
that in any other part of South Africa. To botanist> the region
has long been known as the South Western Region of the Cape
Province. For the purposes of this address I shall refer to it as
'• The Cape Veld."

It is the best known botanically of all the types of veld in
South Africa, and has been very fully described by such able
botanists as Bolus and Marloth, so that it will not be necessary
for me tO' do more than describe in the briefest manner its most
salient features.

Its north-western arm extends as far as the Bokkeveld
Mountains, with outliers on the Kamiesberg, while its eastern
extension reaches to the Sundays Eiver Valley and includes the
forests of George and Knysna . On the north it is bounded by the
Karroo, although islands of typical Cape Veld occur in the Karroo
along the tops of the mountain ranges such as Zwartebergen,
Wittebergen, etc.

The country on the whole is very mountainous, the mountains
being rugged and bare.

On the mountain slopes, valleys and sandy flats, the veld is.
composed of stunted bushes and shrubs which range in height
from 3 to 6 ft. The dominant and most typical bush throughout
the region is the Rhenoster Bush (Ehjtropappus rhinocerotis). '

The average annual rainfall is about 29 inches, most of which
falls during the winter months.

Along the coast the common plants are SaJicornia friiticosa,
ChenoJea diffusa, Statice scabra. Grasses are very few in number,
the mo■^t typical are Stenotapininn gJabrum and Eragrostis

26 pr]:sii)kxt's address.

glabiata. Further inland on the sand dunes, common grasses
and sedges include Eragiostis cijperoides, Sporobolus pungens,
Agropyrum disticJinm and Scirpus nodosus. Common stunted
shrubs and bushes occupying the dunes are the Waxberry {Myrica
cordifoUa), the Dronkbossie [Cliymococca empetroides), the
Duinebossie {Mundtia spinosa) and the Kraaiebossie (Rhus
crenata).

Typical of the low bush or scrub on the sandy flats are the
Kersebos (Euclea raceniosa), the Schaapbostee (Psoralea
hracheata), the Suikerbossies (Protea ■mellifera and P.
scolymoccphala), tlie Kreupelhout {Leucospcrmnm conocarpmn),
the Blombos (Metalasia muricata), the Gouty Geranium
(Pelargonium gibbosum), the Bozemriet {Picstio eleochnris),
Carex arenaria, Eragrostis spinosa, Eragrostis cyperoides, and
Amniophila arundinacea.

In the inland valleysi and plains where the Ehenoster Bush
(Elytropappits rhinocerotis) dominates the veld, the Kapokbossie
{Erioccphalus umbcjlatus), the Herpuisbos (Euryops tennifi><imus),
the Doornbos (Metalasia muricata), the Slangbosi (Stoebe
cinerea), the Cape Sumach (Colpoon compressum) the Langeleden
(Polygala myrtifolia), and the Bosijzerhout (Dodonea TJiun-
bergiana) are alsO' frequent.

Typical plants occurring in vlei ground are the Palmiet
(Prionium serratum), the Varkblom (Zantedeschia aethiopica) and
the grass (Pennisetum viacrourum).

On the mountain slopes composing what is commonly referred
to as the Macehis, are the Silver trees {Lcucadcndro)i argcntcuni),
the Suikerbossies [Protea mellifera, P. lepidocarpodcndron and P.
neriifolia), the Olijvehout [Olea verrucosa), the Krentebos {Rhus
tomentosa), the J\Iirting (Myrsine africana), the Waaboom
(Protea grandiflora), the Kreupelhout (Lencospermnm
conocarpuvi), the Tolbo'^ {Lc{iicadendron plumosum), the Rooi
Stompie (Mimetes lyrigera), the Bakbos {Passerina filijormis),
the Wilde Malfa [Pelargonium cjiciiUatum) and Aspnlathus
chenopoda.

The forests of George, Knysna, and Humansdorp lie within
the So'Uth-Weistern or Cape Veld. They flank the Outeniqua. and
Zitzikamma Mountains and form a continuous' belt which is
roughly 100 miles long by 10 miles broad. The forests are
composed mainly of Black Stinkwood [Ocotea bullata), the
Yellow-woods {Podocarpus elongata and P. Thunbergii), the Rooi
Els (Cunonia capensis), the Black Ironwood (Olea laurifolia), the
Vlier (Nuxia fioribunda), the Assegaiwood (Curtisia faginca), the
Witte Els (PlatylophMs trifoliatus), the White Pear (Apodytes
dimidiata), the Kersehout (Pterocclasfrus variabilis), the Kamas-
sihout (Gonioma Kamassi) and tlic Coahvood (Tjachnostylis
capensis).

They are distinguished from the eastern forests by the
abundance of the Keurboom (Virgilia capoif^is), wliich is typical of
the South-Western Veld. The Zitzikamma forests are also
characterised by an abundance of the Stokroos {Sparmannia-
africana) which yields a valuable fibre.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. ^(

The remnants of a larger forest, which was apparently
Bimilar in composition to that of the Knysna, still exist on the
rocky slopes of the Langeberg near Swellendam.

On the west coast the ClanwilHam Cedars [Widdringionia
juniperoides) occur on the Cedar Berg Mountains. These
mountains also produce the well-known Buchu {Barosma
betulina) of commerce.

Among the poisonous plants in this region may be mentioned
Lessertia annularis, the Klimop {Cynanchum capense), the
Chinkerchee {Omitliogalion ili ijrsoidcs), various species of blue and
yellow tulps (Moraca and Hoincrla spp.),. and several introduced
plants. One of these, Datura stramonium, which has established
itself as a weed almost all over the country, is a valuable drug
plant.

Elytropappus rhinoccrotis is a very common and usurping
weed of the grazing veld, its inroads being largely due to
overstocking and burning the veld.

16.— The Kapjioo {Plates XX, XXI ).

The Karroo embraces the low-lying stretch of country which
lies immediately south of the southern portion of the Great
Escarpment.

The valleys of the Sundays Eiver in the east and the
Olifants Eiver on the west may be taken as approximately its
eastern and western limits. To the south it is intersected and
bounded by the Cape Ranges. It varies considerably in altitude
from 1,000 ft. in the central portion to 4,000 ft. above sea level
in the west.

The average annual rainfall also varies from under 5 inches
in the west to 15 inches in the central and eastern portions. In
the west the greater part of the rain falls during the winter
months, whereas the summer rainfall increases from the central
portion eastwards.

The Karroo is a country of shallow soils and rock-strewn
surfaces, consequently, when rain does occur, the ruu-nff is
extremely rapid.

The country is devoid of trees except along the dry river
courses, where a few t]iorn trees and kameelhooms usually occur.
Grass is also almost entirely absent.

The vegetation is largely composed of succulents, xerophytic
shrubs and shrublets.

The Karroo may be divided into four main regions: (1) The
Great Karroo or Central Karroo; (2) The Western or Ceres Karroo:
(3) The Little Karroo, and (4) The Eobertson Karroo.

The Great or Central Karroo includes the Ghoup,
Moordenaars Karroo, and the Eastern Karroo.

The vegetation in the Ghoup is composed mainly of small
bushes and shrublets, amongst which Rhigozuni obovafum usually
dominates, with it are commonly associated Lycium arenicolum ,
several species of Pelargoyiiuvi {P. munitum., P. carnosuyyt^ and
P. crithmifolium) and the Bushman's Candle (Sarcocaulon
Burmanni). The Karroo bush, Pentzia virgata, and the Kraal
Bosch (Galenia africana) are also often dominant over large areas.

^b PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

In Moordenaars Karroo, shrubby Mesembrianthemums (M.
spinosum and related species) practically dominate the vegetation.

The Eastern Karroo^ is characterised by the presence of Aloe
ferox, Pentzia virgata, and an abundance of a number of succulent
species of Euphorbia, amongst which the Noorse {E. coerulescens)
is often the dominant plant, as in the Jansenvillet district and
Sundays Biver Valley.

Whenever the soil is inclined to be brackish, the Ganna bosch
{Salsola aphylla and S Zeyheri) takes possession of the veld.

The vegetation in the central portion of the Great Karroo' is
composed mainly of succulent Mesemhrianthemums which take
on a more or less cushion -like form of growth. These include
Mesemhrianthemum calamifornie, M. felhium, etc.

The Western or Ceres Karroo includes the Bokkeveld and
Tanqua Karroos, which are the driest parts of this region. The
Kraalbos (Galenia africana) and the Geel Melkbos {Euphorbia
-mauritanica) cover extensive areas and entirely dominate the veld.

The Little Karroo comprises the country surrounding
Ladismith and Oudtshoom. To the north it is bounded by the
JZwarte Berg range and on the south by the Lange Berg and
Outeniquas Mountains.

The vegetation in the Little Karroo is more pronounced and
more varied than the Great Karroo. It harbours a number of the
most interesting plants found m South Africa. In the western
portion, which includes the valley of the Touws River, one of the
distinguishing features of the veld is the presence of the Guarri
Bush (Euclea undulata) both on the plains and on the hill slopes.
Closely associated with the Guarri Veld are bushes and trees of
the Wilde Pruimen {Pappea capensis) and the Boer-boon (ScJiotia-
speciosa). In addition to this tree and bush growth the veld is
covered on the flats with an extensive growth of shrubby Vijge-
bossies (Mesernbrianthemum spp.), Gannabos (SaJsnIa aphylla),
Kraalbosch (Galenja africana), and Witbossie (Pteronia pallens).

On the hill slopes the vegetation is much more varied. The
most typical plant associations include the Botei'boom (Cotyledon
fascicular is), Plakkies (Crassula portulacea), the Geel Melkbos
(Euphorbia- mauritanica), the Rooi Alwijn (Aloe microstigma),
Crassula perfossa and Sarcocaulon spp.

The vegetation on the plains and valleys in the eastern portion
of the Little Karroo is of much the same type as that in the west,
but the Vijgebo'ssies (Mesembrianthemuyn spp.) more often than
not entirely dominate the veld, while the Bitter Alwiin (Aloe
ferox) and the Spekboom (Portulacaria afra) become more and
more prominent on the hill slopes towards the east.

Situated just beyond the south-west corner of the Little
Karroo is a small island of Karroo Veld commonly known as the
Boschjes Veld. This is now usually referred to as the Robertson
Karroo.

Its original name at once indicates the general nature of the
vegetation which is here more luxuriant than in other parts of the
Karroo. The bushes are composed chiefly of the Guarri (Euclea
undulata), the Bos-ijzerhout (Dodonaea Thunbergiana), the
Boer-boon (Schotia speciosa), and the Num-num iCarissa

peesiijent's address. 29

Arduina), while the succulents are represented by the Boterboom
{Cotyledon fascicularis), the Honde Oor {Cotyledon orbiculata),
the Plakldes {Crassula portulacea), the Geel Melkbos
{Euphorbia mauritanica}, and Vijgebossies {Mesembrianthemmn
blandiini and M. junceum).

On the more open ground ihe Kraalbos {Galenia africcuia)
and the Karroo-bossies {Pentzia incana and Chrysocoma
tenuijolia) dominate.

The northern part of the whole region is naturally invaded
here and there by typical Upper Karroo plants amongst which the
Doornvijgbos (Mesembrianthemum spinosuvt) is perhaps the most
prevalent; on the other hand, the southern borders of the Karroo-
are frequently encroached upon by plants from the Cape region,
especially is this the case with the hill-tops, which carry typical
Cape vegetation, while the hill slopes and high-lying plains are
frequently covered with the Ehenoster bush ' {Elytropappus
rhinocerotis).

17. — The Upper Karroo {Plate XXII).

In this region Kogers includes the south-west portion of the
Orange Free IState, the valley of the Vaal River south of Barkly
West and that part of the Cape Province between the Great
Escarpment on the south and Bushmanland and the Orange Eiver
on the north. Bolus adopted a very similar area for his Upper
Region. Marloth divided this area into a southern portion, the
Karroid Plateau, a north-west portion known as Bushmanland,
and a south-eastern portion, a part of the Bush Veld.

For purposes of a; plant survey, two' distinct areas can be
recognised; the southern portion, the Upper Karroo, the greater
part of which lies at an altitude of 4,000 to 5,000 feet, and which
is bounded on the north by the Langebergen, the Kubiskow
Range and the Karreebei'gen ; and a northern portion, which is
known as Bushmanland, which I prefer to include with the
Kokerboom Veld of Namaqualand.

The Upper Karroo is made up mostly of rocks of Karroo
sediments; it is a monotonous country, but broken with hills, and
the surface of the soil is covered with loose stones and bonlders.
The vegetation consists of short shrublets, not more than about
18 inches high, and these are chiefly Karroo Bush and shrubby
Mesembrianthem u ms.

18. — The Kokerboom Veld of Nam.\qualand and Bushmanland
{Plates XXIII— XXV).

Occupying the greater portion of the western edge of the
interior plateau is a large tract ol variable country which may be
described as " The Kokerboom Veld of Namaqualand," in which
the Kokerboom, Aloe dicJiotoma, is the most characteristic plant.

In the south it includes the rocky country in the neighbour-
hood of the Kamiesberg, the mountains of Ijittle Namaqualand.
the Richtersveld, the Valley of the Orange River as far east as
Prieeka, and practically the whole of Great Namaqualand north
of the Orange River, which lies between the Escarpment on the
west and the Kalahari region on the east. Apart from the

30 PRESIDKXT's A1)])RESS.

mountainous districts in the south-west corner, and the Valley of
the Orange liiver, the country is one of lable-landscapes and vast
plateaux and plains. Semi-desert conditions prevail throughout,
and with the exception of the Orange and part of its chief
tributary, the Great Fish Fdver, the river beds and water-courses
are dry throughout the greater part of the year.

The rainfall over practically the whole area is under 10 inches,
most of which falls during the winter mouths.

The region as a whole may be described as one of vast arid
and stony wastes.

The rocky mountains in the south-west corner of the region,
except for the presence of the Kokerboom and a few succulents,
are almost bare and destitute of vegetation.

The high plateaux to the east of the western escarpment are
covered with grass, which is mostly short, of a tufted habit, and
does not form a unifomi covering, but leaves bare spaces between
the individual plants. The chief grasses on these high plateaux
are Aristida dregeana, Aristrida obtusa, and Aristida subacaulis.

As companions to che grass are isolated bushes of Driedoorn
(Rhigozum trichotonvLtn) and a few succulents such as the
Bushman's Candle Saictcaulon Buniia^Dii) and Euphorbia
7iamibensis.

Further east, on the sandy plains, lying at the foothills of the
high plateaux, a rather different type of grass flora is frequently
met with. Here the plains are covered with the Toa Grass
{Aristida. brevifolia) which has a much more tufted or even bushy
habit.

The greater portion of the country to the east, which lies at
an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 ft. above sea level and consists
mostly of vast undulating and stony plains, only broken here and
there by the presence of dolorite kopjes, is clothed with a scanty
covering of xerophytic shrubs, the chief of which are Parlcinsonia
africana, the Haakdoorn (Acacia detincus), the Nonnie Bosch
{Boscia foefida), Catapliractcs Alcxandii, the Driedoorn
(Rhigozum irichotonnnn), ZijgopJujllum }norgsana, Hermannia
spinosa, and the Ngaap {Houdia Gordoni).

The latter is one of the most characteristic succulents on the
flat sandy plains m Great Namaqualand.

Further east, where the plains of Great Xainaqualand merge
intO' the Kalahari region, and the area is one of internal drainage,
there are vast extensive flats, which only support a growth of
Ganna (Salsola aphijlla) bush, indicating tlie brackish nature of tlie
soil. In the low-lying valleys, which are below 3,000 ft. in
altitude, the Aggennys Euphorbia bush {E. gregaria) is nearly
always dominant, and is usually associated with bushes, shrubs,
and shrublets of Parkinsonia africana, Acacia detinens, Boscia
fortida, Cataphractcs Alcxandri. Bhigoznm tricliotoimim and
Pteronia glauca. Various species of Aristida grass also occur
here.

In the Orange Eiver Valley the character of vegetation is
more pronounced than elsewhere. Along the edge of the river
the dominant trees and shrubs are SaJix capensis, Zizyphus

riiKSIlJEXT's ADDRESS. 31

7nncronata, Euclca Fueudcbcnus, Comhretum erytJirophyllum,
Acacia karroo, A. Giraffae, Rhus viminalis, Royena pallens,
Tamarix articulata, and 'Sicotiana glauca, while Phragmites
co'inynunis is cornmon.

On the rocky slopes in the river valley, the Kokerboom (Aloe
dichotonia), the Gift-boom (Euphorbia virosa) and the peculiar
Pachy podium namaquanum occur.

In the gentle valleys leading to the river the Aggennys
Euphorbia is dominant, ar.d the Kraalbos (Galenia ajricana) is
very plentiful.

Along the dry river beds and valleys in the interior the vege-
tation is composed mainly of the Camel Thorn (Acacia giraffae),
the Sweet Thorn {Acacia A'orroo), the Black Ebony (Euclea pseu-
debenus), the Oliepitten (Pappea capensis), the Nonnie Bosch
(Boscia foetida), the Haakdoorn (Acacia detinens), the Tamarisk
(Tamarix articulata), Zygophyllum prismatocarputn, Z. simplex,
Z. viicrocarpum, Z. cylindrifolium, Lycium namaqucnse, Galenia
africana, and Salsola aphylla.

Physiographers usually regard Bushmanland and the Kalahari
as one region.

Bushmanland is one of the most arid parts of the inland
plateau, its annual rainfall is less than 5 inches, part of which
falls during the winter months, whereas the annual rainfall on
the Kalahari varies from 10 to 20 ins., most of which falls during
the summer months. In consequence there is a considerable
difference in the general aspect of the vegetation found in these
two areas, and for this reason they may well be treated separately.

Bushmanland is bounded on the west by the southern
■extension of the Namaqualand Highlands, which includes the
Kameesberg and the mountains of Little Namaqualand, on the
north by the valley of the Orange River, on the east by the Kaap
Plateau and Kaap Valley, and on the south by the Upper Region.

It is essentially a country of sandy plains, undulating and
featureless.

In the central jjorticni there are numerous salt-water pans,
while isolated rocky hills of the " Inselberg " type occur here and
there. The average height of the country varies from 2,000 to
3,500 ft., towards the north the surface slopes fairly uniformly
towards the Orange River. The vegetation throughout is sparse
and scanty, and consists mainly of shrubs and shrublets which do
not exceed 3 ft. in height.

After rain the Toa grass and Bushman grass are plentiful.

The dominant shrub on the red sandy plains is the Driedoorn
(Rhigoznm trichotomnm); with this are associated stunted bushes
of Parkinsonia africana, Hermannia pulchella, Hcrmnnnia
grandiflora, Cataphractes Alexandri, Boscia foetida, Cadaba
juncea, Zygophyllum spp., and Baiihinia garipensis.

Common succulents on the rocky outcrops, are Aloe
dichotorna ; and Sarcocaulon B^trmanni and Hoodia Gordoni on
the sandy plains.

The chief grasses are Aristida adsccnsionis Linn., ^4. vestita,
Thunb., .4. ciliata, A. namnqucvsis, A. obtusa Del., Erngrostis
^piiwsa Trin., and Enneapogon scabcr, Lehm.

32 pr];.si])ext's addkkss.

19. — The Western Littoral or Xamib (Plates XXVIXXVIII).

Ill striking contrast to the vegetation on the east coast, that
on the west is more scanty and desert like than any other part of
the sub-continent. This desert region may be described as the
\\'estern Littoral or Namib. It reaches from the Olifants Eiver
in the south to beyond the limits of our northern boundary. It is
a narrow coastal belt, varying in width from 10 to 80 miles, the
broadest stretch being from Luderitz Bay to' Conception Bay.
It is a barren wind-swept desert composed mainly of vast hills
of yellowish sand, and lies west of the western portion of the
Great Escai-pment. The rainfall is extremely scanty and varies
from 0 to 5 inches per anmmi.

Some five distinct zones of vegetation may be distinguished,.
viz. : that of the western slopes ol the Escarpment, the Gravel
Plains, the Sandv Dunes, the ilocky Hills, and the Seashore.

On the rocky slopes of the Escarpment the Kokerboom
(Aloe dichotuma), Eupliorbia virosa, and E. drcgcana are most
conspicuous, whilst along the foo-thills clumps of Euphorbia
bracliiata are coinmon, and associated with them are plants of
the Bushman's Candle (Sarcocaulon Burmanni) and Pelargonium
crassicaule, Augea capcnsis, Mesembrianthemtim micranthuni,.
Galciiia africana, and Euphorbia namibensis.

Below this the vast gravel plains are for miles and miles
almost destitute of vegetation, or support a more or less scanty
growth of Vogelstruis grass [Eragro^fis spinofta). In some
places the only plant on these plains is an annual Mesembrian-
ihemum, on others nothing but a lichen growth covers the small
pebbles. Towards the north only a few isolated plants of Acrva
desertonnn occur over vast stretches, while Welwitschia mirabilis
is found in a few localities and is usually associated with
Zygopliijllum Stapfii.

The sand dunes support a very scanty vegetation, which is
made up chiefly of isolated tufts of Vogelstruis grass (Eragrostia
spinosa), Eragrostis cyperoides, the Ganna bush Salsola Zeylieri,
Statice scabra and Mesembriantheinum Marlotliii.

On the rocky hills fringing the seashore the vegetation is
more varied, and is composed of many extremely interesting
forms, such as Mesembrianthemuni opticvm^ Mcsembrianthonum
sa.refauum, M. rliopalophyUutn ^ Trichoraulon cacfifornuty
and Euphorbia Jignosa : other common plants are Ectadium
virgatum, Ercm.otliamnus Marlofhianus, Dicoma fomenfosa,
Pitiiranthus aphiillus, Augea capensis, and Lebeckia muUiflora.

On' tlie seashore three plants are fairly common, viz. :
Salsola zeyheri, CJienolea diffusa and Salicornia natalensis.

The river valleys which traverse the Namib carry a very
typical vegetation. In the upper reaches of the valleys, especially
in the north, considerable tree growth occurs, in the dry river
beds the characteristic trees are the Anaboom (Acacia albida), the
Camel Thorn (Acacia giraffae), the Omumborumbonga (Com-
hretiDu primigCHUhi), the Cape Ebony (Eiiclea pseudebenus), the
Tamarisk (Tamarix articulata) and the Choris (Salvadora persica).

The low-lying valleys are practically dominated by vast
stretches ol nothing but the Aggennys Euphorbia (E. grcgaria).

tresident's ai)])ress. 33

Neaier the coast, where several of the rivers disappear under
the sand dunes, their underground courses can frequently be
detected by the presence of the Naras (Acantlwstcyos hoirida)
and the Tamarisk {Tamarix articulata) amongst the dunes. The
Tamarisk has not received the attention which it deserves from
an economic standpoint. It grows splendidly in the sand dunes
and also' in saline and alkaline soils, while it yields valuable
timber and a plentiful supply of " galls " very rich in tannin; it
also' is very resistant tO' heat and drought. In North Africa the
small fruits are much esteemed by the natives for medicinal
purposes on account of the amount of turpentine which they
contain.

In view of the facts set forth in this brief and all too sketchy
and incomplete account of the veld, it is obvious that South
Africa is first and foremost a pastoral country, and as such her
stock-raising potentialities are mainly dependent on the veld. The
greater portion of the natural grazing land throughout South
Africa is subject to extremes of climate, periods of drought and
harsh treatment at the hands of man, but in spite of all this its
recuperative poweris are untold.

The most outstanding and convincing of the facts which are
brought to light by the preliminary survey of the veld is the
need for its closer study, which should include amongst other
things the careful mapping of the chief types of plants and their
associated soils. One of the aims of the Botanical Survey of
South Africa, recently established by the Government of the
Union, will be the recording and mapping of these plants, while
it is hoped that the mapping of soils will be undertaken by the
long advocated Soil Survey. It is both pleasing and encouraging
to note that provision has been made on the Estimates ol
Expenditure now before the House of Assembly for the salary of
a Director of the Soil Survey.

If progress is to be made in the solution of the problems
before us the closest co-operation must exist between the botanist
and the chemist. For this purpose, permanent stations for veld
research should be established in each of the different botanical
regions, and this the Botanical Survey hopes, in the course of
time, to do. In his preface to Memoir No'. 1 of the Botanical
Survey, the Secretary for Agriculture wisely remarks: " As time
proceeds and as soon as the foundations are securely laid, it is
hoped that whole-time officers will be appointed in the different
areas, who will at first work under the direction of their more
experienced colleagues, and will then later on become proficient
and render valuable service on the Survey."

The ]\Iemoir referred to above has been the subject of a most
favourable review in a recent number of the Kov Bulletin, in
which the concluding paragraph is as follows: "" The publication
of so useful a memoir by the Government of the Union of South
Africa affords welcome evidence of the enlightened view held by
that Government of the value of science, and also indicates that
they realise fully the need of acquiring an intimate knowledge
of the resources of the country by the development and proper
application of scientific method."

34 peesidext'.s ajjukkss.

No one has demonstrated more clearly what can be
accomplished by the co-operation of workers in different fields of
research than Sir Arnold Theiler, the Director of Veterinary
Eesearch, with whom it has been my privilege tO' be associated
in several of his investigations dealing with what he once termed
" the unsolved stock diseases of South Africa." The cause of
such diseases as Jacht-ziekte, Stijfziekte, Geeldikkop, Gouwziekte
and Bovine Staggers was only discovered after a close study of
the flora and veld conditions of the areas where these diseases
occur. So convinced is Sir Arnold of the importance of the study
of the veld in connection with obscure plant poisons that he has
now speciall,y attached to his staff a botanist whose whole time
is devoted to this purpose.

If the veterinarian can make such progress with the aid of
the botanist, there is no reason why similar results should not
be attained by the botanist and chemist in the many problems of
the veld that await them. To quote a specific case : it is well
known that stock fatten more rapidly in the Vaal Kameel Doom
Veld in the winter than in any other part O'f South Africa, and
that they may remain in good condition for a long time if removed
from that region to another part of the country, but no' one can
explain the reason. The cause is p?'obably to be found in some
close connection between the warm sandy soil of this veld and
the physiology' of nutrition, but who^ can say, withovit the most
careful enquiry? These problems can only be elucidated by tlie
trained botanist working continuously on the spot, and working
in co-operation with the chemist. The investigation of such
questions is of enormous importance from an economic standpoint,
and when such problems are scientifically and systematically
attacked the veld will yield a hurd red fold its present resourc^^
and its dangers wilF correspondingly decrease and diminish.

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to
INIiss Sydney Stent, of the Division of Botany, who supplied me
with notes on the economic plants of the various regions of which
she is making a special study.

S.A. JOUHNAL OF SCIKNCE, VOL. XVII.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 1. — Ipomcea Pes Caproe, Sccevola lobelia, Osteospermum moniliferum,,
Strelitzia, augusta, Phoenix reclinata, TDvmorpliotlieca fruticosa.
Hibiscus tiliaceus, Oarissa grandiflora, Mimvsops cafjra, Ptferoxylon
utile, Millettia Siitherlandii. — Fort St. John's, Cape Province.

'/t*."™-" •. 1-L"" ..,?2 f-SiJii.'. WA

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 2. — (' yiiihdpoijoii iKirdiis raltilus in foreground, Acacia scrulj on hill
slopes, Pauwolfia natalensis lining stream below, forest on left
composed of Ptceroxlon utile, Millettia Sutherlandii, Harpc phyllum
caffrum, Ekebcrgia capensis, Ci/clostcmon aruutits, Trichilia
Dregeana. — Port St. John'S; Cape Province.

COAST VELD.

!S.A. .iOUHNAL OF 811K.NCK, VOI>. XVIi.

rj.ATK II.

PlioT^o. by I. B. Pole .'-avails.

Fig. 3. — Acacia pallens, Sijzijujum cordatum, Kifji'lia innnata, Tiich'dia
cnnficd. Ficii.s spp. — KlasstMie Rivei' Selati. Trans\aal.

fflP^.i^» rf

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 4. — Acacia pallens, Acacia xanthoploea, Viospyios mr.sjnliformis,
Hclcrocoriid caffra, Odina dificolor. Acacia. Benfliaiiii, I'ic'iniis
communis in foreground. — Near Komati Poort, Transvaal.

LOW VELD.

S.A. .lOUKXAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII

PLATE 111.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 5. — Knoppiesdoorn {Acacia palleris), with the Van "Wijk's Hout
{Bolusanthus speciosns) on the left, Rooigras {Themeda triandra)
in foreground. — Hectorspruit, Transvaal.

Fig. 6. — Mahogany (Afzdki quaiir:i'tisis). and Ah
Portngnese East Africa.

LOW VELD.

Photo, by 1. B. Pole Evans.
ic Mil rhdh It. — Xinavane,

S.A. .lori'.NAL OF SC 1|;N( K. VOI>. XVII

t

pff >.:^'

!>

%• ^'^^'

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 7. — Beiikeiihout (Fdunn foViijixi). Suiker bos (I'mtid (iln/.-isinirii).
Karee {l{hus <i iK'inzii). Rooi Gras {TJirnieihi fruniilnt) in fore-
ground.— Near Zand River Poort. Transvaal.

vlt.< ■ * n

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 8. — Xymphd'O sfrlldtci, Aruiidi m Ihi Kcl:}iinil. Ti/jiIki ra iicii.six. — Zand
River Poort, Tranf^vaal.

^VATERBERG SANDVELD.

S.A. JOUKXAL OF SCIENCE. VOL. XVII.

Fi<

i). — Thcmt'iJa friatuJrn, And idiKx/oii (■ciis'id jormh
near AVakkerstroom.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
On tlie Draken.sberg

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 10. — EmijrDsf'ia jilana in foreground with Acnc'ia karroo, I'rofea
I>oui>iii'IH(r on the hill shi]3e. forest compo.sed of rndocnrpiis
falcata. 1'. flounntn. Ocofcn luillnfii. Xi/ninlos niomisjiord, Cilfh
kraussiatin. Giro lauriJoUa.

EASTERN GRASSVELD.

S.A. .lOl'HXAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATK VI.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fi^. 11. — ruiJdcdrpiix rhinijata with Oha Jaurifolia behind. — In Pirie Forest.
EASTERN GRASSVELD.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fi<i. 12. — HaiprplniHuin ((ifiiuin witli Ithii-s In r'tijafd behind. — Piric Forest.
EASTERN C4RASSVELD.

S.A. ,T0U1?XAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

I'LATP: VII.

♦■*%-^''

Ph..t<

lj\ I. H l'..k- Kviui-.

Fig. 13. — Acacia caffirt. Acacia siiirocarpoidcs, D'ich ra.sfach i/s nutans, OJca
rcrnicoya. Sclcrocar\ia caffra, Acacia Jiailci, Vclfajihoonn
af rica n\nn. Schofia f la nsvaalrnsis, Boscia I'chnia n ni, with Kirl.ia
IT ;7;/i.s(( ill foreground. — Near C'huiiie's Poort, Transvaal.

<M^^

* WM'^Af' Si «'

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. 14. — Eupliorhia ('oopcri. I'lofon Ouhoiii/a. — Olifant's River. Transvaal.

BUSHVELD.

S.A. .lOUli.VAL OF SC'lKNfK, VOf.. XVII.

1'lath: VIII.

i'h.jtu. by J. li. Pule Evans.

lo. — Wilde Soriiifr (lUiihid (ifr'u-(inii). Arnciti karroo, .1. roJnisto,
A. spirocarpotdes, Dichrostachys irufaiis. — Springbok Flats,
Transvaal.

''i%'4'l

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 16. — Acacia npirocarpohJcs. A. Bnithaini, Thcmalo friamlra. — Springbok
Flats, Transvaal.

BUSHVELD.

S.A. JOIHXAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

Pho*o. by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 17. — Acacia caffra, A. eriadenia, Cussonia paniculata, Zizyphus
mucronata. Miindulca suberosa, ^'angue^^ia infausfa, Bhus lancea,
B. Gueinzii, Euclea vndidatn, Pavefta obovata, Dombcya dcnsiflora,
Aloe Marlothii. — AVaterval Boven, Transvaal.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. IS. — Protea abyssinica, Combrctum zej/heri, C. Gueinzii, Acacia caffra,
A. harroo, Zizyphvs mucronata. Euclea undulata, Pavctta obovata,
I>. Gueinzii, Eiulva undulata, Paretta obovata, Dombeya dcnsiflora,
Aloe Marlothii. — "Waterval Boven, Transvaal.

BANKEN VELD.

S.A. .lOUHNAL OF SCIKM'E, VOL. XVIl

I'lioto. by 1. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 19. — TJiiiiuihi ti'id 11,1 lit (luriii.u ^laifli. — Kaalfoiitein, ntai- Johannes-
burg, Transvaal.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 20. — Thcmeda trlaiulrn in November. — Kaalfontein, near Johannesburg,
Transvaal.

HIGHVELD.

S.A. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. VOL. XVII.

PLATE XI.

'M

^'%s*»'**.^*i?*"

^pf'^'^'^iif^i,

«*»} "

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fio;. 21. — Acacia f<pic<icariiohIi:s. A. <fnaff<t . — Near Kimherley. Cape Province.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 22. — Acacia drthiciis, A. sjiiiora riioidcs. — Near ^yillflsorton Road, Cape
Province.

GR.IQUAT.AM) WEST THORXVELD.

S.A. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XII.

-■■'M- \ ■

M

mt

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 23. — Acacia detinens, A. spirocarpoidcs, Tarchoiiaiithiis camphoratus,
L'hi(jozuiii trichotonnini. — Near Douglas, Cape Province.

JS''*

It:

-• .»*-;1^«?

•fivff*t^.%^'v

§*■•
^

Photo by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fij:;. 24. — Olra rcrrucosa, Ithiis tr'nldcf i/hi. Vciifzia incann. — Near Postmas-
biirg, Cape Province.

KAAP PLATEAU BUSHVELD.

S.A. .TOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

I'LATE XIII.

Photo, by 1. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 25. — Bhus vhninalis, Olea verrucosa, Tarclionantlius camphoraius,
Themcda triandra. — Near Papkiiil, Cape Province.

4'

Photo, by I. B. 'Pole Evans.

Fig. 26. — Acacia detinens, Olca verrucosa, lilivs frrdacf\ihi, I'lnfzui inrana. —
Near Postmasburg, Cape Province.

KAAP PLATEAU BUSHVELD.

>S.A. .lOUKNAL OF SC'IKNCK, VOL. XVTI.

PLATK XIV.

'* ^

*\'

'K' ■* *

'

^1- :<

«! \

**'_

A V

'*

>H.

y

Fip; 2;

. — LeJu'ckia macrdnflta, I'riifzi
Griquatow 11. Capo Pioviiict".

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
hican'i. — Oil Asbestos Mountains,

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 2S. — Tarchonantliiis camplunatus, Fcntz'ia iiicana. — On Asljcstos Moun-
tains. Postmasburg, Cape Province.

VAAL KAMEELDOOEX VF.LD OF ASBESTOS MOUNTAINS.

S.A. .TOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XV.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fi^. 20. — Vaal Kameeldoorn {Acacia haniafoxylon) with I'cufzhi incana
helow. — Floiadale, Capo ProvinCo.

b^\

^'S-'

'^V-i:^---,:!^ ".rir.ii

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 30. — ('rotoii (jrat'issiiiiuin. Acaiia (jiraffa', JBoscia tra nsraaleiish. —
Langeberg Range, Diininurry. Cape Province.

VAAL KAMEELDOORN VELD OF ASBESTOS MOUNTAINS.

S.A. .TOIHNAL OF SC'TKNCK. VOL. XVII.

I'LVTK XVI.

*V -

is£n£*

■'^r^V"*'*'^^^'^^'' '

S''f.;^5^:1'-;;

Pliolo. l)y 1. 'B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 31. — Acdcia drtiiirn-'i, Crnioii yKiti^.siiii ii m, X j/iiki nin capcnsis, Aiacin
tjiraffcc, Bo-tciu tin ns coal entiis. — Western slopes of the Laiigeherj^
Range, Dunmurry, Cape Province.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. 32. — Salsoln aiiliyJIa. — Near Tsumis. South-West Africa.
K.\LAHAR[ SAND VELD.

S.A. .lOUHXAL OF SCIENCE. VOL. XVII.

PLATE XVII.

-jfe**a£i'«su.-:^^

Photo, by 1. H. Pole Evans.

Fig. 33. — Acacia clctinfiis, A. Mams, A. hetcracanllia, A. <hiJcis, Cumin rtum>
apiculafuin, Dichrof>tachys nuiarts, Boscia rechuelln, Tarchonanthvs
camphnratiis, Aloe rubro-lutca, Euclca iiiuliilata. — ^Near Wiiidhuk,
Soutli-West Africa.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fiy. 34. — Acacia lichrara iiflia. .1. dtilcis. ( 'oinhri'tii in- a piculafuiii. Aluc
rubiu-tutea. — Noar Wiiulliuk, South-West Africa.

DAMARALAND THORN VELD.

S.A. .lOUKNAL OF SCIKNCK. VOL. XVII.

'LATK XVIII.

I'iKito. by I. B. Pole Kvaiis
Fig. So. — Akii in i/inifid-, ],j/(iiiiii sp. — Heiclt". South-West Africa.

■ \' :'

-^'•awfa

-.*!**

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. 3(1 — Acdtia [I'lrdffd', Li/ciuin sp. — Heide. Soutb-West Africa.
KAMEELDOORX VELD OF SOUTHERN DAMARALAND.

S.A. JOUKXAL OF SCIENC'l',, VOL. XVII.

TLATK XIX.

I'hclo. h.\ I. IS. \',Ae K\ans.
Fiji;. 37. — L'('sfi(j association. — Sir fjowry's Pass. Cape Province.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 38. — Hf'lirh rysuin rrsfttinn. El iff ■ nim innts rhinnrrmtis. — Tahle Mountain,
Cape Province.

CAPE VELD CR SOITH-WESTERX VELD.

S.\. .lOlKNAL OF SCIKNCR, VOI-. XVII.

PLATK XX.

?«^

' ..''^

^^►.

-^'* _

■p ~

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fiji'. .39. — J'Jiiilcti u nd uhiid, I'dpiiia ca [iciisis. Schotid ludch mii'tdlid. Tf< mniti
ixilli'ii.s. — 'l'ou\vslior;j:. Cnpt' Province.

»-.

Fi^. 40. — ('(ifiilcddii fasciniJaris, ('. ]]'iilHc]i ii. Kiul
Lainfisbui'g, Cape Province.

KARROO.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

II lid' iildfd . — Near

S.A. .70UKXAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XXI.

*■' m'ijt^

Fig. 41. — Euclca inululata, I'trionin pdllcn;
Province.

Photc. by I. B. Pole Evans.
-Near Laingsburg, Cape

Ph >to. by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 42. — Euclca undiiJata, Pterouia imllriis Mesoiihiia iifliini ii m spp. — Near
Laingsburg, Cape Province.

KARROO.

S.A. .lOrUNAL OK SCIKNCK, VOI,. XVII.

I'LATK XXII.

I'lioto. by I. H. l'i)le Kvaiis.

Fi^'. 43. — Mcsriiiliiiii nflii III II III s|)]).. (liiJi' ii'iii iif I'ini All. — Ni^ar Sutherland.
Cape Pioviuce.

Photo, by J. B. Pole Kvans

Fi^- 44. — AifJi ni.solr II iiiil ijsi' jiliiihi s. !■! n ii ra ii<i</rii scoiiarius^ Kniii rusl is f run
ciitii. K. ithtusd. — Near Luckhoft'. Orange Free State.

UPI'ER KARROO.

S.A. JOrUNAL OF SCIENCK. VOL. XVII.

PLATK XXIII.

t j'^ *^«ft^»* j(^

1!0>»-''

i«li

Photo, by J. B. Pole Kvan^.
Fig. 45. — Itliigozum trichotominn. — Bushmanlaiid.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evaus.
Fig. 46. — Aloe (licliofojna. — South-West Africa.
KOKERBOOM VELD OF NAMAQUALAND AND BUSHMANLAND.

S.A. .lOrUNM. OF SCIKM K, VOI,. XVIT.

IM.ATK XXIV.

^ . . •.-:

,»..,

iitfe

'''.'. k3^"-'

•--■?„

#^

Phot 3 by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fiji. 47. — AJiic <ri(litifiiiii<i. Kii I'iiiiiliKi rtinsd, K. iircijarid. JJ . dicliotoiiifi . —
Betwi'on H(j)oo<!: and Klein Karas. Soiitli-West Africa.

%^*" ' .»

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans
Fig. 4S. — ratk'nisonia afiicana, Zygophyllum spp.
KOKERBOOM VELD OF iNAMAQUALAND AND BUSHMANLAxND.

S.A. .lOURNAL OF SCIRXCE, VOL. XVIT.

PLATK XXV.

2^^j#«i%«^3

Photo, by 1. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 49. — Aristida drcgcana, .1. obtusa, A. siibocauJis. — Near Aus, South-
West Africa.

Photo, by 1. H. I'obs l■^an^-
I'^io;. oO. — Arisfiihi hrcrifiJ'Ki . — Near Kuiliis, Soiith-West Afi-ica.
KOKERBOOM VELD OF NAMAQUALAND AND BUSHMANLAND.

S.A. .lOUr.NAL OF SClKNCi:. VOL. XVIl.

PLATE XXVI.

■«i4^

^*aii..

-miM'

Photo, by I. B. Polo Evans.
Fig. ol. — jl'JiijJitirbid ijrr(/(u-i(i . — Xt'ar Aukas, Soiitli-Wcst Africa.

#■_ «

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans
Fig. 52. — L'ti/i/iarOia i/rri/nriii . — Near Auka.s, South-West Africa.
THE NAMIB.

S.A. .lOUIiNAIi OY St'IUNCl';, VOF,. XVU.

I'LAl'K XXVII.

M,

Photo, by 1. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. 53. — Eraijruxtis sp'tnusa. — Near Garub, South-West Africa.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.

Fig. 54. — ^Erru ch<trtui uiii, A<urlu ■<tolun'if\i-a. — Neax' Kossing, Soutii-West
Africa.

THE NAMIB.

S.A. .TOFKXAL OF St'lEXC'R, VOL. XVII.

TLATR XXVIir.

Photo, by I. B. Pole Evans.
Fig. 55. — Acanthosicyos horrida. — Walfish Bay.

Fig. 56. — Tnmnr'ix a iiif\tJnta.
THE NAMIB.

Photo, by I. B. Poli' Evan
-Walfisli Bay.

rKKSIIlENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 35

EECEXT PRUGEESS IN ASTROXOMY.

By H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S.

Union Ohservatorjj, Jolianneshur-fi .

Presidential Address to Section A, delivered Juhj 14, 1920.

I should like to commence my address by referring to
tlie fact that the present year marks a definite epoch in
the history of astronomy in South Africa. It is exactly
one hmidred years ago since the foundation of the Royal
Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope. The Commissioners
appointed by Act of Parliament " for more effectually
discovering the longitude at sea " first discussed the question
of the establishment of an Observatory at the Cape on
February 3, 1820. There was then no jiermanent astronomical
Observatory at the Cape, although the Abbe Lacaille had
spent two years at Capetown (1751-1753) and had made a
catalogue of southern stars. A bronze tablet erected by the
South African Philosophical Society — now the Royal Society
of South Africa — marks the site of Lacaille 's Observatory
in Strand Street.

On October 20, 1820, by an Order of His Supreme Majesty
in Council, the Royal Observatory at the Cape was definitely
established, and the first of His Majesty's Astronomers at
the Cape — the Rev. Fearon Fallows — was appointed on
October 26, 1820. There was considerable delay in erecting
the necessary buildings, and it was not until the beg'inning'
of 1829 that the Royal Observatory was an accomplished
fact. Since its inception the aim of this institution has been
constant — to be the standard Observatory of the Southern
Hemisphere, and to be for that hemisphere what Greenwich
Observatory is for the Northern Hemisphere.

The state of South Africa one hundred years ago was
very different from its state at the present time ; equally so
is there a very wide diff'erence between the state of astronomy
then and now. The distance of not a single star was known
then, and it stands to the credit of the second of His Majesty's
Astronomers at the Cape, Thomas Henderson, that he was
the first to measure successfully the distance of a star — the
star Alpha Centauri — although, partly on account of the
remoteness of the Cape from Europe in those days, he was
not the first to publish the distance of a star, being slightly
anticipated by the European astronomers Bessel and Struve.
At the present time the distances of many stars are known.
It was the chief work of Sir David Gill to measure the
distance of the Sun, which is the unit distance to which the
distances of the stars are referred, and also to measure
the distances of the brighter southern stars.

The great practical problem of astronomy is the measure-
ment of the distance of the stars. A knowledge of stellar
distances is required in all investigations into the structure

3G PEESIDEXTIAL ADDEESS SECTIOX A.

of the IJniverse. Early attempts to measure the distance
of a star, althoiig-h not successful in their actual object, led
to far-reaching discoveries. Bradley, in 1725, in atteniptino-
to find the distance of the star Gamma Draconis, discovered
aberration and nutation. Herschel discovered the existence
of binary stars, and, on investigating the apparent changes
in the positions of a few stars from tliose given in early star
catalogues, discovered the motion of the Sun, and made a
fortunate guess as to its direction of motion and velocity.
Ilis first determination depended upon the observations of
only seven stars, but does not differ very widely from tho
results of recent investigations, in which the ap])arent motions
of thousands of stars have been discussed. The application
of the spectroscope has confirmed the result, and has added
a direct determination of the solar velocity. Stars in a certain
direction in the sky appeared to be moving towards the Sun ;
others in the antipodes of the sky apj^eared to be receding
from us with the same velocity. This velocity has been deter-
mined to be 195 kilometres per second. It was soon realised
that one result of the Sun's motion through space was to
afford a new method of determining stellar distances applic-
able to distances so great that the ordinary direct method
failed. In one year the Sun, and with it the whole of tliQ
solar system, moves through space over a distance equal to
four times the distance between the Sun and the Earth, or
372 million miles. In ten years the distance moved is
forty times the Sun's distance, and the distance increases
directly with the time. Thus an indefinitely increasing base
line is obtained, whereas in the direct method of determining
a stellar parallax the base line cannot exceed 18G million
miles, or two units. If, then, an exact comparison can be
made between the relative positions of the stars at the present
time and their relative positions many years ago, there must
be certain differences due to the change in the point of view.
The nearer stars lying in directions at right angles to the
direction of the Sun's motion must be displaced with reference
to more distant stars in the same direction, and generally
the stars would appear to diverge from the apex of the Sun's
way and to converge towards the solar antajjex. If, now,
the stars were all at rest, it would be a very simple matter
to measure the distances of thousands and thousands of stars
by their displacements relatively to more distant stars, and
the number of stars whose distances could be measured and
the accuracy of the results obtained would increase as the
time increased. But analogy suggests that it is hardly likely
that our Sun alone is in motion and all the rest of the stars
are fixed in space, and investigation has proved that prac-
tically all the stars are in motion. If these motions were all
at random, it would still be possible to determine the
distances of groups of stars, for the random motions taken
over the group would neutralise one another, and the group
as a whole would be at rest. In this way Kapteijn, amongst
others, has statistically determined the distances of various
groups of stars. It had been suggested by Kobold, and later

PRKSI])ENTIAL ADDRESS— SECTION A. 37

became evident to Kapteiju in 1904, that the motions of the
stars conkl not be considered to be entirely at random, and
at the joint meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science and the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science at Capetown in 1905, Kapteijn
announced tliat there Avere two preferential directions of
motion amongst the stars.. This statement can be explained
in a variety of ways. If the motions of the stars could be
plotted on a three-dimensional diagram, with vectors repre-
senting the velocity and direction of motion of each star,
the resultant surface would be an ellipsoid with one relatively
long axis. This long axis of the ellipsoid would represent
Kapteijn's preferential directions. More simply, it might be
considered that there are two directly opposed streams of
stars, which was the view taken by Kapteijn, who called
the two streams Drift I and Drift II. Drift I is directed
towards 90°, -12°, and Drift II towards 270°, -55°. These
directions are affected by the motion of our point of
observation — the Sun — and, if tliev are corrected for this,
the directions are found to be 94°^ +12°, and 274°, -12°,
opposite to one another and in the plane of the Galaxy — which
is a fact full of significance.

This discovery of systematic motions amongst the stars
has greatly complicated the question of determining stellar
parallaxes from proper motions, but has carried us much
further in investigations into the structure of the Universe.

The investigation of systematic motions amongst the
stars has occupied us at the Union Observatory for the past
three years, and the portion of work we have undertaken
is by no means completed yet. Ordinarily the process of
determining proper motions is a very slow one. Meridian
observations of star places are made at an Observatory and
published as a star catalogue for a certain ei^och. The work
is rejieated at the same or another Observatory at a later
date and a catalogue published for a later epoch. By bringing
the places of the stars to a common epoch, the difference
between the two places for the same star, after all possible
sources of error have been eliminated, is due to the propei^
motion of the star. This is a slow and tedious process, and
it is never advisable to determine a small quantity as a
difference between much greater quantities. Further, and
this is very important, only those stars are dealt with which
are bright enough to be observed Avitli meridian ii\struments.
The results would thus be incomplete, and only refer to the
brighter stars.

It is a dift'erent matter when star photographs are dealt
with. Suppose that two photographs have been taken Avith
the same telescope of the same region of the sky, and Avith
an interval of some years between them. These tAvo photo-
graphs can be optically superposed and minutely compared
AA'ith one another. If there were any motion common to all
the stars of the region, this could not be detected, because
the superposition of the tAvo plates would automatically
eliminate this. Such a common motion could be determined

38

I'KKSIJJKXTIAL A])])RK.SS SKCTIOX A.

only by reference to the meridian catalogue positions of
whatever stars there Arere on the plates Avliose position had
been determined by meridian telescopes at different epochs.
The detailed investig-ation of the jDlates is carried on at the
Union Observatory with the helj) of a stereo-comjDarator and
blink-microscope. This is a wonderful instrument, Avhich
enables corresponding i:»ortions of the two jslates to be com-
pared in rapid succession, and shows at a glance relative
disj^lacements amongst the stars of a small region. The same
result would be obtained, but with an enormous expense of
time and labour, by measuring the co-ordinates of each star
image on the two plates and comi^aring the measures for the
corresponding stars. Discrejjancies here would also show
relative displacements amongst the stars on the plate. But
whereas in this method every star must be measured to find
the few showing motion, the blink-microscope selects just
those few and practically ignores the rest, with the resiilt
that not only is the labour very much less, but also the
liability of error. In actual practice, something like one in
a hundred stars will show a small displacement with reference
to its immediate surroundings. It remains to inteiiDret
actually what this displacement means. Theoretically, if the
majority of the stars on the plate are at an infinite distance,
so that it can be assumed that their relative configuration
remains unaltered as seen from the extremities of a base line
as long as that over which the Sun would move in twenty-five
j-ears, i.e., 100 units (assuming twenty-five years to be the
interval of time between the taking of the two photographs),
then the displacement seen for any one star would indicate
its shift against the infinitely distant background. This shift
would be due to either or both of two causes — (1) the change
of viewpoint, i.e., the motion of the Sun, or (2) actual motion
in a fairly near star. Thus from either point of view the
blink-microscope would pick out the nearer members of the
stellar universe.

A larg-e number of plates taken with astrographic
telescopes for the purposes of the Carte-du-Ciel has been
examined at the Union Observatory with the blink-microscope.
Mr. Innes has examined pairs of plates of the Greenwich,
Melbourne and Sydney Zones, and, with myself, is examining
the whole of the' Cape Astrographic Zone. I have re-photo-
graphed practically the whole of the Cape Zone to secure new
plates to compare with those taken originally. The time
interval between the members of each pair of plates is about
one-quarter of a century. The work of examining the plates
is not yet completed, and there is the further great task of
analysing the results to be done. Already it is evident from
a preliminary survey of the portion of the work done that the
moving stars so picked out by the blink-microscope divide
themselves into two main classes. These are Kapteijn's
Drifts I and II, and the directions of motions of these
groups coincide fairly nearly with the directions predicted
from the generallv accepted positions of the apices of the
drifts. Further, the division into two classes is so sharp and

PRKSIJJKXriAL A])J>KKSS SKCTIOX A. 39

pronounced as to .suo<)'est that we are not dealino- with a
distribntion of steUar motions in one system such that the
veh^city surface is aji ellipsoid with one relatively long- axis,
but that we are actually dealing with two definite streams of
stars. The suggestion is made here tentatively, for further
work has to be done, that the results obtained support the
view that in the near vicinity of the Sun we have two star
clusters intermingling and passing through one another.
Further, the comparison between the blink-microscope
motions for bright stars, bright enough to figure in meridian
catalogues, with the catalogue results for the motion shows
the hypothesis that the background of stars is at a relatively
great distance to be fairly correct.

Much new work has been done recently in the deter-
mination of stellar parallaxes by indirect methods. These
indirect methods all depend upon the simple principle that
if you know the absolute magnitude of a star you can
determine its distance from us from an observation of its
apparent magnitude. If the lights of a town are seen from
a distant elevated point, the more distant street lamps
appear to be much fainter than the nearer ones, and, if it
is known that the same type of street lamp is in use
throughout the town, the distance of the far relatively to the
near ones can be deduced from the apparent brightness of
the two. If the distance of the near lamps is known, the
actual distance of the more distant lamps can be calcidated.
Hence, if a number of stars of the same absolute magnitude
can be recognised in the sky, the more distant ones will have
a relatively greater (fainter) magnitude than the near ones.
If the distance of the near ones has been determined by the
direct method of determining stellar parallaxes, then the
actual distances of the fainter and more distant ones can be
deduced from the relation between the apparent magnitudes.

There are various ways in which the absolute magnitude
of a star can be estimated. Adams and Kohlschutter, in
1917, detected differences in the relative intensity of certain
lines in stellar spectra depending upon the absolute magnitude
of the star. Consequently, by comparing spectra of stars
of the same type they can deduce the absolute magnitude of
the star, and then from its apparent magnitude its distance.
This is a wonderful extension of the work of the spectroscope,
which was used primarily to find the chemical constituticni
of a star, then its velocity, and now its distance.

There is a certain class of stars designated the helium
stars. There are many reasons for considering that such
stars are at the zenith of stellar evolution and are the hottest
stars. They are the most massive of the stars, and, further,
they all have approximately the same mass. Hence, if a
star is found by the spectroscope to be a helium star, its
distance can at once be deduced from its apparent brightness.
Thus the onlv limit to determining the distance of a helium
star is that ' imposed by the spectroscope — there must be
enough light to show the character of its spectrum.

40 PRESI1)E>-TIAL ADDRESS SECTION A,

By investigating all the known scattered helium stars,
Charlier finds that they form a bun-.shaped cluster haying-
dimensions of the order of 0,000 light years Ly 2,000 light
years, and that our Sun is about 500 light years aAvay from
the centre of this system. Helium stars are also shown by
the spectroscope to have very small velocities or to be nearly
stationary in space, so that when a displacement is found
for a helium star, this must be chiefly the reflex of the solar
motion, and so the distance of the star can be deduced from
this displacement.

It has been found possible with modern instruments of
exceedingly powerful light grasp to detect the presence of
helium stars in globular clusters. This enables the distance
and dimensions of the cluster to be at once deduced, on the
assumi:)tion that all helium stars are of the same (uder of
absolute magnitude. The conclusion is arrived at that such
a cluster as the Hercules cluster is no less than 100,000 light
years away, and is really a stellar system almost approaching
in dimensions to those attributed to the Milky Way. These
tremendous figures must be accepted Avith reserve until it
has been conclusively proved that the stars of these compact
clusters differ in no respects from non-cluster stars. The
chief use of such powerful instruments as the new 100-inch
reflector of the Mount AVilson Observatory will be to
investigate the spectra of the stars in such clusters, with a
view to increasing oiir knowledge of these very distant
sj'stems.

Much has been learnt from the study of the behavioui;
of variable stars. One particular class of variable star— -the
Cepheid variable — has recently attracted much attention.
It is now considered by many astronomers that the Cepheid
variable — in which the*^ rise to greatest light is fairly rapid
imd the fall more leisurely — is due to the pulsations of a
gaseous star obeying the Unvs of a perfect gas. From this
it has been deduced that the period of vibration of the mass
of gas varies directly as the density, and hence iipon the
absolute magnitude of the star. Many such variables have
been found in the smaller Magellanic Cloud, and have led
io an estimate of the distance of this sys-fem, viz.. (iO, 000 light
years. The law connecting the period of variation with the
absolute magnitude has been tested for all known Cepheid
variables, and has been found to be consistently true. Hence
the determination of the distance of a Cepheid variable is a
simple deduction from its period of variati(m and its apparent
mean magnitude. . .

One fruitful result of the spectroscopic examination of
stars, combined with an investigation into their absolute
mao>nitudes, has led to the discovery of two types of stars—
the oiants and the dwarfs— and has considerably inodihed
our Tdeas as to the order of stellar evolution. Briefly, the
stars can be divided into six principal spectral classes
{omitting some minor classes), viz., helium stars^ hydrogen
stars, calcium stars, solar stars, and stars with fluted spectra.
These are referred to as B-, A-, Y-, (i-, Iv- and M-type stars.

pr]-:sij:)F.>tial a])Dress — spxtiox a. 41

and the order of evolution was supposed to be in the direction
from the B-type stars to the M-type stars, although
Sir Norman Lockyer always maintained that there must be
stars of ascending- temperature as well as stars of descending-
temperature. The discovery of giant and dwarf stars supports
Sir jSiorman Lockyer's view, and gives us more explicit ideas^
of stellar evolution. A large mass of gas in an extremely
diffuse state may be a giant M, or red, star. Obeying the
laws of a perfect gas, it will shrink or increase in density
and rise in temperature, passing through the spectral classes
K, Q, F, A to the helium stage B when it has its maximum
temperature. Throughout this part of its history its absolute
magnitude remains the same, its diminishing surface area
balancing the increased emissivity due to higher temperatures.
At the helium stage the star's density has become so great
that the perfect gas law is no longer obeyed. The loss of
heat by radiation is now greater than that generated within
the star, which nov/ commences to fall in temperatvire. The
star now passes down the spectral scale in the order
A, F, G, X, and becomes once more a M-type star, but
now its density is great, i.e., it is a dwarf star. Thus, when
the M-type stars are classified according to absolute
magnitude, they fall into two distinct groups, with a con-
siderable difference of absolute magnitude between them.
There will be similar groups for the K, Gr, F and A classes,
with decreasing differences of magnitude between the classes,
but there w411 be only one class of B-type star. Not all stars
can reach the helium class — they are not sufficiently large
enough to develop the necessary high temperature. Our Sun,
comparatively a small star, is thought not to have risen above
the F-, or calcium-, type. The helium stars are considered
to be the largest of all stars, and to be probably all of,
roughly, the same size, of the order of about one thousand
times the Sun's mass. Professor Eddington has recently
studied the condition of stellar existence as a consequence
of the laws of perfect gases, and concludes that there is aj
definite limit to the mass of a star, bevond which it could
not exist as an entity. This limit is probably represented by
the helium-type stars.

There is an important relationship between spectral-type
and stellar radial velocity, the sig-nificance of which is not
yet thoroughly understood. Each spectral class has a certain
velocity, Avliich diminishes from the M-type to the B-type,
the slowly-moving helium stars. By some it is considered
that this represents equipartition of energy amongst the
stars, i.e., for all the stars the product of the mass and the
square of the velocity is constant, so that the massive B stars
have low velocity and the less massive M-stars greater
velocities. Considering the comparative emptiness of space
and the enormous distances between stars, it is very difficult
to see how equipartition of energy has come about. Such
a view would compare the distribution of stars in the
Universe and their movements Avith the motions of molecules
in a gas.

42

TRESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX A.

The enormous distances deduced for the globular clusters
IS very much exceeded by those found for the spiral nebula?
by these indirect methods. The spectroscope has shown that
the spiral nebulae have radial velocities very much greater
than those of the stars. This fact, combined with the absence
of any detectable cross or proper motion indicates their
distance to be very much greater than the stars. The
discovery of novae or new stars within certain of these
nebulae confirms this idea, and has led to estimates of their
distance. The theory is, that whatever celestial catastrophe
it is which gives rise to the outburst of a new star, the order
of magnitude is the same, whether the occurrence takes place
within a spiral nebula or within our own Milky Way. Hence,
from the apparent brightness of the new star in the nebula,
its distance can be estimated in terms of the distance of the
Milky Way.

Such ideas as these concerning- the existence of huge
stellar systems at inconceivably great distances, or " island
universes," are only tentatively accepted by astronomers.
They represent logical deductions from observed facts, but
the facts are still very meagre. Also, they involve extra-
polations from physical laws based upon experience of the
behaviour of matter under the conditions existing on this
Earth, and the curve of our experience may in its remoter
branches take some unforeseen direction. For instance,
certain facts connected with the Great Nebula in Orion can
only be explained by supposing that the mass of gas which
constitutes the nebula must have a density less than
one-millionth of that of ordinary air at sea-level, and yet in
some way or other this gas is incandescent. It must be
admitted that our knoAvledge of matter in this state is very
meagre.

Thus these ideas can only be accepted with caution until
the convergence of different lines of research approaching
from different directions and the steady accumulation of
unassailable facts puts them on a firmer foundation. If they
are wrong, they will fall to the groimd, but even a false
hypothesis has served a useful purpose in indicating methods
of research. In this region of astronomy the astronomer
waits somewhat upon the physicist and chemist to inform
him of the behaviour of matter under very varied conditions
of pressure and temperature.

PRKSIDKXTIAf. ADDRESS SKCTIOX ]?. 43

GEOLOGY IX RI]LATI()X TO MIXIXG.

By F. P. Mkxxell, F.G.S., M.I.]^r.M.

F residential Address to Section B, delirered Jul;) 15, 1920.

The original occupation of most of Scnitli Africa,
llliodesia excepted, lias been dne to the pioneer efforts of
the farmer, or, more correctly, the pastoralist, rather than
the miner. It cannot, however, be gainsaid that there is no
country which owes its material advancement in greater
degree to its mining- industry. It is difficult to picture what
Sovith Africa would be like without its gold and diamond
mines and the cities which their wealth has called into being.
There may, of course, be some controversy as to whether
pastoral simplicity woidd not have resulted in more ideal
conditions from the point of view of those economists who
follow Ruskin in declining- to regard the income alike of
the country and of the individual as the best test of real
progress.

We are not, however, concerned to-day, except indirectly,
with the economic or sociological aspects of this question.
AVe have met together as students of physical science, and
we have to consider the application of the science that we
profess to the problems which confront us, which have arisen
throug-li conditions that must be reckoned with whether or
no they have our concurrence or our approval.

Personally, though I missed the first pioneer activitj' —
the most interesting- period of all — it has been my privilege
to follow all the later developments of the country in whose
chief town we are holding our Annual Congress. At the time
of my arrival I do not think a single dividend had been
declared by a Rhodesian company, so that I have seen most
of the work of placing the mining- industry on a sound basis.
In some of the developments which have taken place I have
had an actual share, and in all of them I have taken a close-
interest, quite apart from the merely material considerations
involved. My province has, in fact, been that of the geologist
rather than the mining engineer, and it is from the geological
standpoint that I intend to discuss some of the problems
AA-hich confront, not only this country, but South Africa as
a whole at the present day.

All thoughtful people will, I think, admit that we are in
the throes of a great industrial revolution. I do not refer to
the position of labour, but to the larger problems of industrial
readjustment which now confront all civilised nations. The
conception of England as the workshop of the world, on
which Cobden largely based his successful Free Trade cam-
paign, can now be seen in its true perspective as constituting
a mere passing phase. The great war has undoubtedly done

44 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

much to lielp on the realisation of this fact, but, even without
the war, its recognition was none the less inevitable, in spite
of the obstinate refusal of a large school of English economists
to face the situation. At the time when the Corn Laws
were repealed, England was believed to possess unassailable
supremacy in her iron and steel industry, so much so as to
be able to base other industries, such as the production of
cotton and woollen goods, upon that supremacy, combined
with her unrivalled position as a producer of coal. Yet it is
already thirty years since the United States wrested from
Britain the premier position in the iron industry. To-day
the American production is three times that of the Home
Country, and Germany, which passed ahead of Great Britain
in 1903, had even before the war increased the yield of its
furnaces to nearly double that of the British ironworks. We
have recently witnessed the successful establishment of blast
furnaces in Canada, in Australia, in India, and still more
recently in South Africa itself, where three separate concerns
are now in operation. It is easy to see that the day cannot
be far distant when the Empire will be self-supporting in the
iron and steel industry, except as regards certain special
departments, wherein the inherited skill and hard-won
experience of the British ironmaster and his workmen will
enable them to maintain their position for another generation
at least.

Our modern civilisation, it has been claimed, has as its
basis the successful utilisation of mineral products, and
especially of metals. I have cited the iron industry partly
for this reason, and partly because it was for so long regarded
as peculiarly British. It is clear, too, that if the newer
nations of the Empire become independent in that direction,
they will easily develop in others. It must also be remembered
that what has been said of Britain is applicable in large
measure to the rest of Europe. Some twelve years ago I
pointed out in my book, " The Miners' Guide," how imperfect
was the adjustment of the mining industry to modern con-
ditions. The centres of production often had then, and still
have in great degree, no relation whatever to the principal
sources of supply of several important metals. The aluminium
ores of France even now go across to America for treatment,
and those of British Guiana are going to Canada, while the
manganese ores of India also go half-way round the world
for treatment. The same applies to the asbestos and chromite
in which this country is so rich, and to other products, like
corundum, which is largely supplied by the Transvaal. The
enormous copper deposits of the Congo are still only scratched,
and the rich zinc ores of Northern Rhodesia are only just
being investigated, Mhile absurdly low-grade deposits of both
these metals are being actively worked in Germany and
elsewhere. The war has drawn attention in the most forcible
way to some of these anomalies, and there can be no doubt
that the Old World centres of civilisation will have to face
the passing of their supremacy in the metallurgical industries
to newer lands with larger areas and proportionately greater

rRESIDKNTIAL ADDRKSS— SECTION B. 45

natural resources. It is inevitable in the long- run that those
places with the larg-est deposits of each particular mineral
Avill develop into the greatest centres of production, unleas
they are wholly deficient in fuel or other sources of energy.
If this country has the great future before it which most
of us believe it has, we must show that its internal resources
are sufficient in kind and in amount to form the basis of those
industries which are necessary to make it to a great extent
independent of importation from overseas. Here the aid of
the economic geologist is of the utmost value. Personally,
I believe that the ITnion of South Africa can obtain from
within its borders supplies of almost everything that is
essential for its industrial development, and the same may
be said with equal confidence of Rhodesia. Though the latter
cannot claim to rival the gold returns of the Rand, it possesses
an almost unequalled variety of mineral products, actual or
potential. Already it leads the world in its output of chromite
and of the higher grades of asbestos, and the time cannot
be far distant when its enormoiis resources in coal, zinc, iron
and copper ores will be exploited as their output justifies.
These will, no doubt, have their development assisted by the
employment of one or other of the great sources of water
power Avhich exist at various points in the territory.

We must not, however, be led away into the tempting
pursuit of patting ourselves on the back, so to speak. It is
my intention rather to show what practical steps can be taken
to foster the development of the great supplies of the various
mineral products which we believe exist. In this connection
I shall confine myself chiefly to a consideration of the channels
into which the activities of the mining geologist can be
directed, and incjuire in Avhat way his services may be utilised
to most advantage.

It may at once be said that a considerable part of the
foundation has already been laid, though it is not altogether
complete, and requires a number of g^aps to be filled before
it can be utilised as a base for the superstructure we hope to
build. Nevertheless, during a period lacking- the excitement
of sensational new discoveries, the descriptive side of the
subject has made good progress, and we now have as a result
a fair knowledge of the mode of occurrence of a large number
of the more important mineral deposits in the country. At
the same time, a good deal still remains to be learnt, more
especially with regard to certain of the base metals on which
our future industrial ju'ogress so largely depends, and it is to
l)e hoped that contributions to this branch of the subject will
not be less numerous in the future. Mining eng-ineers can
do much to help on this department of geological work.
Points of great value can often be gathered from their reports,
and these would be still more useful if the writers would
make a practice of having- their rocks named by competent
authorities. It is very misleading- to have a rock referred
to as a " quartzite," for instance, when a petrolog-ist could
at once have pointed out that it was of igneous origin, and
the reports of the Geological Suiveys might be utilised to

40 rEK.SIJ)K-\'iIA]> ADDltKSS SKCTIOX 13.

give a general idea of tliQ geology much more frequeiitly
tliaii is the case. Another jjoint to Avhich reference maj- be
made is the necessity of discrimination between various types
of association in dealing with the relations between ore-bodies
and rocks. This concerns the mining geologist as much as
the engineer, who does not profess to be a geological expert.
Thus, there is a world of difference between the occurrence
of an ore-body in a rock and the mere presence in the vicinity
of some rock assumed to have a genetic connection with the
deposition of the ore.

This leads me into what is more especially the province
of the mining- geologist. In discussing the origin of ore-
bodies, it is clear that there are two perfectly distinct types
of genetic association. These are well illustrated by the ores
which are usually found in close association with acid and
basic igneous rocks respectively. There are, it is true, a
number of very important metals — gold, silver, copper, lead,
zinc, antimony, etc. — which appear to have no very well-
marked tendencj', excejDt over limited areas, to occur in
connection with one particular rock type rather than with
others. But with other minerals the case is different. There
are, in fact, two very well-defined groups of minerals, one of
which occurs almost exclusively in conjunction with basic
rocks like serpentine, while the other is almost invariably
associated with acid rocks like granite and its offshoots. The
basic group includes tlie metals platinum, chromium,
manganese, nickel and cobalt, as well as magnesite, talc,
asbestos, and also the diamond. The acid grouj^ comprises
such metals as tin, tungsten, bismuth, molybdenum, uranium,
tantalum, zirconium, cerium and thorium, together with
minerals like mica and, perhaps, graphite. Now, a little con-
sideration will show that some of the leading members of
these two groups differ radically in the manner of their
association with the rocks which appear to control their
occurrence. The minerals of the basic group are almost
invariably found inside the limits of the rock mass with which
we associate them. Platinum and chromite, for example, are
found in such rocks as serpentine and its allies, and these
rocks form both the matrix, or lodestuff', and the country of
the deposit. With some of the minerals of the acid group
the case is ciuite different. Tin and tungsten, for instance,
and notably the richest and most persistent deposits of those
metals, do' not occur as a rule in a granite matrix, or even
with granite as their country rock. They generally favour
a ciuartz-ore matrix, which seems to be connected with granitic
intrusions, as shown by the invariable presence of granite
in the near vicinity, but they frequently have sedimentaij
or metamorphic rocks forming the walls of the lode. This
obviously indicates a difference in the nature of their genetic
connection with the associated rock types, but, as a discussion
of the matter is likely to lead us into regions where con-
troversy is still acute,! do not propose to go further into it
here.

PKKSI])KXTIAL ADJJRESS SECTION ii. 47

At tliis point it seems desirable to emphasise the
necessity of caution in applj-ino- current theoretical con-
ceptions to particular occurrences which may be encountered,
for theories which are widely held to-day may become
discredited within a surprisingly short time as knowledge
advances. As an instance of how detailed investigation of
the facts may alter the views held as to the genesis of certain
ore deposits, I may cite the case of some of our Rhodesian
gold reefs. The theory that I myself formed, after making
a preliminary examination of several mining districts, was
that they were intimately connected with the intrusion of
the great granite masses which are so prominent a featiu'e
of Rhodesian geology, though I pointed out that there were
some which appeared to be of earlier and some of later date.
Several years after, Mr. Maufe drew attention to the close
association of many reefs with finer grained acid intrusive
rocks, though he did not clearly indicate whether they were
all of one age. It is quite probable that I had not allowed
enough weight to the influence of the smaller intrusions,
some of which certainly show every evidence of being-
genetically connected with the deposition of gold ores. That
it does not do, however, to dogmatise too freely on apparent
associations is well illustrated by what is now known of the
Sebakwe district. The reefs there include those of the largest
gold producer in the country, namely, the Cxlobe and Phoenix,
as well as the Gaika, Moss, and other smaller properties. These
are all situated along the margin of the granite, and might
well be claimed as typical examples of the theory of close
association with the intrusion of that rock. Closer examina-
tion, however, shows that the reefs cut across certain dykes
of the granophyre family, which mav be termed felsites, or
quartz-jjorphyries. The latter are clearly younger than the
granite, and it might, therefore, seem that the deposits belong
to the groujj of which the importance has been emphasised
by Mr. Maufe. The fierce light of publicity which shone
upon the Globe and Phoenix Mine during the great lawsuit
over the right to work under the John Bull claims has never-
theless had as one result the demonstration that there are
still younger igneous rocks which have to be taken into
account. These are a series of dykes ranging in composition
between dolorite and porphyrite, and usually much altered
with production of carbonates, though not affected by the
more intense agencies of metamorphism. These were first
noticed at the Gaika Mine, and later on in the Eennie-Tailyour
Concession, and I had been puzzled by the fact that they
occasionally carried gold. The observations at the Globe and
Phoenix showed that they cut both granite and quartz por-
phyries, but were nevertheless intersected by the reefs in that
mine. We thus see how more and more detailed knowledge
may gradually alter our opinions regarding the genesis of
particular ore deposits, though each one appeared in turn to
fit in admirably with the facts as far as they were established
at the time. It may be noted that association with the basic
dykes seems clearly indicated in this instance as the final

48 PRKSIJIEXTIAL ADJJRESS SECTION B.

solution of tlie problem, since there is a single intrusion,
entirely similar in every way to tlie otliers, wliicli cuts
throug-li the reefs near the seventeenth level, thus assig-ning
their formation to the period during which the dykes were
being- intruded.

What is really of most value in discussing ore deposits
is unquestionably detailed field work, influenced as little a.^
Ijossible by theoretical considerations. As an example may
be cited the close examination of the AVitwatersrand goldfield
carried out by Dr. Mellor. It is true that Dr. Mellor has
made certain theoretical deductions from his observations
which I have publicly dissented from. It is for this very
reason, and also on account of the attacks recently made
upon the official interpretation of the Rand's g-eological
structure, that I specially desire to emphasise the importance
of such a detailed scrutiny of these great gold deposits. We
may not be at all inclined to agree with the conception of
the Rand gold as being of alluvial origin, but there can be
no two opinions on the part of any unbiased observer
regarding the value of the held work itself. It may not be
out of place to add that people would do well to think twice
before accepting the ideas of a school who do not object to
be described as " unorthodox geologists." In particular,
attention may be drawn to tlie absolutely unequivocal declara-
tion recently made by Dr. Rogers that the reefs of the East
Rand can be followed without any break right through the
point where a fault is postulated by the unorthodox, which
is absolutely necessary to substantiate certain of the
hypotheses which they have advanced.

I do not at all suggest that it is desirable to fetter the
mining geologist in any way. By all means let him theorise.
jSTevertheless, it cannot be gainsaid that his theories are worse
than useless if they cause him to overlook any important fact.
To be perfectly frank, I am strongly of ojiinion that the chief
function of the mining geologist lies in the correct inter-
l)retation of structural features. Thus, in the study of ore
deposition, the nature of the fractures that have determined
the position of the ore-body is of the first importance, if it is
related to fracturing, or, on the other hand, the fact that a'
particular occurrence has not been so determined is equally
important. Another problem which it is necessary to solve
is the relation, if any, which exists between the ore-body,
or the richer portions thereof, to adjacent roeks or rock
structures. This may involve a nice discrimination between
the essential and the accidental features in the associations
of the deposit, and although such associations have been
correctly diagnosed in certain cases — for instance, that of the
well-known " indicators " of the Ballarat goldfield in
Australia — without geological assistance, it is probable that
close study by trained observers would lead to the recognition
of many similar but less obvious examples elsewhere. Even
more important may be what is perhaps to be regarded as
applied mineralogy, namely, the investigation of the extent
to wliicli secondary processes have influenced values in the

TRESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 49

upper part of au ore-Lodj', and lieuce the probabilities of the
downward extension of the valuable mineral. This is clearly
by far the most important matter in estimating- the possi-
bilities of newly-discovered lodes or mineral districts, and one
to which far too little attention has been paid in the past,
both in technical literature and in mining education. Newly-
opened properties are frequently reported on by men who may
be experienced in running- mines, but have little or no con-
ception of the influence of surface enrichment processes. Yet
comparatively undeveloped deposits require for a reasonably
correct appraisement of their possibilities an examination
made with every assistance that the scientific study of ore-
bodies can afford. Their investigation comes, in fact, Avithin
the province of the mining geologist rather than that of the
mining engineer. At the same time, the raw geologist may
be as dangerous a guide in certain cases as the so-called
" practical man," because it is absolutely necessary in solving
the problems presented by mineral lodes to have due regard
to those severely practical considerations Avhich may be
summed up under the head of working facilities.

There are, of course, instances in which secondary
enrichment processes may render a lode workable to a con-
siderable depth, even when the primary ore is altogether
unprofitable. In the case of such metals as iron, the masses
of ore produced in the course of surface enrichment are often
so large that they constitute by far the most considerable
of the deposits which are commercially exjiloited. Then, too,
in dealing with metals like copper, zinc and lead, the possi-
bility of impoverishment of the outcrops, or even the removal
by leaching of much of the metal-bearing mineral at various
other points, especially in the neighbourhood of water-level,
must be borne in mind. An iron-bearing gossan may be all that
represents a rich copper lode on the surface. We have also
to consider what may be termed " mixed deposits," such as
copper-tin lodes or lead-zinc lodes, in M'hicli one metal tends
to replace the other in depth. Thus many of the Cornish tin
mines began their career as producers of copper, while the
great Broken Hill lode in Australia, and that of the same
name in Northern Rhodesia, commenced as producers of lead,
but are turning into zinc mines as they are followed downward.
The problems presented by such deposits are of great com-
plexity, and experience alone can teach the observer how to
avoid the manj' pitfalls which beset his path.

Turning to another side of the science of ore deposits,
we come to the elucidation of the blanks and breaks which
may occur in the distribution of the valuable minerals through
a lode. In many lodes a particular section is often much
the richest, and may alone be 73rofitable — for instance, the
footwall may be very rich and the rest so poor as scarcely
to be worth mining*. Still more frequently the valuable
portions form distinct patches, M'hich may be sufficiently well
defined to constitute what are commonly known as shoots
of ore. Then, again, we may have another kind of dis-
continuity, due to the action of such geological processes as

50 PRESIDEXTIAL AJ)]mESS SECTIOX B.

faulting', or the iutrusion of ig'ueous rock subsequent to tlie
deposition of the ore, which may result in all kinds of
disturbances and displacements. These constitute a very
important branch of the study of ore deposits, and are one
of the most frequent occasions for g-eological assistance to
be called in by those responsible for the conduct of mining
operations. In all cases of discontinuity, whether due to
faults or intrusions, or merely the result of the circumstances
imder which the ore was originally deposited, the important
point to decide is whether there is a chance of jiicking up
the ore-body again or not. The mining geologist must find
out whether the displacement is large or small ni amount and
indicate its direction, or, if there is no displacement to account
for the pinching out of the lode, he must give an opinion
as to whether the association of the pay-ore with particidar
geological features is such as to warrant the expectation of
encountering fresh shoots along the strike or in depth. There
are even cases where perfectly distinct ore-bodies may be
presumed to recur regularly in conjunction Avith special
structures — a well-known example of this is provided by the
" saddle reefs " of Bendigo, in Australia.

I have no desire to labour these points on the present
occasion, nor do I propose to deal with such strictly geological
problems in connection with mining as the location of con-
cealed coal seams or oil pools. It will be sufficient to point
out that the kind of work rec[uired in the investigation of
the mineral resources of a country is far more closely allied
with that necessary to lead to success in drilling for oil than
is generally realised, although in South Africa it is more
obvious than in many other countries. Por instance,, the
definite location of the Rand " Main Reef " series in the
most remote district would clearlv justify the expenditure
of capital to open it up on some scale. The mere identification
of a particular rock as similar in every respect to another
already known as an ore-carrier is, in fact, a most useful
piece of information, and should lead to close examination
of its outcrop. Then, again, the determination of the various
periods of ore deposition may be of great assistance to those
in search of valuable minerals, even if only by warning the
prospector not to waste his time on rocks laid down or
intruded, as the case may be, subsequent to the last period
of mineralisation. These periods may, of course, differ for
different metals — a fact which must be clearly borne in mind.
It will be seen that theory does not enter at all into most of
these questions, or only in very small degree. Tor instance,
we should bore for the Main Reef just_ the same, whether
we considered its gold as alluvial, following Gregory, Mellor
and others, or as of magmatic origin in the way that Horwood
contends.

In conclusion, I may briefly refer to the fact that
industrial progress is in some degree directly bound up with
the conduct of mining operations. The modern tendency is
undoubtedly more and more for the mine to become other
than a mere producer of raw material. In America especially

I'RESIDEXJIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 51

one sees suck readily saleable products as sheets, rods, pipes,
wire, alloys, metallic pigments, etc., being put on the market
rather than concentrates, matte, or unrefined metal. jS'ot
only is this the case, but there is another important side to
the question. The economical/ treatment of many ores
demands cheap supplies of certain chemicals. Thus the
extraction of zinc, or copper may often be best eft'ected by
leacliiiig with sulphuric acid. In localities far from the present
centres of production this involves undertaking the manu-
facture on the spot, and it need hardly be said that this is
a big step towards further industrial developments. Such
instances coidd readily be multiijlied, but it suffices for my
present purpose to point out that under existing conditions
we can enter upon these commercial undertakings without
fear of being undersold by Europe or America — a sure
indication of the progress which is bound to follow in the)
near future from the utilisation of our abundant natural wealth
under intelligent technical direction.

CAUSES LEADIXG TOWARD PROGRESSIVE

EYOLUTIOX OF THE FLORA OF

SOFTH AFRICA.

By T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S.

Presidential Address fn Seefinn (', delivered J nhj 16, 1920.

Wherever one travels in South Africa changes are seen
to be going on in the vegetation and in the nature of the
veld, and the longer one lives in South Africa and observes
what is happening, the more evident does it become to him
that the actions of civilised man are usually either directly
or indirectly connected with these changes, and that these
actions are often self-centred and exigent to a degree which
is not permanently beneficial to the community, and which
tends toward further and more serious changes in the future,
on which the life of South Africa as a habitable region
depends.

I refer not only to changes in the local floras, but also
to resultant changes in the climate as a whole, influenced, if
not brought about, by these flora changes. I am led to take
this subject because with time and travel I see more definitely
the course and cause of changes constantly taking place under
our eyes upon everything which comes under our cognisance —
changes usually regarded as natural changes, which, o7i
account of their insidious nature, often pass unnoticed, or, if
noticed, are considered either trivial and not worth attention,
or else unsurmountable and so beyond our powers, neither of
which opinions are exactly- correct.

52 PRESIDENTIAL ADDKESS SECTIOX C.

These cliaiig-es include the evolution of the flora of South
Africa as it is going- on now — the evolution of the flora as a
whole, and of parts of it — of regions, districts and areas ; the
reflex action of that changed flora on the climate, and again
of changed climate on the flora — evolution which, though
insidious, can be seen and recognised during a lifetime, even
without written records, and all bearing a trend which is
unmistakable. That trend is not necessarily the evolution of
new species, but rather the gradual disappearance of what
were climax types and the substitution of species of a more
xerophytic nature.

Man and his actioiis play an important part in producing
this change, for not only does he bring with him the weeds
and survivors of cultivation, but through cultivation he
destroys the natural herbage, and gives these aliens oppor-
tunity for naturalisation, of which some of them have freely
availed themselves, sometimes to the exclusion of native
species.

Cultivation is, however, a necessity, and its attendant
troubles are more or less inevitable. AYe have nothing to say
against good cultivation in which the original flora is displaced
by cultures yielding permanently returns of more value than
the original, without haviiig other detrimental effect.

But it is rather with pastoral agriculture and with bush-
cutting, their methods and their results, that I wish to deal,
especially in reference to how these are affected by natural
conditions, and how in return the surrounding conditions are
affected by them.

In order to get a clear grasp of these reflex actions, it is
necessary to review separately several rather disconnected
subjects, and then bring their bearings together as a final
clause. So far I have suggested man as an important factor,
and the advent of civilised man as a starting ])oint for the more
rapid evolution of South Africa's flora and climate.

Xatural Causes.

But there are also natural causes at work, far beyond man's
control, though still some of their results may be influenced
by what man does. I refer particularly to the phenomena con-
nected with climatology — phenomena whose influences are the
final factors in plant life and in plant distribution, and on
that account I ask the indulgence of Section A of this Associa-
tion, if I deal at some length with a subject in which Section A
and Section C overlap, as a necessary introduction to what
follows.

The flora agrees with the climate in every case; a change
in the climate brings in its trail a change in the flora, whether
that change take the form of adaptation of existing species,
increase or decrease in the representation of existing species,
or their substitution bv other species.

Bolus and Wolley-Dod (1903), p. 231, find that grass burn-
ing and bush-fires tend to destruction of si)ecies and consequent
greater uniformity, but not necessarily greater usefulness of
the vegetation, and that the tendency is slowly and gradually

rEKSI])KXTIAL A])])RESS— SKCTIOX C. 53

toward the extinction of the ancient flora. But any change
in the flora eventually has an effect on the climate also, as I
hope to show further on.

Climatic Cycles.

That cyclical changes of climate occur everywhere is now
well established — the causes may not be clear or convincing,
the duration of the cycle may be irregular and unreliable, but
the effects are pronounced, though not always direct, or even
easily connected.

The cosmic readjustments whi(di have produced in succes-
sion one or more whole-world glacial periods of enormous
duration, alternating with periods of more or less torrid
equatorial conditions, have rendered necessary gradual read-
justments of the flora and fauna capable of enduring each new
condition as it came into existence.

But climatic cycles of much shorter duration, distinctly
affecting the flora and fauna, have also been established which
apparently have their origin in the more or less regular cycles
of sunspot production, the periods of maximum activity
extending over several years, and by interfei'ence with solar
radiation producing on earth conditions of less intense light,
with consequent effect upon barometric pressure, upon rain
production, and upon the vegetation and the fauna.

The Senate Select Committee on Droughts, Rainfall and
Desiccation, 1914. reported, inter alia, re rainfall: "4. (c)
That while there is some evidence to support the theory of the
periods of maximum and minimum rainfall corresponding with
certain cycles, there are not sufficient data available to define
any such cycles."

That there occur periods or seasons of heavy rainfall at
considerable but more or less irregular intervals, with much'
drier years or periods intei'vening, has long been recognised in
South Africa as well as elsewhere, and for many years these
have been correlated with sunspot phenomena.

Close study in America and in Europe (see writings of
Douglas, Huntington, Clements, cited at the end of this paper)
place this beyond further doubt, especially as it is fully
supported by rings showing annual tree growth for 2,000 years
past, and I advise those who still doubt this relationship to
investigate the matter further before they commit themselves
to op])osition views.

The relationship appears to be an indirect rather than a
direct one, apparently in the direction of a direct influence
on the migration of the banc factors, which in due course, but
not everywhere contemporaneously or to equal extent, affect
local climate, and naturally not always in tlie same direction,
since if extra pressure exists in one place it corresponds with
reduced pressure in another, or, in other M'ords, increased
rainfall in one locality corresponds with the absence of rainfall
somewhere else.

The sunspots themselves appear with an irregular cycle,
which ranges from seven to seventeen vears between the

54 PKKSIDKNTIA]. AJJJ^EESS SKCTIOX C.

maxima, the number of spots occasiouallj'- reaclnii<^" tew or
none, then gradnally increasing* j^ear by year to a maximum
varying" from 50 to 150 spots, then fliminishing- again
gradually to few or none. With such a wide variation of
cycle duration and of maxima, it is, of course, impossible to
predict years ahead, but it is found that the average cycle
since sunspots could first be counted has been slightly over
eleven years, and that the growth-ring records of trees corre-
spond with the known cycles during that period, and so can
be accepted as proof for earlier times. What the exact
climatic effect is, or how it is produced, maj^ be debated, but
it seems that the more spots the less luminous or the more
veiled is the sun ; that there may be one or more successive
years of high or of low sunspot activity ; that the whole baric
system of the earth is affected thereby in its migrations, and
that one result is that hot and comparatively rainless seasons
occur when sunspots are few, while duller, colder and more
rainy seasons occur when or soon after they are abundant.
I say " soon after " because the local action anywhere is not
altogether a direct one, and though the migrations of the
baric system and of anticyclones, etc., may he a direct action,
these sometimes affect local rainfalls one or even two years
later, and in methods of local ap])lication which, so far
as South Africa is concei'iied, are still far from clear, though
this delaj^ed action has been noted in connection Avitli the
eastern rainfall.

Although sunspot appearances and reactions have been
carefully followed and detailed in connection with the Northern
Hemisphere, little has been published concerning these
phenomena as thej^ affect the Southern Hemisphere, but just
because of the Senate Select rommittee's finding, already
mentioned, that " there are not sufficient data available to
define any such cycles." there is the more reason why this
subject siiould receive the closest investigation, not only as
an abstract and interesting theory, but as a proved cause-
and^effect elsewhere, and also on account of its intensely -jirac-
tical bearing on the possibilities and probabilities of plant-life
and ag-ricultural operations in near future years from any
given date, some of the North American States having' their
cycles of " fat years " and of " lean years " in legard to
ordinary agricultural crops, directly related to tlio weather
cycles. In Africa it is clear that Joseph kncAv something
about the result, if not the cause, when he stored grain in
Eg-ypt durino' the several full years, which he predicted would
be followed by lean years 4,000 years ago.

All writers on the subject agree lliat. in addition to the
definite sunspot cycles, there are other rainfall cycles, some
longer, some shorter, simultaneously at work, the cairses of
which are less clearly understood, but wliich croj) records
and tree-ring records show to be fairly constant, and it is
known that when several of these cycles fall due at one
time, and occur when due, ihe rainfall I'ecord becomes an
unusuallv heavv one.

rKKSIJ)ENTIAL ADDllKSS SKCTIOX C. 55

The exact correspoudence of certain increases and
decreases of rainfall (four rises and four falls) shown by
Arctowsivi (1915) during the period 1900 to 1910' for certain
stations in Peru, Mauritius, Madagascar and South Africa
(Bulawayo) (see Clements, p. ooO and fig. 29). indicate that
the SoutLern Hemisphere has some independent general factor
producing simultaneous coincidence in certain localities which
is worth further investigation, as also is the distribution of
local variations arising therefrom.

In 1888 Mr. D. E. Hutchins ])ublished '; Cycles of
Drought and Good Seasons in South Africa"; in 1890 he
brought the same subject before the Royal Meteorological
Societj', London, and he further dealt with it in the Cape
Agricultural Journal, 1897, xi, p. 701,* and 1898, xii, pp. 138,
211 and 26T. In all these he claims that Soutli Africa is
subject to three rainfall cycles, of different period, working-
simultaneously, viz. : —

(1) " Storm cj'cle, bringing the heaviest rain to western

winter rainfalls, but usually only wind to eastern
stations. Period nine and ten years alternating "
( = Ilusseirs nineteen-vear cvcle, Cape Arjric. Jour.,
xii, 272).

(2) " Meldrum's cycle, liringing the heaviest rain to

eastern summer rainfalls, 1nit usually little rain to
western stations." This lie previously' called
" Mitigation cycle " ; period, 12'5 years.

(3) Sunspot cycle; period, ll'll years. — "The least

important, or at any late the least powerful
and punctual, of tlie three South African weather
cy(des."

These three cycles so rarely fall due at one time that it is
126 years since they were so near together as happened in
191G-1917, which years Hutchins predicted thirty years ago
would be a time of unecjualled eastern rainfall, in which, at
most localities, his prediction has come wonderfully correct,
as also have others of his ]U'edictions as to rainfall and also
as to drought.

The net result of all this, however, is that if Hutchins'
theory is on a sound basis (which I neither affirm nor contra-
dict), and apart from any deferred rains which may fall up
to 1920, the eastern rainfall may be expected to be less yearly
for some years from 1918, and not much again u]) till 1927-
1930, but that the south-west districts should get good rains
about 1926, Avhich may extend as storms to the south-east
coast also, and that towards the close of the dry period above
mentioned intense desiccation is to be expected throTighout
Soutli Africa, except on the coast belt and sub-coastal
mountain ranges, since the rainfall of seasons 1917-1918 and
of 1920. which kee]i tlie average fairly high, mostly went as

* Reprinted as an Agricultural Department Bulletin, with correc-
tions, for, nnfortmiately. p. 709 in the A(jric. ■Journ. has^ many evident
printer's misplacements as to due dates.

5G PEKSIDKNTIAL ADJJKKSS SKCTIOX C.

rapid floods to the ocean, and only a small portion of it soaked
in to form a reserve for the next ten j^ears to draw upon.
Also it is to be expected that after the few rainfall cycle
3'ears just mentioned, another long^ period will occur before the
portions of South Africa fed by the south-east winds will be
well supplied again, the cycles g-ettino- g-radually better
distributed thereafter.

That the South African records are insufficient as a basis
on which to frame or to condemn cycles suspected to be at
work locally is admitted, especially as tlie summer rainfall
records are all upset hj being divided into calendar years
instead of into seasonal years, but that is no proof that cosmic
cycle causes known elsewhere are not active here also ; all
that is required is that we study and recognise what is going
on around us.

I trust, liowever, that I liave made clear how it happens
that periods of heavy rainfall alternate in cycles, with periods
of intense drought and desiccation ; that these cycles are of
more or less irregular duration between seven and seventeen
years, with average of eleven years : that other cycles of shorter
duration are concurrent, but of different average j)eriods and
acting differently and in different localities ; that when these
different cycles happen to overlap, the effect is increased in
each direction; and that all these cycles are quite beyond man's
power of control.

It is held by some that, if such be tlie case, it is beyond
the power of man to influence in any way the rainfall which
nature, through sunspot and other cycles, baric migrations,
day and night breezes, and other means, arranges for South
Africa; in other words, that wliat is predestined will happen,
and that what is lifted by evaporation from tlie ocean, whether
that quantity be large or small, is what we have to be satisfied
with and what we have to take as it comes. That, however,
overlooks the fact that the same moisture is often precipitated
more than once; that all moisture, either evaporated from the
earth's surface or transpired by plants, is then available in
the atmosphere to fall again as rain or dew; and that the
amount either evapoiated or transpired is largely regulated by
the vegetation covering the earth. Where there is a dense
grass-sward, or a forest liumus-bed covered by a forest canoDV,
nearly the whole rainfall is retained until it either sinks into
the subsoil, is slowly evaporated, or else is used by the vegeta-
tion and again transpired. Where there is little or no
vegetation the surface is usually baked hard, rapid infiltration
of rain-water into the soil is impossible, and the result is that
almost all the rain that falls there rushes down some river to
the sea, caiTying soil along with it and producing erosion
which in time becomes serious, and not only carries away the
flood-water, but also drains away whatever moisture may find
its way into the soil and subsoil. It is in tliis connection that
man's influence is greatest.

By grass burning he produces a condition of no vegeta-
tion, so for months there is no shade, and for a year at least
there is no humus, and, consequently, when rain does fall

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 57

there is notliiug- to retain it ; almost the whole supply rushes
off to the river; little or none of it reaches the subsoil, and the
death of deep-rooted plants results; the small supplies wbicli
reached the surface soil soon evaporate, and so the surface-
rooting* plants die, and the result is that a change of vegetation
from mesophytic to xerophytic is inevitable, usually taking' the
form of a change from red grass (Anthistirio) or blue grass to
wire grass (Atistida).

Repeated burning — whether annual, biennial or at longer
intervals — only accentuates the evil, and in the absence of
humus protection the half-dry crowns and growth-buds of the
better types are scorched or burned, while the xerophytic types
adapted to such treatment manage to survive and so become
the dominant vegetation.

Summer burning is even more regularly destructive, for
though each species has its season of soft growth, more species
are liable to damage during summer than during winter, hence
" summer burns " often leave their mark for many years.

In what is really good grass-veld tliere is always the
tendencj^ to recover some time if the opportunity is given,
i.e., the rainfall and general conditions favour the better kinds
rather than the xerophytes, but in too many cases the farmer,
finding his veld mostly composed of wire grass (Arisfida),
which is only edible during the first feM' weeks of its growth,
resorts to fire again on purpose to clear oft' the indigestible
old growth and allow stock to feed for a fortnight in spring
on the more tender young leaves. Thus it happens that sooner
or later the wire grass gives place to bare patches, or to
patches of summer annuals or to xerophytes of more pronounced
type, the run-off of rainfall is aggraA^ated, erosion begins and
the locality eventually becomes devoid, not only of useful
vegetation, but also of soil. It is eroded to the rock, and the
surface is only covered by whatever disintegrates from the
rock below — even that is often waslied away in slabs or stones
as these become free, instead of being reduced to soil or clay,
as happens when the disintegration takes place under dense
vegetation.

In a recent pamphlet, " Soil Erosion and Conservation,"
I have dealt with over-stocking, A-eld tramping, water con-
centration and bad farming — all leading to donga formation,
erosion, desiccation and desolation in tlie same way as grass
burning, and often acting in concert with that practice.

Thus while under a constantly unl)urned and undamaged
vegetation-blanket humus accumulates and the soil deepens
and becomes more and more fit to retain moisture and to
maintain the higher standard of vegetation known as plant-
succession up to a higher climax tvpe, the reverse is the case
where the vegetation is burned off. or tramped off, or over-
grazed. What vegetation remains graduallv dies off',
xerophytes hold the bare surface until erosion displaces both
the plants and the soil, and then when the rock is readied even
that breaks up by insolation and radiation, and wlien a flood
does happen, these stones, by friction, aid the torrents in
causing further erosion. These two courses — the one upward

58 rRESiJ)i:xTiAL address — section c.

and tlie other downward — are tlie natural sequence of events
begun with man's actions, either toward protection or toward
destruction.

In the case of forest destruction the change is even
greater, for if we look on good forest as the highest climax
type, and remove that forest or reduce its canopj^ Avithout due
care as to the rapid recovery or renewal of that canopy, it
promptly becomes, through man's agency, either rough grass
land or more or less unstable mixed vegetation which is liable
to pass into erosion before it ever g^ets settled into grass-veld,
though the latter is its natural tendency if left alone, prior to
the next step upward in the succession, which in forest con-
ditions would be forest, if the opportunity were given. But
when the down-grade is once begun, man's action harrlh' ever
helps recovery, but much more frequently helps to change the
position from bad to worse, till eventually a suitable forest
slope is Avashed to the bare rock, and can no longer maintain
any vegetation.

Dr. I. Croumbie Brown uttered this warning very strongly
in his many writings over fifty years ago, but the public still
ignores the plain fact, and farmers farming stock on what is
naturally forest land sincerely believe they are doiug the right
thing, or following the only possible course, in burning for
immediate returns, irrespective of the ultimate result.

Climatic Changes.

Let us now look at the result of this destruction of vegeta-
tion upon the climate. Where the process involves the change
of a dense canopy and hum\is, whether of forest or of grass,
with its soil-protection and moisture absorption, into a bare
surface from which the run-off is immediate and intense, or
into any of the succeeding lower stages in which the run-off
and erosion are even worse, the atmosphere naturally loses
all the moisture, which then goes to form the ri^'er flood, or
even the river's regular flow, all of which water, when retained
by the humus of the undamaged surface, eventually finds its
way into the atmosphere and falls again as rain, sometimes
time after time.

We can onlj' regard the flood-water and also much of the
ordinary river flow as so much water wasted, except in so tar as
it is used for irrigation or household or power purposes, and we
can only regard what sinks into the subsoil, or is transpired
or evaporated, as so much water saved for further use. In
other words, the less flow to the river indicates the greater
saving of water by natural means for further and immediate
use inland. I am aware that this is contrary to a common
idea that eucalypts, wattles and other trees of rapid growth
dry the country, and that this is shown in the reduction of
the off-flow. J^o such drying happens, however, but, on the
contrary, wherever the off'-flow is reduced that much water
is saved from flowing away and is passed into the atmosphere,
ready to fall again. It does sometimes happen that these trees
tax their sites heavily, which indicates that these particular
sites are not well suited for such trees. But wherever the

PEESIDKNTIAL ADDEJ-:SS SECTIOX C. 59

trees continue to live yeax* after year, tluit i- evideiue that they
are receiving what moisture they require, and that the channel
of escape for the moisture into the atmosphere is a more useful
one than when the escape was by means of a river into the sea.

How Much Water is vSaved.

A very pertinent question is how much water is it possible
to save by this means. The savine- in anj- case is the propor-
tion of the rainfall which does not run ofi'. The larg^er the
area under these vii^orous trees, the gieater is the saving in
moisture and the more is the river flow likely to be reduced.

Then there comes the inquiry : If that be so, how do grass
and forest herbage regulate the off-flow required for domestic
and economic purposes y It is easj' to see that water retained
and prevented from running off during rain obtains thereby
an opportunity of sinking into the soil and subsoil. The
humus of the forest and the humus of decayed grass foliage
alike act as a sponge and keep the water till it soaks in. That
water may take da'\'s, weeks, months or years to be all used
by the vegetation, but until it is so used a slow and steady
infiltration to some stream or underground reservoir is going
on — luuch more permanent than the flood-and-drought supply
of burned veld, but varying in duration in accordance with the
demands of tlie vegetation and the nature of canopy and of
humus under which it abides.

Naturally, a tree of rapid growtli, uiu\ inoducing little
humus or canopy when young, may dry the surface soil
considerably, but that drying, when it affects the tree, brings
down foliage, makes humus, and produces growth in accord-
ance with the supply available.

How Rainfall is Produced.

But now let us trace that moisture which through
tianspiration and evaporation again becomes part of the
atmosphere.

Temperature, atmospheric pressure and altitude govern
what humidity the atmosjdiere can carry at any particular
place; as these change, so also changes the point of saturation,
and as soon as that is reached or passed, de])Osition as rain,
mist, dew or snow takes place. Consequently an atmosphere
which is capable of absorbing all the moisture that is
transpired and evaporated by vegetation many be incapable
of carrying that moisture if ii happens to meet a colder current,
or rises into a higher altitude where the atmosphere is more
rarefied. This accounts for the vegetation being different on
rising ground from what it is on the flats below, the precipita-
tion on hillsides, and especially on the south-east slopes of the
escarpment (i.e., facing the sea breezes) being often sufficient
to maintain natural forest which cannot exist elsewhere.

If all the moisture preciDitated on these slopes ran off at
once to the sea, the country behind would get very little, but,
as it happens, a very large proportion is transpired and during
dry weather absorbed into the atmosphere and lifted till it
again arrives at saturation and falls again as rain or mist.

60 PEESIDEMIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

This is repeated time after time, until the tops of the
]iiountaiii!5 are reached, which, being cold and rarefied, can
produce rain from a lesser actual humidity than happens lower.
This accounts for the frequent short rains, the mists and the
moisture, wliich alternate rapidly with drier intervals on the
mountains, but which give rise to all rivers or springs rising-
and flowing steadily in these elevated localities. On crossing-
the range and descending the other side, or if by chance the
descent is made on the same side, climate becomes warmer
and pressure greater as altitude is lost, and the atmosphere
then is able to carry all the moisture it has broug-ht over the
ridge or brought down from the mountain top, unless it
hapxiens to encounter a cold current or be driven high enough
to again reach saturation, in which case the raindrops or hail-
crystals may be formed at a high enough elevation to fall
with considerable A'elocity to the ground.

