REPORT

OF THE

Nineteenth Annual Meeting

of the

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

Being Volume XVIII of the South African Journal of Science.

D U RB A N
1921.

JULY 11 — 16.

JOHANNESBURG :

PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

1922.

CONTENTS.

Page.
Constitution of the Association i

Tables: Past Annual Meetings: —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Local

Secretaries x

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries xii

Evening Discourses xv

DURBAN MEETING, 1921: —

Meetings xvii

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees xix

Proceedings of Nineteenth Annual General Meeting xxii

Report of Council, 1920-21 xxiv

Hon. Treasurer's Report and Accounts xxvii

Fourteenth Award of South Africa Medal and Grant xxxii

Association Library xxxiii

Officers and Council, 1921-22 xxxviii

President's Address: "Social Anthropology in South Africa:
Problems of Race and Nationality," by J. E. Duerden,
M.Sc, Ph. D 1

Addresses by Presidents of Sections:

Section A: "Stellar Distances, Magnitudes and Move-
ments," by Joseph Lunt, D.Sc 32

Section B: "The Atomic Theory in 1921," by James Moir,

M.A., D.Sc 47

Section C : "Some Aspects of Botany in South Africa and
Plant Ecology in Natal," by J. AV. Bews,
M.A., D.Sc 63

Section D: "Some Recent Advances in Zoology and their
Relation to Present-Day Problems," by
H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc 81

Section E: "The Claims of the Native Question upon
Scientists," by C. T. Loram, M.A.,
LKB., Ph.D. ... 99

Section F: "Observation and Proposals for the Stabilisa-
tion of Money Values," by W. A. Mac-
fadyen, M.A., LL.D , 110

Public Lecture: "Land Connections between the other Con-
tinents and South Africa in the Past," by
- A. L. du Toit, D.Sc 120

List of Papers Read at Sectional Meetings 140

Papers Read and Published : —

"Alcohol Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines," by

W. Petchell 143

"Notes on the Chemical Control of Cattle Dipping Tanks,"

by C. Williams, B.Sc 147

CONTENTS. III.

Papers Read and Published — continued.

PAGE.

"A Preliminary Account of Some Investigations on Leaf-
Aeration in certain Natal Plants," by G. W. Gale,

B.Sc 153

"Agricultural Experiment: Its Design and Interpreta-
tion," by E. Parish, B.Sc 155

"The Life-Histories of some Trematodes occurring in South

Africa," by Annie Porter, D.Sc 156

"Some Parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa. IV," by

H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc 164

"A Note on Ortalia pallens Muls.," by R. H. T. P. Harris 170

"An Educational Experiment," by H. S. Keigwin, M.A. ... 172

"Bantu Industries," by D. A. Hunter 183

••The Preservation of our National Monuments," by

C. G. Botha 195

"Irving Fisher's Proposals for Stabilising the Value of

Money," by Mabel Palmer, M.A 197

Page.
"Asphalt in relation to Road Construction," by D. Basil

W. Alexander 201

"Purification of Sewage by the Activated Sludge Process,"

by R. J. Morris 215

"On the Mechanical Analysis of Soil containing Heavy

Minerals," by B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc 223

"Condensed Milk in South Africa from the Chemist's point

of view," by A. A. Kloot, B.Sc, and L. Hyman ... 227

"The genus Passerina and its Distribution in South

Africa," by D. Thoday, M.A 230

"On some Fungi from the Air of Sugar Mills and their

Economic Importance to the Sugar Industry," by

P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc 232

"The Plant Succession in a Type of Midland Tree Veld in

Natal," by R. D. Aitken, M.Sc 233

"Protonemal Developments of Mosses," by H. Wager,

A.R.C.S 244

"A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Polyporeae of

South Africa," by P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc. ... 246

"Bryophyta of Southern Rhodesia," by T. R. Sim, D.Sc,

and H. N. Dixon, M.A 294

"The Potency of Pepper Tree Pollen as a Cause of Hay

Fever," by Geo. Potts, B.Sc, Ph.D 336

"Natal Species of the genus Cassia," by Helena Forbes... 342
"Notes on some interesting or little-known South African

Fungi," by P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc 345

"The Flora of Isipingo," by Helena Forbes 348

"A preliminary account of an Interspecific Hybrid and

Backcrosses of Digitalis," by E. Warren, D.Sc 359

"Some Protozoa found in certain South African Soils: I,"
by H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, and Esther Tavlor,
M.Sc ;. ..; 373

32479

IVi CONTENTS.

Papers Read and Published — continued.

"Wild Birds and Bilharziasis," by F. W. FitzSimons 393

"The Experimental Infestation of Fresh-water Snails, with
special reference to the Bilharzia Parasite," by
F. G. Cawston, M.D 396

"A Study of the Life History and Methods of Control of
the Root Gall Nematode Heterodera radicicola (Greef
Muller), in South Africa,"' by J. Sandground, M.Sc. ... 399

"The Natives and Agriculture," by W. Hammond Tooke... 419

"The Heavenly Bodies in South African Mythology," by

Rev. S. S! Dornan, M.A 430

"The Bantu Idiomatist in the field of Comparative

Philology," by Rev. W. A. Norton, B.Litt 438

"Sesuto Praises of the Chiefs," by Rev. W. A. Norton,

B.Litt 441

"On several Implements and Ornaments from Strandlooper

Sites in the Eastern Province," by J. Hewitt, B.A. ... 454

"The Function of a School of Art in the Life of the Com-
munity," by 0. J. P. Oxley, A.R.C.A 468

"A Curiosity of Mediaeval French Literature," by R. D.

Nauta '. 474

"Archival Problems in South Africa," by C. Graham Botha 483

Index 487

List of Members i

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate To face

No. Page

I. — Constitution of Atoms and Molecules 62

II.— Midland Tree Veld, Natal 242

III.— Midland Tree Veld, Natal 242

IV.— Hybrid Digitalis 372

V.— Hybrid Digitalis 372

VI. — Heterodera radicicola 418

VII. — Heterodera radicicola 418

VIII.- — Heterodera radicicola 418

IX. — Stone Implements from Strandlooper Sites, Eastern

Province 466

X. — Stone Implements from Strandlooper Sites, Eastern

Province 466

XL- — Implements and Ornaments from Strandlooper Sites ... 466

XII. — Skulls from Strandlooper Sites 466

NATAL WITNESS, LTD., MARITZBCEG.

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL

OF SCIENCE /&WM

COMPEISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

(1921, DURBAN.)
Vol. XVIII. DECEMBER, 1921. Nos. 1 and 2.

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

[As amended at the Nineteenth Annual Meeting at Durban, 1921.]

I. —OBJECTS.

The objects of the Association are : — To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific enquiry ; to promote the inter-
course of societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts
of South Africa; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of
pure and applied Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a
public kind which may impede its progress.

]L— MEMBERSHIP.

(a) All persons interested in the objects of the Association are
eligible for Membership.

(6) Institutions, Societies, Government Departments and Public
Bodies are eligible as "Institutional Members."

(c) The Association shall consist of (a) Life Members, (b) Ordinary
Members (both of whom shall be included under the term "Members"),
(c) Institutional Members, and (d) Temporary Members, elected for a
session, hereinafter called "Associates."

(d) Members, Institutional Members and Associates shall be elected
directly by the Council, but Associates may also be elected by Local
Committees. Members may also be elected by a majority of the Members
of Council resident in that centre at which the next ensuing session is
to be held.

(c) The Council shall have the power, by a two-thirds vote, to
remove the name of a Member of any class whose Membership is no
longer desirable in the interests of the Association.

Ill— PRIVILEGES OF MEMBEBS AND ASSOCIATES.

(o) Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the Association,
and shall receiva gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by the
Association.

1

11 CONSTITUTION.

(6) Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices of the Asso-
ciation and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay, without intermission, their Annual
Subscription.

(c) Institutional Members shall receive gratuitously all ordinary
publications of the Association on the same conditions as ordinary
members ; and each Institutional Member shall be entitled to send one
representative to the Annual Session of the Association.

(d) Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled
to receive gratuitously the publications of the Association.

(e) Members and Institutional Members may purchase from the
Association (for the purpose of completing their sets) any of the Annual
Reports of the Association, at a price to be fixed upon by the Council.

IV.— SUBSCRIPTIONS.

(a) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the sum
of Fifteen Pounds.

(b) Ordinary and Institutional Members shall pay, on election, an
Annual Subscription of One Pound Ten Shillings. Subsequent Annual
Subscriptions shall be payable on the first day of July in each year.

(c) An Ordinary Member may at any time become a Life Member
by one payment of Fifteen Pounds in lieu of future Annual Subscrip-
tions. An Ordinary Member may, after ten years, provided that his
subscriptions have been paid regularly without intermission, become a
Life Member by one payment of Seven Pounds Ten Shillings in lieu of
future Annual Subscriptions.

(d) The Subscription for Associates for a Sesson shall be One
Pound.

V.— MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet in Session annually. The place of
meeting shall be appointed by the Council as far in advance as possible,
and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the Local Committee,
in conjunction with the Council.

VI.— COUNCIL.

(a) The Management of the affairs of the Association shall be
entrusted to a Council, five to form a quorum.

(fe) The Council shall consist of the President, Retiring President,
four Vice-Presidents, two General Secretaries, General Treasurer, the
Editor of the publications of the Association, and the Librarian, together
with one Member of Council for every twenty Members of the Asso-
ciation.

(c) The President, Vice-Presidents, General Secretaries, General
Treasurer, the Editor of the publications of the Association and the
Librarian shall be nominated at a meeting of Council not later than
two months previous to the Annual Session, and shall be elected at the
Annual General Meeting.

(d) Ordinary Members of Council to represent centres having more
than twenty Members shall, not later than one month prior to the
Annual Session of the Association, be elected by each such Centre, in
the proportion of one representative for every twenty Members. The
Annual General Meeting shall elect other Ordinary Members of Council,
in number so as to give, together with the Members of Council already
elected by the Centres, in all, one Member of Council for every twenty
Members of the Association.

(e) The Council shall have the power to co-opt Members, not ex-
ceeding five in number, from among the Members of the Association
resident in that Centre at which the next ensuing Session is to be held.

(/) In the event of a vacancy occurring in the Council, or among
the Officers of the Association, in the intervals between the Annual

COUNCIL. FINANCE. Ill

'Sessions, or in the event of the Annual Meeting leaving vacancies, the
Council shall have the power to fill such vacancies.

(g) During any Session of the Association the Council shall meet
at least twice, and the Council shall meet at least six times during
the year, in addition to such meetings as may be necessary during the
Annual Session of the Association.

(h) The Council shall have the power to pay for the services of
Assistant General Secretaries for such clerical assistance as it may
consider necessary, and for such assistance as may be needed for the
publication of the Association Report or Journal.

(i) The Council shall have power to frame Bye-laws to facilitate
the practical working of the Association, so long as these Bye-laws are
not at variance with the Constitution.

VII— LOCAL AND RECEPTION COMMITTEES.

(a) A Local Committee shall be constituted for the Centre at which
the Annual Session is to be held, and shall consist of the Members of
the Council resident in that Centre, with such other Members of the
Association as the said Members of Council may elect.

(b) The Local Committee shall form a Reception Committee to
assist in making arrangements for the reception and entertainment of
visitors. Such Reception Committee may include persons not neces-
sarily Members or Associates o£ the Association.*

(c) The Local Committee shall be responsible for all expenses in
connection with the Annual Session of the Association.

VIII.— HEADQUARTERS.

The Headquarters of the Association shall be in Johannesburg.

IX.— FINANCE.

(a) The Financial Year shall end on the 31st of May.

(b) All sums received for Life Subscriptions and for Entrance Fees
shall be invested in the names of three Trustees appointed by the
Council, and only the interest arising from such investment shall be
applied to the uses of the Association, except by resolution of a General
Meeting ; provided that any composition fee as a Life Member paid
over to the Trustees of the Endowment Fund after the 30th day of
May, 1914, may, upon the death of such Member, be repaid by the
Trustees to the General Account of the Association, if the Council
shall so decide.

(c) The Local Committee of the Centre in which the next ensuing
Session is to be held shall have the power to expend money collected,
or otherwise obtained in that Centre, other than the subscriptions of
Members. Such disbursements shall be audited, and the financial state-
ment and the surplus funds forwarded to the General Treasurer within
one month after the Annual Session.

(d) All cheques shall be signed by Ehe General Treasurer and a
General Secretary, or by such other person or persons as may be
authorised by the Council.

(e) Whenever the balance in the hands of the Treasurer shall exceed
the sum requisite for the probable or current expenses of the Association,
the Council shall invest the excess in the names of the Trustees.

(f) On the request of the majority of the Members of Council of
any Centre in which two or more Members of Council reside, the

* The Reception Committee should make arrangements to provide :—

(1) A large hall for the delivery of the Presidential Address and evening
lectures.

(2) A large room to be used as a Reception Room for members and others, at
which all information regarding the Association can be obtained, and which shall
have attached to it two Secretaries' Offices, a Writing Room for members and
others, a Smoking Room, and Ladies' Room.

(3) Six rooms, each capable of accommodating about 30 or 40 people, to be used
as Sectional Meeting Rooms, and, if possible, to have rooms attached, or in close
proximity, for the_ purpose of holding meetings of Sectional Committees.

(4) Other requirements, such as office furniture, blackboards, window blinds to
darken sectional meeting rooms for Lantern lectures, notice boards, etc.

IV CONSTITUTION.

Council shall empower the local Members of Council in that Centre to
expend sums not exceeding in the aggregate 10 per centum of the
amount of Annual Subscriptions raised in that Centre.

(g) The whole of the accounts of the Association, i.e., the local as
well as the general accounts, shall be audited annually by an auditor
appointed by the Council, and the balance-sheet shall be submitted to
the Council at the first meeting thereafter, and be printed in the Annual
Report of the Association.

X.— SECTIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

The Scientific Work of the Association shall be transacted under
such sections as shall be constituted from time to time by the Council,
and the constitution of such Sections shall be published in the Journal.

The Sections shall deal with the following Sciences and such others
as the Council may add thereto from time to time : — Agriculture ;
Anthropology and Ethnology ; Archaeology ; Architecture ; Anatomy ;
Astronomy ; Bacteriology ; Botany ; Chemistry ; Education ; Engineering ;
Eugenics ; Geodesy and Surveying ; Geography ; Geology and Mineralogy ;
Ii ligation; Mathematics; Mental Science; Meteorology; Philology;
Physics ; Physiology ; Political Economy ; Sanitary Science ; Sociology ;
Statistics; Zoology.

XI— RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

(a) Grants may be made by the Association to Committees or to
individuals for the promotion of Scientific research.

(b) Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of money in
aid of special research shall primarily be considered by the Sectional
Committee dealing with the science specially concerned, and if such
proposal be approved, shall be referred to the Council.

(c) A Sectional Committee may recommend to Council the
appointment of a Research Committee, composed of Members of the
Association, to conduct research or to administer a grant in aid of
research.

(d) In recommending the appointment of Research Committees, the
Sectional Committee shall specifically name all Members of such
Committees ; and cne of them, who has notified his willingness to accept
the office, shall be appointed to act as Secretary. The number of
Members appointed to serve on a Research Committee shall be as small
as is consistent ,with its efficient working.

(e) All recommendations adopted by Sectional Committees shall be
forwarded without delay to the Council for consideration and decision.

(f) Research Committees shall be appointed for one year only, but
if the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed in that
year, application may be made, through a Sectional Committee, at the
next Annual Session for re-appointment, with or without a grant — or a
further grant — of money.

(g) Every Research Committee, and every individual, to whom a
grant had beer, made, shall present to the following Annual Meeting a
report of the progress which has been made, together with a statement
of the sums which have been expended. Any balance shall be returned
to the General Treasurer.

(h) In each Research Committee, the Secretary thereof shall be
the only person entitled to call on the Treasurer for such portions of
the sums granted as may from time to time be required.

XII.— SPECIAL COMMITTEES.

The Council shall have power to appoint Special Committees to deal
with such subjects as it may approve, to draft regulations for any such
Committees, and to vote money to assist the Committees in their work.

XIII— SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

(a) The Sectional Committees shall consist of a President, two
Vice-Presidents, two or more Secretaries, and such other persons as the

THE SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. V

Council may consider necessary, who shall be elected by the Council.
Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section, and at
least one shall be resident in the Centre where the Annual Session is to
be held.

(b) From the time of their election, which shall take place as soon
as possible after the Session of the Association, they shall form them-
selves into an organising Committee for the purpose of obtaining
information upon Papers likely to be submitted to the Sections, and
for the general furtheranc3 of the work of the Sectional Committees.

(c) The Sectional Committees shall have power to add to their
number from among the Members of the Association.

(d) The Committees of the several Sections shall determine the
acceptance of Pipers before the beginning of the Session, keeping the
General Secretaries infcrmed from time to time of their work. It is
therefore desirable in order to give an opportunity to the Committees
of doing justice to the several communications, that each author should
prepare an Abstract of his Paper, and he should send it, together with
the original Paper, to the Secretary of the Section before which it is to
be read, so that it may reach him at least a fortnight before the
Session.

(e) Members may communicate to the Sections the Papers of non-
members.

(/) The Author of any Paper is at liberty to reserve his right of
property therein.

(g) The Sectional Committees shall meet not later than the first day
of the Session in the Rooms of their respective Sections, and prepare
the programme for their Sections and forward the same to the General
Secretaries for publication.

(h) The Council cannot guarantee the insertion of any Report,
Paper or Abstract in the Annual Volume unless it be handed to the
Secretary of the Section before the conclusion of the Session.

(i) The Sectional Committees shall report to the Council what
Reports, Papers or Abstracts it is thought advisable to print, but the
final decision shall rest with the Council.

XIV.— ALTERATION TO RULES.

Any proposed alteration of the Rules —

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months before the

next Session of the Association.
6. Shall be duly considered by the Council and communicated by
circular to the Members of the Association for their
consideration, and dealt with at the said Session of the
Association.
During the interval between two Annual Sessions of the Association,
any alterations proposed to be made in the Rules shall be valid if agreed
to by two-thirds of the Members of Council. Such alteration of Rules
shall not be permanently incorporated in the Constitution until
approved by the next Annual Meeting.

XV.— VOTING.

In voting for Members of Council, or on questions connected with
Alterations to Rules, absent Members may record their vote in writing.

RULES (FOR THE AWARD OF MEDALS.

A. — The South Africa Medal,

I. — Constitution of Committee.

(a) The Council of the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science shall, annually and within three months after the
close of the Annual Session, elect a Committee to be called "the South
Africa Medal Committee," on which, as far as possible, every Section

VI CONSTITUTION.

of the Association and each Province of South Africa shall have fair
representation.

(b) This Committee shall consist of eight Members elected from
amongst Council Members, together with four other Members, selected
from amongst Members of the Association who are not on the Council.

(c) Each new Committee shall retain not less than four members
who have served on the previous Committee.

(d) The Chairman of the Committee shall be appointed annually
by the Council from amongst its Members.

(e) Any casual vacancy in the Committee shall be filled by the
Council.

II. — Duties.

(a) The duties of the Committee shall be to administer the Income
of the Fund and to award the Medal, raised in commemoration of the
visit of the British Association to Soiith Africa in 1905, in accordance
with the resolution of "its Council.

(6) This resolution read as follows :

(1) That, in accordance with the wishes of subscribers, the South
Africa Medal Fund be invested in the names of the Trustees
appointed by the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science.

(2) That the Dies for the Medal be transferred to the Association
to which, in its corporate capacity, the administration of the
Fund and the award of the Medal shall be, and is hereby,
entrusted, under the conditions specified in the Report to the
Medal Committee.

(c) The terms of conveyance .are as follows : —

(1) That the Fund be devoted to the preparation of a Die for a
Medal, to be struck in Bronze, 2£ inches in diameter; and
that the balance be invested and the annual income held in
trust.

(2) That the Medal and income of the Fund be awarded by the
South African Association for the Advancement of Science
for achievement and promise in scientific research in South
Africa.

(3) That, so far as circumstances admit, the award be made
annually.

(d) The British Association has expressed a desire that the award
shall be made only to those persons whose Scientific work is likely to
be usefully continued by them in the future.

III. — Awards.

(a) Any individual engaged in Scientific research in South Africa
shall be eligible to receive the award.

(b) The Medal and the available balance of one year's income from
the Funds shall be awarded to one candidate only in each year (save in
the case of joint research) ; to any candidate once only ; and to no
member of the Medal Committee.

(c) Nominations for the recipient of the award may be made by anv
Member of the South African Association for the Advancement of
Science, and shall be submitted to the Medal Committee not later than
six months after the close of the Annual Session.

(d) The Medal Committee shall recommend the recipient of the
award to the Council, provided the recommendation lis carried by the
vote of at least a majority of three-fourths of tits Members, voting
verbally or by letter, and submitted to the Council at least one month
prior to the Annual Session for confirmation.

(e) The award shall be made by the full Council of the South African
Association for the Advancement of Science after considering the re-
commendations of the Medal Committee, provided it is carried by the
vote of a majority of its Members, given in writing or verbally.

(f) The Council shall have the right to withhold the award in any

BYE-LAWS. Vll

year, and to devote the funds rendered available thereby in subsequent
award or awards, provided the stipulation contained in the second term
of conveyance of the British Association is adhered to.

(g) No alteration shall be made in these Rules except under the
condition specified in Chapter XIV of the Association's Constitution,
reading : —

Any proposed alteration of the Rules : —

a. Shall be intimated to the Council three months before the

next Session of the Association.

b. Shall be duly considered by the Council, and be communicated

by circular to the Members of the Association for their

consideration, and dealt with at the said Session of the

Association.

(h) Should a Member of the Medal Committee accept nomination

for the Award or be absent from South Africa at any time within four

months before the commencement of the ensuing Annual Session, he

will, ipso facto, forfeit his seat on the Committee.

B. The Goold-Adams Medals.*

(a) The Medals shall be awarded on the joint result of the
Matriculation and University Senior Certificate Examination of the
University of the Cape of Good Hope.

(b) One Medal shall be awarded to the student who has taken
the highest place in each of the seven Science subjects: (1) Physics.
(2) Chemistry, (3) Elementary Physical Science, (4) Botany, (5)
Zoology, (6) Elementary Natural Science, and (7) Mathematics, as
set forth in the University Matriculation and the University Senior
Certificate Examination ; and who is not over the prescribed age for
Exhibitions at the Matriculation Examination.

(c) The standard of marks shall be not less than 65 per cent, of
the maximum.

(d) The Medals shall be struck in bronze.

BYE-LAWS.

I. Bye-laws under which the O.F.S. Philosophical Society was incor-
porated, from 1st July, 1914, with the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science, with the designation of "The
Orange Free State Branch" of the Association.

1. The O.F.S. Philosophical Society to be incorporated with the
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, this being
the only course of procedure open under the existing Constitution.

2. The title of the Society so incorporated to be "The Orange Free
State Branch of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science."

3. All members of the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science resident in the Orange Free State will, for the
purpose of these bye-laws, be considered members of the Orange Free
State Branch of the Association.

4. The local Committee of the Branch to consist of the Council
members of the Association for the Orange Free State, together with
such additional members as the Branch may elect to serve on its local
Committee.

5. Subscription notices to members of the Branch to be circulated
from the Head Office of the Association in Johannesburg, and sub-
scriptions to be paid to the General Treasurer of the Association at
Johannesburg, 10 per cent, thereof being remitted to the Orange
Free State Branch for local expenses. Subscriptions of £1 10s. per
annum to entitle to membership of the Association as a whole, as well
as of the Orange Free State Branch.

* The award of these medals is at present suspjnded.

VUl CONSTITUTION.

6. All members at present on the books of the Orange Free State
Philosophical Society to be entitled to become members of the Associa-
tion, to receive its Journal, and to enjoy the full privileges of mem-
bership, as soon as their subscriptions for the financial year 1914-15
shall have been paid.

7. Papers read before the Orange Free State Branch may either
(1) be printed by title, abstract, or in extenso, in the Journal of the
Association for the current year, after reference to the Presidents of
the respective Sectional Committees, or (2) be read at the next Annual
Session of the Association (provided that they have not been previously
published in abstract or in extenso), and thereafter printed in the
Association's Journal, subject to the ordinary conditions.

II. Bye-laws for the guidance of Sectional Officers.

1. The attention of all Sectional Officers is directed to Chapter
XIII of the Association's Constitution, relating to the Sectional
Committees and their functions.

2. The President and Recorder (or Secretary) of a Section shall
have power during the Annual Session to act on behalf of the Section
in any matter of urgency which cannot be brought before the consider-
ation of the whole Sectional Committee; and they shall report such
action to the next meeting of the Sectional Committee.

3. The President of the Section, or, in his absence, one of the
two Vice-Presidents, shall preside at all meetings of the Section or
of the Sectional Committee.

4. The President of the Section is expected to prepare a Presi-
dential Address, which shall be delivered during the Annual Session.

5. Prior to the commencement of the Session, the Recorder of
each Section shall prepare a list of all papers notified to be read
during the Session, and shall also keep the Assistant Secretary of
the Association informed of the titles and authors of all such papers.
The Assistant Secretary shall, on his part, keep the Recorder informed
of all papers that may be notified to him direct.

6. When a proposal is made for the reading of a paper at a joint
meeting of Sections, the President, Recorder and Secretary of each
Section shall, ex officio, attend a meeting convened by a General
Secretary to consider the same.

7. During the continuance of the Annual Session, the Local Sec-
retary of each Section shall be responsible for the punctual transmis-
sion to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of his Section
for early publication, and of any other recommendations adopted by
the Sectional Committee; and shall at the close of the Session furnish
the Assistant Secretary with a list, showing which of the papers
notified for reading before the Section hav^e been so read, and which
have been taken as read, and giving the dates in either case. He shall,
at the same time, indicate the recommendations of the Sectional
Committee with respect to each paper, i.e., whether it should be
printed in full, or in abstract, or by title only.

8. Each Sectional Committee shall cause to be prepared a record
of the discussion on each paper read at its meeting: and such record
shall be attached to the paper and handed in with the same in terms
of Clause 11 of these instructions.

9. Each Sectional Committee shall, during the continuance of the
Annual Session, meet daily, unless otherwise determined, to complete
the arrangements for the next day.

10. In deciding on any recommendation regarding the printing
of or otherwise of a paper submitted to it, the Sectional Committee
shall consider only the merits of the paper, and not the financial con-
dition of the Association.

11. The Local Secretary of each Section shall, at the close of each

BYE-LAWS. IX

day, collect the papers that have been read and hand them to the
Assistant Secretary, together with a note explaining the cause of
absence of any paper not so handed over.

12. Sectional Officers shall do their utmost to ensure punctual com-
mencement and termination of the Section's daily proceedings; and,
in drafting the programme for the next day, the Committee shall
endeavour to allot a specified time to the reading and discussion of
each paper, in order to prevent other Sections or the Association as
a whole being inconvenienced in consequence of delays.

III. Bye-laws for the Affiliation of Scientific and Kindred Societies.

Philosophical and Scientific Societies, and other Associations of a
kindred character may, on application to, and with the approval of
the Council, affiliate with the South African Association for the
Advancement of Science on the following conditions: —

1. That as a Society can only be affiliated on the approval of the
Council, no minimum of membership of such Society need be specified.

2. That each Society shall pay the Association a minimum fee of
£5 for a strength of 50 members or less, and a further £1 for each
additional 10 or portion of 10 members.

3. That such Society shall be entitled to one copy of the South
Afrcan Journal of Science for each £1 10s. paid to the Association.

4. That such Society may, if it has a strength of 50 members, be
represented on the Council of the Association by its President or such
other member as may be nominated for the purpose.

5. That all members of affiliated Societies may join the Association
as ordinary members, with full privileges, at a reduced annual sub-
scripton of 25s.

6. That affiliated Societies shall be asked to take into consideration
the admission of members of the Association into their Societies at a
reduced subscription.

7. That papers contributed to affiliated Societies may, on recom-
mendation of both their own Council and that of the Association, be
printed in the Association's Journal of Science, after which the
authors shall be entitled to reprints on the usual terms.

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Xll OFFICERS OF SECTIONS.

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.

SECTION A ASTRONOMY, CHEMISTRY, MATHEMATICS,

METEOROLOGY AND PHYSICS.

1903. Cape Town .. Prof. P. D. Hahn, M.A., Prof. L. Crawford.

Ph.D.

1904. Johannesburg* J. R. Williams, M.I.M.M., W. Cullen, R. T. A. Innes.

M.Amer.I.M.E.

1906. Kimberlev J. R. Sutton, M. A. W. Gasson, A. H. J. Bourne.

1907. Natalf E. N. Neville, F.R.S. D. P. Reid, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.C.S

1908. Giahamstown A. W. Roberts, D.Sc, D. Williams, G. S. Bishop.

F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS, METEOROLOGY,
GEODESY, SURVEYING, ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND

GEOGRAPHY.

1909. Bloemfontein Prof. W. A D. Rudge, H. B. Austin, F. Masey.

M.A.

1910. Cape TownJ ... Prof. J. C. Beattie, D.Sc, A. H. Reid, F. Flowers.

F.R.S.E.

1911. Bulawayo Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., M.A., A. H. Reid, Rev. S. S. Dornan.

1912. Port Elizabeth H. J. Holder, M.I.E.E. A. H. Reid.

1913. Lourengo j. H. von Hafe. Prof. J. Orr, J. Van Gomes.

Marques

1914. Kimberley Prof. A. Ogg, M.A., B.Sc., Prof. A. Brown, A. E. H. Din-

Ph.D ham-Peren.

1915. Pretoria E. E. Kanthack, M.I.C.E., Prof. A. Brown, J. L. Soutter.

M.I.M.E.

1916. Maritzburg ... Prof. J. Orr, B.Sc. Prof. A. Brown, P. Mesham.

M.I.C.E.

1917. Stellenbosch ... Prof. W. N. Roseveare, Prof. A. Brown, L. Simons.

M.A.

1918. Johannesburg Prof. J. T. Morrison, M.A., Prof. A. Brown, Prof. J. P.

B.Sc, F.R.S.E. Dalton.

1919. Kingwilliams- W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., Dr. J. Lunt, T. G. Caink,

town. M.I.M.E. J. Powell.

1920. Bulawayo H. E. Wood, M.Sc, Prof. J. Orr, A. C. Jennings.

F R A S

1921. Durban J. Lunt, D.Sc Prof. J. Orr. H. Clark.

SECTION B— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, BACTERIOLOGY,
BOTANY, GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY AND ZOOLOGY.

1903. Cape Town ... R. Marloth, M.A.. Ph.D. Prof. A. Dendy.

1904. Johannesburg G. S. Corstorphine, B.Sc, Dr. W. C. C. Pakes, W. H.

Ph.D., F.G.S. Jollyman.

1906. Kimberley Thos. Quentrall, M.I.M.E., C. E. Addams, H. Simpson.

F.G.S.

CHEMISTRY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY, ENGINEERING,
MINING AND ARCHITECTURE.

1907. Natal C. W. Methven, M.I.C.E., R. G. Kirkby, W. Paton.

F.R.S.E., F.R.I. B.A.

1908. Grahamstown Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, Prof. G. E. Cory, R. W. New-

A.R.C.S., F.G.S. man, J. Muller.

* Metallurfry added in 1904.

t Geography and Geodesy transferred to Section A and Chemistry and Metallurgy

to Section B in 1907.
X Irrigation added in 1910 and Geography transferred to Section B.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS. Xlll

Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.

CHEMISTRY, BACTERIOLOGY, GEOLOGY, BOTANY, MINERALOGY,
ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, SANITARY SCIENCE.

1909. Bloemfontein C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, Dr. G. Potts, A. Stead.

PTC
CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY, MINERALOGY AND

GEOGRAPHY.

1910. Cape Town ... A. W. Rogers, M.A., J. G. Rose, G. F. Avers.

Sc.D., F.G.S.

1911. Bulawayo A. J. C. Molyneux, F.G.S., J. G. Rose, G. N. Blackshaw.

F R P S

1912. Port Elizabeth Prof. B. de St. J. van der J. G. Rose, J. E. Devlin.

Riet. M.A., Ph.D.

1913. Lourenco Prof. R. B. Young, M.A., ProC G. H. Stanley, Captain A.
Marques D.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Graca.

1914. Kimberley

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg

1917. Stellenbosch

1918. Johannesburg

1919. Kingwilliams-

town.

1920. Bulawayo

1921. Durban

Prof. G. H. Stanley, J. G. Rose, J. Parry.

A.R.S.M., M.I.M.E.,

M.I.M.M., F.I.C.
H. Kynaston, M.A., F.G.S. Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. D. F.

du Toit Malherbe.
Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. J. W.

M.A., F.C.S. Bews.

Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D. Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Prof. B. de

St. J. van der Riet.
P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., Dr. H. C. J. Tietz, Dr. J. Moir.

B.Sc.
H. H. Green, D.Sc, F.C.S. Prof. J. A. Wilkinson. T. H.

Harrison. W. G. Chubb.
F. P. Mennell. F.G.S., J. M. Hutcheon, A. M. Mac-

M.I.M.M. Gregor.

J. Moir. M.A., D.Sc, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, A. Kloot.

F.I.C.

SECTION C AGRICULTURE, ARCHITECTURE, ENGINEERING,

GEODESY, SURVEYING AND SANITARY SCIENCE.

1903. Cape Town ... Sir Charles Metcalfe, Bart., A. H. Reid.

M.I.C.E.
1904 Johannesburg* Lieut. -Colonel Sir Percy G. S. Burt Andrews, E. J.

Girouard, K.C.M.G., Laschinger.

D.S.O.
1906. Kimberley S. J. Jennings, C.E., D. W. Greatbatch, W. Newdi-

M.Amer.I.M.E., M.I.M.E. gate.

BACTERIOLOGY, BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AGRICULTURE AND
FORESTRY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE.

... Lieut. -Colonel H. Watkins- W. A. Squire, A. M. Neilson,
Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S. Dr. J. E. Duerden.

Prof. S. Schonland, M.A., Dr. J. Bruce Bays, W. Robert-
Ph.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. son, C. W. Mally, Dr. L. H.

1 Gough.

1907. Natal

1908. Grahamstown

1910. Cape Townt

1911. Bulawayo ...

1912. Port Elizabeth

1913. Lourenco

Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, W. D. Severn, Dr. J. W. B.

M.A., Sc.D.. F.L.S.
F. Eyles, F.L.S., M.L.C.

Gunning
W. T. Saxton, H. G. Mundv.

W. T. Saxton, I. L. Drege.

Lieut. J. B.

F. Flowers,

Bothelho.
C. W. Mallv, W. J. Calder.

F. W. FitzSimons, F.Z.S

F.R.M.S.
A. L. M. Bonn, C.E.
Marques

1914. Kimberley Prof. G. Potts, M.Sc,

Ph.D.

1915. Pretoria C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc , C. W. Mally, A. K. Haagner.

F.E.S.

1916. Maritzburg ... I. B. Pole-Evans, M.A., C. W. Mally, Prof. E. Warren

B.Sc, F.L.S.

1917. Stellenbosch ... J. Burtt-Davey, F.L.S.. C. W. Mally, C. S. Grobbelaar

F.R.G.S.

* Forestry added in 1904.

+ Sanitary Science added in 1910.

XIV OFFICERS OF SECTIONS.

Date and Place Presidents. Secretaries.

BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY.

1918. Johannesburg C. E. Legat, B.Sc. Dr. E. P. Phillips. J. Burtt-

Davy.

1919. Kingwilhams- Ethel M. Doidge, M.A., Dr. E. P. Phillips, E. W.

town D.Sc, F.L.S. Dwyer, Dr. G. Rattrav.

1920. Bulawayo T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S. Dr. E. P. Phillips, Prof. H. A.

Wager.

1921. Durban Prof. J. W. Bews, M.A., Prof. H. A. Wager, Dr. H. F.

D.Sc. Standing.

SECTION D— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE AND SANITARY

SCIENCE.

1918. Johannesburg Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., C. W. Mally, R. J. Ortlepp

D.Sc.
\1919. Kingwilli-uns- Prof. E. W\arren, D.Sc. C. W. Mally, Dr. J. I. Brown-

town lee, B. H. Dodd.

1920. Bulawayo C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S. Dr. Annie Porter, P. H. Taylor.

1921. Durban Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., Dr. Annie Porter, E. C. Chubb.

D.Sc.

SECTION E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, ECONOMICS,
SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

1908. Grahamstown W. Hammond Tooke. Prof. A. S. Kidd.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY,
AND NATIVE SOCIOLOGY.

1917. Stellenbosch ... Rev. N. Roberts. Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite,

Prof. J. J. Smith.

1918. Johannesburg Rev. W. A. Norton, B.A., Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite,

B.Litt. Rev. G. Evans.

1919. Kingwilliams- Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, Rev. E. W. H. Musselwhite,

town M.A., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. G. R. Spencer, M. Flemmer.

1920. Bulawayo Rev. H. A. Junod. N. H. Wilson, Rev. N. Jones.

1921. Durban C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Rev. N. Roberts, P. E. Chand-

Ph.D. ley.

SECTION F ARCHEOLOGY, EDUCATION, MENTAL SCIENCE,

PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

1903. Cape Town . . Thomas Muir, C.M.G., M.A., Prof. H. E. S. Fremantle.

LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

1904. Johannesburg (Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, Howard Pim, J. Robinson.

M.L.A.), E. B. Sargant,
M.A. (Acting).

1906. Kimberley A. H. Watkins, M.D., E. C. Lardner-Burke, E. W.

M.R.C.S. Mowbray.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ARCHEOLOGY, ECONOMICS, EDUCATION,
ETHNOLOGY, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY

AND STATISTICS.

1907. Natal R. D. Clark, M.A. R. A. Gowthorpe, A. S.

Langley, E. A. Belcher.

ARCHEOLOGY, EDUCATION, HISTORY, PSYCHOLOGY AND
PHILOLOGY.

1908. Grahamstown E. G. Gane, M. A. Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, W. D.

Neilson.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS. XV

Date and Place. Presidents. Secretaries.

ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL
SCIENCE, PHILOLOGY, POLITICAL ECONOMY, SOCIOLOGY
ANT) STATISTICS.

1909. Bloemfontein

Hugh Gunn, M.A.

1910. Cape Town ... Rev. W. Flint, D.D.

1911. Bulawayo ... . G. Duthie, M.A., F.R.S.E.

1912. Port Elizabeth W. A. Way, M.A.

1913. Lourenco J. A. Foote, F.G.S

Marques

1914. Kimberley Prof. W. Ritchie, M.A.

1915. Pretoria...

1916. Maritzbure

J. E. Adamson, M.A.

M. S. Evans, C.M.G.,
F.Z.S.

C. G. Grant, Rev. W. A.

Norton.
G. B. Kipps, W. E. C. Clarke.
G. B. Kipps, W. J. Shepherd.
G. B. Kipps, E. G. Bryant.
H. Pirn, J. Elvas.

Prof. R. D. Nauta, A. H. J.

Bourne.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, R. G. L.

Austin.
Prof. R. D. Nauta, Prof. 0.

Waterhouse.

EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE, POLITICAL ECONOMY,
GENERAL SOCIOLOGY AND STATISTICS.

1917. Stellenobsch

1918. Johannesburg

Rev. B. P. J. Marchand, Prof. R. D. Nauta, Dr. Bertha

B.A. Stoneman.

Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., Prof. R. D. Nauta, J. Mitchell.
D.Phil.

1919. Kingwilliams- Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., Prof. R. D. Nauta, J. Wood,
town F.S.S. F. J. Cherrigh.

1920. Bulawayo Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., J. Mitchell, B. M. Narbeth.

D.Sc.

1921. Durban Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, J. A. Foote, B. M. Narbeth.

M.A., LL.D.

Date and Place.

1903. Cape Town

1904. Johannesburg

1906. Kimberley

1907. Maritzburg
Durban

1908. Grahamstown

1909. Bloemfontein

Maseru

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Lecturer. Subject of Discourse.

.. Prof. W. S. Logeman, The Ruins of Persepolis and how
B.A., L.H.C. the Inscriptions were read.

H S. Hele-Shaw, LL.D., Road Locomotion — Present and
F.R.S., M.I.C.E. Future.

. Prof. R. A. Lehfeldt, B.A., The Electrical Aspect of
D.Sc. Chemistry.

W. O. C. Pakes, L.R.C.P., The Immunisation against
M.R.C.S., D.P.H., F.I.C. Disease " of Micro-organic
Origin.
R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., Some Recent Problems in
F.R.S.E. Astronomy.

... Prof R B, Young, M.A., The Heroic Age of South
B.Sc, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. African Geology.

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A. The History of the Eastern

Province.
A. Theiler, C.M.G. Tronical and Sub-tropical

Diseases of South Africa :
their Causes and Propaga-
tion.
C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, Celestial Chemistry.
F.I.C.

W. Cullen. Explosives : their Manufacture

and Use.
... R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S. Astronomy.
F.R.S.E.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place.

1910. Cape Town

1911. Bulawayo ...

1912. Port Elizabeth

Lecturer.
Prof. H. Bohle, M.I.E.E.

Subject of Discourse.
The Conquest of the Air.

J. Brown, M.D., CM., Electoral Reform — Proportional
F.R.C.S., L.R.C.S.E. Representation.

W. H. Logeman, M.A.

The Gyroscope.

1913. Lourenco

Marques

1914. Kimberley

A. W. Roberts, D.Sc, Imperial Astronomy.
F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E.

Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., Antarctica.
D.Sc.

S. Seruya.

Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz,
A.R.C.S., F.G.S.

1915. Pretoria

1916. Maritzburg
Durban

1917. Stellenbosch

1918. Johannesburg

1919. Kingwilliams-

town

East London

1920. Bulawayo

1921. Durban ...

The History of Portuguese
Conquest and Discovery.

The Kimberley Mines, their
Discovery and their Relation
to other Volcanic Vents in
South Africa.

E. T. Mellor, D.Sc, F.G.S., The Gold-bearing Conglomerates

M.I.M.M. of the Witwatersrand.

C. W. Mallv. M.Sc, The House Fly under South

F.E.S., F.L.S. African conditions.

C. P. Lounsbury, B.Sc, Scale Insects and their travels.

F.E.S.
R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S., Astronomy.

F.R.S.E.
H. E. Wood, M.Sc, Some Unsolved Problems of

F.R.Met.S. Astronomy.

Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, Some Marine Animals of South

M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., Africa.

F.L.S., C.M.Z.S.
Prof. H. B. Fantham, Evolution and Mankind.

M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S.,

F.Z.S.
Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ostriches.

Ph.D., A.R.C.S.
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., The Approaching South African

D.Sc. Antarctic Expedition.

Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A. Early History of Kaffraria an .1

Ea3t London.

Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, The Nitrogen Problem.
M.A., F.C.S.

A. L. du Toit, D.Sc, F.G.S. Land Connections between the

other Continents and South
Africa in the Past.

MEETINGS AT DURBAN.

On Monday, July 11, 1921, at 11 a.m., the Association was
officially welcomed by His Worship the Mayor of Durban (Coun-
cillor Fleming Johnston, J. P.) and the Borough Council in the
Arthur Smith Hall of the Technical College. Professor J. E.
Duerden, President of the Association, responded.

Previously, at 10 a.m., there bad been a meeting of Council.

At 11.30 a.m., Dr. J. Lunt delivered an address, as Presi-
dent of Section A, on "Stellar Distances, Magnitudes and Move-
ments."

In the afternoon there were Sectional Meetings.

At 8.15 p.m., Professor J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., Presi-
dent, delivered an address on "Social Anthropology in South
Africa: Problems of Race and Nationality" in the Arthur Smith
Hall, Dr. S. G. Campbell presiding. (See page 1.)

The President subsequently presented the South Africa Medal
to Sir Spencer Lister. (See page xxxii.)

On Tuesday, July 12, at 9.30 a.m., Dr. J. Moir, F.I.C.,
delivered an address, as President of Section B, on "The Atomic
Theory in 1921." At 11.15 a.m., Professor H. B. Fantham,
M.A., D.Sc, delivered an address, as President of Section D, on
"Some Recent Advances in Zoology, and their Relation to Present-
Day Problems."

At 2 p.m., Members of the Association proceeded on motor
trips to the Natal Sugar Estates, Mount Edgecumbe, to the Match
Factory at Umgeni, or to Sarnia.

At 8 p.m., Members attended a reception by His Worship the
Mayor in the Art Gallery.

On Wednesday, July 13, at 9.30 a.m., Professor W. A.
Macfadyen, M.A., L.L.D., delivered an address, as President of
Section F, on "Observations and Proposals for the Stabilisation of
Money Values."

Sectional Meetings took place at 10.30 a.m., except in
Section C, whose members proceeded on an ecological excursion
to Tsipingo.
2

xviii MEETINGS AT DURBAN.

At 2.30 p.m., Dr. C. T. Loram, LL.B., delivered an address,
as President of Section E, on "The Claims of the Native Question
upon Scientists." Sectional Meetings followed.

On Thursday, July 14, at 9.30 a.m., Professor J. W. Bews,
M.A., D.Sc, delivered an address, as President of Section C, on
"Some Aspects of Botany in South Africa and Plant Ecology in
Natal."

At 11 a.m. the Nineteenth Annual General Meeting was held
in the Technical College, for the Minutes of which see page xxii.

At 2 p.m., Members proceeded on excursions to Messrs. Lever
Bros.' soap works at Congella, or to the sugar refinery of Sir J. L.
Hulett and Sons at South Coast Junction.

At 8 p.m., Members attended a Conversazione in the Arthur
Smith Hall, held by the Local and Reception Committees and the
Natal Society for the Advancement of Science and Art.

On Friday, July 15, at 9.30 a.m., there was a meeting of
Council. At 10.30 a.m. there were Sectional Meetings.

At 2 p.m., Members proceeded on excursions to the Indian
market, Municipal Native eating house and Native brewery, or
to the Municipal telephone exchange, Fire station, and the Old
Fort, or to the Natal Cane By-products' factory at Merebank.

At 8.15 p.m., Dr. A. L. du Toit, B.A., F.G.S., gave a
popular, illustrated lecture on "Land Connections between the
other Continents and South Africa in the Past," in the Arthur
Smith Hall, the President of the Association presiding.

On Saturday, July 16, at 9.30 a.m., Members proceeded on a
trip on the Bay, visiting the coaling plant and oil tanks on the
Bluff. There was a zoological excursion in the afternoon.

XIX

OFFICERS OF LOCAL AND SECTIONAL
COMMITTEES, DURBAN, 1921.

LOCAL COMMITTEE.
Chairman, J. Kirkman, J.P. ; Hon. Secretary, P. A.
van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.; Members, C. M. Campbell,
E. Campbell, S. G. Campbell, M.D., M.Ch., M.R.C.S.,
D.P.H.j F. G. Cawston, B.A., M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,
Senator the Hon. F. Churchill, Colonel J. Dick, H. H.
Dodds, M.Sc, H. A. Dumat, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.C.S., E. B.
Dunkerton, D. M. Eadie, R.P.A., F. Goodall, W. Greenacre,
O.B.E., M.L.A., L. C. Grice, M.C.; C. Hall, A.M.I.C.E.,
E. A. Halm, B.A., A. Kloot, B.Sc, A.I.C., A. MacKenzie, M.D.,
M.R.C.S., B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc, F.C.S., A. MacNay,
M.I.Mech.E., J. St. Guido Reynolds-Tait, P. Roux, E. A. Selke,
B.A., O. Siedle, A. H. Smith, O.B.E., Senator the Hon. C. G.
Smith, C. P. van der Merwe, B. W. Wade, Brig. -Gen. J. S!
Wylie, K.C., D.S.O., M.V.O., Rev. A. E. le Roy, B.A., B.D.,
L. R. D. Anderson, M.C., M.A.

RECEPTION COMMITTEE.
Chairman, His Worship the Mayor, Councillor Fleming
Johnston, J. P.; Hon. Secretary, P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S.; Members, Councillors G. Mitchell, R. A. Barton, Mrs.

E. A. Benson, T. Burman, M.B.E., J.P., I. Davis, Dr. C. A.
Francois, W. Gilbert, J. E. Hay, C. Henwood, J. Hutt, C. W.
Lennox, J. Mayhew, J. Nicol, L. Renaud, T. C. Shearer, T. C. C.
Sloane, T. M. Wadley, A. Buchanan, John Taylor, Geo. Carter,
Dr. H. J. Balfe, M.D., E. W. Evans, C. F. Hignett, P. D. Bray,
O.B.E., F. J. Lennox, W. Qreenacre, O.B.E., M.L.A., Senator

F. F. Churchill, Wallia Short, C. Hinks, A. H. Oliver, E. W.
Dyer, M.B., F.R.C.S., H. Wodson, J. Drummond, M.D.,
M.R.C.P., E. O. Payne, A.R.I. B.A., F. C. Hollander, M.E.C.,
E. G. A. Saunders, M.L.A., Wm. Pearce, R. Ellis Brown, D. M.
Shaw, A.M.I.C.E., A. E. Hurley, S. G. Campbell, M.D., M.Ch.,
M.R.C.S., G Halley, J. Kirkman, J.P., F. Goodall, Uley Sargent,
R. H. Wisely, E. Price, J. R. More, Col. Friend Addison, Meyrick
Bennett, T. Boydell, M.L.A., W. Butcher, L. Byron, M.P.C.,
C. F. Clarkson, M.P.C., J. Coleman, M.P.C., F. J. Fahey,
M.P.C., A. E. Green, M.P.C., G. H. Hulett, M.P.C., Sir Liege
Hulett, J. W. Henderson, M.L.A., G. Heaton-Nicolls, M.L.A.,
J. H. Nicolson, O.B.E., M.P.C., Sir Frank Reynolds, C. P.
Robinson, MX. A., W. D. Russell, M.P.C., A. H. Smith, O.B.E.,
Senator the Hon. C. G. Smith, Brig. -Gen. J. S. Wylie, K.C.,
D.S.O., M.V.O.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

Section A.— ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS, PHYSICS,
METEOROLOGY, GEODOSY, SURVEYING, ENGINEER-
ING, ARCHITECTURE, AND IRRIGATION.

President, J. Lunt, D.Sc.; Vice-Presidents, Prof. R. W.
Varder, M.A., Prof. P. G. Gundry, B.Sc, Ph.D., ARCS. ;
Members, Prof. L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., W. Ingham,
M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Prof. P. Mesham, M.A., M.Sc, Prof.
W. N. Roseveare, M.A., H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S.,
F.R.Met.S.; Recorder, Prof. J. Orr, O.B.E., B.Sc, M.I.C.E. ;
Secretary, H. Clark, B.Sc, A.C.G.I., A.M.I.E.E.

Section B— CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, METALLURGY,
MINERALOGY, GEOGRAPHY.

President, J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., F.C.S.; Vice-Presi-
dents, Prof. G. E. Cory, M.A., Prof. S. J. Shand, Ph.D., D.Sc,
F.G.S.; Members, C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Prof. D. F.
du T. Malherbe, M.A., Ph.D., Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D., Prof.
H. C. J. Tietz, M.A., Ph.D., P. A. Wagner, Ing.D., B.Sc;
Recorder, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S.; Secretary,
A. Kloot, B.Sc, A. I.C.

Section C— BOTANY, BACTERIOLOGY, AGRICULTURE,
FORESTRY.

President, Prof. J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc; Vice-Presidents,
Miss Bertha Stoneman, D.Sc, E. P. Phillips, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S.; Members, P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Ethel
M. Doidge, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Prof. C. E. Moss, M.A., D.Sc,
F.L.S., F.R.G.S., Prof. D. Thoday, M.A., I. B. Pole-Evans,
C.M.G., D.Sc, P.L.S.; Recorder, Prof. H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.;
Secretary, H. F. Standing, D.Sc.

Section D.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, SANI-
TARY SCIENCE.

President, Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, A.R.C.S.,
F.Z.S.; Vice-Presidents, A. J. Orenstein, C.M.G., M.D., Annie
Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.; Members, Prof. E. H. Cluver, B.A., M.B.,
B.Ch., Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Sir F. S.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. XXI

Lister, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., C. W. Mally, M.Sc, F.E.S., D. T.
Mitchell, M.R.C.V.S., P. J. du Toit, B.A., Ph.D., Dr.Med.Vet.,
Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc; Recorder, Annie Porter, D.Sc. ;
Secretary, E. C. Chubb, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

Section E.— ANTHROPOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY, NATIVE
EDUCATION, PHILOLOGY, NATIVE SOCIOLOGY.

President, C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.; Vice-Presi-
dents, S. G. Campbell, M.D., M.Ch., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.S.,
D.P.H., Miss M. Wilman; Members, Rev. G. Evans, H. S.
Keigwin, M.A., Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E., Rev.
W. A. Norton, M.A., B.Litt.; Recorder, Rev. Noel Roberts;
Secretary, P. E. Chandley.

Section F.— EDUCATION, HISTORY, MENTAL SCIENCE,
PRACTICAL ECONOMY, GENERAL SOCIOLOGY,

STATISTICS.

President, Prof. W. A. Macfadyen, M.A., L.L.D.; Vice-Pre-
sidents, Prof. F. Clarke, M.A., G. T. Morice, B.A., K.C. ;
Members, Rev. W. Flint, D.D., J. E. Adamson, M.A., D.Lit.,
Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil., Prof. R. Leslie, M.A.,
F.S.S., Prof. W. M. Macmillan, M.A., Mrs. M. Palmer, M.A.;
Recorder, J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S.; Secretary, B. M.
Narbeth, B.Sc, F.Ph.S.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE NINETEENTH ANNUAL GENERAL
MEETING OF MEMBERS, HELD IN THE TECHNICAL
COLLEGE, DURBAN, ON THURSDAY, JULY 14, 1921,
AT 10 a.m.

Present: Prof. J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., F.Z.S.
(President) in the Chair; Mr. R. D. Aitken, Mr. J. L. Andrew, Mrs.
O. W. Ball, Prof. J. W. Bews, Mr. Graham Botha, Dr. S. G. Camp-
bell, Mr. E. C. Chubb, Mr. N. Clark, Prof. E. H. Cluver, Rev. A. Con-
stantine, Prof. G. E. Cory, Miss Frances tie Wet, Col. J as. Dick, Dr.
A. L. du Toit, Prof. H. B. Fantham (Hon. Editor of Journal), Mr.
G. J. Floyd, Mr. J. A. Foote, Miss H. M. L. Forbes, Mr. E. A. Halm,
Miss G. L. Hebditch, Miss R. M. Hodges, Miss Alta Johnson, Mrs.
Edith B. Jones, Mr. J. D. R. Jones, Mr. Walter P. Kennedy, Mr.
T. N. Leslie, Dr. C. T. Loram, Dr. J. Lunt, Prof. W. A. Macfadyen,
Mr. A. S. Maclntvre, Mrs. A. W. Marchand, Dr. B. de C. Marchand,
Mrs. H. M. McKay, Adv. G. T. Morice, Mr. A. O. D. Mogg, Dr.
James Moir, Mr. R. S. Morris, Mr. B. M. Narbeth, Prof. John Orr,
Mrs. Mabel Palmer, Mr. E. Parish, Dr. Annie Porter (Hon. Lib-
rarian), Mr. J. B. Robertson, Prof. W. N. Roseveare, Mr. J. Sand-
ground, Rev. W. E. Smyth, Miss S. Stafford, Dr. H. F. Standing, Dr.
Bertha Stoneman, Miss C. L. T. Teasdale, Prof. D. Thoday, Mr. F.
G. Tyers, Miss L. H. van der Koppel, Prof. H. A. Wager, Dr. E.
Warren, Mr. C. O. AVilliams, Dr. C. F. Juritz (Hon. General Secre-
tary), Mr. H. E. Wood (Hon. General Secretary), and H. A. G.
Jeffreys (Assistant General Secretary.)

Minutes. — The Minutes of the Eighteenth Annual Meeting held
at Bulawayo on the 17th July, 1920, and printed on pp. xx — xxiii of
the Report of the Bulawayo Session (vol. xvii. No. 1 of the Journal)
were confirmed

Annual Report of Council. — The Annual Report of the Council
for 1920 — 21 having been suspended in the Main Hall since the 11th
July, was taken as read and adopted. This Report will be found
on p. xxiv of this issue.

Report of the Hon. General Treasurer and Statements of
Accounts for 1920-21. — The Hon. General Treasurer's Report and
Financial Statements for 1920-21, which had been suspended in the
Main Hall since 11th July, were taken as read and adopted. See
pp. xxvii-xxxi. The President informed the meeting that owing to lack
of funds the Council had found it necessary to withhold payment to the
Trustees of the Endowment Fund of the Life Members' Subscriptions
received during the two years 1919-1921. This action of the Council
was unanimously confirmed.

Election of Officers for 1921-22.— The following Officers were
elected for 1921-22: —

President: Dr. A. W. Rogers, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents: Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E.

Prof. R. B. Denison, D.Sc, Ph.D.

Mr. E. Farrar.

Prof. T. Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil.

Hon. General Secretaries :

Dr. C. F. Juritz, M.A., F.I.C.
Mr. H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S.

Hon. General Treasurer: Mr. Jas. Gray, F.I.C.

Hon. Editor of Publications: Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc.

Hon. Librarian: Dr. Annie Porter, F.L.S.

Election of Council Members for 1921-22 : —

I. Transvaal.— R. des Claves, J. A. Foote, F.G.S., F.E.I.S., R.
T. Innes, F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E., W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Sir
F. Spencer Lister, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Dr. J. McCrae, F.I.C, Dr.

PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XX111

E. T. Mellor, M.I.M.M., F.G.S., Dr. J. Moir, M.A., F.I.C., Adv. G.
T. Morice, B.A., K.C., Dr. A. J. Orenstein, C.M.G., M.R.C.S.,
L.R.C.P., Prof. J. Orr, O.B.E., B.Sc, M.I.C.E., A. M. Robb, M.A..
S. Seruya, Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, M.A., F.C.S., P. J. du Toit, Ph.DM
Dr. Med. Vet., P. G. Gundry, B.Sc, Ph.D., Mr. A. K. Haagner, Dr.
E. P. Phillips, M.A.

II. Cape Province.— Prof. L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
Rev. AV. Flint, D.D., Dr. J. Lunt, F.I.C., C. W. Mallv, M.Sc, F.E.S.,
C. Graham Botha, Prof. R. Leslie, M.A., Miss M.'Wilman, F. W.
Fitzsimons, F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., F.R.S.E.,
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc, Miss Alta Johnson, Ph.B., E. B.
Dwyer, B.A.

III. Natal.— E. C. Chubb, F.Z.S., B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc, Prof.
J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc, Prof. E. Warren, D.Sc

IV. Orange Free State. — Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D.

V. Rhodesia.— Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., M.A., H. B. Maufe, B.A.,
F.G.S.

VI. Mozambique. — S. Seruya.

There are still a few vacancies, and elections to fill them will be
made by the Council.

Annual Session, 1922. — The President announced that an invi-
tation from the Governor-General of Mozambique for the Association
to hold its Annual Session in Lourenco Marques in 1922 had been
received through Mr. S. Seruya, the Portuguese Vice-Consul in Johan-
nesburg. On the motion of Dr. Annie Porter, seconded by Prof. J.
Orr, it was unanimously decided that the invitation be accepted, and
that a letter expressing gratification at the Governor-General's offer
be sent to Mr. Seruya.

Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa.

Dr. Juritz enquired if any liability devolved upon the Association
in respect of its connection with the Associated Scientific and Tech-
nical Societies of South Africa.

Prof. J. Orr, in reply, stated that the Associated Societies had
been formed to carry out the scheme of closer working and joint
housing, an object which had been under the consideration of the more
important Scientific and Technical Societies for some years past. A
handsome building had been acquired, which afforded a common meet-
ing place for members of the constituent Societies, and also provided
club facilities. Funds were urgently needed, and although the Con-
stitution of the Association did not permit it to follow the example
of other societies and donate a portion of its invested funds, an effort
had been made to obtain contributions from individual members, and
some seven hundred appeals had been sent out, signed by Mr. H. E.
Wood and himself. The residt had not been very satisfactory, but
it was hoped to make a further attempt, and he suggested that the
Journal of the Association might be used in bringing the matter to
the notice of members. Legal opinion had been taken, and neither
the Association nor its members were under any financial obligation
to the Associated Societies.

Remission of Customs Duties on Scientific Instruments.

On the motion of Dr. J. Lunt, seconded by Dr. S. G. Campbell,
it was resolved that the Association should take steps to secure
remission of duties on scientific instruments, and that it be a request
to the incoming Council to deal with the matter.

Victoria and Albert Museum Loan Collections.

On the motion of Mr. E. C. Chubb, seconded by Prof. J. Orr,
it was resolved that the Council take into consideration the question

XXIV PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING.

of asking the Union Government to apply to the Imperial Government
for the collections of applied art belonging to the1 Victoria and Albert
Museum, which at present are circulated for varying periods on loan
among the provincial museums of the United Kingdom, and which
might be similarly circulated amongst the museums of the Colonies.

Votes of Thanks.

Votes of Thanks. — On the motion of Dr. J. Lunt, it was carried
with acclamation that the thanks of the Association be accorded to
the following : —

(1) His Worship the Mayor and Town Council of Durban for their
cordial welcome to the Association, for the evening reception and for
the general facilities afforded to the members.

(2) The members of the Local Committee and the Reception Com-
mittee for their excellent arrangements for the meeting and for their
untiring efforts on behalf of every visiting member of the Association.

(3) The Finance Committee for raising the necessary funds and
to the various donors for their liberal contributions.

(4) The Hospitality Committee.

(5) The Transport, Excursions and Entertainments Committee fox-
making arrangements for members to visit places of interest, and also
the management of the following factories and firms for granting
facilities for viewing their works: —

The Lion Match Factory.

Natal Estates, Mount Edgecombe.

Lever Bros.

Sir J. L. Hulett & Sons.

Natal By-Products Co.

(6) The Ladies' Committee and their friends for their kind hos-
pitality in providing tea.

(7) The Council of the Technical College for granting the u?e
of the College building, and also the governing bodies of the following
institutions for the privileges allowed to members of the Association ■ —

The Durban Club, Durban Turf Club, Durban Golf Club, Durban
Borough Lawn Tennis Club, Royal Natal Yacht Club, Durban
Bowling Club, Durban Rowing Club, Berea Lawn Tennis Club.

(8) The Press for their efforts in bringing the work of the Associa-
tion prominently before the public.

(9) Dr. P. A. van der Bijl, Secretary of the Local Committee and
the Reception Committee, for his efforts in the preparation for and
throughout the visit of the Association.

On the motion of Prof. Orr it was unanimously agreed that the
sincere thanks of the Association be accorded to the donors of funds
to defray the cost of printing the Proceedings of the Session.

In proposing a very hearty vote of thanks to the President, Dr.
S. G. Campbell referred to the masterly fashion and charming manner
in which the various meetings had been conducted by Dr. Duerden,
to which to a large extent was to be attributed the success of the
session.

The President suitably replied, thanking Dr. Campbell on behalf
of himself and all members of the Association.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDED

30th June, 1921.

1. Obituary : Your Council has to report, with great regret, the
deaths of the following members: — Mr. Frank Flowers, who was a
Foundation Member and a Life Member of the Association; Mr. H.
Gibson, Mr. J. M. Hutcheon, Mr. G. R. Perrins, and Mr. A. J. C.
Molyneux (a former Vice-President).

2. Membership : Since the last report 43 new members have
joined the Association ; five have died ; 33 have resigned ; and 96 have

PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING. XXV

been removed from the register by resolution of the Council. The
nett decrease in membership has therefore been 89.

The following comparative table, as from the 1st July in each
year, shows the various Provinces from which members are drawn : —

1920. 1921.

Transvaal 474 ... 414

Cape Province 294 ... 279

Orange Free State 45 ... 40

Natal 92 ... 98

Rhodesia 43 ... 37

Mozambique 10 ... 8

South-West Africa Protectorate ... 1 ... —

Abroad 21 ... 15

Unknown 2 ... 2

982 893

3. The Journal : The publication of Volume XVI of the King-
williamstown, 1919, Meeting, was completed in September, 1920.
Quarterly publication having been decided upon by the Council, the
first part of Volume XVII, dealing with papers read at Bulawayo,
1920, Meeting, was published in November, 1920. The second part,
dated April, 1921, was published in June, 1921, and the remaining
papers are in the Press. An index is in preparation. It is regretted
that not all the papers read could be published, owing to the high
cost of paper and printing all over the world at the present time.

4. The Library : Owing to financial stringency, it is regretted
that the binding of many publications has not been proceeded with,
though such binding is urgently needed and unbound parts are
deteriorating. Several new exchanges have been arranged, whereby
the scope of usefulness of the Library has been increased.

5. Assistant General Secretary: Mr. M. K. Carpenter, who
had acted as Assistant General Secretary from September 1st,- 1919,
resigned the post in August, 1920. Captain H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E.
was then appointed to the post, and took up the duties as from Sep-
tember 1st, 1920. Your Council desire to place on record its apprecia-
tion of the manner in which this gentleman has carried out the work.

6. Affiliation to the British Association: Formal application
for affiliation of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science to the British Association was made on December 14th,
1920. The matter has been referred for consideration at the forth-
coming meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh, in Septem-
ber, 1921.

7. Donations : The thanks of the Association are due to the
Hon. the Minister for Education for the renewal of the grant of £250
towards the expenses of the publication of the Journal of the
Association.

8. South Africa Medal and Grant, 1921 : On the recommenda-
tion of the South Africa Medal Committee, consisting of Prof. J. Orr
(Chairman), Sir J. C. Beattie, Prof. Crawford, Dr. Denison, Prof.
Duerden, Prof. Fantham, Dr. Juritz, Dr. Mellor, Dr. Pole Evans,
C.M.G., Dr. du Toit, Dr. Warren and Dr. Watkins-Pitchford, your
Council has awarded the South Africa Medal, together with a grant
of £50, to Sir Frederick Spencer Lister, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Research
Bacteriologist to the South African Institute for Medical Research.
(See p. xxxii). The Secretary of the British Association has been
notified of the award. •

9. Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South
Africa: Prof. J. Orr and Mr. H. E. Wood have acted as the repre-
sentatives of the Association on the Executive Committee of the
Associated Scientific and Technical Societies of South Africa, of which
your Association is a foundation society. The Associated Societies

XXVI PROCEEDINGS OF ANNUAL MEETING.

are now in possession of a fine building, in which the meetings of
the constituent societies are held. The monthly Council Meetings of
the Association and the Annual Meeting of Witwatersrand members
have been held here during the year. The building offers all club
facilities to members of the Association.

10. The New Council : On the basis of membership provided for
in the Constitution of the Association, Section VI (d), the number of
members of Council assigned for the representation of each centre
during the ensuing twelve months should be distributed as follows : —

Cape Province —

Cape Peninsula 6

East London 1

Kimberley 2

Kingwilliamstown 1

Port Elizabeth 2

Stellenbosch 2

Transvaal —

Witwatersrand 15

Pretoria 4

Potchefstroom 1

Transvaal Outside 1

Orange Free State —

Bloemfontein 2

Natal—

Maritzburg 2

Durban 2

Natal Outside 1

Bhodesia —

Salisbury 2

44

REPORT OF THE HONORARY GENERAL TREASURER FOR
THE YEAR ENDING MAY 31st, 1921.

The financial position of the Association is a serious one as,
unfortunately, it has been for years. The audited balance sheet and
statement of revenue and expenditure is presented along with this
report.

At the end of last financial year the sum of £178 Is. 9d. owing
on the Kingwilliamstown Journal had not been met. This amount
has been paid out of this year's revenue, and appears as part of
the Journal expenditure. To the actual Journal expenses of £740
3s. 9d., which includes the £178 Is. 9d. above-mentioned, a sum of
£350 has been added as provision for printing the remainder of the
Bulawayo proceedings.

It is very unfortunate that through lack of funds to pay printing
expenses the Council has been forced to withhold from the Endowment
Fund £131 of life membership fees received during the last two
years. This matter should be dealt with by the Council.

It is possible that unexpected donations or windfalls may benefit
the Association during next year, as in certain past years; but in
the absence of good fortune of this nature three things will be
necessary to put the Association on a sound financial basis. First :
an increased annual subscription. This has already been decided on,
and from the beginning of next financial year the subscription will
be 30s. instead of £1. Secondly : an augmented membership. The
increase in the annual subscription will not of itself be sufficient to
meet the claims on the Association's funds, unless there is a con-
siderable increase in the membership list. The Council ought to decide
whether any form of propaganda should be initiated with this object
in view. Thirdly : a more prompt and regular payment of the sub-
scriptions by the members. At the close of this financial year only
520, or 58 per cent., of the members have paid the annual subscrip-
tion, and to this have to be added arrears collected from 33 members.
This means a falling off of current and arrear subscriptions of £110,
as compared with last vear.

J. A. FOOTE,
Hon. General Treasurer.
June 25th, 1921.

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FOURTEENTH AWARD OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
MEDAL AND GRANT.

(Fund raised by Members of the British Association in Commemoration
of their visit to South Africa in 1905.)

After the conclusion of the Presidental Address, in the Arthur
Smith Hall of the Technical College, Durban, on Monday, July 11th,
1921, the President, Professor J. E. Duerden, presented the South
Africa Medal, together with a grant of £50, to Sir Frederick
Spencer Lister, Kt., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Research Bacteriologist to
the South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg. In
making the presentation, the President said:-*-

Sir Spencer Lister was educated at Barton School, Wisbech.
England. He received his medical education at St. Bartholomew's
Hospital, London. He obtained the qualification M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
of the " Conjoint Board," in 1905. He has been Research Bacteriologist
to the South African Institute for Medical Research since its opening
in 1914. ^

Sir Spencer Lister has especially worked on the differentiation of
the Pneumococci responsible for Lobar Pneumonia into many immuno-
logically distinct groups, and the successful application of this dis-
covery to the artificial production of immunity against that disease
in human beings. The continuance of research upon lines which lead
from Sir Spencer Lister's discoveries will, in all probability, result in
a still further advancement of our knowledge of pneumococcal infec-
tions in man, and still further benefits of a practical character to the
human race.

Amongst other publications, the following are the more import-
ant : —

" Specific Serological Reactions with Pneumococci from different
Sources." December, 1913. Publications of South African Institute
for Medical Research. Memoir No. 2.

"An Experimental Study of Prophylactic Inoculation against
Pneumococcal Infection in the Rabbit and in Man." October, 1916.
Ibidem. No. VIII.

"(1) Lysed Bacterial Serum. (2) Further Observations on Pianti-
cation. (3) A Note on Phagocytosis in the Absence of Serum." With
A. R. Friel. April, 1917. Ibidem. No. IX.

"Prophylactic Inoculation of Man against Pneumococcal Infec-
tions, and more particularly against Lobar Pneumonia." November,
1917. Ibidem. No. X.

"Observations and Experimental Investigations in Epidemic
Influenza." With Dr. E. Taylor. April_ 1919. Ibidem. No. XII.

"A Form of Crural Ulcer occurring "in Natives due to a Specific
infection." September, 1911. Medical Journal of South Africa.

Vol. VII, pp. 25-26.

Previous Recipients.

1908. Gtahamstown.— Arnold Theiler, C.M.G., V.M.D., Bacteriologist

to the Transvaal Government, Pretoria.

1909. Bloemfuntein — Hairy Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S., of ShonvooJ

Kenilworth, Cape Division.

1910. Capetown.— John Carruthers Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Pro-

fessor of Physics, South African College, Capetown.

1911. Bulawayo.— Louis Peringuey, D.Sc, F.E.S., F.Z.S , Directo •

of the South African Museum, Capetown.

1912. Port Elizabeth.— Alexander William Roberts, D.Sc, F.R.A.S.,

E.R.S.E.. of Lovedale Observatory, Cape Province.

SOUTH AFRICA MEDAL. XXX111

1913. Lourenco Marques. — Arthur William Rogers, M.A., Sc.D.,

F.G.S., Assistant Director of the Union Geological Survey,
Capetown.

1914. Kimberley— Rudolph Marloth, M.A., Ph.D., Capetown.

1915. Pretoria. — Charles Pugsley Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S., Chief of

the Division of Entomology, Union Department of Agricul-
ture, Pretoria.

1916. Maritzburg.— Thomas Robertson Sim, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., for-

merly Conservator of Forests for Natal.

1917. Stellenbosch — John Dow Fisher Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D.,

F.L.S , C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoology, South African
College, Capetown.

1918. Johannesburg. — Robert Thorburn Ayton Innes, F.R.S.E.,

F.R.A.S., Union Astronomer, Johannesburg.

1919. Kingwilliamstown. — James Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Govern-

ment Mining Chemist, Johannesburg.

1920. Bulawayo. — Ernest Warren, D.Sc, Director of the Natal

Museum and Professor of Zoology in Natal University Col-
lege, Pietermaritzburg.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

The following publications are filed at the Association's Room in
the Public Library, Johannesburg.

General Science.

Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings.

Royal Society of South Africa : Transactions.

Royal Society of South Australia : Memoirs.

Royal Society of South Australia : Transactions.

Royal Society of Victoria: Proceedings.

Royal Society of Canada : Proceedings and Transactions.

Royal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.

Royal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.

Royal Dublin Society : Scientific Proceedings.

Royal Institution of Great Britain : Proceedings.

Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.

Royal Society of Arts : Journal.

Michigan xlcademy of Science : Reports.

Chicago Academy of Sciences :

Bulletins.

Special Publications.
Reale Academia dei Lincei, Rome: Atti.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :

Handlingar.

Arsbok.
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam :

Proceedings of the Section of Sciences.

Verhandelingen .
Real Academia de Ciencias de Madrid : Revista.
British Association for the Advancement of Science : Reports.
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science: Reports.
American Association for the Advancement of Science: Proceedings.-
Indian Association for t,be Cultivation of Science :

Proceedings

Reports.

Bulletins.
Societa Ttaliana por il progresso della Scienze : Atti.
Association Francaise pour l'avancement des Sciences: Conferences.
Cambridge Philosophical Society :

Transactions.

Proceedings.
3

XXXIV ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society : Memoirs and Pro-
ceedings.
American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
University of California :

Bulletins.

Memoirs.
University of Virginia: Philosophical Society Bulletins.
Tohoku Imperial University : Science Reports.
New York Academy of Sciences : Annals.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences : Transactions.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences : Proceedings.
Meddelanden fran K. Vetenskapsakademien Nobelinstitut.
California Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.
Academy of Science of St. Louis : Transactions.
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia : Prceedings.
American Journal of Science.
Ohio Journal of Science.

Nova Scotian Institute of Science : Proceedings and Transaction?.
Revue Generate des Sciences.

Archives Neerlandaises des sciences exactes et naturelles.
Annaes scientificos da Academia polytechnica do Porto.
Rhodesia Scientific Association :

Annual Reports

Proceedings.
Societe de physique et d'histoire naturelle de Geneve :

Memoirs.

Comptes rendus.
Det Kongelige Norske Videnskapers Selskaps Skrifter.
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab : Oversigt.
Vierteljahrsschrift der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Zurich.
Imperial Institute : Bulletins.

New Zealand Institute : Transactions and Proceedings.
Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (United States National

Museum).
South African Museum :

Annals.

Annual Reports.
Transvaal Museum : Annuals.
Natal Museum : Annals.
Queensland Museum :

Annals.

Memoirs.
Field Museum of Natural History Publications.
University of Pennsylvania Museum Journal.
Public Museum of Milwaukee : Bulletins.
Albany Museum :

Annual Reports.

Records.
Knowledge.
Science.

Franklin Institute : Journal.
University of Minnesota : Current Problems.

Chemistry, Metallurgy and Geology.

Chemical, Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa: Journal.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien: Arkiv for Kemi, Mineralogi,

och Geologi.
Geological Society of South Africa: Transactions.
Geological Society of Tokyo: Journal.
Geological Survey of New South Wales: Reports.

Memoirs.

Mineral Resources.
Geological Institution of the University of Upsala : Bulletins.
Geological Society. London: Abstracts of Proceedings.
Bulletins of the Wyoming State Geologist.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

United States Geological Survey :

Annual

Mineral Resources.

Bulletins.

Monographs.

Professional Papers.
Florida State Geological Survey : Annual Reports.
Servico geologico e mineralogico do Brasil : Monographias.
Union of South Africa Mines Department : Annual Reports.
Canada Department of Mines :

Museum Bulletins.

Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

Reports.
New South Wales Department of Mines : Annual Reports.
The Mineralogical Magazine.

Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Geological Reports.
Geological Survey of Western Australia :

.Annual Progress Reports.

Bulletins.
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry.
Journal of Chemical Technology.
The Chemical News.

University of Minnesota : Studies in Chemistry.
South African Association of Analytical Chemists: Proceedings.

Meteorology.

Royal Meteorological Society : Quarterly Journal.
Mount Weather Observatory : Bulletins.
Observatorio Campos Rodrigues :

Relatorio.

Resumo mensal.
Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Meteorological Reports.

Agriculture.
Regia Scuola superiore agricoltura di Portici : Annali.
International Institute of Agriculture, Rome :

International Crop Report and Agricultural Statistics. •

International Review of the Science and Practice of Agri-
culture.

Documentary Leaflets.

Statistical Notes on the Cereals.
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.

Bulletins. .
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station : Annual Reports.
Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales.

Department of Agriculture, New South Wales : Science Buildings.
United States Department of Agriculture :

Experiment Station Record.

Year Book.
New York State College of Agriculture and Experiment Station :

Annual Reports.
Journal of Agricultural Research.
Rhodesia Agricultural Journal.

Revista de Agricultura, Comercio y Trabajo, Cuba.
Bulletin Agricole de l'Algerie-Tunisie-Maroc.
Station agronomique de la Guadeloupe : Bulletin.
Union of South Africa Agricultural Journal.

Biology and Physiology.
Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des naturalistes de Moscou
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien :

Arkiv for Botanik.

Arkiv for Zoologi.
Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany.

XXXVI ASSOCIATION LIBRARY.

Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society.
The Medical Journal of South Africa.
University of California : Publications in Botany.
Linnean Society of New South Wales : Proceedings.
Missouri Botanical Garden :

Annual Reports.

Annals.
Bolus Herbarium : Annals.

Smithsonian Institution (United States National Museum) : Con-
tributions from the United States National Herbarium.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew : Bulletins.

Union of South Africa : Reports of the Director of Veterinary Research.
University of Michigan, Museum of Zoology :

Miscellaneous Publications.

Occasional Papers.
Lloyd Library ;'

Bibliographical contributions.

Mycological Notes.
South African Biological Society: Bulletins.

Entomology.

Bulletin of Entomological Research.
Review of Applied Entomology.

Bacteriology.
Abstracts of Bacteriology.

Astronomy, Mathematics and Physics.

Royal Astronomical Society :

Memoirs.

Monthly Notices.
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.
Harvard College Astronomical Observatory :

Circulars.

Annals.

Annual Reports.
Leyden Sterrenwacht : Annalen.
Union Observatory Circulars.
Cape Observatory.

Annals.

Reports.

Cape Astrographic Zones.
Observatoire Royal de Belgique; annuaire astronomique.
Khedival Observatory, Helwan, Egypt : Bulletins.
Kodaikanal Observatory : Bulletins.

Kodiakanal and Madras Observatories : Annual Reports.
British Astronomical Association :

Journal.

Memoirs.
Lick Observatory : Bulletins.
Nizamiah Observatory : Reports.
Astronomical Society of India :

Journal.

Monthly Notices.
United States Naval Observatory Publications.
American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.
Western Australian Astronomical Society : Proceedings.
Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien : Arkiv for Matematik,

Astronomi och Fysik.
London Mathematical Society : Proceedings.
Tohoku Mathematical Journal.
National Physical Laboratory, Middlesex :

Collected Researches.

ReDorts.