We already have proved that moisture transpired is
moisture saved and banked in the atmosphere. With the
foregoing explanation we are now able to see that the more
actual moisture there is in the atmosphere, the sooner will
saturation be reached at any point, and also the more flow will
there be in the overberg rivers and the higher relative
humidity in the general atmosphere overberg. That relative
humidity may not allow of precipitation as rain, but it
produces a less arid atmosphere — one in which plants can
live and dew can be formed, a condition whicdi allows of dry-
land farming where without that moisture cultivation without
irrigation is impossible. We see much of this in the country
west of the Maluties.

This atmospheric condition also makes possible the
continuous drizzle rains, which do so much more good, and
leave so much more soaked in, than the storm-showers which
give a deluge for a few minutes, most of which goes off as
flood and is lost for ever. Three inches of rain drizzled during
three days gives practically no off-flow from good grass-veld
or forest, but three inches of rain falling as a deluge during
an hour on eroded Karroo does much immediate flood-harm and
no permanent good.

A Dry-Blanket.
Even between the Indian Ocean and the mountains,
although there are several steps Avhich intercept clouds and
so form sour-veld mist belts, the intervening thorn-veld flats
and valleys are so protected by a " dry-blanket " (i.e., an
atmosphere in which pressure and temperature are sufficient to
carry much moisture without reaching saturation) that less
rain falls- tliere than on the mountain slopes, and more or less
arid conditions prevail, which causes the flora to be either
xerophytic or to wilt, since though vegetation transpires
freely the supply of moisture from the soil is small or spasmodic.
As in all climatic variations, the extremes kill. It is the
occasional extreme drought or ariditv which controls the flora
here, in so far as that is not controlled by fire. Burned veld
naturallv increases the local aridity, as well as that of all

PEESIDE^-TIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 61

neigliboiiiiug' valleys, whereas imburned veld has a surface
moisture of its own, aft'ectino- not only the local dry-blanket,
but also improving matters in these neighl)ourino' valleys.

A very marked case of moisture cut oft: by the ocean
T^inds being' intercepted by a mountain range is the Zambesi
delta, including the country from Inhambane to Mocambique,
which, being- screened from direct long distance ocean Avinds
by Madagascar, has a forest flora of an exceedingh- xerophytic
leguminous type up to the foothills of the mountains, a con-
dition one would hardly expect in such a climate as this area,
otherwise enjoys.

Eaix from the Xorth.

The rains coming from the north with the annual southern
journey of the sun and of the tropical cloud-belt act much in
the same way as those from off the sea {i.e., the moisture is
carried in a temperature and pressure which can maintain it
until cold air or mountains intercept, when rain falls or
moisture is deposited). In this way much of the country has
a perpetual dry-blanket, in a large area so arid that the name
Kalahari Desert has been applied to it, though not by any
means unfit to carry xerophytic vegetation, and it is a notable
feature that from Johannesburg to Pretoria northward and
westward hill slopes having northern aspects have better
ligneous vegetation than other slopes, which is the reverse of
what happens further south and east. But the presence of
that dry-blanket there, as elsewhere, usually brings rain in
torrents for a short time only, and seldom as a continuous drizzle
rain, when it does happen to rain.

Xature of the Raixfall.

The Senate Select Committee arrived at the conclusion :
" That all aA'nilable evidence goes to prove that there has
been no definite diminution in the rainfall of South Africa
during- historic times." But that there has been variation in
the distribution and nature of the rainfall is admitted, as also
increased desiccation.

Nothing is proA-ed one way or the other in regard to the
total annual rainfall, nor can be for a long time, since the
long-period recording stations are mostly on or near the coast,
and in the south-west or in the Karroo, while the longest-period
station is the Royal Observatory, Capetown, which, being both
a coast station and one directly included in the south-west
winter rain area, is in no way affected by the eastern causes,
or by biotic influences at work throughout South Africa.

But increased desiccation produces conditions less inducive
to rainfall and to repeated precipitation, and it is difficiilt to
conceive how desiccation can become more pronounced without
the rainfall in these dTy localities being affected also.

The Senate Select Committee further states : " The evidence
as to the progress of erosion and desiccation has been most
definite, and the irresistible conclusion is that many parts of
the Union, in spite of the apparent constancy of the total
amount of the rainfall, have been slowly, but surely, drying

62

PKESIDKXTIAL ADDKESS SECTIOX C.

up, tile rate ot (lesiccation vaiyino- with the difierences of
locality, soil and o-radients, and that sneh parts must sooner
or later become useless and uninhabitable it the process
proceeds unchecked." I o-o further than that, and sa.y that
the progress of desiccation is constantly contaoious, and that
if " many parts of the Fnion." as stated by the Committee,
are drying- up and will in time become useless and
uninhabitable, then the fate of the balance is sealed unless
active stei)s are taken to turn the tide.

C'OXCLUSIOXS.

Let us now draw together all these scattered threads and
show how man can aii'ect even the results of the cycles,
iiy maintaining the eastern grass-veid unburued, by maintain-
ing the forests or replacing them by exotic species of more
rapid growth and of greater transpiration, and by vastly
increasing' the area under such exotic trees, especiallj^ in the
grass-veld slopes and in the natural tree or scrub lands and on
the mountains, the amount of saved and redistributed moisture
is increased enormously, and so can be precipitated and again
absorbed time after time until the mountain faces are clad
with forest verdure and the overberg districts can share in
the surplus to the extent of enjoying a higher relative
humidity, a better vegetation, a more temperate method of
rainfall, and consequently less erosion than at present.

On the other hand, by continued grass burning, forest
destruction, over-stocking veld tramping, bad agriculture,
water concentration and donga formation practically all rain
that falls is drained off immediately, and so has a local detri-
mental effect. There is very little redistributed moisture, and
that little becomes less year by year ; what moisture is
redistributed is insufficient to be redistributed many times,
and in consequence mostly does not reach the summit of the
escarpment, so that there are less mountain mist and rain,
less alpine swamp, fewer and smaller mountain springs and
mountain streams, less water running regularly in the streams
running either east or west, less overberg cloud, less actual
humidity overberg, less drizzle and soaking rain, more destruc-
tive storms and hailstorms, and more erosion.

This is not an imaginary picture of what is possible. It is
a statement of what is happening now. and I have not the
least doubt but that grass burning and bush burning elsewhere
have a similar effect to that produced l)y fires on the eastern
slopes.

But carry this further. We know from long experience
that we have recurrent alternate periods of drought and of
moisture. We have reason to believe that these occur here,
as elsewhere, in cycles more or less intimately connected with
sunspot phenomena which themselves are quite beyond our
control, and are known to have come at more or less regular
intervals during the nast 2,000 years, and presumably for very
many times before that period, so that there is no prospect
of their discoutinnance. We have shown that protection aiyl
extension of the forest and grass-veld produces better climatic

rKESIBENTIAL ABUKESS SECl'IOX C. 63

ami Yeg'etalive conditions, while abuse of the forest and veld
produces a destructive down-grade tendency, not onlj^ locally,
but for hundreds of miles away. We see in many places that,
when once that down-grade tendency is started, its natural
direction is to go steadily from l)ad to worse, and when we
connect this with the fact that the above-mentioned cycles
lead up to extreme desiccation during' the later years of the
dry period even under present conditions, we cannot help
seeing- that under continued grass burning* and forest destruc-
tion that desiccation must not onlj- become more intense
annually, but that toward the end of each dry period it must
become so much more intense on each occasion that the killing'
limit for many species must sooner or later be reached, and
tliat even where grass-veld now exists, especially overberg,
tliat must sooner or later be replaced by karroo-veld. Such a
change in the vegetation naturally has a reflex action on the
climate, which, aided by the continental position of that high-
veld, with extremes of insolation and radiation, must further
affect the vegetation.

The powerful flywlieel of natural serjuence, once set in vigor-
ous motion, is beyond the power of man to stop, as is evidenced
in Northern Africa and in Arabia ; but South Africa is still at
a stage in which that flywheel may be started, either in the
direction of afforestation and grass protection, leading to
upward plant succession, accompanied by general vegetative
and climatic imin'ovement, or in the direction of veld fires,
forest destruction and down-grade vegetation, reacting on the
(dimate, which again further reacts on the vegetation, until at
last the continent is past redemption, as some parts of it now
are, and mankind as well as the fauna and flora must die a
natural dei.th.

Do not let anyone suppose that what I have had to say
goes in any way against the i)roposals now being urged in
reference to bringing the Cunene and the ( Jkavanga rivers into
or through the Kalahari. The intention in each case is the
same, namely, to increase the absolute humidity of the
atmosphere, and so aid plant succession upward instead of
downward. Everything done in this direction liel]is, while the
absence of repressive action in regard to grass Inirning and
other causes of erosion is quite as serious and as disastrous to
the general welfare of South Africa as is the drying up of the
Etosha and other lakes. These two causes acting together
threaten the habitable existence of South Africa as a whole.
To some I may appear in all this to be particularly pessimistic.
I deny that charge, however, and wish to repeat that this is a
warning given before it is too late to turn the tide, a warning
in which all are interested, whether farmers or townsmen, since
if the farmer eventually cannot exist the townsmen suffer also.

I haA'e tried to show in what directions changes in the flora
are taking place and are to be expected, apart from cultural
readjustments, and what causes are at work producing these
changes, and I strongly urge protective action, alike by the
Governments and bv the individuals; but wliile not delaving-

64 PEESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX C.

that action pending- inquiries, I urg-e meantime rapid progress
with tlie work of the liotanieal Survey as one of the proofs which
sooner or later will again be, demanded to show the stability or
instability alike of the flora and of the climate.

Meantime, let the destructive agencies be checked or
controlled in accordance with scientific reasoning and with
common sense.

REFEREXCES CITED.

Aectowski, H. (1915) —

A study of the influence of volcanic dust-veils on climatic
variations. — Sci., 41, 252.
BOLrS AND WOLLEY-DOD (1903) —

S.A. Philos. Soc, Trans., xiv, 3.
Clements, F. E. (1916)—

Plant Succession. — Carnegie Inst., "Washington.
Douglas, A. E. (1914)—

A method of estimating rainfall bv the growth of trees.
In Huntington's " The Climatic Factor."—
Carnegie Inst., Wash. Pub. 192. 101.
HrxTixGTOx. E. (1914)—

The climatic factor, as illustrated in arid America. —
Carnegie Inst., Wash. Pub. 192.
Sim, T. R. (1920)—

Soil erosion and conservation. — Industries Bulletin.
Series. Bulletin '^o. 47.

SOME ZOOLOGICAL FACTORS IX THE ECONOMIC
DEYELOPMEXT OF SOUTH AFRICA.

By C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S.

With Plate XXIX.

Presidential Address to Seetion D, delicered July 14, 1920.

In beginning the work of the Section over Avhicli I have
the honour to preside on this occasion, it seems advisable to
call for suggestions for the good of the Section. The
programme which we have before us will afford opportunities
to discuss subjects on which the authors of the papers have
done original work. There may be members or visitors who
would like to get information concerning some subject not on
the programme or to offer suggestions for the benefit of the
organisation of the work of the Section in future. To afford
opportunity for inquiries and suggestions, I beg leave to
propose that when all the special papers have been dealt with,
any available time be devoted to a "Symposium'" on any
subjects that may be brought forward. My purpose in making

PEESIDEXTIAL ADDEESS SECTIOX D. G5

early mention of this is to enable members to note any ideas
that occur to tliem as we proceed and present them promptly
to the Sectional Secretary, so that arraug-ements can be niade
for any member who has special knowledge of any given
subject to lead the discussion. Yoluntary discussion is highly
desirable as well. I should be very sorry if a meeting of this
kind closed without every member having had a chance to
discuss any subject in which he or she is specially interested.

Zoological Survey.

It is gratifying to note that steps have been taken towards
(,rganising the Zoological Survej'. Limited resources in men
and means are the proverbial lions in the path, and progress
will be slow until they can be dealt with.

Genetics.

The subject of Genetics no doubt occurs to everyone from
time to time, and I believe there have been proposals for the
formation of a Genetic Society, but so far as I know there has
been no practical outcome.

In view of the fact that South Africa has long since been
a trysting place for almost everj- type and race of human being,
I venture to say that there is no better place in the world for
research on genetic lines. The outstanding problem is that of
the intermingling of the races. It is customarj^ to thrust it
aside as a matter that had best be left to settle itself, and it
may be so; but it is most important. Whether we like it or
not, it is a fact, and I feel sure we would be surprised if the
rate of intermingling could be determined. My impression is
that it is proceeding- much more rapidly than we imagine.

From one standpoint the policy might be to let the races
blend as rapidly as possible. The negro, for example, is the
original type in Africa. It is the general impression that he
can withstand the tropical sun better than can the white man,
but the white man has sui)erior mental qualities. x\ssuming
that both premises are correct, if it were a mere question of
animal husbandry, one would not hesitate to blend the types
in the hope of combining the desirable qualities of each in a
new type. The fixation of a tj^pe, however, requires perfect
control over the individuals concerned, so that undesirable units
can be eliminated, but in beings acting on their own free will
this is not possible. The evidence thus far indicates that in
the mass the blending is undesirable, more especially because
of the deterioration in mental qualities.

Primary marriages between races should be heavily
penalised, because it is a crime against both sides — it destroys
them without producing anything as good or better. Eacli
race should have the opportunity of doing the best of which
it is capable, but there should be no intermingling.

The manifest desire of the blend is to be considered white.
This complicates the problem, because it throws the burden
of absorption on the numerically weaker race.

Poverty (and the consequent lack of education) is a
powerful factor in the rapid l^lending of the races. Improved

66 I'RKSIDKNTIAL ADDRESS— SECTION D.

conditions of lionsing-, livelihood and education will exert a
proportionally great influence in keepino- the races pure.
Accurate records are a great consideration in this regard, and
it has occurred to me that in our system of registering births,
marriages and deaths we have an unusually reliable source of
information, provided it can be made available and properly
(dassified. There are, no doubt, gaps in the evidence from the
scientific standpoint, and the sooner any shortcomings along
that line are overcome, the better. I would therefore propose
that a committee of three or more members be appointed to
take the M-hole subject under consideration and report at the
next general meeting.

Big Game.

Civilisation is a merciless eliminating force. It tends to
destroy everj^thing not absolutely necessary for the progress of
the human race and to create monopolies in favour of essentials.
Science is the handmaiden of civilisation in the work of
adapting* conditions entirely to human needs.

In iNTorth America can be witnessed the closing scenes in
the great drama in which the red man, the bison, the
deer, the bear, the opossum and the coon are being* annihilated
in favour of the introduced types — the white man and the
negro, the horse, the cow, the pig, the sheep, the goat and
the hen.

In Africa the same process is being repeated. Although
published long ago, before anyone dreamed of a " big
game " problem in' Africa, the accompanying illustration
(Plate XXIX) makes it easy for one to imagine all
the principal types in conference over the possibilities of
annihilation at no distant date, and the zebra and
the gnu appear to have suddenly made up their minds
to escape the clutches of fate if they can. Why are they
all in danger of annihilation ? Simply because they are
apparently not essential to the welfare of man. Xot only
that, tliej' are a positive source of danger from the standpoint
of diseases that can be transmitted to liuman beings. Fnder
such circumstances, viewed dispassionately, it seems inevitable
that, however much one would like to preserve them, the
African types, with the possible exception of the ostrich, will
have to give yvaj in favour of the same domestic types that are
now everywhere dominant in Eiir()i)e and America.

I feel constrained, however, to nttei- a word of warning.
These old types have survived all the vicissitudes of the ages,
and even now the chief charge against them is that they are the
natural reservoirs of pests and diseases under whose onslaught
we perish. Does it not seem lilv'ely that thorough research on the
reaction between the original tvpes and the pests and diseases
may lead to important discoveries on the question of immunity
or resistance? They may carry with them an inroortant secret
which, discovered before it is too Inte. mav be immensely
valuable in connection with other problems. While the process
of elimination is going on we should mnke sure that valuable
evidence does not disappear. If possible, colonies of all types

PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION 1). 67

slioiild be preserved under conditions which will not permit of
their being a source of hindrance or danger to human beings.

( )n the Value of Zoological Illustrations in School and
Popular Books.

Over forty years ago a scientifically illustrated school
geography was publislied in the United States. Fortunately
tor me, a copy tell into my hands, and from it I gained, not
only a vivid, but a correct impression of the zoological features
of physical Africa. In the accompanying reproduction of the
page relating to Africa (Plate XXIX) the outstanding types
are grouped around descriptive matter in a way that could not
but serve as a wholesome stimulant to the imagination and
inspire a desire to know more about the animals and the country
in which they live. As an illustration, it is quite the best
thing' that has ever come to my notice in a school book. I deem
it worthy of reproduction because it gives a good idea of many
of the animals whose fate is at stake in our " big game "
problem, and also because it may be helpful to those who
have the responsibility of pre]Kiring school books. It is often
through a medium like this that a love for knowledge for its
own sake is inspired. Animal life makes a powerful ai)peal to
young and old alike, and illustrations should be used to the
utmost to enliven what may otberwise be dull and
uninteresting subjects — zoology and geography.

In this connection, I would plead for greater regard for
tiuth in illustrating children's picture books, which are
published in such lavish fashion. Pictures of animals
distorted into impossible attitudes, arrayed like human as well
as other kinds of beings and attempting the weirdest i)ossible
pranks, are too often the rule. In some instances there is no
doubt a lack of exact knowledge on the part of the artist, and
an appeal to the ridiculous provides an easy way to disguise
superficial knowledge and turn it to commercial advantage.
The life story of any given animal is sutficiently fascinating
without fictitious embellishment. It is a great pity that a
child's first impression shoidd be misleading. At the same
time, it must be admitted that works of reference containiiig'
reliable data to which artistically-inclined persons can turn for
exact information are seldom available except in university
and tecdmical libraries. Furthermore, the details of the life
story of most of our wild animals have never been recorded
anywhere. How many here to-day can. describe the develop-
ment of the rhinoceros or the liiDDopotarnus or the sriraffe from
birth to maturity? Every facility should be given for the
illustration and jniblication of observed facts concerning
animal life, more especially of such types as are in danger of
becoming" extinct. The eye should lie appealed to as much as
possible, but the aim should be to give correct impressions,
and thereby avoid the worse than waste due to a misapplica-
tion of artistic ability. The author of my favourite plate
certainly reflects the touch of inspiration, for not only are
the animals faithftdly depicted, but the pyramid and tlie ruin
stimulate speculation in regard to the secrets of the past, and

68 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

tlie rising' sun — shall we say of modern science ? — bespeaks the
beginning of a ncAv era for

The Dark Contixext.

In ihe expansion of civilisation under tlie influence of
Christian ideals, the outstanding- fact is that the trend was
north-westward into Europe, where it gradually gained force
and in time spread like a tidal wave to the American
continents. In Eussia it subsided, as in a morass, in the great
ag'gregation of widely divergent elements that comprise the
nation, and in Asia it was impeded by the inertia of a people
imbued with the ideals of an older civilisation that had
apparentlj^ reached a state of equilibrium. To the south-west
stretched the great continent of Africa, in which profuse
natural resources were apparently available for the asking,
but for some reason they were left almost in abeyance, save
for the slave trade, which attracted world-wide attention. "Why
did the tide of Western civilisation cross three thousand mil?s
of water and develop the ximerican continents rather than
follow the coast-line of Africa and extend its scope to inland
resources that even now are the admiration of the world? The
query might be answered by saying that it followed the line
of least resistance. But that suggests the further query : "Why
was IN^orth America more easily mastered than Africa?

XoRTii America axd Africa Comrared.

In North America the virile races of Europe found a native
race which, though virile in many ways, was not capable of
adapting itself to new conditions, and hence it disappeared
and left the new arrivals free to develop to the fullest extent.
Besides a great expanse of fertile soil and an invigorating
climate, regular seasons and adequate rainfall, natural
resources in the form of water-power, forests, coal, iron and
oil, not to mention gold and silver, were easily available.
It was inevitable that, under the combined attack of the best
races of Europe, inspired by high ideals, such a continent
should confe under control rapidly.

In Africa the same European races attempted the conquest
of the continent, but in i)lace of it becoming an asset, it proved
to be almost a barrier thrust into the ocean to hamper com-
munioation between east and west. "Why did they not boldly
invade and hold the continent in place of going around it for
generations, or, at best, holding on precariously at certain
points ?

In comparison with Xorth America, the natural resources
of Africa were not easily available on account of natural
obstacles — great desert b'^lts in certain parts contrasted wit!i
great swamps and jungles in others: irregular rainfall,
resulting in floods, followed by droughts and scarcity of food
for the millions of natives that were ever present and capable
of adapting themselves to new conditions ; in geneial, a
"climate " that had ('and still hns) a great reputation for
beinff '"deadlv." Fnder such conditions it seems inevitable

PRESIDENTIAL ADUEESS SECTIOX D. 69

that progress would be slow. But if we accept the evidence of
ancient workings tor the recovery of gold and of the ruins
still in existence in the area where we have the pleasure of
holding our meeting to-da}', the attacking forces overcame
obstacles, jienetrated far inland and luade determined efforts
to master the countrj^ Why did they not persist ? The deserts,
the swamps, the mountains and the rivers were gradually
crossed and recrossed, but the " deadh' climate " remained
inscrutable till the jjrogress of science at last shed a flood of
light on the whole matter by proving that its deadliness was
not due to conditions in general, but to the presence of certain
definite destructive agencies. In the light of our present
knowledge there is no reason to doubt that these agencies have
been present in their natural African reservoirs since time
immemorial, and that they were largely responsible for
impeding the progress of civilisation on the continent as a
whole. It is my purpose on this occasion to call attention in
broad outline to certain factors in the development of South
African resources, in the hope of stimulating discussion on the
advancement of scientific research in connection hereM'ith, for
it is apparent that Africa is destined not to yield except to
the pressure resulting from the application of the combined
experience gained by scientific workers throughout the world.
In coping with Africa, one maj" well ask whether the strongest
is strong enough.

Entomological Research ix its Relation to
Human Welfare.

Human Diseases.

It is only necessary to mention the alliance between
sleeping sickness and the tsetse fly ; malaria and yellow fever
and the mosc^uitoes ; typhus fever and the louse; typhoid,
dysentery and other diseases and the house fly, to impress even
the most sluggish intellect with the fact that there is great
need for thorough research into the question of human
diseases and the agencies tliat disseminate them.

Independent of any question of the transmission of disease,
there are two insect.s — the louse (Pediculus humanus) and the
bedbug (Cinie.r lerfulaiia) — that deserve special attention on
account of their influence on the efficiency of labour.

No liuman being can rest properly under an infestation of
either lice or bedbugs, or both, and it seems reasonable to
suppose that the disturbance will be reflected in working
capacity and be in direct proportion to the degree of infesta-
tion. I have frequently received requests for help in com-
bating either one or both of these pests, and the degree of
infestation found on careful inspection surpasses imagination.
It is no uncommon thing to find Kaffirs sleeping on the ground
in the open air rather than brave the swarms of bedbugs in
the huts or barrncks. Cattle and sheep are dipped for ticks
and scab '' because it pays." I submit that it will also pay
in the increased efficiency of labour to fumigate the clothing
and the sleeping quarters of the lower classes witli prus^ic

70 PKESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTION ]).

acid for the destiiiction ot lice and bedbug's. The State owes
it to itself as well as to the poor people concerned to see that
such an easy means of control is adopted.

AuiniaJ Diseases: .

Animal diseases such as East Coast Fever, nagana and
horse sickness — especially tlie latter, wliich for over a quarter
of a century has baffled every effort to determine its natural
transmission — serve to illustrate the need for research alono-
that line.

Ageicultural Pests.
Maize Insects.

While reviewing- the subject of maize insects recently,
I was impressed with the fact that prior to 1900 comparatively
little interest was taken in the pests that attack maize. The
only explanation that I can sugg-est is that maize did not always
hold its present important position in South Africa.

Twenty-five years ago, for example, there was no export
trade in maize, and hence the supply no doubt often exceeded
the demand. TTnder those circumstances insect injury would
be passed over as of little consequence. The live stock
industry, which now makes heavy demands on the maize
crop, was languishing- under tlie burden of rinderpest, lung-
sickness, horse sickness, sheep scab and tick-borne diseases—
redwater, heartwater, East Coast Fever. Locusts made
periodic inroads, and on account of their spectacular nature
attracted i)()pular attention everywhere. In fruit-growing
districts and in the towns the Australian bug (Iceri/a 2nirchasi)
caused a great outcry, and the grape Phylloxera even brought
about a change of Government. In the midst of plagues that
caused such violent political as well as economic upheavals,
the insect pests of maize must have seemed such modest
creatures that they were passed by as not worth notice.

Vahie of Maize in S^outli Africa. — Some idea of tlie value
of the maize crop in South Africa can be gained from tlie
following' official Crop Report Estimates : —

1910 ..

• (C

ensus taken

in

1911) .

.. 8,()32,r)i(i

niuids

1911 ..

Estimal

te

.. 8,482.700

1912 ..

do.

.. 8,121.200

. .

1913 ..

do.

.. 8.000.000

J J

1914 ..

do.

.. 8,512,800

5)

1915 ..

do.

.. 10,250,000

1916 ..

do.

.. 8.500.000

,

1917 ..

do.

.. 11.800.000

,,

191S ..

do.

.. 9.000.000

"

The total vield for the nine (9) years was

therefore \ 81,898.716 muids.

ond the total value, at 9s. ])er niuid, was £86,854,422.

The average annual vield was 9.099,857 muids. Avliicli,
at 9s. permuid, amounted to £4,094,935.

PEKSIDIONTFAL ADDEKSS SKCTIOX II. 71

Aiinval Loss Due to Certain Maize Fests. — Of the insects
tluit attack growiiii>- maize in South Africa, the stalk borer,
the cut worms (nea? rehitives of the preceding-), the ear worm
{Chloridea ohsoleta), the black beetle {Heteroiiijchus arator),
and the snout beetle [Strophosonins amplicolUs Fhr.), are the
ones of outstanding- importance from year to year. It is
impossible to g-ive an exact statement of the actual loss caused
by these insects because of the difficulty in getting- accurate
statistical records, but all available information warrants my
estimating- that there is a total annual loss of at least 25 per
cent, for the few pests mentioned.* The average annual
3"ield of over nine million muids is tlierefore only 75 per cent,
of what it would be if it were not for the insects. Hence the
total loss may be calculated as 3,000,000 muids, which, at
9s., amounts to £1,350,000, of which stalk borer alone is
responsible for 1,200,000 muids, valued at £'540,000. _ At this
rate, if insect injur j- to maize could be eliminated, it would,
in two years' time, reimburse the country- for the cost of the
proposed elevators for handling- the grain crops of the Fnion.

The loss, though great in the aggregate, is distributed
more or less evenly over the farms in the maize-growing
districts, and hence the nation little realises the extent of the
burden. The loss is virtually an indirect tax levied on tlie
public through the farmers. The farmers would certainly be
up in arms if the Government proposed to raise such an amount
by special tax on the land employed in the production of
maize, and yet the stalk borer and a few other insects inflict
the burden annually while many farmers remain indifferent to
the situation. Under the circumstances, it is highly
important to inquire what can be done to prevent so great
an annual loss. The only sound proposition is to urge the
endowment of research and demonstration work on the full
economic possibilities of the crop as a whole, so that all factors
entering into the production of tlie crop can be elucidated and
the information brought home to those who are in position to
make use of it.

Wheat Inserts.

On account of its intimate relationship to human welfare,
wheat occupies a unique position in the list of cultivated plants.
Anything that touches wheat is at once a factor of world-wide
importance. All over the world some of the most difficult insect
problems centre around this important crop. In South Africa
the wheat louse {Toxoptera gramininn) undoubtedly deserves
first place from the practical standpoint. In the coastal belt
of the Eastern Province a black sheep amongst the ladybirds
(Coccinellidsp), EpiJaclma siniilis, is a serious pest at times.

In the Western Province, Hemiptera, especially Blissus
cliplopterus Dist., often do far more damage than is frequently
supposed. In all cases a solutir)n depends on thorough research
work.

* For detailed information, see Official Report on the. Maize Stalk
Borer (1920), by C. W. Mally, Senior Entomologist, Union Department
of Ao;riculture.

1^ PEESIDKNTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX D.

Olive Insects.

In view of tlie highly favourable natural conditions, South
Africa should have the finest olive groves in the world, but
there are two little insects that serve as effectual deterrents —
the Ulive Tingid'id, Teleonemia australis Dist., and the
Chrysomelid, Fseudococcinella sewvittata Chevr. When it bas
been demonstrated that the control of these two species by
either spraying- or fumigation falls within practical limits,
olive culture should go ahead by leaps and bounds.

Other Species of Importance.

To continue with even a brief survey of outstanding
problems, would recjuire an undue amount of time; but even
so, attention must be called to the fact that the vine has its
mealybug, every tree and busli its scale insects, the wattle its
bagv.-orm, and the veld its termites. All are replete with
scientific as Avell as economic interest,

Fluctnotions in Relative Abundance of Insects.

Xo insect species is uniformly abundant from year to year.
Some fluctuate far more than others. The American Army
Worm, Leucania unipuncta, and the South African Mystery
Worm, Laphijgma exempta, are species in which extreme
fluctuations occur, a season or two of extraordinary abundance
being followed by a series of seasons of almost total absence
and then a sudden increase to excessive abundance again. With
other species the fluctuations are not so violent, but they are
fairly well marked. Unfortunately there is no really satisfac-
tory way of explaining them. One thinks at once of natural
enemies in the form of parasitic insects, diseases and unseason-
able weather. Climatic conditions coupled with excessi^^e
abundance may possibly affect the vitality of any given species,
which after a time resumes full vitality and makes its influence
felt accordingly. Variations in farm practice may help or
hinder a species. It is highly desirable to determine the exact
causes of these fluctuations, for through the knowledge we may
find a clue to easy coiitrol measure.

Beneficial Insects.

Beneficial insects are important factors in human welfare.
Whether concerned in the production of human food in the
form of honey and the distribution of pollen to ensure the
cross fertilisation of flowers, or whether they are acting as
internal parasites or external enemies of injurious insects, they
are all contributing their share towards making and keeping
the earth a fit place for human beings. Although a few species
are fairly well understood, the great majority of named species
mean little more than names to us. In fact, we have scarcely
touched the fringe of the great problem of parasitism and the
possibility of controlling injurious species by means of their
natural enemies. This phase of entomological work will
increase in importance as the increase in population necessitates
the utmost economy in the production of food. The study of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. ( J

insect parasitism is slow and tedious, and lience no time should
be lost in doing- the utmost possible to perfect our knowledge
along that line.

Eesults Achieved.

Thus i'ar attention has been paid t-o unsolved problems;
but lest someone get the impression that no results of practical
value have been achieved, I shall emphasise the fact that certain
problems have been brought to the point where control is
possible. The elucidation of the life cycle and economy of the
bont tick in its relation to the disease known as lieartwater in
sheep and g'oats and cattle has made it possible for the merino
sheep and the Angora goat to be brought back to the farms
which farmers left in despair 25 or 30 years ago. A detailed
knowledge of the ticks concerned in the transmission of East
Coast Fever in cattle has made it possible to prevent the disease
sweeping like a blight over the stock-raising areas.

At one time the wine and grape industry was threatened
with extinction from the g-rape Phylloxera, but the discovery
of a resistant stock saved the situation. The Australian bug
threatened the life of the citrus industry and a wide range of
other plants as well, but the introduction of its natural enemy
{Novius cardinalis) turned failure into success. The peach
trees were smothered with white scale (Diaspis pentagona)
and the prune industry languished under the burden of the
Bryobia mite, till a critical study of the old California lime-
sulphur-salt wash showed the polysulphides to be the essential
ingredients. As a result, we now have an almost perfect insecti-
cide in commercial form, not only for the tree pests named,
but for sheep scab as well. The fruit fly was thought to be of
such importance that one farmer declared that if anyone found
a way to control it, he would write his name in gold all over
South Africa! A means of control was found in due course,
and the fruit-growers have received ample returns in golden
sovereigns; but the golden promise has been all but forgotten.
Through the use of arsenite of soda, locusts, which once held
sway, no longer hatch and feed and take wing at will in swarms
to darken the heavens like an emblem of Divine displeasure to
inspire the timid with fear.

Let it not be imagined that because I used the expression
" results achieved " I consider that there is nothing more to
be done. Far from it I The true position is that we have
readied a stage where we can control certain pests to advantage.
Still more effir-ient means no doubt await discovery or applica-
tion to present conditions. As hinted in an earlier jiaragraph,
the sun is only rising. For 25 or 30 years we have been using
i:)russic acid (hydrocyanic acid gas) for the destruction of insect
jiests by fumigation, and the process seemed practically perfect.
Circumstances arose which indicated the possibility of improve-
ment, and a search through the literature revealed the fact that
at the beginning of last century it was demonstrated that the
gas could be reduced to liquid form by cooling. The applica-
tion of this to modern conditions has revolutionised fumigation
and placed it on a more nearly scientific basis.

<4 rRESIDK^TIAL ADDKESS SKCTIOX D.

As luiglit be ex])ecte{]. Africa preseJits exceptional diffi-
culties, but we are not without hope of ultimate success.

The Seceet ov Success.

The portions of the virile races of Europe that attempted
the conquest of Africa were held at bay. No blame attaches
to them. Un the contrary, all honour to them, for the wonder
is that they were able to hold out till Science could come to
their aid.

There is no gainsaying^ the fact that on the whole success
has been achieved through scientihc research, not by the pro-
verbial man in the street, but by meu from foreign countries
who, through years of study in institutions of learning, had
acquired special knowledge and responded to the call of Africa,
and applied themselves whole-heartedly to the task of over-
coming- what seemed like insuperable difficulties in the way
of progress.

A Plea eor the Endowment of Educational Institutions.

The knowledge requisite for the solution of scientific
problems does not come from nothing. It is a gradual accumu-
lation in storehouses that we designate schools; colleges and
universities. It is these institutions, inspired with a love of
knowledge for its own sake, that we have to thank for tlie men
who can go forth and grapple successfully with the unknown.
These institutions must be made the centre of our national life,
and the view must be broad so as to prevent the narrowness
peculiar to those of limited outlook. Our young men and women
must be given a fair chance to prove themselves. Thus far tlieir
record stimulates a feeling of pride, and we may confidently
look forward to tlie day when they will hold their own, not
only in this country, but also m an international exchange
of men.

Such being the case, I submit that it is only the part of
wisdom to make every possible provision in the form of endow-
ment for our educational institutions, so as to secure the highest
possible efficiency in training those who show that they have
ability. Our system of education should be like a huge net, in
which every young person is caught up and brought within
reach of the lines of force of the university magnet. Eest
assured, the ear of the teacher will not fail to hear the " click
when young men and women strike the lines of work that appeal
to them. Then is the time when special encouragement in the
form of scholarships should be available, in order that no case
of real merit need recede into obscurity for lack of means to
continue to the stage of national usefulness.

South Africa should invest heavily m scientific research,
for that is the only w^ay we can hope to hold our own against
nations with easier conditions. The more difficult the work,
the stronger and better trained must be the men. _ Thorough-
ness of preparation, even though extra time is required, shonld
be encouraged by the prospect of adequate remuneration when
work on practical problems is undertaken, iind yet university

S.A. JOURNAT, OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XXIX.

^^Mi^ffi^

PHYSICAL AFRICA ^) t,

CVII.

DESCRIPTION

1 Afnca contTins ibout one half of a I the
inncl in tlie Torrid Zone It has a laiger pre
1^01 tion of plateau surface more unbioken
coasts a hotter and dr^er chmate moie Cvten
si\e dcseits and more numeious- and gigantic
aniimls than any other of the si\ continents
It also has a gi eater numbei of baibanan in
habitants than all the rest of the world togethei

Tlic northern tiopc piSbCb thro ,li the cei tre of tlie
Greit Debert i d the southern tropii. tl ro gh the
kilah n Desert Between these dcbTt belts is a
broid ft-rtile r<.gion most of it being deluged with
tropical rains during se\eMl months of the jeir
This belt contains the greater part of the population
and of the vegetable and animal life. A smiUer
fertile belt is found in the Atlas region, and another
in Cape Colony. The Great Karroo, in the south
ern belt, is a low plateau, similar in character to thi
llanos and pampas of South America. The conli
nent has therefore five parallel physical belts, three
of them broad tracts of fertile land, and two inter/
mediate ones of desert.

2. Surface. — Nearly the whole surface con m1
sists of broad, low plateaus The edges of the -
continent are partly bordered and its surface _^if
broken by short mountain ranges. ^*^

The highcbt plateau is that of .Abyssinia, The longest
mountain ranges lie along the eastern coast. These
niountams contain the snow-covered peaks K
\jaro and Kenia, the highest in Africa. The ,\lhs ss
Mountains, near the Mediterranean, and (lie Kong ■^JV
near the Gulf of Guinea, are llie only other impomnt ^
r.inges

^. A narrow strip of lowland extends
tween the mountain borders and the coasts and

Pa.ee from " H;irper's School (iei)^i;ipliy." Piihlished in ['.S.A. in 1876.
(Considenihly reduced.)

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 75

training' is not everything. " Tliougli you bray a fool witli
wheat m a mortar with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness
depart from him." Eather have an untrained man with ability
than a fool with a degree. In this connection we must recognise
three classes of men : (1) the self-made man ; (2) the university-
made man; (3) the university man-made man. A generation
ago the self-made man in science could still be found, but
to-day he is a rare specimen. The vast majority of those who
pass as such come under the influence of trained men, from
whom they learn and in course of time become proficient and
achieve well-merited recognition. But the indispensable
nucleus is the man who has come under the sway of our institu-
tions of learning and has a thorough grasp of the problems of
the day. A certain number of untrained men can be absorbed,
but })e it not overlooked that they are a side-draft on the load
until such time as they become efficient. Increase their
number, and the inevitable result is to reduce both speed and
efficiency and to discourage the men who have spent time and
means in preliminary training. That is all the^more reason
why facilities should be available to enable the man of great
natural ability to be trained and thrown into action without
the exhausting struggle against odds for years. The probabili-
ties are that whatever success he achieves in his own strength
will be small in comparison with what he could have done had
proper facilities been available for hini in his younger days.
'No system of education can create ability, but it does enable
each man to do the best that is possible for him. The outstand-
ing man becomes more outstanding and the average man who
otherwise would never be heard of at all is made available for
a wider field of usefulness.

Ample financial means exist to enable every man or woman
of every race to attain his or her limit of achievement, but the
difficulty is to arouse such a thoroug-h popular interest in the
national welfare that they will be made available.

In the past progress has been slow because it has depended
on the devoted few. If progress is to be more rapid in future.
South Africa must endow its schools, colleges and universities
more liberally and see to it that conditions are such as to attract
able men and women to its service.

I am sure you will all agree that thus far science has done
much for South Africa. It remains to be seen what South
Africa, in its own interests, will do for science.

76 rR]:SIDENTIAL ADDEESS SECTIOX E.

THE MAGIC COXCEPTIOX OF XATURE AMONGST

BAXTFS.

Bv Rev. Hexri A. Jrx

OD.

Presidential Address to Section E, delirered Jnhj 15, 1920.

When I was asked to be President of Section E of this
Association, an ideal of a Presidential Address rose before
me. It should, in my opinion, have as an object at least
the opening- of new ways to anthropological research. Bnt in
my position, living on the veld, far aAvay from any library,
without books and reviews as aids, the ideal could not be
attained; so I simply consulted my experiences of thirty years
with South African natives to see if I could not draw from
these experiences some remarks which mig'ht be useful to
others. I think that I found what I wanted, and this will
be my modest contribution to the solution of the, as yet,
unsolved problem of South Africa — the native question.

The coexistence of the Eui'oi^ean Aryan race with the
Bantu race in South Africa has created a situation which
certainly has its advantag'es, but which is fraught with many
dangers. Whatever the future may be, there is no doubt
that for the present the white race has to rule and guide the
black race. I think that we have courageously undertaken
that task — perhaps more heartily than natives themselves
should wish. But I A^enture to put the question : Are we
really and deeply influencing our black fellow-citizens? Are
there not insuperable difficulties in the way ?

Considering first the religious domain, I dare to state
that the influence is real, and it is spreading rapidly. The
Bantu has a strong religious disposition, and the ancestor
worship which he practises affords little relief to his soul,
which longs for life and happiness. The Christian God very
easily supplants the ancestor god in his prayers. Even if
he does not accept him, he rarely makes objections to his
existence. The " Father Who is in Heaven " possesses all
the g'ood features of the ancestor god, and a good many
others, and he asserts himself at once as superior to the
spirits of the deceased forefathers. The Christian religion is
boimd to conquer the Bantu in a comparatively short time.

That is not to say that people emerging from the
mists of Animism can at once grasp the full meaning of
Christianity. We must always remember that the Bantu
creed does not establish any connection between religion and
morality, whilst Christianitv, at least imder its pure form,
is essentially a moral religion. It often happens that con-
verted natives pretend to enjov religioxis privileges and
cultivate religious emotions without leading the p\ire life
which Christianity asks from its ade]its. On accoimt of this
disposition, those who conduct native churches have to be

TRESIDEXTIAL ADDEESS SECTION E. 77

constantly on the watch lest the high teaching of the Christian
religion becomes deteriorated amongst them. i"et mission-
aries, as a rule, believe in the conversion of the Bantu tribes.
They feel that their message has obtained a real hold on
thousands of natives, and this is perhaps the reason Avhy they
are more sympathetic to natives than any section of the white
poi^ulation.

But the predication of a new and higher religion is not
the only duty of the white race towards the black one. The
white man has to rule and to educate the native population;
he must consequently exert a considerable amount of authority
over it. I will not dwell on the political side of the question.
It may be asked to what extent the staff of the Xative Affairs
Department really controls and influences the natives. They
obey. They cannot help obeying, because they have been
conquered. Is the sovereignty of the European acce])ted with
a contented heart? I am not quite sure of it, and I think
that even in the most loyal natives, in the bflckgroimd of
their brains or in the bottom of their hearts, there always
remains the dream of a Bantu Xapoleon who. will appear some
day and reconquer the land of their fathers for them. This
is a burning question. I may only state that in late years
criticism of white methods of government has been more and
more prevalent, and one thing is sure — the treatment of
natives, politically speaking, must be fair and as liberal as
possible if we want to preserve the peace of the land.

I prefer speaking of things I know better, and Avhich are
not so dangerous to discuss. To what extent do natives
submit themselves to the authority of those persons who try
to guide them in a totally disinterested manner — for instance,
missionaries at the head of native congregations or principals
of native institutions? I leave aside the case of employers on
purpose, in order to make the demonstration more convincing.

Let us be just. Our authority, which is purely moral,
which does not rest on any external constraint, which is not
backed by any material sanction, is generally well accepted
by our converts or by our jjupils. However, one must be very
cautious if one intends to be obeyed. The white master will
be wise if he presents his decisions under the sliajjc of advices
rather than of orders, esjiecially if he wants to enforce
anything new, not yet consecrated by custom. He huist also
be careful not to trespass uiJon the native laws of " etiquette,"
and amongst them the law of " tibisa," viz., of giving official
information in due time. Should you put a decision into
execution without having fully explained all the matter to
your natives, jou are sui'e to meet with trouble. These
exigencies, after all, can be accepted by the white master,
however tedious and useless they may sometimes seem to him.
They are part of a sound and sane native policy. Let us
respect the peculiarities of the native mind, as long as there
is nothing really wrong in them.

But cases will happen when, though you have observed
all the rules of their parliamentary etiquette, your boys will

78 PRKSIDK>TIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

refuse to obey. Thougli yoiu oiders are perfectly reasonable,
in full agreement with the principles your jinpils themselves
profess, they will not accept them. How is it possible? Some
of them, probably those who are less commendable, are
opposing your will, and they have taken hold of the others ;
the whole class now forms one body, and it will begin to fight.
You may say that such a rejection of authority may happen
everywhere, amongst all the races. But here is the peculiarity
of the Bantu — as they are all agreeing, they are convinced
that they are right. You may appeal to tlieir reason, to their
conscience. Xo avail ! The fact that they are all of one mind
is for them a sufficient justification of the position they have
taken. This is very curious, and evidently comes from the
habits of their former tribal life.

How is a decision taken in the courts of Bantu chiefs ?
There is much discussion first. Everybody has the right of
explaining his thought. The Bantu court is eminently demo-
cratic in this respect. Little by little a general opinion fonns
itself, and when it becomes preponderant the chief " cuts
the matter," as they say, according to the feeling of the
majority. There is no voting, no minority. Nobody, after
the chief has spoken, would dare to think that he may be
Avrong in submitting himself to the dictum of the assembly.
There is no such a thing- as scruples of conscience or faint
ideas that the decision may not be in harmony with moral
principles or with divine will. The horizon of the Bantu mind
does not reach such distant spheres.

1 am sure that this is the psychical explanation of the
difiiculties we often meet in guiding our native pupils, and it
accounts for the terrible acts of insubordination which we
sometimes have to deplore. This shows that a good deal of
supplementary education is wanted to elevate the Bantu mind
from the juridical conception of good and evil to the spiritual
notion of morality taught by the Christian religion.

The best plan to adopt in such circumstances is to try
to persuade one or two of the better boys — ^to awake tlieir
sense of duty. This is very difficult, as it appears to them
that by yielding they woidd be traitors to the common caiise.
However, one may occasionally succeed, and then the resist-
ance will fall at once. I remember one day having reached
that aim. The pupils of the institution wanted the programme
of the school to be amended according to their wishes, and
their demand was not altogether unreasonable. But I had
to tell them that such a change could not be made by myself,
but only by the conference of missionaries which controlled
the institution and was alone competent to decide the case,
to the exclusion of anybody else. But they insisted that they
should be satisfied immediately. They were threatened with
expulsion, but they were prepared for that extremity, and
already were going to pack their little luggage. One of them,
however, began to see that they were decidedly wrong, and
he agreed to stay and to accept the postponement of the
decision. This secession broke the strength of all the others.

PEESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E. 79

< )ne of tlie principal oi)poiieiit;> said with a sigh: " I see that
we black people are totally unable to reach our ends. We are
no longer of one mind, thus we are wrong, and we must yield
nnd ask to be forgiven." This boy was one of the best
Christians of the Avhole lot, but a typical Bantu.

But I take a step further, aiid beg to state that the
fundamental difference between the European and the Bantu
mind — the difference which mostly prevents a true under-
standing of the one by the other is this : We Europeans of
the twentieth century possess what I may call the scientific
spirit, whilst Bantus are still plunged in the magic conception
of Nature. This is the proper subject of my address. I enter
now the domain of ethnography, properly speaking. My
preceding' remarks applied to the native who has already been
more or less transformed by our religion and by our schools.
We now consider the raw native Avho has not yet leceived any
education. Needless to say, at this present time the heathen
type is still infinitely more numerous than the Christian
variety.

I say that we Europeans of the twentieth century pretend
to possess the scientific mind. We study phenomena; we
notice that a first phenomenon is followed by another. We
try to discover the relation between them. We perhaps come
to the conclusion that the second is produced by the first.
Applying the category of causality, we then assert that the
first is the cause of the second. But Ave do not hasten to di'aw
the conclusion. We first examine, cross-examine, analyse, and
only when we are sure do we pronomice our judgment as
regards causality. Take, for instance, phthisis. The European
scientist has not been satisfied before he has found that the
lesion in the lungs is connected with a particular microbe,
Avhich enters the human body in such and such a way, and
whose progress is concomitant with the jnogress of the disease
which it causes. Owing to the knoAvledge acciuired by
observation, a scientific treatment of the illness is henceforth
possible.

The Bantu mind proceeds on quite different lines. As i
rule, a Bantu does not bother very much about causes. He
accepts the world as it is, without asking Avho made it and
Avhy things are as they are. However, Avhen ])henomena
make him suffer, he Avants to knoAV where such abnormality
conies from — be it disease, drought or accident — and, having
never inquired scientifically into such phenomena, lie at once
believes that they are produced by spiritual agents like
himself, be they ancestor spirits or spirits of living persons
which possess the power of witchcraft. And uoaa-, when it
becomes imperative to fight against such influences, he resorts
to magic. Magic practices are based on a certain number
of principles which are self-evident to the Bantu and which
dictate most of his acticnis in dealing* Avith disease and
other misfortunes. The most important is the pi-inciple of
similarity, which is at the root of what ethnography calls
" sympathetic magic." As long as two phenomena resemble

80 PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS ^SECTIOX E.

one another, they react on each other. Like acts on like.
Thus a certain remedy will cure a certain disease if it
resembles it in one way or another.

Let me give some examples, to make clear this magic
mentality of the Bantu as opposed to the scientific mentality of
the modern European.

A magician has had the good luck to discover a crow's
nest full of young. He climbs on the tree, and ties all the
little birds together by their feet. The mother crow, however,
is not at a loss to deliver her progeny. She brings each day
a leaf taken from different trees, and puts it in the nest. The
mag'ician keeps watch. He climbs, looks at the leaf, and
recognises the tree from which it has been taken. He goes
and digs a bit of root from that tree. After a few days he
will have cjuite a bundle of various roots. By that time the
little crows will be free, the string which was binding them
having given way, and the magician will possess a medicine
of first quality. By means of it he will be able to deliver
any patient from any disease or worry tying him. This is
pure magic, magic of the nice kind, as it is intended to help
and to cure — white magic, Ave may say — whilst ])lack magic
is the one which intends to kill by the same proceedings.

Another example is as follows : A Eonga of the clan
Timba, which is the great clan of hippopotami hunters, has
succeeded in throwing an assagai into the back of the huge
black beast. The assagai was tied by a long string to the
nervule of an immense palm leaf. "When the hippopotarnus
was wounded, it at once plunged into the water, the string-
unrolled itself, and the big nervule, similar to a pole
twenty feet long, remained floating on the surfnce, being
dragged along by the beast in its attempt to escape. Now
the real chase would begin, and it would be fraught with many
dangers. At that very moment a messenger is despatched
to the hunter's wife in his village not far from the river.
She is told to go at once and shut herself in the hut. to sit
down and keep perfectly quiet. If she does so, the hippo-
potamus will be easily killed. It will not be too wild, it will
not fight too hard, and soon it will be possible to throAv
another assagai betAveen its nostrils. The animal will be
unable to close them any more, water Avill penetrate the hmgs,
and it will die. This is magic. The quiet demeanour of the
hunter's wife will cause the animal to be qxiiet.

Another examjjle borrowed from the agricultural customs
may be given. Stealing mealies in the gardens is of common
occurrence amongst certain tribes, but it Avill be prevented
in the following way: The small nervules of another palm
tree called " rala " are taken. These nervules are like little
sticks, ancl are very flexible. They are called " tinhlamalala . "
At the extremity oi each of them a knot is made. Then a
snake's skin is sought — I mean an old skin, Avhich the ^snake
has cast. It is burned, a powder is made oiif of it, and the
sticks are smeared with it. Then the sticks are woven
together, and something li"ke a croAvn is made out of them.

PRESIDKXTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E. 81

This crown is put on one of the niealie stalks. Now, should
a thief enter the garden, these tinhlamalala sticks will all be
transformed into the kind of snakes which also bear that
name of tinhlamalala. They will anorily attack the intruder,
who will fly and throw away the cobs he has already stolen.
Notice here a double similarity which makes the remedy al]
the more effective — the similarity of form — the slender
nervnles with a knot at their extremity resemble a snake with
its head, and the similarity of name — both the nervules and
the snakes are called by the same name, tinhlamalala.

All nonsense I every reasonable person will say. This
will never hajipen, of course. But that is not the question.
The imijortant thing- is that the native will believe it at once,
as the story is quite on the lines of those magic principles
which are evident, unquestionable to his mind.

Hundreds of cases like these migdit be quoted. The life
of the Bantu is full of magic. It is at the base of all his
pharmacoptea, of most of his hunting" and agricultural
customs; it mixes with his religion. But nowhere does the
power of these magic principles appear more plainly than in
the well-known custom of

Boxi: TiirowixCt.

I have devoted considerable time to the study of that
practice amongst the Thongas, and found that it is impossible
to exaggerate its importance in the social, moral and religious
life of the natives. The throwing of bones — hlahluba in
Thonga, timgula in Venda — is both a splendid illustration of
magic, as it is entirely based on the principle of similarity,
and the most elaborate product of the magic instinct.

Amongst tribes of the Suto group the divinatory bones
are mainly four in number, being four bits of carved ivory or
bone, two male and two female. Amongst Zulus and Thongas
the bones are mostly astragalus bones taken from the legs
of different animals, a number of dift'erent objects being
added to them. The famous basket of the bone-thrower, such
as I received from one of my best informants after he had
initiated me into his wonderful art, must be shown. The
contents of the basket are very varied. Sometimes as many
as fifty dift'erent pieces are found in it.

There are hrst the astragalus bones taken from the legs
of domestic or wild animals. According to the law of
similarity or of correspondence, the domestic animaJs will
represent the inhaJ)itanfs of the village, whilst the irilrl
animals represent the various powers and influences of the
hush. Astragali of goats are the most numerous. The he-goat
corresponds to the father, the head of the kraal ; the she-goat
is the mother; the astragalus of a goat which had only one kid
is the y(ning married Avoman; whilst a number of sinall bones
coming from the kids of different ages represent the boys and
girls, weaned or not. The correspondence is perfect. Then
there are the astragali of sheep — these represent the royal
family, as sheep are more valuable and less common than goats.

82 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E.

The cliiei, aiitl queens and their children are all represented by
the various astragali of that domestic animal.

As regards wild animals, sets of different diviners vary
very much. However, one will always find the diiyker, the
grey antelope which steals sweet potatoes in the fields at
night. It represents the wizards, who are also, supposed to
accomplish their bad deeds Avhen it is dark. The wild boar
has many significations. It means the doctor, the medicine
man who digs the earth to find his medicinal roots, as the
]>ig when it searches tlie ground for food with its snout.
It also means the spirits of the deceased, as wild boars are
dwelling in the sacred wood where the ancestors were buried. .
By extension, this astragalus also means the old people who
are soon to be promoted to the dignity of gods. The baboon
represents the permanence of the village, because people say
baboons never move from the cave where they dwell.

The leopard means rich joeople who feast on meat every
day; whilst hyena means the counsellors, all the legion of
fiatterers who follow the chief and eat what he gives them,
the chief himself being the lion and being rejDresented by the
phalanx of one of the toes of the king of animals.

A curious bone in the set of one of my informants was
the astragalus of an imjDala antelope, discovered by him in
the stools of a hyena — a wonderful finding, indeed. It meant
the ancestor god, because the deceased forefather also had
been swallowed by the earth and he reappeared to bless or
to kill.

The malumbi is a special astragalus taken from a little
red anteloj)e, and plays a great part in the set as lepresenting
everything that is violent, which is spreading blood, the
mysterious power of Heaven, the enemies, and occasionally
white people.

Besides these astragali, there are quite a number of other
bones or of various objects in the diviner's basket. Pieces
of the carapace of a tortoise when falling on the favourable
side represent the peace of the village, like a tortoise walking
slowly and comfortably under the rays of the sun; everybody
perspires agreeably.

Sea shells : The Oliva represents male attributes, military
courage ; whilst the Cyprea means the feminine attributes —
IDots, kitchen, baskets, and also pregnancy. AVhen showing
its opening, Cyprea indicates the open mouth, either laughter
or cries.

Two stones of an abnormal form of the fruit of the
nkanye or marula tree represent the vegetable world, trees,
medicines, etc., and one always meets with two or more real
black stones foimd in the stomach of the crocodile (which
is said to swallow one each year). They represent darkness,
misfortune, accident, or the contrary, according to the way
they fall.

These are the principal pieces of the divinatory set. There
are generally two of each kind, one male and one female.
The diviner takes them in his hands, spits on them to give

PRKSIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 83

them something of his spirit, and throws them to the ground
on a mat, saying " Mamoo " ! He looks at them intently^
wanting to know what they have revealed. He then begins
to explain what they say, always following the well-known
rnles of interpretation, though he may display a considerable
amount of individual imagination in his explanation.

The astragalus bone can fall in four different ways.
It can show its convex side. This is the positive position,
and in that case the person indicated by the bone is on his
legs, standing, living, healthy, active. If the astragalus falls
in the opposite way, showing its concave face, it is the
negative position, and the person represented by it is on his
back, ill, powerless, dead perhaps. These are the two prin-
cipal positions^ corresponding to the upper face or the lower
face of the bone respectively. But it can also fall and show
its right side, which is slightly inflated. This means that
the chest is fidl, the person indicated is full of anger, or
courage, or hostility. He is like a cat which spits and is
readj^ to tear ; whilst the opposite side, the left side, is called
" minkono," the elbows, and figures a person peacefully
leaning on his elbows in a quiet mood.

The diviner knows the case which has been brought to
him, and he looks to his bones on the mat to see if there is
any correlation between the Avay they fall and the given case.
If not, he will say: " The bones have not spoken; let us try
again." Shoidd they refuse " to speak," he goes to another
place behind the hut, on the square, to try again, till he sees
some correspondence between their disposition and the subject
on which he must give advice or foretell something.

I have published and figured some of these cases in
Volume II of " The Life of a South African Tribe " a910),*
the case of the sick mother, of the Sikororo battle amongst
the Xkuiias, the prophecy of a migration, etc., and I cannot
do more here than refer to those plates and to their inter-
pretation. If my readers care to study them, I am sure they
will confess that this system of divination is marvellously
clever, and quite capable of producing conviction in the mind
of anybody, on one condition at least, viz., if he admits the
magic principles which are at the base of the whole affair.
If really " comparison is reason," if really like acts on like,
then the astragalus of a goat can perfectly represent the fate
of a mother, and the stone of the crocodile predict her fate.

The native is from his birth convinced of the truth of
these principles, and therefore these bones are for him the
most precious guide in life, the great inspirer and the great
helper — his Bible, as one of them told me one day, and more
than the Bible, as he added. He consults them constantly.
Practically no disease is treated, no religious act performed,
no travel undertaken without consultation of bones.

* Copies of this I)ook can l)e obtained from A. W. Bayly & Co.,
Loureu^o Marqvies.

84 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E.

Yet it is easy to see that this practice is highly
detrimental. It paralyses any attempt to use reason or
experience in practical life. It annihilates moral conscience,
as it makes reflection useless. Bones are tliro"vyn. They
reveal the cause as well as the remedy of any disease or
misfortune. There is no need any more to make an effort,
to fight a battle, to employ energy in order to free oneself
from the hardships of life. It can l)e safely asserted that no
real progress in civilisation or morality can be obtained as
long as the basket of the bone-thrower remains the Bible of
the Bantu. But one can go further, and state that, however
picturesque this magic conception of Nature may be, it is not
only a check to progress, but it is decidedly harmful, and
as long as it is still predominant it is impossible for the
European ruler to govern the black race in a satisfactory
manner. There is not only what I called white magic — these
innumerable rites and practices which might be considered
as quite innocent by a superficial observer, and as deserving
only to be laughed at — there is a black magic, namely, rites
performed to injure or to kill, or to attain certain aims by
criminal means.

In the month of January of this year the IS^ative Com-
missioner of Sibasa, Northern Transvaal, put in gaol the son
of the chief, who was found guilty of having killed a man.
When he inquired into the reason of the crime, he found
that it had been accomplished for magic purposes. Ha in was
wanting, and the crop of the year compromised. An intelligent
man who was a particularly good cultivator had been chosen,
probably on the advice of the bones, and murdered. His head
had been cut off and thrown into a mealie pit. Like acts
on like. The wisdom and power of that distinguished native
farmer would in this way spread all through the land, the
gardens would be full of grain just the same as the gardens of
that man, because rain would fall. And, indeed, rain fell —
plenty of rain !

The murderer was arrested, but nobody really thought he
was guilty. When the official tried to inquire into the
opinion of the Ba-Yenda on the subject, he received the
following answer: " The chief's son is a fool. Why did he
not send somebody else to kill that man? " As regards the
murder itself, it was quite legitimate according to the
conscience of the tribe.

I think, therefore, that my conclusion cannot be opposed :
As long as the Bantu is so completely plunged in this magic
conception of Nature, he cannot go ahead, because he is resting
on fallacious ground ; nor can he really be influenced by his
white master. The European and the Bantu are living in two
separate and opposite worlds of thought, and it is impossible
in those circumstances to obtain any true communion of mind
between them.

However, the position is not desperate, because it is
bound to change. Let us remember that our fathers, though
belonging to the so-called superior Aryan race, held con-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 85

ceptions very similar to those some centuries ago, and that
remnants of those magic practices are still found amongst
the peasantry or the less cultivated portion of the town
population. I was shown in Switzerland some years ago by
a friend belonging to the medical profession the heart of
a goat or of a sheep pierced by at least fifty big" pins Avith
large black heads. This object had been found in the hands
of a woman at la Chaux-de-Fonds, the town of watchmakers —
a very much advanced industrial centre. She had an enemy,
and, in order to cause him pain, she was planting a pin in
the sheep's heart from time to time, being convinced that,
according to the laws of sympathetic magic, the heart of her
enemy would be similarly pierced and made to suffer unbear-
able agony. A number of such practices are still to be found
in all civilised countries.

Education, scientific training-, higher moral and religious
conceptions have delivered most of the Europeans from magic.
The same will certainly hajjpen to the Bantus if they submit
themselves to the teaching brought to them by us, and there
is no doubt that there is amongst them an ever-growing desire
of obtaining instruction. They get it more and more now.

Thus, after so many years of work amongst South African
natives, I do not fear to take a position which some may call
unduly optimistic. The relation between the races may be
difiicult. It will perhaps become very strained, owing to
faults which may be committed on both sides. But I trust
that in the long run the Christian factor and the educational
factor will bring tliem nearer and nearer. Though keeping
apart from each other in many ways — I do not believe in
intermarriages — they will be able to esteem each other and
to reach a fruitful co-operation.

LABOUR CONDITIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

By R. A. Leheeldt, B.A., D.Sc.
Professor of Economics, University College, J oluinneshnrg .

Fresidenfial Address to Section F, delirered Juhj IT, 1920.

The racial situation in Soutli Africa is unique — no other
country shows the same combination of white and black, and
no other country offers, from its experience, a ready-made
solution of the racial difficulties that exist there. That is
not to say that the experience of other countries is to be
ignored. Of course, the history of countries in which two
disparate races have to live together should be studied, and
lessons should be drawn from it for the guidance of those who
control South African policy, but nothing like direct copying
is possible.

I

86 PRESIDKNTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX F.

South Africa's problem is unique, in the first place,
because of the proportions between the two races. In the
Southern United States there are whites and blacks, but
though the blacks form a niajoritj^ in certain districts, the
situation as a whole is dominated by the presence of an over-
whelming white nation, amongst whom the negroes are a
handful of strangers. Moreover, most of the negroes are of
mixed blood. In South Africa the pure-bred Kaffirs form the
great majority of the population.

On the other hand, such a country as Jamaica contains a
great majority of tlie black race, but there competition practi-
cally does not exist. The wliites are a small ruling class, and
the question who is to do manual labour, if it ever arose, has
long since been answered. In South Africa there is a large
and vigorous white population, partly immigrant, partly
settled for several generations, Avhich shows no sign of dying
out ; the relation between them and the blacks has not yet
reached any condition of stability.

Examples might perhaps be found, if not now, at least
in times past, where a similar numerical relation has
occurred between two A'igorous races, but there is another
condition needed to make anything like a close parallel with
South Africa, and that is a strong resistance to amalgamation
between the two races. In South America, in particular,
there are many interesting racial combinations, but there
little prejudice against intermarriage seems to exist, whereas
both Dutch and English, who make up the bulk of the white
inhabitants of South Africa, are strongly opposed to mixture
with the coloured races. That sentiment, which is not shared
even hj the French in their colonies, has played, and will
play, an important part in the history of the country.

It is when there is a sharp barrier between the races that
the special problem of the " poor whites " or " mean whites "
arises. In every community tliere is a constant vertical
diffusion between classes — children of the fortunate classes
fall below the circumstances of their birth, whilst exceptional
individuals from the mass of the people make their way
upwards to wealth and influence. The process is a natural
and healthy one, but where a colour bar exists diffusion is
interrupted. The children of the superior race, who liave
not the brains nor the luck to maintain themselves in a
superior position, are inhibited by the national sentiment from
making a living by unskilled or low-grade work, as they would
naturally do; they become destitute wliile clinging to the
remains of racial pride; they create a special and embarrassing
problem of poverty that does not exist in a countrv with a
homogeneous population, nor — at least not markedlv — in a
country like Brazil, where intermixture takes place freely.

Nor does the problem of the poor whites stand alone, for
the same conditions prevent tlie more intelligent members of
the inferior rnce from rising. There are in South Africa
natives whose brain power would enable them to do work of
fair quality in administration, in tiie learned professions, and
in business, but they are deprived of educational lielp and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDEES,S SECTION E. 87

are ostracised by sentiment. Indeed, in part of iSouth Africa,
natives hardly aspire to skilled mannal labour; the conse-
quence is a discontent, wliicli grows stronger as the natives
grow more conscious of the situation. I may remind you
of those featiu'es in the history of South Africa which are
most essential in understanding its present circumstances.
The greater part of the Union has been settled by Dutch
farmers, whose ideal was the patriarchal style of living. The
family, practically isolated by distance from its neighbours,
occupied an estate usually some ten square miles in extent,
where they farmed for subsistence — that is, they grew a small
quantity of corn and vegetables for their own use, and allowed
their cattle to graze on the wild pasture around them, yielding
meat and milk. On the rare occasions on which they needed
money, they sold an ox or a cow at some far-off village.

The ideal of life, however, included the bringing up of a
large family, and the land was divided equally between the
children. Thus the kind of farming adopted could at most
only last a few generations. It is being destroyed, not so
much by any external circumstancea — though immigration,
growth of cities and modern improvements in agriculture and
transport all help — as by the mere growth of population. There
are districts where for several generations subdivision of farms
has actually taken place, until the descendants, weakened by
intermarriage, drag out a miserable life on plots of ground
too small to yield them nourislunent ; in those districts there
is much physical and mental degeneracy.

Mostly, however, the usual results of unequal ability show
themselves. The more energetic or lucky son buys out his
brother's shares in the family estate; marriage between land-
owners consolidates property, and in the course of half a
century, perhaps, there comes to be the usual gradation of
Avealth and poverty. A class of small squires becomes estab-
lished, and a large section of the country population becomes
landless and dependent. It is not necessary to haA^e the rule
of primogeniture for this condition to arise; on the contrary,
no legal or social arrangements have yet been invented that
will stop it from arising out of the natural inequality of men.

I shall attempt a classification of the country population
who are more or less poor. It will, of course, be rather vague,
and I can offer no figures to show the extent of any class.
Nothing at all satisfactory in the nature of a census exists.
Statements have been made by Ministers as to the extent of
the poor white problem ; they appear to have been based on
an inquiry through tlie magistrates, but the results of the
inquiry have not been made public, and it seems doubtful
whether it v\-as conducted in a way to secure results of
scientific value.

I should like, however, to refer to the researches of my
colleague. Prof. W. M. Macmillan, who has made a first-
hand investig^ation of conditions in many country districts,
especially in Central Cape Colony. Though a single-handed
inquiry is, of course, quite inadequate to a nation-wide social
problem, and he has had no Governmental assistance, he has

88 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

been able to throw considerable liglit on the problem. The
results, embodied in a course of lectures delivered in Johannes-
burg- earlj^ in 1919, have now been made generally available
by publication in book form.

Macmillan lays stress on the absence of any proper
system of land leases in South Africa. The traditional farmer
is a freeholder, and those who are not fortunate enough to
own land tor their farming often farm on metayage system —
that is, they do not pay a fixed money rent, but share the
produce of the farms with the owners, in certain stipulated
proportions, with no security of tenure beyond the current
season. Such conditions place them entirely at the mercy of
the landowner, and though no doubt a good deal of neigh-
bourly feeling exists, there is no secure tradition of fair
treatment like that which has mitigated in practice the
unsatisfactory features of English land tenure. The conse-
quences are disastrous, for not only are the landless farmers
kept down, but an improvement in agricultural methods is
rendered almost impossible. Returning to the question of
classification, we may distinguish, first, those who own some
land, but too little to afford proper support for a family when
cultivated according to the traditional methods. Xo doubt in
many cases improved agricultural technique would be enough
to make such persons comfortably off, and Government has
done a good deal towards agricultural education. But the
difficulties must not be overlooked. The country folk
ordinarily are very lacking in general education, so that it
is not to be expected tha^t they should take readily to new
ideas, and the customary conservatism of farmers is reinforced,
in South Africa, by the uncertainty of agriculture in that
country. The rewards are great in case of success, but the
risks of plant and stock diseases, of hail, droughts, and so
on, are far worse than in Europe, so that farming is some-
thing- of a gamble.

Innovations backed by the authority of experts have
occasionally, on trial, led only to loss, and though, it is true,
the most conservative farmer sometimes loses his maize crop
and sees his cattle perish of drought, failure on the part of
the expert naturally makes the average countryman sceptical.

Next come the landless class who have to hire land from
their more fortunate neighbours — called " bywoners "
because they live on another man's land. The question that
most urgently concerns tlTem is that of leasehold tenure — as
it is, they usually receive from two-thirds to one-third of the
yield of the ground they cultivate. The proportion varies
according to local custom, and according as the owner or
tenant supplies stock and implements, but I understand that
it is, on the whole, tending downwards, so that the position
of the class is deteriorating. Such tenaut farmers, holding
only for one season, and liable to be sent away at the caprice
of the landowner, cannot be expected to form an enterprising
section of the community.

Thirdly come the agricultural labourers, but they do not,
in practice, form a class distinct from the preceding one. The

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX F. 89

bywoner works for wages when lie can, and cultivates a little
giouud ii lie can, and usually does both. What his economic
position is may be judged from the i'act that a customary
rate of wag"es in Cape Colony is three shillings a day — and
that for employment wl/ich is seasonal and often leaves him
for weeks without any wages at all. This class naturally
merges into the next, namely, the destitute.

In this fourth class I niean to include those who are
destitute without suffering from any actual bodilj^ or mental
disability. The poor white problem is essentially concerned
with these ; there is a fringe of poverty due to mental weak-
ness, degenerate bodily features (such as blindness), to
accidental disablement, to old age ; but the core of the problem
is the existence of a mass of persons who are fit to work, but
are unable to do so for what may be summarised as social
reasons. How many persons should be included it is
impossible, at present, to say, but it seems that the bulk of
the destitute country population do not suffer from bodily
disease, except such as is brought on by want and unhj-gienic
conditions, nor from definite mental defects. They constitute,
therefore, a class who might be reclaimed and made into useful
citizens by a suitable policy.

Their disability lies in the fact that they have neither
any training in skilled work nor any habit of work. Their
traditions are those of the easy life of a landowner, with
Kafl&rs to work for him, and they cling to prejudices against
doing what they regard as " Kaffir work " — work which in
England or America is done by white men, but which they
expect to have done for them by servants — a pretension
sufficiently ridiculous on the part of men who can hardly earn
three shillings a day. Too much should not be made of this
prejudice, however; it could no doubt be got over in time; the
most serious defect is the ingrained laziness that goes with it.

The enormous disparity in wages between town and
country tempts this destitute class into the towns, especially
Johannesburg, where they expect to find the streets paved
with gold, but where, of course, their want of skill leaves
them really worse off than before. Some are absorbed into
industry, but many are paupers, and many become the tools
of more actively disreputable and criminal persons, especially
as agents for the illicit sale of liquor to natives — a flourishing
industry on the Rand. Tlie migration is beginning to consti-
tute a serious danger to the State.

The fifth group is that of the invalided and mentally or
physically deg'enerate, who have to be dealt with by the same
methods as in other countries. About them I do not propose
to speak.

Apart from such jiroblems of poverty as are common to
all countries, the policy of the Government has hitherto been
directed almost exclusiA-ely, in the case of rural distress, to
alleviation by means of loans of land, stock or money. There
have been numerous attempts at establishing small rural
colonies, under supervision, and providing capital for the
colonists to start with. The usual result of this is that a

90 PEESIDKXTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E.

few settlers make good, aud in the end become substantial
farmers, while the majority linger on for varying periods,
lose all their new capital, and drift back into destitution.
These colonies may be regarded as an experiment which has
yielded some information, but the method is entirely wrong
and the scale of the operations hopelessly inadequate. The
latter point is clear, since the settlers are to be niimbered by
hundreds, while the poor whites of the country have been
estimated officially at something like 100,000. As to the
former point, the root-cause of the destitution to be met is
that the traditional agriculture of the country folk is not
suited to present-day conditions ; to base remedial measures on
it is sure to lead to failure — the poor whites do not know how
to make a living except with a large piece of land. The first
thing needed is to teach them new ways, and to train them
to work harder than they have done. I am glad to say that
the Department of Lands appears to have come round to this
view as a result of this experience.

One settlement deserves special mention^ — that at
Kakamas, on the Orange Eiver. It was instituted by the
Dutch Reformed Church, on the traditional lines, so far as its
economic aspect is concerned, but the authorities of the
Church, owing to the influence they exercise on the Dutch
Africander population, have been able to exert a fatherly
control over the settlers. The result has been favourable — the
settlers have been trained in habits of industry, and the
proportion of successes has been considerably greater than in
the Government colonies. But the history of the settlement,
which is an old one, carries a most important lesson — a new
generation has grown up there, and many of the younger men
are finding themselves in the very situation from which the
colony rescued their parents — that is, there are too many of
them to live on the area available.

It seems plain that the great majority of the destitutes
cannot become successful independent farmers. They must
go through the stage of working for wages, and then better
their status if they are able to. Hence legislative efforts
should aim at training them to be good agricultural labourers
in the first place.

This, however, leads at once to the problem of the rela-
tions between whites and blacks. Wages of white farm
labourers are, as we have seen, miserably low, but in the
opinion of most progressive farmers they are as high as the
labour is worth. IN^atives can be obtained in large numbers
at about the same wage, and it is doubtful which makes the
better workman. The natives are usually more industrious
and, perhaps, more honest; the white man has more latent
ability, and his hope lies in the development of that. Only
quite slow improvement can be looked for, and policy must
be based uuon the liope of Dlacing the children in a better
position. Very little can be done at the best for the majority
of the destitute whites of the present generation, but if their
children can be well trained in favourable circumstances their
racial superiority will show itself, and they may be able to

PKKSIDEXTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. 91

maiutaiii tliemselves by work of a higher kind than the native
can accomplish.

I say " may be able," for the prospects are far from clear
in any case, and how far the Government is from graspino- the
needs of the situation may be judged from this : It has recently
been felt that no progress could be made unless powers were
obtained to segregate the hopelessly unemployable and send
them to labour colonies under police supervision. A Bill w^as
drafted, and one of its provisions empowered the" Government
to send such persons to labour colonies with their wives and
children ! Is it possible to imagine a more utterly -misdirected
policy than to send children to a penal colony because their
fathers are wastrels y

Policy must be held to include all classes of education,
and the attempts that are being* made to promote general
education in South Africa are creditable, especially in the
Transvaal, but much more might be done, especially with
regard to agricultural and industrial teaching. It is especially
desirable to dispel the notion which the South African
countrj'man holds — that he knows all that there is to be
known about agriculture.

But whilst there is some improvement in this respect, the
natives are not standing still. Their education, except in Cape
Colony, has been shamefully neglected by the Government ;
but they are quick to learn, and so appreciative of education
that they spend money on it themselves. And if they have
not acquired iuuch literary education yet, they get industrial
training from the nature of their work, for they are called
upon to do all kinds of work under the supervision of white
artisans, and so get the opportunity of acquiring skill as
mechanics, builders' workmen, miners, etc. Of my personal
impressions of South Africa, none is more marked than the
advance noticeable among tlie Kaffirs during' the fifteen years
that I have known the- country. Tliey are coming', moreover,
to learn their economic importance, and one feels that it will
not be possible for long to maintain the policy of repression
which the former Republican Government adopted, and which
has not yet been definitely modified.

We are now prepared to discuss, on broader lines, the
future of a country whose population is one-fiftli of European
and four-fifths of Kaffir origin. The present conditions can
only, as we have seen, be looked upon as transitory and
unstable; we may, for the sake of clearer thinking, first make
a list of the ultimate possibilities. These are (1) that the
white race should continue to grow and colonise, and gradu-
ally drive the Kaffir race into other countries ; (2) that the
Kaffirs should advance so much as to create a situation
economically impossible for the whites, gradually driving
away the latter, except for a small governing class such as is
found in India now ; (3) that the two races should be effectively
segregated in different districts of South Africa, and agree to
leave each other alone there ; (4) that they should mix to form
a population which, while not actually homogeneous, would be
divided by no insuperable colour line, but would permit of
free dift'usion between classes.

92 I'EESIDENTIAL ADDRKSS SECTION l".

The first two alternatives may be ruled out. A " White
South Africa '" has been talked a1)out, but as the natives show
no sign of dying out — and, indeed, are increasing fast in
numbers — it coukl only be accomplislied by forcible migration
of some five million natives, which would be outside ail
practical politics. Xor is it to be expected that the emigration
of natives should come about because they could not stand the
economic competition of Europeans — it is much more likely to
be the other way about. But the second alternative is hardly
more likely than the first. The white people already amount
to a nation in numbers and self-consciousness; most of
them were born in the country, and know no other; they
certainlj^ would not give up their country to the Kaffirs
without armed struggles, unless, indeed, they were to find the
conditions of life so difficult for several generations that the
birth-rate dropped almost to zero. Such a suggestion may well
seem absurd when one thinks of the vigorous Africander race
of to-day.

We come then to segregation as a policy that cannot be
dismissed quite so curtly. Nevertheless, to carry it out
effectiveh' would be a heroic policy beyond the power of any
statesman. The natives are so thoroughly incorporated in the
industries of South Africa that to exclude them and rec^uire
them to live in certain districts, while the Europeans lived in
others, would revolutionise the country. The work could not
be carried on without them until a new population of unskilled
labourers had been introduced to take their place, and this
could only be done in opposition to all the immediate interests.
Not only do manufacturers and farmers employ natives, but
the white workmen are used to being supervisors of native
labour. A segregation policy might in the end be to the
collective advantage of the white working classes, but the
immediate effect would almost certainly be a reduction in
wages, since employment would have to be found for so many
more whites. But if nearly all the voters in the country found
that a segregation policy would be contrary to their personal
interests, what chance has it of being carried out, however
beneficial we may think its ultimate consequences would be^

A policy of segregation in a limited way — dealing with
land ownership only — was inaugurated by tlie Government by
a law passed in 1913. Certain areas are set aside in which
only natives may own or lease ground, and they are forbidden
to own or lease ground elsewhere. There is, of course,
nothing to prevent their living elsewhere, as, e.g., the mine
workers do. This law is directed against certain minor evils,
especially the custom of allowing natives to " scjuat *' on farms
that should be thrown open for proper cultivation by European
methods. It may effect some improvements, but there is no
prospect of its leading to any more thorough measure of
segregation ; and it is to be noted that the areas reserved for
natives are scattered throughout tlie country, so tliat their
formation does not constitute a step towards delimiting any
compact region intended to be for white occupants onlv.

If, then, no strenuous attempt at segregation is to be

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTIOX E. 93

expected, if the two races are to live side bj- side indefinitely,
racial mixture is, I think, inevitable. In the Transvaal,
Orange Free State and Xatal one is used to the contrast
between European and pure-bred natives, and at first sight
the boundary line seems one that there is neither risk nor
desire of passing, lint in the neighbourhood of Capetown (not
the whole of Cape Colony) there is no pure native population,
but a large proportion of half-castes — the so-called Cape
coloured people. These are useful citizens, who are well liked
in their own neighbourhood, and they tend, to some extent,
to inigTate to the other Provinces ; there is nothing- to keep
them from intermarrying, either with Europeans or with pure-
bred natives. Intermarriage may not be frequent, and it is true
that sentiment amongst the natives themselves is rather
against it. It takes place to some extent all the same, and
the Cape coloured people form a natural bridge between the
two sections of the population. The fact that they came into
existence, despite the strong feeling- against mixture between
the JSTorth European races and the natives, shows how unlikely
it is for the two races to live side by side without mixing.

The population described as " mixed and other coloured "
in the Cape Province grew', between the 1904 and 1911
censuses, by 15 per cent., whilst the total population grew by
6| per cent. In the three northern Provinces, where the
number of coloured people is still small, they grew bj^ 40 per
cent., while the total population grew by 23 per cent.

Where race mixture is frankly accepted, it comes as a
corollary that the humblest-born citizen may aspire, not,
perhaps, to the highest positions, but to an advance that will
usually satisfy him, and the less fortunately endowed members
of the superior race take up unskilled work, no doubt not
willingly, but without incurring the contempt of their own
people. The distinction of classes is like that, let us say, of
Engdand in the eighteenth century, not like that between
conqueror and slaves. In these circumstances, the special poor
white problem, due to the colour bar, does not exist.

If nij forecast of racial mixture in South Africa turns out
to be correct, it will, of course, not happen in our time.
It would take several generations to come about, and the
problems facing the country cannot be left to themselves in
the hope that they will disappear. The Government and people
are no less called upon to take energetic steps to deal with the
abnormal destitution among a large section of the white
inhabitants, as well as to provide the natives with opportunity
for the reasonable progress they are capable of.

Let us gdance at the statistics of population in South
Africa to see what light they may throw on these distant
possibilities. How thin the population is will be realised at
once from the figure of 13 to the square mile, which is the
average density, including all races. Clearly the country is
yet to make.

But a large part of it is very poor agriculturally, having a
small and uncertain rainfall. The western part is often known

04 PEKSID]-:>T1AL ADDRESS SFXTIO>' T.

as desert — the Kalahari — and the central part, known as the
Karroo, though much more fully occupied, is not xevy different
from the farming- point of view; they are both suitable for
grazing, but the number of sheep (n^ cattle that can be safely
carried is small, on account of the risk of drought. It may be
that in time, with the suitable provision for winter feeding
of animals, for deep ploughing and other new methods, the
productiveness of the country will be increased, but it is a
most striking fact that under the S5^stem now in vogue
considerable stretches of Central South Africa are replete with
iuhabitants. Although there are only one or two to the square
niile, not only is there no immigration, but increase in popula-
tion drives some of the inhabitants to emigTate to more fertile
districts in the neighbourhood. The area of the worst poverty
practically coincides with the area in which population fell
off between the censuses of 1904 and 1911. We thus find the
Malthusiau problem in an acute stage in a country far more
thinly peopled than the Highlands of Scotland.

In the Union as a whole, the proportion of whites — about
20 per cent. — showed no perceptible change between 1904 and
1911, the two races increasing at just about the same rate.
However, the registration of natives is not quite complete, and
as oversights were probably less at the later census than at
the earlier, this would make the natives appear to have a some-
what greater rate of increase than they really have. Their
birth-rate is moderately high, and they are a good deal aff'ected
bj' disease ; malaria is endemic, and the diseases that usually
follow contact with Europeans are rife. Still, the native races
are healthy enough to maintain themselves aud progress.
There was no immigration to speak of in the years immediately
preceding the war. The war period was, of course, abnormal,
but in view of the economic situation, and of the steady growth
of nationalist feeling, it does not seem likely that any
considerable emigration from England will take place in the
future — not enough, that is, to aff'ect the racial situation
much. The most important statistical feature, if it turns out
to be more than a temporary fluctuation, is that the white
birth-rate is falliug. In view of the war period, the figures
must be received with caution, but they actually show a fall
from above 32 in 1911 to below 28 per thousand in 1918 and
27 in 1919. A few more years should suffice to show how much
importance is to be attached to these figures. The death-rate
is low, and cannot be reduced much, if at all, further, so the
natural increase of ]3opulation is now tending to be less than
formerly, and it is not supplemented by immigration. Thus
there seems no prospect that South Africa will become any
more " white " than it is at present. If it is to become so, it
can only, I think, be by some deliberate act of policy on a
heroic scale.

If complete racial mixture is to be the future of South
Africa, we might look to Jamaica as an illustration of its fate.
There the whites constitute a small aristocracy, and there are
fifty coloured people for one white. But then the climate of
South Africa is much more favourable for Europeans than that
of Jamaica, so that the analogy breaks down.

PRKSIDKXTIAL ADDRKSS SKCTIOX I'. 95

Climatic considerations suggest a partition of the Union
of South Africa into two regions — one to the east, which is
favourable to the natives, where the European inhabitants are
mostly of English descent, and one to the west more favourable
to white settlement, and where at the present time the country
people are nearh* all of Dutch descent. The suggestion occurs
to one that the one area might be developed as a plantation
colony, with an English governing^ class, on English methods,
and the other gradually converted into a purely European
colony where Dutch ideals would have full scope for evolution.
The idea may seem fantastic, and certainly cannot be described
as belonging to practical politics: I throw it out as a sugges-
tion for what it is worth.

Remembering, however, the immediate problem of how
the white and black races in contact are to attain satisfactory
economic relations with one another, I would venture to close
with an aphorism — that a country will, in tlie end, belong to
the people who do its work.

THE NITRUGEX PROBLEM

r»y J. A. WiLKixsox. M.A..

Professor of Cheinistrij , Uniccrsitij CoUefjc. JoJuni neshin (/.

Pnhlic Lecture, deJirered <>ii the ereuiitu of J u] ij lil. 1920.

The birth of tliis Association, under whose tegis we meet
to-night, took place in the year in which peace was restored To
this land after three years of strenuous war. I'lie development
of the country up to this period had proceeded slowly, but the
exploitation of the rich gold and diamond deposits gave the
spur to a lively interest from without and quickened activity
within for the sake of the wealth thus revealed. The heritage
of the conflict in which South Africa was engaged in the open-
ing years of this century may be stated in broad terms as the
gradual acknowledgment by the community that the time had
arrived for its evolution as a State and the utilisation of its
resources for the benefit of its peoples. The partial consumma-
tion of this idea took place in 1910, when the four southern
Provinces were welded into T^nion Its scientific evolution,
which this xlssociation was founded to assist, und has indeed
fostered to a remarkable degree, has hitherto seen its greatest
triumphs, on the one hand, in the establishment and rapid
development of facilities for the higher education of its citizens,
such as obtain in the older countries of the world, and. on the
other, in the foundation by the Government of scientific and
technical departments devoted to specialised branches of

* Illustrated by lantern slides specially prepared by the author.

96 THE XITEOGEX PROBLEM.

et-oiioiuic study. The early stages of this evolution have been
marked by a steady progress, as the pages of onr Journal can
prove, but at the commencement of any new work much labour
of a routine character is unavoidable. before Ave can place our-
selves in the front line with the scientific workers in older
countries, happy in the heritage of its accomplishment by those
who blazed the trail before them. During this period, whilst
we have been setting our house in order, great achievements
have been made in science in all its branches, and I shall
venture to-night to direct your attention for a brief moment
to one of the greatest of these, whether viewed from the
academic, commercial or national standpoint, namely, the
chemical problem of the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, the
v-uccessful solution of whi(di has already proved of the most
profound significance, botli during the r)iping times of peace
and in the tempestuous struggles of the late war.

The Nitrogen Problem.
It has long been known to the farming community that
in the rotation of crops it was distinctly beneficial to include
a leguminous species, but the reason for this procedure was
not forthcoming until the researches of AVarington, and later
of Winogradsky, had explained the function of the enlarged
nodules found on the roots of these plants, namely, the bacterial
transmission of aerial nitrogen in compound form to the soil.
Again, the physiological chemist divides the foodstuffs which
maintain our existence into five well-known classes, one only
of these containing the element nitrogen, namely, the proteins.
Further, it has been i)roved by numerous experiments that, in
the absence of this particular class m a diet, life soon ceases,
thus establishing the fact that the element nitrogen is a neces-
sity for the maintenance of life. About the middle of last
century, Liebig, Lawes, Gilbert and others proved that for the
fullness of groAvth plants must be grown on a soil containing a
sufficiency of the elements nitrogen, potassium and i^hosphorus
in such form as to be easily assimilated by the roots. In virgin
soils, such as are to be found in all new countries, these com-
pounds exist in greater or less measure, but with cultiA'ation the
soil soon becomes exhausted and consequently unfertile. To
lemedy this defect with respect to the element nitrog^en, the
supijlies of saltpetre found in Chili were utilised, and this
substance proved to be excellent for the purpose. In addition
to this, the residual nitrogen found in coal, which is obtained
in the form of ammonia when this substance is destructively
distilled, has been utilised for this purpose since the early
'nineties to an increasing extent.

These two substances, sodium nitrate and ammonium
sul])hate, were the only artificial nitrogenous manures available
at the beginning of this century. In 1898 the late Sir William
Crookes drew the attention of chemists to tlie fact that the
available supplies of these two fertilisers were insufficient to
meet the demands whi(di would be created by the food require-
ments of the expanding population of the world ; at the same
time he drew attention to the oceans of free nitrogen present

TTIK NITROGEN PROBLEM. 97

ill tlie •atmosphere, wliicli plants, except tlie one family men-
tioned, were incapable of using-. In tins connection it is worth
noting' that twenty million tons of free nitrog-en have been
estimated to exist over every square mile of the earth's surface,
an amount sufficient, according" to the late Sir William
Ramsay, to afford plant food for over 38,000 years at the
present rate of consumption. The quantities of available
nitrogen from the Chili deposits and coal carbonisation were
such that they would in a relatively short period of time prove
insufficient to meet the demand created. ( )n the other hand,
the use of nitric acid and nitrates, particularly in the manufac-
ture of explosives, was also increasing-, thus decreasing- the
supply- available for plant nutrition, and other sources of these
compounds were, comparatively speaking', neg'lig-ible.

The problem wliidi therefore presented itself was the
conversion of this atmospheric nitrog-en into a form capable of
transference to the soil for utilisation by growiiig- plants, more
especially wheat. This is now known as the nitrogen problem,
and its solution forms one of the g-reatest achievements of this
century. The methods by which this has been accomplished
are as follows : — ^

1. Direct union with oxygen, forming nitric peroxide, and
solution of this in water, yielding- nitric acid and its salts. This
is effected by the agency of the electric^ arc, the processes in
commercial use being (a) the Birkeland-Eyde ; (b) the
Schoiiherr; (c) the Pauling.

2. Direct union -uith hydrogen, forming ammonia, and
solution of this in aqueous solutions of acids, yielding
ammonium salts, or oxidation to nitric acid, and formation of
ammoniam nitrate. This is effected by catalytic action at high
temperatures and pressures on the pure mixed gases. The
commercial process is known by the name of Professor Haber,
Avho successfully investigated the equilibrium of the reaction.

-.1. Eeaction with metallic carbides, forming cj'anamide
and carbon, the commercial process being known by the name
of the first product mentioned.

4. Union with metals, forming nitrides, which are then
decomposed, yielding- ammonia and its salts. These processes
are still in tiie experimental stage, the most promising being
tliat of 0. Serpek, which consists in heating bauxite with
carbon to about 1,800° C. and subsequent decomposition of the
aluminium nitride thus produced by steam or an. aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide, yielding ammonia and alumina,
which is stated to be of sufficient purity for the preparation of
the metal by electrolysis.

5. Conversion into sodium (-yanide by heating a mixture
of soda ash and carbon with finely divided iron as catalyst to
about 950° C. and passing nitrogen or air through the mass.
The cyanide is lixiviated out with water and dried. It is then
melted and air passed through, thus yielding- cyanate, which
is heated with water to obtain the bicarbonate and ammonia.
This process is due to Professor J. F. Buchei and has n^t-j^-et,
been worked on the large scale. /''a^^^'4/

<

LIBRARY' ^

3^1

98 THE XITEOGEX TEOBLEM.

6. Conversion into the oxides of nitrogen by tlie explosion
of a combustible gas with air, and absorption of these gases by
water as in the first process. This is known as the Hiiusser. or
explosion, process, and has been worked on a small scale with
some success, using coke oven gas with air and exploding the
mixture in stationary bombs. If employed as a method of
producing power as well as nitric acid, the cost of the latter
would compare more than favourably with the products
obtained by the synthetic processes mentioned before, and the
scheme is therefore one which invites further experiment, in
spite of the great cost of the absorption plant which would be
required for the very low concentration of nitric oxides
obtained.

In addition to these, a large number of other processes
have been proposed, but serious attempts have not l)een made
to work them out commercially, and they are therefore for the
moment, so to speak, of academic interest only. The case is
otherwise with those specificallj' mentioned above, since the
first three processes are, commercially speaking, large pro-
ducers; and with regard to the last three, small plants are in
operation with a view to overcoming the difficulties incident to
large-scale production at a later stage. A brief account of the
methods used in the above processes, the character aiid amounts
of the products obtained and the factors needful for their
successful operation may not be considered out of place here.

1 a.— The Birlehind-Ej/de Process (1903).

This has the merit of being the first nitrogen fixation
process to meet with commercial success, having been intro-
duced in 1903, when large works were first erected at IVotoddeu,
in Norway, power being transmitted at 10.000 volts from the
Svaelgfos Power Station, three miles away, on the Tyn River,
where there is an effective height of fall of about 140 feet. Air
is driven at the rate of approximately 2 cubic metres (TO cubic
feet) per minute through a flame disc at a temperature of
2.000° C. to 3.000° C. produced by electro-magnetic deviations
of an electric arc. The electrode^ are made of thick copper
tubing and are water cooled. The diameter of the flame disc
is between two and three yards. By this meaJis a product is
obtained containing about Ih per cent, of nitric oxide. The
gases leave the furnace at a temperature of 800° to 1,000° C.
and are passed into boilers where the temjierature is reduced to
150° to 200° C, the heat being utilised to raise steam, to con-
centrate the final products, and for other purposes. They next
pass to the coolers, which consist of aluminium tubes cooled
externally by cold flowing water, and tlience to the oxidation
tanks, vrhich consist of vertical iron cylinders lined with acid-
proof stone. Here the nitric oxide combines with the
unconverted oxygen to form the peroxide. The cooled gases
are then forced through a series of granite absorption towers,
in which the peroxide is dissolved out by means of water, which
is used in the last tower but one of the series, the weak nitric
acid produced being then pumped to the top of the next tower
nearer the oxidation tanks, and so on. the gas and the solvent

THE NITEOGEX PROBLEM. 99

thus passing" in opposite directions. The gases, before being"
finally restored to the atmosphere, are made to pass up a tower
down which a weak solution of soda is passed.

■ The final products obtained in the absorption system are
nitric acid of a concentration about 35 per cent., and in the last
to'v\er sodium or calcium nitrite and nitrate. Formerly, the
nitric acid obtained was neutralised by flowing on to limestone
contained in granite vats, a watery solution of calcium nitrate
being thus obtained, which was afterwards concentrated in
vacuum evaporators to a certain strength and then poured over
steam cylinders for final solidification. The salt thus produced
was found to be deliquescent and the basic nitrate was then
manufactured, but this also was abandoned in favour of the
manufacture of concentrated nitric acid. By these means
about 95 per cent, of the oxidised nitrogen passed through the
system is recovered in practice. The fundamental reactions
which take place are : —

(a) In the flame disc, N", + 0o^=52 NO.

(b) After cooling- the exit gases,

2 K'O + Oo 600^- 2 XOa li^- NX)^.

(c) Absorption by water, 2 NO. + H.O— --HXO. + HNO,.

(d) Subsequent oxidation, 2 HNO, + 0, = 2 HXO3.

As shown in the equations, these reactions are reversible,
and the dynamics of the process has been studied theoretically
with useful results, by passing air into a platinum globe
heated to a high temperature in an electric furnace, and after
equilibrium had been attained cooling quickly by passing the
gases through a capillary tube and then analysing. The
concentration of nitric oxide at various temperatures was thus
obtained, both by experiment and calculation, as also its rate
of formation and decomposition, which afforded valuable data
for the conduct of operations on the large scale. By increasing
the volume of oxj^gen in the mixture until it was equal to that
of the nitrogen, the concentration of the nitric oxide was
increased, as also by decreasing^ the rate of flow through tlie'
heated globe, but in practice these have not been adopted
generally.

Ih.—The l^chonhrr Process (1907).

This differs from the above only in the type of furnace
used, which consists of a vertical cylinder 23 feet high lined
with refractory brick, inside which is an iron tube about
five to six inches in diameter containing an insulated electrode
at one ^vA, the tube itself serving as the second electrode.
Air is introduced into this tube with a tangential or rotary
motion, and the arc which is formed between the insulated
electrode and the adjacent tube is thus drawn out to a length
of six to seven yards. The gases leave at the upper end at a
temperature of about 2,000° C, and are cooled by a water
jacket placed round the arc tube near the top, and, secondly,
by being made to heat the incoming air. The furnace requires
about 40,000 to 50,000 cubic feet of air per hour, and is

100 THE NITROGEN PROBLEM.

generally constructed for 600 to 1,000 kilowatts. Compared
with the Birkeland-Eyde furnace, it is much smaller, and a
larger installation is therefore required to give the same
output. On the other hand, the apparatus is simjjle, durable
and comparatively inexpensive. Tlie further treatment of the
nitrogen oxides and the final products obtained are the same
as in the former process.

1 c. — The Pauling Process.

In this arcs are employed, which are produced between
two electrodes curved like those of the so-called horn lightning
arresters, the air being blown through and along them from
the parts of the electrodes which are nearest together, the
minimum distance being large enough to allow of the air
passing through. TJie preheated air current is blown over the
arc in such a manner that it passes along the whole length of
the electrodes, which are made of iron and are water cooled.
Cooling of the exit gases is effected by passing cold air into
the upper part of the flame from the side at a slower rate
than the main air current, wliich has the effect of broadening
the flame. Two arcs are contained in one furnace, and for a
400-kilowatt furnace 600 cubic metres of air are used per
hour. The gases leave the furnace at a temperature of 800° C.
In 1909 it was stated that 60 grams of nitric acid were
produced per kilowatt hour by this process, which was first
established on the large scale at Patsch, near Innsbruck, in
Tyrol, and afterwards at La Eoche de Eame, Hautes Alpes,
France. The furnaces are ^im])le in construction, about
3ft. by 4ft. in horizontal section and 10ft. liigh, and about
600 to 1,000 kilowatt capacity. The air is preheated before
entering the furnace by utilising the heat of the gases leaving
the furnace, and this is also utilised to concentrate the acid,
which is marketed as such or may be neutralised to form salts.

/ (1 . — The Moscicici Process.

This has been worked hitherto on a semi-commercial scale
and differs from those previously mentioned in the method of
obtaining the flame. Two concentric ring electrodes are used,
the arc passing from one ring to another in a radial direction
and being magnetically deviated as in the Birkeland-Eyde
process, which causes it to revolve continuously arf)uncl in the
annular space between the rings, hence tlie designation which
has been given to this, namely, tlie revolving flame metliod.
It is stated to liave given a yield of 60 grams nitric acid per
kilo'\\att hour and to be well adapted for direct current o^^jera-
tion, It has, however, now been discontinued.

In addition to tlie simple reactions already stated to occur
when air is passed through an arc flame, there are others
which militate against a complete theoretical extraction of the
oxides of nitrogen produced. The gas wliich leaves the oxida-
tion tanks for the absorption system consists of 98' 5 to 99 per
cent, of air and 1 to T5 per cent, of the mixed oxides of
nitrogen from XO to XoOf which when dissolved in water
yield nitrous and nitric acids. In the absorption towers other

THK NITROGKX PROBLEM. 101

reactions take place — e.g., the decomposition of the iiitrons
acid yieldini^" nitric oxide,

3 HNO, > HNO3 + 2 XO + H3O.

The NO thus produced must be reoxidised by nitric peroxide
or oxygen or lost. If reoxidised it is possible that a mixture
of nitric oxide and peroxide acting- as jSTjOg may be produced,
which is caught by the alkali wash of the last tower yielding
sodium nitrite — in fact, the salt obtained from this tower is a
mixture of the nitrite and nitrate, in which the former
predominates.

These arc processes depend commercially on a cheap and
abundant supply of electric energy, since only 3 to 4 per cent,
of the electric energy is used in effecting' the union of the
nitrogen M-ith the oxygen ; also, owing to the low concentra-
tion of XO, the oxidation and absorption systems must be
large and therefore costly. The total cost of electrical energy
per kilowatt year at Svaelgfos and Notodden is the smallest in
the world, being about tliirteen to fourteen shillings, as com-
pared with i)Ounds in this country.

II.— The Haher Process (1910-13).

The reaction of nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia
gas has been known for a long time, as also the fact that the
amount of ammonia thus formed is very small. Xernst and
Jost in 1907 examined this reaction, using a pressure of
50 atmospheres, and at a temperature of 700° C, with
manganese as a catalyst, obtained a concentration of less than
1 per cent. Haber and le Rossiguol a little later studied the
reaction at higher pressures, and with osmium as catalyst
obtained an 8 per cent, concentration. The l^adische Anilin
and Soda Fabrik then took up the process, and made it a com-
mercial success, at the same time undertaking researches to
discover cheaper catalytic reagents. The nitrogen is obtained
by the fractional distillation of liquid air, and the hydrogen
by that of liquid water gas, freed from carbon dioxide before
liquefaction. Very little has been published regarding this
process other than the scientific researches of Haber and
le Rossignol, which showed that the most favourable working-
conditions were a pressure of between 100 to 200 atmospheres
and a temperature of about 500° C. This gives on the large
scale a 5 to 6 per cent, concentration for one passage of the
g'ases. From a chemical engineeiring point of view, such
conditions were abnormally severe, more especially when
dealing' with a gas such as hydrogen. Tliat they have, how-
ever, been successfully overcome is now a matter of common
knowledge.

On leaving' tJie furnace where the conversion takes place,
the mixed nitrogen, hydrogen a ad ammonia are passed into a
refrigerating oi- al>sorption system, wliere the ammonia is
liquefied or absorbed, the residual gases being returned to
the system. The catalyst in commercial use is believed to be
a specially prepared form of iron containing a minute quantity
of potash. It is very easilj^ poisoned, and must therefore be

102 THE NITROGEN PEOBLEM.

carefully prepared and protected, which necessitates the
purification, in the first instance, of the gases used. The first
cost and maintenance of the plant used is large, and the
preparation and purification of the gases, especially hydrogen,
are also costly items, but, in spite of these, ammonia can be
produced at a cheaper rate by this process than in any other
way. The ammonia obtained may be marketed as such or
treated with acids to form salts or oxidised by means of air
to form nitric acid and then ammonium nitrate.
III. — The C yananude Process.