ASSOCIATION LIBRARY. XXXVI]

University of Minnesota : Studies in the Physical Sciences and

Mathematics.
Universidad Nacional de la Plata : Contribucion al estudio de las

Ciencias fisicas y matematicas.
Physical Society of London : Proceedings.

Educational, Political Economy and Sociology.

United Empire.

South Africa.

Ohio State University Bulletin.

International Institute of Agriculture, Rome : International Review of

Agricultural Economics.
Royal Dublin Society : Economic Proceedings.
Athemeum subject index to Periodicals.
Municipal Journal of South Africa.
University of Minnesota :

Studies in Economics.

Studies in Public Health.

Studies in the Social Sciences.

Geography, Oceanography and Hydrography.

Societa Italiana per il progresso delle Sc.ienze : Comitato talassografico :

Bolletinos.

Memorias.
The Geographical Journal.
The Geographical Review.

United States Geological Survey : Water Supply Papers.
Egyptian Ministry of Finance : Survey Department Papers.
Instituto di geografia fisica e vulcanologica della R. Universita di

Catania : Pubblicazioni.
United States Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Special Publications.

Annual Reports.

Engineering.

Proceedings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Journal of the South African Institution of Engineers.

Transactions of the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers.

South African Society of Civil Engineers : Proceedings.

South African Engineering.

University of Minnesota : Studies in Engineering.

Technology.

University of Minnesota : Abridgments of Specifications.
The Illustrated Official Patents Journal.
South African Journal of Industries.

Anthropology and Ethnology.

Journal of the African Society.

University of Minnesota : Studies in Language and Literature.

Archeology.
Bulletins of the Archaeological Survey of Nubia.

XX XV 111.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1921-22.

Honorary President:

HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

A. W.

President :

Rogers, Sc.D., F.R.S.

| Prof. J.
Vice-Presidents :

E.

Ex-President :

DUERDEN, M.Sc.

Ph.D.

Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.Sc. I E. Farrar.

Prof. R. B. Denison, D.Sc, Ph.D. I Prof. T. M.

Hon. General Secretaries:

C. F. Juritz

Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc,

Union Observatory,

Johannesbur

Hon. General Treasurer:

James Gray,

F.I.C.,
P.O

Hon.

Box 5254.
Johannesburg

Librarian :

Annie Porter, D.Sc,

S.A. Institute for

Medical Research,

Johannesburg.

M.A., D.Sc,

Division of Chemistry,

Cape Town.

Hon. Editor of Publications:

Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc,
The University,

Johannesburg

Assistant General Secretary:

H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E..

P.O. Box 6894,

Johannesburg
(Telegraphic Address : "Soience.")

Ordinary Members of Conncil

Prof
Rev.
J.
C.

I.— CAPE PROVINCE.

Cape Peninsula.
L. Crawford, M.A., D.Sc.
W. Flint, D.D.
Lunt, D.Sc.
W. Mally, M.Sc.

C. Graham Botha.
Prof. R. Leslie, M.A.

Kimberley.
Miss M. WlLMAN.

King williamst own.

E. B. Dwyer, B.A.

Port Elizabeth.

F. W. Fitzsimons, F.Z.S.

Rev. J. R. L. Kingon, M.A., D.Sc

Stellenbosch.
Prof. E. J. Goddard, B.A., D.Sc.
Miss Alta Johnson, Ph.B.

II.— TRANSVAAL.
R. des Clayes.
J. A. Foote, F.G.S.,
R. T. A. Innes, F.R.A.S.
W. Ingham, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E
Sir Spencer Lister, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
J. McCrae, Ph.D., F.I.C.
E. T. Mellor, D.Sc.
J. Moir, M.A., D.Sc
Advocate G. T. Morice, K.C., B.A.
A. J. Orenstein, C.M.G., M.D.

Prof.
A. M.
Prof.

P J.

Prof.
A. K.
E. P.

B.Sc, M.I.C.E.

J. Orr, O.B.E.
Robb, M.A.
J. A. Wilkinson, M.A.

Pretoria.
du Toit, B.A., Ph.D.,

Dr. Med. Vet.
P. G. Gundry, B.Sc, Ph.D.

Haagnfr.

Phhlips, M.A., D.Sc

III.— ORANGE FREE STATE.
Bloemfontein.
Prof. M. M. Rindl, Ing.D.
IV.— NATAL.
Durban.
E. C. Chubb, F.Z.S.
B. M. Narbeth, B.Sc

Pietermaritzburg.
W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc.
Warren, D.Sc.

V.— RHODESIA.

Bulnwni/n.
Rev. E. Goetz, S.J., M.A.
Salisbury.
B. Maufe, B.A.

VI.— MOZAMBIQUE.
Sertjya.

Prof. J
Prof. E.

II

S.

Trustees :

Endowment Fund.
Principal Sir J. C. Beattie. D.Sc.
J. W. Jagger, F.S.S., M.L.A.
W. Runciman, M.L.A.

S.A. Medal Fund.
J. de V. Roos, B.A., LL.B.
W. Thomson, M.A., B.Sc, LL.D.
W. J. Viljoen, M.A., Ph.D.

SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN SOUTH AFRICA:
PROBLEMS OF RACE AND NATIONALITY.

BY

J. E. Duerden, M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.Sc, F.Z.S.,

President,

Professor of Zoology, Rhodes University College, Grahamstown;

Officer-in-Chargc, Ostrich Investigations, Grootfontein School of

Agriculture, Middelburg, C.P.

Presidential Address delivered July 11, 1921.

Contents.

page.

Scientific Effort in South Africa 1

Sociai Anthropology 3

Complexity of Social Problems in South Africa 6

Change of attitude towards the Native 8

Aversion between Black and White 10

The Bantu Assimilative but not Originative 13

Racial Solidarity 16

National Loyalty and Racial Solidarity 19

White Solidarity 20

Genesis and Reclamation of the Indigent White 21

A New South African Nationalism 27

A Benevolent Aristocracy of Ability 28

Scientific Effort in South Africa.

The South African Association for the Advancement of
Science was founded in 1903 upon the model of the British Asso-
ciation, which has existed since 1831, and which in 1905 paid a
visit to South Africa. During the past year it has been my good
fortune to attend the meetings of the parent Association in
Cardiff. Formerly, at the annual gatherings, it was customary
for the President to pass in review all the recent advances in the
different sciences, and to indicate their general trends and needs.
In these latter days, with the vast array of scientific workers on
every hand, this is no longer possible, even for the most omniscient
of Presidents; indeed, it is questionable whether he can survey
the whole field in his own subject. All the more difficult is this
in South Africa with our restricted means of knowing what is
being accomplished, both within the Union and overseas. I desire,
however, to dwell for a few moments upon the progress in general
recognition of Science in South Africa, particularly as repre-
sented by developments in higher education and in the encourage-
ment of research.

By the Act of Union in 1910 the four Provinces in South
Africa were consolidated, and the country assumed a unified
control of all its internal affairs where hitherto there had been
diversity. With Union has come strength, and the ten years

2 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

which have elapsed reveal that the country is making vigorous
efforts to rise to its responsibilities, and to build upon the sure
foundation of education and investigation. Everywhere we see
an earnest endeavour to supply its own requirements in trained
men and to provide them with opportunities, and the principle
of South Africa for the South African is applied with more and
more success. The efforts in the direction of university develop-
ment, of agricultural progress, and of technical application are
particularly encouraging. Ten years ago it was barely possible
to procure a South African trained scholar for the higher positions
in elementary education, much less for university appointments.
Now in all directions men are being supplied by our universities,
fully trained for these careers; where in 1910 there were 1,171
university students, last year there were 2,947, nearly three times
the number, with a corresponding increase in State expenditure.
Four vigorous universities exist where a few years ago there was
only one, and others of the federated University Colleges are more
than dreaming of separate Charters. We congratulate Johannes-
burg, which has procured its Charter so recently, and wish it every
success. In place of relying wholly on oversea institutions for
training in medicine, two of the universities are for the first time
preparing students for the complete medical degree; while investi-
gational work at the Institute for Medical Research in Johannes-
burg ranks high in comparison with that in similar institutions
abroad.

The provision of veterinary officers is of first importance for
South Africa, with its innumerable and baffling stock diseases.
Within the past year a scheme has been initiated for a training
in veterinary sjience which, under Sir Arnold Theiler, a past
President of this Association, will be on a foundation well in
advance of that in any other part of the world, as is the Onderste-
poort Laboratory with which it will be associated. For many
years South African youths of promise have been sent abroad by
the Government to study the agricultural sciences in the univer-
sities of Europe and America, and have returned to occupy
positions as lecturers in the various Schools of Agriculture, and
as agricultural advisers and investigators. The universities have
again risen to the occasion, and two of them have now established
Faculties in Agriculture which provide degree courses, and will
soon supply South Africa with her own trained experts. Two
or more of the five Schools of Agriculture are likewise making
laudable efforts to advance their courses of instruction from a
school standard to that of a university. It is by no means con-
tended that the training to be obtained in South Africa will supply
for some time that wide experience and culture obtainable from
the older universities overseas, but we are earnestly endeavouring
to meet the educational requirements of the country step by step
with its natural growth. There are few youths of ability who are
not given the opportunity to scale the educational ladder.

The Government throughout has shown a high recognition
of the value of scientific research in all its industrial and economic

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 6

applications. The Technical College in which we are gathered is
one of the tangible evidences of this. I congratulate you upon
its proposed affiliation with the University College at Pieterniaritz-
burg, holding, as I do, that the association with university aims
and standards will tend to the enrichment of its own ideals and
attainments. The many Divisions of the Union Department of
Agriculture have research as their primary aim, stimulated thereto
by a succession of clear-sighted Ministers and Secretaries. We
have also an official Geological Survey, a Soil Survey, a Fishery
Survey, a Botanical Survey, and an attempt towards a Zoological
Survey. As regards industries wa have an Advisory Board with
a Scientific and Technical Committee, the latter composed of men
of science, charged to "investigate and report to the Government
ou questions affecting the economic, scientific, and technical
aspects of the utilisation of raw materials available in South
Africa, and collect data and information in regard to the resources
of the Union, which as yet are largely undeveloped." South
Africa is a new country, with problems in every direction, and it
is not slow in its appeal to the man of science to assist in their
solution. Probably in no other part of the world is the ordinary
man of science afforded so many opportunities for leaving his mark
upon his country; moreover, the work can never end, for each
advance brings with it its own fresh difficulties.

I say all this for a purpose. I wish to impress upon ourselves
as members of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science that as the requirements of our country are great, so
is the responsibility. As men of science we are to show what
science can contribute. The needs and opportunities should render
us enthusiastic and devoted workers, fully determined to justify
the high trust reposed in us, that of furthering our country's
welfare.

Social Anthropology.

The progress of scientific effort in South Africa which I have
briefly sketched will suffice to show that for the time being we have
passed the formative stage in the matter of institutional and
departmental organisation, and can now settle down to the more
and more complete realisation of the purpose of it all. Apart from
that of education, the directions outlined are concerned with the
material progress of the country, and I have no desire to minimise
the importance of this; but it is not all inclusive. I now wish
to turn to a subject which more directly concerns ourselves as
human beings, particularly our inter-relationships among the con-
stituent peoples of South Africa; for, after all, in Pope's words,
"The proper study of mankind is man." I hope to show that in
matters of human relationship there is in South Africa just as
much need for the man of science as there is in material things,
and that results just as great, if not greater, are to be expected.

The subject of Anthropology is comprised under Section E
of our Association, and it has ever been a strong Section in South
Africa, innumerable problems presenting themselves in connection
with our many native tribes. It is not unlikely that, had he lived,

4 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS

the late Mr. Maurice Evans, a citizen of Durban, and author of
"Black and White in South-East Africa" and other works, would
have occupied the President's chair in which I now find myself,
and would have discoursed to you from the mellow experience of
his life's study of native problems. It is partly the knowledge
of your interest in these matters which has influenced me in the
choice of my subject. Anthropology is indeed an all-embracing
science, taking man in all his aspects; ethnological, archaeological,
historical and psychological. Within recent years it has also
come to include man as a social being, that is, in his relationship
to others as a member of society; and we have the sub-division of
Social Anthropology or Sociology. The importance of studying
man from this last aspect was strongly urged by Professor Karl
Pearson in his Presidential Address before Section H of the
British Association last year, and I confess that I have been
deeply influenced by his remarks, believing that in a very special
sense they apply to our conditions in South Africa.

Anthropological studies in South Africa have hitherto been
largely confined to the description of the habits, customs and
beliefs of the natives and accounts of their weapons, implements
and drawings, as well as of their bodily characteristics. Excellent
work has been done, much of which appears in the Reports of the
Association and in the publications of our various Museums.
Among more recent contributors the following names stand out
prominently: Peringuey, Bleek, Stow, Junod, Miss Lloyd and
Miss Tucker. Professor Karl Pearson, as Director of the Galton
Laboratory, London, has for a long period taken the lead among
anthropologists in the application of statistical and biometrical
methods to human studies. Impressed, however, with the
world's great problems of human inter-relationships at the present
time, he now writes: "I have already tried to indicate that the
problems before us to-day, the grave problems that are pressing
on us with regard to the future, cannot be solved by old materials
and by old methods. We have to make anthropology a wise coun-
sellor of the State, and this means a counsellor in political matters,
in commercial matters, and in social matters." And again: "The
psycho-physical and the psycho-physiological characters are of far
greater weight in the struggle of the nations to-day than the
superficial measurement of man's body." He then proceeds to
show from correspondence and manifestoes emanating from
anthropologists in Germany that the professors there are disposed
to place the blame for the late disasters of their country largely
upon an imperfect knowledge of anthropology. Thus from one
manifesto he culls the following: "The sad results of our foreign
policy, the collapse of all our calculations as to national frames
of mind, were based in no small degree on ethnographic ignor-
ance." From it all Karl Pearson sums up as follows: "I think
that you will agree with me that rightly or wrongly there is a
conviction spreading in Germany that the war arose and that the
war was lost because a nation of professed thinkers had studied
all sciences, but had omitted to study aptly the science of man. . .

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 5

If the science of man stood where we may hope it will stand in
the dim and distant future, man would from the past and the sur-
rounding present have some grasp of the future evolution, and
so have a greater chance of guiding its controllable factors."

1 have quoted freely from Professor Karl Pearson because he
presents a more enlarged view of anthropology which, as I have
said, is particularly applicable to us in South Africa, the view that
anthropological studies should contribute to the upbuilding of the
State by offering a scientific understanding of the peoples within
it.

From the broad aspect of the British Empire, Dr. Arthur
Keith is equally insistent upon the importance of the proper study
of Anthropology. In a lecture delivered in Oxford in 1919 he
remarks: "The problems of Race and Nationality then are by no
means new. The far-flung lines of the British Empire and the
mobilisation of our popular spirit by means of the press and
propaganda have compelled our statesmen, historians, publicists,
psychologists, and anthropologists to re-examine the nature of the
forces which lie behind racial movements and national agitations.
Of the importance of a right understanding of the nature of these
forces for the future maintenance and development of the British
Empire there cannot be any question."

I rejoice to think that we are already at the beginning of this
newer study of mankind in South Africa, and that before long
we shall be making advances in the direction so strongly advocated
by Professor Karl Pearson and Dr. Keith. Only within the past
two or three months a Professorship of Social Anthropology has
been founded at the University of Capetown, and Mr. A. R.
Brown has been appointed. I believe it is the first of its kind in
the world, and we may well congratulate the University on the
appointment. I was in Cambridge when it was first announced,
and the anthropologists there, Dr. A. C. Haddon and Dr.
W. H. R. Rivers, were keenly interested in its possibilities for
South Africa, as was also Professor Henry Balfour, Oxford, well
known to many workers here. Again, last year a Native Affairs
Commission was appointed as advisory to the Government, two
of its members at any rate, Senator Dr. A. W. Roberts and
Dr. C. T. Loram, being men of science and interested in anthropo-
logical investigation, in both its social and educational aspects.
These I regard as happy auguries for the study of Social Anthropo-
logy in South Africa, and I trace them to the initiative and wise
statesmanship of General Smuts, Premier and Minister of Native
Affairs, an outstanding figure among the statesmen of the world,
a son of whom South Africa is justly proud. His speech in intro-
ducing the Bill to establish the Native Affairs Commission revealed
a marvellous grasp of native problems, and a sympathetic deter-
mination that the oountrv should do the right thing by the native.
In this attitude he follows another great South African, the late
Cecil John Rhodes, who in his Glen Grey Act (1894) initiated a
sympathetic and, at the same time, a sound policy in native
administration.

6 president s address.

Complexity of Sociological Problems in South Africa.

South Africa is a country excelling in sociological problems,
racial and inter-racial, national and inter-national. No other
country in the world has so many distinct races and nations settled
within its borders, and at such diverse stages of social evolution. At
the one extreme are the survivors of the earliest historic inhabi-
tants, the Bushmen, who are among the lowest of all people in
civilisation, and representative of the primitive communistic hunt-
ing stage of human development; we have also the lowly Hotten-
tots, still in the pastoral or cattle-rearing phase of industrial
evolution. The Bantus, whether as Xosas, Zulus, Swazis, Basutos,
Bechuanas, or other of their tribal sub-divisions, comprise about
two-thirds of our population of seven millions, and industrially
they have attained only a primitive agricultural stage. These are
all classed as natives, though the Bantu immigrated from the
north only three or four hundred years ago. The Bushmen and
the Hottentots are now so few in number and so intermingled with
the others as to call for no special consideration; our great concern
is with the four million Bantu, whether segregated in Reserves
or freely mingling with the white.

Coloured peoples, in the narrower meaning of the term, num-
bered 678,146 according to the census of 1911. At the extreme
Southern border are the so-called Malays, comprising representa-
tives of the Malay Archipelago, the East Indies, and the East
Coast of tropical Africa, largely the descendants of imported
slaves. In Natal you have your own special problem of the Indian,
brought here under the indentured labour system. Everywhere,
but particularly around the urban centres, are the coloured Eur-
Africans, a varied admixture largely of European and native
blood. Finally, at the highest extreme of civilisation, are the
Nordic whites, mainly representative of the two European nations,
British and Dutch, but mingled with French; including also com-
munities of Germans around King William's Town, and now in
the South-West Protectorate as well.

With the passing of the Act of Union in 1910 the die has
been cast for South Africa and, so far as can be humanly pre-
dicted, it will in the main retain its present geographical and
ethnographical features for a long time to come. We are all to
live together, confined within one Union — British, Dutch, Bantu,
Asiatic, Eur-African, and all the smaller elements -which make
up our population. We are to be one country, one people, all
South Africans, directly subservient to one Government, and also
with the status of partnership in the British Commonwealth of
Nations. The various constituents have come together, each with
it= own traditions and with its own racial consciousness. We
intermingle with difficulty and blend with reluctance; yet we have
to go through the melting pot, and can only speculate as to how
we shall emerge. It is an inspiring reflection, this building up
of a new nation from such heterogeneous elements, and its suc-
cessful realisation will demand the best efforts of all.

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 7

Fortunately we have for the most part come together volun-
tarily, with practically equal rights, or absence of rights, of
occupancy. The members of no group can sustain a priority claim
of ownership to the country, nor has there been much aggressive
subjugation by conquest. The Bushmen alone are the original
inhabitants, the Hottentots following later. But as communities
both of these have succumbed before later arrivals, their primitive
nature and mode of life rendering them incapable of adaptation to
the new conditions. The salient features of the later introductions
are well known and only call for the briefest summary. The
Portuguese first discovered the Cape at the end of the fifteenth
century, and in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries it was
visited by Dutch and English vessels on their way to the East
Indies, the first Dutch occupancy under Governor Jan Van Riebeek
taking place in 1652. Malays were first imported as slaves in
1654 and Negroes from the Guinea Coast in 1658. One hundred
and sixty-four refugee Huguenots arrived between 1688 and 1700.
The census of the Dutch centenary of Occupation in 1752 showed
but 5,510 Europeans and 6,279 slaves. The British took the Cape
in 1795, restored it in 1803, and finally occupied it in 1806. In
1820 nearly 4,000 British settlers arrived and spread over the
Eastern Province. Their centenary we in Grahamstown have just
been worthily celebrating. Emancipation of slaves took place in
1834. Consequent upon the Great Trek, the Boers established a
republic in Natal in 1839 and Pietermaritzburg was founded; they
partly trekked out again in 1842, and Natal remained largely
British.' Indian labour was first introduced in 1858, and in 1911
there were 133,439 Asiatics to 98,114 Europeans. At first the
few Dutch remained around Cape Town, but gradually numbers
spread northwards and eastwards, their extension taking the form
of organised treks in the thirties, and later the founding of the
Orange Free State and the Transvaal. Everywhere Dutch and
English came into contact with the various Bantu tribes who had
come down from the north in successive waves, and were living
in a state of inter-tribal warfare. Numerous conflicts and much
negotiation resulted from the clash, extending almost to the
present day, and the names of many distinguished tribal leaders
emerge — Tshaka, Dingaan, Panda, Cetewayo, Moshesh, Mosele-
katse, Lobengula, Dinizulu and Kama. Within the present cen-
tury the numerous coiiflicting elements may be held to have settled
down in peaceable occupation of the countrv, and the Act of
Union has consolidated them for good and all.

The vastness of the sociological problems presented by this
unique admixture of people must appeal to all. We may well ask
how such a varied assemblage of races and nations can live together
in harmony and good-will, each group for the good of itself and
for the good of the whole. For in these days of easy communica-
tion no part of a population can live unto itself; there are inter-
relationships which can not be avoided. It can hardly be expected
that peoples differing racially and at different stages of social
evolution can live side by side with the same harmony as obtains

8 president's addbess.

among people of the same nation; there is more that calls for
mutual- forbearance and tolerance, and a manifestation of the
spirit of sympathy. Our peculiar difficulties are clearly appre-
ciated by anthropologists elsewhere. Thus Dr. Keith in his paper,
"Nationality and Race," remarks: "In South Africa we find
problems of race and nationality in a more acute and tangled form
than anywhere else in the world." Questions will arise as to how
far we are all to be moulded into a semblance of one another, or
how far we shall retain our original racial and national distinc-
tions. Moreover, human society is never stationary. It is moved
by different principles and ideals at different times; the relation-
ships are for ever changing, and no present attainment is immut-
able. Hence the need for the continued study of the psychological
attributes as well as of the material welfare of our peoples, and
for their guidance in the light of the historic past and of accepted
sociological principles. Much of the study calls for that personal
detachment and freedom which we hold to be one of the preroga-
tives of the man of science. Though it may not be usual to regard
these problems as subjects of scientific enquiry, yet in the course
of my address I hope to show the urgent need for the methods
which science can apply, and that it is fitting that questions of
this nature should receive the attention of the Association. We
do not encroach upon the stormy preserves of the politician. We
"assist by the elaboration of facts and principles for him to apply
in practice, among the varied and often divergent interests of
the whole population; and at the same time may help in the
building up of correct ideals for the public.

It may well be asked what claim a zoologist has to speak on
human affairs, seeing that in general he limits his work to the
lower animals. He is, however, accustomed to study his animals
in their entirety — their development, their evolution, and their
constitution, as well as their activities. He is accustomed to
account for what a creature does, and he is under no delusions;
he knows that with a certain constitution an animal can perform
only certain actions under certain conditions. To him _the real
nature of the animal is for all practical purposes unchangeable
from generation to generation, though it may be largely influenced
by its environment. The attitude of mind engendered by studies
of this kind may, I venture to think, be at times applied with
advantage to man himself; moreover, an intimate personal
experience of the Negro and other coloured races, gained by resi-
dence in the West Indies, the Northern and Southern States of
America, and in the Islands of the Pacific, may well be of assist-
ance as supplementary to that which one acquires in South Africa.

Change of Attitude Towards the Native.
Africa is often proclaimed as the "Black Man's Continent."
Certainly the Bantu is with us at every turn in South Africa, but
historically we Europeans have just as much right of occupancy as
he has, for, as I have shown, we are all recent immigrants who
have dispossessed the diminutive, unadaptive Bushman. More-
over, there is every reason to expect that both white and black

president's address. 9

are here to remain, and are settled along the lines which will be
preserved for a long time to come. It has taken practically all
the period since the Dutch occupancy in 1652 to effect this settle-
ment, and in the process racial strife has at times been aroused.
Enmity engendered by warfare has now happily ceased, and any
present manifestations of discontent are fundamentally socio-
logical; they are such as might well be expected to arise in the
mutual relationships of a superior race and an inferior one, the
latter outnumbering the former four or five times. Harsh,
unsympathetic treatment and exploitation have also been meted
out by the white to the black under the struggles incidental to the
founding of a new country. But, however unjustifiable, South
Africa has in this no more than followed the treatment which
during the past centuries has almost everywhere characterised the
relationships between inferior and superior races. This general
attitude was manifested in its extreme form in slavery, an institu-
tion which until last century was held to be justifiable by all
countries and all peoples. South Africa, however, never enslaved
its own natives.

Within the present century more particularly, any harsh,
suppressive attitude towards the lower races has largely passed
away in South Africa, to be replaced by one in which just and
humane considerations are in the ascendant. In spirit, at any
rate, the attitude is far removed from that which Lord Bryce
described in 1897, in his "Impressions of South Africa." The
change of ideals has been gradual as regards the mass of the people,
and has perhaps lagged behind in the Transvaal and the Orange
Free State, as compared with the Cape Province. To the mission-
aries must be given the credit of leading the way, though in their
early doctrine of brotherhood and equality they displayed no sound
appreciation of the real fundamental differences of race and all
that they imply. I wish to lay stress upon this change of attitude
of the white towards the black in South Africa. It is correctly
exemplified by the public utterances of practically all our states-
men, notably General Smuts and before him the late General
Botha, by the regard paid by the Municipalities to the welfare
of the natives in Locations, as disclosed by the Municipal Congress
this year in Cape Town; by the appointment of the Commission
to guide and advise on Native Affairs, and by the establishment
of a University Professorship of Social Anthropology to study the
question with all the resources which science can command. It
is this change of attitude and the obligations it entails which
introduce so many new problems. How shall we best apply our
sympathetic ideals in practice, and what is likely to be the result
in the future ? We can do just as much harm as good if we do
not proceed on right lines, having due regard to innate racial
peculiarities and to the interests of all concerned.

In a country which has undergone so many internal dis-
turbances as South Africa, legislative efforts on behalf of the
native may well lag behind desire ; but in all directions an earnest
effort is now manifest to cope with them. We have, however, to

10 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

admit that intimate contact of the black and white, and the
growth of education, conduce to comparison of their relative con-
ditions which, on the part of the inferior race, may well be
expected to express itself in discontent. Recent native disturbances
like those in Port Elizabeth, Lovedale, and Bullhoek are, how-
ever, local in their origin and bearing, and do not represent any-
wide, deep-seated dissatisfaction, though this is usually the inter-
pretation given abroad. Education is at first a revealer of dis-
parity and engenders grievances, as we see in all parts of the
■ world at the present time; but it can not be held back, and in the
end it makes for solidarity.

The change of attitude towards the native in South Africa
is but a part of a world movement in the sympathetic inter-
relationships of peoples. Discussing the new modern organisation
of States in which social classes still persist, but in which all
caste systems are abolished and all the members of the nation are
regarded as being by nature free and equal, Mr. W. McDougall,
in "The Group Mind," remarks: "The change is very striking
also as regards the attitude of the citizens of one State towards
those of any other and towards even the members of savage and
barbarous communities. We no longer regard ourselves as devoid
of all obligations towards such persons. Rather we tend to treat
them as having equal rights with ourselves, and as having equal
claims with our fellow-citizens upon our considerate feeling and
conduct towards them." And again, "It would be easy for the
European nations to exterminate the black people of Africa, and
to possess themselves of all their lands. But public opinion will
not allow this; it insists upon our moral obligations towards such
peoples, that we are bound to try to help them to survive and
to raise themselves to our level of culture."

Aversion Betwteen White and Black.

To appreciate some of our racial difficulties it is necessary to
dwell upon the psychological aversion which so often characterises
the relationships of black and white. Many attempts have been
made to analyse the feeling. The problem is one of some com-
plexity in which a number of factors are concerned, instinctive
and acquired. Perhaps some assistance towards an understanding
may be gained from a survey of the conditions under which it is
and is not manifested. We may admit that a primitive instinctive
antipathy tends to exist among all peoples, between clans, tribes,
nations, and races, which is greater the more divergent are the
physical, mental, and social natures. It is a part of the universal,
tribal or clannish spirit, having isolation as a common factor
which, according to Dr. Keith, "is an essential part of Nature's
evolutionary machinery. It was in these isolated cradles of
primitive mankind that Nature nursed and reared new races."

But this primary spirit of aversion is usually overcome as
peoples become acquainted, especially when the interests are
neither opposing nor competitive. Thus when brought together
ali white nationalities associate on terms of equality, as is seen on
a grand scale in the United States. Though not blending, whites

president's address. 11

generally associate ou an equality with the intellectual brown
Hindu and the yellow Chinese and Japanese, thereby showing
that colour and difference of race by no means necessarily engender
aversion. Negroes visiting Europe and moving among whites who
have no experience of the black in his own country, are received
and treated with every mark of regard and equality, and admitted
to the social stratum for which their education and training befit
them. From this we may conclude that on the part of the modern
white the aversion towards the black has not a primary instinctive
foundation, as is sometimes held. It is something which is engen-
dered on acquaintance with him on intimate terms or en masse,
and is observed to come over every European on first settling in
South Africa.

But even on intimate terms in South Africa no aversion is
displayed between white and black so long as certain relationships
are maintained. Tn domestic service the native is treated with
practically the same consideration as obtains in the corresponding
relationship between master or mistress and servant in Europe.
The regard in which Zulu servants are held in Natal and Johannes-
burg may be instanced. On the farms it is my experience that
the native receives just and considerate treatment, with due regard
to his self-esteem : also in offices, in places of business, and in
industrial occupations he is usually treated as considerately as are
white persons of similar status in Europe. Cases of harsh and
unreasonable treatment can always be adduced : but these are not
racial in their significance. They are merely illustrative of the
treatment met with everywhere from a certain class of employer
towards his dependents, or from a superior towards an inferior.
On the part of the better type of white people in South Africa ii
can with full justification be claimed that nothing but a just and
considerate relationship obtains towards the native, so long as the
latter maintains a defined position, and that no feeling of
antipathy, much less of hatred, exists.

It is when the native attempts to assume an attitude or
position of equality with the white that antipathy is engendered
and also manifested. Thus white and black domestic servants will
not work together on terms of equality, nor will the white and the
black labour side by side on the farm, or on the mine, or in other
industrial occupation. The educated and maybe refined black,
be he preacher, teacher, lawyer, or doctor, does not receive social
recognition from the corresponding classes of white, and would
encounter resentment were he to claim it.

The assumption or fear of assumption of equality is, in my
opinion, the foundation of the antipathy between white and black,
and has for its justification the following considerations. Every-
where it is admitted that the Negro race as a whole is greatly
inferior mentally and socially when judged from the standard of
the white man, just as individually he is held to be unattractive
in many of his physical attributes. When the Negro places him-
self side by side with the white he invites comparison. The dif-
ference in degree of civilisation between the two races is too great
4

12 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.

to be bridged by any suggestion of equality, and to claim it but
engenders antagonism. Even when the individual Negro equals
or excels in the attributes of the white the latter finds he can not
accept him on his personal merits; he can not forget that the
aspirant is a member of a race which is historically and at the
present time markedly inferior. It may be deemed one of the
tragedies of social life that the exceptional black, educated and
refined, is thus held back by the drag of his race, and the intelli-
gent white may well view it with regret; but with human nature
as it is the relationship could hardly be otherwise. An individual
white, from incapacity or weakness, may be far inferior in position
to many a black, but at his lowest he does not forget that he
belongs to a race which is much the superior, and resentment finds
bitterest expression in him at any assumption of equality. Lord
Bryce has shown that in the Southern United States the "poor
whites" are the class which is most hostile to the Negro.

Within his own sphere then the white has nothing but regard
for the olack, and prejudice is wholly wanting. Their diverse
attributes and standards do not enter into comparison and there
is no clash. As a servant or dependent the white accepts the black
as he finds him, but when considerations of equality arise he can
only regard him as a member of an inferior race. Among people
in Europe the Negro is accepted on his individual merits, the white
there having no experience of the low state of civilisation of the
race as a whole, and being therefore unable to judge the question
from the point of view of South Africa. This is also the basis
of the difference of treatment of the Negro in the northern and
southern States of America. In the south the white cannot forget
the position of inferiority in which as slaves the Negro first existed,
while the northerner knows nothing of this by practical experience
and, without any background of his lowly past, is disposed to take
the Negro at his individual worth. In the West Indies, with all
its grades of colour, problems of race are by no means acute. The
whites are far in the minority, are not concerned with questions
of equality, and little or no racial prejudice or restriction obtains.
The Negro may aspire and succeed to legislative honours, and the
same church or assembly hall receives from the highest to the
lowest.

It may be noted that the personal devotion and attachment
of the native servant to the family of the white man which, at
any rate in the past, was such a marked feature in the southern
States and to-day largely exists in the West Indies, rarely obtains
in South Africa. Here the tribal organisation still persists and
claims the allegiance of the native, whereas no such restraint
obtains in the States and West Indies, and permanent and devoted
attachment to the white more fully expresses itself.

If in the future the Bantu should rise in South Africa, and
become more nearly the equal of the white in education and
ability, there is no question but that the amenities in their relation-
ship will improve, and the possibility of this affords encourage-
ment for both races. At the present time, however, it is difficult

president's address. 13

to contemplate social equality for white and black, even in the
future; but sympathetic relationships appear likely to increase
with real advancement on the part of the native. While it seems
a tragedy for the educated and refined native to be subject to
the barrier of social equality, his better education enables him
more clearly to appreciate the psychological foundation for it.
The wise and intelligent among them accept the position, for it
may signify no more than do the social barriers existing in a
European country. The energy, aspiration, and ambition of the
exceptional native may well find their outlet in the uplifting of
his people, and in the development of their racial consciousness.
It may be regarded as a misfortune for South Africa nationally
that the two major parts of its population are apparently to be
for ever separated by social barriers, yet in practice it implies
little more than do the social separations in a white community,
or than the caste system does in a country like India. In these
days democracy the world over has risen to claim its due share
in the amenities of life, yet questions of social equality have no
part in the movement, and need not have in the case of the native.
From present tendencies the native in South Africa will in
tjie course of time be afforded all the opportunities to rise in every
sphere of life and claim the position for which his abilities and
tastes qualify him, and questions of equality need not enter into
his considerations. The exceptional native must rise along with
his race and cannot expect recognition apart from it. The display
of a just and sympathetic appreciation of the situation on the
part of both races will do much towards maintaining a harmonious
relationship in everyday life. The leaders of thought will not be
influenced by the denunciations and ravings of extremists, but will
be guided by general trends; on both sides the underlying guid-
ing principles of sociology must be recognised, and applied with
justice, good-will and sympathy.

It is well that the native in South Africa should know how
he compares with his fellows elsewhere. Dr. Aggrey, a Gold
Coast native, who has spent over twenty years in the United
States, and has recently toured a great part of Africa as a mem-
ber of a Commission investigating native educational and economic
conditions in Africa, addressed a gathering of natives as follows:
"All white people were not bad and all black people were not
good. They should let the good of both races work together. He
had heard the natives in these parts complain. He only -wished
the Union Government would run excursions, taking thousands
of natives to another colony he had just visited. If they saw how
people there were treated they would say South Africa was the
best country in the world. White people would help them if they
worked and showed that they were worthy of help."

The Bantu Assimilative but not Originative.

The past history of the Negro in Africa -would appear to
prove that, of himself, he is incapable of rising from his lowly
state; for all through the ages he has evolved none of the attri-

14 president's address.

butes of a civilisation, while in the same period other peoples have
progressed in one direction or another. He has directed none of
the forces of Nature to his advantage, nor has he discovered any
of Nature's secrets and moulded them to his needs. As Mr.
Putnam Weale, in "The Conflict of Colour," says: "The black
man has given nothing to the world. He has never made a nation.
He belongs to nothing but a subject race. He has no architecture
of his own, no art, no history, no real religion, unless animism
be a religion. His hands have reared no enduring monuments
save where they have been forcibly directed by the energies of
other races." In this respect the Negro is far below and altogether
apart from the coloured peoples of India, China and Japan, who
have evolved high civilisations of their own. We have much to
learn from them, but the Negro contributes little or nothing to
the world's stock of knowledge; of all the great races, his has
given the least evidence of originative and constructive powers.

Yet though the power of originality may not be in the Negro,
there is much to indicate that under favourable conditions he
possesses to a high degree the capacity for assimilating the attain-
ments of others. And for this his state of mental negation is in
his favour. He starts his racial history afresh on coming into
contact with the white and, bringing nothing with him, he has
nothing to give up; there is nothing to be displaced; his mind is
open and receptive; he accepts implicitly once he understands.
The representatives of the race who have risen to professional rank
may be taken as evidence of the possibilities of absorption, but we
have yet to discover that they are capable of conducting original
investigation or are in any ways inventive. From these examples
there is no reason to suppose that, given the opportunity, the black
cannot assimilate the full measure of the white man's acquirements,
that is, all that the white man has gained during his centuries of
progressive effort.

Religious beliefs and practices are perhaps the most deep-
seated of all the attributes of a people, vet those of the Negro are
held but loosely. The Rev. Henri A. Junod in his Presidential
Address befoi'e the Anthropological Section last year remarked :
"The Christian God very easily supplants the ancestral god in
his prayers. . . . The Christian religion is bound to conquer the
Bantu in a comparatively short time." Tins was written after
thirty years of experience of the native. The whole attitude of
the Negro in South Africa towards the white man is one of
dependence and receptiveness. He practically gives up all he has
and takes up the white man's religion, education, customs and
mode of life. He has but little independence and initiative in
measures which make for progress. This reliance and absence of
any constructiveness is strikingly revealed in books written bv the
native dealing with his own problems, such as "Native Life in
South Africa." bv Sol. T. Plaatje. and "The Bantu." bv S. M.
Molema O920), and others bv Jabavu. Contrast the African
Negro with the people of Japan. The latter had evolved a high
civilisation of their own. Yet on coming into contact with the

president's address. 15

white they quickly realised that to hold a position amoug the
advanced nations of the world they must develop on other lines.
Rapidly they discarded the old order and became "westernised"
by their own efforts, and still send their brightest intellects to
universities in Europe and America to cull the best. The Negro
on coming into contact with advanced nations awaits them to
raise him to their own standard.

As illustrative of the dependent attitude of the black upon
the white Dr. Aggrey, with his enlightened appreciation of both
the virtues and failings of his fellow natives, is reported as follows :
"In the course of his remarks he vigorously preached the gospel
of work with his hands, especially farming. He strongly depre-
cated natives looking to Europeans for help. The white man had
given them lots of things, and the time had come when the blacks
should have self-respect enough to do something for themselves."

The Negro is not to be regarded as an example of "arrested
development," as is so often asserted in explanations of his
backwardness. The zoologist would rather maintain that his
racial characteristics are germinally different from those of the
white. Many of his physical characteristics — colour, hair, facial
features — are hereditarily different, and we may expect his mental
attributes to differ likewise, though these are not determinable in
precise terms from the data at present available. If we hold that
man had a monophyletic origin, as seems likely, then mutative
changes have since occurred which have given the marked heredi-
tary characters now differentiating the white and the black. How
far under his changed environment, in contact with the white as
preceptor and example, the black will show himself inventive and.
originative only the future will reveal ; but his history hitherto
suggests real constitutional limitations. We need not apologise
for his shortcomings by remarking that he has been in contact
with the white for only a few generations; had originality been
innate it would ere this have displayed itself independently. It
should also be clearly appreciated that his hereditary mental
nature will not change any more than will his physical nature,
however many generations he may be associated with the white.
We have ample proof that it «is highly responsive and readily
assimilative, but we do not know how far these qualities will carry
him.

It is manifest that if we are to live with people, we should
know something of their nature and what they are likely to do and
become under given circumstances. The black man in close
sympathetic association with the white is a new problem, as he is
a new creature. We cannot predict to what he will ultimately
attain. We can wait until time slowly reveals it to us, but we
can also forestall by investigation and experiment. This latter
aspect makes a strong appeal to the man of science. Dr. Loram
has already carried out certain experiments in schools to defje'"-
mine the mental powers of Bantu children in comparison with
Indian and European, and described them in his book, "The
Education of the South African Native." More investigational

16 president's address.

work along these lines is needed and in the direction of experi-
mental psychology. It is greatly to be desired that the members
of the Native Affairs Commission will fully realise the opportuni-
ties of research before them. Without data as to what are the
real potentialities of the Bantu how can they advise as to the
policy to be pursued ?

Racial Solidarity.

To anyone who reflects upon the sociological problems of
South Africa the question will continually recur, how are the
various constituents of the population likely to arrange them-
selves in the future? Though perhaps at first sight the matter
is not very relevant to ourselves, it yet makes a strong appeal
when we contemplate what may be the conditions for our descend -
ents. We can only predict the future with any assurance from
a study of the present and from the tendencies it reveals. Three
courses at least are possible: (a) Each racial group may separate
itself from the others, retain all its distinctive characteristics, and
lead its life apart and independently, (b) All the groups may
intermingle and blend, lose their individuality, and form a more
or less homogeneous people, an approximate uniformity of all the
diverse elements as regards colour and other physical attributes,
as well as of the higher mental and spiritual faculties, (c) The
present arrangement may continue and each group retain its
primary racial distinctness, and yet intermingle for the everyday
affairs of life.

The adoption of the first possibility, that of complete isola-
tion or segregation of each race, makes a strong: appeal to the
superficial view, but is not feasible in practice. There are obliga-
tions which can not be put aside. With modern humanitarian
ideas of the obligations of peoples to one another the white could
not leave the native isolated in his lowly condition, with all his
barbarous customs and practices ; nor is a continuance of inter-
tribal warfare possible in contact with a civilised people. The
latter have now to help the native towards something in lieu of
these discarded practices, to provide him with interests, and to
assist him to a life in conformity with a fixed and settled social
organisation. Having come into |pntact with the white man and
realised the amenities which civilisation confers, the native himself
does not desire a detached existence and resents enforced segrega-
tion. His leaders especially call for education, and help and guid-
ance towards a life more like that of the white. The European
must respond to his obligations and in matters of education, of
agriculture, and of existence generally, the condition of the
native both within and outside the Reserves is rapidly improving-

The case of the Maori may be instanced as an example of
successful segregation of coloured and white apart. But the New
Zealand native is of an altogether different nature from the native
of South Africa. He is self-contained and can lead his own life
successfullv within a limited area, without interference from the
white, and yet in harmony with humane ideals. The Negro apart
has not the innate power to maintain such a life. The results in

president's address. 17

Liberia and Haiti may be recalled. Whenever in intimate
relationship with the black, the white man must exercise a benevo-
lent guidance, in conformity with the claims of universal humani-
tarianism.

Many arguments could be adduced showing the impossibility
of the Indian, the Malay and the Eur- African being isolated, and
leading their lives apart from the European; though segregation
is sometimes suggested for the Indian in Natal. In pressing
segregation it must not be overlooked that from the earliest days
the native and the coloured have been deemed a necessary factor
in the industrial machinery of the country.

The second possibility, namelv, that all the races in South
Africa should blend together and form a more or less uniform
people has been suggested, and some writers maintain that this
will be the final state of the various races and nations at present
making up the world. The idea of a physical, mental, and
spiritual homogeneity of all peoples is but a delusion, and its con-
templation is an absolute abhorrence to any Nordic white living
in a settled community of blacks, where racial attitudes have had
time to crystallise. One may see a suggestion of it in new
countries on first opening-up, and also in seaport towns where
racial regard is looselv held. It raises the whole question of the
permanency of racial barriers, so ably discussed by Dr. Keith in
his paper "Nationality and Race/' To the present writer the
modern tendencv in all settled communities of different racial
elements is wholly against the breaking down of the barriers of
race. With education and enlightenment, racial and national
determinism, in the restricted sense of the term, is unauestionablv
spreading. Mr. Stephen Graham in his book, "Children of the
Slaves," sees no evidence of fusion between the black and white
of the Southern States of America. Race-blending has. indeed,
the approval of writers like Sir Sidnev Olivier, but on the truly
unsatisfactory ground that it improves the inferior race.

The third possibilitv, that each group will retain its racial
distinctness and vet intermingle in the ordinary affairs of life is
that for which South Africa offers the greatest support. Not onlv
is it the general arrangement at the present time, but the whole
tendencv appears to be in the direction of its accentuation; group
or racial solidarity is on the increase, as the various peoples settle
down and begin to realise themselves as a fixed community.

In many respects racial consciousness is in process of making
and also of re-making in South Africa, and many intermediate
stages are offered to the sociological enquirer. Moreover, the
really big question is presented as to how this racial solidarity will
relate itself to South African nationalism, for upon this hangs the
future of South Africa as a nation. Is the solidarity of the
various races to be of such a nature that it will be subversive of
South African nationalism ? The whole question requires most
thorough examination. We can but touch the fringe of it later.

As regards the Bantu it is manifest that as a result of his
close relationship with the European his racial conscience has

18 president's address.

undergone and is still undergoing the most profound change. His
whole conception of racialism has to be re-made and re-shaped.
Involved in the changes are his relationships to the rest of the
Bantu race, his tribal allegiance, and his attitude to South Africa
as a nation ; moreover, all these differ according as we are con-
sidering the native inside or outside the Reserves. As shown
above, the Bantu gives up his all and assimilates practically every-
thing from the white. This unquestionably results in a weaken-
ing of the tribal and racial bonds; but it would appear to be only
a phase, and with education and general advancement the
awakening of a new racial sense will take its place. The Indian
and the Malay have brought with them their own manners and
customs, and their own way of looking at things. They live
beside the white man and serve his requirements without assimilat-
ing the white man's life, thus affording a great contrast to the
Bantu. They are apart in their social and religious life and in
their general organisations, and are acquiring a solidarity and a
South African life of their own.

Even the Eur-Africans, who by virtue of their origin have
no independent racial consciousness, are rapidly developing a
solidarity. They belong neither to white nor black, Indian nor
Malay, and socially they lead their lives apart and have their own
schools, churches, and other organisations. More than any of the
others they present the student with the problem of the group
mind in the making.

We see then that the Bantu, the Indian, the Malay, the
Eur-African and the European, all constituent, parts of the South
African nation, intermingle in their every-day avocations and act
as one people. Yet when their daily task is over they disentangle
and separate, and each group leads its emotional life apart and
according to its own fashion. For industrial purposes they may
be regarded as one complex, each within its own sphere; but in
their free voluntary life they segregate themselves apart, and each
follows its own nature. Moreover, as the realisation of racial con-
sciousness grows, the bonds of organisation will get stronger and
stronger.

Wisely directed racial determinism among the various
heterogeneous elements in South Africa would appear to be worthy
of encouragement. For from what has gone before it is manifest
that the racial barriers are too great to admit of intermingling
in the ultimate personal relationships of life, or of absorption into
a common whole. Hence if each develops along its own course
all racial contrasts, implying higher or lower, or superior or
inferior, are avoided, there will be no racial clash socially, for
each will lead its own life apart and comparisons will not obtrude.
It is especially valuable in that its development offers a legitimate
objective for the aspirations of the more advanced, intelligent
members of each group. No individual can have a worthier pur-
pose than the advancement of his own race, and all will admit
there is ample scope for it among the peoples we are considering.

president's address. 19

The presence of so many distinct elements in a community,
each with distinct aims and aspirations, might seem to have a
weakening effect, but with racial barriers as they exist no other
course appears possible. It is recognised from the beginning that
these are South Africa's problems, and we cannot escape them.
We have to face the fact of racial distinctions, and direct them
as seems most wise. Repression of any element is inadmissible;
the principle of fairness and sympathetic treatment is accepted.

Experience hitherto has shown that, while perhaps weaken-
ing, the admixture of peoples is not necessarily antagonistic;
moreover, it applies only to the personal social side of life, not
to that of collective effort. Thus it obtrudes in education,
religion, sports, games, and the individualistic side of life gener-
ally, but not to the industrial and economic issues. In towns
separate schools exist for white and coloured, and the same clergy-
man may administer to a church of white adherents, to another
of coloured and to another of native. A distinguished visitor,
such as the Governor-General, would meet independently an
assembly of white, coloured, and native, and receive fervent expres-
sions of loyalty from each. On industrial and business issues
racialism, in theory and also largely in practice, is non-existent.
The individual in general occupies the sphere for which his
qualifications befit him. As those of the native and coloured are
generally lower than those of the white, differences are manifest,
and would appear to show racial discrimination, whereas they are
dictated mainly by considerations of ability.

National Loyalty and Racial Solidarity.

In the foregoing we have regarded the Bantu and other
coloured peoples only from the South African point of view, not
as a part of the larger world problem of the coloured races as a
whole in their relationship with the white. The dire results which
may one day arise from the conflicting interests of the white and
coloured have been fully expounded in works such as those of
Mr. Putnam Weale, "Conflict of Colour," and of Dr. Lothrop
Stoddard, "The Rising Tide of Colour." While no one can
predict with certainty how the present racial antagonisms will
shape themselves in the future, the conclusions these writers
present are sufficiently serious to merit special study in South
Africa. Stoddard is particularly insistent upon the fact that the
chief conflicts which count in history, the late war excepted, have
been inter- racial. He naturally assumes that differences of race
will determine the main conflicts in the future, and that the white
race, on account of its numerical weakness, may not always prove
to be the victor.

There is much in support of this view, but it is also relevant
to suggest that, with the more enlightened and more sympathetic
attitude now coming over the relationships of white and coloured,
future conflicts will not necessarily be on racial lines, but com-
binations of races against combinations. The diversity of races
and colour represented by the combatants in the late war may not
be without significance in this connection. As already indicated,

20 president's address.

the general trend of opinion and effort in South Africa is unques-
tionably in the direction of making white and colour sympathetic
co-partners in the national life, each in its own sphere ; and it is
well worthy of consideration whether in the end national bonds
and loyalty will not replace and be stronger than racial. To admit
the possibility of this is much to ask of believers in the paramount
solidarity of races. If, as its supporters sincerely hope, the treat-
ment meted out to the native in South Africa should demonstrate
the reality of national loyalty as against racial the country will
have conferred a signal service on humanity, in dispelling the
nightmare of future inter-racial conflict. Probably no other
country is so well situated for a racio-national experiment of this
far-reaching import.

At the present time national loyalty is undoubtedly a con-
spicuous feature among the various coloured peoples in South
Africa, as was loyalty and support to the Empire during the late
war. Loyaltv to the Government and to the Crown is manifested
on all public occasions, and there is no reason to question its
reality. Whether it can be relied upon in times of inter-racial
stress, whether adherence to country will transcend obligations to
race, only the future will show. But it is the aim of its states-
men, its leaders of thought and action, to bind by fairness,
justice, and sympathy all the races into one true South African
nation.

White Solidarity.

Not only does South Africa contain a diversity of races which
do not blend, but it also offers one of the most notable examples
of the continued separation of stock derived from two closely
allied European nationalities, Dutch and English. A somewhat
analogous lack of fusion also occurs in Canada between French
and English, but here geographical isolation is undoubtedly a
factor, whereas in South Africa the two peoples freely intermingle,
both in town and country.

The lack of solidarity of the two white nationalities in South
Africa can only be understood when viewed historically. The
Dutch are mainly the descendants of the settlers who came in the
seventeenth century. In the two or three hundred years of their
occupancy they have largely severed their connection with the
mother country and have evolved a real South African nationalism
of their own, and become deeply attached to the country and all
that it holds for them. They have wholly thrown in their lot
with the country of their adoption and their lives are centred
therein. Few now come from the country of origin, Holland, and
these have little or no influence in keeping awake any sentimental
regard towards it. Of late, however, many efforts have been made
to draw the intellectual and economic ties more closely. The
British on the other hand, in any numbers, are recent immigrants,
coming mostly within the last century, while others still continue
to arrive. The older settlers and their descendants have scarcely
yet had time to lose their sentimental connection with the mother
country, and it is kept alive by the constant influx of newcomers,

president's address. 21

by intercourse in trade and commerce, and by all that is involved
in the fact that it is a British Dominion.

We thus have the one people living their lives centred in
South Africa and wholly devoted to its interests, while the other
have not altogether detached themselves from their original
nationality, and are disposed to regard South Africa through the
eyes of England. The one desires to build up a real South
African nationality apart, the other has barely yet reached the
stage where South Africa is accorded the one and only considera-
tion in national regard. The one tends to view South African
nationalism without special reference to any other nationality, the
other also desires to build up a South African nationalism, but in
close association with the British Commonwealth of Nations.

Viewed in this manner the two aspects can well be understood
and each calls for sympathetic recognition. They are the hard
facts of sentimental nationalism which will manifest themselves in
face of all material considerations, and have to be reckoned with
in the up-building of the country. Appreciating and sympathis-
ing with their reality no Britisher would desire the "Afrikaner"
to give up the national consciousness which he has evolved in
South Africa, nor would the latter, in his turn, ask the Britisher
to sever himself from all that his country and empire mean to
him. In neither case, however, is the retention of these senti-
ments incompatible with the building-up of a real South African
consciousness, and the recognition of this is involved in what we
may term "the new nationalism of South Africa." Mutual regard
and good-will obtain among the best types of both, and respect
for one another's ideals. "National instinctive tendencies are
curbed and guided by the higher reasoning centres of the brain."

The attitude that is gradually being evolved assumes that each
stock will retain its primary nationalism, with its sentiments and
traditions; while in all that concerns the real welfare of South
Africa the two will work together with the determinism of one
nation. How far the latter will in the end replace the former
time alone will reveal. In the interests of true South African
solidarity it is devoutly to be desired that a study of the socio-
logical principles involved will do something to lessen the gap
which separates the two peoples, so that all may concentrate whole-
heartedly upon what makes for national good.

The possibilities of ultimate fusion of the two nationalities
seem bright with promise. For, as McDougall in "The Group
Mind" says: "The crossing of two closely allied racial stocks seems
to have a tendency to produce a cross-bred race superior to both
parent stocks, and especially to produce a variable stock. It is, I
think, probable that frequently repeated blending of allied stocks
in Europe has been the fundamental biological condition of the
capacity of the European peoples for progressive national life."

Genesis and Reclamation of the Indigent White.
The 'poor white" constitutes a social problem of much com-
plexity and grave concern. The class is scarcely known to you
in Natal, since the conditions which produced it elsewhere have

22 president's address.

never existed in the Garden Colony. It is a problem highly
specific in its nature, and its solution appeals to the geneticist
rather than to the anthropologist. Had the question been one
concerned with the improvement of domestic stock it would have
been submitted to him forthwith; but as a problem in human
welfare, it has been relegated to the politician and the philan-
thropist.

In his experimental breeding work with animals the geneticist
is impressed with the permanency of the fundamental cnaracier-
istics of a race, and at the same time with their plasticity in the
individual as a result of environmental influences. He is well
versed in Galton's phrase: "Nature and Nurture," end is accus-
tomed to contrast hereditary and acquired characteristics. As a
working basis he proceeds on the assumption that acquired modi-
fications are non-transmissible, and that each generation starts
where its predecessors began, not where they left off. The germ
plasm remains continuous and unalterable, and individual attain-
ments are for the generation only.

In approaching the poor white question the geneticist first
enquires as to the nature of the original material from which the
class has come. From this he can ascertain to what degree the
degenerate condition of to-day is evidence of an originally retro-
gressive nature, or to what extent it has been impressed by force
of circumstances. If primarily degenerate his science can offer
no encouragement; the individual is by nature incapable of fitting
into the complexities of modern life, and can only exist on support
from others or under some simpler state of society not yet evolved.
If, however, the degeneracy be the result of circumstances there is
hope for recovery; the blood is good, but the chances have been
against it.

Historically, there is no uncertainty in estimating the socio-
logical value of the original stock from which the class of indigent
white has come. It is a derivative from two of the most virile
nations of Europe, the industrious, adventurous, sea-faring Dutch
and British. As already seen, the Dutch followed in the wake
of Van Riebeek, mostly from 1652 to 1806. They were largely
soldiers, sailors, artisans, farmers and servants with a leavening
of the administrative, commercial, and professional classes. In
any numbers the British arrived from 1795, when they first took
over Cape Town, and were much of the same types, the purely
settler class predominating in the last century, notably the four
thousand 1820 settlers in the Eastern Province. On the whole
the immigrants may be held to have been no better and no worse
eugenically than the corresponding classes of their time in Holland
and Britain, the descendants of whom make, up the two nations
to-day, while the sturdy qualities of independence and adventure
were probably above the average. Writing in despatches of the
men who took part in the Great Trek of 1836-37, the Governor,
Sir Benjamin D'Urban, describes them as "brave, patient, indus-
trious, orderly, and religious people; the cultivators, defenders,
and tax contributors of the country."

president's address. 23

Tf we accept that the ancestors of the poor white class were
neither better nor worse than the corresponding classes in Europe
we have to account for their present state of degeneracy, in which
they have become for the most part incapable of providing for
themselves more than a bare subsistence. Opinions may vary as
to some of the causes, and the relative value of the different
influences, but a close study of all the circumstances is highly
convincing that they are inherent in the natural conditions in
South Africa to which the trekkers subjected themselves. The
general trend was towards isolation, to removal from centres of
activity and progress to distant parts where each could lead an
untrammelled existence, free from every form of religious, poli-
tical, and economic restraint, where land could be had for a mere
nothing. The free, simple, hunting, pastoral life, and the lure
of the land, made a strong appeal; the country was thinly peopled
and ample room was available for increase of family and stock,
or for further migration if necessarv. The presence of the native
was a disturbing factor, and at tne same time inhibited any
healthy stimulus to manual work, while the hard natural con-
ditions prevailing in undeveloped South Africa, with the accom-
paniment of drought and flood, discouraged agriculture and all
forms of enterprise. The conditions to which the early settlers
were subject are well expressed by the South African poet,
Mr. F. C. Sclater:

"Many evils come to try

Their fortitude : their cattle die,

Sometimes, -all their sti-eams run dry

When, 'neath the sun's unflinching sting,

Earth is as a tortured thing,

That quivers in its parched pain

And begs, with blistered lips, for rain!

Sometimes, when their fields are green,

Russet clouds on high are seen —

Hissing clouds that fall like rain

Over valley, field and plain —

Hissing clouds that pass in haste

And leave behind a desert waste."

With the gradual filling-up of the country and the absence
of new areas to which to migrate, the farmer had to restrain his
wanderings, his family growing larger, the farm sub-divided, and
the resources of the land less. Except in the most favoured spots
he gradually found himself becoming poorer and less capable of
providing a decent existence. Absence of education and of stimu-
lating contact with his fellow-man and with the outer world engen-
dered narrowness of outlook, and lack of sympathy and plasticity
for progressive measures. It was manifest that the trekker had
struck out on wrong lines and could not retrace his steps ; he stag-
nated, and his virile nature succumbed.

The results were such as would be expected, and have little
relationship to national characteristics; they would in all likeli-
hood have been the same with the people of any nation, subjected
to the same environment. The descendants of the Dutch comprise

24 president's address.

by far the majority, since they were the first settlers, and have
the longest been subject to the deteriorating influences of the
remote country, the back veld. It is their adventurous and
freedom-loving nature which has been their undoing. "Our poor
rustics to-day are the depositaries of the traditions of the Great
Trek, and the children of the pioneers of civilisation in this wide
land." But South Africa owes much to them for their pioneer-
ing efforts in the opening-up of the country.

As regards the proportion of the population now involved,
rural and urban, we cannot do better than quote the estimate of
Prof. W. M. Macmillan in his lectures on the "Agrarian
Problem," who writes: "We might state the case thus, that nearly
one-twentieth of the white population of the Union are in per-
manent absolute poverty, many of them perhaps demoralised
beyond redemption; in addition, we have to reconstruct society
so as to prevent perhaps considerably more than another twentieth
from being dragged by adverse, but remediable conditions, down
to the level of those submerged." The second Interim Report of
the Unemployed Commission, just published, estimates there are
100,000 to 120,000 poor whites in the country, representing some
25,000 families. How seriously the matter is viewed by the legis-
lature is reflected in the following Resolution passed by the Senate
on the 8th April of the present year: "The House viewed with
alarm the dimensions of the poor white question, and requests
Government to continue to make every effort by means of irriga-
tion schemes and other works to induce these people to leave their
urban environment and go on the land."

The production of a large indigent class of land-owning
farmers, descended from virile stock, is probably unique in social
evolution, and has an intense interest for the eugenist. It is to
be ascribed to the depressing effect of isolation consequent upon
the sparsely populated character of South Africa, the harsh
pastoral and agricultural condition of the country occupied, and
the presence of the inferior Bantu race. In other countries the
indigent population is constituted largely of the inefficients and
incapables by nature; but the originals of South Africa's sub-
merged were efficients. The class is specific in its origin; it is
for the most part a result of historical and geographical factors
acting on an otherwise desirable strain.

In the meantime, and more especially during the past twenty
years, a new agricultural and industrial era has dawned upon
South Africa. The extension of railways, the manifold activities
of a vigorous and well-directed Department of Agriculture, the
development of schemes of water storage and irrigation, successes
against animal diseases, the introduction of high-grade stock of
all kinds, the advent of the ostrich and lucerne and fencing, the
encouragement of fruit and grain production, and better methods
of disposal and export of products have placed pastoral and agri-
cultural effort on an assured basis, and one at the same time both
progressive and intensive. Mining, metallurgical, and manufac-
turing industries have made their advances and wielded an
influence in the country's advancement.

president's address. 25

But the stimulating influences from these have failed to reach
the isolated trekker on his distant farm or, reaching him, have
found him cold and unresponsive. The incubus of years of
depressing isolation, submissive to nature, cannot lightly be thrown
aside. Meanwhile the land has made its appeal to a newer and
intensely vigorous type, with capital and intelligence meet for
development, infused with the new ideals in agriculture and awake
to its possibilities. The townsman of all classes, merchant, official
and professional, has responded to the call of the country and its
life of freedom, while the farmer already prosperous has extended
more and more. The glamour of the land prevails in South
Africa. The inevitable has happened. The trek farmer has
relinquished his feeble hold on the land, and has either become a
dependent upon the newcomer or drifted helplessly into the towns,
scarcely more capable of a livelihood there than in the country.
Within recent years one has witnessed whole districts in which
the pioneer farmer, pathetic in his helplessness, has been replaced
by the modern progressives; the country advances in material
prosperity, but the individual succumbs. The original trek farmer
was before his time, and cannot retrace his steps; he failed to fore-
see the results of isolation in a new undeveloped country, great
with possibilities but special in their nature, only to be won by
strenuous, intelligent effort directed by science. The new occu-
pant takes on where the old leaves off, and has knowledge of the
requirements for success.

Recovery of the poor white as a class is not without its hope-
fulness. But for adults, however, the geneticist has nothing to
offer. They are the inheritors of the two or three hundred years
of environmental influences, unfitting for modern South Africa.
The effects have been cumulative from generation to generation,
and have moulded the individual from the day of his birth. J^ven
when transferred to ameliorating surroundings his efforts to shake
off the incubus of habit are for the most part futile. In general,
he is incapable of making a decent livelihood either under or
away from his old surroundings, incapable of adaptation to the
more strenuous and complex conditions now normal to South
Africa. He but accentuates the ordinary poverty and distress of
town life. His day of opportunity has gone by; he remains a
genuine subject for philanthropic effort, designed to help to
ameliorate the condition of the incapable and the unfortunate in
life's struggle. His position calls for the exercise of all of the
virtues of altruism, and truly noble responses have been forth-
coming.

On the other hand, the possibilities of recovery of the new
generation inspire one with the highest hope. The immigrant
stock lias been shown to be virile and efficient, and the quality of
the blood has not changed. The deteriorating influences affect
only the individual ; the new life starts with all the original poten-
tialities of its class, and can be moulded to the possibilities of its
ancestral forbears. But from the beginning it must be freed from
the environment which has enfolded its immediate forbears, ere

26 president's address.

it is moulded in the same depressing manner. It must be placed
under influences such as will fashion it in harmony with the social
needs of to-day. There is no escape from these genetic require-
ments. Allow the new generation to grow up under the old
parental surroundings and it repeats the parental incapacity;
subject it to favourable conditions and it responds, fitted for the
complex needs of its class.

The principle of the early segregation of the new generation
under improved conditions is not here advocated for the first time,
but its enforcement from the realm of genetics accords it the
support of scientific authority. The application of the principle,
however, presents great difficulties which cannot now be entered
upon. Some attempt has already been made by means of industrial
schools and institutions; a national asset is at stake, and the
State cannot shirk its responsibilities. Manifestly much propa-
ganda will be necessary ere intelligent sentiment in support of the
need is awakened on a national scale. Yet a nation's problems
receive their enforcement at particular periods in a country's
history; and in these days of awakened national aspirations,
re-arrangements of social ideals, and political stability, the time
may be deemed opportune.

An effort to arouse public sentiment on behalf of the sub-
merged part of the nation should appeal with peculiar force to the
University youth of South Africa, appreciative of the blessings
he has himself received from the State in fitting him for a position
of enlarged social worth. Infused with the spirit of true South
African nationalism he should in turn be prepared to strive for a
chance in life for his humble brother. It is fundamentally a
problem of education, but with unusual features. It is suggested
that University Associations be formed to investigate the problem
in all its bearings, and to constitute nuclei from which may radiate
influences destined to arouse a sympathetic and intelligent public
opinion. No nobler nor more inspiring call could come to the
educated youth of South Africa, infused with true nationalism
as a part of a true humanitarianism, than to devote himself to the
reclamation of those in economic bondage, impressed by a formative
period in his country's history. In reflecting on the good work
of Mr. Geo. II. Hofmeyr, Secretary for Higher Education, in the
encouragement and co-ordination of the efforts in Child Welfare
and Industrial Education, it is permissible to express the hope that
the Universities themselves may follow his lead in the recovery of
submerged South Africa. No other part of the community is
able to bring to bear upon the problem such independent and
enlarged sympathetic minds trained in the conditions necessary
for the right development of others. Studies such as those
emanating from the investigations of Prof. W. M. Macmillan
may well be taken as inspiring models.

In the assurance of tangible results a movement of this nature
is wholly apart from philanthropy as generally exercised, and
makes a different appeal. The one is wholly remedial, whereas
the other is plainlv palliative. Philanthropic effort usually con-
cerns itself with the naturally deficient and the incapable, and

president's address. 27

aims at making his lot more bearable; but it is without permanent
eugenic value, indeed, unless wisely administered, it may encourage
degeneracy, by affording the means of bringing into being others
of like character, able to continue the bad stock. Social sentiment
has not yet reached the stage where it will permit of measures for
the physical elimination of the undesirable. The reclamation here
advocated is concerned with the birthright of those having a real
potential value to South Africa.

There is some reason to hope that the indigent white will
insensibly disappear as a special class. If the account of the
conditions under which he has been produced be correct, namely,
the hard pioneering stage in the development of South Africa, then
with the improved conditions now prevalent he ought gradually
to be absorbed. The circumstances which produced him no longer
exist and, especially if given a new start, all but those inefficient
by Nature should recover. The new agricultural and industrial
development of South Africa carries with it the call for this
regenerated class. Everywhere is the growing demand for efficient
whites. Immigration is good and is immediate in its returns, but
the recovery of one's own carries a higher obligation. Farmers
demand efficient whites for their intensive agriculture and high
pastoral attainments, industrialism calls for a high level of pro-
duction only possible from efficients.

A New South African Nationalism.

Since Union a new nationalism has been slowly dawning over
South Africa, and finds its best exponents in the leaders of the
political parties, and also in contributions to recent South African
literature. But the movement is largely apart from politics, and
indeed, is opposed to them whenever they appear detrimental to
the true interests of the country. The aspiration has found an
expression in the fusion of two of the political parties, their
hitherto slightly divergent interests now being subordinated to
what they conceive to be the common good. The movement is a
unifying one, but is not exclusive of the old nationalism. Rele-
gating the old to the background, it is one to which the peoples
of both nations can conform.

One of the most potent influences making for this new
development is the experience of the younger generation overseas
during the war. Just as the dweller in any country never fully
realises what it is to be a member of his nation until he travels,
or comes into personal contact with the members of other nations,
so the South African, whether of British or Dutch descent, never
fully experienced his own nationality until he went abroad. In
contact with others he realised for the first time that he was South
African ; his full national consciousness was born in him and he
was inspired by it. Returning he is infused with this new sense
and with a devotion to South Africa as South Africa, and a deter-
mination to devote his best powers to her welfare. England as
the centre of the British Commonwealth of Nations he views
through the eyes of South Africa, not as the new arrival who
regards South Africa through the eyes of the country he has left.

5

28 president's address.

The selected youths of the country who have been sent abroad
for study also return with this enlarged devotion to South Africa
as a nation, and can view the latter in its proper perspective.

The growth of a new national consciousness on the part of
Europeans and their descendants in a new country has many
features of interest. The newcomer, as remarked above, first
views the country through the eyes of the one he has left. Usually
this attitude persists only for a time, particularly in the case of the
permanent settler. Gradually he begins to regard the affairs of
his adopted country as bearing closely on his personal interests,
and those of the mother country become less and less obtrusive.
The first generation, however, rarely loses a primary regard for
the old country, and is prepared whole-heartedly to uphold at all
costs it and all for which it stands. The second and succeeding
generations, however, have none of this intimate attachment.
They only know the country of adoption and all their interests,
social and material, are bound up with it. They wisely throw in
their lot completely with the new country, and the old recedes
further and further; a new individual national consciousness is
evolved. The process is well exemplified in South Africa in
descendants of both Dutch and English stock. They have
developed a new national life along its own lines, with its own
traditions and aspirations; moreover, they are disposed to view
with disfavour the newcomer from the country of origin, inclined
maybe to disparage the new nationalism in favour of the old.
Each South African, British or Dutch, is naturally proud and
jealous of the good name and repute of his adopted country in
which he has a share, and to the progress of which he has given
his all.

This is the unifying process we see on its largest scale in the
conglomeration of nationalities in the United States. It has also
consolidated with a new national solidarity the various British
stocks in New Zealand, Australia, and Canada, and is rapidly
effecting the same for both British and Dutch in South Africa.
A sentimental regard still persists for the history and traditions
of the old country, but it is secondary to that for their own. Dr.
Keith has truly remarked: "The arrival in a new land of immi-
grants from diverse countries breaks down the national barriers
within which they were born and bred. A national spirit breeds
true only in its native soil; when transplanted to a new land it
becomes plastic and mouldable. A new country dissolves ancient
nationalities"; and, he might have added, "invigorates a new
nationality."

A Benevolent Aristocracy of Ability.
If the conclusions which I have presented are correct the
Bantu, Indian, Malay, Eur-African, and European will remain
distinct elements of the population of South Africa, commingling
in every-day matters, but in their social lives apart, each accord-
ing to its own group consciousness, all loyal to their country and
empire. It is in the competition in everyday affairs, in the over-
lapping for trade and industrial purposes, that any serious clash

PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 29

is likely to occur. How the different elements making up the
nation will arrange themselves in industrial and economic com-
petition is our cardinal sociological problem. It must be conceded
that on the whole the present relationships are workable, and we
may well consider how far they are likely to continue.

In trade, industry, and the general affairs of the country,
all having equal opportunity, the leaders will be those manifest-
ing the greatest ability; they will be the directive forces of the
nation, and the others less endowed must naturally occupy the
lower strata in accordance with their lesser powers. In a white
community, such as exists in most European countries, we may
allow that natural endowments are fairly uniformly distributed
among the different classes of the people and, given equal oppor-
tunity, outstanding individuals will arise from any level. But it
is otherwise in a country with diversity of races. Physical, social,
mental, and spiritual characteristics are hereditarily different in
the various human races, and uniformity of opportunity will in
no measure eliminate them. It is readily conceded that the
physical divergencies are constant and unalterable, but the heredi-
tary constancy of the others is not so manifest; yet it is none the
less true, despite the dictum that "all men are born equal." In
the whole human family scarcely any greater physical contrasts
occur than those between the Bantu and the European, and their
mental attributes are just as diverse. No sane person would con-
tend that given equal opportunity, or placed under the same
environment, these hereditary differences would be nullified ;* they
are represented by germinal factors and the germ plasm does not
ordinarily change. To determine their relative status in the
future we may attempt to appraise the hereditary qualifications
of the various South African peoples, though it can be done only
in the most general fashion; for it is here that, the greatest need
exists for experimental data.

The many negative qualities of the Bantu have already been
noted. Looking to his past history and present attainments there
is no reason to hold that in all-round executive ability he will
never more nearly approach the white man than he does at
present, though we may allow for the exception and for the fact
that as a race he has yet to prove his full cumulative capacity
under a new and sympathetic environment. The Indian in South
Africa is admittedly a selection from a labouring class of low caste.
In India is to be found some of the most desirable blood in the
world, but not much of it flows in the veins of the coolie. Heredity
is all powerful, the blood of the labourer produces the labourer,
and outstanding individuals do not arise from ancestrally poor
stock. The mixed group we call the Malays have shown little
capacity beyond that necessary for industrialism, and are happy
therein; natural endowment for the higher attainments of life is
questionable. The Eur-Africans by their very origin are mosaics
of the Bantu and European, and, in the main, are from the lower
types of the latter. They cannot wholly possess the innate quali-
ties of the pure white.

30 president's address.

Thus the hereditary attributes of all the peoples of colour
in South Africa are markedly inferior to those of the white in all
that pertains to the requirements of modern civilisation, and there
is every reason to expect that they will remain so in the future.
For in considerations of this nature the teachings of zoology are
overwhelmingly in favour of the unchangeableness of the germ
plasm. We may add the opinion of Dr. Stoddard as to the out-
standing merit of the white race from which the Europeans in
South Africa are derived: "The white race divides itself nto
three sub-species — the Nordics, the Alpines, and the Mediter-
raneans. All these are good stocks, ranking in genetic worth well
above the various coloured races. However, there seems to be no
question that the Nordic is far and away the most valuable type,
standing at the head of the whole human genus." English and
Dutch are predominantly Nordic, and it is in the daily com-
petition with these that the Bantu, Indian, and Malay are to lead
their lives. In the commingling of these races in South Africa
there can be no question as to which will be dominant. In his
hereditary endowments the white is far more gifted than the
coloured, and must lead. Dominance, however, is not arrogance,
nor does superiority necessarily carry with it harshness or unfair-
ness.

The white man is imbued with sympathetic good-will towards
the coloured, and is prepared to do all that is reasonable to help
him to rise to the highest possibilities of his natural powers; but
in the complexities of industrial life each must necessarily occupy
the sphere for which his attainments best fit him. There is
encouragement for all in a natural distribution of this kind; and
it will not be overlooked, both by white and black, that hereditary
powers are of little avail unless developed by education and
training.

If the white man has to lead in South Africa he can do so
only by training his superior inherent powers, and in my opening
remarks I indicated the wide facilities now available in this
direction. The native also is securing higher educational oppor-
tunities, even to university standards, as at Fort Hare. It is
only the superior mental endowment of the European which will
keep him ahead, but without training this will count little in the
days to come. The racial struggle in South Africa will in the
end be one of ability; repressive measures, even if attempted, can
be only temporary, and will be the breeders of discontent. By
virtue of his higher intelligence, not because of absence of colour,
I see the white man leading in South Africa; he will constitute
an aristocracy of ability, benevolent to the races less endowed.
But the sore of the indigent white must first be healed.

I cannot close without some reflections on the type of white
man which South Africa tends to produce. Whatever he was on
first coming here he and his descendants are subject to a different
environment from that in Europe and are moulded thereby. I
claim to have experience of the more highly educated youth, the
public school and the university type, also of the farmer of the

president's address. 31

progressive type, those who are and who will become the leaders
in our national destiny. During the late war the South African
youth found himself judged beside the youth of England and of
the Dominions, and assurance was everywhere forthcoming that he
stood for gentlemanly action, uprightness, intelligence, and ability
in leadership, as well as valour in war. A type imbued with such
virtues I hold to be that which South Africa's environment pro-
duces, and will produce more freely under the settled conditions
ahead. The presence of an inferior dependent race in sympathetic
relationship, acting on the right type of manhood, engenders the
virtues of good-will, self-control, self-respect, initiative, independ-
ence, and leadership. Our sunny clime may not conduce to over-
much study of books. The call is to the open and to the veld,
which bring expansiveness of mind and effort. Sustained mental
and physical vigour may not attain the standard of that of older
climes, but there are compensations in reflectiveness and freedom.
A new country, it provides opportunity for all, black and white.
A nation which has given the world a Smuts and a Botha, and
produced a Hofmeyr, a Steyn, a De Villiers, a Merriman, and
an Olive Schreiner, may well aspire to play a noble part in the
future, and rouse a national pride in her sons.

I conclude with words recently written by General Smuts in
another connection, and express the hope that they may be said
of South Africa in the future: ''It has ever formed a platform for
the championship of great and disinterested causes. It has ever
held aloft a great banner to which lovers of the great human
causes could repair. Its appeal has been to what is best in human
nature, to the good sense and human sympathies which go deeper
than party feelings or sectional interests."

(In the preparation of the Address I have had the great
advantage of consultation with my colleagues, Professors Cory,
Dingemans, and Russouw ; also with Mr. J. Hewitt, Director of
the Albany Museum, the Rev. W. Y. St. George-Stead, and Miss
Edwards, Lady Warden of Oriel House, Rhodes University
College. These are all authorities upon different portions of the
matters dealt with, but in no measure do they share any responsi-
bility for the statements or views presented.)

32 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

STELLAR DISTANCES, MAGNITUDES AND MOVEMENTS.

By Joseph Lunt, D.Sc,
Royal Observatory, Gape of Good Hope.

Presidential Address to Section A, delivered July 11, 1921.

Although Astronomy is the most ancient of all the sciences,
it is only two hundred years ago — a mere matter of yesterday
astronomically speaking — that Halley first discovered that certain
of the brighter stars had perceptibly changed their positions with
respect to neighbouring stars since they were recorded by Ptolemy
in the Almagest from observations made nearly 2,000 years ago.

We now know that, just as Jupiter and Saturn with their
attendant satellites move in their well-determined orbits round the
sun — a phenomenon which must be seen to be fully appreciated —
so our sun with all its attendant planets is hurtling through space
at a speed twenty times as great as that of a modern rifle bullet,
and that all the so-called "fixed stars," of which our sun is an
example, are in rapid motion.

Thanks to the labours of generations of astronomers, who
have accurately mapped the stars for us, we now see on either side
of the sun's path and above and below it, a gradual but unmis-
takable drift of stars slowly filing past us as we proceed on our
journey.

The spectroscope has revealed the further fact that the stars
ahead of us are approaching and those behind are receding with
velocities which — in the mean — are but a reflex of our own motion
in space.

Astronomy has now, in common with most other sciences,
become so complex that the recently-formed International Astro-
nomical Union has found it necessary to divide it into no less than
32 sections, almost any one of which may easily provide enough
material for a man's life-work. I need not, therefore, apologise
for speaking about Astronomy again this year after the address
given by my predecessor in office last year on the same subject.

In a short Presidential Address it is only possible to give
an impressionist sketch of some of the main principles involved
in a study of stellar distances, magnitudes and movements; details
I must leave for your further reading.

In these studies, spectrographs methods are so essential that
a brief survey of their development may come first.

Spectrographic Methods.

The birth of spectroscopy mav be said to have taken place in
1666, when Newton first showed that the white light from the sun
is really composed of seven different colours and that these colours
could be re-combined to produce white light. It was, however,
two hundred years later before the subject had been sufficiently
advanced to make astronomical applications possible.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 33

Wollaston (1802) and Fraunhofer (1814) made the next step
by producing a purer spectrum by means of a slit, througli which
they passed sunlight, and they found the spectral band was crossed
by numerous dark lines.

Fraunhofer mapped these lines, which now bear his name,
and lettered the strongest of them A, B, C, D, etc., to K, but,
it was reserved for Kirchoff (1859) to explain the meaning of
them.

Foucault in 1848 had indeed made the observation which is
at the foundation of modern spectroscopy when he showed that the
light from a powerful electric arc, when passed through a flame
tinted yellow by the volatisation of a sodium salt and examined
in a spectroscope, showed two black lines which were identical
in position with the D lines which Fraunhofer had found in the
sun. Sodium vapour absorbs just that particular light from a
hotter source which it emits in a cooler source of light. The same
is true of all other incandescent gases.

The vapour of incandescent iron, examined in the spectro-
scope, shows a very large number of emission or bright lines, and
if this spectrum is placed alongside a solar spectrum it is seen
that everv line has a dark counterpart in the sun's spectrum. The
same is true of other metals. Bunsen and Kirchoff made pioneer
investigations into the spectra of many terrestrial substances and
proved the presence of many of them in the sun.

The matter was followed up by Angstrom in 1868 when he
published a map of the normal solar spectrum, in which the lines
were given wave-lengths. Thalen extended the work by deter-
mining the wave-lengths of the spark spectra of all the metals then
known and referring the values to Angstrom's normal map. The
use of photographic methods enabled Rowland to produce much
better maps and the wave-lengths of the solar lines in the visible
region of the spectrum were put on a more satisfactory basis.
Kirchoff's discovery of the meaning of the Fraunhofer lines in the
sun's spectrum naturally led up to attempts to observe the spectra
of stars.

Sir William Huggins with Dr. Miller, and Sir Norman
Lockyer in England, Rutherford in America, Secchi in Italy, and
Vogel in Germanv were the pioneers in this "New Astronomy."
In the words of Huggins: "The time was, indeed, one of strained
expectation and of scientific exaltation for the astronomer, almost
without parallel; for nearly every observation revealed a new fact,
and almost everv night's work was red-lettered by some discovery.
And yet, notwithstanding, we had to record that the enquiry in
which we had been engaged has been more than usually toilsome ;
indeed it has demanded a sacrifice of time very great when com-
pared with the amount of information we have been able to
obtain."

Huggins' first observation of the spectrum of a nebula is of
interest; he says: "Soon after the completion of the joint work
of Dr. Miller and myself, and then working alone, I was fortunate
in the early autumn of the same year (1864) to begin some observa-

34 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

tions in a region hitherto unexplored, and which, to this dav
(1897), remain associated in my memory with the profound awe
which I felt on looking for the first time at that which no eye of
man had seen, and which even the scientific imagination could not
foreshow. The attempt seemed almost hopeless; for not only
are the nebulae very faintly luminous — as Marius put it, 'like a
rushlight shining through a horn' — but their feeble shining cannot
be increased in brightness, as can be that of the stars, neither to
the eye nor in the spectroscope by any optic tube, however great.
The nature of these mysterious bodies was still an unread riddle.
.... On the evening of August 29th, 1864, I directed the tele-
scope for the first time to the planetary nebula in Draco. I looked
into the spectroscope, no spectrum such as I expected ! A single
bright line only ! .... A little closer looking showed two other
bright lines on the side towards the blue, all the three lines being
separated by intervals relatively dark. The riddle of the nebulae
was solved. The answer, which had come to us in the light itself,
read: Not an aggregation of stars, but a luminous gas."

The "New Astronomy," therefore, had its infancy during the
life of the present generation ; its growth has been phenomenally
rapid, and at the present time no big telescope is planned without
provision being made for spectrograph^ researches.

The work of the pioneers I have named has since been followed
up by other workers, too numerous to mention individually. The
spectra of all the terrestrial elements, under very diverse physical
conditions, are still under investigation with ever-increasing pre-
cision, and the exact comparison of their lines with those of the
stars and the sun is still going on. There are very many blanks
in our knowledge still to fill up. The sun and the stars still show
a host of lines in their spectra which have not been "fitted" to
corresponding lines produced in our laboratories, and it may be
that they never will be.

The highest temperatures to which we can attain in our
experiments fall far short of those attained by the stars, and
terrestrial spectra undergo such remarkable changes in passing-
from low to high temperatures that the complete elucidation of
the spectra of all the elements we know, and all their spectral
modifications under varied conditions, will still occupy the atten-
tion of experimentalists for very many years.

The stars and nebulae reveal the existence of substances which
have so far never been discovered terrestrially, and there is still
a large field unexplored, waiting for the chemist, the mineralogist,
and the spectroscopist to investigate. Even in the spectrum of
our own sun the gaps due to uninterpreted lines are very big ones,
and no one knows the fascination of the problem until he has by
experiment "fitted" terrestrially produced lines to "unknown"
lines in celestial spectra.

Before the advent of spectroscopic methods the only move-
ments of the stars which could be detected by the astronomer were
those across the line of sight. The stars are so inconceivably
distant that it requires the most minute accuracy of measurement
to detect the motions at all. The "blink" method of comparing

PKESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 35

star photographs taken about a quarter of a century ago with
repeat photographs taken recently has made the detection of star
movements across the line of sight much more certain and less
laborious, and in the hands of Innes and Wood at the Union Obser-
vatory, Johannesburg, is yielding results of great value. Star
movements in the radial lines from the observer to the star are
in the peculiar domain of the spectroscopist. A star moving in a
radial line away from us is lengthening its waves of light,
and a star moving towards us is shortening them, just as the
whistle of an express train is noticed to be higher in pitch when
it is approaching us and lower when it is receding from us, so is
the pitch or wave-length of light altered by motion.

An observer at a rock lighthouse will see the sea-waves passing
him at a certain rate; a steamer going against the same incoming
waves will meet more (or shorter) waves, and another steamer
going with the waves will be overtaken by fewer (or longer) waves
in a given time, than the stationary observer in the lighthouse.

This alteration of wave-length of light from its normal, due
to motion either of the observer or the source, has the effect of
shifting a line from its normal place in the spectrum, to the violet
if the motion is one of approach and to the red if it is one of
recession. The shift is microscopic, but accurate measurements
easily show the oscillation of a star line to either side of its normal
place, due to the motion of the earth in its orbit, and this shift
has been used to determine the speed of the earth's motion and
therefore the size of the earth's orbit and the distance of the sun.
In the same way the motion of the sun in space manifests itself
by the stars in one-half of the sky appearing, in the mean, to be
approaching and those in the other half to be receding. The
direction in which our solar system is travelling is now known
with a fair degree of accuracy. Our observations of star move-
ments in these radial lines must be corrected for the motions of
the earth and sun before we can deal with the real movements of
the stars themselves. These spectroscopically determined radial
movements are expressed in kilometres per second, but the trans-
verse movements (technically called "proper-motions") are
expressed in seconds of arc per year or per century. The "proper
motion" expressed in angular measure may be fast or slow, and
we have no means of knowing which until the distance of the star
concerned is known. When the distance is known, then we can
convert seconds of arc into kilometres per second, and combining
the radial and transverse motions expressed in the same units we
can derive the real motions of the stars.

It is evident, therefore, that before we obtain a knowledge
of the real motions of the stars we must know their distances, and
when we know their distances we must, in order to compare their
real magnitudes, bring them — in our calculations — to one common
distance in order to compare them one with the other.

Star Magnitudes.
We shall see later that a knowledge of star distances leads to
information about the absolute magnitudes of stars, and then

36 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

that a knowledge of absolute magnitudes is applied to the deter-
mination of the distances of stars too far remote for angular
measurements. We must therefore as a next step consider star
magnitudes. Ptolemy (A.D. 130) in the Almagest, divided the
stars into six magnitudes; the brightest he called of first magni-
tude and the faintest visible to the naked eye he called the sixth
magnitude, and this is the basis of our present classification. The
relation between the brightness of two stars differing by one magni-
tude has now been defined as y 100 to 1 (log = 0-4), i.e., each
succeeding magnitude is 2-512 times as faint as the preceding one.
This figure, of which the logarithm is exactly 0-4, has been chosen
so as to make a change of 5 magnitudes exactly a change of 100
times in brightness. On this exact scale some of the brighter
stars are more than 100 times brighter than a standard sixth
magnitude star and so the scale has to be extended from

+ 6. +5 +1, 0, -1, -2, etc.

A star of zero magnitude is therefore one magnitude brighter than
one of the first magnitude and -a star of magnitude — 1 is a
magnitude brighter still. The "apparent magnitudes," as we see
them, are not the real or "absolute magnitudes" because some
stars are comparatively near us and some very distant.

The law of decrease of brightness with distance is, however,
well known. The brightness varies inversely as the square of the
distance.

Star Distances.

Distance is often expressed as the parallax, i.e., the angle
contained between two lines from the star, one passing through
the sun, and the other through the earth at greatest elongation
as seen from the star.

No star is known to be near enough to have a parallax of
one second of arc, which corresponds to the angle subtended by a
foot-rule at a distance of forty miles. There are 1,296,000 seconds
of arc in a circle. The unit commonly used in speaking of star
distances is the "parsec," i.e., that distance at which a star must
be to have a parallax of one second. The unit of distance for
magnitude purposes is ten parsecs (parallax =01").

From this distance, light travelling at 186,000 miles a second
takes 32-6 years to reach us. Distances are often given in "light-
years." The following table shows the relationships we have been
considering.

Table I.

Ratios of apparent magnitude, intensity and parallax for
the same star at different distances: —

Apparent Intensity

Distance

Parallax

Dist»nce

Distance in

Magnitude Ratios.

Ratios.

II

in parsees

light-years

-5 10,000,000,000

1

0-1

10

32-6

0 100,000,000

10

0-01

100

326

+ 5 1,000,000

100

0-001

1,000

3,260

+ 10 10,000

1,000-

0-0001

10,000

32,600

+ 15 100

10,000

000001

100,000

326,000

+ 20 1

100,000

0000001

1,000,000

3,260,000

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 37

Notes. — (1) The absolute magnitude of a star is defined as
the apparent magnitude it would have if placed at the standard
distance of 10 parsecs or 32-6 light years where the parallax would
be 01". The star in the above table is therefore of absolute
magnitude -5 at all distances and whatever its apparent magni-
tude.

(2) Log distance factor =0-2 x (apparent mag. — absolute mag.).

(3) Distance in light years = Distance ratio x 32-6.

3-26

(4) Parallax in seconds of arc= — ; ;

distance in light-years.

(5) Parallax 01" ==2,062,650 astronomical units.

(6) One astronomical unit=approx. 93,000,000 miles.

Even the nearest stars are so remote that it is a matter of
exceedingly delicate measurement to find their distances.

The first principle employed is the same as that used by sur-
veyors in measuring: the distance of a tree on the opposite bank
of a broad river. Two stations are chosen at a measured distance
apart, and sights are taken at both ends of the line. The angles
between the lines and the length of the base-line give the distance.
In the case of a star, no terrestrial base-line is big enough, and
we have to use as base-line the diameter of the earth's orbit,
186,000,000 miles, and take sights from each end of a diameter
six months apart, as we swing from one side of our orbit to the
other. We are only now beginning to obtain these measures of
distances in any number.

Forty years ago only about 20 such distances were measured,
20 vears ago only about 60. These figures had increased to 200 in
1915, and now we have measured distances of about 900 stars,
and the number may be expected to increase rapidly now that more
instruments are in use for taking photographs for the purpose.
This method, however, only enables us to measure the distances of
the nearest of our stellar neighbours. For the vast majoritv of
stars the angle subtended by 186,000,000 miles (twice the parallax)
at the star is too small to be directly measured by any means at
our command.

There are, however, other methods by which the distances of
the stars, and therefore their absolute magnitudes, can be
measured.

The sun in its journey through space is doing the same thing
as the surveyor when measuring his base-line along the bank of a
river; it is measuring out a base-line at the rate of nearly 400
million miles a year. In a century, therefore, the base-line will
be over 200 times as long as the diameter of the earth's orbit. It
is evident, then, that it is of the utmost importance to secure
photographs of the stars at the present time on a sufficiently large
scale to show changes of relative position when compared with
photographs to be taken a century hence. It is a debt we owe to
posterity. Comparisons can now be made with photographs taken
a quarter of a century ago for the detection of this "parallactic

38 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

drift" of the stars. It is evident that the nearer the star, ihe
greater will be the "drift" just as in travelling by rail through a
forest, the nearest trees appear to move fastest and the distant
trees slowly. The measurement of a star's distance by its apparent
cross motion is, however, complicated by the fact that all the stars
are moving and the disentangling of the parallactic drift and the
peculiar motions of the stars is a matter of some difficulty.

Another important advance has been made by Professor
Adams, of Mount Wilson Observatory. He has found by a careful
examination of the spectra of stars of known distance — and there-
fore known absolute magnitude — that if these stars are arranged
in order of absolute magnitude then the spectra also fall into a
regular sequence. It is, therefore, only necessary to examine the
spectrum of a star and find its position in this sequence to find its
absolute magnitude, and by comparing this with its apparent
magnitude the distance of the star is found.

Prof. Adams and his associates have just published (January,
1921) a list of the parallaxes of 1,646 stars derived by this spectro-
graphs method. It is important to note that the actual distance
of the star is no obstacle in this method as no angular displacement
has to be measured. This list contains stars with parallaxes as
low as 0001" equivalent to a distance of 3,260 light years, and
yet these stars, being bright enough to yield a spectrum, must be
counted as among the nearer stars. This method fails when a star
is too faint to yield a spectrum in our most powerful instruments,
but we are not without other methods of ascertaining something
about a star's spectrum even when the spectrograph fails. We
have now to fall back on the colours of stars as a guide to their
actual spectra. The eye and the ordinary photographic plate are
most sensitive to different regions of the spectrum. The maximum
sensitiveness of the eye is to rays in the yellow and green region,
whilst the photographic plate "sees" best in the blue and violet.
Stars rich in blue and violet rays therefore appear brighter in star
photographs, and red stars appear fainter than we actually see
them. The sequence of star spectra corresponds to the sequence
of colour, and we have a regular gradation from the bluest stars
to the reddest stars.

By the use of suitable colour-sensitive plates and absorbent
screens we can obtain photographs of stars much as we see them
as regards relative magnitude. The magnitudes thus obtained are
called "photo-visual" magnitudes, and by comparing these with
the photographic magnitudes we obtain an index — the "colour
index" — to the star's spectrum, and therefore its absolute magni-
tude, and by comparison with its apparent magnitude, its distance

Another very important method of finding a star's distance
has recently been developed by Dr. Harlow Shapley, also at Mount
Wilson, which can be applied to stars so faint that the spectro-
graphic method fails.

Certain short-period fluctuations in the brightness of giant
stars of high luminosity have been carefully investigated and found
to be peculiar to these stars. A relation between the period of the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 39

fluctuations and the absolute magnitude has been found. If,
therefore, a very faint star in a very distant star cluster exhibits
these light variations, the period of the variability can be used for
placing the star in its proper position in the absolute magnitude
scale.

In a series of remarkable and brilliant papers Dr. Shapley
has pursued this and kindred methods very thoroughly in order to
find the distance of globular star clusters, and concludes that the
brightest stars m them correspond to the giant stars of greatest
luminosity which are found in our local star field.

The distances he derives for the globular clusters vary from
20,000 to 200,000 light years. The light from the farthest cluster
must therefore have been on its way 180,000 years earlier — and the
cluster as we now see it is that much younger — than the light from
the nearer cluster in order to arrive at the earth at the same time.
If we can assume that the clusters are of the same age then we
can say that 180,000 years makes little difference in the appearance
of a star cluster, as except for its smaller size and fainter stars —
which are merely the effect of greater distance — the clusters look
much alike. Considerations such as these bring home to us the
immensities of space and the eons upon eons of time we must allow
for the evolution of stellar systems. It seems probable that the
distances separating the individual stars in the nucleus of a
cluster, where they appear so crowded together as to be almost
irresolvable, is much the same as the distances separating us from
the bright stars we know in our immediate vicinity.

Dr. Shapley concludes that the diameter of the cluster Messier
No. 3 is such that light would take 470 years to traverse it, and
light travels at the rate of 186,000 miles a second; its distance he
concludes to be of the order of 250,000 million million miles
(13,900 parsecs or 45,000 light years) equivalent to a parallax of
0000072", and this is one of the nearer clusters ! The most remote
cluster known is about five times as far away.

There is still another method of estimating the distances of
remote stars. From time to time bright stars suddenly appear in
the sky in places where no bright star was previously seen. These
are called "blaze stars" or "Novae"; they appear to be due to
some tremendous cataclysm which causes the star to burst into
flame with explosive violence, so violent that the star is transformed
into a gaseous nebula and subsides into a faint object very rapidly.
When these "blaze stars" appear in the milky way they are com-
paratively near to us, and appear sometimes as bright as Sirius,
the brightest star in the sky. The distances of some of these have
been measured, and from their known distances and apparent mag-
nitudes their absolute magnitudes have been found. At the
standard distance of 32-6 light years they would appear as bright
as Venus at maximum brilliancy and would easily be seen in full
sunshine.

The bright Nova in Aquila, which Mr. Watson, of Beaufort
West, was one of the first to discover three years ago, attained an
absolute magnitude of —4-9, a figure arrived at from trigono-

40 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS— SECTION A.

metrical measures of its distance, 155 light years (which means that
the outburst occurred in 1763 and we only perceived it in 1918),
and its apparent maximum magnitude — 1-5.

Many Novae have been discovered photographically in the
great nebula in Andromeda; they have usually attained the 17th
magnitude. If we can assume that they are comparable in
brilliance to the one in Aquila, we have a difference of apparent
magnitude —1-5 to 17-0=18-5, which, from the known laws con-
necting apparent magnitude and distance, corresponds to a distance
5,000 times as great as the one in Aquila or 775,000 light years.
We conclude therefore that the great nebula in Andromeda is in
round numbers 800,000 light years distant.

This is the same figure as that derived for some spiral nebulae
by Aitken by similar reasoning from more extensive data con-
cerning Novae in spirals and in the Milky "Way.

It must be understood that in speaking of the distances of the
remoter stars, a few million miles or even a few light years are but
as the dust of the balance.

Very many of the stars which to the unaided eye appear single
are seen to be double when examined telescopically.

In verv many cases the two stars are physically connected, as
each of them revolves round their common centre of gravity.
Alpha Centauri, our nearest stellar neighbour, is a familiar
example; it may be seen to revolve even in small telescopes. The
period of revolution is a little over 81 years, whilst other pairs
take hundreds of years to perform a revolution. Alpha Centauri
is so near that the angular distance apart of the two components
varies from 22" to less than 2" during a revolution. More distant
binary stars appear as closer doubles, and, for a given absolute
separation, beyond a certain limiting distance the two stars cannot
be separated by the most powerful telescopes.

Where the telescope fails the spectroscope is still able to
prove that a star apparently single is in reality double, or even
triple, the revolution of the two stars round their common centre
of gravity being shown by the oscillation of the lines of the
spectra about their normal positions.

Knowing the speed, from the measured displacement, and the
time taken to make a complete revolution, the minimum dimen-
sions of the system can be determined. If the plane of the orbit
is at right angles to the line of sight, the spectroscope cannot detect
the rotation, as there is no motion of approach or recession, but if
the orbit contains the line of sight, the spectroscopic orbital
velocities reach their full value. In this case one star eclipses the
other at every revolution, and we have a more or less sudden drop
in the brightness. Stars showing this phenomenon are known as
eclipsing binaries or Algol variables, the star Algol being the type
star, showing a drop in brightness every 2-867 days. At inter-
mediate inclinations of the orbits the spectroscopic velocities of
rotation are only a fraction of the real ones, proportional to the
sine of the angle of inclination, and we have no means of knowing
the actual size of the orbits unless the binary is near enough for

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 41

us to measure the system as a double star, and so determine the
inclination. From these combined observations of real dimensions
and apparent size we can find the distance of the pair. The period
of revolution varies enormously, from a few years to hundreds of
years in the case of visual binaries, and from a few years to a few
days, or even a fraction of a day, in the case of spectroscopic
binaries.

The actual dimensions of the systems also van7 enormously.
In the case of spectroscopic binaries of very short period of revolu-
tion it is difficult to believe that two separate stars are involved at
all, and it is thought that pulsations or alternate expansions and
contractions in a single diffuse gaseous star may give rise to the
observed oscillations of the lines of the spectrum. From this pul-
sating stage we may pass to pairs of stars revolving in contact and
then to pairs becoming wider and wider apart as they attain greater
age and later types of spectrum. Aitken concludes that "at least
one in every eighteen, on the average, of the stars in the northern
half of the sky which are as bright as the ninth magnitude is a
close double star visible with the Lick thirty-six inch refractor,''
whilst Campbell states that at least one star in three, on the
average, of very early type stars is a spectroscopic binary, and of
the middle and later types one star in six is a binary. There is
still another method of determining a star's distance. It depends
on the possibility of measuring the position angle and distance
apart of the components of a double star (of known spectroscopic
orbit), which is too remote to be perceived as double in our most
powerful telescopes. Michaelson has devised a method of making
these measurements by the use of an interferometer, and Anderson
has applied the method to Capella.

The value of Michaelson's method lies in the fact that we can
extend our measurements much further into space, and deal with
stars which could not be reached by ordinary micrometrical
methods. Experiments in this direction are now being made at
Mount Wilson with the 100-inch telescope. In the light of the
foregoing information we can now compile a short list of stars to
illustrate the fact that the stars differ enormously in absolute
magnitude, the range in intensity being at least from 100,000,000
to 1, our own sun occupying a middle place between the brightest
star (10,000 times brighter) and the faintest star 10,000 times
fainter (see Table II.). Dr. Shapley concludes that if we could
place our sun amongst the stars of the Hercules cluster (Messier
No. 13) it would appear fainter than the 22nd magnitude, which
means that it would be absolutely invisible in the 100-inch reflector
at Mount Wilson, the most powerful telescope in the world, and
it would be in company with thousands upon thousands of stars
of so much greater brilliancy that they could easily be seen in a
small telescope. No star as faint as our sun has yet been photo-
graphed in this cluster, and all the stars in it which he has cata-
logued are more than 200 times as bright. Our brightest star
Sirius, apparent magnitude —1-6, placed at the distance of M13
would appear fainter than the 18th magnitude.

42 presidential address section a.

Problems and Needs of Modern Astronomy.
The great problem of Astronomy to-day is to unravel the
structure of the starry heavens, to determine the distances of its
component parts and their mutual relationships and movements,
and the forces at work producing these movements; to trace the
life history of the individual stars, the compositions of their
atmospheres, and the changes which take place in them.

Let us turn now, for a few moments, to the more human side
of Astronomy.

So recently as 1832, Prof. Airy, afterwards Astronomer Royal
of England, made a Report to the British Association on the con-
dition of practical Astronomy in various countries. In this Report
he remarked that he was unable to say anything about American
Astronomy because, so far as he knew, no public observatory
existed in the United States. And yet, to-day, the foremost
country in the world, as regards the advancement of astronomical
knowledge, is undoubtedly the United States of America. The
reasons are not far to seek. In America a knowledge of Astronomy
is regarded as a necessary part of a liberal education. Many
colleges and the Universities are disseminating astronomical know-
ledge and making astronomy a popular study, which is further
encouraged by opportunities of a real study of the heavens at the
telescope and by lectures and meetings at numerous centres
throughout the country.

There are many opportunities for post-graduate study at the
larger observatories, and some of the students develop a taste for
Astronomy which grows into an enthusiasm sufficient to decide
them to make it their life's work.

Newcomb says: "In all ages Astronomy has been an index to
the civilisation of the people who cultivated it. It has been crude
or exact, enlightened or mixed with superstition, according to the
current mode of thought. When once men understand the relation
of the planet on which they dwell to the universe at large, super-
stition is doomed to speedy extinction. This alone is an object
worth more than money. . . . Prof. O. M. Mitchell, the founder
and the first Director of the Cincinnati Observatory, made the
masses of our intelligent people acquainted with the leading facts
of Astronomy by courses of lectures which, in lucidity and
eloquence, have never been excelled. The immediate object of the
lectures was to raise funds for establishing his observatory and
fitting it out with a fine telescope.

"The popular interest thus excited in the science had an
important effect in leading the public to support astronomical
research. If public support, based on public interest, is what has
made the present fabric of American astronomy possible, then
should we honour the name of a man whose enthusiasm leavened
the masses of his countrymen with interest in our science."

The American people have not depended on their Government
to provide them with the means of carrying out their studies in
Astronomy, they have found the means themselves.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 43

In 1874 Mr. James Lick gave 700,000 dollars to provide a
telescope superior to and more powerful than any telescope yet
made and also a suitable observatory connected therewith. The
regents of the University of California are the trustees of this
bequest. In 1892 Mr. Charles T. Yerkes, of Chicago, offered to
purchase a pair of discs of optical glass, 42 inches in diameter, for
the University of Chicago, and to bear the entire cost of building
an equatorial refractor of 40 inches diameter and housing it in a
suitable observatory.

Five years later saw the dedication of the Yerkes Observatory,
75 miles from Chicago, on Williams Bay, Lake Geneva. The tele-
scope is still the largest refractor engaged in astronomical research.
Ample preparation for advanced studies in theoretical and prac-
tical astronomy and in astrophysics is afforded by the courses
at the University of Chicago. After completing the necessary
preliminary work at Chicago, students who desire to devote
special attention to observational astronomy or to astro-
physics are adrnittecl to the Yerkes Observatory, where they are
given every possible facility, and as soon as they have had sufficient
preliminary training they are encouraged to undertake original
investigations of their own. Similar facilities are given at Berkeley
in connection with the Lick Observatory. The great need of the
astronomer is more and more light, and although the 40-inch
refractor marked a high level in light-gathering power, it was not
sufficient to meet the demand for more. A refractor, too, suffers
from the great disadvantage of not being able to bring all the
light from a star to one focus. Visitors to a big telescope are
much impressed by the violet halo which they see round a bright
star — a halo which the astronomer mentally ignores — caused by
the out-of-focus violet image. In a photographic refractor the
halo is red, centred with green, when the focus is adjusted for the
most active photographic rays. These differences in focus for dif-
ferent parts of the spectrum are inseparable from the use of a
refractor and are of great disadvantage in work on stellar spectra.
The reflector, on the other hand, reflects all colours impartially
and brings all to one common focus on the slit of the spectroscope
or on the photographic plate.

To meet the need of a big reflector, Mr. John D. Hooker, of
Los Angeles, California, in 1906 gave 45,000 dollars for the pur-
chase of a glass disc 100 inches in diameter to be made into a
reflector for the Mount Wilson Observatory. The making of such
a disc of glass free from flaws is a very difficult matter, and the
first disc made was considered so faulty that it was rejected at
sight. So many difficulties arose, ending in failure to produce a
better one, that the first disc was ground to shape, polished and
tried, and the result was quite successful.

The mounting of such a large mirror and the transport to
Mount Wilson of all the necessary accessories to such a large tele-
scope was a serious engineering problem, but the combined thought
and skill of many men resulted after eleven years of work in the
successful accomplishment in 1917 of the great project. In

6

44 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

announcing Mr. Hooker's gift of money for the 100-inch mirror
Prof. Hale stated that "no provision has yet been made for the
mounting and dome. It is not known from what source funds for
this purpose will come, but I believe a donor will be found by the
time they are needed." Prof. Hale's optimism proved to be quite
justified. Money for the mounting and dome, and all other
necessary accessories, materialised in due course.

Perrine states that the new mounting of the 36-inch Crossley
reflector of the Lick Observatory was only made possible through
the generous gifts of a lady, Miss Phoebe A. Hearst. The mirror
itself was made by Dr. Common, of London. It was presented to
the Lick Observatory by Mr. Crossley, of Halifax, England, and
was at that time (1900) the largest instrument of its class in
America. The funds for transporting the telescope and dome to
California and setting them up on Mount Hamilton were sub-
scribed by friends of the Lick Observatory, for the most part
citizens of California.

Many other names might be mentioned of men and women
who have made magnificent gifts for the furtherance of Astronomy,
such as Mr. D. O. Mills, who most generously offered to provide
funds for constructing instruments, for defraying travelling, erect-
ing, and maintaining expenses, and for the salaries of the astrono-
mers engaged in an expedition to the Southern Hemisphere in
connection with the Lick Observatory. This expedition established
a 36| inch reflector in a suitable observatory on a hill in
the suburbs of Santiago, Chile, in October, 1903, and it has done
most valuable work.

Miss Catherine W. Bruce, of New York, who had done so
much already for the advancement of Astronomy, placed 7,000
dollars in the hands of Prof. Barnard, in 1897, as a gift to the
University of Chicago, for the purpose of erecting a wide angle
photographic telescope and a suitable building at the Yerkes
Observatory. Miss Bruce had previously provided a 24-inch
doublet and object glass prism for the Harvard College Observa-
tory's southern station at Arequipa in 1896. Miss Helen E. Snow,
of Chicago, is another lady donor. The "Snow Horizontal Tele-
scope," her gift to the Yerkes Observatory in memory of her
father, was afterwards transferred to Mount Wilson.

This list might be much extended, but time and space forbid.
It is sufficient to show one of the reasons why the United States
is in the forefront as regards the advancement of astronomical
knowledge to-day. Canada has recently completed a 72-inch
reflector and built the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory at
Victoria, British Columbia. The telescope is provided with a full
spectrographs equipment, and is already doing excellent work on
binary stars. This observatory is an offshoot from the one at
Ottawa, and it is interesting to learn that — as at the Lick Observa-
tory— it is thought worth while to devote Saturday evenings in
each week to the public. Visitors are then allowed to see some of
the glories of the heavens through this giant telescope. Some,
possibly, will ultimately become enthusiastic enough to take up the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A. 45

work seriously and some may become the donors of the telescopes
of the future.

Newcomb has said that "it is only when men are relieved from
the necessity of devoting all their energies to the immediate wants
of life that they can lead intellectual lives."

We have heard a great deal recently about the status of
South Africa. The status of South Africa cannot be measured
by its material wealth and prosperity, but we may measure it
rather by the number of men and women it possesses who are
enabled to lead intellectual lives by their devotion to pure science —
quite apart from its technical or economic applications — to paint-
ing, music, poetry, and the arts generally. South Africa is at
the threshold of great University development, and now is the
time to consider what part they shall play in the future develop-
ment of astronomical and astrophysical research in the Southern
Hemisphere.

We, in South Africa, are privileged to have stretched before
us every night a vista of stars which cannot be seen from the great
northern observatories, and the study of the southern skies is a
necessary complement to that of the northern skies. Are we to
do our part in reading the pages of the great book stretched before
us, or shall we wait until northern observatories establish offshoots
in our country to read the riddles of the heavens for us ? The
answer depends largely on our Universities and on our rich men
and women. Will those possessed of surplus wealth devote it to
the intellectual development of South Africans, or will they take
it away to spend on their own pleasures ? The largest telescope we
have in South Africa, the gift of the late Mr. Frank McClean, of
Tunbridge Wells, England, is now a quarter of a century old, and
in size and light-gathering power is quite inadequate to attack
many problems which now face the astronomer. Even if we had
a Mr. Hooker at this moment to donate a sum of money for a big
glass disc, and others to follow with donations for a mounting and
an observatory, it would be many years before the instrument could
be completed, and what of the men to use it? Are our Universi-
ties fostering an interest in the grandest of all sciences and train-
ing men to take advantage of the opportunity should it come to
us? If the donors could be found, I should like to see each of our
Universities provided, as a beginning, with a six-inch clock-driven
equatorial telescope and a star camera, for the use of our students
and to encourage them to take a broad outlook on life and on
Nature. When we come to consider the earth in its relation to
our solar system and our solar system in its relation to the universe
we must stand in awe and reverence, but when we consider the
myriad forms of life on this speck of dust we call our earth, when
we look for example at the marvellous beauty, mechanism, and
structure of a butterfly or a flower and how they develop from a
tiny egg or a seed, in a way we cannot fathom, we must see that,
throughout all, there is something divine. Although man, with
his mental and spiritual attributes, transcends every other living

46

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION A.

creature, above man there must be some power and some divine
artist just as immeasurably transcending man.

Table II

Comparison of the sun with other stars, and examples of
absolute and apparent magnitudes and distances : —

Absolute Apparent

Mag-. Mag.

| M l (m)

Distance in
light-years

Novae in Andromeda nebula — 4-9*

Brightest star in M13 — 5-7

Bright stars in NGC 7006... - 1-5
Bright stars in &> Centauri

(NGC 5139) - 1-5

58 Persei - 4-2

a Ursa Minoris — 30

Nova Aquilae No. 3

(maxm.) — 4-9

Nova Persei No. 2 (maxm.) — 4-4

Canopus — 3-0

Venus at maxm.

(March, 1921) .. +290

a' Herculis — 2-3

e Aurigae — 20

13 Herculis - 10

0 Pegasi 00

a Hydrae + 01

a Tauri -t- 10

Sirius + 1-3

3 Geminorum + 1-7

a Canis Minoris + 3-2

a' Centauri + 4-8

The Sun + 4-8

Boss 2199 + 6-2

Boss C 594 + 8-5

Boss C 1244 +10-5

Barnard's proper motion* ... +13-3
Innes's proper motion* +15-4

Note. 5 log 7T =M-m-5. M =

+ 17-0 0-000004

+ 11-9 0000030f

+ 17 6 0000015t

+ 126 0-000150f

+ 4-5 0-002

+ 21 0010

- 1-5 0021 +
00 0013 +

- 0-9 0-038

- 4-3
+ 3-5
+ 3-4
+ 2-8
+ 2-6
+ 2-2
+ 11

- 1-6
+ 1-2
+ 0-5

• + 0-3
-26-5
+ 6-0
+ 8-5
+ 9-2
+ 9-7
+ 11-0

m + 5 + 5

0-007
0008
0-017
0030
0-038
0096
0-376
0126
0-347
0-794

0-110

0-100

0-182

0-52

0-784

l0Sf 7T.

780,000
109,000
217,400

21,740

1,630

326

155
250

466

408

192

109

86

34

8

26

9

4-11

30
32-6

18
6-27
416

* Assumed equal to Nova Aquilse No. 3 at Maximum,
t Assumed correct. J Measured parallax.

§ A light year = 5'9 million million miles.'
A parsec = 19"2 ,, ,, ,,

„ f=192
Parallax 0.1 ( = 2,062,650 Astr

onomical units.

pbesidential address section b. 47

Bibliography.

'Problems in Astrophysics," by Agnes M. Clerke, A. & C. Black.
"The System of the Stars," by Agnes M. Clerke, A. & C. Black.
"Stellar Motions," by W. W. Campbell, Yale University Press.
"The Binary Stars," by Robert G. Aitken, McMurtrie, New York.
"The Study of Stellar Evolution," by Geo. Ellery Hale, University

Chicago Press.
"Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe," by

A. S. Eddington, Macmillan & Co.

Current Literature.

Publications Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, Canada.
Journal of the British Astronomical Association.
Astrophysical Journal.

Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society.

Mount Wilson Contributions to the Carnegie Institution of
Washington.

THE ATOMIC THEORY IN 1921.

By James Moir, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.S.A., F.I.C., F.C.S.,

Government Mining Chemist.

With Plate I.

Presidential Address to Section B, delivered July 12, 1921.

In thanking you for the honour of being elected President of
this Section I take the opportunity of explaining why I deviate
from the customary rule that a Presidential Address should not
resemble an ordinary scientific paper but should be of more
general interest, in fact not unlike a popular science lecture. The
fact is, however, that in the five years since I last wrote a Presi-
dential Address there has been such a tremendous upheaval of the
foundations of Chemistry and Physics that it is desirable that
someone should take the trouble to assimilate the new views and put
them on record in a connected form for the use of South African
scientists. This must be my excuse for not attempting the usual
kind of address — which might be crystallised in the phrase "Science
for Stockbrokers."

The revolution which has taken place is one of very great
philosophical interest, and is, briefly speaking, the reduction cf
Chemistry to a branch of Physics. This has taken place in three
logical steps, the first being the recognition of the fact that all
chemical properties of a compound can be explained by the number
and the arrangement of the chemical valencies of the different

48 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION B.

elements contained in the compound. All chemical properties are
thus referred to the properties of the 92 chemical elements, with
the addition of specia'l phenomena solely connected with the
arrangement of elements among one another.

The second step is the Periodic Law of the elements, whereby
the 92 elements are shown to have only about 10 different kinds
of valency amongst them. The model atom was invented to
explain this. It consists of a hollow sphere containing a minute
heavy kernel* with a distant ring or shell of electrons, each of
which gives a valency; the shell may consist of any number of
electrons between 1 and 10, the number and arrangement thus
explaining all the possible kinds of valency, and therefore all the
strictly chemical properties.

The third step consists in showing that the remaining
(non-chemical) properties of the atom, such as weight, depend on
the nature of the atom-nucleus. The nucleus of certain familiar
chemical elements has recently been broken down by artificial
means, thus showing that the atom is not the indivisible minute
sphere that it was supposed to be in the 19th century, but is itself
a compound of smaller bodies m a special arrangement. Nitrogen,
for example, is shown to consist of 4 particles of weight 3 along
with two hydrogen atoms, each being characteristically charged
with positive electricity and the whole being held together by
"binding negative electrons" to give mass 14 and charge 5. The
particle of mass 3 itself is also almost certainly a combination of
3 hydrogens and an electron. Chemistry and Physics therefore
now depend on two substances only, instead of, as before, on the
92 elements of the Chemist.

The fundamental conceptions of the new atomic theory are
those connected with hydrogen in its three forms, viz. :
(1) hydrogen-ion (hydrion), the cause of acidity, (2) nascent
hydrogen, and (3) free hydrogen gas.

A. Hydrion is the fundamental and only weight-substance:
it consists of unit weight accompanied by unit positive electricity
( = 1 + ), and all the elements, following Prout's hypothesis of 100
years ago, are associations of hydrion with electrons ( = 0~) in
different numbers and arrangements. The function of the inner-
most electrons is to hold the hydrions together, and this the
electrons can do even if they are less in number than the hydrions.
This combination of a number of hydrions with a smaller number
of electrons constitutes an atomic nucleus, which thus possesses a
positive electric charge equal to the difference between the numbers
of hydrions and electrons present. Thus the nucleus of the element
lithium is conceived to consist of seven hydrions held together by
four electrons, and this nucleus therefore behaves as possessing 7
units of weightj and 3 positive charges. It is to be noted that the
size of the hydrion is somewhat smaller than that of the electron,
the diameter of which is 4 x 10~13 cm.

* The difference between kernel and nucleus is denned later on.

+ The electron (or unit negative electric charge) is assumed to be weightless: it is in fact
__L of hydrion.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 49

B. Nascent hydrogen in this system is merely atomic as
opposed to molecular hydrogen, i.e., it is half of whatever molecular
hydrogen (hydrogen gas) is conceived to be. Consequently it will
clear matters up if we consider a simple case, such as that of adding
sodium-amalgam (containing very little sodium) to a solution of
ferric chloride. In the first half of the action, assuming sufficient
dissociation of the water, nascent hydrogen is formed according to
the equation, which used to be written: —

NaHg + H+ + OH' = Na' + Hg + H + OH'

Neutral Hydrion Hydrox- Sodium Neutral "nascent" Hydrox-
Metal idion ion Metal idion

Similarly the second equation, according to the former dispensa-
tion, was : —

H + Fe" " = H+ + Fe' '

Nascent, neutral Ferric ion hydrion ferrous ion

pseudometallic

Now on the. modern theory, hydrion is the absolute proton or funda-
mental unit of matter, and its positive charge is inherent in it
and inseparable from it. It follows therefore that "nascent
hydrogen" is not uncharged H, but is neutral, viz., H+', i.e.,
hydrion with an electron joined to it. (See Fig. 1.) In order,
therefore, to be able to re-write the first equation in the modern
way, we must provide an electron, and the equation becomes: —

NaHg"

+

H+

=

Na" + Hg

+ H+'

Metal

Hydrion

Sodium

nascent or

Neutral

ion

atomic

The second equation then becomes : —

H+' + Fe ' ' ' = H+ + Fe ' " " ' = H+ + Fe " '

With regard to the last step it is to be remembered that 3 dots
means a majority of 3 positive charges: the addition of the
(negative) electron reduces the majority to 2. The dots used for
positive valency thus merely mean shortage of electrons.

C. Hydrogen gas or molecular hydrogen is known from its
Cp/Cv ratio to have a long molecule, far removed from roundness,
and since it results from "nascent hydrogen" without addition or
subtraction of electricity, its formula must be (H+')2, viz. (H+//H+),
i.e., it consists of two pairs of entities, one being hydrion and the
other the electron. Now the spatial arrangement of these 4 things
cannot be square or tetrahedral, otherwise the molecule would not
be "long." Tt must therefore be either a straight line or a narrow-
diamond-shaped figure, viz., either (H+ " H+) or (H+ / H+).

We now meet with the chemical fact that lithium hydride
exists and that it is at first glance composed of two positive sub-
stances Li and H, which is impossible owing to electrical repulsion.
Further, in both the above formulations of hydrogen gas the
electrons are close together, which also is contrary to hypothesis
since both "are negative and would repel one another. Lithium

50 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

hydride is a salt-like non-metallic material made from lithium metal
and hydrogen gas, both of which are electrically neutral (not posi-
tive) : we must therefore assume the equation Liv + H+' =
(Li ' J H+) in which the arrangement of the electrons is the same
as in hydrogen gas. It is stated, however, that when LiH is
melted and electrolysed, lithium metal appears at the kathode and
hydrogen gas at the anode.* Now the kathode is negative, hence
the appearance of lithium metal (Li ' ;) is normal, but at the anode
we must assume that (H+)" forms a negative ion attracted
there, and that it then loses an electron to the positive
anode, giving H+/ which is nascent hydrogen. We are thus again
led to the assumption that hydrogen gas consists of the positive
(H+) joined to the negative (H+)". The only possible reconcilia-
tion of all the facts is to assume that (H+)" has not got its electrons

at a distance 7

close together. Thus hydrogen gas is (H+ H+)-

/

(See Fig. 2.) Some writers get over the difficulty by
dissecting the electron itself into a repulsive electric part
and an attractive magnetic part, but this is at present
scarcely credible. Similarly in methane and other inactive
hydrogen compounds one has to assume that carbon parts
with 4 electrons to 4 neutral H atoms giving 4 distant (H+)'r
groups round the carbon kernel ; whereas on the contrary in a
hydrogen-compound which is a tetrabasic acid (e.g., H4Si 04) the
hydrogen outside consists of plain hydrions (H+) and the 8
electrons left over are pushed inside close to the kernel, thus
(H+)2 SiO /""" (H+)2.

Having now dealt full)7 with hydrogen in its different
phases let us now consider what is the nature of another
simple monovalent element. Taking lithium as the simplest
case, we remember that we have arrived at the conclusion
that it consists of a small nucleus composed of 7 hydrions
held together by 4 electrons, giving a total positive nucleus charge
of 3. Since lithium metal is neutral, and lithium in the ionised
state positively monovalent, we see that the nucleus must carry two
negative electrons just outside it. This combination of nucleus
and close electrons is called the "kernel" of the atom. The

"kernel" is the same as the "ion" when there are not many out-
side electrons. Thus lithium ion Li ' is 0(411 + + 40 + 3H+)0,
in which 0 is the electron. It has 7 plus and 6 minus charges,
therefore has + 1 valency. (See Fig. 3.) Lithium metal is the
foregoing Li ■ with a seventh electron at a comparatively great
distance, viz., [0(411+40 3H+)0 0] making it electrically neutral.
Now the number 3 in the case of lithium, which is both the nuclear
charge and the total of the number of external electrons (in this
case 2 + 1) coincides with the fact that in the Periodic Law as
ordinarily written lithium is the third element in order. Similarly
beryllium, the fourth element in the ordinary Periodic Law, has a

* Hydrogen appears at the katho le in the electrolys's of water, etc.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 51

nuclear charge of 4 and a total of 4 external electrons. (See Fig. 4.)
Sodium is 8 places higher than lithium, therefore has a nuclear
charge of 11 (3 + 8) and 11 external electrons. The nuclear charge of
+ 11 is the difference between 23 hydrions (giving the weight) and 12
electrons; and as regards the eleven external electrons it is assumed
that 10 of them are close to the nucleus, forming along with the
nucleus the "Kernel" (or "ion") of sodium. Thus Na ' (the ion)
is 50(12H+ 120 llH+)50, and sodium metal is this kernel with a
separate electron at a greater distance, as in the case of lithium.
In order to bring out the complete analogy between sodium and
lithium it is assumed that the 10 external electrons are arranged
so that 2 of them are just outside the nucleus and the other 8 are
about twice as far away, all equidistant from the centre and there-
fore arranged something like the 8 corners of a cube round the
nucleus. This arrangement of 8 electrons, the conception of which
is due to Gilbert Lewis, and which is technically called a "com-
pleted octet," is assumed from its perfect symmetry to confer
chemical inertness, and as a matter of fact sodium ion, except
towards electricity, is quite as inert as argon, going through all
sorts of chemical actions unchanged. Similarly potassium ion K "
is 90(2OH+2O0 19H+)90, in which the nucleus with 19 plus charges
(potassium is 8 above sodium, i.e., is the 19th element) has 18
external electrons, viz., the arrangement of 10 which exists in
sodium, along with another "completed octet," thus giving again
a kernel or ion which has no projections and is therefore inert.

When we come to the next member rubidium we find that the
atomic weight is no longer twice the atomic number plus one as it
is in the case of lithium, sodium and potassium. Rubidium ion
Rb' is 180(4811+480 37H+)180 in which the nucleus contains 10
more hydrions and electrons than would have been expected from
the lower members: the nuclear charge is 37, and there are 36
external electrons, arranged counting from the inside as before as
2, 8, 8, 18. Irving Langmuir (J. Amer. C.S. 1919, 879) suggests
that the external 18 are arranged not like the internal 18 {viz.,
as 2, 8, 8) but by uniform distribution over a spherical surface,
viz., two polar and 8 in each of two zones round the equator. This
again gives a surface without projections or lacunae, and corres-
ponds to the inertness of the rubidium ion. Similarly Cs "
(caesium ion) is 270(7811+780 55H+)270, with weight 133, nuclear
charge 55, and 54 external electrons arranged 2, 8, 8, 18,
18. The top member (which is unknown) "ekacaesium" (it
lies between niton and radium) would have the structure
430(136H+1360 87H+)430, with external electrons arranged 2, 8,
8, 18, 18, 32. This arrangement of the electrons in concentric
layers finds its origin in Rydberg's remarkable observation that the
atomic numbers of helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and niton
{viz., 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86) which are also the numbers of
external electrons in the ions of lithium, sodium, potas-
sium, rubidium, caesium and ekacaesium, are given by the
mathematical formula N=2 (l2 + 22 + 22 + 32 + 32 -fi2, etc.) e.g.,
36 = 2(P + 22 + 22 + 32) for the fourth member. This at once gives

52 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

the distribution in the concentric shells as 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32.
Langmuir gives this a physical basis by noting that areas of con-
centric spheres of radius 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 vary in the same proportion
as the numbers 2, 8, 18, 32, 50. He therefore assumes that these
higher atoms have spheres of radius 1, 2, 3, and 4, and that there
are two electrons in each unit of area in every sphere except the
innermost, thus giving the numbers 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32, it being
assumed that each area-unit is filled twice over with a single
electron giving thus 2, 2 + 8, 2 + 8 + 8, 2 + 8 + 8+18, and so on,
these being the numbers 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, etc., which are the total
number of electrons present. This theory is so beautiful and com-
prehensive that it must be essentially true : at any rate it is likely
to supplant the older theory that the electrons are in revolution
round the nucleus like planets round a sun. Bohr has, however,
recently suggested that 32 is succeeded by 18 and 8, not by 50.

The same theory, it may be noted, applies to the halogens
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Fluoride ion F' is
5#(10H+10# 9H+)50 which is an "inert" structure like that of
sodium ion and that of neon ( = 50(1OH+1O0 lOH+)50. So the
chloride ion is 9#(18H + 18i9 17H+)90 when its atomic weight is
35. When the atomic weight is 37* the constitution is
9(9(20+200 17H+)9#. Similarly argon of the atomic weight 40
(i.e., out of order in the Periodic table) is 90(2211+220 18H+)90.
Bromine ionf is 18#(45H+450 35H+)180, krypton being
180(47H+470 36H+)18fl. Iodine ion is 270(74H+740 53H+)27#,
xenon being 27fl(76H+760 54H+)270.

The theory is, however, rather unsatisfactory for carbon and
all the elements below it, Carbon would be #(6H+60 6H+)0 with
a residual valency of plus 4, but, as I say later on, it is likely that
the nucleus itself is arranged like a tetrahedron (as the valencies
are) whereas the above is unsymmetrical. Similarly helium gas
would be 0(2H+2fl 2H+)#, which is very unsatisfactory from its
lack of symmetry. Helium gas has in reality a round molecule,
as shown by its Cp/Cv ratio. (See Fig. 5.)

Again if Rydberg's formula be examined, surprise will be felt
that it does not read N = 2 (l2 + l2+22+22+32+32+42, etc.) in
which case it would be perfectly symmetrical. Assuming then this
form of the equation, the successive sums are 2, 4, 12, 20, 38, 56, 88,
these being therefore the number of electrons. Helium would be
second in this series and have a shell of 4 electrons instead of 2.
As it is neutral, one would have to assume a nucleus of 4H+, with
the shell of 4 electrons far out and in tetrahedral order. The
nuclear charge, the number of external electrons, and the atomic
number would all be the same, viz., 4, if two elements exist
between hydrogen and helium. This very neat and satisfactory
proposition is, however, knocked on the head by the existence of
the «-particle of radioactivity which has mass 4 and two positive
charges. It changes into helium on striking any kind of matter

* See Aston, Phil. Mag. 1920, 611 and my prediction, '-Modern Alchemy and Transmutation'

J.S.A. Association Anal. Chemists, 18/9/17.
+ Since this was written, bromine has been fouud to be 79 plus 81, not 80.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 53

and is therefore regarded as helium nucleus. The only explanation
of these contradictions that suggests itself to me is that of rearrange-
ment. Helium nucleus with atomic number 2 is unsymmetrical
(see Fig. 6) viz. (2H+20 2H+), but when two electrons are taken on
to give helium gas, the arrangement 8(211+26 2H+)0, changes into

6

H+ H +

6 ti

H+ H+

h
Although there is experimental evidence regarding the nucleus in
this case there is none in the case of any of the others. Carbon
nucleus as (12H+ + 60) is merely a deduction from helium nucleus
(4H+ + 26). If the atomic number of carbon is 8, not 6, the
nucleus is (12H+ + 46) which can be constructed as a tetrahedral
model, whereas (12H+ + 60) cannot. (See Fig. 7.) In addition
the four electrons which would then be required to make a kernel
out of a nucleus could also be arranged tetrahedrally, and finally
the remaining four valency electrons would form an outer tetra-
hedron.

At this stage a brief resume of the experimental evidence for
the present-day view of the atom is necessary. The essential con-
ception, as I have mentioned in the introduction, is that the atom
is hollow, consisting of a sphere, or concentric spheres, of electrons
with an outer diameter of about 10-8 cm, and an exceedingly small
nucleus (about joVo °f the diameter of the electron sphere), which,
however, contains nearly all the weight of the atom, and in the
case of a heavy element a very high positive electric charge. Just
outside this nucleus there is an immensely powerful electric field
due to the action of the positive nucleus and the sphere or spheres
of electrons. This conception, which is due to Sir E. Rutherford,
arose in order to explain the fact that the a -particles of radium,
which are about 7,000 times as massive as electrons and which are
positively charged and travel with a speed of about 50,000 miles a
second, when passed through thin metallic sheets, are deviated
through large angles just as the tiny electrons can be deviated by
moderate electric fields. The highly-deviated particles are those
which have not only penetrated the electron-sphere of the atom
but have passed uncommonly near to the nucleus and have thus
been thrown into a hyperbolic orbit despite their immense velocity.
It is conceived also that those which "ctually aim at the nucleus
of a larger atom are turned back in their path.

This conception holds in its simplest form for the first
20 (or so) elements which have only one sphere of electrons.
For the higher elements it is necessary to assume two or
three concentric spheres (or octets, see page 51) of electrons
and a bigger and more highly charged nucleus, until at
the top of the series the nucleus becomes unstable owing to its
excessive charge and disintegrates automatically, giving rise to
radioactivity. Since atoms are electrically neutral, the total num-
ber of external electrons in the spheres must be equal to the posi-

54 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

tive charge of the nucleus. The number of external electrons can
be estimated experimentally from the scattering of X-rays because
each electron is, comparatively speaking, far apart from its neigh-
bours and thus acts as an independent agent. Barkla thus found
by trying different elements that the number of electrons is always
a little less than half the atomic weight of the scattering element.
Again, calculation from the deviation of a -particles (mentioned
just above) when they are passed through different metals, leads
to a result for the positive charge of the nucleus amounting to
the electrical unit multiplied by about half the atomic weight of
the element used as a screen. These two experimental lines thus
converge to the same result. Again in 1913 Moseley*, a young
genius who was killed in the war, applied the principle of the
X-ray spectrum, which has proved very fruitful in the case of
salt crystals, to the lower elements, and discovered the remarkable
law, N = K \~i, in which X is the wavelength of the chief X-ray
line given by an element, and N is a number which is a natural
integer, going up by 1 as the element investigated goes up the
Periodic Table. N is in fact an "atomic number" which depends
only on the place of the element in the Periodic Table. Curiouslv
enough, when the results are plotted, the bottom of the series is
found at helium not at hydrogen, so that .V is not the Chemist's
atomic number but one less. It is seen at once that N is also about
half the atomic weight, so that three linen of evidence convereie
to prove that the nuclear positive charge (and in consequence the
number of external electrons) are determined in the case of each
element by its position in the Periodic Svstem and are numericallv
identical with the "atomic number" as defined above.

The Periodic Table is thus explained away (except for its
arrangement in 8 or 10 columns) since for example sodium metal
has 11 plus charges in its nucleus and 11 electrons outside, and
the next element (magnesium) has 12 of each, thus putting up its
"valency" by one. Valency is of course, as mentioned on page 47,
the criterion of chemical properties, which have nothing to do
directly with the nucleus of the atoms, but are solely conditioned
by the external electrons, and, to speak more particularly, are
almost solely conditioned by the number and arrangement of the
few outermost electrons which are left over from fitting the atom
with a spherical shell. As already indicated on page 51, sodium
is monovalent and aluminium trivalent because the completed shellf
of all the elements N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al contains 10 electrons,
leaving respectively 1 and 3 over for valency electrons. Similarly
the negative valencies 1, 2, and 3 of fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen
are due to their possessing respectively 9, 8, and 7 external
electrons, whereas 10 are required to make an inactive shell of the
same shape as that of neon. The latter is inactive because it has
10 external electrons exactly (being the 10th element in th^
Periodic Table) and therefore none over or under the number

* Phil. Mag., 1913, 1024 and 1914, 703.

+ The " completed shell" is, it may be repeated, the ionised form of the element.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 55

required for a complete shell. The analogous cases amongst the
higher elements will be discussed later on.

Disintegration experiments. It hasbeen stated above that the
particle which hits a heavy nucleus full-on is reflected back. This
is not the case, however, when the nucleus in question is small. In
that case the nucleus is carried on in front of the impinghr
a-particle and the atom is thus disintegrated. The simplest case is
that of hydrogen gas or of organic compounds containing much
hydrogen, e.g,, wax; when these are bombarded with a-particles,
hydrogen nuclei (i.e., hydrions) are expelled. They are recognised
by tiavelling far further than the a-particles themselves can travel
against a resistance. Their weight is 1 with a positive charge 1 :
their initial velocity is ^/4 times that of the a-particle. Their
diameter is said to be about 3 x 10-13 cm, that of the a-particle
being about 5 x 10-13 cm. Now Rutherford 2 or 3 years years
ago made the astonishing discovery that the same kind of particle
could be obtained by bombarding nitrogen gas or certain solid
compounds of nitrogen with a-particles. We conclude that they
came from the nucleus of the nitrogen atom, which thus contains
hydrogen nuclei, in a sufficiently separate form for them to be
capable of receiving a direct impact from an a particle. Check
experiments with C02 and 02 as gases, and with silica and graphite
as solids gave negative results. A mixture of l\°/0 hydrogen gas
with 92^% C03 or oxygen behaved towards the a-particle exactly
like nitrogen gas, giving the same number and intensity of
"hydrogen particles." By means of magnetic deviation they were
shown to have mass 1 and charge 1. The infrequency of the direct
impact required to generate "hydrogen particles" is shown by
Rutherford's estimate that only one in 300,000 of the a-particles
hits in the required way. Of the other elements tried, boron,
fluorine, phosphorus, sodium, and aluminium were also found to
contain removable hydrogen, but Li, Be, C, O, Mg, Si, S, gave
negative results. It is probable, however, that all the elements
are made of hydrogen but contain it in the form of local con-
densations of hydrion and electrons which are themselves so stable
that they do not break up on impact with an a -particle ; there are
two of these, viz., H3++ and H,++.

Rutherford's discovery of the disintegration of nitrogen was
so important that he had to publish it at once without waiting to
ascertain what the rest of the nitrogen atom was made of. He
therefore announced that the atomic weight 14 belonging to
nitrogen probably consisted of two hydrogen atoms combined with
three helium atoms. On continuing his experiments, however, he
soon found that the hydrogen particles were accompanied bv
another set of characteristic particles 5 to 10 times as many in
number which differed from any previously known. From the range
and mag-netic deviation they were shown to possess mass 3 and
charge 2 and thus to be similar to the a-particle with only f of the
latter's mass. Nitrogen of mass 14 was thus inferred to consist
of 4 particles of mass 3 instead of 3 particles of mass 4 in addition

56 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

to the two hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford gives the following
diagram : —

3++ 3++

e B.+e h+0

3++ 3++
for the nitrogen nucleus, but expressly states that the arrangement
is arbitrary. Since carbon and oxygen give no hydrogen particles,
Rutherford infers that carbon nucleus is

3 + + 3++ and oxygen nucleus is 3 + + 3++
0 6 6 He++ 6

5 + + 3++ 3++ 3+ +

the three elements N, C, and O thus being depicted as having in
their nuclei an excess of plus charges which is 7, 6, and 8 respec-
tively, agreeing with their atomic numbers. As explained above,
the 3 + + and He++ particles are not capable of being disintegrated.

To complete this series it may be mentioned that boron nucleus
appears undoubtedly to be nitrogen minus 3++, viz., 3++ 0 3 + +

8 H+ H+ 6
3++
(See Fig. 10.)

I am immensely interested in these conclusions, for some of
you may remember that many years ago, long before the concep-
tion of a nucleus for the atoms arose, I predicted* that nitrogen
would be found to be CX in which X is an unknown element of
atomic weight 2. This prediction was made on purely chemical
grounds such as the relation of pyridine to benzene.

I also predicted that carbon would be found to consist of a
tetrahedral arrangement of 4 sub-atoms of weight 3, and that
oxygen is CX2. This paper gave rise to an active discussion,
hingeing mainly on the isomerisms which would be postulated by
such a theory. Thus nitrogen gas and CO gas would be isomeric
both being C2X2. The extraordinary physical resemblance of these
two gases has been recently dealt with by Langmuir.

On Rutherford's modification of my theory the two gases are
no longer isomeric but metameric, because the nuclei differ in
weight, but in all other particulars of their constitution they are
essentially the same, as will be seen later on.

There appears to be some chance that the element of atomic
weight 3 from nitrogen, which I ventured to call zoicon, will be
found in minerals. After it has lost its positive charges by hitting
electrons the 3++ particle must become an inert gas closely
resembling helium and possessing a spectrum similar to that of
helium with a displacement. This is on the assumption that the
inert gas will have two external electrons just as helium gas has.
If, however, it has one electron inside and another outside, this
deduction would not hold and it would become possible that the
new gas is the nebulium of the nebulae, with the constitution
(03++)d and a spectrum more like that of hydrogen than that
of helium. The 3 + + particle is itself probably complex, viz.,

* " Some suggestions for a new atomic theory," Jotirn. Chem . Mefall. <$■ Mining Soc, S.A.
April, 1909, page 335, also September, 1909, page 98.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 57

H+ H+, (see Fig. 8), and the a- particle (helium nucleus)
ft 4++, isH+ H^

H+ 6 6

(See Fig. 6.) H+ H+

As regards the monovalent element X = 2 which I predicted in
1909, Rutherford's discovery seems to indicate that it only exists
in nuclei and that it is constituted H+ 6 H+, so that it yields H4"
on impact.* This means that the a-particle is composed of two of
these X elements, and the 3 + + particle is composed of one X and
one hydrion.f The stability possessed by 3++ and 4++ is in my
opinion due to the symmetrical (viz., triangular and tetrahedral)
arrangement developed in them when they are made up from
H+ + X and X + X. In this way Rutherford's conception of
oxygen nucleus as CHe becomes the same as my conception of it
as CX3.

In connection with this subatom X+, I am very pleased also to find
that Prof. Harkins, another pioneer of atomic structure, has now
come to the conclusion that it is "the primary group in atom
buildingj, and agrees with me that the as-particle is X2+. Harkins
by the way writes X+ as p2e, but his j> is the same as my notation
H+ and his e is the electron, so that p2e becomes (H+ 0H+), which
is my conception of X+. (See Fig. 9.) It is unfortunate that different
scientific writers should use different terms for the same entity, and I
suggest that H+ should always be called hydrion, not hydrogen-
nucleus or proton or H-particle. X+ should also have a name, since
"isotopic hydrogen" is unsatisfactory; possibly the name aerion
would do. Harkins uses the very suitable name neutron for the
nuclear combination (H+ 6), which is required according to Ruther-
ford and himself to account for the existence of the elements whose
atomic weight is greater than twice their atomic number (see
rubidium, p. 51). Thus chlorine nucleus of at. wt. 35 is X17 + .V,
in which N stands for one neutron, and 17 is the atomic number.
Aston's chlorine-nucleus of at. wt. 37 is then X17+iVT3.

Assuming then the sub-atom X+ ( — H+0H+), an extra-
ordinary connection between the nuclei of inert gases and the satur-
ated hydrocarbons can be demonstrated. CX4 adds up to 20 and
corresponds to neon. C2X6 adds up to 36 and corresponds to the
lower isotope of argon, with the constitution CX3CX3. Again
C(CX3)4 = C5X12 (cf. tertiary butane) adds up to 84 and agrees
with the nucleus of krypton and has also the required round shape.
Similarly C8X18 adds to 132 which agrees with xenon, and C14X3n
adds to 228 which may be the highest isotope of niton. Adding
three a-particles to this niton gives U = 240. The highest possible
element would then be C17X30 = 276 = C [C(CX3)3]4. Some

extra binding-electrons are required to give the correct atomic
numbers. This kind of formulation puts all the X's to the outside
of the nucleus, and thus explains radioactivity, as the X's get

* He says (Bakerian Lecture) " It seems very likely that the electron can also bind two

nuclei this entails the possible existence of an atom of mass 2 carrying one

charge, an isotope of hydrogen," i.e. monovalent.

t I predicted this also in 1909.

X Nature 1921, p. 203.

58 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

crowded together on the surface of the nuclei of the higher elements
and are thrown off in pairs, X2 being the a-particle. It is thus the
accumulation of X rather than that of positive charge which causes
radioactivity.

To repeat, the contention I wish to make is that the physicists,
as far as I understand them, have placed too much emphasis on the
fact that chemical properties depend on the valency electrons, and
have not considered the possibility that the arrangement of the
valency electrons themselves probably depends on the prominence
of certain points in the nucleus, e.g., that a tetrahedral arrange-
ment of valencies in CHd and NH4+ connotes a tetrahedral nucleus
for C and N.

The second point concerns Moseley's law for the K-lines in
X-ray spectra. The expression X/A = K(N— l)2 becomes 1/\ = K.22
for lithium. If we make the simple assumption that H+ is a
nucleus and the only free nucleus known (omitting the products of
radioactivity) hydrogen becomes an entity sui generis, and the first
real ordinary atom is helium. Moseley's law then becomes
ll X =KX (N+l)2, in which N" is zero for helium and is not the
atomic number but the number of valency electrons in the smaller
elements. For higher elements N is the number of electrons out-
side the kernel.

For the L series of lines in the higher elements it is possible
that the law is that 1/X varies as the square of the atomic weight
(not number) counting neon as zero number (i.e., subtracting 20),

viz., 1/A=C(A-20)2 instead of l/X= -A. K (N-7.4)2 as given

A i

by Moseley.

Some account of Gilbert Lewis's octet theory (J. Amer. Chem.

Soc, 1916, 768) which is almost certainly true for the elements

higher than oxygen, may now be given. Fluoride ion, neon and

sodium ion all have the same octet of electrons; but in fluorine atom

one is missing, leaving a "hole." In sodium metal one is in excess.

In sodium fluoride the extra electron of sodium metal fills the hole

in the fluorine atom : both then become ions even in the crystal

state, and both have complete octets, thus: —

[46 [Xa+9] 46] 6 -f 46 [F+7] 30 = [46 [Na+9] 46] [46 [F+7] 46]

Metal : kernel Sodium ion Fluoride ion

and electron Sodium Fluoride crystal.

Note. — The expression Na+9 is really Na+11-2, the atom having
2 inner electrons to make a kernel out of a nucleus (see page 51).
The fundamental conception might appear (reading Lewis strictly)
to be that the same electron belongs to two atoms when a compound
is formed, but undoubtedly in the ionisable compounds the metal
electron is transferred and the residue, which is the me.tal ion, is
quite independent not only in solutions but in crystals, the atoms
in which are simply held together because one ion is positive as a
whole and the other negative as a whole. In the case of such a
substance as methyl chloride, the hydrogens are held in the non-
ionisable manner (see p. 50), but the chlorine is partly present as
chloride ion, since powerful reagents like silver nitrate can remove

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 59

it. In the case of such a compound as chlorobenzene, however,
the chlorine is completely un-ionised and it is to be assumed that
the chlorine is much closer to the rest of the molecule and has an
electron in common with the carbon to which it is attached. The
chlorine "shell" is a cube* and the carbon "shell" a tetrahedron,
and the corner or point of junction is the same electron. Generally
speaking, the conception is that when 8 electrons get established
round a nucleus the result is a saturated body which is incapable
of further chemical action : it is only rendered active again by
electrolysis or analogous process.

There are great difficulties in accepting Gilbert Lewis's octet
theory of valence for the lower elements, although it is probably
true for the higher elements. The new suggestion I wish to bring
forward is, as already said, that the arrangement or structure of
the nucleus governs the structure of the valency electrons in the
smaller atoms. The nucleus, although its actual weight has nothing
to do with chemical properties, thus indirectly influences the
direction in space of the valency electrons and consequently affects
the chemical properties of the atom by its arrangement, not by its
size. Thus to make my position quite clear even at the risk of
repetition, the arrangement of the carbon nucleus has the shape
of a regular tetrahedron, that of the nitrogen-nucleus, the shape of
a tetrahedron or pyramid with one point farther from the c?ntre
than the other three, and that of oxygen the shape of an irregular
tetrahedron with two points nearer and two points farther from
the centre. Each valency electron in the case of carbon has its
average position iu line with a projection of the nucleus, giving
a regular tetrahedral result.

In nitrogen, 3 of the valency-electrons are arranged as in
carbon, namely in line (from the centre of the nucleus) with the 3
nuclear points which are nearer the centre: whilst the other two
form a saturated pair lying opposite the fourth point of the nucleus
where the group X+ is attached to the nucleus. Putting Z++ for
H+ H+

0 and X+ for H+ 6 H+, the carbon nucleus becomes
H+
(Z,++ + 26) (see Fig. 7), the carbon kernel becomes (Z,++ + 2(9)2(9,
and the carbon atom becomes r(Z,++ + 20) 26 + 40] the

whole arrangement being tetrahedral. The nitrogen nucleus
is (Z. + + + 26 + X+) or (Z,++ + 26 + Z++X+) the nitro-
gen kernel has two more electrons, so»that the nitrogen atom is:
6

Or Sir J. J. Thomson's skew-eubo ("i-.ku.be").
7

60 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION' B.

Nitrogen gas N2 is thus of the same structure as acetylene, i.e.,.
CX : CX as compared with CH: CH ; and the "metameric" gas-
carbon monoxide has the same external structure as nitrogen and
acetylene, i.e., each atom having 5 electrons round it, of which
two form a neutral pair. The ordinary notation of this formula
would be C • O, which on my theory (and referring to the nuclei
only) is C \ CX2. This, of course, involves the actual transfer of an
electron from the oxygen atom to the control of the carbon atom.
This theory explains well why the two gases are almost identical phy-
sically, while there are still two "shells" in agreement with the-
Cp/Cv ratio, which is violated by the Lewis-Langmuir theory of
two nuclei inside one shell of electrons.

The existence of nitric oxide in the form NO instead of N202
is a stumbling block for all the existing theories of chemical
affinity. The problem is analogous to the existence of free atoms
in sodium vapour and hot iodine vapour. Probably the best pro-
visional explanation on my theory is to formulate it like carbon
monoxide, thus employing 10 of its 11 electrons, leaving the extra
electron in an outside position similar to that of sodium metal.
(See Fig. 11.)

The nature of ammonia gas and ammonium ion may next be dis-
cussed. The former may be written, following Lewis, as in Fig. 12,
which having altogether 17 plus and 17 minus charges, is neutral.
It has, however, at one end a free pair of electrons and therefore
has an affinity for hydrion, which can add on at that point, giving

TNU^1 (dH+).t which is ammonium ion, a substance which has

the same saturated tetrahedral configuration as methane, but has
a total of 18 plus and 17 minus charges and is therefore positively
monovalent. Ammonium chloride contains this ion and the
chloride-ion existing side by side at some distance from each other
just as in sodium fluoride previously discussed. When the latter
is electrolysed the fluoride ion loses an electron, whilst the sodium
ion gains an electron and thus becomes metal. In the case of.

ammonium also no doubt the metallic phase (NH^J^)^ must
come into existence for a moment,, but since the external electron
must be near a group q H+, the result is dissociation into a and
(H+0), i.e., into NH3 gas and nascent hydrogen.

The nature of water and steam on this theory is worth
notice. Following the analogy of ammonia as related to
methane, water (vapour) becomes as in Fig. 13, which
altogether has 18 plus and 18 minus charges, so is electrically-
neutral. It has two pairs of electrons left free and thus can
combine either once or twice with hydrion giving (OH3)+ and
(OH4)++. Liquid water and ice are the hydrates of these complex
ions, (OH,)+ (OH)' being H402 and HG03 being OH4)++
(OH)2". This theory accounts for the very low dissociation of

water since owing to the combination, viz., [OH3J^] [OHJ^]

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B. 61

there is scarcely any free hydrion, the constitution being not unlike
that of C2II6. No doubt aqueous hydrochloric acid when strong
contains (OH3) CI and (OH4) Cl2. On this theory the angle
between the two valencies of oxygen is not very different from that
in the case of carbon. Hence H — O — H is misleading, and H,0'
should be printed ^H

\H

Another spatial consideration is that NH4 ion, owing to fhe'
fact that the tetrahedron of hydrogen attached to valency
electrons is far out from the N atom, has an abnormally large
volume (as compared with sodium). This agrees with the fact that
ammonium and the large atom rubidium (weight 85) are mutually
replaceable in crystals.

The conceptions for KN03 and KC104 are specially interesting.
The N03 ion has 23 plus charges (3 sixes from oxygen and one 5
from nitrogen) and 24 binding electrons (3 octets) : its valency is
therefore --1, the same as that of fluoride ion (valency +7 — 8).
Similarly the CIO, ion has 7 + (4x6)- 31 plus charges, and 32
binding electrons (4 octets), giving a total valency of — 1 also r
similarly SO, has 30 plus and 32 minus, giving a valency of —2:.
PO, similarly is 29 plus and 32 minus = —3.

This paper would not be complete without some account of the
nature of the spectrum lines of the elements. In the first place it
is known that these lines, like the valency of the element, have
their origin in the outermost electron-shell of the atom. The
spectrum of hydrogen which by theory arises from a single
electron* has been already reduced to a mathematical formula, viz.,

-r- = 1097 I ^5 ™ I in which N is successively 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.

This is a harmonic series beginning with A 6563 (line C of the sun)
and terminating by superposition at A = 3650. Hydrogen has

also an ultra-violet spectrum for which '/ A = 1097 I 1 — N 2 J and

N is 2, 3, 4, etc., successively. Similar but more complex,
formulae, also depending on inverse squares of natural numbers,
hold for the other elements.

N. Bohr has suggested that the cause is revolution of the
electron in a constant slightly-elliptic orbit round the nucleus, with
the possibility of it suddenly jumping from one orbit to another,
thus giving what is called a quantum of radiation. The mathe-
matics of this peculiar theory lead not only to the above formula
for the frequency of the different kinds of light emitted, but also'
predict the fine structure of the spectrum lines when seen under
high resolution. Nevertheless Sir J. J. Thomson declares that
when there are several electrons no stable orbit is possible, so he
suggests that the electrons vibrate in and out instead of round, that
the nucleus repels when the electron goes near and attracts when
it is far, thus giving a neutral position where there is no force,
which neutral position is that of the electron in the unstimulated
atom. This theory also leads to the octet (skew-cube) arrangement"
when the number of electrons is large. Now in crystals it is known

62 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION B.

that there also resides a repulsive force preventing compression and
varying as the inverse tenth-power of the distance, so we see that
Crystallography also is being swallowed by Physics just as Chemistry
has been, and this unification of the Sciences is all to the good.

In conclusion I have to apologise for being unable personally
to represent some of the other Sciences comprised in Section B. I
invite the attention, however, of the devotees of that non-experi-
mental Science Geology to the possibility that some of their
cherished replacement theories may have to go to the wall — in
other words that what appears to be replacement may be trans-
mutation. Thus carbon appearing* in silica is very easily explained
if silicon nucleus is CHe4, as I suggested in 1909. So if zirconium-
nucleus is C Ne4, titanium Si Ne and niobium N Ne.j their genesis
becomes easily understood. The pressures in the interior of the
earth may be sufficient to overcome the repulsive force in the atoms
(even though as already said it varies as 1/d10) and thus transmute
them by simple squeezing. Such minerals as the trio SrS01, YPO,
and ZrSiO, could be changed into one another quite easily on this
theory, since the number of hydrions is the same in all of them.
When I have come across an ordinary geological theory I
have always felt like Cato, "Semper miror quod non rideat
haruspex baruspicem quum viderit," so when Geologists meet and
?ee one another here in this section I hope they will take the hint
f.nd wink discreetly.

Explanation of Plate 1.

Fig.

1.

Fig.

2.

Fig.

3.

Fig.

4.

Fig.

5.

Fig.

6.

Fig.

7.

Fig.

8.

Fig.

9.

Fig.

10.

Fig.

11.

Fig.

12.

Fig.

13

Hydrogen Atom or " Nascent Hydrogen."
Hydrogen Gas.
Lithium Ion.
Beryllium Ion.
Helium Gas.

Helium Nucleus or Alpha Particle.
Carbon Nucleus.
Zoicon Nucleus, 3++.
Aerion Nucleus 2+.
Boron Nucleus.
Nitric Oxide Molecule.
Ammonia.
Water Vapour.

S.A. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

4"

Fig. 1.

"4>-

Fig. 3.

<§» #

Fig. 7.

PLATE 1.

+

Fig. 2.

Fig. 4.

■4^

Fig. 8.

-4#l>

Fig. 9.

Fig. 12.

^N 0 0

e (\ Mi+^ /fcpU e ft

y Wee eev+

e

e
e

o

Fig. 11.
16 +

ioe

!H*

H

Fig. 10. Fig. 13.

CONSTITUTION OF ATOMS AND MOLECULES.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 63

SOME ASPECTS OF BOTANY IN SOUTH AFRICA AND
PLANT ECOLOGY IN NATAL.

By J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc,
Professor of Botany, Natal University College, Pietermaritzburg .

Presidential Address to Section C, delivered July 14, 1921.

Introduction.

Botanists, probably to a larger extent than workers in other
branches of science, are the product of their environment. It ha&
been noted more than once that the direction of many important
advances in Botany has been determined by the conditions sur-
rounding and influencing the men responsible for opening up the
new pathways. At one time an extended exploration trip was
considered the best possible training for a young botanist, and
though with the increasing development of laboratory work this
course has, during the last generation or two, not been so much
followed, no one is likely to deny that it proved itself of immense
value. It is difficult, for instance, to estimate what the world
owes to the fact that Darwin made the voyage in the "Beagle."
Church, in his recently published memoir, "Thalassiophyta," main-
tains that many of the leading ideas which dominated botanical
teaching and research from Hofmeister to Bower would have been
considerably modified, if the earlier continental writers, including
Hofmeister himself, had lived near the sea and had known more
about seaweeds, plants which are only now receiving the attention
they deserve. Be that as it may, there can be no doubt that the
progress of Botany is very distinctly determined by the material
and problems with which the leading botanists at each period are
brought into contact.

Many important advances have been made along different
lines, and each one, for a time, has had a more or less dominating
influence over those who perform the important and necessary
work of clearing up the details. This is not to be regretted, and
it is, in fact, a feature which Botany shares with all other sciences.
After a rough trail has been broken the pathway has to be cleared.
It is curious, however, how the breaking of new trails often arouses
a considerable amount of opposition on the part of those who main-
tain that the only research work worth doing is that which helps
to open up certain main lines of development. There may be more
than one reason for this. Since the majority of professional
botanists are engaged in teaching the subject, it is necessary for
them to direct the attention of their students chiefly to those main
lines of development and difficulties which are met with that must
be tackled and, if possible, overcome. Research along these same
lines follows as a matter of course. Much of it, unfortunately,
consists in applying a rather complicated technique in a purely

'64 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

mechanical way, and it tends to stifle rather than develop any
originality. Instead of being influenced by his real botanical
environment the botanist is influenced rather by the environment
of his own botanical school.

On the other hand, the type of enthusiast is common, who is
far too ready to turn aside into all sorts of side tracks. He is
never likely to reach any destination, because he never proceeds
far enough in a straight line in any direction. It is very necessary
that he should be disciplined by being forced to follow in the foot-
steps of others along the main highroads of the science. Whatever
line one follows the main thing is to try to see the way clear as
far ahead as possible and to keep straight on.

The Development of Botany in South Africa.

The history of Botany is a valuable and interesting study,
which assists us greatly in obtaining a proper outlook. Our know-
ledge of this aspect of our subject is naturally chiefly confined to
the older-esta'blished countries, but it is interesting to observe how
a science like Botany grows, when it is transplanted into a new
country like South Africa. To begin with, the only indigenous
Botany was that of the native races. They possess a rather won-
derful knowledge of the plants which, rightly or more often
wrongly, they believe to be useful. The Zulus have a botanical
vocabulary of at least a thousand words. They are not artists and
do not draw plants, they know next to nothing of plant morpho-
logy and physiology, but they do observe carefully in some direc-
tions. They are able to distinguish closely allied species or
varieties, which are usually confused by the white settlers, and
they know a great deal about plant habitats. A study of the
botanical knowledge of primitive peoples, if undertaken by a
competent botanist, would have a considerable interest from the
standpoint of ethnology, sociology and kindred sciences, as well as
from our own. One is constantly reminded of the herbalists when
one considers the plant lore of the Zulus. Their facts are so
thoroughly mixed up with their superstitious beliefs.