In 189-1: calcium carbide was produced on the large scale
by the process discovered independently by Moissan anfl
Wilson. In the following year Frank and Caro, in attempting
to prepare potassium cyanide for gold extraction by the
Macarthur-Forrest process, passed nitrogen over barium
carbide mixed with soda heated to 700° C. to 800° C, and
found that about 30 per cent, of barium cyanide was formed
and, in addition, 45 per cent, of barium cyanamide. When
the price of cyanide fell owing to the Boer War, they used the
cheaper calcium compound, and observed that cyanamide alone
was formed. This substance, when treated with water, yielded
ammonia, and after some nreliminary trials quickly found
extensive use as a fertiliser under the name nitrolime or
lime nitrogen. At first, however, ammonium sulphate Avas
prepared from it by placing it on trays in a tower up whicli
steam was passed, tbe ammonia set free being subsequently
dissolved in sulphuric acid. At high pressures this reaction
with steam is almost quantitative, and is stated to give a
95 per cent, efficiency on the large scale.

The raw materials used in this process are lime, coke and
nitrogen — substances which can be obtained in abundance and
plenty. This, coupled with the fact that the raw product can
be used directly as a fertiliser, and also that the power require-
ments are small, has made this the most popular form of
nitrogen fixation, large factories being established in France,
United States of America, Canada, Italy, Scandinavia and
Japan, as well as in Germany. The nitrogen is now almost
universalh' obtained by distilling liquid air according to the
inventions of Claude and Linde, based on the dift'erences of
the boiling points of nitrogen -196° C, air -194° C, and
oxygen -188° C. The nitrogen so obtained is guaranteed not
to contain more than ()-4 per cent, oxygen, and this small
amount has caused no difficulty in practical working. It may
be mentioned also that this method of obtaining on the large
scale the gases of the atmosphere in liquid form and separating
their constituents by fractionation is also one of the notable
achievements of this century, based primarily on the
researches of Professor Andrews on carbon dioxide in 1869,
which first provided tjie key for the solution of the problem.
He proved that all gases must be reduced in temperature lielow
a certain point, known as the critical temperature, and when
this Avas done pressure alone would serve to bring about the
change to the liquid state. As a result of this discovery all
known gases were reduced to lic|uids on a laboratory scale,

THK XITEOGEX PROBLEM. 10-'^

the last being- helium, which was liquefied in 1908 by
Professor Kamerliugh Dimes at the University of Ley den.
Linde and Claude worked out tlie problem of their large scale
manufacture, and so provided a most convenient and suitable
method for procuring- the necessary nitrog-en from the
atmosphere. What this means will be realised from the fact
that at Niagara 2,000,000 cubic feet of nitrogen are required
and obtained per day. Lime is prepared by the usual method
of burning limestone in kilns, mechanical arrangements of the
most modern type being* installed for charging', discharging-
and grinding to ensure economical working.

Coke is manufactured from coal, the gaseous distillate
being also utilised in the lime kilns, or, if the old copper
method of obtaining nitrogen from the air be in use, in the
reduction of the oxide formed. The lime and coke are then
burnt in large electric furnaces of 10 to 20 tons capacity,
working with a low voltage and high amperage to form a higii-
grade calcium carbide, which is tapped from the furnaces at
regular intervals into trays and allowed to cool in a current
of air. The material, containing- about 80 per cent, pure
carbide, is then ground to a fine powder in a gas-tight
apparatus filled with nitrogen, an operation otherwise not
unattended with danger owing to the explosive power of
carbide dust, and is then placed in the cyanamide ovens of one
to two tons capacity, heated electrically, and nitrogen passed
in. Great care has to be exercised in this operation, since the
reaction is reversible and strongly exothermic, which necessi-
tates but little electric energy to keep t]ie temperature up to
800° C. to 1,000° C. required^ After 80 to 40 hours the hard
cake of cyanamide is removed, cooled, and then ground to a
fine powder in an atmosphere of nitrogen in rock-breaking
machines.

To prepare it as a fertiliser, it is partly slaked to ensure
decomposition of any carbide which has been left undecom-
posed, then stored in silos until ready for packing and trans-
portation. In addition to its use as a direct plant food,
cyanamide is also used for case hardening- iron goods, as a
source of ammonia, and, when heated with a flux such as soda
or common salt, for the preparation of crude cyanide. In the
production of ammonia the reaction is carried out in steel
autoclaves of 1,000 cubic feet capacity almost filled with water
or alkali solution, the cyanamide being run in as a fine powder
with vigorous stirring, after which superheated steam is
admitted up to four atmospheres pressure. Since the reaction
itself is exothermic, the evolution of ammonia soon commences,
and the steam ammonia mixture given off is rectified, yielding
an aqueous solution of ammonia of great purity.

Although the reaction between calcium carbide and
nitrogen appears simple when written down as an ordinary
chemical equation, CaCo + Nj ^N.Ca.ClST. + C, several investi-
gators, including Professor Haber, have attempted to
determine the conditions of equilibrium at varying- tempera-
tures and pressures without success. Pure carbide does not
react, according to Moissan, with nitrogen, whereas the

104 TIIK XITROGEX rKOliUQU.

teclinical operation proceeds smoothly, the impurities therefore
acting- catalytically. Calcium chloride has proved to be a
most efficient catalyst, the reaction velocity being markedly
increased and the temperature lowered to TOU° C

As has alreadj' been stated, the substances prepared and
commercially marketed by the above three synthetic processes
were, in the first instance, intended to supplement the yield
of nitrogenous fertilisers, the sodium nitrate obtained from the
Chili fields and the ammonium sulphate, which was won as a
by-product when coal was carbonised in gas, shale, iron and
coke oven works and in the manufacture of producer gas. The
outbreak of the European War in 1914, however, necessitated
the use of an enormous quantity of explosives, in which
nitrogen jjroducts became of overwhelming importance,
chiefly in the form of nitric acid, for the preparation of nitro-
cellulose and nitro-aromatic derivatives, such as tri-nitro-
toluene, lyddite, tetra-nitro-aniline, nitro-naphtlialene, etc.,
and, in the later stages of the war, ammonium nitrate, which
was the chief ingredient of the am^ional used by the Allies
and donarit used by the enemy.

In its first stages the Allies, owing to command of the
sea, were able to satisfy their requirements by direct importa-
tion from Chili, but this was denied to the Germans, who were
therefore compelled to rely solely upon synthetic nitrogen.
The commercial realisation of the Haber process took place in
1913, and it is noteworthj^ in this connection that German
capital which had been invested in the Schonherr process was
withdrawn at this period, probably owing to their faith in the
new process, a faith which, as the sequel will show, was not
misplaced. The production of ammonia alone, however, would
have been of little assistance from the military point of view,
since the nitrogen was required in the form of concentrated
nitric acid. This substance could be, and was, obtained in
small quantity from the Norwegian arc process factories, but
concurrently with the investigations of Professor Haber into
the ammonia reaction, Professor Ostwald undertook a study of
the oxidation of ammonia by means of air in the presence of
catalysts. That this proved successful is now only too well
known, since the commercial realisation of the Haber-Ostwald
ammonia oxidation processes enabled Germany to prolong the
war to an extent which would otherwise have been, practically
speaking, impossible, since this material is easily by far the
most important munition of modern warfare.

It will be seen, therefore, that these processes have a
significance and value as great in times of war as in those of
peace, and owing to this fact have already attained an import-
ance of a trulv national character, in that the Governments of
the Fnited Kingdom and the ITnited States appointed strong
Commissions to investigate the problem and formulate such
measures as were necessary to safeguard the nation, both n\
peace and war, and render it self-supporting in this regard
in the same manner in which Germany had accomplished this
before war was declared. The increased output of these
processes under the stress of war is shown in the following

THE NITROGEN PROBLEM. 105

table, wliicli was prepared by the English Commission, known
as the N"itrogen Products Committee : — ■

PRODUCTION IX METRIC TONS.

Norwegian Arc. Processes

l'.tl8. 1914. l'.)\r>. 19U;. 1917.

Ca and Ammonium Nitrates 80.031 87,135 ().5,068 105.610 99,490

Haber Process (in terms of

Ammonium Sulphate) ... (30,00o) (G0,00u) (150,000) (300,00o) (500,000)

Cjanamide (156,944) (194,726) (771,155) (981,500) — .'—

The figures given in brackets indicate the estimated
productive capacity. The Haber process has not yet been
installed outside Germany. In addition to this, Germany
possesses large by-product ammonia and cyanamide plants.
The intensive utilisation of these factories enabled that country
to provide both the fertiliser for the wheat crops as well as
the nitric acid for the unorecedented amounts of explosives
which were used in the four and a half years of uninterrupted
warfare.

The rapid development of these synthetic processes when
compared with existing nitrogen industries is shown in the
following table given by the Committee in terms of fixed
nitrogen : —

1914.

1918,

M. Tons.

7o

M. Tons.

7o

Chili Nitrate

... 418,000

53

465.000

41-4

Bj-Product Ammonia

288,000

36-6

340,000

30 3

89-6 71-

Arc Processes

10,000

1-3

27,000

2-4

Haber Process

12,000

1-5

100,000

8-6

Cyanamide Process

60,000

7 6
10-4

190,000

170
28-3

The costs of production (Table A) have also been worked
out under English conditions, and are interesting as showing
that the Haber process compares favourably in this respect
with all other existing processes ; at the same time, owing to
the purity of the ammonia produced, it is particularly adapted
to the preparation of nitric acid or amnnmium nitrate.

The research and experimental work done by the British
Government during the war was undertaken with a view to
the commercial establishment of a synthetic process in
England, but this had not been accomplished when the
Armistice was signed in 1918. The work, however, is not to
be lost to the country, as a company, called " Synthetic
Ammonia and Nitrates, Limited," has just been formed to
take over from the Government the plant for the manufacture
of nitrogen products from air and to develop this manufacture
on the commercial scale. The method to be employed is a
modification of the Haber process, as improved by the results

106

THE >-ITROGEX PROBLEM.

^ p.
S o

_ O '^

O
I— I

H
O
P
Q
O
PQ

O
02

H

o

5 «

>'< 53

^ S

% I

O ^

M o

r^

W

OD

r/.'

ni

^

o

c

ai

'jx"

fM

~-

o ..

^. -^

o

Q

02

§1

o

a

o
Pi

Ph

Q
I ^

! -^

1 -.1

■. >^

o

x/i

P5o

<J O

P5

« -f

o Pi

^

-72 Pi

3 o

o

1— 1

3 ^^ ^-

o

o

o

=^ o CO

CO

S
S

c3

c

i^

cS •

o

<l

-O

L.I 1 "

o

o

■o

o

00 [pro

CD
>

o

o

o

•-^ o" 1

o

Pi

Ph

mmoni
rude [2

0

oncd. [

o

^ fee

3 .5

Pi

<tj o o

p^

9-2

O >

ic bc-t

S t^ o ^
t~ w ,—

S ^ >-i 'o
43 cs o o

:i 3 a
■S jc •- f-

i; 5: =

I. cS

a;

2^

Pi

to

^ OQ 2

Ph .S 9
^ '^ '5

0) ^ p

cj S S

^■s

r-i; :«

SPM

^

0

la g

Pm

aS

^

eS OJ

^;^

1^

0

02

S H

THE NITROGEN PHOBLKM. 107

of the researches indicated above, and it is stated that the
eoinpauy intend to erect immediately a phmt for the manu-
facture of 100 tons of 100 per cent, ammonia per day, with
provision for a rapid extension to 300 tons a day, equal to
150,000, rising- to 450,000, tons of sulphate per annum. With
the successful establishment of such a plant, England will in
future be free from the menace of being- dependent on other
countries for her nitrogen needs and requirements.

In examining- the case for this country, it is necessary, in
the first place, to study the importation of nitrogen compounds,
which are shown in Table B for the last decade-
Inspection of this table shows at a glance the enormous
amount of sodium nitrate imported for the manufacture of
nitro explosives for mining- purposes, and of cyanides for the
extraction of gold. If we include also the imports of manu-
factured explosives, it will be seen that, compared with these
items, the rest are relatively insignificant, and the conclusion
mig'lit therefore be drawn that, outside the mining industry,
the nitrogen problem was a matter of no importance to this
country. Such an inference wouldj however, be unjustifiable
from the point of view of the expanding agricultural industries
of South Africa, which in a short time will demand large
supplies of nitrogenous fertilisers. The C{uestion therefore
naturally arises whetlier it will be possible to meet such a
demand and at the same time assist the explosives industries
by manufacturing" nitric acid within the country itself.

The only two possible sources of any consequence at
present known are the coal deposits (including shales) and the
nitrogen of the atmosphere. With regard to the former, as
I have shown elsewhere,* according to the most reliable
estimates obtainable, namely, those of the Union Goveimment
Mining Engineer, the resources of South Africa are small in
extent, forming only four-fifths of 1 per cent, of the world's
coal reserves, as against 2h per cent, in Great Britain, and at
the same time it must be remembered that the quality of
much of this coal is as yet unknown. At present the greater
bulk of the coal mined is burnt completely to ash for the
purpose of raising- steam and the nitrogen is not recovered.
There is one plant at Mount Xgwibi, near Vryheid, in T^atal,
in which coal is burnt to destruction in Mond producers to
obtain its nitrogen, in the form of ammonium sulphate, the
by-products not being utilised. These works have been in
existence three years, and up to the end of last year produced
about 8,500 short tons, so tha^- tlie total production at the same
rate up to the present would be approximately 10,000 short
tons, or 9,080 metric tons. In addition, there are four coal gas
works, but the amount of nitrogen products recovered is,
practically speaking, too small to be taken into account. iVt
the present moment, therefore. South Africa is compelled to
import nitrogen for manufacturing- purposes, that required for
agriculture being, as far as can be judged, small in amount.
In war, the country would in this respect be entirely dependent

*Cf. BuUcfln 28, Union Dept. of Industries.

108

THE >-ITROGEN PROBLEM.

.y~6

_

CO

X

^

_

r^

^

,^

Cl

Cl

-1-

-^

^

—

-.-

7^;

CC

X

X

.>-•

z<

re

Cl

l~

Cl

T3 M •

C C w

«-i:"o

" ^ c

'-C

CI

^-

X

O'

Cl

^.

X

10

•|3|

c-i

Cl

o

Cl

I —

^—

I"

1

Cl

to

--.

CI

~:

Cl

— _

1 -

•\

1

CO

'"v

= Ir S

^-

-^

-^

t-'

Cl

ci

T~^

,— ,

_ c

(M

t—

*—

--

f—

.9 =

C-.

CO

i~i

tc

l.*^

ce

(M

■6-0 o

1^1

Ci

cc

=o

%

a:

1

1

1

1

'X

ICI

c<r

d"

^

^-

'

'

'

0 ct

^ o i

^~'

(^

CS

10

E '

•-ii

■ S;

^

,—

CO

_

Cl

o 2

1

■ 1

1

1

1^

f— t

Cl

^—

CO

c;

EZ

'

1

'

1

IC

co^

of

'~^

<

2 u

3 Zl

■|j

CC'

CO

X

1^

CO

CJ

CO

I-

1—

Cl

^^

t^

*~

CO

Cl

O'

■— _

cc

c_

c^

1^

Ci

Itt

■•o__

^^

-•■^

E a

^-

1—1

^-

^-

cf

cf

<U

■? =

15

•^

~t-

-^

^-

cc

^

^

I-.

■0

c

IH

— H

■Ji

t-

—

^

l-^

-^

•^

^^

'■"v

■— ^

X

re

Cl

-r

c

Ci

l-

< g

-7*

LO

—

—

i^

to

ro

x

^-

■~

■^

E .

3 V

0-C

CO

CO

Cl

1

1

o

O'

CO

c%

0

I

1

E3

1

1

i

l^

-^.

t^

'-

X

1

1

£ S

.7.

ci

<-

V n

■ST3

2 o

ZTj

Cl

1

.rtrt

1

I

1

'■0

Cl

1

1

[

1

Z-o

.

cc

--^

■~ 2i

ic

o

•X

i^ 3

o

1^

^-

1

1

1

1

t

1

1

._ c

1

(M

ia'

»r:

'

'

'

<J

CI

CI

'M

.5-0

,^

_

~^

lO

t^

-+■

to

r^

Cl

t^

-r

iJ?

ci

l~

CO

Cl

t^

CC

0

<3V

S'c

Cl

— t-

^^

CO

Irt

Cl

CC'

iO

Cl

|u"

1^

lO

-f

CO

CC

CO

'-0

Ci

0

CO

CO

-t<

Cl

H-a

o

t^

ct

CO

tO'

— f«

Ci

CO

Ci

:|'S

1-^

CO

CO

-f<_^

0

cc

Ci^

Ci^

— ^

o >,

,»,

oT

in

10

ci

-^

»c'

Ci

Ci

t^

1^

c^

CO

C5

t^

0

■^

-Tl

0

Cl

CC

-*■

CO

CO

1-1

-f

CO

'^

^

3 ci

,_

Cl

^

-r

^H

1*

1— «

x-

-r

CO

"i 3 =

iCt

*o

-^

CO

^-

Cl

-1-

0

1^

iC

4J C '^

ci

IC

Ci^

>c

co^

-f

- n 3

CI

.^

CO"

ic"

cT

cf

00"

10"

co"

l-f

iC

r^

M

M

(M

^^

I^

1^

«o

0

z -

c,

^^

Cl

rj

IM

'"'

Cl

CO

Cl

CO

o

_

Cl

^

-t<

ira

CO

r^

'X

Ci

c;

s-

2

C-.

-

Ci

Ci

Ci

Ci

2

THE XITEOGEX I'KOBI.KM.

109

ou imported uitrate or nitric acid, as at present, except for the
works mentioned above^ where the ammonia recovered would
require an additional and costly plant to oxidise it to nitric
acid.

The other and h\ tar greater source of nitrogen com-
pounds is as yet untouched, but the success which has attended
the installation of synthetic nitrogen processes dependent on
cheap electric power naturally turns our thoughts to the only
source of water power in this country of any magnitude — the
beautiful Victoria Falls. The most reliable data concerning
this which I have been able to obtain are those given by the
recent survey undertaken by the Ehodesian Munitions
Committee, which, I believe, confirms the estimate of
500.000 available B.H.P. formerly made. That such an amount
of energy must remain indefinitely unutilised for the benefit
of the country is difficult of belief, but, on the other hand, it
should not be forgotten that, in comparison with the water
power available in other countries, it is not by any means
considerable in magnitude, as the following Table C compiled
by the Minister of the Interior of the Canadian Government
shows : —

Table C.

B.H.P. DEVELOPED

BH.P.
AVAILABLE.

COUNTRY.

IN

IN

B.H.P.

PER CENT.

N.S. America

28.100,000

7,000,000

249

Canada A. ...

18,80:-5,000

1,735.000

9-2

Canada B. ...

8,094,000

1.725.000

21-3

Austria-Hung-ary ...

6,460,000

566,000

8-8

France

5,587,000

1,100,000

11 -6

Norway

5,500,000

1,120,000

20-4

Spain

5,0()0,00t)

440.000

8-8

Sweden

4.500,000

704,000

15-6

Italy

4.000,000

976.000

24-4

Switzerland

2,000,000

511,000

25-5

Germany ...

1,425,000

618,100

43-4

Great Britain

1168.000

80.000

8-3

Though this is not the only chemical industry contingent
on water-power engineering, yet I cannot conceive of one more
fundamentally important to the country or one which would
confer greater benefits on the community. The sources of
energy with which South Africa is endowed from a commercial
point of view at the present moment are the coal reserves
and the water power of the Victoria Falls. Both these are,
when compared with the resources of other countries, small
in magnitude, and hence, in the interests of the country,
demand, from the standpoint of national economy, rational
and scientific utilisation, or, in otlier words, conservation in
the liighest degree. The only other source of energy witli
which the country is happily endowed in large measure is the

110 THK XI'J'ROGEX PROBLEM.

suji, wliicli finds its field of iiftioii also to so large an extent
in the vegetable kingdom.

Plants haA'e harnessed the sun, and are thus enabled to
bring about chemical processes and reactions of the most
unending variety and the most beautiful kind, compared with
which the methods of the laboratory are crude and unrefined.
By nourishing the plant within the soil from the boundless
stores of nitrogen in the air, we shall at least in one respect
effect tlie development of the land awaiting cultivation in this
country and give a spur to the utilisation of its real values.
Whether it will be possible to increase the potential of the
sun's energy, and thus obtain power of the intensity which is
usually associated with this word is for future iuA-estigation
and research. As is well known, serious attempts to solve
this problem have already been made. When it is achieved
South Africa will be rich indeed.

LIST OF PAPEES READ AT THE SECTIOIs^AL
MEETINGS.

Section A. — Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Meteo-
rology, Geodesy, vSurveying, Engineering, Architec-
ture AND Irrigation.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 14, 1920.

1. Presidential Address on " Recent Progress in Astronomy " bv

H. E. Wood, M.Sc.

TRUBSDAY, JULY 15.

2. The effect of high temperature and altitude of Aerodrome in the

taking off of Aeroplanes: P. G. Gundky, B.Sc, Ph.D.

3. A short note on Einstein's planetary equation : W. N. Roseveare,

M.A.

4. Rainfall and barometric variation in Bulawavo : E. Goetz, S.J.,

MA.

5. Note on a diagram showing the amount of available sunshine falling

on a horizontal surface on any day of the year at a given place
and showing also the sun's elevation and its time of rising and
setting. J. T. Mokkisox, M.A., B.Sc.

Section B. — ^Chemistry, Geology, Metallurgy, Miner.vlogy
AND Geography.

THUBSDAY, JULY 15.

1. Presidential Address on " Geology in relation to Mining " l)y

F. P. Mennell, F.G.S., M.I.M.M.

2. Bat Guano deposits of Rhodesia : E. V. Flack.

3. Some further factors influencing the solubility of Phosphoric Oxide

in mixed fertilisers containing superphosphates : E. V. Flack.

4. The geological section between Bulawavo and the Victoria Falls:

H. B. Maufe, B.A.

5. Karroo rocks in the Mafungabusi, Southern Rhodesia: A. J. C.

Molyneux, F.G.S.

6. On the volumetric determination of Phosphoric Oxide: B. de C.

MAIiCHAXD, B.A., D.Sc.

LIST OF rAl'EKS READ. Ill

SATUIWAY, JUI.Y 17.

7. Magnesia impregnated soils: G. N. Blackshaw, O.B.E., B.Sc.

8. Note on Kimberlite from the Belgian Congo: P. A. AVacixer. Ing.D.,

B.Sc.

9. Calibration of Gerber milk bntvrometers : C. 0. "Williams, B.Sc.

Sectiox C. — Botany, Bactekiologv, Agrictltuee and
Forestry.

FBIDAY, JULY 16.

1. Presidential Address on " Causes leading toward progressive evolu-

tion of the Flora of South Africa " by T. R. Sim, D.Sc.

THURSDAY, JULY 15.

2. Ericoid leaves: D. Thoday, M.A.

.1 Hakea leaf: Hoi?ACE A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

4. South African Fern notes: T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S.

o. The constituents of the Flora of Southern Rhodesia: F. Eyles.

6. Ilcemanthus coccinius: A. Mennie.

7. The occurrence of " Terblanz " {Faiirca macnaufjhfouii, Phill.) in

Natal and Pondoland : E. P. Phillips, M.A.. D.Sc.

8. A paw-paw leaf spot caused bv a Pli ijllosticta sp. : P. A. van der

BijL, M.A., D.Sc.

9. Note on the i-Kowe or Natal Kafir mushroom — Schulzeria um-

Kowaan, Cke. and Mass.: P. A. vax eer Bi.jl, M.A., D.Sc.

10. Additional host plants of Loranthaceae occurring around Durban,

with concluding summary: P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc.

SATUBBAY, JUJ.Y 17.

11. Note on the Crassulaceee found in Rhodesia : S. Schonlaxij, M.A.,

Ph.D.

12. Ripening of the seed in Gnetinn gncmon and Gnetum Africanum:

Mary G. Thoday.

13. The distribution of accessory food factors (Vitamines) in plants:

E. Marion Delf, D.Sc.

14. A preliminarv note on the flora of the neighbourhood of Bethlehem.

O.F.S. : E. P. Phillips, M.A., D.Sc.

15. A method of Veld estimation: A. 0. D. Mogg, B.A.

16. A contribution to the Polyporefe of the Union of South Africa :

P. A. VAN der Bi.jl, M.A., D.Sc.

Section D. — Zoology', Physiology, Hygiene and Sanitary

Science.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 14.

1. Presidential Address on " Some Zoological factors in the economic

development of South Africa " by C. "W. Mally, M.Sc.

THURSDAY, JULY 15.

2. Some parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa. III. : H. B.

Faxtham, M.A., D.Sc.

3. The life-history of tlie Afi-ican sheep and cattle fluke, Fa-<rioIa

giganttca : 'Axxie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.

4. The economic importance of a study of Nematodes: J. Svndghouxd,

B.Sc.

5. The telluric and climatic conditions causing Gallamziekte : E. R.

Hartig, D.V.M.

6. Lamziekte and its treatment: Sir Arxolj) Thetler, K.C.M.G.. and

H. H. Greex, D.Sc.

IT- LIST OF PAPERS READ.

7. A Tachinid parasite of the honey-bee: S. H. Skaife, M.A., M.Sc.

8. Some factors in the natural control of the wattle bagworm : S. H.

Skaife, M.A., M.Sc.

9. A note on Dasychira extorta and its Lepidopterous parasite: C. P.

VAX DER MeKWE.

10. Birds and insects in Bushman folk-lore : Miss D. F. Bleek.

SATUTWAY, JULY 17.

11. Observations on live snakes in captivity: Henrietta FitzSi.mons.

12. Snake venom and its effects: F. W. FitzSi:mons.

13. Some Cercarite found at Durlian : F. G. Cawstox. M.D.

14. Preliminary note on the toxic effect of methylene blue injected into

domesticated animals: G. de Kock. M.R.C.V.S.

15. The classification of Trypanosomes : P. J. nu ToiT. Ph.D., D.V.M.

Sectiox E. — AxTHEOPOLOGY, Etiixology, Xative Education,

Philology and Xative Sociology.

THUBSVAY, JULY 15.

1. Presidential Address on " The magic conception of Nature among

Bantus " by Rev. H. A. JuxoP.

2. The future of the native races of Southern Rhodesia : N. H. "Wilsox.
'■]. Note on older palseolithic implements from the Umguza and Bembesi

valleys: A. "W. Macgregok. B.A.

4. An exhiliit of stone implements from Tiger Kloof and Taungs. Cap&

Colony : Rev. Neville Joxes.

5. Note on rock-gravings at Metsang, Bechuan;ilnnd Protectorate:

A. J. C. Molyxeux, F.G.S.

6. Circumcision regiments as a native chronologv: Rev. "NV. A. Nortox,

M.A., B J.itt.

7. Plants of Bechuanaland : Rev. W. A. Nortox, M.A.. B.Litt.

8. Praises of chiefs: Rev. W. A. Nortox. M.A.. B.Litt.

9. Place names — map: Rev. W. A. Ndrtox. M.A.. B.Litt.

SATriiBAY. JULY 17.

10. Some features of the religion of the Ba-venda : Rev. H. A. Jcxod.

11. Cattle as a factor in Bantu economic development: Rev. J. R. L.

KixGox, M.A.

12. Notes on the Boskop skull: Rev. J. R. L. Kixoox. M.A.

13. Primitive speech, or the growth of a language: Rev. W. A.

Crabteee, M.A.

14. Hottentot place-names : Rev. C. Pettmax'.

15. Notes relating to aboriginal tribes of the Eastern Province: John

Hewitt, B.A.

16. On some stone implements from Strandlooper sites in the Eastern

Province: Rev. P. Stapletox, S.J.

17. Map of South Africa, showing the chief native languages and

dialects: Hev. G. Beyer.

Section F. — Educatiox. History, Mextal Sciexce. Political
Ecoxo:my, Ctexeral Sociology axd Statistics.

SATUBBAY, JULY 17.

1. Presidential Address on " Labour conditions in South Africa " by

R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc.

2. Agricultural economics (cost of production of maize) : Rt- A.

Lehfeldt, B.A.. D.Sc.

3. Crime and feeblemindedness: G. T. Morice, K.C, B.A.

4. Geographical method: J. Hutcheox", M.A.

THE GEOLOGICAL SECTIOX BETWEEX BFLAWAYO
AXD THE VICTORIA EALL8.

By H. B. Mauik, B.A.,

Director, GeoJogiccd Surreij, S. HJuule.-'ia.

]] itii ( >nc Fold III (/ Map
Read JuJn 15, 1920.

The geological section exhibited has been compiled from
observations made on many different occasions. It follows
closely the line of railway running north-west from Bnlawayo
to the Yictoria Falls, the chief exceptions being an extension
to the south-east of the Matopo Hills and a straight line drawn
across country from Inyantue to Wankie, where the railway
makes a wide detour to the south-west. Also, in places where
the railway makes a considerable curve to obtain grade on
ascending- the basalt scarp bej^ond Nyamandhlovu and on
descending it approaching Sawmills, the section has been
shortened to give the scarps their due gTadient. It has been
possible to draw the section to scale through tlie courtesy of
the engineers of the Rhodesian Railways in supplying levels;
and to the same source and to Mr. A. J. C. Molyneux I am
indebted for information from wells and boreholes, wliich has
served to increase materially the accuracy of the tliickness of
the beds. (See folding map.)

The section extends over a length of 282^ miles. The
liorizontal scale is 2i miles to the inch, and the vertical scale
500 feet to the inch, thus being* exaggerated over 26 times.

Three formations are encountered along the course of the
section, apart from alluvia and residual soils. The oldest
formation is the crystalline schists with granite intrusions and
dolerite dykes ; the second formation is tlie sedimentary beds
of the Karroo system, and the youngest is the Kalahari sand.

The oldest formation appears at the surface on two
portions of the section — first, on tlie high veld between
Bnlawayo and the Matopn Hills, and again between Dett and
Wankie. The first portion you will pass over on your journey
to the Matopo Hills. The crystalline schists consist of green-
stones and the banded ironstone or quartz-magnetite rock.
Both groups are strongly folded, and dip at liigh angles. Tlie
greenstones are metamorphosed basic ig'neous rocks, generally
hornblende-bearing rocks such as epidiorite and amphibolite.
Certain bands in them are vesicular or amygdaloidal, and other
portions show well-developed pillow structure. In parts of
the country, too, agglomerates and tuffs appear interbedded
with them. Tl'ere is little doubt that the greenstones repre-
sent in the main a succession of volcanic rocks. The horn-
blendic greenstones decompose to t]ie red clay soil wliicli you

114 GEOLOGICAL SECTION, BULAWAYO TO VICTORIA FALLS.

see iu and around Bnlawayo. As I do not know of any outcrop
of banded ironstone on the Matopo road, I will not say
anj^thing- further about it.

About half-way between Bulawayo and the Dam Hotel
you will pass over stretches of pale sandy loam. This is the
soil overlying- some metamorphosed acid igneous rocks, which
are generally spoken of as felsites. In many instances they
are intrusive into the greenstones and banded ironstones, and
appear to be closely related to the granites.

The granite of the Matopo and the g-ranite north-west of
Bulawayo are medium-grained biotite granites containing a
considerable percentage of oligoclase felspar, and have not as
a rule a strongly marked gneissic banding. The Hillside mass
is a small one, and exhibits many variations of composition,
some of which are without quartz, the mass being spoken of
as the Hillside syenite.

The crystalline rocks exposed between Dett and Wankie
include massive granite, as well as strongly-banded gneissic
varieties, some of which are graphitic. The pegmatites cutting-
these gneisses contain, in some places, large plates of mica;
in others, tourmaline and traces of tinstone. The relation of
these rocks to the greenstones and granites of tlie liigli veld
is not known.

The rocks of Karroo age show three types of development.
The oldest Karroo rocks containing GJossopieri.s are exi)Osed
around Wankie, and consist of a succession of grits, sand-
stones and black shales with coal. In the station yard at
Wankie you will see the top of the black shale group in which
the Main Coal-seam lies overlain bj" a thick bed of silicified
fire-clay.

Above these sandstones and shales is about 700 feet of
grey shales (Madumabisa Shales), with argillaceous limestone
bands overlain by -300 to 400 feet of reddish pebbly grits.
These Escarpment grits form the cappings of the higli tabular
hills which surround Wankie, and actually you will pass over
them in the train near Lukosi before reaching Wankie.

On the high veld the Karroo rocks are of Stormberg age,
as proved by reptilian remains. The succession consists of a
fine white sandstone about 200 feet thick overlain by four
basalt lava flows, between each of which there are in places
lenticular beds of red sandstone with oblique bedding-
(Nyamandhlovu Sandstone). These sandstones, with basalts
above and below", may be seen from the train on descending-
the scarp just before reaching Sawmills. An important point
which this section does not prove is the relation of tlie high
veld facies to the succession in the Wankie coalfield. The
two facies come together in the Gwaai Valley, east of Malindi.
I had hoped to liave visited the area and settled the point
before this meeting-, but have not been able to do so.

Between the Deka fault and tlie Victoria Falls you will
pass over a great tliickness of basaltic lavas, which are almost
certainly of the same age as the basalts of the high veld.
Xear Deka thin sandstones are interbedded with the l)asalt
as on the high veld, but thev have not yet been found at the

S.A. JOURNAL OP SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.]

GEOLOGICAL SECTION FROM THE MATOPO HILLS TO THE VJCTOPJA FALLS.

[PREPARED BY H. B. MAUFE.

Matdpos Umzincwani
River

Nyamandhlovu

VERTICAL SCALE EXACCERATID Z6 TIMES

Sawmills

Victoria

Falls 4000

n^

q BASALTS & INTERBtDDED pr^

"iSANOSTONeS ^

mYAHANOHLOVUI

I- .• .- \£SCAIIPIIENT tZ->>-d MA DUMA BISA E
1.' ." -VlmT krZ-~--MMALE5 I

5:5] SANDSTONES &
t-d SHALES WITH COAL
''-^ IWANKICI

GRANITE &
\CRANITIC CNEISS
(INTRUSIVE)

GEOLOGICAL SECTION, BULAWAYO TO VICTORIA FALLS. 115

Yictoiia Falls. When you itfe standing' at the foot of the
Palm Grove, you will be able to count in the opposite wall of
the gorge five successive basalt flows. The amygdaloidal top
of one flow, combined with the amygdaloidal base of the
succeeding- flow, forms a band on the M'all of the gorge which
weathers differently from the more regularly jointed and more
massive central portions of each flow.

In the south-western corner of the Palm Grove gorge,
where the water of the Whirlpool dashes against the rocks,
may be seen what I take to be a small volcanic neck filled with
blocks of amygdaloidal basalt.

Before leaving the Karroo rocks, 1 wish to draw your
attention for a moment to the two sets of trough faults — one
at Inyantue and one at Lukosi — by which the Karroo rocks
have been let doAvn in long, narrow strips into the crystalline
rocks. These structures are, in fact, miniature rift -valleys.
The Lukosi rift-valley I have been able to trace for about
20 miles on each side of the railway. There is a third and
narrower rift-valley to the south-east of the others, which
passes under tlie Kalahari sand. It should pass beneath the
railway betAveen Maliudi and Dett, but as the Kalahari sand
here covers the older rocks to a great depth, I have not been
able to insert it.

The faults which formed these rift-valleys are almost
certainly of the same age as the Deka fault, and lend support
to the suggestion made some years ago by Mr. Molyneux that
the Victoria Falls basalts lie in a rift-valley, the north-
western edge of which is in Xorthern Rhodesia.

The Kalahari beds consist chiefly of loosely-consolidated
sand of a red or white colour, which, at Malindi, has been
proved by a borehole to have a depth of 240 feet. At the base
of the sand t.here is, in places, a bed of chalcedon^^ in which
Mr. Molyneux has found gastropods and fresh-water plants,
determined by Mr. E. B. Xewton, F.G.S., to be of uppermost
Cretaceous age. In places, too, at the base of the sand is a
bed of pisolific ironstone, which was formerly used by the
natives for smelting iron.

The Victoria Falls Hotel is situated on the edge of the
Kalahari sand, and at the foot of the sand-slope the chalcedony
crops out. The chalcedony nodules have been used by the
Bushmen for the manufacture of their stone implements, and
their working- sites may be found below the outcrop.

The section shows very clearh' the unconformable nature
of the Kalahari beds, and the gradual rise in the base of the
beds from ;''.,000 feet at the Victoria Falls to just on 5.000 feet
in the neighbourhood of Bulawayo. It also shows a
pre-Kalaliari valley of the Zambesi, but the tributary Matetsi
seems to have cut a new course for itself not along- the line of
the pre-Kalahari valley. The Kalahari sand is the formation
upon which the teak and mahogany forests grow, which you
will pass through between the toD of the scarp beyond
Nyaraandhlovu and T)ett, and again between Fuller and Kesi.

CRIME AND FEEBLE-MIXDEDXESS.

By G. T. Moeice, K.C. B.A

Read July IT, 1920.

The study of the mental deficiency called feeble-minded-
iiess is of great importance for the promotion of social welfare.
There is reason to believe that want of knowledge of this
matter leads to wasted effort and expense. The subject has
recently been receiving much atteution in England and
America. In South Africa, Dr. J. Marius Moll, of Johannes-
burg, has been a pioneer worker on the subject and has
endeavoured to rouse public interest in it. My object in this
paper is to draw attention to the bearing on criminal law of
the new light on the subject.

Advancing knowledge has shown chat the old broad dis-
tinction between sanity and insanity which prevailed in
criminal law was insufficient. About a century ago an English
Judge laid down that the insane person was one who was so
totally deprived of understanding and memory as to be as
ignorant of what he was doing as a wild beast. At the present
day no Judge would think of defining insanity in such uncom-
promiising terms. In fact, ever since McXaughton's case in
1843 there has been a controversy amongst English legal and
medical men as to what constitutes insanity in law. We know
the saying that there are no sharp distinctions in nature, an<l
this may be expected to ai)ply in a special manner to such a
subtle and complicated entity as the human mind. Medical
science is always tending to discover intermediate states between
the two classes which popular language distinguishes as the
sane and the insane.

In recent years much attention has been given to a class
of mentally defective person known as feeble-minded or
morons, wlioin one hesitates to place among either the sane or
the insane. Tliey are persons whose mind does not develop
beyond that of a child of twelve, and thougdi not without some
intelligence are incapable of looking after themselves, and
require, when grown up, supervision such as the normal person
only requires in his childhood. This class of persons has been
recognised in recent legislation dealing witli the insane. In
the Mental Disorders Act, i)assed in the T^nion in 191G, the
feeble-minded person is described as one " in whose case there
exists from birth or from an early ag? mental defectiveness
not amoimtiug to imbecility, so that he is incapable of com-
peting on equal terms with his normal fellows or of managing
himself and his affairs with ordinary prudence, and who
requires care, supervision and control for liis own protection
and the protection of others." The chief (diaracteristic of the
feeble-minded, so far as I can make out, seems to be want of
intelligence, accompanied by weakness of will, leading to the

CEIME AND FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS. 117

male driftiiig" into a life of crime or becoming" a habitual
drunkard, and to the female becoming- the victim of seduction —
tlie latter a lapse most calamitous for society, as feeble-
mindedness is hereditary.

Although the description of the feeble-minded given
above is rather vague, there can be no doubt that the medical
men and others who have studied the subject have laid their
hands on a real class of persons. Tests have been devised,
consisting of questions and exercises, in order to ascertain
whether persons belono" to the feeble-minded. These are
supplemented by the history of the person. Tlie upshot has
been, not only uniformity of results obtained by different
investigators, but also a singular agreement between the pro-
portion of the feeble-minded in various classes of persons in
different parts of the world. Thus, in 1904, the proportion of
feeble-minded (diildren in schools in England and Wales was
g'iven at "8 per cent., ratlier less than 1 in 100 ; and Dr. .T. Marius
Moll has arrived at the same figure for the Transvaal Govern-
ment schools, that is, for European children in the Transvaal.
This proportion of less than 1 per cent, may be taken as the
proportion of feeble-minded amongst ordinary adults of the
European race. On the other hand, the proportion of feeble-
minded amongst convicts (/.e., condemned criminals) has been
found to be about 20 per cent, both in England and in the
Transvaal. This means that the feeble-minded are more than
twenty times as numerous amongst convicts as among ordinary
persons, and the proportion increases with increased criminality
as measured by previous convictions or, lo'ng- sentences. I am
informed by Mr. Xorman. the able and zealous Probationary
Officer at Johannesburg, that in the case of first offenders at
Joliannesburg the proportion of feeble-minded was 8 to 10 per
cent. In industrial schools the proportion has been found to
be from 7 to 16 per cent., the proportions varying in different
schools. In reformatories the figures have ranged between
8 and 25 per cent. In contrast with those comparatively low
proportions, we find high figures for long-sentence prisoners.
Thus, at the Central Prison, Pretoria, the proportion was 20 ])er
cent. ; on the Breakwater at Capeto\>'n, 25 per cent, feeble-
minded and 10 per cent, cases on the border. In Sing Sing
Prison, America, Dr. Gluch foimd the proportion of feeble-
minded to be 28 per cent. In homes for fallen women and
amongst arrested prostitutes the pro])ortion of feeble-minded is
enormous. Dr. Dunstan found it to be 90 per cent, at the
Home at Irene, near Pretoria, and figures from other parts
of the world make this proportion quite credible. The high
proportion of feeble-minded is not confined to criminals. In
the case of an Unemployment and Relief Board, the proportion
of feeble-minded amongst those to be relieved was found to be
21 per cent.

It is clear from these figures that the question of feeble-
mindedness is of essential importance in dealing with
criminals. The credit of discovering this is due to the late
Dr. Goring, an English prison doctor, who, instead of pro-
pounding a high-sounding theorv about the criminal, like

118 CEJME AXU FEE15LE-MIXDEDXESS.

Lombrosa, followed the typical Englisli method of observing'
and recording- facts. Dr. Mercier, in bis book on " Crime and
Criminals," pnblished in 1918, somewhat depreciates the value
of Dr. Goring's work, and points out that his figures do not
apply to criminals generally, but to a selected class, namely,
those who are caught and condemned, who are presumably the
poorest of criminals in mental endowment. There is some-
thing- in this. But I think Dr. ^lercier lays too much stres.s
on it, and it seems to me tliat the high percentage of the
feeble-minded amongst convicts indicates a hig-li. thoug-h not
so high, a percentage amongst criminals, convicted and
unconvicted.

The question of feeble-mindedness has to be considered in
connection, first, with the trial, and, secondly, with the after-
trial treatment of criminals. In regard to the trial of
criminals, it is difficult to suggest any reform. It is true that
in the Mental Disorders Act of 1916 feeble-mindedness may
be said to be treated as a form of insanity. But mere insanity
is not a defence in criminal laAv. The crime must be the result
of insanity. In my opinion, the feeble-mindedness of a person
does not free him from criminal responsibility. It cannot be
said that the feelile-minded person does not understand the
nature of the criminal act which he commits, or does not know
that it is wrong', or that he suffers from delusions or acts under
an irresistible impulse: and those are some of the tests that are
applied when the defence of insanity is made.

It is quite true that in criminal law a child up to seven
years old is regarded as incapable of criminal intention, and
that fitom seven to fourteen years he is presumed to be
incapable of criminal intention, or, in other words, it must be
.proved that he knew the act was wrong. Thus the law might
take the position that the feeble-minded prisoner, having- the
mentality of -a child of not more than twelve years old, must
be presumed to be incapable of criminal intention. But thoug-h
this position is logical, I do not think it would be satisfactory
in practice.

Thus it would seem that the verdict in the case of the
feeble-minded who has r-ommitted a crime must continue to be
one of g'uilty. But feeble-mindedness should be looked upon
as lessening- the responsibility of the prisoner, as, in fact,
intoxication is looked on at present. "Where it is proved, as it
ought to be in the case of the prisoners who have already been
inmates of a prison, the sentence should be confinement in an
institution for the feeble-minded.

The after-trial treatment of a feeble-minded criminal
should undoubtedly be dift'erent from that of the normal
criminal. It is doubtful whether the severer forms of punish-
ment, such as whipping', spare diet, solitary confinement,
serve any g-ood purpose in the case of the feeble-minded.
Moreover, release from prison on the termination of a sentence
for a fixed period will in ordinary circumstances lead to a
relapse into crime. Separate places of confinement for
the feeble-minded are required, and special treatment.
Such places of confinement would involve an initial expense,

CRIME AXD 1-EEBLE-MIXDED>'E.SS. 11!>

but ill tlie long' run they might be found to be economical. The
feeble-minded are. I understand, easier to manage than normal
criminals, and M'ould thus require less supervision, and
probably more work could be got out of tliem.

In the recently published Eeport of the Director of
Prisons, he mentions that arraug'ements had been made for all
inmates of reformatories and all persons declared to be habitual
criminals to be examined by a psychiatrist (expert in mental
diseases). " Uiifortunately,'' he adds, " the shortag'e of
doctors at the mental asylums prevented these inspections
being" carried out before the end of the year, but I hope that
these will be possible next year." " The results of these
inspections,'" he says, '' should be of great assistance to the
administration, as undoubtedly there is an appreciable propor-
tion whose mental condition is below par, and who are not
only unsuited to the usual routine, but retard the progress of
the normal inmate."'

The Eeport only extended to the end of 1918. but I am
afraid the next year of which the Director speaks has gone
past without the inspections being completed, and, so far as
I know, they have not yet been completed.

Further, the Director probably only refers to European
inmates of reformatories and European habitual criminals.
]N^ow, it must be realised that these form only a small propor-
tion of the convicted criminals in the Union. The native
population of the Union is some five times as large as the
European population, and among the prison population is found
a still larger proportion of natives. Thus in 1918 the daily
average of persons in custody was 15,0GT'6, of whom 1,175 were
Europeans and 13.550 were natives and coloured, the
Europeans thus being- in a proportion of about 1 to 12 natives
and coloured persons. The fact of the g-reat majority of con-
victs being natives greatly increases the diihculty of the
problem of feeble-mindedness in this country. There can be
no doubt that feeble-mindedness is to be found amongst native
and coloured convicts. But how is it to be detected y The tests
applied in the case of Europeans are unsuitable, and satisfac-
tory tests have not yet been discovered. The great difficulty
is to find persons who understand the native and his language
and possess the special knowledge that enables them to api^re-
ciate feeble-mindedness. Here is a subject that calls loudly
for research. Possibly some of our missionaries will render
assistance in the matter.

In conclusion, I may refer to a point which is, perhans,
rather medical than legal. Feeble-mindedness is hereditary.
In the case of the offspring of the normal ])erson and the
feeble-minded, it folloM's Mendel's law. It is therefore of
the utmost importance that the feeble-minded should be
prevented from propagation. Segregation will prevent this to
some extent, but, in my opinion, any law dealing with
the subject should authorise sterilisation, subject to due
precautions.

ERICOID LEAVES.

By D. Thoday, M.A. (Cantab.),
Professor of Botany, Uni rcrsifj/ of Capefoini.

[Abstract.)

Read July 15, 1920.

A striking- feature of the Maquis of the south-west region
of Cape Colony is the hirge number of species with ericoid
leaves. These are characterised by a groove, either on the
upper or lower side, the stomata being- confined to the epidermis
lining the groove, which usually bears numerous hairs. In
contrast with tiie Maquis, the flora of the Karroo, if one may
judge from observations at Matjesfontein and Prince Albert
Eoad, lacks such plants almost entirely.

A feature of these plants which apparently has not hitherto
been noticed is that the grooves vary in the width of their
opening with changes in the conditions. If leaves are allowed
to dry up, they close their grooves, in many cases completely.
Even under natural conditions, during drought the leaves of
various species of Erica, of Passerina filifoTmis, of Stilbesp.,
have been found quite or nearly closed on plants in specially
dry situations. Under experimental conditions these species
close their grooves when left to transpire without water, and
open them again when supplied with water in a moist
atmosphere. Some species of Erica, especially E. Phihenetn,
also raise and approximate their leaves as they lose water, and
spread them again as their water content increases.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF ACCESSORY FOOD FACTORS
(VITAMIXES) IN PLANTS.

By E. Marion Delf, D.Sc, F.L.S.,

liesident Lecturer in Botany, Westfield College, University of London;

Temporary Lecturer in Botany in the University of Capetown; late

Yarrow Itesearch Fellow of Girton College, Cambridge; and Temporary

liesearch Assistant in the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine.

Read Jahj 17, 1920.

Twenty years ago, when the rate of increase of the human
race led certain scientists to predict a total insntficiency of the
world's food supplies m the near future, Berthellot, a g*reat
French chemist, foretold that bread, meat and vegetables would
soon be replaced by food tabloids, a dinjier menu, tor instance,
reading : —

Small tablet nitrogenous matter.

Pastilles fatty matter.

A little sugar.

Seasoning.
It was indeed, until recently, a firmly established idea that the
necessary elements of a perfect diet could be obtained from
chemically pure carb(diydrates, proteins and fats, with a few
mineral salts. In 1912 liopkins found, when breeding rats on
an artificial diet of this kind, that the more perfectly purified
the constituents of the diet, the less were they able to support
life. Young rats ceased altogether to grow and older animals
grew thin and finally died when kept altogether upon chemically
pure foods, whereas the addition of minute amounts of fresh
milk caused an immediate improvement and an increase in body
weight altogether out of proportion to the increase of the food
intake of the animals. AYe now know that the addition of a
small amount of butter fat or of fresh green food would have
had a similar eftect. and it is abundantly clear that, in addition
to the recognised foods, small amounts of other unidentified
substances are necessary to health and are present in fresli
natural foods. These substances are known as vitamines or as
accessory food factors ; they are unstable under chemical treat-
ment and can be detected at present only by biological tests.
They have been the subject of much research in England and
America, especially since the increase of deficiency diseases in
Europe owing to improper and restricted diets' under war
conditions.

All the evidence points to tlie plant as the ultimate source
of these accessory food factors. Their distribution in the plant
world may be roughly summarised as follows: —

1. The Anti-neuritic Yitamixe (usmlly identified as the
water soluble growth factor).

122 IJISTRUfUTIOX OF VITAM1\ES IN PLANTS.

(a) Seed^ of Plants. — In pulses distributed throughout tiie
embryo, in cereals found in the embryo, and also in the aleurone
layer.

(b) Yeast Cells. — Preparations of dried or autolysed yeasts
are also rich in this vitamine. During the war, yeast cake was
extensively used for the treatment of beriberi, the specific form
of disease resulting from a lack of this vitamine. It is possible
that other edible fungi, such as truffles or mushrooms, might
be found to possess the same properties, but these have not been
tested.

2. The Anti-eachitic or Fat Soluble Growth Factor.

This is present in milk and butter fat as well as in certain
other animal fats and fish oils. The only vegetable oil which
has any appreciable value in this resjiect appears to be the oil
of peanuts (Arachis). It is also known to be present in a variety
of green leaves, such as lucerne, grasses and cabbage ; but the
result of recent experiments (as yet unpublished) prove that
the etiolated inner white leaves of an ordinary greeJi cabbage
contain no growth-promoting' properties. Fish oils, such as
cod-liver and whale oils, are especially rich in the fat soluble
vitamine, and it seems probable that the marine x\lg9e on which
these animals largely feed may provide the source of the
A'itamines in these products.

At the present time there is an unparalleled shortage of
the fat soluble accessory food factor in the civilised world,
especially in Central Europe, where this deficiency is the cause
of some of the terrible war diseases of these war-stricken areas.
Permanent improvement in these districts can only be expected
when either pasturage can be found for cattle or crops can be
grown for human consumption, but temporary relief could be
afforded by the much greater use of fish oils, since these are
usually cheaper to obtain than the relatively expensive
animal fats.

3. The Anti-scorbutic Vitamine.

There are two principal sources of this accessory food
factor, to which a third may now" be added as the result of
recent research.

(a) Vegetahles. — Many vegetables possess anti-scorbutic
properties,, especially in the fresh raw state. It has been
possible to grade vegetables roughly in order of their anti-
scorbutic value, and of all known vegetables, green cabbages
appear to be the most powerful in this respect. Many storage
organs, such as potato tubers, carrots and turnips, have also
considerable value, and there is some evidence which suggests
that their value is greater in the young than in the old con-
dition, and when freshly gathered rather than after prolonged
storage. French beans and beetroot have much less value than
the preceding, as may be seen from Table I.

There is a definite and considerable loss in anti-scorbutic
value when these vegetables are cooked, especially in water to

DISTiaJiUTIO-V Ol- V1TA:M1.V£S IX I'LAXTS. 12")

which soda has been added. In the latter case there is probably
little, if any, anti-scorbutic value left.

(b) Fritit.'i. — Various fruit juices have been quantitatively
tested, and of these oranges and lemon?^ are by far the best. A
young g-uinea-pig" receives a perfect diet if given oats, bran,
superheated milk ad Uhitiim, and orang-e juice to the small
extent of I'd c.c. daily. On this diet a reduction of the orang-e-
juice ration to 0'75 c.c. daily causes the onset of scurvy, and
the minimum protective value of the juice may- therefore be
taken as about 1 c.c. daily. Lemon juice (Citrus viedica var.
acida) g'ives a similar result ; but with lime juice (Citnts medica
var. liinoniiin) a ration of 10 c.c. (a higher ration could hardly
be tolerated) is scarcely sufficient to protect from scurvy. This
result has been obtained with many different samples of lime
juice, both freshly squeezed and preserved in different ways.
A number of confirmatory exjDeriments were carried out at
the Lister Listitute by Miss E. M. Hume on monkeys which
had been previously- kept for some weeks in the laboratory
in perfect health on a normal diet. During the experimental
l^eriod a similar diet was given, l)ut the only anti-scorbutic
which was supplied was a measured ration of lime or lemon
juice prepared and administered in the same way. In each
case a much larger ration of lime juice was needed to give
protection frcmi scurvy. In one case the lime-juice ration of
an animal which developed severe scurvy on a ration of 5 c.c.
of the juice daily was, when nearly at the point of death,
changed to 5 c.c. lemon juice of the same age as the lime
juice. The effect was almost immediate in reducing the
severity of the symptoms, whilst in the course of two or
three weeks the animal was completely cured. This case of
contrast between the effect of lime and lemon juice is the
more striking since there is practically no differeiice in the
chemical composition of the two juices.

Amongst other fruit juices, raspberry and tomato juices
may^ be mentioned as giving good protective results.
A variety of dried fruits have also been tested, and these
retain their anti-scorbutic properties to a slight extent.

(c) Gevminating Seeds.' — In 1912 a Swedish investigator,
Hoist, proved that whilst dry seeds of various kinds have
practically no anti-scorbutic value, when germinated for one
to three days they possess considerable value in this respect.
These results have been confirmed and extended in more
recent experiments at the Lister Institute. The seeds of
peas and lentils were soaked at laboratory temperatures for
about twelve hours, and placed in a funnel to germinate
covered with damp cotton wool. In two days (at about
60° F.) the radicles had grown to about 1 cm. in length, ami
in this condition they were used as the sole source of anti-
scorbutic in the diet of experimental animals. In the case of
young guinea-pigs, a daily ration of 2'5 gms. of these
germinated peas or lentils was found to give adequate pro-'
tection from scurvy. This may be compared with the cor-
responding ration of 1 to 15 gms. of fresh green cabbage leaf.

VJ4 insTRiJirTiox of vitamixes ix plants .

wliicli was found to be tlie corresponding' niiiiimuni i)rotective
ration under similar experimental condititms.

This result was published in a preliminary report in the
Army Medical Journal in 1918. In the followino- year, eases
of scurvy in prisoners of -Avar in the East were actually cured
by introducino' into the diet a ration of lightly-boiled
germinating- beans. The importance of this result to com-
munities cut off from supplies of fresh food is sufficiejitly
obvious. In this connection, it is of interest to find that in
parts of China it is a common custom to germinate beans
before eating them, and I have been told that in parts of
Africa the Kafhrs frequently germinate the corn for their own
•consumption. This would be of especial value in the winter
months, when for long periods no fresh food would be avail-
nble. It is doubtful how far the germination of corn in the
production of beers makes the drink of any anti -scorbutic
value. The commercial beers of the "West have been tested,
iind found to be worthless in this respect, but this may be
at any rate partly due to the high temi)eratures employed in
the drjdng' of the malted grain.

SuMilARY AXD GeNEEAL CoIs^CLUSIOXS .

The accessory food factors or vitamines are Avidely distri-
buted in the plant world, and are associated with definite
organs of the j^lant body.

Seeds possess the water soluble or anti-neuritic accessory
factor, but less richly than animal eggs. The embryo of all
seeds investigated and the germ of cereals contain it, but
the endosperm is probably lacking or nearly lacking" in this
respect. V^egetable oils have not been found to contain this
vitamine, with the exception of the peanut (Arachis). Xo
seeds in the dry condition have been found to contain anti-
scorbutic properties.

Gieen leaves possess both anti-scorbu1 ic and fat soluble
(or anti-rachitic) vitamines in considerable amount. The
former is a relatively unstable, and the latter a relatively
stable, substance. Green leaves probably form the cheapest
source of the fat soluble vitamine. The etiolated leaves of
the white " heart " of a cabbage possess anti-scorbutic, but
no growth-promoting properties. It seems probable, there-
fore, that the production of this vitamine is connected with
photosynthesis in the green leaf.

Storage organs (other than seeds) contain chiefly the
anti-scorbutic accessory factor, but to a less extent than either
fresh fruit or fresh green vegetables. Since, however, they
are easily grown and Avidely eaten, they are important in the
prevention of scurvy.

Succulent fruits contain the anti-scorbutic vitamine even
before ripening is complete. In this case the anti-scorbutic
vitamine appears to be more stable than it is in the case of
vegetables. The experimental evidence suggests that this
is not directly due to the acidity of the juice, but it may
perhaps be due to the fact that the vitamine appears to be
here of the nature of a reserve product.

DIMRIHUTIOX OF YITA:NJ1XES IX PLANTS.

125

Germinating' seeds liave considerable anti-scorbutic value
even before the appearance of any g-reen leaves. They have
also growth-promoting- properties. In this case the vitamines
seem to have been produced as the result of enzyme activity
in the g-erminating seed.

Yitamines may rlius be produced either in connection
with photosynthesis or in connection witJi tlie deposition of
reserves. In the latter case, the anti-scorbutic vitamine is
found in the living turgid cells of underground storage
organs or of succulent fruits, while the anti-neuritic vitamine
is found in the much drier dormant cells of the resting embryo.
Yeast is known to be rich in the anti-neuritic vitamine. but
other fungi have not vet been tested.

Table I.— DISTRIBUTION OF VITAMINES IN VEGETABLES
AND OTHER FOODS.

Water Soluble or

Anti-neuritic

Vitamine.

Fat Soluble or

Anti-rachitic

Vitamine.

Anti-scorbutic
Vitamine.

^Vheat Embryo

-f + +

■i +

0

Endosperm

0

0

0

Bran

+

-1-

0

Peas, Beans and Lentils (soaked'

! +

+

0

,, ,, (germinated

) +

+ +

+ +

rGreen

Cabbao;e - -^ ,, „

I \A hite " Heart"

+
+

-1- +
0

+ + +
+ +

Carrots (fresh)

•f

+

+

Runner Beans

V

+

+

Swede Juice

0

0

+ -r

Orange and Lemon Juice ...

0

0

-f -1-4-

Lime Jviice

0

0

+ or less

Tomato

0

0

+ +

Yeast

4- + +

0

0

Milk (fresh)

+

+

+ or less

Beef Fat

0

-1- +

?

Butter Kat

0

+ -;- +

0

Cod Liver Oil

0

+ + -r

0

Peanut Oil (Arachis)

0

+

0

THE LIFE-HLSTHEY UF THE AFRICAX SHEEP AND
CATTLE FLUKE. FASCIOLA GIGAMICA.

By A^-^-IE Porteu, D.Sc, F.L.S.. F.R.S. (S.A.),

Parasifologist, SoritJi African Institute for Medical Research,
Johanneshurg ; formerhj Beit Memorial Research Fellow.

Read Julii 15. 1920.

The occurrence of liver flukes in cattle and sheep has
been known for many years, especially in Europe. In South
Africa fluke infection of stock was also known, but it seems to
have been generally accepted that one fluke only, Fasciola
hepatica, the common European sheep and cattle fluke, was
present. Liver fluke disease, or " liver rot." becomes a disease
of importance economically when its action is accelerated by
such a condition as malnutrition due to droughts, or cold and
wet" seasons. However, the eradication of fluke disease is
possible, if the means by which the animals contract the
parasites is known.

It is well known that the larval stages of many flukes are
passed in snails. In South Africa two problems arose, namely,
whether more than one species of liver fluke occurred and what
was the transmitting mollusc. During my early investiga-
tions of larval flukes found in fresh-water molluscs suspected
of transmitting bilharziasis to man, I soon concluded that
several groups, as well as genera and species, of Trematoda
were present in two of the commoner South African molluscs,
Physopsis africana and Limnaea natalensis; for example.
Schistosomes, Echinostomes, Monostomes and strict Distomes
were all represented. I have also examined grass and other
vegetation from the banks of streams and ponds, and have
found the minute encysted larval flukes thereon. By^ experi-
mental work, using natural methods of infection. I have had
'the good fortune to elucidate, for the first time, the life-histories
of several of these organisms, among them being that of the
long, narrow African sheep and cattle fluke. Fasciola
gifiantica. This fluke is probably the indigenous cattle fluke
of South Africa. I may mention that my results were com-
municated and specimens exhibited to the Veterinary Research
Department at Onderstepoort in the latter part of 1919. and
were demonstrated, together with the life-histories of the
human bilharzial flukes and certain frog flukes, before the
Witwatersrand Branch of the British Medical Association on
December 18, 1919. A short account was published in the
Medical. Journal of South Africa, vol. xv, pp. 128-133, January.
1920. An exhibit was also given before the Roval Societv of
South Africa on March IT. 1920.

LIFE-ITISTOKY OF AVIUCAX LIVKR FLUKE. 127

A^ Fasciola (jifjanfica i^ widely clistrilaited in South
Africa, a summary of its principal features and life-liistory
is now given.

Fasciola (jiijanfica (("obbold, 185*]) is the large, narrow
liver fluke of cattle and sheep in South Africa. It was also
described under the apt name of F. angasta by Railliet in
18!)."). This fluke has been reported fronr certain big" game,
namely, giraffes, zebras and buffaloes. It has also been found
once in man. The larval stages of the fluke I have found in
the common pond snail, Liinuiiea nafaleiisis, and by experi-
mental work, using laboratory-bred rats, rabbits, <;uinea-i)igs
and sheep, I have been able to determine the entire life-history.
Also, by exposing laboratory-bred, and therefore uninfected,
Liinnaea natal en sis to tlie larvae (miracidia) issuing from the
eggs of F. ijiijanfica . the earliest stages in the snail have been
obtained.

In 191.), Dr. Cawstou described a distome cercaria from
Lininaea natalensis in the following words: " The other
encysting cercaria possesses a terminal oral and a median
ventral sucker. Xo eyespots could be detected. The head
of the cercaria is heavily pigmented, as are also the rediae
in which these cercariae are produced. These lediae are
three-eighths of an iindi in length, and whiten the liver sub-
stance of infected snails. The cercaria itself is fully a milli-
metre in total length. The rediae possess a well-defined oral
sucker and gut distended with particles of food. Towards the
posterior end of the rediae on the left side is a poorly developed
locomotor appendage." Cawston named the cercariae " C . pig-
inentosa in view of their pigmented heads." Unfortunately,
the description is insuflicient to enable the certain determina-
tion of the (.-ercaria, but I believe that the organism I used,
which developed into Fasciola gigautica, was the (' . pigmentosa
of Cawston. This may jjossibly be the same as ('. ohscara of
Sonsino.

xln outline of the structure and life-history of Fasciola
f/igantica, as I have observed it, is presented here.

When the liver of a Liinnaea natalensis infested with this
juirasite is examined, it appears to be streaked M'ith white
threads, which sometimes show orange to blaidv markings.
These threads are the rediae of F. gigantica, the intestines
of which contain orange to black contents. The rediae vary
in size with the season and the particular time of reproductive
activity of tlie fluke in the snail. The largest specimens were
about 12 mm. long, but this was quite excei)tional, the usual
size being from 1"5 to 2 mm. long. Daughter rediae appear
to be formed only towards the end of the life of the parent
redia. The parent redia produces several cercariae, Avliich are
active organisms, and A'ary in apjiearance according to their
degree of activity. The body of a cercaria measures about fiiW'i.
when fully extended, but when contracted it apiiears rounder,
and may measure only 250m. The tail is simple, and varies
in length from 159/i to 200/y.. The anterior sucker is fairly
pi'ominent, and the posterioi' one easily seen. The intestine

128 LIFE-IIISTORY OF AFEICaX LIVER FI.VKE.

forks into two jnst above the posterior sucl^er. In life the body
is crowded with masses of cystogenous granules contained in
unicelkdai cystogenous glands, which cystogenous granules
(" pigment " of Cawston), together with yolk, largely obscure
the finer details of the organisation.-

When an infected snail is isolated in water, the cercariae
readily leave it, and can just be seen with the naked eye swim-
ming actively in the water. After a time they leave the water and
creep up the stems of any plant in their vicinity. Each cercaria
commences to extrude the cystogenous granules from its V)ody,
and soon casts its tail. The body then contracts into a spherical
mass, surrounded by a cloud of granules forming a viscid coat.
These gradually condense and form a thick cyst wall, which
hardens on exposure and contracts somewhat; they measure
-loOu lo 650/x in diaiueter. The encysted cercaria shows its
two suckers, forked gut, genital rudiments and the remains of
the cystogenous granules. The encysted cercariae on herbage
by the waterside are in favourable situations for ingestion by
any herbivorous animal, such as ox, sheep or buffalo. I may
mention that from one infected Linniaea nataJensis I have
obtained 1,070 perfect cysts, and several hundreds are usually
produced from an infected snail.

Jiy direct experiments of feeding- herbivorous animals
(sheep, rabbits and guinea-pigs) and omnivorous animals (rats,
mice) on green barley and cabbage contaminated with cysts of
('. jngmenfosa, I have succeeded in obtaining adult flukes
corresponding with the adult Tremaiode, Fasciola gigantica
of Cobboid. These adult flukes varied in size, large ones being
55 mm, long and up to 9 mm. broad, while small specimens
were about 20 mm. long. Sexually immature forms were also
present in my experimental animals, varying from 5 mm. to
10 mm. in length and in breadth from 2 mm. to -1 mm. The
sides of the body are nearly parallel, and the cephalic cone is
short. The anterior sucker is distinct, about 1 mm. in diameter;
the posterior sucker (acetabulum) is prominent, and in large
specimens reached 1"8 mm. in diameter. The genital pore is
situated just above the anterior margin of the acetabulum, and
the intromittent organ often protrudes from it. The pharynx
is well marked, the oesophagus short, and the numerous lateral,
branching intestinal caeca are directed slightlv backwards.

The reproductive system consists of two testes, placed one
behind the other and much branched. Each has a vas deferens,
and the vasa deferentia unite anteriorh'. The ovary is rela-
tively small and is branched. The uterus and oviduct are
convoluted. Yolk glands are present and are greatly branched.
Tlie vitelline ducts are readily seen, and the transverse junction
is dilated centrally into a vitelline receptacle. A large shell
gland is present. The eggs are large, measuring about lT5u
long and 85/x broad.

Typical experiments that I made in connection with tlie
elucidation of the life-history of Fasciola gigantica may be
briefly summarised. Thus, a rabbit was feci with green food
contaminated with cysts from Limnaea nataJenxis. It gradu-
allv became emaciated, and died (\X davs after the infective

I.TFE-lllSTOKY 01- AFEICAX LIAER FLUKE. 12D

feed. At post-moitein over 20 adult flukes were obtained from
its liver, which was enlarged, had much thickened bile ducts,
and showed maiked disinteo-ration of its capsule. Recent
haemorrhag'es into the connective tissue around the terminal
part of the rectum and lower part of tlie abdomen, together with
a haemorrhag'ic sac betweeu the deep and superficial muscles
of the thigh, were present, and these haemorrhages contained
one or more Hukes.

Similar results were obtained with a guinea-pig. which
died 74 days after the infective feed.

A young sheep, bred from and belo'iging to a stock known
to be free from liver fluke, was fed with green barley con-
taminated with encysted cercariae from Litnnaea natcdensis,
two such feeds being given. On the first occasion only a few
cysts were available; on the second, about 250 cysts were
administered. The animal died 143 days afler the first and
11!> days aftei' the second infective feed, and 22o adult flukes
were recoveied from it at autopsy. Sixty-four days after the
second infective feed the animal was noticed to be less active
and to lie about a good deal. This behaviour continued at
intervals until it died. For seven days prior to death most of
its food was refused, but it ate its mash and some green barley
on the day previous to death. At post-mortem the body
appeared well nourished. The liver showed marked perilie])a-
titis, was greenish in colour, with numerous blackish
haemorrliag'es. There was slight oedema. The bile ducts were
greatly thickened and fibrotic. The intestines were heavily
bile-stained, and contained some flukes in the canal, which also
showed many small haemorrhages. All the blood-vessels of
the mesentery were engorged. A small haemorrhage beneath
the skin near the anus contained one fluke. The organ most
affected was the liver, from which 189 flukes were recovered.
The bile ducts were blocked in some places with tangles of two
or three flukes.

Similar experiments were performed, using rats and mice,
with similar results. The minimum time before adult, sexually
mature flukes have been obtained experimentally has been
(i4 days.

The eggs of Fasciola (////aiificd do not hatch leadily under
experimental (conditions, and my experience has been that they
take from 11 to 54 days Isefore the miracidia emerge. Direct
infection of laboratory-hred Limnaea nofalensis with the mira-
( idia of F. (/if/(tntir(i has been carried out, so that the complete
develt)i)niental cycle is now demonstrated.

FdscioJa f/if/anfica is fairly widely distribaited in South
Africa. Tlius, following on my communication to the
Veterinary Research Division in 1919, the i]wv Actina-
Director. Mr. D. T. Mitchell, sent to a well-kiiown " fluke ""
district in the Transvaal, and it was found that sheep and oxen
there were parasitised with F. f/lfjanficd, not F. hepafica, as
had been thought. Similar finds wej-e made in Swaziland.
F. r/if/anfjca has since been reported from several Transvaal
localities, and I have found it fairl.\ commonly in the livers of
cattle condemned for fluke in th'^^ Joliannesburg abattoirs.

130 LIFE-lIISlOP.y OF AFEICAX LIVER FLUKE.

where it is almost as common as F. hepaiica, and mixed
infections of the two flukes occur. Specimens have also been
obtained by me from Xatal, from the Eastern ProA-ince and the
Western Province of the Union of Sonth Africa, and from cattle
sent from Rhodesia.

With regard to preventiye measures, the following pre-
cautions are sug-o-ested : Where Limnnea nafalenais occurs,
vegetation should be reduced to a minimum at the edges of
the ponds and streams, and reeds and bulrushes should be cut
back. These plants are favourite jilaces for breeding and the
food for choice for the snails, and their absence is therefore a
deterrent to the spread of fluke. The Limnaea also feed
greedily on the leaves of the blue water lily, on the underside
of whose leaves they lay their egg- masses.

Cattle and sheep should be kept from damp, marshy soil,
where Limnaea is present in the water. I have found infected
snails twenty feet from the edge of the water in marshy spots
in Xatal. AVatering of stock with water that has been stored
for two days is almost sure to be safe. The cercariae of Fasciola
(jijjantica rarely suivive more than thirty-six hours in water,
and unless there are facilities, such as grass or debris on which
they can encyst, they either i)erish or else they encyst on the
sides of the storage tank, just above the level of tlie water. The
cysts are not easily washed off when water is drawn, but can
be scoured or scraped oft^ and buraed when the tank is empty.
The latter precaution of burning is necessary, as the c^^sts
remain alive for considerable periods.

Some recent experiences and observations in the open have
shown me that ducks are very efficient in destroying pond
snails, and, in the absence of the necessary molluscs, the life
cycle of the parasite fails. It is possible that the ducks may
transport the eggs of the snails from one pond to another, but
it seems to me that the danger therefrom is i>m^-h Ip-^' than that
due to the presence of the snails, nil kinds of which are greedily
devoured bv the ducks.

SOME PAEA8ITIC PEOTOZOA FOUXD IN
SOUTH AFEICA.— III.

By H. B. Fantham, M.A. (Cautab.), D.Sc. (Lond.),
Professor of Zoology, Universitij College, Jolianneshiirg.

(Ah^fract.)
Read Jul !i 15, 1920.

The present communication forms a continuation of pre-
ceding ones made at Annual Meetings of tlie Association in
1918 and 1919, and published in this Jouexal, vol. XV,
pp. 337-388, and vol. XVI, pp. 185-191. Preliminary accounts
only are given, as the work is being continued, and it is hoped
to publish fuller, illustrated accounts later, after more extended
study. This record, however, contributes to our knowledge of
the distribution of the parasitic* Protozoa.

Attention may, be drawn to two points, the finding of
seasonal variation in the occurrence of Sarcosporidia, and the
presence of several genera and species of Ciliata in the digestive
tracts of various Ungulata.

The term " parasitic " in the title is used in a wide and
general sense; some of the organisms described may prove to^
be saprozoites and some may be commensals.

Sarcodixa.

Few additional Protozoa belongin.g to this class liave been
seen by me since my last report. On two occasions a few
amoebcTe have been found in the colon of horses at Onderste-
poort. These are probably specimens of Amadxi [E/ifdmwba)
intestinalis mentioned by Gredoelst (1911)* as occurring
normally in the intestine of the horse. The making of
I^ermanent preparations Avas difficult, as the infections were
very scant}'.

MASTIGOniORA.

The blood of some " field-mice," Arrianithis pumilio,
caught in the neighbourhood of Onderstepoort, contained
Tri/panosoina leivisi. One rodent out of three had a heavy
infection in its heart and internal organs.

About 400 doo--fleas, Cfetioceplialus cmiis. were examined
in Johannesburg for possible intestinal Hagellates. (hily one
flea was found to be infected with Herpef(/i/ion(is ctenocepluih ,
and the parasitisation was slight.

Trichomonas suis was seen in the r;ecum of a pig in
Johannesburg. Two forms were observed, one large and broad
and the other relatively long and narrow, with folded mem-
brane. Division of the narrow forms was observed.

* " Synopsis do Parasitolofiie."

132 TAKASITIC PROTOZDA lOUX]) IN S. AFEICA.

A TricliOiiunuis. probably 7. i inin /tatifi in// of ]3raiiiie
(1913),* was seen in llie reticiihun ot three sheep and one ox
examined in Onderstepoort and Jobannesburg-. The infections
were slight.

A T nclioiiionds was also seen in the lectinn of a Muscovy
duck in Johannesburg-. The duclc suffered from diarrhrea.

A Bodn was observed in the rumen of a sheep in
Johannesburg-.

A ('('rconioii(i:< was found in tlie reticulum of an ox in
Johannesbttrg'. Probably it is the same organism as Cercninonas
rltizoidcd recorded by Liebetanz (1!)1()) t from the rumen of
cattle, sheep and g-oats.

Small, ovoid flag'ellates, each with one relatively long-
flag-ellum, corresponding to ( h'Loi/ionas coiinininis of Liebetanz,
have been seen occasionally in the rumen and reticulum of
sheep and cattle in the Transvaal.

Small, round flagellates, apparently the SpJuvromofuis
comt/iunis of Liebetanz, have been observed in the rumen and
reticulum of two goats near Pretoria. This flagellate is placed
by Braune in the genus Monas, as M. coinmvin's.

The very interesting^ and primitive organism. Selenoinasfi.r
ruminnnfnnu, which is perhajjs a Proflagellate. may be men-
tioned here. It was seen in the rumen and reticidum of two
goats in the Transvaal.

SroEOzoA.

A LijiitplKK-jitoiiiefiai ina was found in the lymphocytes of
the blood of a freshly-killed giraife shot in Barotseland. 1 have
])leasure in thanking Dr. Jlertig for tlip film.

I have received from Mr. S. H. Skaife, of Cedara, Xatal,
some hive-bees whiidi he suspected to be infected with spores
of Nosema apis. I have determined that this parasite was
present and confirmed the diagnosis. Some deaths occurred
among the hive-bees from this infection.

The Myxosporidia, recorded by me from various fish last
year, were seen again while I was on a visit to the Ca})e
Peninsula in February, 1020.

Sarcospokidia.

While examining organs of sheep for Sat-roci/sfis fenelhi,
I have found spores of the parasite in tlie reticulum and ceecuni,
as vrell as in blood smears from the heart, lymphatic glands
and spleen. A young multiau( leate trophozoite was seen in
a scraping of heart nurscle of a shee]). For the loan of some
of the smears mentioned I am indebted to friends and fellow-
workers.

During 1919-1920, while examining fresh post-mortem
material from domestic animals at the Veterinary Eesearch
Laboratory, Onderstepoort, Transvaal, occasion was taken
weekly to examine scrapings and smears of heart muscle for
spores of Sat-coci/sfis feneJla. Tlie hearts of sheep and cattle,
especially the former, were most usually available. Three to

* Arch. f. Protistenkiincle, xxxii, p. 111.
t IhUh xix. p. 19.

PARASITIC PKOTOZOA FOUND I-V S. AFRICA. I'-V-y

four aiiiiuais were <>-eiierally obtainable each week from tlie
post-mortem liall. The mu>cle of the apex of the yentricle was
found to be most convenient for examination. Sarcocysts
(Mieseher's tubes) were not usually seen in the smear-prepara-
tions of heart muscle, but free spores (Rainey's corpuscles)
occurred. Attention was concentrated on the spore stage.

Beg-innino- in April. 1919. it was found that the spores of
S. teiielhi in the sheep were regularly seen for about four
months, but apparently became very few or absent during- the
latter half of July. During August and September and the
earlier part of Octobei', 1919, the spores were rarely seen.
During November, 1919, and onwards to May, 1920, tbe spores
were again regularly seen, and usually found to be numerous.

A seasonal variation seemed to be indicated, the spores of
Sarcocystis teiiella appearing- to be relatively few or even
absent in the heart muscle of sheep during the colder montlis
of June, July and August. — which are winter months in South
Africa — ^but showing a very slight increase in numbers during
tlie montlis of Sei)tember and Hciobei^ — which are spring and
early summer months in South x\frica. Tbis was tlie inference
drawn from tlie observations made during 1919. The winter of
1920 has been sliglitly milder, and — continuing the record of my
observations up to September, 1920 — ^tlie spores of <S'. tenelhi
appear to have been rather more numerous during the winter
of 1920 than during that of 1919. The animals examined were
nearly all adults. These observations are not yet complete and
are being continued, but the available eA'idence goes to show
that spores of S. fenella in the heart muscle of sheep examined
near Pretoria are less numerous in the winter and spring or
early summer than in the middle and late summer.

Similar observations on the Sarcocijsti.^ of cattle have been
commenced, and so far the results obtained a})pear to be
somewhat different.

Seasonal variation is an example of i)eriodicity in nature.
The occurrence of such periodicity is probably much more
geneial and of greater imi)ortance than has hitherto been
suspected .

It is interesting to note the results of J. W. Scott
(December, 1918), ■' who has been working on >S'. fenella in sheep
in the Northern Hemisphere, namely, on the Laramie Plains,
Wyoming, Ignited States of America. He finds that infection
is seasonal, the infections being' less numerous in the winter
and spring. He v orked on sarcocysts, and the period of
incubation after infection before sarcocysts appeared in the
muscles was from four to six weeks. He states that ewes become
infected year after year in successive seasons and that the
life-cycle falls under seasonal control. Scott's researches are
not yet complete.

IXFL'SORIA.

A number of C'iliata have been found in the alimentary
tracts of T^ngulata, especially in Uie rumen and reticulum of

* Journ. Parasitology (Urbana), v, j). 45.

134 TAEASITIC PKOTOZOA FOUND IN S. AFIQCA.

cattle, sheep and g-oats, and in the cnecum and colon of horses
in the TransYaal. Relatively few horses were available, and
most of them had died from horse-sickness.

Isotricha was recorded last year from the rumen and
reticulum of a bull. It has been seen again in the corresponding-
organs of sheep, cattle and g'oats. Apparently both the species,
/. prostoma and I. intestinnlis, were observed, but the latter
occurred on few occasions and in small numbers.

Sheep and cattle examined in the districts of Pretoria and
Johannesburg have also harboured the following Ciliata in
their rumen and reticulum: Dasytriclia rnminaniiUDi , Diplo-
dinium ecaudotnin and a species of Buef-'tchlia. The first-nanied
of these ciliates is placed in the genus Isotr-icha, as /. ruiniuan-
tivm, by Braune. Several varieties or formse of Diplodiiuuin
ecaudatum were seen, namely, candatum (with one caudal
spine), hicaudatum and tricaudatum. following the nomen-
clature of R. G. Sharp (1914).* The BvetscfiUa, probably
B. parva, were seen less frequently than the other ciliates men-
tioned. A few of these organisms reach the omasum and may
occasionally be found there.

A Heterotrichous ciliate, which Braune (1913) considers
to be Enfodii)lu)i> hvrsa Stein, has often been observed by me
in the rumen and reticulum of cattle, sheep and goats. It is
very easily distorted by slight change in the temperature of
its environment. I regret that I have not yet been able to'
consult Stein's original description of the organism. The
various forms of this ciliate figured by Braune have all been
seen by me, as well as other forms, especially some showing
various contractions at the anterior end. Other allied
organisms, with spines varying in size and number, have also
been observed, and may be forms of Eiifoditiivm condafum
Stein. These organisms are most difhciilt to study, and do not
appear to have been adequately described or figured by previous
workers. Further illustrations of these Ciliata are needed. I
have been able to prepare some of these illustrations alreadv
from living material, and the observations are being continued.

Blepharocorys vncinata was recorded last year from the
raecuni of a horse. It has been seen since in the cseca of most
of the other horses examined, and has been found, but less
frequently, in the colon. Another species, B. valvafa, has also
been seen in the caecum and colon of the horses ; it has been
found more frequently than B. vncinata in Ihe colon.

In the caocum and small colon of four of tlie horses ;i few
Buetscldia postciliata were found.

On one occasion a fresh specimen of T'-iadiniuni rnndafuni
was found in the small colon of a horse at Ondersteponrt.

Cyclopostlnum hipalmaium has been observed in tlie
ctecum and colon of many of the horses before mentioned. The
infections were poor in each case.

Regarding the remarks last year on Balanfidimn coJI in
])igs, it may be added that two living specimens of the parasite

* Univ. CaHfornia Publications in Zoology, xiii, p. 43.

PAKASITIC rROTOZOA FOUXD IX S. AFRICA. 135

were found, each containing- erytlirocytes, in a portion of the
caecnni of an apparently healthy pin- in -Tolianneshurg. ATo
ulcers were seen in the caecum and colon of the pig. _

Examination of the Ciliata in the liying- condition is most
important, in order to obtain a correct knowledge of their
delicate structures and proportions. Many of them, such as
Diplodinium and Entodiniiim, are very susceptible to change
of temperature below that of the vertebrate host. The cofding
produces retraction of cilia and distortion of parts.

Spiroch.et.i;.

Organisms belonging- to the Protistan g-roup Spirochrcfacea
have been found in the crystalline styles of the Lamellibranchs,
Mytilvs crenafus and Tapes coi'mf/afa. obtained at Three
Anchor Bay, Capetown. In the former (Mytilus) the speci-
mens of spirochetes that were measured were 60// to 100// in
leng'th and about Ifx in breadth, with acuminate ends. In the
latter (Tapes) the spirochetes were 40// to TO// long and about
I'bfj. broad, with rounded or slightly acuminate ends. Both
spirochsetes were of the S. halhianii type, showing a membrane
or crest, especially those of Tapes, wherein the parasite usually
had a few changeable or unfixed coils on its body. The MyUUis
spirochetes, in addition to being longer and thinner, possessed
more flexible bodies and were more rapid in movement than
those of Tapes. A diffuse nucleus of chromatin rods was present
in each parasite. The Tapes were rarely infected (1 in 15),
Vidiile the l\Ti/tdus were somewhat more often infected (T in 75),
the molluscs being' examined in March.

A small, thin spirochete was found in the rectum of the
Muscovy duck already mentioned. The organism measured
10// to 15// long and had pointed ends.

1 would especially thank the Director and Officers of the
\ eterinary Uesearcli Laboratory at Onderstepoort for valuable
material and facilities for work, and the Research Grant Board
lor a grant towards the cost of collecting some of the material
for this investigation.

THE FUTUKE OF THE NATIVE EACES OF SOUTHERN

EHODESIA.

By X. H. Wilson,

Naiivc Affair.^ Dcpartmcni , Sonthcin Eliodcsia.

{Read J nhj 1-3, 1020.)

There appear to be three possible attitudes tor a reasoning man
to take toM^ards the native question, and our thoughts on the
future of the native races of Southern lihodesia Avill be governed
by our adopting one or other of these attitudes.

Firstl}', we may accept the saying that everybody, white or
black, has the right to rise to the highest point to which he is
capable of rising. This was a saying endorsed a few days ago
in the Legislative Council by one of our Labour menabers. As to
the qualification of " capability of rising," 1 shall have something
to say later. At present I only wish to point out that, if we
believe that the Western European civilisation (for which we
stand, and by reason of the superior claims of which we are here
to-day in this territory) is in any degree worthy of our claims
on its behalf, then by accepting this saying of the right to rise
to the highest possible point, we must, unless we are hypocrites,
imply that the native has a right to rise to the standard of that
civilisation : and we must likewise accept as a desirable outcome
of native development the gradual elevation of the native to the
conditions of existence of the European.

Secondly, we may believe that the native in his kraal probably
has a more equable and contented life than modern conditions
allow most Europeans, and we may consider the ideal policy on
his behalf would be to 4eave him untouched, to segregate him
completely (not mere land ownership segregation) and leave him
to work out his own salvation in peace, with a modicum
of guidance from a paternal government.

Thirdly, we may honestly look \\\)on the native as an inferior
race, to be exploited to the full in the interests of the superior
European race.

All three attitudes may be sup])0i'ted l)y a mass of arguments,
the truth of which it is ditficult to deny, but it is essential to
choose between the conflicting claims, and to adopt one definitely
for our guidance, the fixed point about which we must manoeuvre.

The third line of reasoning (the Exploitation Theory) is not
incompatible with a feeling of kindliness towards the inferior race,
and an unshakable determination to see fair treatment meted out
to the native. So a decent-minded man regards his horse, his
dog, his ox. It appeals to many from its apparent consistency
with the evolutionary theory of life as a ])erpetua.l struggle, in
which biological necessity compels the strong to prey upon the
weak under pain of extinction. But, as Ave recede from the days
when the Evolution Theory was first launched upon the world,

FUTrRK OF XATIVK RACKS OF S. KHOJ)KSIA, 13T

we are less and less bound by every facile analogy founded on it.
We recognise that the evolutionary laws applicable to social
integrations are not entirel}' similar to those of the struggle of
species with species. We recognise, indeed, that for one race to
enslave, or systematically to exploit an inferior race, may possiblj"
react more unfavourably upon the exploiting race than upon the
exploited. After this the exploitation attitude appears merely
short-sighted and selfish, and a nation adopting it as a policy
would inevitably move steadily to decay.

The second line of thought, the Complete Segregation Theory,
is more specious than sound. It is based on deep pessimism,
iind is a denial of the results of three thousand years of civilisa-
tion. It is a belief of hopeless negation, and, moreover, is put
out of court by the real impossibility of carrying out any policy
founded thereon. It is a chimera. To imagine that two virile
races could exist side by side without) any intermingling of ideas
and forces is to suppose that two gases in one vessel will not
mix; it is to imagine an absurdity, a thing that cannot be.

We may mention, in passing, the opposite to the Segregation
Theory, namely, the Miscegenation Theorj^ which is believed by
some to hold the secret of the future of South Africa ; the theory
that the eventual outcome will be neither white nor black supre-
macy, but one all-embracing hvbrid race. This prospect appears
altogether repulsive, and is, I believe, without any foundation of
j)robability. No more need be said of it.

We thus find ourselves forced back upon the policy many
will have adhered to in the first instance, namely, the gradual
elevation of the native to the conditions of existence of the
European. This, as I have said, must be implied in the saying
that everybody, black or white, has the right to rise to the highest
of which he is capable. Sir Wm. Beaumont, addressing the Natal
Native Affairs Eeform Association, put it thus: " The only sound
native policy we can adopt is the general advancement of the
natives industrially, socially, educationally, and politically, M'ith
as much freedom as is consistent with good order and govern-
ment." A righteous desire to justify cur presence in this territory
and enlightened self-interest alike indicate that as the policy we
must adopt, and assume as being carried out, when we wish to
look into the future of the native races of Southern Ehodesia.

The ideal of steady development of natives along the lines
of, and in a direction tending towards, European civilisation,
industrial, social, and political, must not blind us to the fact that
our civilisation at present rests on the undisputed supremacy of
the white man.

I shall return to this point shorth^

Let us hark back a, little way, and cojisider the saying:

Everybody, black or white, has the right to rise to the highest

point of which he is capable." Now, what does the qualification,

of which he is capable," imply? Here I come to extremely

disputable ground.

In the mind of the Eabour member of the Legislative Council
to whom I have referred, the qualification was evidently intended
to cover quite a lot. Perhaps I carnot do better than quote from
the debate : —

138 ITTl RE OF XATIVK RACKS Ol' S. RHODESIA.

" Recently he had heard a remark that everybody, white and black,
had the right to rise to the highest point he was capable of. He agreed
with that principle most heartily. No trade unionist would disagree with

that sentiment. The native had his limitations He had

clearly stated that he was quite prepared to allow for men, white or
black, equal opportunity to the limit of the men's ability. Those best
able to judge of what the native's abilities were, were very much divided
upon the subject. Broadly speaking, there were very few' natives in this
territory who were able to rise beyond the educational ability of a child
in the third standard. He was quite willing that the natives should be
developed along the lines on which they ought to develop. His belief
that the native was unable to rise to the standard of the white man was
the compelling factor in making him say that he fully believed that legal
enactment of the colour bar would never be necessary. He did not think
tlie position would ever arise in which the native in any numbers would
come into competition with the white man ; he did not think the native
had the ability to rise to tluit point."

That is very illuminative. Put shortly, it amounts to this :
Let everyone, white or black, have the fullest opportunity of
development, as the black is quite incapable of developing. In
other words, let a Derby winner and a cart-horse have a fair field
and no favour — and devil take the hindmost. Exacth', but
suppose the cart-horse should turn out to be a race-horse ? I need
not remind you that a Grand National winner was once bought-
from the shafts of a cab. Suppose the black man should surprise
us by showing that he is capable of quite a lot of development ?
What then ? I imagine that few here will agree with tlie quota-
tion I have just given in its extremely low estimate of the native
capacity. It would seem that it- is necessary to consider the
question : Of what degree of development is the native capable ?
Unless we form some conception of an answer to this question
we may make some very startling discoveries along the road we
are to travel ; we may possibly find we are on the wrong road
altogether^ — the road leading to disaster which we so earnestly
desire to avoid. Let us consider, then, of what degree of develop-
ment is a native capable.

Our first step brings us to a parting of the ways. We find
two distinct schools of thought, holding diametrically opposed
beliefs. We may call them the Schools of Racial Heredit_v and
of Environment.

The first, the School of Racial Heredity, basing itself on the
narrowest and most exclusive interpretation of the evolution
theory', finds the demarcation between races so distinct as almost
to make them different species. It deduces therefroin totally
different sets of psychic faculties in black and white. The black
races will alwaj's remain essentially inferior in brain power and
all other traits to the white ; the most that can be allowed is a
certain degree of imitative ability. It is utterly futile to expect
that African natives in a totally different stage of evolution should
show any brain calibre approaching the Etiropean. This school
is closely allied to the school represented by Gobineau and
Nietzsche in European ethnology.

The other, the School of Environment, or Social Heredity,
believes that all human ra_ces are endowed with exactly similar
faculties, and that the development de])ends entirely on the
environment. It ranks the capacity of an Australian aborigine
with that of a Western European, It can see no essential differ-

FUTURE OF NATIVK RACES OF S. RHODESIA.

139

ence between an Andaman Islander and a product of France of
the twentieth century. Cne of the protagonists of this school
is Jean Finot. He submits the system of skull measurement
to a careful cross-examination, and finds that all the talk of
dolichocephaly and brachycephaly is so much moonshine. He
finds similar' failure in all anthropometrical systems du'ected
towards discovering race differences. His examination of psychic
differences is not so acute, but gives, in his hands, similar results.
I cannot go the whole way with either school. Few, I
imagine, will find it necessary to express their disagreement with
the°American who proved that a negro was not a human benig
at all in the following way : —

God made man in Hi.s own image;

Everyone knew God was not a negro;

Therefore a negro could not be in the image of God:

Therefore he was not a man.

I have — -everyone has — known so many instances of family
heredity, some little peculiarity coming out in father, son, and
grandson, or, more noticeably still, skipping one generation, thaL
I cannot believe that racial heredity counts for nothing. I cannot
accept the dictum that environment or social heredity is every-
thing.

I am inclined to feel for a blend of the two schools. If I
might be permitted the simile I should liken the Eacial Heredity
to a stake driven into the ground, and Environment to the chain
by which we are joined to the stake, and within the range of
which we may roam. The stake is driven into the ground at
different spots for different races, but never ve^y far apart, say a
few feet the limit of the variation. The chain is of varying lengths,
from ten feet to several hundreds of feet. The point of the simile
is this — that by virtue of mere heredity the various races of man-
kind are not far apart, but by virtue of the environment, repre
sented by the greatly varying lengths of chain, vast differences
result.

To carry my simile a step further, I should like to suppose
a different set of stakes and chains for the physical, intellectual,
and moral attributes of the various races.

With great diffidence I offer this as a possible explanation
of the extremely diverse results achieved by advocates of Eacial
Heredity, and Environment, or Social Heredity. I believe if the
essential separateness of the physical, intellectual, and moral
attributes were accentuated and understood, and the varying
degrees of influence exercised in each sphere by Racial Heredity
and Environment, or Social Heredity, studied with this separate-
ness in view, we should be very much nearer to a true science
of ethnology, psycho-anthropology, and anthropo-sociology.

I shall accept my metaphor as giving a working hypothesis
for the consideration of the future of the native races of this
country.

To apply the theory to the matter in hand is the next
consideration.

As far as the physical attributes are concerned, everyone will
agree that physically the Bantu peoples are persistent. There
is no expectation of their dying out, nor of their rate of increase

140 lUTlRE OF XATIVK RACKS OF S. RHODESIA,

being greatly diminished. Possibly it may be increased. So there
is nothing to be said under this head, and no comparisons need
be drawn for our purpose.

The next is the question of intellectual attributes. Reverting
to the quotation I have pre\iously given, I cannot in the slightest
degree assent to the statement that there are very few natives in
this territory able to rise beyond the educational ability of a child
in the third standard. In so far as racial heredity is concerned, I
am inclined to believe there is nothing to choose between the
intellectual capacity of a white man and a Mashona or a Matabele.
Given the same environment, it appears to me, after fourteen
years' study of the native of this country, that his brain is capable
of just as much development, and that he starts life equipped
with just the same intellectual capabilities as a white man.
I should put his stake of Eacial Heredity into the ground of life
exactl}' alongside the white man's in the sphere of intellectual
attributes. The Environment, or Social Heredity, of intellectual
activity he has not in the same degree. His chain of environment,
within the limit of which he may roam, is much more restricted.
The part of the future is to add links to that chain of Intellectual
Social Heredity of the black man, as it is the part of the future to
add links to the chain of Intellectual Social Heredity of the white
man. Therein lies half of the problem of the future of the native
races of Ehodesia. The other half we come to next.

We have dealt with the physical and intellectual spheres.
We come now to the moral sphere. I class as moral virtues the
following: mental vigour, moral stamina, the ability to accept
responsibility, the instinct to accept responsibility, the
capacity to take up a strong attitude towards life and
all it means. These are absolute virtues. The other moral
virtues as more usually meant, besides being relative, and,
to some extent, a matter of fashion, are altogether dependent for
their existence on the virtues I have named, and therefore I do
not take them into account in this connection. In the moral
sphere, as 1 have defined it in its virtues, we find the Eacial
Heredity of the Ehodesian native is not the same as that of the
white man, the Western European. Therein it differs from the
state of affairs in the intellectual sphere. In the moral sphere
the state of Eacial Heredity is not put down close to the white
man's. That is the conclusion to which I have come. I may be
wrong, and the out-and-out believers in the overwhelming influ-
ence of Social Heredity, Environment, will refuse to accept such
a limitation upon any portion of humanity; but careful observa-
tion, both of my own and of many unprejudiced investigators in
whom I have confidence, convinces me that the black man starts
life with a certain innate difference from the white man in respect
of those moral virtues which I have enumerated as absolute moral
virtues. (The relative virtues I do not touch upon.) The black
man's Eacial Inheritance of absolute moral virtues is inferior to
the white man's. And, for this reason, I say that our civilisa-
tion rests at present on the undisputed supremacy of the white
man. For this reason I state there is no incompatibility between
insisting that the M-hite races shall be supreme and endeavouring
to approximate the native races to the standards of the white

i'UTUKK OF >"ATrVK KACK.S OF S. RI10J)KSIA. 141

races. I deny that the two taken together imj.'ly hypocrisy.
In the moral sphere, again, the chain of Environment whicJi binds
tlie black man to the stake of Eacial Heredity is much shorter
than the white man's corres})onding chain. That, I think, no
one will dispute. To add links to that chain is the other half
of the problem of the future.

The stakes of Eacial Heredity, one in each sphere, phj^sical,
intellectual, and moral, are immovable, except by a jirocess of
selective breeding which is and will remain a chimera. The chains
of Environment, or Social Hei'edity, can be increased by adding
links thereto. This applies to white races and black alike, and
is the essence of progress.

Let us examine the problem for the black man.

The factors of the position to-day are these : We have native
races, of a persistent r)hysical type, with the intellectual capacity
of Europeans, but hitherto extremely limited by Environment in
the intellectual sphere, and in their capacity for absolute moral
virtues inferior to Europeans by Eacial Heredity and still more
limited by Environment.

(Note. — The Matabele, superior to the Mashonas in their
social heredity of moral attributes, are inferior to them as regards
intellectual standards, but it is not necessary to deal with the two
races separately. The difference is small, as compared with the
distance separating them both from European standards, and J
propose to treat of them together.)

The danger of the future lies m the development of the
environment of the intellectual sphere without a corresponding
development of the environment of the moral sphere.

This danger is no mere fancy. In intellectual matters there
is every possibility of ever-increasing numbers of natives approxi-
mating more and more closely to European standards. I use the
word " intellectual " in its widest sense to embrace all operations
of mere brain power, and include manual dexterity in crafts,
tradesmanship, business knowledge and acumen, knowledge of the
learned professions, scholastic knowledge. With all due deference
to what others may have said, I must insist that in this part of
Africa there is bound to arise — there is arising now — an ever-
growing class of native artisans approximating more and more to
European standards of trade skill. Some of the trades and occu-
pations followed to-day here in Bulawayo by independent natives
are l)ootmaker, carpenter, mason, builder, tailor, laundrymau,
fruit merchant and hawker, wood-seller, vegetable-seller, mattress-
maker, brassworker, painter, tobacconist, tinker, hide and skin
merchant. ]\Iany manage stores and eating-houses. As the years
go on their numbers and their skill will increase.

I will add another circumstance. Those who have studied
native law, particularly the family laws of the Mashonas, and
compared them with Eoman law in its earliest stages, cannot
but have been struck by the extraordinary likeness there is between
them, and by the intellectual power shown in working out an
harmonious system of law by the despised Mashona. There would
probably be far less trouble needed to explain the Eoman patria
potestas and }nanus to an .ordinary Mashona than would be
required to make them clear to an English artisan

142 rrxiRE of native races of s. rhodesia.

Another point to whic4i I wish to direct attention is this.
The late Maurice Evans, in his study of the South American
negro, found, as a racial characteristic, this defect. They seemed
quite incapable of saving. It appeared, to be the principal cause'
operating against their uplift. Now tliis is not a characteristic
defect of the native of South Central Africa. Some of them are
spendthrift, the bulk are parsimonious. I should put an ambition
for solid wealth as one of their leading characteristics. This will
act as a jxiwerful incentive to them to develop as artisans, as
members of the working and business communit3\ Do net be
misled because at present they mostlj^ show a reluctance to work
for white employers. Eemember we have only been here one
generation. As a nation they have still to size up the situation
and realise the power of money. But I have known many indi-
vidual natives who have grasped the idea firmly, and have settled
down to a steady life of accumulation. Generally speaking, the
native of this country is intellectually the superior of the American
negro in most ways. His brain is more alert, more alive, and it
will be a great mistake to draw too many analogies to the detriment
of our natives from American negroes. Our natives here have not
had generations of the shattering experience of slavery to restrict
their intellectual environment.

Another factor which is vitalising the intellect of the
Ehodesian native is the intermingling of races. I am not refer-
ring to any possible variation of racial heredity by intermarriage
between races, but to the effect uj^on social heredity of many
races coming in contact. Here in Bulawayo there are probabl.f
more languages sjioken, more tribes represented, than m any
other town of South Africa. When I first came to Bulawayo
my household consisted of eight persons. We habitually, and in
every day intercourse, used eight languages, two Em-opean, five
native languages, and kitchen Kaffir. A few weeks ago I had
in my ofiace a native who spoke sixteen different and distinct
languages. Such things as these lead to a considerable sharpening
of ideas.

Xo, I cannot but feel that one or two generations will see,
perhaps I should say may see, a great changei in the intellectual
development of the native. And I look forward with a great dc al
of misgiving to a time when this shall have occurred. I see a
large body of natives, running into several thousands, skilled in
the professions and crafts, skilled in farming and business, skilled
in rhetoric and logic, intellectually as acute, perhaps as the Greeks,
and with even less stability. Add to this, that they will be able
to command considerable resources of money, owing to the national
characteristic of being able to save money, and we have the stage
set for tragedy.

Unless we can somehow develop their moral life, and their
standard of liying, we shall go under before them, as bad coinage
drives out good. We must be anim.ated by ideals, and we must
be prepared to force our ideas to become realities, or we shall
perish.

Some will say: " Yes, but why let things come to such a
pass ? Why let the native be educated ? Why not leave him
in his raw state ? Whv not introduce a stringent colour bar to

lUTURK OF XATIYK RACES OF S. RHODESIA. 143

prevent the native ever groAving away from his natural state? "
Apart from any ethical aspect, apart from the question of the
right to rise," we do not do these things for the same reason
that King Canute did not stop the rising tide. Whether we like
it or not, intellectual development will reach these people. Their
intellectual milieu is changing before our eyes. ,

Our hoj^e of salvation lies in this — we must use every effort,
we must bend the whole force of our national genius to tliis :
that the moral development of the native shall proceed pari passu
with the intellectual development. As a link is added to the
chain of Intellectual Social Heredity, at the same time a link
must be added to the chain of Moral Social Heredity. Incident-
ally we must take what steps are possible to ensure that the
intellectually developing native makes full use of the lengthening
chain of Intellectual Environment in all directions. Harmony is
strength, and a healthy development demands harmonious
development in all directions. But the essential desideratum is
development of the Social Heredity, the Environment, of moral
power, the creation of a milieu favourable to' the absolute moral
virtues, those virtues which I have before mentioned. Even if
the Bantu races have a different Eacial Heredity of Moral Power
from the white races, an inferior heredity, so that they can never
rise to the commanding; political position of the white races, yet
their environment in this matter can be vastly improved, and
must be vastly improved, if we are to remove some of that
characteristic of jicldeness which has always been the vice of
negi'o peoples. When negro races have been intruded into
European institutions, where European institutions have been
thrust upon negro races, the great cause of failure has always
been in the moral rather than the intellectual sphere, and one
of the most frequently recurring complaints has been fickleness.
It is in the moral sphere we must concentrate our efforts, or we
shall be shaped for disaster.