The earliest European botanists who visited South Africa were
explorers and collectors, men of the type of Thunberg, Burchell,
Ecklon, Zeyher, Drege, etc. They were limited by the stage of
progress of the science at their time, but no one who has read their
works can fail to be impressed by their energy, resourcefulness, and
immense power of assimilating and classifying new facts and details.
This applies also to later workers, who spent a greater or less
portion of their lives here, such as Harvey, MacOwan, Bolus, and
Medley Wood. In our enthusiasm for "main currents" of investi-
gation and "leading principles" there would seem to be some
danger of our losing that power of dealing with masses of details
and facts, though one would imagine that the discovery of more
and more scientific laws would assist us in doing so. At any rate,
in South Africa even to-dav it is precisely this type of abilitv
which is very much required. The conditions are so wonderfully
diversified and different from those of other countries and the flora.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 65

is so rich that the number of new facts and new problems appear
overwhelming. It is easy to add to the sum total of our botanical
knowledge in South Africa. Almost any pathway is bound to be
a new one. What is really difficult is to get on the hill-tops and
survey the South African botanical landscape as a whole.

With the rise of our University system and the development
of our colleges and schools, botanical knowledge in South Africa
ceased to be confined to a small handful of workers. The subject
could not possibly develop gradually on South African lines. The
great majority of the teachers from the University downwards had
to be imported, and the subject was transplanted with them. It
had grown up under a very different environment elsewhere. Just
as European plants, when imported into South Africa, take some
time to change their seasonal variations to suit our reversed seasons,
so it has taken Botany many years to react properly to its new
environment in South Africa. To begin with, syllabuses were
drawn up exactly on the lines of those of overseas institutions.
Till quite recently, for instance, Pellia was the chief type of Hepatic
studied in elementary classes, though Pellia does not occur any-
where in South Africa. Large quantities of botanical material
for classes in practical botany were purchased overseas and
imported. Though this state of affairs is gradually becoming a
thing of the past, even now we have no satisfactory South African
textbook of Botany.

Nevertheless, considering the comparative shortness of the
time since its introduction and the many difficulties that had to
be overcome, on the whole South African botanical teaching ha;;
made good progress. Our aim in the future should be, while
keeping in mind the importance of obtaining a sound general
knowledge of the subject, to make Botany in South Africa more
and more distinctly South African.

This applies not only to teaching but to research work as well.
If we approach our work in the right spirit we may look forward
with confidence to the future. "Out of Africa always something
new" will, I feel sure, continue to be true as far as Botany is
concerned.

Botany in Natal.

Each of the various botanical centres in South Africa has its
own problems which are being tackled. Since we are meeting
to-day in Durban I think it may be considered appropriate that I
should deal with some of the work that has been and is being done
in Natal. The history of Botany in Natal begins with J. F. Drege,
who, in 1832, accompanied by Dr. Andrew Smith, made a collect-
ing trip along the coastbelt as far as the Umgeni, north of Durban.
He was followed in 1839 by Ferdinand Krauss, whose account of
bis trip was published in 1846. Shortly after Pietermaritzburg
was founded, and the country rapidly opened up by white settlers.
The blacks were practically confined to Zululand at this time, those
of Natal having been wiped out by Chaka. Very soon the pioneer
colonists turned their attention to the rich vegetation which sur-

66 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

rounded them'. Among the earliest plant collectors were Dr.
Gueinzius, Messrs. Vance, Williamson, Plant, and Armitage,
followed by Sanderson, Sutherland, Hallack, Buchanan, Fannin,
Gerrard, and McKen (the first Curator of the Durban Botanic
Gardens). I have given further details regarding the history of
Botany in Natal elsewhere,* but since we are meeting here in th&
town, where his chief lifework was accomplished, it is only fitting
that I should again pay tribute to the long continued, splendid
botanical labours of Dr. J. Medley Wood.

He arrived in Natal in 1852, and died at Durban in 1915, at'
the advanced age of 88. It was my privilege to know him only
during the last five years of his life, but in spite of his age I knew
him as an active worker, for he was keenly interested in his subject
to the very last day of his life. His botanical work in Natal
extended over sixty years. His early collecting was done while
he lived at Inanda, where he was visited in 1876 by A. Rehmann.
In 1882 he succeeded McKen as Curator of the Durban Botanic
Gardens. His preliminary catalogue of indigenous Natal plants
was published in 1894. It was soon largely added to by his con-
tinued activities, and in 1907 appeared in the form of a "Hand-
book to the Flora of Natal." Still later, a Revised List of the-
Flora of Natal with two subsequent appendices appeared. His
"Natal Plants," in which altogether 600 species were illustrated,
did much to popularise botany in Natal. By building up the-
Durban Herbarium and by exchanging plants with other herbaria
in various parts of the world, Wood made the flora of Natal known
far outside its own boundaries. Many new species were described
by himself and a still greater number were sent by him to be
described by specialists at Kew and elsewhere. His long-continued,
patient work has cleared many difficulties from our road, and he
has thoroughly earned the lasting gratitude of all of us who have
to follow him.

I must pass over the work of many who were associated with
Medley Wood as well as of others. Fourcade investigated and
reported on the forests of Natal in 1889. Justus Thode contributed
a considerable amount to our knowledge of field botany and
ecology. Dr. T. R. Sim has made the trees and shrubs, the ferns,
and the mosses and hepatics his special subjects of study,
but he has collected widely other plants as well. He has lately
very generously handed over his herbarium of flowering plants to
the Botany Department of the Natal University College, and he
continues to assist us in adding to it.

During his tenure of the office of Conservator of Forests for
Natal Mr. J. S. Henkel did much to further our knowledge of the
plant ecology of Natal, and he demonstrated widely to farmers and
tree planters that forestry is really applied ecology. The group
of the fungi have been studied not only by Medley Wood, but by
Dr. Pole-Evans and his staff, especially by Dr. Ethel Doidge, who

* Bews, J. W. "An Introduction to the Flora of Natal and Zulu-
land." Pietermaritzburg. 1921.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 67'

is one of our most distinguished Natalians, and by Dr. van der
Bijl, who is stationed here in Durban.

I have sent a fairly representative collection of freshwater
Algae to Miss Stephens and Dr. Fritsch, and a paper dealing
with them will, I understand, be published soon. The whole field
of Botany is, therefore, being more or less completely covered from
the systematic standpoint, and in all branches of the subject new
facts and problems are being brought to light.

I now pass on to deal with the aspect of the subject to which
I have given most of my own attention,

The Plant Ecology of Natal.

When we seek to describe in general terms the distribution of
the vegetation over Natal, the first essential is to distinguish the-
various natural plant communities. The first attempts in this
direction, which were made by various writers, consisted in picking
out characteristic or interesting species which were found in dif-
ferent localities. The distinctions between the three main botanical
areas, Coastbelt, Midlands, and Drakensberg, were drawn very
early by Krauss (1846). Much later Thode entered into greater
details on the same lines. Altitude, of course, determines climate
in a general way, but altitude in itself is not enough. In the-
Midlands there are at least two very distinct climatic areas. For
smaller areas soil conditions are sometimes important, but in Natal'
as in all great Continental regions the main subdivision must be
based on climate.

As the analysis of the plant communities is proceeded with
it is soon obvious that these are not to be considered of the same
rank. Some, like various types of forest, are relatively stable, and*
except where they are destroyed by man remain more or less
unchanged so long as the climate does not change. Other plant
communities have a relatively short life in anyN locality. They are
unstable, and represent what are regarded as stages in the develop-
ment of the more stable types which gradually replace them. When
we study the development of the vegetation in any area in this
way we study what is known as the "Plant Succession." The-
most obvious method of doing so is by means of "Quadrats" or
"Line" or "Belt Transects." Definite sample areas are carefully
marked out, the plants on them counted and mapped, and the
changes from time to time noted. Different quadrats are compared
and the conditions are varied. The method is a true experimental
one, but the difficulties in carrying it out successfully are great.
The analysis of the habitat factors even with the assistance of
instruments is difficult. One cannot be quite sure that two distinct
quadrats, which are to be treated differently, are alike in all
respects (especially with regard to soil conditions) to begin with,
or whether each agrees with "control" quadrats. Nevertheless
the results to be obtained by this method are very valuable, though,
for slow-growing types, a long period must elapse before any results
are obtained.

Another method of analysing the plant succession is bv means
of observation and deduction — the method of the geologists. It

•68 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

consists in interpreting Nature's own experiments. It has certain
very definite advantages. While quadrat experiments carried out
in one locality may not apply to another locality, observation by
Nature's experiments can be made over very wide areas.

We observe, for instance, that certain grasses colonise bare
area*- such as old roads (species of Aristida, Eragrostis, etc.).
Tufts of these pioneers are found elsewhere being smothered and
killed by the denser growth of species (e.g., Themeda) which do
not as a rule themselves act as pioneers. The latter are in turn
themselves killed out by still taller species (Andropor/on). Three
stages of the succession are at once displayed, and it is unnecessary
to await the course of events in certain definitely mapped quadrats,
which, to give the same information with equal certainty, would
require to be very numerous and to cover a very wide area.

A walk along the margin of a forest gives just as definite
information regarding its history. If the marginal trees are all
branched from the base outwards towards the light these trees
cannot have grown up in the centre of dense shady forest. The
forest in this case is not of the so-called retrogressive type. Its
margins are not being eaten into by grass-fires. Further we often
find that species characteristic of the scrub zone, which usually
surrounds our forest-species — which are light demanders and quite
intolerant of shade — may be found just inside the forest margin
in a dead or dying condition. They have been overtaken by the
forest trees. It is quite obvious that they could not have grown
up in the shade from the beginning. Two stages in the succession
are here clearly demonstrated, the scrub stage and the forest stage.
But these stages may be connected with the grassland stages already
analysed for the. tall (Andropor/on) species of grasses are in the
same way seen to be killed out by scrub. We thus find displayed
five stages of a complete unit succession or "sere."

By observing the natural regeneration of the tree species on
the floor of a forest, by determining the relative ages to the com-
moner species, by searching for the causes of the death of certain
species, further successional tendencies are brought to light. Not
only can the past history of the forest be read, but its future
development can be foreseen.

Cases of plants suppressing other plants are always to be looked
for. A dead plant or a dying plant is a flag signal to the ecologist.
Often the cause of death may not be suppression by other plants
but an attack by insects or fungi. Insect attacks on the dominant
species may change the whole course of the plant succession, and a
stable type sometimes is changed without any change in climate,
as in the case of the falcate yellowwood forests of the Drakensberg.
There are many other interesting points in regard to the biotic
factors and their influence on the vegetation of Natal. Plant suc-
cession is influenced greatly by seed dispersal and the agents con-
trolling it, a subject which I dealt with briefly in a paper read
before this Association at Stellenbnsch.* The influence of Termites

* Bews, J. W. "The Plant Succession in the Thornveld." SA. Journ.
of Science. 1917.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 69

is very great, both on soil and on the vegetation directly. Their
tunnelling operations serve to loosen the soil, and they destroy dead
wood everywhere as well as sometimes the living plants.

Their mounds are often the starting point of a clump of trees
in the various kinds of Tree Veld. Earthworms and true ants in
Natal as elsewhere are important because of their effects on the
soil. Locusts and various caterpillars destroy vegetation and
usually have a selective effect. Among the mammals there are
many which dig for and eat bulbs and tubers. The bush-pi^
(Potamochoerus) is as efficient almost as an ordinary plough and
helps very much in the extension of forest by providing a good
germinating ground for the seeds of the forest species. The aard-
vark or antbear (Orycteropus), which feeds on termites, forms
large burrows in the veld. In disused burrows, characteristic
species, shade loving at least in their early stages, are found, which
cannot invade the undisturbed grassveld. Ferns, such as
Nephrodium athamanticum and the tree fern Cyathea dregei, are
examples.

The relations of the insect fauna and various birds to the
vegetation in connection with flower pollination is a subject which
has been very little studied in Natal. This applies also to the
micro-flora and fauna of the soil. There is reason to suspect that
a great deal of nitrogen fixation in the soil takes place, but we
know nothing about it with certainty.

In a few rare cases a curious biotic result is seen in connection
with the plant succession. A whole plant community, if left alone :
seems to commit suicide. The dominant species grows so dense
as to prevent any regeneration either from its own or ciher seed-
lings, and the individuals stifle one another and become unhealthy.
They die in numbers so that the whole community is readily
destroyed by fire. In the case of grassland the dominant species
(Themeda) occasionally grows so dense as to prevent regeneration,
and, if left unburnt and ungrazed, ultimately withers and dies
and leaves the ground more or less bare. The phenomenon, how-
ever, it may be repeated, is a rare one.

Did time permit, much might be said regarding man as a
biotic factor. His influence is usually destructive. He interferes
with the plant succession by burning the grass or by overgrazing
or by drainage and lowering the water-level, etc., so that stable
climax types of vegetation are replaced by more primitive stages.
We thus see how the various contradictory views regarding grass-
burning can be reconciled, provided succession is studied over wide
areas and generalisations from isolated data are avoided. If the
succession is taking place in a forest climatic area and has advanced
far enough to reach the beginnings of the scrub stage, the farmer,
by burning the veld, can send back the succession to an earlier
pure grassland stage. On the other hand, continuous burning of
pure grassland itself tends to establish the most primitive stage of
all, that is, wire grass or Aristida grassveld. Grass burning, there-
fore, may be necessary or it may not, and it is only by an under-
standing of the plant succession and the principles underlying it

70 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

that definite information can be given regarding the best procedure
in each individual case. This forms one of the most important
economic results of our study of ecology in Natal.

. The analysis of the factors influencing the vegetation, climatic,
edaphic and biotic, and the study of the plant succession has
gradually led to the evolution of a more or less natural scheme of
classifying the vegetation units or plant communities.

The Main Botanical Regions of Natal.

There is no doubt that Krauss, and later Thode, were right
when they divided Natal, like ancient Gaul, into three parts, viz. :
(1) Coastbelt, (2) Midlands, (3) Drakensberg or Mountain. These
agree in certain important climatic features, especially in having
a summer rainfall, so that Natal may be considered as one botanical
region and these as sub-regions. The point is immaterial from our
present standpoint. Altitude, however, is not the only possible
basis for subdividing Natal. Owing to the rivers of Natal having
cut down through the system of terrace plateaux between the
Drakensberg and the sea, there is a system of deep valleys which
contrast rather sharply with the ridges between them. The former
are known as Low Veld, the latter as High Veld. The Low Veld
is drier, has greater extremes of temperature, a richer soil which
is more compact, and supports a generally more xerophytic vege-
tation than the High Veld. The Coastbelt is a distinctly sub-
tropical region. Frosts are absent or very rare. The Low Veld
on the Coastbelt is not so distinctly marked off from the High
Veld as in the Midlands. By a recent downward movement of the
continent to an extent of 150 feet or more the river mouths have
been "drowned" and extensive alluvial flats have been formed.
The whole of the actual coastline itself is covered by a mantle of
blown sand to a distance of from half a mile to two or three miles
from the shore. Close to the sea the sand has formed a line of
dunes fixed by bush. The Drakensberg forms the lofty escarpment
of the great inland plateau varying in altitude from 6,000 to
11,000 feet. It is a region of highly unstable topography. Though
snow only falls occasionally and always melts early in spring,
otherwise climate and soil conditions are of the usual extremely
variable mountain type. The distribution of the plant communi-
ties will illustrate further the differences between the various
botanical regions.

The Plant Communities in Natal.

Since plant succession is a universal phenomenon and funda-
mental in any natural scheme of classifying plant communities,
the primitive or pioneer types will be dealt with first and the order
of arrangement will, as far as possible, be that of the plant suc-
cession in each separate climatic area.

1. — The Strand Vegetation.
On the belt of shifting sand between the line of sand dune
bush and the sea a number of interesting species, many of them
widespread, represent the earliest stages of succession on sand (the-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 71

psammosere). There is room for much further intensive study and
comparison of these species. Those that creep through the sand
are replaced by those that creep over the sand, and these in turn
by erect-growing shrubby species. Hydrophylax carnosa, Scaevola
thunbergii, Cyperus natalensis, etc., creep through the sand and
help to fix it. Ipomaea biloba grows partly through the sand and
partly over it. M ese mbrianthemum edule covers the surface over
wide patches near the bush., and various grasses (Stenotaphrum
glabrum, Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum, Sporobolus pungens) also
form large colonies or associes. The erect-growing, shrubby or
herbaceous species are very numerous, and form a transitional zone
to the psammophilous scrub and bush of the fixed line of sand
dunes.

2. — Lagoon Vegetation.

On the mud flats at the "drowned" river mouths, where the
water is brackish, the most important pioneers are species of
Salicornia (S. herbacea. S. natalensis) and Chenolea diffusa, but
this succession requires further analysis also. The dominant specie?
are the mangroves, which will be dealt with later.

3. — Lake, Vlei, and Streambank Vegetation.
This type extends from the coast to the Drakensberg, and,
like other primitive stages of the succession, it varies only slightly
with rising altitude. The succession is very easily followed since
the various stages usually form distinct zones parallel to the water
edge. There is a certain similarity in this hydrosere in all parts
of the world. The stages in Natal are as follows: —

A. Submerged Aquatics. Potamogeton spp., Hydrostachys
natalensis, Ceraphyllum demersnm, etc.

B. Floating Aquatics. Species of Aponogeton, Nymphaea,
U tricnlaria , Lemna, Pistia, etc.

C. Reed Zone. Phragmites often mixed with Typha.

D. Semi-aquatics. A great variety of smaller herbaceous
species, few of which assume complete dominance.

E. Cyperus — Mariscus Zone. Taller Cyperaceae.

F. Vlei grasses. Species of Setaria, Pennisetum, Erianthus,
Leersia hexandra, and many others.

G. Other vlei consocies or associes of herbs, shrubs or trees
which are transitional to sub-climax types.

4. — Ruderal Vegetation.

This represents the initial stages of secondary successions or
subseres, and consists of the weeds, whether herbaceous or shrubby,
which occur along roadsides and kafir pathways, in ditches and
quarries, on rubbish heaps, waste land and cultivated fields, or
where forest has been burnt out or cut down. The original vege-
tation has been destroyed and the soil disturbed, but as soon as
it is left alone the processes of repair are initiated and a new suc-
cession commences which leads up to the original grassveld, scrub,

72 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

or forest. The majority of ruderals are excellent, colonisers. They
flower profusely and for a long period each year, and form large
quantities of seed. Many are annuals, especially m cultivated
land. These gradually give way to perennials. Many of the
perennials have a creeping habit of growth. Few ruderals, how-
ever, can withstand shade, and the taller species kill out the low-
growhig. Many ruderals are introduced plants. The Compositae,
Solanaceae, etc., are common all over, while the more tropical
families, e.g., Acanthaceae. Amarantaceae, are more prominent on
the Coastbelt.

5. — Grassveld.

The earlier stages of succession in this important type are
similar all over Natal, while the later stages differ more in the
different areas. Grassveld often is established by a succession
from water and wet ground following after "vlei grasses" in the
hydrosere already dealt with. The succession on dry soil and rocks
^i.e., in the xerosere) is as follows: —

A. Lithophytes. Blue green Algae, Lichens, Mosses and
petrophilous flowering plants, Crassula spp., Gyperus rupestris, etc.

B. Chomophytes or crevice plants. A large class, since prac-
tically any seed may germinate in rock crevices. Certain species,
however, are distinctly characteristic of such situations, e.g., many
Compositae (especially at higher altitudes) and bulbous Mono-
cotyledons. Chomophytes may be (a) Exposed (often cushion
forms or spreading), (b) Sheltered (including most of the bulbous
species), (c) Shade (Streptocarpus spp., etc.), or (d) Hydrophilous
(growing on dripping crags).

C. Primitive Grassveld. Species of Aristida, Eragrostis,
Sporobolus, etc., which are bunch grasses with deep roots or
Gynodon dactylon and other creeping forms which root at the nodes.
All are light demanders and good colonisers.

D. The sub-climax and climax stages of grassveld. These
gradually displace the pioneer species or follow after vlei grasses.
Separate types in the different areas must now be distinguished.

1. Midland Grassveld. Of this there are two distinct sub-
types, viz. : (a) High Veld, with The in ed a triandra, var. glauca
dominant and A ndropogon hirtus and other species often sub-
dominant. Invasion by species of Acacia and other pioneer trees
leads to the establishment of Thorn Veld.

Mixed with the grasses are a great variety of associated plants
which form (a) Vernal Aspect Societies, consisting mostly of either
monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous geophytes with underground
storage, the spread of which is favoured by grass-burning, or (b)
Autumnal Aspect Societies, shrubby species which grow with the
grasses, are kept in check by grass-burning and often represent
transitional types to scrub and forest.

2. Coastbelt Grassveld. This is distinguished by the presence,
though not by the dominance, of distinctly tropical species, e.g.,
PoUinia villosa, Perotis latifolia, Fogonarthria falcata, and

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 73

numerous species of Panicum, as well as by distinctive Vernal and
Autumnal Aspect Societies. It is less stable than the Midland
Grassveld.

3. Mountain Grassveld. The species composing this type are
more temperate in their affinities, and they grow in hard tussocks
with bare spaces in between. Microchloa spp., Harpechloa
capensis, Festuca spp., Poa spp., Avenastrum spp., Koeleria
cristata, Antkoxanthvm echloni are characteristic, but there is a
considerable admixture of Midland species. Aspect societies are
distinctive, both vernal and autumnal.

6. — Tree Veld. (Grassveld with scattered trees.)
The succession in this type is peculiar and characteristic. The
pioneers are trees, not shrubs. Seeds of the pioneers are scattered
by animals, chiefly birds, and each pioneer tree serves as a centre
around which a clump of trees and shrubs becomes established.
Tree veld of various kinds is very widespread in the continent as
a whole. The following are the chief types of it in Natal: —

A. Thorn Veld or Acacia Veld. Acacia Karroo, A. benthami,
and other species are the chief pioneers and remain dominant over
most of it. Gymnosporia bnxi folia and a great many other species
are associated. This type fills most of the great river valleys of the
Midlands with extensions to the drier parts of the Coastbelt, where
Dichrostachys nutans becomes prominent together with tree
Euphorbias, etc.

B. Midland (High veld) Tree Veld. A mixed type which can-
be subdivided into several associations. It occurs above the Thorn-
veld, and Acacia species are rare or absent. Gussonia spicata,
Combretum spp., Erythrina tomentosa, Greyia sutherlandi, Maesa
lanceolata, Dornbeya spp., Commiphora spp., are a few of the more
prominent species. A good example of it has been analysed by
Mr. R. D. Aitken.

C. Aloe Veld. Aloe marlothii and other species grow usuallv
on rocky slopes, sometimes associated with Thorn Veld.

D. Hygrophilous Tree Veld. This is usually merely a stage
in the forest succession. (See Hygrophilous scrub and forest later.)

E. Faurea Veld. Faurea salicpia dominant. This occurs on
certain sandy soils, e.g., near Pinetown, and again above Albert
Falls. Also might be placed under the heading "scrub and
forest."

F. Coastbelt Tree Veld — a mesophytic type. Gussonia umbelli-
fera, Strelitzia augusta, Vanr/ueria infausta, Albizzia fastigiata,
Sapium spp., Drypetes spp., Spirostachys africana, etc.

G. Ilala Palm Veld. Hypkaene crinita is dominant. It
occurs all along the coast behind the dunes on the drift sands. In
Zululand it covers a great belt from 20 to 30 miles wide.

H. Bush Veld. This type (similar to that of the Transvaal)
was discovered recently in N.E. Zululand by Aitken and Gale.
Terminalia sericca, Combretum spp., and various Aloes are con-
spicuous in it.

74 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

I. Protea Veld. Various species of Protea (e.g., P. roupelliae)
are dominant. This type is extensively developed on the lower
slopes of the Drakensberg.

7. — Scrub and Forest.
The various close woodland plant communities in Natal,
though not all belonging to the same formation, may conveniently
be grouped together. They are generally known as Bush in Natal
— a somewhat vague term. The pioneers are shrubs which form
marginal zones following after tall Andropogon grasses. The suc-
cession is commonly initiated along the streams where the seeds are
carried by birds, etc., while the intervening ridges are colonised
later. The scrub zone provides the necessary shade for the species
which belong to subclimax and climax forest stages. These are
shade loving, at least in their early seedling stages of growth. The
following types of woodland may be distinguished, beginning with
the Coastbelt : —

A. Mangrove Association. This occurs on the mudflats at the
river estuaries where the water is salt or brackish. The Natal
mangroves are Avicennia officinalis, Rkizopkora mucronata,
Bruguiera gymnothiza.

B. Psammophilous Bush. This covers the coast sand dunes.
Earlier scrub stages consist of such species as Osteospermum
moniliferum, Strelitzia augusta, Eugenia capensis, etc., while
Mimusops caffra associated with many others is dominant in the

■climax bush. Lianes are very numerous.

C. Barringtonia Bush. {Barringtonia raccmosa, Hibiscus
tiliaceus, etc.) This type occurs at the river mouths above the
lagoons in wet, sandy soil, where the water is not brackish.

D. Hygrophilous Scrub and Forest. This is closely related
to the corresponding tree veld, though only some of the species

• composing it are capable of growing isolated. The various species
of Fig (Ficus spp.) are very characteristic. The Waterboom or
Umdoni (Eugenia cordata) is often dominant. Other common
species include Rauwolfia natalensis, Voacanga dregei, Macaranga
capensis, Combretum spp., Pittosporum viridiflorum, Trerna brac-
teolata, with, at higher altitudes, Ilex mitis, Erica spp., Arundi-
naria tesselata, Widdringtonia dr acorn ont ana.

E. Coastbelt Forest. Protorhus longifolia, Albizzia fastigiata,
Rhus laevigata, Milletia caffra, Trichilia emetica are a few of the
most prominent species in this type.

F. Midland Forest. The yellowwoods, Podocarpus latifolia
and P. elongata are usually dominant associated with Olea lauri-
folia, Ptaeroxylon utile, Olea foveolata, Xymalos monospora (often

•dominant in moister spots), Celt is rhamnifolia, Kiggelaria
■dregeana, Calodendron capense, Fagara davyi, Ocotea bullata, and
many others. Both in Coast Belt and Midland forest a host of
smaller trees occur in the marginal zone of scrub.

G. Midland Dry Valley Scrub. (Karroid Scrub.) This is a
very distinct formation which occurs in the driest areas in Natal,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 75

-e.g., the Tugela Valley and Lower Mooi River Valley. It is more
xerophytic than climax Thorn Veld, though it does contain a
sprinkling of Thorn Veld Acacias and other species. It contrasts
very sharply with Midland scrub and forest. It resembles in some
of its ecological characters the Fish River scrub in the Albany and
Bathurst districts of the Cape Colony, and it has floristic connec-
tions with the vegetation of dry kopjes in the Transvaal as well as
with the Tropics further north. According to Dr. T. R. Sim the
component species can be arranged roughly in the following order
of importance : — Croton gratissimus, C. zambesicus, C. menyharti,
C. rivularis, Vitex mooiensis, V. rehmanni, Heeria panicidosa,
Euphorbia tirucalli, E. ingens, E. cooperi, E. tugelensis, Ficus
natalensis, and other species, Tarchonanthus camphoratus, Capparis
albitrunca, Schotia brachypetala, Ptaeroxylon utile, Clausena
inaequalis, Euclea lanceolata, E. undulata, E. natalensis, Rhus
(many species), Brachylaene elliptica, B. racemosa, Commiphora
harveyi, C. caryaefolia, Dichrostachys nutans, Dombeya natalensis,
JD. rotund if olia, Aloe spp., with numerous climbing Asclepiadaceae,
species of Clematis, etc. Parasitic species of Viscum and Loranthus
are common.

H. Mountain (Drakensberg) Forest. In the scrub zone
My r sine africana is a frequent pioneer followed by Erica spp., Clif-
fortia spp., Leucosidea sericea, the last-mentioned often dominant
over wide areas. The climax forest has Podocarpus falcata often
dominant in South Drakensberg forests. Curtisea faginea, Rapanea
rnelanophloeos, Celtis rhamni folia are other characteristic species.
Olinia. d rahensb ergensis is found usually at higher altitudes than
the others.

I. Ngoya Forest, Zululand. This type occupies a number of
minor hills and valleys in the centre of a main range instead of the
usual shales, sandstones and dolerites. Milletia sutherlandi is com-
pletely dominant while Podocarpus is rare.

8. — The Alpine and Macchia Vegetation of the Drakensberg.
This type has strong affinities with the South- Western vegeta-
tion of the Cape. The family Compositae is enormously abundant,
while the Ericaceae are peculiarly characteristic, and ericoid growth
forms belonging to other families, e.g., Cliff ortia, Passerina, etc.,
are often dominant. It is best developed at altitudes of 8,000 feet
and the usual effects of high altitude are shown in the gnarled
growth forms, cushion forms, rosette forms, densely woolly cover-
ings, etc., but the environmental conditions are so very unstable
that all kinds of requirements are met in different spots. There are
places with full exposure to the intense light, places with continuous
natural shade and shelter; moist spots near the numerous dripping
waterfalls contrast with very dry spots, it may be only a yard or
two distant ; places where frosts never occur may be quite close to
places where the water is frozen into a sheet in winter. All this
instability and complexity makes it difficult to sort out the vege-
tation into any system of ecological classification. The plant com-
munities are as unstable as the environmental conditions. That

76 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

such conditions are peculiarly suited for the production of new
species is shown by the large number of endemics which occur here.
They are far in excess of any other part of Natal. They may be-
widespread along the range from north to south, but they do not
occur at lower altitudes. Species seem to migrate readily along
mountain ranges. This may be due also to the general environ-
mental instability.

Plant Migration and the Affinities of the Natal Flora.

An analysis of the flora of Natal, family by family, brings to-
light the fact that it consists of two main important elements: (1)
the Tropical and (2) the Temperate. The former might also be
termed the "coast element" and the latter the "mountain element."
The tropical element in the narrowest sense consists of species
which actually occur in the tropics to the North., About 34 per
cent, of the coastbelt flora is of this nature. From this purely
tropical element a much larger sub-tropical element has been
derived, including most of the species which are dominant over the
midlands. The sub-tropical element extends also into the Cape
Colony, though few real tropical species do so except as stragglers
in favoured localities.

The purely tropical element is not confined to the coastbelt.
It is also found further inland in the main river valleys (see Mid-
land Dry Afalley Scrub described already). The species in this inland
tropical type are to a large extent distinct from those of the coast-
belt, as they are in the tropics to the North, but to a certain extent
there has been a migration inland, along the river valleys, of coast-
belt species, e.g., in the case of Dichrostachys nutans.

The temperate element of the Natal flora, as already men-
tioned, is most characteristic of the mountains, particularly the
great Drakensberg, which connects through the Stormberg and
Karroo ranges with the South-Western Cape Colony and to the
north with the high tropical ranges, right across the Equator and
north to Abyssinia. The Macchia and Alpine vegetation of the
Drakensberg is not only very similar to that of the Cape, but it
is also in many ways closely connected with that of Kilimanjaro,
Kenia, etc. The Drakensberg forms part of what may be looked
upon as a great highway of migration from north to south or from
south to north. At altitudes of 8,000 feet and more, the enor-
mous numbers of Compositae, Ericaceae, Rosaceae (Cliffortia,
Leucosidea), various bulbous Monocotyledons, etc., is to be con-
trasted with the absence or great scarcity of such families as Acan-
thaceae, Amarantaceae, Euphorbiaceae, etc., which are so
abundant on the coastbelt. Tropical or sub-tropical species are,
however, common and often dominant on the foothills and lower
slopes of the Drakensberg below 8.000 feet.

Within the limits of a single family, such as the Gramineae,
the same distinction may be drawn between Temperate and Tropical
elements. The genera Festuca, Poa, Avenastrum, Pentaschistis,
Danthonia are temperate in their affinities and are more or lessr

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 77

confined to the mountain regions of Natal, in contrast to the great
Andropogon, Fanicum, Aristida, Eragrostis, Sporobolus series
which are so abundant at lower altitudes.

While the temperate flora of the Drakensberg and the tropical
flora of the coastbelt and certain midland river valleys are clearly
very distinct, the vegetation of the midlands as a whole is not so
easily analysed. The dominant species in the subclimax and climax
communities, i.e., in grassveld and in forest, are subtropical in their
affinities. The grasses, trees, and shrubs are nearly all clearly to
be connected with other purely tropical species. Very often coast-
belt (tropical) species and midland (subtropical) species may be
paired in a rather striking way. Earlier stages of the plant suc-
cession are, however, not so clearly tropical or subtropical. The
vernal aspect societies in the grassveld are extraordinarily abundant,
and comprise a very high percentage of the total flora. The
Compositae and the bulbous Monocotyledons are by far the most
important, and they are also best represented on the Drakensberg.
It is true that they are common enough also on the coastbelt but
not in the scrub and forest (the subclimax and climax vegetation)
of the coastbelt. There they are relatively scarce. It would
appear, therefore, that the earlier stages of succession in the mid-
lands, including the numerous spring flowering plants of the grass-
veld, are to be reckoned as rather temperate than tropical in their
affinities and to be connected with the mountain flora rather than
with that of lower altitudes. This tentative conclusion would seem
to be supported by the recent experimental work of MacDougall*
in America on the interchange of species from one environmental
complex to another. He found that species from cool regions may
be more easily established in warm places than the reverse and
montane plants may come to the seashore more easily than plants
of maritime zones may spread over a mountain, and also that dis-
semination movements are seen to be freer from regions presenting
climatic extremes to more equable climates.

Ecology, particularly from the successional standpoint, has
many other useful applications apart from enabling one to classify
the vegetation units, to understand, and often to control their
development and to explain their distribution and their response to
environmental factors.

The plants themselves, apart from the communities to which
they belong, may be studied, compared, and classified, and the
experimental developments of physiological ecology are full of
promise.

Life Forms and Plant Succession.

The earliest attempts, such as that of Humboldt, at classifying
the growth forms of plants were simply physiognomic. Re-
semblances were noted in the members of the same group, and
heathforms, palmforms, grassforms, etc., were recognised. Of the

* MacDougall. D. T. "The Reactions of Plants to new Habitats."
Ecology, II, 1921.

78 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

later systems, that of Warming has become the best known. He
classified plants according to their water requirements, and his
terms "hydrophyte," "mesophyte," and "xerophyte" have become
familiar to every student of elementary Botany. Raunkiaer devised
an interesting system by using, as his main basis of classification,
the reaction of plants to the adverse season, a single factor which
influences very greatly their general life history and growth forms.
He also introduced a useful statistical method of comparing dif-
ferent climatic areas by estimating their agreement with or diverg-
ence from a "normal biological spectrum" for the whole world's
flora. I have elsewhere applied his system to the flora of Natal.

The systems of Clements, Drude, and others each have points
of interest, but time does not permit of further reference to them.
All these systems agree in taking as the main basis of classification
the plant's reaction to inorganic environmental factors. Those
who have investigated the vegetation of their areas from the purely
morphological or static standpoint without troubling about the
developmental aspect, seek first of all to determine each plant's
water requirements, soil requirements, etc. Those, on the other
hand, who are keenly interested in the life histories of the plant
communities not only try to assign each plant to its proper com-
munity as determined by habitat but, in the field, habitually ask
themselves the questions, "What is this plant's exact place in the
plant succession V "Does it tend to be suppressed by or to suppress
other plants?" and so on. It seems to me, therefore, that the
time is ripe for the introduction of a scheme of classification based
entirely on plant succession. Such a system takes into account not
only the inorganic but also the living environment, that is, the
plant's relationship to other plants, in" a way that no other system
does. It also, however, reflects the plants' response to other habitat
factors as well, and not only a single master factor but them all
collectively. It will be necessary to introduce one or two terms.
Ecological nomenclature has been held up to scorn by more than
one botanical author, but it is perfectly clear that for new ideas
we must have new and definite terms, and we need not worry over
much about those who will not take the trouble to understand
them.

All plants belong either to early or later stages of the plant
succession. For the former class the term "pioneer" is convenient
enough but for the plants which follow after the pioneers— there
is no good English term (I have elsewhere called them "subsequent
species"). To bring these two classes into line with other life-
forms we may use terms derived from the Greek, namely, "Prodo-
phytes" and "Hepophytes." Prodophytes are primitive colonising
species, which appear early in the plant succession, while Hepo-
phytes are species which require to have the way prepared for them,
and, therefore, appear later in the plant succession.

Further subdivision of these two classes is a very simple matter.
It consists in determining the unit plant succession or "sere" to

* Bews, J. W. " The Growth Forms of Natal Plants." Trans. Boy.
Soc. of S. Africa, V, 1916.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C. 791

which they belong, e.g., Prodophytes in the xerosere (Xeroprodo-
phytes) colonise bare surfaces and dry situations. Prodophytes in
the psammosere (Psammoprodophytes) colonise sand. Prodophytes
in the hydrosere (Hydroprodophytes) are the aquatic and marsh
plants. Corresponding to each of those we have Xerohepophytes,
Psammohepophytes, Hydrohepophytes. Recently a scheme of work
has been planned and to a certain extent has been carried out at
the Natal University College, consisting of a physiological —
anatomical comparison of typical prodophytes and hepophytes. The
work is still far from complete, and such results as have been
obtained have still to be checked in various ways, but the following
points may tentatively at least be put forward to illustrate the more,
important differences between the two classes : —

1. Prodophyes have more abundant and varied means of repro-
duction, both vegetatively and by means of seed, than hepophytes.
Annual and biennial plants are usually pioneers, especially in
secondary successions (subseres).

2. Prodophytes are adapted to more extreme conditions and
are therefore either xerophytic or hydrophytic. Hepophytes are
more mesophytic. Under very extreme conditions (of drought) the-
whole vegetation may be prodophytic. In that case the primitive
stage of the succession is also the final stage.

3. Prodophytes are light-demanding and intolerant of shade.
Hepophytes are shade bearers or intolerant of full sunlight, at least
in their early seedling stages, though they often become more light,
demanding as they grow.

4. Prodophytes are more low growing than the hepophytes
which belong to the same unit succession (sere). Many prodophytes
are creeping forms, while the hepophytes grow erect.

5. Prodophytes are often more deep-rooted than the hepo-
phytes which belong to the same sere.

6. The total number of prodophytic species is much smaller
than of hepophytic. The largest number of hepophytic species,
however, belong to intermediate rather than to final stages of the
plant succession.

7. Prodophytes are more widely distributed geographically
than hepophytes. (See Bews, Annals of Botany, 1920, p. 287.)

8. Prodophytes are somatically more plastic than hepophytes.
Individual species of prodophytes show a considerable degree of
variation in their structure and physiological behaviour, and are
found, therefore, under a wider range of environmental conditions,
than hepophytes.

9. Prodophytes are influenced chiefly by the inorganic environ-
mental factors, though the microflora and fauna of the soil is doubt-
less of importance. As soon as the succession advances far enough
to bring the living environment (of other plants) into operation,
prodophytes are ousted. For hepophytes the living environment
is of the utmost importance.

80 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION C.

10. Though somatically more plastic, prodophytes may be
germinally more rigid than hepophytes. This would explain why
new prodophytic species do not arise so frequently, and therefore
why prodophytic species are less numerous. Prodophytes, how-
ever, probably often give rise to new species which are hepophytic
and the reverse process may happen, also hepophytes producing
prodophytes.

Many of these tentative conclusions require 'further testing.
They illustrate, however, how by using this very fruitful compara-
tive method, light can be thrown on the laws of communal develop-
ment or succession. Such laws, once they are established, are
clearly of the utmost importance. Had time permitted, I should
have liked to indicate how by analogy such laws of plant succession
supply fruitful ideas to those interested in the laws governing the
development of human communities. In South Africa the pioneers
(voortrekkers) can be compared with the men that belong to the
more complex communities that have now been built up, and many
interesting points are brought to light. That, however, is a subject
which could be more appropriately dealt with by our friends in
Section F. of this Association.

Addendum.

Since the above was written, in the last number of Ecology
(Vol. II., 2, 1921) A. A. Hansen has published a short paper on
"The Terminology of Ultimate Vegetation." He proposes tbe
term "eschatopbyte" for any member of an ultimate (or climax)
vegetation. This term would not be synonymous quite with
hepophyte, which includes plants belonging to intermediate as well
;is final stages of succession.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION ' D. 81

:SOME RECENT ADVANCES IN ZOOLOGY AND THEIR
RELATION TO PRESENT-DAY PROBLEMS.

By H. B. Fantham, M.A. Cantab., D.Sc. Lond.

Professor of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand,

Johannesburg.

Presidential Address to Section D, delivered July 11, 1921.

Introduction.

To prepare and read an Address to a Section of an Association
if or the Advancement of Science is no light task, especially in these
days. A few months ago the columns of the scientific weekly,
"Nature," contained many letters from scientists and ordinary
laymen about the character of the addresses and papers read before
the British Association for the Ad\ancement of Science at Cardiff
an August, 1920. The majority of the remarks were critical and
somewhat derogatory, stating that the papers read were too abstruse
• or technical for the public and that the subjects chosen were not
•sufficiently "economic" in their application. Others wished Presi-
dents of Sections to give reviews relating to the advances in their
respective branches of science, instead of discussing subjects in their
branch of science with which they were especially familiar or in
which they were particularly interested.

Personally, I have decided to endeavour to meet some of these
wishes, which apply to any and every country, by attempting a
review rof my branch of science instead of discussing with you
various aspects of animal parasitology in which I am more par-
ticularly interested, and I readily agree that some attempt should
be made to show how each branch of science can help us in our
difficult present-day problems. As to emphasising or confining
oneself solely to the economic or utilitarian aspect, while sym-
pathising with the wish, yet a warning must be given that at the
ibasis of national prosperity there lies something greater and deeper
"than mere economic or technical efficiency, that cannot be measured
"by the statistics of trade returns. Plato, centuries ago, wrote:
"Man, if he enjoys a right education and a happy endowment,
'becomes the most divine and civilised of all living things; but he
is the most savage of all the products of the earth if he is inade-
quately and improperly trained." Milton expressed himself on
this matter thus: "A complete and generous education fits a man
to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices both
public and private of peace and war."

82 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS- -SECTION D.

Science pursued for its own sake widens the outlook of the*
individual and trains his reasoning powers. "Pure science" must
never be ignored, for the apparently academic and "useless"
researches of to-day may be of the greatest technical benefit to-
morrow. Examples of the truth of this in our own time are seen
in the researches of Metchnikoff in 1884 on phagocytic cells in the
blood of Daphnia, a transparent water-flea, when it was infested
by a yeast-like parasite called Monospora. The phagocytes engulfed
and digested the parasite. He had been working at phagocyte
cells earlier (1880), having been led thereto by his observations on
living jellyfish, sponges, embryos of Echinoderms and certain trans-
parent floating Gastropods, while Professor of Zoology at Odessa.
From these purely zoological studies he developed the great theory
of phagocytes and their importance in relation to inflammation
and the problem of immunity. Other examples are afforded by the
work of Ronald Ross on the role of mosquitoes in the transmission
of malaria, of Cailletet and Pictet on the liquefaction of gases, of
Rontgen on the X-rays, and the early experiments of Marconi.
Further, it is not for us to narrow the applications of science to
the limits of our own horizons, otherwise we stultify real advances
and limit ourselves to improvements in relative minutiae. Pure
science — the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake — eventually
gives a much greater and more comprehensive power of
dealing with practical problems on effective lines than if the pur'
suit is narrowly tied to strictly utilitarian ends. Nature can only
be effectively controlled when she is thoroughly understood, and
this thorough understanding can only be obtained when she is
studied for her own sake.

To attempt to review the recent advances in a subject like
zoology is really to attempt an impossible task, for no one man
can nowadays keep abreast of advances in comparative anatomy of
animals, in cytology, in genetics, in animal parasitology, in
oceanography and fisheries, and at the same time have interests of
his own, that is, a corner of the subject on which he himself
researches. However, I think I may be able to put forward some-
interesting and even practical information from such an attempted
general survey of the work of zoologists during the last ten years,
paying less attention to the older branches of the subject like*
detailed morphology and comparative anatomy, but dealing with
the more recently studied branches of the subject. Of course no
claim to completeness can be put forward, and the element of selec-
tion has necessarily entered into a compilation such as the review
must largely be.

Before proceeding further, however, I should like briefly to
express my views on the study of the subject of zoology. For the
progress of the science, study of the living organism itself — its
feeding, growth and reproduction — is essential. We must not for-
get the environment. Our methods must be those of observation
and experiment before we can tabulate inferences. There is a
danger nowadays of dividing the subject into relatively smalt

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 83

sections, devoted to studies with purely economic aims. The study
of comparative morphology, including embryology and some his-
tology, is indispensable. A knowledge of some animal life-histories
is also required. Early specialisation is to be deplored. The
specialist needs a breadth of outlook, an orientation in the whole
field of his science, in order to have balance and perspective, which
are absolutely necessary.

Animal Parasitology.

In this subject, which is a vast one, we may first note the use
made of protozoologists, helminthologists, and entomologists in the
Great War, more especially in America, where they were given
military rank. Thousands of examinations of blood smears for
malarial parasites, of stools for parasitic Protozoa and helminthic
ova, and experiments for the control of lice and of flies — to name
but two insects — were made. Several strains or pure lines of
Entamoeba histolytica, sometimes called Endamoeba dysenteriae in
America, the causal agent of amoebic dysentery, were definitelv
indicated as a result. In malaria the continued use of quinine for
three months after apparent recovery from malaria was indicated.
In helminthology, after the work of Japanese scientists regarding
the stages of Schistosoma (Bilharzia) japonic)/ m in snails, Leiper
determined the Gastropod hosts of S. haematobium and »S'. mansoni
in Egypt, and Porter, Cawston, and Becker have worked at the
problem in South Africa. Porter has now determined the life-cycle
and molluscan hosts of »S'. haematobium and jS'. mansoni, and
incidentally those of the African cattle fluke, Fasciola gigantica.
as well as those of F . hepatica in South Africa.

The actual nature of the organism causing typhus, which is
transmitted by lice, still baffles us. But, being certain that it is
lice-borne, we now know an effective way of attacking typhus by
de-lousing campaigns, just as earlier, thanks to the labours of Sir
Ronald Ross, we know that anti-mosquito measures against
Anophelines will control malaria. Also, thanks to American inves-
tigators, we know that anti-mosquito measures against Stegomyia
fasciata will control yellow fever. The causal organism of yellow
fever is stated by Noguchi to be a spirochaete, Leptospira, icteroides.

In Africa there is still a most important economic entomo-
logical problem to be investigated further, namely, the bionomics
of Glossinae or tsetse flies and their relation to big game, in order
to control various forms of trypanosomiasis, such as sleeping sick-
ness in man and nagana in cattle. In 1910 a second human
trypanosome, T. rhodesiense, was discovered.

In protozoology important researches, affording interesting
evidence in the evolution of disease, have been carried on bv
Laveran and Franchini and by Fantham and Porter, who experi-
mentally introduced species of Herpetomonas into various verte-
brates. Leishmania in culture shows that it is a Herpetomonas,
and the experiments mentioned, on Induced herpetomoniasis, show
that Leishmania is an insect-borne Herpetomonas which can live

.84 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

in some vertebrates, such as men, dogs and mice, in a state of more
or less disharmony causing disease.*

Though hardly parasitological, it may be mentioned that the
Protozoa found in soil are being examined, and their relationships
with bacteria and possibly with the fertility of the soil are being
investigated in England, America, and South Africa.

Important work on Nematodes, their life-histories and their
■effects on the growth of agricultural food-plants — such as wheat,
potatoes, and tomatoes — on domestic cattle and on man has been,
and is still, in progress. Such work is being done in South Africa .
and mention may be made of the important work of Dr. F. Vegli;i
on Haemonchus contortus, the wire-worm of sheep.

The Rockefeller Foundation for medical research, through the
agency of their International Health Board, have performed mag-
nificent work in the treatment of patients suffering from ancylostc-
lriasis (hookworm disease) in many countries.

Very interesting and useful work has been done by entomolo-
gists in endeavouring to find natural enemies or parasites of noxious
insects.

Animal Physiology.

Much work has been done on the ductless glands or endocrine
organs and the effects of their internal secretions. We may notice
with interest some researches on the thyroid gland in the lower
vertebrates, especially the Amphibia. Tadpoles fed with mam-
malian thyroid metamorphosed weeks before the control animals.
For example, Rana catesbiana, which normally takes two or three
seasons in its metamorphosis, only takes one month if fed on
thyroid. Surgical removal of the thyroid arrests metamorphosis,
the tadpoles remaining as larvae though their reproductive organs
continue to develop. The active principle of the thyroid has been
isolated, and is called thyroxin. It is an iodide of an indole pro-
pionic acid, and the activity of the gland varies directly with its
iodine content. It has been suggested by Swingle and supported
T>y TJhlenhuth that amphibian metamorphosis is due to the inter-
action of different environmental agencies. TJhlenhuth suggests that
there is a reciprocal relation between the activities of the para-
thyroids and thymus, in that the former absorb a tetany toxin
made by the latter. The inter-relationships of the endocrine

* Since this was written Mrs. Helen A. Adie has published a short
paper in which she states that there is an intracellular stage in
the development of the Leishman-Donovan hody occurring in the
cells of the gut-wall of the bed-bug, Cimex lectularius, and similar
to that of Trypanosoma lewisi in the stomach-epithelium of the
rat-flea. It is stated that Major W. S. Patton has confirmed this
intracellular stage of Leishmania donovani in the bed-bug. "Indian
Journ. Med. Research," IX, pp. 255-260, October, 1921). Patton,
himself, contributes a short note, on his findings on p. 251 of the
same Journal, where he states that the intracellular stage of Herpe-
tomonas (Leishmania) donovani occurs in the mid-gut of Cimex
hemiptera (rotundatus) and that Leishmania tropica has a similar
intracellular stage in the same insect, showing that the bed-bug
is a true invertebrate host of these parasites. Mrs. Adie (Nov.,
1921) has also found Leishman-Donovan bodies in the salivary
^glands of Cimex rotundatus.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 85

organs are also indicated by hyperpituitarism and hypertrophy of
the parathyroids apparently resulting from thyroidectomy of
amphibian larvae. Pineal secretion seems to react on the chromato-
phores or melanophores of the skin, causing them to contract, and
so producing striking temporary changes in colouration, which is
not without interest when the archaic function of the pineal body
as an eye structure is remembered.

The present author found that fresh extract of sheep's thyroid
gland induced rapid division of trypanosomes in vitro, more rapid
than the normal.

Fisheries Work.

Fisheries development has received considerable attention
during the last few years both in Europe and America, while a new
beginning has been made recently in South Africa. Such develop-
ments have, in many instances, been made possible by purely scien-
tific work, undertaken with no idea of immediate economic appli-
cation. Thus, the development of the great north-western fishing
grounds of Great Britain resulted from the endeavours of Wyville
Thomson and others to determine the presence or absence of life
in the deep sea.

Work on the life-history of flat fish, e.g., plaice and soles, has
led to transplantation on a large scale off the English coasts, and
fish hatching experiments, similarly, have led to the stocking of
inland waters in America, resulting in great increase of the avail-
able food of the people. A start has also been made in South
Africa, and the trout hatcheries have done useful work.

Commercial use has been made of the scientific investigations
of the life-histories of crabs, lobsters and crayfishes, and large
canning industries have arisen therefrom. As a result of the In-
vestigations mentioned, protection Taws have been enacted with
regard to females in berry, the enforcement of the said laws pre-
venting the destruction of ova, with subsequent increase in the
bulk of Crustacea available for human food. Similarly, scientific
work on the life and habits of oysters and mussels permitted of the
utilisation of a hitherto neglected source of food supplv.

Again, the study of larval stages of molluscs has led to the
establishment in America of numerous freshwater mussel fisheries,
providing nacre for pearl buttons, and of pearl-shell farms in the
Red Sea.

Much attention has been given by zoologists to the subject of
the physico-chemical environment of organisms and its influenc°
on the observed variations of animal and plant life in the sea. It
is known that there are seasonal variations in the marine plankton :
but the causes of this periodicity are not. known with certaintv. The
warm waters of the tropics are said to support a less abundant
plankton than the cold polar waters. Probablv to be correlated
with this is the observation that the nitrogen concentration in
tropical waters is low, being higher in cold waters. A^ain, the
hvdrogen-ion concentration, as tested by the relative degree of
alkalinitv or acidity of sea-water, has been investigated in relation

86 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

to marine life. Alkalinity has been found to be low in summer,
to increase somewhat in autumn, to disappear in winter, and to
reappear again in spring (March) at Port Erin, Isle of Man, reach-
ing a maximum in April or May. This change corresponds roughly
to the change in the phyto-plankton observed there. It has been
shown also that the diatoms increase in numbers when the water
is at its coldest, and these are followed by swarms of Copepods.
The number of Copepods in a given area determines the presence
or absence of swarms of fish, such as herring and mackerel, that,
prey on them. As Crustacea feed largely on diatoms and flagel-
lates, a knowledge of the distribution of these may be sufficient
to initiate new enterprises in fishery work.

It is well known that the great intermediate zone of waters
between surface and bottom used to be considered lifeless.
Thomson's work, to which reference was made earlier, showed that
this was not the case. Recently, according to arguments advanced
by A. H. Church, such a zone of waters has a special evolutionary
interest, since it was possibly from a former world-wide ocean of
ionised water that the first living organisms were evolved to become
later the floating unicellular plants of the primitive plankton.

Cytology and Sex.

An enormous amount of work has been done on cytology
during the last twenty years. Among the pioneers mention may
be made of Boveri and E. B. Wilson. It is quite impossible even
to attempt to outline this work. Perhaps notice of some recent
work may suffice before we pass on to consider work on chromosomes
and sex.

Outside the nucleus of the cell and within the cytoplasm are
the Golgi apparatus and mitochrondria. Within the nucleus in
addition to chromosomes are nucleoli. The nucleoli are either
plasmosomes or karyosomes. The independence of the nucleolus
and the chromosomes has been shown in the division of the cell.
The nucleolus is an important element in the cell, being concerned
with important metabolic functions. Gatenby considers the
nucleolus to represent trophochromatin and the chromosomes to
represent the gonochromatin.

Most interesting and promising advances have arisen from
studies of the chromosomes of the germ cells of certain animals,
especially in connection with Mendelian experiments with hybrids.
The chromosomes are stainable bodies in the nucleus of a cell,
especially of a germ cell, that carry hereditary characteristics, both
physical and mental, from the parent to the children. Formerly
it was thought that the chromosomes of the germ cells of the two
sexes were the same in number. However, an accessory chromo-
some was discovered by several observers, who found that in the
males of certain insects belonging to the Hemiptera and Ortho-
ptera there was one chromosome that behaved differently from its
fellows during maturation or reducing divisions. This chromosome
took no part in the pairing of the maternal and paternal chromo-
somes, but passed undivided to one pole of the division spindle.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 87

when migration of the other chromosomes to the poles occurs. In
■consequence the resulting spermatozoa were of two kinds, namely,
those possessing the accessory chromosome and those lacking it. As
long ago as 1902 McClung, one of the first observers of this
phenomenon, suggested that the accessory chromosome was the deter-
mining factor in sex. The famous American cytologist, Professor
E. B. Wilson, and others followed up this matter, and found that
the accessory or X chromosome, as it began to be called, was paired
in the female. The two X chromosomes in the female behave in a
general or normal manner, so that all eggs after maturation con-
tain a single X chromosome. As a consequence, at fertilisation
two classes of eggs are produced — (a) eggs fertilised by a spermato-
zoon carrying the X chromosome, and (b) eggs fertilised by a
spermatozoon carrying no X chromosome. Two kinds of zygotes
(as the fertilised eggs are called) will be produced, namely (a)
zygotes with what has been called XX constitution, and (b) zygotes
with X constitution. Furthermore, the highly interesting result
follows that the first type of fertilised eggs or zygotes develop into
females and the second type into males.

During the early period of the investigations other Hemiptera
were found by Wilson to exhibit further chromosome peculiarities,
wherein the X chromosome of the male was accompanied by
another, a mate, called the Y chromosome, usually much smaller
than X. It was found that the X and Y chromosomes conjugated
during maturation, so that half the resulting sperm contain the X
chromosome and half contain the Y chromosome. The X con-
taining sperm are female-producing, the Y containing ones .are
male-producing. Morgan's work on the fruit fly, Drosophila
ampelophila, revealed some most interesting characters illustrating
this principle. In this fly a number of new characters have
appeared suddenly, by mutation, and their inheritance can be
studied, since the fly breeds rapidly. Morgan's researches on eye
colour in this fly may be described best in his own words, thus:
"Certain factors follow the distribution of the X chromosome and
are therefore supposed to be contained in them. These factors are
said to be sex-linked. The inheritance of white eyes may serve as
an illustration for the entire group of sex-linked characters. If a
white-eyed male is bred to a red-eyed female (wild type), the sons
and daughters (F2) have red eyes. If these are inbred the
offspring (F2) are three reds to one white, but the white-
eyed flies are all males. If we trace the history of the sex
chromosomes we can see how this happens In the red-
eyed - mother each egg contains an X chromosome bearing
a factor for red eyes. In the white-eyed father half of
the spermatozoa contain an X chromosome which carries a factor
for white eyes, while the other half contain a Y chromosome which
carries no factors. Any egg fertilised by an X-bearing spermato-
zoon of the white-eyed father will produce a female that has one
red-producing X chromosome and one white-producing X chromo-
some. Her eyes are red, because red dominates white. Any egg
fertilised by a Y-bearing spermatozoon of the white-eyed father
will produce a son that has red eyes, because his X chromosome

83 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

brings in the red factor from the mother, while the Y chromosome
does not bring in any dominant factor. At the ripening of the
germ cells in the F± female the number of chromosomes is reduced
to half. There result two kinds of eggs, half with the red-bearing
and half with the white-bearing X. Similarly in the male there
will be two classes of sperm, half with the red-bearing X chromo-
some, half with the indifferent Y chromosome. Random meeting
of eggs and sperm will give ... a 3 : 1 ratio, as in other Mendelian
crosses, but the white individuals in F2 will be males. The factor
for red in the Fx male will always stay in the X chromosome, so
that all the female-producing spermatozoa will carry red, and con-
sequently all F2 females will be red. The males will have red
eyes if they receive the red-bearing chromosome from their mother
and white eyes if they receive the white-bearing chromosome from
their mother.

The reciprocal cross is made by mating a white-eyed female to
a red-eyed male. The daughters will have red eyes and the sons
white eyes. If these are inbred their offspring will be red and
white in equal numbers, and not the visual three reds to one white."

In Lepidoptera and birds there is a surprise as regards sex
chromosomes, for the usual conditions are reversed. The eggs are-
male and female-determining, not the spermatozoa, as the sperm
are alike and the eggs are different as regards accessory chromo-
somes.

The sex-chromosome hypothesis explains sex-limited in-
heritance, such as colour blindness (commoner in males) and
haemophilia.

Turning now to man, it is of interest to note that in the negro,
according to Guyer and to Montgomery,* there is only half the
number of chromosomes found in the white race. In the latter the
somatic number is 48 in the female and 47 in the male.

Most interesting work has been done by Alan S. Parkes on
"Sex heredity with special reference to the abnormal numerical
inequality between the sexes." Investigations on the subject have
taken two lines, first, breeding experiments and pedigrees of families
showing sex-limited characteristics, and second, cytological research
where "a physical factor was looked for as an elaboration of the
chromosome theory." The supernumerary pair of chromosomes, or
a pair in one sex and one — or one and a vestigial one — in the other
sex, provided the explanation. The result has been to establish
that man is grouped with the higher animals and with the Droso-
phila fly in possessing heterozygous males and homozygous females.
The inclusion of man Is based on the study of sex-limited charac-

* Since writing the above my attention has been drawn to a letter by
T. S. Painter in "Science," May 27. 1921, who accepts the results
of H. von Winiwarter as regards the number of chromosomes in
man (approximating to 48), and apparently finds no difference in
number tor whites and American negroes. Unfortunately Painter
does not appear to have followed up his work by a more complete
publication, and it is hardly a correct procedure to rush into print
with a mere letter on such an interesting matter, without stating his
evidence more fully.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 89'

teristics. Parkes has now worked out the cause of the preponder-
ance of one sex over another by genealogical investigations. Race.
also appears to be a factor. He states that "among the Jews, no
matter in what part of the world they may happen to be resident,
there invariably occurs a much greater normal excess of male
births over female than is the case with Christians." Also, during
the recent war, the ratio of male to female births rose steadily and
persistently. It may be assumed that the war was in some obscure
way beneficial to the welfare of the Y gametes. Also, "fluctuation
in the number of male births per 1,000 female during the last
century follows almost exactly the rise and fall in the economic
price of food. ... It is impossible for sex to be altered by
nutrition after conception, so ... we conclude that higher
economic prices, and, consequently, more hardships, are capable of
affecting the gametic ratios of the heterozygous sex, and of alter-
ing it in favour of the gametes with the male potentialities."

Parkes' family analyses supply direct evidence that in man
the male is heterozygous for sex, while the female is homozygous.
The female has no determining influence on the sex of the off-
spring, and the characteristic of begetting a preponderance of one
sex over the other is an attribute of the male.

The Processes of Evolution.

Evolution may be defined as the gradual differentiation of
organisms from common ancestral forms. It is the only reason-
able explanation of the diversity of fossil and living beings. In
enquiring into the mechanism of evolution we must consider the
reciprocal influence — or action and reaction — of agents external
to the organism on the one hand and of the living substance itself
on the other. The external factors together constitute the environ-
ment and the internal factors are the specific properties of the
organism. The environment is the more easily analysed. The
two principal hypotheses proposed to explain evolution were both
based on the efficacy of external factors, namely, the hypothesis
of Lamarck in 1809 and the hypothesis of Darwin in 1859.
Lamarck's hypothesis begins with the conception that the struc-
ture of organisms is in harmony with the conditions under which
they lived and that it is adapted to these conditions. The organism
is sTiaped by the environment. Usage develops the organs in the
individual and without usage they become atrophied. The modi-
fications thus acquired are transmitted to posterity, i.e., acquired
characters are inherited. Lamarckism looked to the very cause of
the change or variation among organisms by its method of explain-
ing adaptation.

Darwin in his later life admitted the theoretical importance
of adaptation and the inheritance of acouired characteristics, but
placed them in a position of secondarv importance in the accom-
plishment of evolution. Darwin found a basis in the variability
of organisms which he accepted as an observed fact, without trying
to discover the cause of variations. The individuals which pos-
sessed advantageous variations under the conditions in which they
lived had more chance to survive and to reproduce themselves.

.DO PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

There is established a natural selection, i.e., a choice which per-
petuates the advantageous variations and eliminates the others.

Among Neo-Lamarckians, A. Giard accorded to natural selec-
tion the value of a secondary factor. Among the Neo-Darwinians
we have Weismann, who believed in the continuity of the germ-
plasm, denied all value to Lamarckian factors, and saw in selection
the predominant factor in evolution. Such was approximately the
state of affairs at the end of the 19th century. In this, the
twentieth century, however, two kinds of investigation have de-
veloped, namely, the methodical study of variations and the
systematic study of heredity, especially of hybridisation. The
two kinds of investigation overlap. De Vries (1901) studying the
Evening Primrose [Oenothera laniarckiana) considered that he
found new species suddenly arise by saltations, and to these
sudden appearances he gave the name mutations. Further study
has led to the distinction of two kinds of variations, namely :
(1) small casual ones called fluctuations produced under the
influence of the environment but not hereditary, and (2) large dis-
continuous variations or mutations, not directly dependent upon
the environment but upon heredity. It may be added, however,
that some of the most recent investigations indicate that the dis-
tinction between these variations must not be too greatly

■ emphasised. The important new branch of biology termed
genetics has arisen from these studies.

In these important researches the reconsideration and exten-
sion of the valuable work of Abbot Gregor Mendel on hybridisa-
tion, announced in 1865 but overlooked until 1900, has formed a
basis. The fundamental principle of Mendel's results was that the
unit characters or factors contributed by two parents of a cross
separate, in the germ cells of the offspring without having had any
influence on each other. For example, Mendel himself worked on
crossing different varieties of the garden pea. He found that of
certain contrasted couples of parental characters or factors, such
as tallness and dwarf ness, which did not blend, one was dominant

•over the other, which was latent or recessive. The first genera-
tion of hybrids was apparently all dominant, but it Avas subse-
quently found that they were really impure dominant. When
these hybrids were inbred it was found that one-quarter of them
reverted to the dominant type, one-quarter to the recessive type,
while one half reproduced hybrid features, and that these propor-
tions were maintained when the impure dominants were again
inbred. The inbred offspring of pure dominants and pure reces-
sives bred true. More than one pair of contrasted characters or
factors may differ in parents. In crossing, the two pairs of factors
segregate independently of each other, and the ratio 9:3:3:1
is characteristic of dihybrids when one member of each pair of
characters is dominant. Strict supporters of these principles con-
sider that Mendelian factors are unchangeable.

Again, reference should be made to the work of Johannsen in
1903 and onwards on self-fertilising pure-bred plants like beans,
where there is a continuation of one and the same line, for tl'e

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 91

•same hereditary substance is perpetuating itself through a series
of generations. To such a group of individuals, produced in the
manner indicated and roughly similar to one another, without
tendency to break into types, the term "pure line" has been
-applied. If the pure-line hypothesis is absolutely correct, then
selection within a self-fertilised family has no result. Johannsen's
ideas favour the view of the constancy of factors, as held by Men-
delians. Karl Pearson, however, has shown that Johannsen's
results were not conclusive.

Dr. Warren, in South Africa, experimenting with foxgloves
.and nasturtiums, obtained results which do not favour the pure-
.line hypothesis. He found that the fluctuating variations are
inheritable, not as stated by the Mendelians, and that the factors
handed down to the fertilised germ-cell are not constant, but are
variable in nature. He concludes that "the smallest variation
may be inheritable, and can be utilised in the course of evolution."

Although the researches of Morgan and his collaborators in
America on chromosomes as bearers of the hereditary material
have been interpreted in Mendelian terms, yet recently these
interpretations have been challenged, notably by W. E. Castle and
by H. S. Jennings. We must therefore endeavour briefly to con-
sider the brilliant researches of T. H. Morgan, which were largely
lone on Drosophila ampelophila, the fruit fly or pomace fly. This
fly breeds quickly. Much consideration was given to eye colour.
The eye is normally red, but various mutations appeared during
the investigation, thus one mutation showed white eye colour,
another eosin eye colour, and there were found ultimately seven
grades of colour due to changes in the X chromosome. This is an
example of a single unit factor with many grades. Morgan and
his collaborators belong to the Mendelian school. The seven
grades of eye colour on the mutation hypothesis are explained by
"multiple modifying factors." The grades of colour are thought
by them to be essentially discontinuous, but the steps in the series
become minute, and in the end barely detectable. Bridges, con-
tinuing the work, found seven secondary grades within one of the
primary ones. We must also mention the important researches
of W. E. Castle, especially those on hooded rats, showing graded
results of the amount of colour in the rat's coat in biparental
inheritance. Castle explains the graded coat colour in rats and the
graded eye colour in Drosophila not as the working out of Men-
delian recombinations of mosaic-like parts, but he believes in
actual alterations of the hereditary constitution, indeed, an actual
change in a single-unit factor, and that in rats he can by selection
gradually increase or decrease the amount of colour in the coat,
passing by continuous stages from one extreme to another.

H. S. Jennings holds much the same views as Castle. Jennings
worked on Paramoecium and on Difflugia corona, where he found
that a particular stock or strain resulting bv fission from a single
parent, does differentiate gradually, with the passage of genera-
tions into many hereditarily diverse strains. Most of these heredi-
tary variations were minute gradations, and "variation was as

9

92 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION' D.

continuous as could be detected." Similar conclusions were>-
reached by R. W. Hegner.

Castle wisely remarks that mutation and pure lines have a
limited applicability in the broad field of organic evolution. He
thinks that through selection or after selection a Mendelian unit
character can be changed. Selection may not be able to start new
lines of variation, yet it can continue and extend variation already
begun. Warren's work, already noted, has the same conclusion.
We thus see that, although during the last few years the import-
ance of the role of selection in evolution has declined in favour
and has even been doubted, largely due to De Vries' work on
mutations and to Johannsen's work on pure lines, yet according
to Jennings and to Castle the discontinuous variations ultimately
become continuous and selection is a process in evolution after all.

Jennings sums up the matter thus: "Evolution, according to
the typical Darwinian scheme, through the occurrence of many
small variations and their guidance by natural selection, is per-
fectly consistent with what experimental and palaeontological.
studies show us; to me it appears more consistent with the data
than does any other theory."

In the last sentence the evidence from palaeontological studies
was mentioned. Following Osborn, as interpreted by Jennings, iti
may be stated that in palaeontology the evidence is for evolution
by minute, continuous variations, which follow a definite trend or
course. There are, however, other variations from the line of
definite trend.

Another palaeontologist, Dr. Bather, in his address on
"Fossils and Life" before the British Association last year, states
that in organisms the "changes of form are a reaction to the
stimuli of the outer world." He favours the view that "the life
history of races is a response to their environment." The "en-
vironment changes slowly and the response of the organism always
lags behind it." A living organism cannot be conceived apart
from its environment. Palaeontologists nowadays are the chief
opponents of the hypothesis of discontinuity.

Osborn expresses the Lamarckian explanation of the pro-
cesses of evolution in modern terms thus: "The causes of genesis
of new form and new function are to be sought in the body cells."
He expresses the Darwinian explanation in the following terms:
"The genesis of new form and function is to be sought in the germ
cells or chromatin." These interpretations are probably much
more sharply distinct or antithetical than Lamarck or Darwin
would have made them, or even than the problem, being one of
living organisms, warrants. Now that we know of hormones, or
internal secretions, it is possible that such secretions of certain
parts of the soma, when affected by external stimulation, may
affect the germ cells. It may be stated then that selection may
take place through the action of external conditions. Indeed,
MacBride writes that "selection alone, when the environment
remains constant, is powerless to effect evolution."

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 93

It will now be well to consider Lamarckism, including the
belief in the inheritance of acquired characters, from modern
aspects.

The hypothesis of the inheritance of acquired characters is
championed in Britain by MacBride. Early this year he published
an interesting review on the subject in "Science Progress." This
hypothesis implies that changes in habit and environment produce
an effect, not only on the animals directly exposed to them, but
also on their offspring. The changes produced by an altered
environment are an expression of the response or reaction of the
animal in its endeavour to adapt itself to changed circumstances.
By the inheritance of acquired characters is meant the inheritance
of the effects of use and disuse. We may note some of the inter-
esting researches, many of them experimental, published recently
in support of this hypothesis.

Kammerer working in Vienna has carried out a series of
experiments chiefly on Amphibia. One set of experiments was on
European salamanders. The yellow salamander, S. maculosa,
inhabits the lowlands and gives rise to 30 to 40 gilled young. The
black salamander, S. atra, lives at high altitudes and gives birth
to only two young. The gilled young of S. maculosa
live in water for six weeks before losing their gills and changing
into the land form. The young of S. atra are born as terrestrial
animals, ready to take up the mode of life of the parent. How-
ever, if a pregnant black salamander is opened, at least a dozen
embryos are found Inside, but only two embryos are destined to
survive, for the others degenerate to form a fluid that serves to
nourish the two. The two lucky embryos possess long gills, but
these gills are absorbed before birth. According to MacBride,.
Kammerer asserts that "if S. atra be graduallv accustomed to live
under warmer and moister conditions she will begin to produce
first three and ultimately four young at a birth, that these youn?
will enter the world at an abnormally early period of development
— even before the gills are fully absorbed ; that if these young be
reared to maturity under the same conditions they will give rise to
still more young at a birth, and these young will be provided
with gills, and will take to the water — in a word, that S. atra can
be induced to assume the habits of S. maculosa, and that these
habits will be transmitted to posterity." Kammerer has also per-
formed the reverse experiment. He finds that if S. maculosa, is
subjected to increasing cold and drvness, it produces fewer at a
birth, and these are born in a more advanced state of development.
In three generations only three or four are born at one birth, their
gills are mere stumps, the gill clefts are closed, and the animals
can live on land. S. maculosa has apparently acquired the habits
of S. atra.

Kammerer has also experimented with the midwife toad,
Alytes obstetricans. Alvtes differs from other toads in that it pairs
on land, and the male does not develop a horny pad on the hand.
The eggs are larger and fewer in number than in the case of
ordinary toads. The male carries the fertilised eg^-strings round

34 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

his legs and hops away encumbered with them. Some weeks later
he visits the water and the eggs are hatched. The emerging tad-
poles have already covered up their gills. Kammerer provided
adult Alytes with a tank for bathing. They began to pair in the
water. Under this circumstance the eggs slipped off the male's
legs and remained in the water. Only a few of them survived.
But the toads hatched from these eggs paired in the water. The
females laid smaller eggs and the tadpoles from them had external
gills, but only one on each side. However, the third generation of
Alytes raised in the water produced eggs that gave rise to tadpoles
with three external gills on each side as in ordinary toads, while
the males had horny patches on their hands. By further experi-
ments it was found that the horny pad increased in size and de-
finiteness up to the fifth generation. Bateson has questioned some
of Kammerer's work.

Further interesting experiments noted by MacBride are those
of Guyer and Smith, published in 1920. These observers worked
on rabbits. The lenses of the eyes of rabbits were pulped in
Ringer's solution, and the fluid injected into domestic fowls. After
a few weeks an antibody developed in the fowl's blood. Fowl
serum containing the antibody was injected into pregnant rabbits.
The mothers were unaffected, but some of the young showed
diminished or aborted lenses to their eyes, and correspondingly
developed retinae. Many of the young with imperfect eyes died,
but some survived. These mated together gave rise to young,
some of which showed the defect, and this defect was observable
through six generations without any further injection of serum.
Two instances of inheritance through the male alone were noted.
The defects once established became more pronounced in successive
generations. Guyer and Smith suggest that "the degenerating
eyes are themselves directly or indirectly originating antibodies in
the blood serum of their bearers — which in turn affect the germ
.cells."

We have now briefly reviewed some of the modern ideas on
the processes or modes of evolution. In the past too much appears
to have been made of differences between the various hypotheses put
forward to explain the processes. Ruggles Gates has suggested that
the higher organisms exhibit two types of characters, namely, cell
characters arising as mutations, and organismal characters (en-
vironmental or orthogenic) which may modify localised parts of
the life cvcle. We have seen how the views of Jennings and Castle
indicate the merging of mutations and continuous variations. Pos-
sibly through the agency or interaction of internal secretions or
chemical messengers, as yet perhaps not fully understood, the
various discrepancies in the hypotheses may be reconciled and their
inter-rel ationships demonstrated .

Application to Present-Day Problems.

The outstanding features all over the world to-day are the

struggle between nations closely linked with the struggle between

Capital and Labour. Statesmen are powerless, leaders are not

obeyed. Moderate opinion is swamped by extremes and exaggera-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 95'

tion. The causes for these deplorable conditions are perfectly
obvious, but we have not time now nor would it be our province
to discuss them. Nevertheless, our social and educational prob-
lems*"have suffered too long already at the hands of the biologically
untrained, while surely in the whole matter of human heredity
or eugenics the biologist is clearly the one to lead the way.

A League of Nations has been launched by learned and
earnest men as a means of settling disputes and ending wars.
Unfortunately these learned and earnest men who launched this
beautiful idea — for it is beautiful — were not too well acquainted
with biology. They forgot the environment, they proceeded too
quickly and too idealistically, they forgot human nature, they
forgot the protoplasm or living substance in their eagerness to*
mould an ideal environment. Man is an animal and he is subject
to the same laws as other animals. Nations and peoples must be
educated slowly and carefully, yet naturally, to respond to such
an ideal conception. A mere committee, comfortably seated in
armchairs, with a capable secretariat and careful agendas for meet-
ings, realises little or nothing of the action and reaction of living
substance and environment. Lawyers and politicians, unfor-
tunately, scarcely realise this, almost the fundamental basis of
life. Why do not the Supreme Council, or the League of Nations,
or whatever other Council is really concerned — unfortunately there
are too many of these exalted bodies — realise that in the matter
of, say, Upper Silesia, they should give a decision and avoid delay
and so not allow this irritant to remain in Europe. One of the
characteristics of living matter is response to stimuli, and it is
ealled irritability. The simple characteristics of living matter
need to be studied by rulers, ambassadors, administrators, lawyers.
I venture to think that had all the representatives on the Council
of the League of Nations a knowledge of the reactions of a speck
of living matter like an Amoeba, inhabiting pond water, to stimuli,
such as a drop of weak acetic acid, it would probably do more good
to the world than all the notes and pious resolutions ever com-
posed. Whitehead has already written of the likelihood of men of
science being called, from their laboratories to regenerate the State.
We hear much of how Science won the war. We may possibly
hear of how science is making the world a better place to live in,
but do we clearly understand that in scarcely any part of the
British Empire are scientists present in the Cabinet ?

Again, man is said to differ from the so-called brute creation
by the possession of consciousness as opposed to instinct, in other
words, by being capable of conscious intelligent action leading to
higher aspirations or ideals. In the past these higher ideals have
often been called religion. To-day we hear insistently about the
workers needing to obtain a higher standard of living. In prac-
tice this higher standard of living for many is merely undisciplined
amusement, indulgence in luxuries and excitement, with the
higher mental faculties starved. After a time the excitement tires
the poor living substance, and dissatisfaction ensues with all its
attendant ills and misfortunes. It cannot be doubted that religion

96 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

or idealism is necessary to all, and is essential to human progress.
As Tansley in his book, "The New Psychology," writes: "If ell
religious tradition had been destroyed at any given moment and
a new generation brought up in ignorance that it had ever existed,
it can scarcely be doubted that a new religion, of substantially the
same type, though varying in form according to the epoch, would
have appeared."

The old dogmatic religions have failed; they were not in
reality religions. Unfortunately religion and science appeared to
quarrel irreparably over Darwin's enunciations some 60 years ago.
The clergy are usually educated in lack and ignorance of the prin-
ciples of biology, many of them being convinced that a biologist
is an "infidel." This can quite easily be altered by the gradual
teaching' of animal biology in schools and by making a course in the
elements of evolutionary biology a necessary part of of every Univer-
sity curriculum. Let this course contain instruction in the character-
istics of living matter, a knowledge of the various great groups of
animals stated in simple language with a due insistence on en-
vironment and habitat, a knowledge of a few simple life-histories
(such as of the fly or the frog), a knowledge of Darwin's patient work
with pigeons and with earthworms, all simply told, with natural
examples in use in every case. The life story of the frog may be
used to introduce the recapitulation hypothesis and the idea of
evolution. Some of the researches of the great workers at the
problem of evolution may be discussed, thereby giving knowledge
of the work of Mendel on hybrids, the more recent work of Bateson
and Morgan in continuance thereof, the use-inheritance ideas of
Lamarck and the recent work of Kamraerer. Perhaps the idea of
cells may be inculcated, leading to some idea of chromosomes, the
carriers of hereditary characteristics. Whatever is attempted must
be graphicallv described and illustrated from life. Examinations
and text-books with their dogmatic and uninspiring statements
should be used as little as possible. Some of the subjects I have
mentioned are not only fascinating but fundamental to living beings.
They appeal to the higher mental faculties. They lead unconsciously
and gradually to the idea of a First Cause. There is then no longer
antagonism between science ancf true religion. The story in the
first chapter of Genesis can be looked upon as an allegorical account
of geological eoochs, suited in character for understanding bv
primitive peoples at first unacquainted with the principles of
science. Even the statement in Chapter 2, verse 7, that "God
formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life," may be considered as an allegorical
statement of a scientific principle. Much speculation has arisen
as to the origin of life, as to the character and relationship of the
first living substance. I agree from the results of my own researches
on Bacteria, Spirochaetes, and lowly Protozoa with the late Pro-
fessor Minchin that the primitive substance was probablv
chromatin, the stainable, nuclear substance of cells, which in the
germ cells carries the hereditary characters. Before cells, as we
understand them to-day, with their chromatin and cytoplasm were

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D. 97

•evolved, it seems to me that chromatin in the form of specks or
granules, as "dust," to use the Biblical expression, was the first
living substance, probably secreting around itself a slight covering
of cytoplasm. Probably we have in the filterable or ultra-visible
viruses, such as are responsible for scarlet fever, primitive organisms
not far removed from the earliest and simplest living organisms.
There are probably free-living, ultra-visible viruses, even in the
sea, where life began. Bacteria, although many of them are de-
graded by parasitism, may represent to-day a stage in evolution
between the primitive organismal granule and simple unicellular
plants and animals forming a primitive plankton. The Biblical
statement that God breathed into man, formed from dust or
organismal chromatin, the breath of life may quite correctly imply
that the chromatin granules, carrying the hereditary characters,
came from God, and so the hereditary characters may have
originally come from God, which explains the Biblical statements,
often affirmed in varying terms, that man is in the image of God,
many intervening evolutionary epochs being assumed. Regarding
the doctrine of immortality, we have in the germ cells of the body
"a cellular autonomous immortal line" continuous through suc-
cessive generations.