Do not think that the moral virtues will come as the intel-
lectual development proceeds. They will not.

In discussing Labour Government, the average Englishman,
sententious, says: " Of course, power and responsibility w^ould
be a great influence for moderation if ever we should have a Labour
Government.

I fancy there is a scarce-formed, yet power-exercising,
analogous idea abroad in respect of native intellectual develop-
ment and moral steadiness. People say, or perhaps feel, without
saying : —

" Of conr.se, as they develop od those various lines, approximating
to European conditions in such and such a matter and in this, that,
and the other thing, they will pick up ideas of stability, and responsi-
bility. There will h<i agitators, of course, but the great mass will, as
always, be slow to move."

That is a very, very great mistake. Nothing whatever in the
history of black races bears it out. What staliility they have
shown in the past has always been in their independent state,
when conditions have favoured the power being in the hands of
those who in the moral sphere (in mental vigour, etc.) surpassed
their fellows, and who, by their possession of absolute moral

144 I'TTrKK (>!• NATIVE KACE8 Ol' S. KHOJ)KSTA.

virtues, were able to enforce stability on their fellows by savage
methods. It was the absolute moral virtues of Chaka and
Lobengula which made them so pre-eminent, and gave stability
to the nations they ruled. Whenever black races have come under
civilised or semi-civilised conditions, everything has proved the
utter lack of foundation for any such belief in intellectual develop-
ment resulting necessarily in moral development. With the
passing of the leadership of native thought from the possessors
of the moral strength to the possessors of intellectual strength, our
one plain duty is, create a miJieii favourable to the development of
moral virtues, add link upon link to the chain of Moi'al Social
Heredity. Stabilise. We have one factor in our favour, as
compared with the United States of America, in facing our
problem, the racial characteristic of saving, that I believe our
Rhodesian natives possess.

I am a thorough-going believer in Benjamin Kidd's dictum
that the collective emotion of the mass is almost infinitely more
powerful than individual racial heredity, and that by a correct
apprehension of methods the whole life of a nation can be modified
in a very short space of time. Nations do change in their national
characteristics. Nations have in the past changed extraordinarily.
The French of 1890 and of 1910 were totallv unlike, and also
the Greeks of 1898 and the Greeks of 1912.

Before going any further, I wish to draw attention to one
matter which is not generally appreciated. That is, the orienta-
tion of Southern Ehodesia in matters affecting natives. Usually
in Native Affairs we feel that our kinshij) is with the Union of
South Africa. We study their problems for tlie light they may
throw" upon ours, and probably vice verfM. This, I believe, is
wrong.

Although in matters affecting Europeans we are for the most
part to be looked on as the most northern part of South Africa,
in native matters we are, I submit, more to be regarded as the
most southern part of Central Africa. The native problem in an
acute form similar to our native problem affects only portions of
the Union, e.g., Zululand, Kaffraria. It pervades the whole of
Ehodesia. In the Union the native, if not submerged, is at least
submersible. In Ehodesia he is not submersible, he is insistent.
In Ehodesia tlie native is more, the European less, in his proper
latitude — the bulk of Southern Ehodesia is in the tropics. The
mere fact that the major portion of the Union would be a perfectl.y
good country for the white man even without a native in it,
whereas the Ehodesian climate probably renders the black man an
absolute necessity to the white man, marks a deep gulf between
the two. It is possible that the passage of time and a policy of
laissez faire would clarify the native ])roblem in the south ; witli
us it would merely intensify it. In the Union, except in certain
secluded areas, the native will always be the helot of civic life,
which will centre in the Europeans almost exclusively. In
Ehodesia this cannot be. No, for common ground on native
affairs we must look to the noi'th. From a native point of view
the barriers on the south of Ehodesia are much more formidable
than those on the north, especially north of Mashonaland. The
Current of native life that flows to and fro between Southern

l-TTUEE OF NATIVE RACES OF S. RHODESIA. 145

Ehodesia and the north is vastly greater than the corresponding
flow to and from the south, and will increase proportionately as
the years go on. We and the north will gradually assemble in
native affairs; we and the south will gradually diverge. At the
risk even of bordering upon politics, I will say that this state of
affairs would not be altered even if we became part of the Union.
We shall alwa3's be part of the Black North. We must face our
problem in native sociology without assistance from the south.

Our problem, then, is twofold. Firstly, to ensure a social
environment favourable to the growth of the moral side, which
without assistance may not grow at all.

Secondly, to ensure a social environment favovu'able to the
harmonious growth of the intellectual side, which without assist-
ance will grow, but may grow ii:iharmoniously, that is, unevenly.

There are three phases of native life to be considered. Firstly,
the native artisans and labourers in towns and villages.

Secondly', the native labourers on farms and mines.

Thirdly, native life in reserves.

I am not pretending that there is any hard and fast line to
be drav.'n between these existences, but they represent sufficiently
different phases to be considered separately.

Taking the question of native labourers on mines and farms
first, and coupling with them natives residing on farms under the
Private Location Ordinance, very little can be done. jNIine
labourers are a very shifting class, and the real interest of their
lives centres nearly always in their kraals, to which they return
after a more or less extended stay at the mines. Farm labourers
are partly birds of passage, like mine labourers, and partly
pemianent residents on the farms at which they work. In the
latter case the.v are in a back-water. They are not a class which
lends itself readily to any development, nor, if the}' were the
only natives in the country, would the native problem be so •« itally
insistent. Our duty towards the native races would remain, but
as the sanction for its enforcement would merely be our own
disapproval, it might be considered with a great deal less anxiety,
and the natives left to remain, as these particular natives probably
will remain, in thair helotage. The natives on farms are out of
the main current of native life.

In towns we have a very different state of affairs. There is
gradually growing up a distinct class of town " boy." The lead
in the life of town natives is, of course, taken by the r^atives
working in stores, offices, workshops, and factories. The number
of natives taking to this life permanently is increasing each year.
Their aptitude for many of the positions they fill is undoubted,
and grows yearly. Their general intelligence grows. Their wages
certainly grow. We have here probably the most suitable class for
our efforts in mass elevation. Working systematically, we could
almost certainly effect a greater improvement in the intellectual
and moral spheres in a given time with this class than v/ith any
other section of the native community. But at present every-
thing is against their development, especially in moral virtues
(meaning by moral virtues what I have previously so desei'ibed :
in tlie matter of what- are more commonly reckoned as moral
virtues, they are obviously very lacking, and their -invironment

146 Ft'TURE OF NATIVE RACES OF S. RHODESIA.

is even more against them than that of other classes of natives).
By nature they are inclined to beer and women, and beer and
women are almost the only recreations offered them. If the beer
in the Location Beer Hall is not strong enough for their taste,
or they are not allowed to indulge in the riotous jollity commonly
dear to the hearts of care-free young men when enjoying them-
selves in company, it is the easiest matter in the world to mount
a bicycle and find a kraal where the brew is stronger and the licence
more free. Almost every native woman they meet is loose, either
by profession or as an amateur. Decent home life in a town
location is almost an impossibility. Hardly any native who has a
wife he does not wish to become common property will risk bring-
ing her to town to live. It is small wonder that the more solid
qualities have small encouragement to develop, and that the
general environment is one of constant desire for excitement, and
a giddy whirl of pleasure. With many the principle acted upon
is " Eat, drink, and be merry, for to-morrow we shall have syphilis
or be in gaol." This is not a healthy condition of affairs, and
should be remedied. The remediation is not impossible. The
human material is there. In spite of the conditions being so very
much against them, there are many natives in town who do lead
decent, tln-ifty, hard-working lives. But the atmosphere is against
theni, and as long as the present surroundings remain, the present
result will continue. The first, the essential, alteration to inake
is in the town locations. The trouble with the present locations
is that they only fulfil half the requirements. As Kipling says :
Single men in barracks don't grow into plaster saints." The
present locations are-.admirably adapted to housing bachelors who
are away at work all day. They are entirely unadapted to housing
families of a race that is not strong in moral restraints. What can
we expect of native women and men together in barracks ?

In addition to the location of existing type, there must be
semi-rural locations. The hopelessness of family life in the present
locations springs from the fact that the women have nothing to
do. Even if they had not generations of agricultural instinct
behind them, and women, of course, are the great conservers of
tradition and instinct ; even if their traditions in any way at all
made them suitable to town life, there is nO' jjossible niche for
them to fit into, no outlet for their energies in the present locations.
The locations of the future, the semi-rural locations, will be at a
greater distance from town. Each hut will have an acre or more
land allotted to it. The influence of the missionaries and officials
of the locations will be directed to the creation of an atmosphere
favourable to women, and men in their spare time, working in
their gardens, taking a pride in them, realising the vast difference
to tiie productiveness of the soil that is made by close and careful
nursing and cultivation. This is not an idle dream, I feel sure.
I am certain it can be accomplished. Then it will be possible
for a tradition of decent family life in the locations to be created.
It will be the' case that men will settle in the locations perma-
nently and bring up their families in honest pride. The boys of
the family, at the impressionable age, will have the parental
influence supporting the mission school influence in favour of
decency and sobriety. The girls of the family, who will probably

FUTUEE OF NATIVE RACES OF S. RHODESIA. 147

replace to a great extent the house-boys, and still more, I hope,
the nurse-boys at present employed, will feel the same influence,
and ^^•ill be able to keep straight. At present, for young natives
of either sex location life is a thorough grounding in vice. The
question of building cottages in these locations cheaply enough to
let at a rental possible to the occupiers-to-be, and at the same
time to make a return on the money invested, is not insoluble.
This, and many other minor ]:)oints about the semi-rural locations,
I have not time now to go into, but of the soundness of the general
idea I am convinced. So, and not otherwise, shall we render the
town native a support to our civilisation, and not a perpetual
menace thereto.

We come to the third phase of native life, life in the Eesei'ves.
At present, and more each year as time goes on, it is a fact that
the brighter spirits among the new generations drift towards the
towns. There the mind has more to grip, more is going on, life
is written Math a capital L, and every day has a freshness and an
interest in it that appeals, strongly, as strongly to black as to
white. For the young man of an independent turn of mind, of
an adventurous spirit, particularly if he has no inherited wealth
of cattle, town life offers tremendous attractions. This is especi-
ally the type with the greatest possibilities of development of
moral strength, in the meaning which I have previously attached
to this word ; this type offers the best material for our efforts to
add links to the " social heredity " chain of moral attributes, to
develop which is to be our principal aim. The very fact of these
natives leaving the kraal life betrays a certain amount of origin-
ality in their composition.

Now the main current of native life will always be in the
Eeserves, the main current, if not necessarily the most noisy and
violen". The larger the water the further run the ripples from
the stcne dropped in it. It is most essential that the brightest
spirits amongst the natives, the best material for moral develop-
ment, the people who we hope will prove the leaven by which
our efforts will raise the mass, should not be lost to the Reserves.
It is a matter of vital importance to the future of the native races
that there should be sufficient attractions, and possibilities, in
the Reserves to keep there those who i)Ossess the very qualities
we wish to develop. The future of the natives lies in the Reserves ;
this must be so, for their good and for oui's. It is on the outcome
of development in the Reserves that the fabric of cur civilisation
mainly depends. We must see to it that the best material is
available in the Reserves for our efforts.

To this end we must " vitalise " the Reserves. When I say
vitalise " I do not wish to be understood as saying that the
native in the Reserve at present leads a life of slothful inertia and
degradation. Very far from it. I have lived too long in native
Reserves not to know that there is, it is not altogether an exag-
geration to say, a busy hum of human activity going on continually,
and audible to any ear in the least degi-ee receptive. But for the
object I have in view, the development of the moral attributes
of originality, vigour, etc., and the other object of offering induce-
ments to original spirits to stay in Reserves, this activity does not
appear to be sufficiently formative. I think it should' be linked

148 rnuRE Oi<' native eaces of s. rhodesia.

up with the outside world more closelj^ by creating radial centres of
development within the Reserves, rather than that European ideas
should filter in slowly from outside by almost inperceptible
channels. Therefore I say, " vitalise " the Eeserves.

Next to law and order, " vitalisation " should be the main
consideration in any proposal made in connection with Eeserves.
Any scheme for development should offer ideas to the native mind
on which it can work, mental food as much as material prosperity.
The desideratum is the evolution of the absolute moral virtues of
vigour, stamina, energy, and, at the same time, the strengthening
of the intellectual attributes of originality and readiness to accept
education.

The bulk of the work of civilisation in the Eeserves has been
done by missionary societies, and will still be done by them in
the future. The very reason of their being in the Eeserves neces-
sarily compels them to direct their efforts to the relative moral
virtues, Christianity, cleanliness, sexual morality, etc., rather
than to absolute moral virtues, which are, moreover, much more
shadowy and indefinite. It is no more a criticism of the work
done by missionaries to- say this than it would be a criticism of
a wicket-keeper to say that he thought more about- stumping a
man than clean bowling him. The conditions of a missionary's
calling categorically demand that he should rank as highest certain
moral attributes which I have classed as relative virtues.
(In using the words absolute and relative I have no idea of inferring
any proposition as to inferior or superior.) The inculcation of
these relative moral virtues may safely be left in the hands of the
missionaries, who likewise deserve every credit for the work they
have done in intellectual education. It is to the development
of the absolute moral attributes, and the rounding off of the
educational efforts that I wish to direct attention : and therefore
I say, vitalise the Eeserves.

The question of how this is to be done deserves a longer paper
than time allows. I can only mention here shortly some of the
steps that might be taken.

On the subject of industrial development of the Eeserves, I
must refer you to a report recently written by Mr. Keigwin, and
pviblished by the Southern Ehodesia Administration. " If the policy
bears fniit, we shall see a new type of kraal gradually evolved,
what I may call a kraal town, more permanent than the present
kraals. These towns will be industrial and trading centres, places
for schools of craft and mission schools. In them, as a natural
development of the kraal headman and the elders, there will be
headmen {i.e., INIayors) and Councils. Ever\' effort should be made
to vivify this civic life. It will be both a training and an outlet
for energy, and the political instinct. The Parish Councils of
England, which have been really a dismal failure, when contrasted
with the glowing hopes that were entertained of them, were based
upon a misconception. It was believed that the Parliament idea
could be passed on from the nation to the parish. This was not
so. Having tasted Parliaments nationally, the people of England
could not be bothered to play at Parliaments parochially. There
was, besides, always something artificial about Parish Councils.
The folk memory retained perhaps sufficient unconscious recollec-

FrrURK OF XATIVE EACES OF S. RHODESIA. 149

tion of tribe assemblies to be able to absorb county councils, and
town councils were directly affiliated to mediaeval and post-
mediasval guilds, but parish councils seemed always more or less
artificial. With this lesson in mind, we must be careful to build
any civic or municipal institutions on the foundations we have,
and be anxious rather for a natural development than for a theo-
retical perfection. The experiences of the native councils in those
parts of the Cape Colony to which the Glen Grey Act has been
applied will be valuable in this connection.

An important matter will be roads. A well-built road is an
artery of life. In a way, all civilisation is founded upon locomo-
tion. There is scarcelj^ any other thing exercises so much
humanising, civilising, vitalising influence en a locality as a grand
trunk road.

The provision of wells, for drinking water and for irrigation,
will be an affair of the local councils or authorities, guided and
directed by the experts of central government.

Afforestation, for the provision of a sufficient supply of suitable
timber for building, wagon-making, furniture-making, and all the
other needs of a community, appears to be an object to be taken
up by the central government, either directly or working through
local bodies covering large areas.

A topic that has cropped up very often of late j'cars has been
that of individual native ownership of land. In this matter we
must move slowly. Communities of natives have occasionally
purchased farms as communal settlements. Such ownership, the
necessity for which will disappear with a due development of the
Reserves, and which is in itself a tribute to the strength of the
innate prejudice in the mind of the native in favour of land being
common, must not be corifused wdtli individual ownership. The
individual purchases of farixis by wealthy chiefs have really been
made in the communal spirit, for their people as much as for
themselves. There have also been a few, very few I believe,
genuine individual purchases of land to be held as real j^rivate
property. I am not sure about this last point, and am prepared
to be told there have been none. If any demand should arise for
individual tenure of land, it should, as far as possible, be satisfied
by granting holdings adjacent to Eeserves. But in satisfying this
demand we should not hesitate to apply rigorously the excellent
feudal conception that land cannot be a subject for mere commer-
cial transactions, but carries with it obligations to the State,
chiefly the obligation to support a certain number of citizens useful
to the strength of the State. I would saj^ that land should be
granted merely for use, not for out-and-out ownership, and I would
not be averse to suiTounding land transactions with a halo of
sanctity comparable to that surrounding the ancient Roman
transactions in res mancipi. Subject to these limitations I would
encourage individual tenure of land, as making for stability and
the development of the moral attributes. I see a great future for
the ideal of peasant proprietors who are likwise engaged in home
industries and handicrafts. Neither is this idea inimical to the
idea of more wealthy natives owning somewhat larger tracts of land
to be farmed on the most up-to-date lines with modern machinery.
Both may, and I hope will, come to pass.

150 FrXfRE OF NATIVE EACES OF S. RHODESIA.

The provision in Eeserves of such things as sports centres,
cinemas, hospitals, art schools, and many other things I have no
time to touch upon, nor is there any need to do so. All I have
in mind is to present to you the possibility and the desirability of
vitalising native life in these localities where the mass of native?
must reside, where the main currents of native opinion are
formed.

And now I must close. I feel that I have been too discursive,
and have touched all too lightly on many matters that require
volumes for adequate treatment. All I have hoped to do is merelv
this :—

I have outlined a theory of physical, intellectual, and moral
limitation of races, and racial development, which may at least
be taken as a working hypothesis.

I have applied this hypothesis in the three different spheres
to the native races of Southern Rhodesia, and stated my belief
as to their relative state and capacity in each sphere, showing
what is possible with the human material we have to deal with.

And I have, very shortly, outlined the steps which appear to
be the first on the road of sound development of the intellectual
and moral possibilities.

After fourteen years of life amongst natives I am neither an
optimist nor a pessimist. Not an optimist, because I have daily
experience of the difficulties of the situation : not a pessimist,
because I see possibilities of success.

Taking what I believe to be a sane and reasonable view of all
the factors and possibilities, I hope. And, if I live another fifty
years in this territory, and can still hope, I shall be content.

]\Iy hope of the future is this : a State where ever^'one, white
and black, makes full economic use of his abilities : where the
black man shall not be shut out from any sphere of activity by a
narrow and timid coloui* bar, and where the white man will reap
the reward for his generosity in the opportunities arising from the
immense economic development of a countr}' in which he will
be a directing and predominant partner.

Unless we have faith enough in our civilisation to submit it
to the test of being used as a lever to raise the native, we shall
pay the penalt3% and the native question of the future will be a
crumbling pillar in the political edifice. If we build with faith
in what we stand for, we shall build buttresses for our civilisation.

A SHORT NOTE ON EINSTEIN'S PLANETARY EQUATION.

By W. N. RosFAEAiiE, M.A., ^'<^\Cy47

Professor of Mathematics, Natal University College, ^"^^ * -^

Pietermaritzhurg . '^ ""

Read July 15, 1920.

§ 1. — Einstein's Relativity Theory of Gravitation, as given in
Eddington's Report to the Physical Society (1918), involves
much heavy, but, on the whole, satisfying, mathematical work.
The results for the case of a point-centre of gravitation are tha.t
ds, the " interval " (including space and time) between two events
is given by

- ids)- ==--!{.' ^ (dv)^ + r-(de)^ + r''sm-0(d<py -Ridty ; . . . . (i)
and, hence, for a plane orbit (writing henceforward 6 for 0),

/du\'' 3 ^ 2mu 1— c^ / 1\

(^^^^j=2mu3-u^+ ^^^ - -j^-,-. [n = ~j

where R =l-2m/r, m being merely a constant of integration,
"constant " for all motion in the field of this point-centre;

1 _ od^ c _ dt

"=r''-^ ' ~j^= -^', where h, c are constants for any one orbit.

r. 6, <p are (more or less) identified with ordinary polar co-ordinates.
But, " the considerable freedom of choice of co-ordinates allowed
by Einstein's equations " is invoked with disturbing frequency in
order to sanction " the possibility of using any function of the
radius vector instead of r itself." And we are told that we " may
meet elsewhere with different expressions for the line-element
due to a particle." The one used by Eddington was given by
Schwarzschild. By means of it (and of the rather free modifica-
tions in the co-ordinate r referred to above) Eddington, following
Einstein, obtains clearly enough the two great results by which the
new theory claims to have improved on the old Newtonian theory
— the theoretical advance of Mercury's perihelion, and the theore-
tical deflection of light by a field of gravitation, which seems to
have been so triumphantly confirmed by the observation of the
May, 1919, eclipse.

§ 2. — Two discrepancies in the work, arising from the free
treatment of the radius vector are worth mentioning : —

1. As pointed out by Prof. Anderson, of Galway, in the
Phil. Mag., May, 1920, the special modification of r necessary
to establish the deflection of light (Eddington, p. 53) would, if
appHed to the same fundamental equation (i) above, not give

152 NOTE OX EIXSTEIX'S rLAXETARY EQUATIOX.

the desired Mercury result. Whether this discrepancy can be at
all accounted for by the fact that a ray of light is there treated
as a travelling particle, I cannot say.

2. In Eddington's extension of the formula to the " gravita-
tion of a continuous distrilnition of matter "' (chap, vi, p. 59) an
approximate result is obtained: —

_ (ds)2=^ - [1 + 2V) (dx- + dy^ + dz-) + ( 1 - 2V) (dt)^
where V=2(ni/r), the Newtonian potential.

Apparently this result does not include the previous formula
for a single particle as a special case — a somewhat surprising
incident.

§ 3.— The main object of this Note is to call attention to a
consequence of the second equation in § 1.

;'|)^^2.u.-u«.2--i-= („)

The corresponding Newtonian equation is, of course,

(du/d^)^= -u^H — ^-^ -const., giving the elliptic orbits.

On the fundamental principle that at a distance from the

gravitating centre Einstein's equations must agree witli Newton's,
we identify, in the case of the solar system, Einstein's integra
tion constant m with Newton's " mass " of the sun (in gravitation
units).

Eddington solves equation (ii) by a rather unpleasing series
of approximations. The straightforward and accurate elliptic-
function solution is pointed out by Forsyth in Nature for 8th
April, 1920, p. 186,

Ee-writing (ii) in the form ij^j =2m (u — a) (u — P) (u — y)

where a>>/3>»7, and at first assuming a, (3, y to be all real and
])ositive, we see that u may either lie between (3 and y, giving
the ordinary two-apse orbit which, presumably, is indistinguish-
able by observers from Newton's ellipse,

or u may be greater than a, i.e., r less than -.

This ease gives ^a/'^= h f
^ 2 V,

dt

(iii)
v/(t-a)(t— /3)(t— yj

Thus u-a, U-/3, u-y are the (semi-axes)^ of that confocal
ellipsoid which has internal potential ^v/J^/^. Since, by elemen-
tary Elliptic Function Theory, these (semi-axes)- are periodic
functions of the potential, the period being 2oj,

'd^
V(t-a)(r^fl)(t-y)

— —-^ — —j^ 7- , we obtain a periodic

orbit, the period of 0 being mJ \/2m. And since equation (iii)
makes this orbit go through the origin when ^=0, we are reduced
to a single-apse flight from the origin out to u=a and back in
l^eriod w/ V^m.

NOTE ON Einstein's tlanetary equation. 15^3

The three special cases in which the eUiptic function
degenerates will perhaps give the clearest idea of the shape of
these inner orbits.

I.— If a=iS=y=l'6m (in which case l/h^^Sa^--! /12m2,
and (l-c2)/2mh2=a3, :.c-=^) ■

.-. u - a = 2/m^-, a .spiral only reaching u = n when f> = co .

II.— If a=-/3

/9a/-- i r ^^=- = r — ^^ = -7^ooth- V

V i: - y

-r

-y

(u_y) = (a-y) coth- (y v''^m(a - y) ), again a spiral leading to
u = a when 6^ = ©o .

III.— If ,/3-^y:

^V^=i y^ Vt"^a(t-y) y r- + (a-y, v/a - y Va-y

^U - a

.•. (u — a) = (a-y) cot'^ (9Vim(a — t)) "^'^ich reaches its apse
u = a when 6 = tt/ ^2m(a - y)-

Of course, these results suggest visions of spiral nebulas,
corona, prominences, etc. But the following considerations dis-
perse them rapidly.

§ 4. — Measurements of our solar planetary motions show that
m=l'47 kilometres. [It will be noticed that the system of units
adopted in the fundamental equations, in which the velocity of
light^l, makes m and h of dimensions 1 in length or time, c
being a number: and 1 sec.=3.10^km., so that, for instance, the
radius of the earth's orbit = 500 sees.]

m=l'47 km. leaves no room for our "inner orbits" in the case
of the sun. But there is no reason to suppose that the same
objection would apply to other planetary systems : and there is
no intrinsic objection in the theory to m being a minus quantity,
and a, /3, y being minus, or P, y conjugate imaginaries. The
latter assumption would not seriously affect the above results,
though the ordinary outer orbits would be impossible.

154 KOTE ON EIXSTEIX'S PLANETAKY EQUATIOX.

§ 5. r=;2m raises points of interest. We have then in

equation fi) R=0, and - =00 (c cannot be zero; see below).
^ ds

ITT u 2 d^ h T> A J du du d^ n . dr n

We have r^ = — R = 0; and -— = tts ir- =0 .-. --= 0.

dt c dt d^ dt dt

.'. apparently, when r=2m, every particle comes to rest, and
since the higher differential coefficients with regard to t also
vanish, all motion ceases on r=2m.

Thus the " inner orbits " considered above reduce to spirals
originating on the sphere r=2m, or to curves from points on r=2m
to apses on r=l/a and then back to r=2m.

§ 6. — To prove that these peculiarities of r^=2m are not ruled
out by c===0, the equations connecting a, /3, 7 in § 3, viz.,

a + /3 + 7 = l/2m, f3y + ya + a(3=l/h-, afty = {l-c")/2 mh"

give (I -C-) (o+yS + y) (/3y + ya + ci/3) = a/3y

.-. if c = 0, (;8 + y)(y + a)(a+^) = 0,

which is inconsistent with ^y + yo + a/3 = a square (]/h^).

^<^.

I Lu( LIBRARY jrT:-

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE,

C<)M PRISING THE REPORT OF THE

South African Association for the
Advancement of Science.

(1920, BULAWAYO.)

VOL. XVII.

APRIL, 1921

No. 2.

EAINFALL AND BAROMETRIC YARIATIOX IX
BULAWAA^O.

By FATiiEii

E. G(
Rem]

rain fa

JKTZ, S.J., M.A

for

R.A.S.

Jul J/ 15. 1920.

The average

1 ill J^uhnvav(

tweiitv-three

seasons is : —

Julv

005

indies.

Auouist

004

September

015

October

0-85

November

3-42

December

5-32

Januarv . . .

5-92

Eebruarv ...

3-7T

March

2-84

April

073

Mav

0-28

June

0()3

Yt

>ar

: 28-40 inches.

This table seems to indicate a fairly well distributed
rainfall during" the g-rowing- season, with a maximum in the
middle of it. In reality, presented in this Avay it hides the
fact that as often as not we have in the middle of the season —
in December or January — prolonged droughts, A\'hicli are A-ery

15(J «AIX1ALL OF BrLAA\AYO.

detrimental to agriculture in Matabeleland. Tlie ettect of
these droughts Avill appear very distinctly if we g-roup the
rains of December and January in periods of ten days.
Summing' up in this way the rain that fell from the 2nd of
December to the 31st of January from 1897 to 1920, I get
the following- totals (the dates are inclusive) : —

December.

2—11 ... ... ... 39 inches.

12—21 30 ,,

22—31 49 ,,

January.

1—10 .... ... ... 31 inches.

11—20 ... ... ... 4G ,,

21—30 ... ... ... 45 ,,

In the second period of December the rainfall is 23 and
39 per cent., and in the first period of -lanuary 3(j and
33 per cent. loAver than in the periods immediately preceding
or following'. These partial minima are due to breaks in
the rains that often occurred in December or January.

In correlating' the exjjansion of the barometric monthly
means into a sine series, with these droughts, I have come
across the curious fact that the second harmonic seems to
bear a very close relation with tlie variation of the rainfall,
roughly, between the middle of November and the middle of
February.

In the following table I give the date of the maximum
or minimum of the term A.^ sin (T'2 + 2.r) and the rainfall
around that date. The table is given for twentv-two seasons,
from July, 1897, to July, 1920. The season 1901-02 is
omitted, as there was a break in the liarometric observations.
In seventeen seasons the maximum falls in a period of drought
or of serious shortage in the rains, and the minimiim in a
period of excessive rains. In four seasons there is a period
of drought immediately preceding or following the maximum.
In one season, 1918-19, the maxinuim falls in the middle of
a period of good rains, preceded and followed bv a notable
shortage of the rains. In each c^ase I have given to the
nearest half-inch the average rainfall for twenty-three years
during the period under consideration.

KAIXFALL OF BUI.AWAYO.

151

+ ^

a *'

:3 3
o

WH ^

a5 -ki

be a

«'

in

n

1 1 1 n 1 1 =^

1 1 1 ! rM 1 1 ^ II ^

1 "

s

-C-tj

l-l

1-1

O -3

ai -3

1 1 I 1 1 O 1 1 \ rXl \ 1 -O

1 03

^'1

II 11 1 1 <~<

1 1 11 1 " 1 II - 1 1 in

«

1

,

-t. ^ r5 o

CI

s

© 03

C' '"' •— ' C^

o

■« 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■

1 1 II 1 b UM -i II o

1 b

a

.-1 p C-1 (M

sn

■3

Q

^

<=;

to

^ 'a - =»

1 ■ 1 L 1 1 '^ 1 II

~

^

1 1 1 1 1 1 d

1 1 1 1 1 j^ 1 g U- 1 1 ^•
1 s ^ ^

1 >^'

s

'-C

•V c-i -o

.*

g

C-J

-H C-)

o

III 1 1 1 >

1 1 1 1 1 .• II 1 >■ 1 1 d

1 ^•

^

o

"aj o Qj

"oj

►J

^

fa f>!; Q

fa

Em

be fi

•/ '*

lO lO in m m lo m m

o

^ "M I ^ CO 'O -t- 1

CO r H C-l -f 7-1 ri "0 -O 1 to ^ 1

CI CI

C4-I

<= rt

m ."

^ O 1:^ ■* rc L-l 1

o I- t-- CO -H c-i .-1 10 in 1 -r '-2 1

>» c3

1

f.^

i5PH

Q

-»j

a

o

S ■— ' O O -r" 1^ "O

o to -t- -o o o o f-' o to in

CO 05

»

J3 O O -^ -c C^l ?C 1

O O CO c^i 1- Cl ^ -f< O 1 — r- 1

-t< r>

a

s

o o o b o o o

b—iobc-ibp^CT.^ ,1-ib

CO b

y.

oj

'"'

<

iC ^Z) CO -f ^^ -f

i^to-Hi,(»ooo -n irao

m in

P^ ^ CI

Cl d C-) >-l . r^ C-l

CI

o

. -2 1 . 1

H

d d !3 o ci d '

(3 u c d o ^ ^- fi^ e 1 >^ »5 1

t-5^

CO OS rH CO in ^

t^ CO IM m 1-1 IM 1-1 ,-1 CO rH

in i^

S

^ M

^ (M . M

CI

o

. 1

....••. "o 1 . . 1

1-1

c p^ i fe " '

"SPiy&^.^Oo' c^i

6 >

(3 0- 0) o o a>

(BOj^ajooojo) c*^

® o

►Sqp^^I^P

Q >n 1-5 Q ;^, ^'^ p^ q H5 p^

cxy.

g

^__,

to »n — '

1^

3

CI

1 1 1 1 Li d

II 1 1 1 ^ 1 II «• II d

l]

o

aj rt ^

a>

^

i

Q

fa 1-5 O

fa

s

O ^ O O t^ CO

<3i 1- CI 1^ 00 to TjH CO 05 CO O

Cl

3 a

^ !M CO CO ■— I
... - .1

CI CI CI CI .-< CI

1 . . 1

CO F.H

+

■« =■

C: •■■:> fi > o o 1

oocoo>^oc5 lj3.o 1

d '^

cS

cS i? S o ^ i?

<ua>3a>!DOQiaiaj ojaj

aj o

' ^

g

i-^QhsI^^PQ

QQh^QQ^^^p^QQ fepq

q;^;

^^

03

k'"

to CO lO «3 in IM «o

oj CO c^ CO — to CO CI CI ■» C5 to in

1^ CO

h^

3i CO in ^^ CO in in

— CI— 'C1tOd-t<CO-t<CO-t<^i— 1

-H o

a

^ i-H r.^ rt CO

— 1^.— — it-iCi rt^ci CO

^ o

C3

w

to 1— 1 in iM CO -+I IM

tocicot-itotooscs— loost^m

o -*•

H

^

(MM M -H -^ rt

i-i^cicqcici i-ir-^ i-icj

H

CO OS o I— CO -K m
05 o> o o o o o

1 1 M 1 II

1^ C» 03 O Ol CO -H

O Ci SV C: r O O

CO

toi^-cooo^cico-tiintot^cxi

en o

M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

»0 O t^ CO Oi O •— < Tl CC -H if^ -^ t*

O C^'OOOf— ''— Ir— ii— 1»— — H|— (r—

CO cri

--■ —1

'"'

O qj tc

^ 1- c4

.P to 03 .

2-:= °.-S

«= . M -^

I-? 03 a

CO O aj

CI -H to ^

s-s ^^"^

S ^ 03 ci

03 rf .£: M

^ O

-^ S

3 ^

S T3

03

S O

2 ^ ^ 03

— ' o "o a

03 CM o .r<

^ H

BAT GFAXO ])EPOSIT.S OF 1UI()])ESIA

By Edmund VifTou Elack,
Assist. Agiic. CJiciiiisf, Sdhshinj/.

Read Juhj 15, lO'JO.

Tlie scarcity of fertilisers duriiiy recent years lias led
to cojisiderable prospecting being done in connection with
bat guano deposits, and caves liave been discovered in various
parts of Ehodesia. From the records in the Agricultural
Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Salisbury, samples
have been received from Sinoia, Mazoe, Darwendale, Gwelo,
Gatooma, Que Que, Eigtree, Melsetter, etc.

Ej'om an agriculturist's point of view. " guanos " luive
been liighh* prized in the past on account of their rajnd action
on crops, but, unfortunately, the term " guano " lias almost
lost it true value to-day, as we find many articles offered
for sale that have no right to have the term " guano " affixed.
Several bat guanos that were placed on the South African
market came under my observation during 191T, and the
results of anahsis proved that they were of no commercial
value — in fact, many soils would contain the same manurial
ecjuivalei'.t. The average composition of four- samples of
(so-calh>d) h\\{ guanos was as follows: —

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Potash.

Per cent.
0-20

Per cent.
0-56

Per cent.
0 02

" Guano," as defined in the liegulations of the Eertilisers
Ordinance in force in Southern Rhodesia, means solely the
(M)llected excreta of sea birds. Excreta of bats, steamed,
boiled or po's\'dered fisli or fish refuse and Avliale sera]) may
be sold under the names " bat guano," " fish guano " or
"whale guano," as tlic case may be, and not sim])ly as
" guano." Ill any (■as(\ where the woid " guano " is iiot
preceded by llie ([Ualifying terms "bal," "fish" or
" Avhale," it shall be taken lo mean solidy the collected
excreta of sea biids.

DAT GIAXO IX KIl()J)i;slA. 159

Occurrence and Mode of Forinctfion. — In almost eveiy
instance those caves occur in limestone formation,, and the
deposit consists almost entirely of the excreta and remains
of bats, Avhicli have inhabited the caves from time immemorial.
In some caves the renmins of native calabashes and bones
of animals have been found, pointino- to the fact that in
some remote age the caves liad been inhabited by native
tribes. This fact was ])orne out when I made an inspection
of a series of caves in the (latooma district, refeience to which
Avill be nuide latei' on.

If the deposit occurs in a dry cave or caves, and was
f(jrmed under the nn)st favourable conditions, the excreta
would remain dry and in an unchang-ed condition, and one
would ])robably find the bat guano to contain practically all
the nitrogen, phosphoiie oxide and potash (jrig-inally jiresent
in the manure.

In a semi-tropical climate such as we have in lihodesia,
and where the deposit occurs on limestone formation in damp
caves, the rate of decomposition^ (hie to bacterial action would
be very rapid, resulting' in the loss of a large anumnt of the
(tig'anic nitrogen, the nitrog-en ])eing' converted into volatile
ammonium carbonate. Any water percolating- in the caves
would leach out the solulde nitrates and other water soluble
constituents, resiilting- in the material containing- but a
small amount of nitrogen witli a somewhat high content of
l)hosphoric oxide.

It is probable that the above facts accoimt for smdi a
variation in tlie comi)osition of bat guano.

J)('fl n/tion of lidf (rudno ond (tiki no Phosjilidte . — Bat
g'uano, as defined in the Reg-ulations of the Fertilisers
Ordinance, must contain at least 2A i)er cent, of nitrog-en
and 8 per cent, of jiitiogen and ])hos])horic oxide takeii
tog'ether. (irmino from Avliich all, or ])ractically all, the
nitrogen has disappeared shall not be sold as " guano," but
may be sold as " ])hos])hatic g'uano " or " guano ])li(is])hate."

Bat guano may be classified as follows : —

Zvitrog-enous bat g'uano.

Phosphatic bat gintno or bat g'uano phosphate.

Inferior bat guano. These are so poor in plant food
tliat they are of no commercial value, except on
the farm on which the deposit occurs.

.\/fro(jenoiis Ihif (junnox. — These occur in a dry cave, and
contain all the plant foods — namely, nitrog-en, phosphoric
oxide and j^otash. Tln^ nitrog-en ccnitent of bat g'uano is of
a complex nature, as sucli nitrogen may exist in several
forms— (a) nitric, (b) ammoniacal and (c) organic. All these
forms are of different availability to plant growth. Plants
during' their yiowlh can make immediate irse of the nitric

KiO IJAT GIAXO IN iai()J)i;SIA.

lorm, whereas the other forms have to iinder<^() ( lumg-es due
to bacterial action before they can be assimihtted by phmts
ill f^'eneral ; therefore, in an application of bat pinmo there
may be a gradual su])ply of available nitrogen. It is no doubt
due to the above facts that the (supjiosed) su])eriority of
" g'uanos " over other artificial fertilisers has been assigned.

Phosphdiir Jhit (tik/iios. — It is in damp caves, where

bacterial action lias taken place and possibly the deposit has

been subjected to leaching, that ])h()sphatic bat guano is
formed.

Bat Guano Dei'osits ( >(C'Ureing in the (jatooma District :
Umniati and N'Gondoma Caves.

a. umniati caves.

These are situated 47 miles north-west from Gatooma,
on a hill lying about 800 yards from the Umniati River.
On this hill four limestone caves have been located, three of
which are designated by tlie owners Xos. 1, 1a and 2, M'iiilst
the fourth has not yet been examined owing to the difficulty
of gaining entrance thereto.

Description of Care ]\o. 1. — TJiis is the princijial cave of
the ITmniati group, the entrance to it being located on the
lower side of the hill. In short, this cave may be described
as consisting of a series of chambers, in the walls of which
there are recesses in all sides. The chambers, the roofs of
which are either dome-shaped or more or less fiat, vary con-
siderably in shape and size. The main chamber is, roughly.
30 feet wide by 40 feet long.

Among the most interesting' features, apart from the
actual guano deposits, in these chambers are : —

(a) The light yellow, snow white or reddish colour of

the roof.

(b) The dependent stalactites and the presence in the

Avails of narrow vertical seams of white quartz,
ranging from one-eighth to one-half inch in
thickness.

(c) The intense heat in the more remote portions of the

cave, comparable with that of a Turkish bath.

(d) The variation in the colouring of the guano deposit

at depth, brown, white, black, yellow and red
colours being noted in one section to a depth of
eight feet from the surface.

(e) The immense number of bats, some of which have

a wing spread of more than two feet.

The vastness of the number will be appreciated from
the fact that for an hour after sunset I witnessed a continuous

JJAT Ca'ANO IN KIIODKSIA. l(jl

stream of them emerging' from the cave in mass formation,
and at the end of that period the stream showed no signs of
abatement.

At the time of my visit, most of the surface acciimidation
of guano in the main chamber had been removed to a depth
of two feet. The actual depth of the deposit still remaining
has not, hoAvever, been definitely determined beyond proving
that it extends more than eight feet below the present level.
It is impossible to give any idea of the extent of the deposit,
as the entrances to the side chambers in some cases are only
large enough to enable one to crawl through, and in others
they are so completely filled with the guano that the presence
of the chambers is not discovered until the deposit lying in
front of the entrances thereto has been removed.

Method of Woilinf/ file Deposit. — At present the material
is all carried out of the cave by hand and sifted through
a quarter-inch sieve, the material which fails to pass through
the sieve being discarded. The sifted material is then packed
to a depth of tAvelve inches on the floor of a drying shed
adjoining the cave, and continually raked over for three to
four days before being placed in bags and consigned to the
factory in Salisbury, where it undergoes fiu^ther grinding,
mixing and air-drying before being sold. At the time of
my visit I was informed that over 250 tons of guano had been
withdrawn, principally from the main chamber.

Farticuhiis of SdinpJes. — From this cave the toUuAving
samples were diawn for purposes of analysis : —

Lab. ]!so. 117 Gr. — Average sample of the surface layer
to a depth of 15 inches taken from most of the
available chambers.

I^ab. Xo. 118 (x. — Average sami)Ie taken f'lom the Avest
side of the main chamber to a depth of 15 inches.
This portion of the deposit is much damper than that
from which Xo. IIT G sample was drawn.

Lab. Xo. 119 (x. — Average sample of 20 tons of guano
which had been withdrawn principally from the main
chamber of the cave.

Lab. ]S^o. 120 G. — Average sample taken from the section
two to seven feet beloAv the original surface of the
dei>osit in the main chamber.

Lab, No. 121 G. — Average sample of soft yellow nodules
occurring in the deposit on the north-east side of
the main chamber.

The samples were air-dried, and sifted through a
qiiarter-inch sieve to remove stones, etc. Tlie following are
the results of analysis of the air-dried material after the
samples had been passed through a one-millimetre sieve :—

1(>2

liAT (ilAXO IX KIIODKSIA.

Nitrojifen.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Lab. No.

Water
soluble.

2 per cent.

Citric Acid

soluble.

Total.

Potash.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

H7G

2-87

0-35

789

1133

0 35

118 G

10-31

2-35

4 67

o]2

2-29

119 G

1-24

0-84

G-92

11-85

0-44

120 G

1-27

0 91

Krl'.i

22-71

()-40

121 G

1-59

lis

29 08

31 •.-12

—

These .saui])les may be cla.ssified as under: —

Xiti'og-enous l)at guano — Lab. ^S'os. 117 CI and 118 G.

Phosphatic l)at onano— Lab. Xos. 119 CI, 120 (I and
121 (I.

I would draw attention to high avaihibility of the i)lios-
phorie oxide in these saiujiles, especially in the case of
sample Lab. Xo. 121 (I. AVith the excei)tion of sanii)le
Lab, No. 118 G, all the renuiiniiig saini)les are i)ooi' in potash.

JJiiinidti Care A'o. 1a. — 1 reg'ret it was inii)()ssible to form
any idea as to the size of this cave, which lies about 200 yards
east of Cave Xo. 1, or of the nature of the deiJosit therein,
as it was only discovered a few days previous to my visit,
and the present entrance is only large enough to enable a
piccanin to get through. From this cave, which is apparently
of large size, a small quantity of brownish-coloured material,
represented by Lab. No. 122 G, was obtained.

The following are the residts of analysis of air-dried
material after luring sifted through a on(>-millime(re sieve: —

Phosphoric Oxide.

Lab. No.

Nitronfeii.

Water
soluble.

2 per cent.

Citric Acid

soluble.

Per cent.
210

Total

Potash.

Per cent.
122G u-17

Per cent.
0 34

Per cent.
535

Per cent.
0-24

This sam])h^ should l)e classified as an infeiior phosphatic
guano, so low in (j^uality as to ])ossess little or no ( (mnneicial
value.

r nniiiiti Cfirc .Xo. 2. — This cave lies 100 yards west of
Cave ^so. 1, the entrance thereto being on the slope of the

BAT (UAXO IX KHODKSIA.

i(i;^

liill. Tlie caye, wliicli is situated about 80 yaids from the
eiitiaiice, consists of one laig'e cliamber, 85 feet wide by
70 to 80 feet long-, Avitli side chaiubers that have not been
prospected np to the ])resent. Prior to my visit the upper
layers of the g-naiio in this cave had been removed. A'1)rownish
g-uano, represented by Lab. Xo. 123 (x, was selected from
various places in the remaining' deposit to a deptli of 15 inches.

The folloAviiig- are the results of analysis on the air-dried
inaterial after being- sifted througli a one-millimetre sieve: —

NitroK'en.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Lalj. No.

Water
soluble.

2 per cent.

Citric Acid

solii))le.

Per cent.
2 63

Total.

Per cent.
5-39

Potash.

123 G

Per cent.
0-81

Per ce}it.
OOG

Per cent.
031)

This sample shoidd ])e classified as an inferior ])hosphatic
guano, and the lemarks made in reference to sami)]e Xo. V22 (j
ajjply thereto.

Ji. — N," (a).\JJ():MA CAVK.

This cave is situated in a hill about 37 miles east of the
Umniati caves, and about 43 miles' west of (jratooma, its
name being derived from the N'g'ondoma River, which Hoay.s
on the east side of the hill. The cave, so far as at present
known, consists of a series of chambers, the larg-est of Avhicli
is oval in shape and has an average dimension of 300 by
00 feet. The chamber is surmounted by a dome, which at
its highest point is about 40 feet above the surface of the
dei)osit. Through the ovcrliead rock, which is al)out 40 feet
in thickness, a natural shaft leading into the main chamber
is provided. The vertical distance from the mouth of the shaft
to the surface of the deposit is thus about 80 feet. Another
entrance to the main cliamber of the cave is provided from
the side, but, owing to its irregular nature, it cannot be used
in its present state for the removal of the deposit, consequently
the guano is now being hoisted by means of a windlass
throug'h the natural vertical shaft referred to above. The
extent of the X'gondonm deposit must be very considerable,
as it has been proved in some places to be over 20 feet in
thickness.

PiutiruJavs of Samples.- — From the main cliambci' of tliis
cave the following samples Avere taken for analysis : —

liab. Xo. 124 G. — Average sample of the surface layer
to a depth of 4 feet, about 80 feet from centre of
cave.

1()4

liAT Gt'AXO IX KHOJ)KSIA.

Lab. jVTo. 125 G. — Average sample of the siiiface layer
to a depth of 15 inches, near centre of cave.

Lab. No. 120 G. — Average sample of the surface layer
to a depth of 12 feet, near centre of cave.

Lab. No. 120 liG. — Average sample of the portion of the
deposit lying 12 to 14 feet from the surface.

The samples were air-dried, and sifted through a
quarter-inch sieve to remove stones, etc. The following are
tlie results of analysis of the air-dried material after tlie
samples had been passed through a one-millimetre sieve : —

Xitroffen.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Lab. Xo.

Water
soluble.

2 per cent.

Citric Acid

soluble.

Total.

Potash.

Per cent.

Per cent

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

124 G

9-26

141

7 32

7 53

198

125 G

5-24

1-21

1032

12-69

2-52

126 G

1-40

0-61

6-41

16-89

1-79

127 BG

049

(1 11

013

1499

2-63

Tlie classification of the above samples is as folhnvs : —
Nitrogenous bat guano — Lab. Nos. 124 G and 125 G.
Phosphatic bat guano — Lab. Nos. 120 G and 120 BG.

I would draw attention to the high solubility of the
phosphoric oxide in samples Nos. 124 G and 125 G, as against
the low amounts in samples Nos. 120 G and 120 BG. Samples
Nos. 124 G and 125 G were of a fine, uniform dry texture.

Extent of Deposits.

AVhilst it is impossible to give any idea of tlie amount
of material in these caves owing to their irregular nature,
one, however, is justified in saying that many thousands of
tons exist, and the material as found in the Umniati Cave
No. 1 and the N'gondoma Cave is of considerable value.

Gexekal Nature of Bat Guano Deposits.

It is in the upper layers of the deposit that most of the
nitrogen occurs, with a fair amount of phosphoric oxide.
After the top layers are removed, the percentage of nitrogen
decreases, with an increased amount of phosphoric oxide.
The amount of phosphoric oxide soluble in a weak acid
solution, such as a 2 per cent, citric acid, varies considerably,

HAT GUANO IX KHODKSIA.

105

one sample being" as low as 013 per cent., whereas in another
29()8 per cent, was obtained. In the majority of deposits,
with few exceptions, bat g-uano is very deficient in potash.

The results of analyses of niimerons samples of bat g'liano
deposits, even from the same locality or cave, indicates that
the material varies g-reatly in composition. The following-
analyses will clearly illustrate the variations in composition : —

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric Oxide.

Potash.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

11-37

3-60

1-16

159

31-32

—

1-29

12-24

4-67

0 08

039

0-08

Average Composition of Bat Guano^Soutiiern Eiiodesia.

The minimum, maximum and average composition of
samples analysed from Southern Rhodesia is as follows : —

Phosphoric Oxide.

Nitrofifen.

Water
soluble.

2 per cent.

Citric Acid

soluble.

Total.

Potash.

Per cent.

Min. 0-8
Max. 1137
Aver. 3-53*

Per cent,
trace
308
0-93 +

Per cent.
0-13
29-68
6-75 t

Per cent.

0-39

31-32

8-70 *

Per cent.
095
4-67
116*

■*"• Caloulateci on forty-five samples.
+ Calculated on twenty-six samples.

The following' are the analytical results of samples
analysed in the laboratory.

The samples have been classified as (a) nitrog-enous bat
g-uanos, (b) phosphatic bat guanos, and (c) inferior bat
guanos. Included in the last classification are those that do
not pass the standard as laid doAvn in the Fertilisers Ordinance
lieerulations.

l(i(i

JiAT (ilWNO JX KllODI'.SIA.

M

oo

_jj

o

c

'■£> CO ro o

lO

r^

■^<

zz

?^|l|ll®?'-:*'l|l!lllll!

--D

-H

^^

."

^

j, 1 ! 1 1 1 ^ ;^ ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1

•b

k— 1
r^

CO

p

H

o

^

C3

l^

CO

•^.

^^

-+< I'J -M O O O — CO O O -!< '1 t- im C .:^ (M -^ 1-

*

■*i

r:

ii

Ci I- cr. s^i I- L-; -o o ^ >i -M C3 -M CO 'M ;-. i': ^ c^

CO

~

o

p-Hr-iooT0'^O'^'^O'-Hbrtb-M.^'>i^ —

^

' '

Zi

2

o

SL,

S

Ol

o

M

t^

^

=4

CO

15

T"

o 10 o r^ to 1- 1'. -- -H ro 1- ao o CO oi CO s: o f-i

-H

1*1

1-

O

.^ c^j C^4 CO p O <>0 -rll rt 1-- CO (N 00 CO •— 1 iC CO O ip

CO

CJ

^o

.

■^ -^ Tj( c i- CO -ti 'b CO -t r^ i-'o -* -^ o i^ ^.^ co co'

i^

*"*

="'

0-

'"' r-H r-l ,— 1 ^ rt

t;— 4

o

1^5

CO

PI 9 cu

o

•^ O 1-^ 01 o r- t- ~. 1- oi oi -^

o
o

■^

1 1 1 1 1 ir; L-j O'l O O p p GO -^ TO 7^ p j

■' ' ' ' ' ' CO "fi -t* CO '-s lb 0-1 I- -+ i^ o CO '

.o
lb

<M

P4

r— 1 .— 1

.s

r-

o

<M b

s

bi

o

>j

lO

■^

,-^

cS

Ci

vT

(1)
P-l

o eo'

o

(M

^

5l

1 ! 1 1 ! l|;g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1

Ol

S

CO

p
bi

>j

00

_^i

e4

o

p:

-H 35 C: lO OC Ol lO -j< lO -< — ' — '

-+

S

CO

j I 1 1 1 1 CO O CI Ol p Oi O 7- CO -^ (M 00 1

ip

01

1 1 1 1 1 '.l^C!"CCOC'"blCO'^r^Ol'

■-^

*"*

-'

ip

'"'

r^

o

M

t—

^*

^

c«

CO

2

?

o) -t< r/^ !M CO 11 0^ o -. CO c; TtH l- i- ^ — -t i-- oi

-^

s

—1

if.

o

%4

3

O p C 1 p ^H p 'p -^ p ip !■- CO CO CO CO 7 1 Ol CO t-

O) C2 lb CI O lb TiH rti CO -tH i-- O -rh 0^1 b c; lb -^ CO

is

2

fH

(N

•^.

P^

i

, , , , Ill,

to

01

'a

o

^

<u

ei

^

03

•Jl

. ^ . . o

'^ .2

ic

CM

o

>-^

p

S OJ . -^

d

rt

?c 1 8

<

y^

O

s .^ pi '^
•9'o '-uv

?J :« rt'-^ C^c 00000000003^0"
jj'5r-^„, PioooooooooooS.,

vr„ C ^ a)-2+=-l-'-'--J-'4-'->^-<-'->-'^-^-^ 2 ^

6

!

O^DOcSOOCOOOO^T'O

or-^iOa)<Nr^Ocoa3C50cot^co-fio-*<M

(M'*-HOt-l-C0-f — ■'M(MCOCO^'^(MOI — O

—

i

--1-Tt-'-^ r-^_— ,_H — ^ ^-^C-l

•-

CO

liA'l (ilA.NO IN HllODKSIA.

KiT

m
O

<

O

«

O

I— I

EH

<

m
o

H

■*

_^J

rt

(M

1 1 1 "^^ '■'^ ? 1 II 1 1 1 1

2

CO

^

t2

(M

C

^

S

O

M

l^

ci

O

^' i

-+ 1— 1 CO I- iM C5 1 H C Ci ro I-

^

s

Tl<

c

i-T c^ <M r^ -^ I— re -^ ■* 1 !_-- CS sC

OTj

01

(^

Ph

s

(^^

CI

t- lo a; '^ Ti( o o 1-; — 1 (M S-. =2 -n

^

S3

CO
CO

c>o -^f -* o cp o i.; (» t- ro CO cj s-i

T^

2

H

Ph

^„^^,M^ ^C.JfO-H-H^

o
o

-• 'C

M

oo

S '3 q3

a-

lOCOOC5(MCOGn^tO

,_,

K
S

O ^ ^

t^.2 s

1 1 lc^<^^Ococ:^^;^Ti^l— 1 I

t— *

C5

o

' ' ' i) Ci M b tt '{d c: i; O

.^

<m6

0^

P-I

■

CO

b

s

-2 <^'

_^

cs

i-

ci — < lyj

c:

r^

o

d ^

1 i 1 ^ '^ 1 i 1 i 1 1 1 '"

-H

CO

Ph

Sf

P^

' ' ' ce t- ' ' 1 ' 1 1 ' CI

^

i

GC

CC

M

o

4J

rt

S<5

o

a'

<£> X^ (£ I H— i^-H^

C;

S

•^

-Sj .i:;

I 1 1 CO (M cy. ^ oj c: ^ » -^ 1

IX

o

►So

' ' '.^.^boob'-^bb'

b

jj

^

s

b

M

o

C

-ti

?'

'cc

c

00 CO (M O 1-- 1- O -H 1^ C2 O Ci OS

c

M

I- i_- c 4 c 1 o T"" "I s^i c) L": ■* Tt< (j^

7f

CO

,lH.^^(j,lr^Olb.^,lHil-l.^bi^

^^

'"'

^

<u

c

05

ir,

Ph

s

b

a;

0)

"a

s

U-4

;;: ts

C3

c

t^

1 1

a-

6

Is

o

1 1

-a^

>^

1-^

EK3« ■ • ■.

.gca-^cooocoocoo

OC-^-'OOOOOOOOOtr.

2 C ^H-l-J-l^+J-J-.-iJ-fci-tJ-M-i-.'--

OJhJ^'^OOOOOCOCOS

O

^.

^*

-t-*oco-*c.'M-H(ri(M(n(M-(<

"cS

^O ^rt^rt,— (r-ln-(M

(-4

108

BAT GUAXO IX KHODKSIA.

H

^

4^

cj

CO

6

^ -*

(M

%

b

3 '

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '°"' 1 1 11

G^

(M

*'^

;h

1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 1 C50 1 1 1 1

lb

^

(b

c

rH

Ph

s

ao

o

M

oc

4J

c3

t^

CS

^for-ioc-ic£occcocii-co-*-t<o

o

g

b

CO 1— 1 O O <M 1— 1 <M !» O C] lO I- (M e-i CO

CO

i.O

oooooooboooooob

b

s

i-Oi

o
b

M

,^

-ti

CO

— ;

V4

O O OC lO CO O -f "M Cl 00 — 1 -t 'M LO 5i

•*

f5

o

1

t-t~«r-Heoco(>icoeo«5t^Opcoc<5

C) b (M -^ CO O CO l^ O CO CO >C -^ 'h o

CO

>o

H

OJ

G

C5

Ph

§

CO
b

C O 0)

CO 00 O O O CO

o

cS

CO

CO

1)

l~ "-> 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 lOOOtNOJ— <CO

lO

CO

'S

<3J

1 1 1 1 ' ' ' '--Hb^O(M(M

"^

jH

CO

o

c-i o

PM

i

b

- - -

o

«•'

'3h

» aj

cc

-^ r-ii

-+I

-*

f%

•*

o

g 45

1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 "^ ! I 1 1 1

CO

<-l

I CO

s

o1

1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1

b

-■

o

f4

■^.

H

S

-ti

s

■*

•-4 OJ

c4 3

C

aj CO I- -* 't ^

_,

s

b

o

Pi

II III II lO-t^iM-^eoo
1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 goobob

b

CC

03

^1

•*i

s

cS

M

o

^

_^J

rt

1 -

?

A

OOiOtOOt^COOlXO-t'— tClt-^i

o

1^

CO

be

p

t-i^-^eo^-^c^j^oocoi— iTh— oD
coboibcoboob — (Mc-i-^bo

CO

lO

+i

j?

0)

Pi

s

o

b

,

93

(U

'E

•rH O

'^ rS

ci

§ I

43

CO

^

o ^ ^ ^ 5 -^

i_5 a> "il (U Qj g

1^

u

Si

>

'o

6

■^

<«1

;<

o

•• ^ == ^ =^?§

o

S S a, 00C50«

t» > --3 4J

•i-gs-'^ooooSoooooo

SCcjoiua>a><D"rtncirtc3c3

J2SOj^«c4pHp5SaoC3;:;:::^o

6

-, O O O C2 CS

Ot- — OaOOO-lCOOC'*^'M(MCO

lO lO O :0 « to t^ C- t- CO O CO CO Ol Ol

Si

iO,iq -J-) Ci — ; ^.^. T'. '-'. ^ f-H — 1 -"■ -H

hi

C^f Ol Ol of CO Co' CO' CO' CO

JiAT GUAXO IX iai(>J)KSIA. Ki'J

Maxueial Trials — Bat Guaxo.

The only reliable field trial Avitli a nitrog-enous bat guano
on red diorite soil was conducted as early as 1912 at the
Grwebi Experiment Station by Blackshaw,* who reported an
increased yield over the immanured plot of over two and
a quarter bags of maize per acre.

The composition of the bat g'uano used in the trial was
as follows : —

Nitrogen ... ... 5-28 per cent.

Phosphoric oxide ... 423 ,,

Potash ... ... 092

When applied at the rate of 200 lbs. per acre, the result
was as follows : —

Bat g'uano plot ... ... 1,712 lbs.

Xil plot ... ... ... 1,248 ,,

Increase due to manure ... 4G4 lbs.

Whilst it is impossible to give any reliable returns of the
results of field trials on this season's maize crop from applica-
tions of nitrogenous bat guano, phosphatic bat guano or bat
g'uano supplemented by wood ashes on red diorite soils, there
are indications, however, of some interesting residts being
obtained.

On a black vlei soil in the Makwiro district the increase
due to an application of a general guano fertiliser, Avhich
consisted of ajjproximately 70 per cent, of bat guano, was
two and three-quarter bags of maize.

The guaranteed composition of the general guano
fertiliser used in the above trial was as follows: —

Nitrogen ... ... 3'00 per cent.

Phosphoric oxide :

Water soluble ... ()'V2

2 per cent, citric acid

soluble ... 0-95

Total ... 9-50 per cent.

Potash ... ... 300

When applied at the rate of 250 lbs. per acre, the
following results Avere obtained: —

Guano plot ... ... 1,544 lbs.

MI plot ... ... ... 1,002 ,,

Increase due to manure ... 542 lbs.

Bulletin No. 124. August. ld\2 .—D c pf . of Auric, Salishuir

170 J;AT GIA.XO 1^' KlIODKSIA.

COMl'OUIS-]) I'Eirj'ILlSEKS .

Bat guano, from the ,staiidi)()iiit of the agiicultuiist, is
a poorly-bahinced manure, yet in many instances the mere
addition of sulphate of potash wouhl make an excellent
feitilisei-. In certain other cases, the addition of nitrate of
soda, superphosphate and sulphate of potash for providing"
some readily available plant food, Avould result in an ideal
fertiliser suitable for most crops.

Nitrogenous l)at guano, in conjunction Avith wood ashes,
should prove a suitable fertiliser for maize and tobacco.
Blacksliaw' has recommended the following dressing i)er acre
for maize and tobacco : —

Maize: GOO lbs. Mood ash; 150 lbs. nitrogenous bat guano
(4 per cent, of nitrogen).

Tobacco: 1.0(10 to 2,000 lbs. of wood ash; MOO lbs.
nitrogenous bat guano (4 per cent, of nitrogen).

Wood ash should be broadcasted over the land after the
first i)loughing and thoroughly harrowed in, and the bat
guano applied broadcasted just before planting and lightly
harrowed in. Bat guano and wood ash should on no account
be mixed before application, as loss of nitrogen would occur.

Gexek AL Conclusions.

The bat guano in many of the caves is of considerable
value, and, Avhen made up to aj^proved formula Avith approved
ingredients and sold at a jjrice Avliich is relatively cheajier
than imported or other fertilisers, should be in great demand.

It is A-ery doubtful if the bulk of the deposits Avould
bear the cost of treatment Avith sulphuric acid for converting
ammoniuni carbonate into non-A'olatile ammonium sulphate,
and for rendering the plios])horic oxide soluble iu Avater, as
in the majority of cases the pliosphoric oxide is too Ioav.

Purchasers of bat guano should insist on being supplied
with a guaranteed analysis, oAAing to the material Aarving so
much in composition.

* G. N. Blackshaw (Oct., 1919)— Fertilisers for maize and ti)l)aeco.
-I'hodcsio II Aijiic. ■Journal, pp. 4o6-4o9.

MAGNESIA IMPREGNATED S0IL8.

Bv G. N. Blackshaw. O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C

Read Juhj IT, 1920.

This paper deals with certain soils, occurring' on the
so-called Great Dyke in Southern Rhodesia, which present
features of particular interest to the agricultural chemist on
account of their somewhat uncommon chemical character.

My attention was first drawn to tliese soils in the year 1912,
when samples were submitted for analysis owing' to the poor
returns of maize which had been obtained.

These samples comprised red, chocolate and black loams
which, from superficial observation, would appear to possess a
considerable reserve of fertility. Althoug-h this did not prove
to be the case on chemical examination, yet the cause of the
particularly poor returns could not be attributed to lack of
plant food. The analyses, however, revealed the presence of
an abnormally larg-e amount of magnesia in the soils, the ratio
between the lime and magnesia being- such as to lead one to
suspect that the poor results were due to the excessive amount
of the latter constituent.

From particulars supplied by Mr. H. B. Maufe, Director
of the Rhodesian Geological Survey, it was foimd that the
.samples had been obtained from areas situated on the Great
Dyke, which is about four miles Avide and extends over a dis-
tance of approximately three hundred miles from the XTmvukwe
Hills, on the Lomagundi-Mazoe border, to the Doro Hills, in
Belingwe. This dyke generally forms higher ground than the
iieiglibouring country, and consists of norite, serpentine and
other basic igneous rocks characteristically ricli in magnesia,
the presence of which affords an explanation for the high
proportion of magnesia in the soils derived therefrom.

In the United States and Japan a considerable amount of
work upon the relation betwee-i calcium and magnesium with
respect to plant nutrition has been carried out, and a selection
of the literature has been made in the present discussion with
a view to presenting some of tlie ascertained facts as concisely
as possible. These data are largely drawn from a A-ery inter-
esting review on the subject compiled by McCool.* As early
as 1814 Davyt discussed the injury that magnesia sometimes
produces on crops. He wrote: "On mixing some calcined
magnesia with soil in which different seeds are soAvn, it is found
that they either die or vegetate in a very imperfect manner."
He also stated " that lime from mag-nesia limestone may be

* McCool: " The action of certain nutrient and non-nutrient bases
on plant giowtli." Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station,
U.S.A., 1913.

t Davy: " Elements of Agricultural Chemistry,'' 2nd ed., p. 281.

172 MAGNKSIA IMPRKGNATKl) SOILS.

applied in large quantities to plots and where lands have been
injured hy the application of too large quantities of magnesia
lime, i)eat will be a pioper and efficient remedy."

The deleterious influence of ma<>nesian lime on crop i)ro-
du(dion was reported by the XTnited States Commissioner for
Agiicultuie in 18T(), and Adolf Mayer* in 188(> mentions unpio-
ductiveness as characteiistic of soils lich in magnesia. Loew,t
in 1901, in a review of the ratio between lime and magnesia in
soils of different countries states: " It will be seen from this
review (1) that the ratio of lime to magnesia ranges between
wide limits; (2) that in the majority of cases lime predominates
over magnesia ; (3) that in all the instances c-f great fertility the
soil never shows any marked excess of magnesia over lime, but,
on the contrary, more lime than magnesia."

He Avrites also : " Lime and magnesia can exert their indis-
pensable nutritive functions only in certain dependence upon
each other. Hence a certain ratio between these two nutrients
will produce the most favourable results."

May, J in 1901, published results of some cidture experi-
ments ^^ ith oats, wheat, cowpeas and tobacco in water, sand
and soil cultures, and drew the following general conclusions : —

" Magnesia in a soil in great exces.^ over lime in a finely
divided or soluble condition is noxious to the growth of
plants.'"

Daikuharaj^ in 1905 observed that on well-manured soils
in which the ratio of calcium to magnesium was 0'34 to 1, the
yield of naked barley was doubled by jjroducing a ratio of 1 to 1.

Bernardini and Siniscalchi|| in 1908, as a result of growing-
lupins in pot cultures, made the observation that " the injuri-
ous action of an excess of lime and the poisonous action of an
excess of magnesia in a soil is not due to the absolute quantity
of calcium and magnesium ions absorbed by the plant, but to
the ratio in wdiicli they are absorbed."

Konovalov'sH results, published in 1907, with wheat,
lupins and oats grown in water and sand culture, do not confirm
Loew's view that " there is a definite lime magnesia ratio for
each plant." According to Konovalov, the yield is increased
Avith the increase of the proportion of lime to magnesia.

* Mayer: " Lehrbuch der Agrikulturchemie," 3rd ed., 2, 111.

t Loew : "Liming of soils from a ]:>liysiological standpoint."
U.S.A. Agric. Dept., Veg., Physiol, and Path. Div., Bnl. 18, 1-60.

+ May: " Experimental study of the relation of lime and magnesia
to plant growth." U.S.A. Agric. Dept.. Plant Indus. Bur., Bui. 1,
37-54.

§ Daikuhara : "Correction of a very unfavourable ratio of lime
to magnesia in a soil for the culture of liarlev." Japan Imp. Cent.
Agric. Expt. Stn., Bui. 1, 13-16.

II Bernardini and Siniscalchi : " Intorno all influenza di vari
rapporti fra calce e magnesia sullo sviluppo delle piante." R. Senola
Sup. Agr. Portici.

^Konovalov: "On tlie question of the different correlations
between lime and magnesia in the nutritive solution." Russ. Journ.
Expt. Landw. 8; 257-280.

MAGNESIA I.MPRKGXATK]) SOILS. 178

Culture exi)eriuipnts with rye, maize and kidney beans
were reported by lieruardiiii and Corso* in 19()8. The nutiient
solution contained the ratios of lime to magnesia (magnesia
as 1), 8, 2, 1, ^ and J. Eye gave tlie best results in the solution
in whicdi the relation of lime to magnesia equalled 1 and better
results with the higher proportion than the lower; maize gave
the best results with the proportion of lime to magnesia equal
to 2 and better wifli the higher than the lower, showing that
an excess of lime does less harm than an excess of magnesia.

From the results of experiments with oats, beans, rice
and millet, Asot in 1909 confirmed the obserTation thai a.
certain favourable ratio of lime to magnesia exists for })hnit
growth.

This review of the work which has been done Avith reg;u(l
to the mflueivce of the lijne-magnesia ratio upon plant growth
is admittedly incomplete, but sufficient data have been given
to show tliat the best development of a plant dejiends, other
things being equal, u]jon a certain ratio of tlie amounts of
lime and magnesia available for absorption, by plants. For
cultivated ])lants, the oi)timum ratio varies between one i)art
of lime (CaU) to one part of magnesia (MgO) and seven parts
of lime to one part of mag)iesia, according to the variety of
plant; in general, tlie lime must exceed the n)agnesia in
amount.

In the soil, the relations of the lime and magnesia to i)lant
growth are not so simple, because it is impossibh^ to determine
the actual quantities of lime and magnesia available for
absorption by the plant, oAving mainly to the absor])tive
l)roperties of the soil by Avhich they remove the b;ises from
solution and hold them in a someAvhat difficultly soluble form.

h^or the determination of the available amounts of lime
and magnesia in the soil, KatayamaJ in 1902 (daimed ihat the
extraction of the fine earth < 025 mm. Avith 10 per cent,
hydiocdiloric; acid afforded reliable information as to the
relatiA^e amounts of lime and magnesia available for absorption
by plants. This method has only recently come to my notice,
and Ave have not had an opportunity of testing its accuracy in
the case of the soils of the Great D^-ke.

In an endeavour to obtain a measure of the amounts of
lime and magnesia Avhich are available for a])sorption by
plants in the Dyke soils, I ado])ted Dyer's method tised for
the determination of available ])hosphoiic oxide and potash
in soils, Anz., extraction of the fine earth < 3 mm. Avith
1 per cent, citric acid solution at tlie ordinary tem])erature for
one week.

* Bernardini ;uul Corso : "Concerning the influence ol' various
relations between h'me and map;ne.sia on the development of plants."
Staz. Sper. A^r. Ital.. 41, 191-208.

t Aso : " On the influence of the ratio of lime to magnesia upon the
yield in sand culture." Tokyo Imp Univ., Agric. Col. Journ., 1, 175-180.

+ Katayama : "On the determination of the available amounts of
lime and magnesia in the soil." Bui.. Agric. Col. Univ. of Tokyo, vol. vi.

174

MAGNKSIA IMPREGNATED SOILS.

Comparing field results Avith laboratory analyses, Dyer's
method certainly appears to afford a good indication as to
the relative availability of the lime and magnesia. Although
one cannot justifiably be dogmatic, yet from the experience
gained one is able noAv to predict with a fair degree of
accuracy in the case of the virgin soils of the Great Dyke
the returns of maize — the staple crop on the heavier soils of
this territory — Avliich are likely to be obtained.

Rocks, Sou s axd General I'eatcres of the Great Dyke.

The soils of the Great Dyke are red, chocolate and black
loams, the black being the heavier in character and situated
in the vleis, and the red and chocolate on the slopes.

Although the crop returns on many of the soils sitiiated
on the Great Dyke have been unsatisfactory, the veld in those
areas with which I am familiar is covered Avith a rich growth
of sweet grass, which affords excellent grazing for cattle,
and, with its plentiful supply of good Avater, the country is
undoubtedly excellent for stock farming.

On some of the Great Dyke soils, more j^articularly those
derived from the norite formation, some veiy fair returns
of maize liaA'e been obtained, and the fact that the natural
herbage is so good throughout leads one to hope that crops
of economic importance and improA-ed economic methods of
soil treatment will be found that Avill prove suitable for those
soils of the Great Dyke Avhich have been less productive in
the past.

As Avill be appreciated from the following results of
analyses of specimens of norite. enstatitite and serpentine
obtained from the Great Dyke formation, the composition of
the Dyke soils deriA'ed from norite are richer in lime than
those which result from the Aveathering of serpentine and
enstatitite. This feature is of particular interest, because
it has enabled us to compare field returns on Dyke soils of
A-arious lime-magnesia ratios.

Composition of Great Dyke Rocks.

Serpentine.

Enstatitite.

Norite.

No. 432.

No. 795.

No. 1022.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Loss on if^nition

6-70

0-12

0-21

Insoluble matter after infusion with

sodium carbonate • - 51 "£0

52-70

4804

Ferric oxide and alumina

12-85

15-90

28-98

Lime (CaO)

1-45

2-90

14-66

Magnesia (MgO)

27-53

28-52

7-13

Soda, etc.. not determined.

MAGXESIA IMPHKGXATKJ) SOILS. 175

In reporting' upon tlie geological characters of the
specimens submitted to analysis, the late Mr. A. E. V.
Zealley* stated as follows : —

No. 432. — The rock is an altered enstatitite.

No. 795. — A medium grained oliTo-green rock, made up
of enstatite and felspar with a trace of mono-clinic
pyroxene. The rock is better classed with fels-
pathic enstatitites. The felspar probably is about
15 per cent, of the rock.

No. 1022. — A medium grained felspar-rich norite, con-
sisting- of about tM'o-thirds by volume of labradorite-
bytownite and one-third diopside and enstatite
(together).

It will naturally be expected that norite soils, on account
of their higher content of lime, will be more productive than
those derived from serpentine or enstatitite, and this has
undoubtedly i)roved to be the case.

In classifying the soils of the Great Dyke according to
geological origin, one is at a disadvantage, as the Dyke
formation has so far only been systematicallj' surveyed in
one region, viz., the Selukwe Mineral Belt. From the report
of this sum^ey, which was published last year by the Southern
Khodesia (jeological Survey Department, it is seen that tlie
central portion of the Dj-ke in that belt is represented by
felspar-rich norite and the two sides by enstatitite, con-
sequently, if this arrangement prevails generally, it will
follow that the more productive soils of the Dyke Avill most
probably be located in the middle of the intrusion.

As typical examples of the general chemical characters
of the more productive and the less productive soils of the
Great Dyke, the following cases are cited: —

CoMrosiTioN oi^ Soils Occurking ox the Gkeat I^yke.

Analysis of air-dried fine earth (portion passing through
3 mm. sieve). Samples treated with hydrochloric acid
(sp. gr. 1'12) and digested for fortv-eight hours on a water*
bath:—

(uj LIBRARY U^j

It-

* " The Geology of the Selukwe Mineral Belt." Southern Rhodesia
Geological Survey, ]3ul. 3.

170

MACiXKSIA IMrUEGXATK]) SOIT,S.

No. ... -

307

156 G

Nature of sample -

vlei soil

vlei soil

Probable geolog-ical origin -

serpentine

norite

Depth of sample -

0-9 in.

0-9 in.

Total loss on ignition

Silica and refractory silicates

Ferric oxide and alumina -

Lime (CaO)

Mao-iiesia (MyO) -

Phosphoric oxide -

Potash (K.jO)

Per cent.
19-48

01-72

15-9.3

0-34

2G0

0037

0020

Per cent.
18-52

5707

2124

1-90

098

0020

0-069

Nitrogen

014

Oil

Solul)k' in i i)e]- cent, citrii- acid solution, 100 grms.
fine earth extracted with 100 c.c. 1 per cent, citric acid
solution for one week: —

Per cent.

Per cent.

Phosphoric oxide

0-0088

00016

Potash {,K.,0)

0C044

0-0062

Lime (CaO)

0-100

0-271

Magnesia (IMgO) -

0-384

0-258

Katio of lime to niag-nesia (lime as 1) : —

Hydrochloiic acid extract

1 per cent, citric acid extract

1 : 7-8
1 : 30

1 : 0-5
1 : 0-9

The soil ivoin which Xo. 307 Mas taken had during- the
two previous years been well worked and cropped to maize.
The yield of g-rain from first- and second-year land was,
lioAvever, less than a bag- (200 lbs.) ])er acre, and the retnni
was so unsatisfactory that the land has since been allowed
to revert to grass.

On the land from which No. 150 G Avas taken, a manurial
trial has recently been conducted, and the check plots

MAGXKSIA I.MI'KKGXAIKJ) SOILS.

177

(uutieated), in spite of considerable loss from insect attack
(cut-worms), yielded 1,002 lbs. (five bags) of maize per acre,
whilst land adjoining, which received an application of
ten tons of kraal manure per acre, returned an average of
nine and a cjuarter bags of maize jjcr acre.

Poor crojj returns on many other soils similar in com-
position to ]So. 307 have been reported, and, other things
being- equal, the chief difference between the two soils cited
above lies in the ratio of lime to magnesia, and, from a study
of the held conditions, it is inferred that the low retiu'ns
obtained from soils similar to jS^o. 307 have been due chiefly
to the presence of an excess of available magnesia over lime.

In the course of my official duties, samples of virgin
soils from the Great Dyke are constantly being submitted
for an opinion as to the suitability of the area which thej^
repiesent for arable farming, conseciuently some factor
regarding the lime-magnesia ratio has to be decided ujion
for the purpose of interpretation of analyses. From the
limited data gathered together by correlating the composition
of arable Dyke soils with the crop returns obtained therefrom,
it has been observed that when the ratio of lime to magnesia
soluble in 1 per cent, citric acid solution exceeds 1: 3 (lime
as 1), the tendency is to experience very poor returns of
luost of the common crops (maize, etc.). It must, however,
be pointed out that this interpretation of the figures of
analysis is not absolutely conclusive, although a considerable
amount of researcli work on the soils of the Great Dyke has
been accomplished.

The Dyke soils throughout are admittedly i)0(,'rer in
phosphoric oxide and potash than the best soils of this
territory, and doubtless in building up their fertility the
addition of phosphatic and potassic manures will be
necessary, but that lack of available plant food is not the
cause of the low returns from at least one pyroxenite soil
occurring on the Great Dyke has been ])roved by the fact
that an attempt to grow barley under irrigation with the
aid of a liberal dressing* of a complete fertiliser ended in
complete failure. It is of interest to note that in the soil to
which reference is made the ratio of lime to magnesia soluble
in concentrated hvdrochloric acid was as follows: —

Lab. No.

Depth of
sample.

Lime

(CaO).

1 Maofnesia

CMgrO).

424

425

0 9 in
9 18 ill

Per cent.
0167

0-080

Per cent.
2-60
217

Ratio of Lime
to Magnesia
(Lime = 1).

1 : 15

k

1 : 27

178 MAGNESIA IMPRKGNATKl) SOILS.

l''iom the above results of analyses it is seen that the
amount of magnesia in the soil g-reatly exceeds that of lime.

The treatment usually recommended for soils containing
an excessive amount of magnesia is the application of lime,
but in this territoiy the cost of an adequate lime dressing,
excejjt in the neighbourhood of a lime deposit, renders this
method of treatinent prohibitive at the jjresent time.

Artificial manures have been tried on several soils of the
D^'ke, the effects of which have been variable, and in many
cases very disappointing.

The most effective and economical treatment for all tyjDcs
of soil on the Great Dyke which has yet been discovered has
been the application of liberal dressings of kraal manure —
a fact which it is interesting to compare with Davy's observa-
tion in 1814, when he stated that jjeat was a " proper and
efficient remedj^ " for the injurious effect of too liberal
dressings of magnesia lime.

Regarding crops which have proved the most resistant
to an excess of magnesia, the following have thrived fairly
well on untreated suil : — Kaffir corn {Soighuiu vulgare), velvet
beans (Stijzolohiuin spp.), peinl millet (Pfiuiisetinii spicatuiu)
and ground-nuts (AracJiis hijpogaea). The amount (jf
magnesia which these crops will tolerate it is difficult to say,
but it is evident that t'^ey have produced a very fair yield)
where maize, wheat, lucerne, clover, mangolds and boer
manna have failed.

So far as the investigative work in connection with the
soils of the Great Dyke has proceeded, my acknowledgments
are expressed to the past and present staff of the Chemical
Branch of the Rhodesian Agricultural Department — notably
Mr. A. G. Holborow, F.I.C., and Mr. E. V. Flack— for
valuable assistance in carrying out the analytical M'ork. The
most economical and practicable treatment of the Great Dyko
soils for pernunient agriculture is a problem which, unfor-
tunately, has had to be suspended during the period of the
Great War, and is one upon which much still remains to
be done.

NOTE OX KIMBERLITE FROM THE BELGIAN

CONGO.

By P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., B.Se.

Read July 17, 1920.

Some thirty vSeparate occurrences of kiniberlile have so
far been discovered in the Katanga division of the Jielg'ian
Congo. The majority of these are situated on the Kundelungu
Plateau, but there are also several occurrences in the foothills
by which the plateau is flanked on the east, and at least two
occurrences on the plains between the plateau and the Luapula
Biver. These plains have a mean elevation of between
3,200 and 3,400 feet above sea-level, wliile the altitude of
the plateau ranges from 4,500 to wpU over 5,000 feet. The
country rock in every instance is red felspathic Kundelungu
sandstone, correlated by Studt* with the Pietoria series of the
Transvaal system.

In a previous reference! to the deposits the writer
distinguished between {a) the Eastern Kundelungu Group, that
includes about twenty occurrences arranged in a curved line
intersecting at an acute angle the eastern edge of the plateau,
and {h) the Western Kundelungu Group, including twelve
occurrences situated near the western edge of the plateau.

All of these occurrences, which comprise pipes, chonoliths
and dykes, have by this time been thoroughly tested, and
while some have been found to carry diamonds of good cjuality,
none of them appear to be worthy of exploitation. The largest
diamond found weighed 6 carats. The average weight of the
stones recovered is stated to liave been about one-sixth carat.

The kimberlite appears throughout to be of the basaltic
variety, and we are here clearly dealing with a province of
basaltic kimberlite, the precise limits of which have yet to be
defined.

The pipes and dykes yield the same assemblage of minerals
as the kimberlite occurrences of South Africa, and some of
them are rich in nodular xenoliths of the cognate type.

Studt, J who published, in 1912, an interesting description
of the Eastern Kundelungu Group, was the first to remark on
the similarity between the kimberlite of certain of the occur-
rences ajid that of the Kimberley mines. This the writer
was able to confirm by microscopic examination in the case
of the " hardebank " of the Kambeli pipe,§ situated on one

* Geol. Soc. S. Africa, 1913, pp. 44-106, Table I.
t 67. "' The Diamond Fields of Southern Africa," pp. 102-103.
X Cf. Studt, F. E. : " Report on Kundelungo Pipes, Tanganyika
Concessions, litd."

§ Lnr. rif., p. 103.

180 ki.\ij!i:ki-itk i-ko-M uklgiax congo.

of the triLutaries of tlie Lucliipuka River. Some time ag'o
lie received from. Mr. M. Poulsen a fine specimen of com-
paratively fresh kimberlite from the Msipashi pipe, situated
some miles to the north-east of the Kambeli pipe,* Avhich again
proved to be practically identical with the kimberlite from tlie
lower levels of the Kimberley pipe.

It is a heav3' rock of blackish-g-reen colour, composed of
a dark serpentinous ground-mass, in wjiich are imbedded large
irregular grains of olivine and ilmenite, and rounded grains
of deep red pyrope bordered by dark kelyphite rinds,
the minerals named being accompanied by occasional grains
of enstatite and chrome-diopside and very occasional flakes of
phlogopite. Thin sections of the rock sIioav that olivine of at
least two ages is present. To the earlier of these belong the
megasopic grains, which are rounded or quite irregular in
form, some of them evidently having been derived from the
fragmentation of yet larger grains. It is probable that cognate
xenocrysts, as well as true phenocrysts, are represented
amongst them. They are all in an advanced state of
serpentinisation, and many of tliem have been completely
replaced by serpentine or by serpentine and calcite. The
smaller olivines, without exception, have been completely
replaced. Tlie serpentine is of yellowisli-green colour, and is
seen under high powers of magnification to be composed of
radial aggregates of minute scales and fibres having the optical
properties of (dirysotile. The serpentine, as already indicated,
is frequently accompanied by cahnte, the latter mineral having
clearly developed at the expense of the former. Many of the
smaller pseudomorplis exhibit a zonal structure, a core of
calcite being surrounded by an outer zone of serpentine.

Large and small olivines together make up about 60 per
cent, of the rock. The ilmenite occurs for the most part in
irregular grains, but at the extremity of one grain crystal
faces were observed. Most of the grains, which are up to
9 millimetres ac^ross, are surrounded by narrow " reaction "
rims composed of small crystals of perowskite.

The pyroi)e occurs in rounded grains up to 5 millimetres
across, encased in broad kelyphitic rinds. These exhibit a
zonal structure. At their inner periphery and in direct contact
with the pyrope, or separated from it by a narrow colourless
selvage, is a translucent zone of pale yellowish colour com-
posed of minute radially disposed fibres. The latter have a
high refractive index a-nd fairly high birefringence. They
extinguish obliquely at angles up to 44°, and would thus
appear to be composed of a mineral belonging to the family
of the monoclinic pyroxenes. The minute size of the fibres
renders their closer identification impossible. This zone is
succeeded outward by a broad opaque zone of deep reddish-
brown colour, that in turn merges into a narrow outer zone
composed mainly of lustrous particles of magnetite. In some

* The situation of both pipe.s is sliown on the map pnlilislied on
p. 102 of •' The Diamond Fiekls of Soiithorn Africa."

KIMJJKKIJTK FROM BKLGIAX CONGO.

181

instances the inner fibrous zone is very narrow and discon-
tinuous. In other instances, it itself exhibits a zonal struc-
ture, being- composed of an inner zone of pale brownish-red
colour and an outer zone of brownish-yellow colour.

The n-round-niass of the rock consists of pale greenisli-
yellow ser])entiiie crowded with small crystals and anhedrons
of perowskile, ilmenite and magnetite, and enclosing- large and
small patches of calcite communicating' with stringers of that
mineral. Small crystals and anhedrons of apatite are also
present. Perowskite is very abundant. It occurs in cubical
crystals and rounded grains of purplish-brown colour,
exhibiting anomalous birefringence. These often form wreaths
about the idiomorphic ground-mass olivines. The mineral is
unusually abundant in the neighbourhood of some of the
larger phenocrysts of ilmenite surrounded by reaction rims
of perowskite that has clearly developed at the expense of
the ilmenite. This sug-gests that the crystals and grains of
perowskite occurring in the ground-mass are also of secondary
origin. The apatite is partly in the form of hexagonal prisms
and partly in the form of peculiar ragged grains identical
with those found in some varieties of kimberlite of the
Kimberley mines. The serpentine, of which the bulk of the
ground-mass is composed, again consists of minute radial
aggregates of chrysotile fibres. As to the original nature of
the ground-mass, there is nothing to go upon.

The kimberlite. both in its megascopic and microscopic
character is, as i)reviously indicated, almost identical with that
of the Kimberley Mine, situated some 1,200 miles to the south
— proof, if any were needed, of the correctness of Carvill
Lewis's contention* that kimberlite is a distinctive rock type,
and entitled as such to a sjiecific designation.

CONSTITUENTS OF THE FLORA OF SOFTHEEN

RHODESIA.

Bv F. Eyles.

Read July 15, 1920.

No attempt, so far as I am aware, has yet been made to
correlate the flora of Southern Rhodesia with that of the rest
of Africa south of the equator or with the northern tropical
region. Various botanists have from time to time published
papers dealing with the local flora. These incdude Marloth,
Swynnerton, Gibbs, Rand, Engler, Sim, Burtt-Davy and
Monro.

* Geol. Map. 1887, 3. iv, pp. 22-24; aiso " Papers and Notes on the
Genesis and Matrix of tlie Diamond." T>ond,)n. 1897, p. 50.

182 I'LORA OF SOUTIIERX RHODESIA.

In 1915 the Royal Society of South Africa published the
paper in which I brought together for the first time a record
of all the collections made to that date, so far as possible,
though it was not quite complete, as I did not get access to
the records of every collector. That paper was really a check
list of Ehodesian plants, Avith the addition of all information
then available as to distribution. Since that time our know-
ledge of the vegetation of Rhodesia has been considerably
increased, particularly in the direction of records of distribu-
tion. Additions to our list of species have not been very great,
only about five hundred new species being added in five years.

If we compare Rhodesia with the Fnion, we find that our
conditions are, relatively speaking-, uniform, for we have no
such extremes of elevation and climate as are found in the
western coast region, with its rainfall of from two to four
inches at sea-level, or the 10,000 ft. Drakensberg-, with its
winter snows. Speaking generally", Sontliern Rhodesia belongs
to the great Cenlral African i)lateau, with an altitude of from
3,000 to 5,000 feet and an annual rainfall of from 15 to 40
inches. At the same time, it would be a mistake to regard
our floristic conditions, as being really liomog-eneous. for we
have mountains on the east rising- from 0,000 to 7,000 feet,
while there are parts of the country as low as 1,300 feet, and
relatively limited areas enjoy an annual rainfall of over
GO inches.

It is hoped that we may soon be in a position to divide
Rhodesia into botaincal regions, and Mr. .1. S. lienkel is now
at work on this i)roblem, with assistance from the Geological
Survey Department and the Meteorological Branch of the
Agricultural Department.

I should like here to emphasise tlie fact, not perhaps
sufficiently recognised, that the solution of the urgent problem
of getting a true knowledge of our local vegetation, its con-
stituents and its distribution, would be immensely accelerated
if some positive and active collaboration could be arranged
between the geologists, the surveyors and the botanists of the
country. The great practical importance of expediting such
acquisition of knowledge in a country largely awaiting settle-
ment need not be enlarged upon ; suffice it to say that so long
as our records of the indigenous flora of different districts
remains incomplete, and often quite vague, so long will it be
difficult to give safe advice as to what crops, what pasture
plants, and what trees can be established in any given place,
and thus the pastoral and agricultural industries will advance
less rapidly than might otherwise be the case. Further, the
initiatio)! of potential industries will be delayed for lack of
definite information regarding supplies of timber so essential
1 1 many of them.

At this stage it may be of interest to place on record the
constituents of the flora of Southern Rhodesia so far as at
present known. Such analyses of the floristic elements have
been made for other regions of Africa, but, I believe, not
hitherto for Rhodesia.

FLORA OF SOITIIKKX lUlODK.SIA. 183

The predominating' urileis, or families, of flowering plants
are as follows : — ■

1.

Compositae

2.

Legnminosae

3.

Graminae

4.

Riibiaceae

5.

Acantliaceae

6.

Eupliorbiaceae

I .

Labiatae ...

8.

Liliaceae ...

9.

Scropliiilariaceae

10.

Asclepiadaceae

11.

Cy]ieraceae

12.

Malvaceae

13.

Orcliidaceae

14.

Convolviilaceae

15.

Comb ret aceae

IG.

Campaiuilaceae

IT.

Tiliaceae ...

18.

Iridaceae ...

19.

Anacardiaceae

20.

Sterculiaceae

Number

Per cent

of species.

of whole

292

10-8

280

10-4

238

9-9

122

4-5

97

3-0

9T

3-0

89

3-3

81

3-0

79

2-9

70

2-0

02

2-3

55

2-0

53

1-9

53

1-9

39

1-5

30

1-3

34

1-2

33

1-2

29

11

28

10

The chief families falling- below the 1 per cent, mark are
the following', with the number of species of each : —

Verbenaceae, 28; Polyg-onaceae, 23; Polygalaceae, 22;
Vitaceae, 21; Loranthaceae, 20; Apocynaceae, 20; Comel-
liniaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Crassnlaceae and Lythaceae, 19
each; Moraceae, Loganiaceae, Solanaceae and Ciieiirbitaceae,
18 each; Boraginaceae, Amaranthaceae and Pedaliaceae, 17
each ; and Capparidaceae and Gentianaceae, with 16 species of
each.

There remain 103 other orders, represented by less than 16
species each, some having only one single species for the Avhole
order.

In 1915, 2,227 Phanerogams were recorded for the
countrj", while the total at present known is 2,690, an increase
of 463 species.

The partial analysis here given shows that 70 per cent, of
the whole flora is comprised within 20 families, the remaining
30 per cent, being spread over no less than 122 families. The
predominance of a few families comes out even more clearly
if we speak in round numbers and say that 3 families by
themselves (Compositae, Leguminosae and Graminae, about
10 per cent, each) contain over 30 per cent, of the flora ; that
the next 40 per cent, is covered by 17 families; and that the
remaining 122 families include only 30 per cent, of the flora.
Gymnosperms are represented by only 2 species, and the pro-
portion of monocotyledons and dicotyledons is as 1 : 3'84.

184 l-]-OKA OF SOITHEKX KIIOIJKSIA.

As I liave not liad access to the latest literature on the
subject, 1 cannot attempt to institute comparisons between the
ilora of Southern Rhodesia and that oi other better-known
regions, but I think there can be little doubt that our southern
and western districts will be found to have close affinity with
the northern parts of the Union, and particularly with the
region sometimes spoken of as the Kalahari, while our northern
one will be found closely related to the Central African flora,
and the eastern coast belt nearly akin to the south-east coast
region of the Union.

The high i)osition of the Eubiaceae, which may be marked
fourth on the list, seems unusual, i hough it is probable this
will be found to be a feature of the Central African flora north
of the Zambesi. As far as I am aware, the position of the next
three families is also unusually high in the list, that is the
Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Labiatae. I do not think they
occupy such an important place in any of the regions to the
south.^ Scroplmlariaceae is unexpectedly low in position (ninth)
and Liliaceae much less important than in most of South Africa.
Very little work has been done on the Cyperaceae, and 1 have
littfe do!ibt that when they are systematically examined, they
will (limb u]) the ladder, on which now they occupy the eleventh
rung. The Gramineae, although now standing in the third
l)lace, are really not well known, and may be found to assume
an even greater importance when further studied.

I have omitted all reference to Cryptogams, as there are
so few workers in this branch, and it is i)erhaps better to keep
them distinct from Phanerogams in tabular comparisons of
this kind.

Although progress in knowledge of the Rhodesian flora
has been slow during the last five years, I am confident that
we have now rea( bed a stage when rajjid advance may be
expected. Interest in the subject is awakening as its import-
ance becomes more and more realised, and I am glad to say
that the number of locally resident students and collectors is
to-day greater than ever before.

I regret that I have not been able, for reasons given, to
work out the i-elationship of the Rhodesian flora with that of
adjacent territories, but I hope that the analysis of its con-
stituents now placed on record will serve as a definite landmark
from whi(di we can go forward witli investigation and research,
and that it mav be of assistance to all workers in tin's field.

ADDITTO^^Vi; HOST-PLANTS OF LOUANTHICEAE
OCCmiEI^'G AROUND DURBAN.

By Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., ]).Sc.. U.L.S.
Read Juhj 15, l!J20.

At the last meeting' I submitted ;i list of some of tlie host-
plants of the Loi-a/ithaceae occurring- around Durban. t Since
then every endeavour has been made to obtain further host-
plants of these parasites. The additions in the list now
submitted make the liost-plants fairly complete for the locality
studied, and the two lists ccmibined are the most complete index
of host-})lants yet available for South African Lorantluiceae.
It would be interesting to prei)are similar lists for other
localities and tlius ultimately include all the species of
Loranthaccde occurring in South Africa. The introduced
plants in the i)resent list are again marked with an
asterisk (*) : —

Lorantlius Drcgci, E. :'.nd Z.

Acacia hiitella, Willd.

Acalypha glabrata, Thb.

Antidesnia venosum, Tnl.

Apodytes diinidiata. E. M.
*Araiicaria excelsa, R. Br,

Bapliia raceniosa, Hochst.

Celastrns iiemorosiis, E. and Z.

Commiphora Harvej'i^ Engl.

Brachylaena discolor^ D. C.

Bridelia micrantha. Planch.

Bnrchellia capensis, R. Br.
*Eriol)otrya japonica, Lindl.
*Eiicalyptus, sp

Ficus natalensis, Hochst.
*Gleditsc}iia japonica, Miq.
^Hetorophragnia adenophyllnm. Seem.
*Nephelium longaan, Camljess.
*Nerium oleandra, Linn.

Pavetta lanceolata, Eck.
"" Phyllanthron comoronse, I). C.

Plectronia spinosa, Klotzsch.

Popowia caffra, H. and S.
*Fopulus sp.
*Psidium Guayava, Linn
*Qiiercns pedunculata, Elnh.

Rawsonia Incida, Harv.

Rhus natalensis, Beinh.

Rhus villosa, Linn.

Schmidelia africana, D. C
"Spathodea speciosa, Brogn.

Strychnos Henningsii, Gilg.

Trema In-acteolata. Bl.

Zizyphus mucronata, "Willd.

Ldianflius Krrnififtinnus, Meisn. (^^i<Jr previous list.)
Chaetachme aristata. Planch.
Grewia occidentalis. Ijinn.
Gardenia Tluuibergii, Linn.
Toddalia lanceolata. Lam.

t South African Journal of Science, vol. xvi., p. 344.

180 nosT-ri-AXTs of i.okaxthackae.

Loranthus XafaJitius, Meisii. ("Flora Capensis," vol. v, sect. ii.

pt. i, p. 114. " Natal Plants," vol. iv, plate 374.) This

species is not mentioned in the first list.
Acacia cafFra, Willd. (At Malvern and Pini^towii. Natal.)
Acacia mollissinia. (At Malvern, Natal.)
Citrus aurantiinn, Linn. (At Malvern, Natal.)

Loranthus quinquencrvis, Hochst. (Additions to previous list.)

Baphia racemosa, Hochst.

Capparis corymbifera, E. M.

Celastrus cordata, E. M.

Eugenia cordata. Laws.

Grewia occidentalis, Linn.

Maba natalensis, Harv.

Mimusops cafFra, E. M.

Plectronia spinosa, Kl.

Rawsonia lucida, Harv.

Trema bracteolata, Bl.

Viscura obovatum, Harv. Here we have the interesting occur-
rence of one mistletoe growing on another. The host of
the Viscuin here was Maha natalensis.

Viscum ohovatiini, Harv. (Additions to previous list.)

Grewia occidentalis, Linn.

Ochna atropurpurea, D.C. var. Natalatia.

Maba natalensis, Harv.

Tiscuiii ubscunim, Thli. (" Flora Capensis." vol. v, sect, ii, pt. i.
p. 125.)
Myrsine melanophloes, R. Br. (At Krantzkloof, Natal.)

The data quoted above at once indicate that Loranthus
Dregei is the commonest " mistletoe '' here and that it has
adapted itself to the largest number of introduced plants,
including- some which belong to natural families not repre-
sented in the South African flora.

NOTE ON THE CRASSULACEAE FOUND IN
RHODESIA.

By S. ScHONLAND, M.A., Ph.D.,

Professor of Botany , Rhodes Unirersiti/ College,
Grahamstown .

Read Juhi IT, 1920.

In Oliver's " Flora of Tropical Africa," vol. ii (18T1).
Britten enumerates six species of Tillaea, three of Crassula,
one of BrjjopJiyJluin, eighteen of Kalanehoe, three of
Cotyledon, two of Sediim, three of Semper vivmii. None of
the localities mentioned by him appear to be in Rhodesia. The
number of new species described since 18T1 has not been incon-
siderable, though, broacMy speaking, Tropical Africa is poor

CKASSl'LACEAK OF KIIODKSIA. 187

ill Crassulaccae. To give only oiie instance : In the whole of
Tropical Africa only 21 species of Crassula (including* Tillaea)
are known to ine, against about 180 in Temperate South Africa.
Tropical Africa and Madagascar are the headquarters of the
genus Kalanchoe (in which 11. Ilamet has sunk the genus
Bryop/iyUujji), Asia, Oceania and America possessing- only a
few rare species. Seinperclcum and Sedum have evidently
penetrated from the north, while the distribution of the species
of Crassula and Cotifledon is favourable to the view that the
genus lias spread into Tropical Africa from Temperate South
Africa. It will be seen from the subjoined list ihat, judging
by our present knowledge, the number of Crassulaccae in
Rhodesia is very small and reflects the general distribution.
Species of Bri/op/iylluiii (now placed under Kalanchoe), Sedum
and Sempervivi/iri are absent. Cotijledon is very poorly
represented. There is nothing in the configuration of the
countrv', nor in the climate, that, as far as we can judge, is'
in any way a hindrance to the growth of numerous
Crassulaccae, and, as there is an almost complete absence of
endemism, we may be allowed to conclude that at all events the
Crassulas have reached the country at a comparatively recent
period.

Eyles, in Trans. Rotj. Soc. S.A., vol. v (1916), lists from
Southern Ilhodesia seven species of Kalanchoe and four species
of Crassula. Unfortunately, they do not seem to have been
submitted to specialists. Kalanchoe crenata Haw., which he
mentions, is a synonym of K. laciniata DC. ; K. pllosa Bak.
and K. glandulosa Ilochst. are synonyms of K. lanceolata
H. Pers. Crassula silvaiica Licht., which he enumerates as
Crassula sarcolipes llarv., is not likely to occur in Rhodesia.
I venture to suggest that it is the same species which is men-
tioned below as Cr. furcata Schonl. Both are pubescent and
have obovate leaves, but there are differences in floral structure.
Tillaea pharnaceoides Tlochst., though often quoted as a
synonym of Crassula campestris (E. et Z.) HarA'., is better kept
.separate. Cr. nivalis (E. et Z.) Ilarv. is not likely to occur
in Rhodesia, (jalpin 7309, on which Eyles' record is based,
was collected at Oxton, AA'hittlesea, Cape Colony, and not at
the Victoria Falls.

Provisional List of Cra^sulaceae Found in Rhodesia.

Cotyledon, (jlandulosa. N.E.Br., in Kew Bulletin, 1913,
p. 300, Northern Rhodesia, without locality, G. Simpson-
Hay ward.

C. Wic/icnsii Schonl., without locality. Foliis latis
obovatis basi cuneatis, Teague, 169. Also found in Transvaal,
the home of the type.