We read frequently in the Scriptures of "sin," and it forms,
or did form, an almost never-ending theme on the part of divines.
Probably the preachings of the doctrine of "sin" did more to
loosen the hold of the orthodox religions on the masses than any
other theme. However, "sin" can quite easily be explained scien-
tifically as "disease." We now know that when an organism
which has become parasitic is out of "harmony with its host (i.e.,
its environment) it will probably be disease-producing. This may
account for the old ideas of sin and punishment by plagues. The
visiting of the "sins of the fathers upon the children" may be
thus explained, as for example we know to-day of the transmission
of syphilis from the parents to the children, even before birth.
Although I should like to elaborate some of these ideas, which of
necessity are difficult, I must content myself with mere suggestions.
I put them forward in the humble hope that their own inherent
interest and importance may secure for them a consideration in
this age of excitement and turmoil. In real social growth it has
been well said that "science and religion are the outstanding co-
operative agents."

Prominent thinkers have recently deplored the almost dormant
intellectual life of many of the homes. The lack of thought in the
homa underlies the carelessness and want of a sense of responsi-
bility so prevalent to-day. It is unfortunate that machinery has
tended to lessen the interest of the worker in his work, as crafts-
manship has become mere drudgery. This subject should receive
most careful consideration at the hands of masters and men, as
the capacity and intelligence of the individual manual worker is
being unconsciously lowered, with corresponding danger to society.

Much in the past has been expected from education. But
• education has drifted alons' wrong lines, it has become mere

98 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION D.

acquisition of knowledge, without due assimilation and application-.
The creative side of education is too often lacking. Again, there
has been too much education of the individual, producing selfish-
ness, and too little education of the community for the common
weal. As H. G. Wells states in his "Salvaging of Civilisation,"
the "key to all our human disorder is organised education, com-
prehensive and universal." He also states that "education exists
to subdue the individual for the good of the world and his own
ultimate happiness." When people are educated on these lines
they should be capable of adjusting the differences between capital
and labour by the common-sense principle of "give and take," such
as by co-partnership, profit-sharing, and wages boards, without
resort to strikes. We hear too much nowadavs of the duty of the
State to the individual, but far too little of the duty of the indi-
vidual to the State.

To return to the much-quoted phrase "improvement in the
standard of living," it must include improvement in the standarcT
of the mental qualities or intellect, not merely in physical well-
being. This must be done by the mode of education just men-
tioned, and in that education the principles of animal biology, so
fascinating to young and old. must be included. Further, we
have to deplore the fact that the better elements of modern society
are not reproducing at the same rate as the unfit. Some recent
authors, such as Dean Inge and Austen Freeman, are very definite
on this point. The former in a very recent review of the latter's
book on "Social Decay and Regeneration," writes: "The ultimate
factor of national decline is racial deterioration ; and in modern
societies this is very extensive" and pernicious. Unfavourable varia-
tions are not eliminated, and there is a reversed natural selection
in favour of the unfit."

In conclusion I would earnestly plead for the inculcation of
the spirit of biology in all education, but it must be the spirit of
the subject, not the mere dull facts in the form of dry bones.
History also must be studied, so that the mistakes of the past need
not be repeated. Karl Pearson, speaking to the British Associa-
tion last year, said: "There is a conviction spreading in Germany
that the war arose and the war was lost because a nation of pro-
fessed thinkers had studied all sciences but had omitted to study
aptly the science of man." He also states that "the future lies
with the nation that most truly plans for the future, that studies
most accurately the factors which will improve the racial qualities
of future generations, either physically or mentally." Anthro-
pology and sociology must be firmly based on biology. With a
widespread knowledge of history, biology, and sociology, man
should improve his environment and attain co-operation, peace,.
and higher ideals.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 99

THE CLAIMS OF THE NATIVE QUESTION UPON
SCIENTISTS.

By C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.,

Member of Native Affairs Commission.

Presidential Address to Section E, delivered July 13, 1921.

Kecent happenings at Lovedale, Port Elizabeth, and Bulhoek
have, or should have, demonstrated to the people of South Africa
that in the adjustment to each other of the two races — the Native-
question, as we call it, and the European question, as I have seen
it called in a Native newspaper — we have a situation as difficult
as that in Ireland, and as vital to South Africa as was the Great
War to the people of Europe. It will be remembered that in that
conflict a situation of stalemate arose, when neither side appeared
to be able to make progress. Then the help of the scientist was
invoked, and with their energies stimulated by the great issues
involved, the chemists, physicists, and engineers discovered, in-
vented, or improved the poison gas, the bombs, the tanks, the
submarines, and the other wonderful weapons of modern warfare.
The Government and Parliament of this country, the officials and
the general public, are faced with the most perplexing situation
which has confronted South Africa, and, like the soldiers in the
trenches, find it difficult to advance and impossible to retreat. The
machinery for dealing with the Native question has become obsolete
and ineffectual, and for too many years the very real difficulties of
the position have caused us to do little or nothing, as if leaving
the problem alone would make it any easier. If the war spirit
were dominating us in this real but undramatic struggle for a fair
and workable race adjustment, we should be aware of four great
facts : First, that victory or success cannot be won without real
sacrifice on the part of all sections of the community; secondly,
that the moral and material support of the whole nation must be
behind the undertaking ; thirdly, that there must be unity of com-
mand with variety of attack; and finally, that the help of the
scientist must be invoked. It is with the last of these points that
I propose to deal in this paper, and it is with especial pleasure that
I have seen that the President of the Association has set so good
an example in bringing his wide knowledge and scientific methods
to the study of our problem.

The general ignorance of the people on Native matters is
appalling. Attendance at the debates in Parliament, discussions
with municipal bodies and philanthropic Europeans, lectures to
and meetings with Natives have convinced me that in attempting
to attack this difficult problem we people of South Africa, like
quack doctors, are prescribing for a complaint, while we are
ignorant of both the disease and the general condition of the

100 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

patient. Like quacks we are proposing to make use of nostrums,
and so we' hear one section, generally Europeans, saying that if
only we had segregation all would be well, while the other, gener-
ally Native, says that the franchise is the only remedy. The fact
is that we are not ready to prescribe a remedy, because we have
not sufficiently diagnosed the disease, and studied the treatment.
Just as the war needed the chemist, the physicist, and the engineer,
so the Native question needs the human-nature scientists, namely,
the political scientist, the economist, the psychologist, and socio-
logist. It is not that we have not studied some Native matters in
a scientific manner. The philologist has found, and is still find-
ing, much in the languages of our Native peoples of interest and
importance; the ethnologist has studied the varieties of the human
race found in our country, but the majority of these studies have
been made of the Native in his primitive or isolated state, when
he has been little or not at all influenced by contact with white
civilisation, and when he has not, therefore, become a problem to
the European in the same sense in which the less romantic but
much more troublesome educated or semi-educated Native is a
problem. It is from the Native in contact with the European that
the Native problem arises, and there is a great dearth of studies of
the Native in this relationship. In the hope that I may be able
to suggest some lines of investigation to officials, missionaries, and
students of Native affairs, I propose to classify roughly the chief
aspects in which the Native is a problem and to offer definite topics
for monographic treatment by men and women of science. If some
of these topics appear simple to this meeting let it be remembered
that there are pack-bearers as well as field-marshals in the army
of science.

Political Situations.

In connection with the government of the Native we have a
situation which is difficult of classification. In the Cape Province
any Native who has property to the value of seventy-five pounds,
or who is in receipt of a wage of fifty pounds a year, and can write
sufficiently to fill in the registration form, has the same right to
the franchise as the European, and can sit as a member of the
Provincial Parliament, though not of the Union House of
Assembly. It is difficult to say how many Native voters there are
in the Cape, but in 1919 the number of voters "other than
European" was 33,139, which is about 20 per cent, of the total
roll. In the other Provinces the Native has neither the Union
nor Provincial franchise, and while the mass of the Natives do not
want the vote particularly, the educated few protest strongly
against this differential treatment.

In the Glen Grey District of the Cape Province, where since
1894 there has been a Council consisting of a European Magistrate,
six nominated and six elected Native councillors, we have the first
attempt to give the Natives a share in the management of local
matters, such as education, roads, irrigation, the encouragement
of agriculture, etc. The financial position in Glen Grey for the
year 1918-1919 shows a revenue of £8,208 and an expenditure of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 101

£7,804. The Glen Grey system was introduced into the Transkei
in 1895, and here we have 18 District Councils managing local
affairs and sending representatives to the Central Parliament —
the Transkeian Territories General Council. This Council or
Bhunga, which consists of the Chief Magistrate as chairman,
eighteen Magistrates, and fifty-four Native members, has sittings
which last a fortnight, during which time the getting and spend-
ing of a revenue of well over one hundred thousand pounds is con-
sidered. I have recently had an opportunity of watching the de-
liberations of the Bhunga, and, like most other observers of this
Native Parliament, I have been much struck with the ability,
sanity, and dignity of the members. In Western Pondoland there
is a similar Council, though up to the present only three districts
have accepted the system . The policy of the Government has been
not to force the system on the people but to allow them to obtain
it as soon as they are ready and express the desire. In the other
Provinces the Natives have no share in their government, which
duty is undertaken by European officials acting through Native
chiefs and headmen. These chiefs and headmen are for the most
part subsidised by Government, and possess limited jurisdiction in
civil cases. In the urban areas the more progressive municipalities
have instituted either nominated or elected boards of Natives to
advise them on local matters.

It seems certain that participation by the Natives in the
management of the affairs of the country is inadequate, except
perhaps in the Cape Province, but before an extension is made it
would be well if some students of political science would investi-
gate some such problems as the following : —

1. The circumstances which led up to the granting of the

franchise to the Cape Natives and the use they are
making of the privilege.

2. Native opinion on the Glen Grey Council system and

inferences therefrom for the improvement of the
system .

3. What modifications of the Council system are necessarv

for its extension to districts such as Zululand and
Basutoland, where the tribal system is entrenched.

4. Participation bv Natives in urban areas in the manage-

ment of their municipal affairs either by representa-
tion on the Town Council or otherwise.

5. A system of secret voting for Native illiterates.

6. A text-book on Civics for Native schools.

7. The treatment of Native history in European and

Native schools.

Legal Relationships of Black and White.

It is freely conceded that justice and the authority of the
law are corner stones in any system of government, so that it is
imperative in South Africa that the Natives should respect the law
and be ready to accept as signs of even-handed justice the decisions
of the Courts. Ordinarily this is not difficult in the case of

102 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

Natives, who have always had a great respect for law, but recent
happenings in our courts of law, where cases between Europeans
and Natives are concerned, have shaken the Natives' belief in the
impartiality of the white man's justice. Those interested may see
several extraordinary cases referred to in an article in the
"Christian Express" for June, 1921. It seems only too evident
that the jury system cannot be relied upon in cases where
Europeans are accused of criminal offences against Natives and
vice versa. It has been suggested that trial by jury should be
abolished in such cases or that a special panel of jurymen should
be established, as is the case, I believe, in Rhodesia.

Another difficulty experienced by Natives is the not infrequent
conflict between law and justice. To the Native mind it seems
strange that a man should escape the consequences of illegal action
merely through a legal quibble or the wiles of a clever lawyer.

Even if the law was administered fairly it remains to . be
decided if the Roman-Dutch Law of the Europeans is adequate to
provide for justice among the much more primitive Bantu. In
Natal there is a special codification of Native law and custom called
the Natal Native Code, which determines legal proceedings among
all the Natives in Natal except those especially exempted : in the
Transkei the code is European, but the Magistrates are enjoined
to take cognisance of Native custom : in the Ciskei and in the
Transvaal and Free State the ordinary European law obtains.

Regarding the administration of justice in the courts of the
Native chiefs and headmen complaints are not infrequent to the
effect that the procedure is too often directed to the enrichment
of the judge through court fees and fines for alleged contempt of
court, than to the impartial incidence of justice.

If justice and law deserve the place which we have given to
them as foundations for the government of the Natives it follows
that we should spare no pains to improve the laws and legal pro-
ceedings relating to them. To do this we need the facts and not
merely the popular generalisations on such points as these : —

1. A comparative study of the verdicts found and the

sentences imposed in cases where Natives are charged
with offences against Europeans with similar cases
where Europeans are charged with offences against
Natives.

2. In how many cases and for what offences have lashings

been inflicted upon Natives ? Group the results by
Provinces and Judges.

3. The case for a public defendant as well as a public

prosecutor for Native cases, especially those Natives
arrested for breaches of the Borough bye-laws.

4. The Native lawyer and his cases and clients.

5. A study of a chief's or headman's court with steno-

graphic reports of the proceedings and a statement
showing the number and nature of the fines and fees
paid.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 103

6. A Native Code for the semi-civilised Native throughout

South Africa.

7. A simplification of the existing European law in

respect of land administration (surveying, transfers,
etc.), inheritance and other legal proceedings in
which Natives are concerned.

Economic Relationships.

The root causes of Native unrest in South Africa are agrarian
and economic. Complaints regarding land, wages, prices, and
taxation are the matters most frequently brought to the notice of
the authorities, and this is not surprising since these matters affect
all classes of Natives alike.

With regard to land the position is fairly well known. The
Land Act of 1913 was an attempt at territorial segregation, and
prevented the acquirement of land except with the consent of the
Governor-General by a Native from a non-native or a non-native
from a Native outside certain scheduled areas, and the acquire-
ment of land by a non-native within the scheduled Native areas.
Unfortunately the scheduled Native areas (which proposed to give
123,000,000 morgen to 660,000 rural Europeans, or 186 morgen
per individual, and 18,250,000 morgen to 4,000,000 rural Natives,
or 4.5 acres per individual) have never been finally determined, so
that it has not been easy to proceed with the practical application
of the measure, while the important legal decision in the case of
Thomson and Stilwell versus Kama has • made it doubtful if the
Land Act is intra vires as far as the Cape Province is concerned.
The Act is, of course, extraordinarily unpopular among Natives,
and when meetings are held with Natives it is difficult to get them
to discuss any subject but this.

As regards wages the economic position of the Natives has
been affected by the rise and fall in the cost of living. No section
of the people has been more hard hit by the high cost of living,
both during and after the war, than the Natives, for almost all
Natives except the most remote have to purchase their food and
clothing at the kafir store where the Profiteering Act has been a
dead letter. Increases in wages have been in no measure com-
mensurate with the increased cost of living, so that the Native has
had an undoubtedly just cause for complaint which would no
doubt have expressed itself in a noisy, dramatic, but probably
futile fashion had not the welcome drop in the cost of commodities
taken place. For the most part we are ignorant of the wages
received by Natives or their cost of living, but some helpful figures
regarding town Natives have been published in the report of the
Commission of Enquiry into the Port Elizabeth disturbances on
October 23, 1920. In 1914 the minimum wage for unskilled
Native labour was 2/6 per diem, and it remained at this figure
until 1918. It then rose to 3/-, and in February, 1920, at the
instigation of a Native Trades Union, it was raised to 3/6, and in
September, 1920, as the result of further agitation, it was raised
to 4/-. The percentage increase of the 1920 wage on that of 1914

104 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

was 60 per cent., but meantime the cost of living had increased
to 105 per cent., so that the Natives were worse off by 40 per cent.
Women were worse off than men, their wage having increased from
1/6 per diem in 1914 to 21- in 1920. The wages of skilled Native
workers had increased with that of their European fellow-workers
by something like 120 per cent. The Commission estimated that
the daily cost of foodstuffs for a single Native in 1920 was 2/7^
out of a wage of 4/-, thus leaving a man 1/4| a day, or 33/- per
month, for rent, clothing, etc. Rhodesia is the only other part
of South Africa for which I have been able to obtain figures, and
here an investigation undertaken by the Cost of Living Commission
showed that in 1920 wages had increased by 13 per cent, on mines,
21 per cent, on farms, and 21 per cent, in domestic service, whereas
the increase in the cost of ten articles generally purchased by
Natives was 165 per cent.

With regard to taxation there has been little or no change
since Union until this year, when the Transvaal imposed a poll
tax on all male persons which has added 10/- per annum to the
burden of the already most heavily taxed Native in the Union .
The rates of taxation vary in the different Provinces, a practice
which causes considerable dissatisfaction among Natives who do
not understand the differences between urban, Provincial, and
Union taxation, so that it seems certain that some uniform and
equitable system must be devised. Before this can be done it
would be well to have the assistance of some specialist in economics
on the following and similar points: —

1. Communal and individual land tenure considered from

an economic standpoint.

2. A soil survey and a sanitary survey of the areas set

aside for Native occupation under the Land Act.

3. The economic status of Native farmers with special

reference to the Native sugar planters of Natal.

4. A Land Bank for Natives.

5. The rates of wages and their relation to the cost of

living for Natives in the following occupations :
domestic servant, farm labourers, coal and gold
miners, teachers, clergymen, interpreters.

6. Native professional and industrial organisations.

7. The operation of the colour bar in the European

trades unions.

8. A consolidated measure of taxation for the Natives'

throughout the Union.

9. The apportionment of revenue derived from Natives

among the several services rendered to them.

Psychological Considerations.

We are merely at the threshold of our knowledge with regard
to the psychology of the Bantu, and the want of usable facts in
this connection is hampering our legislation and administration at

PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 105-

every turn. Too often have we acted both in public and private
relationships without knowing what was at the back of the black
man's mind, with the result that we have had misunderstandings
which have increased the Natives' suspicions of our actions and
motives.

There is a lamentable supply of studies of race psychologv,
largely due to the difficulty in getting a sufficiently accurate know-
ledge of the language of the subject, and to the impossibility of
estimating the changes which test material undergoes when trans-
lated into another language. The physiological differences between
white and black which have been recently announced would seem
to indicate that we are on the eve of an advance in our knowledge
of the subject, but the psychologist has been so often baulked in
his investigations on this line that he is more inclined to wish his
brother scientist well in his researches and wait. Correlation
between physical traits and mental characteristics has in the past
been found to be wanting, and the variations in physiological
characteristics between races have been almost always equalled by
variations between different individuals of the same race, so that
the psychologist feels that the relationship between mind and brain
is still such a terra incognita that he prefers to proceed with his
researches on the lines of dynamic psychology, and to gauge men-
tality by its reactions to objective situations, while waiting for the
anatomist, physiologist, craniologist, and other workers on the
substance of the brain to furnish him with their conclusions and
suggestions.

From those who hold that the mind of the Native is as dif-
ferent from that of "the European as is the colour of his skin, to
those who see no difference between Native and European as far
as mentality is concerned there are all shades of opinion. The
best substantiated opinion, and it is little more than an opinion,
is that differences between the mentality of Europeans and Natives
are those of degree and not of kind, the peculiar characteristic of
Native mentality being its immaturity. The more stimulating
environment of the European has produced a less sluggish mind,
less conservative, and more able to foretell the consequences of
courses of action. Comparisons with the progressive Europeans
who have come to this country, whose very presence here is evidence
of a certain amount of enterprise and initiative on the part of
themselves or their ancestors, is hardly fair to the Natives, but
comparisons with the peasant classes in Europe or with the poor
white class in this country, who have lived in a similar unstimulat-
ing environment would make us see fewer differences between
Europeans and Natives than we do at present. Periodical out-
breaks of animalness, both public and personal, among Europeans
should remind us that we are not so far removed from our original
nature as we would like to believe, while the many examples 01
prolonged and intensive study, of self-denial, and of willingness
to suffer for a cause among the Natives prove that the Native can,
when he thinks it worth his while, rise to the higher levels. The
probability is that while most Europeans are superior to the average

106 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E.

Native in mentality there are certainly some Natives who are
superior to the average European, and many who are superior to
the lowest twenty-five per cent, of the European population. This
fact proves the artificiality and impossibility of ultimate survival
of a strict colour bar and is pregnant with trouble for us whites
in the future.

If we are right in our surmise of the comparative mentality
of the Natives, it follows that sublimation of original nature will
be more difficult for Natives than for Europeans, and that to
expect the same standard of personal morality, truthfulness, and
gratitude (to select traits in which the black man is said to be
wanting) is hardly fair, since the mass of the Native people, and
certainly the servant class, from which we mostly make our infer-
ences, is so little removed from a barbarian environment. The
extraordinary fascination which the Old Testament has for Natives,
evidenced so tragically at Bulhoek, should remind us that we are
dealing with a people whose environment has produced a mental
outlook which is many years behind our own. With the Native
as with any primitive people, the emotions count more than the
intellect, so that justice must be simpler, punishment more suit-
able, rewards more immediate, and sympathy more practical, if we
are to deal psychologically with them.

The theory of the arrested mental development of Natives at
puberty, to which the taking but irrational and misleading name
of "mental saturation" has been given, and which the writer
attempted to investigate in a former paper submitted to this Asso-
ciation, is being steadily refuted by the increasing number of
Natives who take advanced, or at least post-puberty, courses in
our educational institutions, but there seems a good deal of prac-
tical experience from this country to support McDougall's inter-
esting theory that the inability to sublimate elementary passions
and especially the sex instinct is responsible for a great deal of
non-achievement on the part of primitive peoples. Here, again,
restricted experiences and a narrow environment make it difficult
to inculcate in our black people the ideals which lift a nation.

A vigorous attack on the much praised musical ability of the
Bantu was made in the Report of the Superintendent of Education
in Natal for 1919 by Mr. Percival R. Kirby, now Professor of
Music in the University College, Johannesburg. Mr. Kirby is
pessimistic about the teaching of music in the Native institutions
of Natal, and feels that "the teachers are fighting against heredi-
tary predispositions that are practically impossible to eradicate"
for the so-called "natural harmony of the Zulu is no more natural
to him than the European clothes which he wears, and it usually
fits him as well as they do." Mr. Kirby says that up to the
present he has never yet heard a set of even the simplest har-
monies sung by a Zulu choir sufficiently well in tune to satisfy a
cultured European musical ear. I have been hoping that some
European or Native would comment on this iconoclastic criticism,
but so far I have seen nothing in reply.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 107

As suggestions for psychological research I would offer the
following: —

1. The relative mentality of Europeans, Eur- Africans,

and Natives as determined by tests not involving the
use of language.

2. An adaptation of the Binet-Simon tests for Natives.

3. Relative ethical standards of Europeans and Natives

as determined by means of tests involving their re-
actions to problems on ethical situations.

4. A study of a group of Eur- Africans living under Native

conditions with a view to determining the effect of the
European strain.

5. The musical ability of Natives.

Sociological Relationships.

Sociologically the Native is changing very rapidly under direct
or indirect education by the European. His tribal customs are
rapidly breaking down, and he is reorganising his social life on a
new basis by adopting European habits of life. The adjustment is
not easy and we find that it is at present the lower and more obvious
aspects of our civilisation such as our food, our clothing, and our
dwellings which are making the strongest appeal.

The beginnings of political and industrial groupings are clearly
seen. The Native Teachers' Associations of the Cape and Natal
have grown from mutual improvement societies to organisations
for collective bargaining, and early this month the Natal Native
Teachers' Union gave evidence of this new spirit by an attempted
bovcott of the Government's vacation course. The Industrial and
Commercial Workers' Union of South Africa, which organised the
recent strike at Port Elizabeth, pleads in the Native paper,
V mteteli wa Bantu, of July 2 for reinforcements, saying, inter
alia: "We should make up our minds to refuse to be dictated
to by European trades unions. The right to sell our labour to tha
best market and to keep the market so reasonably high as to
guarantee us not only a decent living but also to furnish the
necessary means of life, is irrevocable. We alone can sacrifice it,
alienate it, or give it away as a perpetual heritage to the European
by surrendering to economic slavery. Workers, we have lost all in
this country to the European, .must we give up also the last and
only right we can still claim to possess? God forbid. Come, let
us reason together. Remember the 20th July at Capetown." In
Johannesburg and other large cities there are small sectional
unions. So far the conduct of these Unions has been characterised
by much unwTisdom, but there is no doubt that they are learning
improved methods of action from white industrialists and that,
if I am reading aright the signs of the times, before long the
European employer will have to bargain collectively with the
Natives.

However much we may regret the formation of these unions
a study of the struggle between capital and labour in England in
the nineteenth century must convince us that an amelioration of
social conditions appears to be impossible without collectivism. "In
;all the movements [to an improved condition of the workers] we

10

108 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS — SECTION E.

have described, the spiritual stimulus, the initial drive, and the^
solid successes have been provided by voluntary associations. The-
State has not been the pioneer of Social Reform. Such a notion
is the mirage of politicians. It has merely registered the insistent
demands of voluntary effort or given legal recognition to accom-
plished facts. This is the distinctive note of English social de-
velopment in the nineteenth century." (Fay, "Life and Labour
in the Nineteenth Century.") The Natives will undoubtedly form
their unions. Left alone they will probably act foolishly and
wantonly. Is it not the part of wisdom to organise humanitarian
groups of Europeans to guide them in the same way that the
various philanthropic organisations in England, such as the Anti-
Slavery Society, the Adult School Society, and similar groups
assisted the working man ?

In church matters we are in the midst of a strong movement
towards separation. In the past there have been occasional seces-
sions of Natives from European congregations, but the movement
has spread considerably in recent years. The Native Affairs Depart-
ment knows of 106 religious denominations under Native control,
ranging from a flock of half a dozen with one pastor to a large-
organisation like the African Methodist Episcopal Church with a
Negro bishop and nearly seventy congregations. The unfamiliarity
of the names, "Natural Church of Ethiopia," "Christian Catholic
Apostolic Church in Zion," "Pentecostal Holiness," "King of
Salem" must not disguise from us the reality of their existence.
The paper already quoted says: "We find that there are at least.
one thousand Natives within the municipal boundaries of Johan-
nesburg who call themselves ministers, but who are unattached to
any recognised church, and who live on the offerings of their respec-
tive flocks. Many of these self -ordained ministers are known to
lead immoral lives, disgracing the cloth they wear and bringing
Christianity into disrepute. They constitute a formidable hind-
rance to Native progress and the Native nation suffers obloquy
because of them." This development of Ethiopianism deserves the-
sympathetic watchfulness of Europeans interested in Natives, for
it is so easy for such religious bodies to become associated with
political movements.

Of Native social clubs there is no end. Many have but short
existences inasmuch as the correct management of the Society's
funds appears to be beyond the capabilities of most of the Native
treasurers. These clubs, too, find it almost impossible to refrain
from politics, which has become the chief interest of educated
Natives.

In the urban areas the conditions under which the Natives'
lived were very bad. In only two of the larger cities, Bloemfon-
tein and Durban, had any adequate measures been taken to deal
with the situation. In most towns the Natives had been placed
in locations or allowed to squat upon the town lands, where they
have built themselves shacks of wattle and daub, stones, and
paraffin tins, which are not only an eyesore but are positive dangers
to the morality and health of Europeans and Natives alike. In-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION E. 109

fectious disease is almost always prevalent in a more or less serious
form. In the one location where an adequate attempt had been
made to keep vital statistics the rate of infantile mortality in one
year was 450 per 1,000, and of the births in that year more than
half were of parents not united in wedlock by either European
ceremony or Native custom. In most cases the Natives in the
municipal locations were exploited for the purpose of municipal
revenue. Thus of the 217 towns reporting to the Secretary of
Native Affairs for the year 1916-1917, the last year for which
figures are published, no fewer than 191 derived more revenue
from Native sources than they expended on Native services. Sixty-
four towns which received revenue from Natives varying from £2
to £806 are reported as spending "nil" on expenditure for Natives.
Among the questions awaiting investigation by the sociologist
are the following : —

1. The origin, nature, and extent of the alleged anti-

white propaganda in South Africa.

2. Native political organisations.

3. Ninevites and other secret societies among Natives.

4. Isitabane and organisations for vicious purposes.

5. Native child labour in towns.

6. Native night schools and their work.

7. The Native press with special reference to its ver-

nacular articles.

8. The proprietary medicine trade among Natives.

9. The Native Church with special reference to separatist

movements.

10. A survey of the racial, religious, housing and economic
conditions of an urban Native location.

Conclusion.

I make no apology for having laid before you a series of
questions rather than a set of answers, but I do so because those
engaged in the administration of Native affairs want your help.
Our neglect of a scientific treatment of the Native question has
not only become a reproach but is now a positive danger, and if
it is not yet time to cry "All hands to the pumps" it is time for
those responsible for the formulation of a Native policy to seek
the aid of the scientists. Of generalisations about the Native
question we have perhaps enough, but of scientifically developed
researches there is a great dearth. Our Section is, I believe, the
youngest of the children of the Association, yet its work is vital
to the existence of the European in South Africa. The press has
alwavs shown itself willing to help, bodies are not wanting to
publish volumes on Native matters which by reason of their limited
sale are not taken up in the ordinary course of business, the public
is willing to be educated on this vital matter, and if, by reason of
the position I hold in Native work, I can follow up a suggestion
made at this meeting and constitute myself a clearing house for
research on Native affairs, I shall be glad and honoured.

110 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

OBSERVATIONS AND PROPOSALS FOR THE
STABILISATION OF MONEY VALUES.

By W. A. MACFADkEN, M.A., LL.D.,
Professor of Philosophy, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

Presidential Address to Section F, delivered July 13, 1921.

For some time it has become evident to students of economics
that the most important and urgent question arising out of the
•economics of the Great War is that of the stabilisation of the values
of money and the steadying of prices. Our experience of what is
called inflation and deflation is worse than had ever been imagined.
Both reach the private life of every individual in the State, and
prove to be more calculated to produce distress and father dis-
content, disloyalty, and revolution than any grievances of a poli-
tical or social kind of which modern society has had any experience.
We have read in our textbooks of economics that rising prices and
depreciating money penalise the wage-earners, and that falling
prices and appreciating money burden industry and discourage
enterprise, but the reality of the experience proves to be more
serious than was represented. We have learned through bitter
experience that fluctuation of values is a cause which is capable
of shaking the fabric of modern civilisation to pieces. This corol-
lary of war seems to have been neglected by all the Governments
which have merely drifted in matters of economic policy since 1914.
We shall show ourselves entirely incapable of learning from ex-
perience if we do not make the stabilisation of money values, and
the preservation of such stability, the most fundamental interest
of commercial, industrial, and democratic policies. The initiation
of such a policy is beset with difficulties of a political or structural
nature, the discussion or estimation of which hardly belongs to a
Society of this kind. But the difficulties of a theoretical kind are
no less real and do concern us here. I have come to the con-
clusion that the doctrine whereby the same material is both the
standard of value and the medium of exchange prevents thinkers
from seeing clearly what measures of reform are required in each
sphere. It is a maxim of modern mechanics and invention that
wfi never abandon integrity of function without failure of
efficiency. The economy of making one device serve two purposes
is a poor one and usually chimerical. To try to kill two birds with
one stone is probably to lose them both. If then we recognise at
once that the purposes of a medium of exchange and of a standard
of value are different, we shall be clearing the ground for useful
proposals. The virtue of a standard of value is to be stable, and
that of a medium of exchange to be convenient, rapid, and fric-
tionless. Paper currencies, duly secured and covered, fulfil the
latter function admirably, but nothing could be so unsuitable as

PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. HI

a standard of value. Further, money is merely an instrument, and
its amount, less or more, at a given moment is a matter of complete
indifference, but tha£ it should not change rapidly, or even per-
ceptibly, in value proves to be one of the main interests of civilised
society. It is because they seem to me relevant to this important
question that I offer short studies or observations upon the economic
disturbances caused by the late war. I shall call the subjects re-
spectively: I. National bankruptcy; II. Economic disconf ormity ;
and III. Economic dependance.

I. National Bankruptcy.

In a recent book, "The Salvaging of Civilisation," H. G. Weils
amplifies an idea suggested to him by his visit to Russia, namely,
that European civilisation is suffering from a disease which might
easily prove fatal and of which Bolshevism on the one side and
militarism on the other are outstanding symptoms. As more or
less relevant to the same idea, I beg to offer a few remarks upon
aspects of the present world troubles which are new to economics.
National bankruptcy must now be accepted as an economic fact;
previously it was only a speculation. What is then this conception
of national bankruptcy 1 In one view a nation identified with
territorial limits is possessed of the hardest and most indestructible
of assets and has always the reproductive powers of nature to fall
back upon. Yet we shall see that there is a very real sense in
which a nation can become bankrupt and practically lose the control
for all purposes of credit and exchange of those same indestructible
assets.

II. Economic Disconformity.

Secondly, the conception of an international standard of value
and medium of exchange has recently become not only a thinkable
but a necessary idea. The international exchanges which have
hitherto served as bridges for commerce between different currency
spheres have become to-day yawning gulfs which commerce shrinks
from and finds itself unable to pass. Various schemes of a remedial
nature have been brought forward such as a return to international
barter and credits, international currency, and an international
reserve superbanking system. It is impossible to understand, dis-
cuss, or form reasonable opinions upon any of these proposals with-
out returning to first principles and trying to bring out the basal
elements of these questions.

III. Economic Dependence.

Thirdly, the conception of economic independence, and its
shadow economic dependence, from being largely of a speculative
nature, has to us in South Africa become so far real and concrete
as to have become the basis of a most important, and at first sight
anomalous, decision in our national finance. The recent con-
troversy with regard to the embargo on gold and the decision of
the Government after full consideration to maintain the embargo
has led Professor Edwin Cannon in the "Economist" to twit this
country with having achieved an inconceivable paradox— the

112 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

greatest gold-producing country in the world has, he says, demone-
tised gold. This is, at first sight, true, and constitutes a real
difficulty either to understand or to defend. The mordant criti-
cism of Professor Cannon ignores the relativity of economic policy.
What is best in a given case is governed by the environing con-
ditions. It is common to classify nations as borrowing and lending
nations, but we must now realise that this distinction represents
a governing condition. The capital borrowed must be presumed
to be for a vital Interest; and all courses of conduct which would
entail, or even render likely, Tts return become impolitic and im-
possible. Further payment of interest, as between country and
country, can only be made by goods, and that means that a portion
of the trade of a borrowing country is a tied trade in respect of
which it has no freedom of will or judgment.

National Bankruptcy.
When in the second year of the war prices began to move much
controversy arose as to the cause. Hitherto it had always been
reasonable to suppose that when a general rise of prices took place
this was caused by inflation of the currency. The principle of
economy of hypothesis led to the preference of a single cause —
like the manipulation or inflation of the currency — to the con-
gruence or coincidence of many causes required to account for
parallel movements of apparently unrelated products. There

were, however, characteristics of the recent movement of prices
which took it out of this category. The upward tendency of prices
was obstinate and refractory to all expedients of treatment, and it
was world-wide — in no sense confined to or even chiefly character-
istic of the belligerent countries. Gradually it became recognised
that some other than a purely currency influence was at work. The
destruction of wealth caused by the war emerged as the only dis-
turbing influence of sufficient force and extent to account for the
phenomenon. The controversies on this point may be, I consider,
regarded as closed by the speech of the Hon. B. H. Brand, C.M.G.,
as President of the Brussels Conference. This conception was
indeed the basis of the weighty and important recommendations
drafted by that Conference — since often more honoured in the
breach than in the observance — against budgeting for a deficit and
meeting deficits by loans. In view of their extreme importance to
the theory of the economic basis of civilisation I give an abstract
of their findings. The Conference found that the root cause of all
the world's financial troubles was the destruction of capital caused
by the war. This effect takes many forms : —

(1) The destruction of towns and villages in the areas

devastated by war.

(2) The deterioration of railway systems, roads, and
houses.

(3) The enforced sale of foreign securities to countries

outside Europe.

(4) The huge external debts of the belligerent countries.

(5) The loss of working capital in the form of stocks of
raw materials.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. 113

So intense were the demands of the Governments on the
resources of their nations that they could not be met out of the
annual product of the people, but had partly to be met by dissi-
pating their capital. So great were they, too, that they could not
be paid out of taxation or out of loans from the people's real sav-
ings. All Governments resorted to creating the purchasing power
they needed by expanding, according to their necessities, either
paper currency or banking credit, without any corresponding
increase in real wealth. This form of so-called inflation is merely
a method of concealed taxation by which a Government takes from
its citizens their wealth, not by forcing them to pay over to the
tax-gatherer, but by reducing its value. The more impoverished
a country becomes the greater is the extent to which it is driven
to trench upon its capital, and the further it is driven down this
road to ruin.

So far-reaching are the effects of this form of so-called inflation
that it is worth while to follow them out, as many of the evils are
often attributed to other causes, and false diagnosis means wrong
treatment.

(1) This form of inflation is the root cause of profiteering. As
long as prices continue to rise, whoever makes or buys or holds
goods at one price, and can, in a short time, sell them at a higher
price, must profiteer.

(2) What the profiteer, whether capitalist or wage-earner,
gains, is lost by all those living on fixed incomes or salaries, or on
wages which have not increased with the increased cost of living.
In this way the "new poor" are among the greatest sufferers
through the war.

(3) By necessitating a constant readjustment between wages
and prices — the "vicious spiral," as it has come to be called —
causes constant strikes and labour unrest, thereby seriously imped-
ing progress.

(4) By depreciating the currency it depreciates the exchanges.
Thus imports cost more and prices are driven up.

(5) By increasing prices it increases Government and manu-
facturing expenditure. While revenue will ultimately increase in
proportion to prices, expenditure tends to increase more quickly,
causing constantly recurring deficits.

(6) By variation of prices and exchanges, legitimate trade and
industry are replaced by speculation.

(7) Finally, these causes operate cumulatively and this form of
so-called inflation disintegrates society and leads to chaos and
anarchy. The Bolshevik plan of ruining western civilisation by
forging unlimited quantities of each country's currency, if such
paper could have been floated on the national markets, would have
been certainly successful. For these reasons the Brussels Inter-
national Financial Conference recognised that the first financial
reform in Europe, on which all others depended, and the only
means of avoiding ruin, was to check and to counteract this form

.of inflation. To this it only seems necessary to add that the com-
jmunity is an organic whole, not only as within the state, but within

] 14 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

the greater economic whole which has been created by the imports'
and exports of international trade. If production is reduced the
standard of living is reduced; industry cannot be rendered un-
profitable by limitation of output without first ruining indus-
trialists. There is no other store or reservoir of wealth except the
energy, skill and ability of the members of the community.

If this diagnosis of economic consequences of the Great War
is correct, then we have it in the facts that besides inflation and
deflation as explanations of price movements, there is a state of
things conceivable which might be called, as distinct from produc-
tion, destruction or demolition of wealth, and of this a chief
symptom must be an extreme rise of prices. It seems important
to recognise that such a rise of prices is of a different order to any-
thing which can ordinarily be called inflation. A continued de-
preciation of the monetary standard is obvious upon any extended
survey of the history of prices within the last 1,000 years. In the
recent increase of industrial ventures in South Africa it is difficult
to assign the share of assistance afforded by the protection of war
isolation on the one side and that on the other by the stimulation
of an inflated currency and the apparent creation of new wealth.
At any rate, there can be no doubt that many economists consider
that a certain measure of inflation is a beneficial rather than a
destructive agency. Take for example the view of Gide — a reign-
ing text-writer — (second edition, p. 229): — "The continued depre-
ciation of the monetary standard is a phenomenon of great social
importance, the effects of which must be regarded, after careful
consideration, as beneficent. First of all the depreciation of
money results ordinarily in a rise of prices. Now a rise of prices
is a stimulus to production; it sustains the spirit of enterprise; it
is favourable to an increase in wages ; it acts like a tonic, and may
be regarded as a symptom of economic vigour." I think it is
evident that the phenomenon we have been studying is of a quite
different order from this delightful and even exhilarating
experience. I think we must distinguish between a rise of prices
caused by an increase of the currency, and that caused" bv diminu-
tion or destruction of capital. The first may be beneficial — though
even that is open to question — the latter cannot be beneficial, is
certainly a symptom of economic disease, and, with its cumulation
and progressive action as outlined above, may easily lead to a state
of national bankruptcy. This conception seems to be new to
economics and deserves consideration. It reveals a new danger in
national life and gives a new significance to facts with which we
have recently become familiar but only slowly have come to under-
stand. If we regard the conseouences of the so-called inflation as
laid down by the Brussels Conference as stages in a development
of bankruptcy, we realise that there are no European nations
which do not exhibit some such characteristics. But the signi-
ficance of a process is given by its end. Unfortunately, we have
instances in Austria and Russia as described by Wells, which
enable us to translate the general idea into concrete detail. When
an individual becomes bankrupt an account is made of his assets

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. 115""

on the one side and of his liabilities on the other. A ratio is
established at so much in the £, distribution of the assets takes
place at such a figure, and the balance is written off as a loss to all
concerned. In national insolvency there is no court to move; no
estimation of the amount to be written off, but the same result is
reached — annihilation of values — by an automatic process of rising
prices. The State does not withdraw the money by taxation, but
renders property worthless proportionately to the rise in prices. In
Austria one crown instead of being worth ten pence is now worth
about one-fifth of a penny; while in Russia roubles, which before
the war would have been worth about .£100,000, can now be bought
as a speculation for £20. An Austrian teacher of whom I have
heard retired on a pension of 2,000 crowns, with a purchasing power
of £85, has now the impossible task of living on a purchasing power
of £1 8s. The effect of such a state of things is that all foreign
trade becomes impossible. The Austrian crown is depreciated to
such a degree that it is virtually unrecognised abroad. Industry,
so far as it depends on transport of raw material, is at a standstill.
Fixed incomes and wages which have not managed to keep up with
the cost of subsistence have become inadequate to support life. All
credit is at an end, as creditors are ruined and refuse to lend.
Modern economic civilisation, which is based upon production for
exchange, has become impossible", and the only economic reality
left standing is production for use, thus shelving or side-tracking
the whole of the official, professional, and commercial classes. The
economic bankruptcy of a nation then means reversion to an early
or archaic type of civilisation — production for use only, and the
sacrifice for a time of all the artistic and professional values of
civilisation. Such a possibility affects every individual in the State,
and ought to g«ive him a direct and living interest in the policy
of Government which may have such trenchant and far-reaching-
results.

Economic Disconformtty.

The second large phenomenon of modern economics which
appears to claim attention is the breakdown of the system of inter-
national exchanges. Although most social institutions and prac-
tices have beginnings which are unknown and work unconsciously
and automatically, it is well to remember that society is instinct
with purpose and it is always worth while, for purpose of inter-
pretation and criticism, to treat such practices teleologically. From
this point of view we may regard the system of international
exchanges as an attempt to reduce national media of exchange to
a common denominator in the bullion value of the respective cur-
rencies. For this purpose perfect and fluid permeation of gold as
bullion is necessary. Freedom of import and export of the precious
metal is of the very essence of the device. Only on such conditions
was it possible to find an equation of exchange for the payment of
the balances of international trade. The moment the freedom of
flow was interrupted between country and country it was found
that the integrity of the international basis had been eaten out by
the substitution of notes and credit instruments locally valid, but.

116 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

not internationally viable, for the only accepted international
currency, bullion. The credit of national currencies was estimated
in terms of the bullion cover held, and not in terms of the business
transacted or to be transacted. The third term to which both sales
and purchases were to be reduced split up into two terms — the
currency credit of the selling and that of the purchasing nation,
thus constituting a sort of economic quaternio ter minor um, which
instead of bridging extended the gulf between national currencies.

To understand the situation which eventuated between cur-
rency systems we ma)' compare the banking system under separate
and distinct reserves. If banks were to keep in cash all moneys
deposited with them business would come to a standstill. If,
again, banks were to lend all moneys deposited with them, panic
would ensue, and within a short period collapse. Between these
extremes lies the middle course — the finding of which means suc-
cessful banking. The desirable system is that which enables banks,
when necessary, to turn into cash the maximum of their assets
with the minimum of general disturbance. Banks usually comply
with these conditions by investing their deposits in overdrafts, bills,
and short-time loans secured upon scrip. The proved disadvantage
of this system of banking is that when it becomes desirable to
strengthen their reserves banks call in overdrafts and short loans,
and refuse to renew credit instruments, just when their debtors
find it most difficult to repay them. Probably the latter even go
to a competing bank. Thus the strengthening of one bank's
reserve can only be accomplished at the expense of another bank.
Practice has shown that in times of threatened crisis overdrafts
and scrip loans cannot really be turned into liquid assets. Their
withdrawal in times of active trade tends only to precipitate the
crisis and causes a heavy destruction of values. Commercial paper
without a discount market becomes again a lock-up of value till
maturity. The evil effects of the strengthening of reserves by one
bank at the expense of another was illustrated by American
experience. In America there were frequently recurring crises
culminating in the crisis of 1907, which very nearly led to a total
collapse of credit. The narrow margin by which complete sus-
pension had been missed led to a consideration of the situation and
the eventual adoption of the Reserve Bank principle — a banker's
hank, which gives to banks the same facilities which banks give to
their customers.

The same characteristic of separate reserves was illustrated in
South Africa last year. In one month one bank lost £1,300,000
of specie, while another gained £1,000,000. The loss to the first
bank meant a reduction of that bank's metallic reserve of 50 per
cent. The bank naturally curtailed its business and absolutely
refused the most useful and legitimate business of a bank — the
financing of produce in course of transit to market.

In both cases the same remedy has been devised, that of a
central banking or central reserve system. Such a reserve bank
is not a competitor of the commercial banks. It holds their reserves
and only intervenes in times of crisis. Then it extends credit

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. 117

liberally mainly by way of rediscount ing sound bills. The know-
ledge that such bills can be turned into cash enables them to treat
bills thus discounted as another reserve. It is this greater mobility
of bank assets which makes the Central Reserve Banking system at
once safer and more elastic than the system of decentralised
reserves. Strengthening the reserve of one bank does not imply
the weakening of other reserves. To enable such a Central Bank
to fulfil these functions adequately it must have the sole right of
note issue. Other credit instruments do not disturb the relation
between cash and business. They each represent a transaction
and expire when that transaction is finished, so they cannot pos-
sibly produce inflation. Notes, however, which pass into circula-
tion and are re-issued when returned to the bank do add to the
currency and sensibly disturb the balance between currency on the
one side and wealth and business on the other. It seems sound,
therefore, that they should be issued only on a backing of mer-
chantable bills. It gives elasticity to the currency based on the
changing demands of trade — expansion and contraction in accord-
ance with the volume of the country's trade. The output of
metallic currency is rigid and not necessarily related to the demands
of trade. On the other hand the capricious, or the interested, issue
of notes means inflation and the consequent raising of prices against
the consumer. There is little doubt, therefore, that the policy of
a Central Reserve Bank with powers of note issue subject to prin-
ciple is both a sound and beneficial improvement to the banking
system. It probably guarantees the maintenance of confidence
and credit under circumstances of crisis when an internecine
slaughter of values takes place under the circumstances of separate
and independent reserves. It is probably a principle which might
be introduced wherever there are competing banks of the commer
cial type, and operate as an independent but unmistakable function
of government assuring the stability of values without interfering
with the rapidity of exchange.

But a useful principle once discovered, and supported by suc-
cessful practiced should be utilised to its fullest possibilities. It
must accordingly be pointed out that the difficulties of international
exchange are parallel to those of decentralised reserve banking : the
absence of a common denominator, the estimation of sales and pur-
chases in terms not of a common third measure, but in terms of
separated and distinct reserves which have no necessary relation
to each other, and are, in fact, often engaged in preying upon
each other in a sort of elemental struggle for existence — all repro-
duce upon the stage of international finance the characteristics of
decentralised and competitive banking. As they show the same
diagnosis they are susceptible of the same cure. We may say.
therefore, confidently that if there was an international reserve
bank, with issue of an international currency, the difficulties of
intercourse across the boundaries of currency systems would dis-
appear. All other proposals, international barter, international
credit, philanthropic proposals of one kind and another, fail to
set up an automatic reflex system such as we enjoy in normal times
within national limits.

118 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F.

If it be objected that such an International Reserve Bank i*.
impracticable and Utopian, then it is proper to reply that it is for
speculative criticism to form opinion, and much would be gained
if we could obtain a clear idea of the measures which would reliev(
the present situation. But such a proposal is not so impracticable
to-day as it might have been before the war. Is not this a function
for a department of the League of Nations? The need is present,
urgent, insistent, the beneficence unquestionable, and the effect
would be increasingly and cumulatively remedial. If there is a
case for simplifying the labour problem by starting a Labour
Bureau of the League of Nations with a view to establishing a
series of international subsistence minima, is not the case stronger
for simplifying the whole system of exchange by establishing, what
no one could object to, what all trade implies upon a lower national
scale, a common measure of value. I am aware it is customary to
say that the stabilisation of the exchanges depends upon the re-
establishment of equilibrium in trade and finance. The equation
is probably a reversible one, and it is at least true to say that the
establishment of autonomous central banking would materially
expedite the process. The shock to the international exchange on
a bullion basis, which was given when free import and export of
the precious metal was interfered with, has not yet been recovered
from. The mutual, want of confidence is indicated and measured
by the dislocated exchanges. Nothing can repair the system but
the re-establishment of confidence. We advocate a centralised
banking system, as best calculated to establish and maintain such
confidence.

Economic Dependence.

But not only is national interdependence evident in the
economic sphere, it conditions our internal choice of policy. We
have been led, as it seems to me, to appreciate in South Africa the
reality and force of such a conception by our recent currency
history. It will be remembered that in 1915 an embargo was laid
on the export of gold by Proclamation, that on October 22, 1919,
a Gold Conference was held in the Union Buildings which reported
(i.) that it was not practicable to fix any definite data for the
removal of the embargo; (ii.) that the best way of checking the
disappearance of gold specie was to take gold out of circulation and
replace it by fully covered certificates — temporarily inconvertible
pending the restoration of the gold standard; (iii.) that the best
way of establishing confidence and credit and avoiding financial
crisis was the establishment of a Central Reserve Bank with suitable
restrictions of cover and limitations of dividends. This report with
its recommendations is severely criticised bv Professor Edwin
Cannon in the "Economic Journal," Vol. NXX, December, 1920.
He points out that the real issue was whether it would be best for
South Africa to keep its currency level with gold or level with the
British paper pound. The Conference, he says, practically advised
the latter course, and hence, as he puts it, the chief gold-producing
country of the world has demonetised gold. There are minor criti-
cisms to be passed on this mordant and trenchant attack, as Pro-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS SECTION F. 119

fessor Cannon is not quite fair to the banking proposals of the
Committee, but what I think is of more general interest is to
notice that the criticism ignores the extent to which South Africa
was limited in its choice by the fact that she was a borrowing
country. Besides the countless connections of business which cannot
be broken at a moment's notice, South Africa has imported large
quantities of capital from the London market and has to pay
interest upon the same, by remitting a certain portion of its
produce to the same market. To have elected to follow an inde-
pendent line and make South African currency level with gold
would have meant the re-export of all its borrowed capital. The
temptation to have recalled such capital to London, taking advan-
tage of the gold premium in transmision would have been too great
to resist. The country would have been denuded of its necessary
capital, development stopped, and a state of things indistinguish-
able from ruin produced. With this danger staring the Committee
in the face can it be wondered at that they preferred the second
alternative?

I have thus endeavoured to argue

(1) that the international export and investment of
capital has woven the world into one financial system ;

(2) that such an international system implies theoretically
either a universal unit of account, or an international
banking system ;

(3) that the control of such a general standard of value
so as to preserve an invariable ratio between goods
and money is the most important of public and pri-
vate interests. The slightest variation in such a
ratio impedes and prejudices trade, while the larger
and more rapid fluctuations in such an equation are
capable of causing the dissolution of modern society
itself.

I also commend to your consideration the view that while
exchange, and the provision of a suitable medium of exchange,
may safely be left to the ingenuity of the commercial agencies which
have already done so much for simplifying and expediting it, the
question of the standard of value and its stabilisation is a matter
which concerns every member of our civilisation, more nearly and
poignantly than any other political or social question. I suggest
that it should be placed under the care and supervision of some
non-political officer or commission similar to the Auditor-General,
directly responsible to representative institutions, but not function-
ally a part of the Government. Lastly and principally, as soon as
possible, such non-political agency shall be internationalised and
formed into a department of the League of Nation's.

120

LAND CONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE OTHER
CONTINENTS AND SOUTH AFRICA IN THE PAST.

By Alex. L. du Toit, D.Sc, F.G.S.,
Geologist to the Irrigation Department.

With Two Text Figures.

Fublic Evening Lecture, delivered July 15, 1921.

The subject chosen for this evening is by no means novel, being;
one that has repeatedly attracted the attention of biologists and
geologists, but yet, on account of the vast conceptions demanded,
has nevertheless maintained its fascinating character unimpaired.

The principle of splendid isolation appeals universally to man-
kind, and therefore it may be a little disconcerting at first to learn
that in the dim past the African continent, geographically and
biologically, was linked at times to the several other land-masses
of the globe; that during a period to be measured by many millions
of years there occurred revolutionary movements of land and sea
involving the emergence and inundation of land-masses, the growth
and destruction of mountain ranges, the pouring out of lava floods,
amazing variations in climate, and marvellous evolution of animal
and plant life.

Changes of Land and Sea.

That the lands are not fixed and unchanging was clearly appre-
ciated in early history, but, conversely, that new land should have
arisen out of the sea was an idea not so easy of credence. We have
nevertheless as instances thereof the Himalayan ranges with their
marine Tertiary strata sharply folded and elevated to extreme alti-
tudes, while to take an example nearer home we possess the-
Devonian Bokkeveld series of the Cape with its dark slaty rocks
carrying molluscan and crustacean fossils of undoubted marine
affinities, such as can be dug out in the Hex River Valley or in
the Bokkeveld thousands of feet above sea-level.

Evolution.

The study of fossil forms, known as palaeontology, has proved
unquestionably the theory of evolution, according to which from
the dawn of life upon this planet there has been a continuous chain
of living forms, small variations from the type ultimately produc-
ing new species or genera. For any particular brief period life was
more or less the same over the globe, but different as a whole from
that of any other period ; hence, when the fossils obtained from
one series of beds in one part of the earth are found to be identica1
or very closelv allied to those from another area, we may regard
the two sets of strata as being of similar age.

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 1211

The entire duration covered by fossil forms has for con-
venience been divided into epochs, each of which covers a period,
marked by the development of some important order of animal or
plant life. For example, we have the Devonian characterised by
the rise of the fishes, the Carboniferous of the Amphibia, the
Permian of the Reptilia, the Triassic of the Dinosauria, the Jurassic-
of the ammonites and birds, the Cretaceous of the angiospermous
plants, and the Tertiary of the mammals.

The time covered by each of these epochs is not determinable,
but must run into millions of years. Although there was, a9
already stated, at any one time a similarity, often wonderful, in
the life of the various parts of the globe, detailed study has shown
that then, just as now, there existed differences of flora or fauna in
particular regions, largely owing to the effects of environment or
to migration.

It is well known that the marine faunas show less variation
in this respect than land ones, the departure from the normal being
most where the waters are confined, as for example in the Black
Sea. Generally the migration of forms and their dispersal is not
so much restricted in the ocean.

On the land, however, the spreading of animals and still more •
of plants is greatly hampered by barriers, physical, climatic or
biological, with the result that the life in adjoining areas may come
to differ very considerably.

Former Land Connections.

Particularly for the reason just mentioned must one avoid'
concluding that when the geological evidence points to the prob-
able existence of a particular land-bridge in the past, some allied
or even identical genera or species, extinct or living, ought to be
found along its entire length.

Again to infer, because certain forms were able to migrate*
from one region to another, that a simultaneous interchange should
have taken place between the two regions, is contrary to observa-
tion.

Where the two lands are close together the geological data may
be sufficient to establish their former connection, but, where •
thousands of miles of ocean are separating them, the evidence
demanded is mainly biological and the arguments have obviously
to be weighty before geographical changes of such vast magnitude •
and revolutionary nature can be admitted.

It may happen, upon the breaking up of a continental mass
into a series of islands, that of the forms thus isolated extinction
overtakes certain of them through various natural causes, and at
length they may come to be represented by but a few allied species
in lands now parted bv the ocean. For certain reasons it is
commonly the more primitive forms that have thus become segre-
gated.

It must frankly be admitted that land-connections between the
continents have frequently been postulated upon very slender
grounds and the strictures by Darwin and by Matthews in this--

122 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

respect are not ill deserved. Taken item by item the resemblances
displayed can often be accounted for in some other manner or the
arguments dismissed as inconclusive, but in the case under dis-
cussion the resemblances are so numerous and their explanation so
difficult in any other way, as to force one to the conclusion that
the various land-masses in the southern hemisphere were inter-
linked in the past. This date was, of course, very far back in the
history of the earth, during the Carboniferous and Permian epochs
in fact.

Opinions upon such former Land Connections.

In 1870 G. W. Stow, to whom the science of geology in South
Africa owes so much, advanced views of this nature when com-
paring the fossiliferous Uitenhage beds with their seeming equiva-
lents in India.

The same year Huxley admitted the strength of the arguments
in favour of a union of Ethiopia and India during the middle of
the Tertiary epoch.

Observing the distribution of the living and extinct Lemurs,
P. L. Sclater, about 1875, not only suggested the linking of Mada-
gascar to Africa and to India during the Tertiary, but gave this
tract of land the name "Lemuria."

In 1875 W. Blanford pointed out that Madagascar, the
Seychelles, Mauritius, etc., could be interpreted as a partially sub-
merged mountain chain; that the Indian fauna is close to that of
N. Africa, that there is also a fauna related to that of tropical and
S. Africa or to Madagascar, e.g., the scaly anteaters; that the
Indian badger is closely related to the Cape ratel; that the land
Mollusca include many kindred forms, and more particularly that
the fossil reptiles and plants of the two continents are closelv allied.

It was the last-mentioned aspect that commended itself to the
eminent geologist Suess, who termed this hypothetical but much
more ancient continental connection "Gondwanaland," and ex-
tended it across the Atlantic to Brazil. Von Ihering called the
western bridge "Arch-Hellenis," and conjectured it as having
extended from Brazil to Central Africa. Engler, the great botanist,
concluded that the floral relationships observed could best be
explained by a tract of land or a chain of large islands between
Northern Brazil and the Bight of Biafra. Scharff, the zoologist
placed the connecting land to the south of the group of island-
north of the equator. Other scientists again studied the life of
Patagonia, Australia, and Antarctica, and thereby were able to
point out various interesting relationships.

Faunae Survivals.

There are quite a number of orders and families practically
confined to the southern hemisphere, for example the blind snakes
and the geckos, while the freshwater decapod Crustacea of the
southern half of the globe are distinct from those of the northern.

It is curious to observe in illustration of a previous statement
obscure primitive types still surviving in these southern lands, for
instance the frerh-water fishes Ceratodus in Australia, Polypteriis

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 123

and Protopterus in Africa, and Lepidosiren in Brazil, while living
or recently extinct large birds of the Struthio type characterise the
above-mentioned countries, and in addition Madagascar and New
Zealand. These ancient lands have formed for such long-pedigreed
forms what Suess has aptly termed asylums.

Recently new links have been obtained. Pkreatoicus is a
minute shrimp-like crustacean intermediate between the Isopoda
and the Amphipoda. It lives in tarns and, first found in Tasmania
and Victoria, was not so long since discovered on Table Mountain
and Sneeuw Kop in the Western Province.

The Phreodrilidae are worms up to an inch in length inter-
mediate between the terrestrial and the aquatic Oligochaeta, and
are found in pools on mountain peaks in Australia, Tasmania, New
Zealand, Kerguelen Island, South Africa, Falkland Islands, and
Patagonia. They are descendants of an old cold climate stock, and
clearly could not have crossed the oceans. There is almost a
similar distribution in the case of the remarkable Peripatus.

The Northern and Southern Floras of the Carboniferous

Period.

It is, however, when we come to consider the life of the past
and compare the geology of the regions concerned that the evidence
piles up in a rapid and most convincing manner.

To do so it is necessary to go back to the Carboniferous epoch,
to the time when in the northern hemisphere the forming of coal-
seams was actively in progress. Such coals are believed to have
been accumulated on vast flats comparable in some respects with
the Great Dismal Swamp of Virginia, the climate being moist and
probably temperate.

The vegetation at that period included many strange forms,
mostly vascular cryptogams, predominantly Equisetales, Lycopodia,
Pteridosperms and Ferns — a rather monotonous assemblage all the
same.

This will be referred to as the "Northern Flora."

In the southern hemisphere and in India, on the other hand,
the climatic conditions became such as to lead ultimately to the
development of extensive snow and ice caps at a number of separate
centres. Continued accumulation of snow caused huge ice-sheets to
spread outwards and move across the lower ground, just as in the
cases of Greenland and Antarctica at the present day.

At the period of maximum glaciation no small proportion of
the southern hemisphere must have lain buried beneath a mantle
of ice thousands of feet in thickness, just as at a very much later
date was the case in the northern hemisphere during the Great
Ice Age; the details will be discussed shortly.

At the same time, and according to some palaeobotanists as
a consequence of the general lowering of temperature, a flora made
its appearance quite distinct from that of the northern hemisphere,
known as the "Southern" or " Glossopteris Flora," from the name
of the tongue-shaped frond of its commonest form; this vegetation
gave rise to the coal-seams of Gondwanaland.

11

124 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

Furthermore, there appeared in this half of the world, but
principally in South Africa, a wonderful assemblage of reptilian
forms, the morphological study of which has so brilliantly confirmed'
the doctrine of Evolution.

The Glaciation of Gondwanaland.

Before describing this amazing glacial episode of the Car-
boniferous epoch, just a few words are needed to explain why;
geologists have both formulated and accepted views demanding,
such a radical change of climate over so vast a territory.

Glaciers in moving down to lower levels carry with them rock
debris either resting upon their surfaces or embedded in the ice
itself. The inclusions in the ice-foot, pressed down upon the rock,
floor over which the ice is moving, polishes and scratches the latter,
hence the peculiar striated surfaces characteristic of areas formerly
over-ridden by ice-sheets. Upon the melting of the latter the clay,
sand and boulders are deposited upon the floor, this material being
termed "moraine" or "till."

It is unbedded, possesses a clayey matrix, contains striated and
facetted boulders which are sometimes many feet in diameter and
are of various types of rock such as the ice has moved across;
occasionally they may have been transported for hundreds of miles.

About half a century ago formations were observed in India,
South Africa, and Australia that pointed to glaciation, and, though
the opinions then expressed for quite a while failed to receive due
recognition, subsequent work has proved to the full with a wealth
of detail the correctness of this original interpretation. It will be
of no small interest for you to realise that the morainic character
of this deposit was recognised by Sutherland and by Griesbach in
these early days and that one of the critical localities cited is near
the Umgeni Bridge only a few miles north of Durban. The floor
is a finely grooved surface of hard white sandstone, while the over-
lying morainic deposit, now consolidated by age and pressure, is
the peculiar green-blue rock with pebbles and boulders used foir
macadamising the streets of Durban.

The identical formation was later on observed by Dunn in the
Cape and its true nature recognised by him ; from its occurrence,
crossing the Dwyka River near Prince Albert, it received the name
of the "Dwyka Conglomerate," a term familiar to geologists the
world over. Since then it has been traced over a great area, and
either covers or else underlies nearly two-thirds of the Union, and,
while variable in thickness, exceeds a thousand feet in depth over
wide stretches.

Movement of the Ice in South Africa.

Wherever the conglomerate has been stripped by erosion from
the floor the latter is found to be uneven but striated ; the direc-
tion of the groovings reveals in addition the course of the ice move-
ment, while the nature of the boulders gives a clue as to the source
of the ice itself.

With these as our guide it is possible to attempt the reconstruc-
tion of the past, and it has been made out that the principal ice-1

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 125

cap had its centre in the Transvaal, whence it radiated outwards,
moving westwards into S.W. Africa, south-westwards into the Cape,
and south-eastwards into Zululand. Natal itself was invaded by
a separate sheet having its origin out over what is now the Indian
Ocean, and apparently being a portion of the body that entered
Southern Madagascar, where this formation has also been recog-
nised. In the south the several ice-bodies coalesced, passed into
water, and floated, no doubt after the manner of the Great Barrier
Ice of Antarctica.

The Ice Fields of Gondwanaland.

The elucidation of the behaviour of this vast ice-field with a
thickness of several thousands of feet is one of the triumphs of
geological deduction, and the discovery is all the more remarkable
inasmuch as it implies that the northern boundary of the body
would have been situated about the twenty-first parallel, so that
the ice-field would have lain in what is now the temperate girdle
of the earth, far removed indeed from our present South Pole.

The causes of this phenomenal refrigeration, the reality of
which is admitted by all authorities as indisputable, have so far
defied solution, and the problem has remained one of the great
puzzles of science, as well as one of the most fascinating.

Turning our attention to South-Western Brazil and the
Northern Argentine it is remarkable to find a glacial conglomerate
of the same age as the Dwyka, derived as far as can be judged
from an ice-sheet having its origin out in the present Atlantic, off
the coast of Uruguay; to the north-west lay the ocean which it
entered. In the Falkland Islands the geology is identical with
that of the Cape, but the centre of origin of the ice is unknown.

During the Carboniferous epoch Peninsular India was heavily
iced, the sheet moving northwards to discharge its debris into an
ocean where the Indus now flows. In Australia we find similar
occurrences, proving that a great ice-body radiated from some
centre to the south of that continent, moved northwards across
land in Victoria and South Australia, and terminated in an ocean
to the west, north, and east along a line some distance within the
present coast. Tasmania was also over-ridden, and possibly New
Zealand. South Victoria Land in the Antarctic certainly belonged
to this continent, but no data have yet been obtained to prove
whether it suffered glaciation, though probably it did.

Although the several areas referred to formed parts of the
Carboniferous continent, only certain sections of each actually
experienced this glaciation. The northern region in Australia
escaped, most of Madagascar, all in Africa between latitudes
21° S. and about 15° N., and in South America the territory from
Paraguay to Venezuela.

Gondwanaland.

The foregoing represents Gondwanaland as generally conceived,
and, although its southern limits are problematical, it is obvious
that in size it would have rivalled Eurasia. With a restoration

126 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

on these lines the geologist is confronted by several difficulties, the
most formidable of which — one that has hitherto been insuperable —
arising out of the extraordinary location of the ice-centres, namely,
in the temperate girdle, and their peculiar attitudes to one another.

For explanation I am advancing in all seriousness the view,
revolutionary and heretical as it will appear to orthodox geologists,
that Gondwanaland was a much smaller continent than as usually
conceived, that its centre lay somewhat further to the south, that
the Carboniferous ice-sheet was an almost continuous mass, and
that the land fragments' still preserved represent portions of the
ancient continent forcibly torn apart, subsequently modified in
outline by erosion, deposition, etc., and now separated by vast
stretches of ocean.

The customary view is that these stretches of water have
developed as areas of down-warping, the main outlines of the lands
having been determined by extensive faults and modified by sub-
sequent marine erosion.

That the continents might have originated by the actual tear-
ing apart of one or more much larger masses is no new doctrine.
Although generally dismissed as fantastic, it has been very ably
championed recently by Wegener, and, when the hypothesis is
studied in detail, the evidence in its support is found to mount up
so remarkably as to become almost overwhelming; only a few of
the arguments in its favour can be presented, however.

It will forthwith be realised that by thus supposing the several
units to have been spaced much closer together in the past, the
numerous remarkable lithological and palaeontological resemblances
between them become more explicable, while the difficulties that
beset migration become much reduced. Moreover, the areas known
to have been capped by ice become roughly grouped around the
South Pole, not far from, if not well within, the present northern
limits of drift-ice, and a serious stumbling block to the interpreta-
tion of the Carboniferous Ice Age is thereby removed. (See Fig. 1.)

This hypothesis indeed becomes the key to the understanding
of the past, and during the rest of this discourse it is this reduced
and modified conception of Gondwanaland that will be referred to.

The Deposits of Gondwanaland.

With the melting of the ice-sheets the borders of the lands
were submerged and a series of strata laid down varying in places
from marine through estuarine and lacustrine to continental types
over very considerable portions of the area and to a thickness of
many thousands of feet occasionally.

During this lengthy period the geographical and climatic con-
ditions changed repeatedly over the entire continent, as would be
expected. In South Africa land prevailed in the north of the
Union, and the muds and sands washed down therefrom collected
in an ever-deepening trough in the south. This latter probably
formed an immense extent of flats, now flooded, now dried up or
dotted with lakes and pans; entombed in the silts thus laid down
over them are the fossil remains of animal and plant life. This

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

12T

important deposit is appropriately known as the Karroo Formation,
or System.

Fig. 1.

Hypothetical restoration of Gondwan aland at the close of

the Carboniferous Epoch. The ruled areas are those known

to have been covered by ice, the arrows indicating the

direction of movement of the latter.

Rise and Spread of the Glossopteris Flora.

In the other sections of the Continent rather similar condition*
held sway, and, strikingly, the deposits in each of the areas are
characterised by the presence of the Glossopteris flora. This is
even the case with Antarctica, for fronds of Glossopteris and pieces
of fossil coniferous wood have been discovered in the Beacon Sand-
stone of South Victoria Land, now a treeless frozen territory. The
find is, however, no more extraordinary than that of plants proving
a temperate and even an approach to a sub-tropical climate during
the Middle Tertiary in regions of quite as high a latitude, namely,
Spitzbergen and Greenland.

The origin of the southern flora is uncertain, but what may
possibly be its earliest appearance is indicated by the recent dis-
covery by Mr. T. N. Leslie at' Vereeniging of fronds of the
important allied genus Gcmgamopteris below the glacial moraine, so
that here the flora must have been at least contemporaneous with
glacial conditions.

128 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

Some botanists have ascribed the wide development of this
flora to an ability to withstand the rigorous climate, whereas the
northern Carboniferous plants were not so fitted. It is hence par-
ticularly suggestive to find that in North- Western Argentine and
Southern Brazil there is an actual intermingling of the two floras,
the northern forms probably having been derived from North
America. This incursion makes its appearance just after the
vanishing of the ice, and is also found in South Africa, but at a
slightly later date; in India immigration of exotic forms was slight,
and in Australia practically absent.

We are fortunately in the position to decide the relative dates
of the invasions on the two sides of the Atlantic by the fact that
there is a very peculiar thin zone of carbonaceous pyritic shales
common to the Cape and S.W. Africa and to Brazil and Uruguay
in which are preserved remains of the primitive free-swimming little
Mesosaurus, the earliest known reptile of the southern hemisphere.
This is one of the many extraordinary likenesses in the strata
deposited at the same time in areas now a few thousand miles apart.

There is so striking a uniformity in the indigenous floral
assemblages of the several regions referred to as to compel us to the
recognition of the latter as parts of one ancient continent; this
applies not only to one particular geological stage, but to the whole
time-interval during which Gondwanaland existed, namely, from
the Upper Carboniferous to the Jurassic. There is a community
of genera and of species testifying to a lack of hindrances to floral
migration in the south precisely as was the case in the north with
the northern flora throughout the identical period.

At one time, in the late Permian, Glossopteris itself spread
outside the recognised borders of Gondwanaland and actually
reached Northern Russia, though failing to establish a secure foot-
hold. The subsequent developments of the southern flora show on
the contrary that an invasion by northern forms took place, con-
nection with Europe becoming freer, and Glossopteris, although
lingering on into the Upper Triassic in Natal and Indo-China, was
extinguished by the incoming of hordes of cycads, conifers, and
ferns. In this manner the plant life of the southern hemisphere
came to approximate very closely to that of the northern, and
the uniformity thus established in Rhaetic (late Triassic) times
persisted all over the globe until late in the Jurassic.

Permian and Triassic Vertebrate Life.

The record of the vertebrate life is both ample and corrobora-
tive. Probably few persons are aware of the numerous and mar-
vellous finds that have been made in the Karroo Beds since the
days of Bain and Atherstone, discoveries that are not only helping
to fill up the many gaps in the palaeontological record, but are
throwing much light upon the conditions that prevailed.

The Pareiasaurians, for example, were heavily built reptiles
with a length of 8 or 9 feet, possessing broad flattened skulls, jaws
bordered by uniform, serrated teeth, powerful limbs and claws
which indicate digging abilities. Their skeletons have generally

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 129

Joeen found back uppermost with all the bones in position, as
though the animals had died where they were found and were
.covered up rapidly either by mud or dust.

Large quadrupeds first make their appearance in the south-
western corner of the Karroo, and shortly afterwards, during Lower
Beaufort times we find many strange forms such as Pareiasauras,
To pinocephalus, Titanosuchus, and Dicynodon over a wider area
in the Cape, but not in the north or north-east. Furthermore this
•early fauna possesses well-marked affinities with the corresponding
Permian Keptilia and Amphibia of North America, a resemblance
that vanishes later. Broom believes that, while the two assem-
blages sprang from a common stock, the American offshoot remained
nearer the centre of their evolution.

Migration of the Vertebrates.

The route taken by this early Karroo fauna was probably via
the Northern Argentine and Southern Brazil, and, although these
forms have not yet been discovered in those regions, this can be
explained by a known stratigraphical break in the succession there,
during which no sediments were laid down, and consequently no
fossil remains preserved.

Suggestively, too, these precursors of the Middle Karroo
fauna have left no representatives elsewhere in Gondwanaland, but
a little later, near the close of the Middle Permian, we find their
descendants not only in the Orange Free State and Natal, but even
in Madagascar and Tndia, and, though failing to reach Australia,
they succeeded in penetrating into Northern Russia, where on the
banks of the Dwina their remains were discovered by Amalitzky
associated with Glossopteris. Isolated on what seems to have
formed a peninsula in the Permian seas, the fauna became some-
what specialised. Since the vertebrates of this age included herbi-
vorous as well as carnivorous forms, for example the Pareiasauria,
one may be permitted to speculate that with the spreading of the
Glossopteris Flora — a more or less xerophytic vegetation, be it
noted — into this northern area, the animals followed in search of
pasture.

During the Permian and Triassic, a period certainly covering
some millions of years, vertebrate evolution was particularly active
in South Africa, and among the Reptilia the advances were gener-
ally, but not always, towards the acquirement of mammalian
characters. The Middle Triassic was marked by the rise of the
highest forms of the Theriodontia, of which one South African
genus has been discovered in Brazil and an allied one in India.

During the Upper Triassic, however, Gondwanaland, as
already stated, certainly became linked to Europe, and, just as this
union is reflected in the composition of the flora, so here again we
find an influx of northern types of Reptilia, Amphibia, and fresh-
water fishes, chief among which are the Dinosauria, those strange,
long-necked quadrupeds that took to sitting or even walking in a
semi-erect position with the long tail as a support. It is curious
to discover that the South African genera and species — found not

130 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

only in the Cape, but in the Transvaal and Southern Rhodesia as
well — are most closely allied to forms in Germany, where compar-
able climatic conditions prevailed, while the influence of South
Africa seems to be recorded in the strange desert fauna of the
equivalent Elgin Sandstone of Scotland. Certain European genera,
reached Brazil, India, and Australia as well as South Africa.

Desert Conditions during the Triassic.

The climate in South Africa with one marked pluvial interrup-
tion had for long been on the border-line of semi-aridity, as indi-
cated by curious maroon and green shales and mudstones, calcareous
nodules and peculiar sandstones, so that it is not surprising to
find arid conditions having set in over a very large region at the
extreme close of the Triassic.

This desiccation was most acute in Rhodesia, a territory which,
like all desert regions of the present day, is situated within the
sub-tropical belt; even in parts of Europe at this period similar
conditions held sway. An even mantle of very fine wind-worn
sand became spread over the face of the land, while in the region
more to the south the level of the ground was gradually raised by
fine dust blown thither by the prevailing north-westerly wind. This
deposit, in places hundreds of feet in thickness, is in certain litho-
logical characters rather like the loess of China, and is white,
cream, or pink in colour, known in Rhodesia as the Forest Sand-
stone, in the Transvaal as the Bushveld Sandstone, and in the
Cape and Natal as the Cave Sandstone. Its scanty fauna include*
forms with long slender limbs, a peculiarity of animals inhabiting
steppes, while signs of vegetation are wanting.

Conditions such as these existed simultaneously in Southern
Brazil and probably in North-Eastern Rhodesia and the Congo
Basin, while there are indications to that effect in India as well,
but not in Eastern Australia; of those of Western Australia there
is no evidence as yet.

VOLCANICITY AT THE CLOSE OF THE TRIASSIC AND ITS RESULTS.

Such were the environmental conditions when simultaneously
South Africa, Central South America, and India were overtaken
by violent volcanic eruptions, at first through pipes and later from
fissures, while the process of deposition was stopped by the pouring
out of vast quantities of basaltic lavas. Some of the molten
matter, unable to reach the surface, burst in various directions
through the basement strata and solidified, forming innumerable
sheets of dolerite. At the same time great movements of the
earth's crust were initiated and the breaking up of Gondwanaland
began.

In South Africa the lavas not only formed a huge pile thou-
sands of feet in thickness over the Basutoland region, but over-
whelmed extensive tracts in the Central and Northern Transvaal,
Southern Rhodesia, the Zambezi Valley, Nyasaland, and two areas
in S.W. Africa. In Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay the basalts

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

13T

cover an enormous territory, while their Indian equivalents are
represented in the Rajniahal Hills, near Calcutta.

Both Tasmania and South Victoria Land were extensively
invaded by dolerites belonging to the intrusive phase, but no basalts
have been preserved.

These tremendous outbursts at the beginning of the Jurassic
epoch interrupted the life history of Gondwanaland very consider-
ably; sedimentation was restricted, and only along the now sub-
merging coastlines were the remains of plants and animals preserved
in estuarine or marine beds. In both South Africa and South
America the gap is most extensive; in Madagascar the plants and
the dinosaurian remains are of European genera, but it is really
not until the Cretaceous epoch that the history of Gondwanaland
becomes clearer.

Crustal Movements.

The breaking up of the ancient continent with redistribution
of the land and water formed a part of an ordered scheme of crustal
movements upon the earth, the reasons for which will have to be
briefly discussed.

Examination of the past history of the globe has shown that
there has been throughout the various geological epochs a fairly
regular series of operations around the margins of the continents,
namely 1) deposition of sediment in the ocean, (2) depression of its
floor, (3) compression and upheaval of the latter, (4) igneous
effusion and injection — the cycle being subject, of course, to certain
local modifications.

Fig. 2.

132 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

Several independent lines of reasoning lead to the opinion,
generally accepted, that the earth possesses a solid shell or crust
and a fairly solid heated core, but that the transitional zone is
plastic or at least semi-plastic in its nature. The depth down to
this substratum is uncertain, but probably ranges between about
fifteen and fifty miles, and, if the crust be excessively loaded at any
point, it will tend to sink down at that spot, while at the same
time some of the substratum becomes forced out from beneath tht
weighted area and raises the crust adjoining thereto.

It is a truism that the land is gradually being worn down and
its waste deposited in the ocean; the land therefore grows lighter,
while on the contrary the ocean floor adjoining becomes heavier
The balance between the land and the oceanic areas being thus
upset, the former tends to rise and the floor of the latter to sink.

Once established, this differential movement continues, and
would go on indefinitely, widening its sphere of operation, were
it not for the behaviour of the sub-stratum in being squeezed out
from below the part of the crust supporting the gradually subsid-
ing ocean floor and making its way into the base of the rising land-
mass. Such conditions are quite unstable ; the crust of the earth
is usually under considerable lateral pressure and is resting not on
a fixed foundation, but on a now slowly creeping sub-stratum. The
result is that the land portion becomes compressed into a series of
more or less parallel folds and elevated as mountain ranges, while
the sub-stratum beneath, being a potential eruptive magma, liqui-
fies with relief of pressure and bursts upwards through the strata,
either pouring out at the surface in the form of lava or remaining
below ground and consolidating as an intrusive rock. (See Fig 2.)

Earth Foldings Affecting Gondwanaland.

Now this is precisely what has happened in South Africa. The
land lay in the north of the Union, and, in the southern part of
the Cape, sediments had accumulated to a depth of about four
miles during the interval from the Devonian to the Triassic. The
deformation became so great finally that the crust collapsed and
was thrown into a multitude of sharp folds, huge thicknesses of
even such hard rocks as quartzite being puckered up in concertina
fashion and the arches being often overturned ; in this manner the
Southern Cape Ranges striking east and west originated. The
area inland, beyond the belt of folding, was flooded with basaltic
lava-flows, while the strata beneath became riddled by sheets and
dykes of dolerite ; to the south subsidences took place and the
waters of the ocean proceeded to make inroads upon the newly
rising lands.

In this cataclysmic cycle South Africa did not stand alone.
The belt of collapse extended westwards, passed through the Argen-
tine with a trend more to the north-west, and continued into
Northern Chili and Bolivia. The pressure there folded strata iden-
tical lithologically and palaeontologically with those of the Cape
and left untilted the Glossopteris-bea.rhig beds of Uruguay and
Southern Brazil, just as in the Great Karroo; further these deposits

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 133

•of Gondwanaland here also became flooded with basalt and injected
with dolerite. The equivalent Devonian to Permian strata in the
Falkland Islands also suffered compression in the same^way. In
the opposite direction the Cape folds are lost beneath the waters
of the Indian Ocean, but may have extended to the south of
Tasmania.

These compressive earth movements must have already been
in progress before the close of the Triassic, but seem to have
attained their maxima in the Jurassic. By this time it is not
unlikely that the African section of Godwanaland had parted
from the Australian and Antarctic portions, a view that receives
reasonable support from palaeontological evidence; Africa, India,
and South America were, however, still united at this time.

YvTe are now entering a stage of this problem where any views
are of necessity largely speculative and where the fullest use has
to be made of all the information obtainable from the patches of
Mesozoic strata that fringe the present continents.

Evidence from Marine Marginal Deposits.

It is known that the Carboniferous and Permian ocean occu-
pied extra-Peninsular India, extended through Burmah and
Malaysia, and covered the north-western shores of Australia, where
a fauna of the Indian type occurs. Into this ocean the Carboni-
ferous land-ice had moved with a general northerly direction, both
in Western Australia and in Northern Peninsular India, We can
surmise that the ocean originally formed a gulf between the two
areas which started to develop either in the Triassic or in the
Jurassic, and to extend itself west-south-westwards into the heart
of the ancient continent. By the very beginning of the Cretaceous
it had invaded the southern end of Africa, but certainly did not
reach the Argentine until the end of that epoch ; not improbably
it progressed by following troughs in the belt of earlier and now
extinct, nearly east-west foldings. From evidence to be presented
later this new-growing southern ocean did not send an arm up .the
Atlantic to sever the Afro-American mass till a later period.

The marine Jurassic strata of Western India, East Africa, and
Western Madagascar similarly point to the separation of India as
having begun from the north and that the trough between them,
actually initiated in the Triassic, gradually lengthened in a south-
south-westerly direction along the line of the present Mozambique
Channel. Nevertheless there is no evidence that Madagascar was
cut off from Africa during the Jurassic epoch; such was left until
the time of the great marine transgression that affected such a
vast proportion of the globe in the Cretaceous. This ocean largely
followed up the inroads that had been made in Jurassic times, and,
according to the hypothesis here presented, took occupation of the
spaces formed by the gradual drawing apart of the several sections
of Gondwanaland.

The Lower Cretaceous faunas of Western Australia, Assam,
Western Peninsular India, Eastern Madagascar, Portuguese East
Africa, and South Africa are closely allied, but the equivalent

134 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

fauna on the north and west of Peninsular India has on the con-
trary a marked European facies. These contrasting faunas indi-
cate that Madagascar was still joined to India and must have
formed a peninsula at one point at least quiTe narrow, as proved
by the deposits of the Narbada Valley.

The Breaking up of Gondwanaland,

There is no doubt that Madagascar was severed from Africa
shortly afterwards, though there is reason to believe that the strait
was quite a narrow one, but on the Indian side the link seems to
have remained unbroken until well into tbe Tertiary.

The general instability of the earth's crust in the Middle
Cretaceous is reflected in the further folding of the southern part
of South Africa, followed by severe fracturing of the coast-belt,
the great faults, which run parallel to the folds, having down-
throws on the seaward side of as much as from one to over two
miles.

In addition a great bending of the crust took place along the
line following the Lebombo Range, continuing through Eastern
Natal into Pondoland. To the west thereof elevation occurred,
and the Karroo beds are found at great altitudes, while to the
east they are bent down so a? to dip below sea-level. Along with
the severe flexuring this coastal strip became broken through by
faults, which usually trend north-eastwards, towards Madagascar,
so that the separation of that island was doubtless accomplished
at this particular time, namely, during the middle of the
Cretaceous.

Contemporaneous igneous activity is evinced by the flooding
of the Deccan in India by basalt outpourings of enormous extent,
while both Northern India and Western South America were
crumpled up and the strata thus folded injected with igneous
matter on a vast scale. In Africa the crust was perforated by
numerous volcanic pipes into which was squeezed from below the
peculiar blue-ground (kimberlite) in which the diamond occurs.

Development of the Atlantic Basin.

In places the earth movements were so considerable, even
during the Tertiary, that one cannot draw any reliable conclusions
as to the former extension of the land-masses merely from a study
of the shapes and depths of the present ocean basins; still it will
be profitable to note several features that they exhibit.

In the Indian Ocean the only peculiarity is an irregular ridge
from 1 to 1\ miles deep linking South Africa with India via Mada-
gascar, the Seychelles, Chagos, Maldive and Laccadive Islands.
Mauritius, Bourbon, and Kerguelen are recent volcanic excre-
scences upon the floor.

In the North and South Atlantic, however, the most extraor-
dinary feature is the submarine ridge covered by only from one and
a third to two miles of water extending down their entire length
and always nearly midway between the shores on either side. It
forms a remarkably strong piece of evidence in support of the

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 135

hypothesis submitted. In the South Atlantic at opposite ends of
this swelling stand the Islands of Ascension and Bouvet, in the
middle the Tristan da Cunha group. From the latter there extends
in a north-easterly direction to the neighbourhood of Mossamedes
an extremely narrow ridge dividing the eastern half of the ocean
into two large basins. In the opposite direction lies another, but
less regular and lower, ridge crossing to the southern end of Brazil.

Elevation of the ocean floor to the extent of from 10,000 to
15,000 feet would bring about the union of the two continents and
also develop a mid- Atlantic land. That along the Atlantic border
subsidences have occurred, recent yet of surprising magnitude, is
indicated by the remarkable submarine extension of the mouth of
the Congo River, soundings having proved a nearly straight trough
in the even and regularly dropping ocean floor traceable fully 130
miles out to sea, where the depth is no less than 7,500 feet.

Realising the magnitude of the changes that might have
occurred along the coasts, one would not put too much weight upon
the extraordinary resemblances in outline between the opposite
coast-lines of Africa and South America, were it not that the
geological peculiarities of the two areas are so amazingly similar;
not only does this apply to the South but also to the North
Atlantic.

Throughout the whole length of this ocean, almost as though
uninterrupted by it, one finds on the opposite sides the same fold-
systems, geological series, fossil floras and faunas, intrusive and
volcanic rocks. Allowing for some late Tertiary deposition and
upheaval and for some coastal erosion, the nearest existing
exposures are such that they could well have been only a few
hundreds of miles apart originally. Some of the geological
parallels have already been remarked upon, but many others exist,
for example the unique alkaline igneous rocks of the opposite coasts
as noted by Brouwer, while just recently Dr. P. A. Wagner has
pointed out to me that the crystalline forms among the Brazilian
diamonds resemble those of S.W. Africa more than the latter do
those of the Union.

Our hypothesis starts with the assumption that the Continent
was first of all severed by great tear-lines and that these fragments
then started to move apart, just as though driven asunder by the
centrifugal forces set up through spinning around the polar axis
The action is to be conceived as a slipping of the outer part of
• the crust upon its yielding foundation and the phenomenon could
indeed be compared to the gradual opening out of cracks developed
in a sloping asphalt pavement.

The Fold Ranges encircling the Fragments of Gondwanaland.

The widening clefts just mentioned are regarded as becoming
occupied by the oceans and as having continued to broaden down
to the present day. Around the periphery of Gondwanaland strata
had been accumulating over a truly vast period — from the
Carboniferous to the Tertiary — and it may be surmised that it was
due to this marginal weakening by which the Continent became

136 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

deprived of its lateral support that collapse took place around it?'
borders.

In drifting apart the segments of the crust perforce would
have had to squeeze up in front of them the strata composing this
belt of weakness ; hence the latter would have been thrown up into
encircling folds. These are made by the Andine Ranges on the
west, passing through Venezuela and continued as the Atlas-South
European-Iranian-Himalayan folds on the north, the Malay-Poly-
nesia-New Zealand crumplings on the east, and the West Antarctic
belt on the south, joining with Patagonia and thus completing the
circle.

These folds absorbed the lateral thrust and checked further
spreading, but the pressures within the crust became so enormous
that vast quantities of igneous matter were forced out along the
belts of crumpling in the form of basalt or consolidated below
ground as granite. Inside this girdle the strata would have been
in tension in places, and thus an explanation is obtained for the
peculiar shapes of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf, as due to the
opening of tears in the crust, and for the remarkable system of
trough-faulting extending down through Eastern Africa — the great
Rift Valley.

A striking feature about the encircling folds, which all date
from the Tertiary, is the inflections that they make at several
places, thus giving us the clue to their origin. For example, the
Andine system doubles back sharply upon itself both near Trinidad
and at South Georgia, such nodal points having been less yielding
to the great lateral thrust and having resisted better, while the
region in between moved for over a thousand miles further west-
wards, more so in the south than in the north. In the case of
India the peninsular portion squeezed itself bodily for hundreds of
miles in a north-westerly direction between "jaws" formed by
Afghanistan on the one side and Burmah on the other.

That movements of such a kind and of so great a magnitude
as are here postulated are not purely hypothetical is indicated
through the comparisons of longitude observations of certain
observatories in England and in the United States taken over a
lengthy period, that can only be interpreted as implying the actual
drifting apart of these countries at the present day by an amount
reckoned at several yards per annum.

Life in Africa during this Time.

Turing our attention now to the life of the Continent during
its dismemberment, we shall consider first that of Africa. During
the Jurassic and Cretaceous epochs animals were free to roam
northwards so far as the shores of an ocean — of which the Mediter-
ranean is but a remnant — that covered large parts of Arabia,
Palestine, Egypt, Tripoli, Algeria, and Morocco.

Chief among the vertebrates were the Dinosaurs, some of
which were of truly enormous bulk, such as the gigantic Cretaceous
Brachiosaurus brancai of German East Africa, which must have
had a length of 100 feet; on the Bushmans River in Alexandria

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 137"

Schwarz found parts of the femur of a similar animal perhaps
nearly as large.

Isolated at the close of the Cretaceous, even from Asia, a
fauna developed — so far known only from Egypt and the Victoria
Nyanza — peculiarly African, including primitive whales (Zeug-
lodon) and sea-cows (Sirenia), gigantic land tortoises, ostrich-like
birds, archaic Carnivora (Creodonta), and various primitive
Proboscidea such as the Mastodon and Dmotherium. Conspicuous
is the absence of the rhinoceroses, tapirs, and Equidae (horses),
which at that very time (Early Tertiary) were living in Europe.

In the Miocene by the emergence of the Iranian-Himalayan
fold-ranges Northern Africa became linked to Asia, India, and
Europe, and an interchange of forms took place, though evidently
not upon an extensive scale, for even in the Pleistocene the fauna
in that part of Africa was still typically Ethiopian. Among the
contributions to Eurasia were the Proboscidea and ostriches, while
the immigrants were the rhinoceros, camel, lion, and other Felidae,
Equidae, bear, wild cattle, buffalo, and numerous antelopes.

Together with the indigenous fauna these forms spread south,
so that we find the remains of the Mastodon in the Vaal River
gravels near Barkly West and extinct species of horse and buffalo
in vanous parts of the Cape and Orange Free State.

This incursion of northern fcrms was doubtless assisted by the
cold of the approaching Pleistocene Ice Age, which pressed them
into the Oriental and Indo-Malay region also. It is known that,
during this particular period, glaciers descended the flanks of Mts.
Kenia and Kilimanjaro, and what more likely than that the spread-
of the temperate floras along or across the equatorial belt was
facilitated, if not wholly brought about, by the prevailing lower
temperature of the time.

It was during the Tertiary that the crust subsided along
narrow belts forming the well-known "Rift Valleys" of Africa,
and the fracturing was attended by extensive volcanic eruptions;
some of the volcanos are still active. The northern end of the
belt of subsidence enters the Red Sea, while a strip of tilted and
fractured Miocene marine strata inland from Beira indicates the
southern extension of this lengthy arc along which the sides have
been drawn apart, allowing a narrow width of strata to drop
between them.

The Reunion of Madagascar and Africa.

Under such circumstances the temporary reunion of Mada-
gascar to the mainland in about the Miocene would have been not
only possible, but very probable, receiving some support from the
fact that this large island shows the effects of tilting and of frac-
turing, and is still subject to earthquake shocks, while it and the
other members of the Mascarene Group are surrounded by barrier
reefs of coral pointing to recent subsidence. Several of the
islands, Mauritius for example, are of recent volcanic origin and
possess differing faunas.

138 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

Both the floras and faunas, particularly the latter, indicate
such a union, for the modern tortoises of Madagascar are like the
gigantic fossil forms of Egypt and the Victoria Nyanza, while we
have also an instance in the Malagasy hippopotamus. This island
has yielded a number of species of extinct giant lemurs, a family
still living not only there, but in Central Africa and Malaysia as
well, hence the name "Lemuria" given to this land-bridge connect
ing Madagascar, their supposed centre of origin, with Africa and
the Malay region.

Another view, based upon the fact that the Lemuridac are
well represented in the Eocene of Europe, is that they originated
there, entered Madagascar from the west, and became isolated in
that island, their development therein being largely due to the
practical absence of Carnivora. On the other hand Dr. II . F.
Standing has shown that among the sub-fossil lemurs of Madagascar
there are closer analogies with the monkeys of South America than
with those of the Old World. Moreover, since they possess
degenerate characters the parent stock probably originated on the
Afro-American land-mass.

Severing of South America from Africa.

Accordingly, turning to the Argentine, we find a marked
; geological parallel with the Swellendam-Heidelberg districts of the
Cape, inasmuch as estuarine variegated marls of Cretaceous Age
rest in valleys cut in the equivalents of the Cape fold-ranges. The
ocean did not penetrate here until Eocene times, and the fauna
is that of the now-developing South Atlantic Ocean, typically
Antarctic and neither Pacific nor North Atlantic in its facies, thus
proving that the Argentine-Brazilian section of Gondwanaland still
•extended considerably further eastwards towards Africa.

In fact, since North Atlantic forms do not make their appear-
ance on the South American coast until the Pliocene, it has to be
presumed that the latter was divided from Africa at the end of
the Cretaceous by an extremely narrow strait. Such a view
receives weighty support, first, from the absence of Cretaceous beds
along the two opposed coast-lines, between the Argentine and
Bahia and between the Cape and Angola respectively, and secondly,
from the fact that the strata of that epoch represented further to
the north in each case possess faunas not only very closely related to
one another, but of the type characterisng Morocco, Tunisia, and
Portugal — a North Atlantic assemblage in fact.

Apparently the breach that was developing between Africa
and South America in the Upper Cretaceous commenced to broaden
from the north, allowing the North Atlantic to enter and ulti-
mately to join up with the already formed South Atlantic-Indian
Ocean.

That the two continents were separated by water at the com-
mencement of the Tertiary is shown by the marked dissimilarity
between the mammalian faunas of the two countries, the four
typically Ethiopian orders being unrepresented in South America
for example; on the other hand the analogies displayed between
-the monkeys of the latter region and the Madagascar lemurs require

FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS. 139

••some explanation. In order to meet the needs of botanists such as
Hooker and Engler, who have pointed out certain strong floral
resemblances between the two continents, the reasonable assump-
tion can be made that the gap, though wide enough to prevent
animal migration on the whole, was for a time not so broad as to
prevent the crossing of certain plants.

On the assumption that the breach widened from the north,
the opposed shore-lines would have approached closest in the south,
namely in about a line from Uruguay to the Cape. A little farther
-on it is pointed out that a much more northerly connection might
.also have come into being at about the same date.

Cut off by the Upper Cretaceous Ocean, just as Africa was,
.'South America started to evolve a marvellous assemblage of mam-
malian life, such as the gigantic ground-sloths and armadillos, the
remains of which are preserved in the Tertiary deposits of Eastern
JPatagonia.

The Reunion of South America and Australia.

Meanwhile the several sectors of Gondwanaland were moving
.apart from one another at a more rapid rate and, as explained
-earlier, they were pushing up in front of them a practically com-
plete circle of fold-ranges, bringing above the surface of the ocean
parts of the crust that had been forming the sea floor for a very
lengthy period.

In South America this resulted at the beginning of the Miocene
in the elevation of the Andes, a chain of crumpled beds injected
with igneous matter, prolonged southwards through Graham Land
.and Western Antarctica, and continued in the folds of New Zealand
and Eastern Australia. Von Ihering, Ortmann and Hedley have
•emphasised the great resemblances in the marine molluscan faunas
of this date in Patagonia, Australia, and New Zealand, indicating
a migration of forms along the littoral of a Miocene ridge.

Zoologists have had occasion to remark upon the relationships
displayed between the marsupials of Patagonia and those of Aus-
tralia and Tasmania, and when to this is added similar evidence
from among the fossil turtles, the fresh-water fishes, the decapod
'Crustacea, the land Mollusca, and the earth-worms, there can be
no reason to doubt that a land-bridge connected these parts of the
globe. The botanical affinities, as shown by Hooker, Hemsley, and
Bentham, point strongly in the same direction, the relationships
being much more marked than with Africa.

It. is essential to note that this period, the Miocene, was one
of remarkably mild climate, which alone could have permitted the
migration of terrestial life via the Antarctic Circle.

Atlantis.

Turning to the north of South America, but arguing wholly
upon analogy, we are able to detect a second locality where a con-
nection with Africa could have been established during the
'Tertiary, for between Venezuela and Morocco the Cretaceous and

12

140 FORMER LAND CONNECTIONS.

Tertiary beds were buckled up into folds, as can well be seen in
the Atlas Ranges.

For reasons given already any such link would with more-
likelihood have consisted not of an isthmus, but rather of a chain
of islands, of which the Cape Verde and Canary Islands would
constitute the remnants. It is for biologists to determine whether
the evidence favours either the single or the double connection,
and, if the former, just where it should be placed.

It is peculiarly interesting to recall that the reputed Continent
of Atlantis, from which this ocean basin derives its name, was
believed to have lain in this quarter, and that according to certain
students of the question the story of its engulfing is an actual
tradition and no mere myth, its submergence being regarded by
them as having taken place during the existence of mankind.

In concluding, the many imperfections in the presentation of
this discourse are admitted, for on certain points, as it happens,
our knowledge is of the vaguest. The many sided nature of the
problem actually demands for its solution the collaboration of
specialists in the several branches of science concerned.

LIST OF PAPERS READ AT THE SECTIONAL MEETINGS

Section A. — Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, Meteorology,
Geodesy, Surveying, Engineering, Architecture and'
Irrigation.

MONDAY, JULY 11, 1921.

1. Presidential Address on "Stellar Distances, Magnitudes and Move-

ments," by J. Lunt, D.Sc.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.

2. Purification of Sewage by the Activated Sludge Process : R. J.

Norris, M.R.San. I.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

3. Asphalt in Relation to Road Construction: D. B. W. Alexander.

4. Some Notes on the Occurrence of Even Harmonics in Electrical

Pressure and Current Waves: H. Clark, B.Sc, A.M.I.E.E.

Section B. — Chemistr-v, Geology, Metallurgy, Mineralogy

and Geography.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.

1. Presidential Address: "The Atomic Theory in 1921," by J. Mont,

M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

2. Alcohol fuels for internal, combustion engines: C. W. Petchell.

3. Notes on the chemical control of Cattle Dipping Tanks: C. O.

Williams, B.Sc.

4. Condensed Milk in South Africa from the chemist's point of view :

A. Kloot, B.Sc, A. I.C., and L. Hyman.

5. On the mechanical analysis of Soils containing heavy Minerals :

B de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc.

LIST OF PAPERS READ. 141

Section C. — Botany, Bacteriology, Agriculture and Forestry.

THURSDAY, JULY 14.

1. Presidential Address on "Some Aspects of Botany in South Africa-

and Plant Ecology in Natal," by J. W. Bews, M.A., D.Sc.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.

2. Natal species of the genus Cassia : Helena Forbes.

3. An account of the Flora at Isipingo : Helena Forbes.

4. The Plant Succession in a type of Midland Tree Veld in Natal :

R. D. Aitken, M.Sc.

5. The Aeration Systems of certain Natal plants : a preliminary

account : G. W. Gale, B.Sc.

6. Notes on some Fungi in the air of sugar mills and their relation

to the sugar industry: P. A. van der Bijl. M.A.. D.Sc. ...

7. An interesting abnormality of Polyporus lucidus: P. A. van der

Bijl, M.A., D.Sc.

8. Interspecific hybrid and backcross of Foxglove : E. Warren, D.Sc.

FRIDAY, JULY 15.

9. Notes on some interesting or little known South African Fungi :

P. A. van der Bijl/ M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.

10. Protonemal developments of Mosses: H. A. Wager, A.R.C.S.

11. The genus Passerina and its distribution in South Africa: D.

Thoday, M.A.

12. The potency of Pepper-tree pollen as a cause of Hay Fever : G.

Potts, B.Sc, Ph.D.
13 A method of Veld -estimation in relation to Lamziekte : A. O. D.

Mogg, B.A.
14. Agricultural experiment : its design and interpretation : E.

Parish, B.Sc.

Section D. — Zoology, Physiology, Hygiene and Sanitary

Science.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.

1. Presidential Address on " Some recent Advances in Zoology and

their relation to Present-day Problems," by H. B. Fantham,
M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S.

MONDAY, JULY 11.

2. The experimental infestation of freshwater snails, with specific

reference to the Bilharzia parasite: F. G. Cawston, B.A.,
M.D.

3. Birds and bilharziasis. F. W. Fitzsimons, F.Z.S. , F.R.M.S.

4. The life-histories of some Trematodes occurring in South Africa :
Annie Porter, D.Sc, F.L.S.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

5. The natural history, including the geology, of Durban : E. C.

Chubb, F.Z.S., F.E.S.

6. The life-history of species of Heterodera in South Africa: J.

Sandground, M.Sc.

7. A note on Ortalia pallens: R. H. T. P. Harris.

FRIDAY, JULY 15.

8. Some Protozoa found in certain South African Soils: H. B.

Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, and Esther Taylor B.Sc

9. Some parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa, IV: H. B.

Fantham, M.A., D.Sc

10. Nature's methods of screening light in the eyes of Mammals, Birds,

Reptiles and Amphibia : Lindsay Johnson, M.D.

11. What is the reservoir of South African horse-sickness?: G. VAN

de Wall de Kock, M.R.C.V.S.

142 LIST OF PAPERS READ.

Section E. — Anthropology, Ethnology, Native Education.
Philology and Native Sociology.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

1. Presidential Address on "The Claims of the Nativei Question upon

Scientists," by C. T. Loram, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D.

MONDAY, JULY 11.

2. Bantu industries: D. A. Hunter.

3. Bantu literature reviews : D. D. T. Jabavu, B.A.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.
4 Errors in the Fourth Dimension; Rev. W. A. Norton, M.A., B.Litt.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

5. Natives and agriculture : W. Hammond Tooke.

6. The heavenly bodies in South African mythology : Rev. S. S.

DoRNAN, M.A.

7. Two Ntu problems: Rev. W. Wanger.

8. Hymen in clover : Rev. A. T. Bryant.

9. The Bantu idiomitist in the field of philology : Rev. W. A.

Norton, M.A., B.Litt.

10. Sesuto praises of the Chiefs: Rev. W. A. Norton. M.A., B.Litt.

11. Regiments of the House of Moshesh : Rev. W. Norton, M.A.,

B.Litt.

FBIDAY, JULY 15.

12. Native religious rites: Rev. A. T. Bryant.

13. An educational experiment: H. S. Keigwin, M.A.

14. On several implements and ornaments from Strandlooper sites :

J. Hewitt, B.A.

Section F. — Education, History, Mental Science, Political
Economy, General Sociology and Statistics.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.

1. Presidential Address on " Observations and Proposals for the

Stabilisation of Money Values," by W. A. Macfadyen, M.A.,
LL.D.

TUESDAY, JULY 12.

2. The taxation of land values: Geo. Burgess.

WEDNESDAY, JULY 13.
3 The function of a School of Art in the life of the community:
O. J. P. Oxley, A.R.C.A.

4. Irving Fisher's proposals for stabilising the value of money : Mrs.

Mabel Palmer, M.A.

5. Archival problems in South Africa: C. Graham Botha.

6. The preservation of our national monuments: C. Graham Botha,

7. Decentralisation in University education and research : J. E.

Holloway, D.Sc

FBIDAY, JULY 15.

8. Synaesthesia : a continuation of chromaesthesia : Bertha Stone-

man, D.Sc.

9. A curiositv of mediaeval French literature : R. D. Nauta.

ua

ALCOHOL FUELS FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES.

By W. Petchell.

Read July 13, 1921.

For a long time it has been apparent that the only substitute
for petrol for internal combustion engines which could be obtained
in unlimited quantities without robbing Nature's resources is
alcohol.

Its disadvantages are its low calorific value and low vapour
pressure.

Its advantages are : —

It does not carbonize in the cylinder to anything like the
extent that petrol does. Sooted-up plugs are practically unknown
when running on alcohol fuels.

Its comparative safety from fire. Burning alcohol can be
extinguished easily by water.

The explosion in the cylinder is not so sudden as with petrol.
Pre-ignition under ordinary circumstances will never occur, so
that a car can be driven uphill on top gear until the engine almost
stops without any of the hammering that occurs with petrol.

Various methods have been proposed and tried with a view
to remedying the disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel. In order to
increase the calorific value the addition of benzol, naphthalene,
and various other substances has been tried. An excellent mixture
is 60% of alcohol and 40% benzol. This mixture gave excellent
results, but would not start easily when the engine was cold. This
called for a special carburetter or a small quantity of a more
volatile fuel for starting purposes. Then the supply of benzol is
limited.

The low vapour pressure and consequent difficulty in starting
with alcohol only is a very serious drawback to using it in the
engines of motor cars, etc., as the average driver will not go to
the trouble of having a second tank fitted and carrying a supply
of a fuel which is easy to start up on. To obviate this several
methods have been tried, the two most common being the addition
of sulphuric ether, and saturating the alcohol with acetylene.

Some years ago the mixture of acetylene and alcohol was tried
in America with a certain amount of success, but was abandoned
on account of the then high price of alcohol and low price of
petrol. The drawback to this mixture is that it soon gets stale.
The calorific value is very slightly improved, as the alcohol will
not absorb more than about 0-8% of acetylene by weight. There
is also a possibility of the acetylene acting on the copper pipes
leading to the carburetter, etc.

Mixtures of alcohol and ether were proposed and tried several
years ago, but until the Natalite patent was applied for there was
no proposal to use ether in such large percentages.

144 ALCOHOL FUELS.

Of all the alcohol fuels that I have tried I have found that
Natalite was the most satisfactory substitute for petrol. In the
early stages of manufacture we had innumerable complaints. Many
were very puerile, such as that the fuel ate away the cylinder
walls. I watched the exhaust valves as I expected to find a certain
amount of pitting there, but I never found any trouble. There
were also complaints of corrosion of tanks. In the early stages this
might have been true in a slight degree, as we had to use wood
naphtha as a denaturant. Since the use of Simonsen's oil and
pyridine as denaturants has been allowed these troubles have
ceased. Wood naphtha was always undesirable in a motor fuel.
It was frequently impure and contained small quantities of acetic
acid and also liberated acetic acid on combustion. Its calorific
value was also low.

Pyridine on the other hand is an excellent denaturant. Its
unpleasant smell renders any alcohol fuel unpotable. It is difficult
to separate out and has the great advantage of liberating ammonia
on combustion, thus neutralizing the effect of any acid that may
be formed by the combustion of impure alcohol.

Simonsen oil is simply crude petroleum with the asphaltic
fractions separated. It is useful as a fuel and a very good de-
naturant which is very difficult to separate out. It also has a
high calorific value.

From time to time the bogey of corrosion is brought up in
connection with alcohol fuels, but I can confidently say after con-
siderable experience that it is non-existent if a pure alcohol is
used, say 96% alcohol, but if there is much aldehyde present there
is great danger of corrosion, as here again acetic acid is liberated
on combustion. I ran a car 25,000 miles on Natalite: at the end
of that time the engine was opened up and thoroughly examined.
There was no sign of corrosion anywhere. The colouring matter
is a slight drawback, even though the quantity is so small, amount-
ing to about \ oz. of methyl violet to 3 tons of fuel. Yet with
continuous use this small amount collects in the carburetter. It
would ba well if the Excise authorities could see their way to do
away with this requirement.

While on this subject I should like to pay a tribute to the
Union Government and the Excise authorities for the sympathy
and courtesy which jthey have always extended to us. It is for this
reason that I think that we can claim that South Africa is one of
the first countries to make a practical success of an alcohol motor
fuel.

It is often claimed by the inventors or authors of alcohol
motor fuels that the same mileage can be obtained with their fuels
as with petrol. I have never found this to be so with the excep-
tion of the mixture of benzol and alcohol previously mentioned,
which gave results very nearly equal to petrol. In this connection
I am talking of course of standard cars with standard petrol car-
buretters.

We have put down a testing set at Merebank for testing the
comparative values of liquid fuels suitable for motor cars and other

ALCOHOL FDELS. 145

•engines. It consists of a one and a half kilowatt single cylinder
-4 cycle internal combustion engine with generator combined, work-
ing through an air resistance so that any desired load can be
obtained. It was my intention to have the work done shown on
a recording wattmeter, but this has not been delivered yet, so I
have had to be content with an ordinary voltmeter and recording
ammeter. Although this is rather a crude testing set I have got
some very interesting data, which, if not strictly accurate, are
much more accurate than any tests which could be carried out on
Ihe road.

According to the calorific value Natalite has only 72% the
value of petrol. The value is approximately 12,000 B.T.TJ. I
have not been able to have it taken in a calorimeter, but have taken
petrol as 18,000 B.T.U. and alcohol as 11,500.

I have had to calculate the calorific value of ether from
Dulong's formula corrected by Redtenbacher, which gave an
approximate value of 14,000 B.T.U. for ether, corresponding to a
calorific value of 12,000 for Natalite.

In the running tests with the testing set, an average of five
different runs was taken with the following results: —

At full load Natalite gave 75-6 % compared with Shell petrol.

At 2/3 load Natalite gave 79-65% compared with Shell petrol.

At 1/2 load Natalite gave 80-27% compared with Shell petrol.

At 1/3 load Natalite gave 86-85% compared with Shell petrol.

This gives an average on all loads of 80-59%.

The higher efficiency at 1/3 load is rather extraordinary. I
think that the effieiencies at all loads would be increased by sup-
plying hot air to the carburetter so as to vaporize the fuel better.
This is the more necessary as the engine has a fairly long induc-
tion pipe. However, the conditions were similar to those met
with in the majority of motor car engines.

It is rather difficult to explain the difference of 8% efficiency
over the calorific value of the fuels. The thermal efficiency of the
engine working on the alcohol fuel is certainly higher than that
of the petrol engine on account of the lesser quantity of heat
lost in the exhaust owing to less air being required for combustion,
but this does not account for all the difference. In each case the
needle of the carburetter was closed until the engine started to
miss fire and then opened again very gradually until the missing
stopped. The same carburetter setting was kept for all loads.
These results agree very nearly with those that I get on my car
on the road, viz., a mileage of practically 80% of that of petrol.
The efficiency at the lower loads is very good when it is considered
how much running about is done at one-third or half load. In
my opinion an engine as built for petrol is very suitable for alcohol
fuel. One often hears people extolling a new alcohol fuel, saying
that the compression of the present engines should be increased
and wonderful results would follow. I have tried increasing the
compression to llOlbs., but only got slightly better results. I
think that the compression would have to be raised to about
1501bs. per square inch or higher to get really good results. The

146 ALCOHOL FUELS.

difficulties of starting a touring car with, say, 1501bs. compression
would be great and would require a compression relief gear. Then
again with throttle control there would be very little flexibility.
Every motorist knows that flexibility is one of the chief aims of
every designer of touring car engines, so I do not think that
engines with a compression much higher than at present will be
adopted.

Then, again, if any of the mixtures of alcohol and other sub-
stances added to increase the vapour pressures were subjected to
much higher compression, pre-ignition would occur.

In a stationary engine with alcohol alone a compression of
2001bs. per square inch could be adopted. This with a hit and
miss governor would probably be a good deal more economical
than a petrol engine, and would very nearly approach the Diesel
engine in thermal efficiency.

In my opinion the carburetter of the petrol engine leaves
much to be desired if an alcohol fuel is to be used, and that if
alcohol alone is to be used a new design will be necessary.

At the present time alcohol with different mixtures serves for
adaption to the present type of petrol car, and for some time to.
come will carry us over the transition stage, but in the end I feel
sure that alcohol alone, denatured of course to render it undrink-
able, will come out on top, as none of the substances added increase
its thermal efficiency to anything like the extra cost that they
entail. At the same time as before mentioned alcohol mixtures
will tide over the present, but will be discarded when suitable car-
buretters are fitted, and a plentiful supply of alcohol obtainable
everywhere.

I think that with a suitable carburetter alcohol would give
very much better results than any of the mixtures, and the present
carburetter.

The most suitable one would have to break up the alcohol'
into a spray and be fed with air at a temperature just high enough
to vaporize it. The proportions between fuel and air should bes
nearly constant at all speeds. For the general public a fixed jet
should be fitted. Alcohol having such a much wider explosive
range than petrol, a big waste of fuel can take place without the
driver being aware that his mixture is much too rich. I am
frequently told of cars pulling splendidly on Natalite, but the-
consumption is excessive. In almost every case of- this sort the
carburetter has a variable jet which is too much open.

It would be an advantage to have the vaporizer heated up to>
facilitate starting. This could easily be done by an electric resist-
ance, as is the case, I believe, with some of the paraffin carburetters.
It is this difficulty in starting with alcohol alone that has to be-
overcome, and until there are plentiful supplies of denatured
alcohol of good quality to be obtained in every village sufficient
attention will not be paid to overcoming the difficulty.

147

NOTES ON THE CHEMICAL CONTROL OF CATTLE
DIPPING TANKS.

By C. Williams, B.Sc, A.K.C.S.,

School of Agriculture, Cedar a.

Bead July 13. 1921.

In a previous paper by the writer on this subject published
in the Journal of this Association for May, 1915, the need for a
periodical chemical analysis of arsenical dip fluids from cattle
dipping tanks was emphasised. Although such apparatus as the
"Isometer" and the "Champion Dip Testing Apparatus" are very
useful as affording a quick method of ascertaining, approximately,
the amount of sodium arsenite in a dip fluid, they are liable to
serious errors in careless hands, while no account is taken by these
methods of the arsenic that is present in the fluid in the oxidised
form as arsenate. Although it may be true that under practical
conditions the amount of oxidation in dipping tanks is not usually
serious, yet cases come under the writer's notice from time to time
in which the amount of oxidised arsenic in the tank is too serious
to be ignored. As an illustration there are appended the results
of the periodical analysis of the fluid taken from both tanks on
the Cedara Experiment Farm during the past two years. After
each analysis the fluid was made up approximately to standard
strength, assuming that the oxidised arsenic has half the insecti-
cidal strength of the unoxidised form : —

NEW TANK.

Amount of

Total

Date of Analysis.

Arsenious
oxide :
As203

Arsenic :

(Calc. as

As203

Remarks.

per cent.

per cent.

October 28, 1919

0-092

0-106

November 1,1919

0-107

0111

January 23, 1920

0-081

0135

March 12, 1920

0-086

0-157

March 20, 1920

0-085

0148

June 3, 1920

0146

0-148

Tank cleaned out
fresh dip put in.

and

August 26, 1920

0-118

0156

November 8,1920.. ...

0-117

0-134

February 7, 1921

0-080

0113

Influx of storm water

into tank.

February 14, 1921

o-ioo

0-162

March 23, 1921

0-082

0146

May 19, 1921

0-154

0156

Tank cleaned out
fresh dip put in.

and

148

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS.
OLD TANK.

Arsenious

Total Arsenic

Date.

Oxide

calc. as

Remarks.

As203

As203

October 28, 1919

per cent.
0055

per cent.
0-098

Tank cleaned out in

November 1, 1919

0-084

0143

July, 1919.

January 23, 1920

March 12, 1920

0-081
0-054

0146
0-105

Influx of storm water.

June 3, 1920

0-061

0-162

August 26, 1920

o-ioi

0201

November 8, 1920

0-091

0-147

Influx of storm water.

February 7, 1921

0-065

0128

Influx of storm water.

February 14, 1921
March 23, 1921

0'105
0-075

0169
0-176

May 19. 1921

0054

0-200

These figures show that oxidation of the arsenic proceeded
continuously at a serious rate in both tanks, although they were
in continuous use. The same trouble is liable to occur in other
dipping tanks, and for this reason, among several others, farmers
should be encouraged to forward samples periodically to the labora-
tory of the nearest agricultural college in order to have a proper
chemical analysis made, as a check on the tests carried out by
themselves.

Effect of Organic Matter and other Impurities on the
Results of the Estimation of Arsenic by the Iodine Method.

In the laboratory at Cedara, Mohr's method of titration with
standard iodine solution is utilised for the estimation of the arsenic,
in both the arsenite and arsenate states.

The dip fluid is first clarified by the aid of a few cubic centi-
metres of either strong hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. For the
'■estimation of the arsenious oxide the filtrate, after neutralising
with sodium carbonate, is titrated with N/10 iodine, after adding
an excess of sodium bicarbonate as usual.

In estimating the total arsenic, another portion of the filtrate
is treated with a large excess of either concentrated hydrochloric
or sulphuric acid and a gram or two of potassium iodide, in order
to reduce the arsenate present to the arsenite condition. The
reduction is complete after warming the flask for a few minutes,
the free iodine is got rid of by meanr. of sodium thiosulphate, and
the arsenic is then estimated as before

In the dip fluid as taken out of the tank there is a fairly
large proportion of extraneous matter present, besides arsenious
oxide, that causes the absorption of iodine, but by the addition
of an acid to clarify the fluid the greater proportion of these sub-
stances is got rid of. In order to ascertain the amount of iodine
absorption actually taking place in this method of estimation, a
liquid was made up of spring water containing about 10 per cent,
•of drainage fluid from the cow byre, thus approximating the con-

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS.

149

ditions obtaining in a dipping tank. Blank estimations by the
iodine method were made on this solution at monthly intervals,
and the results calculated to the equivalent amounts of arsenious
oxide in each case, the same procedure being followed exactly as
with dip fluid.

First
Analvsi

After
I month

After
2 months

After
3 months

After
4 months

1.

2.

Equivalent amount of
Arsenite (calculated as

As203)

Equivalent amount o f
Total Arsenic (calculated
as As203) ...

per cent.
0-006

per cent.
0-008
0-002

per cent.
0-005
0-003

per cent.
0-004

o-ooi

per cent
0-003
0-002

It will be noticed that the addition of a large excess of con-
centrated acid when estimating the total arsenic gives a smaller
blank figure than in the estimation of the arsenite.

In a five-day dip fluid the proportion of arsenious oxide is
016 per cent., so the error due to absorption of the iodine by
extraneous matter is reasonably low. It may be also pointed out
that by the use of a fairly close filter paper the amount of iodine
absorbed in the blank estimations is slightly less than when the
ordinary quick paper is employed.

To Test Effect of Excretory Matter in Dip Fluids.

It has been stated by more than one authority on this subject
that the frequent addition of fresh excretory matter to the arseni-
cal dip fluid will not only retard the oxidising action that usually
goes on in such fluids, but will even cause the speedy reduction of
the oxidised arsenic (as arsenate) back to the unoxidised form (as
arsenite). In order to test this contention under laboratory con-
ditions the following series of investigations were carried out, the
solutions in each case being kept in stoppered Winchester quart
bottles.

1. A solution of 4 grams of sodium arsenite in 2 litres of dis-
tilled water was made up and analysed immediately after. Then
10 grams of fresh dung were added to the bottle, and the contents
were analysed at fortnightly intervals. The results were as
follows: —

First
Analysis

After
2 weeks

After
4 weeks

After
C weeks

After
8 weeks

After
10 weeks

a. Arsenite (as As203)

b. Total Arsenic (as As203) ...

per cent.
0151
0155

per cent.|per cent.
0-137 0-097
0-154 0-154

per cent.
0-037
0-152

per cent.
0023
0-152

per cent.
0020
0154

150

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS.

2. A solution was made up as in (1), but 2 grams of fresh
dung were added immediately after the first analysis, and the same
amount added to the bottle every week.

First
Analysis

After
2 weeks

After
4 weeks

After
6 weeks

After
8 weeks

After
10 weeks

a. Arsenite (as As203)

b. Total Arsenic (as As203)

per cent.
0151
0-155

per cent.
0-151
0154

per cent i per cent. i per cent.
0-117 j 0-068 ! 0-039
0155 0154 0154

per cent.
0-028
0-154

3. The third solution was made up as in (1) with 10 grams of
fresh dung added immediately after the first analysis. After
oxidation had well set in (after a period of 4 weeks) weekly addi-
tions of fresh dung were made.

First
Analysis

After
2 weeks

After
■1 weeks

After
6 weeks

After
8 weeks

After
10 weeks

a. Arsenite (as As203)

b. Total Arsenic (as As203) ...

Iper cent.
0-151
0155

per cent.
0139
0-152

per cent.per cent, iper cent.per cent.
0103 I 0060 | 0030 | 0-021
0-154 I 0-154 0-154 ! 0-154

The figures in these tables show that weekly additions of fresh
dung to stoppered bottles containing solutions of sodium arsenite
did not prevent the progressive oxidation that goes on in the
original inoculated fluid.

Since the above experiments were carried out the writer has
had access to two papers by Green* in which he states that he has
succeeded in isolating a bacterium causing oxidation of arsenite
to arsenate in dipping tanks, and also an organism which brings
about the opposite change. He maintains that the latter organism
does not thrive in a dilute dung decoction and that there must
also be present small amounts of urine. It is therefore quite pos-
sible that in the experiments of which the results are given above
this was the missing factor, or rather, the one which was present
in an insufficient amount.

This, however, would not explain the continuous oxidation
that has been going on in the two tanks at Cedara. In these tanks
a proprietary dip containing a certain proportion of a coal-tar dis-
infectant in its composition was used throughout the period in
question, while to the old tank, in addition, there has been added
a few gallons of a similar type of disinfectant occasionally. Chapinf
points out that too little disinfectant in the tank is worse
than none at all, because the reducing organisms are more sensi-
tive to it than those causing oxidation. It, therefore, seems
probable that this has been the fault in the control of the Cedara
dipping tanks. It is, therefore, proposed to clean out both of
these tanks, put fresh dip fluid in, but to avoid in the future the

* H. H. Green : Fifth and Sixth Reports of the Director of
Veterinary Research", pp. 611 et seq.

t R. M. Chapin : "Studies on Changes in the Degree of Oxidation
of Arsenic in Arsenical Dipping Baths," Bulletin No. 259 of U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS.

151

addition of any disinfectant to one of them, while adding the usual
amounts to the other. In this way it is hoped to be able to settle
this point definitely, for the dip fluids will be analysed at regular
intervals and kept under chemical control.

Keeping Powers of the Standard Solutions of Iodine used in
Testing Dip Fluids.

From time to time complaints have been received from farmers
and Government officials who have to test the strength of the
arsenical fluids of dipping tanks, that the results of their tests are
anomalous. In order to ascertain whether that may not sometimes
be due to a deterioration in the strength of the iodine solution
used in their apparatus, a few bottles of these standard solutions
were bought from one of the dealers and tested periodically against
a standard solution of arsenite. Altogether nine bottles of stan-
dard solutions for various kinds of dip fluids were tested, and it
was found that all the solutions were reasonably near the standard-
strength that they were supposed to represent. They also kept
their strength fairly well for three or four months, the loss of
strength in that period being not more than about 5 per cent., but
the deterioration of strength after about a year was very marked
in most cases, although the bottles were kept in a cupboard with
their stoppers on. It is conceivable that great carelessness will
often be observed in the storage of the iodine solution on the part
of farmers, who may often use a solution that has been in the
house for a year or more. Under these conditions it is probable
that large errors in the test will arise, and will explain the peculiar
results that are often obtained by them.

'The Effect of the Addition of Certain Salts to Solutions of
Arsenite and Arsenate of Soda.

1. On Arsenite of Soda: —

In order to test whether the presence of certain salts in the
water used for making up dip fluids has any appreciable effect or
not on the solubility of the arsenic some arsenite of soda was dis-
solved in distilled water and to this fluid certain solutions were
carefully added until no further precipitation of the arsenite took
place. The results are recorded in the following table: —

Proportion of Arsenious Oxide in the solution originally

0-148%.

Salt or Oxide added.

Proportion of As203

found in the Solution

after addition of the

reagent.

Amount of each substance

that had to be added

(calculated as parts per

100,000 of the Arsenic

solution).

1.
2.
3.

4.

Ferrous Sulphate. ...
Ferric Chloride
Calcium Oxide (as

Lime Water)
Magnesium Sulphate

per cent.
0114
0-127

0048
(No appreciable precipi-
tate produced.)

143

110

75

152

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS.

2. On. Arsenate of Soda: —

In order to find out whether the above compounds precipitate:
any appreciable amount of the oxidised arsenic in the dipping
tank, a solution of arsenate of soda was made up and tested as in
the case of the arsenite of soda.

Proportion of Arsenate (calculated as As203) in the solution
originally =0114%.

Proportion of Arsenate

Amount of each substance

(calculated as As203)

that had to be added

Salt or Oxide added.

found in the Solution

(calculated as parts per

after addition of the

100,000 of the Arsenate

reagent.

Solution).

per cent.

1.

Ferroxis Sulphate . . .

0-023

270

2.

Ferric Chloride

0040

163

3.

Calcium Oxide (as

Lime Water)

0-008

75

\.

Magnesium Sulphate

(No appreciable precipi-
tate produced.)

The above results show that spring water containing an
appreciable amount of saline matter (especially salts of iron and
of the alkaline earths), when used in making up a dip fluid, may
cause a serious precipitation of both the unoxidised and oxidised
arsenic in a dipping tank, and the weakening of dip fluids in tanks
might sometimes have possibly been due to this cause. Of course,
salts of sodium and potassium in the water would have no such
effect.

Summary.

1. When estimating the arsenic in ordinary dip fluids by
titration with standard iodine solution, the error due to absorp-
tion of the iodine by the organic matter in the dip fluid is very
small, and even negligible, if the fluid is first clarified by the aid
of a few cubic centimetres of either strong hydrochloric or sulphuric
acid.

2. It has been stated by more than one authority that the
frequent addition of fresh excretory matter to the dipping tank
will not only retard the oxidising action that usually goes on in
arsenical dip fluids, but will even cause the speedy reduction of
the oxidised arsenic. According to this contention, a tank in
constant use will not show any appreciable oxidation, but experi-
ence has shown that some dipping tanks, although fulfilling these
conditions, still show serious weakening of strength by oxidation.
It is, therefore, very necessary that farmers should forward
samples periodically to a laboratory in order to have a proper
chemical analysis made, as a check on the tests carried out by
themselves.

3. The standard solutions of iodine supplied by certain dealers
to farmers for testing their dip fluids seem to keep up their strength
fairly well for about three Or four months, but after that period
has elapsed they usually deteriorate fairly rapidly.

CHEMICAL CONTROL OF DIPPING TANKS. 153

4. Water containing an appreciable amount of saline matter
(especially salts of iron and of the alkaline earths), when used in
making up a dip fluid, may cause a serious precipitation of both
the oxidised and the unoxidised arsenic in the dipping tank. Salts
of sodium and potassium in the water would have no such dele-
terious effect.

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF SOME INVESTIGATIONS
ON LEAF-AERATION IN CERTAIN NATAL PLANTS.

By G. W. Gale, B.Sc,

Union Government Research Scholar.

Read July 11, 1921.

The method of estimating the intercellular space content of
Angiosperm leaves by noting their increase in weight when
injected (under reduced pressure) with water, dates back to 1721,
when Christian Wolff first made experiments of this sort. In
1854, Unger made an extensive series of such measurements on
various species chosen apparently more or less at random, and
helped to pave the way for Haberlandt's generalization in 1914
that the aeration system of leaves is greatest under hygrophilous
conditions and least under xerophytic conditions. As a corollary
to this statement we know that shade leaves exhibit a greater
degree of aeration than sun leaves, a conclusion confirmed by
McLean's work on the tropical rain-forest of Brazil.

Last year the present writer commenced work on the aeration
systems of leaves with the object of comparing, in this respect,
different ecological types of the Natal flora. A brief description
of the method used, and of certain necessary precautions, may be
of interest. The leaves are weighed and placed in a conical flask
attached by a side-exit to an air-pump; the injection-fluid enters
from a reservoir placed above the flask and communicating with it
by means of a tube controlled by a stopcock. The air is exhausted
from the flask, and this of course withdraws also the air from the
intercellular spaces. The stopcock control is now opened and fluid
run in from the reservoir until the leaves are completely covered.
A few more turns of the air-pump are now necessary in order to
exhaust the air dissolved in the injection fluid. The flask is now
disconnected from the pump, and as the air rushes in the leaves
are injected. They are then taken out, dried with a linen cloth,
and re-weighed. Acting on McLean's suggestion, 4% alcohol
(sp. gr. -99) is used as the injection fluid; it is too weak to cause
plasmolysis of the cells, but possesses a much lower surface tension
than water and hence penetrates more easily. The process of
injection can actually be observed in nearly all leaves, and thus,
there is a guarantee that injection shall always be complete.

154 LEAF- AERATION IN NATAL PLANTS.

Unfortunately, many, particularly sclerophyllous and parallel-
veined, leaves will not inject completely. In order to prevent
absorption of the injection-fluid by the cells of the leaf it is
•essential to deal only with leaves which have been kept for several
hours in an atmosphere saturated with water-vapour : this can be
done by placing leafy twigs in water under a bell- jar for some
hours before experimenting.

Several interesting results have emerged from the work already
done. In the first place a criticism of the conclusions of previous
writers (e.g. Haberlandt, McLean) seems to be justified. Evidence
has been obtained that a well-developed intercellular space system
is not necessarily a mesophytic character, nor a poorly-developed
one necessarily a xerophytic character. Two Natal xerophytes —
Portulacaria afra, the Spekboom, and A vicennia officinalis, a Man-
grove— have, for instance, a larger intercellular space system, rela-
tive to both weight and volume of the whole leaf, than species
growing in more "mesophytic" situations, e.g., Fagara davyi and
Tricalysia lanceolata in High Veld Bush. This indicates that
another factor, besides the water factor, has an influence on the
degree of leaf-aeration; and Prof. Bews has suggested that, since
Portulacaria and A vicennia both have a badly-aerated substratum
whereas the other species named have not, the aeration system of
the leaf is also influenced by the degree of soil-aeration.

Careful experiments indicate that the supposed difference
between sun and shade leaves (of the same species) is really due
to an increase in the specific gravity of the leaf-substance of sun
leaves as compared with that of shade leaves. All previous work-
ers have expressed their results in terms of the live weight of the
leaf, and thus have obtained an apparent increase in the inter-
cellular space content of shade leaves; but when it is expressed in
terms of leaf-volume, there is no such increase.

From the ecological viewpoint, the degree of variation
exhibited by various types has provided some most interesting
data. Among the species dealt with, those with the greatest varia-
bility in the magnitude of the intercellular space system are
species which are pioneers in plant succession (e.g., Portulacaria
afra, Gymnosporia buxifolia, Combretum spp.), or else are variable
in their ecology {Ptaeroxylon utile). Those with a less degree of
variability are species confined to later stages in plant succession
(e.g., trees in High Veld Bush) or to specialized habitats (e.g..
Piper capense, A vicennia officinalis). The occurrence of such
variations in the aeration system of plants is of considerable
interest, since it is in the iutercellular spaces of the leaves that
gaseous exchange between the plant and the atmosphere takes
place. The degree of leaf-aeration, therefore, is a factor affecting
the three vital functions of transpiration, assimilation, and
respiration. Variations in so important a factor are of especial
significance when viewed in the light of an hypothesis to be sug-
gested in the next paragraph.

The quantitative results given above are valuable in that they
illustrate and confirm an important ecological principle which was

LEAF-AERATION IN NATAL PLANTS. 155

iirst propounded to the writer by Prof. Bews. The principle is
that pioneer types are more variable in their physiological structure
and functions than subsequent types, and for that reason able to
adapt themselves to the more varied and more variable conditions
presented by the habitat during early stages in plant succession;
whereas subsequent and climax types are less variable in physio-
logical structure and functions, and for that reason limited to the
stable and often specialized environmental conditions which obtain
in the late and final stages of succession.

The work of which the main results are here briefly presented
is the first attempt at obtaining precise quantitative confirmation
of Dr. Bews' suggestive hypothesis. The results obtained indicate
that further work along similar lines — the comparison of the
physiology and physiological structure of pioneer species with that
of subsequent species in various plant successions — may be
expected to provide results of equal importance in either confirm-
ing or modifying the original hypothesis.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT: ITS DESIGN AND
INTERPRETATION.

By E. Parish, B.Sc,
Department of Agriculture.

Read July 15, 1921.
Summary.

1. The variation in yield of single plots similarly treated is
so great as to render valueless comparisons made from the result
of single plot trials; similarly with experiments with small num-
bers of animals, owing to the high variation in the individual.

2. Replication in agricultural experiments is absolutely
necessary. This should bs obtained rather by replication of the
plots in a field trial, or animals in a feeding trial, in any year,
than by continuing the experiments over a number of years. It
is desirable, however, even when the experiments are properly
designed, that they be repeated in successive years.

3. In field trials the replication of the plots must be systematic
and so designed as to vitiate the effect of progressive differences in
the soil. Suggestions for the conduct of manurial and variety
trials and co-operative experiments will be made in the full text of
this paper.

4. In animal feeding trials the individuals must be carefully
selected and be uniform in age, breed, sex and condition, and
should be at least five in number in each lot, and preferably 10.
The animals in the lots under comparison should be subjected to

13

156 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT.

uniform conditions for two or three weeks prior to the commence-
ment of the experiment.

5. In field trials no appreciable increase in reliability is gained
by enlarging the plots beyond l-40th of an acre.

6. In interpreting the results of agricultural experiment the
"Probable Error" figure is useful, since it is a guide to the relia-
bility and variability of the results under consideration.

THE LIFE-HISTORIES OF SOME TREMATODES
OCCURRING IN SOUTH AFRICA.

By Annie Porter, D.Sc.Lond., F.L.S., F.R.S. (S.A.).

Parasitologist, South African Institute for Medical Research,

Johannesburg.

Read July 11, 1921.

Abstract.

It is well known that the life-history of a parasitic Trematode
may usually be divided into two main phases, one passed in an
invertebrate host and the other in a vertebrate. A few Trematoda
are known in which two successive invertebrate hosts occur and
only one vertebrate host, but such have not been notified in the
Union of South Africa. Here the Trematoda whose life-histories
are known are digenetic.

In South Africa, as in other parts of the world, the inverte-
brate hosts of digenetic Trematodes are usually Mollusca. When
South African Mollusca are examined for larval Trematoda it is
found that} a large number of different kinds of the larval forms
are present, and in only a very few cases have the adults correspond-
ing to the larval forms been worked out. Conversely, a number
of adult Trematoda from various vertebrate hosts have been noti-
fied, of whose early developmental stages and invertebrate hosts
nothing is known.

It has been my good fortune to have been able to determine
the life-histories of several South African flukes during the last
three years*, some of which are now summarised, full details being
reserved for future publication.

Schistosomes.

(1) Schistosoma haematobium.

Schistosoma haematobium is the fluke responsible for human

urinary bilharziasis. The larval stages are passed usually in South

Africa in the freshwater snail, Physopsis africana, and occasion-

* See Med. Journ. S. Africa, 1920, vol. XV, pp. 128-133; Ibid., vol. XVI, pp. 75, 76;
S.A. Journ. of Science, 1920, vol. XVII, pp. 120-130.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES. 157

ally in the freshwater snail, Limnaea natalensis, both of which I
have found infected in nature as well as determined experiment-
ally. The life-history of S. haematobium in South Africa briefly
is as follows : —

The terminal spined eggs pass from the human body with the
urine. If they reach water, a ciliated larva or miracidium hatches
from each egg and swims about actively. If the pond snail,
Physopsis africana, or more rarely, Limnaea natalensis, is encoun-
tered, the miracidia penetrate the pulmonary cavity of the snail,
enter the liver and settle down there, losing their motility and
developing into hollow structures termed sporocysts. From the walls
of the sporocyst buds arise which develop into active forked tailed
cercariae, which not only invade other parts of the liver but also
reach the generative organs of the snail. The cercaria of
«Sf. haematobium has a body about 240^ long by 100/* broad, its
tail is about 200/x long by 45 /a broad, and the caudal forks are
about 80/x to 100m long. There is a small oral sucker and the
ventral sucker or acetabulum is also small. Three pairs of mucin
glands are present, each capped by a hollow piercing spine and
opening on the outer margin of the oral sucker. A group of several
large geivm cells lies behind the posterior sucker.

The cercariae ultimately leave the snail, swim about in the
water, and should they come in contact with the skin of a person
bathing or paddling in the water, or even drinking it, they attach
themselves to the skin, bore through it, dropping their tails in so
doing, reach the bloodvessels, and find their way to the liver and
mesentery of the human host. In the branches of the portal and
mesenteric veins the worms gradually assume the adult form.
Laboratory animals exposed to or drinking water containing
cercariae have become infected and have died of bilharziasis, after
about two months, adult worms being obtained post mortem.

The adults are unisexual, the males being broader and thicker
but shorter than the females. The males that I have obtained
experimentally have been from 3mm. to 17mm. long. The suckers
are near one another, the ventral sucker being the larger and being
pedunculated. The surface of the body is beset with cuticular
spines. The mouth opens on the anterior sucker, and the two-
bulbed oesophagus communicates with the intestine which bifur-
cates behind the posterior sucker. These caecal forks unite far
behind and the gut ends as a single canal of short length. The
testes are four in number, rounded and large. The edges of the
body are folded to form the characteristic gynaecophoric canal.

The females obtained by me experimentally varied from 5mm.
to 30mm. long. They were thread-like, with weak suckers. The
ovary is in the posterior half of the body. The uterus is volum-
inous and usually contains a number of mature terminal spined
eggs at one time. The vitellaria lie in the posterior quarter of the
body. The female is carried in the gynaecophoric canal of the
male. She migrates from the region of the liver and deposits
her eggs in the walls of the human bladder, whence they make
their way to the cavity of the bladder and pass out with the urine.

158 LIFE-HISTORIES OE TKEMATODES.

(2) Schistosoma mansoni.

Schistosoma mansoni, the excitant of bilharzial dysentery, is
transmitted in South Africa by at least three molluscs, namely,
Planorbis 2)fcifferi, Physopsis africana, and Isidora tropica. The
fluke is not a common parasite of man in the Union of South
Africa, but is fairly common in British and Portuguese East Africa
and very common in South America. My infected molluscs were
obtained in Natal. Planorbis pfeifferi, in my opinion, is probably
the more common transmitter of Schistosoma mansoni in South
Africa, and Isidora tropica the least common. I have only once
so far found Isidora infected with the cercariae of S. mansoni, but
was able to produce the adult worms in a white rat exposed to
these cercariae. Fuller details are set forth in my article (1920)
in the "Medical Journal of South Africa," Vol. XVI, p. 75,
already cited.

The life-history of Schistosoma mansoni is on the same lines
as that of S. haematobium. The eggs are lateral spined, and are
passed with the faeces of an infected person. On reaching water the
miracidia emerge from the eggs, swim about, and should they
succeed in reaching one of the afoi'ementioned molluscs, enter the
pulmonary cavity and reach the liver where they develop into
sporocysts that produce cercariae. These cercariae are smaller
than those of S. haematobium, the body of each being only about
150/i long and 60 /a broad, the tail being proportionately smaller.
The body contains two pairs of large acidophile mucin glands and
four pairs of smaller basophile mucin glands. Each gland opens
by a hollow spine at the anterior end of the oral sucker. Numerous
small cells constitute the rudiments of the genitalia. These
cercariae leave the snail and, if they reach the human body, they
develop as with S. haematobium in the liver and mesenteric veins
and become sexually mature.

The adult male in general structure resembles that of
S. haematobium, but has eight small testes, while its alimentary
canal has forks which unite relatively early, so that the single
portion of the intestine is long. The males that I have obtained
experimentally were from 3mm. to 11mm. long. The filiform
females measured from 4mm. to 14mm. long, had very weak
suckers, and presented the same structure of the alimentary canal
as the male. The ovary is median, the vitellaria occur in the
posterior part of the body, and the uterus usually contains one only
of the lateral spined ova at a time. The ova are laid singly in
the submucosa of the rectum whither the female migrates after
fertilisation, and produce ulceration there. They pass out with
the stools of the infected person.

(3) Preventive Measures.

Preventive measures against infection with Schistosoma
haematobium and S. mansoni may be briefly summarised. Measures
against pollution of soil and especially of water by urine or faeces
of infected persons must be instituted. Proper disposal of excre-
ment, preferably by burning, is necessary. Great care is needed

LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES. 159

not only with open water used for washing linen or bathing, but
with domestic supplies from wells or ponds used for drinking water.
Infection takes place by way of both the mouth and the skin. All
water from suspected infected sources should .be allowed to stand
for two days before being used, by which time the cercariae are
dead.

Eradication of snails is also desirable. While this is not
entirely possible, yet the number of snails can be kept down to a
great extent by trimming of banks and by using domestic ducks
on open water, for these birds rapidly reduce the snail population,
while owing to their domesticated habits they do not fly from pool
to pool, bearing snail eggs on their feet as do wild duck. Certain
small "millions" fish, such as are used for mosquito control, will
also feed on trematode cercariae, and might be employed in dams
or bathing pools for the double purpose of mosquito and cercarial
destruction.

Distomes.

The life-histories of two common distomes, namely, Fasciola
hepatica, the European sheep fluke, and F. gigantica, the African
cattle and sheep fluke, may be outlined.

(1) Fasciola hepatica.

The transmitter of Fasciola hepatica in Europe is the small
snail, Limnaea truncatula, as was shown by the magnificent work
of Thomas and of Leuckart. I have been able to determine experi-
mentally that two transmitters are present in South Africa,
namely, the pond snails, Jsidora tropica and Limnaea natalensis.
Sexually mature flukes have been obtained by feeding rabbits and
laboratory bred sheep with encysted cercariae from these naturally
infected molluscs, while laboratory bred snails have been infected
direct by exposure to the miracidia from eggs of Fasciola hepatica
taken from condemned sheep livers at the Johannesburg Abattoirs.
The life-cycle of F. hepatica in either Isidora tropica or Limnaea
natalensis is practically the same as that of F . hepatica in Limnaea
truncatula. in Europe.

The ovoid, operculate eggs of F . hepatica measure 130/x to 145/i
long by 70/x to 9G> broad.

The miracidia hatched from the eggs are about 125/x long by
25 /x to 3(V broad. They have well marked eyespots. They enter
the pulmonary cavity of the snail and penetrate the liver, where
they develop into sporocysts varying in my specimens from 500/j,
to 720/i in long diameter. Within the sporocyst the rediae develop,
and these leave the sporocyst when about 35/a long and then grow
considerably, some measured being as much as-8mm. long. There
is a well-marked collar and a relatively inconspicuous birth pore.
Finally, the rediae produce cercariae, which are rounder than those
of F. gigantica, having highly contractile bodies, measuring from
250/x to 300/x long and 200/x to 225u broad. The simple tail is
about 450/a long. The body has cystogenous granules, but these
are not so dense as those of F . gigantica. At encystment a resistant

160 LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES.

spherical cyst is produced. When ingested by sheep or cattle, the
encysted cercaria or agamodistome develops into the adult liver
fluke, the structure of which is well known.

(2) Fasciola gigantica.

The vertebrate hosts of Fasciola gigantica are Ruminants,
chiefly cattle, sheep and goats. The invertebrate host I have deter-
mined to be the common pond snail, Limnaea natalensis. The life-
history of Fasciola gigantica I described last year (this Journal,
1920, Vol. XVII,' pp. 126-130), so that repetition here is
unnecessary, but it may be useful to indicate some of the differ-
ences between the adults of it and of F. hepatica. Thus, Fasciola
gigantica differs from F. hepatica in the following respects: — It
has a shorter cephalic cone, almost parallel sides, large acetabulum
which is closer to the oral sucker, an alimentary canal in which
the direct diverticula off the two main longitudinal stems are more
numerous and more backwardly directed than in F. hepatica, a
less conspicuous and more straggling ovary, and the posterior testis
more sharply delimited from the anterior one. The ova of
F . gigantica (measuring 150/* to 190/t by 75/* to 90/*) are also larger
than those of F. hepatica.

Paramphistomes.
Pararn phistoni u m calicophorum .

Owing to difficulties in obtaining literature, full identifications
of the Paramphistomes that I have bred in the laboratory cannot
be submitted here. The Amphistome herein discussed is probably
Paramphistomum calicophorum Fischoeder, common in the rumen
of cattle in South Africa. The larval stages are passed in the fresh-
water snail, Isidora tropica.

The parthenita are rediae found in the liver and hermaphrodite
gland of Isidora tropica. The rediae are muscular and some
reached 3mm. in length. The cercariae are conspicuous, each
having an oval body measuring 400/x to 500/* long by 300/* to 400/x
broad, with a simple tail about as long as the body. Two pro-
minent, black, pigmented areas are present, which surround the
true eyes. The mouth and anterior sucker are well-marked, the
pharynx distinct. The excretory system consists of two lateral
tubes, which have a sinuous course, each bifurcating into two, one
on each side of the eye. A bifurcation also occurs just posterior
to the branching of the oesophagus, the branches of each side unit-
ing to form a continuous transverse tubule. The genital rudi-
ments consist of two small testicular masses with one ovarian rudi-
ment posterior to them. Cystogenous glands are present.

Encystment occurs on grass or on water plants. The tail is
cast, and a mass of cystogenous material is poured out. Some of
the pigment granules are also shed. The cystogenous material
gradually hardens, and a more or less spherical cyst, varying from
400/* to 550/* in diameter is produced. These cysts fed to laboratory
animals developed into the large cherry -pink Amphistomes, which,

LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES. 161

when mature, vary from 5mm. to 12mm. long by 4mm. to 5mm.
broad, identical with those common in cattle in Johannesburg
Abattoir. Many full-grown adults are about 10mm. long and 4mm.
broad. The anterior sucker is large; the oesophagus forks,
the two branches of the gut passing backwards almost to the large
acetabulum or caudal sucker. The two testes are slightly lobulate,
one at a slightly lower level and posterior to the other. They are
laterally placed and their fields do not overlap. There is a great
development of the pars muscularis of the cirrus. The small ovary
is posterior to the testes, near the anterior border of the aceta-
bulum. The vitellaria extend forwards almost to the anterior
sucker. Numerous ova are produced, which are rather slow in
maturing, at any rate under laboratory conditions. If the
miracidia reach Isidora tropica they enter the snail and the life-
cycle of the fluke recommences.

The life-cycles of two other larval Amphistomes are under
investigation.

As far as can be ascertained from the literature available this
Paramphistome would seem to be Paramphistomum calicophorum
of Fischoeder, now placed by Stiles and Goldberger (1910) pro-
visionally in their subgenus Cauliorchis. Further work is in pro-
gress, and I believe that Mr. C. S. Grobbelaar, of the University
of Stellenbosch, is also working on this or an allied species of
Amphistome, so that further information is likely to be available.
The eyespotted cercaria that I have used I cannot identify with
certainty as the Cercaria frondosa of Cawston, as that author gave
no critical details, while it does not agree in certain respects with
C . frondosa described by Faust from preserved specimens sent him
by Cawston. However, some of the more obvious structural fea-
tures of the cercaria have already been mentioned by me in the pre-
ceding.

Preventive Measures.

Preventive measures against infection of vertebrates by the
different species of Fasciola and by Paramphistomum may be sum-
marised. As infection is by way of the mouth in both cases, access
to herbage immediately bordering water must be prevented by
fencing, and an adequate supply of water that has stood for two
days must be provided for cattle and sheep. Any encysted cercariae
will be found on the sides of the vessel in which the water has been
contained prior to use. Snail infestation of water should also be
prevented by the use of domesticated ducks, as mentioned pre-
viously in connection with Schistosome infections.

ECHIXOSTOMES.

(1) Echinostomum fulicae, n. sp.

The adult Echinostome, for which I suggest the name
Echinostomum fulicae, was found in the alimentary tract of the
redknobbed coot, Fulica cristata. The larval stages are passed in
either of the snails, Tomisia ventricosa or Isidora tropica, as I have
determined experimentally.

162 LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES.

The sporocysts are small, thin and colourless. Many of those
seen were about 200/t to 300^i long, and 90/* to 15CV wide. They
are nonmotile, but when cercariae are present and writhing about
within, the sporocyst moves backwards and forwards. The cercariae
seem to mature two at a time and emerge from any part of the
sporocyst. It is noteworthy that, in the majority of Echinostomes ,
the cercariae are produced from rediae. So far, in the relatively
small amount of material at my disposal I have not found rediae
and only small numbers of sporocysts.

The cercariae are very active and simple tailed. The anterior
pharyngeal region is protrusible. The acetabulum is large and
active. The posterior end of the body is prolonged downwards
laterally forming small caudal pockets around the tail, which organ
narrows somewhat abruptly and then swells out near the end, pro-
ducing a pegtop-like appearance. The excretory tubule is fairly
straight in the tail, but dilates somewhat in the "pegtop" area.

Encystment occurs, both in the liver of the snail itself, on the
edge of the mantle and on the outside shell of the snail. The
cysts are from 125/* to 150 in diameter. The cyst wall is thick,
transparent and firm. The body of the agamodistome when fully
developed is beset with cuticular spines, and two rows of large
spines are on the collar which is set on a collar ridge. Rudiments
of the genitalia are more obvious than in the unencysted cercariae.

The adult flukes measure from 5mm. to 10mm. long, their
breadth varying from l-5mm. to 2mm. The anterior or oral sucker
is fairly large, the acetabulum large, conical and powerful. The
pharynx is muscular and often is thrust through the mouth during
active movements. The oesophagus is of medium length, branching
into two intestinal caeca immediately above the acetabulum. The
ovary is simple, there is a large shell gland, and the coiled uterus
is usually crowded with brownish ova. Numerous small vitelline
glands are present near the margin of the body, extending from
the posterior end of the body to the rim of the acetabulum, the
transverse duct sloping slightly anteriorly before uniting with the
shell gland. The testes are two in number, one immediately behind
the other. The posterior testis is expanded somewhat and in some
specimens appears somewhat trilobed. A large excretory vesicle
is present.

For purposes of reference the name Echinostomum fulicae
with characters outlined in the preceding is proposed for this fluke.
As far as I can ascertain, after consulting such Echinostome litera-
ture as the monograph of Odhner (1910), the fluke herein brieflv
described does not agree in morphology with any of those with
which I have been able to compare it.

(2) Echinostomum xenopi.

The life-history of this fluke is set forth in my paper in" the
"Medical Journal of South Africa," Vol. XV, pp. 128-133, and
need be only briefly outlined here. The larval flukes are parasites
of Physopsis africana. The rediae vary greatly in size, but many
are about l-5mm. long. They contain orange chromatophores and

LIFE-HISTORIES OF TREMATODES. 163

have a large intestine frequently with black contents. The cercariae
have a body length of about 450/x and breadth of 150/x. The

tail is usually about 350/x long. The head armature consists of
two alternating rows of spines with a group of four spines at each
lateral extremity of the head. Two germinal rudiments are pre-
sent. The excretory system consists of a polygonal laterally com-
pressed bladder from which two sinuous collecting tubules pass for-
wards. The body is crowded with cystogenous granules which
largely obscure the finer details of the excretory system.

When the cercariae leave the snail they are easily visible to
the naked eye. Should they reach a "clawed toad or frog,"
Xenopus laevis, they pierce the skin, cast their tails, extrude cysto-
genous granules, and encyst beneath the skin. After an interval the
Echinostomes leave the cysts, find their way outwards, and crawl
about on the surface of the body. It is possible that they may
undergo still further development in a second vertebrate host.

Monostomes.

The parthenita of a Monostome fluke were found by me in the
liver of Physopsis africaiia, and exhibited together with the young
adult forms in 1919. (See "Medical Journal of South Africa,"
Dec, 1919, pp. 117-8.) The parasite is rare. By experiment the
"clawed frog," Xenopus laevis, was shown to be its vertebrate
host.

The redia is about l-5mm. long, and is noticeable as having
no marked locomotor appendages, but the body is muscular and
contractile. The pharynx is oval and the intestine a simple sac.
The cercaria has a well-marked but small oral sucker, but the
acetabulum is absent. The excretory bladder is posterior and two
collecting tubules pass forwards, uniting near the sucker. The
oesophagus is very narrow, and the caecal intestinal forks at first
are close together but diverge more posteriorly. Large numbers
of unicellular cystogenous glands are present. The cercariae after
leaving the snail swim about actively for a short time. They do not
live long in water. Should they reach Xenopus laevis they pene-
trate the skin, especially round the eyes and at the glandular areas
along the lateral lines, and encyst beneath it. Occasionally some
cercariae penetrate deeply and encyst in the muscular tissue, and
in one case, in the kidney substance. The cysts are usually about
0-5mm. in diameter. After a time rupture of the cyst occurs, and
a small, actively moving Monostome, as yet somewhat imperfectly
developed sexually, emerges and reaches the surface of the skin
in some cases and in others wanders in the subcutaneous and
peritoneal cavities. Further work is needed on this organism and
some is in progress.

In conclusion, it cannot be too strongly emphasised that work
on the Trematoda is long and tedious. It necessitates study of the
detailed morphology of larval forms and correlation of the same
with adult structures, as well as experimental work oh the life-
cycles with both the vertebrate and the invertebrate hosts.

164

SOME PARASITIC PROTOZOA FOUND IN
SOUTH AFRICA: IV.

By H. B. Fantham, M.A.Cantab., D.Sc.Lond.,

Professor of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.

Read July 15, 1921.

Abstract.

The present paper records and summarises my work on para-
sitic Protozoa since the last meeting of the Association. My
previous results have been communicated to this Association at the
last three meetings and are published in this Journal, Vol. XV,
pp. 337-338, Vol. XVI, pp. 185-191, and Vol. XVII, pp. 131-135.
This account provides an extension of our knowledge of the dis-
tribution of the parasitic Protozoa in South Africa.

As before, the term "parasitic" is used in a wide and general
sense, and may include saprozoic and commensal organisms, as well
as coprozoic forms.

One of the most interesting organisms has been Cycloposthimn
hi pal mat inn, which shows periodic variation in numbers in the
infected horses, and appears to be associated with intestinal dis-
orders of the character popularly described as "colic." Attention
may also be drawn to a new species of Entamoeba in the horse and
to the new species of Giardia — in the ox and in the horse — recorded
herein.

The measurements of organisms given in this paper are deter-
mined from camera lucida drawings of the organisms made at
various known magnifications.

Sakcodina.

Entamoeba intestinalis has been observed on rare occasions in
the colon of horses as reported by me previously. I have since
found it in the caecum of the horses in very small numbers.

I have also been able to observe what I believe is a new Ent-
amoeba in the faeces of two horses showing signs of intestinal
malaise. One of the two horses also harboured Cycloposthium.
The Entamoeba was present in small numbers. It has much the
appearance of Entamoeba histolytica of man, except that it is
rather larger and possesses an oval instead of a rounded nucleus.
There is a structure usually called a karyosome with a centriole in
the nucleus. Like E. histolytica it can and does ingest red blood cor-
puscles. The trophozoites were variable in size, but fully extended
ones measured 40w to 50/x by 23/u to 29/n, while rounded ones
measured *28/x to 35ju. The rounded, thin-walled cyst sometimes
contained chromatoid bars and four nuclei were present in the

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FOUND IN S. AFRICA. 165

mature cyst. The diameter of cysts measured was 15/x, 20/x, and
24fi. I propose the name Entamoeba equi for this parasite, with
the species differentiation as stated in this paragraph.

A vervet monkey, Cercojrithecus lalandii, had a small amoeba
of the Entamoeba coli type present in the encysted condition in its
faeces. The cysts contained eight nuclei and were rather rare.
They are possibly to be identified with those of Entamoeba legeri
of Mathis*, 1913. The cysts were 17/x to 18,j. in diameter.

Another Entamoeba, probably E . bovis of Liebetanz, has been
observed in extremely small numbers in the rumen of an ox. One
extended trophozoite was large and measured 50/x by 70/*.

Mastigophora.

The Mastigophora recorded previously by me have been seen
again. In addition, the following Flagellates may be recorded for
the first time in South Africa.

A Bodo, possibly a new species, was observed in the rumen
and reticulum of oxen and sheep in Johannesburg. It possesses
a kinetic nucleus or parabasal body, and on that account would
formerly have been placed in the genus Prowazekia. Rounded,
oval, conical and sausage-shaped forms occurred. The active
elongate forms were 10/x to 15^. by 5u to 6fi. The rounded forms
were about 8 fi in diameter and cysts measured 7p to 8p by 5 p. For
purposes of reference this organism may receive a new specific name
and be called Bodo ruminant ium, though it may turn out to be a
coprozoic form. A Bodo was recorded by me last year from the
rumen of sheep.

A Trichomonas has been observed very rarely and in very small
numbers in the intestine and faeces of two horses. A fresh speci-
men outlined with the camera lucida measured 11 p by 6^. This
form, for the purpose of distinctive reference, may receive a new
specific name and be called Trichomonas equi.

Large rounded uni- and bi-flagellates, apparently large speci-
mens of the Monas communis described by Braunef (1913), which
probably includes the Sphaeromonas communis var. maxima and
minima of Liebetanz, were found by me in the rumen and reti-
culum of sheep in Johannesburg. They measured 14 p to 17 p in
diameter of body. The flagellates are active, and the uniflagellate
forms often have the flagellum wrapped round the body, and when
it uncoils a jerky movement results. The biflagellate forms are in
process of fission. Monads of similar size occur in the ox in the
same situations.