Kalanclioe laciniata C. II. Pers. (A', crenata Haw.),
Victoria Falls (teste Eyles).

A', lanceolata H. Pers. {K. f/landulosa Hochst., K. pilosa
Bak.), Livingstone, north bank of Zambesi. Rogers 7443, 5235,
5130, 5235.

188 CKAS.Sri.ACKAK OF KIIOJ)i:SIA .

K. Pentlieri Sclil. (= A'. nJandulosa Hoclivst., var. tomen-
tosa Keissl.), Bulawayo, Pole I'jYaii.s 3279. TJiuler A', gland u-
Josa, Eyles mentions the variety iJiodesica Bak. f. (Journ. Bof.,
1899, i). 434), from Salisbury, Fmtali and Gwelo. This,
jii(l.i>'iiig- horn the description, seems to he A'. Fenihcri.

A. [xniiciihifti llarv.. Ikilawayo and Victoria Falls (teste
Eyles).

A', relutina AVelw. (A'. Kirhii X.E.Br.), Zimhal)we ruins,
A. M. Whitman.

A. rotund if olid llarv., ]^ulawa\o, Pole Evans 2278;
Bulawayo, Matopos, Victoria, Odzani River and llmtali (teste
Eyles). ^

A', thjjr.^i flora Harv., Bulawayo (tes1e Eyles).

A. n.sp. (entered in Herb. Albany Museum as A'. Victoriae
Schonl. Ms. al¥. K. Oiuiitinianae), neip^hbourhood of Victoria
Falls, Rogers.

K. sp., Victoria Falls, Rogers 5230 (flowers too young for
determination).

K. Bauniii Engl, et Gilg (A. indsina X.l'].Br.). recorded
by Hamet from Zambesia and Xjassaland.

Cra^sida n.sp. (entered as ('. furcata Schonl. Ms. in Herb.
Albany Museum), Matopos, Rogers 7927; Palm Grove,
Victoria Falls, Rogers 5058. This, as mentioned above, is
probably the plant which Eyles quotes as Cr. sarcolipes llarv.
It was found at Victoria. It was also collected by Rogers in
the Pietersburg Disti-iet (Transvaal).

C. campestris (E. et Z.) llarv., Matopos (teste Eyles).

C. transvaalensis O.K. (Cr. suhulata Harv., Thisantha
suhulata Hook.), Victoria (teste Eyles).

(' . ahyssinica Rich, var., Bulawayo, Rogers 13711. This
agrees fairly well with the description of C. similis Bak. f.
(Bull, de I'herb. Boiss. t. 3, 1903, p. 814), which was found
by Rehmaun m the Houtbosch (Transvaal).

C. argyrophylla Diels., District Makoni (4800-5300),
Eyles 811 in Herb., Rogers. This is a common Transvaal
plant. Odzani River Valley. Dist. Manica, Div. Umtali,
A. J. Teague, 255; Ibid. Teague, 240 (a new species?).

HIPETS'ING OF SEED IN GNETUM GXEMON AND
GNETUM AERICAXUM .

By Mahy G. Tiioday,

Litle Fellow of .Xeicnliani Collefjc, Caiiihiuhjc, and latr.
Hon. Researclt Fellow of Manchester V nivcrsifij.

Wi'flt Tiro Tevt Figures.
Read Jnljj IT, 1920.

This paper is a continuation of previous "work* on various
species of Gnetum, describing- the series of changes in tlie
seed coats during the development of the seed.

The young- seed has tliree coverings, all of wiiich are
free, the innermost projecting- upwards as the niicropylar tube.
In tlie largest seeds of Gnetum yet described — G. ynenton
by Miss Berridge and G . africanuni by myself — the tip of
the niicropylar tube enlarges and forms a stopper, which
becomes adherent to the middle covering- and which has its
lumen closed so that no foreign substance can enter either
the niicropylar tube or the chink betv^■eell it and the middle
covering- after ])ollinatioii.

In the seeds of G. fjnonon now described, three centi-
metres long-, remarkable later changes occur which would
make the morphology of the mature seed impossible to under-
stand were its earlier stag-es not known — for exami)le, if it
were only known as a mature fossilised seed.

Young Ovuli-:.

Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic view of a young ovule of
(7. fjneinon, ■] mm. long, in whicli (dosure of the inicroi)yle

Fi^. 1. — L'pper portion of youiifj; seed (3 mm. lon^) of ^'. (incin
* Tl.oaay, 191] .

190

EirKXIXG OF SEED IX GXETIM.

is just begiiiuiiig'. c is the outer covering', o is the middle
covering, i is tlie inner covering, terminating in the freely
projecting microjjylar tube, a and h are the upper and lower
edges of the thickened out-growing portion of the Mall of the
tube. The lumen of the tube is already narrowing, though it
is still open throughout. Into the lower edge of the thickened
portion at h fits the tip of the middle covering.

Intermediate Stages.
The next stages in the growth and closure of the
micropylar tube and the development of the outer coats have
already been described.*

Mature Seed.

Fig. 2 is drawn from a mature seed, 3 cm. long, and
shows the thickened portion of the micropylar tube now
developed into a " stopper," fused on to the outer covering.
Its lumen is now obliterated. The outer covering during
ripening has carried up the stopper (s), dragging it away
from the middle covering, and in the process the lower portion
of the micropylar txibe has been broken across at its weakest
point above the tip of the middle covering and below the
stopper. The micropylar tube is tlius seen in Fig-. 2 divided into
two parts, the " stopper " {s) filling rip the tip of the outei^
covering and adhering to it, and the " beak," or broken lower
portion (^). whicji projects just above the top of the middle
covering. The projectiiig beak is formed of hardened closing
tissue and its surface is rough, where it has been dragged out
from the gap g in the stopper. It is continuous downwards
with the parenchymatous basal portion of the innermost
covering. It will be seen that there is now^ a considerable
distance between the stopper and the beak, and if the mature
seed only were known, it would not be obvious that they were
part of the same structure.

Fig. 2. — Upper portion of mature seed (3 cm long) of Q. gnemon.

Berridge, 1911. Thoday, 1911.

kipkxixg of seed ix gxetum. 191

Conclusions.

The mature structure of the seed is of interest ontog-e-
neticallj' as a method of closing- the pollinated oiule of a
gymnosperm. Further, it is of importance in coimection with
the comparison made in former papers* between the seeds
of the Gnetales and those of the Bennettitales. I do not wish
to draw any conclusions as to affinity, but it seems at least
possible that these remarkable growth (dianges in the Gnetums
may help us to understand these fossil seeds, and it is con-
ceivable tliat the different arrangements in the various species
of Cycadeoidea and Bennettites may be due to tlie varying
stages of maturity at which the seeds had arrived.

The simple seed of WiUidinsonia Scoficaf may be
compared with the young seed of Gnetum.

In the mature seeds of Cycadeoidea furriia and (' . DarfoniX
the micropylar tube has been regarded as part of the integu-
ment, but there is a break above the shoulders of the seed,
beyond which the micropylar tube continues as a separate
organ, filled with thin-walled tissue as in Gnetum. There is
no nucellar beak figured or described in these seeds.

In Bennettites Moiieiei^ the upper portion of tlie
micropylar tube is also filled with closing tissue, and below
is a freely i)rojecting nucellar beak, which corresponds in
position and appearance with the freely projecting beak-like
base of the micropylar tube in G. gnenion. The space within
this beak-like base corresponds with Lignier's so-called pollen
chamber, and the small Ij'sigenous space described by him at
the apex of the nucellus and seen to contain pollen grains
corresponds in position to the pollen chamber in G. gnemon.
Lignier interpreted what he regarded as the single integument
to be a structure continuous with the micro})ylar tube. But
there is no detailed resemblance between their respective cell
organisations. It may well be that the " micropylar tube "
in his description represents a stopper fastened as in G. gncmori
to the top of the outer integument, while the projecting beak
is really the bioken l)ase of the micropylar tube.

If this be the correct interpretation of B. Morierei, it would
bring the conflicting accounts of the various genera into line
with one another, while at the same time providing a parallel
with Gnetiim, which is at least suggestive of common
ancestry.

REFERENCES.
BKuninoE, E. M. (1911)—

On some points of resemhlance between Giiotalean and Bennetti-
talean seeds.- — Ncio Phyt., x.
LlGNIKR, O. (1894)—

Vegetaiix fossiles de Xormandie. Structure et affinites du
licnnctt'itcs Morioei. — BiiL de la Sue. Linn, dc Xor.

* Berrklge. 1911; Sykes. 1912; Thoday. 1911; Wiehnid. 1916.

t Seward. 1912.

: Wieland. 1912 (Fip:s. 6 and 11) and 1916 (p. 1.33).

§ Lignier, 1894.

192 KIPKXING OF SKFJ) IN (iXK'JUM.

I'uAitsoN, H. H. W. tl'Jlo)—

Notes on tlie inorpholoy;y of coitniii sti uctuifs coiKcriifd in tln>
repi-oduction of the Genus Gnet.uii. — Tkuis. o/ flic JAnn.
S(jc., viii.
Skwaim), a. C. (1912)—

A petrified Williiiinsoiiia from Scotland. — 27///. Trans. L'tn/. Sue,
B. cciii.
SYKiis, jM. G. (1912)—

Tho aiiatoniy and moipliolo^y of the leaves and inflorescences of
]]'(Jtrifscliia iiiiiaJiilis. — I'liil. Tnnis. ]i. Idni. Soc, cci.
Tiioi.AV. M. G. (Sykk8, M. G.) (1911)—

The female inflorescence and ovulos of (,'iicfinti iifiica num. —
■Inn. of Hot. XXV.
TiioDAY, M. G. (Sykes. M. G.> a'id Behimdok, K. M. (1912)—

The infloj-escene(>s and flowers of ICphedra. — Ann. of But., xxvi.
WiELAND, G. R. (1906)—

American i^ossil Cycads. — ('(irncfjic //i^^.. Ft. 1.

WlELANO, G. 1{. (1911)—

On the WiUiamsonia Trilie. — Aincf. Ji.urn. of Set., xxxii.

Wl ELAND, G. R. (1911)—

Further notes on seed stiiutnre. — Anwr. Joiirn. of Sci., xxxii.
WiEl.AND, G. R. (1912)--

On the smaller flowiM-hnds of Cyeadeoidea.— .i»(r/-. Joiirn. of Sri..
xxxiii.

Wl ELAND. G. R. (191(j)—

American Fo.ssil Cycads. — Carnvu'ir Inst., PL. 2.

A NOTE OX DASYCHIRA KXTORTA AX]) ITS
LEPIJ)()PTER()TTS PAILVSITE.

By C P. VAN DEE, Merwe.

ho rem iiicnt Entomologist , Durhan .

lioul Jul, I 15, in'jo.

TJio caterpillars of DasjjcJiini crtorfa haxe been found
in J)ur})aii to feed on tlie foliaj^'e of the native fi<<' tree {Ficu.'<
no tdh'tm !.■<). Tliey feed at nio-jit, and in tlie daytime rest in
clusters on the tree trunks. Api)arently they always return
to their particular resting-places, Avhich become marked by
their cast skins and the suspended cocoons of hymenopterous
parasites.

On most of the Dasycliira caterpillars tiny iepidopterous
LuA-ae about 2 mm. long can be seen, clinging* to the hairs
or resting close against the body of the caterpillai-. As many
as six larvae have been found on one caterpillar. In the
breeding cages it has been obserA'ed that the lam^ae leave
the dead caterpillars and seek li^'ing f)nes. The eggs from
which these lar\-ae are hatched liaA'e been found on the cast
skins close by the clusters of caterpillars on the tree trunks.

Last year (1019) the Dasycliira caterpillars were obserA-ed
on the trees during May, and during Juiie they Avere found
to leaA-e the trees, and crawl away in search of suitable hiding-
places to spin their cocoons, whicli ]daces they usually find
in crevices and corners, behind stones, on Avails, under
eaA'es. etc.

j)ASY(iiii{.\ I'.xioin.v. 193

The cocoons in Avliicli they pupate are composed of four
distinct hiyeis, each of which represents a complete structure
or cocoon/ The outermost, or first spun, is thick and tough,
and within it the second and third are thinner and softer.
The innermost, or hist spun, is the thinnest and softest of
all. These envelopes are composed of silk and the hairs of
the cateipillar. There is a funnel-shaped opening- Avhich
jjrovides for the escape of the moth. This is so constructed
that some of the caterpillar's enemies are probably kept out.
When the cocoon is complete, the small larvae may be found
either on the caterpillar or between the cocoons ; but as
they can make their way through the meshes of the inner
cocoons, it would not matter mucli wliether they were enclosed
or sliut out by the cater])illai'.

After about a week the caterpillar exudes an oily liquid,
and this has been found to kill some of the small laiTae
which were confined, ])erliaps too closely, with the
caterjjillars.

Caterpillars and j^arasites may live together a long time
without anything happening, and many of the latter die
without having injured their host. After tAVo and a half
months to more than hve months from the time the cocoon
was s})un, the larva may be found attacking its host. What
the stimuhrs is which causes it to start feeding has not been
ascertained. If a larva is put with a caterpillar after it
has begun feeding on another, it will attack the fresh host,
and if a larva which appears not inclined to start feeding
on its host is removed and placed on a caterpillar already
injured by an(jt]ier larva, it will begin to feed on it, too.
Feeding starts sometimes Ix^fore, sometimes after, the
caterpillar has pupated. Tlie parasite larva is full-grown
when it is about 25 mm. long. It is possible that the
I)arasite larvae are repelled l)y the oily excretion of the
caterpillars, and can only attack them when this oil is
insufficient or has become dissii^ated.

Some lai-vae seem to come to maturity fairly soon, and
to find one caterpillar enough, but others feed more slowly,
and the caterpillar may dry out before they have finished it.
They will then leave it and look for a fresh supply of food.
They make their way into other cocoons, and if they find
there smaller lai-vae of their own species present, the evidence
points to these being also devoiired. They sometimes eat
the head of the caterjiillar and also pupal shells. The larval
stage of the parasite has been found to vary from about six
months to more than a year, and the pupal stage from 18
to 30 days. The parasite emerged from January to May.
The Dasychira moths emerged mostly dining March, but
some were oiit as early as the beginning of December. Their
pupal stage varied from 14 to 23 days.

The moth of the parasitic larva has been submitted to
Mr. Janse for detemiination, who found it to be an apparently
undescribed species, belonging to the Phycitinae.

BIEDS AND INSECTS IN BUSHMAN FOLK-LORE.

Bv D. F. Bleek.

l^cad Jul, J 15, 1920.

May I ask the Jielp of the members of the South African
Association tor the Advancement of Science in identifying-
various birds, beasts, insects, etc., phiyiiig a part in Bushman
folk-lore? The Bushmen who told the tales came from the
Prieska and Kenhard Districts, and from the Katkop Hills
in Calvinia. They could speik a little Dutch, and sometimes
gave a Dutch name, but often mispronounced the same, so
that anyone not very proIicieJit in tlie Taal would be likely
to write it down incorrectly. Often the men did not know
the Dutch word at all, and as m the Cape Peninsula much of
the up-country fauna and Hor-i is absent, they could not point
out the bird or beast meant, but only describe it.

One story tells of the doings of the Ikwai- Uorni, a bird
Avhich came to the children and carried them off in a net in
order to roast them. The Mantis came to the rescue, and told
the children to call loudly tliat their mothers might hear.
Then when the fkwoi- fkicai was just about to roast them,
he instructed them how to catch hold of their persecutor and
put him on the hot stones instead, " for he is only a bird."
The narrator said this was a black bird Avitli a white bill,
about the size of a duiker he had seen at the breakwater.
What similar bird lives in the northern colony?

Another bird, the Ikain-Ikaiii. comes and stabs young-
girls to death and wets its beak in their blood. The Mantis
has again to save them and teach them to stab tlie bird instead.
This bird is described as having a red bill and red legs, a
black back and breast. Its size is not mentioned.

I do not think the behaviour of these birds has any
particular reference to their present liabits, though possibly
to their colouring. All these things happened long ag^o, when
they were people, men of the early race.

A A-ery small bird, the kainyafnnn, was carried off by
the ostrich, who wished him to marry lier daughter, the
" yolk," because he was also yellow like the yollc. This bird
is common in Bushmanland, and is sometimes seen at the
Cape. The head and front part of the body are yellow.

In another tale we hear how the Mantis digs in the ground
with his digging stick for the cells of a kind of wild bee, not
the common kind. These cells of sweet food he eats and gives
to his pet springbok to eat. This wild bee was said to be
called the " blennenflij " by the Dutch. Does anyone know
this insect?

lilKDS AX]) IXSKCTS IX BISIIMAX FOLK-LOKK.

1!J5

On another occasion the Mantis Ment to hunt, and saw
a little bird hovering- in the air. Then it drop])ed to the
ground and Avent into an ant-heap. While the Mantis stood
gazing' it popped out of another ant-heaj), Avitli its kaross full
of ants' larvae, called " IKishman rice." Then the Mantis
went up to it and begged it to shoAv him how to get Jiushnian
rice so easily, for his hands Avere sore with digging it out
with a stick. The little bird showed him Iioav it was done,
but the Mantis A\as ungrateful and soon got into trouble. This
little bird, the Loiiotu'ihni , is black, with white feathers on
its shoulders.

This Jiushman rice was a great feature in a liushman
bill of fore. So also AAas a similar food, the Uiaken, of which
they told us that it was like Bushman rice, its larvae were
like those of the Bushman rice. Of what insect can it be
the larvae? They seem always to have sifted this .'Jiakeii
as sooji as it was dug, and to have i»ut any part on which a
certain dark-coloured fungus like a lieacon grew into a
separate little bag, which was kept for the old people, who
evidently thought it a dainty, and presented it to their friends
on a dish made of an ostrich's breast-bone.

Among the many adventures of the Mantis, Ave hear of
him burning the bush shelters in which wild cats liA^e, in order
to kill the cats and get fine skins for his kaross. Now, do
wild cats liA'e in bush shelters, or cA^en in bushes? Is this
mvth based on natural historA', or is it in direct contradiction
of^it?

In preparing a little book of folk-lore from manuscripts
of my father and my aunt, Avho collected much Bushman lore
in the 'seventies and 'eighties, I am held up by my inability
to translate these names or answer these questions, and I liaA'e
hopes that from your Association helpful information may
come. Such information mav be sent to the authoress at
Charlton House, Mowbrav, C.P.

A TACHIXIl) PARASITE UF THE HOXEY BEE.

By S. 11. Skaife, M.A., M.8c.
]] ifJt Si,r Te.rf Fi()ures.

Read Jul,, 15, 1920.

I In vol. xv of the " Annals of the South African Museum "
(IJ)lti), Dr. J. Villeneiive described a new genus and species
of Tacliin()-( )estrid fly from South Africa, Avhich he named
Ilotidaniorcsftus apt corns. The genus and .species was founded
on a sing-le specimen, a male, from Port Elizabeth, " alleged
to have been bied from a honey bee (F. W. Fitzsimmons)."
Dr. Villeneuve adds a note that " this biolog'ical indication
is the more interesting- that nothing- was hitlierto known of
the habits of the Tachino-lJestrid Diptera." But this fly
seems to have been known since lOOi), for Mr. A. J. Attridge,
of Capetown, has kindly jjointed out to nie a passage in Sladen's
" Queen-Eearing' in England," wiiicdi reads as follows: —

" Parasite in Bee's Abdomen. — Mr. A. C. Sewcll, of Durban, Natal,
sent to tbe 'Beekeepers' Record" in Febrnary, 1903, a remarkal)le look-
ing fly-maggot which had l)een squeezed out of the abdomen of a living
worker honey bee, and which was forwarded to me for inspection.
Later on, Mr. Sewell found a second specimen of this larva on the glass
of his solar wax extractor, and from this he succeeded in breeding the
perfect fly. Both the fly and its pupa-case were forwarded to me, and
J took all three specimens to Mr. Austen, of the British Museum, who
kindly gave me some interesting information about them. There seems
to be no reason to doul)t that ))oth larva and fly are the same species.
The fly reseml)les in size and appearance the common house fly, Musca
dontesfjca, and belongs to the same family. Muscular, which is a very
extensive one, and comprises nearly half the known species of flies.
It also belongs to the sub-family Tachininac, which, too, is largely
repre.sented in England. The Tachininav are all (in the larval stage")
parasitic ;n the bodies of insects, chiefly caterpillars. Although there
seem to he few 'ecords of their occupying the liodies of perfect insects,
such cases no don1)t frequently occur. So far as 1 know, this is the
first recorded case of an insect larva having been oliserved to inhabit
the honey liee. The two posteiior .stigmata (Ineathing orifices) of the
larva are developed into two exceptionally large and curious hard,
black plates."

Mr. Attridge also states in a letter to me that he him.self
found a maggot in a number 'of bees at Sea Point about
seventeen years ago, and tliat these j)arasitic maggots were
also reported last winter from Groot Drakenstein. From
Sh\den's description, quoted above, there is little doubt but
that the Hy found at Durban is the same species as that
recorded from Port Elizabeth, and it is very probable that
the larvae found by Mr. Attridge at the Cape are also of the
same species.

On 5th May, 1919, one of the students at the Cedara
School of Agriculture (H. "Whittaker) brought to me a
Dipterous larva, wliicli, he said, he liad seen leave the body

TACIIINII) TAKASl'lK OF JSKK.

I!)-

of a bee which had fallen dead at his feet. This larva was
placed in a specimen tube, and pupated in the course of an
hour. The adult fly emerged on the 8rd July. ( )n 11th Novem-
ber, another student (J. Lamb) found a similar maggot in
one of the hives at Cedara. This larva pupated shortly after
it was found, and the adult emerged on 23rd December. The
Hy proved to be identical with the one reared six months
previously, and was determined by Dr. Peringuey as
RondajiioceHriis apivotu~s, Villen.

Yilleneuve's note that " nothing was i)reviously known
of the habits of the Tachino-Oestrid Diptera " made me decide
to study the life-history of this interesting fly, and the results
of observations made at Cedara during the past nine months
are embodied in this paper.

The adult fly is found haunting the hives from December
to February, and again from May to July. It looks very
much like a squat house fly, dark grey in colour, as it rests on
the alighting board or just above the entrance to the hive
(Fig. 1). At Cedara one or two of these flies can generally

Fig. 1. — I'ondaniocestnis ai>ivorus Villeiieuve. Adult female.

Fig. 2. — Iiondaniocestrus apivorus. Mature larva.

Fig. 3. — Iiondaniocestrus apivorus. Puparium.

be found frequenting each hive during the months mentioned
above, especially during January and June. The flies
captured in the apiary are all females — in fact, the only males
I have come across I have bred out myself in the laboratory.
I have been unable to discover what these insects feed on in
the adult state. Some specimens kept in cages made no
attempt to feed on the honey and water offered to them, and
died in the course of two or three days.

If a newly-emerged female is dissected, her ovaries are
found to consist of two large white spherical masses of eggs
showing no semblance of ovarian tubes. Each ovary measures
about 3 mm. by 2 mm. and contains three to four hundred

198

iACIIIXIJ) PARASITI-: OF ]5KK

cio-ar-shaped eoos, eagli one of Avhich measures 06 mm. by
'14: mm. (Fig. 4). At the junction of the short oviducts there
are three conspicuous brown spermathecae, spherical in shape,
and measuring- about 2 mm. in diameter. From this point
a long, slender, much-coiled tube, 50 to GO mm. in length
and with muscular walls, leads to the ovipositor. There is
one pair of accessory glands. Avhich join the oviducts at the
point Avhere they fuse.

If one of the females haunting the hives be caught and
dissected, a very different condition of the reproductive
organs is found. The ovaries have quite disappeared, and
the long, slender tube mentioned above is found to be crowded

Fig. -t. — liondaniorrstni.'^ apivonis. Reproductive organs of
iiiifertilised female.

Fig. 5.- — Ttondan'toccsf lu-i opivorwi. Newly-hatched larva.

Fig. 6. — Ifondaiiioccstrus apicorus. Reproductive organs of
fertilised female.

Avith a large number of living larvae. In some females these
newly-hatched larvae are so numerous that tiie oviduct bulges
with tliem irregularly throughout its length, but in others
(individuals that are almost spent) comparatively few larvae
are found crowded together in the vagina (Fig. 0).

If one of the females resting on a hive be watched, it
will be found that after re.sting for a few moments she rises
on the wing- and hovers just above the entrance with her head
pointing towards the hive. In a few seconds she commences
to swcop down on the incoming bees, lightly touching each
one with the tip of her abdomen. The movement is very
svvift, and difficult to fnlloAv, The bees are very lightly
touched, for only a few of them are thrown off their balance
and fall on the alighting board. The nmjority of them fly
straight into the hive as though nothing had liappened. After

TACIIINIl) PAKASITK OF liEE. , 190

striking" at a number of bees (up to a dozen or more) in this
wa3', the i\y settles down for a few moments rest, after which
the above tactics are repeated once more.

Each time tlie fly touches one of tlie incoming- worker
bees she deposits a tiny larva on its body, and this larva
burrows into the abdomen of its host through the interseg-
mental membranes. It is difficult to catch one of the stricken
bees before it enters the hive, although it can be done at the
expense of much patience and several stings. The manner
in which the larva enters its 'host can be easily observed,
however, by catching one of the females and a few bees and
stupefying them with chloroform. The larvae can then be
dissected out of the fly and placed on the bees' bodies by means
of a damp camel-liair brush. The manner in which these
larvae crawl about until they reacdi the joints bet^^'een the
abdominal segments can then be readily observed with a strong-
lens. At this stage the larvae are half a millimetre in length,
and marked with numerous broken, shallow, longitudinal
creases in the chitin (Fig. 5).

The parasite feeds on the abdominal tissues of its host,
but seems to leave the .alimentarj- canal and the nervous
system to the last, for I have caught bees flying vigorously
around tJie hives Avliich on dissection were found to contain
full-grown larvae occupy iiig almost tlie whole of the abdomen.
On no occasion have I found these parasites in the head or
thorax of their hosts. The deatli of a i)ai-asitised bee is very
sudden. Twice I have been fortunate enough to see a flying-
bee fall suddenly to the ground and die in a few minutes,
and about ton minutes afterwards a full-grown maggot has
forced its way out between the abdominal segments of the
dead body of its host.

The larva when fully grown measures about eight milli-
metres in lengtli, and can be easily recognised by the two
large circular black spiracular plates at the posterior end of
its body (Fig. 2). Xo orifices are discernible in these plates
even under tlie microscope after boiling in potash. The bticcal
armature is shown as viewed from above in Fig. 2, and from
the side in Fig. 5.

After leaving the dead body of the host, the larva may
either bui-rf)w into the ground or it may seek out a sheltered
spot beneath dead leaves, stones, etc. A number of them were
caught by the simple expedient of placing pieces of board
on the ground around the hives. The larvae that had left the
bees that had died in or near the hives crawled under these
boards to pupate. The puparium is formed very rapidly,
within half an hour of leaving tlie host, and the dark brown
colour is assumed within an hour. They are oval in shape,
blackish-brown in colour, about six millimetres in length, and
may be recognised by the conspicuous circular sjjiracular
plates.

I have found these i)uparia buried aboTit an inch beneath
the soil where the ground was loose, beneath dead leaves,
under stones, under the legs sui)porting tlie hives, and also

2(10 TACIII>-1]) I'AKASITE OF J!KE.

lodged in crevices in the bottom boards of the hives themselves.
The pupal stage lasts seven to eight Aveeks in snmmer and
eight to ten weeks in winter.

It is practically impossible to determine accurately the
length of the larval stage, as bees taken from the hives and
kept in cages die in the course of a few days. There are
two generations a year, the pnpal stage lasts some two months,
the adult probably lives for three or four weeks, hence the
larval stage should last for about three months. The adult
tly attacks the incoming bees indiscriminately, therefore many
of the larvae must be deposited on old bees, which die before
the larvae have time to reach maturity.

As a pest, R. apivonts cannot be regarded as serious. Only
adult worker bees (and probably drones as well) are attacked,
and, as many of these are old and wom-oiit when attacked,
their loss is negligible. The younger bees that are parasitised
seem to work just as well as noinial bees almost np to the
time of their death. It is difficult to form a correct estimate
as to the number of bees destroyed by this parasite, as many
of them must die whilst in the field, and are thus lost sight of.
Out of one hundred bees caught at the entrance of one of the
hives, only three AA-ere found to harbour tlie parasite. Besides
the incoming foraging bees, the fly attacks the young bees
during their midday play-spell in front of the hive, and it is
probable that it is only the larvae deposited on these young
bees that liaA'e any chance of reacdiing maturity.

The simplest remedy for this pest is to go round the
apiary at middiy and kill the flies Avith a ily-sAvatter as they
rest on the front rf the hives. They are sluggish and easily
killed, but it is adA'isable to Avear a A'eil whilst engaged in
this work, as the bees strongly object to the flapping of a
sAvattor against the hives. A number of the puparia can be
trapped and destroyed by leaA'ing pieces of board lying on
the ground around the hives. These should be examined
])eriotlically from XoA-omber to January and again from April
to .June.

SUMMAKY.

1. Roitdaniocesfnis apicorns paiasitises adult bees, and
seems to be widely spread in South Africa.

2. The eggs are liatched v.-ithin the body of the female.

3. She haunts the entrances of the luA-es and deposits
living maggots on the incoming bees.

4. The young larA-a burrows into the abdomen of its host
and feeds on the abdominal tissues.

5. In about three months the larva is mature and the
bee dies.

G. Pupation takes place in loose soil, beneath refuse, or
in the creA'ices of the hive.

T. The pupal stage extends OA'er about tAvo months.

8. Killing the adult Hies around the hives and destroying
the puparia are the only remedies.

AGRICULTUEAL ECONOMICS.— COST OF
PRODFCTIOX OF MAIZE.

liy li. A. Lkhfeldt, D.Sc,

Professor of J'Jroitoiiiics, Inircrsify CoUcfjc, Johau neshurg.

Read Juhj 17, 1!)20.

FLumers are, naturally eiioiig']!. averse from keeping
accounts, so that if one is to advocate tlie somewhat compli-
cated business of cost-accounting- for farmers, it must be on
solid grounds of advantage.

Cost-accounting* consists in finding out, as precisely as
may be, what it has cost to tur.i out some particular product.
It is a system whicdi has come to be recognised as indispensable
in manufacturing. A manufacturer, turning out a number
of diiferent products, may be making a i)rofit on his business
as a whole. T^nless, however, his accountant can tell him how
much each article has cost, he is not sure but that he may be
losing on some of tliem ; he cannot tell in \a hat directions it
would be most jjiofitable to extend his business; in fact, he
has no proper guide to policy — he is working in the dark.

The same is true of fanning. The choice of crops to grow
is usually a matter of tradition or of guessing. The only
scientific guide to investment is to find out how much each
crop costs to produce, and compare with the selling j)] ice. Xot
only is this important to the individual farmer, but it is
desirable as a matter of public policy, for the wildest and
most contradictory statements are current as to the cost of
producing important foodstuifs, and if Government is to
interfere, and regulate prices, it must do so with proper
knowledge.

Cost accounts in farming are subject to certain sjjecial
difficulties. Of these the most obvious is the variability of the
yield of crops from year to year. One can work out how mmdi
it costs to grow an acre of maize, for example, but Avhilst the
manufacturer knows beforehand the precise amount of produce
he will get in excdiange for his outlay, the farmer's estimate
is liable to great uncertainty. The only thing to be done is
1o obtain records of yield over a numbei' of years. These aie
very lacking in South Africa, and in any case a new country
is at a disadvantage in this respect; it is all the more desirable
to begin recording at once. Tiie agriciiltural census instituted
by the Union Government is an important step.

The other difficulties in the way of cost-accounting are
siich as are familiar in the case of manufacturing, too. They
may be grouped under three heads: —

{a) Separation of ('<ipitaj and Current Outlay. — In the
case of what is obviously capital expenditure, interest must be

20'-i COST OF PKODICTION OF MAIZE.

allowed at a reasonable assumed rate — about that at wliicli
capital for farming may be borrowed on <>ood security, and a
depreciation allowance made, based on the estimated life of
the goods considered. That is, an allowance such as,
accumulating at the assumed rate of interest, will pay for
renewal of the capital goods at the end of their life. In the
case of outlay which lasts a few yearo the principle is the
same, but it may resolve itself in practice into an arbitrary
rule. Thus, if a field be well manured, perhaps 50 per cent,
of the cost may be charged against the current crop and smaller
portions against the second, third and possibly fourth year's
crops. A ilight arbitrariness in the rule is of no consequence,
provided it is a sensible one and is carried out consistently.

(b) SupyJementary Expenses, sucli as the salary of a
manager, or tlie use of a horse and cart, have to be distributed
over the varioiis crops (or live stock business) according* to
some reasonable principle. Again, it is not diiiicult to arrive
at a working rule based on common sense. But there is some
danger of supplementary costs being overlooked altogetlier;
farmers often think the cost of production of a particular croj)
less than it is, because they overlook certain expenses which
are not directly associated witli it, but which nevertheless
have got to be met out of some resource or other.

{c) Farming, even more than manufacturing, yields
" joint products," such as m'OoI and mutton, wheat and straw.
Much care is needed in dividing up outlay that is incurred in
producing the two tilings together. For a discussion of this
matter I must refer to more lengthy articles or books.

When all the money outlay has been correctly allocated,
there are still two important points to be dealt with in
estimating profits (or loss). First, the farmer's own capital
must be treated precisely as if it were borroAved — that is, it
is just as much entitled to interest. One cannot say that
farming yields a profit until it has at least paid what the
farmer could have earned by lending out his capital instead
of using it himself. Second, the farmer's own time must be
treated with similar consideratio-i. If he does the managerial
work himself, he is entitled to an income for it corresponding
with what he Avoidd have to pay another man to manage his
fann.

Accordingly the proper estimate of profits is only that
amount which is left after working expenses in the ordinary
sense, interest on the farmer's capital, and payment for his
own time and skill have been deducted from the proceeds.

These principles may be illustrated by some figures which
the author lias collected. They are sketchy and imperfect, for
it was not practicable to complete the investigation; they are,
moreover, out of date, on account of the extraordinary rise in
prices since the date they refer to. Conseqiicntly the intrinsic
interest of the figures given is slight; they are put forward
chiefly as examples of method, and to draw attention to the
im])0]tanee of further and systematic studies.

COST OF rRODUCTIOX OF MAIZE. 203

The fig'iires refer to maize g-rowinp;, and incidentally to
the cost of ox labour. The lattei- point may conveniently be
taken first.

Oxen c-an be used for sonie years, and then fattened up
for the market and sold, often at a hig-her price than they cost
in the first place. This is ai)t to make tlie farmer think that
ox labour costs nothing, or next to nothing". A more detailed
examination does not confirm the view, however. There are,
of course, profits to be made from breeding stock, but to answer
the immediate question Ave must consider trek oxen apart from
other cattle.

It is true that depreciation is trifiing. If, for example, a
four-year-old animal costs £12, and can be used for, say, five
years, then fattened up and sold at £15, we need to know the
losses to allow for meanwhile. A good farmer of my acquaint-
ance puts the loss at one animal in eight; if, however, one
allows for the inferior conditions prevailing* on many farms,
and the possibility — even though remote — of cattle plagues,
the loss is probably higlier. If it be one in five, the value
of the four remaining cattle just equals that of the five when
bought, and the depreciation is nil.

An ox will require for pasture perhaj^s two morgen of
good ground, worth £8 per morgen, to four morgen of poor
land, worth £4 per morgen, or £16 worth of ground in either
case, and eA^en then will probably cost something for winter
feed besides. There is also capital expenditure for dip, water
supply and fencing, which we will put at £100 for a herd
of forty. Thus we have: —

Capital Cost: Ox £12

Land ... 16

Dip, etc. ... 4

32 at 7 per cent, interest = £2.24

Depreciation on Dip, etc., say, 5 per cent, on £4 ... = 0.20

Further, the annual expenses : —

One Herd Boy (£30 a year) for 40 Cattle = 0.75

Winter Feed, groAvn or purchased, say ... ... = 0.25

Dipping and other Expenses ... ... ... = .0.05

£3.49

or £3 10s. per ox per year.

It requires pretty good management to (>;et 140 days'
actual work per beast, especially remembering the proportion
of older ones that liaA'e to be fattened up for the market.
Taking that figure, the cost comes to about sixpence per
working day.

The foregoing figures are not taken precisely from any
one farm, but are rather of the nature of guesses based upon
experience; in the second example — on maize growing — the
figures are the actual averages for four farms in the (Grange
Free State and Transvaal for the season 1910-17.

204

COST OF PRODUCTIOX OF MAIZK.

(Total for Four Farms.)

MAIZE-GROWING.

Current Expenses :

Seed (partly purchased, but including also the value of

maize grown en the farm and reserved for seed)
Fertiliser

Native Labour (including rations, medical attendance, etc.)
Animals (cost of fodder, dipping, etc., but excluding

capital cost.s — see below)
Contract Work
Bags

Miscellaneous Expenses
Management

(Two of the farms are managed by the owners, two by paid
managers. In the latter case the actual salary and commission
is taken. On one farm practically nothing but maize is grown ;
on the other the manager's time is about equally divided
between maize-growing and stock-breeding, so half the salary
is debited to maize. On the other two farms an amount cor-
responding, as closely as possible, in accordance with the
amount of work done has been taken. If anything, the figure
stated is an under-estimate, as it would be an exceptionally
good manager who would keep either of the owner-farms up to
its present standard of cultivation.)

£255

789

1,910

232
117
835
159
1,093

£5,390

Capital Expenses ;

Value of Live Stock :
342 Oxen = £3,600
13 Horses and Mules = £340
Value of Buildings, Fencintr. Implements.

etc. = £7,600 ...
Land under Maize — 884 morg-en ")

- £11.000

do. Pasture for Workinj
Cattle— 1.000 moreen

Interest

(& 7^/o

Depre-
ciation.

Repairs.

£

£

£

252

24

Ail
20

—

532

497

262

770

Nil

—

£1.578

£517

T

£262

otal ...

= £2,357

£7.747

(The yield was 17,119 bags, giving a total cost of 9s. per
bag. The excess of the selling price above this is profit in the
strict sense. The average selling price was about 12s. 6d.)

It should be remarked, liowever, tliat this estimate of
costs is derived from some of the most skilfully managed
farms in the country, so that it is improbable that the cost
of production is so low on most farms. If these farms had
been in the hands of the most penurious owners, the saving
in managerial expenses could hardly have amounted to £700,
or one-eleventh of the total cost. This advantage would have
been lost if the yield, instead of being 19i bags per morgen,
had fallen to 17-^ bags. It is hardly necessary to say that
inferior management would certainly have resulted in a lower
yield than this, so that good and well-paid management is
clearly economical.

CALIBRATION^ OF GERBER MILK BUTYROMETERS.

By C. O. Williams, B.Sc, A.R.C.8.,
Lecturer in Chemistry, School of Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

Read July 17, 1920.

{Abstract.)

The object of the investigation was to ascertain if the
centrifug-al method of calibrating butyrometers, given by Day
and Grimes in voL xlviii of the " Analyst," is sufficiently
accurate when making* use of t)rdinar\' commercial paraffin oil
and centrifuging' the butyrometers to the same degree as is
done when testing" milk samples.

The butyrometers taken for this investigation were first
calibrated by the standaxd gravimetric method, using mercurv',
and the eiTor per unit graduation ascertained in each case.
The calibration was repeated by the centrifugal or paraffin
method, and the imit enor in each case obtained, as in the
previous method.

It was noticed that the difference between the unit errors
obtained by these two methods was approximately a constant
amount (0017 per cent.) for each but\Tometer calibrated.
This constant difference is apparently due to the iucompleto
separation of the water and paraffin columns during the
process of centrifuging. Therefore, when adopting the
centrifugal method of calibration, it is necessary to multiply
this constant by the obsei-ved volume of the paraffin column
and subtract this pioduct from the observed total error.

On testing a further lot of butyrometers by both methods
and apiilying the correction in the case of the paraffin method,
results Avere obtained that were very concordant with those
obtained by the standard mercurv^ method.

Lastly, it is pointed out that the correction obtained in
this investigation Avould i)robably only apply M'hen using the
same brand of paraffin and centrifuging to the same degree,
so that each investigator should work out a similar method
and calculate the correction for himself.

^^OTE OX EOCK-GRAVINGS AT METSANG,
BECHUAXALAND PllOTECTORATE.

By A. J. C. MoLYNEux, E.G.S.

Read Juhj 15, 1920.

Ill the report of the South African Museum for 1918 and
1919 the Director, Dr. Periiiguey, refers to the existence of
some gravings on rocks in tlie Soutli-West Protectorate, not
representing as usual animals or figures, but hoofs of animals
and human feet : g-ravings of a new type. Casts had been
obtained for the Museum, of which X'liotographs are given in
the report. Dr. Peringuey repeats a statement by the late
Theophilus Halm " that in the Xaniib the Bush People had
signs (?) painted (?) or graved ( ?) to denote places where they
had found water."

I have a note of seeing, in August, 1913, somewhat similar
gravings at Metsang, in the Bechuanaland Protectorate, some
three miles west of Pilane Siding (mile-post 984i), eight miles
south of Mochudi station. At this siding an escarpment of
Waterberg sandstone, facing the «outh, crosses the railway
and merges into higher land to the west. At Metsang is a
clean, level rock floor of grit, some 50 yards in diameter, in
the centre of which is a hole or enlarged joint six feet across
and about the same measurement in depth, but would probably
be deeper were it cleaned out. It was dry at the time of my
visit, but that it had been greatly frequented was shown by
the polished condition of the rocky rim, brought about by the
passing of feet. All around the bare floor tJie country is of
loose red sand, so that accumulations of water, even in the
wet season, are uncommon.

On the flat surface are chipped or graved the outlines of
human feet of sizes ranging from those of children to that
of a large adult, which measured 14 inches long. There are
also the drawings of pads of canines, lions and smaller felines,
to the number of abaut thirty. Some are faint and others
sharply (-ut — suggesting that the gravings wore done at
different times. There are none of antelope^s or other animals.
In the originals there is no attempt to show relief— and in
this they are different from those shown by Dr. Peringiiey.
Native legend is that the gravings were done by " ancient
people."

Note. — Since writing this note I have been reminded of a paper
appearing in the " Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Association,"
1907, vol. vii, pp. 59-61, entitled "Ruins at Bumbusi " (Wankie
District), in wliich illustrations of rock gravings of antelopes' hoofs are
given.

some featuees of the religio]n^ of the
ba-ye:s^da.

By Eey. H. a, JuNOi).

Read July IT, 1!J20.

I had the opportunity of spending- a fe\A weeks amongst
the Ba-Venda during the last summer. For a hmg time I had
wished to visit the Zoutpansberg mountains. 1 had heard of
marvellous ferns growing in splendid gorges, and I wanted
to pluck them and dry them for my herbarium. Full of
expectation, dreaming of botanical specimens new to science,
I reached the (xooldville Mission Station at the end of
January, with a lot of sheets of desiccating paper. But the
rain fell; it fell and fell again. The rivers were soon filled,
and filled to such a height that it Avas impossible to travel,
impossible to reach those picturesque hills which stood calmly
in the backgiound of the countiy in a provoking attitude,
most of the time hiding themselves in impenetrable clouds.
I had to renounce definitely the graceful ferns and the
gorgeous lilies, and, confined in the comfortable hut provided
by charming hosts, I turned my mind to another field of
studj', and called Shifaladzi.

Shifaladzi is a Venda of the Balaudzi clan, a clan which
has its abode at the foot of the Lomondo Hill, a kind of big
volcanic cone, standing like a sentinel in front of the bio-
chain. He had become a Christian lately and has been baptized.
He has settled on the Presb^-terian Mission Station at Goold-
ville, and he was just the kind of man you want to get sure
and full information on the customs of the tribe : a grown-
up man, who has been a heathen up to the adult age, but
who is now sufficiently delivered from superstition to explain
the mysteries of his former life to a sympathetic inquirer.
An important point for me was that he knew the Thonga
lang'uage enough to understand my questions and to answer
them in a way comprehensible to me. Thus, instead of
colle<'ting ferns, I gathered ethnog'raphic data with the same
zeal which I intended to apply to botany; and I may say,
after all, the result was miich more satisfactory, as I always
thought documents on the primitive customs of humanity
greatly exceed in A'alue specimens of natural history !

The Ba-Venda are a very peculiar tribe, still little known
to ethnographical science. The Berlin missioiiaries, who
have been settled amongst them for nearly fifty years, have
studied it and know it Avell, but they have not yet published
a full account of its customs. One of them, the Rev. Beuster,
had gathered a great many notes on the subject, but he died
before having put them in order. His colleague, the Eev.

208 RELIGION OF THE BA-VENDA.

Gotschlink, made a summary of them and published it in our
Journal in 1905. This paper covers the whole gix)und of the
ethnography of the tribe, but, though it seems generally
correct, it has only twenty pages, and twenty pag-es are
decidedly insufficient to describe the life of an African tribe.
Later on, another Berlin missionaiy, ]\[r. R. Wessmann,
published a little book under the title: " Tlie lia-Wenda "
(W in German is equivalent to Y in Engdish). But it is of a
more popidar nature, and does not pretend to be a scientific
istudy. The jN^ative Commissioner for Spelonken, Mr. Stubbs,
published a short historical sket<3h of the Ba-A^enda, in
Grahamstown in 1912, and this pamphlet g'ives interesting-
data on the migrations of the Yendu tribe. From four old
fellows whom he questioned he gathered that the Ba-Yenda
came from a place called Bzata, in Central Africa, somewhere
in the reg-ion of the Great Lakes, in a comparatively recent
time, about two centuries ago. This Central African origin
is quite probable, as we shall see later on. But about the date
of the migration I take the liberty of expressing strong doubts.
First, because natives seldom remember anything positive
about their history or events which took place more than 100
years ago ; at any rate, even if they have preserved the know-
ledge of facts, they are totally at a loss regarding chronology.
Secondly, because I heard Shivase people many times declare
that they have " their mountain " in the liakalanga country,
viz., in Southern Rhodesia. All these Yenda clans (and the
Malemba also) speak of their mountain. It is the place where
their ancestors have been buried, and which they consider
more or less as the cradle and the stronghold of the clan. I
have even been told that the chief of the Shivase branch is
still sending messengers to that hill to offer sacrifices to his
ancestor gods. This would mean that the Ba-Yenda (at least
those of the royal family), even if their first origin is in
Central Africa, 'have remained a considerable lime in the
Bakalanga region. This accounts for the great resemblance
they bear with that tribe and for the identification they have
made of the Yenda god, Raluvimbi, Avith the Kalanga god,
Nwali.

Two subjects especially attracted my attention during the
long hours I passed with Shifaladzi : The kinship system of
the tribe and its religious beliefs. I must not now speak of
the curious features of family relations which I met amongst
the Ba-Yenda, and which will be explained elsewhere, but
be satisfied with their religion. I do not even pretend here
to give a full description of those religious customs, after
having stayed only a few weeks in Yendaland. Tlie man who
would be able to do is the Rev. Th. Schwellnus, who was
born in the country, and has an intimate knowledge of the
language of the people. Yet I think that this paper will be
useful to students of comparative religion, as I had the oppor-
tiuiity of obtaining a good deal of ncAv information from
Shifaladzi, and; it was duly corroborated by questioning a
number of other witnesses.

KELIGION OF THE BA-VENI)A. 209

The Ba-Veiida, as all tlie South African, we may perhaps
say as all the African tribes, possess a double set of religious
intuitions: First, the ancestor worship beliefs, the Manisni,
as it is now called, which constitutes the more apparent part
of their religion; and, secondly, a vague monotheistic notion
which is met with all over Africa. Let us begin by the mono-
theistic notion, and allow me to introduce to you tlie Yenda
god, Kaluvimbi.

I.- — ^Raluvimbi.

Raluvimbi is the maker and former of everything. I do
not say creator, as the idea of creation e.v nihilo is not conveyed
by the native term, nor does it clearly exist in the Bantu
mind. The expression everywhere used is the one employed
to describe a potter moulding clay to make utensils. iNatives
do not bother much about creation. What is of greater
importance for them is tiie regular falling of the ram, and
jRaluvimbi is directly connected with it. If rain is scarce
and starvation threatens, they say: "Raluvimbi wants to
destroy us I " If, on the contrary, floods spoil their fields,
they say the same thing. He is therefore prated to and
sacrifices are ottered to him in order to obtain rain. However,
I did not succeed in getting particulars about such offerings.

Thus it is plain that a certain idea of Providence is applied
also to Raluvimbi. He takes care of the tribe. He even takes
care of its individual members, and this accounts for another
interesting expression, whicli the Ba-Venda like to employ
when they have escaped from danger. For instance, when a
man has nearly been drowned in crossing a river, but has
managed to reach the opj^osite side, he exclaims : " I have been
saved by Raluvimbi, ^ludzimu." Or, " I have been saved by
Mudzimu and Roluvimhi." " Mudzimu " means Ihe ancestor
god. tlie regular god, the one to whom one prays and offers
sacrifices. But here the meaning of the word is extended, and
it is applied to Raluvimbi. Tiiis identification between two
beliefs, which generally are kept quite distinct, is curious
indeed. When I questioned nnother Yenda about it, he said
to me: " Is Raluvimbi not our fatlier? Has he not formed
us all? "

Raluvimbi reveals himself at irregular intervals. People
sometimes say they noticed a red diffused light in a liut or
outside, and they assert that it is Raluvimbi wlio has appeared.
Falling stars and comets are also attributed to liim. But his
principal manifestation is in tlie earlliquake, as he is considered
as " dwelling below." The Rev. Macdonald told me that
aboiit seven years ^ago he witnessed one o,f these visits of
J?aluvinibi. Tlie Gooldville Mission Station is at the foot of
a hill which stretches for a long distance in an easterly direc-
tion. One day he heard a loud clamour, which arose on the
west of the hill and propagated itself to the east. Women
were shouting in a way which is peculiar to them, by moving

210 llELIGION OF THE BA-VEX])A.

their tongues quickly in their mouths, producing' a kind of
tremolo on a very high pitch. Men were yelling- " E-E-E I "
and all of them were clai)i)ing- their hands. There had just been
a slig'ht tremor of the earth. During five minutes the extra-
ordinary clamour filled the air, and it was most impressive !
The M'hole tribe was greeting* Raluvimbi, Avho was passing
through the country. People say that during- the earthquake
they also notice a noise in the sky similar to thunder. And
whilst they clap their hands, to welcome the mysterious god,
they pray. They tell him : " Give us rain ! Give us health I "
This story of a sj)ontaneous and collective act of adoration
of a Bantu tribe towards its g-od is most curious, and I wonder
if such a demonstration has ever taken place amongst Thonga
or Souto.

When asked what was the reason of this shouting, they
said: " jVwali has come. It is Raluvimbi ! "

Nwali, or Myari, is the Bakalauga god, and is well knoAvn
all through the tribes of Mashonaland, Transvaal and Gaza-
land as the great giver of rain. He is said to dwell in a
cave at a place called Mbvumela, in Mashonaland, somewhere
on the Sabi River, not very far from the Portuguese border.
People come from far away to pay him visits and to ask for
rain. This is the story they tell. They enter a kind of
tunnel, pass under an enormous stone hanging over their
heads, and at the extremity of that subterranean way they
reach an open place where the light of the sun is shining
again. Huts are built there. It is a village where the wives
of Nwali are residing. Everything there is very clean and
neat. Nwali greets the visitors from above or from the rocks
surrounding the village. He speaks in Zulu. He says:
" Good morning, my children I " The travellers must keep
looking- to the ground, else tlVeir eyes would be filled with
sand thrown by an invisible hand. Pots full of beer will
appear suddenly before them, and they will drink. Tobacco
also will be provided in the same way, as tobacco plays a
great part in all the dealings with Xwali.* He is a good god,
a great enemy of wizards, who are not allowed to approach
him, and he gives useful advice to those who go to consult
him.

These are the main t^tories which are told everywhere
about Nwali amongst the Thonga and the Yenda. What
amount of truth there is in those descriptions I cannot say,
having- been unable so far to meet a white man who has seen

* It is tobacco given by Nwali whicli caused the curious heathen
revival of " Murimi," which upset the wliole Thonga tribe from Gazaland
to Maputo during the years 1916 and 1917. Murimi is a deformation
of Mlimo (Mudimo?), a name given to the emissaries of Nwali who
were wandering about the country giving everybody a snuff of enchanted
tobacco, which was intended to destroy the power of witchcraft and to
bring about a new golden age, when disease, famine, and even death
would be unknown.

RELIGION 0¥ THE BA-VE>'J)A. 211

the cave and inquired on the spot about the Xwali leg-end.*
At any rate, the Ba-Venda apply to their Raluvimbi all the
marvellous feats of his colleagues of Mashonaland. The
orig-inal figure of Ealuvinibi has certainly been transfonned
by this identification, which is no doubt the result of the
protracted sojourn of the Yenda tribe in the Bakalanga
country.

Is really Raluvimbi, as the Eev. Gothschling- says, " the
rewarder of good and pxmisher of evil? " AVhen I asked a
Yenda heathen of the Mpefu clan if indeed their god punislied
evildoers, he laughed. It seems that he had never put the
idea of retributive justice to the credit of Raluvimbi. I think,
in fact, that Raluvimbi, as well as Khudzane, of tlie Pedi and
other Bantu deities, belong to an age in which the truly
moral god, the god of judgment, had not yet been conceived !

II. — ^Ancestoe, Worship: The Badzimu.

If the monotheistic notion which found its expression in
the Raluvimbi belief is very vague, the ancestor worship of
the Ba-Yenda is much more concrete, consisting, as it does,
in precise rites, the meaning of which is not difficult to detect.

The gods are called " Badzimu " (sing. Mudzimu),
evidently the same root as the Suto " Mudimo." Eveiy human
being becomes a Mudzimu at his death. However, he is not
worshipped for a number of years. It is believed, as we sliall
see, that if he dies far away from home, he returns to the
mountain of the clan to join his ancestors there. The rule
is that in such a case he will be buried in the place where
he died. A brancli of a tree which continues to live when
cut is then planted on the grave in order to remind where
the corpse lies, because, after a number of years, his bones
will have to be taken out of the ground and carried to the
sacred " thaba " (mountain). Nowadays the custom is
disappearing, because natives are afraid that the white people
who rule the country may object to such practices and arrest
the funeral party. Thus the residence of the Badzimu is on
the hill of the clan or in the dense forest which is generally
kept there. But in some cases they are believed to dwell in
the deep pools of certain rivers — for instance, in the Makonde
or at Pipiti. without speaking of tiie mysterious " Sidud-
wane," who are said to have only one eye. one arm, and one
leg, who stav in the waters of the Umfuncludzi Lake. But it
is very doubtful that these Sidudwana are real Badzimu.
They rather seem to belong to the category of the ogres or
other phantastic beings, Avhich are the product of folk-lore
rather than of religion.

* At the meeting; in Bulawayo, Rev. Nevil Jones told me that Nwali
has two caves in the Matopo Hills, the first is the one in which he is
supposed to reside, the other is his bathroom. This latter one is
jealously hidden by the natives. These caves are no doubt different
from the Mbvumela cave. It would be a good thing if our Rhodesian
colleagues could gather all the data relating to the Bakalanga god
and \\rite the full legend of Nwali.

212 KEI.IGIOX OF THE BA-VE.\DA.

As regviicls the mode of life of the Badzimu, reports are
convicting'. However, the general belief is that, in the land
yonder, they have the same occupations as on the earth. They
till the g'round, they eat, they are married. A very interest-
ing rite, met in all the parts of the tribe, illustrates the fact.
AVhen a boy dies before liaTing- been married, the handle of
his pick is" taken and laid down longitudinally at a place
where two roads sever from each othsr, at the very angle
where they separate. This handle is then secured bv two
pegs deeply planted on both sides in such a way that the
l^art remaining outside of the earth is only three or four inches
long, and these little poles are tied together by a white cotton
string. This handle is the wife of the deceased. She will
follow him and take care of him in the country of ih^ dead.
She Avill cook for him and cultiyate his gardens. Should
the deceased be married .and his wife be still living, the same
rule will be followed, but, instead of two poles, one will place
two broken pots on the sides of the handle. These broken
pots are the ones which were used in the fireplace of his village
as supporters for those in which the food is cooked. Should
the wife of the deceased have died before him, no such rite
is performed. He does not Avant a special helper dispatched
to him. Will he not find his regular wife yonder ^

As in ail the other tribes the Badzimu are worshipped by
their descendants on two main occasions : Firstly, when a
misfortune, especially disease, falls upon them, and, secondly,
in connection witli the sowing of certain seeds and the reaping
of the first fruits. But this worship is submitted to very
precise rules, which are in accordance with the constitutional
laws of Bantu society. In fact, Bantu religion is mainly a
social and family affair. There is very little place in it for
individual feelings. Therefore a Yenda does not reach his
gods directly, by the mere expression of his devotion or by
praying to them in his heart. He must perforin a number
of rites and pass through official intermediate agents if he
wants his request to be taken into coasideration by them.

Let us first describe the way he has to follow in the
religious acts he accomplishes to obtain the help of his
Badzimu in the case of disease. Before all, the bones are con-
sulted. The Yenda system of divination seems to be very-
similar to the one spread amongst all the Siito tribes. Four
bits of carved ivory or bone are the main elements of the
divinatory set of bones, two male and two fem.ale. Some
astragalus and other obiects may be present also.. It differs
greatly from the Zulu-Thonga system, where the astragalus
bones play the principal part and where the four bits of caiwed
ivory are entirely absent.

Suppose the headman of a village has died and his elder
son has been regularly established as liis heir at the head of
the kraal. If after, say, three or four years one of his children
becomes dangerously ill, he will run to the bone-thrower to
know where the misfortune comes from. The bones are
thrown. Thev mav fall in such a way that the diviner will

KELIGIOX OF THK BA-VKXI)A. 213

ask kim : " Where is the assagai of your father? " " I do
not know," answers the man, " How is it? You have lost
it ? You are exceedingly guilty ! Gro and fetch one at once
to take its place." And a blacksmith will be called in haste
and will forge an assagai which will replace the lost one.
Then that man, the father of the sick child, will go to the
entrance of his hut, either on the right or on tlie left side.
Half buried in the soil there a curious elongated stone is
standing. It is the altar. The worshipper will put tlie assagai
against that stone, take a little water in his mouth, emit it
on the weapon with a sound similar to " Pha ! " This is the
*' pliasa," the true sacrificing act. And he will pray: " Pha I
My father! This is your assagai. I have found it again.
Leave the sick child that he may live. Pha I If it is you,
grandfather; if it is you great-grandfather; if it is you, my
paternal aunt (makhadzi), or anybody else amongst you whom
I do not know, please have pity on me and give us life!

This is the typical Venda family sacrifice, and it reveals
to us the main features of their ancestor worship.

]!^otice the part played by the assagai. At the death of
a headman his assagai is solemnly remitted to his elder son.
He will take a very special care of it, and it is rare that a
man should be so neglectful as i\\e one of whom we just heard
Ihe story. This assagai belonged to tlie father, the g-rand-
father. the great-grandfather, as far back as one_ can
remember. They have used it ; a part of their personality is
still attached to it. No wonder that it should be the means
of entering into communication with them. Amongst the
Tlicnga, in some clans, one keeps a sacred object formed of
all the nails and hair of the deceased chiefs glued together
bv a kind of wax in order to introduce the prayers addressed
to them. (See " The Life of a South African Tribe," vol. i,
p. 360.) Tt is the same idea, based on one of the main
principles of magic : Pars pro tofo. You possess a portion of
something; through it you may act on the whole. The bow,
the arrows, the axe of the forefathers are also used for the
purpose, and may be placed on the altar. But tlie assagai is
tabooed more than any other object.

Curious to say, women also have their assagai ; it is called
" Ludo." The blade is not fixed on the top of the stick (it is
taboo!), but on the side, at the extremity, in the same way
as a Kaffir pick on its handle. The Ba-Venda are more
" feminist " than any other South African tribe I know.
Amongst them women can possess cattle, and their last son
inherits it, whilst the elder inherits from the father. And
amongst them women also frequently perform religious acts.
This may happen amongst Thongas, but it is rare, whilst
amongst Yendas feminine sacrifices are of regular occurrence,
as we shall see. When called upon to preside over such a
religious ceremony — for instance, when the bones have revealed
that the disease has been caused by a god of the mother's
family, and that the offerine- has to be made by a feminine
ao-ent — the elder woman takes her ludo, which she has

214 EELIGIOX OF THE BA-VEXJJA.

inherited from lier mother just the same as the elder brother
has inherited the assagai of the father, and she approaches the
irritated feminine ancestor through the same rites.

The use of the assagai of the forefathers in religious
ceremonies illustrates and corroborates the fundamental law
of Bantu society, viz., the law of precedence or hierarchy.
The elder son is the cliief of his younger brothers. He is
invested with full authority over them. Bantu social life
would be impossible if that law were not enforced, and religion
comes to the help of social life by stating that one cannot pray
to the gods witiiout passing through the ministration of the
elder brother.

Suppose that two brothers have had a dispute. The
younger one wants to free himself from the tutelage of his
elder. He decides henceforth to make offerings to his ancestors
in his own village, on his own altar. Such an act is taboo I
He does not possess the sssagai of the ancestors; he is not
entitled to approach them. The bones, when consulted, will
tell him: " What? You have two altars, two stones in your
family? It is bad! Put that matter in order! " And the
younger brother Avill have to throw the stone of the altar
away, take water in his mouth, emit it with that sound
" Pha," and tell his ancestors : " I have abandoned my stone.
Abandon me also. Do not come any more to do me harm!
Go to my elder l)rother; he is the one who keeps your weapons.
He will treat yt)U Avell ! '" This intervention of the bones will
probably result in the reconciliation of the two brothers.
Should they even not meet at once, they will have to do it
at next harvest, at the feast of the first fruits, as we shall see.

There is only one case in which a younger brother may
be allowed to establish an altar in his village : it is when he
is dwelling far away from his elder brother, and he cannot
be expected to go a long way to obtain his religious assist-
ance each time he viants it. But after the sacramental
" Pha," after having expressed his prayer, he will add these
words : " Go to those who held th.e assagai, they will give you
what you M'ant ! "

I have repeatedly mentioned the stone of the altar. AVhat
is it? We meet here with a strange custom which I never
heard of amongst South African Bantu, except amongst the
Malemba, who are nearly related to the Yendas. That stone
is called an ox, as, indeed, it takes the place of an ox. When
a headman possesses cattle, he chooses one of liis best oxen and
calls it " Makhulu " (grandfather). This ox will represent
the gods in the midst of the village. It is no longer an ox; it is
a human being. That does not mean that the headman for
ever renounces the i)leasure of eating its meat. Yenda devo-
tion does not go so far ! It can be killed and eaten, but, in
that case, another will be consecrated to take its place. When
offering libations of beer, the headman will pour tlie liquid
on its back. Before eating the first sugar cane, he will go
at sunset to the sacred ox and oftVr it the inflorescence which

RELIGION OF THE UA-VENUA. 215

is at the top of the cane, and say: " Eat the flower with joy,
grandfather, and leave ns the stem, that Ave also slionld eat
it with joj'ful heart."

13nt should the oxen die, or should the headman be poor,
he will consult the bones, which will say: " Never mind, if
you have no ox, go and fetch a stone in the river ; it, will be
your ox." The man will choose a well-polished, cylindrical
stone, and put it somewhere near his hut. The regular place
is at the entrance. The stone is half buried in the red soil,
and the i)lace all round is well smeared. Some bulbs of an
Amaryllida, called " Lohonie " or " Muthangwana " (belong-
ing, I think, to the genus Hypoxis) are planted also on the
spot. Shifaladzi could not tell me why. Is it in order to
introduce some j^uetry in the religion V I do not know.

Consultation of bones, possession of the assagai of the
ancestors, consecration of an ox which is a human being, or
of a stone which is an ox, that ox which is a human being —
one can see that there are many conditions to fulfil to reach
the gods, even for the headman of a family. And for his
younger brothers there is still the necessity of passing through
their elder to obtain a hearing from the all-powerful ancestors.

On the other hand, Bantu, and especially Ba-Yenda, do
not make the worship particularly difficult as regards the
nature and the value of offerings. Water is generally all
that is required. Yet there are occasions on which it is not
sufficient. Let us return to the case of the sick child. If the
offering of water thrown from the mouth on the altar has
not been successful in curing him, the bones consulted for a
second time may say: " The angry god is not satisfied. He
asks for a goat to clothe him " (mbudzi ya u dzwindisa).
This will be a real sacrifice, and it will be performed in this
very curious and significant manner.

A goat will be provided. It is put before a basin of
water mixed with certain drugs and forced to drink, to drink
till it is full of it, till it dies. It is then skinned and cut
open. The large intestine is extracted from the body, a part
of it is cut and stitched at one of its extremities so as to form
a kind of pouch. From each limb a bit of meat is taken, and
quite a provision of seeds of " mufoho " corn, millet, mealies
brought on the spot, together with drugs. All these kinds
of food are introduced into the pouch, this filling up being
accompanied with prayers to the ancestor spirit. And wdiilst
the father proceeds Avith it, he puts seeds in the goat's intestine
with one hand, and, Avitli the other, he takes other seeds and
places them apart. These he Avill keep carefully, to sow them
later on. And he goes on praying: "Eat plenty and be
satiated," do?s he tell the ance,;tor, " and leave us some for
our use." This part of the goat's intestine has become a
person. It is henceforth identified with the deceased grand-
father. Thus the god has been fed. duly stuffed. The pouch
is then stitched at the other extremity. But hoav the ancestor
must be clothed also ! A strap is cut out of the goat's skin,
and the sacrificer winds it all round the pouch. Cariying the

210 rp:ligiox oi' the ija-vk-VJ)a.

oti:eriii<>' witli liiiu lie now goes to the gi'iive of the giaiulfather,
digs a little and lies the pouch in the earth parallel to the
body which is beneath, and he prays ag'ain : *' We worship
you, grandfather I And we have clothed you. This is your
food. Eat and be full and be contented. And leave us food,
plenty of food, that we also may be contented, and bless the
sick child."

This is the rite of the " goat with clothes. " Really
a perfect illustration of Bantu ancestor worship, where
sympathetic magic plays an important part.

The second categoiy of offerings, as we said, are those
connected with the agricultural life of tlie tribe.

If the rites performed in the case of disease reveal the
sense of dependence in the Bantu soul, but also the fear
towards its ancestor gods, it is in the agricultural rites we
meet with some higher features of the religious feeling* — an
aspiration to the communion with the dead forefathers and
an expression of thankfulness towards them.

These agricultural rites are performed on two main
occasions, at the sowing- and at the reaping of the " mufoho "
corn. This " mufoho " {Elevsine indica), a cereal one or one
and a half feet high, bearing three or four spikes at its
extremity, somewhat like a Panicum, is the staple food of the
Ba-Yenda, and no doubt the oldest of their cereals. For the
modern ones, sorgdium, mealies, which have been introduced
later on, no rule is observed. Mufoho* corn only is tabooed.

And the taboo is very strong indeed. Formerly a Yenda
who dared to reap his mufoho before the religious ceremony
had taken place was put to death.

These two rites are not only family, but national rites.
They are national in this sense, that they are accomplished
with a special lustre at the chief's kraal; but they are also
family in this sense, that they are repeated at each headman's
kraal.

The sowing rite is associated with the curious custom
called " Uzonda." When a headman has grown-up children,
they all must come at the time of tilling and help him to
cultivate a small garden which belongs to the gods. Should
this man die, the elder son inherits that field, and his brothers
and sisters must continue to assemble and till it and sow there
the first seeds of mufoho before the^y start cultivating their
own gardens. It is a taboo. Should they not cbsei*ve that
rule, they would obtain nothing in their fields — another
instance in which religion intervenes to uphold the funda-
mental law of precedence. Young-er relatives, if staying far
away from the head of the family, must at least send some
seeds for tlie sacred field.

At the capital this uzonda assumes greater proportions.
The chief summons his neighbours and relatives to till this
special field. Little girls are committed to the task of
cooking a dish of native peas, and women prepare beer of

* Miifoho is called " Mplioho " in Thonga.

KKLIGIOX OF THE BA-VE>'I)A. 217

luufoLo corn. When these <>iils go over the country to gather
wood and fetch water for their cooking, they handle small
sticks, and are ordered to thrash everybody they meet on the
road. And the people, when they see the girls approaching,
must kneel down at once and cover their faces with their
hands. This is meant to be an act of adoration and of self-
humiliation towards the powerful gods of the royal family.
By this prostration subjects declare that they are " dead,"
they have no power at all. The power belongs to the gods,
the gods of the chief ; they alone can make the corn grow !

When the tilling is finished, workers take part in the
meal of native peas, and the mother of the chief takes her
ludo and prays to her deceased mother, grandmother,
paternal aunt— all the royal feminine gods. She says: " We
give you beer to drink. Give us corn, that it may grow, be
plentiful, and that we may eat." It seems that this ceremony
is entirely in the hands of women, and no wonder in tlie f act :
It is closely connected with the agricultural life, and women
play the greater part in it.

The same religious act is performed in all the headmen's
zonda fields, but, amongst subjects, there are no girls armed
with sticks and beating the poor people.

The secoiid agricultural rite takes place at the time of
reaping, and corresponds to the feast of first fruit, which is
one of the oldest and most widespread features of Bantu
religion. It is called " tungula mufoho," the consecration,
or olferiug of mufoho corn, and must be performed at the
capital and at headmen's kraals before the people are allowed
to reap. In the headmen's kraals beer is made from the new
harvest and poured on the back of the ox-grandfather, or on
the stone of the altar. Should the headman be at the same
time the head of a clan which possesses its mountain, the offer-
ing is carried to the sacred wood Avhere the ancestors are
supposed to reside.

But, as reg-ards the Shivase royal family, the beer is
solemnly conveyed by two messengers to the place called
Gubukubu, on the Pipiti River, where on© at least of the
Shivase ancestors has been buried. Tiiere is a pool there, and
the whole place is called " Badzimon " ("at the gods "), a
rock which penetrates into the rivei* and is seen emerging
from it. The two i)riests walk over it up to its extremity, and
there they pour the offering of beer and pray for the country,
for its i)eace and prosperity. It is said that after tlieir
departure the gods come out from the water and drink the
beer.

It is interesting to note who are these two sacrificers. The
one is the chief or his representative ; he has the power to
address the ancestors of the royal family, as he is their elder
son, the regular heir. The second one belongs to the clan of
the Ba-J^gona. These Ba-jS^gona were tlie first owners of the
countrv. Tliev were subdued bv the Ba-Yenda at the time

218 EELIGIOX OF THE BA-VENIIA.

of their invasion. In that way man can api)roa('h the "'ods
who were the original possessors of the land and obtain their
blessing, which is always a good plan, as it would be unwise
to provoke the anger of any of the departed spirits. On the
other hand, the father of this second priest, who is a Ngona,
has married a woman from the Shivase ffimily. In this way
this man is a " moduhulu," namely, a uterine nephew of the
Venda chiefs. The uterine nephew every wliere plays a special
part in Bantu ancestor worship. He is the favourite of his
malunie, viz., of his mother's brother. Heir of the IN^gona
gods, nephew of the Ba-Yenda, he is really the right man in
the right place when he assists the chief in this important
function.

III.^TOTEMISM.

One may find it strange that totemism should be mentioned
here in connection with religion. Totemism is prevalent
amongst all the tribes of the Suto group, Basuto of Basuto-
land, Ba-Pedi of Transvaal, Bechuana, etc. But it consists
merely in a few more or less obsolete rites and in taboos con-
cerning the killing of the totem animal and the eating of its
meat. I do not know of any relation established between the
totem and the ancestor gods amongst those tribes.

Amongst Ba-Yenda, at least amongst some of their clans,
this relation exists most decidedly, and it is one of the most
interesting discoveries I made when studying their religion.
This applies mostly to the Ba-Laudzi, Ba-Nngwe, and
Ba-Shidzive clans, all of which have their " mountain " in
Yendaland.

Let us begin with the Ba-Laiulzi. the clan to which
belonged my principal informant. Tlieir totem is the baboon.
They are called " Ba-ila-pfene," those who taboo the baboon.
(Strange to say, I never heard the expression always employed
in Suto tribes : ba-bina-pfene, those who dance to the baboon.)
liaboons are considered as bearing a sjiecial relation to the
clan. When they enter the gardens and steal mealies, one
may chase them, but it is taboo to pick up any cob they may
have let fall when running away. Sometimes they penetrate
into the village ; they enter the special hut -vAliere women stamp
their mufoho corp. . This hut is found in CA^ery Yenda village;
it has no door; the floor is made of veiy hard clay, in which
are buried four or more little mjrtars up to the level of the
ground; women grind the cereal on their knees with short
pestles. The baboon visitors are allowed to take a little of
the grain; however, if they steal too much and become trouble-
some, they are chased away. Naturally the Ba-Laudzi do
not eat their meat. There is nothing very i)eculiar in these
customs; similar dealings witli the totem animal are found
in all the totemistic South African tribes. But here conies
the proper Yenda theory: It is believed that these baboons
are the Badzimu themselves. Each Mu-Laudzi, when he

EKLIGIOX OF THE BA-VEXDA. 219

dies, becomes a baLooii and goes to the sacred hill of Loiiioiido
to dwell there. There is a specially big- baboon amongst
them. It never utters a cry. It is very old. It is the chief of
the flock, and the principal ancestor god. Only when a great
misfortune threatens the tribe one Avill hear it coming- out
of the forest and shouting- loudly. Should a member of the
clan die far away from the Lomondo, it is the old baboon
which will go, accompanied by others, to fetch the new
Mudzimu, who has been transformed into a baboon, and it
will bring the new god to the sacred hill. At the time of
the first fruit ceremony, the consecrated beer will not only
be pouied on the back of the ox-grandfather, but part of it
will be brought to the forest of the gods and poured on a rock
for the baboon god. And whea the party which went into
the forest returns to the village, one will hear a loud cry. It
is the old baboon, who once more has abandoned its obstinate
mutism to express its thankfulness for the offering-. Then
all the women assembled in the villages at the foot of the hill
will burst into cries of joy, those same peculiar yells with
which they greeted Ealuvimbi when he visited the country.

Similar customs are prevalent among-st the Ba-Xngwe,
the clan of the leopard, who have their mountain in the north
of the country. It is strongly forbidden to them to kill a
leopard : it will mean killing the ancestor god, and the man
guilty of such an oifence would die.

The Ba-Shidzive have the lion as totem. Their mountain
is situated in the place called Thathe, and is the residence of
Xethathe, the big lion, who is also their great ancestor god.
It is believed that, though all the members of the clan become
lions at their death, most of them spread all over the country
where it is not prohibited to kill them. The only one which
is taboo is the lion chief in the forest. However, men of this
clan do not eat lion's meat at all.

If I were treating the subject of totemism fully, there
would be much to say about the Ba-ila-singo, viz., those who
taboo the elephant's tinimp, who are the members of the royal
family; the Ba-ila-lSTdowu, who venerate the elephant itself,
and have many sub-divisions ; the Ba-!N^goba taboo the mush-
room; the Ba-Keebo, tbe wild boar and the pig; some clans
have birds as totems. Yenda totemism, I venture to say, is
a M-ide subject of inquiry, which I am far from having fully
studied. I wanted only to explain the striking relation estab-
lished in some clans between the totem animal and the ancestor
god, and on the belief in a kind of transmigration of souls,
which is by no means common amongst Bantu of these parts.

Will it be possible here to find the explanation of totemism,
this complex of ideas and superstitions so curious, so vag-ue,
so incoherent? It has often been thought that the veneration
showed to the totem animal came from the assumption that
he was the originator of the tribe which has adopted it.
Would it not be more probable that, on the contrary, the

220 REi.IGION OF THE liA-VEXJJA.

totem auiinal is feared and venerated, eventually worshipped,
because every member of the clan is transformed into it, and
because in this way the ancestor gods have come to be
identified with it?' If such wero the orig-in of totemism and
its relation to ancestor worship, then the belief in the trans-
mig-ration of the souls of the deceased into the totem animal
ought to be considered as a primitive conception ; it could be
admitted that the more southern tribes have lost this connec-
tion and preserved a disfigured totemism without relation with
their religion, whilst all the Zulu-Thonga group has altogether
abandoned the totemistic idea.

I have found an indication showing- that the evolution
has probably followed this course. Whilst I was thinking- that
the identification of the ancestor god and the totem M'as some-
thing quite new, I liapi)ened to read a book of a German
traveller, the Duke Adolf Fred, of Mecklenburg, entitled
" The Heart of Africa," where, speaking about the tribes
living in Central Africa, he says: "Each clan reveres a
totem, which in Kindjoro is called ' Umzimu.' Should the
totem take the form of an animal, it is forbidden to kill or
eat such animals. This interdiction ... is closely connected
with the belief of transmigration of souls ; for their creed
teaches that spirits of their departed relatives enter the body
of the object of their adoration. In Euanda the souls of the
deceased rulers are believed io dwell in the leopard, and to
continue to torment their people in that shape.""

I need not emphasise the importance of this remarkable
correspondence between the Venda and the Central African
belief. The belief itself throws a very Avelcome light on the
whole subject of totemism, and the correspondence greatly
strengthens the hypothesis that the Venda tribe has come from
the heart of Africa, where the totem and the ancestor god are
so fully identified.

No doubt a more complete study of the Ba-Venda will
yield some more surprises.

* May I add that, since writing this paper, I liave seen " The
History of Melanesian Society," by W. H. Rivers, vol. ii, and that he
describes a condition of things amongst Melanesian people very similar
to the one 1 have just explained amongst the Ba-Venda. According
to that distingnished antliropologist, Melanesian totemism owes its
origin to the fact that the Kara people bronght witli tliem theii- belief
in the incarnation of their ancestors in animal form. This, he thinks,
was the starting point of Melanesian totemism. It is surprising to see
that in the kingship system also there are striking resemblances between
the tribes of Melanesia and Polynesia and our South African tribes.

lijj LIBR AR^^ ....

THE OCCURRENCE OF " TERBLANZ " (FAUREA

MACNAUGHTONII, PHILL.) IX NATAL AND

PONDOLAND.

By E. P. Phillips, M.A., D.Sc, E.L.S., and
J. J. KoTZE, B.A., D.Sc.

Read July 15, 1920.

Since publishing' our note on the g-enus Faurea
(S.A. JouRN. Science, vol. xvi, p. 232) we have seen further
material of Faurea. The examination of this fresh material
has confirmed what we suspected, namely, that F . Mac-
nauglitonii and F . natalensis are specific.

Faurea natalensis, Phillips, was described (" Flora Ca-
pensis," v, p. G41) from a sing-le specimen collected by Gerrard
in Natal, and was separated from F. Macnauglitonii on the
smaller flower buds. Forester Tustin submitted a specimen
recently collected (Forest Herbarium 2961) at the Ngomi
Forest, Ng-otshe Division, Natal, whic'h' has buds up to 9 lines
long and styles up to 10 lines long and agrees in every other
respect with specimens of F. Macnauglitonii from Knysna.
In comparing this specimen with a large series of specimens
from the same tree (Forest Herbarium 2331) collected in the
Ntsubani Forest, we find every gradation in the size of the
buds from 6 up to 9 lines long, and the same gradation in
size occurs in the Knysna specimens.

In view of these further facts, we now regard the species
hitherto known as F. natalensis, Phill., and F . Macnauglitonii,
Phill., as one and the same.

As the Knysna tree is the better know^i and the name
F. Macnauglitonii generally accepted by foresters, we propose
that this name should stand :

F. Macnauglitonii, Pliillijjs, " Flora Capensis," v, 1,
p. 642' (Kotze and PliilL, S.A. JouEX. Sc, xvi,
p. 236); F. natalensis, Phill.. "Flora Capensis,"
V, 1, p. 641 (Kotzc and Phill., I.e., 235).

The Knysna " Terblanz " therefore occurs in the Knysna
Forest, then appears in the Pondoland Forests, and reappears
in the Ng-omi Forest in Northern Natal.

A METHOD OF YELD ESTIMATION.

By A. 0. D. MoGG, B.A..
EcuJogist, Division of Veterinary ResearcJi.

(Abstract.)

BeaJ Jul J, IT, 1920.

This method originated from the necessity of making a
very close study of certain stock disease-bearing velds occur-
ring mainly in Natal, Zululand and East Griqiialand, the
diseases being caused, in the opinion of various veterinary
collaborators, by some plant, plants, or even a condition of the
veld herbage.

Several diseases were investigated, of which the principal
are .stijfziekte, dunziekte and cattle pushing-staggers, the
latter now happily solved by the application of the method.

The problem set to the botanist was to find the plant, and,
having adduced enough evidence to incriminate any plant, it
was then necessary to prove this to be the plant cause by apply-
ing the crucial test of feeding the plant to animals and
producing in them the typical disease. This latter test, of
course, was carried out by the veterinarian.

Initially, the method adopted was to list separately all the
species occurring on as many intensely "diseased " areas as
possible, choosing those farms most widely separated, in order
to secure geological and climatic diiferences as well.

The plant-lists were arranged both ecologically and
systematically for each farm. These local lists were then
compared for all areas carrying* the same disease. At once
the eliminative effect of such a process can be seen to give one
relatively small common-factor lists, the size of whi(-h being
of practical dimensions, enabled one to test ea(h plant
separately. However, a further use was made of these lists.
As the lists recorded the range of variation of a species in
form, habitat and distribution on intensely " diseased "
areas, it was sought to ascertain whether there was in these
data any correlation to the disease, i.e., any ratio or other
factor, such as the relation of genera to species, common
genera to the common species, etc.

To test this, it was easy to count the species, genera and
orders for each locality, reducing all ratios to percentages and
comparing them in pairs. Some interesting results were
obtained, and I give the final extract figures for four widely
separated dunziekte areas in illustration.

(a) Total Genera : Total Species: — 'Mooi River and
Kokstad, 444: 55-6; Rosetta and Kokstad, 417: 58?,: Molteno

VELD ESTIMATION. 223

and Kokstad, 31-6: 684; Molteno and Mooi River, 33-3: 66G ;
Molteno and Rosetta, 32-2: 67-8; Eosetta and Mooi River,
361: 63-9; any three areas, 264: 73-6; four areas, 351: 64-9;
average, 35-1 : 64-9.

(b) Covmwn Genera : Common Species: — ^Mooi River
and Kokstad, 441: 55-9 • Rovsetta and Kokstad, 44-3: 55-7;
Molteno and Kokstod, 44'3 : 55"7 ; Mooi River and Molteno,
43-9: 561; Rosetta and Molteno, 444: 55-6; Rosetta and Mooi
River, 44-9 : 551 ; any three areas, 44-5 : 55-5 ; four areas,
444 : 55-6 ; average, 44-3 : 55-7.

The fig-ures for " Total Genera : Common Genera " and
"Total Species : Common Species" have been omitted, as
the results are of the same order as those given above (a), and
were not unanticipated, the ratios expressing the variations
due to purely local conditions.

The figures for Common Genera : Common Species are
remarkable, giving practically a constant, and seem to sug'gest
some biological relation. To te«t this, I compared many non-
dunziekte lists with these, and no correlation was found to
obtain. I have therefore postulated that: " A farm is a
potentially dunziekte area if the systematic list analysis of its
flora, when compared with the floral systematic lists of several
well-defined dunziekte farms, shows a ratio of common genera
to common species of 44-3: 55-7; and, further, this area may
become actively dunziekte-carrying by oA'er-stocking and
burning for a few seasons." This latter statement is the result
of observations and analysis of a great many dunziekte areas.

The ecological analysis further enabled one to state that
dunziekte is associated with the vegetation characteristic of a
definite geological formation, namely, the predominance of
Karroo shales (carrying fossils of Glossopteris spp.) on the
areas in question.

But both of these methods failed in themelves to supply
the information required, that is, where a condition of the veld
(proportion of species present, grazing value, botanical growth
state as apart from species lists) was as much likely to be a
factor in the causation of the disease as well as, or irrespective
of, any specific plant in the area. This seems to be so with
stijfziekte, and in some degree with most other such diseases.

In illustration, three adjacent paddocks on the same ridge
at Lidgetton, Natal, are here instanced, each owned by
different farmers.

Paddock A. — Forty-five acres. Almost unbur ed and but
slightly grazed ^for thirty years. Floral composition and state
nearly that of the primitive veld. Stijfziekte free.

Paddock B. — Forty-three acres. Burned' and over-stocked
(cattle) for thirty years. Greatly altered veld. Definitely
stifjziekte carrying.

Paddoch C. — ^Forty acres. Burned seven odd years, mown
several years, stocked eight years, then fallow eight years,
then over-stocked two years, veld altering, slight stifjziekte.

To estimate the differences in such paddocks, careful

224 VELD ESTIMATIOX.

systematif lists were made, revealiiio- a dift'erenee of only three
species, which occurred in minute quantities. Hence a new
method had to he devised. I, therefore, sought to connf the
individuals of species present by taking- representative strips
or samples (" belt transects," Professor J. W. Bews has named
them) in eacdi ecologically different area in order to calculate
the proportion of every species present. Then, by reducing- to
percentag-es, the lists tor eacli paddock could be compared and
g-raphs drawn representing- the rang-e of variation.

Typical belts, 10 feet by 150 feet (long-er or shorter as
necessary, and T- or L-shaped when required), were selected
and laid down permanently by pegging-. White twine was
stretched between the pegs, and the method of (-ounting- was
as follows : Each 10 feet square was estimated separately for
(a) the number of individuals, and (b) tlieir percentag-e, the
records being- entered on specially printed forms. It was
soon found that the unit 1 foot square (/.p., 1 per cent.) was
too large; and I divided the i)lot into four by cross bands of
twine, and the new unit, G inch square, was very convenient for
these closely g-rassed areas.

The vertical shade area of the plants was taken in esti-
mating- tlieir percentage proportion. For g-rasses the G inch
square unit was again divided into five {\iz., 2^ inch square)
in order to estimate exactly the extremely variable sizes of
the tufts. Graphs were plotted only for the average of 10 feet
square plots.

Remarkable results followed the appli(-ation of this
method, both in interest and importance. The results of
analysis of three belt transects frenn eac-h of the three paddocks
aforementioned, will be given in illustration, only the prin-
cipal plants being- selected, the averag-e pert-entag'es being'
cited : —

Anthistiria imheihis: A G8-4 ; B 27-63; C 53-4.
Elionuru.^ argeutus : A 50; B 23-5G ; C T-24.
Eragrostis plana: A 0-5; B 4-57; C 4-91.
Eraqrostis chalcantha : A 2-0; B 7-4; C 5-8.
Sporoholu.^ indlcus: A 01; B 0-G3 ; C 0-2.
Harped,] oa capensis : X 0-G ; li 2-05; C 0-71.
Tristachya Jeucothri.r : A 1-5; B 3-23; C 1-94.
Paspalum .u-rohicuJafum : A 2-5; B 5-24; C 2-31.
A.ro7wpus seuiialatus : A 2-0; B 5-18; C 2-8.
I'anicinii scrratinn : A 0-5; li 3-92; (' ')-21.
Bidbostglis sp.: A 0-001; ]i 077; C 00013.
Vernonia 7iatalensix : A 1-50; B 0-18; C 105.
Acalypha depressincrc : A 1-5; B 2-91; C 214.
Aealypha Wilmsil : A 0-2 ; B 1-21; C 0317.
Pteridhnn aquiUnum : A 20; B 3-24; C 2-24.
Penfanisia ranahilis : A 1-5; 15 0-002; C 0-8G.
Watsonia densi flora: A 5-0; B 00025; (' 0135.
Vaagueria : A 0001 ; B 0-75 ; C 0-21.
Rlninchosia nerrosa : A 4'5 ; B 3'15; C 4-3.

VELD ESTIMATION. 225

Examination of these figures will at once slnnv : —

1. The enormous drop in the percentage proportion of the
best grazing grass, AntJii.^flria imberhis, the " blue grass "
of Natal, by the veld treatment accorded.

2. The increase in proportion of useless grasses, notably
Elionui'us orgenfeus, to replace Anthistiria. {EHonurns was
not only avoided by the " army worm " when all else was
eaten, but cattle tethered on this grass rather starved tlu^i!
ate it.)

By making graphs there is apparently an intimate relation
between Elionurus (with one or two other grasses) 'nd
Antliistiria. A distinct correlation, as set forth in (3), seems
indicated.

3. That an exact estimate of the grazing value of each
paddock can be calculated. Paddock A is a typical sample
o'f the good grazing in central Natal. Paddock B, adjoining,
is now a poverty veld; B's cattle grazing* this paddock never
thrived on it, and contracted stijfziekte. Our experimental
cattle have contracted stijfziekte in as short a time as three
weeks after being removed to Paddock B, ha^ang grazed in
Paddock C for over a year./ The method thus gives us a
(quantitative estimate of details of this description. The results
are valuable, as there is no reason to suppose that thirty years
ago the three paddocks were not identically similar in average
botanical composition.

But the method has a fairly general application in the
exact detailed estimation of (1) veld change, i9\ veld compo-
sition, (3) distribution of vegetation — that is, ecological values.

I will briefly indicate some of the uses : ■ —

1. The quantitative estimation of the grazing value of any
farm at a particular time for land valuation, and, by continu-
ous observations, the effect of such factors as season, burning,
sto(d\ing, drought, ploughing, etc., could be estimated.

2. The quantitative and qualitative estimation of the rela-
tion of vegetation to the soil by comparing smdi belt transect
samples taken from different localities bearing the same soil.
As such estimations can be carried out with extreme accuracy,
such a method used in conjunction with soil survey and
analysis would yield invaluable re(tords.

3. Estimation of the actual, and i)rediction of the
possible, effect of burning of any specific veld, especially if
continuous burning is practised. All my graphs of burned
veld show this remarkably clearly.

4. In a transect taken from ridge downwards through a
marsh most striking results were obtained. These go to show
that (a) plants exhibit a very definite zonation iu their
euhabitat. Thus, if a tacheometrical survey of such an area
were made, taking vertical intervals of 1 foot on a slope of
about an angle of 10 degrees, then each contour line plotted
would represent almost exactly- the zonation exhibited by a
different species in the descent from ridge to vlei. (b) A com-

226 VELD ESTIMATIOX.

parative cliart of gTaplis for the figures for such a transect
shows one mass of points, or apices of graphs. The position
of any apex in a graph fixes the evhahitat in the transect of the
species concerned.

This result was invaluable to me, as giving' me the key
factor to the plant which was proved to be the cause of cattle
pusliing-staggers. For its euhabitat in 1917-18, and eight
years previously from accounts, was found to be in a narrow
belt along stream and marsh edges, half in and half out of
water (namelv, anipliibious, not necessarilv semi-submerged).

In 1918-19 and 1919-20 its zonal habitat, owing to
abnormal rain, was increased to belts 20 to 200 yards wide in
ridge to vlei transects of low angle, 3 degrees to 6 degrees.
The outbreak of this disease coincided with increase in spread
and growth of tliis plant. It was accordingly arranged to be
fed, and it produced the disease.

5. As information concerning (liniate, rainfall, tempera-
ture, humidity, frosting, altitude, locality, etc., are recorded
concurrently with the estimation of a number of transects on
an area, it can well be seen that if a number of botanists,
using the same units, were engaged i]i such survey throughout
the country, and such surveys were collated and compared,
then the most valuable and exact data could be had as to —

(a) The geographic distribution of species, and the causes

of such distribution.

(b) The practice of veld burning in the various floral

regions of the Union, so that uniform laws could be
drafted regarding its advisability, etc.

(c) The systematic valuation of the ranching and agTicul-

tural possibilities of all the land in the Union (in
conjunction with the soil survey).

(d) The causes of the disappearance of valuable timber.

herbage and wild flowers could be ascertained, and
control of these baneful factors instituted.

XOTE ON A DIAGExVM SHOWIXG THE AMOFXT
OF AVAILABLE SUNSHI^'E FALLING ON A
HORIZONTAL SURFACE ON ANY DAY OF THE
YEAR AT A GIVEN PLACE, AND SHOWING
ALSO THE SUN'S ELEVATION AND ITS TIMES
OF RISING AND SETTING.

By J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.,

I'lofe.ssor of Ajiph'ed MathenmticH, Universit n of SteUcnhogclt.

MitJi Three Te.vt Figures.

Read Jidij 15, 1920.

1. The dia<^ram described in this note was found service-
able to students attending a short course on meteorology
given in 1919 in the University of Stellenbosch. It is probably
not new, but has not been met with in any of the text-books
or journals available to the writer. It can be constructed
easily in schools as an exercise on sines and cosines, and
may be helpful in supplementing the open-air observations,
which should be a part of all school courses on geography.

2. If the intensity of the sun's radiation be regarded as
constant, the amount which falls j^er miniite on a horizontal
surface at the upper limit of the atmosphere at any given
place is, of course, proportional to the sine of the angular
elevation of the sun above the horizon. This amount may
be regarded as measuring the intensity of available sunshine
at that place. The construction given below provides an
easy graphical method of detennining the sine of the sun's
elevation at any hour of any day, and hence of calculating
the available sunshine.

3. If we apply the well-known formula of spherical
trigonometry'

cos a = cos h cos ^'+sin h sin c cos A
to the spherical triangle whose apices are P, the south pole
of the heavens, Z, the zenith, and >S', the sun, we have (see
Fig. 1)

cos ZS = cos ZP cos 7^>S'+sin ZP sin P;S' cos P
Here S may be taken to represent either the true sun or the
" mean sun." As the latter proceeds uniformly along the
ecliptic, and as its hour-angle P changes in strict keeping witli
an ordinary clock, it is convenient to apply the formula to
the " mean suir " and draw our sunshine diagram for tlie
latter, leaving to a later stage tlie small corrections for the
difference between the positions of the true and " mean "

228

AVAILABLE SUNSHINE.

suus, and for tlie difference between local mean time and
standard South African time. P is then the hour-angle of

Fig. 1.

the mean sun at the spot of the earth's surface for which
the diagram is to be drawn — in other words, it is true local
mean time reckoned from noon.

Horbh Pole

S«p.21

man 21

Fif

iir SCIENCE, vol.. XVII.]

[ll.l.rSTIIAIING ritOF. MOlMdSO.v's I'APKlt.

20 22 21

Values of sill A sin e, for dilfereut moiitlis of the year. Liit. 290 5' S

Vaha-s of cos A cos S cos /' for ilifffioiit lioiiis of the day. Lut. 290 5'

To face p- ^■■^S.-]

A^■AILA]5LK SUXSIIIXE.

229

AVe may write

ZS = 90°-/;, where h = altilude of the mean sun,
ZP = 90° -A, where A = S. hititiule of the phice,
PS — 90° + ^, where t> = angadar distance of the

mean sun north of the
celestial equator,
and the formula reduces to

sin /f = - sin A sin (^ + cos A cos o cos P. (1)

In this formula sin A and cos A are constants for the given
place, sin S varies throughout the year exactly in proportion
to the sine of the angular distance of the mean sun from
the equinox of the 21st of March, and therefore completes
its fluctuation in a year.
In Fig. 2 we have

sin SM = sin A sinJ/S".
I.e., sin 8 = sin 23° 27'. sin (>i x 30°),

where it = number of months of equal length that have,
elapsed since the 21st of March. Hence

sin A sin S = sin A sin 23° 27'. sin (>i x 30°), (2)

and the value of this term can be represented by a curve
of sines throughout the year. In the second term on the
right-hand side of equation (1), cos A is, of course, constant,
and cos 8 is nearly so, its value varying only from unity at
the autumn and spring equinoxes to 0'917 in June and
])ecember. Hence the value of the second term during any
day can be represented by a curve of cosines, the amplitude
of the curve changing slightly every three months.

4. The left-hand side of the diagram, Fig. 3, gives the
values of the term sin A sin 8 througliout the year for the
latitude of Bloemfontein, while the right-hand side gives
that of cos A cos 8 cos F throughout an average day, the
continuous curve corresponding to a day at the equinoxes
and the broken one to the solstices. If, now, from the point
on the first curve corresponding to any given day a horizontal
line be drawn across the second cui-A^e, this line will represent
the horizon for the day. It will cut the second curve at points
corresponding to sunrise and sunset, and the hours of the
rise and setting of the mean sun can be read off at once in
tnie local time. The height of the second curve above the
horizontal line is the sine of the sun's altitude, and is there-
fore proportional to the intensity of available sunshine, and
the whole area above the horizontal line is the total available
sunshine for the day, save for the correction due to the
deviation of the " mean " from the true sun.

For example, in the diagram which is drawn for latitude
29° ry S., the point E on the first curve corresponds io 2nd .July ;
AB is drawn through 7C parallel to the line of abscissae;
the dotted area ACBA is the total available sunshine on
that day in latitude 29° 5' S. The "mean" sun rises about
(;h .^4m"f,j-,i_^ local time, and sets about 5^^ Q^ p.m. Further,
if from the point Z>, corresponding to 9 a.m. local time, a
line of unit length DE be drawn to cut the horizontal line,

230 AVAILABLE SUXSHIXE.

the slope of this line gives the angular elevation of the
"mean " sun — in this case 22°. The heig-ht of the siui at
any other hour — say midday — is obtained in the same way.
In schools all these results can he compared with the value.^
observed by simple methods.

5. For the true sun the following corrections may be
applied: — First, the values of the equation of lime can be
entered on a corner of the diagram or graphically, and the
position of the true sun can hence be shown by dots placed
on the first curve. The horizontal line for any day drawn
from the corresponding " true '' point will then give the sine
of the elevation of the true sun, its true local times of rising
and setting, the true amount of available sunshine, and so on.
Secondly, to get the corresponding times on a local clock,
we add or siibtract the equation of time and the difference
between local and standard South African time.

6. It need hardly be added that all the diagrams can
be constructed completely with the help of a divided ruler,
pair of compasses and divided circle, without the use of tables.

NOTE ON OLDER PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS
FROM THE TJMGITZA AND BEMBESI Y ALLEYS.

By A. W. Macgeegor, B.A., F.G.S.

With Plate XXX.

Read Jvly 15, 1020.

This note is intended mainly as a record of the localities
where older palaeolithic implements have been found to be
abundant, and a description of the types represented and the
conditions under which they were found. The types are
generally comparable with those of the European succession,
but as yet no verj- definite evidence has been adduced to prove
that they have the same chronological significance.

The occuiTence of implements from the neighbourhood of
the Bembesi Valley has been known since W. H. Kenny,
a diamond prospector, brought a number of specimens into
the Rhodesian Museum some years ago. He would not state
exactly where he had found them, but the impression was
gathered that they came from the banks of the Bembesi River
itself. This is probably a mistake. In a stretch of
twelve miles of the river that I have mapped I have observed
no single specimen. Mr. Maufe, moreover, has elicited the
fact that many specimens Avere given to Mr. Kennj- by

PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMKNTS. 231

Mr. Laidley, wlio collected them in the Miiachine (or Macheni)
stream on the Hambagahle Farm. This is a very prolific
locality, but, since the majority of streams in this neiohbour-
liood are implementiferoiis, it is not probable that all Mr.
Kenny's specimens came from this spot.

Practicallj^ all the imijlements that I have collected were
found in banks of sand and stones between bars in the rocky
bottoms of streams, and not l)i ,'^ltu in alluvial g'ravels, but
in some instances there was considerable evidence indicating
the alluvial bed from which they were derived, and it was
noticed that a stony alluvium overlain by black vlei soil was
present wherever implements were to be found. Special
features characterise the implements of certain localities, but
at other localities a great variety of types was found.

The localities to be described are the following spruits :
Powola, Queen's Mine Spruit, and Imbusine, which are
tributaries of the Bembesi, Muachine and Kenyani, which
How by way of the Xoce into the TTmguza, and the Umguza
itself. The most primitive types are yielded by the first
two localities.

The Powola rises on the basalt scarp near the Bulawayo-
Queen's Mine road, and flows north-westward through a line
of vleis Avhich mark the edge of the Forest sandstone as far
as the prominent kopje Ilitche, where it bends noi'thward to
join the Bembesi five miles further. It is on the Farm
Portive, one mile below Ilitche, that the implements are most
frequent. They are found over a stretch of about a mile,
and are not by any means all of one type. One form, however,
which I have not found at any other locality, is fairly common.
It has an attenuated point, usually with a medium ridge on
one side surface. The massive butt end is roughly shaped
to be grasped in the palm of the hand and has no sharpened
edge. This type is comparable with the Chellean. Used
with a downward blow at close qiuirters this must have been
a formidable weapon. A variety of other types of implement,
including " limandes " similar to those of the Imbusine
described later, are found in this stretch.

The favourite material for the manufacture of imple-
ments in this neighbourhood is a fine-textured felsitic breccia,
which breaks with a clean flinty fracture. This rock outcrops
about one and a half miles to the east.

The banks of this spruit, six or eight feet high, are
composed of black vlei soil, at the base of which is an
inconstant bed, sometimes as much as four feet thick, com-
posed of subangular fragments in a muddy or sandy matrix.
I have found roughly-worked implements in this bed, but no
good specimen in situ. There is little reason to doubt,
however, that all the specimens came from it, since I was
able to find comparatively unworn implements on the same
banks in the river bed this year as last.

For want of a better name, the term Queen's Mine Spruit,
is applied to a stream which rises on Induna Farm and flows

232 PALAEOLITHIC IMrLKMKXTS.

between the two sliafts of the Queen's Mine to join the
Bembesi three miles behjw the Lonely Eoad. Althono-li
I have mapped the whole length of this stream up to the
Queen's Mine, I obsem-ed implements only at the drift
a quarter of a mile from the Bembesi. At this point
five implements of somewhat crude workmanship, but similar
in form, were found. The implements are composed of a
somewhat intractable g-reenstone, and are pointed and some-
what sharpened at the back, with a tendency to a zigzag' ridg-e
on either side. A bed of stony alluvium occurs in the left
bank of the stream near the point where the implements were
found. Yleis occur along the greater part of its length.

The Muachine rises in the Ilibene liills on Mayo Farm
and flows over a spur of Forest sandstone on to the schists.
Implement < are fairly common at a point about a mile above
the Lonely Eoad drift, and again at a point about a mile further
up stream, where the basal portion of the sandstone is the
bed rock. Near both these points vlei soil with stony alluvium
at its base occurs. The implements are rather various, but
mostly of both Chellean and Aclieulian types. A rather
comuion type is the " cleaver," which has been supposed to
be a distinct form. This implement bears a superficial
resemblance to an early Bronze Age celt and is carefully
worked, with its greatest length i)eri)endi(ular to a sharp
edg-e. The lateral edges are trimmed by flaking on both sides,
but the " cleaver " edge is untrimmed, and formed by the
intersection of the fracture which detached the fragment from
which the specimen was made from the parent rock and the
original surface of the rock itself. The cleavers often appear
to be well finished, but Dr. Peringuey's contention, that the
form is a stage in the process of manufacture of the limande
and not a finished product, is very likely true. The study of
a large number of specimens has led me to the conclusion that
it was the maker's intention in every case to complete the
flaking all the way round.

The implements of the Muachine are all made of local
rocks, the most favoured of which is a somewhat carbonated
porphyrite in which the pseudomorphs, after the felspar
phenocysts weather out on exposure, leave cavities. Imple-
ments made of chalcedony or Karroo sandstone are occasionally
found.

Very similar implements occur, but less plentifully, in
the Kciiyani, a stream which joins the right bank of the
Xoce three miles above the Muachine.

The Xoce River itself flows in a rocky bed with a fairly
steep gradient, and usually without alluvial banks and
without vleis. A few worn implements have been found, but
they appear to be very rare, and may have been brought down
by tributary streams.

Li the TJmguza River implements are fairly common in
a stretch of some twelve miles of this river above the con-
fluence of the Xoce, particularly on the Farms Helenvale

rALAEOLITIIIC I.Ml'I.EMKXTS. 233

and ])ovenby. The river at this point is flanked by g-reat
banks of alluvium (described by the Avriter, " Transactions,
Geological Society of South Africa," vol. xix, pp. 29-30,
1916), which was obsei-ved at one place to be eighty feet
thick. No implements were found in place in this alluvium,
in spite of their frequency along- the bed of the river, but at
one point I found an implement underlying and partly
imbedded in a fall of alluvium and black vlei soil in such a
way as to suggest that it had come from one of these. Black
vlei soil was frequently obsei"ved at the top of the cliffs of
alluvium .

The implements are largely of Acheiilian ty])e, sharj)ene(l
as carefully at the butt end as at the point. They are
frequently so large and clumsy that, when one is gripped
in a man's hand of ordinarv' size, the tips of the fingers and
the base of the palm do not reach to the thickest part of
the implement, rendering it impossible for the holder to obtain
a really effective grip if the instrument is to be used as a
knife or for digging. The ungainliness of many of these
implements is due to the nature of the material of which
they are made. This is commonly silcrete, the surface portion
of which does not fracture clearly, and is sometimes left on
both sides.

The Imbusine Spruit is perhaps the most interesting*
locality of all. Within about fifty yards of the reef of the
old Imbusine Mine, as usual in the bed of a spruit which is
flowing with water pumped from a neighbouring mine,
vertical schists rise in bars just above the level of the water,
the banks being formed of black vlei with the usual gravelly
base resting on the schists. At one point implements were
found in profusion between two bars just beneath the water,
about a dozen lying in the space of a square yard.

There were five cleavers of the same form as those up
the Muacliine, showing different degrees of completion. None
of them is finished when compared with the best of the
limandes, and in none has the square edge been trimmed.
The association lends support to Dr. Peringiiey's contention
mentioned previously.

Of the three pointed implements, only one was finished
with any skill.

The majority of these implements are made of a quartz
porphyry, which outcrops about one and a half miles up
stream. The natural rounded surface of the rocks has been
utilised to a great extent in the manufacture of the
implements. The whole side of one of the smaller limandes,
which cannot be regarded as unfinished, is made up of the
natural surface of a boulder.

The interesting feature about this locality is the
large proportion of implements of one jiarticular type. Of
twenty-eight implements collected, only three are pointed,
fifteen are well-made Acheulian limandes, five are cleavers,
and the rest are limandes badlv made or unfinished.

234 rALAEOLITHIC IMPLKMEXTS.

Tlie limaiides are mostly between six and a half and
eigkt inches in length, but some are smaller, down to
four and a half inches. Xone exceed one and three-quarter
inches in thickness. The outline is ovate or elliptical, and
the edg-e is sharj^ened all round. There is no mid-rib on either
surface, and Avhen the implement is viewed from the side
the edge is approximately straight, the inverted " S " cuiTes
frequently seen in European Acheulian implements not being
noticeable in these. They are very slightly worn, though
weathered, and therefore somewhat soft. It seems probable
that they were lying when found on their original floor, and
that their former covering has been removed quite recently.

A trench was dug for a distance of about five feet into
the bank, in the hope of finding more implements of the same
type in place beneath the Adei soil. Two good implements,
quite unworn, and some others were found by the boy during
my absence near the face of the bank, but the rock floor rose
slightly further in, and no stony bed or other implements
were found in the deeper part.

In a stretch of the spruit half a mile further uj) stream,
implements of many types are abundant. They are chiefly
pointed and of crude workmanship, but two similar to the
limandes of the former sjiot were found, and some flakes
and implements worked on one side, only comjiarable with
the Mousterian, but the minute scrapers of the Bushman
tj'pe are rare here as in the other streams mentioned above.

In the upper portion of the Imbusine River, as also in the
Tegwan, which joins the Umguza below the confluence of the
Xoce, a very large variety of implements occur.

Photographs of some of the implements described in this
paper are given on Plate XXX.

The Rhodesian Museum contains a collection made by
AV. H. Kenny of about a score of implements of a remarkable
type, characterised by a very attenuated point with the butt's
edge sharpened. It is remarkable that, although I have seen
considerably over a hundred large palaeoliths in the field, I
have never encountered anything approaching this type. It is
probable that the specimens occurred as a single hoard, similar
to the one m the Imbusine just described.

In conclusion, it may be stated that certain other streams
were mapped in some detail, but Avere not found to contain
stone implements. Of these may be mentioned the Umguza
below the confluence of the Xoce, where it flows in a sandy
bed between sandy banks, the Xoce and the Bembesi across
the Robert Block, besides other parts of the streams already
mentioned. Moreover, the larger palaeoliths are very rare
on the bare veld.

In every place where implements were found to be
abundant, the stream in which they occurred flowed on a
rocky bottom between banks of black \\ei soil, at the foot
of which there was generally a bed of stony alluvium, from
which it is presumed that the implements came.

S.A. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XXX.

4a

STONE IMPLEMENTS EKOM UMGUZA AND BEMBESI VALLEYS.

PALAKOLITIIIC I.M1M,KM KXTS. 23,5

It appears that the bkck vlei soil, the method of
formation of whicli has l)eeii described by Mr. Maufe, has
aecumidated since tlie formation of the older palaeolithic
implements, and is now nndero'oino' removal.

EXPLANATION OF PLATP: XXX.

8tOXE iMrLEMKM'S FKOM THE IJmGUZA AND ]^EM]$ESI VaLLEYS.

(About one-sixth natinal size.)

Fig. 1. — Pointed Chellean type, with unshari)ened butt,
Powola.

Fio's. 2, '), 6. — Pointed Acheulian implements, Tegwan.

Fig. 4 a (and b). — Two sides of same implements, showing
surface (4/>) detached from parent rock, n])per portion of
Imbusine.

Figs. 5 and T. — Acdieiilian implements. Fmguza.

Fig. 8.^ — Implement from upper part of Imbusine.

Figs. 9, 10, 11. — Ovate implements, Imbusine.

Figs. 12, 13. — " Cleavers," ovate implements unfinished,
Macheni.

THE EFFECT OF ELEVATIOX OF TEMI'ERATURE
AND ALTITUDE OF AERODROME IX THE TAKIXO
OFF OF AEROPLANES.

By P. G. GuNDRY, B.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.Ae.vS.,

Professor of FJiijslcs, Transvaal Universifij College, Pretoria.

Read Juhi 15, 1920.

Introduction.

The Cairo-Cape flights of the present year brought into
prominence many peculiarities of conditions arising- from the
high temperature combined Avitli high altitude of the aero-
dromes on the route. The conditions were for the most part
new, for flight from elevated aerodromes in Europe and the
United States has been made as a rule in temperate climates,
where the temperature at such altitude was low. The^se
peculiarities, which led to great difficulties for tlie pilots,
may be divided into two classes : —

(1) Engine peculiarities, especially defects of carburation
and unequal heating of the cylinder jackets owing
to the higli temperature of the air.

236 TAKING OFF OF AEROPLANES.

(2) Aerodynamical ix'ciiliarities, owin^' to tlie teiuiity of
the almosplieie.

Ill the former chiss the difficulties were not to be foreseen,
and much valuable information has ])een obtained as a result
of these flights.

The latter class of difHcully, on the other hand, was
one that could have been ])redicted with certainly by anyono
who has had experience in the testing' of the performance
of aeroplanes under varying- conditions of the atmosphere.
Much trouble would have l>een saved if some fig-ures had
been worked out beforehand as to the maximum load per
horse power allowable under the unfavourable conditions of
low air density to be exj)ected in the hot and high tableland
of Central Africa.

As Khodesia and the greater pait of the TTuion of South
Africa offer the disadvantageous conditions of high ground,
often at elevated temperature, it seems worth while to
consider in what way the ideas of aviation as obtained from
experience in Eiirope must be modified when applied to this
country.

I. — The Effect of Temtekatuue and Altitude.

As a result of a vast amount of investigation Avith the
greatest possible variety of machine during the late war, the
])erformance of a machine in the air can be predicted with
a very fair amount of accuracy. The factors Avliich determine
tlie air speed on the level and the rate of climb are : —

(1) The loading in i)ounds per horse power.

(2) The wing-loading in pounds ]jer square fo(jt.

(3) The density of the air.

(4) The propeller efficiency, i.e., the proportion of the

horse power Avhich is used in propelling the
machine.

When these factors are taken into account, the perform-
ance of all machines, from the lightest scout to the heaviest
bomber, seem to fall into the same scheme.

The propeller efficiency is the most uncertain term in the
work. It may reach about TO per cent., but the efficiency
depends on the air speed, and at the slow speeds of running
along the ground before taking off' it certainly will be
considerably lower than this figure.

The most serious effect of a diminished density is in
lowering the horse power of the engine. At each stroke a.
smaller mass of air is drawn in. Though an " altitude
control " may correct the consequent over-richness of the
mixture, nothing but a motor comijressor or similar con-
trivance will obviate the reduction of energy supplied by each
stroke.

TAKING OFF OF AEROPLANES.

237

The following' calculations are based on figures of
reduction of horse power Avith density used in dealing with
I)erforiuance tests during- the war. I understand that these
tigures are considered to be too optimistic, but, as it is my
object to g'ive a lower limit to the effect sought, the
values are in the rig-ht direction, and at any rate are not
exaggerations.

It is often stated that the tenuity of the atmosphere
makes Hying dithcult, because the air is " too thin to hold up
the machine." This is erroneous in the sens© usually
intended. The thinness of the air also diminishes the resist-
ance to the forward motion of the machine, and the greater
air speed thereby obtained compensates for the loss of lifting-
power at a. given speed. By far the most important effect
is that of reducing the engine power.

The density of the air can be calculated when the
pressure and temperature are known. In the following "work
the conditions are taken at 8, 000, 4,000, 5,000 and (i.OOO feet
altitude, and temperatures 50, GO, 70, 80, 90, 100 degrees
Fahrenheit. The altitudes are what are called " isothermal
heights," /.r., heights as given by an ordinary aneroid or
altimeter.

The curves of Fig. 1 show the engine factor f (d) M-hich
must be used to nudtiply the horse i:)ower at sea-level for the
same number of revolutions per minute to get the horse power
actually obtained. ^/=the density of air compared Avith that
at sea-level under standard conditions i/.c, 1,222 grammes
per cubic metre).

The greatest possible varieties of machines with diftVrent
loadings and in air of dift'erent densities have performances
which fit into the tAvo cui'A'es giA'en in Figs. 2 and 3 faiil\^
well. _ '

In Fig. 2 the abscissa is J'J„\/ d f (d) ^/7/w, and the
ordinate V^/d\/l/w.

In Fig. 3 the abscissa is E„\/ d f (d) \/7/w, and the
ordinate vsj ds/t Irv.

Where

£'„ = engine horse power per 1,000 lbs. of load.
d = density relative to air at sea-level.
w = wing-loading in lbs. per square foot.

V = level speed (air sjDeed) in miles per hour.

V =rate of climb in feet per niiniite.

It is from these- figures that the following Avork is
calculated. The AAay in Avhich the density and loading come
into the aboA^e quantities is the result of elementary
a erodynamical theory . *

The points shown in Figs. 2 and 3 are calculated from
actual tests on Yickers-Vimy bombers and D.II.9 machines.

* L. Bairstow, " Applied Aerodynamics."

238 TAKING OFF OF AKROI'I.AXFS.

II. — Lex(;tji of Run on (jrvOrNi) liKi'oKK Takinc; Off.

Perliups the most striking- change which a pih)t used
to European conditions will notice in flying- here is the
g-reater run required to take oft'. Especially is Ihis the casei
when the machine is heavily loaded and the air is hot.
Lieut. -Colonel 8ir H. A. van Kyneveld refers repeatedly in
his technical report* to the ditticulty of taking oft' his
heavily-loaded machine : —

" . . . . had to cut down more trees, Shirati, to
take off."

" Abercorn. — Only possible and safe take oft' here is
before sunrise, down slope, whatever wind."

" Unexpected difficulties taking' oft', due altitude and
comparatively high temperatuie and moist atmos-
phere." (At Living-stone.)

" Every take oft' Northern Rhodesia was touch and go
for the first few minutes, tail skid scraping- trees."

And so on.

The following- theoretical considerations Avill enable us
to estimate the effect of altitude and temperature {i.e., lowness
of density) on the leng'th of run to take off'. The least
favourable case of no wind is taken.

AVe can divide the run to take off' into two portions: —

(1) A run with tail down until some speed— say 20 miles
per hour — is obtained. This distance, ^vliich is quite vshort.
will be unaffected by the density of the air. The speed is
too slow for the air resistance to play an imi^ortant part.

(2) A run with tail up, in Avhich the speed rises from
20 miles per hour to the flying' speed. This is by far the
more important and greater jjortion of the run. We Avill
assume that the jiilot takes oft' at the minimum flying- speed,
and that we may negdect the frictional forces connected Avith
the contact with the ground. In this Avay we shall g-et an
underestimate of the leng-th of the run lequired, for he will
probably not lift the machine from the ground until he lia.-^
some slight reserve of speed over the minimum flying- speed.

J^ot .s- =the distance of the run from the place where the
speed is 20 miles per hour.

7^ = the horse poAver of the engine.
1] = propeller efficiency,
r = speed in feet per second.
?n = mass of the machine in pounds.
c/ =32-2 feet per second per second.
Then, thiiist — resistance = mass x acceleration.

* " The Aeroplane," a'oI. xviii, 13, p. 670.

J'AKIXG OJ.'F OF AKKOPLAXKS. 239

ilie thrust is . Resistance = yv' d o".

'b

- -K (J r = 1' 7- • (1)

y g (h ^

To find K, we will assume that the machine in the tail-up
position is in the attitude for level flight, for which tho
air speed is I ft. /sec.

Tlien ' ,/ 550 P ^. , ,.,

dv
1/ 550 P (1 - rV/-') = mUj V- ~f^ ■

This leads to

</. >]. 550. P \3.
0.1308 r-' ,

Where T' = level speed in miles per hour.

F„ = iiiiiiiiiii^mi^ flying speed in miles per hour.
J^J = horse power per 1,000 Ihs.
In this formula, T" and E both diminish with diminishing-
density, but the change of T' is small compared with that
of E. T'„, on the other hand, increases as the density gets

1
less, being' proportional to ^=

s/d.

AVhen 1 „ =1 , /.('., at the ceiling, the leng'th of run
becomes infinita.

III. Ari'LICATION TO THE " SlLVEU QUEEN II."

(Yickers-Vimy Machine. )

The weiglit of the Vickers-Yimy machine, Mithout load,
is only known to me when the engines were Sunbeam Morris.
The diflerence in weight of these engines from that of the
Holls-Royce Eagle VIII. is known, and the weight I have
takeji cannot be far from correct.

I have taken two loadings, as follows: —

Machine, light ... ... ... 0,900

Fuel and oil ... ... ... 1,200

Crew and accessories ... ... 720

Total weight ... ... ... 8,820 lbs.

(2).

Machine, light ... ... ... (],900

400 gallons petrol ... ... ... 2,880

30 gallons oil ... ... ... 270

Crew, spares, etc. ... ... ... 950

Total weight ... ... ... 11,000 lbs.

240 TAKING Ol'F OF AKKOl'LAXES.

As far as lopoit g'oes, the latter luiist liave been about.
the h)ad with which Lieut. -Colonel Sir U. A. van Ilyneveld
left the liuhnvayo Aerodrome with the " Silver Queen 11."
on its last llight.

The former load we speak of as a " light load." It repre-
sents petrol for about three and a half hours' flig-ht calculated
from the average rate of consumption given by Lieut. Colonel
Sir II. A. van Ryneveld, viz., 40 gallons an hour.

F(}r the i)urpose of calculating- the horse power, it is
necessary to take the rate of revolutions per minute into
account. I have taken 1,550 revolutions per minute for this.
For this rate the horse power of ea(h engine at sea-level
(density 1) is 315, as given by average bench tests. As the
levolution per minute Avill be lower than this for the early
I)art of the run, Ave shall get for this reason again an
underestimate of the run required.

The wing area (lifting- surface) of the "machine is
1,387 square feet. We have therefore for the two cases: —

Light load, A'„ = 71'5, ic=C)'fH> lbs. per square foot.
Heavy load, 7^\, = 57'3, /r=7'94 lbs. per squrne foot.

£"„=: engine horse power per 1,000 lbs. at sea-level.

II' = Aving-loading.

Another factor in making the calculation is the landiiig
speed, or minimum flying speed. This (as in the case of all
air sjieeds considered) is the true air speed, I.e., the indicated
air speed divided by \/r/. I believe that CiO miles per hour
will be a fair estimate to take for the light load at sea-level.
The correctness of this figure Avill not greatly affect the
comparison of the different conditions. With variation of the
conditions, this speed Avill be proportional to the square root
of the wing-loading, and inversely as the square root of the
density. The greater sjjeed to take off with diminished
deiisity and increased loading Avill have a marked effect in
lengthening the run.

The propeller efficiency, as remarked al)ove, is the most
uncertain term. It attains the A^alue of 70 per cent, at the
best speed for the propeller, but in the low speeds of run
along the ground it Avill certainly be less than this. For
purposes of comparison its A-alue does not matter. We Avill
take it GO per cent., which is probably a good deal too high,
for the early part of the mm.

With the above data we can calculate the minimum run
to take off at sea-level and at the different altitudes and
temperatures.

TAKIXG OFF OF AFROPLAXKS. 241

Tajii.k I.

I.i<iht linid. Total weight 8,820 lbs. Run to take off m feet:
at sea-level, 321 feet.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3,000 Feet.

4,000 Feet.

5,000 Feet.

6.000 Feet.

50° F.

418

461

51 S

570

60° F.

4H«

486

541

602

70° F.

461

5 lit

570

6h;>

80° F.

486

542

60o

674

90° F.

514

574

6H7

711

100° F.

542

604

674

750

Table II. -

Light load. Ratio of mii to that required at sea-level.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3,000 Feet.

4,000 Feet.

5,000 Feet.

6,000 Feet.

50° F.

1 -30

144

160

1-78

60° F.

1 -36

1 51

r6<t

188

70° F.

1-44

1-62

1-7S

r9it

80° F.

151

l-6t»

1-88

2-10

90° F.

r6o

1-79

1-98

2-22

100° F.

rey

r88

2 10

2-34

Table III.

Heavy load. Total weight 11,000 lbs. Rim to take oft' in feet
at sea-level, GOl feet.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3,000 Feet.

4,000 Feet.

5,000 Feet.

6,000 Feet.

50" F.

796

885

994

1.124

60° F.

832

935

1,046

1,193

70° F.

880

991

1,117

1,268

80° F.

934

1.050

1,190

1,352

90° F.

990

1,117

1.263

1,443

100° F.

1.050

1.191

1,341

1,542

J42

TAKING OFF OF AKUOri-AXKS.

Table IV.

Heavy load, llatio of run to that required at sea-level.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3,0n0 Feet.

i ,000 Feet.

5,000 Feet.

<;.n(io Feet.

oO° F.

1-32

1-47

1"66

1-87

60° F.

1-39

1 5(i

174

1-99

70° F.

1-46

1-6.5

1-86

211

80° F.

]'55

1-75

1-98

2-2.5

90° F.

1 -65

rs6

21 1

2-40

100" F.

1-75

1-98

2'23

2'5o

From the above results Ave see that at ]3ulawayo, foi"
example, with a temj)erature of 90° 1\, an aerodrome in every
direction nearly twice as large as under ordinary European
conditions Avould be required ; while at places of altitude
G,000 feet with a temperature of 100° F. the linear dimensions
of the aerodrome should be two and a half times those of the
aerodrome in England required for the same machine.

lY. EaTE (JF ClIMJ! from the •AeR0])R(JME.

Hardly second in importance to the leno'th of run to
take off is the rate at which the machine will ( liml) out ot'
the aerodrome, i^ot only has it to clear obstacles such as
trees on the boundary, but it must rise sufhcieptly liig-h tri
be out of the disturbed condition of the atmosjdiere in the
neighbourhood of surrounding hills and kopjes. The rate of
climb under different conditions of altitude and temj^erature
can be calculated from the cui-A-e in Fig. 8. In Figs. 4, 5, 0, 7
we have the curves giving the rate of climb for any ground
horse power per thousand pounds and for the six dift'erent
temperatures and four different altitudes, the curve for
sea-level being given in each case for purposes of com])arison.

Calculation of the rate of climb under the different
conditions leads to the following results : —

Table Y.

Yickers-Yiniy. Light load. Total Aveight = 8,820 lbs. Rate

of climb in feet per minute : at sea -level, 845 feet per minute.

Altit

ude.

Temperature.

8,000 Feet.

4.000 Feet.

5.000 Feet.

6.000 Feet.

no" F.

696

648

597

543

60° F.

674

619

568

516

70° F.

648

;597

542

187

80° F.

619

r,68

516

464

90° F.

.597

542

486

4 3S

100° F.

.568

.515

463

417

TAKIXG Ol-'l' OF AEKOPLAXl-:,S. '-343

Table YI.

Vickers-Yimy. Heavy load. Total weight = 11,000 lbs. Rate

of climb ill feet per iniiiute : at sea-level, 523 feet per uiimite.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3.000 Feet.

4.000 Feet.

5,000 Feet.

6,000 Feet.

nif F.

396

3G0

312

267

6(r F.

377

332

290

243

70° F.

358

308

265

221

80° F.

332

288

244

201

'.>(t° F.

308

26.5

222

180

100' F.

288

244

201

162

For jiiirposes of comparison Ave may take the results
for tlivi D.II.9 machine with the Siddeley Puma engine
(" Yoortrekker "). The loading' is taken as follows: —

Machine, light ... ... ... 2,200

Fuel and oil ... ... ... 500

Crew, etc. ... ... ... ... 300

Total weio-ht

3,000 lbs.

Wing- area, 43(j s(|uare feet. Revolutions per minnte,
1,350. Horse power (sea-level), 242. Horse power per
1,000 lbs., 79' 1. Wing'-loading-, T lbs. per sqnare foot.

TviiLE A^II.

" Yoortrekker." Rate of climb in feet per minute:
at sea-level, 905 feet per minnte-.

Temperature.

Altitude.

3,000 Feet.

4,000 Feet.

5.000 Feet.

6,000 Feet.

50" F.

800

740

688

626

60° F.

772

715

662

600

70° F.

740

685

636

568

80° F.

712

(J55

608

542

90° F.

685

628

568

518

100° F.

660

600

542

500

It will be seen tliat the rate of climb of tlie Yickers
machine k)aded i,s it left IJulawayo falls to a very low value
for liig-h altitudes and high temperatures. Taking the

244 . TAKIXG OFl-' Ol' AEllOPLAXES.

extivme case of 0,000 feet at 100° F., the rate of climb is
only 102 feet per minute. It is also clear that the superior
performance of the " Yoortrekker, " Avhich finished the flight
to Capetown, is not due, as was supposed by some, to
superiority of the machine or its eng-ine, but merely to the
fact that its loading- was more suitably tempered to the
disadvantag'eous conditions of altitude and temperature.

Y. EfIECT OE lluillDITY.

It is worth while considering- the eliect of Avater yapour
in the air on the performance of the machine. For a given
pressiu-e the amount of dry air in a given volume diminishes
with increase of humidity, and the effect, unimportant at Ioav
temperatures, might become important at high temperatures.
For example, saturation at 100° F. will decrease the relative
density of the dry air from 0-740 at 0,000 feet to 0089, :i
change of TO per cent. The factor of reduction of engine
poAver is thereby reduced from 0'78() to 0-(i77, a reduction of
8 per cent. The relati\'e density of the dry air is AA'liat must
be used in the engine factor, since the vapour drawn in at
each stroke is passi\'e as far as combustion is concerned.
On the other hand, the aerodynamic effect of humidity is
negligible, the square root of the density being veiy little
altered by tli^ presence of Avater A^apour. In Fig. 1 the
alteration of engine power factor for presence of saturated
water A-apotir is shoAvn.

It appears as if even the extreme case of saturation at
100° F. Avould only produce al)otit 8 per cent, increase in the
run to take off.

It does not appear therefore that (apart from the effect
on the fabric and the extra Aveight due to deposition) humidity
should have mtich detrimental effect on the performance of
the aeroplane.

VI . — CojS'clusion .

It is clear from the above considerations thai the vIcaas
as to possible loading per horse poAver gained from experience
during the war, more particularly from bombing machines,
must be modified when applied to flight in Central and South
Africa. One of three courses is open: Either (1) otir aero-
dromes mtist be made larger (say tAvice as big as under
Etiropean conditions) ; or (2) the loading of the machines in
pounds per horse poAver must be considerably reduced ; oi-
(3) some effectiA'e way of OA'ercoming the loss of horse poAver
Avith diminished density mttst be employed.

With regard to (2), long- non-stop flights musi give place
to shorter flights of three or four hundred miles or less.

TAKIXG Ol'l- ()¥ AKROPl-AXES.

245

Thereby the h)ad of ])eti()l may be reduced (iiid smalleit
machines may be used.*

AVith regard to (3), as far as I know, all such device,'-^
of forced draug-ht into the engine that have been tried under
European conditions have not been found to give extra horse
power commensurate Avith their extra weight. It is, however,
a question worthy of consideration Avhether under the different
conditions of this country some such device may not be worth
while adopting.

* It is interesting to compare the recent flight of Mr. Bert Hinkler
on liis Baby Avro (35 h.p. (ireen engine) from London to Turin Avithout
a stop. The distance (600 miles) is about the same as the Bulawayo-
Pretoria st?"etch. On this wonderful flight, wliich included the crossing
of the Alps. 25 gallons of petrol were carried and only 20 gallons xised.
Compare this with the 400 gallons of petrol on the Bulawayo flight.

Fit

246

TAKING OFF OF AKHOl'T.AXFS.

Fi"-. 2.

Fig. 3.

TAKTXCi OFF OF AKKOPI,ANES.

24-

mw-

%

w^^--

4+

M

wa

if

~r^

W

'A

-^

:/

V/

i^

%

IT

ipsL

ff

■t

*^^.

Jz^

J=' - isT

l^ pj^ Ui 'r^il' ggj 4't^]^ tfi

m

Fi^. 4.

Fiii. o.

248

TAKING OFF OF AET?OI'I,AXES.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

KARROO RUCKS IX THE MAFUXGA13USI,
SOUTHERX RHODESIA.

Bv A. .]. C. MoLYXEUx, E.G.S.

With Three Te.rt Figures.

Read Jul,/ 15, 1920.

I. IXTRODUCTIOX.

The (listiibution of Karroo rocks in the Matiin<>ahusi and
the conditions under which they were accumulated are
frequently found to be matters on which some information is
desirable, in order that a comparison may be made with the
succession of the same system of rocks in tlie AVankie coalfield
(3)* some 100 miles to the west, and with the Upper Karroo
strata to the north-west of Bulawayo (4 and 5), which are the
only localities that have been mapped by the Geoloo-ical Survey
in detail. A part of the Mafungabusi is included in the
traverses that formed the basis of the introductory paper
to the geology of the region by the writer in 1903 (T), while
Mr. C. E. Parsons in 1903 gave a section, with notes of a route
he had made from Gwelo to the Zambezi.

As the writer had made journeys across the region many
years ago and taken route maps and geological notes on each
occasion it has been suggested that he should look up these
records for publication. Fragmentary as each single section
must be owing to the circumstances in which it was made, the
piecing togetlier of the whole presents evidence on which the
conclusions around it in this paper may be reasonably based.
But it ]s not presented as being incapable of error.

II. — Physical Features.

The region known as the Mafungabusi lies in the Zambezi
basin and on the west of the TTmniati River. t It incdudes the
head-sUeams of the Sesami and IKime Riveis, flowing north-
north-west, the Xgondomo vlei circling- round the south, and
several eastward lunning tributaries of the I^mniati, namely,
the Mzongwe, Xvoripakv/e and Paruka. Cartographicallv it is
placed between 17° 40' 00" S. and 18° 20' 00" S., while the
meridian of 28° 45' 00" E. cuts through its centre.

* The numbers in brackets refer to the papers listed in the
References at the end of this memoir. Tliese papers are discussed in
Section V of this memoir.

t In many Rhodesian rivers the name applied to different parts of
its course varies. Tliis river is known as Umniati as far as its confluence
with the Fmfuli, then as the Sanyati. Ume, Bume and Ome (Omay) are
local terms for the other river referred to.

250

KAEROO 1{(XKS IX TIIK MAIUXGABUSI.

The name is, however, more <^'enerally applied to the
remnant of a dissected tahlehuid of sedimentary and volcanic-
rocks that in the sonth overlap on to the uplands of crystalline
vschists, the northern marp-in being defined by an escarpment

_- f <o >n

« M M M

<o

S 5

,VJ .»» ^

U^ UJ ^

that faces the lower lyino> o-roimd on tlie nortli-west and east.
On tlie map attached hereto (Fig. 1) this tableland appears
as a wedge pushing bef-ueen the valleys and forming the
watershed of the Bume and Vniniati Eivers, the point being

KAUROO ROCKS IX TIIK M Al TNGAIJUSI. 251

foimed by a couit-al hall, named Cliidonnve, and wliicli is
separated* by a wiud-'-ap from the larger Denamwe Hill.
A broken chain of flat-topped ontliers of mesa type, extending
eio-hteen miles to the north-Mcst, shows that once the tableland
continued over a considerable region in that direction, but
which has since been cut back by erosion to the line of its
present margin, that now stretches many miles to the south-
west, where it had been ])reviously mapped by me as the
" Great Escarpment " (1). This featiue incliides the Mafun-
gabusi Mountain, the wedge-shaped block described above.
A vieAv of the eastern side of this dissected plateau, taken
from the Mzongwe Drift, is given in Fig. 2.

To the north-north-east of the mountain the flat country
is continuous, M'ith wide mopani forests and baobabs. The
soil is deep and cold, and there are frequent patches of well-
rounded pebbles and occasional pans. The area seems to be a
plain that has resulted from the disintegration and denudation
of Karroo beds. Pre-Karroo sedimentary rocks a])pear in the
ITmniati around Impali village and at the junction of the
Fmtanji, and form the floor of the Kairoo area in this vicinity.

West of the mountains there is a great change from the
above-mentioned conditions. Ph'osion is here relative to the
Bume River sytem, 2,000 feet in altitude in the basin around
Gorodema. or to the Sesami River system in the Inyoka country,
and in both of whicji it has denuded the Matabola beds, so that
there are exposed large areas of clays and coals. These rocks
give rise to the cold, sun-cracked soils so favoured by mopani
forests, or covered by short thorn and a species of burr or
" rats-bane." Alluvial deposits in the river banks and creeks
are favourable to rich jungle growth, but under cultivation
these ])atches produce good crops of corn and tobacco. Soils
from the basaltic rocks and the lighter sandy ground from the
Forest sandstone are clad Avith almost impenetrable brakes
and baobal) trees, but when ])ut to the test and cultivated, as
by the Inyoka Tf)bacco Com])any, yield very flue tobacco.
Xative-grown " Inyoka tobacco-" put up into conical loaves,
has long been desired by the Matabele. The lower altitude
and the shutting- off by the mountains of the cool south-east
breeze of tlie plateau seem to account for tlie climatic change
necessary to a more tropical botanical development.

Many i)ermanent springs emerge at the base of tlie basalt,
but tlie water is absorbed into sandy stream courses after
passing but a short distance.

There Avere at one time several wagon roads into the
neiglil)ourhood, hwi they ai'c fallen into disuse owing to the
l)revalence of the tsetse fly. Rob's Drift, on the TTmniati. is
the terminus of a road from Gatooma. In the absence of roads,
travellers have to make use of the native footpaths, and tliose
wliich were traversed by the writer are marked in the map.

'^D'^

KARROO ROCKS IX THE MAFIXGABUSI.

« M-

KARROO ROCKS IN THE MAFUNGABUSI. 253

III. — FooiTATH Notes.

On approacliing' the TTmniati River, at the Mzongwe
coiiHueuce from the east, tlie flatness of the country it here
drains is very evident. It is clad by mopani trees of big- f>'irth,
hjng' grass and knob-thorns, forests of ig'onti and open gdades
or dambos. Four miles east of the river is the first indica-
tion of the Karroo boundary in an outcrop of angular grit
(12G8)* and many loose pebbles. In the river itself, here half
a mile wide, a resemblance to the Escarpment grit is evident
in a mass of felspathic coarse sandstone, holding jjebbles of
quartz and quartzite, both well rounded and sub-angular
in shape.

A similar grit also appears in the position of an overlap on
the pre-Karroo floor at the confluence of the Xyaripakwe and
Umuiati — the bed of the smaller stream showing a mass of
grit with pebbles of sliar]) white quartz only, and of pea and
haricot size. Sejjarated from it on the south by a ridge of
schist three miles wide is a mass of grit and a thin bed of
I)ebble conglomerate of fragments of quartz and red banded-
ironstone. A jne-Karroo conglomerate (1-329, I80I) outcrops
to the south of this occurrence, and strikes N. 40 E. with a
dip of 60 degrees to the north-west.

Six miles up the Mzongwe is a clift: showing 20 feet of
coarse, gritty sandstone, iiregularly jointed and overlying,
in descending order the following: Light yellow clay, 1 f oot ;
pink or French grey shale, 3 feet; grey clay, 2 feet; grey
shale, with carbonaceous matter on some layers, the bottom
not being seen (1209/ 72). IJeniform nodules of argillaceous
ironstone weather out of the shales (cf. iiifrd). The beds dip
slightly to the south-west, and seem to belong to the highest
Matabola beds, and are the lowest strata laid bare on the
IJmniati side of the mountains. * They indicate a pre-Karroo
basin to the west deep enough for the deposition of the
Matabola beds, the edge of the depression being covered by
an overlap of what was piobably the Escai^i^nient beds (Fig. 3).

Taking the path from the Mzongwe to Gorodema one
passes over a gritty soil and flat country until one rises over
broken-down grits and Forest sandstone to the poort between
Denamwe and Chidomwe, where there is an interbedded sheet
of basalt overlain by a red sandstone of IVyamandhlovu tyiie.
Another basaltic sheet forms the summit of the tableland.
Descending* towards the Gorodema basin the lower basalt
(1327) is seen to overlie fine flaggy red and white and sharp-
grained transition sandstones (1325) with, underneath, a soft
pinkish sandstone with typical white siliceous concretions and
kernels (1320) that are doubtless of Forest sandstone position.
These fine beds form terraces in front of the major escarpment
and its talus of basalt. The path descends further and crosses
a raised area of pebbles that must represent an outcrop of the

* High inimbors refer to rock specimens in the author's collections

254 KAKKOO KOCKS IN THE MAl-UXGABUSI.

Escaipnieiit grits (coinpare Beacon Hill, ■'<e<].), and enierg-es
on to flats of slaicliy cla^' shales and coaly sJiale beds, witli
many exposed noduiai masses of red ironstone of sejitarian
form. These masses are a great featnre of the Matal)ola l)eds
in the Gorodema basin.

Escarpnrent g'rits, such as the a])ove, foini a ten ace or
minor tableland around Masosoni in fiont of the foot of basalt-
capped clilfs, and imdude pebble beds and coarse red sandstone,
the latter of which sometimes weathers in reniform and
mamillary shapes throug'h the cementing- together of sand
grains on the oxidation of iron. Through this minor tableland
the Bume has trenched down to the underl^'ing- beds of clays
and coal seams, so that a conformable succession is apparent.
On the south slo])e of IJeacon Hill some deYelo])ment of the
seams was carried out in 1011, but the quality of the coal was
not considered satisfactory. Immediately under the grit are
some IKJ feet of clays, weatheiing- with starcdiy fracture, some-
times carrying' thin beds of g'ypsum and being- underlain by the
coal-shale, coal and clay series of l'{0 feet, unl)ottomed.

From Masosoni there is a i)ath going- south to Sikonyauhi.
After leaving- the Bume KiA-er one rises over marly clays
containing- silicihed wood to a considerable thickness of the
Escapment grits series. The hig-hest bed is a loosely c-oherent
felspathic g-rit, weathering- in red iron-cemented ag'g-reg-ates of
sand, with a few ang-ular jiebbles of a size \ip to half an inch.
The contact with the overlying- Forest sandstone is conform-
able— the bed immediately superposed being- a wliitisji very
fine sandstone covered 1)3' a red sandstone. The latter is
considerablj' veined in the reticulate form described at Tuli
and (iwampa (1) and at Pasipas (5).

The basalt cai)X)ing- is (jver 125 feet in thickness (tlie toj)
not being' seen), the jjath running- in a depression l^etween
hig-her hills of it. The probability that it lies in two sheets
was arrived at by finding- amidst the talus slopes lumps of
red indurated sandstone with adhering- fragments of scoriaceous
basalt resembling- the interbedded sandstone found in the
Xyamandhlovu series on Chelmer farm, near Pasipas (5).
Displaced boulders of basalt rock of vesicular character were
found on the talus slopes.

Another route into the (iorodema basin is from Imjjali on
the ITmniati across the flats to l\vndo]izaia villa g-e. The path
then g-oes between the two Hat-topped outliers of Kadonia and
Muma, and descends past deej) nullahs cut into soft beds of
a g-rey sandstone, which is made u]) f)f quartz and fels])atln(-
interstitial matter and Hinty seg-reg-atjons of red ^hade (1324)
that strew the surface, all of which are ty])ical of beds of
Forest sandstone. There is also an intercalated bed of unsorted
g-rit of quartz and quartzite g-rains up to the size of ])eas,
with fragments of ang-ular felspar. Continuing- the descent
to Gorodema, although no ])oint of contact was noticed, my

KAKUOO K()< KS IX 'J'lIK M AFrXGABUSI.

255

notes state that the above beds are uudeilaiu by coug-lomerates
that disintegrate and form wide deposits of shingde, with red
ferrug-iuous grit and luird red ferruginous sandstone, indicating-
Escarpment grit. Under them are the fdays of the Malabo] a
beds.

lY. — Table of Foematioxs.

Assuming' the correctness of these notes, the rocks of the
portion of tlie Mafungabusi region under notice fall into the
followina' table : —

Thickness in
Feet.

Symbol
on Map.

Nyamandhlovu

Group

Basalt 11

Sandstone 11

Basalt 1

Transition sandstone 1 ,

, About 200 feet

B

Forest Sandstone

Group

Upper division (siliceous)
Fine white and pink
sandstone and opaline
rods

C.O-lno feet

k^

Middle division \
Lower division (cal- j

Not seen or

represented

careous) /

Escarpment Grit

Group

Coarse grits an:l con-
fj-lomerates

Minimum lOO feet

k"

Madumabisa Shales

(Upper Matabola
Beds)

Grey clays, fissile shales
and coals

Ironstone nodules

Cone in cone limestone

Minimum ;i20 feet

k"-

Lower ^^roups not seen

Y. Sl'MMAKV OF 'illE XoTES.

?^ HaiiKnuJhloru (iiniip. — That a sandstone is interbe(hled
in the basalts of the Mafungabusi was first noticed by
Mr. C. E. Parsons (2), wlio gave it as rougldy five to ten feet
in thickness. Measurements obtained in tlie Pasipas area,
near Pulawayo, sliow lliat the corresponding sedimentary beds
are not much thickei' and that the outcro]) may be masked by

25() KAUKOO KOCKS I>' THE MAFUNGABUSI.

fallin<^' boulders in lite talus of the basalt. Such masking' is
the case on the C^hidomwe Pass and on tlie Masasoni-Sikonyaiila
l^ath, thoug'h it is fairly conchisivei that the basalt is divided
into two sheets in these localities.

These sheets are the extension of that known as the
Sikonyaula (2, p. 270, also 5, p. 49) to the west of the area
nnder discussion. The ai)])roximate thickness of the first and
second basalts, includin<)' the sandstones (11) is there 250 feet
— figures whicli nearly ag'ree with the a])pr()xiniate thickness
in the country to the north-west of Bnlawayo around
Nyamandhlovu.

It is not jjossible to say whether this area of basalt
connected at any time with that at ISTyamandhlovu, to be
subsequently separated by the erosion of the Shanwani and
(iwelo rivers. Mnch of the country between the two reg"ions
is covered by later Kalahari sand, which hides the formations
on whicli it rests.

The transition sandstone, immediately nnderlying- the
basalt, corresponds with that occnrring- to the north-west of
Bulawayo in its false bedding-, small percentage of intei'stitial
cement and rounded nature of the sand grains. It shows at
places extensive shatter belts, subsequently silicified, so that
the rock has a network appearance. Eeticulate ])atches are a
common featnre in these rocks, and have been noted at Pasinas
(5, p. 44), Tuli (1, p. 274), and Gwampa (1, ]). 278).

Tlie Forest Sandstone is represented by the upper
(siliceous) division (Uily, the lower (c-alcareous) division not
having- been seen. The number of residuary rods and kernels
of silica lying- on the surface is very noticeable and helps in
demarking- boundaries. The g-roup includes an unsorted g-ritty
and pebble la^'er below Kadoma Hill. Tlie thickness does not
exceed 100 feet, while at Pasipas it is about 70 feet.

The Esearpment Grits form larg-e red flat-topped hills or
minor escarpments from wliich the Forest sandstone lias been
removed. They include larg-e areas of pebble cong-lomerate,
flag'g-y sandstone and red g-rits, and immediately overlie the
Matabola or Madumabisa shales. Pellets of clay are frequently
included in the sandstone. Their minimum thickness is
100 feet, but i)robably some incoherent and overlying' beds
have been washed away. Mr. Liglitfoot (3) g-ives the fig-ure
of 300 feet as the thickness at Wankie.

The Maduinahisa Shales of Lig-htfoot have so much in
common with the Matabola beds of the writer that there need
be no hesitation in ajjplying- the former term to the beds
underlying- the Escari)nient g-rit. One notable feature, how-
ever, is tlie local absence of nodules of lime, but in the
concretions of iron that are probably limestones replaced by
metasomatosis, tlie g-ypsum, the buff and g-rey sliales, and tlio
presence of thin impure coal beds the evidence seems to be

KAKKOO KOCKS IX THK MAFIXGABUSI. 40 1

sufficient for correlation. Cone in cone limestone beds occurs
near the Gasue Eiver and at Masenga in the Bume. A Loreliole
was put down in Matabola beds in the Inyoka basin in 1899.
It commenced at the foot of a hill of o-rit and conolomerate
overlying- shales and clays of coal beds that continued to
310 feet, when they clianged at 316 feet to fine grey sandstone
with specks of carbonaceous matter and pyritic concretions two
inches across. Coarse sandstone and grit, angular and mica-
ceous supervened to 319 feet, below which the rock would not
core. This might be relative to the Upper Wankie sandstone.

The nodiilar ironstones in these beds lie in deep red masses
of turtle shape, 10 feet in diameter, that sometimes coalesce
to form a bed over a considerable area (1273/4). Internally
the colour is red-grey — the iron being masked by carbonaceous
matter. Veins of yellow calcite and chalybite form a central
network .

The thickness is shown in the table at a minimum of
320 feet, measured in the borehole, and taking* the sandstone
found at the bottom as being* the base of the grou]). xlt
Wankie the figure is given as 750 feet (variable).

In the liunie Eiver, three miles from Masosoni village.
is a fissure in the clay filled with wax-like coal.

Another similar fissure among blue-grey clays contains
a light red pisolitic ferruginous clay or botryoidal concretions,
around centres of colloidal coal. Others are filled with iron,
or both coal and iron.

YI. — Relationship of Karroo to Arcii.3-:ais' Floor,

As in the areas already described by previous Mriters, the
KaiToo rocks lie as an overlap on the ancient fioor. In regard
to its eastern margin, the rocks of that floor will probably l)e
found to belong to the IiOmag*undi system. There is no evidence
that a fault forms the contact, tliough there is likely to be
some structural line that favoured the direction of the Umniati
river in its i)resent course. How far the Karroo system may
have extended eastward there is no evidence to say, but its
curtailment, as seen to-day, has been brought about by tlie
erosive action of the Umniati and its tributaries.

REFERENCES.

1. MOLYNEUX, A. J. C. —

The Sedimentary Deposits of Southern Rhodesia. —
Quart. Joiirn. Geo] . Soc, vol. lix (1903).
pp. 2GG-291.

2. Parsons, C. E.—

Notes on a Geological Sectif)n from Gwelo to the
Zambezi River. — Proc. lihod. Sci. Assn., vol. iv
(1903-4), p. 48, plate v.

258 KAKHOO K()( KS IN THK M Al- TNGA JiUSl.

3. LlGHTFOOT, ]i.

The Geology of the north-west i)ait of the AVankie Coal-
field. — Sovthern lihodesia (reolofjical Snivey
Bulletin :Vo. 4 (1914). ' .

4. Macgregoh, a. M. — •

The Karroo Eocks and later sediments north-west of
Bulawayo. — Trans. Geo] . Sor. of S. Afiira, vol. xix
(191G), p. 14.

5. MOLYNEUX, A. J. C. —

The Geolog-y of the country around Pasipas. near Bula-
wayo.— Trans. GeoJ. Snc. of S. Africa, vol. xxii
(19^19), p. 2G.

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE,

CO:\irRISING TPIE REPORT OF THE

South African Association for the
Advancement of Science.

(1920. BULAWAYO.)
VOL. XVll. JULY, 1921. NOS. 3 and 4.

(3N THE TULFMETEIC DETERMINATION OF
PHOSPIIOEIC OXIDE.

By B. DE C. M Alien AXD, B.A., D.Sf-.,

Chemical Lahoiato) ij, Union Depf. of Agriculture, Pretoria.

Read Jul)! 15, 1920.

In a previous communication* a process for tlie deter-
mination of phosphoric oxide \yas described ^vhich is chiimed
to be as accurate as other methods in common use, and in
which the manipuhition is simple and rapid. It was shown
that Avhen ammonium phospho-molybdate precipitated by the
Lorenz sulphate-molybdate methodf was dissolved in excess
of sodium hydroxide, and the excess of alkali determined
by titration with acid, the molecular ratio of sodium
hydroxide to phosjihoric oxide Avas 50 to 1. The present
paper deals with the composition of the ammonium phospho-
molybdate precipitate, and with some experiments on the
ap})iicability of the method.

Composition of tiik Precipitate.

According to von Lorenz, the percentage of pliosphoric
oxide in his " Ammonium phosphonnolybdat in seiner
molybdanreichsten form " is 3'295. This result was obtained
by starting with known quantities of phosphoric oxide and

* S.A. Journ. of Science, xv, 5, 357 (1918-19).
t Landw. Versuchs Stationen, Iv, 183 (1901).

2G0

DETEEMIXATIOX OF niOSrilORK OXIUE.

determining- the weight of precipitate obtained — that is, l^y
an indirect method. Working- in the same way, we obtained
3297 ±0003 for the percentag-e of pliosphoric oxide. Since
a knowledge of the composition of the precipitate wouhl throw
light on the volumetric process previoirsly described, and
possibly explain why 'the ratio of sodium hydroxide to
phosphoric oxide was so much higher than ratios found for
other modifications, the complete analysis of the precipitate
was undertaken.

Method. — The scheme adopted for the analysis of the
yellow precipitate was as follows : Precipitates were prepared
and dried in i)artial vacuum after washing- with acetone, as
recommended by Neubauer and Lucker,* and were weighed.
Some of these piecijiitates were dissolved in ammonia
solution, the phosphoric acid precipitated as ammonium
magnesium phosphate, the filtrate acidified with acetic acid,
and the molybdic acid precipitaied as lead molybdate.
Considerable difhculty was experienced in effecting a satis-
factory separation of the ammonium magnesium phosphate
from molybdic acid. Two precipitations freiniently failed
to remove all molybdenum from the phosphate precij^itate,
and the separation is undoubtedly more difhcult to effect
quantitatively than when ammoniiun phospho-molybdate is
precipitated by one or other of the modifications of the
molybdate-magnesia method. For this reason, the sulphate-
molybdate method of precipitation is not to be recommended
for irse when it is desired to weigh as magnesium pyro-
jdiosphate. Ammonia in the precipitate was determined by
distillation into standaid acid in the usual way, while water
was estimated by drying- in a cuiTent of air at 175 degrees.

Tlie folhnving- data were ol)tained : —
Ammonia.

Ammonium
phospho-
molybdate
taken.

N/iO H,SO,
used.

NH.,
found.

NH,

gr.

c.c.

gr.

Per cent.

1. 0-7817

9-91

0016881

210

2. 0-7844

10-09

0-017187

2-19

3. 0-7842

10-01

0-017051

2-17

4. 1-5053

19-38

0033012

219

Mean: 2-18 + 0003.

Zc'it. Anal. Chew., li. 161 (1912).

detekmixatiox of phosphoric' oxi]>e. 201

Phosphoric Oxide.

Ammonium

phospho-

molybdate

taken.

found.

P.O,

found.

P.O3

gr.

OT.

gr.

Per cent.

1. 0-7802

0-0404

0025772

3-303

2. 0-7848

00405

0-02583G

3-292

5. 1-5041

00777

0-049507

3-295

4. 1-5129

0-0785

0-050078

3-310

Mean: 330 ±0004.
MoLYJiDic Oxide.

Mean: 87-00 + 000.
Water .

Ammonium

phospho-

molybdate

taken.

PbMoO,

M0O3

M0O3

o-r.

or.

o-r.

gr.

1. 0-7843

1-7435

008373

87-18

2. 0-7807

1-7479

0-G854G

87-13

3. 1-5041

3-3359

1-30821

8G-98

4. 1-5129

3-3539

1-31529^

80-94

Ammonium

phospho-
molybdate.

Weight

after
drying.

Loss.

Water.

gr.

1. 1-5098

2. 1-5098

gr.
1-39GG

1-3952

gr.
0-1132

01140

Per cent.
7-50

7-59

Mean : 754.

202

DETERMINATION OE PlIOSPHOEIC OXIDE.

The figures given iiuder (i) below are lliose found, while
those given under (ii) are calculated for

11 XTI3 . 2 r.Os . 52 M0O3 . 36 H3O :—

We are therefore justified in assigning the above formula to
the Lorenz ammonium iihospho-molybdato precipitate.

This compound requires, according to the equation:

3 (NHJaPO, .^ (NHJ^HPO, . 52 M0O3 + IOI Ts^aOIT + aq.

= 4 (T^H,),Hr(), + (NH,),MoO, + NH,NaMoO,

+ 50Na3IoO^ + aq.,

one hundred and one moLs. of sodium hydroxide for two mols.
of phosphoric oxide, i.e., i^equires a ratio
XaOH : P.Os = 505 : 1,

instead of 50 : 1, as found by experiment. AVe are at
present unable to account satisfactorily for the discrepancy.
The following experiments coufiiTa fhe' composition found.
If by the addition of formaldehyde the ammonia be con-
verted into hexamethylenetetramine, the amount of sodium
hydroxide used to neutralise the precipitate with respect to
phenolphthalein should correspond to the equation :

2 r,0, . 52 M0O3+ 112 K'aOH

= 4 Xa,HPO,-f52 Na2MoO, + 54 H,0.

Precipitates piepared from similar quantities of phosphoric
oxide were dissolved in sodium hydroxide, with and without
the addition of formaldehyde, and the excess of sodium
hydroxide determined in the usual way, Avith the following
results : — -

(a).

N/10 NaOH required

for standard

method.

N/10 NaOH required

after adding

CH,0.

c.c.

c.c.

c.c.

36- GO*

40-58

40-50

— •

40-05

* Mean of several determinations.

DETEKMIXATIOX OF rilOSI'IIORIC OXIDE.

203

If the pli()si)]i()iic oxidei as atcII as the ammonia l)e
remoTed by suitable means from the- alkaline solution to
Avliicli excess of sodinm hydroxide has been added, which
was done by adding' a. solution of calcium chloride, the
amount of alkali used should correspond with the equation :

2 P.O^ . 52 Mo03 + CaCL + 116 NaOH

= 2 Ca3 (PO,)^ + 12 XaCl + 52 Na.MoO,.
The foliowinff results were obtained : —

(a)

N/10 NaOH required

for standard

method.

(b)

N/IO NaOH I'equired

after addinti

CH,0 and CaCl,.

C.c.

36G0*

C.C.

4203

C.C.

42 05

42 05

It will he- noticed, of course, that the values (b) given in
the second columns of the two tables above are calculated
on the basis of (a) being equivalent to 101, not 100, mols.
of sodium hydroxide. The difference which would be made
by taking" the latter experimental fig-ure instead of that
indicated by the formula is, however, not great, and, in
addition, the determination of the amounts of sodium
hydroxide required is probably subject to the same errors
iu all three cases. Xeither of the above modifications, the
addition of formaldehyde or of calcium chloride or of both,
is recommended, as the end point with phenolphthalein is not
more sensitive than in the stiaightforward method.

To return to the difference between the amount of sodium
hydioxide found necessary in practice and that required by
the formula given to the i)recipitate, while we can at present*
offer no satisfactory explanation thereof, the variations found
by other workers for modifications of the Peinberton alkali-
metric process may be mentioned. Thus Pembertont
originally used a factor corresponding to the ratio

^aOH : PoO^ = 4G-4 : 1 ;

later the same worker adopted thei ratio 4() : 1, while recently
Prescott:!: determined a factor corresponding to a ratio

XaOH : P,0, = 4T-2 : 1.

The second of these ratios corresiionds to the formula for
ammonium phospho-molybdate given by Hundeshag'en,§ while

* Mean of several determinations.
iJour. Am. Chem. Soc, xv, 382 (1894).
X'Tovni. .[(/)■. Science, vi, 111 (1914).
§ Zcit. Anal Chem., xxviii, 164 (1899).

204

DETEKMINATION OF rHOSl'IIOKlf (JXI])E.

the last corresponds roiig-lily to the formuhi assio'iied to the
yeUow i)reeii)itate hy Gibhs* and by Gh\ddino-.t There is
abundant evidence to show that the reaction does not exactly
folio V,' theory v.hen jiractically carried out. This is so well
recog-nised that the IJ.S. Association of Ofhcial Ag-ricultnral
Chemists no longer prescribes a conversion factor, but directs
each chemist to determine liis own. On the other hand, we
have found no apjneciable dift'eiences between results obtained
by different chemists in this laboiatory, where all use the
same factor. The results g'iven on this page serve as an
illustration.

Influence of Silica and of Iron.J

It is generally held that the previous removal of silica
is essential to the success of the m lydate-magnesia process
for phosphoric acid. Silica is said not to interfere with the
A'olumetric method used by the Association of Official Agri-
cultural Chemists. But, if silica, be precipitated as silico-
niolybdate along* with the phospho-molybdate, it is difficult
to see why it should not affect the alkalimetric method.
Lorenz has showii that silica in amount up to 01 gram to
0'04 gram, of i)h()siihoric oxide has no effect on his gravimetric
process ; conseciuently it should have no influence in the
volumetric modification. A few results are given in support.

1. If basic slag be digested with sulphuric acid, prac-
tically no silica g'oes into solution ; while if the extraction be
made with nitric acid, very appreciable quantities of silica
are dissolved. A sample of basic slag extracted by three
diff'erent methods gave the following results : —

Metliod of Preparing
Solution.

I\'/10 NaOH
used for
0-1 gr.

found.

c.c.

Per cent.

1.

Halle method*^

GG-T5

18- 9G

9

Boiling" sulphuric acid

GOTO

18-94

o
o.

Boiling suli)huric aci(l|| ...

G(i-85

18-99

4.

Boiling- nitric acidll

GG-85

18-99

* Jour. Am. Chcni. Soc. iii, 317 (1881).

f.J<nint. Am. Chem. Soc, xviii, 23 (1896).

X The influence of citric acid and of ammoninni citrate was
discussed in the previous paper.

§ Wiley, H. "W. : " ]*rinciples and Practice of Agricultural
Analysis," vol. ii, p. 199 (2nd edition).

II Analyses by B. J. Smit, Assistant Chemist, Division of Chemistry.

DETEEMIXATION OF PHOSniORIC OXIDE .

265

2. Solutions of dicalcium pliospliate in nitric acid were
mixed with varying amoiuits of a solution of water glass,
and also in most cases with varying quantities of ferric
snlphate. The results, given below, show that dissolved
silica and iron have no eifect on the lesults, even when present
in excessive amounts : —

P.O,

taken.

SiO,

taken .

Fe,03
taken.

N/10 NaOH
used.

P.O.,

found .

gr.

gr.

gr.

c.c.

gr.

1.

001040

—

—

3GG0

001039

2

001040

01983

—

3G-(;o

001039

3.

001040

0 1322

O-OGTo

3GT0

001042

4.

001040

OOlifil

(J-0GT5

3GG5

001041

5.

001040

OOOGl

01350

3GT0

001042

G.

000208

00132

0-2T00

37-35

000209

Influence of Amouxt of Phosphoric Oxide.

It is well known that the composition of the ammonium
phospho-molybdate is liable to vary according to the nature
(jf the solution in which precipitation takes place. For this
reason the conditions of precipitation must be carefully
controlled, in order that concordant residts may be obtained
by any method in wliicli the precipitate is weighed or its
amount detei mined volumetrically. In the process under
discussion the concentiation of molybdic acid is constant, the
concentration of suli)huiic acid and of ammonium sulphate is
practically constant, and the concentration of nitric acid is)
also nearly the same in all cases. The variable factors are
the concentration of phosphoric acid and of the other con-
stituents of the substance under examination. The data given
beloAv show that for the useful range of a volumetric process
the relation between phosphoric oxide and sodium hydroxide
is constant. — that is, that the composition of the precipitate
is independent of the concentration of phosphoiic acid in the
solution in which precipitation takes ])lace. Herein lies one
of the greatest merits of the method. Wlien once the solution
containing the phosphoric oxide lias been prepared — no matter
how — no further treatment is necessary beyond the addition
of the requisite amount of the sulphuric-nitric acid mixture
(or of nitric acid alone) before proceeding Avitli the pre-
cipitation. It is just this virtue which diiferentiates the
Lorenz method of precipitation from others: —

266

])ETERMIXATIOX OF PHOSPHORIC OXIDE.

P,0„ taken.

N/IO NaOH used.

P^O, correspoudiuji;
to one c.c. of
N/10 NaOH.

§'!■•

c.c.

o-r.

1. 0-00417

14-73

0000283

2. 000025

22-10

0-000283

3. 000825

2910

0000284

4. 001032

30-30

0000284

5. 001250

44-23

0000283

G. 0-01459

5100

0000283

7. 0-020(i3

72-50

0-000285

The Determixatiox of Small Amounts.

Tlie process is particularly useful for determining- very
small quantities of phosphoric oxide. For this purpose it
compares favourably with colorimetric processes, in that the
phosphate solution may contain substances which interfere
Avith the coloiir comparison, and the standard solution need
not be adjusted to the composition of the solution, to be tested.
The full method may be carried out, or, if the volume of the
phosphate solution be small, the volumes of tiie reag-ents
may be reduced proportionately. In the latter case "we have
found that the precipitate is usually obtained in a finely
divided state and is somewhat difficult to filter and wash.
One-hundredth normal alkali and acid imxj be used ; the end
point is quite sharp. The following- results were obtained
on a solution of dicalcium ])hosphate in nitric acid ; they
illustrate the possibilities of the method when applied to the
determination of small (luantities : —

Eegular Method: Fixal Volume 100 c.c*

P.O.

taken.

N/10 NaOH.

N/IO H,SO,.

Pro-
found.

mg-r.

c.c.

c.c.

mgr.

0-08

1-00

0-80

0-06

0-17

2-00

1-40

0-17

0-25

2-00

1-10

0-2G

Results by B. .J. Sniit, Assistant Chemist.

DETEKM1>AT1()X OF rilOSniORIC OXIDE. 267

Regular Method: Final Yolvime 1()() c.c*

P..0,

taken.

N/lOO NaOH.

N/100 H,SO,.

P=0,

taken.

lllgT.

c.c.

c.c. _

lilgT.

0-08

9-60

0-30

0-09

017

19-20

13-70

010

0-25

19-20

10-40

0-25

Modified Method for Small Volumes of Phosphate
Solution.

Volume of

phosphate

solution.

Volume of
sulphuric-
nitric acid.

Volume of

niolybdate

reagent.

P.O,

taken.

N/lOO
NaOH.

P,0,

found.

C.c.

C.C.

C.C.

[
mgr.

c.c.

mgT.

5

5

10

0-08

2-85

0-08

5

5

10

0-08

2-82

0-08

10

10

20

017

0-25

018

15

15

30

0-25

8-70

0-25

In conclusion, we wish to point out that von Lorenz,
in his first paper already cited, reserTed to himself the study
of the composition of the precipitate obtained b^' his method
in the followino> passag-e : — t

" Die quantitative chemische Zusammensetzung des molybdiin-
siiurereichsten, dabei sehwefelsaurefreien Ammoiiiiim-Phosphor-
molybdates bietet zwar chemisches Interesse, ist aber, wie
ersichtlich, fiir die praktische Ausfiihrung der Phosphorsaure-
bestimmung belanglos. Jch behalte mir das Studium dieser
Verbindung vor, halte es jedoch fiir hochst unwahrschein'ich. dass
dafiir eine halbwegs cinfache Forniel wird gefunden werden
konnen."

We do not Avish to be accused of poaching" on other
i:>eople's preserves, but the question was of some importance

* Results by B. J. Smit, Assistant Chemist.
t Loc. cif., p. 214.

208 ])ETERMIXATIOX OF rHOSPHORIC OXIDE.

to the Tolumetric modification used in this hiboratoiy, and
eig"hteen years had passed since Lorenz wrote the above.
We haA'e been unable to find any reference to liis having"
undertaken the analysis of the precipitate. Xeubaner and
Liicker in 1912 make no mention of any such work by
Lorenz.

Finally, we desire to thank Mr. B. J. Smit, Assistant
Chemist, Division of Chemistry, for the results quoted on
pp. 204, 200 and 2()T.

SOME FURTHER FACTORS IXFLFEXCIIS^G THE
SOLUBILITY OF PHOSPHORIC OXIDE IN
MIXED FERTILISERS COXTAIXIXG SUPER-
PHOSPHATES.

By Edmuxd Victor Flack,

Affsisfcmt AfjricuJturdl Chetnist, Sahsburj/.

Bead Juhj 15, 1920.

The question of sui)plies of ingredients for compounding-
fertilisers during' recent years has been a matter of serious
consideration for those eng-aged in the trade, owing to
shortage of materials imi)orted from overseas. Since the
publication of my ])revious article on " Some factors
influencing- the solubility of phosphoric oxide in mixed
fertilisers containing super])hosphate " (South African
Journal of Science, xiii, 201-208, Dec, 1910) there were
several mixtures other than those mentioned in the al)ove
paper which affect the solubility of phosphoric oxide.

rilOSPHORIC OXIDE IX FEltTILISERS.

2G9

In most of the mixed or complete fertilisers that have
been recently placed on the South African market, material
that was obtainable locally has had to be substituted in place
of readily available forms of constituents. Especially was
this the' case as reg-ards potash, as neither the sulphate,,
chloride nor nitrate has been available in quantity, and resort
has been made to the large amount of available ash in the
country. I refer more especially to the TJnion. It is a
well-known fact that any material of a basic nature, such as
calcium oxide, hydrate, or carbonate or ashes, should not be
mixed on any accounti with water-soluble phosphoric oxide,
owing- to chemical action taking- place, with a loss of water-
soluble phosphoric oxide to that of water-insoluble forms.
However, in view of the scarcity of suitable material, as
pieviously mentioned, this has actually been canied out, and
many of the mixed fertiliseis, with few exceptions, have
ashes either derived from kraal manure, seaweed or jdant for
supplying' the necessary amount of potash.

To test how far the solubility is affected by other than
those mentioned in the paper referred to above, the following-
mixtures were prei>ared : (a) Superphosphate and Ephos basic
phosphate: (b) superphosphate and Saldanha Bay phosphate;
(c) supeiiohosphate and g-round limestone; (d) superphosphate
and kraal manure ash; (e) superphosphate and seaweed ash;
(f) superphosphate and bush or plant ash.

The preparations of the above mixtures and analyses
thereof Avere made on identical lines with those in my previous
article.

The composition of the various materials used in this set
of experiments was as follows : —

t>>

1 -C

o

o3

<

<B bo
Q. O

§2
2.2

11

S

OQ P.

Wfi^

W(U

OhJ

m

C-i

Phosphoric Oxide :

^Vate^ solul)le

IDTU

Ml

Ml

Ml

—

—

—

2 per cent. Citric Acid

—

<H2

i\il

Ml

—

—

—

Total

•21-70

21)-52

21-1.5

trace

2'1

22

2-1

Lime

27-83

4741

no

53-76

28 fi

(U

24-(;

Potash

—

—

—

13 2

31 90

14 T)

The following- percentages of water-soluble phosphoric
oxide Avere found in dift'erent mixtures : —

270

I'lIOSrilOEIC OXIDE IX FERTILISERS.

Table I.

''omposition after

standing

Origfinal
Compo-
sition.

3
Hours.

24
Hours.

1
Week.

2
Weeks.

3
Weeks.

Superphosphate alone...

1970

—

—

—

—

(a) Superphosphate
and Ephos Basic
Phosj>hate

'.i-s.-,

!)-10

S-!)4

s-(;i

S-12

7113

(V)) Superphosjjhate
and Saldanha Bay
Phosphate

'.I'ST)

;»H4

1)37

ll'24

S1I4

S-77

(c) Superphosphate
and Ground Lime-
stone ...

;rs5

r:52

( ) 43.

0 30

0'21»

o-is

(d) Superphosphate
and Kraal M;mure
Ash

'.IS.-,

.■-■24

4-(;'.)

440

4-i(;

.•n;i>

(e) Superphosphate
and Seaweed Ash

'.)-s,-,

coi

.V44

r.-42

.-/12

4-(;i)

(f) Superphosphate
and Plant Ash ...

irsT)

:? 27

2 711

2 (io

2- 12

r:.2

The following table shows the total percentage change
in each of the mixtures during the specified periods: —

Table II.

3

24

1

2

3

Hours.

Hours.

Week.

Weeks.

Weeks.

(a) Superphosphate and Ejihos
Basic Phosphate

- 7-fil

- l)-24

- i2:.i)

- i7-.->r,

- ll)-4l)

(b) Superphosphate and Sal-
danha l>ay Phosphate ...

-.-,•18

- 4-88

- c-ii)

- l)-24

- ioim;

(c) Superphosphate and Ground
Limestone

-86' 61

- 1).") 04

- ik; ii.->

-1)7'0(;

-lts^l7

(d) Superphosphate and Kraal
Manure Ash ...

- 4(V80

- r.2-38

— .")7'77

-(12 ■.■,4

(e) Supcrpliosphate and Seaweed
Ash ...

-38 •111)

-44-77

-44117

- 48-02

.;-.-)2-31l

(f) Superpliosphate and Plant
Ash

- iUVlO

- 71*(;7

- 73 -co

- 78-48

-....,:

PHOSPIIOEIC OXIDE IK FERTILISERS.

271

For comparison I append the results of other investig-ators
on mixtures simiha- to those prepared by me, when equal
Ijarts of the respective nmterials have been employed : —

-^ ^-

•>> ?:

i~ rt"

o

7" "M

-M -M

7-1 1-

" o

"M i:

Immedi-
ately after
Mixinpf.

?' -'^
■>! 1-

Ori.arinal
Composi-
tion.

r- '^■

Superphosphate (1) *
and Basic Sla^

SuperphospJiate (1)

and Gafsa Pliospliate ...

— a

-!

12
Days.

i~

i;

Days.

-

24
Hours.

1-^

" o

X

^ c

.'II

^ g

6

X

Superphosphate (2) *

and Ground Limestone ...

^ fe^

ft

be °

of

c3 'O

^)~0

PIIOSPHOKIC OXIDE IX FERTILISERS.

lu each of the following' tables a minus sign shows
reversion : —

v:

i t^

v

?'^

o

1

1

^^■

'/.

«

d

1

•M

■n

iC

"M

l~ ri

-Ji

■M

fi

1

:

x

J

—

-T-^

y. CS

l"_

Q

'

,-

_

•n

-^

—

-f >.

—

— c4

«

1

1

rjl

^^

Ir

— o

1 -

'M

^

1

1

gcg

^^

rt CC

eS

,^ c3

o ^

o "2

^M

^ o

0|

C(.

\~ T3

•n

•Jl

rjl

-■

X >i

1 ~

-/.

Q

y

' •

'M >-

— '

— CO

_.

p

•B

1-

.- k-^

1^

- rt

X

Q

•5C

3.§

ai o

2 ri

rilOSPIIOEIC OXIDE IN FERTILISERS. 27-^)

The first three mixtures, namely, superphosphate with
mineral phosphates and limestone, should })& looked upon
as more of a scientific nature, as such mixtures are not likely
to find favour with farmers; yet, nevertheless, like mixtures
have been recommended from time to time.

The result of a number of trials with a mixture of
two parts of superphosphate (IG per cent, water-soluble
phosphoiic oxide) and one part of Tunisian phosphate are
g'iven in the January number of the " Journal of the 13epai*t-
ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland."
This mixture, when applied at the rate of 3 to G CAvt.
per acre, had given favourable results with potatoes,
mang'olds, turni}>s and hay as compared Avitli a similar diessing
of superphosphate.

The Tunisian ])hos])hate itself, according' to the report,
has given good returns, tilthough slightly inferior to super-
phosphate; but the fact must be borne in mind that the/
residual value Avill be greater in the case of the untreated
mineral phosphate than that of superphosphate. The same
remark would apply when a mixture of superphosphate and
mineral phosphate is applied. Professor Gilchrist, at Cockle
Park, 1915, also reported favourably on a mixture of super-
phosphate and mineral phosphate over a three years' trial.

In the case of supeiphosi;)hate and Ephos basic phosphate
(treated phosphate by chemical fusion), the amount of
reversion is gradual. At the end of three weeks it is under
20 per pent. When, however, attention is drawn to a mixture
of a somewhat similar nature, namely, superphosphate and
basic slag, the leversion takes place at a very rapid rate, and
when calculated approximately to a period of little over
three weeks there is a loss of Avater-solu])]e phosphoric oxide
to the extent of about 79 per cent. The great difference
between two such mixtures is probably due to the fact that
basic slag contains a higher percentage of caustic lime than
Ephos basic phosphate. Gray, in a set of experiments using
slaked lime, found that the rate of leversion was particularly
rapid, 94 per cent, of the water-soluble phosphoric oxide being-
reduced within three hours, and tlie whole amount present
within twenty-four hours.

In a mixture of superjjhosphate and Saldanha Bay
phosphate, which consists almost entirely of iron and alumina
phosphate, with a trace of lime combined as carbonate, one
would expect the loss in water-soluble phosphoric oxide to be
great, yet the results prove that the rate of reversion is
gradual, and at the end of a period of three weeks it is
approximately only 11 per cent. In the case of superphosphate
and Gafsa phosphate (a IS'orth African phosphate), although
quoted by Robertson as probably being the most suitable for
mixing with superphosphate, there is a reversion of about
22 per cent, when calculated on a period of little over
three weeks.

It_ is evident from results of mixtures such as above
there is no apparent gain to the farming communitv to

274 I'liosriioRic oxide in i-ertilisees.

purcliase such mixtuies, more especially in Rliodesia, owing
to the high ocean and railway freights.

The greatest loss of water-soluble phosphoric oxide, as
Avas naturally to be expected, occurs in the limestone mixture.
It can safely be said that chemical action starts immediately,
and is continuous. After being mixed for three weeks the
loss amounts to as much as 98 per cent., Gray's mixture at
the end of eighteen day.s amounts to 86 per cent., and
Brackett's after approximately five months to 87 per cent.

Burgest (4), State Agronomist of North Carolina, has
recommended a mixture of 1,200 pounds of ground limestone
to from 400 to 1,000 pounds of superphosphate.

The loss in rcA-ersion with mixtures of superphosphate
and ashes vary greatly — from 52 to over 84 per cent, was
obtained during a period of three weeks — the least reversion
occurring with ash from sea plants, as agaiuvst the highest with
plant ash. This is due to the fact tliat the ash of sea plants
contains less carbonates.

The mixtures with ashes should be of interest to
merchants offering for sale compound or complete fertilisers
when employed for making' up the potash content.

The amount of reversion of water-soluble phosphoric
oxide in mixtures such as above would vary considerably,
due to the amount of lime in combination as oxide, hydrate
or carbonate in the materials used for mixing purposes.

COXCLITSIOXS.

Superphosphate should not be mixed with mineral phos-
phate, basic slag, Ephos basic phosphate, limestone or ashes,
on account of reversion of water-soluble phosphoric oxide
to that of water-insoluble phosphoric oxide being likely to
take place at a very rapid rate in many instances.

A mixture could be made in tire case of superphosphate
and mineral phosphate if the amount of lime combined as
carbonate is low in the untreated phosphate. The amount of
reversion in such a mixture would i)robably be proportional
to the amount of calcium carbonate present in the untreated
rock phosphate.

REFEKKNCES.

1. Scott Robertsox —

The rate of reversion of mixtures of superpliospliate ^^ ith liasic
slag ;.nd rock phosphates. — Jourii. of Sc. of Chem. IiuL, vol.
xxxvi, pp. 626-628.

2. Gray—

Trdiisdctioiis of flic A u sfriilia n Association for the Advtinccincnt
of Science. Diinedin, January, 1904.

3. Brackett —

The action of calcium carbonate on acid phosphate. — E. W.
Magruder, Juurn. of Ind. and Eng. Chem.. vol. 9, p. 155.

4. Burgest —

Bulletin Xo. 220, Xoith Carolina Dcpt. of Arjric.

LIBRARY

SOUTH Al^^EICAN FERX NOTES, WITH LIST OF
FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES FOUND IN SOUTH-
ERN RHODESIA, AND OF ADDITIONAL SPECIES
RECORDED FOR OTHER SOUTH AFRICAN
PHYTOGRAPHIC AREAS.

Bv T. R. Sim, D.Sc-., F.L.S.

Bead July 15, 1920.

It is only live years since the second edition of my ' ' Ferns
of South Africa" was piiolished, but dm'ing these years the
many specimens which have been sent to me demand considerable
alteration in the geogi'aphical records of various species. Many
additional locality records have been noted, which show that some
of the species fonnerly considered rare have a fairly wide dis-
tribution, but I have not included these records in this paper, as
they w^ould undvily lengthen it. I show, however, what species
are now recorded for the first time in each phytographical area,
with localities for these, and indicate the total number of species
now recorded for each of these areas.

As was to be expected, the older coastal areas, i.e., West,
East, Kaffraria and Natal, which were carefully worked years ago,
provide very little additional, but the inland and northern areas
continue to have increasing lists of species found, and probably
will do so for years as localities become more accessible, since
the fem flora is richer in species in the tropics, though confined
there, as elsewhere, to suitable localities, leaving large dry areas
almost destitute of ferns or fern allies.

Only one additional species is recorded for the whole of South
Africa, i.e., a small Selaginella, found in Basutoland by Madame
Disterlin, closely resembling *S'. depressa, A. Br., in habit, size
and appearance; this has been named at Kew *S'. oxysiacJiys
C. H. Wright, but I am not aware that it has yet been published.

The total number of Pteridophyta for South Africa up to the
Zambesi is consequently 221 species.

In the various phytographic areas the following additional
records and notes have been made: —

West :

NotJioJaenti i)iar(iuaIiH, Kze. Kimberley (Bro. Moran).

Cyathea dregci, Kze. Knysna (T. H. Ee.x, 836).

PelUva pteroidcs (Linn.), Pr. extends fm-ther inland than was
previously knoM'n, as it has now been collected at Klip-
bank, Beaiifoi-t West Dist., by N. S. Pillans.

Pelkea lancifoJia, Baker, formerly known only from Namaqua-
land, has now been found between Osplaat and Tunnel
Siding, Worcester Division. (Rogers, 16751.)

Ninety-six species are I'ecorded.

270 south afhicak fern ^'otes.

East :

There is no record of Cyathca drcgei, Kze., as the Knvsna

locality formerly given is in West.
Eightj'-nine sj^eeies are now recorded.

Kaffraria :

No alteration; 1U!J species are recorded.

Natal :

One hundred and fifty-one species are recorded.
llehmann's 8184, issued as Selagmella coopcri, Baker, as
received by me from Prince Bonaparte, is certainly
S. deprcssa, A. Br., from which Baker's description of
*S'. coopcri in "' Fern Allies," page 68, does not distinguish
it. Without seeing the type (specimen it is inadvisable
to' sink *S'. coopcri, but I consider the name a synonym
of jS. deprcssa, A. Br.

Bechuax.\laxd :

Cetarach curdiitu III (Thby.), Desv. ; ]\lochude (C. C. Harber).
PellcBa viridis (Forsk) Prantl. var. glauca Sim; Mochude

(C. C. Harber).
Adiantnm capiUus-rriicri^, Linn.; ^Moclnide (C. C. Harber;

Eogers 6638).

Orange Free State and Ba.sutoland :

Junod collected between Mont aux Sources and Witzies Hoek,
in January, 1917, several species as published by Prince
Bonaparte in " Notes Pteridologiques," Fasc VII.,
October, 1918, page 325 onward, and Prof. Potts collected
elsewhere in the State. There are now forty-one species
and three varieties recorded, of which the following are
not included in " Ferns of South Africa," 2nd ed. : —
Cystopteris fragiUs (Linn.), Bernh. ; ]Mont aux Sources

(Junod, 17).
Dryopteris iiKtcciualis (Schl.), 0. Ktze. Mont fuix Sources

(Junod, 13).
Dryopteris iyiaccjualis (Schl.), O. Ktze.; ]^Iont aux Sources

(Junod, 18).
Asplcnium Kraussii, Aloore ; Mont aux Sources (Junod, 10).
,, frichomancs (Linn.); Mont aux Sources (Junod, 6).

,, pracniorsum, Sw. ; Leeuwberg, Bloemfontein

(Potts), Mont aux Sources (Junod, 5).
pracmorsum, Sw., var. fripinivttiini , Modderpoort
(Rogers, 91).
Blechnnm lahidaw. (Thbg.), Kuhn ; ^Mont aux Sources
(Junod, 10).
ScJagincUa riipcsfri^, Spr. ; Fauriesberg, 6,200 feet
(Poits, 1954).
Aspleniuni jimcmorxiiiii , Sw., var. angusti-fripinnatiim,
; Bonap. "Notes I'tcrid," YIL, 328, from Mont aux
Sources (Junod, 3), is only a rather dried and withered
condition of .4. pracmorsum, Sw. var. fripinnafioii , Sim.

SOUTH AFRICAN I'ERX NOTES. 277

TltAXSVAAL :

Many fresh localities have been no'ted, mostly from collectioiis
made by Prof. Moss, Prof. Wager, Ven. Archdeacon Kogers, J\Ii:s.
Pott and Mr. Cunliff. There are now 124 species known^ including
the following not previousl3^ recorded: —

Hij)iir)ioph[iUu)n Jincarc, Sw. ; Kaapsche Hoop (Wager).
Confirms previous doubtful record.
,, nutrlotliii, Brausse ; Kaapsche Hoop

(Wager).
, tunbridgensc, Sm. ; Kaapsche Hoop

f Wager).
Ciisfopteris fra(]Uif> (Linu.). Bei'uh. ; ]\Iavieriestad, Ermelo

(Mrs. Pott).
Afiplcniu»i plaftinnirou (Linn.), Oakes; ]\Iaviei'iestad, Ermelo'
'(Mrs. I'ott).
,, cuncaturn, Lam., var. (i)ttiusfaiii ui : The Downs,

Pietersburg (Moss and Eogers, 312).
Clirilauflics (Icpaupcrata, Baker; Johannesburg (Rogers and

Moss).
Ailiiniiiini poiietii, Wilkst. ; The Downs, Pietersburg

(Rogers, 20139).
Elaphoglofisui}i conjormc (Sw.), Schott, var. hitifollii di , Sim;

Kaapsche Hoop (Wager).
SchhuTQ pccfinata (Linn.), Sw. ; ^Icssina. (Moss and

Rogers, 1415).
Lycopodiiini sauriini>i (Larn.) ; Kaapsche Hoop (Wager).

Portuguese East Africa :

Portuguese East Africa, has now forty-eight species known,
including the following, which were not recorded in " Ferns of
South Africa," 2nd ed., but were mostly collected by Junod, and
jniblished by Prince Bonaparte in " Notes Pteridologi(|uos, YIL,
October, 1918, pages 323 onward: —

Cyaflica drcgci, Kze. ; JMorainballa (Waller, Tjivingstone, Kirk).
Ncplirolcpis hiscrrafa (Sw.), Schott; Jjourenco ^Marques

(Junod).
Afiplenium liipiiutai ii ))i (Forst.), C. Chr. ; Lourcnco ^Marques

(Junod).
DnvnUia chacroplujUoidcfi (Poir), Steud. ; Loureiico ]\larques

(Junod).
Pnlypodiu)}} lycopodioidcs, Tjinn. ; Tjourenco ^larques (Junod).
,, ,, var. ^f<lch•cnii, Sim; TjourencO'

Marques (Junod).
Concerning Sfoiochlaoi:! fcnuijoJia (Desv.), ]\Ioore, Prince
Bonaparte points out that occasional fronds are sterile at the base,
but the upper pinnae are fertile, as seen in specimens from Junod
from Lourenco Alarques ("Notes Pteridologiques, " Fasc. YIL,
320, and IV., 52).

Southern Rhodesia :

Soon after my " Ferns of So'uth Africa," 2nd edition, was
published in 1915, ^Mr. F. Eyles' very valuable " Recoid of Plants
Collected in SoTitheriuRhodesia, " was published in the "Trans-

278 SOUTH AFRICAIS* FERN NOTES.

actions of the Eoyal Society of South Africa," vol. v., part 4,
May, 1916, in which is included 126 species and thirteen varieties
of Pteridophyta, from which, however, a few have toi be altered
as follows : —

DavalJia conciiina, Sclirad., and D. tJiecifcm, H.B.K., are

synonymous, and are now included in Asplcniurn

iheciferu7n, H.B.K.
Ancimin tomentosa, Sw. ; Teague's No. 60 cited belongs to

A. antliriscifolia, Schrad., and there is no other record of

.4. tomentosa for S. Rhodesia.
Aspidiiini cnnmi folium, Poir, is the South African form of

Polystichnm aculcatum (Linn.), Schott, and represents

that species in Eyles' list.
Cyathea manniana, Hoek, and C. thomfiotti, Baker, may be

good species, and may be present, but Swynnerton's

6030 and 817, as sent to me by him, are both C. dregci,

Kunze.
PoJypodium ohtu.silolun)i , Desv., is a. condition of Dryoptcris

bergiana, O. Ktze.
This reduces Ejles' list to 121 species and 18 varieties.

In "Ferns of So^uth Africa," 1st edition (1892), 24
species were mentioned as Eliodesian ; in the 2nd edition (1915)
126 species, and now I have records of 140 species besides 20
varieties, a few of which, however, have rather indefinite locality
records, such as " Zambesi highlands " or " Zambesia."

Eyles' list followed the nomenclature of my first edition,
which was based on Baker's " Synopsis Filicum." Unfortunately
the researches of C. Christenson, 0. Kuntze, Prince Bonaparte
and O'thers had so' completely revolutionised the generic nomen-
clature that wholesale readjustment became necessary in my
second edition, which follows Christenson 's " Index Filicum "
(1906) and supplement (1918) — the nomenclature now in general
use — and this results in abo'ut half of the names used in Eyles'
list being discarded, and now regarded as synonyms. In view
of this, I have prepared a complete list of the Pteridophyta of
S. Rhodesia, using present nomenclature, and showing synonymy
as used in my first edition or in Eyles' list. The localities men-
tioned in these have not been repeated, nor additional localities
given for these species, but localities are given for all additional
species.

It may be necessary tO' further investigate Aspleniion liollandii,
Sim, which corresponds exactly with specimens from Kilimandjaro
sent by Prince Bonaparte to' me, named Aspleniuni. hypomeJas,
Kuhn. Kvdm (" Filices Africanae," page 104, 1868) gives no
description, but cities as synonyms " DavaUia >iigresccns,
Hk. ic. f. Gent. II., tab. 93 — LoxoscapJic nigicscenfs, INIoore,
Index, 297," from Fernando Po (]\Iann 448, in distr. hb.
Ivew, 253. C. Christenson maintains the species as A. liyponiclas,
Kuhn, and with the above synonyms, as from Fernando Po' only.
If the species belongs to continental Africa as well as to
Fernando Po, my name may be a synonym, or the fern may be
specifically distinct; this has to' be investigated.

SOUTH AFKICAN FERN NOTES. 279

Further investigation is also I'equired as to' the relationship
oi Asplctiium cylcsii, Sim; .4. pumilitni, Sw. ; and A. marlothii,
Hieron, a. group not yet sufficiently well known.

Concerning Dryopictis patens, O. Kuntze, C. Christensen,
in "A Monograph of the Genus Dryapteris," Part I., 1918,
page 177, writes: " Specimens from Africa and Polynesia are
often determined D. patens; this species is, however, no' doubt
confined to America; the Polj'nesian plant is partly D. Harvcyi
(]\Iett) and partly D. Brackenridgei' (Mett) ; the African D. Ber-
giana (Mett), and D. Gueintziana (Mett)."

Concerning Elapltaglossn}n lincare (Fee), ^loore, I may
mention that through a slip it is wrongly described in the synopsis
in " Ferns of South Africa," page 285, as having fronds two inches
wide; this should be ^in. to ^in. wide.

Collections of ferns received from Kilimandjaro and jNIount
Meru, and from the bamboo- zone of Mount Elgon, Uganda
(7,000 ft. to 9,000 ft.), demonstrate that most of the common
ferns there are also Ehodesian, and that probably 90 per cent, of
all species of Pteridophyta found tliere occui- in Soutli Africa also.

LIST OF PTERIDOPHYTA OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA.
ORDER I, FILICES.

(1) Hymenophyllaceae :

Trichomanes pyxidifeniin, Linn. [^^T. hipunctatum, Poir
of C. Chr. " Index Filicum," and of Prince Bona-
parte's "Notes Pteridologiques," VIII., p. 51;
Umtali (L. Cripps) ; (F. Eyles, 1710).
HymenophyUuvi inaequale (Poir), Desv. (=H. graciJe,
Bory).
,, ciliatum, Sw., Zambesi district (Sj'n.

Fil.).

(2) Cyatheaceae :

Cyathea dregei, Kunze; the specimens cited as C. man-
niana, Hk., and C. thomsoni, Hk., by Eyles, belong
toi G. dregei, Kunze.

(3) Polypodiaceae :

Cystoptcris fragilis (Linn.), Bernh.

Dryoptcria oriental's (Gmel.), C. Chr. (=NcpJi radium
albo-pnnctatuin, Desv.).
,, hergiana (Selil.), O. Ktze (=A^ hergianum,

Baker, and includes PoJypodium obtuse-
lobum, Desv.).
(patens (Sw.), O. Ktze, should be excluded;
see remarks above.)
,, manritiana (Fee), C. Chr. (=Nepli. niauri-

tiana, Fee).
,, mollis (Jacq.), Hieron (^Neph. molle, Desv.)

,y ,, var. violascens' (Link.), Alett.

gongijlodes (Schk.), O. Ktze. (=Neph.
unituni, R.Br.).

280 SOUTH AFRICAN FERX XOTES .

■(3) rOLYPODIACEAK [cOllfd.) :

Dnjoptcns proJifcra (Ketz.), C. Clir. {^^Pohjpodiii in jiia-
Uferum, Pr.j.
,, silvatica (P. <l' K.), C. Ch. (^^PuJypodiu in

unitum, Hk.).
. ,, tlicJijptcns (Linn.), E-. Gr. {=^NcpJi.

fhelypteris, Desv.)-
,, zamhesiaca (Baker), C. Clir. ; Zambesi hi^'li-

lands (Buchanan).
,, clongata (Sw.), Sim (^=]\^cpii. filix-inas,

Rich., var. elongatum, Hk.).
,, inaequalis (Schl.), O. Ktze. (^=Nep]i.

inaequale, Hook).
,, athaniantica (Kze.), O. Ktze. (=-'=Nep]i.

athamanticu7n, Hook).
,-, Iiiiclian'sni (Baker), O. Ktze. {=Ncp]i.

buchanani, Baker).
lanuginosa (Wilkl.), C. Chr. (=Neph.
catopteron, Hook).
Didymochhicyui tmncatula (Sw.), I. Sm. (=-D. Jiinulafa,

Desv.).
Ai^pidiuin ciotiarixim (Linn.), Sw. (=Ncpli. cicufariinn,

Baker).
Polysiicliuin (iciileafuni (Linn.), Selil. (=Aspidium
acitlcaium, Sw.), inehides Aspidium
ainniifolium, Poir. •
,, pungens (Klf.), Pr. (=Aspidiuin aculra-

tujii, Sw., var. piinge^is).
,, ndiantiforvic (Forst.), I. Sm. ( =A'ipidiuin

capense, Willd.); ^Nlakoni dist.
(Eyles, 918).
,, arifitatu7n (Forst.), Pr. (^A.'^pidiii in

aristatum, S.W.).
LcpiochiJu!^ aiiriruJafiis (Lam.), C. Chr.; Zambesiland

(Syn. Fil.).
Xcplirolepis hisrrrafu (Sw.), Sehott, Zaml^esiland.
,, exaUata (Linn.), Schott.

cordifoJia (Linn.), Presl.
Microlcpia spcluncac (Linn.), Moore (^=DavaJlia

sprluncac, Baker).
Athijrinm filix-fae^nina (Linn.), Both (^^-Asplcm'inn fiUx-
foemina, Bernh.). /

,, schimperi, Mo'Ug., Salisbury (Darhng ; fcsfc

Eyles' hst).
,, f^rnndicinuni (Willd.), Presl. ( -Asplrnimn

aspidioidcs, Schl.).
Asplcniiim ]xra7issii, More; LTnisusa veld, bv water,
3,500 ft. (L. Cripps).
,, ' sandersoni, Hook.

,, tnchomancs, Linn.

, monanthcs, Linn. (=-4. monanfJicnniin ,

Linn.).

SOUTH AFRICAN FEEX NOTES. 2^1

(3) POLYPODIACEAE {cuiltcl.):

AspJcniuiii lunidatuni, Sw. {=A. erectuni, Bory).
var. lunulatum, Sw.
var. erectum (Bory), Sim.
var. gracile (P. & E.), Sim (=var.
lobatum, Sim).
,, varians, Wall.

,, eylesii, Sim.

,, pinnilum, Sw.

,, protcnsum, Sclirad.

,, ,, var. hipinnatifiduDi, Sim; Vic-

toria Falls (Jas. Sim).
,, laetum, Sw.

,, anisophyUum, Kze.

,, unilaterale, Lam. (=^4. rescctum, Sm.).

,, serra, Langs. &• Fiscli.

adiantoides (Linn.), C. Chr.
,, goninifcrmn, Schr.

,, ,, var. flcxuusinn, Schr.

adiantuni-nigrurn, Linn.
,, muieatum , Lam. ; Umtali (F. Eyles, 1687).

,, ,, var. angustatitni , Sim; Umtali

(L. Cripps).
., pracinorsiDH, Sw {=A. furcatum, Tliunl).j.

,, ,, var. rnpestre, Slui, ]\LS. ;

Makoni (F. Eyles, 745).
,, var. tripinnatum, Sim.

abijsslnicum, Fee; (.4. cicutnrium, Sw.
=.4. cristatum, Lam.).
,, drcgeannm, Kze.

,, auriculatu)>i (Tlibg.), Kiilui (=-4. ihini-

bcrgii, Kze.).
,, hipinnatum (Forsk.), C. Chr. (=^4. riifac-

foUiim, Kze.).
,, flicciferum, H.B.K. (=D<ivallia conclnna,

Schr.).
,, hollandii, Sina {=-DavaUia lioVandii, Sim).

,, mannii, Hk.

C'ctaracli coraium (Tlibg.), Desv. {^^Gymnogrannna

cordaia, Sch.).
,, var. yiamaqucnsis, V. & E.

Blcchnu))i attenuatuiii (Sw.), Mett. (^LouKiria
attenuafa, Willcl.).
,, punctulafinn, Sw. (^-'Loinuria puncfulafn,

Kze.).
,, capense (Tjinn.), Schl. (=^La»)(rria })roccra,

Spr.).
,, tahvJarc (Thbg.), Kuhn ( = Lomaria horyana,

WillcL).
Anogravima leptopliylla (4jinn.), 4jink. ( = G yDinogramma

Icptophylla, i)esv.).
Gymnogramma argcntea (Willd.), Mett.

,, aurea, Desv. (^G. argcntea, Alett., var.

aurea).

282 SOL'TH AFEICAN FERX AT>TE,S.

;(3) PoLYPODiACEAE (contd.) :

PeUcea dura (Willd.), Baker {=P- hurkcana, Baker).
., goudotii (Kze.), C. Clir. (=P. pcctiniformis,

Baker).
,, ,, var. major, Sim.

,, quadripinnata (Forsk.), Prantl. {=P. coiisobii)ia,

Hook).
,, virldis (Forsk.), Prantl. (=.P. Itasta, Link).
,, ,, var. Macro pliijlla, Sim.

,, ,, var. glauca, Sim.

,, doniana (I. Sm.), Hook.

,, liastata (Thbg.), Prantl. (^-=P. caiomelunos, Ling).
,, swynneriofiiana, Sim.
Doryopteris concolur (L. & F.), Kuhn {^^PcU<en gcranli-

folia Fee).
Notholaena inaequalis, Kze.
,, huchanani, Baker.

,, ecMoniana, Kze., Victoria (C. F. H. IMonro,

1055).
,, hipinnata, Sim.

Cheilanfhes hirta, S\v.

,, ,, var contracia, K/.e. ; ]\lakoni (list.

(Ejles, 728).
,, niultifida, Sw.

,, bolusii, Baker.

,, farinosa (Foi-sk.), Klf.

HypoJepis sparsisora (Schracl.) Kulin (=H. antJirisci-
folia, Pr.).
,, hergiana (SchL), Hk.

,, schimperi (Kze.), Hk.

Adiantum caudatmn, Linn.
,, lunulatuni, Burm.

,, oatesii, Baker.

,, Jiispidulum, Sw.

,, capillus-veneris, Linn.

,, ,, ,, var. major, Sim.

,, ,, ,, var. laciniata.

,, ticthiopicuni, Linn.

Actiniopteris austraJis (Linn. fiL), Link. (==--1. radiata,

Link.).
Pteris JongifoJia, Linn.
,, cretica, Linn.

dentata, Forsk. (-^P. jiabclJata, Thunh.).
,, biaurita, Linn. (=P. quadriaurifa, Retz.).
., brevisora. Baker.
,, atrovhens, Willd.
Pteridium aquiJitnim (Linn.), Kuhn (Ptcrifi aqiiilina,

Linn.).
Vittaria isoctifolia, Bory (=^P. Uncata, Sw.).
Polypodium parinilum, Boiy.

,, polypodioides (Linn.), Hit. (=--P. incanin>i,

Sw.).
,, phgmafodes, Linn.

SOUTH AFRICAN FERX NOTES. 283

(3) POLYPODIACEAE (cOlltd.) :

Pohjpodiinii Jineare, Thunb., Umtali (Cripps) ; Iiiyanga
(Dr. Nobbs).
,, ,, var. schradcri (Meti), Sim; Umtali,

(L. Cripps).
,, piippci, yiett. (=P- normale, Don, af Ej'les'

list).
,, Janceolatntn, Linn.

,, loxogramnie, Mett. ( -^Gynniogramnui lan-

ceoJata, Hook).
punctatum (Linn.), S\v. (=-■?• in'oides,
Lam.).
Cyclophorus africanus fKze.), C. Chr. (=PoUjpodiinn

africamim, Mett.).
Elaphoglosi^um ronformc (S\v.), Schott., var. latifoUum,
Sim (= Aero sti chum, conform c, Sw.
var.
pctiolatum (Sw.), Urban (^AcrosticJivm
viscosum, Sw.).
,, auhertii, Desv. (=AcrQHtichu)n nuhcrtii,

Desv.).
,, Jineare (Fe.O, Moore {=Acrosiichum

linear e, Fee).
PJafyceriuni hifurcafum (Cav.), C. Chr. (=-P. aJcicorne,
Gaud.).
,, vnihracuJifcrd (Kze.), ]\Ioore.

(4) Gleicheniaceae :

Gleichenia poly pod ioidc>< (Linn.), Smitli.
,, nm'hraculifera (Kze.), Moore.

linearis' (Burm.), Clarke (==G. dichofoma,
Tvunze).

(5) Schiz;eace.a.e :

Lygodium kcrstcnii, Kulm (=L. subalatu in , Bojer).

,, hrycci. Baker.
Mohria caffrorum, Desv.

, lepigera, Baker.
Aneimia antJmscifolia , Schrad. Many eastern localities.

(6) Osmundaceae :

Todea barbara (Linn.), ^Nloore (^T. africana, Willd.).
Osmunda regalis, Linn.

OEDEK II, MAESILIACEAE.

Man^ilia nutcropoda. Presl. ; Bulawayo' (Y. Eyles, 1301).
var. biloba (Willd.). Sim; Gwelo
(Gardner 28, teste Eyles).
,, ,, var. capensis (A. Br.), Sim.

,, ,, var. lobata, Sim.

OEDEE III, MAEATTIACEAE.

Marnttia jrnrinca, Sim. /y

UJ L I 8 R A f

284 SOUTH AFEICAX FEEX XOTES.

()RJ)ER IV, OPHIOGLOSSACEAE.

Ophioglossum capense, Sw. ( = 0. vulgaium , Linn.).
,, reticnlatum, Linn.

ORDER V, LYCOPO])L\CEAE.

Ly CO podium verticillatum, Linn.

,, dacrydioides, Baker; Zambesiland, etc.

(Syn. Fil.).
,, cernuum, Linn.

,, clavaturn, Linn. (=-clavatu)n , Linn., var.

infl,exum, Spr.).

ORDER VI, SELAGINELLACEAE.

Solagmclla rupestris, Spr.
,, depressa, A. Br.

,, kraussiana, A. Br.

,, imbricata, Spr.

,, moJIiccps, Spr.

ORDER VII, PSILOTACEAE.

PsiJotuDi iriqncirinn, Sw.

ORDER VIII, EQUISETACEAE.

Equiscfitui ranwHtssihium , Desv.

THE LEAVES OE HAKEA FECriXATA AND
H. SUAVEOLENS.

B}' Horace A. Wageu, A.E.C.Sc,

Professor of Botaui/, Transvaal U nivertiity College, Pretoria.

With Two Te.vt Fujures.

Read July 15, 1920.

Hakca pectinata has a much-divided compound leaf, the
segments being cylindrical and sharply pointed. The leaf shows
strong xerophytic characters. A cylindrical segment has the same
structure all round. As seen in transverse section, there is a
central vascular tissue, consisting of one large and several smaller
bundles lying in soft ground tissue, with small patches of
sclerenchyma generally connected with the bundles. This central
tissue is separated from the assimilative tissue — mostly palisade
cells — by a definite ring of cells. Then there is a well-defined
epidermis with thick cuticle and sunken stomata. The mo'st
striking feature in the structure of the leaf, however, is the'
presenee of peculiar thickened, elongated, single cells, termed
idioblasts. These are very numerous, and run radially through

LEAVES OF IIAKEA.

285

the assimilative tissue, and have root-hke extensions at right
angles at both ends. Each idioblast cell rests by means of these'
extensions against the epideraiis on one side and against the
central cylinder on the other (Fig. 1). Obviously these cells are

Fiji- 1. — Tran.sver.se Section of Leaf of lJ<iLi(i jnctiiKitti.

mechanical in function, and by their means tiie sh-ipe and I'igidity
of the cylindrical segments are maintained. Especially do' they
})revent collapse of the tissues. This leaf has probably evolved
on xerophytic lines from a flat, more expanded and delicate type.
These idioblast cells do not constitute a xerophytic character in
themselves, but by their means the leaf was enabled to as.sume,
as it were, the cylindrical form.

In the case of Hal'va suavcolenf<, a common hedge plant of
the Transvaal, the leaf is simple, thin, flattened, ratht:>r narrow
and bifacial. It still, however, shows xerophytic characters, such
as toughness, thick cuticle, and sunken stomata. In section,
similar idioblast cells are found to be present in large numbers, of
exactly the same type as those found in H. pccfinata. Each

Fig. 2. — Transverse Section of Leaf of Tlal^va ,sun n'uhiis.

extends, however, in this case from eithei" the upper or lower
epidermis to- the middle of the leaf, where the extensions at the
extremities either intermingle or rest against some of the
mesophyll cells. None of them passes across the leaf from one
epidermis to the other (Fig. 2). The use of such idioblast cells

286 LEAVES OF IIAKEA.

ill a leaf of this type is not very apparent. They certainly cannot
be required to carry out the same function as in H. pcctinata.
It is, I think, understandable that such a type of idioblast cell
should arise in the evolution of the xerophytio type of leaf with
cylindrical segments from some flat xerophytic or non-xerophytic
fonn. If H. pectinata was evolved from the H. suaveolens type,
it would become necessary to explain the need for and presence of
the idioblast cells in H. suaveolens as being the fimt type in which
they appeared. I think, however, that we have here a case of
reversion, that is, that the type of leaf as found in H. suaveolens
has been evolved from that of H. pectinata. We have to imagine
that H. pectinata has endeavoured to return to a normal type
of flattened leaf whilst still retaining its xerophytic characters.
In so doing the idioblast cells have been retained simply as an
atavistic feature, and no longer function in any mechanical way.
Evidence of evolutionary reversion is very rare amongst plants.
At present I have been unable to examine the leaves of any
other hakeas, so perhaps this short account is incomplete. As a
preliminary note, however, it may be of value in showing that
more evolutionary connections amongst plants may be looked for.

XOTE ON" THE I-KOWE OR NATAL KAFIR
MUSHROOM, SCm^LZERIl UMKOWAAN.

By Paul A. vax der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,
Natal Herhaiiuiii , Durban.

Read Julii 15, 1920.

The Kafirs are especially careful in selecting mushrooms for
eating, and mushroom poisoning among them is seldom heard of.

They avoid several edible mushrooms, such as Coprinus
comatus (the shaggy inky cap), Letiopa proccra (the parasol mush-
room) and others ; and they are even very sceptical about the
co'mmon European mushroom — Agaricus canipestris. They,
ho'\\'ever, relish their " i-Kowe " — a large mushroom popularly
known to' Evu'opeans as the beefsteak or butter mushroom — and
during the season it is not uncommon to see natives return from
the fields for breakfast with freshly collected " i-Kowe " in their
hands.