Two apparently new forms of Giardia (Lamblia) have been
found by me in my examinations of ■post-mortem material, namely,
one in the rumen and duodenum of an ox and another in the large
colon of a horse. The animals died in the districts of Johannes-
burg and Pretoria respectively. The parasites were extremely few
in number in each case, and observations on them were limited

* Bull. Soc. Med. Chirurgv Indo Chine, IV, pp. 3SS-410.
t Arch. f. Protistenkun.de, XXXII, pp. 111-170.

166 PARASITIC PROTOZOA POUND IN 8. AFRICA.

to the fresh state, as it was impossible to secure good, permanent
preparations with such a small quantity of material as occurs in
these very sparse infections. As far as I know, from the literature
at my disposal, Giardia have not been found in these hosts before,
and so, for purposes of reference, it seems well to give them new
specific names, though later they may be found to belong to species
already known. Doflefn in his "Protozoenkunde" states that
Giardia occurs in sheep. Particulars, so far as available, of these
two new rare Giardia are as follows : —

Firstly, the Giardia occurring in the rumen and duodenum of
the ox, which I shall call Giardia bovis, gave body measurements
in its trophic form of 23/x by 13^, while a cyst measured 11-5/j. by
7p, taking long and short diameters in camera lucida drawings in
each case.

Secondly, the Giardia found in the large colon of the horse,
which I name Giardia equi, gave measurements, correspondingly
taken, of 20/x by 10u for the flagellate stage.

The interesting Proflagellate, Sehnomastix ruminantium,
which I recorded from goats last year, has now been found in the
rumen and reticulum of a sheep examined by me in Johannesburg
but coming from the Middelburg District, Cape Province.

Sporozoa.

Eimeria faurei was found by me in the intestines and faeces of
two sheep examined in Johannesburg. Gametocytes were observed
in the mucosa of the small intestine and the caecum, while oocysts
were present in the faeces. An oocyst measured was 33/x long by
23/* broad.

A Leucocytogregarine has been observed in leucocytes of the
mononuclear type in a smear of the heart-blood of a reedbuck,
Redunca (Cervicajira) arundinum, for which preparation I have
pleasure in thanking Dr. Hertig, who made the smear for me in
Barotseland.

An interesting Leucocytozoon has been observed in the leuco-
cytes of a bird known as Burchell's coucal, Centropus burchelli,
killed near Pietermaritzburg. I have much pleasure in thanking
Dr. E. M. Robinson for the preparations. The infected leucocytes
showed displacement of their nuclei and the ends of the cells were
slightly drawn out into short processes in some cases, though when
large parasites were present — and these were the most common —
the processes or "tails" of the host cells were not obvious. The
trophozoites were elongate, measuring about 13-3u by 5-3^. The
microgametocytes had pale staining cytoplasm but a rather large
nucleus. They vary in size from 7-3/x. to 13-3^ in length by 4-6/
to 9u in breadth. The macrogametocytes had densely granular
cytoplasm and stained deeply. They are 12a to 14" long and 9-3/x
to 10u broad. Both macrogametocytes and microgametocytes may
have a certain amount of extra-nuclear chromatoid substance.
Schizogony occurs in the lungs and some apparent schizonts have
been seen in a smear of the peripheral blood. Free schizonts in a
lung smear measured 11/x by 10-6/x. Schizonts showing nuclear

PARASn'IC PROTOZOA FOUND IN S. AFRICA. 167

division into four have been seen. The final stages of schizogony
have not been observed with certainty. Apparently the only ecto-
parasite known to occur on Burchell's coucal belongs to the Mallo-
phaga, and is said to be a new species of Degeeriella. A smear
preparation, stated to be of this bird-louse, has been found to contain
in the gut curious structures like partly digested avian red blood
corpuscles and peculiar sporozoitedike bodies. However, it is
generally considered that Mallophaga do not suck blood, and
definite conclusions regarding the transmission of the Leucocy-
tozoon are not permissible on the material available. I pro-
pose a new specific name centropi for this parasite, and so desig-
nate it Leucocytozoon centropi, with the specific characters stated
in the foregoing. The bird was also infected with Halteridium,
but that parasite is not likely to be spread by lice, as Halteridia
are usually transmitted by flies.

Piroplasma caballi has been seen in the blood of a mule in the
Transvaal.

Sarcocystis tenella. The work on the seasonal periodicity of
Sarcosporidia (S. tenella) in sheep has been continued. Unfortun
ately, fewer animals were availa^e than last year, and I was not
able to make observations during December, 1920, to March, 1921,
owing to absence in England. However, my results, taken weekly
as far as possible on fresh post-mortem material, show that in 1921
the spores of Sarcocystis tenella were very few in number or in
some cases absent in the heart-muscle (apex of the ventricle) of
sheep in the Pretoria district in the cold months of June, July and
August, but — extending my observations to the date of publication
of this paper at the end of 1921 — show an increase in numbers in
September and in December. It should be noted that in Johannes-
burg no rain was officially recorded during the three winter months
mentioned, showing that the season was slightly drier than in 1919
and in 1920, and the average temperature during that period was
lower than in 1919 or 1920. It is also of interest to mention that,
in mid-summer, young Miescher's tubes may be found in scrapings
of fresh heart-muscle after massage of the organ.

Sarcosporidia have also been seen in the heart-muscle of cattle,
the species being Sarcocystis blanchardi, while S. moulei was seen
in the heart of goats, S. bertrami in the heart-muscle of horses and
S. miescheriana in that of pigs in the Transvaal.

In the heart-smears of a reedbuck, Eediinca (Cervicapra)
arundinum, shot by Dr. Hertig in Barotseland, I have found
spores of a Sarcocystis.

Infusoria.

All the Ciliata previously recorded by me have been seen
again. In addition, periodicity has been studied in Cycloposthium,
and a few other ciliates have been observed in domestic animals
in South Africa for the first time. These results may now be
stated.

Cycloposthium bipalmatam Fiorentini has been observed in
two horses in some detail over a period of four months, and general

163 PARASITIC PROTOZOA POUND IN S. AFRICA.

observations are being continued. The horses suffered from intes-
tinal disorder commonly called "colic," and at times of evacuation
of large numbers of the ciliates the horses suffered greatly from
flatulence and passed much gas. The numbers of Cycloposthium
in a measured quantity of faecal ooze were counted daily. Liquid
ooze was obtained by pressing a quantity of freshly shed manure.
The ooze, being too thick for counting parasites, was diluted. One
part of ooze, thoroughly mixed with four parts of sterile water,
has usually proved suitable. The counts of Cycloposthium were
obtained in each case by using one-fifth c.c. of ooze thus diluted,
made into fresh thin preparations under coverslips, the organisms
being counted with the aid of an Ehrlich ocular. For the period
Mav 1 to June 13, 1921, the daily numbers ascertained were 164,
85/50, 40, 11, 0, 0, 3, 8, 22, 35, 55, 194, 217, 136, 133, 82, 15,
5, 0, 5, 18, 5, 3, 3, 0, 0, 342, 284, 1116, 724, 515, 309, 112, 67,
12, 0, 0, 16, 126, 114, 157, 194, 317. The three successive maximal
periods were of 14, 16 and 14 days respectively. Counts over other
periods gave similar results and the average periodicity of maximal
crops of Cycloposthium was about 14 days. Coincident with the
increase in the number of the ciliates there was an increase in the
softness and pulpiness of the faeces of the horses. When the num-
ber of ciliates was very low or zero, the faeces were formed and
hard. As the number increased, the faeces became softer and looser
until at periods of maximum crops of ciliates the faeces were prac-
tically diarrhoeic in character. Other horses kept and fed under
identical conditions showed no symptoms, nor did they harbour
Cycloposthium. In one case a horse became infected and was very
"colicky." Cycloposthium was found and the source of infection
traced to a dirty stable broom used in the infected stable.

Referring to my remarks in previous communications (1919,
1920) regarding Balantidia in pigs, it is of interest to state that
during 1921 of the large intestines of 33 pigs examined in Johan-
nesburg 14 were found to be infected with Balantidium coli. The
caecum and the rectum were the sites of infection observed. In
the caecum active motile forms of the ciliate were found, while in
the rectum both motile forms and cysts were seen. Red blood
corpuscles were observed inside the motile ciliate Balantidia from
three of the pigs. In two of these the Balantidia which had
ingested red blood corpuscles were present in the caecum, and in
the third pig the Balantidia containing red blood corpuscles were
present in the caecum and in the rectum. Further, in the case of
one of the pigs in which motile ciliates were present in the caecum, a
"pin-point" ulcer was found in the wall of the caecum. The
relation of Balantidium coli to the pig is usually considered to be
that of a commensal, but should it reach man it is less in harmony
with its host, and changes or is forced to change its mode of life
by ingesting more red blood corpuscles and working its way into
the host's gut-wall, and so it becomes pathogenic in man.

Paraisotricha colpoidea Fiorentini was seen in relatively few
numbers in the fresh caecum of one horse that had died from horse
sickness virus at Onderstepoort.

PARASITIC PROTOZOA FOUND IN S. AFRICA. 169

Didesmis ovalis Fiorentini was found in the large colon of two
horses examined post mortem at Onderstepoort. This Didesmis
appears to be rare.

Blepharoprosthium pireum Bundle was found in very small
numbers in the caecum and large colon of a horse examined post
mortem at Onderstepoort.

Blepharocodon appendicular us Bundle was observed in the
freshly shed faeces of a horse in Johannesburg. The numbers of
the ciliates were very few. A specimen drawn with a camera lucida
was found to be larger than the dimensions given by Bundle* (1895),
its long diameter being 55/* compared with an average of 35/* as
stated by Bundle.

Blepharosphaera intestinalis Bundle was seen in the large
colon of a horse examined immediately after death at Onderste-
poort. It appears to be rare.

A species of Blepharocorys hitherto unrecorded in South
Africa, namely, B. jubata Bundle, was found in small numbers in
the freshly shed faeces of a horse in Johannesburg. A specimen
outlined with a camera lucida measured 49/* by 26 /*, which was
larger than the measurements given by Bundle.

Triadinium caudatum Fiorentini was seen once again in the
large colon of a horse examined post mortem at Onderstepoort.
The same horse contained the Giardia equi mentioned previously.

Entodinium caudatum Stein, as figured by Schubergt (1888),
was seen in the rumen of a sheep examined in Johannesburg. The
organisms were active but few in number. They undergo dis-
tortion at death, the caudal process often breaking off.

Spirochaetae.

Spirochaetes are here recorded for the first time in South
Africa from two Gastropod hosts, namely, the freshwater snails,
Limnaea natalensis and Physopsis africana. Spirochaetes have
seldom been recorded from Gastropods. The Protistan organisms
occur in the livers or digestive glands of the snails and are of the
Spirochaeta balbianii type, with blunt ends. Those observed were
slow-moving and each possessed a spirally wound membrane or
crest. When stained they shewed a diffuse nucleus of chromatin
bars. The organisms were long, some of them reaching 200/* in
length. As regards degree of infection, it may be stated that only
seven spirochaetes were seen in a Limnaea. natalensis, which also
harboured young encysted flukes.

Spirochaetes much smaller in size were found in relatively
small numbers in the reticulum of sheep examined in Johannesburg.
They had pointed ends. A long form measured 30/*, while two
shorter forms measured 10/* and 13/* respectively in length, and
may have been recent products of transverse division.

• Zeitschr f. wis?. Zoologie, LX, pp. 284-350.
t Zool. Jfthrb., III., Abt. f. Syst., p.p. 365-418.

170 PARASITIC PROTOZOA POUND IN S. AFRICA.

I have pleasure in thanking the Director and Officers of the
Veterinary Research Laboratory at Onderstepoort and Mr. Kirk-
patrick, of the Johannesburg Abattoirs, for material. I also wish
to thank the Research Grant Board for a grant towards the
expenses incurred in these investigations.

A NOTE ON ORTALIA PALLETS MULS.

By R. H. T. P. Harris,

Department of Entomology, Durban.

Mead July 13, 1921.

In December, 1919, while searching for Coccidae in the Botanic
Gardens, Durban, a cluster of what appeared to be mealy bugs was
noticed at the base of a fig tree (Ficus riatalensis) . The insects
at first appeared to be attended by numbers of Pheidole punctu-
lata, Meyr., an ant very common in and around Durban. A
closer examination, however, disclosed the fact that these insects
were catching ants in their mandibles, and that they were
Coccinellid larvae densely clothed with tufts and filaments of
white secretion.

Many of these larvae have been collected in this neighbour-
hood since, either beneath the bark of old logs or below sheets of
iron which have been for some time undisturbed, or amongst old
rubbish under a tree where the ants had formed a colony. They
are usually clustered at the entrance of an ant burrow or in its
vicinity, or under some cover below which the ants are numerous.

An ant on approaching a larva will stop and examine it,
stroking the filaments with its antennae. Then, if the ant pro-
ceeds to make a closer examination, the head of the larva is sud-
denly raised, the ant seized in the powerful mandibles, and its
body juices rapidly sucked out, after the manner of an ant lion.
When an ant investigates the insect from the rear, the cerci are
raised and moved to and fro, the anal protuberances then giving
the appearance of a mouth and palpi. Frequently this causes the
ant to retire; but sometimes it will tug viciously at the tufts of
hair on the sur-anal plate but without in any way injuring the
larva. In many cases the larva has been observed to double up
its body, so bringing the attacking ant within reach of its jaws,
which speedily puts an end to the matter. The larva, after cast-
ing aside the empty body of the ant, retracts its head, and applies
its flattened body once more to the surface on which it is resting,
ready to seize the next inquisitive ant coming within its reach.

The larvae, though capable of fairly rapid movement when
disturbed, spend most of their time clustered in one spot, and do
not hunt for food, evidently relying on the ants' natural inquisi-

ORTALIA PALLENS. 171

liveness or some attractive aroma to bring prey within their reach.

The writer is unable to give any account of the habits of the
.adult beetles or to indicate where the eggs are deposited by the
females. It was only with considerable difficulty that five adults
were raised from fifty larvae and pupae collected in 1919-1920, the
remainder being parasitised by a large Chalcid.

The larvae are usually found clustered in groups and covered
by waxy filaments. After each moult the larva is naked, but
becomes reclothed within 24 hours. Four larvae, carefully denuded
of all covering with a sable brush, and placed in a tube one after-
,noon. were found to be clothed by the morning with short fila-
ments. The newly moulted larva is of a pale yellow colour. At
,the back of the head, and laterad on each segment are knob-like
..glandular areas, from which tufts of filaments are produced, whilst
on the rest of the dorsal surface a fluffy secretion is formed. At
the time of pupation this fluffy secretion is produced in sufficient
quantity to envelope the pupa, which then appears to be wrapped
in the finest cotton wool. This envelope, being readily adherent
to anything that touches it, protects the pupa from attacking ants,
which are frequently found dead, entangled in the fluff. The
larval exuvium can be found beneath the fluffy covering attached
to the anal end of the pupa.

The few adults which were reared were tried with many species

• of the common Coccidae, Aphidae, and also PhekJole 'punctulata,
but they refused all food in captivity. When tried with living
Pheidole a viscous yellow fluid was exuded from the femoro-tibial
joints of the beetles, which, coming in contact with the ants, caused
them to fight and tear one another to pieces. This experiment
was repeated three or four times with the same result.

The adult beetle, when alive, has pubescent elytra of a light

• dove-grey colour, a black head and clypeus, large azure blue eyes,
and legs and thorax of an ochraceous yellow. The body below is
yellow, with pygidium exposed. The colours rapidly fade after
death, the whole insect often assuming a more or less uniform
yellow colour, a striking contrast to the living beetle.

I am indebted to Mr. Claude Fuller, Assistant Chief of the
Division of Entomology, for the following information: —

"Ortalia pallens Muls. is represented in the collection of the
Division of Entomology at Pretoria by specimens from Kwarubo-
nombi, Zululand, and in the Transvaal Museum by material from
Durban, Pietersburg, and Lijdenburg. The Zululand specimens
were determined by Dr. G. K. Marshall, of the Imperial Bureau
of Entomology, those in the Transvaal Museum by Dr. Weise, of
■ Germany."

In connection with the specimens mentioned as coming from

Zululand it is interesting to note that they were taken from a

fluffy white mass found in the centre of a red ants' nest, collected

by Miss M. Wilde Brown and forwarded to the Division by the

' Curator of the Durban Museum. At the time no suspicion was

aroused as to the real significance of the presence of these Coccinel-

" lide in the ants' nest.

14

372

AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT.

By H. S. Keigwin, M.A.,
Director of Native Development, Southern Rhodesia.

Read July 15, 1921.

In giving an account of an educational experiment in Southern
Rhodesia it is necessary first to give some brief references to the
conditions under which the Natives live. First in importance is
the system of Native Reserves. These were most carefully examined
and reported on by an Imperial Commission, which enquired
exhaustively into the subject during the years 1914-15. This
has resulted in the permanent assignment of over 20 million acres,
or more than one-fifth of the country, for the exclusive use of the
Natives. The present Native population is about three-quarters
of a million, so that there is an allowance to-day of 26 acres per
head, supposing that every Native moved into the Reserves. A
man with a wife and two children would have over a hundred
acres. But little more than half are in the Reserves, the remain-
der being on farms, mission holdings, and unalienated land. As
European occupation becomes closer, and as Native-owned herds
increase, these Reserves will have to accommodate more and more
Natives. It is for this reason that we wish to instruct them how to
farm better, and to build sounder and more sanitary homes. That
indeed is the keynote of our educational experiment. The Native
must be taught intensive cultivation, trained to stay in one place,
and to get his food by better methods. He is a child of the soil,
and it will be for his and for our good if he can be kept there.
He may go out to work, but his home must be mainly in the
country.

The Rhodesian Natives, particularly the Matabele, are becom-
ing rich in stock. Whereas our first count in 1902 showed that
they had 55,155 head of cattle, 60,569 sheep, 197,477 goats, last
year's figures show 744,402 cattle, 307,575 sheep, 741,805 goats,
a notable increase under European rule. But for all this wealth
they are singularly ignorant of how to treat it. Their stock is
often badly inbred and stunted. Their laziness is apparent in
their keeping their cattle shut up till late in the day, their herding
is inefficient and without much thought for their beasts, their
kraaling is of the poorest, while such an idea as feeding their stock
in bad times is quite unknown. With them it is quantity, not
quality, that is desired. I give these few facts so that some idea
may be formed of the backwardness of this people. As a Native
Commissioner, constantly moving about among the people for many
years, the conviction was more and more borne in on me that we
must do something for them in their homes. It seemed an indict-
ment on our civilisation that we should know of this state of affairs,
and do nothing to remedy it. And yet there are people who say,
* 'Leave them to develop on their own lines, and in their own way."

AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 173

It seems to me such a course is as impossible as it is unwise. For-
tunately there were those in high places who thought so too. Our
present Administrator goes everywhere and holds meetings of
Natives. He has seen things for himself, and he has supported all
sound endeavours to bring about an improvement. Our Native
Department has helped in many ways ; the missionaries have sought
to uplift and inspire. But until recent years there has been
no special organisation to co-ordinate these efforts, and to
direct a definite policy. In 1918 a recommendation was made
that the Government should appoint a Director of Native
Development. This was acted upon, and after my long leave in
England, during which I spent some time investigating the simpler
types of industries, and conferring with men of experience in
native administration and industrial development in different parts
of the world, I was appointed to my present position. On request
I wrote a report on my investigations, embodying therein my
recommendations, and this after being presented to the Legisla-
tive Council was used as the basis of the experiment.

The root idea of the scheme was that an attempt should be-
made to get at the people in the mass in their homes, and
endeavour to lift them little by little, and as much as possible all
together. It was felt that though after a time the higher educa-
tion which can be given at Institutions may be needed, the foun-
dations should be laid right down among the simple home con-
ditions. The home buildings need improving, the crude agricul-
ture needs instruction, the simple village handicrafts need examina-
tion, and, if found worth it, encouragement. It was felt that the
Government should identify itself more directly in the uplift of
the people. It would mean slow, and for a time unproductive
work. Only Government could afford to take the pecuniary risk
that the long view involves, but because of its educational and
political value it should undertake it. If the mind of the people
could be stirred, and if the general standard could be raised gradu-
ally, there might be expected not only great physical progress, but
such an improved mental consciousness that the people would not
bo so easy a prey for the educated agitator. Racial friction might
be lessened, and because of their occupation the people might be
kept from discontent, and become interested in their home life.

It must be remembered that we are concerned with a people
that is as yet largely untouched. They live for the most part in
a more or less communal way in the Reserves. They have been
given large areas of land for their exclusive occupation. They can,
if they know how, develop their own communities and institutions,
where in time, and as they show themselves fitted, they may be
given a measure of local government, thus affording scope for those
more ambitious spirits that in the outer world might be a source
of trouble. But they must first be taught to put their land to
better use. We must see to it that before the position becomes
too difficult they, and their children, are put into the way of using
this land to good advantage, are shown how by their industry thev

174 AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT.

may better their own lot, and produce something that may be of
use to the country.

As he is to-day the Native has little need for continuous work.
It is not with him as with us. He probably sees nothing wrong
in his way of living. But we surely without any hypocrisy must
feel it our duty to help him to realise some better ideal. At the-
same time frankly we want his co-operation in the establishment
of a prosperous community. If we put before him a simple form
of industrial improvement beginning at the bottom, springing from
those home industries which are already familiar to him, and
lifting him gradually through stages that are not beyond his
assimilation, we shall teach him gradually to feel and appreciate
the advantages of better conditions, and by .so doing foster a free
and reasonable inclination to go out into the world of labour, and,
because it brings him the means to provide himself with the com-
forts that he has learned to desire, to contribute his share to the
enterprise of the body politic. I emphasise this point, because I
feel that the critic, who has an uncomfortable fear that if he lends
his support to such a policy, fine and fair-minded as he may
acknowledge it to be, he will be imperilling both his and the
country's labour supply, should feel assured that our policy far
from decreasing the supply of labour, should actually increase it,
both in quantity and efficiency.

Our plan, then, is to stimulate effort among the people, to
put purpose into their lives, and to develop simple industries, par-
ticularly those that do not offer direct competition with
Europeans. We hope, while improving the home life, to rescue
and develop some of the home crafts, and by this means to bring
into use the latent wealth of raw materials, which the country
undoubtedly possesses. The list of occupations in which instruc-
tion will be given is as follows: — (1) Building. (2) Agriculture.
(3) Stock. (4) Rope and Mat-making. (5) Basketry and Chair
work. (6) Pottery and Tiles. (7) Carpentry and Furniture.
(8) Smithing and Wagon repairing. (9) Medicine. All of these
should be regarded from the point of view of their value in the
uplift of the people, rather than in any sense of vocationalism.
They are not the end in themselves, but rather means to an end.

Let me give some suggestions under the several heads.

1. Building. — In order to wean the people from their present
insanitary and uninspiring home conditions we would teach them
some improved type of construction, that, while conforming to the
tests for sanitation and hygiene, shall not be too much removed
from their conception, nor too hard, nor too expensive, for them
to attempt. It is felt that one of the reasons why the Native does
not reproduce the better things he sees in large schools, and in
employment, is because the difference is often too great for him
to see any relation between them and his home possibilities.
The type of construction known as Pise-de-terre seems eminently
suited for the purpose. The only equipment needed is a few
planks, some bolts, and some sticks to ram the earth with. Most
soils, with sometimes a little mixing to give binding, or reduce
fattiness, are suitable, so that the bulk of the material can be

AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 175

dug out quite close to the site. Little, if any, water is needed.
The house is strong and durable, cool in hot weather, warm in
cold. The door and window frames can be made of local timber,
as also the roof. This needs some instruction, which would be
given at the Government schools or by demonstrators. By its
longer life such a house would strike the first blow at the nomadic
tendency of the Native, and incline him to a more settled life. If
suitable stone is handy, it is a great improvement to put in a
foundation. Good pise work is practically impervious to ants, and
with good projecting eaves the walls will stand sound through the
heaviest rains. Where possible the inside should be washed with
lime.

2. Agriculture. — In Rhodesia Natives are very apt to waste
large tracts of land, planting uneconomically, reaping sparse crops,
and impoverishing the soil. They lop off the branches of large
trees, heap them round the stems, and burn them to get the potash.
After two or three years they abandon the ground, and proceed
to a new spot, where they repeat the process, and so on till they
have exhausted the countryside. Though they have taken to
ploughs of late years, the result has not been altogether for good.
They rarely, if ever, stump the land, never cross plough, and
usually skim over a larger area than they can properly cultivate.
Here then is the second need for instruction. To enable the best
use to be made of the land for the greatest number better methods
of cultivation, manuring, and rotation must be introduced.
Besides giving the Native means of growing more and better food-
stuffs, it should be possible for him in time to produce crops which
will add to the products of the country, and to increase his own
purchasing power. So considerable a producer as the Native might
become cannot be omitted from the calculations of those who seek
to build up the position of the country in the markets of the
world. There are many crops which need that very hand labour
which a man and his family could furnish, and which multiplied
throughout the Reserves might make possible a crop which a
European farmer could not attempt.

There is one important branch, concerned with boring for
water. The Native Department now has its own plant, with
Europeans working it, but with Natives being trained at the school
to take over the completed holes, and supervise the pumping. In
some of the large Reserves, where increased supplies of water are
needed, it is both difficult and expensive to carry out such work
by contract. As it is a work that will be going on for years, and
as each well needs attention, it will readily be understood what a
useful function the centrally placed school has to perform.

3. Stock. — I have quoted figures which show that the native
is becoming a considerable stock-owner. He has found a good
market in selling to Europeans, many of whom have built up their
herds on native stock. But the type is often poor, inbred, good
neither for milking nor for beef. The country cannot afford to
have its grazing used up by unprofitable beasts. We have been
trying to introduce better bulls, and to emphasise quality as

176 AN EDUCATIONAL EXPEKIMENT.

against quantity. We wish to improve their handling of their
stock. The Native is a haphazard pastoralist. He keeps his cattle
late in the kraal, herds badly, is ignorant of treatment, never
thinks of feeding. He has learnt the value of dipping. We must
now teach him to build his own dips, and to manage them properly.
The majority of them never use the milk, and if they do, fail to
keep it clean. We were weaning him from his habit of cutting
up the hide with the meat. The drop in hides has given us a set-
back, but in normal times there should be money in them, and
they might under instruction be put to considerable use among
the people. The same considerations affect in similar ways his
other stock, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry, and their proper care
should be his business when at home.

4. Rope and Mat Making. — There is a wealth of fibres in
Rhodesia that is practically untouched. The Native knows and
uses in his small way many of them, and from the work he does
already it seems certain that with instruction and organisation a
profitable industry could be started. Where so many fibre con-
cerns find such great difficulty and expense that commercial under-
takings are impracticable it is quite likely that a number of Native
units, each operating on a small scale, and in different localities,
but organised from a centre, might find material and water enough
to treat the fibre, and at the centres, or even in the homes, make
them up into useful articles. If this industry can be developed,
it will both help the Natives, and have its influence on lowering
the cost of living to us all. There would probably be needed
instruction in the use of rope walks and looms of a simple type.

5. Basketry and C hair- making . — Much that is produced by
our Natives, particularly their split-bamboo work, is of excellent
workmanship and practical utility. By increasing their skill in
certain directions, and by adapting some of their present methods
to European requirements, we might be able to build up yet
another useful and profitable home industry. Conditions of the
work in the country should be more healthy and less expensive
than in factories, while the raw material can often be gathered
and prepared in the home vicinity. With the introduction of
osiers the craft might be extended to chairmaking, thus reducing
the cost of an article which up country is for most people almost
prohibitive.

6. Pottery and Tiles. — Judging from the success in Nigeria of
the engagement by the Government of a master potter from Eng-
land, it should be possible here also to teach the use of the wheel,
glazing and proper firing. Suitable clays are said to be found in
Rhodesia, kaolin, for instance, has been identified in more than
one district, and with instruction in their proper preparation the
Natives should soon be able to make a practical start with vessels
for their own use. With increasing skill they might well be able
to supply many of those vessels which to-day cost the Europeans
so much to import. It is hoped also that tiles for various pur-
poses could be made, and it should in time become possible to

ATE EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 177

"introduce an alternative for the unsightly and uncomfortable iron
roofing so prevalent to-day.

7. Carpentry. — Starting with simple instruction to meet their
own needs the teaching of carpentry should be a great factor in
improving the borne and in simulating the imagination. By
learning to make their own doer and window frames, and later
the doors and windows also, and by constructing sound well-pitched
roofs, the people will be bringing health into their homes, and as
they get on to furniture there should be born in them a desire for
better conditions, which should bring about a higher ideal of life
with its greater comforts and efficiency. As a trade they might
take to the making of good plain furniture from some of our
beautiful native woods, much in the way that the village craftsmen
of centuries ago did to such perfection in England. It is interest-
ing to note that some of the chiefs petitioned the Administrator
for some such practical instruction to be given their sons instead
of only the literary teaching of the classroom.

8. Smithing and Wagon Repairing. — With the increasing use
of ploughs and carts there has arisen the need for knowledge in
repair work. How often can one see a plough or a cart lying
idle because some part has broken, and there was no one to repair
it. It is usually too far and too expensive to send to the nearest
European smithy, and so the thing goes from bad to worse, till
it is quite beyond repair. There is need for one or more such
repair shops in each of the Reserves. The timely care for imple-
ments would have a wider lesson for the people, and should have a
bearing on the general question of attention and thrift.

9. Medicine. — To anyone who has administered a native terri-
tory the need for medical assistance has been ever pressing. Though
most districts have district surgeons, these practitioners find their
hands full with work among the Europeans, and those Natives
who are near at hand. It is only in very serious cases that their
services can be requisitioned, and then at considerable expense.
During the influenza epidemic of 1918 I was in charge of a district
of some sixteen thousand square miles in extent. The lack of
some provision and of some simple medical knowledge in the
remote Reserves was brought home in a way that I trust may never
be seen again. There is no question but that we must try and
bring into those native communities some system, however simple,
of affording medical assistance. It is impossible to get European
doctors, even if the funds could be found. It must be by some
system which can be worked by the Natives themselves, backed
and supplemented, we hope, by the medical profession, that we
shall tackle this necessity. At our Government schools we intend
to give a simple training in first-aid, and in the treatment of the
more common and less serious ailments. We are at this moment
building a hospital at Chindamora, and a well-qualified matron
has been engaged. The Medical Director has approved of the
scheme, and is advising us. It is hoped to be able to arrange for
lectures and advice by the district surgeon, who will also have the
■general direction of the course to be followed. Besides looking

178 AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT.

after the pupils of the school, the hospital will be available for"
patients from the Eeserve, so that it is felt that those men and
women who are willing to enter for instruction will have oppor-
tunities of practical experience. As the scheme comes to develop
it is hoped to be able to open small native hospitals in suitable
centres in every Reserve, in direct touch with the nearest magis-
tracy by a main road, so that on the entry of a patient a message
may be sent at once to the nearest district surgeon, who will be
able to proceed by car with a minimum loss of time. Instead of,
as to-day, finding his patient perhaps in the last state of collapse,
under a rude shelter of leaves, with the flies at his wounds, the
doctor would be able to find him quiet in bed, with his wounds
washed and bandaged, and in a state where medical skill may have-
some hope of success. For the hundred and one simple matters
which require no great skill, but just common-sense treatment, it
is hoped these men and women who have been trained in our schools
will have sufficient knowledge to do all that is required. By
some such means as this we hope to be able to obviate much of the
suffering and loss of life that occurs in the Reserves.

These then are some of the directions in which the energy of
the Native, awakened and instructed, might be employed. As I
have said, the motive should be first the good of the Native. It
is a fair demand to make of those who have had the advantage of
civilisation. It is also, from the point of view of that civilisation,
only common-sense to see to it that the great majority of inferior
people shall not be left either to stagnate in inefficiency, or on the
other hand to get for themselves, in perhaps a dangerous way,
that which they are bound eventually to have. There is, more-
over, the comforting assurance that this timely assistance will both
redound to the credit, and result in the profit, of those who proffer
it. With a better informed, more active, more contented com-
munity there will be more steady, more efficient, more willing
work. With greater producing power there will be greater earn-
ing power, and consequently greater spending power.

But, it will be asked, how is all this to be brought about?
Our Government has sought a way. It has decided that there is
room, over and above the splendid work that is being done by so
many of the missions, for a simple form of education, or develop-
ment, starting from the immediate needs of the people. It has
brought into being a system that takes as its base the native home
and its requirements. Whatever may be said in favour of the
institutional system of education, it is clear that in its essence it
relies largely on a traditional system which was evolved for a dif-
ferent people, in a different climate, and for a different set of con-
ditions. Every effort is made to adapt that system to local needs,
nowhere with more realisation of its inherent unsuitability than
here in Natal. But we are making our Rhodesian experiment in
the belief that if we start from the home as our base, and from
there work outward and upward throughout the people, we may
hope for an uplift that will be more general, and because of its-
simplicity more helpful to the whole community.

AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 179*'

The Government authorised the establishment of an Industrial
and Farm School in the Chindamora Reserve, at a spot 20 milea
from Salisbury. This was started last year, and will serve the
Mashona people. This year a second school has been started in
the Gwaii Reserve, some 70 miles from Bulawayo, which will serve
the Matabele people. In each case a piece of ground is chosen
which is typical of that on which most of the people live. Start-
ing with simple shelters of poles and grass the pupils are required
to erect, under instruction, all their own buildings, simple in form,
of pise-de-terre, and of local material throughout. Every pupil
during some period of his course, which is of at least a year, and
may be two or three, receives instruction and has practice in this
work of building. They get out the stone for foundations, dig the
soil for the pise, and fell the trees for the woodwork. Frames and
roofs are plainly, but properly, constructed by them. Good thatch-
ing is taught. The finished buildings present a sound and pleasing
appearance*, and they are a flight, but important, advance on
the native type. They are easily kept clean, are well lighted and
ventilated. If the material is good, and if it is well rammed, we
find that white ants do not work in the walls. The floors are also
of pise, smeared, and the boys sleep on mats, not beds. Simple
furniture is made. But the whole thing is kept as near as possible
to Native ideas with just those important improvements that are
necessary, so that these may be within the region of possible re-
production by the Native at home. There is a skilled European
instructor in charge of this work, and he gives simple talks on it
twice a week, and does his best to see that everyone understands
the process. Everything is done by the pupils themselves, and
every care is taken to see that they thoroughly understand the-
meaning of the various operations.

Then there is the agricultural side, also under a European
instructor, who manages the farm. Here, again, all the work is
done by the pupils, but along educational lines and with constant
instruction. Native crops are grown, and only such implements
as Natives can afford are used. Lessons are given in the manasre-
ment of oxen — it is a mistake to think that the Native knows all
about this already — and in proper methods of ploughing. Lands
must be carefully stumped and cleared, and then all the successive
stages of ploughing, harrowing, cross-ploughing, planting and cul-
tivating are taught and practised. The value of manuring and
rotation of crops is illustrated by parallel experiments, and records
are kept, but all on simple lines, and within the Native's power of
understanding and doing. Though it is not practicable for all to
be at work on farming at one and the same time, it is arranged
that everyone shall have some practice at it during his course, and
the lectures are given to the whole school. It should be mentioned
that our pupils are almost all strong, well-grown boys, not children.
Besides the common lands there are individual plots of 60 x 60
feet, where every pupil can be made solely responsible for the cul-
tivation of his own plot. They are laid out in long parallel lines,
with a road down between, where the manure cart can manoeuvre,

■180 AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT.

and the instructor pass in supervision, and all are worked in
accordance with the instruction given. The point is that the suc-
cess or failure rests with the individual. From the plots a good
indication may be derived of the character of the pupils. They
all put in an hour a day, except at certain seasons, on these plots.
In the wet season the ordinary kraal crops, such as mealies and
beans, are grown, and in the dry season green vegetables, which
have to be watered. Irrigation is not possible. Prizes are given
each term for the best worked plots. Immense keenness is shown,
and boys often run off at odd times to give a touch to their plots.
It is hoped that when they see that from their own efforts greater
yields have been got from smaller areas, and those areas by rota-
tion and manuring have been in constant cultivation, these boys
will have assimilated lessons which will bear fruit when they return
to their kraals. I should mention that in all our field work we
have the advantage of the advice and assistance of the experts
of the Agricultural Department.

Under the guidance of Mr. Henkei, formerly Forestry Expert
in Natal, and now happily in charge of our Forestry Department,
we have instituted a course in tree planting. Pupils are informed
of the value of afforestation, and are taken through the various
stages of planting the seeds, transplanting the seedlings, and taking
care of the trees in their growth. Owing to so much of our wood
being soft timber, and subject to borers, this course will be of
great value to the people in their home requirements.

It is hoped, as the farm grows, to include systematic instruc-
tion in other branches of farming operations. But first we seek
to give the Native knowledge and practical experience of what
he ought to be able to do in his home, both in improving his house
and its surroundings, and in the growing of his food. Though
direct vocationalism is not contemplated, but rather an all-round
training of a simple and useful nature, it is hoped to fit Natives
to perforin the more responsible duties in European employment,
so that we may train a supply of drivers, dairy hands, poultry-
men, thatchers, gardeners, and the like. I hope and believe that
our training, with our discipline, will so stabilise the character,
and increase the efficiency, of those that pass through our hands
that they will be welcomed by those employers who value good and
reliable workmen, and are prepared to give them good treatment
and remuneration.

Side by side with all this industrial activity, which for five
days a week occupies seven hoars a day, there is given a sound
literary education. The curriculum may not be strictly orthodox
in the eyes of the schoolman, but it aims at widening the Native's
horizon, informing him of values, building on his natural apti-
tudes, and drawing out his capabilities. The educated Native
must be of greater value than the uneducated, provided his educa-
tion has been on right lines. For the mass the time for literary
preoccupation has not yet come. It is well that they should learn
that education is not incompatible with work, but rather a help
and a preparation for better work. Our pupils have one and a

AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT. 181

half hours' school work in the early morning, and the same period
again at night. Their reading is made as practical as possible,
while their arithmetic is directed chiefly to the actual needs of
daily life. Cleanliness and punctuality are insisted on, and an
-effort is made towards the formation of good habits.

Other industries have been mentioned as of probable value
in stirring these people into effort. For these it is hoped to make
use of the Government schools as experimenting centres, where
with qualified instructors, and the necessary equipment, investiga-
tions may be made into raw materials and into the Native work-
manship of the various crafts. It may be that we shall attract
to these schools some of the best craftsmen, and so develop their
craft, that they will either settle near by, and help to form the
nucleus of an industrial village, or go back to their people able
and willing to act as leaders and instructors in the craft among
the kraals. Many of these things must wait over. We must pro-
ceed slowly, consolidating every step. But the purport of the
scheme is there, and each development but waits the opportunity.
As already stated, we are erecting at the present moment a hos-
pital for Chindamora. We shall have a trained matron in resi-
dence, and the plan has the support of the Medical Director. We
hope to begin by training a few hospital orderlies and nurses.
Besides the care of the pupils there will be work among the people
of the Reserve, so that opportunities of practical experience should
not be lacking. This branch of the work will be expanded as
opportunity offers, till all Reserves are provided with men and
women of simple but sound training to take charge of small hos-
pitals for the relief of their people. For the time being this is the
only direction in which women are being provided for, but the
importance of lifting them at the same time as the men will not
be lost sight of. This is a branch of the work which can best be
undertaken by the missionaries, whose co-operation is being sought
throughout the whole scheme.

We do not require any academic qualification for admission
to these schools. Our people are for the most part illiterate, and
we feel we cannot wait on literary attainment. Many of our best
pupils so far are boys of very humble education. We hope to turn
out men of character and purpose. Practical knowledge is surely
of greater value to the mass than academic proficiency. At the
same time we do not refuse them literary training, but we seek
a safe combination of the two. Seme of the missions have sent us
promising pupils to get a training in building and so forth. We
hope to receive an ever-increasing number of such pupils, and we
look forward to close co-operation with the missionaries. From
the best of our pupils we hope to get men who will go back to their
people and take up work under the Government in the Reserves,
showing the people what they have learned, making their own
homes and lands an example, and demonstrating to as many as
they can reach these better methods. By this means the benefits
of the scheme should be brought within the reach of all, and the
work of uplift should influence the farthest kraal. From time to

182 AN EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENT.

time we would visit these demonstrators, and encourage them in
their work. We would call the people together, and by word and
deed bring them to see the advantages to be gained by an effort
to improve. By shows and competitions we would introduce a
spirit of emulation, and stir up their interest, till each of these-
places became the centre of life and uplift for the locality. I
hope that, where to-day there is encountered apathy and super-
stitious conservatism, there will in time be found keenness and
freedom for progress : that where to-day the suspicious and
reactionary chief or headman forbids all innovation, in time
those very men, or their successors, will be in the forefront of the
march towards progress and improvement. The power of such
men must not be despised. In Native life it is a very real force.
It cannot be coerced. But by steady and persistent instruction,
illuminated by successful undertakings encouraged by the Govern-
ment, their hostility may be changed to friendliness, and their
opposition to support. It is only by carrying out this experiment
among them, in the conditions to which they are accustomed, and
with the materials with which they are familiar, that such improve-
ment can be brought about; and it is only by direct Government
participation and encouragement that the mass of the people can
be touched.

183

BANTU INDUSTRIES.

By D. A. Hunter,
Lovedale, C.P.

Read July 11, 1921.

Bartholomew Diaz discovered South Africa in 1486, six years
before Christopher Columbus discovered America. The Nether-
lands East India Company took possession of Table Bay and' occu-
pied the adjacent lands in 1652, thirty-two years after the Pilgrim
Fathers landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts. No doubt many
factors have contributed to cause the tremendous disparity in the
advance made by the United States as compared with that made
by South Africa in approximately the same time. To trace these
factors would be an interesting and enlightening historical study.
That one of them has been South Africa's backwardness in indus-
trial development can hardly be gainsaid.

Imagine any great civilised country with practically all its
more important industries eliminated except farming and mining :
idleness and poverty would quickly assert themselves and national
bankruptcy and decadence would be hard on their heels. To-day
post-war Europe can furnish more than one practical proof of this.

A country's population is its most valuable asset. Without
population the country is dead : land, minerals, and fisheries alone
are valueless. It was said in pre-war days that the production
of a working man in England added £200 a year in wealth to the
State. If, however, the working man is idle, instead of a benefit
to the State, he becomes a burden upon it. It follows that a
large idle or semi-idle population in any State means not only
an immense annual loss in potential wealth but also a serious drain
upon its resources. The idle man consumes more than he produces.

There can be no doubt that by far the greatest undeveloped
asset South Africa possesses is its native population. Within the
Union there are approximately 5,000,000 Bantu. Reckoning that,
including men and women and boys and girls above school age,
2,000,000 of these are potential workers, and that they might
under proper organisation and training produce half the annual
wealth attributed to the white labourer, we have a possible annual
increase to the wealth of the State of £200,000,000.

But the material wealth of the State is only one, and not the
main, consideration. A prosperous, progressive, and contented
population is of far greater moment than great wealth, and it is
quite as necessary to work for the prosperity, progress and con-
tentment of the Bantu people as of the whites; for South Africa's
whole economic fabric is founded and built up upon the labour
of the Natives. Were they as a race to strike, and stop work,
South Africa would indeed be in an unhappy plight.

184 BANTU INDUSTRIES.

Now it concerns us to discover if present conditions are con-
ducive to the contentment of the Natives. To-day there are some
250,000 Native and coloured boys and girls in the schools of the
Union. This means that the wants of these young people in
clothes, food, houses, books, and in numerous other things will,
as they grow up, be increased. Is anything adequate being done,
either in school or out of it, to fit these young people to earn
honestly such a living as will enable them to meet these increasing
wants both for themselves and their children ?

I am well aware that a great many whites are totally opposed
to educating the Natives. These wise people overlook the fact that
every, white person who employs a Native — be he or she farmer,
miner, storekeeper, manufacturer, contractor, or housewife — is
already educating that Native, and arousing in him the wish to
obtain many things in the way of food, clothes, houses, imple-
ments, and others too numerous to mention, of which he sees the
white man in possession, and which become desirable in his eyes.

There are only two ways in which Native education can be
effectively stopped.. The one is absolute segregation which would
end both native trade and. native labour; the other that white
people leave the country altogether.

South Africa is not prepared for either of these alternatives,
so native education, on a scale far beyond the capacity of the
schools, will go on inevitably and increasingly. One thing the
of ten-times disparaged missionaries try to do, is to impart, together
with the inevitable education, moral and religious sanctions which
may serve as ballast where the tremendous impact of modern civi-
lisation threatens to prove a fiercer squall than the Native can
withstand.

It will be at once said that there is plenty of work to be had
on the mines and on the farms. While this statement seems at
first sight true, on examination it will be seen that it requires
much modification before it can be accepted as even a partial
answer to the problem. The mines afford temporary work to a
considerable number of men ; but the conditions at the mines are
such as to preclude a Native making the work of a miner his life
calling. All the time he spends at the mines he is an exile from
his family and his home. Hence he only takes up mining as a
temporary job, and returns home as soon as his pressing wants
are supplied.

This means that many thousands of native men are being
trained to work only spasmodically instead of learning to do
regular work all the year round. It" also results in perhaps two
or three being at home while one is at the mines. They may not
be absolutely idle, for there is something to be done on the land
or among the stock; but they acquire the habit of working inter-
mittently, with many idle intervals, and far below their potential
capacity.

A far more serious charge against the present system of work
on the mines has been brought recently by Dr. R. A. Reith

BAN'TU INDUSTRIES. 18t>

Fraser, Medical Inspector for Venereal Disease for the Union. In
a recent lecture, according to the report in the "Cape Times,"
he said : —

"He wondered why the treatment of syphilis among natives.
as a vital business proposition had not yet appealed to the big
labour magnates of this country. Syphilis was steadily deplet-
ing the labour market of South Africa, and with such rapidity
and certainty that in twenty years it would, if not stemmed,
render coloured labour so rare that only the very wealthy would
be able to pay for it. He dealt with the unnatural Jives of
the 300,000 natives on the Rand through the absence of their
wives, and said it was up to the Chamber of Mines tto re-
organise the living conditions of the industrial native, so that
he might bring his wife and family, and be able to lead a
domestic life on the mines. He offered this solution to the
industrial authorities, as the Chamber of Mines was of opinion
that such a gigantic scheme was impracticable. An alternative -
policy would be short service contracts for the native, rigid
medical examination on arrival and departure, and exhaustive-
treatment for such as became infected. Women admitted on
the industrial areas would have to be rigidly dealt with."

If this considered opinion of a scientifically trained expert be
a true setting forth of the facts the most valuable asset within the
Union is being squandered so recklessly that within twenty years,
under present conditions, it will be exhausted.

Farm labour offers but little attraction to a Native who has
any ambition to improve his position or that of his children after
him. It is said to be a custom among certain European farmers
in the Cape Province to pay a Native whole-time manservant 10/-
a month (i.e., £6 a year), together with a dish of mealies once a
week and some sour milk. How can a man in these days clothe s
himself, his wife and his family on 10/- a month and supply their
other wants besides ? How can he send his children to school when
there is probably no school for miles round ? Such conditions are
only fit for "red" Kafirs at the blanket stage. I believe farmers
would be. much better served were they to offer terms of employ-
ment that would attract the more advanced Natives. If farmers
would also give their Native employees a small share in the profits
of the farm, so" that it would be to the interest of the latter that
all the farming operations should be as successful as possible, I
believe it would pay them handsomely. This has already been
tried with marked success.

After the mines and farms and other outlets for native labour
have been supplied there remains in the kraals a vast quantity
of potential labour unemployed. This may be seen any day in
passing through the kraals scattered over the districts chiefly
inhabited by Natives. The old adage is true that Satan finds
plenty of mischief for these idle hands. Far happier would they
be, and better too, could they be trained to regular work, from
Monday morning till Saturday at noon. Such training would go
far towards the making of more reliable character. Moreover,
the regular income to be obtained from steady work would relieve
the poverty which has pressed so sorely upon manv of the native-

\gQ BANTU INDUSTRIES.

people in recent years. Successive bad seasons and excessively
high prices have reduced many of them to the verge of starvation,
in consequence of which scores of men, women and children have,
at one hospital in the Eastern Province of the Cape, been found
'to be suffering from scurvy. Is it small wonder that there has
been muttering and discontent ? Unless speedy relief is brought
to them many will be driven from their homes to find work in the
towns. This would be a calamity of the first order for South
Africa. Natives deteriorate rapidly under the conditions of town
life, both morally and physically. To allow a steady migration
of the Bantu to our large towns is to create in these a native sub-
merged tenth which will before long offer an immensely difficult
problem. A thousand times rather anticipate the somewhat hope-
less cry of "Back to the land" by giving those who have not yet
left it such conditions as will induce them to remain where they
are.

That this can be done has been proved by practical experience
in the United States. The late Dr. Frissell, of Hampton, Vir-
ginia, whose name is much honoured in America, wrote that won-
derful things had been done by means of demonstration farms.
"Whole communities of coloured folk who had been anxious to
abandon their country homes and move to the cities were, through
the application of scientific principles to agriculture, enabled to
double and sometimes quadruple their crops. Better homes, roads,
schools and churches were thus made possible, and a measure of
contentment was restored.

The policy of segregating the races has found favour with
many thoughtful people as the line along which the most hopeful
solution of our great native problem lies. Enforced segregation is
at the stage we have already reached impracticable. The hands of
time's clock cannot be turned back. But voluntary segregation is
both possible and practicable. Improve the conditions of life in
the native areas and the Natives will wish to remain in them.
Young men may want to go out for a time and work ; but the
Native has a great love for his home. To him, be it never so
humble, there's no place like home, and he will be glad to return
and settle down on the land if that be made reasonably possible
to him.

It will be agreed that there is a great and urgent work to
be done in setting every available member of the Bantu race within
the Union to useful productive work suited to his capacity and
environment. In this direction Rhodesia has progressed further
than the Union, for a very capable and energetic man, a Cam-
bridge graduate, has been appointed as Director of Native
Development.

There are three main lines along which it seems that indus-
trial development should be undertaken.

The first is agriculture. It would have been thought that a
live Department of Agriculture blessed with even a small degree
of vision would have seized upon the immense possibilities of agri-
cultural expansion latent in our native population. They are

BANTU INDUSTRIES.

187

born agriculturalists and stock farmers, but their methods are of
the crudest and most antiquated. This is their misfortune rather
than their fault, for no one has in a practical way shown them
better methods, except in a few isolated instances. The results
from these isolated instances are proof of the immense possibilities
of expanded production and increased stock, which will bring
much wealth to the country as soon as the people are helped wisely
and sympathetically, and shown how to do things in the best way.

Probably the Department of Agriculture is too set in its
methods to be able to undertake the work that is immediately
needed. Besides, where white and native interests clash the latter
will invariably suffer. It seems necessary, therefore, to duplicate
the Department of Agriculture in such measure as will give into
the hands of a distinct branch of that Department the development
of native farming.

The Bunga's agricultural college at Tsolo should be duplicated
in various suitable centres in the Union. In addition to this there
should be small experimental demonstration farms in native areas,
worked on simple lines suited to native farmers, where they may
see for themselves what to do, what better methods can accomplish,
and also where they can count upon good advice and encourage-
ment.

Later, when the native agricultural colleges are turning out
qualified men, some of the ablest of them might be put in charge
of the proposed demonstration farms under a white superintendent
who might, perhaps, be able thus to supervise a whole province
and so keep down expense. Along this line the food production
within the Union could be increased enormously; the Natives
would be better off and consequently more contented; and the
traders would prosper and through them the whole trade of the
country would increase in volume.

Native farming on the pastoral side needs similar guidance
and stimulation. The introduction of stud animals at the demon-
stration farms would soon improve the grade of cattle, sheep and
goats. If a good strain of milking goats were gradually to replace
the nondescript herds now in possession, that alone would greatly
benefit native children who are, in their tender years, often per-
manently injured for lack of milk. Small native children are
from time to time brought to the Victoria Hospital at Lovedale as
emaciated as the worst to be found in famine-stricken Austria or
in a famine area in India. Enquiry generally proves that there
has been an entire lack of milk in such cases. Attention should
be given to poultry farming, bee keeping, and fruit and vegetable
gardening. Along these lines the possibility of increased produc-
tion is unlimited. These industries could be carried on at the
demonstration farms in a simple and inexpensive way suited to
native conditions, and the farm manager could help the people to
dispose of their surplus produce to the best advantage.

Fencing must be encouraged and subsidised. The amount of
unnecessary and unproductive labour wasted on herding because of
the absence of fences is almost incalculable. Again, if the natives

15

188 BANTU INDUSTRIES.

were taught and encouraged to plant timber trees, the beautiful,
but treeless Transkei, to mention only one part of the country,
might be greatly enriched and transformed, droughts would
almost certainly be modified, shelter for stock would be provided,
and the often "difficult problem of fuel would be overcome. Let
me state, in passing, that if natives were trained along the lines
indicated they would become much more efficient as farm assistants
and would be well worth a higher wage. The native who could
graft and bud and set out an orchard, prune and harvest fruit,
keep the vegetable garden in good order, look after poultry and
bees and help with the stock, all in an intelligent and up-to-date
method, would be a treasure any farmer would be glad to get and
keep.

In native village life agricultural and pastoral work do not
give occupation to all the members of a family, nor do they as
a rule give whole-time occupation to any of them, unless it be
the herd boys whom it is proposed to release for more productive
work by the introduction of fencing. The problem, then, is to
find other work which will keep the natives usefully employed, and
this introduces the subject of village industries. Such primitive
industries as the Natives had before the advent of the white man
— smelting, weaving, pottery — have almost, if not altogether, dis-
appeared before the articles imported from overseas. This has
been a great loss in native life and it needs to be replaced. How
can this be done to the best advantage? In India, Ceylon, China,
and Japan a very large proportion of the population lives in vil-
lages. In these numberless villages industries have been carried
on for countless generations and have been brought by long
experience to considerable perfection with a minimum in the way
of outlay on plant and tools. If South Africa wishes to save an
immense amount of time and much money in experimenting, by
taking advantage of the experence ripened through many genera- .
tions in eastern village life, let her send a commissioner to the
East to see what is being done there, and to arrange to graft on
to native village life in South Africa what seems suitable and
possible.

The Commissioner would require to know our natives and be
familiar with the raw products of this land. He would also require
to be a man with some experience in, and aptitude and enthusiasm
for, industrial work, so that he might bring a discriminating judg-
ment to aid his observations.

It would seem wise and reasonable to give the Natives as far
as is practicable industries which will be peculiarly their own, such
industries as can be carried on in their villages without bringing
them into direct economic competition with white people. Wicker
furniture and basket-making do not require the accurate measure-
ments and angles of carpentry, and many Natives already possess
some aptitude for this work. Some years ago, from enquiry made
in Grahamstown, I came to the conclusion that the stores in that!
one town alone were carrying about £1,000 worth of wickerwork
stock, practically all of which was imported from Madeira. Osiers

BANTU INDUSTRIES. 189

grow freely in this country. It should not be difficult to trans-
plant the industry as well as the willows. Our beautiful grasses,
bayonet reeds, and the like lend themselves to basket-making, mat-
making, etc., and the leaves of a palm growing near the coast make
excellent hats. Why not try to found a South African "Panama"
hat industry ? Rope and string can also be made from our raw
products.

An intelligent commissioner visiting India, Ceylon, Burmah,
the Malay States, the Philippines, China and Japan would be able
to select many more village industries which would bear trans-
planting to this land. He might also be able to arrange for
instructors of those industries selected to come to South Africa
for a limited period, and teach picked Natives who could in turn
become the instructors of their own people. This should be much
less expensive than employing European instructors, and would
be less likely to give to the learners an inflated idea of the mone-
tary value of their work.

It would probably be necessary to establish one or two schools
of village industries, and native teachers might be required to
spend a year, or less, learning one or other of these village indus-
tries. After a reasonable time it should be imperative that every
native school teach one or more handicrafts suitable to the raw
material of the district in which the school is situated. In this
way, within a single generation, a tremendous advance in village
handicrafts might be achieved.

Beyond village industries in the ordinary sense of the term
there is a further industrial development for which some of the
more advanced native communities appear to be ripe. Many
natives are now capable of doing skilled labour. Were they allowed
to do it, their earnings would be considerably increased. If the
white man denies to them the right to do skilled labour in the
towns and on the mines, he cannot deny that they shall do it in
their own homes to supply the needs of their own people. To give
to the Natives in their own parts of the country suitable and
remunerative employment should, as we have already indicated,
result increasingly in a voluntary segregation such as is calculated
to obviate or reduce the clash between white and coloured labour,
and at the same time greatly to benefit the native by keeping him
away from the degrading influences of town life, while also making
it unnecessary to break into his family life by long absences from
home.

The tendency of the age is for profit sharing — that the man
who by his hand-toil wins the wealth should receive a fair share
of that wealth. This has been in large measure conceded to the
white man. Is it right to deny it to the Native?

I venture to suggest that a limited liability company (let
us call it Bantu Industries, Ltd.) be floated by men of goodwill.
who wish to see South African industries go ahead on the basis
of fair dealing with the Bantu, and that this company start
approved industries for Natives in selected areas, which the popu-
lation and other conditions indicate as suitable. One essential

190

BANTU INDUSTRIES.

would be sufficient capital to carry the venture through its early
years until successful production is arrived at. If, say, £50,000
was subscribed, it might be called up as required. The interest
should be limited to, say, 1\ per cent., and any profits beyond
that figure divided into two equal parts, the one-half going to a
development fund, the other as a bonus to those native employes-
who had worked steadily throughout the year. Provision should
be made in the articles of association to prevent any capitalist buy-
ing up a controlling share in the company when it has reached
a paying stage, by making it incumbent upon any shareholder to
give the company the first offer of any shares he desires to sell
at the lowest price he is willing to accept, and by limiting the
holding and voting power of any individual to, say, one-tenth of
the subscribed capital, or in any more effectual way that can be
devised.

Various industries suggest themselves with which to make a
beginning. Perhaps that of spinning and weaving might be tried
first. Wool from native-owned sheep through the Eastern Pro-
vince and native territories could be purchased and made into
blankets, and the blankets sold to the natives. As things are now,
a native has to pay many profits on the wool grown on his own
sheep before it comes back to him as blankets — if he ever gets
back as good as he sends away. There are the profits of the trader,
the coast merchant, overseas freight, brokerage, and railway freight
from, say, Southampton to Bradford. The wages for spinning
and weaving might be retained and spent in South Africa instead
of overseas. And another series of profits and freights have to be
added to the manufactured article before the native sheep owner
can carry a blanket from the trader's store to his hut.

It is practically certain that the locally-made article would
have more genuine wool in it than most of the blankets a native
can now afford to buy from a trader.

Once blanket making were successfully established — and that
this can be done in South Africa has no longer to be proved — a
further step might be taken by starting to make tweed, and a
clothing factory would naturally follow to make the tweed into
clothes for natives. Here again unnecessary profits would be
eliminated, wages would be paid and spent in this country instead
of overseas, and the natives would no longer be condemned to
wear the cast-off clothes of Europe, as so many of them have to
do to-day.

European merchants and traders need not be alarmed at such
proposals. Their trade would greatly increase because with regular
wages the natives would have more money to spend on the
numerous articles they could buy only from the stores.

A further development might be that of tanning — tanning
the hides and skins from native-owned cattle and sheep. A boot
and shoe factory might follow, also harness and saddlery manu-
facturing, and the making of other leather goods such as hand
bags, kit-bags, valises, and such like.

BANTU INDUSTRIES.

191

That such proposals are not impracticable may be deduced
from hard facts. For instance, on the West Coast of Africa the
Basel Mission .started industries for the natives within its sphere
of influence. These industries, -which have since the War been
taken over by the Commonwealth Trust, Ltd., of London, were
before the War paying a profit of something like £20,000 a year
to the funds of the Missionary Society. Besides its missions on
the West Coast, the Basel Missionary Society had work on the
Malabar Coast in South-West India, where a similar policy of
starting weaving to help the natives was initiated at Mangalore
as long ago as 1744. The material named "calico" is said to be
called after the town of Calicut, on the Malabar Coast. This
peculiar cotton cloth was first woven there. Seven years later
Mr. Haller, a trained specialist in weaving, was sent out from
Germany. He, on arrival at Mangalore, introduced the first hand-
loom with the fly shuttle. Along with the weaving, dyeing work
was also started, and the khaki dye which is now so widely used
is said to have been first invented by Mr. Haller. He
endeavoured to prepare a dye for hunting suits which would
approximate to the natural colour of the soil and would not be
conspicuous from a distance. The one which he prepared out of
the rind of the cashew-nut tree (Anacardium occidentale) and of
the extract of the heartwood of the catechu tree (Acacia catechu),
both of these trees being common in his district, answered the
purpose and was called khaki, from the Hindustani khak, mean-
ing ashes, dust. The "Madras Mail" stated: —

"When Mr. Haller first brought out his khaki, the then
Superintendent of Police in Mangalore was so pleased with it
that he got permission to introduce it for the use of the police
force under him. Lord Roberts, when he was Commander-in-
Chief in India, once paid a visit to the Mangalore weaving
establishment, land it was then that he happened to see khaki
which he afterwards recommended for the use of the British
soldiers."

Likewise, the shikari cloth, which is now popular, was first
introduced by this weaving establishment, the colour having
been designed by Mr. Webster, hence the material is called
"Webster's Shikari." Most of the European sportsmen and
officials of the Government Forest Department have availed them-
selves of the cloths of the mission weaving establishment to supply
their regular clothing needs. Encouraged by the success of weav-
ing in Mangalore, weaving establishments were established in other
mission stations on the West Coast, such as Cannanore and Calicut,
with increased improvements in various departments. This
industry affords regular employment to hundreds of Indians.

Another industry developed to a remarkable degree by the
Basel Mission in India is that of tile making. If this could be
developed on a considerable scale in South Africa, so that tiles
became as cheap or cheaper than corrugated, iron, we might hope
to deliver ourselves from the wrong many of us do our families
and ourselves by living under an iron roof so absolutely unsuited
to this country of great variations in temperature.

192 BANTU INDUSTRIES.

The first tile factory was started at Jeppoo, Mangalore, m
the year 1665. The handpresses and mills driven by bullocks were
replaced by machines worked by steam-power in the year 1881,
when the first steam-engine was set up at Mangalore. The tiles
manufactured there having been found of immense use to the
public and to the Government, the latter, as a mark of its apprecia-
tion, issued an order to their Public Works Department to use
mission tiles for all public buildings. The Government further
evidenced their appreciation by giving, as an encouragement of
this industry, a considerable quantity of firewood gratis from their
forests, and it is gratifying to note that the Government is still
encouraging the manufacture of these tiles, because of their
superior merits. At first, only flat roofing tiles were made. Now,
at Jeppoo, near Mangalore, the pioneer tile factory in India, flat
roofing tiles, ridge tiles, both plain and ornamental, sky-lights and
ventilators, ridge and hip terminals, and finials of various kinds,
grooved spire tiles, hanging wall tiles, ceiling tiles of many dif-
ferent designs, hourdis or ceiling slabs, common and ornamental
clay flooring tiles, Victoria cement flooring tiles, well and chimney
bricks, salt-glazed stone and earthenware drainage pipes, terra-
cotta vases, flower-pots, architectural terra-cotta ware, etc., are
made in artistic styles. They are considered a boon by architects
and builders. A word may also be added here about the ceiling
tiles which have been found to be of great value, especially in
towns where timber is rare and expensive. When these first
appeared on the market appreciation was expressed by the public,
and high praise was given them in the leading newspapers, such
as the "Madras Mail" and "Hindu." Similar praise was bestowed
on the hourdis or ceiling slabs which are now being used instead
of wooden ceilings in storeyed houses with remarkable success
The advantages of these are numerous, namely, there is perfect
resistance to heat, exclusion of noise from storey to storey, water-
tightness, strength and durability. There are buildings that
exhibit the technical skill of the clay manufacturers of these tile
works in many large towns of the Indian Empire and of Ceylon.
Such artistic works were made in one single factory at Jeppoo,
where this manufacture was started with about twelve men. Now
it gives employment to three hundred and thirty persons, and
twelve to fourteen thousand tiles are turned out daily.

The second tile factory was started at Calicut, in the year
1873, similar to the one at Jeppoo, with hand presses, bullock
mills, etc. Gradually the work developed and steam-engines were
installed. Now the factory has two hundred and twelve hands
engaged in its operation, the daily output being about twelve
thousand tiles of various kinds, such as flat roofing tiles, flooring
tiles, ceiling hourdis, ridges, etc. There was an increasing demand
for the products of this factory, and as there was also an increase
of converts in the Christian Churches on the West Coast who were
seeking employment, it was deemed necessary to start new factories
in other mission stations as well.

Accordingly in the year 1882 a factory was started at Kudroli,
a suburb of Mangalore, where now three hundred and eightv-eight

BANTU INDUSTRIES.

193

people are working, the output being about five million tiles a
year. Another factory, at Malpe, near Udipi, was started in the
year 1886; the fifth at Codacal, near Edakulam, where two hun-
dred and eighty-five people are working; the sixth at Palghat,
where two hundred and forty persons are now working, and in the
year 1905 the seventh factory was established at Ferok, about
seven miles from Calicut, where two hundred and thirty-three
persons are engaged in tile making. All these seven factories are
equipped with up-to-date machinery and are conducted under
expert European engineers. All works are carried on under fac-
tory rules and regulations, and the factories are periodically
visited and inspected by Government officials, such as factory
inspectors, sanitary and medical officers, and the district magis-
trates. The products of these seven factories are sold throughout
the Indian Empire, Burma, and Ceylon, and are also exported to
foreign countries. In British East Africa the railway buildings
on the Uganda Railwav from Mombasa to Port Florence, the
railway terminus at the Lake, are all covered with mission roofing
tiles. In Tanganyika Territory, Basel Mission tiles were also
being stocked at different places. Tiles are also exported to Aden,
and to Basra on the Persian Gulf at the mouth of the Euphrates.
They are also being exported in rather large quantities to the
Straits Settlements, to Sumatra, British Borneo, and even to
Australia. So it is evident that these tiles have won a wide repu-
tation. They have been shown in many exhibitions in India, such
as those held in Madras, Bombay, Cawnpore, Allahabad and
Benares, and more than a dozen gold and silver medals were
awarded them at these exhibitions.

I have dealt at some length with these successful enterprises
because they present accomplished facts, and because I believe
that what has been done in India can be done in Africa to the
great advantage of whites and natives alike.

The problem is to make a start, and it seems very difficult
to get a start made. A certain unvoiced and indefinable, but
nevertheless very real, opposition appears to emanate from high,
or official, quarters. One of my reasons for arriving at this con-
clusion is that it seems to be the considered policy of the "South
African Journal of Industries" to exclude from its pages any
reference to the development of native industries. Even the
Advisory Board of Industry and Science is apparently powerless
to change this policy, for I have been informed that it decided
at one of its meetings in Johannesburg some considerable time
ago that a paper was to be inserted in that Journal on Native
Industries, but that decision has evidently been turned down, for
the paper in question has not yet appeared.

Is this a wise or a safe attitude at this time of day 1 Let me
pass on to you the words of one who knows the Native and the
Transkeian Territories as few know them. He says: —

" (1) The people as a whole are far poorer than they were in
1890.
(2) They are spending far more than they did then.

194 BANTU INDUSTRIES.

(3) They .are far more deeply in debt than they were then.
Now what does this all end in ? Just this : —

(1) Rapidly increasing poverty and debt.

(2) A hopeless outlook to the future.

(3) Growing discontent with the present.

(4) Restlessness and a blind desire for change.

(5) An evergrowing liability to be misled by rash and evil-
minded agitators.

To these agitators — some ignorant, half-educated young
bloods, others adventurers of experience bent on raising money
for deputations and petitions- —it is very easy to make out that
"All these evils come on us because white men treat us ill and
flourish by seeking our blood." Because it is true that in
very many quarters there is a mind obsessed or diseased, half-
scared, half- angry, ready to strike out blindly at the first thing
that seems to injure.

"Hence come these recurring Nntive troubles. Sitting on-
the boiler by increasing the police will not help for long.

"The pressing question is. How is life to be made less
dreary, aimless and futile for the rapidly growing mass of
Natives who have got past the stage when plenty of mealies, a
good deal of beer, an occasional faction fight, with endless
loafing jmd gossip around the kraals, spell content and happi-
ness? How, in ta. word, are these people to get something to
occupy their minds and energy, and give them an ambition and
a prospect in life?"

Happily, a new factor has come into South African life with
the calling into being of the Native Affairs Commission, and with
it the hope, so often deferred during the last twenty-five years,
of progressing with native industries, shines bright again.

The Prime Minister, who is also Minister of Native Affairs,
has frankly admitted that a new stage has been reached in the
development of the native races, which demands new methods.
The members of the Native Affairs Commission are, I believe,
thoroughly convinced that along some such lines as those sketched
in this paper new opportunities must be offered to the Bantu
people of the Union. Further, the members of this Association,
with their powerful and far-reaching influence, can, if they will,
help native industrial development out of the mire in which it has
so long stuck fast, and speed it on a successful journey.

195

THE PRESERVATION OF OUR NATIONAL MONUMENTS.

By C. Graham Botha,
Keeper of the Archives, Cape Town.

Read July 13, 1921.

Among the several heritages which nations enjoy must be
reckoned their national monuments, their relics of bygone days.
Many nations possess a variety of reminiscences of long ago. Some
are only of passing interest, others have a scientific and historical
value which cannot be under-estimated. These tell us something
not only of the people who created them but also aid us in link-
ing up facts not to be obtained elsewhere.

Very often a building, a stone, or a piece of paper will unravel
more mysteries than we can ever imagine. A stone or broken
implement picked up can give us a clue which will settle a con-
troverted point or add to our present knowledge. We cannot and
should not ignore the smallest evidence which will help us in our
studies.

Need anyone ask what is the use of all these traces of the
long ago ? The archaeologist knows their value and the scientist
is ever watchful for the latest discoveries. They tell us something
of the people who lived in the centuries gone by, they aid us to
recreate the past and inform us of the manners and customs of
those who have gone before. Are not many of us trying to learn
something of the ages past, are we not delving, into records of the
country to obtain a true history of it? Where these are deficient
do we not seek for the remains of what our forebears have left of
their work ? Take the early history of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Are we not indebted to those who have discovered and are still
bringing to light the remains of cities, villages, buildings and
stones of hundreds and even thousands of years old ? From these
evidences we know much about the early people of those countries.
We are able to recreate their story, to learn of their manners and
customs, arts and sciences, and the extent of their civilisation.

If we acknowledge these facts then why should these monu-
ments not be preserved and why should those which are in the
making and will stand as links of the present to the future genera-
tions not receive the same attention ? I feel confident that no
one will deny this duty. It is a duty which should be recognised
by every nation. In Europe most countries have laws by which
their ancient landmarks are preserved and rescued from the hand
of the vandal.

South Africa can claim a history of little more than two and
a half centuries as far as European civilisation is concerned.
Scattered over its area of the Union are monuments and relics
which tell us of the early struggles of the pioneers, their defeats
and successes. Here and there are marks of their progress which
show the development and opening up of the country. Too few

196 PRESERVATION OF NATIONAL MONUMENTS.

of these witnesses remain, and it is our bounden duty to protect
them and hand them down to the future generations. In Cape-
town, the mother city, is the Castle which reminds us of two and
a half centuries that have passed by. It is our oldest monument
of the days since the first Dutch settlement. Within its walls
the affairs of state were settled for a century and a half, and round
it was woven the military, civil and social life of the Cape. It was
the pivot round which the early civilisation centred.

I will not dwell on the various buildings in Capetown which
record the life of the 18th Century, but would like to mention
the Old Town House which now holds the collection of Dutch and
Flemish Masters, the Koopmans de Wet Museum, which exempli-
fies a gentleman's residence of the 18th Century, two of the oldest
church buildings with their carved pulpits by Anreith. All these
can be looked upon as monuments of a national character.

Here and there are stones which record the days of the Dutch
East India Company, and which should receive our attention.
Such are Van Plettenberg's stone erected at the bay bearing his
name in 1778, and the boundary stone put up by Governor
v. d. Graaff and now in the town of George. There still exists one
of the Company's beacons put up to mark its boundary. We all
know the fate of the Van Plettenberg's Beacon erected near to
what is now the town of Colesberg. For generations this marked
the furthermost boundary of the Colony. A small portion is now
in the South African Museum, but the original stone had suffered
from time to time from the hand of the vandal. And so we could
go through a number of landmarks of this kind.

But we have another kind which is found in various areas.
There are many fortifications which tell us of the 18th and 19th
Centuries. The old line of defences around Capetown, the mili-
tary forts in the Eastern Province, the old Fort at Durban. All
these require our attention. There are also some of the Drostdy
Buildings in the Cape Province, as at Tulbagh and Uitenhage.
These played quite an important role in the early days.

What must we do to preserve these relics of another age ?
It is necessary to awaken the people of the country to their
national responsibility. The people of South Africa have now
developed a strong national consciousness, and this spirit should
be fostered in every branch of their national life. Until they are
fully alive to the fact that the preservation of our national monu-
ments is a duty which falls upon everyone, we shall fall very short
of what should be done. There still remains much for us to do,
and by stimulating this desire to preserve the records of the past
we shall be furthering this worthy object. We must not forget
that in this work we should inculcate a spirit of reverence in the
children, who will become the citizens of the future, and would
have then learned the value of and necessity for preserving our
national monuments.

197

IRVING FISHER'S PROPOSALS FOR STABILISING THE
VALUE OF MONEY.

By Mabel Palmer, M.A.,
Durban Technical College.

Read July 13, 1921.

A bstract.

The subject matter of this paper may be summarised as
follows : —

The Evils of a Fluctuating Standard.

(a) Those due to rising prices.

Debtors gain at the expense of creditors and hence Here
is discouragement of saving. Primary producers, mer-
chants and manufacturers gain; hence accusations of pro-
fiteering occur. Wage-earners and the salaried classes
lose; hence discontent and labour troubles arise. All
those working under contract or relatively fixed payments
lose, for example, railway and tramway administrations
and local authorities, hence there is a slackening in the
rate of public improvements.

(b) Those due to falling prices.

Creditors gain at the expense of debtors, as shown in
the case of war debts.

Profits fall and enterprise is discouraged, hence bad trade
and unemployment ensue. Farmers and other primary
producers lose, while wage-earners gain.

(c) Attempts to fix a minimum wage under a fluctuating currency

are futile.

(d) If a paper standard replaces ■ gold, the rate of inflation in
different countries varies, and the violent fl net nations of the
foreign exchanges add another uncertainty to the trader's
difficulties.

Causes of the Fluctuations.

Recent violent variations in price have been due to the sub-
stitution of paper money for gold, and prices have varied to an
astonishing extent in proportion to the volume of paper money
issued. Hence many eminent economists advocate a speedy return
to the gold standard. This will mean a rapid fall of prices, with
all the disadvantages noted previously.

Disadvantages of the Crude Gold Standard.

Gold is not a perfect standard. Its rate of production and
therefore (to a much smaller extent) the amount in circulation

198 STABILISING THE VALUE OP MONEY.

varies and prices vary therewith. In England prices fell roughly
40 per cent, between 1873 and 1895, and rose 35 per cent, between
1890 and 1914.

Need of a Stable Standard of Value.

The one great need of our currency system at present is a
standard of value, a money unit which shall always, on an average,
exchange for the same amount of goods, or, in other words, which
will keep the price index number constant or approximately con-
stant. Other units of measurement have been stabilised. Can we
stabilise the unit of value 1 Stabilisation will be attained when
the amount of money in circulation increases and decreases in
proportion to the volume of goods seeking exchange. There is no
reason to believe that the chance fluctuations of gold mining stand
in any necessary relation to the volume of trade. Therefore, a
mere return to the crude gold standard, while it is preferable to
a paper currency with its erratic movements, will not provide an
ideal or even a satisfactory standard of value. It is preposterous
to state financial contracts in a fluctuating standard.

Irving Fisher's Proposal.

Professor Fisher proposes the establishment, or in the United
States the continuation, of the gold standard, and the free deposit
and withdrawal of gold from the Treasury. But in place of making
the pound or the dollar equivalent always to a stated weight of
gold which necessarily varies in value, he proposes to vary the
weight in order to make it equivalent always to the same value.
This is to be achieved

(a) By withdrawing gold coins from circulation and concen-
trating all the gold used for currency in the hands of the Govern-
ment or its agent (Mint, Treasury, Central Bank, as the case might
be).

(b) By issuing gold certificates corresponding to the amount
of gold so held and by the free exchange by the Treasury of gold
for certificates and of certificates for gold on demand.

(c) By varying at intervals of not less than two months the
amount of gold to be exchanged for a gold certificate in accord-
ance with the rise or fall of prices as shown by the national index
number. It is suggested that as prices rise one per cent, the
amount of gold to be exchanged for a gold certificate should also
be increased by one per cent., thus the amount of currency would
be decreased and prices would tend to fall. On the contrary, if
prices fell one per cent., the amount of gold exchanged for a gold
certificate would be decreased by one per cent., the number of gold
certificates would be increased and prices would tend to rise.

Technical Details.

(a) It is admitted that the system would break down unless
accompanied by sound banking, that is, a system in which the

STABILISING THE VALUE OF MONEY.

199

issue of notes and the granting of bank credits are restricted by
the obligation to give gold certificates on demand. But the pro-
posed stabilisation would mitigate the effects even of unwise
banking.

(b) It is proposed in order to prevent speculation in gold to
charge a brassage fee, say of one per cent., on the deposit of gold,
and to provide that no single alteration in the value of the .gold
to be redeemed by the gold certificate shall exceed this fee. This
would prevent short period speculation; and speculation over a
longer period would be prevented by the loss of interest involved
in holding the gold.

Possible Objections.

(a) Why has it not been tried before 1 Because it depends
essentially on public confidence in the accurate calculation of
index numbers, and that has only recently been achieved.

(b) What about foreign exchanges ? (i) The importance of
this point is exaggerated. Internal trade is much greater in
volume than external, and a country with stabilised money would
reap so many internal advantages that it could afford to disregard
the less important external inconveniences. (ii) But the incon-
veniences too are exaggerated. A change in the exchange between
two countries corresponds in the long run to the divergence in
their price levels. Suppose that the free import and export of gold
has been re-established and that there has been a new vast dis-
covery of gold on the Rand, with the result that prices rise 50
per cent. Suppose further that South Africa stabilises her cur-
rency, and that England allows her prices to rise. The South
African sovereign increases in weight from 113 grains of pure gold
to 169i grains, but prices as expressed in pounds, shillings and
pence remain at the old level, while English prices increase to half
as much again. The South African exporter would get 50 per
cent, higher prices for goods sent to England, but on his draft for
the amount received he would lose 33 l-3rd per cent, on the
exchange, and would on balance neither gain nor lose. Conversely,
an importer would pay higher prices, but need only put down
£66 13s. 4d. to purchase £100 in England. Doubtless the situa-
tion would not be so simple nor so extreme as this imaginary case,
but if the movement of gold were free, exchange would always
tend to fluctuate round the gold par, which would itself change
as the supply of gold varied, so as to keep prices stable in South
Africa. Further, this alteration in the par of exchange would
prevent any undue drainage of gold from any country.

The country which first re establishes free movement in gold
stands to gain enormously, and, if, at the same time, it institutes
a stable price level, it will have a long start over other nations in
commercial development.

Establishment of the New System.