This mushroom was first named by Cooke and iMassee in 1889
from specimens sent by the late Dr. Medley- Wood. For the
specific name thej' selected Schnhjcria iim'koiraan , which they
were evidentlv infoiTned was the native name.

NATAL KAl'IR MUSIIEOOM. 287

As far as I can find out the natives invariably know this
mushroom under the name " i-Kowe," and specimens which they
call " in-Kowaan " are referable to Agaricus campestris and the
closely allied A. jilacomyces.

The term " in-KoivMin " correctly translated means " little
i-Kowe," as also the native name " in-Koivankowahe."
A mushroom given me under the latter name was A. campestris.

The native names for mushrooms appear to' refer to size
rather than anything else. The name " i-Kowendhlovii, " means
the very large or elephant " i-Kowe," but I have not had such a
mushroom handed to me. ]\Ia.y be it is used in referring to an
especially large specimen of Schulzeria um-'koivaayi or is another
name used for this mushroom in certain parts of the country.

I am told that " Kowe " means something spongy, and that
it is probably derived from the native word for ' ' spongy ' ' or
" springy." The " i-Kowe " now frequently finds a place on the
tables of Europeans and either fried in butter or stewed is much
appreciated and considered quite a delicacy.

The most remarkable part about this mushroom is probabl}^
its deeply rooted stalk, the imderground portion of which
is 25 cms. or more long, and usually thickens from its insertion
downwards to the ground level, and from here thins off again to
the apex. Its entire dimensions are 25 to 40 cms. long by 1'5
to 5 cms in diameter, and usually it is more or less curved.
It is solid within and tough.

The cap is distinct from the stalk, circular, bell shaped in
young specimens, and very young specimens have a pronounced
club-shaped appearance. In diameter the cap usuallj' varies from
10 tO' 24 cms., and is white to' tan coloured, dull and smooth.
An umbo is present above the insertion of the stalk. The cap
frequently splits and the margin then turns upwards.

The gills are free fi'om the stalk, white and up to 5 mm.
broad. The spores are hyaline under the microscope, grey in
spore print, elliptical, usually' obliquely apiculate, and measure
S'l fi to 5 fx by 7.5 fx to 10 fi\ the majority are about 8 ^ to 9 /x
long. In the original description there is no mention of the
apiculum to the spores.

Radicating and deeply rooted stalks, such as are found in
SchvJzeria umkoiraan, are on the whole not common in the gill
fungi, though several species of the genus CoJhjhia have such
stalks.

A PAAY-PAW LEAF-SJ>()T ('AT^SED JVY A
FHYLLOSTICTA SP.

By Paul A. van uer Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,
Natol Herbarmiii, Dnrhan.

Read Jul,) 15, 1920.

A leaf spot disease does not appear to have been generally
reported, on the paw-paw from the Union of South Africa, though
it is not uncommon in Natal.

The fungus responsible is a species of PliyUosticta.

The discoloured spots measure on an average 2 mm. tO' 5 mm.
across, and may be circular or angular, or vaore or less elongated
in one direction. They are frequently circumscribed by a yello'.\-
or brownish ring, which passes into- the normal green of the leaf.
Individual spots frequently coalesce. On the upper leaf siu-face
small black dots are evident in these discoloured areas, and they
are the pyenidia of the causal fungus.

The leaf tissues in the infected areas become brittle, and
ultimately fall out, giving the leaves a " shot-hole " appearance.

The fungus was isolated by ordinary methods from leaves
obtained in plantations, and from subcultures of this paw-paw
leaves were artificialh' inoculated as follows: —

Experiment I. — A small plant was taken and areas marked
with a pencil on the lower surfaces of three of the leaves. Pieces of
the mycelium froin a pure culture were placed on these areas.
The vmder surfaces of the leaves were then syringed with distilled
water, and the whole plant covei*ed with a bell jar to' preserve a
moist atmosphere.

The results were as follows: —

The first leaf had eight areas inoculated, of -which six became
infected after six days. The second leaf had eight areas
inoculated, of which six showed infection after six days. The
third leaf had seven areas inoculated, of which six were infected
after six days.

The infected spots were circular, grej'ish or dark brown,
2 mm. to 7 mm. diameter, and decidedly brittle. Pyenidia were
evident within twenty days in the discoloured areas on the upper
leaf surface.

Experiment II. was carried out in the same way, three
marked areas being inoculated. Two of these became infected
after five days, and pyenidia developed within twelve days.

It should be noted that the period of six days stated for the
development of pyenidia must not necessarily be taken as the
minimum period, as the plants could not always be examined
regularly.

A l>A\\-rA\V LEAF-SroT. 289

Tlie mycelium measured 2'8 jx to- 3'8 ft. across, and appears
primarily intercellular. Evidently some enzyme which kills the
cells of the host is excreted by the fungus. The cells in the
region of the discoloured areas are much shrivelled up and col-
lapsed, and in section these areas appear thinner than the rest
of the leaf.

As mentioned, the pycnidia are evident in the white areas on
the upper leaf surface as minute black dots.

These pycnidia are at first sub-epidermal, and later becoane
.erumpent. They measure 80 jx to' 106 jx in diameter; have thin
walls, are globose in shape an<l contain numerous^ spores of the
fungus.

The spores are hyaline, straight toi slightly curved, rounded
at both ends, and measure 4*4 // to rrQ fx by 1"5 p. to 1*8 jx.

Their walls do not coloui' with Schulze's solution, but the
contents turn reddish brown when treated with iodine. Evidently
the contents consist largely of glycogen.

The fungus grows well in culture media, though pyenidiai do
not appear to- be readily formed. In beer wort agar plates a woolly,
white to greyish growth developed within six days. Reverse of
petri-dish was coloured grey, and clumged to a dark brown.
Aerial hyphae measured 3*7 jx to 7'4 jx. Pycnidia were observed
after twelve days, and more abundantly along the sides of the
petri-dish, 66',5 /x to 183 jx in diameter, one to' two ostiolate.
Spores hyaline, with rounded ends 3" 7 jx to'5"5 /x by 1*9 jx.

On oatmeal agar slants a woolly, white tO' greyish growth
occurred, which, where medium, glass and growth meet, is dark
neutral in colour. Directly on medn.im dense felt-like mass of
interwoven hvphae, dark in colour, occur. Pycnidia were not
found.

On sterilised rice in tubes, a white woolly growth occurred,
which, where rice, growth and glass meet, is reddish brown to dark
neutral. Immediately aroimd individual kernels, growth was
densely matted and interwoven and brown in colour. Here the
septa are close together and the indivdual cells become swollen.
Hyphae 3*7 p. diameter or thicker in swo'Uen mass around kernels.

On artificial media the hvphae wei'e usually rich in oil
globules.

A paw-paw was ino'culated by inserting small pieces of the
mycelium from pure culture into punctures made in marked areas
on a paw-paw. On the same paw -paw similar areas were marked
and punctiu-ed but not inoculated. These latter served as controls.
After inoculation the paw-paw was. cO'vered with a bell jar and
left at room temperature. Five days after inoculation some of
the infected areas showed reddish brown depressions, and were
so'ft to the touch. Pycnidia had by this time formed in one of
the inoculated spots. The control punctures were normal.

As in the leaf the pycnidia are here originally subepidermal.
They measure 66 // to' 120 /x in diameter, and are separate or a few
aggregated together.

The economic importance of the fungus, responsible for leaf-
spot or " shot-hole," is that in attacked leaves the assimilating

290 sToxE i:mi'i,ements fkom tigek kloof.

area is diminished. The infection of a paw-paw through a
puncture would, however, indicate that this fungus may also play
some part as a causal agent of a fruit-rot of the paw-paw.

Three fungi have been described as causing leaf-spots in
the paw-paw; viz., Phoma microsporella, Karst & Har. ;
Phyllosticta Papayae, Sacc. and Phyllosticta Caricae-Papayae,
Allesch. The fungus dealt with in this paper is referred to
thyUosticta Caricac-Papayac, Allesch., the description of which
reads: "Maculae subochraceo-pallidae ; perithecia minutissima,
nigra; sporulae 3/xto4/xx 1 /x, hyalina. Hab. in foliis vivis
Carica Papayae in Brasilia."

AX EXHIBIT OF STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM TIGER
KLOOF AND TAUNGS, OAPE COLONY.

liv Rev. Neville Joxes, F.E.S.

Reac] Jvhi 15, 1920.

The collection of stone implements, which was exhibited,
was obtained from Tiger Kloof and Taungs in the northern part
of the Cape Province. The position of the Tiger Kloof deposit
was described, and it was considered to be the remnants of a very
old river ten-ace, and its implements were essentially similar to
those of the Chellean Age in Europe. Old Bushman implements
occurred in the overlying deposit, but no' hand-axes, such as came
from the gravel beneath, had been found.

With regard to the Taungs deposit, its occurrence in the
valley, where the present river flows, suggests that it is of more
recent date than that of Tiger Kloof. From consideration of a
number ol implements similar to those of the Acheulian Age in
Europe, found in the same section at another level, a subseqvient
culture was deduced, this being characterised, by implements of
the Mousterian type.

These finds were considered to establish that development in
the art of fashioning tools had proceeded along lines parallel with
those in Europe.

SOME FACTORS IN THE IS^ATURAL CONTROL
THE WATTLE BAG WORM.

By S. H. Skaife, M.A., M.Sc.

With Fifteen Te.rt Figures.

Read July L5, 1920.

The life-lii.story of the wattle bagworm, Acanthopsyche
junodi, Heylaerts, has been studied in detail by Messrs. Fuller
and Hardenberg-, and an account of their studies is contained
in the iniblications listed at the end of this paper. When
I took over the investigations of the wattle insect early in 1919
little remained to be learned concerning the life-history of the
bagworm, the worst of the pests of the black wattle, hence
my attention was turned particularly to the study of the
natural enemies of this insect. Among the manuscript notes
transferred from New Hanover to the Cedara School of
Agriculture were some A'aluable records made by (t. C. Haines,
whilst assistant to Hardenberg. Haines had collected large
numbers of bagworms at intervals, and had carefully examined
each one and recorded its condition at the time of examination.
More than thirty-five thousand records had been made in this
way, but these had never been .totalled or abstracted. I wrote
to Haines, and he generously gave me permission to complete
his work and make use of it. During the past eighteen months
numbers of bagworms (500 to 1,000) have been collected at
intervals in the plantation^ around Pietermarilzburg. These
have been examined carefully, and records similar to the above
kept of them. Altogether nearly 60,000 bagworms have been
examined by Haines and myself, and a broad outline of the
results obtained are given in this paper.

As the bagworm is an indigenous insect, one may reason-
ably expect to find that it has many natural enemies, and such
is indeed the case. The natural checks include two or three
diseases, seven or eight insect parasites, and various pre-
daceous enemies. That these enemies forai efficient checks is
shown by the fact that the bagworm is effectively controlled by
them in normal days, despite its enormous powers of reproduc-
tion. According to Hardenberg, the average number of eggs
laid per female is 2,300, yet it is only occasionally that severe
outbreaks occur, when the plantations are defoliated and
serious losses entailed.

Predaceous Enemies.

Large numbers of the newly-hatched larvae are destroyed
before they have an opportunity of forming their bags.
Hardenberg mentions " a small grey spider which enters the
bag and destroys its occupants even Ijefore they have left their

292

CO>'TROL OF WATTLE BAGWOEM.

liatching' place." He also records tlie fact lliat the young
bag-worms are preyed upon by several species of jumping'
spiders, Attidae, just after leaving' the parental bag'.

The young larvae are dispersed by wind, bird and insect
agency, and many of them must die of starvation through
being carried away to places where they cannot find suitable
food. Those that survive these early perils and manage to
construct their bags enjoy a certain amount of immunity for
a time, as they are small, inconspicuous, and well protected
from their minor enemies. Later in the season, however, the
bags are conspicuous objects, and numbers of the larvae fall a
prey to birds and rats. The birds that prey upon the bagworm
include sprews (Pegler), parrots, weaver birds and the little
silver-eyed bird of the thorns (Fuller), the yellow Aveaver bird
and the butcher bird (Hardenberg). These birds pluck the
larvae out of the bags whilst they are feeding'. The rats
{Mus coucha and M. natalensis, according to Hardenberg)
tear open the bag" with a, characteristic semicircular
slit and extract the larvae and pupae through the
holes thus made. Hence, in a lot of bags collected
in a plantation one can determine witli a fair amount
of certainty how many larvae have been destroyed by
birds and how many by rats. The number of emj^ty bags
that are clean and unsoiled (the bagworms will leave soiled
bags of their own accord) give an idea of the number of larvae
that have been eaten by birds, and those that have been torn
open give the number destroyed by rats. The figures below are
not a true guide as to the numjber of larvae killed by rats, as
the rats generally remove the bags from the trees before
tearing them open, and the bags included in the counts were
all gathered from the trees.

Date.

Locality.

No. of Bag's
Examined.

Destroyed
by Rats.

De

by

;troyed
Birds.

Collector.

April-Sept..

No. Per cent.

No.

Per cent.

i;tl4 ...

Clan Syndicate

17.742

1 .-.2 1

104

1

Haines.

June, 19 IG

Baynes Drift...

()00

.■") 1

28

4

Haines.

Mar.-Oct.,

191C. ...

New Hanover

lO.IU.")

44 0-2.->

7S

O',-)

Haines.

Mar. June,

r.t20 ...

Mountain Rise

12.700

;is 1

7:5

O".".

Skaife.

Mar.-June.

102(1 ...

Hilton Road ...

soo

:5 ( ••:.

14

•)

Skaife.

Mar. -June.

1920 ...

Town Hill ...

11.. -.00

;!7 o-2r.

.■)('.

O,-)

Skaife.

Totals ...

.")!),687

38'.i 0-.57

:U8

0 5S

From the above figures it would seem that rats and birds
are practically negligible as factors in tlie control of the wattle
bagworm. But, in addition to the fact that the totals do not

CONTROL OF WATTLE BAGa\'OR-M.

293

incliule bags removed from the trees before the contents were
devoured, all the above bag-s were collected in well-grown
plantations in which there was little or no undergrowth.
Fuller records instances where young plantations have been
almost entii-ely freed from bagworms by the rats alone. It
would seem that in young plantations overgrown with weeds
the rats find plenty of shelter and are abundant, but that in
mature plantations, where there is very little cover for them,
they do little good in keeping down the bagworms.

Parasitic Insects.

According to Ilardenberg there are eight different species
of insects parasitic on the bagworm, two ichneumons, one
chalcid, and five tachinids, but he had none of these deter-
mined, nor were their habits studied in detail. I have only
come across two of these parasites, an ichneumon, Fhilopsyche
abdominalls, Morley,* and a tachinid, Carcelia evolans,
Wied.* The tachinid is in its turn preyed upon by a minute
chalcid, which has, so far, not been determined.

Fig- 1. — riiilopsychc ahdomhiaUs, Morley. Female.

Philopsyche is a genus, the members of which seem to
restrict their attention to the larvae of psychid moths. The
only host so far recorded for P. ahdominaJis is the wattle
bagworm. The adults vary considerably in size, but the males
are generally about 12 mm. in length, and the females (includ-
ing the ovipositor) about 20 mm. The head, thorax and hind
legs are black, the abdomen red, and the forelegs yellowish
white (Fig. 1),

Determined by Dr. Peringuey.

294

COi\'^TROL OF M ATTLE I5AGW0RM.

Our knowledge of the life-history of this parasite is as
yet incomplete. There seems to be two generations a year, for
fiill-growii larvae and also pupae were found in hags in March,
and eggs and young larvae in April. The period over which
the adults emerge is i)rolonged, and the two generations
overlap. Eecords made by Haines and myself show that adults
emerged continuously from March to October. Individuals
kept in cages and fed on honey and water have lived for two
to three months. Although numbers of bagworms were placed
in the cages with the parasites, on only one occasion did a
female oviposit in one of the bags, and I was fortunate enough to
witness the event. She thrust her ovipositor through the sides
of the bag from two or three different positions, and then left
it. The whole process occupied less than three minutes. On
opening the bag the contained larva was found to be limp and
apparently dead, and a large yellow egg (Fig. 4) was found
adhering to the side of the bag. This egg hatched in three
days, but unfortunately the young larva (Fig. 5) died soon
after it was hatched.

fic,^

Fig. 2. — Philopsijche ahdominali.'^, Morley. Mature larva.
Fig. 3. — Fhilopsychr abdoininnUs, Morley. Piipa, female.

The larva is an external parasite throughout its life, and
can move freely in the bag. It does this by means of the rows
of curved spines which arm the dorsum of each of the
abdominal segments (Figs. 2 and 7). These spines catch in
the silken sides of the bag and also serve to hold it securely
in position w^hilst feeding. The mandibles are well developed,
simple, and taper to a sharp point (Fig. 6). In the mature
larva they measure 70 jn in length by 30 /jl across the base.
The chitinised framework of the mouth-parts and the pigment
spots on the head of this larva are peculiar and enable one
to recognise it readily (Fig. 8).

COXTROL OF -WATTLE BAGWOEM.

295

The pre-pupal stage lasts for two or three days and the
pupal stage ten to fourteen days. The lai-^^a does not spin a
cocoon before pupating, but roughly binds itself against the

Fig. 4. — Fhilopsychi' ahdominalis, Morley. Egg.
Fig. 5. — Philopsyclxe ahdominalis, Morley. Newlj--hatclied larva.

Fig. 6. — Philopsyche ahdominalis, Morley. Mandible of larva.
Fig. 7. — Philopsyche abdo^ninalis, Morley. Spines on abdominal

segments.
Fig. 8. — Phdopsychc ahdominalis, Morley. Head of ItTrva, front view.

side of the bag by means of a few silken threads. In the
female pupa the ovipositor is curved over the back, but in the
adult this appendage is always directed postei'iorly (Fig. 3).

F««i.9.

Fig. 9. — Carcdia evolans, Wied. Adult female.

Carcelia evolans is the commonest of the tachinid para-
sites of the bagworm. The eggs are found glued on the

296

COXTEOL OF WATTLE I5AGW0IIM.

exterior of the host's body, generally on one of the thoracic
segments, and are apparently placed in position whilst the
host is feeding. Some bagworms may bear three, four, or five
of these eggs, although only one parasite can come to maturity
in a single host. The eggs are dull white in colour, oval in
shape, and measure 0'75 mm. by 0'5 mm. (Tig. 12). The
larva of this species can be easily recognised by its peculiar
buccal armature (Fig. 14), by the irregular rows oi spines
running transversely across the anterior border of each
segment (Figs. 10 and 15), and by the arrangement of the

U

Fig. 10. — Carcdia evolans, Wied. Mature larva.
Fig. 11. — CarccJia cvoknis, Wiecl. Puparinm.

slit-like orifices in the stigmata (Fig. 13). The parasitic larva
leaves the body of its host when fully grown and pupates
inside the bag as a general rule, although there are indications
that a few of them may drop to the ground and pupate in the
soil. The puparium is blackish brown in colour, slightly
curved, and measures about eight millimetres in length
(Fig. 11).

Like Fhilopsyche, the emergence of the adults extends
over a long period, from March to October, and the genera-
tions, probably two a year, overlap. The adult is a burly,
hairy fly, measuring about ten to twelve millimetres in length.
The eyes are bright red and the frons silvery in colour. The
body is dark grey, with four indistinct black lines on the
thorax. The scutellum is deep brown. A conspicuous silvery
band runs transversely across the anterior half of each of the
abdominal segments from the second to the fourth ; the band
on the third segment is more distinct than the others. On
each side of the second segment there is an indistinct reddish
patch (Fig. 9).

CONTROL OF WATTLE liAGWORM. 297

Both Fuller and Hardenberg have recorded a secondary
parasite from tins fly. This is a minute chalcid, as yet
undetermined, metallic o-reen in colour, and measuring- two
millimetres in length. The adults emerge from the puparium
through a neat round hole whicdi they eat out of the side.
From one puparium, found at Mountain Rise, near Pieter-
maritzburg, 145 of these secondary parasites were reared,
IIT males and 28 females.

Hardenberg states that the percentage of ilies found
parasitised by these little w^asps is small, and its effect in
reducing their numbers is negligible. But this does not agree
with my observations. Out of 87 puparia found in bags
collected at Mountain Rise in April last, 54, or 62 per cent.,
were found to have been destroyed by this chalcid.

d

13

15.

Fig. 12. — CarccUa evolans, Wied. Egg.

Fig. 13. — Carcelia evolans, Wied. Stigma, showing slit-like orifices.

Fig. 14. — Carcelia evolans, Wied. Buccal armature of larva.

Fig. 15. — Carcelia cvclans, Wied. Larval setae.
Fig. 1(3. — Carcelia evokin.s, Wied. Profile of head of adult.

In examining bags to determine the percentage of parasi-
tism it is fairly easy to distinguish individuals that have been
killed by a Hymenopteron from those destroyed by a Dipteron,
even though the adult parasites have emerged and flown. The
empty pupal skin of the ichneumon can generally be found
beside the shrivelled remains of the host, and there is often a
small, round hole bitten in the lower side of the bag* through
which the adult has emerged. In the case of tachinid parasi-
tism, the empty puparium is left behind in the bag". Of course,
where immature stages of the parasites are present, there is
no difficulty in determining their identity. In the figures

298

CONTROL OF WATTLE BAG WORM.

given below, Haines' records probably refer to more than one
species of parasite in each case, but the records collected by
myself refer only to the two parasites mentioned above.

Date.

Locality.

No. of Bags
Examined.

Dipterous
Parasitism.

Hymenopterous
Parasitism,

Collector.

April-Sept ,
1914 ...

June. 19H)

Mar.-Oct.,

idk; ...

Mar.-June,
1920 ...

Mar.-June,
1920 ...

Mar.-June,
1920 ...

Clan Syndicate
Baynes Drift ...

New Hanover
Mountain Rise
Hilton Road ...
Town Hill ...

17.742
()(t0

l(),34.j

12.700

sou

n.-ioo

No.

2.84S

334

Per cent.
IC.

No. Per cent. ' No. Per cent.

900 .")■.') 2.85K 17T.

(;29

10

3S.-,

1-2.-)
3 3

1 ,8(1.".

Hi 2

1,379 12

147

Haines.
Haines.

Haines.
Skaife.
Skaife.
Skaife.

Totals

41.34:

1 ,924

4-7

G.llS

14-K

The above figures show that an average of about 20 per
cent, of the bagworms that survive the early perils of their
life are destroyed by insect parasites, but they also show
that this percentage varies greatly in the dift'erent localities.
This variation seems to have a direct relation to the degree of
infestation of the plantations in which the insects vk'ere found.
At Hilton Eoad, where the infestation was very slight and it
was difficult to collect any number of bagworms, the parasi-
tism Avas only just over 3 per cent., whereas at Mountain
Eise, a heavily infested plantation, nearly 20 per cent, were
parasitised, the figures also show that the hymenopterous
parasites are more than three times as efficient as the tachinid
parasites.

Diseases.

The fungous disease of the bagworm, caused by the para-
sitic fungus, Isaria psychidae, Pole Evans, is well known
owing to the researches of Dr. Pole Evans, who studied this
disease and initiated some preliminary experiments in its
artificial dissemination. Owing to pressure of other work.
Dr. Pole Evans was unable to follow up his studies, and the
work was taken up at Cedara. The results of observations
made during the past eighteen montlis will be embodied in a
later paper. The efficiency of this higlily virulent fungus as
a check on the bagworm is somewhat impaired by the attacks
of a secondary parasite, another fungus known as Mclanospora
parasitica. The Melanospova grows upon the Isaria, and
partially or wholly inhibits the conidia formation of its host,
thus curtailing the spread of the disease.

Another virulent and highly destructive disease of the
bagworm is caused by a filterable virus, and is very similar in
its nature to the " polvederkrankheit " of silkworms and nun

CONTROL OF WATTLE «A(;\VORM. 2!M>

moth larvae in Europe and to the polyhedral wilt disease of
g-ipsy moth larvae in America. Some specimens of diseased
bag'worms were sent to Dr. Glaser, the American authority on
wilt disease, and he wrote back to me that the larvae were
undoubtedly affected with polyhedral wilt disease.

A larva aifected by thivS disease can be recognised by the
distended appearance of its body and by its pale colour. If
such a larva be pricked with a needle a drop of milky white
fluid will issue from the puncture thus made, quite different
in appearance from the colourless blood that issues from a
similar puncture made in a healthy individual. Under the
high power of the microscope this white fluid is found to
contain myriads of minute, highly refractive bodies known as
polyhedra. These polyhedra are mostly square or triangular
in outline, and have slightly rounded corners. They measure
0'5 ^ to 2'5 jj. across, the average breadth being about 1'5 p-.
They orig-inate in the nuclei of the tracdieal matrix, hypoder-
mal, fat and blood cells, and are, according to Glaser, probably
reaction bodies belonging' to the nucleoproteids. The nuclei
containing- these bodies swell up enormously and eventually
burst, setting' the polyhedra free in the blood. Thus the
tissues disintegrate and the blood becomes crowded with the
l)olyhedra, which gives it the milky appearance mentioned
above. At this stage the larva dies, the alimentary canal
disintegrates, the colour of the body changes to a deep brown,
and the corpse finally dries up until it is nothing but a scale
adhering to the side of the bag. At no stage in the disease
is the body filled with a brown fluid, the skin does not break
easily at a touch, nor does the diseased larva hang by its
prolegs. In these respects the disease differs from the wilt
disease of gipsy moth cater]nllars, silkworms and other larvae.

Many experiments with this disease liaA^e been carried out
at Cedara, but only two will be mentioned here. The bodies
of several larvae that had died of wilt were emulsified in sterile
water, and this fluid was sprayed on to some wattle foliage by
means of an atomiser. This infected foliage was fed to fifty
bagworms, and in the course of three weeks all died of wilt.
In all these experiments only those caterjjillars Avhicli showed
typical polyhedral bodies in their blood were considered to
have died of wilt. The first larva to die of the disease died
ten days after being fed on the infected foliage, but the
majority of them died in the third week from the commence-
ment of the experiment. In a control cage containing fifty
bagworms that had been fed on cdean foliage only eight died
of wilt disease.

In another experiment the emulsified bodies of ten larvae
in two hundred cubic centimetres of sterile water were filtered
first through a filter paper and then through a Berkefeld filter.
This filtrate, which was quite free of polyhedra and bacteria,
was sprayed on to wattle foliage as before and fed to fifty
bagworms. Within five weeks twenty-seven died of wilt, the
first one dying seventeen days after the commencement of the
experiment, Ijut the great majority died during- the fourth
week. In the control cage only ten of the larvae died of wilt.

aoo

CONTROL OF WATTLE liAGWOEM.

Tliese two experiments caniiot be regarded as coiifhisive,
but they indicate that the disease is contracted throngh the
ingestion of contaminated food and that the virus is filterable.
One difficulty lias still to be cleared up, and that is the manner
in which the disease is spread in IN'ature. The larva dies and
dries up inside the bag, hence it is difficult to understand how
the foliage becomes contaminated with the virus of the disease,
unless it be through the faeces, but the alimentary canal is
the last of the organs to be attacked, and no nolyhedra are
found in the intestine right up to the death of the larva.

There are other diseases of an obscure nature to which the
bagworm is liable. The affected larvae die and disintegrate
into an evil-smelling liquid, which soils the bags and teems
with bacteria. Whether these diseases are due to bacteria or
to disturbances in the normal physiological functions, or both,
is at present undertermined. On several occasions I have come
across sickly larvae which, on being disturbed. Imve discharged
a drop of brownish liquid from their mouths. This fluid is
found to contain large numbers of bacteria, tlie great majority
of which are bacilli, with large, oval, terminal sjjores. These
larvae die and disintegrate as above, but, until the bacteria
have been isolated in pure culture and inoculation and feeding
experiments performed with them, no definite assertion can
be made as to the existence of a bacterial disease.

In the figures given below all the bagworms that have died
of diseases other than the fungous disease are added together.
This is unavoidable, as Haines' records do not distinguish
between wilt and other diseases, but I have records whicli show
that of the bagworms collected at Mountain Else 6 per cent,
were killed by wilt disease, and of those collected at Hilton
Road no less than 19 ])er cent, died of this disease.

Date.

Locality.

No. of Bag-s
Examined.

Killed by
Fung-US.

Kil
Other

ed by
Diseases.

Collector.

April-Sept..

1!I14 ...

Clan Syndicate

17.742

No. Per cent.
3,2<t2 ISC

No.
3,i»71

Per cent.
22 3

Haines.

June, l'.»l(l
Mar.-Oct.,

Baynes Drift ...

(ii )( )

IS 3

.-)(■)

9-3

Haines.

r.tiG ...

Mar.-Juue.

New Hanover

1(k34:)

.52S 3-2

1.8.-)1

11-3

Haines.

1!»20 ...
Mar.-June,

Mountain Rise

12,700

4,37(; 34-.5

2,3.-)!)

i8(;

Skaife.

l'J2() ...
Mar.-June.

Hilton Road ...

SOo

I.-) 2

321

40

Skaife.

1!»20 ...

Town Hill ...

1L.-)0(I

1,283 in

i.3(;s

12

Skaife.

Totals ...

.")!», (;s7

'.i:a-2 k;

'.l,;»2('.

17

Although the climatic conditions at Hilton Road are such
that one would expect the fungous disease to flourish there,
only 2 per cent, of the 800 bagworms examined were found
to have succumbed to this disease. This would appear to be
entirely due to the scattered manner in whicli the bagworms

CONTROL OF WATTLE B.AG^VOEM. 301

were spread tln'oagh tlie piantations, a condition wliicli mili-
tates against the spread of the disease. On the other hand,
40 per cent, were destroyed by other diseases in this locality,
and this would seem to indicate that the virulence of these
diseases is largely dependent on the climatic conditions. At
Hilton Eoad mists are almost of daily occurrence during the
summer and thunderstorms arc frequent. The excessive
humidity during the warm montlis either sets up physiological
disturbances which cause the death of the larvae, or else
weakens them and renders them peculiarly liable to disease.

Summary.
Out of a total of 59,68T bagw^orms examined, just over
1 per cent, were destroyed by birds and rats, 19 per cent, by
insect parasites, 16 per cent, by fungous disease, and 17 per
cent, by other diseases, making a total of 53 per cent,
destroyed. Despite the enormous numbers killed by the above
agencies, the figures show that a far greater mortality must
take place in tlie younger stages, from September to March.
Hardenberg estimates that, of the bagworms which reach
sexual maturity, the majority are males, there being an excess
of males over females of about 25 per cent. This agrees with
my own observations. Therefore, of the 47 per cent, that
survive, only 21 per cent, will be females; in other words, out
of every hundred bagworms found in the plantations in March
only twenty-one females will reach sexual maturity. These
females will deposit some forty to fifty thousand eggs, which
will hatch in the folloAving* spring-. Assuming no yearly
increase on the part of the bagworms, these forty to fifty
thousand will be reduced to one hundred by March, that is to
say, only one-quarter of 1 per cent, of the larvae hatched
survive, the early perils of their life. Even if we assume a
lumdrect per cent, yearly increase, only one-half of one per
cent, can survive until March. Thus it will be seen that this
early mortality, about which very little is known, is by far
the most important of the factors in the natural control of
the wattle bagnvorm.

Eeferejn'ces .
C. Fuller —

" Some Common Bagworms and Basketworms."^ —
Natal Dept. of Agrio., Bull. XVI., 1909.
C. Fuller —

"The Wattle Bagwovm."— Union of S.A., Dept. of
Agric, Bull. 28, 1913.
C. B. Hardenberg —

" Some Insects Injurious to the Black Wattle, Acacia
inollissima, Wild." — Union of S.A., Dept. of
Agric, Bull. 1, 1918.
I. B. Pole Evans —

" A Fungus Disease of Bagworms in Xatal." — Annales
Mycologici, vol. x, No. 3, 1912.
E. W. Glaser—

" Wilt of Gipsy-Moth Caterpillars."— /o?///?. of Agric.
Research, vol. iv, ^o. 2, 1915.

MAP OF SOUTH AFRICA, SHOWING THE CHIEF
NATIVE LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS.

By Rev. G. Beyer.

Read Jvly 17, 1920.

Explanatory Remarks.

By ' ' South Africa ' ' is meant the country lying south of
the Cunene-Okavaugo-Zambesi Rivers.

The dotted serpentine hne stretcliing from the vicinity of
East London in a north-western direction across South Africa
indicates the boundary hne of the Bantu to the north-east, and
the non-Bantu groups, Bushmen and Hottentot, to the south-
west.

The numbers on the map signify the district in which a
language is spoken.

The names are given without prefixes, e.g., Se-pedi is written
Pedi; it is spoken where the number 17 appears on the map.

The kev is as follows : —

Bila (Thonga-Shangaan dialect) ...

6

Bushmen (two different languages and three dialects)

27

Chopi ...

Chuana (Setlaping, Serolong, Sekgatla, etc.)

9
16

Djonga (Thonga-Shangaan dialect)
Herero (Damara) ...

5
25

Hlanganu (Thonga-Shangaan dialect)
Hlengwe (TTionga-Shangaan dialect)
Kalana ... ... ...

4

8
21

Karanga

Kuanyama

Mashona

19
23
20

Nama (chief Hottentot dialect) ...

26

Ndonga

Nwalungu (Thonga-Shangaan dialect)

Pedi (Northern Sotho)

24

7

17

Ronga (Thonga-Shangaan dialect)
Sena

3
13

Sofala

11

Sotho (Suto proper)

15

Subia

22

Tebele

12

Tette ...

14

Tonga ...
Venda ...

10
18

Xosa (Kafir)

1

Zulu

2

303

NOTES EELATING TO ABORIGINAL TEIBES OF THE
EASTERN PROVINCE.

By John Hewitt, B.A.,

Alhany Museum, Graltamstown.

^Ylth Plates XXXI, XXXII.

Read Juh/ IT, 1920.

Relics of a Pke-Busii Race?

On the evidence of stone inii)lenients it seems likely that
our historic aboriginals were preceded by another race or races.
The former, as we learn from examination of " Bushman "
caves, were skilled in making the implements known as " end-
scrapers," and various other types less characteristic. But
the implements occurring deeply embedded in the ironstone
gravel of the subsoil at Grahamstown and elsewdiere are of
quite a different type. There are no end-scrapers, nor
other inii)lements with secondary trimming, but instead we
find an abundance of simple flakes, all large and coarse. Such
Hakes are generally regarded as rejected material produced
in the making of larger implements of the palaeolithic type.
Indeed, typical " bouchers " and other palaeoliths are some-
times found in these gravels at Grahamstown. However,
regarding the antiquity of such relics, no positive estimate
should be made. The gravel in which they occur has been
formed in situ, and is not necessarily very old. It contracts
during drought and expands in wet seasons, so that overlying
objects, if sufficiently heavy, may quickly sink tlierein to
considerable depths. But in favour of tlieir antiquity is the
fact of their identity with the implements made by primitive
man in Europe, during a warm inter-glacial period, estimated
by various authorities as at least 150,000 years ago. This was
in the time of Neanderthal man, prior to the appearance of
Homo sapiens in Europe. Moreover, a very respectable
antiquity may be fairly claimed for similar specimens found
in ancient river beds on the Yaal River and in the Western
Province.

STRANDLOOrERS .

Relics of bygone races are plentiful in and near the exten-
sive shell-mounds that fringe the coast near the mouths of
rivers. The mounds are the accumulated refuse of the so-called
strandloopers, who fed on shell fish and other products of the
sea. Some idea of the mag-nitude of such coastal middens may
be gained from G. R. McKay's paper on the " Antiquity of
Man in South Africa." He tells us tliat upwards of 375,000

ABORIGINES OF EASTERN rROVINCE. -305

cubic feet of shells were removed to fill up the lagoon behind
the east training- wall at East London, and that the mound
was 150 feet long- and 40 feet deep, covered with veg-etable soil
and with trees g-rowing- on it.

There is little historical evidence relating' to the strand-
loopers of the Eastern Province, although they were seen at
the very earliest date of our liistory by Bartholomew Dias.*
At the present day, according to Rogers, in his " Geology of
Cape Colony," such mounds are being- made by Kaffirs in the
Transkei and Pondoland. The natives collect the shells, carry
them to a convenient spot close to the shore, and there remove
the edible portions, which they take back to their kraals in
baskets or cloths, leaving the shells behind. In this way
astonishingly large piles of more or less broken shells accumu-
late in course of time. Near Port Alfred a few Kaffirs may
usually be seen collecting sh'ell-fish off the rocks at low tide,
and Mr. A. E. Cronwright informs me that " when food is
scarce the wives and children of the Bantu servants hereabouts
always repair to the sea during times of spring tides, each with
a sack and some sort of rude line to wrench the shells from
the rocks. They will travel miles to do this, and carry their
full bags back on their heads a few hours later." However, it
is doubtful if the habit prevailed amongst the earliest Kaffir
invaders, for many writers liave testified to the fact that the
primitive Kaffir did not eat fish or shell-fish, regarding them
as unclean. On the other hand, the strandlooping habit in the
Western Province was characteristic of some degraded
Hottentot or Bushman tribes who are now extinct. The term
" strandlooper " or " watermans " was first applied by the

* " The foiu-tli (negress) remained in the Bay of the Islets of
Santa Cruz, witli two others wliom they found there collecting shell-fish,
and they would not carry them away because the King commanded
them not to offer violence or give cause of offence to the inhabitants
of the lands they should discover.' — From De Barros in " Asia."

There is a mucli earlier reference to strandloopers on the East
African coast. Edrisi, an Arab writer of the twelfth century, a.d., says:
" This country (Sofala) touches that of Ouac-Ouac, where are miserable
towns. The natives are black, of hideous figure and deformed com-
plexion ; their langua_ge is a species of hissing. They go absolutely
naked and are little visited by strangers, and they live on fish, shell-fish
and tortoises." The Ouac-Ouac, or Wak-Wak, have been identified
by recent authorities with the Hottentots, as if their name were merely
the Arab rendering of Khoi-khois. This seems important, for the
Wak-Wak of Edrisi were clearly strandloopers, like the Watermans
of the Cape, at any rate in habit. They were certainly not Bantu, who
for centuries had been well known to Arab traders under the name of
Zeug or Zindj. Other suggestions have, however, been made regarding
the origin of the word Wak-Wak ; and the Islands of Wak-Wak,
mentioned in the story of Ali Hassan as seven years' journey from
Bagdad, have been variously placed as the Seychelles, Madagascar,
Java and Japan.

According to Mr. Hammond Tooke, the region referred to by Edrisi
must be south of the Zambesi, but north of the Limpopo ; but, according
to a foot-note in L. C. Smithers' edition of " Bui-ton's Arabian Nights,"
vol. vi, p. 217, the locality in ciuestion is the peninsula of Guardafui.
The former interpretation agrees better with the statements of Mas'oudi
(a.d. 943), the land of the Wak-Wak adjoining that of Sofala.

306 AIJORKilXES OF EASTERN PKOVIXCE.

Dutcli settlers in Tan Eiebeek's time to a very small tribe
of destitute people who were otherwise known as the
Goring'haikona* Hottentots. They do not seem to have been
reg'arded as racially distinct from the pastoral tribes of the
same neighbourhood, and their lang-uag-e was Hottentot
(W. Hammond Tooke).

In the Eastern Province the coastal shell mounds niay
have received contributions from Kaffir tribes, for the Kaffirs
occupied our coast during- the latter decades of the eighteentli
century, but the implements and pottery of the shell-mounds
afford definite evidence of cultural relationship with the strand-
loopers of the Western Province, whose arts have been made
known mainly through the writings of Dr. L. Peringuey (see
his " Stone Ages of South Africa "). Pottery of the same
superior type as that designated strandlooper by Dr. Peringuey
has been found quite near to the shell-mounds of the Port
Alfred neighbourhood. I refer specially to the larg-e wide-
mouthed vessels of ovoid-conical shape, tapering to a pointed
base. Similar pots have been found also at inland localities :
one such pot was recorded by Dr. Peringuey from the Zuur-
berg, and I have lately seen broken pieces of pottery, clearly
of strandlooper technique, found along with calcined mussel
shells by the Bev. P. Stapieton, S.J., at Dunbrody, near the
Sundays River, under circumstances pointing- to great
antiquity (vide South African Journal of Science, 1919,
]). 230). Perfectly typical strandlooper pottery is also known
to me from rock-shelters at Grahamstown and Alicedale.
Strandlooper artefacts therefore were not confined to the coast.

The stone implements of the coastal shell-mounds are of
various types, principally simple flakes, but including an
occasional scraper with secondary chipping similar to those
which occur in the inland rock-shelters. For instance, we have
specimens of the same peculiar type — an elong-ated burin of
Aurignacian facies from a shell-mound at Kleinemond, near
Port Alfred, and from a locality near Britstown.

Amongst the various types of implements found on coastal
sites there is perhaps only one which has not yet been found
at inland localities. The technique has long been known from
some finely trimmed lance-heads found on the Cape Flats, and,
according to Geo. Leitli (" Journal of Anthropological Insti-
tute," N.S., vol. i, p. 258 et seq., 1899) " some very beautifully

* " Among tlie ugly Hottentot race there is yet anothei- sort called
the Goringhaikonas. Harry was the cliief, or captain, of these; we
have them daily in our sight and about our ears, Avithin and AA-ithout
the fort; they possess no cattle, and live by fishing from the rocks.
A few years since they AA-ere only 30 in number, noAA- they consist of
70 or 80, including AA'onien and children, having been joined by similar
rabble from the interior. By night they live in little hovels in th^
.sand-hills; by day they may be seen, sluggards as they are, assisting
the burghers in scouring, Avashing, cutting Avood, fetching Avater and
herding sheep, etc. Others of the lazy creAv avIio Avill not AA'ork at all
li\'e by begging, or seek their subsistence by stealing and robbing
on the common highwavs.— From " Mr. AVagenaar's Memorandum,"
A.D. 1666.

ABORIGINES OF EASTERN PROVINCE, 307.

toiiiied implements, chiefly scrapers, in chert, jasper, agate
and chalcedony, whicli will compare favonrably, as regards
form and finish, with the finest European or American
examples," were found at Port Alfred. The Albany Museum
has no specimens from Port Alfred that agree with this
eulogistic description, but several specimens from Kleinemond
(Dr. W. G. Atherstone) seem to conform to the Cape Flats
type, and quite recently some markedly superior implements
(proto-solutric) have been found at the Kasouja River mouth
by the Rev. P. Stapleton, S.J. Yet this latter type, which
is very characteristic, is also known to nie from a rock-shelter
ornamented with paintings in the Grahamstown neighbour-
hood, and it seems reasonable to expect that future discovery
will yield at inland localities the same advanced technique as
is at present known only from coastal sites. Traces of a type
allied to the European neolithic have indeed been found inland.
One of them from Vaalkiantz, near Grahamstown, takes the
form of an axe-head, or adze, with well-ground cutting eih^e,
and another from a rock-shelter at Spitzkop, near Alicedale,
also Avith ground cutting edges, seems to have been a lance
head, yet not equal in form and finish to European neoliths.

The similarity in culture of the strandloopers and the
cave men is not limited to their pottery and implements,* for
the inland cave-dwellers were evidently fond of shell fish. In
most of their shelters arouiul Grahamstown, generally orna-
mented with " Bushman " paintings, quantities of fresh-water
mussel shells occur in the debris of the floor. Also at various
places far inland, as at Cradock, there are relics of veritable
strandloopers on the banks of rivers, their heaps of mussel
shells containing bits of pottery quite like those from the coast.
Another fact of interest as showing a direct connection
between the cave-dwellers and the coast is the freciuent presence
of marine shells within the caves. Sucli marine shells have
been found in rock-shelters both at Alicedale (G. W. Wilmot)
and Grahamstown.

Of late years some confusion has arisen owing to the
restriction of the term " strandlooper " to a particular physical
type. FolloAving Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, the physical anthro-
pologists use this term in reference to a homogeneous race, of
Bushman affinity, whose skeletons have been found in the caves
of George, Knysna and Humansdorp. They are ultra-Bush
in skull characters, being more brachycephalic and more
orthognathous than any other tribe in South Africa. Skulls
from the same caves had previously passed as typically Bush-
man. These same people moreover, like the ordinary Bushmen,

* According to Dr. Peringuey, the large palaeolithic implements
were also made by strandloopers, yet they do not seem to occur in our
coastal middens and none liave been taken in the local caves, so that
their connection with the historic aborigines is uncertain in this region.
We have typical specimens of bouchers and of " haches a talon " from
Alicedale presenting a singularly fresh appearance, and others from
Grahamstown greatly weathered. Yet in neither case does the state of
the specimen warrant an estimate of age, the nature of the stone being
the dominant factor in weathering.

308 AISORIGINES OF EASTERN J'ROVINCE..

were ruck-painters, thus ditfering apijareutly fiom the pastoral
Hottentots. Tliey are considered to represent the earliest and
purest type of liushman, whilst the ordinary inland Bushman,
and possibly also the Hottentot, have diverg'ed therefrom
through admixture with other stocks.

Historical Data Relating to Hottentots.

Immediately prior to the advent of Europeans in the
Eastern Province, the region between the Sundays River and
Great Eisli River was sparsely populated by a pastoral race
called Gonaqua, by vagrant bands of Kaffirs, and perhaps even
by remnants of Bushman tribes. It may have been some part
of this region, the country near to Sand Elats, that was refened
to by Paterson* in 1779 as " the Boshmen's land," but he doe.s
not seem to have actually met Buslimen in tlie course of liis
travels through lower Albany.

It seems probable tliat for centuries the inhabitants of
this region M-ere mainly pastoral Hottentots. So long ago as
1622 A.D., the crew of the wrecked ship " S. Joao Baptista "
obtained pack oxen and milk from coastal Hottentots living
between the Gr.^at Eish and Kei Rivers. In the time of
Governor van der Stel (1689 a.d.) a tril)e called Inqua was
discovered by Ensign Isaak Schryver, living apparently in the
Aberdeen district. t The Inqua were numerous, their captain,

* AViitiiig from the Swart Kops River, Paterson reported: "The
next morning we were overtaken by a peasant who was on his way to
the Boshmen's Land, and was glad to accompany us as this pUxce lay
in our way. The peasant proved to be Jacob Kock, who had a plantation
at Sand Fleet." Stow is not justified in saying that Lieut. Paterson
explicitly informs us that " the Zuurveld was then called Bushman-
land." Jacob Kock's destination was not revealed in the narrative —
he may have been going to Kock's Kraal, on the upper portion of the.
Great Fish Piver, near to Cookhouse. In any case, if Bushmen had
frequented the Bushman's Piver at that time, such a menace to the
pastoral tribes would probably have been mentioned by travellers, for
from the earliest days Bushmen and Hottentots seem to have been at
enmity with each other. Le Yaillant tells us that the Hottentots
advised him to avoid the Bushman's Piver, in order to " evade a
large troop of Caffres who had alarmed the whole canton, spreading
destruction wherever they came."

t For a detailed account of the expedition, see " Moodie's Records,"
p. 433 cf- seq. The site is probably on the Kariega River, head-waters
of the Gamtoos, recorded in the narrative as the Kaluiga. On that
river there is still a place called Hottentots Bush, and a tributary
named Hottentots River. So far as I can ascertain, no writer has
indicated a precise locality. In Theal's map of distribution of native
tribes in the year 1689, the Inqua are placed between the Sundays
and Great Fish Rivers. One of the tributaries of the Sundays River
is called the Cuinqua. Does this take its name from the Inqua .^ The
Inqua may have been the same tribe as the Heykom Hottentots,
mentioned by Kolben (1713). The Heykoms were said to adjoin the
Gamtoos Hottentots in a north-easterly direction, their country being
very mountainous and only fertile in the valleys. According to this
author, the Damaqua lived in "a country where there was scarce fuel
enough to dress their victuals unless they burn a sort of moss ; in this
country are several salt pits." Thunberg suggested that the Heykoms
had at one time inhabited the Long Kloof and Kromme River.

ABORIGIXES OF EASTERN rKOVINCE. -iOO

Hykoii, liad miR-h greater authority than any of the captains
about the Cape, and their wealtli in stock ^A'as considerable, so
that Schryver returned to the Colony with more than 500 head
of cattle and many sheep received in exchange for the usual
trading commodities. Their captain was reported to be " taller
and larg-er than any of our servants; they are in general larger
in body than the Cape Hottentots, well i)roi)ortioned, active
and strong', though in countenance and beard they resemble the
Cape Hottentots." lietween them and the Kaffirs was another
Hottentot tribe, the Damaqua, populous, rich in cattle, and
dwelling in houses made of tday : they Mere coastal people, who
obtained copper and iron beads from shipwrecked vessels.
South of the Inqua, also on the sea coast, were other tribes
well provided with cattle : the GanuniC{ua, Namunqua and
(jonuqua, from whom the Inqua obtained dakka. The Kaffirs
were then five days' journey from the Inqua, in a direction to
the east-south-east ; they lived in houses of clay, and possessed
much cattle.

Thus the Inqua were not in actual conflict with the Kaffirs,
but were constantly at war with their neighbours, the Bushmen.
Towards the noith they obtained copper from other tribes,
recorded as the Gly, Bry and Bly, Avho were probably Griqua
and Bechuana.

Thus it seems clear that Hottentot tribes with their flocks
and herds penetrated far into the interior of the country, along
the river valleys of the Karroo. How far they ranged along
the eastern coast we do not know. Theal suggests that in the
year 1500 they were at the TTmtamvuna River. Various
writers have inferred Hottentot occupation in the more eastern
parts of the Cape from the prevalence of characteristic place-
names, such as Gonubie or Nahoon, but, according to Stow,
such names are actually of Bushman origin. On this point
I am not competent to express an opinion. In the most recent
paper on aboriginal place- names (South African Journal of
Science, 1918), the Eev. J. E. L. Kingon does not attenn)t
to discriminate between Hottentot and Bushman words. He
tells us that " many names containing Hottentot-Bushman
sounds are found as far east as the Umzimvubu and its tributary
tlie Tina, and comparatively few beyond."

However, it is certain that in the early part of the
eighteenth century the Hottentot country extended at least as
far as the Kei River, for Kaffir tradition tells of bloody battles
on that river between Hottentots and the vanguard of the Baaiu
tribes (circa 1740 A.D.), and of the famous Hottentot chief-
tainess, called Hoho, who reigned in the Pirie forest. Shortly
afterwards, when Ensign Butler (1752) made his expedition
into the Eastern Province, the Keiskama had become the
boundary between Bantu and Hottentot tribes. The eastern
Hottentots were then reported to be in great poverty owing to
Bushman depredations and Kaffir wars. This explorer found
the Damaqua between the Gamtoos and Zwartkops Rivers, and
adjoining them, from the Bushman's River almost up to the
Keiskamma, was another Hottentot tribe, the Hamasonqua,

310 ABORIGINES OF EASTERN PHOVIXCE.

"wlio were neighbours of tlie Gouaqua, but not directly related
thereto, being- an olfshoot of the Iloengeijqua.* Apart from
Beutler's brief note, history is silent on these early inhabitants
of the Albany district, the Daniasonqua and their relatives.
At that time Captain Ruyter, who eventually obtained
dominion over all the Hottentot tribes of the Zuurveld, had not
reached the zenith of his power. He and his followers asso-
ciated with the' Daniasonqua, but he was not paramount chief.
According- to the Rev. John l^rownlee (in " Thompson's
Travels "), the Gonaqua Hottentots originally had their chief
kraals on the coast, and likewise inhabited the country along
the Buffalo River and up to the very sources of the Keiskama.
Afterwards, when the Caft'ers took possession of the Zuurveld,
the Gonaqua retired northward to tlie Zuurberg and ]5ruintjes
Hoogte. This took place in the time of Kohla or Renter, the
Gonaqua chief from whom the Zuurveld was purchased —
according to Caft'er statements — at a high price in cattle, by
the Amagqunukwebe clan.

Lieut. Paterson wrote of the Gonaquas as follows: —

" At a little distance to the eastward (from Sand Fleet) are
some kraals belonging to the tribe of Hottentots called Chonaequas.
These people are much darker in their complexion and better
shaped than any other tribes (Hottentots) I had before seen.
Whether this difference arises from their mixing with the Caffres,
several of whom dwell in this part of the country, or from any
other cause, I could not ascertain. It is not very uncommon for
the Caffers and Chonaequas to quarrel, which genei"ally ends in an
engagement. In these encounters several hundreds of the Caffers
sometimes unite to oppose their enemies, who very seldom bring
a proportionate force into the field, but the dexterity with which
the Hottentots use their bows and arrows, and the practice of
poisoning the latter, render them very dangerous enemies to those
who only use the Hassagai. The disputes bet\yeen these people
generally originate about cattle, of which both nations are extremely
avaricious. "We directed our course eastward to the Boschmans
River, and at noon I visited a kraal belonging to a Hottentot
captain called De Royter. This man has upwards of 200 Hottentots
and Caffres in his service, and a few hours before our arrival liad
fought against a number of Caffres, had beaten them oft' the field,
and taken many of their cattle."

Thus it seems clear tiiat the Gonaqua were quite distinct
from the Western Province Hottentots, with whom the
traveller was well acquainted, and from the Caft'res whom he
met later after crossing the Great Fish River. Though
Bushman-like in mode of life, they appear to have been darker
and biggert than the small and yellow Bushmen found near
Camdeboo They were indeed called Hottentots by Paterson,
but it should be understood that he recognised no racial

* Probably the same as the Geikhauas (Cauquas), belonging to
the Namaqua group of tribes, and regarded as a senior, and, in a sense,
paramount clan.

t " The superior size and strength of the Inqua and Gonaqua
Hottentots is noteworthy. In the former case, at least, it cannot be
due to recent admixture' with Bantu tribes. The Namaqua Hottentots
of the Clanwilliam district were also described as half-giants compared
with the small-made Hottentots of the Cape." — Van Meerhof, 1661.

AIJOEIGINES OF EASTERN PROVINCE. 811

distinction between Bushmen and Hottentots : to him the
Bushman was merely a wilder kind of Hottentot. Certain
Chonacquas met by the same traveller during- an earlier journey
were actually reg-arded by him as " Boshmens," He wrote of
them thus : — ■

" In one of my excursions I fell in with a party of these
savages. They were armed with bows and arrows, and the captain
who was with them had a hassagai or spear in his hand, and heavy
ivory rings on his right arm. On my return to the farmer's house
I found them to be of the tribe of Chonacaquas."

The best account of the Gonaqua is tliat g-iven by
Le Vaillant, who in 1781 found them living- not far from Kok's
Kraal on the Great Fish Eiver. It Avas there he met the
Hottentot beauty, Narina. According- to this author, they
diUered from the ordinary Hottentots, several of whom accom-
panied liini in his travels, " by the darkness of their
complexions, their noses Avere not so flat, they were much taller
and better proportioned, and, in a word, had a more agreeable
appearance and deportment." Referring* to the cousin of
Narina, he wrote: — ^" His features were at once manly and
pleasing', his height and form unexceptionable ; he was alto-
gether the handsomest savag*e I had ever seen." He was
convinced that tJie Gonaquais must have been originally " the
produce of those two nations (Caft'res and Hottentots)." They
possessed "prodigious quantities" of fat-tailed slieep, goats
and oxen, whereas the Cahres who lived on the other side of the
Great Fisli Eiver had only cattle and dogs, and Bushmen only
dogs. They had both assegais and poisoned arrows. But "bow
and arrows are the natural and proper arms of the Hottentots,"
and " of Assegais, the Gonaquais and all other Hottentots
never caiTy more than one." " The only furniture I saw in the
country, except their mats and skins, was some very brittle
earthenware. Their pottery is chiefly useful in melting* the
fat oi tlieir animals." Milk was kei)t in finely woven baskets.
They made karosses of calf skins. Their dwelling'-places were
huts like those of Hottentots at the Cape, and arranged in half-
circles; there were strongly fenced kraals for the cattle. They
were not agriculturists in any sense. There was no division of
labour amongst the men, no priests and no physicians; there
was a chief, but his office was not hereditary. They were
musical people, possessing the " goura," a peculiar stringed-
wind instrument, the " rabouquin," a kind of guitar, and the
" romelpot," a tom-tom.

During his journey from the kSundays Eiver to the neigh-
bourhood of Somerset Fjast and the Great Fish Eiver. Lp
Yaillant met no other tribes than Gonaqua. He writes : " All
this country is inhabited by hoords of Gona(|uais who differ
essentially from the Hottentots of the colonies." Eoving bands
of Caft'res were reported to be a continual menace, and the
elusive Boshismen were heard of, but he actually met neither.
The total population liad been greatly reduced by the small-
pox epidemic, and probably to greater extent through Kaffir
wars, and thus the Gonaqua were by this time but a small

312 ABORIGINES OF EASTERN I'ROVINCE.

tribe. Le Yaillant wrote: "The couutry of the (iouaquas
which I was explorino- mio-ht reckon about 3,000 people, on an
extent of 30 or 40 leagues, out of wliich the Hoord of liaabas
(the most considerable in the country) contained 400." They
lived in constant fear of the Caff res.

Other references to the Gonaqua are found in the writings
of Sparrman and Thunberg-. The former traveller tells us that
the Gonaqua met at Van Staades Eiver (1772) were graziers,
and had fields of Cafhr corn. Like the Kaffirs, they practised
circumcision, but, according- to Le Vaillant, such was not the
case in the tribe he visited. They were comparatively tall, like
the Kaffirs who lived with them. At Sondags Eiver he obtained
the services of several Boshiesmen as guides. They were intro-
duced to him by " three old Hottentots, properly speaking of
the race of Boshismen, who distinguished themselves by the
name of Good Boshismen — ^probably from the circumstance of
their grazing a few cattle and not living by rapine like others
of their countrymen." Although Sparrman never met " the
Hottentot captain, Ruyter," he mentions him as a remarkable
man, who " raised himself to be the chief of a party of Boshies-
men or Hottentot rangers," and who used to " assist the
colonists by making slaves of such straggling Boshiesmen as
did not jive under his jurisdiction." At Little Sundays Eiver
Sparrman found a clan of Bastards or Hottentot-Calf res.
Thence he travelled to Bushman's Eiver, Assegai Bush, and
jN^ew Year's Drift without seeing anyone, although Caffres
and Hottentots were reported to be wandering about that part
of the country. He vrent on to Hevy, then to Quammedacka
Well, and finally reached Agter Briintjes-hoogte, near
Somerset East.

On his return he visited a " Craal of Gonaqua Hottentots,"
just after crossing the Bushman's Eiver, but these people
seem to be the same as those he had previously mentioned
as Good Boshismen I

C. P. Thunberg-, who traA'elled in 1773, tells us that he
was visited at Van Stadens Eiver by people who had a
tolerable flock of cattle and who had milk in plenty. Then
he speaks of " the Gonaquas Hottentots that lived here and
were intermixed with Caffres," etc. Most of them were
armed with as many javelins as they could well hold in one
diand. Thunberg continued his journey as far as the »Sundays
Eiver, but between Van Stadens and Sundays Eiver he seems
to have seen no native settlements.

From the facts furnished by Le Yaillant and Paterson, it
is clear that in those days the Zuurveld and lower portions of
the Fish Eiver Yalley was the home of the Gonaqua, a
pastoral race quite distinct from true Bushmen — or Chinese
Hottentots, as they were then called — and there is no evidence
that Bushmen occurred there except as almost solitary
stragglers. Nevertheless, in his important work on " The
Native Eaces of South Africa," Stow tells us that the people
met by Le Yaillant and Paterson were actually Bushmen. He
suggests that the rock-paintings found near Salem were tlie

ABORIGINES OF EASTERN rROVINCE. olo

work oi the artists of Iliiyter's tribe, and Ruyter himself is
represented as " the last g-reat chief of the Coast BiishmeiJ,
the one who made the last expiring" effort to ruaintain the
independence of his race in that part of the ancient hunting-
grounds of his forefathers which bordered on the Sea Coast."
Yet we know from Sparrman's account that Ruyter was not
a native of this region, but came from the Koggeveld as a
fugitive slave after murdering his companion. The people
over whom he ruled were probably for the most part the
impoverished remnants of Gonaqua tribes, driven desperate by
ill treatment. At the same time, it seems clear that Sparrman
did actually meet several Bushmen at the Sundays Eiver, and
I think it a reasonable inference from the somewhat confused
narrative that these Bushmen had settled down to a pastoral
life Avith a small tribe of Gonaqua Hottentots.

At the end of the eighteenth century, the aboriginal tribes
as independent settlements had entirely disappeared from the
regions west of the Great Fish River. John Barrow, who
tiavelled in 1797 and 1798, says: "20 years ago, if we
may credit the travellers of that day, the country beyond (i.e.,
east of) Gamtoos Eiver, which was then the eastern limit of
the Colony, abounded with kraals or villages of Hottentots,
out of which the inhabitants came to meet them by hundreds
in a groupe. Some of these villages might still have been
expected to remain in this remote and not very populous part
of the Colony. Not one, however, was to be found. There is
not in the whole extensive district of Graaf Reynet a single
horde of independent Hottentots." Incidentally, we learn
from his accoimt that a tribe of several hundred Kaffirs, witli
their herds of cattle, had established themselves on the banks
of the Kareeka, but their abodes were of temporary nature.
These people were indeed refugees from Kaffir land.

Tlie fate of the Gonaqua was described by Barrow as
follows : —

" On the upper part of the JBosje.smans River (perhaps near
Alicedale) we receiverl a visit from the Chief of the Gonaqua,
followed by tlie last remains of this mixed tribe of Kaffir and
Hottentot, consisting of about a dozen people. The name of
Gonaqua, like those of the numerous tribes of Hottentots now
extinct, is just on the eve of oblivion. Driven out of their ancient
possessions in the Zuur Veldt by the Colonists, they yet found an
asylum from the father of Gaika in one of the most fertile districts
of his kingdom, watered by the river Kaapna. Here they were
.suffered to remain in quiet till the late distiu'bances among the
Kaffirs. Unwilling to act, or undecided which part to take, they
became a common enemy, and those who remained in the country
were plundered and massacred by both parties, whilst those who
fled across the Gt. Fish River met with the same treatment from
the Dutch farmers."

The Gonaqiui, however, were not quite exterminated. We
hear of them later (1825) in a report written from Chumie
mission station by Rev. W. R. Thomson, who refers to them
«nder the name of Ghona. The Ghonas had gradually amalga-
mated with the Kaffir population, but were still in considerable

314 ABORIGINES OF EASTERN PROVINCE.

numbers. He said they were " the most f'orR^ard to adopt
improvements, thus appearing- superior to the native Kaffir."

The decline of the Gonaqua commenced early in the
eig-hteenth century, when confronted by the iiTesistible Kaffirs,
but the loss of their independence dates only from the year
1778, when Governor van Plettenberg- extended the boundary
of the Colony to the Great Fish Eiver. Before that time, all
native tribes east of the Gamtoos enjoyed i>erfect freedom.
Tlie failure of these eastern Hottentots to cope with the
advancing- hordes of Kaffir invaders is in striking' contrast with
the rise of Hottentot power in South-West Africa about the
middle of last century. It is probable, however, that the racial
elements concerned were considerably dijfferent. Their collapse,
in the Eastern Province may be partly attributed to inferior
philoprogenitiveness. Whilst the Bantu were extraordinarily
prolific, the Hottentots were quite the reverse. Le Vaillant
commented on the tact that " a Hottentot is seldom or never
the father of six children."

We have seen that historical records prove the occurrence
of Gonaqua tribes on the coast of the Eastern Province for
more than a century. It is also very probable that these same
people were the recent strandloopers of our coast. The
evidence is mainly furnished by the statements of present-day
Kaffirs. In the native location at Port Alfred, and elsewhere
along" the coast, there are still to be found people who call
themselves " Gona Kaffirs." They are generally reg-arded
merely as cross-breeds between Kaffirs and Hottentots, but
most probably include remnants of the original Gonaqua race.
It is these Gona Kaffirs who are specially fond of a shell-fish
diet. According' to information received from Mr. E. Jordan,
who carefully cjuestioned an intellig-ent Gona on this point,
all the Goua Kaffirs eat shell-fish, reg-arding- it as their natural
food. On another occasion, the same gentleman submitted a
specimen of earthenware found near a shell-mound at Port
Alfred for identification by natives in Grahamstown. The
reply was: " The (jonaquas made tliese pots, baas." I have
examined the pottery in question, and find it to be typical
strandlooper as described by Dr. Peringuey.

If we assume, as most writers do, that tlie earliest
inhabitants of this reg-ion were Bushmen, with littoral repre-
sentatives akin to the western strandloopers, and that the
Hottentots* came as invaders from the west (or from tlie north-
west), it may well be that considerable sections of Bushman
or true strandlooper stock became incori^orated in the Gonaqua
tribes at an early date. This would explain the close

* It is generally believed that Hottentots are comparatively recent
immigrants in South Africa. Theal tells lis that they preceded the
earliest Portuguese explorers by not more than two or three centuries.
This assertion is based on Koranna tradition collected at Pniel by the
Rev. Kallenberg, but is not adequately supported from other Hottentot
sources, nor even by the Koranna tradition recorded by Arbousset.
The estimate should not be taken too seriously, although no doubt the
pastoral Hottentots were the latest of successive waves of yellow-skinned
invaders.

ABORIGIXES OF EASTEKX PROVIXCE. -^15

resemblance between (ionaqua pottery and that iioni the
Western Province referred to strandloopers by Dr. PeringiTey.
But the evidence of the pottery must not be pressed too far,
as it seems possible that such pots were also made by the
typical pastoral Hottentots of the AVestern Province.

BUSTIMEX.

In the earliest days of South African history most of the
mountainous districts of South Africa were occupied by Bush-
men. At the Cape, in Van Piebeek's time, they were known as
Souqua (Sanqua) or mountain Hottentots, " a very wild people
without houses or cattle " ; and others called Obiqua earned a
bad reputation among-st the pastoral Hottentots as cattle thieves
and murderers. However, they were few in numbers near the
Cape, and were not a menace to the settlement, the adjacent
territory being- held by Hottentot tribes. On Kolben's map,
Sonquas T^alie and Ubiquas Xalie are represented far inland
near the Rio de Infantes. They have also been known from
much earlier times under their Bantu name Buhia or Batoa,*
and thus are represented on Pig-afetta's map (1591) occupying-
ten'itory near Monomotapa. Under such names they have
always fig-ured in history as inland or mountain tribes, main-
taining' continual warfare with the pastoral peoples of the
coast belt.

Although rock-paintings occur in and around Grahams-
town, I have failed to find documentary evidence for the former
existence of Bushmen there. They probably retired northwards
long" before the arrival of the European settlers in the pastoral
districts of the Eastern Province, or it may be, as their name
sug'g-ests, that the Uamasouqua Hottentots contained l^ushman
admixture and that our rock-paintings may be referred to this
tribe. Thus mig-ht be explained the fact that several of the
painting's have a modern apnearance, both in freshness of colour
and in tlie quasi-European dress of certain human figures there
represented.

The Bushmen were described bv Le Vaillant in the follow-
ing temis : — "A collection of Mulattos, jS^egroes, Bastard
whites, and sometimes Hottentots; mongrels of all kinds and
every shade of colour, resembling each other only in treachery
and A'illainy." This was probably the ordinary meaning of
the term. Le Yaillant also realised a more modern conception
of a Bushman race, for he says :■ — ■

" Under the name of Boshis-men are likewise confounded a
nation different from the Hottentots, who, though they use the
.same kind of chicking, liave a particular kind of pronunciation and

* Tlie Suto rendering is Baroa, and, accordiiig to Rev. I. Torrends,
S.J., in his " Grammar of the Soiith African Bantu Languages," this
is no other than the modern form of Parua-im mentioned in the
Old Testament: " and the gold was the gold of Parvaim " (Parua-im),
2 Chron., iii, 6. This seems a reasonable suggestion in view of thei
fact that the ancient gold mines af Mashonaland were in the land of
the Bushmen. But biblical expositors have offered other suggestions,
one of them even connecting the word with Peru in the New World !

316 ABORIGINES OF EASTERN PROVINCE.

terms very different from tlie rest. In some cantons these are
called Chinese Hottentots, because their complexion resembles the
Chinese seen at the Cape. Like them, too, they are of a middling
stature."

He describes tliem as " a particular race of Hottentots,"
and their former home Camdeboo, the Bockeveld and the
Eoog-eveld, and at that time ranging- the vast space between
Cal¥raria and the country of tlie Great Xamaquais. From
Sparrman's account it is clear that Bushmen of this type were
originally numerous between the two Fish Rivers. Writing'
from Ag-ter Bruintjes Hoogte, he says: —

" Not far from here lived the Chinese or Snese Hottentots,
whose chief resort is on each side of the two Fish Rivers. Many
of them had been good serviceable slaves."

He saw remains of their habitations between the two Fish
Rivers.

" Another and more considerable part of this yellow-skinned
nation is dispersed over a tract of country eleven days' journey in
breadth, and situated more to the north than to the north-east of
the Fish Rivers, near a river called Zonio (Tsomo), where some
of them ai'e said to be occupied in the grazing and rearing of cattle.
The rivers running through the country of the Snese-Hottontots
are t'Kamsi-t kay (White kei), t'Nu-t'. kai (Black Kei), Little
Zomo and Great Zomo."

In the Sneeuwberg'en, north of Camdeboo, the Bushmen
were still very numerous towards the end of the eighteenth
century. Barrow tells us that tlie Bosjesmans, known in the
colony as Chinese or Cineeze Hottentots, are " amongst the
ugliest of human beings." The horde or kraal consisted of
five-and-twenty huts, each made of a small grass mat bent
into a semicircle and fastened down between two sticks, open
before, but closed behind with a second mat; they were about
three feet high and four feet Avide. Their domestic arts were
reduced to a minimum. They had woven grass mats and fish
baskets, but apparently no pottery, and Burchell also made no
mention of earthenware utensils in his account of Bi^^^^-^^en.
This seems remarkable in view of the fact that coarse potteiy
is so frequently found in " Bushman " caves. However, we
learn from Arbousset that the Bushwomen of Basutoland did
make pottery, and the available evidence seems to indicate that
whilst the potter's art was unknown to the primitive inland
Bushmen, they readily adopted it under Hottentot or Kaffir
influence (vide Miss M. Wilman).

Kaffirs.

During' the seventeenth century, the Kaffirs had not
advanced so far west of the Great Fish River. The Xosas,*
were known to be in the neigdibourhood of East London by
the j^ear 1686, and in 1702 a band of Kaffirs had actualh'

* For a good account of Bantu migrations, see a paper by
W. Hammond Tooke on the " Geographical Distribution of Hottentot
and Bantu in South Africa " (Records, Albany Museum, vol. ii, 1913).

AISOEIGIXES OF EASTEKX PROVINCE. 317

penetrated the Colony as far as the lioschberg" (Somerset East).
J3ei'ore 1750 the bulk of the Xosas had crossed the Kei, and
by 1775 the whole tribe was west of that river. It was not
until the second half of the eighteenth century that the Xosas
crossed the Great Fish Hiver in numbers. They overran the
districts of Albany and Somerset East, and some went so far
west as the Long- Kloof. C. P. Thunberg, in 1772, saw them
in numbers at the Camtours River, where Hottentots and
Caft'res lived ijroniiscuously. Then commenced a series of
Kaffir wars, by which the Kaffirs were ultimately driven back
beyond the Great Eish Eiver.

Le V'aillant says of them :

" The Caft'res are taller than the Hottentots of the Colonies,
or even than the Gonaquais, though they greatly resemble the
latter, but are more robust and possess a greater degree of pride
and courage. The features of the Caffres are likewise more agree-
able, none of their faces contracting towards the bottom, nor do
the cheekbones of these people project in the imcouth manner of the
Hottentots."

Their huts were big'ger and better made than those of the
Hottentots. Their weapons were asseg'ais and knobkerries,
and in war they carried shields of buffalo hide. He saw them
making- assegais, using- stone hammers and bellows of a most
primitive type — quite different from the double bellows now
employed by the liantu blacksmiths, although according- to
Lichstenstein tlie Xosas did use the double bellows. They
could not extract iron from the ore. They were agri-
culturists having fields of Kaffir corn. Chieftainship was
hereditary, the eldest son succeeding.

In all probability the Kaffir tribes east of the Kei River
all contain a Hottentot element, despite the contempt com-
monly manifested by Xosa Kaffirs towards the Hottentots.
According- to Theal, one Hottentot tribe, the Damaqua, became
completely incorporated with the Amantinde Kaffirs. In
Sparrman's time the Damaqua of Yan Staadens River " seemed
to liave a greater affinity to the Caft'res tlian the Gonaqua had,"
and since that date the Damaqua tribe has had no separate
existence. Another powerful tribe of Kaffirs, the Amagqunu-
kwebe, now living near Kingwilliamstown, but a century
ago notorious as iuA'aders of the Zuurveld, took origin in a
little colony of Hottentots which sheltered fugitive Kaffirs to
such an extent that the Hottentot element became quite
submerged. Their name is just the Kaffir form of the
Hottentot word Gonaqua (see Theal's " History of South
Africa before 1795," vol. iii, p. 79).

To-day, however, the Hottentot element is not notice-
able in their features, or not more so than in other Kaffir'
tribes of this region. For more than a centui-y they have
been regarded as Kaffirs of unmixed origin. But seeing-
that all the Bantu tribes of South Africa show Hottentot or
Bushman influence in the clicks of their speech, it may be that
an aboriginal strain pervades them all.

318 ABORIGINES OF EASTERX PROVIXCE.

Skulls of Easter>- Province " Strandloopers."

In the Albany Museum are a feAv human skulls belonging-
to the abong-mals of the Eastein Province. The most remark^
able IS one unearthed, along with the incomplete skeleton,
from an old burial place on the golf links, Port Alfred. I am
informed that the corjise had been biuied in foetal position,
and that a definite chamber had been excavated for its
reception in the calcareous sandstone. The individual was
an elderly man, and from the natme of his teeth, the crowns
of which are worn quite flat, it may perhaps be infen-ed that
his food had been mixed Avith sand, and thus he was probably
of " strandlooping " habits. However, the skull (PI. XXXI)
in some respects is very different from that of a strandlooper
as defined by Shrubsall,* or from the Bushman as described
by Sir William Turner.! Moreover, it is much larger than
the ordinary ]3ush skull.

It is prognathous subnasal) y ; the forehead is retreating
as well as narrow^, frontal eminences indistinct; the occiput
presents a conspicuous protuberance, and the skull is long.
Seen from above, the parietal eminences are not prominent,
though the breadth there is much greater than more
anteriorly, and in this respect it probably differs from Kaffir
skulls of unmixed origin — in norma occipitalis, the pentagon
is not so well defined as in Bushman skulls, and its sides are
not flattened. The brow ridges are well developed; on the
right side is a supra-orbital foramen, on the left side a notch ;
orbits rectangular, with the long axes oblique. The face
is very broad, the cheek-bones strongly projecting. The
lower margin of the nasal orifice is rounded off and indistinct.
Xasal bones aie broken, but evidently small and obliquely
inclined, the nose being flattened greatly but not to an
extreme extent, and the maxillary does not encroach on the
bridge. Frontal and squamosal are separated, temporal
fossae ill-filled. There is a very strongly developed temporal
lidge ; the vertex is not flattened. The mastoid process is
moderately large, and the supra-mastoid groove is shallow
and broad.

The mandible (PI. XXXII) is a most characteristic feature
of this specimen. The ascending ramus is greatly elongated
in the antero-posterior direction, but is short in a vertical
direction. This character, as first pointed out by Professor
Rolleston,+ is one which at once serves to distingiiish Bush
from Kaffir mandibles, and in the specimen before us witnesses
definitely to a non-Kaffir element. In Bush mandibles the
ascending ramus is always comparatively broad and low as
compared with those of Kaffirs.

The least breadth of the ramus (-40 mm.) far exceeds
that of any specimen recorded from South Africa. _ In six
Bushmen skulls recorded by Turner, the range is only

* " Annals of South African Museum," vols, v and viii,. .
t lieport of H.M.S. " Challenger," " Zoology," vol. x.
+ In " Matal)eland and Victoria P'alls," by F. Oates.

AliOEIGINES OF EASTERN PROVINCE. 319

30-5-35 mm., and Slniibsall's series of eight ]iuslimen and
strandloopers ranged from 32-37 mm. The fossil Mauer jaw
has a least breadth of 50-52 mm., whilst that of average
Gernmns is said to he only 27 or 28 mm. The sigmoid notch
is also lemarkably shallow in this specimen, with very- low
coronoid process, and another very noticeable feature is the
strongly everted angle, which again is Bush character in
exaggerated form. The chin is quite distinct, and the lower
jaw projects in front beyond the upper. The mandible as a;
whole is slender and light.

The measurements are as follows : —
Cranial capacity, 1415 c.c.
Basi-bregmatic height, 130'5 mm.
Maximum breadth, 139 mm.
Bi-maxillary breadth, 108 mm.
Maximum glabello-occipital length, 192 mm.
Bizygomatic breadth, 144 mm, (This is noticeably

great.)
JN^aso-alveolar height, G9 (circa).
Orbital height, 32 mm.
Orbital breadth, 42 mm.
Basi-alveolar length, 108 (circa).
Basi-nasal length, 1085 mm.
Height of ramus of mandible, 44 mm.
Bi-condyloid breadth, 122 mm.

Thus, in terms of physical anthropology, it is dolicho-
cephalic (72'4), chamaecephalic (68), mesognathous (99'5),
metriocephalio (94), chamaeprosopic (48) and microseme (70).

On a flat table, this skull rests posteriorly on the mastoids,
the cerebellar part of the occipital bone and the condyle being-
well raised up.

I cannot pretend to assign this solitary specimen with
certainty to his proper place in the system. There is without
doubt a strong strain of the San race, but if the pure type of
that race is the strandlooper described by Dr. Shrubsall, some
other elements must be intermingled, judging- from such
characters as the length and shape of the skull, the weak
forehead, and the size of the mastoids. It agrees with typical
strandloopers rather than with Hottentots — as understood by
Shrubsall — in the chamaecephalic skull, the broad rectangular
orbits, and the very broad cliamaeprosopic face.

We have no other example quite like the above, but con-
siderably resembling' it in the shape of the cranium is a badly
broken skull from the sand-hills. Port Alfred. The length is
203 mm. There is the same occipital protuberance; parietal
eminences fairly distinct; broAV ridges moderate, temporal
ridges weak ; nasals considerably flattened ; face and eye-
sockets not so broad, and cheek bones not so strongly
projecting as in the above example, and very little subnasal
prognathism ; a sliarp rima borders the nasal opening, which
is not broad. The mandible is lacking, unfortunately. Partly
owing to the bulging occiput, this skull is longer than any in

320 ABORIGINES OF EASTERN TROVINC'E.

our colleftion that can be referred with certainty to recent
Kaffirs, but resembles some of them in facial characters.
It is possibly a Kaffir-Hottentot-l^ush hybrid, the non-Bush
elements predominant.

Another specimen from the sand-hills at Kleinemonde,
consisting- of brain case only, is still lonoer, 204 mm. It is,
however, narrow as well as long, and lias no parietal eminences,
nor is there a well-marked occipital protuberance.

In addition to these large- and long-headed strandloopers,
the Albany Museum has one specimen from the sand-hills. Port
Alfred, which seems typically strandlooper so far as can be
judged from the size and shape of the cranium, its face and
mandible being lacking. Moreover, this specimen is note-
worthy in possessing a fronto-sqUamous suture on both sides.
Yet amongst a few complete Hottentot or Bush skulls from
the same locality, not one agrees wholly with the western
strandlooper type. A skeleton from Port Alfred (exhibited
as that of a lUishwonian) is distinctly prognathous (103"2),
the teeth large and crowded, eye-sockets comparatively
rounded, and the lower margin of the nasal aperture well
rounded off. Another female specimen, from the Port Alfred
golf links, though not so prognathous (lOO), has the ascending
ramus of tlie mandible rather high and the sigmoid notch
deep.

A strandlooper skull. from East London, unearthed during
excavations made in the construction of a patent slip in 1896,
is tapeinocephalic and chamaecephalic, but very prognathous
(104), and the nose is not compressed, though the aperture is
fairly broad. This specimen is interesting in possessing a
perfect suture across the riglit malar bone, as also found in
Bushmen by Prof. Rolleston. The sigmoid curve of the
mandible is comparatively shallow, and the coronary process
low, but the condyloid process is high. The mastoids are
small, and the skull rests beliind only on the cerebellar part
of the occipital.

Amongst the various eastern strandlooper skulls in the
Albany Museum, the one which conforms best to the western
strandlooper type came from Port Elizabeth, being unearthed
during Harbour Board excavations. This is chamaecephalic
and almost orthognathous, the index being about 98. Yet tlie
mastoids are relatively well developed, and the skull rests
behind on these and the cerebellar part of the occipital ; it
is, moreover, tapeinocephalic (88).

Knowing al)solutely nothing concerning the antiquity of
any of these specimens, the available data is much too small
to warrant a connected account of the eastern strandloopers.
Whether the short-headed orthognathous men of tlie Western
Province ever lived here we do not know.

The evidence of the skulls seems to harmonise Avith that
of history in witnessing to the former occurreiice along our
coast- of bastard tribes containing Bush, Hottentot and Kafhr
elements, the skulls examined constituting a verv hetero-

S.A. JOUKXAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XXXI.

" STRANI)L001>1:R " SKCLL from port ALFRED.

• S'l'RANDI.UOl KH" SKILL FROM
PORT ALFRED.

S.A. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVII.

PLATE XXXII.

^rANOrULE OF PORT ALFRED " STRANDLOOPER."

(Note that the hole pierced in tlie eoiulyle is artificial.)

STRANDLOOPER" SKULL FROM
PORT ALFRED.

aboeiginp:s of eastern province. 321

geneoiis lot. It is very improbable, however, that such skulls
jnerely represent various g-rades of intennixtiire between the
true strandloopers and the Kaffirs.

In several respects the skull first mentioned resembles
those described by Professor Elliot Smith under the name of
rroto-Egyptian.* This authority lays stress on the fact that
the typical pre-dynastic mandible had a. very short but broad
ramus, and shallow sigmoid notch, thus differing greatly
from the mandibles of the aliens who entered Egypt unde\-
dynastic times. Moreover, the Proto-Egyptian had a long,
narrow skull, with the occiput bulged out into a marked
prominence of the back of the head. On the other hand, the
face was narrow, thus differing from the Bush-Hottentot type.
This seems significant in view of the fact that various
authorities on linguistic grounds have noted a relationshij)
between the Hottentots and various pastoral Hamitic tribes
of North-East Africa, one of those tribes, the Gallas, even
making use of clicks. It may be that the source of the
bulging occiput, conspicuously developed in the above-
mentioned specimen, and represented in various Bushman
skulls according to Sir William Turner, is to be traced to
the earliest Hotteiitots, who centuries ago left the cradle of
their race in North-East Africa, and, along with herds of
long-horned cattle and flocks of fat-tailed sheep, slowly made
their way to the pastures of the south. t

* " The Ancient Egyptians," by G. Elliot Smith.

t On the relationship of South African tribes to those of tropical
and North Africa, the reader may find useful information in Sir Harry
Johnston's paper, " A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa " (Journal,
l?oy. Antlirop. Instit., vol. 43, 1913). His account of strandloopers,
thougli said to he based on Shruljsall's conclusions, seems to me
somewhat strained.

,^i — S<g,

ju L I B H A, R Y I 33

THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF A STUDY OF THE
NEMATODES, WITH REMAEKS ON THE LIFE
HISTOEY OF HETERODERA IN SOUTH AFEICA.

By J. Sandground, M.Sc,

Lecturer in TjOology, University College, Johannesburg.

Read July 15, 1920.

The numerous difficulties associated with the study of tlie
Nematodes, or " thread-worms," has not tended to encourage
investigation on this important group, with the result that at
the present time probably rather less is known about the grouj)
than (^' any other of comparable magnitude. Many problems
of the biology even of some of the better known members of
the group remain unsettled, while the existing knowledge
of the affiuities of the group as a whole with other groups of
the animal kingdom leaves much to be desired. Numerically,
the Nematodes are a very large group, and the variety of form
that they;, exhibit is said to rival that of the insects.
Correlated with this great variety in form is found an equally
large variety in habits, ranging from the free-living
Anguillulidae, and j) regressing by almost imperceptible
gradations until the completely parasitic existence, such as is
found in many of the members of the Filariidae and Trichi-
nellidae, is assumed. Some of the members of the group
possess a remarkable plasticity in habit, and are able to adapt
themselves to most profound change in habitat and other
surrounding influences, demonstrating the phenomenon of
incipient parasitism clearly. As an example, Anguilluln
putrefaciens, normally found in decaying onions, is recorded
from the stomach of a man suffering from nausea. Again,
Rhahditis peUio, a free-living inhabitant of damp soil, has
been described as causing vaginal infections, and has further-
more been found capable of infecting rats when experimentally
introduced.

Dr. N. A. Cobb, an eminent authority on free-living and
plant-parasitising Nematodes, in reviewing the vastness of
the numbers of the Nematodes, the enormous variety of their
forms and the important relationships that they bear to man-
kind, states: " The Nematodes offer an exceptional field of
study, and probably constitute almost the last great organic
group worthy of a separate branch of biological science com-
I'arable with Entomology." For this new branch of science
the name " Nematology " is proposed by Cobb, althougli the
term " Helminthology " is well established and includes the
studv of these forms.

ECOXOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES. 323

111 order to point out more prominentlj- the role played by
the Nematodes as parasites of great economic importance, the
following' list has been prepared. It is hoped that it may help
to supply a want felt by zoologists in South Africa for a general
list of Nematode parasites. For the sake of convenience the
subject has been treated under three main heads, according- to
the hosts affected — agricultural crops, domestic animals,
and man.

Some remarks are also appended (Section IV.) on the
author's researches on the life-history of Heterodera in South
Africa.

I. — Some Nematodes of Agricultural Importance.

Almost without exception, the Nematodes, or " eel-
worms," that parasitise the tissues of plants, belong to the
family Anguillulidae, while the genera mainly concerned are
AphelencJius, Heterodera and TylencJufs. Yery few plants
are totally immune to the ravages of one or other species of
these genera, and the tissues infested, although often localised,
may vary from the roots to parts of the stem, vascular tissues
of the leaves, etc. The genera AphelencJuts, Heterodera and
Tylenchus are characterised by the presence of a buccal spear,
a chitiiious organ, which enables them to pierce the root tissues
in order to carry on their parasitic life effectively.

Of special importance are the following:- —

AphelencJius armerodus .—A parasite on violet buds.
A. cocopJiilus. — The cause of serious maladies in
the coco-nut palms in the West Indies.

A. pyri. — A remarkable parasite which causes pears
to decay.

A. fragaria. — A destructive strawberry parasite.

Heterodera schachtn. — It was probably due to the
ravages of this organism that the attention of observers
such as Schacht, in 1859, and Schmidt, in 1871, was
first drawn to the importance of Nematodes as serious
plant pests. H. schachtii was demonstrated to be the
direct cause of " sugar beet sickness " in Germany and
many other European countries. The same parasite has
since been found to form galls, or root swellings, on
maize, barley, rye, oats, winter and spring wheat. In
hops it causes the disease known as " nettle-head."

Heterodera radicicola. — 'This is without doubt the
most troublesome of Nematode plant parasites. The
roots of the plant are attacked by the larval worms, and
large disfiguring galls, or root-knots, are produced,
which usually interfere with and upset the vital func-
tions of the roots. More than 500 plants, the majority
of which are of economic value, are attacked by this
parasite. Among the more important host plants are:
Most orchard trees, such as peach, apple, g'rape, fig,

'324 ECONOMIC IMPOKTANCE OF ^•EMATODES.

" lady-finger " banana, etc.; many oi-namental slirubs
and flowers, such as carnation, rose, violet, snapdragon,
etc. ; numerous vegetable crops, sucli as carrots, turnips,
cabbages, potatoes, tomatoes; cereals, sucli as oats,
wheat (Triticvjii aestivuin), and perhaps maize, and
other plants such as tea, coffee, tobacco, cotton, flax,
okra, lucerne, rubber tree, elm, sugar cane, together
with many others, are more or less seriously damaged.

I Remarks on the life-history of Heferodera, as investigated
by me in South Africa, will be found on page 330.

Tylenchvs acutocaudaf us . — The causative agent of
a disease in banana groves recently reported from the
vicinity of Alexandria. The same parasite has also been
found in coffee trees.

T . hiforinis. — A parasite of the roots of sugar cane.
Reported from Haw^aii.

T . devastatri.T, syn. : T . dtpsaci, T. scandens. —
This is the common stem eel-w^orm widely distributed
over Europe, Australia and other countries. It is
responsible for much damage to onions, narcissus bulbs
' and buckwheat. It produces ,stem rot in clover. In

South Africa, although only of recent introduction, it
has become widespread, and makes the cultivation of
lucerne almost impossible in many districts. When
once introduced, its eradication has, so far, proved
impossible.

T. oryzae. — Infests rice plants in Java {? = T.
angusta, a rice plant parasite of Bengal.)

T. mahoganii. — A parasitic Nematode connected
with a disease in the mahogany tree.

T. penetrans. — First described from the roots of
violets in New York (1911). It has since been recorded
from potatoes, cotton, and camphor tree roots.

T . sem.ipenetrans.-—K. parasite of the roots of citrus
plants in California, Algeria, Australia, etc.

T. similis. — ^A parasite described by Cobb (1915),
in the roots of sugar cane and banana.

T. sacchari. — ^The probable cause of a sugar cane
disease known as " sereh."

T. tritici.- — ^Causes a pernicious disease of wheat,

producing " ear-cockles." "Widespread in Europe and

America.

Besides the direct damage inflicted by Nematodes, as

plant parasites, a much wider role has been assigned to them

in the production of disease. Not infrequently their presence

in the roots permits the invasion of malignant bacteria and

other pathogenic organisms, which are the primary causes of

disease. An example of a bacterial disease of cotton roots,

made possible by the ravages of. Nematodes, is found in the

" black-root " disease in America.

EtONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES. 325

II.— Nematodes in Domesticated Animals.

All genera of vertebrates are said to liarbour one or more
species of Nematode parasites. Often, however, the number of
parasites that are peculiar to certain hosts, such as sheep, oxen,
horses and dogs, is quite formidable, and the losses incurred
as a result of their activities are very considerable.

The study of the Nematode parasites of domesticated
animals, their life-histories and methods of control, has already
attained considerable proportions, as shown by the literature,
but much still remains to be done. The taxonomy is difficult.
Only a rough classification, sufficient to indicate the general
position of some of the principal parasites, is used here.

The following is a list of some of the chief Nematodes
found in domesticated animals : —

ANGIOSTOMIDAE.

Strongjjloides papillosus (lotujus) is parasitic in
the small intestine of sheep, pigs and rabbits.

PiohsUiunjria vivipara is found in the large intes-
tine of the horse and donkey.

GNATHOSTOMIDAE.

Gnathostoma Jiispiduin is found in the stomach of
the pig and ox.

FILARIIDAE.

Filar ta initans is the cause of " summer sores "
in horses in Australia.

F. clava occurs in the peri-tracheal connective tissue
of the pigeon.

F. spiculaiia occurs in the sub-pleural and sub-
peritoneal tissue of the ostrich.

F . gaUinarinn occurs in the intestine of the fowl.

F . (Diio florid ) immitis is found in tlie heart of
dogs.

F. (Setaria) equina occurs in the jieritoneal cavity
of horses.

Thelazia — T . lacrymalis and other species are para-
sitic in the lachrymal glands, eyeball and under eyelids
in many mammals, e.g., horse, ox, buffalo, camel, dog.
A vspecies was recently found in the eye of an ox in
Johannesburg.

Onchocerca reticulata has been found in the
ligaments of the fore-limbs of horses; 0. cervicalis in
liorses ; 0. lienalis in cattle, and 0. gihsoni occurs in the
subcutaneous (" wormy ") nodules in cattle in Queens-
land.
Besides being the host of the adult worms, many larval
Nematodes (Microfilariae) are found in the blood of cattle in
India and Africa.

Spiroptera megastoma and ;S'. microstoma occur in
the stomach of the horse and donkey ; >S'. sanguinolenta
in the dog; ,S'. pectinifera in gizzard of fowl;
,S^. strongylina in stomach of pig.

326 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES.

Gongylonerna scutatum, parasitic in the oesophagtis
of sheep, cattle, goats and horses; G. verrucosum in
rumen of sheep and cattle; G. ingluvicola, in the crop
of poultry.

Dispharagus. — ^Many species occur in the digestive
tracts of fowls.

O/vijspirura. — Several species occur in the nictitat-
ing membrane cf birds.

Si7no7}dsia -porado.ta occurs in the stomach of
the pig.

TRICnOTRACHELIUAE.

Trichosomum. — Numerous species parasitic in the
bladder of the dog and cat, and in the gut of poultry and
game birds.

TricJiinella spiralis. — The larval stage is passed in
the gut and muscles of various domestic animals,

Trichtiris, syn. Trichocephalus. — Numerous species
known popularly as " whip-worms " are found in the
large intestine, especially the caecum, of domestic
animals, e.g., T. ovis (aifi.nis) in cattle, sheep and
goats; T. crenatvs (stiilla) in pigs.

EUSTRONGYLIDAE.

Eustrongylus visceralis occurs in the pelvis of the
kidney of the dog, horse, ox, pig, etc,

STRONGYLIDAE.

Metastrongylus apri, in the trachea and bronchi of
the pig" and sheep; also M. hrevivaginatus in the pig.

Dictyocaulus arnfieldi occurs in the bronchi of
horses; D. filaria, occurring in the bronchial tubes of
lambs and sheep, is said to cause " husk " or " hoose " ;
D. ■micrtirus, in deer; D. viviparvs in cattle.

Synth etocanhis rufescens and other species in
pulmonary tissues of sheep and goats.

H ae inostrongylus vasonim, in the heart of the dog.

Haemonclius contortus. — The " wire-worm " of
sheep, g'oats and cattle, occurring in the abomasum.

Graphidium strigosum, in the stomach of rabbits.

Nematodirus filicoUis, in the small intestine of
sheep ; A\ digitatus in cattle.

Tricliostrongylus retortaefonnis in the small intes-
tine of rabbits ; T . extenuatus in the small intestine of
sheep and cattle; T. axei in horses; T. vitrimis and
T. proholurvs in sheep, camel (also in man) ; T. insta-
hilis ill sheep and goats; T. pergracilis in grouse;
T . douglasi in the proventriculus of ostriches.

Ostertogia ostertagi is found in the abomasum of
cattle and sheep; f). circumcincfa and (K frifurcata in
sheep,

Cooperia curticei occurs in the small intestine of
sheep and cattle; C. oncophora in cattle.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES. 321

Vesophayostonium radiatuiii is found in the intes-
tine of cattle; Oe. coluvihianum in sheep and cattle;
Oe. 'venulosum in sheep and g-oats; Oe. dentatuni
in pigs.

ChahertUi ovina is found in the large intestine of
sheep and goats.

Agriostomuvi vryhurgi occurs in the small intestine
of certain cattle.

Ancylostoma canimim, in the small intestine of
clogs and cats.

Characostomuui longemucronatuni, in small intes-
tine of pig.

Bunostomutii frigonocepJialum, in small intestine
of sheep and goats; B. phlehotomuiii in cattle.

Gaigeria pachyscelis, in the intestine of sheep and
cattle.

Gyalocephalus capitatiis is found in the large
intestine of mules.

TriodontopJioi U.S minor and T . scriatus, in the large
intestine of donkeys.

Cylicostoinuin.- — Tlie following species have been
found in the larg-e intestine of tlie horse and donkey:- — •
C. alceatum, auriculatuin, hicoronatxiin, calicatum,
catinatiun, coi'onatiun, elongatuui, lahiatuni, lahraUim,
nassatuin, pocidatuiii , radiatum and fefracanthum.

OesophagodonUis robustus, in the caecum of the
horse and mule.

Several species, occurring* in the digestive tracts of
cattle, sheep and goats, formerly referred to the genus
Strongylus, are now distributed in other genera. The
nomenclature of the Strongylidae is still difficult and
confused. Several sub-families, such as Metastrongy-
linae, Trichostrong'ylinae and Strongylinae have been
founded. Further investigation is needed.

From the large intestine, especially the caecum of
the horse, the following species of Strongylus have been
recorded : .S'. equinus, edenfafux and vulgaris.

Syngarjivs tracJiealis and S. hroncliialis occur in the
trachea and bronchi of fowls, pheasants, turkeys, pea-
cocks and geese, causing- "gapes"; S. laryngeus in
cattle; S. nasicola in goats.

Stephanurns dentatus has been found in the adipose
tissue around the kidney of the pig.

ASCABIDAE.

Ascaris suuvi (s^lilhl) occurs in the small intestine
of pigs; A. avis in sheep; A. vitulorum in cattle;
A. megalocephala in horses; A. crassa in ducks; A. lon-
choptera in the elephant.

Belascaris inarginata is found in the intestine of
dogs; B. inystax (~B. cati) in cats.

Toxascaris Itmhata occurs in the intestine of the
dog and also accidentally in man.

328 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES.

Heteralds perspicilluni is found in the intestine of
fowls, turkeys and guinea-fowls; H . vesicularis in
poultry and game birds; H. coluvihae in pig-eons.

Oxyurus cnrvula has been found in the intestine of
the horse, mule and donkey; 0. coin par in cats;
O. amhigua in rabbits.

III. — Some Nematodes Paeasitic in Man.

The Nematode parasite fauna of man is very large and
A^ry diverse in character, consisting- of members of nearly all
the genera of the group. Some of the examples recorded may
be regarded fts only " accidental " or occasional parasites,
but the large majority depend upon man for their normal
host, in whom they j)ass their larval development or adult
parasitic phase.

The following list includes only some of the most import-
ant parasites, no attempt being made to exhaust the record of
human Nematode parasites : —

ANGVILLVLIDAE.

Rhahditis (Lepfodera) pellio, from the vagina ;
B. nieliyi has been found in skin papules in a child.

AnyuiUuIa aceti, the " vinegar eel-worm," has
been recorded from the human bladder and from vomits.
A. pntrefacieufi has also been found in vomits.

ANGIOSTOMIDAE.

Strongyloides stercoialis. — The causal agent of a
type of diarrhoea first described from soldiers in Cochin
China.

GNA THOSTOMIDAE.

GnatJio stoma sianiense (P= G. spinigerum). —
Recorded from the skin of a Siamese, where it produces
nodules.

FH YSA LOPTERIDA E.

Physalopfoa inonlcns and /"*. caiicasia. — Parasitic
in stomach and small intestine.

FILAIUIDAE.

Filaria hancrofti. — Adults found in lymphatic
system. There is a microfilaria! stage, Mf. nocturno,
found in the blood. Causes elephantiasis, chyluria and
lymphang'itis in tropical countries, e.g., China. India,
West Indies and Queensland. Transmitted by mos-
quitoes.

F. demarquayi. — Adiilt females found in the
mesentery, larvae in the blood. Distribution: West
Indies, British Guiana.

F. taiii guchi .—Vixvixsiiic in the lymphatic glands.
Japan.

ECOXOMIC IMPOETAXCE OF XEMATODES . 329

Aca7itliocheilonema j^erstans .—\({u\i foiius found
at base of the mesentery, especially around the pancreas.
Larval form, Mf. perstans, in blood. Tropical Africa,
British Guiana.

Loa Zoa.— Found in various superficial connective
tissues, such as those of the conjunctiva, eyelid and other
parts, g'iving- rise to Calabar swellings. Larval stage is
Mf. diurna in the blood. Transmitted by Chnjsops fly.
Distribution: West Africa.

Onchocerca iwlvulus.—Yonnd in subcutaneous
tumours. Occurs in West Africa.

DRACUNCULIDAE.

Dracunciihis iiicdinensis (" Guinea-worm "). —
Inhabits the subcutaneous connective tissue, and causes
superficial ulcers on the legs and feet. Larvae trans-
mitted by Cyclops, a fresh-water Ciiistacean. Endemic
in Tropical Africa, South America, Arabia, India.

DIROFILARIIDAE.

Diro filar ia inagalJiaesi.- — Found post-mortem in the
heart. Eeported from Rio de Janeiro.

TRICHIXELLIDAE.

Trichinella spiralis. — In the adult stage, this
parasite normally inhabits the small intestine of the
pig, wild boar, rat and man. The females are vivipar-
ous, and the larvae, deposited in the lymph spaces of
the intestines, are carried by the lymphatic and blood
streams to the muscular system in which they eventually
encyst. The encapsuled larvae, which may occur in the
muscles of man or pig", are liberated, and arrive at
maturity when introduced with food into another host.
This parasite, when present in large numbers, may be
fatal to man. Distribution almost universal.

Trichuris trichiura (Trichocephalus dispar of
earlier writers). — 'The common '' whip-worm " of man.
It inhabits the caecum, vermiform appendix and colon,
and may cause anaemia and disturbances of the nervous
system. Distribution is apparently world-wide.

DIOCTOPHYMIDAE.

Dioctophymc rcnolc. — This parasite is usually
found in the pelvis of the kidney of the dog, wolf, fox
and horse, but is occasionally found in man,

STRONGYLIDAE.

Trichostrongylus instahilis and T. vifrinus are
occasionally found in man.

Ternidens deminutus has been recorded from the
large intestine of natives in JSTyasaland.

Oesophagostommn hrumpti was found in tumours
of the caecum and colon of an East African native.

330 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF NEMATODES.

Oesophaf/o.stoinuin stephauostomuiii lias been
recorded from submucosal liaemorrliagic cysts in the
human intestine.

Ancylostonia duodenale. — The " miner' s-worm,"
or " hook-worm." Inhabits the small intestine, chiefly
the jejunum, and causes pernicious anaemia. Its occur-
rence is world-wide.

A. ceylanicum, and A. hraziliense are allied forms.

Necator americanvs. — This parasite was formerly
confused with Ancylostonia duodenale ^ and its action is
similar. 1+'^ distribution is also wide.

ascahidae.

Ascaris lit mhiico ides. — This parasite, popularly
known as the " round " worm, is one of the most
frequent parasites of man, in the intestines of whom
they often occur in large numbers. It is universal in its
distribution.

OXYURIDAE.

O.vyun's vermicidaris. — The common " seat-worm,"
inhabits the large intestine. The young- fonns are
frequently found in the vermiform appendix, and
latterly a role has been suggested or assigned to them
in the cause of appendicitis.

lY. — Some Remarks on the Life-History of Heterodera
IN South Africa.

The life-history of Heterodera radicicola may perhaps be
treated more extensively, as it merits observation both on
account of the peculiarities of its development and because
of the practical interest that must be attached to one of the
most destiiictive and, at the same time, one of the most
uncontrollable of plant parasites. The genus has been the
subject of investigation by the author of this paper for a
considerable time past, and the following is a brief resume
of its development, together with some observations on the
biology of the parasite, which, it is hoped, may help to
elucidate the numerous difficulties and problems that have
arisen .

On cutting (i])en the " gall " or " knot " of a root
infested with Heterodera, a variable number of pearly white
pear-shaped " cysts " about 0*7 mm. in length are visible.
These " cysts " prove to be the adult gravid females of the
parasite, which have become swollen on account of the large
numbers of eggs within the body, and it is to iiTitation of the
root tissues set up bv their presence that the lapid multi-
plication of cells, leading eventually to the formation of root
galls, is due. In the parasite, presumably H. radicicola ,
common througliout vSouth Africa, that has been investigated,
the eggs, sixty to eighty in number, undergo segmentation,
and the larvae emerge from the e^^ cases while still within
the uterus of the now defunct mother. Despite careful

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OE NEMATODES. 331

observations, no ecdysis of the larval cuticle has been noted
beiore or soon after the larva hatches from the egg. The
laiA'ae pierce their way through the uterine and body walls
of the mother, and so escape into the root tissues. They do
not appear to grow to any considerable extent after hatching.
Morphologicall}-, the larvae cioselj^ resemble those of the
genus TyiencUus and Aplielenckxis, and indeed they cannot
be distinguished from these except perhaps on a basis of size,
the larvae of H. radicicola measuring from 340 to 370 /x in
length, with an average uniform breadth of 15 /x. One of
the most prominent structures of their anatomy is a chitinous
boring organ, the so-called spear, situated in the pharynx.
By means of this structure the larva is enabled to pierce a
passage out of the root into the soil, where it may lie dormant
for a time, then seek out and peuetrate another rootlet.
But, should conditions within a root be favourable, the lai'ra
may not abandon the root in which it was hatched, but may
migrate to adjacent healthv tissues and there undergo sexual
differentiation. At any rate, sexual differentiation does not
take place outside the tissues of a root. The future sex of
the larva cannot be ascertained prior to tlie commencement of
the developmental metanioi'phosis. Evidence has recently
been acquired by the author which indicates that the larva
in the soil undergoes an ecdysis. However, the old skin is
not cast, but adheres to the new larval cuticle, giving it a
double appearance. Sexual dift'erentiation, which is accom-
panied by a profound change in shape and alteration of
internal organs, commences soon after the lam-a has reached
the vascular tissues of the root and has commenced to absorb
nourishment. Both sexes of the parasite swell to a consider-
able extent, so altering their primitive Avonu-like shape.
Rudiments of reproductive organs appear at a comparatively
early stage.

Within the swollen female larva a new organisation is
gradually built up by a process comparable with the formation
of the imago insect within the pupa. The new organism,
however, does not leave the lai'\'al encasement, but comes to
occupy its entire body, assuming the role of the mature female
with a prominent external genital aperture. This complicated
process must be regarded as another ecdysis, but again the
old cuticle is not discarded. Fertilisation of the female can
only take place in the root tissues, because the shape of the
female will not permit any movement on its part.

In the development of the adult male, the metamorphosis
is even more intense than in the female. The larva, having
fed and grown to a certain extent, enters into a state of
complete quiescence and seems to be lifeless. But soon the
presence of a new individual within the swollen dormant larva
becomes manifest. This individual grows and lengthens and
assumes a vermiform appearance, coiled up witliin the old
body. Finally, this worm escapes from its larval envelope
as the mature male, whose length' varies from 700 /x to 2,590 //.

332 ECONOMIC IMrORTANCE OF NEHtlATODES .

Ill connection with the stiiicture of the male leproductive
organs, there has been much controversy. Stone and Smith,
working- in 1898 on H. radicicnla, came to the conclusion that
the male gonads consisted of a pair of testes. E. A. Bessey
(1911), on the other hand, shares the view with Atkinson
(1889) that there is only a single testis in H. radlcicohi, and
states that a double testis in the male is one of the charac-
teristics of H. schachtii, the sugar-beet gall-worm of Europe.
So far, all efforts on the part of the author to procure
specimens of H. schachtii parasitic in South Africa have been
unsuccessful. Among the parasites prevalent in South Africa
a number of adult males have been carefully examined, and in
these only a single testis was evident, but in others taken
from the same infested material, and so presumably of the
same species, two well-developed separate testes were
distinctly visible. The question consequently arises regarding
the validity of two separate species of the genus Heterodera.
It seems possible that the presence of two testes in the male
may be a variation of comparatively large magnitude and of
not infrequent occurrence, or it may be that two testes are
developed and one atrophies or unites with its fellow at a
certain stage in its development so as to appear single. Other
characters stated to be peculiar to one or other species also
seem to be inconstant when tested with parasites from different
sources.

The biological and bionomical activities of Heferodeva
still require further investigation, in order that more
successful attempts may be made to deal effectively with this
pest. Problems such as the absence of the parasites from
plots of ground which have been badly infested during
previous seasons and have undergone no special treatment
to exterminate the parasites, while ordinarily a plot of ground
once infested may remain so for a large number of years,
seem at present inexplicable. The explanation will probably
come when more definite infonnation on the resistant stages
of the life cycle, whereby the parasite can withstand adverse
climatic conditions, and whereby their distribution is affected,
is acquired.

Concluding Remarks, with Special Eeference to South

Africa.

The value of a study of the i^ematodes. both from the
purely scientific view-point as well as from the position that
the group occupies in relation to agriculture and disease,
cannot be over-emrdiasised. Erom the " pure science " aspect,
much research has already been accomplished, and the results
that have been derived therefrom have been of paramount
importance^as an instance, our first insight into the highly
romplicated process of karyokinesis, or division of the nuclear
chromatin wliicli precedes the fertilisation of the ovum, was
obtained from the study of the eggs of Ascaris, the common
round-wonn of man. On tlie other hand, a great deal still

ECONOMIC IMrORTANCE OF NEMATODES. 33S

remains to be done in the interests of applied science. Especi-
ally do the free-living- and plant parasitic genera require
immediate attention, but it can only be a matter of time noAv
before the ravages caused by " eel-wonns " to the majority
of our crops will compel their closer investigation. A slight
conception of the enormous losses to agriculture inflicted by
some of the better known Nematode plant parasites may be
obtained from the following brief considerations : —

Heterodera radicicola, the parasite causing root-galls, or
root-knot, is perhaps the most serious of Nematode crop pests.
It infests over 500 species of plants, more than half of which
number are of economic value. The actual monetary loss to
farmers, due to this parasite, is inestimable. Cobb states that
the losses would amount to a fortune for a nation. The parasite
has a world-wide distribution, and certain localities are some-
times so badly infested as to make agriculture impossible. So
far, no effective remedy, whicli can be satisfactorily applied
on a large scale, has been devised.

H. .<^e]iac]itii, the European sugar-beet parasite, makes beet
cultivation impossible in heavily infected fields. When only
slightly infected, a loss of one-third of the entire crop is not
uncommon.

TylencJms tritici, the cause of " ear-cockles " in wheat,
not only decreases and depreciatesi the yield of grain, but
during its sojourn in the tissues seriously handicaps the growtli
of the plant. This Nematode disease lias proved in some cases
to be one of the most destructive diseases to whicli wheat is
subject, often causing losses to the extent of 25 to 50 per cent,
of the crop value.

T. devastatrid-, as its name implies, is a most destructive
organism, causing much damage to hyacinth bulbs, onions,
buckwheat, etc. It is of comparatively recent introduction
into South Africa, and already makes the cultivation of lucerne
impossible in many districts. So far, its eradication has not
been effected. The ravages of this Nematode on lucerne, the
principal food of the ostricli, and the losses caused by
Trichostronfiylus douglasi, the Nematode parasite of ostriches,
threatened at one time to ruin tlie iiidustiy in certain parts of
the Cape Colony.

The destructive activities of Nematode parasites among
stock and other domestic animals are too well known to require
repetition.

As regards the Nematode parasites of man. it is often
apparent that their distribution is more or less localised. South
Africa is happily free from many of those pests which are
prevalent in adjoining territories, but it is also seen that the
physical and other conditions, which would allow of the
flourishing of some of these parasites if once introduced, are
often present in this country. A potential danger thus exists,
and an adequate knowledge of the life-history and bionomics
is necessary to prevent the introdiiction of the parasites. In
the same way it is evident that in dealing- with microscopic

334 ECONOMIC IMPOKTAN'CE OF NEMATODES.

parasites, such as the majority of lYematodes are, it is only
when equipped with a detailed knowledg-e of the life aud habits
of a pest that we can reasonably hope to control its ravag-es or
effect its eradication. This entails an enormous amount of
study and investigation, and it is to be hoped that, when the
zoological survey of the Fnion is begun, one of the first g-roups
that will receive systematic attention will be the Nematodes,
the study of which group, tog-ether with the economic results
that are to be achieved, hold out such g^reat inducements.

I desire to express hearty thanks to the Research Grant
Board for a grant-in-aid, whereby the collection of material for
the research on lieterodera was greatly facilitated.

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES.

By Rev. Charles Pettman.

Read July 17, 1920.

There appears to be little question that the Hottentots
came originally from Northern Africa, and that travelling-
southward they were subsequently cut off from the original
stock by the intrusion of other nations. Driven by the pressure
of these nations they found their way southward and westward
to the coast of the sub-continent, and, following the coast,
ultimately reached its southernmost point. Thence, still
following the coast, this time eastwards, they made their way
nearly, if not quite, to the borders of the present Natal, where
they found their course blocked by the southward moving-
Bantu peoples. It was not until, perhaps, centuries later, that
in remnants of broken tribes and with no small amount of
mixed blood (Korannas, Griquas, Bastards), they were forced
back to the vast plains of the Trans-Garieb, receding this time
before the advance of the white men who had settled in the
south.

How long before the advent of tlie Euroi)eans the
Hottentots had established themselves all round the coast of
South Africa from the Kunene on the west to the proximity of
Natal on the east it does not seem possible now to determine
with any degree of exactness. Theal (Bleek and Lloyd " Bush-
man Folk-lore," 1911, pp. xxviii-xxix) argues that they could
not have crossed the Kunene on their south-westward way
many centuries before the white man's arrival, and bases his
conclusion on

" the fact tliat the dialects spoken by the tribes in Namaqualand
and beyond Algoa Bay on the south-eastern coast differed so slightly
that the people of one could understand the people of the other

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES. 335

without much difficulty, which would certainly not have been fhe
ease if they had been many centuries separated. They had no
intercouroe with each other, and yet towards the close of the
seventeenth century an interpreter belonging to a tribe in the
neighbourhood of the Cape Peninsula, when accompanying Dutch
trading parties, conversed with ease with them all."

Theal'^ fact is important, liis inference is, of course, an
inference only, and would seem to estimate the period of the
Hottentot advent into the sub-continent at too recent a date.

That point, however, apart, wherever they settled they
would naturally give to localities and physical features of the
territory which they occupied names that would be significant
to themselves and appropriate to the locality or feature
designated.

An opportunity occurred to me a few years back, away in
the heart of Griqualand West, to take down from the mouth
of a European, who had been born in Great Namaqualand and
had spent the greater part of his life there, who spoke the
Namaqua-Hottentot language fluently, it being- practically the
languag-e of his cliildhood, a fairly long list of Namaqua-
Hottentot place-names and their meanings. On comparing
these, on my return home, with the jN^amaqua-Hottentot words
in Kronlein's " Wortschatz der Khoi-Khoin." I found in the
great majority of the names on my friend's list that his
derivations and those given by Kronlein were practically the
same. This seemed to indicate that to one acquainted with the
jSTamaqua-Hottentot language the meaning of the place-names
was generally apparent. There would, of course, be exceptions,
as in the Hottentot name for Cape Town 1 1 Hui- ! peis — ^with
reference to which Kronlein and Prof. Halm, both experts,
suggest two quite different, yet equally appropriate meanings ;
the former connects the first part of the name with I Ihui, to
rear the head of a snake, while Hahn (" Tsuni-I I Goam , the
Supreme Being of the Ivhoi-Khoin," 1881, pp. 34-35), connects
it with " I Ihv, the root of a word meaning* " to condense,"
hence I Ihus, an old word for cloud, which word is still used.
In the one case the word refers to the mountain upreared at
the back of the town, in the other to the dense mass of cloud
which forms so frequently on the top of the mountain. There
may be an instance or two of this sort, but for the most part
the meaning of the Namaqua-Hottentot i)lace-names can be
traced; and, as might be expected from a primitive people,
are almost entirely descriptive, setting forth some physical
feature of the locality named, or sometliing concerning its
fauna or flora. There are very few that have reference to
events, and, where they have such reference, the events are
of a comparatively trivial nature ; yet in that sense they may
be called historic. To the former belong such place-names as :
I Ao-I I goms (Hot. lais, fire; I Ir/cnni, water; the x is locative),
this is the Hottentot name of both Warmbad and Windhoek in
Great Namaqualand, the reference being to the hot springs
at these two places. Guidaos (Hot. guih, Euphorhia maure-
fanica-.daos, a poort). Melkboschpoort, Great Namaqualand .
Kharn daos (Hot. a-ami, a lion; daos, a poort). Lion Poort.

336 IIOTTEXTOT PLACE-]N^\MES.

IKara-Kliois (Hot. I Kara, separ.ate, peculiar; Khois, a
woman), wliicli tlie Dutcli have made Bijzondermeid. To the
latter belong such place-names as: Gobahis {XKoah, elephant;
liguh, a tooth), a place in Damaraland, so named because a
large quantity of ivory was once found there sunk in the mud.
Kams (Hot. I Katii, to fight), a place on the road from Lelie-
fontein to Pella, Little Namaqualand, said to have been the
scene of a tribal battle. Troe-troc (Hot. toro, to make war).
Tradition «ays that in the neiglibourhood of the river thus
named (on which the township of Van Rhyn's Dorj) now
stands), a big- fight took place between two Hottentot tribes,
over some Hottentot Helen. To Prieska (beris, a she-goat;
ga, to be dead, to be lost) reference will be made later on.

A careful examination of a good map like Home's " Map
of the Cape of Good Hope and Adjoining Territories," 1895,
reveals the fact that beside: (I.) place-names, that may be
described as being pure or real Hottentot names, there are:
(II.) Hottentot place-names that have been corrupted, (a) on
the western side of the sub-continent, by the intrusion of
Europeans from the south, (b) on the south-eastern side, by
the intrusion of Kaffirs from the north, and others at a later
period by the intrusion of Europeans from the south. (III.)
Hottentot place-names that have been translated into Dutch or
English equivalents. (IV.) Hottentot place-names that have
been displaced and superseded by European place-names of an
entirelv different meaning*.

I. — ^Trite Hottentot Place-names.

A few Hottentot place-names in their unadulterated form
have already been mentioned ; a glance at a few others will
indicate how exactly the salient feature or features of the places
named are depicted in the designations given to them. The
Koranna Hottentot name of the place near the Asbestos Moun-
tains, known to Europeans as Rietfontein, where Messrs.
Anderson and Kramer established a mission in 1801, is given
by Lichtenstein (II., p. 239, 1815) as Aa ^t Kaap (Hot. la,
a vlei ; 'ah, a reed), the European name being practicallv the
same in meaning as the Hottentot. Ahahis, in Namaqualand,
is from Hot. «?>«.■*, a calabash, and is so named, Prof. Hahn
says (" Tsuni IIGoam,'' p. 108, 1881), " on account of cala-
bashes growing there in great abundance." Da ir eras is the
name of a place in Great Namaqualand situated between
Bethanien and Berseba ; it owes its name to the Tamarix
articulata, known to the Namaquas as daweh; this word, in
its anglicised form, dahhy or dvhhce, is of frequent occurrence
in IN^ainaqualand ]jlace-nanies. (rouhus (Hot. %aouh, a wooden
water-trough) is the name of a small place at the foot of the
Kamiesberg, Little JSTamaqualand, concerning which Thomp-
son (" Travels," p. 298, 1827) says: —

" Here witli difficulty we procured water, by digging in some old
pits, between the masses of the rock, wbich form a soi't of basin or

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES . 33T

trough, ill which the rain-water is collected. It is from this circiim-
stanc-e that the spot derives its name — Gouhits in the Bushman (!)
language, signifying Trough Fountain."

Tlie extensive limestone plateau in Giiqualand West, now
known as the Campbell Rand, is known to the Korannas as the
Xliah, this word has been europeanised into 'Kaap, it means
a large plain. In the centre of Great Namaqualand there is an
extensive plain marked in Alexander's map (long-. 17, lat. 25)
which he calls " the KeUaip or Great Flat " (I., p. 91, 1838) ;
here again we get the Hottentot word %liah, a large plain,
preceded by the adjective (jei, great. This name must not be
confounded with that of a river in Great Namaqualand known
as the Keikap — another instance in which similarity of printed
appearance could easilv mislead. This latter Keikap means in
English " The Witcli Kiver " (cf. the Hex Eivier of the Cape
Province); it is formed from the two Hottentot words Igeih,
sorcery, wizardry; fab, a river. " Ka/iiop, or Lion River," is
the name given by iVlexander (I., p. 227, 1838) to the river
south of Keetmanshoop, which, forty odd years earlier, Le
Vaillant (" New Travels," II., p. 259, 1796) gives in the form
'' Gamma River " ; it is derived from the Hottentot word
xami, a lion, a word which enlers into the composition of many
other place-names both in Great Namaqualand and elsewhere
in South Africa, as Kliam lasas, the lion's well; Kham, daoK,
Lion Poort, already mentioned; Kliamis, Lion Valley;
('Jiamika, the Lion River, the name of the river near Union-
dale, now known as the Potjes River. We shall refer to
Gavika later on.

The name of the river on which the township of Avontuur
stands is given by Sparrman and Paterson (see their respective
maps, the latter a reproduction, apparently, of the former)
as the Kukoi, with reference to which Sparrman says
(I., p. 305, 1785) : " or as it is pronounced, t^ Ku f'Koi. This
name signifies head or master." Later (II., p. 257, 1785) he
uses the term in tlie same sense: " When they saw that in
order to get tobacco nothing more was necessary than to be a
captain, they presented to me several others of the party as
being likewise t'Ku-t\Koi, or captains." The name appears to
be derived from the two words IKJnih. master; Khoih, a man.
In the two Hottentot names (Tofjami and O'okiep, the first
syllable in each represents the Hottentot word In, saltish,
brackisli : in the former (the name of a water-place near Angra
Peguena), the latter part of the name is I Igami, water; in the
latter name O'okiep (which, until quite recently, was the centre
of the copper mining industiy of Little Namaqualand) the
latter syllable represents the Hottentot gei, to be great.
Tradouw, the name of the pass in the Swellendam district.
C.P., running through the Langebergen, from Zuurbrak to
Barry dale, is formed from the two Hottentot words, taras, a
woman; and daos, a poort. (Cf. Traka, from taras, a woman;
and /ah, a river.)

338 IIOTTENI'OT PLACE-XAMES.

II. — Corrupted Hottentot Place-names.

(a) Hottentot place-names that liave been corrupted are
numerous, so corrupted in some instances as to be apparently
beyond recovery. Indeed, had there been collusion on the
part of early travellers, authors and others to mystify students
of later years, they could hardly have succeeded better than they
Iiave done. For instance, the name which now appears on
the map and elsewhere as Trekkentouw, a river of the George
district, C.P., has been given many different fonns of name
by various authors, some of whom gave more than one form.
They are as follows : —

1795, Thunberg, " Travels," I., p. 183, Krahalwu; 1796,
Le Vaillant, " Travels," I., p. 173, KraUede-Kau; 1805,
Semple, "Walks and Sketches," p. 154, Traqua de Cou;
1809, Collins, Moodie "Record," V., p. 29, Trakete Komc;
1812, Lichtenstein, "Travels," I., p. 193, Krakadakouiv;
map, Trahadakoiiw; 1818, Latrobe, "Journal," p. 152.
Trekata 'Koiv; 1827, Thompson, "Travels," p. 6, Traka-da-
Touw; map, Trokvdiku; 1835, Moodie, " Ten Years in South
Africa," II., p. 9, Trakant, 'Kaic; ]837, " Government Ordin-
ance," No. 12, Trek-aan-de-Touiv; 1844, Backhouse, " Narra-
tive," p. 130, Trakadataow; 1919, present form, Trekeafoti-
tow, or Trekkentouw.

The Government attempt is a pretty piece of folk-
etymology. This, though an exceptional case, will suffice to
show something of the puzzles and problems that confront the
student in his endeavours to ascertain the original form and
meaning of a corrupted Hottentot place-name. This name is
said to mean, in its original form, " The Maiden's Ford,"
which would suggest that the former T)art of the name is to
be referred to Hottentot taras, a woman; and the latter part to
daoh, a way or path.

Other place-names of this class may be discussed :
Aufjhrahies and Hantam, were dealt with in my paper
at the last meeting of the Association, and may be
referred to in the Journal, vol. xvi., p. 439 (1919-20).
Eikhams is the form which the Hottentot name I Ai-I I gams
(Hot. lais, fire; 1 1 garni, water), applied to both Warmbad and
Windhoek, has now assumed. Garies (Hot. Igarieh, couch-
grass, or kweek), the place of couch-grass, it is in Little Nama-
qualand ; there is also a IGaris, with the same meaning in
Great Namaqualand. Koussie, now the Buff els Rivier. in
Little Namaqualand, and at one time the border of the Colony
in that direction, is the present form of the Hottentot I Gaosih
(Igaoh, a buffalo or wildebeest). In each of these cases the
difficulty appears to have been the clicks. Sirakop is the form
of the Hottentot Tsoa-.Tonh Usoa, a hole; .roiih, excrement, of
men and birds). The latter part of the name appears in
another Namaqualand place-name, Ani-a'o%ih (Hot. anih,
a bird, .xotth, excrement), but it lias been assimilated to the
Dutch kop. Another instance of assimilation to this Dutch
word is afforded by the name of a place not far from Postmas-

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES. 339

burg, Griqualand West, where the original Hottentot name
.'Awes, the vaalbosch, TarconantJnis ccunpJioratus, has been
corrupted into Koppies. Ganfomv, spelt Carulauw in " Het
Dagverhaal van Plettenberg's Landryse," is a fair European
reproduction of the two Hottentot words IKani, the eland;
daos, a poort, of which this name of a poort in the Hottentot
Holland mountains is composed, and by which it was known in
early days, " He Cloof van het Gebergte die door de Hottentots
Gantouw werd gen* en door ons Elandspat " (" Dagverhaal "
of Hartogh's cattle-trading expedition, 1707). Karas Moun-
tains is the name given by Alexander (I., p. 276, 1838) to that
range of mountains in Great l^amaqualaud. which was for
m.any years the headquarters of the Bondelzwart-Hottentots.
It was here that for two years they defied the Germans, by
whom, however, they were subjugated in 1908. Tindall (" Two
Lectures on Great Namaqualand," p. 16, 1856) gives us this
name in the form " Xgharas." It is said lo be from the
Hottentot !a-as, sharpening, whetting, and to refer to the
sharp character, or the sharpening character, of its loose stones.
The chief mountain of the range was named by Alexander
" Lord Hill " ; the Germans recognising, apparently, the
appropriateness of the Hottentot name, called it " Scharf en-
stein." A curious hybrid place-name is furnished by Robert
Moffat (" Journey from Colesberg to 8teinkopf in 1854-5,"
p. 155, 1858) in the name 'Noxigat Pass, in which no less than
three diiferent languages are represented, viz., Hottentot,
Dutch and English. /nouh is the Hottentot name for the
ochre with which, mixed with fat, the Hottentots smeared
themselves ; gat (hole) is the Dutch word for the cave from
which this material was obtained ; and Pass, of course, is
English. This is the name of a pass at the northern end of
the Doornberg range, near Prieska, C.P.

PriesJia is mentioned last in this class because it affords an
opportunity of dealing with one or two points in connection
with this name raised by Kingon in his fine paper on
" Aboriginal Place-names " (South African Journal of
Science, vol. xv, p. 758).

The early printed form of this place-name as it aooears in
the account of H. van de Graaif' s " Journey to Beihuana-
land," in 1805. is Prisliah, said there to be the Koranna name
of a drift in the Orange River. Robert Moffat (" Journev
from Colesberg to Steinkopf in 1854-5," p. 155. 1858) gives us
" Brieschapr and Burchell (I., p. 307, 1822) spells it
" Brleslap " (Hot. herih, a he-g-oat ; herds, a she-goat; ga, to
be dead, to be lost). Thorough analyses of the word show many
interesting points, especially if taken letter by letter.

P. — Why is the initial letter written by some F , and by
others B? Because the Hottentot pronunciation of these letters
was scarcely to be distinguished. Campbell {" Travels ....
Second Journey," II., p. 305, 1822), speaking of the Great
River, says that the " Corannas call (it) tlie Gareep or Gareeh,
it being difficult to distinguish which. This mav account for
the fact that Dr. Bleek (" Comp. Gram, of the South African

840 HOTTENTOT TIACE-XAMES.

Languages," p. 21, 1862) spells the Hottentot word for a goat,
piriy, while Kronlein does not appear to recognise the p at
all in Namaqualand-Hottentot, and spells it herih.

E . — Why has the e of heris disappeared from the place-
name:' This is to be explained by the fact that the e in this
word is, as it is marked by Kronlein, very short, indeed it is
only a half- vowel — " wie die hebraischeu Scliewa."

R. — Of this letter in the place-name Kingon asks :
" What is the English r doing there? " It is not the Englisli
r, but the Hottentot 7*, which does not represent a guttural
sound as in Kaffir, but as Kronlein says : " ist mit der Zungen-
spitze zu spreclien." Kingon (p. 761) assumes that the Dutch
// is the equivalent of the Hottentot r, a mistake which runs
through the whole of his " H.-B." section and vitiates much
of his argument.

IE. — The diphtJiong ie represents the long sound of the i
in heris, which is like that of the double ee in sheep.

S. — In the Hottentot language the suffix s indicates the
feminine, as the suffix h indicates the masculine gender: e.g.,
aos, woman; aoh, man; Igoas, daughter; Igoah, son; heris,
she-goat ; herih, he-g*oat.

A'.-l.- — ^The k here instead of the g {ga, to be dead, to be
lost) is explained by the fact that the Hottentot g approximates
more in sound to the English k tlian the Engdish g — " g ist
hart, fast wie k auszusprechen " (Kronlein). This accounts
for the apparently indiscriminating' use of these letters by
Europeans in writing Hottentot place-names in which this
sound occurs. It is of no little interest here to note that the
Hottentot word herih occurs in the name applied by the
Hottentots to the liacliapins. Burchell says that the Bachapins
were " called /i/'/quas, or Goat-men, in the Hottentot lan-
guage " (I., p. 364; II., p. 303).

Kingon asks further: " If Gamka is abounding in lions,
why is not Prieska abounding in goats? " The answer is that
whether Gamka means abounding in lions or not, Prieska could
not mean " aboundii-g in goats," because it does not conform
to tlie Hottentot usage, which requires that the gender sign,
h or .s\ shall be dropped from tlie noun before the adjectival
particle a'a is affixed ; this would give not herisj'a, but heri.ra,
the word which is used for a man who owns many goats.

It is rational to correct statements or sug'gestions as soon
as one is convinced tliat tlioy are really wrong; an opportunity
is taken to correct tlie statement made in my " IN^otes on South
African Place-names " (p. 4, 1914), that the -ka of Gamka was
the Hottentot adjectival -;va, with the force of abundance.
(This correction does not, however, affect what has just been
said re Prieska). Kingon's paper drew my attention incident-
ally to one or two i)oints the consideration of wliich led me to
the conclusion that the syllable ka affixed to so many Ciskeian
place-names {e.g., Chamika, Dwj/ka, Gamka, Kouka, Traka,
etc.) was not the Hottentot adjectival .va. That these names,
occurring in territory concerning the Hottentot occupation of

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES. 341

which ill comparatively recent times there is abundant
evidence, are of Hottentot origin, there appears to be no serious
question. But if the ka is not the Hottentot -xa, what is ity
(icniika, which Thompson (p. 153, 1827) spells Glxamka, and
Collins (Moodie, " The Eecord," p. 25, Part V.) spells
" GhumgJia,'' is mentioned in the " Dagverhaal " of Governor
Plettenberg's Journey, 1778, and is rendered " Leeuwen
llivier." Traka is mentioned in the same document and is
rendered " Vrouwenrivier," while Barrow (I., p. 101, 1801)
explains it as meaning " Maiden River " (c/. Ivaf. Intovihi,
the name of a river in Pondoland, and of another in the Trans-
vaal). Kouka is also mentioned in the same document — " de
Kauka of Buft'elsrivier " (here we get I gaoh, a buftalo, again),
(c/. Koussie), wdiicli proves that Kouka is not a variant spelling
of Coega, as Kingon suggests.

Thompson ("Travels," p. 155, 1827) speaks of "the
Dwtjka or Rhinoceros River," but whether he intends us to
understand that " Rhinoceros River " is the translation of
Dicyka, or simply the European name, is not clear. Chamika
is mentioned by 8parrman (I., p. 304, 1785) as the name of a
branch of the Kamanassie River. He says: " Pott-rivier is
likewise called Chamika " (probably our Potjes Rivier). The
first part of this name, and also of the name Gamka, is the
Hottentot word a-auii, a lion ; while the first part of the name
Traka is to be referred to the Hottentot word taras, a woman.
In each of these names there can be little doubt that the final
vsyllable -ka represents the Hottentot word !ah, a river. This
is supported by the name Ai-Iah, the Liver-river, in Great
Namaqualand. This name occurs in Willem van Reenen's
" Journaal " (1792) in the form Eym+Kaap — " De Leever-
rivier of Eyn + Kaap." (Molsbergen, " Reizeii in Zuid-
Afrika," II., p. 145, queries " Leeverrivier," and suggests
that it should read " Leeuwerivier," but van Reenen was
right). We then get the word !ah, a river, in a European
guise in the name Kei-kap, the " Witch River," to which we
have already referred. It appears also in the form gap in
Hykaregaj) (Karreehoutrivier) also mentioned in Willem van
Reenen's " Journaal " (1792), and in the form koa in the
name Kamkoa (the Hottentot name of the Hartebeestrivier),
mentioned in Wikar's account of his sojourn among the
IN'amaquas 1779 (Molsbergen, II., p. 115). And then finally
we get in the form ICa in Wreede's " Hottentot Woorden-
lijst " (1707), where it is rendered Dutch, " een rivier," and
Latin. " fluvius " ; and /i«. in the river names mentioned
above.

From what has been said above it must not be understood
to mean that the Hottentot adjectival -a-a does not occur in our
place-names. That would be a mistake, as we think can be
made to appear. Referring to the name Coega, wdiicli Sparr-
maii (II., p. 17, 1785) spells " Kuga," and Paterson (p. 83,
1789) Kow Ch-a, Kingon says : " The only point really at issue
is the initial letter, and the correct form must be either Kura,
Qura or Xura, with the probabilities on the second, and most

34? HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES.

of all upon the third lorni." There is a Hottentot word whicli
is descriptive of the locality, the initial click of which ivS that
which K.ing'on declares to he the most probable form, which
word approximates very closely, if not exactly, to the sound
of the present place-name: it is the word IIKhuxci (Hot.
lIKhnh, a thorn, mimosa), abounding- in thorns or thorn-
trees. (The // click of the Hottentots is the same as the X
click of the Kaffirs.) I sugg-est this as a possible origin of the
place-name Coega, as the word appears to meet the need in
every respect.

Gaika s Kop is one of the names referred to by Kingon as
having- " historic associations," but the Kaffir name of the
mountain does not appear originally to have had any reference
to the famous Xosa chief Gaika, so well known in connection
with the wars between the Kaffirs and the colonists. The
" historical associations " appear to be a recent accretion due
to a corruption or misunderstanding on the part of the colonists
of the Kaffir name of the mountain — u Xtah'egqira (K. in
Taba, a mountain; i (rqira, a doctor, one who professes to
discover witches), who have confused it with that of the chief,
the proper Kaffir form of which is Ngqika. The somewhat
similar soujid of the chief's name S gqika to that of the name
of the mountain, Gqira, appears to have misled the colonists
into connecting the mouniain with the chief, hen(-e its present
name. It is, however, referred to here because the -ra of the
Kaffir name of the mountain is nothing- other than the
Hottentot adjectival -a-a. The Hottentot word ! geih is the name
given to the witch-doctor's paraphernalia to-day in Namaqua-
land; ! gei-aoh (lit. witch-man) is the wizard, or the witch-
doctor; .'.^e/.frt is the adjective formed from Igelh. The initial
(lick is nearly the same as that of the Kaffir word ; indeed the
Hottentot word .'gei.ra is practically identical in form and
meaning with the Kaffir / gqira, of which there can be little
doubt that it is the origin. '(Dr. Bleek (CM. Mag., I., p. 202,
1857) speaks of " the readiness with which the Kafirs adopt
Hottentot manners and words," and remarks further: " it is
certai)ily remarkable that not one instan(-e has yet been shown
where the Hottentots have in the like manner imitated tlieir
eastern neighbours.")

The name Qora is applied to a river in Gealekaland,
Transkei, but it was also an earlier name of the Bushman
River, Albany district, C.P. In earlier days the natives are
said to have made their pipes from the clay found on the banks
of this river. May not the name be derived from the Hottentot
word Xgoah, clay, mud (the click is the same), the adjective
formed from the word being Xgoaxa ? That this affix -.ra was so
used by the Hottentots in the naming of localities appears from
the Little Namaqualand i)lace-nanie Kamalas, which Alex-
ander (" Expedition," I., p. 89, 1838) renders " red-clay."
The former part of the name is the Hottentot word Xgama,
brown, to be brown ; the final s is locative ; the remainder of the
word is the adjectival -xa, signifying abundance; the real
Hottentot name of the place is XGainaxas, the place of red clay.

HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES. 343

May I venture to submit that there is very little diiference here
alsoy when the locative s is dropped, between the sound and
the meaning of this place-name and that of the Ciskeian
i Qumra (Ivomgha), which means finely powdered red clay.
Xropf says (" ivaffir Dictionary," in loc.) that this place
took its name from the reel clay mines in the neigdi-
bourhood."

We are eomi^elled to recognise, I think, that the ha of
Frieska is not of necessity the ka of Gamka, nor is the ga of
Coega in any way related to the ga of Quagga, as will appear
later ; nor are either of the two latter found to have any connec-
tion with either of the two former; while the ga of Coega, the
ra of I Qumra, and the gha of Komgha are really the same,
and are three of the several forms which the Hottentot adjec-
tival particle -,ra, signifying multitude, plenty, abundance,
has assumed.

(b) A great deal of earnest, persistent research on the
part of adequately equipped scholars will be needed before the
corruptions of Hottentot place-names, due to the intrusion
of the Kaifir element into territory previously occupied by
Hottentots, are likely to be elucidated, and Kingon's contri-
bution is heartily Avelcomed as a distinct advance in that
direction. He will not, we feel sure, object to any queries,
suggestions, or criticisms that may be helpful to that end.
One is bound to say at once that what Kingon appears to regard
as a quite recent discoverv, viz., that Ivay's statement
(" Travels and Researches in Caffraria," p. 268, 1833) that
'■ the names of different rivers to the eastward of this point
(Butterworth) are purely Kaffer " needs to be corrected, was
more than suggested seventy years ago by Appleyard (" The
Kafir Language," p. lOn., 185()h in the following passage: —

" Most of the rivers west of the Kei, and some even beyond that
river, still retain their Hottentot names, except that the Kafirs
have conformed them to the Ipws of their own language ";

and a few years later Dr. Bleek (" Researches into the Rela-
tions between the Hottentots and Kafirs," " Cape Monthly
Magazine," I., p. 203, 1857), says: —

'' Other evidence, in which that of the names of localities is
principally to be mentioned, must lead to the conviction that the
Hottentots extended formerly far more to the north-east than we
have any historical record of. Several lnindre<l, perhaps a thousand
or more years ago, they occupied probably the Avhole of the present
Kafirland, most likely as far f.s Natal."

That these statements are in accordance with fact has been
generally conceded by students of the subject from Appleyard's
day on, and evidence of their correctness is gradually but
constantly accumulating as the place-names in the territory
concerned are more closely examined.

What has already been adduced goes to prove that it is
a result to be expected that many of the place-names of the
earlier occupants of a territory would be corrupted by an
intruding people of different speech, while others would be
entirely superseded ; but it also goes to prove that distinct traces

344 HOTTENTOT PLACE- jN- AMES.

of the earlier occupants would remain in the nomenclature of
the territory as a proof of that earlier occupation. This is
undoubtedly the case in both the Transkeian and Ciskeian
territories. Evidences of Bushman occupation are not wanting,
for, in addition to their paintings, such place-names as Baroeng
(Ses. mo Roa, a Bushman; PI. ba Roa, Bushmen), near Little
Roma, Basutoland, " the place of the Baroa or Bushmen ";
u Daliioe, the Kaffir name of the Thorn River, Cathcart
district, C.P., derives its name from a cave on it-s bank con-
taining daliwe, Bushman paintings; JJhala ainaUva (Kaf. ukii
Bala, to write; inn Twa, a Bushman), a locality in the Tsolo
district, Transkei, which name also refers to local liushman
drawings; Keang-hop, north-east of Kuruman, liritish Becliu-
analand, preserves for us the designation of the liushman
sky-god (Arbousset and Daunias, " ^Narrative," p. 253,
1846). N goliloe (Ses. ngola, to engrave, draw), a place in the
Ficksburg district, U.F.S., is a name that lefers to the Bush-
man paintings (Ellenberg-, " History of the ]3asutos," p. 91,
1912), and others may be adduced. Evidence of Hottentot
occupation is not wanting, as we have seen ; but including them
all in a common " H.-B." category must not be taken to mean
that Bushman and Hottentot place-names can never be
distinguished. It is true that at present only the most meagre
and inadequate information is at our disposal respecting the
former, and it would almost appear that the op])ortunity for
largely increasing that infoimation luid alieady passed awaj^,
yet when we remember liow jnucli has been accomplished in
the northern hemisphere, by the study of place-names derived
from languages that have been dead for centuries, to recover
the history and wanderings of races wliich have left no other
record behind them, may we not hope that some day future
students may succeed in accomplishing something of the same
sort in the southern liemisphpre? Resources do not appear to
be absolutely exhausted while any of the Bushmen of the
Kalahari and Lake N'gami regions, or the Pigmies of the
tropical forests of Central Africa, exist, and it is devoutly to
be wished that ihey may not be exterminated as rutlilessly as
the Buslimeii of the south have been.

A. — The -ea Group of Place-names.

This, with several other groups of place-names arranged
by Kingon according to their respective terminations, are all
classed by him under the heading: "Hottentot-Bushman
Place-names," which brings tliem within tlie scope of this
paper.

After reading very carefully the section headed as above
(u. 752), it appears to me that there are three statements made
that need some modification : (a) That " -ra is Bushman rather
than Hottentot" fi). 758); (b) that " -ra is diminutive in
force " (p. 758); (c) and that " it seems certain that all these
different spellings (-ra, -ka, -ga, -gha, -qa, -qua, -clia) were
attempts to fix one and the same sound, the sound which we
designate nowadays, -ra " (p. 759).

HOTTEATOT PLACE-NAMES. 345

(ci) First Oi all one would like to know what authority
exists for the statement that " -ra is Bushman rather than
Hottentot." Made so definitely, it should surely be capable of
actual proof, or shown to be a lef^'itimate inference from already
ascertained facts. Where is the proof, or what are the facts
from whi(di the inference is made? A careful examination of
Bleek's " CVimparative (irammar of the South African
Lang'uag-es," of Bleek and Lloyd's " Bushman Folklore," of
Bertin's " The Jiushmen and their lianguag'e," and, indeed,
of everything- available that would be likely to yield informa-
tion on the subject, lias resulted in the discovery of no such
Bushman affix, nor of anything- to sug-g-est that there was such
an affix.

There are two considerations which appear to indicate
quite the converse of Kingon's statement: — •

1. Bleek and Lloyd ("Bushman Folklore," p. 144, lb)
give -ko as a Bushman " affixed g-enitive particle corresponding
witli English 's, Hottentot -di. After a long- vowel its con-
sonant is pronounced more softly, almost like g, and after
a short vowel more strongly, approaching /i/-." Bertin (" The
Bushmen and their Language," p. GO, 188(J) also gives -ha as
the mark of the genitive, while on p. (Jl he speaks of the
" strong- explosive A." (Bleek and LlDjd, p. 152, give another
-ha, a particle indicating, they say, probably the Tierfect or
the subjunctive of the verb.) The point is that neither Bleek
and Lloyd nor Bertin give the least hint of an affixed particle
-ra in the Bushman language ; even the last syllable of the word
Quafjfja, in(duded by Kingon in his " -ra Group," has not the
guttural sound in the Bushman languag-e. Bleek and Lloyd
(p. 122) spell it IKu-ahha.

2. The particle -.ra in the Hottentot language (so spelled by
both Kronlein and Seidel, -glui by Tindall) is explained by
Ivronlein as the adjectival ending-, and as indicating the
abundance, multitude, size, strength of the quality or thing
denoted ; so it is that .raini, a lion, becomes .rain.ra, abounding in
lions; herih, a goat; heri/va, rich in g-oats ; llkliuh, a thorn,
mimosa; llhhxi.ra, abounding in thorns; and so on. x\s Me
have already pointed out, the noun drops the masculine suffix
&, or the feminine suffix s, and forms the adjective with the
suffix -xa. For these two reasons : (1) That there does not
appear to be any record of a Bushman guttural suffix -ra ; and
(2) that there certainly is such a Hottentot suffix -xa, or -///(«.
it would seem that something- more than the mere assertion
that " -ra is Bushman rather than Hottentot " is needed to
establish that statement.

(b) The statement that " -ra is diminutive in force "
(p. 758) is undeniable so far as the affix -ra, as used in Kaffir,
is concerned, there it is affixed to an adjective to express dimi-
nution of the quality indicated by the adjective {e.g., IluL^ilie
Uhoiiivura, the horse is reddish : homvu, red), biit does it follow
that when -ra is used in Kaffir as the final syllable of place-
names that are admittedly other than Kaffir in their origin, it

346 HOTTENTOT TLACE-NAMES,

must of necessity have the same force or meaning? Either this
should be made to appear, or the statement should be guarded
or modified. Both Kropf and Godfrey refer this particle to
" the Hottentot adjectival ending whi( h has been accepted by
the Kafirs and affixed to nouns and adjectives." The force of
the particle has, lioweA'er, been altered. (8ee Kropf s " Kafir
Dictionary," -ra.)

(c) Early spellers went wrong, not only in clicks and
vowels, but also in consonants and gutturals ; examples of this
we have in the unhappy jumble of fs and k\s in the various
forms which the place-name now given as Trekkenfouic has at
various times assumed. Campbell mentions the difficulty in
distinguishing between the sounds of the Hottentot h and j).
According to Burchell (II., p. 255) a final j) is sometimes
silent, or nearly so, and the v sound is used for h in the Kora
Hottentot. The name Goupli {lliouh, fat) appears in the forms
Coup, Choxip, Kai/h, Kouh, and (roiipli, a final h becoming p
and ph , while an initial click becomes in turn C , K and G, to
say nothing of not a few other like curiosities. That this
puzzling- interchange of letters was not always due to the
inability of the writers to appreciate the different sounds, but
sometimes to slovenly or indistinct utterances on the part of
the natives themselves, appears from Thompson's remarks
(" Travels," p. 94 n., 1827): —

" At the same time it must needs be owned that the articulation
of the natives, in many cases, appears so indistinct to a European
ear that the strange diversity in the orthography of proper names
in the works of different travellers is not at all surprising."

In the face of these facts to include in a common group
place-names ending in " -ra, -ka, -ga, -gha, -qa, -qua, -clia,''
as if these parti( les were not only the result of attempts to
produce, in known characters, " one and the same sound,"
but as if they all had one and the same meaning, appears to be
likely to lead to confusion worse confounded; e.g., is it not
misleading to place the word Quagga in this " -ra Group of
place-names y That is, if the word is what it is p^enerally
regarded as being, viz., the onomatopoetic name of Equxis
Quaqqa, imitating the peculiar crv of this animal. A writer
in the "Scientific African" (p. 72, 190G) says:— ''The
Quagga is so named onomatopoetically, being an imitation of
the peculiar bark of the animal, sounding like ouog-ga, the
last syllable being very much prolonged." x\ccording to
Kolben (" Besclireibung des Yorgeburges der Guten Hoif-
nung," p. 25, 1745). this word in the form Qu-aiha was
applied by the Cape Hottentots to the donkey, being possibly
the name of the Quagga applied to an animal that was new, but
not unlike it. But there can be little if any doubt that the
word is onomatoj)oetic in origin. Then the name Comniadagga
is another final syllable of which, -ga, does not appear to give
it right of place in this " -ra Group of place-names." It is to
be referred to the two Hottentot words, Hionii (a hill, moun-
tain), and (la.rah, Cannahis safiva, dagga, or wild hemp, and
really means Dagqaherg; Sparrman's initial, Quaminedacha,
representing the above click.

HOTTENTOT PLACE-XAMES . 34T

"We must recognise then, I repeat, that the Jai of Frieska
is not, of necessity, the ka of Ganka, nor is the ga of Coega
connected in any way with the ga of Qiiagga, nor is either of
the two latter in any way related to either of the two former,
and that the ga of tomtnadagga is another ga still, 'ihe mean-
ing- of the particle in any given case can only be determined
by a close and careful inquiry into the origin of the place-name
concerned. My own generalisation, quoted by Ivingon on
p. 758, was right as to the Hottentot origin of the names
mentioned, of that I am convinced; but it was wrong in
suggesting that -Ka and -ga were the same in meaning in each
case specified, as I think that now I have sufficiently shown.

B. — The -Kama Group.

In the Namaqua-Hottentot language the word tor water is
1 1 garni, and there can be little doubt tiiat Kaiiinia is the form
which this word assumed among the colonists in comparatively
early days; for in Wreede's Hottentots Woordslijst (compiled
aboiit the middle of the seveiiteenth century, and apparently
irretrievably lost until it was discovered quite recently among
the archives in Holland by Molsbergen, who prints it in his
" Eeizen in Zuid-Afrika/' I., pp. 215-224), the word Kaiimia
appears, and is given as the Hottentot word for — Dutch :
" Eivier of Water"; Latin: " Fluvius vel aqua." It also
api)ears in the same form in Kolben's Hottentotse Woordelijst
(1727): " Aqua & onine liquidum — Kamma — water of andere
vloeibare stolfe als wijn, bier " ; or as it appears in my German
'•^opy (p. 25, 1745): "i Aqua & omne liquidum — 'Kamnui —
liasser und alles flnssige," and yet again (p. 2G), " Fluvius —
Ka ' /// in a — Fluss . ' '

Most of the place-names having this termination, as
Kingon jjoints out, are Ciskeian, only three occurrino' in the
Transkei, viz., Mtjalanna, ()i)hama and Sidenkaina. The
remaining thirteen which Kingon gives are to be found in
various parts of the south-eastern section of the Cape Province.
To these a few others might be added, which are not now in
use, but which appear in the jf)urnals of early Dutch explorers,
e.g., Molsbergen (" Eeizen in Zuid-Afrika," II., p. 8) gives
us a resume of the " Dagverhaal " of Jan Ilartogh's Landtocht
(1707). in which is mentioned as situate three iiours from the
Botrivier, de " Swarte Eivier door de Hottentots DoggJia
Kanniia gen*." Farther on (pp. 9-10) the Steenbook Eivier is
mentioned, " van de Hott. gen^. Gaui dachama " ; and " het^
warm water door Hott. gen*. Disportcainma.'' Valentyn
(" Beschrijvinge van de Kaap der Goede Hoope," p. 90,
1720) gives us " Tharalhnna (dat is ruige rivier) " as the
Hottentot name of the Olifants Eivier on the west coast (Hot.
I Kara, rough; and 1 1 garni, water. In "VYikar's account of
his travels in Little Namaqualand (1779), presented to
(jovernor Plettenberg (Molsbergen, II.. pp. 105-108). he
mentions " Toeh/Jcaiiiina of litteekenwater." Then Stow
(" IN'ative Eaces of South Africa," p. 205) gives us " tWula-

348 HOTTENTOT TLACE-NAJtES.

t'Kamma, i.e., GraSvSy AVater," as the name of the Lower
.Sundays River. Hartog'li mentions also " een droge rivier
(Juhamma ' in het Hottentots."

That these additional names as well as the majority of
those mentioned by Ivingon are corrupted Hottentot names is
beyond question. Gattikainma, rendered by the Hutcdi Klaar-
water (the place now known as Griquatown), is from the two
Hottentot words fgatsi, clear, bright; and I / garni, water.
Keisl-amma is spelt by Ensign Beutler (1752) " T'hy.skamma "
(see Godlonton and Irving: " Narrative of the Kaffir War of
1850-51-52," p. 161 n., 1852). Sparrman spells it (1785)
['Kaisi-Kauima " ; Van Reenen's Map (1792') " Keis
Kamma "; and Paterson (1799) " Kys Co)/ima." (Paterson's
spelling is generally somewhat eccentric, so far as the names
of localities are concerned.) This name appears to have its
origin in the Hottentot word %]xei.^a, shining {cf. D. Blink-
water), of which the Kaffir name of the river, i Xesi, would
seem to be either an adaptation or a corruption. Kingon says
that

" the very derivation of the name Kriskamn (originally i Xcs'i)
indicates an agreement arrived at between the Kaffirs and the
Hottentots, by which the fonrth liver from the Kei was to be the
dividing line between the races." {V'kJc Kropf, " Kafl&r
Dictionary," in Joe.)

But Kingon does not give the derivation, and leaves us quite
in the air as to the point of contact or of connection. Noetze-
lannnia appears to be composed of the Hottentot words Jnw or
Xrui.se, black; and I If/ami, water. We get the former word in
the name Nu Gariep, which Burchell (II., p. 48, 1824) renders
" Black River," and in Sparrman's " t'Nn-t'Kay " (II.,
]). 146, 1785V now known as the Zwart Kei. Kraggakamnia, is
formed from the Hottentot words I IKaraxa (a word in which
Ave get the Hottentot adjectival termination, expressing
abundance (Hot. IIKarah, gravel in a riverbed; and then the
adjective I IKara.va, plenty of pebbles), gravelly, pebbly; and
1 1 garni, water. Kwa Kama (Kingon's " booby-trap "), as is
well known, is not to be traced to " an ancient chief," but to
Kama, the loyal. Christian chief of the Amagqunukwebe, who
died as recently as 1875, to whom and his people the Govern-
ment made a grant of the land \\\ 1838, and who resided there
with his missionary, the Rev. William Shepstone, until Sir
George Cathcart made a g-rant (confirmed subsequently by Sir
George Grey) to Kama and his people of a more suitable tract
of land along the Keiskamma, as a reward for their fidelity
to the Government. The name Kamastone, wliicli the place
now bears, is composed of this chief's name and the last syllable
of the missionary's name (Sliep-)stone. There is one other
name that should be mentioned here, Keislanima, a diamond
digging centre on the Yaal Ri^""^- As T have shown elsewhere
(.ToiTRNAL OF Science, p. 98, 1914\ although entirely
Hottentot, like the river-name Kcisliainina of the Old Colony,
this name is derived from two Hottentot words quite different
in meaning from those from whicli the river-name is' derived.

HOTTEXrOT PLACE-XAMES. 349

The Yaal River KelsJiauDiia refers to a group of eight camel
thorns (Acdcia (jivaffae), Avhich stood at one time on the site
(I I Kheisa, eight; llganab, the camel thorn). The place-
name was assimilated to the river-name by the diggers, to
whom the latter was familiar. It is of interest to notice in
this connection the different forms a Hottentot word mav he
called upon to assume when dealt with by Europeans. Here
the word llganah, a camel thorn, as we have seen, assumes
the form Kamma; then we get it in the form GuanJiop, tlie
Hottentot name of the Griqualand West township on the
Vaal River now known as Douglas (Freeman : "A Tour in
South Africa," p. 232, 1851), and again we get it in the form
" Kounohis or Toiinohis " (Baines: " Explorations in South-
West Africa," p. 120, 18(34 V tlie form assumed by the
Hottentot name of the place in Damaraland known to the
colonists as Eietfontein, and to the Hereros as Ofyiiiihonde,
wliich also means a camel thorn.

C— Other Typical H. (-B.) Names.

" (a) -otiic Group." — The termination -dome (which some-
times assumes the form -touir) as it occurs in our place-names,
is derived from the Hottentot word daoh, a path, a way. The
feminine form daos means a poort, and occurs in the names
Giiidaos (Hot. guih, Euphorbia mauritanica ; daos. poort),
known as Melkboschpoort, the poort of entrance into a range
of mountains near Bethanien ; and Khawdaos (Hot. xami, a
lion; daos, a poort "l. Lion Poort, both in Great Naniaqualand.
Gantouw or Candauw, the name given by the Hottentots to a
kloof or poort in the Hottentots Holland mountains, is derived
from the two Hottentot words .'Kani, the eland, and daoh, a
path. The " Dagverliaal " of Hartogh's Landtocht (1707)
mentions : " De Cloof van het Gebergte die door die Hottentots
(Tantomr Averd gen*, en door ons EJaiidspaf." A'ardouir, a
mountain in the north of the Clanwilliam district, C.P. (there
is another mountain of the same name in the Sneeuwberg
range) is derived from the Hottentot %nara, flat (like a roof,
etc.); daoh, a path. The name appears in L'u htenstein's
account of Kommissaris-Generaal de Mist's " Reis naar het
IN'oorden " in 1803: " Aan de overzijde lag een steile berg
met de Hottentotnaani yaidouw . . . over de top, die vlak
was," etc. Tradouir, a mountain i)ass in the Swellendam
district, is a name derived from Hottentot faras, a woman ; daoh,
a path. (Cf. Train, the Maiden's River, on'^l tlie Tradia-
macquas, mentioned in the " Dag Register " of Hendrik Hop's
Landtogt — see Molsbergen, II., ])p. 51-52 — where we get tlie
same word taras : " wijders beteekent de naam van Tradiamac-
quas by ons wijven of vrouwen volkeren, dog van waar deese
benaming herkomstig is, is ons meede niet mogelijk geweest na
te vorsschen." Spandau, Lichtenstein's old Prussian soldier
notwithstanding (" Travels," I., p. ,367, 1812), is almost
certainly a disguised Hottentot name belonging to this group,
tliough I have failed to ascertain its original fonn.)

350 HOTTENTOT PLACE-NAMES.

" (b) -qiias Group." — ^Tlie termination -qua appended to
tribal names has the meaning- of people or nation — e.g., Nama-
qua, the Nama people; Koracgw«, the Kora people (Koranas) ;
Brigua, the herih or goat people. The place-names Attaquas
Kloof, Hessequas Kloof, Outeniqua Mountains, Sonqvos Drift,
etc., refer to features of the respective territories occupied by
the tribes or peoples specified; while Xdi/iaqiialand, Griqt/a-
land, speak for themselves.

" (c) -(IS Group."— Why does Kingon include in this group
of " Aboriginal place-names " Malagas (Eiland) and Mocras
River? Moeras is the Dutch word meaning marshy or boggy;
Ten Hhvne calls it: " Paludosum (Moeras rivier)," which is
given in Churchill's "Voyages" (IV., p. 831, 1704) as
" Fenny River." While Malagas was the name given to the
island in Saldanha Bay because of the large number of a certain
sea-bird which was found there, Valentyn (V., II., p. 2, 1726)
mentions a sort of bird " die wij doorgaans den naam van
Mallegazen, Jan van Genten leen soort van witte meeuwen en
zou van Jacob van Nek genaamt) en niaJIe meeuwen geven.'"
These two place-names can scarcely be desisnated " Ahoriginal
place-names." But perhaps the h^++nv is a misprint for the
Malgas of tlie Tsomo di'^trict, which may have another
derivation.

III. — Teanslated Hottentot Place-names.

Translated Hottentot place-names continue sometimes
side by side with the older name but not infrequently the older
name is crowded out altogether by the new name. Buff els
Rivier (sometimes in early days called also the 7Aind Rivier, a
name eminently appropriate to it as it appeared on the occasion
of my first and last visit to it a few years ago) is the Dutch
name of a river in Little Xamaqualand, but it is a translation
of the Hottentot name IGaosih (Hot. I gaoh. a buffalo), which
has already been mentioned under its corrupted form Koussie.
The Fish River in Great Xamaqualand is known to the ISTama-
quas by the name I lOuh, whi(h appears on our map in the
form 'x-i?/6, and means fish, the name has simply been trans-
lated by Europeans for their purpose ; the Namaquas retain
and use their own name. The Fish River of the Cape Province
has not been so fortunate, its Hottentot name is now never
used, and but very few are aware that it ever had one. Sparr-
man (II., p. 190, 1785) has, however, preserved it for us in
the form " V Kau-t'' Kai," the fk in each' case representing a
dilferent click (Hot. I loiih, a fish; !ah, river), the former part
of the word, it will be noticed, repeats the name of the Nama-
qualand river; it was translated by the Dutch Viscli. Rivier,
and then later by English colonists FisJi River. The Hart
Rivier, a tributary of the Vaal, is known to the Korannas as
the XGaoh IGarib (Hot. tgaoh, the heart). Here again the
Dutch name is a translation in the first part of the Hottentot
word; the second part of the name, Kjarih. we know as the
Hottentot name of the Orange River, that is the river of the.

HOTTEXTOT PLACE-NAMES .

351

desert (Hot. Igarob, desert, wilderness). The Hottentot name
of a kop situate to the south of the Aufjhiabies Falls is yawap-
tana {Inaicas, a rhinoceros; tanas, a head), the kop is now
known as Renosterkop to the entire exclusion of the original,
which is mentioned by Henrik Jacob Wikar in the account of
his wandering's up and down the Great, or Orange Eiver, given
to Governor Plettenberg, dated " Ctibo den 18 September,
1779." Kamkoa is the Hottentot name of a tributary of the
Orange Eiver. It is derived from the word I IKamaJ), a harte-
beest; the translation " I)e Hartebeestrivier " having ousted
the original.

The names Karreelioufii i-icr (Hi/ltircfjap, from .'areh,
Karreehout; and fab, ri\er); and Klaarwatei- [Gattikannna,
from Igat.si, clear, bright; and 1 1 gavii, water), have already
been mentioned. The tributary of the Vaal River to which
tlie Yoortrekkers gave the name Vet Ririer, was known to the
Koranna Hottentots as the Gij Koiib (Hot. gei, great; Ihoub,
the fat of the stomach). The latter part of this place-name,
Ihoub, is found in the name (roupJt, occurring- in the Cape
Province, meaning fat, fertile. Wannbad, in Great Namaqua-
land, translates into Dutch the Hottentot name I Ai-I I gams
(Hot. rais, fire; llgatni, water). The White Kei of the
English colonist, and the Witte Kei of the Dutcdi, are both
translations of the Hottentot name of this river, which is given
by Sparrman (II., p. 146, 1785) in the form " t'Karnsi-t'Kaij,
or the white river" (Hot. ! gatsi, clear, bright; !ab river).
Sparrman also gives the Hottentot name of the Dutch 7Acarf
Kei (II., p. 146), in the form " t'Nu-t' Kag or the blatdv river) ;
(Hot. Xnu, black (r/. NoetzeJxaninia and Nu Gariep-); and .'ab,
river) ; the Dutch name being again a translation of the original
Hottentot name. A small branch of the ( )lifants Rivier, in the
Clanwilliam district, C.P., mentioned bv Le Yaillant (" New
Travels," I., p. 227, 1796), is " called'in the Hottentot lan-
guage Koignas, and by the Dutch Dirars-rivier (cross-river) " ;
the Dutch name translates the Hottentot name, the root of
wlii(di appears to be the word ! qou, to cross, to go across.

There can be little doubt that there are others of the
place-names with which we are familiar which are in like
manner reproductions in Dutch' or English of the earlier Hot-
tentot names, the aiiuropriateness of wliicdi was apparent to
the colonist who understood the Hottentot language, and who
simply turned Hottentot into Dutch or English as the case
might be, with the result that the original place-name sojui
passed out of memory and no record of it was preserved.

IV. — Superseded Hottentot Place-names.

We will mention one or two Hottentot place-names which
remain to us in print, but which have been entirely superseded
by later comers. I Ai-I I gams, as we have seen, became
Wai-mbad in the south of what is now the South-West Protec-
torate on the other side of the Orange River, but the I Ai-
1 1 gains farther north becaine Windhoek, though who gave it

352 IIOTTEXTOT PLACE-NAMES.

this name, and when the name was first given, appear to be
quite uncertain. The name of the river on the west coast,
emptying- itself into the Atlantic, Olifants Rivier, was g'iven
as early as 1660, when it was discovered by a party of explorers
under Jan Danckaert, and was so named because of the large
number of elephants, from two to three hundred, which they
saw on its banks. But this name supplanted an earlier Hot-
tentot name, which is given by Valentyn (" Beschrijvinge van
de Kaap der Goede lioope," p. 96, 1726') in the form
" Tliarakhima (dat is ruige rivier) " ; this name being from the
two Hottentot words IKora, rough; and I Igaini, water. The
Hottentot name of the river now known as the Palmiet, which
is marked on the map of a journey " na de Caap das Aguilhas
in den jare 1682 " as " l)e wilde Rivier de Palmyt Rivier
genaamt," is given in Willem van E-eenen's " Journaal,"
1791-2, as " Honievia of Slangenrivier " ; both the Hottentot
name and the name that would seem to be its Dutch equivalent
have been entirely superseded by the name by which the river
is known to-day.

One place-name that is generally regarded as of Hottentot
origin is the name Gamfons, a river which runs into St. Francis
Bay, near Port Elizabeth, C.P. The name appears in the
" Kaaps Dagregister " very early in the eighteenth century
in the form " Ganitoiiws," as the name of a Hottentot tribe.
Later, as the name of a river, Sparrman, 1785; J. van Reenen,
1792; Paterson, 1794, all spell the name " Camfovrs." Le
Yaillant, 1796, makes it " Gamtoos," and Burchell, 1824, has
it " Camtoos." Was this name originally the name of the
tribe, or of the river, or of neither? Where did it originate?
These queries are prompted bv a statement which is made bv
Le Yaillant (" Travels," I., p. 238, 1796), who says: " We
encamped upon the borders of that of (the river) Gamtoos. It
derives its name from an unfortunate captain who in a storm
was shipwrecked near its mouth." Is there any early record
to support this statement ?

Some unavoidable overlapping and repetition occurs in
this paper. Where it is critical in character it is solely with
the purpose of ascertaining- the actual facts.

In conclusion, it is gratifying- that the subject of South
African nomenclature is attracting the increasing attention
of scholars and students. Further, it is hoped that some of
our younger students, who have opportunities for equipping
themselves for South African philological studies, may be
induced to take up this important and interesting work.

SNAKE-VENOM AND ITS EFFECTS, ESPECIALLY C)!^ ^
OTHER SNAKES. /C^^^^^C y

'vc o" "o.

By F. W. FiTzSiMONS, F.Z.S., F.E.M.S., /^

i'" ^•^ ^-

Director, Fort Elizabeth Museion.

LIBRARY

Read July 17, 1920.

Experimenting- with snake-venom is beset with many
difficulties, one being that snake-venom varies in its poisonous
properties in the same snake, a*nd is sometimes as much as five
times as poisonous as at other times. These fluctuations are
due to the season of the year and the general condition of the
snake.

Well-fed snakes, fresh from the veld or forest in mid-
summer, yield an abundant supply of A^enom, as would be
anticipated, but I have recently ascertained that this venom,
when dried, does not yield nearly so much solid extract as when
venom is taken from snakes after they have been in captivity
for some time Avithout food. In this case the A'enom is con-
vsiderably less in quantity, but more concentrated in its
poivsonous properties, yielding two to five times the amount of
dried extract that would be obtained from the venom taken
from freshly captured snakes in good condition. Again, if a
sample of venom, is taken from a snake before sloughing its
skin, and also immediately after the process, it will be found
that the latter sample of poison is more concentrated than the
former, and will yield a much greater quantity of dry extract.

It will thus be observed that the experimenter cannot,
with any degree of certainty, determine the exact lethal dose
for each species of animal unless he tests each lot of A^enom
with which he is about to conduct experiments.

My attention was first drawn to the fluctuations in the
poisonous (toxic) power of A'enom by the difference in the
weight of the dry extract from measured quantities of fluid
A'enom. One day, noticing that a puff adder {Bitis arietans),
which had been in confinement for six months, was in a very
emaciated condition owing to its persistent refusal to eat,
I caused it to be remoA^ed. Before putting it to death I
extracted what A-enom it had, Avhich was fiA'e drops. This was
noticed to be less fluid than the venom from fresh puff adders,
and yielded three times the weight of dry extract compared
Avitli that produced from the A^enom of fresh snakes of the same
species. One drop of this A-enom Avas fatal to a fowl, whereas
other fowls recoA^ered easily after being injected with two
and a half drops of the A^enom of a fresh i)uff adder. Another
fowl recovered Avith difficulty after a subcutaneous injection of
three drops of the latter venom.

354 SXAKE- VENOM.

Altlioug'li one drop of cobra venom and four drops of piilf
adder venom are fatal doses for human beings, it does not
follow that this dosag'e would always prove fatal, for, besides
the varying degrees of vital resistance in the human subject,
the venom itself* varies in its poisonous properties — one drop
at times being as potent as two, three and four drops at other
times.

Recently I collected some venom from nine ringhals cobras
(SepeJon liaemachates). These snakes had been in captivity
for three months, refusing- all food, and had not been artifi-
cially fed. The venom could hardly be termed a fluid, for it
became sticky immediately after extraction, and in a very short
time was dry and hard, furnishing a deep yellow extract of
unusual weight for the quantity of venom obtained. The toxic
properties of this venom were three times that of fresh good-
conditioned snakes of the same species.

In the second edition of my " Snakes of South Africa " it
is mentioned that some ringhals cobras which were bitten by
boomslangs {Dispholidus ti/pus) did not manifest any sign of
poisoning. Not being satisfied that the reptiles had been
sufficiently well bitten to cause death, I waited until further
boomslangs could be obtained. When these were forthcoming
I made one of them inflict tliree full bites into the muscles of
the back of an adult rinfflials cobra {Sepedoii liaemachates).
Half an hour after the bites, blood oozed from the punctures,
and to a small extent from the mucous surfaces of the mouth.
In two hours the victim died, and a post-mortem examination
revealed several large patches of extravasated blood under the
skin, chiefly in the Aacinity of the punctures. Haemorrhage
had occurred into the organs, with the exception of the dig*es-
tive tract, and about a teaspoonful of blood and lymph was
found free in the abdominal cavity.

The blood was in a fluid condition. Some of it was
collected and put aside, but it failed to coagulate. A rat
inoculated with the blood died in thirteen hours. Another adult
ringhals cobra was i)laced in a cage with a very pugnacious
boomslang, which immediately attacked it and inflicted several
bites on its back. The boomslang was then removed, and, after
about fifteen minutes, blood slowly oozed from the punctures
in the ringhals and from the mucous membranes of the mouth.
In two and a half hours the ringhals cobra died. Dissection
revealed the same conditions of haemorrhage as in the former
instance, with the exception that it was more extensive owing
probably to a larger dosage of venom having been injected.
These experiments demonstrate that the venom of the boom-
slang is fatal to the ringhals cobra, and that the latter reacts
to the venom similarly to warm-blooded animals.

Further experiments showed the ringhals cobra to be
susceptible to the venom of the Tajje cobra (Naia fiara), so
much so that one full bite is lethal.

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

P.VGE

Bever, G. . .

302

mackshaw, G. N. ...

171

IJieek. D. F

194

Delf, E. Marion

121

Evlcs, F.

181

Fantham, H. B. ...

131

FitzSimons, F. AV.

353

Flack, E. V

... 158,268

Gootz. E.

155

Gniidry, P. G.

235

Hewitt, J.

304

Jones, Neville

290

Jimod. H. A

... 76,207

Kotze, J. J.

221

Lehfeldt, R. A.

... 85.201

Maciirefior, A. \V. ...

230

Mally, C. W

64

Marchand, B. de O.

259

Manfe, H. B.

113

Mennell, F. P. ..

43

Mogg, A. 0. D.

222

Molvneux, A. J. C.

... 206,249

MoricG, G. T.

116

Morrison, J. T.

227

Pottman, C.

334

Phillips, E.P

221

Pole Evans, I. B. ...

1

Porter. Annie

126

Roseveare, W. N. ...

151

Sandground, J.

322

Schonland, S.

186

Sim. T. R.

... 51,275

Skaife, S. H.

... 196,291

Thoday, D.

120

Tliodav, Mary G. ...

189

Van der Bijl, P. A.

185,286,288

Van der Merwe. C. P.

192

Wager, H. A.

284

AVagner, P. A.

179

Wilkinson, J. A.

95

Williams, CO.

205

Wilson, N. H.

136

Wood. H. E

35

The complete list of papers read at the Bulawayo meeting \vill be
foxind on pp. 110-112. Some of the papers listed there are not printed
in this Journal.

^5(5

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

PAGE

Aboriginal tiil)es of Eastern Province ... ... ... ;iil4

Acdiithojisiichr jiinoiH, natural control of ... ... ... 291

Aeroplanes, taking-off of ... ... ... ... ... 235

Annual general nieetinf>;, Bnlawayo, proceediiigs ... ... xx

Annual meetings, past, presidents, etc. ... ... ... ix

,. . ., , sectional jii'esidents and secretaries ... xi

evening discourses ... ... ... xiv

Association, cojistitution ... ... ... ... ... i

. library of ... ... ... ... ... xxxiii

Astronomy, recent progress in ... ... ... ... .%

Bagwoi'm, wattle, control of ... ... ... ... 291

Balance sheets ... ... ... ... ... ... xxvii-

Bantus, magic confcplion of Nature among ... ... ... 76

Barometric variation. Bulawayo ... ... ... ... loo

Bat guano deposits, Rhodesia ... ... ... ... lo8

Ba-Venda, religion of ... ... .. ... ... 207

Belgian Congo, kimheidite from ... ... ... ... 179

Bemljesi valley, implements f r* m ... ... ... ... 230

Birds ill Bushman folk-lore ... ... ... ... 194

Bono throwing ... ... ... ... ... ... 81

Bulawayo and A'ictoria Falls, geological section hetween ... 113

Bulawayo, award of South Africa Medal at ... ... xxx

. committees at ... ... ... ... ... xvii

. list of papers read at ... ... ... ... 110

. meetings at ... ... ... ... ... xvi

, officers and Council at, 1920-21 ... ... ... xxxviii

, proceedings of 18th anr.ual general meeting at ... xx

. rainfall and barometric variation in ... ... loo

, report of Council at ... ... ... ... xxiii

, Treasurer's report at ... ... ... ... xxvi

Bushman folk-lore, l)irds and insects in ... ... ... 194

Bushmen of Eastern Province ... ... ... ... 31o

Butyrometers, Gerl)er, calihrition of ... ... ... 20o

C'alibration of Gerber l)utyrometers .. ... ... ... 20o

('(irrcJui cvoJiiiis ... ... ... ... ... ... 29o

Committees at Bulr.v\ayo meeting ... ... ... ... xvii

Constitution of the Association ... ... ... ... i

Council, repoi't of, at Bulawayo ... ... ... ... xxiii

Crassulaceae of Rhodesia ... ... ..." ... ... 186

Crime and feeble-mindedness .. ... ... ... 116

Ddsiichiin c.rfititd ... ... ... ... ... ... 192

, lepidopterous parasite of ... ... 192

Discouises, evening, ... ... ... ... ... xiv

Eastern I'rovince, alioriginal tribes of ... ... ... 304

Economics, agricultural (maize) .. ... ... ... 201

Einstein's plaiittary equation ... ... ... ... 151

Entomological research and human welfare ... ... ... 69

Equisetaceae of Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... 284

Ericoid leaves ... ... ... ... ... ... 120

Evolution of flora of South Africa ... ... ... ... 51

Fosciohi (j\{iant\(a, life history of ... ... ... ... 126

Fnuica tiuiriKntolifonii, occurrence of ... ... ... 221

Feeble-mindedness and crime ... ... ... ... 116

Ferns found in Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... 277

Ferns, South African, notes on ... ... ... ... 275

Fertilisers, mixed, solubility of phosphoric oxide in ... ... 268

Filices of Southern Rhodesia ... . ••• ••• ■■• ^79

Flora of South Africa, progressive evolution of ... ... 51

,, , South African, influence of climatic changes on ... 58

, ,, .. , .. .. .. cycles ,, ... ."53

Flora, Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... ... ... 181

Fluke, African cattle and sheep ... ... ... ... ' 126

Food factors, accessorv, distribution of ... ... ... 121

IXDEX OF StJUKCXS.

Game. I)ifi

Genetics

Geological section l)ct\veeii Bulawayo and Victoria Kal

Geology in relation to mining . .

ijlrif'tum (ifricdiiiint, ripening of seed of

„ (jneinoH, ,,

Gnano, bat, of Rhodesia
Hakea, leaves of
llalrn pcciiimtd

■siiar role Its ...
Heterodera. lif*^ history of
Honey Iiee, Tachinid parasite of
Host plants of Loranthaceae
Hottentot })lacc-names
Hottentots, historical data ...
Illustrations, zoological

Implements, palaeolithic, I'mgnza and Bembes
Infusoria, parasitic
Insects in Bushman foik-loie
l.saiin psi/rliiddc
Kaffirs of Eastern Province
Karroo rocks in Mafungahusi
Kimberlite from Belgian Congo
Labour conditions in South Africa ...
Leaves, ericoid

]jepidopterous parasite of Jhi.'ii/chitn crfortn
List of pa})eis read at Bnla\\'ayo
Ijorantliaceae, host-plants of
Lycopodiaccae of Southern Rhodesia
Mafungabusi. Karroo rocks in
Magic conct^ption of Nature among Bantus .
Magnesia-impregnated soils
Maize, cost of production of
Marattiaceac of Southern R'.odesia ...
Marsiliaceae
Mastigojjlioi'a, parasitic
Meetings at UnlaMayo
Metsang, rock-gravings
Natal Kafir mu.-jhroom

Native languages, map of distribution of
Native races of Southern Rhodesia, fut;:re of
Nematodes, agricultural

, economic value of study of
.in man
of domesticated animals
Nitrogen proljiem
Officers and Council. 1920-21
Opliioglossaceae of Southern Rhodesia
Palaeolithic implements from Umguza and B(
Papers read at Bulawayo, list of
Parasitic Protozoa of South Africa ...
PaAv-paw, leaf spot of
Pests, agricultural
J*]riJopsychc aJxloininali.t
Phosphoric oxide, solubility in mixed fertiliser

„ ,, , volumetiic determination ..

Phyllostictn .sp.
Place-names, Hottentot

„ ,, , ., , corrupted

!) „ , ., , -kama group

•! ■, , .. , -ra group

... ... superseded

• • • .. . translated

... .. . true

, Hottentot-Bushman

V\GK

m

65
118

43
189
189
158
284
284
285
330
]9(i
185
334
308

(>7
230
133
194
298
31(5
249
179

So
120
1<)2
110
185
284
249

70
171
201
283
283
131
xvi
206
286
302
136
323
:^22
328
325

95
xxxviii
284
230
110
131
288

70
293
268
259
288
334
338
347
344
351
350
336
349

358

IXDKX OF SUBJECTS.

PAGE

Planetary equation of Einstein ... ... ... ... lol

Polyhedral wilt disease of l»a<i;\\orms ... ... ... 299

Presidential address: The Veld ... ... ... ... 1

„ , Section A .. ... ... ... 3o

„ , .. B .. 43

„ , ., C 51

„ , ,. D ... 64

.. , .. E ... ... ... ... 76

.. , ;. F ... ... ... ... 8o

Protozoa, jjarasitie, of South Africa ... ... ... ... 131

Psilotaceae of Soutliern Rhodesia ... .. ... ... 284

Pteridopliyta of Southern Rhodesia . . ... ... ... 279

Pul)lic lecture, the NitrofjPn problem ... ... ... 95

Rainfall and haronietri? variation at Bulawavo ... ... 155

Religion of Ba-Venda ... ... .'.. ... ... 207

Report of Council at Buhnvayo ... ... ... ... xxiii

.. Treasiiier at Bulawayo ... ... ... ... xxvi

Rhodesia. Bat guano de])osits ... ... ... ... 158

. Crassulaceae of ... .. ... ... ... 186

. Southei'ii. ferns of ... ... ... ... 275

... ... floral constituents of ... ... ... 181

, future of native races ... ... ... 136

... ... Karroo rocks in ... ... ... 249

Rock-gravings. Metsang ... ... ... ... ... 206

Sorcocjistis frncU<f. seasonal variation in .. ... ... 133

Sarcodina, parasitic ... ... ... ... ... 131

Sarcosporidia ... ... ... ... ... ... 132

Schulzcrid lunkoirodn ... ... ... ... ... 286

Selaginellaceae of Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... 284

Silica, influence on determination of phosphoric oxide ... 264

Skulls of Strand looptMs ... ... ... ... ... 318

Snake venom, especially effects on other snakes ... ... 353

Soils, magnesia impregnated ... ... ... ... 171

South Africa, fern notes ... ... ... ... ... 275

. importance of Nematodes in ... ... ... 332

, labour conditions ... ... ... ... 85

, Medal, award ... ... ... ... xxx

. map of language distribution ... ... ... 303

. nature of rainfall ... ... ... ... 61

. parasitic Protozoa of ... ... ... ... 131

. progressive evolution of flora of ... ... 51

. zoological factors in economic development of ... 64

Spirochaeta<?, para.sitic ... ... ... ... ... 135

Sporozoa ... ... ... ... ... ... 132

Stone implements, exhibit of ... ... ... ... 290

Strandloopers ... ... ... ... ... ... 304

, skulls of ... ... ... ... ... 318

Sunshine, diagram for showing available ... ... ... 227

Tachinid parasite of honey bee ... ... ... ... 196

Taking-off of aeroplanes ... ... ... ... ... 235

Terblanz. occurrence of ... ... ... .. ... 221

Umguza. palaeolithic implements from ... ... ... 230

Veld, method of estimation ... ... ... ... ... 222

,, , resources and dangers ... ... ... ... 1

„ , types of ... .. ... ... ... 7

., . ,, .. , map of distril)ution ... ... ... ... 9

Venom, snake ... ... ... .. ... ... 353

Victoria Falls and Bulawayo. geological section between ... 113

Vitamines, distribution in plants ... ... ... ... 121

A Olumetric determination of phosphoric oxide ... ... 259

Wattle bagworm, natural control of ... ... ... 291

Zoological factors in economic development of South Africa ... 64

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

19 20, f^^^Z^^.,.

OFFICERS: 1920-1921.

PRESIDENT.
Prof. J. E. DuERDKN, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

F'rof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

Prof. R. Lksmk, M.A., F.S.S. T. R. Sim, D.Sc.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc. F.R.A.S,, Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

C. F. JuRlTZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Agricultural Chemical Research Laboratory, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURES.

J, A. FOOTE, F.G.S., F.S.T.S., Commercial High School, Johannesburg.

HON. LIBRARIAN.
Annie Porter, D.Sc, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E., Box 6894, Johannesburg. Telegraphic Address: "Science."

HON. EDITOR OF JOURNAL.
Prof, H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, University College, Johannesburg.

VOL XVII. NOVEMBER, 1920. No. 1

JOHANNESBURG.
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

19 20. [Price 12«.

The price of this Journal to the general public is as marked on the front
page. Everj^ member of the Association is supplied with one copy free, and
may obtain extra copies at half-price. Applications for copies should be
addressed to the Assistant General Secretary, P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg.

CORRESPONDENCE. — All communications other than those relating to
the Journal should be addressed to the Assistant Secretary, P.O. Box 6S94,

Johannesburg. (Telegraphic address: "Science, Johannesburg.")

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

MANUSCRIPTS for pu])lication sl)ould ])e typewritten.

ILLUSTRATIONS (other than photographs) accompanying papers intended
for publication in the Journal must be supplied by the authors, carefully drawn
about twice the size of the finished block, on smooth white Bristol board, in
Indian Ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly from the
drawings. Any lettering on these drawings should be of such a size that it
will be clearly legible when reduced.

REPRINTS. — Authors desiring to have reprints of their papers, read at
the Annual Meeting of the Association, are requested t-o notify the Editor as
to the number required when returning their proofs.

LOOSE COVER CASES. — Cases uniform in all respects with the covers
of previous volumes may be obtained for binding vols, vi (1909) to xv (1918),
on application to the Assistant General Secretary, at a cost of Is. per case,
and 6d. for postage.

BINDING VOLUME XVI.— The publication of vol. xvi of the Journal,
comprising the papers read at the Kiiigwilliamstown (1919) meeting, is now
completed. Members desiring to have their separate numbers of this volume
bound should forward them to the Assistant General Secretary, and inform
him of their wislies, by 1st February, 1921, when the orders will be given to
the binders.

SUBSCR5PT5 0NS. — Subscriptions of £1 for the year ending 30th June,
1921, are now due. Members are requested to be so kind as to remit the
amount as soon as possible to the Assistant General Secretary, P.O. Box 6894,
Johannesburg. Unless members pay the amount due at an early date, great
inconvenience and unnecessary expense may be caused, as it is very difficult
to determine v.hat number of copies of the Journal will be required. The
Council therefore appeals to every member for support and co-operation, and
asks that outstanding subscriptions be. paid without delay. The Journal will
be ssp.t only to thass uhoso arrear subscriptions are paid.

Cheques, etc., should be crossed and Tuade payable to the Association,
not to the Secretaries or Treasurer individually. Sixpence should be added to
country cheques for exchange.

CHANCE OF HEADQUARTERS.— Attention is called to the change of
Headquarters decided on at the Kingwilliam.stown (1919) ses.sion. In future
the office address of the Association will be " P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg " ;
the telegraphic address will be " Science, Johannesburg," and the telephone
Bumber " 1404, Johannesburg."

Johannesburg, loth November, 1920

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Copies of the following volumes (royal 8vo) of the Association's Reports
iruLT he obtained from the Assistant General Secretary (P.O. Box 689i, Johan-
nesborg) at the prices set against them : —

Vol. I. — Cape Town, 1903. 556 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members. 5s.
Vol. II. — Johannesburg, 1904. 598 pp. Price, 10s. net ; to Members, 5s.
Vol. III.— Kimberley, 1906. 696 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IV.— Natal, 1907. 2.30 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. v.— Grahamstown, 1908. 436 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VI.— Bloemfontein, 1909. 542 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VII.— Cape Town, 1910. 488 pp. Price, 20s. net; to 31embers, 10s.
Vol. VIII.— Bulawayo, 1911. 472 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IX.— Port Elizabeth, 1912, 460 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, IDs.
Vol. X. — Lourenco Marques, 1913. 533 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XI.— Kimberley, 1914. 484 pp. Price, 20s net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XII.— Pretoria, 1915. 806 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIII. — Maritzburg, 1916. 714 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XrV.— Stellenbosch, 1917. 646 pp. Price, 30s. net ; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XV. — Johannesburg, 1918. 874 pp. Price, 35s. net ; to Members, 18s.
Vol. XVI. — Kingwilliamstown, 1919. 536 pp. (In course of binding.)

One sSiilling should be added to the cost of each of she absve volumes for
postage.

Tlie Association has also on hand a few copies of the Report of tho
Meeting of the British Association in South Africa in 1905 ; price, 24s. : to
Members, 10s. 6d.

" Science in South Africa." — A few copies of this valuable handbook
which v,as specially prepared for the Members of the British Association
yisiting South Africa in 1905, are for sale; price, 21s. (or 22s. pest free).

INFORMATION REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION.

Objects. — The. objects of the Association are: To yive a stronger impulse
and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse
of Societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of South
Africa ; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and applied
Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

Ordinary Members. — Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices
of the Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications
issued by the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual
Subscription. The Annual Suliseription for Ordinai'y Members is One Pound,
payable, first, at election, and thereafter on the 1st of July of each year.

Life Membsrs. — Live Ivlembers shall be eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
the Association. Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the
sura of Ten Pounds. An Ordinary Member may' at any time become a Life
Member by one payment of Ten Pounds in lieu of future annual subscriptions,
or, after ten years' continuous membership, by one payment of Five Pounds.

Associates.— Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of tho Association. The subscription for
Associates for a session is Ten Shillings.

Ladies. — Ladies mav become Members or Associates of the Association.

CONTENTS.

Page
Constitution of the Association ... ... ••• •■• i

Tables : Past Annual Meetings : —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Local

Secretaries ... ••• ••■ ••• ••• ^^

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries ... ... ... xi

Evening Discourses ... ... •■• ■•• ■•■ siv

BULAWAYO MEETING, 1920: —

Meetings ... ••• ••• ••• ••• •■• ^^^

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees ... •.- xvii

Proceedings of Eighteenth Annual General Meeting ... xx

Report of Council, 1919-20 ... ... .■■ ■■• xxiii

Hon. Treasurer's Report and Accounts ... ... ... xxvi

Thirteenth Award of the South Africa Medal and Grant ... xx.x

Association Library ... ... ... ••• •■■ xxxiii

Officers and Council, 1920-21 ... ... ... ... xxxviii

President's Address : " The Veld, its Resources and Dangers,"

by I. B. Pole Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 1

Addresses by Presidents of Sections :

Section A: "Recent Progress in Astronomy," by H. E.

Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S. ... ... ... 35

Section B; '-'Geology in Relation to Mining," by F. P.

Mennell, F.G.S., M.I.M.M. ... ... ... ... 43

Section C: "Causes leading toward Progressive Evolution of

the Flora of South Africa," by T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S. 51

Section D : "Some Zoological Factors in the Economic
Development of South Africa," by C. W. Mally, M.Sc,
F.E.S. ... ... ... ... ... ... 64

Section E: "The Magic Conception of Nature amongst

Bantus," by Rev. Henri A. Junod ... ... ... 76

Section F : " Laljour Conditions in South Africa," by

R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., D.Sc. ... ... ... 85

Public Lecture : " The Nitrogen Problem," by J. A. W'Ikinson,

M.A. ... ... ... ... ... ... 95

List of Papers Rkad at the Sectional Meetings ... ... . 110

Papers Read : —

" The Geological Section between Bulawayo and the

Victoria Falls," by H. B. Maufe, B.A. ... ... 113

" Crime and Feeble-mindedness," by G. T. Morice, K.C.,

B.A 116

" The Distribution of Accessory Food Factors (Vitamines)

in Plants," by E. Marion Delf, D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 121

" The Life-history of the African Sheep and Cattle Fluke,

Fasciola gigantica,'^ by Annie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.,

F.R.S. (S.A.) 126

" Some Parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa. — III.,"

by H. B. Fantham, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc (Lond.). ... 131

" The Future of the Native Races of Southern Rhodesia,"

by N. H. Wilson ... ... ... ... ... 1-36

" A Short Note on Einstein's Planetary Equation," by

W. N. Roseveare, M.A. ... ... ... ... 151

E. H. Adlinglon. Ltd.. Printers, Johannesburg.— 5942.

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE:

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

19 20.

BULAWAYO.

OFFICERS: 1920-1921.

■:(^ *

PRESIDENT.
Prof. J. E. DuERDEN, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., F.S.S. T. R. Sim, D.Sc.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc F.R.A.S., Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

C. F. JuRITZ, M.A,, D.Sc, F.I.C., Agricultural Chemical Research Laboratory, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
J A. FoOTE, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Commercial High School, Johannesburg.

HON. LIBRARIAN.
Annie Porter, D.Sc, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E., Box 6894, Johannesburg. Telegraphic Address: "Science."

HON. EDITOR OF JOURNAL.
Prof, H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, University College, Johannesburg.

VOL XVII. APRIL 1921. No. 2.

JOHANNESBURG,
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

192 1. [Price 10«.

The price of this Journal to the general public is as marked on the front
page. Every member of the Association is supplied with one copy free, and
may obtain extra copies at half-price. Applications for copies should be
addressed to the Assistant General Secretary, P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg.

CORRESPONDENCE.— All communications other than those relating to
the Journal should be addressed to the Assistant Secretary, P.O. Box 6894,

Johannesburg. (Telegraphic address: " Science, Johannesburg.")

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

MANUSCRIPTS for publication should be typewritten.

ILLUSTRATIONS (other than photographs) accompanying papers intended
for publication in the Journal must be supplied by the authors, carefully drawn
about twice the size of the finished block, on smooth white Bristol board, in
Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly from the
drawings. Any lettering oli these drawings should be of such a size that it
will be clearly legible when reduced.

REPRINTS. — Authors desiring to have reprints of their papers, read at
the Annual Meeting of the Association, are requested t-o notify the Editor as
to the number required when returning their proofs.

LOOSE COVER CASES. — Cases uniform with the covers of previous
volumes may be obtained for binding on application to the Assistant General
Secretary, at a cost of 4s. per case post free.

BINDING VOLUME XVI.— The publication of vol. xvi of the Journal,
comprising the papers read at the Kingwilliamstown (1919) meeting, is now
comp.'eted. Members desiring to have their separate numbers of this volume
bound should forward them to the Assistant General Secretary, and inform
him of their wishes, when the orders will be given to the binders. The cost of
the cover and binding will be 12s. 6d. post free.

SUBSCRIPTIONS. — Subscriptions of £1 10s. for the year ending
30th June, 1922, are now due. Members are requested to be so kind as to
remit the amount as soon as possible to the Assistant General Secretary,
P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg. Unless members pay the amount due at an
early date, great inconvenience and unnecessary expense may be caused, as it
is very diflficult to determine what number of copies of the Journal will be
required. The Council therefore api^eals to every member for support and
co-operation, and asks that outstanding subscriptions be paid without delay.
The Journal will be sent only to those whose arrear subscriptions are paid.

Cheques, etc., should be crossed and made j^ayaljle to the Association,
not to th© Secretaries or Treasurer individually. Sixpence should be added to
country cheques for exchange.

HEADQUARTERS. — Attention is called to the change of Headquarters
decided on at the KingwilliaJnstown (1919) session. The oifice addi-ess of
the Association now is "P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg"; the telegraphic
address is " Science, Johannesburg," and the telephone number " 1404,
Johannesburg . ' '

Johannesburg, 30th April, 1921.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Copies of the following bound volumes (royal 8vo) of the Association's
Reports may be obtained from the Assistant General Secretary (P.O. Box 6894,
Johannesburg) at the prices set against them: —

Vol. I.— Cape Town, 1903. 556 pp. Price, 10s. net ; to Members, 5s.
"Vol. II. — Johannesburg, 1904. 598 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. III.— Kimberley, 1906. 696 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IV.— Natal, 1907. 230 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. v.— Grahamstown, 1908. 436 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VI.— Bloemfontein, 1909. 542 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VII.— Cape Town, 1910. 488 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. Vin.— Bulawayo, 1911. 472 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IX.— Port Elizabeth, 1912, 460 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. X. — Lourengo Marques, 1913. 533 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XI.— Kimberley, 1914. 484 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, IDs.
Vol. XII.— Pretoria, 1915. 806 pp. Price, 30s. net ; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIII.— Maritzburg, 1916. 714 pp. Price, 30s. net ; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIV.— Stellenbosch, 1917. 646 pp. Price, 30s. net ; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XV. — Johannesburg, 1918. 874 pp. Price, 35s. net ; to Members, 18s.
Vol. XVI. — Kingwilliamstown, 1919. 536 pp. Price, 32s. net; to Members, 16s.

OnQ shilling should be added to the cost of each of the above volumes for
postage.

The Association has also on hand a few bound coijies of the Picport of the
Meeti y of the British Association in Soutli Africa in 1905 ; price, 24s. ; to
Members, 10s. 6d.

" Science in South Africa." — A few copies of this valuable handbook
which wad specially prepared for the Members of the British Association
visiting Soutli Africa in 1905, are for sale; price, 21s. (or 22s. post free).

INFORMATION REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION.

Objects. — The objects of the Association are : To give a stronger impulse
and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse
of Societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of South
Africa ; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and applied
Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

Ordinary Members. — Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices
of the Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications
issued by the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual
Subscription. The Annual Subscription for Ordinary Members is One Pound
Ten Shillings, payable, first, at election, and thereafter on the 1st of July of
each year.

Life Members.— Life Members shall l)e eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
the Association. Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the
sum of Fifteen Pounds. An Ordinary Member may at any time become a Life
Member by one payment of Fifteen Pounds in lieu of future annual subscrip-
tions, or, after ten years' continuous membership, by one payment of
Ten Pounds.

Associates. — Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee,
but arA not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of the Association. The subscription for
Associates for a session is One Pound.

Ladles. — Ladies may become Members or Associates of the Association.

CONTENTS.

Papers Read : — Pace

" Rainfall and Barometric Variation in Bulawayo," by

Father E. Goetz, S.J., M.A., F.R.A.S. ... ... 155

" Bat Guano Deposits of Rhodesia," by Edmund Victor

Flack ... ... ... ... ... •■• 15S

" Magnesia Impregnated Soils," by G. N. BlackshaAv,

O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C. ... ... ... ..- 171

" Note on Kimberlite from the Belgian Congo," by P. A.

Wagner, Ing. D., B.Sc. ... ... ... ... 1"9

" Constituents of the Flora of Southern Rhodesia," by

F. Eyles ... ... ... .- ... ••■ 181

" Additional Host-plants of Loranthaceae occurring
around Durban," by Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S. ... ... ... ... ... ... 185

" Note on the Crassulaceac found in Rhodesia," by

S. Sc.honland, M.A., Ph.D. ... ... ... 186

" Ripening of Seed in Gnetum gnemon and Gnetum

africanum," by Mary G. Thoday ... ... ... 189

" A Not.e on Dasychira exforta and its Lepidopterous

Parasite," by C. P. van der Merwe ... ... ... 192

" Birds and Insects in Bushman Folk-lore," by D. F. Bleek 194

" A Tachinid Parasite of the Honey Bee," by S. H. Skaife,

M.A., M.Sc. 196

" Agricultural Economics — Cost of Production of Maize,"

by R. A. Lehfeldt, D.Sc. ... ... ... ... 201

" Calibration of G«rber Milk Butyrometers," by C. O.

Williams, B.Sc, A.R.C.S. ... ... ... ... 205

" Note on Rock-gravings at Metsang, Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate," by A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S. ... ... 206

" Some Features of the Religion of tlie Ba-Venda," by

Rev. H. A. Junod ... ... ... ... 207

"The Occurrence of ' Terblanz ' {Fawrea Macnaughtonii,
Phill.) in Natal and Pondoland," by E. P. Phillips,
M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., and J. J. Kotze, B.A., D.Sc ... 221

" A Method of Veld Estimation," by A. 0. D. Mogg, B.A. 222

" Note on a Diagram showing the amount of Available
Sunsliine falling on a Horizontal Surface on any Day
of the Year at a Given Place, and showing also the
Sun's Elevation and its Times of Rising and Setting,"
by J. T. Morrison, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E. ... ... 227

" Note on Older Palaeolithic Implements from the Umguza
and Bembesi Valleys," by A. W. Macgregor, B.A.,
F.G.S 230

" The Effect of Elevation of Temperature and Altitude of
Aerodrome in the Taking-off of Aeroplanes," by P. G.

Gundry, B.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.Ae.S 235

" Karroo Rock.s in the Mafungabusi, Southern Rhodesia,"

by A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S. ... ... ... 249

E. H. Adlington, Ltd., Printers, Johannesburg— 7532

g^O K THE

'south AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE:

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

1920.

BULAWAYO.

OFFICERS: 1S20-1921.

PRESIDENT.
Prof. J. E. DUERDEN, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.C.S.

VKJE-PRESIDENTS.

I'rof. G. E. Cory, M.A.

Prof. R. Lkslik, M.A., F.S.S. T. R. SiM, D.Sc.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A. F.C.S.

HON. GENERAL SECRETAKIES. -
H. E. Wood, M.Sc. F.R.A.S., Union Observatory, Johannesburg.
C. F. JuRlTZ, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Agricultural Chemical Rescarcli li'aboratory, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
J A. FooTE, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Conuuercial High School, Johannesburg.

HON. LIBRARIAN.
Annie Porter, D.Sc, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E., Box 6894, Johannesburg. Telegraphic Address: "Science."

HON. EDITOR OF JOURNAL.
Prof. H. B. Fantiiaji, M.A., D.Sc, University College, Johannesburg.

VOL. XVII. JULY. J192A. NOS. 3 and 4.

JOHANNESBURG.
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

1921. [Price lOs

The price of this Journal to the general public is as marked on the front
page. Every member of the Association is supplied with one copy free, and
may obtain extra copies at half-price. Applications for copies should be
addressed to the Assistant General Secretary, P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg.

CORRESPONDENCE. — All communications other tban those relating to
the Journal should be addressed to the Assistant Secretary, P.O. Box 6894,

Johannesburg. (Telegraphic address: "Science, Johannesburg.")

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

MANUSCRIPTS for publication should be typewritten.

ILLUSTRATIONS (other than photographs) accompanying papers intended
for publication in the Journal must be supplied by the authors, carefully drawn
about twice the size of the finished block, on smooth white Bristol board, in
Indian Ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared directly from the
drawings. Any lettering on these drawings should be of such a size that it
will be clearly legible when reduced.

REPRINTS. — Authors desiring to have reprints of their papers, read at
the Annual Meeting of the Association, are reqiiested to notify the Editor as
soon as possible as to the number required, or, at latest, when returning their
proofs.

LOOSE COVER CASES. — Cases uniform with the covers of previous
volumes may be obtained for binding on application to the Assistant General
Secretary, at a cost of 4s. per case post free.

BINDING VOLUME XVI The publication of vol. xvi of the Journal.

comprising the papers read at the Kingwilliamstown (1919) meeting, is now
completed. Members desiring to have their separate numbers of this volume
bound should forward them to the Assistant General Secretary, and inform
him of their wishes, when the orders will be given to the binders. The cost of
the cover and binding will be 12s. 6d. post free.

SUBSCRIPTIONS. — Subscriptions of £1 10s. for the year ending
30th June, 1922, are now due. Members are requested to be so kind as to
remit the amount as soon as possible to the Assistant General Secretary,
P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg. Unless members pay the amount due at an
early date, great inconvenience and vmnecessary expense may be caused, as it
is very difficult to determine what number of copies of the Journal will be
required. The Council therefore appeals to every member for support and
co-operation, and asks that outstanding subscriptions be paid without delay.
The Journal will be sent only to those whose arrear subscriptions are paid.

Cheques, etc., should be crossed and made payable to the Association,
not to the Secretaries or Treasurer individually. Sixpence should be added to
country cheques for exchange.

HEADQUARTERS. — Attention is called to the change of Headquarters
decided on at the Kingwilliamstown (1919) session. The office address of
the Association now is "P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg"; the telegraphic
address is " Science, Johannesburg," and the teleplione number " 1404,
Johannesburg."

Johannesburg, 31st Jiriy, 1921.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Copies of the following bound volumes (royal 8vo) of the Association's
Reports may be obtained fi'om the Assistant General Secretary (P.O. Box 6894,
Johannesburg) at the prices set against them : —

Vol. I. — Cape Town, 1903. 556 pp. Price, 10s. net ; to Members, 5s.
Vol. II. — Johannesburg, 1904. 598 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. III.— Kimberley, 1906. 696 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IV.— Natal, 1907. 230 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. v.— Grahamstown, 1908. 436 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VI.— Bloemfontein, 1909. 542 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VII.— Cape Town, 1910. 488 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. VIII.— Bulawayo, 1911. 472 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IX.— Port Elizabeth, 1912, 460 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. X. — LoureuQo Marques, 1913. 533 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XL — Kimberley, 1914. 484 pp. Price, 20s net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XII.— Pretoria, 1915. 806 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIIL— Maritzburg, 1916. 714 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIV.— Stellenbosch, 1917. 646 pp. Price, 30s. net ; to Members, ISs.
Vol. XV. — Johannesburg, 1918. 874 pp. Price, 35s. net ; to Members, 18s.
Vol. XVI. — Ktngwilliamstown, 1919. 536 pp. Price, 32s. net; to Members, 16r.

One shilling should be added to the cost of each of the above volumes for
postage.

The Association has also on hand a few bound copies of the Report of the
Meeting of the British Association in South Africa in 1905 ; price, 24s. ; to
Members, 10s. 6d.

" Science in South Africa." — A few copies of this valuable handbook
which wai specially prepared for the Members of the British Association
visiting South Africa in 1905, are for sale; price, 21s. (or 22s. post free).

INFORMATION REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION.

Objects. — The objects of the Association are: To give a stronger impulse
and a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse
of Societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of South
Africa; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and applied
Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which may
impede its progress.

Ordinary Members. — Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices
of the Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications
issued by the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual
Subscription. The Annual Subscription for Ordinary Members is One Pound
Ten Shillings, payable, first, at election, and thereafter on the 1st of July of
each year.

Life Members.— Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
the Association. Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the
sura of Fifteen Pounds. An Ordinary Member may at any time become a Life
Member by one payment of Fifteen Pounds in lieu of future annual subscrip-
tions, or, after ten years' continuous membership, by one payment of
Seven Pounds Ten Shillings.

Associates. — Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of the Association. The subscription for
Associates for a session is One Pound.

Ladies. — Ladies may become Members or Associates of the Association.

CONTENTS.

Papeks Read : — page

" On the Vohxmttric Determination of Phosphoric Oxide,"

byB. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc. ... ... ... 259

"' Some Further Factors influencing the Solubility of
Phosphoric Oxide in Mixed Fertilisers containing
Superphosphates," by Edmund Victor Flack ... 268

• • South African Fern Notes, Avith List of Ferns and Fern-
Allies found in Southern Rhodesia, and of Additional
Species recorded for other South African Phytographic
Areas," by T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 275

'' The Leaves of Iluhca pectinatu and II. suaveolens," by

Horace A. Wager, A.R.C.Sc. ... ... ... 284

" Note on the I-Kowe or Natal Kafir Mushroom, Schuheiia
Umkoicaan," by Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S. ... ... ... ... ... ... 286

"A Paw-Paw Leaf-Spot caused by a Phyllosticta sp.," by

Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. ... ... 288

" An Exhibit of Stone Implements from Tiger Kloof and

Taungs, Cape Colony," by Rev. Neville Jones, F.E.S. 2[)0

" Some Factors in the Natural Control of the Wattle

Bagworm." by S. H. Skaife, M.A., M.Sc. ... ... 291

" Map of South Africa, showing the chief Native Languages

and Dialects," by Rev. G. Beyer ... ... ... 302

" Notes relating to Aboriginal Tribes of the Eastern

Province," by John Hewitt, B. A. ... ... ... 304

" The Economic Value of a Study of the Nematodes, with
Remarks on the Life History of Heterodera in South
Africa," by J. Sandground, M.Sc, ... ... ... 322

" Hottentot Place-Names, ' by Rev. Cliarlcs Pettman ... 334

" Snake- Venom and its Effects, especially on other Snakes,"

by F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S. ... ... 353

Index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 355

E. H. Adlin&ton, Ltd., Printers, Johaimesbur?— 10436

MBL WHOI Library - Serials

5 WHSE 00063