It is not probable that South Africa, a country relatively so
backward in industrial organisation and so entangled in the

200 STABILISING THE VALUE OE MONEY.

currency difficulties of the United Kingdom, will inaugurate the
new system. Yet it may be noted that it already possesses all the
pre-requisites of the system save the free movement of gold, that is,
the central gold reserve, the gold certificates, and the regular
monthly publication of official index numbers. Further, the early
re-establishment of a gold standard is more essential to South
Africa as the premier gold-producing country of the world than to
any other. Re-establishment must either be delayed or be accom-
panied by widespread trade convulsions, if the old level of prices
is to be restored. Therefore South Africans in particular should
give very careful consideration to the Yale professor's proposal for
the institution not of a crude but of a stabilised gold standard.

THE

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL
OF SCIENCE

COMPRISING THE REPORT OP THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

(1921, DURBAN.)

Vol. XVIII. JUNE, 1922. Nos. 3 and 4.

ASPHALT IN RELATION TO ROAD CONSTRUCTION.

BY

D. Basil W. Alexander,
Borough Engineer's Office, Durban.

Read Jul ii 13, 1921.

In this paper the writer proposes to treat the subject of
Asphalt Construction under two main beads, viz., Asphalt and
Construction. First, then, Asphalt will be considered. This will
be sub-divided into Natural and Artificial. The former will be
further divided into Rock Asphalt and Lake Asphalt, and the
latter will treat of Oil Asphalt.

As a general introduction to this subject it will be germane
to define asphalt in order to give a clearer understanding of terms
concerning which there is a good deal of confusion. It may be defined
as a more or less plastic solid formed by the mixture of mineral
matter in varying proportions with a naturally occurring bitumen.
The term "naturally occurring" is introduced in order to dis-
tinguish them from the bitumens derived from coal and shales.
Some critics may contend that it will exclude oil asphalts, which
are merely an accelerated form derived from the basis of all true
asphalts, viz., asphaltic petroleum.

Clifford Richardson says : —

"Asphalt may be defined as a mineral plastic, found in nature
in a more or less solid state, or recovered as such from an
asphaltic petroleum in which it occurs in solution, consisting of a
homogeneous fixture of hydrocarbons of the asphaltic type with a
small proportion of their sulphur and nitrogen derivatives, melt-
ing on the application of heat, and miscible in all proportions with
heavy asphaltic oils, or flux, to form a viscous cementing material
which is used in the construction of pavements and roads, and
for other industrial purposes."
This definition, while very comprehensive, takes no cognizance of
the asphalt formed in the still at high temperatures by polymeriza-
tion or the molecular condensation of lighter forms to a solid form.
That this does occur has been often noted by the writer during
1

202 ASPHALT.

the re-clistillation of heavy distillate? from an asphaltic petroleum,
when the residue remains as a solid asphalt-like substance. So it
would seem that oil asphalt does not occur solely in solution in
the same way that paraffin wax may be dissolved in petrol and
recovered by beat in original amount, but is partly formed at
least, as stated above, by polymerization induced at elevated
temperatures. Be that as it may, we cannot refuse to recognise
a residua] pitch from an asphaltic petroleum as an asphalt merely
on account of its partly pyrogenetic and accelerated origin.

To the oft-quoted "man in the street" it may be a matter
of surprise that there should be any difference between the various
kinds of asphalt, but there is as much difference as there is in dif-
ferent kinds of wood. If you desired a piece of furniture that
would last for a long time you would choose a slow-growing wood
like mahogany or oak, rather than a quickly growing one like
willow; and a little reflection will show that asphalt is no excep-
tion to the general rule that the quality of a product in regard
to a special purpose is the effect of the treatment resulting in the
perfection attained, and proved by usage. As an example, iron
ore is found combined with oxygen as haematite, magnetite,
limonite, etc., or with sulphur as iron pyrites. Smelting these
ores gives wrought iron; and as such by further treatment it is
converted into cast iron and steel. Further addition of other
elements to the steel gives a material that is particularly adapted
to various usages, such as high-speed cutting tools, automobile
parts for toughness, artillery, etc. So it is *een that the treatment
of the crude material gives the perfected product for particular
purposes. Naturally you would not expect to treat a hydrocarbon,
such as petroleum, by a method as seveie as the high temperature
of smelting iron; its very nature presupposes as low a temperature
as possible being used to complete the reduction to a solid form.
The lower the temperature the longer the length of time in pro-
duction and the higher the quality attained.

Native Bitumens according to Clifford Richaidsorr consist of
a mixture of native hydrocarbons and their derivatives, which may
be gaseous, liquid, a viscous liquid or solid; but if a solid, melting
more or less leadily upon the application of heat, and soluble in
turpentine, chloroform, carbon bi-sulphide, similar solvents, and
m the malthas or heavy asphaltic oils. He further says coal is not
a bitumen because it is not soluble to any extent in the usual
solvents for bitumen, nor does it melt at comparatively low
temperatures, nor dissolve in heavy asphaltic oils. But on dis-
tillation it gives rise to products that are similar to natural
bicumens, and are therefore termed pyro-bitumens. We mav
therefore look upon bitumen as that portion of asphalt, wherever
found, soluble in carborr bi-sulphide, and asphalt as the mixture
of a certain type of petroleum bitumen with varying amounts of
mineral matter. The latter may be as high as 90 per cent, or
more, as in a sheet asphalt pavement; or as low as 01 per cent.,
as m the residual pitches derived from the asphaltic petroleums.
It is in this sense that the term is used in this paper, further

ASPHALT.

203

stating that by the term "pavement" is meant the wearing sur-
face of a street or road, when it has been "hardened."

With this preamble, the essential topics of the paper may
now be considered.

Rock Asphalt, or Bitttminous Sand or Limestones.

This material is noteworthy as being the father of the modern
asphalt pavement, and in past years has been much more
extensively used than it is at present. The reason is not far to
seek. Recent investigations have shown that an asphalt pavement
depends largely for its life on the grading of the mineral matter,
perhaps as much so as on the quality of the bitumen, though the
latter, being a component of about only 10 per cent., is a deter-
mining factor of long life. However, Nature has no recognition
of standard gradings, and she permeates any available pervious
stratum with the soft asphalt under pressure ; consequently they
vary very considerably in their grading in different deposits, and
sometimes even in the same one. However, it must be granted
that, whatever the grading, the bitumen must be in the correct
amount to fill the voids. This probably governs their success. A
fine sand stratum would take up and retain just enough to cover
each individual grain with a thin film of bitumen as the stream
was forced through and proceeded onward. The amount would
be more than in a coarse stratum because of the greater surface
area, but because of larger voids the latter would have greater
masses, and therefore more be easily displaced when laid as a
pavement. For this reason the finer rock asphalts give greater
satisfaction than the coarser where the traffic is at all heavy. This
non-uniformity of grading is responsible for many of the failures
of rock asphalt, so attempts have been made to make it more
uniform by breaking up and grinding, especially with the European
varieties, and some more successful pavements and sidewalks have
been laid in that condition.

Another reason for the decline in the use of rock asphalts,
besides the chance grading, is the expense entailed in shipping and
paying for freight on a lot of unnecessary and often inadequate
mineral matter which (since sand is available anywhere) can just
as well, and in fact better, be introduced where the pavement is
to be laid. Another disadvantage is that there is no method of
knowing or controlling the penetration of the cementing bitumen,
a frequent source of failure. It is generally conceded that rock
asphalt pavements are more slippery in wet weather than any other
form of pavement except perhaps wood.

Lake Asphalt may next be considered.

Lake Asphalts.

Lake Asphalts may be classed under two varieties, Trinidad
as coming from the Island of Trinidad, British West Indies, and
Bermudez as coming from the mainland of Venezuela. They both
occur as vast deposits which take the form of lakes — hence the
name,
la

204 ASPHALT.

Trinidad Asphalts. — This deposit, known on the Island of
Trinidad as the Pitch Lake, is owned by the British Government,

• and is mined by companies who pay a royalty to the Island
Government on every ton of crude asphalt removed from the

■ deposit. This royalty amounts annually to more than one-quarter
million dollars (£52,000).

The Pitch Lake is 114 acres in area, and over 150 feet deep
near the centre. The actual depth has never been ascertained
because the deposit is in constant motion, so the boring drill is

•eventually broken off, or the hole becomes crooked so that the
operation stops. More than 170 million square yards of city pave-
ments have been laid with this asphalt since 1870 in the United
States alone, not to mention many miles in other parts of the
world.

The asphalt in this deposit contains about 29 per cent, of its
weight of water, the removal of which constitutes the refining process.
This is done at about 325° F. by means of steam coils, closed coils
.to heat it, and open coils to agitate. Asphalt is a poor conductor
of heat, so that it is necessary to get all of the asphalt in a molten
condition to facilitate the evaporation of the water. For the same
reason it is best to get the heat disseminated throughout the mass
as quickly as possible. A kettle or still heated by direct fire would
be a dangerous procedure as it could not be agitated in the early
process of heating, and the material would tend to cake on the
bottom. The kettles (called steam stills) are square tanks capable
of holding 70 tons, the lower half being funnel shaped. The
lower portion is filled with the closed steam coils conveying steam
at about 1251bs. pressure, giving a temperature of about 325° F.,
which naturally is never exceeded. Trinidad asphalt melts at
about 180° F., so that this temperature is sufficient to bring the
material to a state of fluidity, and when in this state steam at the
same temperature and pressure is admitted through the open coils,
which are perforated pipes placed at the bottom of the still under
each individual heating coil. The effect is to raise the temperature
of the portions lying away from the vicinity of the heating coils,
and violently agitate the mass, thus assisting in the removal of the
water from the crude asphalt. This operation takes about 8 hours.
When the water is all removed, the live steam is shut off and the
mass becomes quiescent; then the sticks and other refuse rise to
the surface and are skimmed off. The heating steam is kept on
until the operation is complete, when the hot material is run off
into barrels, which, when cool, are ready for shipment.

When refined, the asphalt contains 56 per cent, of bitumen,
the remainder being a very fine clay. It is the presence of this
clay in a colloidal state that gives the stability of mixtures made
with Trinidad asphalt. The difference in stability exhibited by
the method of incorporating a colloidal clay in a liquid asphalt
can be demonstrated. In the one case it is incorporated by a
method similar to the manner in which it is introduced in Trinidad
asphalt, and in the other the wav it is mixed in the paving plant.
To illustrate: a sample that still retains the spiral form can be

ASPHALT.

205

made by mixing clay into a slurry with water and adding it in
that state to the hot liquid asphalt; then heating to 250° F., and
stirring until the water is all expelled. It is then cooled and made
into a spiral, and put into the test-tube. In the sample that is
deformed and shows no stability the dry clay is mixed into the
hot liquid asphalt at 250° F., and stirred at that temperature for
the same length of time as the other; then it is cooled and made
into a spiral and put in a test-tube just as the other sample was.

Exactly the same proportions of the same ingredients are used
in each case, and as the tubes are always being kept side by side
they are at all times under similar physical conditions ; yet the
"wet" mix (Nature's method at Trinidad) shows its original spiral
form, while the "dry" mix (man's method at the plant) has com-
pletely deformed, and shows only indications of its original spiral
form. The presence of this colloidal clay in Trinidad asphalt may
be demonstrated by immersing a piece in distilled water for about
two weeks. At the end of this time it will be noticed that the
asphalt is covered with a brown powder, which may be washed
.away, exposing the unaffected bitumen underneath. The explana-
tion of the phenomenon is as follows: — Each particle of the col-
loidal clay in a perfectly dry state is enclosed in a thin film of
bitumen. The water, by osmosis, passes through this film and
moistens the anhydrous clay, which therefore expands and bursts
the enclosing film, allowing the hydrated clay to escape. If this
is washed away, the film of bitumen remains adhering to the
unaltered underlying material ; or if the surface is heated the
bitumen is melted, the water evaporated, and it resumes its former
condition. The question might arise, if water has this effect upon
Trinidad refined asphalt why does it resist for so long the com-
bined action of atmospheric and traffic influences 1 The question
is answered by the above explanation, which gives the conditions
in an exaggerated form, for no street remains under water for a
•couple of weeks. In the course of time the liberated clay is
removed by the street cleaning gang while the bitumen remains in
the form of a thicker film. This decreases the action of osmosis,
so the surface is ultimately sealed and the water action stopped
without affecting the stabilizing action of the colloidal clay.

The origin of the Pitch Lake is not very evident, but taking
it in connection with what is known of the surrounding country
and of other localities, an explanation, at least plausible, can be
afforded. An inspection of the map shows the country has been,
and still is, volcanic, as evidenced by the eruption in Martinique
in 1906, the more recent one of San Salvador in 1917, and the
still more recent one of Irazu in Costa Rica in 1919. Where
volcanic agencies are sleeping but not dead, the springs are fre-
quently warm, even boiling, and if superheated become solfataras.
These outlets may be many miles from the source of their heat
deep down in the earth, and therefore under great pressure. In
passing to that outlet these streams may encounter a stratum of
clay, or other fine mineral matter, through which they tear their
way, take up the earthy matter, and become the mud-springs, such

206 ASPHALT.

as are known to occur in many parts of the world. Again the
mineral matter in its colloidal state may be produced in another
way : Warm alkaline water dissolves silica ; if it is made acid it
loses its solvent power, so the silica is precipitated in so finely
divided a state that it is gelatinous. The quantitative analysis
of silica is based on this same principle. Now the water in the
soft pitch as it rises near the centre of the Pitch Lake is alkaline
(Clifford Richardson, Pop. Sci. Monthly, July- Aug., 1912), but
in the crude asphalt it is acid (C.R. ibid), giving just the con
ditions requisite to produce colloidal silica.

Within recent years a high grade asphaltic petroleum has
been found about 2,000 feet deep in the vicinity of the Pitch
Lake, which is doubtless the source of the lake. Let us apply
then the foregoing to the formation of Trinidad asphalt in the
theory as outlined by Clifford Richardson. The depression in which
the Pitch Lake occurs was probably in olden times just such a
mud spring as is described above, erupting under great pressure.
Then the petroleum under its own gas pressure broke through into
the friable stratum of clay, finally reaching the vent through
which the hot mud spring was forcing its way. There it was mixed
and thoroughly churned on its way to the surface, so that it
became an intimate emulsion of oil, mud and alkaline mineral
water, the various component parts being admitted to the mixture
in definite amounts according to the various sources of supply and
their pressure. The presence of water in the mud tends to prevent
any excessive heat, and it is probably not in the vapour phase
because of the great pressure which brings the material to the
surface against the weight of a plastic mass of asphalt over 150 feet
deep, which it keeps in constant motion.

The conditions as postulated above are similar to those in an
oil refinery, producing what is known as B.S. (Bottom Sludge), an
emulsion of oil and water formed by the churning action of steam
on hot oil in the condensers, and there cooled. It is well known
and severely anathematized by every oil man ; similarly Trinidad
asphalt.

The petroleum mentioned above as being the source of
Trinidad asphalt is unique in its structure inasmuch as the removal
by heat of a small fraction at a low temperature leaves a residue
which is a liquid asphalt, there being no intermediate fractions
(kerosene, neutral and gas oils) between the light naphtha and the
lubricating oils, so that a low temperature only is necessary to
reduce the crude petroleum to a liquid asphalt. Thus it happens
that the crude oil emulsion readily loses its lighter portions by a
species of film distillation from the hot colloidal particles, whereby
a small amount of heat is enabled to do a large amount of volatili-
zation in reducing an oil to a hard asphalt.

Though it begins to melt about 180° F. it does not become
properly liquid till about 300° F. It has a consistency of 4° by
the penetrometer, and since this is harder than it would ever be
used in that condition it is softened by the addition of an asphaltic
flux to any degree of softness desired to suit conditions of traffic.

ASPHALT. 207

climate and grade for any job in any city. It will stand a higher
temperature without deterioration than other asphalts with more
bitumen.

Bermudez Asphalt. — Although probably derived from the
same oil horizon as the Trinidad Pitch Lake this deposit differs
in its physical but not chemical characteristics. It is softer and
more ductile, and contains about 95 per cent, bitumen. The
deposit is about 140 miles due west in an air line from the Trinidad
deposit, is about 1,000 acres in extent, but much shallower, being
9 feet at the deepest part. It gives no evidence of being in constant
motion as the Trinidad deposit does, but is probably fed by several
springs of maltha over a large expense of territory. On account
of its softer consistency a smaller amount of flux is needed to bring
the asphalt cement to the same penetration as one made with
Trinidad asphalt. Also because of its greater bitumen content, a
less amount is. required in making a bituminous mixture, but a
larger amount of dust for filler must be added by the less effective
dry method, and then it is not as complete as the Trinidad colloidal
material. On the other hand its freedom from colloidal clay gives
it a lower melting point (about 180° F.) and a penetration of
about 20°. It also makes a better material for producing a
bituminous macadam by pouring the hot material on crushed stone
in the construction of country roads and highways. Its physical
similarity to Trinidad bitumen is shown by its tenacity in adhering
to stone, and staying where it is put for a number of years, which
is due to the quality of the bitumen, for it, like Trinidad, has
taken hundreds of years to arrive at the solid consistency necessary
for a basis to work from. It is similarly refined and fluxed.

Various characteristics show that the bitumen of these two
lake asphalts is very similar, and that they are probably derived
from the same petroleum. One of the most notable characteristics
is the comparatively large amount of sulphur (6 per cent.) that
exists in a firmly combined state, whereby the otherwise unsatur-
ated hydrocarbons are made saturated compounds, assisted probably
by a polymerization and condensation of the molecules, and are
therefore in a condition of stable equilibrium. This tends to keep
them "alive" when laid as a pavement, and satisfactorily accounts
for the long life of the structure with a minimum of repairs.

Oil Asphalt.

Oil occurs in different forms and composition in various parts
of the world, and probably more generally than is usually sus-
pected. It occurs in two forms, natural and artificial, and by the
latter term is meant of pyrogenetic origin, such as the oils obtained
by the destructive distillation of wood, coal, fats and certain
shales. It will be therefore readily surmised that oils occur of
very different chemical composition. The natural oils may be sub-
divided according to whether they occur on or in the earth. The
former include the animal and vegetable oils, and the latter the
petroleums, or mineral oils, ignoring their probable or improbable
ultimate origin. It is with these latter that I propose to deal in

208 ASPHALT.

this paper, and for this purpose these petroleums may be sub-
divided into asphaltic, semi-asphaltic, and non-asphaltic. The
latter are the products from the oil fields of Russia, the Eastern
and other isolated fields of the United States of America,
Borneo, etc.

The asphaltic and semi-asphaltic petroleums only are used for
making the oil asphalts. The latter are found in the eastern fields
of Mexico, some of the American States, as Texas, Kansas,
Oklahoma, while the true asphaltic petroleums are found in the
Island of Trinidad, British West Indies, the Western American
States of California, Wyoming, and others.

All these differing petroleums are found singly in fields, or
even doubly, as no field, territory or state has a monopoly of one
variety. As a matter of fact any oil well in any field may differ
in point of gravity from the well next adjoining it. This may,
and probably will, result in non-uniformity of the asphalt pro-
duced in any refinery, and especially if it is supplied with
petroleum from different fields.

From wherever obtained the petroleum is received at the
refinery into a storage tank holding perhaps 55,000 barrels. This
is usually provided with steam coils in order to heat the oil and
to facilitate the settling out of the water that is nearly always-
present. From here it is pumped into a cylindrical iron still holding
from 125 to 350 barrels fitted with perforated steam pipes along
the bottom, and a fire is kindled under the still. Now petroleum
is a mixture of various complex hydrocarbons having different
boiling points. The effect of the heat is to drive off those hydro-
carbons having the lowest boiling points which pass as vapour
from the still to the condenser, where they resume the liquid phase;
thus the temperature gradually rises. At about 300° F. steam
is admitted through the perforated pipes to agitate the oil, and
assist in the removal of the distillates. As the temperature rises
the distillates evolved get heavier, and the residue in the still
becomes more concentrated until a temperature of about 700° F.
is reached. At this temperature the material in the still is thinly
liquid, and the vapours, assisted by the steam, come off as a heavy
yellow gas, which, when cold, yields lubricating oils. It is accom-
panied by a copious evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, indicating
the decomposition of the sulphur compounds. On account of the
increasing weight of the distillates the steam has been gradually
increased until three or four times as much is used as at first. By
increasing the agitation this tends to prevent excessive decomposi-
tion of the oil against the hot bottom of the still heated by the
fierce flame of the fire, which has also been gradually increased.
The increased steam is not entirely successful, and a certain amount
of coke collects on the bottom of the still, and the fire-line carries
a black scum of decomposition products. This stage of the process
requires great skill to keep the temperature ahead of the boiling
point as a drop in temperature of only a few degrees would result
in the condensation of the vapours inside the still which would
drop back into the hot oil ; increased decomposition ensues

ASPHALT. 209

{technically called "cracking"), and the material is deteriorated.
This gives a condition in the product known as "Carbonos," and
estimated as being the portion soluble in carbon bi-sulphide but
insoluble in carbon tetra-chloride.

The temperature is maintained at about 700° F. until
sufficient of the hydrocarbons constituting the lubricating stock
are removed to give a residual pitch of the desired consistency. It
was formerly the practice to run down to a low consistency in
order to get out the valuable heavy lubricants, and flux back to
the desired consistency, imitating the method in vogue with the
lake asphalts, but it is now conceded that a better material is
obtained if the distillation is stopped when the required consistency
is reached. This is determined by the still-man by drawing a
sample from the still, cooling it in water, and chewing it. This
is a crude method, but it has the advantage that the apparatus is
always available, and the temperature of the test always the same
A "chewing sample" of known consist encv is supplied by the
laboratory for practice, and some still-men get very expert in grad-
ing a batch by this method, others pretend to be. When his judg-
ment decides by this test that the correct grade has been reached
the fire is extinguished, and the still is drawn into the cooling
kettle, from which it is barrelled while still warm enough to flow
readily. Some still-men draw the fire before the grade is reached,
and come to grade by steam alone. A sample is taken during the
barrelling process to be tested in the laboratory by the penetro-
meter, and the figure obtained is called its "penetration." If
it is not of the correct penetration it can be modified, when used,
by mixing with another batch either harder or softer as the case
may be.

Asphalt made in this manner is practically 100 per cent,
bitumen. The term has no technical value, as the petroleum from
which it was made was that also. The operation of distillation is
completed in from 24 to 36 hours. On account of this rapidity
of manufacture the hydrocarbons are in a state of unstable
equilibrium, and during subsequent years are constantly
endeavouiing to reach a position of lest. This results in a gradual
hardening of the asphalt, and a consequent brittleness that con-
duces to disintegration of the pavement. The same action is
noticed with coal tar and its derivatives by heating, but in this
case there appears to be reason for its success — and its failure.

Having thus briefly described the sources of asphalt as used
in the paving industry, we will pass on to the subject of combining
it with the mineral aggregate to construct the modern sheet asphalt
pavement. This may be considered under two heads: Ingredients
and Combination.

Ingredients.

The bitumen in a sheet asphalt pavement amounts to about
10 per cent., the remaining 90 per cent, being a well-graded
mineral aggregate consisting of sand and a fine dust. This aggre-
gate grades from a 10 mesh sieve, having 100 openings to the square

210 ASPHALT.

inch down to the impalpable dust passing a 200 mesh sieve, having
40,000 openings to the square inch. The sand is selected to take
the gradings from the 10-mesh sieve down to that retained on the
200-mesh sieve. The dust carries the grading further from that
passing the 200-mesh down to the impalpable dust that will not
settle in water during 15 seconds. This decreases the size of the
voids to that of the finest material, and the bitumen completes the
process by covering each particle and cementing them together.
The point of most importance is the one most frequently over-
looked, namely, the character of the fine sand. This has a double
purpose. First, it increases the surface area and surface energy,
and second, it lessens the voids, and distributes the particles of
dust throughout the mixture, thereby increasing its stability by
making it denser, and also more waterproof.

The best sand grading has been found by the examination of
successful pavements to conform to the following mnemonic
figures : —

Traffic. Heavy. Light.

Passing 80 mesh sieve 33 per cent. 22 per cent.

Passing 40 mesh sieve 44 per cent. 44 per cent.

Passing 10 mesh sieve 22 per cent. 33 per cent.

It is very seldom that a single sand is found that fulfils the
conditions of the above grading, so two or more sands are com-
bined in order that the mixture will approximate as closely as
possible to the standard. Durban is fortunate in its supply of coarse
and fine sand situated as it is between the Umgeni River on the
east, and the Umbilo on the west. The former, being a long and
swift river, supplies the coarse sand; while the latter, being com-
paratively short and sluggish, supplies the fine, or tempering, sand.
These effects are due to the well-known transporting power of
moving waters. As an example of the grading of the sands from
the respective rivers we have —

Umgeni. Umbilo. Mixed 1 to 4.

Passing 200 mesh sieve .. — 9 7

Passing 80 mesh sieve .. 2 38 31

Passing 40 mesh sieve ... 9 52 43

Passing 10 mesh sieve ... 89 1 19

These two sands are supplied to the cold material elevator in

the proportion of one barrowful of the Umgeni sand to four of the

Umbilo, which gives a grading as shown in the third column. The

200 mesh sand is not desirable in a pavement, as it makes a mushy

mixture, the grains acting rather as ball-bearings than wedges;

however, it is mostly taken out by the draught fan of the plant.

The voids in the mixed sands are no smaller than those of the

finest portions, so as these are >iot fine enough to give a proper

stability, a stone dust, or Portland cement, is added, of which at

least 75 per cent, should pass the 200 mesh sieve. Sufficient is

added to give about 12 per cent, of the 200 mesh material in the

finished mixture, assuming it is to sustain a heavy traffic. Having

reduced the voids to the size of those in the finest of the dust,

the whole, while heated to about 350° F. is mixed with hot

ASPHALT. 211

asphalt cement in sufficient amount to give each particle, large
and small, a thin coating. When the asphalt cement in use is
made from Trinidad asphalt the voids are still further reduced by
the presence of the colloidal clay mentioned in the earlier part of
this paper. The reason for the difference between the sand grad-
ings for heavy and light traffic is to allow a greater play for con-
traction and expansion by reason of the larger voids, and there-
fore thicker film of asphalt cement. That this is desirable 1?
readily understood, because if a pavement cools while quiescent,
the contraction will continue until it reaches the limit of tli4
ductility of the asphall cement, and the pavement will crack at
the weakest point. If, however, this increasing tension is relieved
by the shock of passing traffic, adjustment ensues and rupture is
prevented, and the contraction commences again at the zero point.
Where traffic is infrequent this shock is not imparted, and the
pavement cracks. However, if the film of asphalt is thicker, as in
a light traffic mixture, the greater mass of bitumen will stretch
farther and accommodate itself to the new condition, so that the
pavement will remain intact. This has been frequently observed
by the writer where an isolated piece of pavement has cracked
while the rest of the pavement, made and laid at the same time
with the same mixture, but subjected to traffic, has remained in
good condition. Thus it ma}'- be seen that traffic is the life of
a pavement. This is also true for the reason that traffic will give
a greater compression than that obtained by the use of a roller1
when the pavement is laid and is still hot. It will be readily seen
that the weight of a trolley loaded with one ton on two inch tyres
will have a greater compressing effect than a five-ton roller sup-
ported on two four-foot wheels, and distributed over that distance;
even if the pavement is hot in the latter case and cold in the
former. This is generally the reason for the marking that all new
pavements should show when first opened to traffic. As traffic
continues these marks iron out until the mixture has received it?
ultimate compression. A light traffic mixture will naturally mark
mere readily than the closer and more compact heavy traffic
mixture.

Dust or Filler.- — Of this ingredient little need be said in
this paper except that it should be very fine. As stated before at
least 75 per cent, should pass the 200 mesh sieve, and of this
portion certainly 50 per cent, should remain suspended in water
at 68° F. when agitated and allowed to settle for 15 seconds, as
determined by the elutriation test. The dust is added cold in pre-
determined amount to the hot sand, and mixed thoroughly with
it in the mixer before adding the asphalt cement, and it is here
that the value of the fine sand is felt in breaking up the masses
of dust and disseminating it throughout the sand; otherwise the
masses will be coated with the asphalt cement and cause weak spots
in the pavement, and the mixture will be lumpy.

Asphalt Cement. — A.C. is the technical designation for
asphalt cement, and has been mentioned sufficiently under
"asphalt." It is modified in penetration (consistency) to suit any

212 ASPHALT.

condition of climate, traffic and grade; and in amount to suit
degree of traffic it will be called upon to sustain, and the mineral
aggregate available or required for the type of pavement to be
laid.

Combination.

The cold sand is deposited in the predetermined proportions
at the foot of the cold -material elevator of the paving plant by
which it is conveyed through a chute into the sand drier, a revolv-
ing drum heated underneath by a coal or oil fire. This drum is
inclined at a slight angle towards the back end of the plant. It
is provided with staggered nights of angle irons rivetted longitudin-
ally on the interior of the drum. This arrangement lifts the sand
as the drum revolves until the inclination is so great that the sand
slides off, and falling through the hot gases now returning through
the drum is deposited a little in advance of its starting point ; and
so it eventually reaches the end wheie it falls through a chute into
a boot at the foot of the hot sand elevator. From here it is lifted
vertically by the bucket elevator and dumped through another
chute into a revolving screen, half of which is made of J inch wire
mesh, and the other half of a 1 inch wire mesh. Here it is screened
into sand and rock respectively passing and retained on the ^ inch
screen which falls into bins underneath. The rock rejected by the
1 inch mesh screen passes away from the plant, or if desired it
may all be received into the rock bin. From the bottom of the bin
the hot sand at about 350° F. passes through a swinging gate into
the sand box supported on the platform of a triple beam scales
whereby the correct weight is obtained. The dust is added cold
in predetermined amount to the hot sand, and the total aggregate
is passed through a gate into the mixer. Here it is given a dry
mix for about 15 seconds, and then the correct weighed amount
of asphalt cement at about 325° F. is added, and the whole is
mixed for at least one minute, or until it is a homogeneous, bright
black mass like a blackberry in appearance. By means of a slide
gate in the bottom of the mixer it is dropped into a wagon. A
sufficient number of batches are dropped in to complete the load,
which is then hauled to the street, dumped, spread with shovels,
raked to the required thickness, and rolled till too cold to take
more compression. This is a brief outline of the construction of
the wearing surface of a sheet asphalt pavement. In order to
prevent movement on the foundation an intermediate layer, called
the binder course, is interposed. This is made from the one inch
rock in the other compartment of the sand bin mixed with about
25 per cent, of sand, all cemented together with asphalt cement.
The increased friction of the stone holds the pavement firmly to
the foundation under the shoving effect of traffic.

Asphalt Concrete is made similarly, being a sheet asphalt
mixture with about 30 per cent, of f inch stone added. The
addition of the stone will decrease the surface area, and therefore
the required amount of A.C. and dust; and is therefore propor-
tionately cheaper. It is, however, never laid less than 2 inches
thick.

ASPHALT. 213'

A still cheaper construction is asphalt macadam. This is made
with a foundation course of 4 inch to 1 inch stone, thoroughly
rolled, upon which is spread loosely a 3 inch course of 2h to 1 inch
stone, which is sometimes harrowed, though the benefit seems ques-
tionable. Upon this top course is poured from pots a soft asphalt
cement, at about 320° F., in an amount equal to 1 gallon per inch
of thickness, so as to completely cover the stones, and bind them
together. For this purpose Bermudez asphalt is used instead of
Trinidad, because the melting point is lower and a portable kettle
is used right on the work so that the saving in fuel is a considera-
tion; besides this the presence of the colloidal clay in the Trinidad
asphalt would necessitate constant agitation to prevent a possible
sedimentation at the elevated temperature. As soon as the asphalt
cement has been applied the surface is covered with | to | inch
stone screenings (chippings), which are swept over the surface and
then rolled till smooth with an 8-ton tandem roller. If a smoother
surface is desired another application is made after rolling, or even
after having been opened to traffic for a short time. This time
the application is in a much smaller amount, I gallon per square
yard. It is spread with brooms, or squeegees, and then covered1
with Jin. stone chippings free from dust, and all retained on a
10 mesh sieve. It is then again rolled, though this may be omitted
if desired, traffic being allowed to complete the surface. This make*
a very good and inexpensive pavement for country roads.

Asphalt Macadam, Mixed Method.

Where a paving plant is available a superior form of the
previous pavement can be made at a slightly increased cost by
means of the mixing process. The stone in use is from 1| to h inch,
and is mixed with 10 to 15 per cent, of sand. The mineral aggre-
gate must be dry, though not necessarily hot, but the asphalt
cement must be heated to 320° F., and in sufficient quantity to
completely cover each stone. It is then spread and rolled with an
8-ton tandem roller. When well rolled and quite smooth a seal
coat is given as described for the penetration method.

Foundation-.

To the last has been left what really comes first, but it is only
necessary to say that this should be adequate to sustain the traffic
as imparted to it through the thickness of the surface and binder.
No pavement is stronger than its foundation, and as stated by
Mr. Charles N. Forrest: —

"It must always be assumed that the foundation of the pave-
ment is sufficient to support the surface. It necessarily follows
that failure of a perfect surface is due to improper foundation.
It also necessarily follows that if the foundation is sufficient, or
perfect, any failure of the pavement is due to certain defects in
the surface. It does not appear to be good policy to endeavour to
design surface mixture with a view to compensating for certain
defects in the foundation."

Bearing the foregoing in mind if is well to consider the thick-
ness of foundation necessary to sustain the traffic it will be called

214 ASPHALT.

upon to bear. In this connection the investigations of the
Massachusetts Highway Commission on the bearing power of soil*
and the distribution of wheel loads will be of interest: —

'•The Commission has estimated that non-porous soils drained
of ground water, at their worst will support a load of about 41b.
per inch, and having in mind these figures the thickness of broken
stone has been adjusted to the traffic.

"On a road built of fragments of broken stone the downward
pressure takes a line at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizontal,
and is distributed over an area equal to the square of twice the
depth of the broken stone. If a division of a load in pounds at
any one point (i.e., of contact) by the square of twice the depth
of the stone in inches gives a quotient of 4 or less, then the road
foundation will be safe at all seasons of the year. On sand or
gravel the pressure can be safely put at 201bs. per square inch.

"Acting on this theory the thickness of the stone varies from
4 inches to 16 inches, the lesser thickness being placed over good
gravel or sand, the greater over heavy clay, and varying thick-
nesses or other solids. In cases where the surfacing of broken
stone exceeds 6 inches in thickness the excess in the base may be
broken stone, stony gravel, or ledge stone, the material used for
the excess depending entirely upon the cost, either being equally
effective."

If now the broken stone mentioned in the above extract were
cemented together by asphalt the angle of distribution would be
lessened by about 25 per cent., and the area of support more than
doubled, so that the thickness could be decreased by nearly one-
half.

Conclusions

It is verv evident that asphalts may differ considerably in tlu
quality of the bitumen they contain. Since in a sheet asphalt
pavement the bitumen only amounts to about 10 per cent., )t
necessarily follows that the asphalt should be well chosen in order
not to endanger the permanence of the other 90 per cent. It is
poor economy to save pennies on the asphalt and pay pounds on
the upkeep. No asphalt pavement is more lasting than the
bitumen it contains, for the dry mineral aggregate has no inherent
stability.

No satisfactory laboratory test, or series of tests, will ensure
a long life to a pavement; the only reliable test is that of service,
but it must be borne in mind that even an asphalt with a good
record can be ruined by careless workmen. A street pavement has
the same relation to the mixture in the plant as a finished photo-
graph has to the negative in the camera ; there are many points
to consider in each case all bearing on the final product. For
instance a perfect wearing surface may be influenced by the fol-
lowing defects : —

(a) Too much bitumen; (h) too little bitumen; (c) improper
type of bitumen; (d) too much flux; (e) too little flux;
(/) character of flux ; (g) too much coarse sand (10-40) ; (h) too
little coarse sand; (?) too much fine sand (80-100); (j) too little
fine sand; (/,•) improper type of sand; (/) too much filler (200);
(m) too little filler; (n) improper type of filler; (o) too hot a sand;
(p) insufficient dry or wet mixing.

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. 215

Furthermore, the pavement on the street may be influenced
by: — Improper raking; allowing mixture to get too cold; smooth
foundation; improper type of roller, etc., assuming binder and
foundation are perfect.

I am aware that this looks like a formidable array of
obstacles, but you will observe that it is not leally so, as most of
the conditions enumerated are settled previous to the work by the
engineer in charge or the chemist. The point I wish to make is-
that if you want something good you must pay for it ; you cannot
get anything good either for nothing or cheap ; and eternal
vigilance is necessary in making an asphalt pavement as it is the
price of success.

Furthermore, I wish to emphasise the point that highway
engineering has passed beyond the happy-go-lucky, hit-or-miss.
rule-of -thumb methods, and become one of the arts that is of
.sufficient importance to endow Chairs in Universities.

PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE BY THE ACTIVATED
SLUDGE PROCESS.

BY

Reg. J. Morris, A.M.I.S.E., M.R.San. I.
Borough Engineer' & Office, Kingwilliamstown.

Fend Juh/ 12, 1921.

The purification of sewage has always been a knotty problem
which engineers and chemists have had to grapple with. Every
town naturally desires to keep itself sweet and clean and to dis-
charge its sewage outside. The people outside naturally do not
desire it in their midst for several reasons. It is not only

unsightly, but has an obnoxious odour and the disposal takes
up much land. The city or town overcomes some of these diffi-
culties by purchasing a good-sized plot of land for the sewage
treatment and endeavours to render the sewage as innocuous as
possible by scientific treatment.

It has long been felt, however, that the last word has by
no means been said in the direction of scientific sewage disposal,
and municipal authorities have been waiting for a system of
dealing with sewage which would entail less capital cost, which
would require less land, and would make the sewage a remunera-
tive by-product when it was disposed of.

The Activated Sludge Process claims to fulfil all these require-
ments and to have revolutionised the treatment of sewage
disposal.

Messrs. Jones and Attwood, Ltd., of Stourbridge, England,
the makers and patentees of the Activated Sludge Plants, claim
the following advantages : —

(1) Ideal purification can be obtained with absence of all
aerial nuisance.

216 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS.

(2) A sludge of great fertilising value is obtained in place of
the highly offensive, objectionable and practically valueless sludges
obtained from all other processes, including the latest Inihoff
tank.

(3) The land required is from one-fifth to one-tenth that of
any other complete process.

(4) The first cost of the plant is considerably less than that
for any other complete process.

(5) Taking into account interest on capital expended, the
annual running cost will be less.

(6) In hot climates it is entirely free from the fly nuisance.
It has been known for many years that if sewage be exposed

to the air for a sufficient period of time, the organic contents
are gradually oxidised and a deposit of humus is formed ; and,
also, if the process be sufficiently prolonged, the ammonium salts
and nitrogenous organic matter are largely oxidised to nitrates.
Numerous investigators have from time to time endeavoured to
utilise aeration methods. These efforts date back as far as 1884,
when the report of the Royal Commission on Metropolitan Sewage
Disposal was published. Since then many experiments have been
carried out in England and America, but without any great
success until 1913. In that year Dr. Fowler, who was then at
the Manchester University, and Dr. Ardern, Chief Chemist to
the Rivers Board Committee, together with Mr. W. T. Lockett
and Mr. Mumford, experimented on new lines with most successful
results. Their view was that the process of aeration was entirely
due to bacterial activity. A discovery was also made of a certain
organism, "M7," which is not found in sewage treated by any other
method. The "M7" is also found in colliery waters. The process of
purification was then known as the "M7" process. When the process
began to be applied practically the name was changed to "Acti-
vated Sludge" on account of the sludge, which is one mass of
intensified aerobic bacteria, and which is circulated through and
through the sewage continually. The whole of the purification
depends on the thorough mixing of an active sludge with the
sewage, and hence the name "Activated Sludge."

Some people are under the impression that the process involves
the inoculation of the sewage with a given organism under pres-
sure of air. This is not so. There is no inoculation of any organism
whatsoever. In an ordinary sewage filter the sewage passes in
thin films in the presence of air over surfaces coated with an
active bacterial deposit. Costly surfaces are thus required, aeration
is by no means perfect, and surface action is limited.

In the activated sludge tank the bacterial sludge, which is
built up in the sewage by processes similar in principle to the
formation of the active bacterial deposit in the filter medium, is
thoroughly intermixed with the sewage by means of air in a
fine state of division. Thus practically infinite surface is obtained,
and is continually renewed, and consequently the conditions of
bacterial oxidation approach theoretical perfection. This is the
principle which differentiates the activated sludge process from
all other processes of aeration which have previously been

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. 217

attempted. In giving a description of a plant working with
activated sludge, I will take as an example the sewage disposal
works of the city of Worcester, in England, which, owing to the
kindness and courtesy of the former Engineer of the city, Mr.
Thomas Caink, I had the pleasure of inspecting. I was also per-
mitted to take some photographs, which have been converted into
slides. I select the city of Worcester because the first complete
installation on the continuous flow type was erected there. The
plant was designed and installed by Messrs. Jones and Attwood,
Ltd., under special agreement with the Worcester Corporation,
whereby the payment for the installation was conditional on the
successful operation of the process so as to comply with certain
requirements in regard to the character of the effluent obtained,
and the volume of sewage treated. The installation was designed
to deal with 750,000 gallons dry weather flow. The tank placed
at the disposal of the firm was 80 feet long by 72 feet wide and
18 feet deep. It was divided longitudinally into nine bays eight
feet wide, which was subdivided by three transverse walls, thus
forming 36 compartments. In the adoption of this tank for the
trial of the process, five bays were used for aeration, and the other
four for settlement purposes.

The five aeration bays are arranged as follows: The first bay,
though eight feet broad at the top, is only five feet broad at the
bottom, due to the batter of the outside wall. The bottom of the
first bay is arranged with ridge and furrows at five feet centres,
the furrows each containing five air diffusers, each one foot square
over all. These are, of course, placed transversely to the flow of
the sewage. The lower part of each transverse wall is cut away,
making an opening three feet deep right across the tank above the
top of the ridge. The ratio of total diffuser area to tank area
in this bay is 1 : 5, or 1 : 7, if the actual diffusion area is considered.
The other four aeration bays are arranged in pairs, each pair
making a circulating tank. The bottoms of these bays are formed
with ridges and furrows, saw-tooth form, at ten feet pitch, with
eighty diffusers in each furrow, so that the ratio of diffuser area
to tank area is 1 : 10, or 1:14 for actual diffusion area. Advantage
is taken of the transverse walls which are used as baffles, and
these, together with intermediate wooden baffles, gives a baffle
alongside each side of diffusers which checks the back flow, and
allows the rising current of sewage to flow forward. In this way
a much more rapid horizontal circulation is secured than would
be obtained by the natural flow of sewage. The mixture of
purified effluent and sludge leaving the aeration chamber enters
the settlement tanks underneath a timber baffle eight feet below
the surface. The settled sludge is removed from a series of col-
lecting sumps through a system of pipes to the inlet sewage
chamber.

The settlement tanks have been partiallv reconstructed since
the plant was brought into operation, as will be seen later. An
overhead system of air pipes is provided, and the air is admitted
to the diffuser through a series of down pipes which are arranged
so that one pipe serves two diffusers, each one foot square. Valves

218 y.CTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS.

are fitted to each distributing pipe so that the air supply may be
regulated and equally distributed. The air compressor is of the
Ingersoll Rand horizontal type, and is belt-driven by electric
motor (d.c.) capable of developing 40 b.h.p. When running at
235 r.p.m.j it has a piston displacement of 615 cubic feet per
minute and actual delivery of 562 cubic feet.

The total capacity of the settlement tanks is sufficient to allow
a two hours' detention when working at the above rate, the sew-
age taking eight hours to pass through the tank.

The Worcester sewage cannot be termed a strong sewage as
the flow is equal to approximately 40 gallons per head, and although
the City Engineer states that a variety of trade effluents are dis-
charged into the sewers, there appears to be none of an inhibitory
character present in the sewage. Apart from stoppages due to
structural alterations to the settlement tanks, the tanks have been
in continuous operation since May, 1916.

During this period the rate of flow has varied from 60,000
gallons to over 1,000,000 gallons per day. The average daily flow
dealt with may be taken at about 750,000 gallons.

In the following table are given the average results of
analyses made by the Worcester City Analyst of screened sewage
(nine samples), and final effluent (twelve samples), from June,
1916, to May, 1917.

Results in Parts per 100,000.

Screened Final
Sewage. Effluent. Purification.
Four hours' oxygen absorption ... 3.70 0.56 85%

Albuminoid ammonia 0.76 0.14 82%

Suspended solids 14.3 0.72 —

The final effluent was perfectly clear and colourless and con-
tained very little suspended matter. These results indicate that,
a high degree of purification is obtained with the production of
an entirely satisfactory effluent.

Under normal conditions the compressor speed is 160 r.p.m.,
which gives a free air delivery of 384 cubic feet per minute and
about 20 b.h.p. The working air pressure is nine pounds per
square inch. This volume of air employed is equal to only seven
cubic feet per square foot tank area per hour, and is inclusive of
the air used by the airlifts for returning the sludge to the aeration
chamber. Working at a rate of 750,000 gallons per day the air
consumption is equal to 0.7 cubic feet free air (actual delivery)
per gallon of sewage treated. The electric motor driving the com-
pressor absorbs 16 units per hour, so that at three farthings per
unit, the cost at Worcester is equal to thirty-two shillings per
million gallons of sewage treated when working at the above
rate.

Some little time ago sand drainage beds were constructed to
receive the surplus sludge, but the results of their operations I
have not been able to ascertain, so it is impossible to say with
any certainty what volume of sludge is produced per million
gallons dealt with. Experiments carried out by Dr. Ardern, of

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. 219

the Withington Sewage Works, are just to hand. Dried sludge
powdered 1,342 lbs. per 1,000,000 gallons sewage treated.

Up to the present the settlement tanks appear to be the
limiting factor in regard to the volume of sewage with which the
installation is capable of dealing.

The outstanding feature of this installation is the low air
consumption without the assistance of a pulsating air supply. It
may be stated that it is not more than one-half the volume
employed in the American installations, and it is very consider-
ably less than the estimate based on early investigations.

Dr. Ardern, Chief Chemist to the Manchester Corporation,
informed the writer that at present six cubic feet (free air) per
square foot tank area per hour is about the minimum air supply
they have employed at their Withington Sewage Works.

Dr. Fowler states that, broadly speaking, the activated sludge
process consists of three operations : —

(1) A clotting or clarifying action;

(2) A rapid carbon oxidation process;

(3) A final nitrification.

Working with a domestic sewage it is not necessary to push
purification to the point of nitrification in order continuously to
obtain staple effluents. It necessarily follows that, if ultimate
nitrification be not aimed at, the aeration period will be diminished
and considerable economy effected.

Whether or no any proportion of the nitrogen in the sludge
is due to the presence of nitrogen fixing organisms remains to be
demonstrated. At the early stages of the activated sludge process
there was considerable discussion as to the best methods of aerating
the sewage, and many experiments were tried. If perforated
pipes are used there is a considerable waste of air by the creation
of large bubbles which do not ensure satisfactory mixing of the
sewage and the sludge. The experience gained so far with large
scale plants indicates that, despite certain disadvantages, the use
of diffusers offers a practical solution of the problem. Owing to
the risk of choking the fine pores with oily matter, dust, etc., they
were originally regarded with suspicion, but I understand that
later and more perfect forms of diffusers have reduced this possi-
bility to a minimum. Trouble was found during some of the earlier
experiments at Davyhulme, Manchester, in oil choking the under-
side of the diffusers. This was due chiefly to the fact that air
was drawn from high pressure sources and the oil used had become
carbonised, but if air is compressed to not more than about 10 lbs.
per square inch, the temperature of compression is not sufficient
to alter the nature of the oil, and thus the liability to choke is
small, provided the air compressed is clean.

The porous tile diffuser, as compared with any other system
of aeration, has the following advantages which fully justify its
adoption : —

(1) There are no moving parts in the sewage.

(2) The air is evenly distributed.

(3) The air used for aeration provides also for agitation and
circulation.

220 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS.

(4) Less air is used.

To secure the utmost possible economy in air consumption
Messrs. Jones and Attwood have patented a mechanical gear
whereby a pulsating air supply is automatically obtained. This
has reduced the air consumption considerably and given very good
results. For example, at Davyhulme, Manchester, a pulsating
gear is in operation. The design of the cams at present employed
gives a ratio of the time of admission of air to the diffuser to
the period of rest of 1 to 2; the actual time of these periods can
be varied by regulating the speed of the cam shaft. As a general
rule each set of diffusers receives air for five seconds at intervals
of ten seconds. The ratio can be varied by substituting cams of
a different design.

The next matter to consider is the sludge. Activated sludge
differs from ordinary sludge in its physical characteristics and
in its ready drainability. It is not gaseous like either Emsher
tank or septic tank sludge. In properly aerated sewage the sludge
settles to the bottom and the clarified liquor comes to the surface
quickly. The liquid separates from the sludge so quickly and
effectually that there need be little difficulty in drawing it off
from a sludge tank and de-watering from the surface as well as
from the bottom. Down to a 90 per cent, water content it drains
fairly easily, but, owing to its gelatinous nature, further natural
drying is a very tedious matter. The drying of the sludge I will
deal with later.

The proportion of activated sludge to the sewage depends on
a variety of factors — tank capacity, air supply, character of sewage,
degree of purification required, etc. From the various experiments
tried in England and America, I think it may be accepted that the
volume of sludge should be maintained as low as possible, con-
sistently with adequate clarification. If a high nitrification is
desired a greater proportion of sludge will be necessary. The
average requirements are from 20 to 25 per cent, of sludge.

One of the most interesting features of the whole process is
the conservation in the sludge of much nitrogen which had hitherto
been lost. There was, in fact, reason to hope that the value of
the nitrogen thus saved in the sludge would pay for a great part,
if not the whole, of the process of sewage purification. This great
saving of valuable nitrogenous manure is a point of great economic
importance. The percentage of nitrogen saved varies from four
to six per cent., according to the character of the sewage.

The following average chemical analysis of the activated sludge
obtained from the Withington Sewage Works at Manchester will
be of interest: —

Chemical Analysis.

Loss on ignition 70.4 per cent.

Mineral matter 29.6 per cent.

Total nitrogen (as N) 6.0 per cent.

Phosphate 4.2 per cent.

Greasy matter, etc 7.3 per cent.

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. 221

Gelatine counts have shown a bacterial content of at least
thirty million organisms per cubic centimetre. In addition the
sludge, by reason of its nitrifying power, must of necessity contain
a large number of nitrifying organisms. Dealing with the quantity
of sludge per million gallons of sewage one must remember that
there is less sludge from a bacterial process than a chemical process.
The activated sludge process is a bacterial process, and the resultant
sludge per million gallons of sewage treated is about one to one
and a half tons dry, but, of course, that depends on the class of
sewage and the amount of moisture.

The methods to be adopted for the extraction of moisture,
the pressing, drying and conversion of the sludge from what has
formerly been regarded as a troublesome and costly nuisance to
a welcome and valuable fertiliser, will depend upon the quantity
to be treated and the conditions under which it is dried.

The problem of drying or de-watering of the sludge is one
where there is large scope for improvements. The writer had the
privilege of watching some experiments for drying the sludge
carried out by Mr. R. A. Sturgeon, of the Sturgeon Centrifugal
Company. The method adopted by Mr. Sturgeon for de-watering
is centrifugal force applied without using heat of any description.
If heat is applied in the drying process the value of the sludge
is immediately diminished, owing to lower percentage of nitrogen.
Here, in South Africa, we have the advantage of a good dry climate
and bright sunny days, which I think could be taken advantage
of and used for drying the sludge. If, for example, the liquid
sludge could be run on to an open sand filter, I believe it could
be dried very simply and cheap. The cost of drying the sludge
in England is thirty-six shillings per ton. I think, with the
more favourable atmospheric conditions prevailing in South Africa
this cost could be considerably reduced. So far the testing of the
fertilising value of the sludge has been conducted on a small scale
only, owing to the limited quantity of material available, but
when the installations now under way are in full working order
trials on a commercial scale will be possible, and it is satisfactory
to know that the Board of Agriculture in England is taking an
active interest, in the matter. To show the availability of the
nitrogen in activated sludge, two equal plots, A and B, were
prepared near Manchester, A with activated sludge in powder
form, B with farmyard manure. Calculating the amount of
nitrogen in farmyard manure to be five per cent., activated sludge
was added to plot A in quantities containing as nearly as possible
the equivalent amount of nitrogen, and in both were set an equal
number of seed potatoes. Plot A yielded 150 lbs., and plot B
62 lbs. of potatoes. These experiments were carried out by Mr.
Ernest Gaid, M.Sc, of the Manchester University. The writer
had the pleasure of seeing the results of many experiments on
horticultural plants carried out by Mr. Walter Jones at " The
Uplands," Stourbridge, and has obtained a photograph of a pair
of azalea plants, one treated with activated sludge and the other
untreated. In the one case the soil was top dressed on January

222 ASPHALT.

18th, 1917, and the photo taken on March 31st, 1917. The
difference in blooms and foliage is noticeable.

The process has been very extensively adopted in England and
America, and during the war plants were installed by the Ministry
of Munitions, by the United States Red Cross, by the Admiralty,
and others. In England plants are installed at Baguley, Davy-
hulme, Worcester, Stamford, Aintree, Blackpool, Withington, St.
Albans, Tunstall, Moreton, Harpenden, Witney and Birmingham.
Also abroad they are installed at Holte and Burmeister, Denmark;
Jamshedpur and Sibpur, India; and last, but not least, De Beers,
Kimberley, South Africa. At Milwaukee, in America, they are
spending £1,000,000 to instal the new process, which will treat
eighty-five millions gallons per twenty-four hours d.w.f. I might
mention that the Royal Sanitary Institute have just granted their
Silver Medal, their highest award, to Activated Sludge, Ltd.

Before concluding, I think the paper would be incomplete
without comparing the question of cost, both capital and working
charges, and I will take the figures given by Mr. W. M. Makepeace,
Borough Sewage Engineer, Stoke-on-Trent, in his report of April,
1920. For comparison he has taken a population of 50,000 with
a dry weather flow of one and a half million gallons. The cost
of a Bacteria Plant to deal with this population where pumping
would be necessary is £125,000, and the working charges for the
year would be £6,800. The capital cost of an activated sludge
plant on the same basis would be £85,000, and the working charges
calculated from the air consumption required to deal with three
times the d.w.f. as sewage, and three to six times as storm water,
together with making provision for dealing with the sludge and
without taking any credit for its market value as fertiliser, is
£4,372. You will note that there is a saving capital expenditure
of £40,000 and an annual saving on working costs of £2,427.
Then you have the revenue from the sale of sludge, which has not
been taken into account.

The following is a comparison analysis of a raw sewage and
final effluent, one treated by activated sludge and the other treated
on first and second contact beds. Both processes were supplied
from the same sewer.

Results in Grains per Gallon.

First and Secoud
Activated Contact,
. Sludge Process. Bed Treatment.
Sewage. Effluent. Sewage. Effhient.
Four Hours' Oxygen Absorp-
tion 6.83

Percentage Purification —

Free and Saline Ammonia ... 1.98

Albuminoid Ammonia 0.59

Nitrite and Nitrate —

(In terms NH3)

1.04

6.44

2.83

85%

—

62%

0.01

0.12

1.82

0.10

0.66

0.45

0.37

—

0.03

ANALYSIS OF HEAVY MINERAL SOIL. 223

In conclusion, I wish to express my sincere thanks to Messrs.
Jones and Attwood, Ltd., for the privilege of visiting all their
works and inspecting their experimental tanks while experiments
were proceeding, and also to Dr. Ardern, Chief Chemist, Rivers
Department, Manchester, who always placed all information at
my disposal. I hope I have given sufficient evidence in this paper
without postulating to prove the great possibilities of the Activated
Sludge Process of sewage purification, and that some town in
South Africa will soon have a plant installed and reap the benefit
of the experiments carried out in England. I think the process
is particularly adapted to large inland towns in tropical countries.
As I have stated, the cost of drying the sludge is a very big item
in England, and can very easily be done out here for at least
half the cost, which is a very great consideration, and thereby
convert your sewage scheme into a very profitable concern.

ON THE MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL CONTAINING
HEAVY MINERALS.

BY

B. de C. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc,
Division of Chemistry, Union Depart meat of Agriculture.

Read July 13. 1921.

The mechanical analysis of soils is chiefly of value as a basis
for the correlation of soils of known properties with others regard-
ing which information is sought. It is obviously essential that
the basis of comparison should be common to the soils compared.
For this reason the comparison of soils differing widely as regard5
their content of such constituents, as calcium carbonate or organic
matter, which, apart from size of particles, modify the texture,
cannot be made unless the relative quantities of such modifying
constituents be taken into account. When the proportion of such
modifying constituents is large mechanical analysis is almost worth-
less as a basis of comparison.

Now in the mechanical analysis of mineral soils, that is of
soils to which the method may safely be applied, an important
fundamental assumption is made; t^at is, that the relation
between the weight and the volume of the soil particles is constant
for all particles of whatever size and for all soils. In the great,
majority of cases this assumption is justified. We have, however,
recently examined a series of soil samples, all belonging to the
same type, which differ considerably in density from the average
for normal soils and also, to some extent, from one another.

In the case of the coarser particles, which are usually separ-
ated by means of sieves, the limiting size is determined by the

224 ANALYSIS OF HEAVY MINERAL SOIL.

sieves employed. The percentages of these, and also of the smaller
fractions, are determined by weight. Now in the soils referred
to each mechanical fraction consisted to a considerable extent of
iron ores, chiefly magnetite. The specific gravity of the particles
separated by means of a magnet from two different soil samples
was found to be 4-6. The normal density of soil is approximately
2-6. It is obvious that a given number of magnetite particles of
any one size will influence the texture of the soil to exactly the
same extent as the same number of, say, quartz particles of the
same size, yet the weight of the former will stand to the weight
of the latter as 4-6 : 2-6. In other words the common basis of
comparison is removed and correlation in the ordinary way is of
no value. If the soil were homogeneous this difficulty would not
arise, since percentages by weight would then accurately represent
percentages by volume, but since soil is an extremely hetero-
geneous substance, and the soil which forms the subject of this
note particularly so as regards the relations between the weight
and the volume of the component particles, the question must be
given consideration.

The finer particles are grouped according to size by elutriation
or sedimentation. The latter process only will be considered, but
the remarks made may be applied, suitably modified, to elutriation
processes.

Hall,* whose method of mechanical analysis is used in the
laboratory of the Division of Chemistry, has shown that the limit-
ing diameters of particles separated by sedimentation are in agree-
ment with the expression,

2g«2(o- — p)

deduced from the work of Stokes for the velocity of a spherical
particle falling through a viscous medium. (v= the velocity of
the falling particle, a its radius taken as a sphere, <r its density,
P the density of the medium, and t] the coefficient of viscosity of
the medium.) From this expression we get for any given velocity
of a particle falling in water

l o--

as the relationship between the limiting radius of the particle and
its density. Thus, the lrmiting size for magnetite particles of
density 4-6 is approximately two-thirds of that for quartz particles
of density 2-6. That is, each mechanical fraction in the case of a
soil containing the heavy mineral (magnetite) will contain par-
ticles of the heavy mineral of smaller size than the limiting or
smallest size for the corresponding fraction of normal soils. Micro-

*Hall, A. D. (1904), "The Mechanical Analysis of Soils and the Composition
of the Fractions resulting therefrom." Jour. Chem. Soe., LXXXV, 950.

ANALYSIS OF HEAVY MINERAL SOIL. 225

scopic examination of the fractions showed the presence of par-
ticles of magnetite smaller than the smallest quartz grains. It
has been noted by Stadler* in advocating grading analyses by
elutriation of mill products that an error in such analyses is
occasioned by the presence in Rand ore of a small percentage of
pyrites.

In Table I the mechanical analyses of some samples of the
magnetite soil are given, together with certain other data. Atten-
tion is directed chiefly to the differences between the percentages
by weight and by volume of fine gravel and sand taken together
in the case of those samples containing much magnetite. A method
for reducing these soils to a common basis was sought without
much success. The chief reason for this non-success lay in the
practical impossibility of effecting a rapid and reasonably accurate
separation of the soil into heavy and normal particles.

The percentages by weight of particles greater than 0-2 mm.
may be corrected to agree fairly well with the percentages by
volume by calculating the quartz equivalent of the magnetite par-
ticles, taking the density of the latter as 4-6, or, by calculating
the quartz equivalent of the particles separated by Thoulet's
solution of density 3, taking the density of such particles as 3-5.
Such corrections are shown in Tablo II.

The whole question is complicated by the very nature of the
heavy mineral present. The products of the weathering of the
magnetite, hydrated ferric oxide, have a very marked flocculating
effect on clay, thus introducing another texture-modifying factor.
Had the heavy mineral been one which could have influenced
texture in only one way, say, zircon, an attempt might have been
made at exact mechanical analyses by first effecting the separation
in the usual way, then separating each fraction into two parts by
means of a heavy solution and finally putting the heavy portions
through the sedimentation process suitably modified so as to obtain
fractions between the same size limits as those obtaining for normal
soils. Such an analysis would be terribly tedious and would be
of doubtful value as it is impossible to assign an exact quantitative
value to the degree in which any particular mechanical fraction
influences the soil texture. It is essential, however, in dealing
with soils which contain abnormal quantities of heavy minerals,
that the proportion of these be taken into consideration when
basing a judgment on the results of the mechanical analyses, in
much the same way as the percentages of calcium carbonate and
of organic matter are used to modify the picture drawn by the
mechanical analyses. In this connection it may be noted, that soil
scientists in the United States frequently omit all mention of such
modifying factors as calcium carbonate and organic matter, and
that their example has been followed in this country.

•Stadler, H. (1913), " Grading "Analysis by Elntriation." Transact.. Inst-
Mining and Metall. XXII, p. 686.

226

ANALYSIS OF HEAVY MINERAL SOIL

Table I.

Sample Nil

Fine Gravel
Sand

Fine Sand
Silt
Fine Silt

Normal size

1-3 m.m,

02-1 „

0-04-0-2 „

0-01-0-04. „

0-004-0-01 „

Very Fine Silt 0-002-0-004
Clay 0-002

Moisture

Loss on ignition ...
Calcium Carbonate

Magnetite —

in Fine Gravel

in Sand ...
Heavy Minerals (sp. gr. 3)-

in Fine Gravel...

in Sand ...

Specific gravity of Soil . . .

3534

%

5-2

3537
%
2 9

361 \

%
9-9

3658

%
4-0

3G61
%
62

3G64 3070

% %

67 10-1

3080 4881

50 36

25-2 15-7 465 332 235 312 19.6 350 206

12-6 11-3 - - 15-9 — 12-9 10-2 187 12-8

5-6 69 — 3-8 — 4-0 47 62 46

6-3 8-4 - 4-1 — 4-7 5"1 4-1 56

51 62 — 2-3 — 28 35 29 25

30-2 34-3 — 290 — 30"3 37"1 20"9 38-3

3-1 38 2-4 2-0 2-9 3-0 4*0 21 29

7-0 6-9 3-6 47 6-3 6'2 7'1 4\s 72

0-21 0-19 — — — 0-24 0-27 — 023

3-4 0-2 7(3 1-2 05 3"8 9"9 0"3 0"5

6-5 0-9 29-8 4-4 2*0 147 14'8 1"1 1*9

40 1-1 8-8 1-3 1-8 6-6 9-9 TO 0-5

135 4-1 39-7 5-5 87 20"8 16"3 6"2 41

2-8 2-8 3-3 28 27 3"0 2"9 29 27

Table II.

Fine Gravel and Sand (0-2 mm. — 3 mm.)

Sample No.

Percentage
by weight

a

Percentage
by volume

b

"a" corrected
for Magnetite

Sp. gr. 46
c

" a " corrected

for heavy

minerals

Sp. gr. 35

d

3534

30-4

26-5

261

25-9

3537

18-6

169

181

173

3644

56-4

48-3

40-1

43-9

3658

372

34-8

34-8

35-5

3661

29-7

28-4

28-6

270

3664

37-9

31-5

29-9

30-8

3670

29-7

192

19-3

23-0

3680

40-0

401

39-4

38-1

4881

24-2

23-4

23-2

23-0

227

CONDENSED MILK IN SOUTH AFRICA FROM THE
CHEMIST'S POINT OF VIEW.

BY

A. A. Kloot, B.Sc, F.I.C., and Leslie Hyman.

Read July 13, 1921.

Sweetened condensed milk, or just condensed milk, is the whole
milk of the cow evaporated to a more or less definite consistency
and sweetened with cane-sugar. The latter serves the double pur-
pose of sweetening and preserving.

The aim of the manufacturer should be to produce an article
which, when diluted according to instructions, gives a whole milk
as produced by the cow plus the sugar added. This is not gener-
ally attainable as the finished article invariably has a flavour of
its own, due to the cooking process through which it has gone.
Apart from slight changes in the composition of the protein
matter, made up condensed milk is practically identical with
sweetened fresh milk. It has been demonstrated that the water
and fat soluble vitamine content is not affected by the process of
manufacture ; though it is probable that the anti-scorbutic vita-
mine is destroyed to some extent.

A brief outline of the manufacturing process may now be
given. First a quantity of cane sugar solution is made with a
portion of the milk. Best refined sugar is advisable. The sugar
solution is then united with the main portion of the milk, and the
whole passed through a p re-heater into a vacuum pan. The latter
must be of copper on account of the action of weaker acids. A
vacuum is raised, and the milk is heated by means of a copper
steam coil in the. bottom of the pan.

It is necessary to control the temperature very carefully, as
exceeding a temperature of 140° F. is likely to cause faults in the
milk. As the water evaporates from the milk fresh milk is auto-
matically sucked into the pan until the batch is complete. Tha
desired consistency is shown by a gravity of 1-28 — 1-30, but the
experienced worker knows instinctively when to "strike" a batch.

The condensed milk is then run into cooling pans where it is
well stirred, then to a scale for weighing, and finally to the storage
tanks. From here the milk passes to an automatic tin-filler, and
sealing, labelling and packing complete the process.

This description is necessarily short, but it should be remem-
bered that at least nine different defects caused by unscientific
management are possible, all or any of which are sufficient to
render the milk unmarketable. Most important is "grittiness."
This is most often due to precipitation of milk sugar. This is
readily distinguished from cane sugar under the microscope.

Milk sugar at ordinary temperatures dissolves in six parts of
water. Condensed milk contains 12 to 15 per cent, of milk
sugar and 26-5 per cent, of water. This means one of milk sugar

228 CONDENSED MILK.

in two of water. Evidently, then, properly prepared condensed
milk contains milk sugar in super-saturated solution; any favour-
ing condition will precipitate the lactose as gritty crystals.

The chief factor which makes permanent super-saturation
possible is the high viscosity of condensed milk due to casein and
cane sugar. Small portions oi undissolved sucrose in the original
solution, overheating, too rapid cooling, or even excessive stirring,
may lead to grittiness.

Another important defect is "settling." This means separa-
tion of cane sugar. It is almost impossible to get a condensed milk
containing no sugar crystals. With proper attention to details,
however, these do not separate out, and it will be apparent that
viscosity plays a big part in the defect. If about 2-5 parts of
fresh milk have produced 1 of condensed milk, the density is
usually correct. Higher or lower density favours settling.

For the same reason fat content is important, and of cource
the proper proportion of !-ugar must be adhered to.

Lumpy, buttony, rancid, and cheesy milks may all be pro-
duced from good milk and sugar if scientific control is lacking.

Every properly equipped factory has a laboratory. In this
both raw materials and finished product are tested, and defects
■ever likely to crop up are investigated. Batches of fresh milk are
examined for total solids, fat and aciditv. Milk excessive in fat
is separated; the milk of high acidity is rejected. The reductase
test for micro-organisms is generally sufficient, but occasional
controls for tubercle bacillus should be made. The total solids
give a simple control over the output of the factory.

For the analysis of the finished product, 40 grammes of milk
are dissolved in water and made up to 100 c.c. 5 grammes are
weighed into a platinum dish containing ignited asbestos, and
total solids and ash determined. The protein matter is determined
by multiplying nitrogen estimated by Kjeldahl by 6-38, or pre-
cipitation by copper sulphate may be employed.

For fat II c.c. of the solution are precipitated with 5 c.c. of
copper sulphate. Precipitated casein and fat are separated from
the sugar solution by means of the centrifuge. After thorough
washing these are decomposed by the addition of 13-75 c.c. sul-
phuric acid and 1-25 c.c. amyl alcohol. After further centrifuging
the Leffmann-Beam bottles in which these operations are carried
out are heated to 66° C, and the fat in the neck of the bottle
read off. The number of the graduations multiplied by 04 gives
the percentage of fat.

For sugars, 25 c.c. of the milk solution are placed in a large
test tube with 19-5 c.c. of water and 1 c.c. of mercuric nitrate.
After centrifuging the sugar solution is filtered off and read direct
in a 2-2 decimetre tube. 20 c.c. are then inverted by boiling for
ten minutes, and then are made up to 25 c.c. The reading of
this inverted solution multiplied by 5/4 gives B in the formula.
The direct reading by the polariscope is A of the formula. The
formula is: —

»S = Cane Sugar
Lactose

CONDENSED

MILK.

' =

A —

45.4

B

X

100

A —

0.3315

S

X

100

22D

26.44

If no cane sugar is present

Lactose = v^-~ X 100

26.44

If no polariscope is available the following method has been
found by one of us to give satisfactory results. The milk solution
is curdled with acetic acid, and, after filtering, lead acetate is
added. Excess of lead is removed by sodium sulphate, and the
lactose estimated by direct reduction of Fehling's solution. After
inversion the total sugars can be estimated.

In addition physical constants such as viscosity and colour
tests, and sterilisation standards are carried out in the laboratories
of the big American condensed milk factories.

It will be apparent from these examinations if the milk will
"keep" for a long period (in airtight tins of course), and, of equal
importance, whether they will pass the legal standards of the
different States.

While on this subject we must refer to the inconvenience and
unfairness of having different standards in different Provinces,
and in different countries for that matter. Sweetened condensed
milk in Natal must contain 31 per cent, milk solids, 28-5 per cent,
of which must be fat. No extraneous matter except sugar is per-
mitted. So far as we know, different percentages apply in the
other three Provinces of the Union. In the United States
standards vary from 24-5 to 34-3 per cent, solids, with correspond-
ing amounts of fat. It is surely time that international standards
for milk, condensed milk, and essential foods were laid down.

In the writers' opinion minimum and maximum fats and
total solids should be abolished as regards condensed milk. The
main criterion as to suitability for sale should be whether or not!
the sample is prepared from whole fresh milk (this, of course, in
addition to its wholesomeness at the time of sale). Original fresh
milk should be of the standard 11-8 per cent, total solids and 3-3
per cent, of fat. These figures may not be the best, but figures to
guide the analyst should certainly be provided in a schedule.
Relation of fat to protein matter is a very important indication
of skimming. It is very seldom that the proportion fat : protein
is less than 1 : 0-82 in condensed milk, and an experienced analyst
will make very few mistakes in his conclusion.

The law should further compel the manufacturer to state on
each tin to what extent the article must be diluted with water in
order to bring it to the standard of fresh milk laid down. The
current instructions on tins are to mix with from two to four parts
of water, or to mix water until the desired consistency is obtained.
These instructions are not only vague, but definitely harmful
where young children are being fed with condensed milk.

230 GENUS PASSERINA.

As regards the commercial side of the proposition little can
be said here. In 1920 the cost in South Africa of milk and sugar
to produce one case of 48 tins of condensed milk was about 15/-,
against 6 dollars 38 cents in the United States. Even allowing
for variations in exchange it will become evident that South Africa
has a huge new industry open to it.

Both the writers have had considerable experience with con-
densed milk. It is not too much to say that condensed milk manu-
factured recently in South Africa can compete as regards quality
in the world's markets with the best imported brands.

It is only possible here to mention products such as milk
powder, casein and various other by-products, the manufacture of
which would naturally grow up with the main industry.

Finally the tremendous effect such an industry would have
on the pastural development of South Africa must not be over-
looked. At the present time owing to long distances from town
the only way for farmers to dispose of milk is to separate and sell
butter-fat. This entails labour and little profit, and little induce-
ment is given to the farmer to increase production. Establish-
ment of condensed milk factories which can afford to pay the
farmer a remunerative price and receive his output at all times
must make for increased and more profitable dairy farming in the
Union.

THE GENUS PASSERINA AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN
SOUTH AFRICA.

BY

D. Thoday, M.A.,
Professor of Botany, University of ('aye Town.

Read Jidy 15, 1921.

Abstract .

In the course of investigations following upon the observation
communicated at Bulawayo last year, that the leaves of Passerina
fili for mis and of some other plants with ericoid leaves close the
leaf -grooves in time of drought, different forms of Passerina have
been met with which could not be satisfactorily identified either
by means of the "Flora capensis" or by comparison with herbarium
specimens recently identified at Kew. A careful perusal revealed
more than one instance of inconsistency, and it has appeared
necessary to attack the classification of the genus dc novo. Through
the courtesy of those in charge of the Herbaria of South Africa
all the available specimens have been examined and compared.
Thirteen forms have been recognised, all of which can be dis-
tinguished from one another with certainty, the available material
providing no intermediates. One of these forms, found in marshy

GENUS PASSERINA. 231

spots on the Cape Flats, usually along with Dovea teetotum,
appears not to have been collected before.

Additional evidence of the new classification is afforded by
the consistency of the distribution of those widely spread, in
contrast with the confused distribution recorded in the "Flora
Capensis."

Until it has been possible to examine the material in the
European Herbaria names cannot be assigned with certainty,
though some are here employed tentatively, in conformity with
their current application. The widely distributed species are
five in number, each with a well-defined habitat and range.
Passerine fill for mis is the common species of the maquis
of the South-West Cape; P. rigida is characteristic of exposed
sand dunes near the sea from Muizenberg to Durban and beyond;
P. ericoides is the species of high altitudes, extending on the
Drakensberg and associated high mountain ranges from the
Eastern Province to Umtali ; ihe species called by Natal botanists
P. filiformis but distinct from the south-west species is found in
the outer fringes of the scrub and forest in Natal and in the
neighbouring regions to the south, and also at the north-west part
■of the Cape Peninsula, especially on the mountain buttresses;
finally a species, which is probably Meisner's P. rigida var.
truncata, extends from Tulbagh northward along the western
ranges, and into Little Namaqualand in and around the ares^
characterised by a flora of the south-western type.

The remaining forms have a more restricted distribution; some
are very local or rare. P. falcifolia is apparently confined to the
forest region of the Outeniqua and Zitzikamma Mountains, where
in the forest fringes it reaches nearly twenty feet in height. In
the Cape Peninsula five forms occur. Each of these has its charac-
teristic habitat. P. filiformis is found on well-drained sandy or
gravelly soil on the Cape Flats and the mountain slopes. The
form which has been confused with it is apparently confined to the
north-west corner, on the mountain buttresses, and also on the
western and north-western slopes on granitic soils of closer texture.
P. rigida is confined to the exposed sand dunes east of Muizenberg,
where it grows beside Ghymococca empetroides. A fourth species
is found on deep drift and farther from the sea; while a
fifth, not previously collected, is characteristic of brack marshes
and vlei margins on the Cape Flats.

So far the da*a suggest forcibly that habitat is a factor of
prime importance in the distribution of the species. Further
research is required to determine what light the study of the genus
can throw on general problems of geographical distribution. A
peculiar anatomical feature of the leaves, an account of which
in P. filiformis is in course of publication,* is of significance here,
namely, the "wandering" of fibres laterally from the bundles
between the outer epidermis and the palisade tissue in certain
species. The presence of this feature in P. rigida indicates a close
relationship between this species and P. filiformis.

* Since published in "Annals of Botany." XXXV., 1921. p. 585.

232

ON SOME FUNGI FROM THE AIR OF SUGAR MILLS AND

THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE TO THE SUGAR

INDUSTRY.

BY

Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,
Professor of Mycology, University of Stellenbosch.

Read July 12, 1921.

Elsewhere I dealt with various fungi and bacteria isolated
from sugar*, and have indicated the part these micro-organisms
play in the "sweating" and the deterioration of sugar during
storage. Following up this investigation it appeared desirable also
to make a micro-biological analysis of the air of a sugar mill and
of a sugar store above the mill. For this purpose a series of
petri-dishes with a suitable medium was exposed for 15 minutes in
the above-mentioned places and the organisms which subsequently
developed in the petri-dishes noted. A number of bacteria and
fungi developed, but only the fungi were preserved. This phase
in the investigation of sugar deterioration has only recently been
begun, so that the number of fungi will, in time, probably be con-
siderably augmented.

The chief fungi found were Penicillhim spp. and Aspergillus
spp., and some of them have already previously been isolated from
sugar from warehouses in Durban and were described in the publi-
cations-!' cited previously.

The undermentioned were amongst the fungi found in such
a micro-biological analysis of the air of a mill and of a sugar store
above the mill : —

Cladosporium sp. A similar fungus from sugar has also been
isolated by me and has been shown to be capable of
inverting sucrose.

Penicillium divaricatam. This fungus also has been isolated
by me from sugar, and it is amongst the fungi dealt with
in "Studies on some fungi and the deterioration of
Sugar." It is a fungus frequently met with in sugar in
Durban.

Aspergillus flavus. Though I have isolated several species of
Aspergilli from sugar I have not found this one. It has
been recorded from sugar by Anions from Java, and its
existence in the air of sugar mills here is hence of interest.

*van der Bijl, P. A. " Preliminary Studies on some fungi and bacteria
responsible for the deterioration of S.A. Sugars."
Dept. Agric, Science Bulletin No. 12, 1920.

fvan der Bijl, P. A. "Studies on some Fungi and the Deterioration of
Sugar." Dept. Agric, Science Bulletin No. 18, 1920.

PLANT SUCCESSION'.

233

Aspergillus parasiticus. This Aspergillus also was not found
in mv culture from sugar, but Miss Church, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, informs me it has
been isolated from sugar by Kopeloff, in Louisiana.

Aspergillus repens-glaucus group. Members of this group are
amongst the Aspergilli most frequently met with in sugar
here, and strains of them are considered in both of the
publications cited. They are also recorded from sugar
from Java and Louisiana.

Manilla spp. Biowne mentions two species of Monilia from
Cuban raw sugar and records the result of their growth
in raw sugar solutions. So far I have not come across
■Monilia in isolations from sugar, and the one found in
the air of a sugar mill is Monilia sitophila.

In addition to the above fungi there were present three further
Penicillium spp. and a member of a group of Penicillia common
in soils and designated by Chas. Thorn and Miss Church in an
article by O. A. Pratt as the "Soil series Penicillia."

The fungi above enumerated from the air of a sugar mill
belong to the groups which have been shown to be of considerable
economic importance to the sugar industry as they are, under
favourable conditions, amongst the more important of the micro-
organisms responsible for the deterioration of sugar in storage,
a problem which is at present receiving the attention of scientific
workers in all the great sugar producing countries. It is with
pleasure we acknowledge the assistance given us in our investiga-
tions by Dr. Chas. Thorn and Miss Margret Church, both of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

THE PLANT SUCCESSION IN A TYPE OF MIDLAND
TREE VELD IN NATAL.

BY

R. D. AlTKEN, M.Sc,

Natal University College.

With Plate* /I, III, and 1 Map.

Bead July 12, 1921.

I. Introdution.
Attention has often been drawn to the wide areas of country
in South Africa which are covered by Tree Veld, and a preliminary
division of this type of vegetation into several formations has been
attempted (3)*, e.g., Acacia or Thorn Veld of the Eastern side;
Protea Veld of the higher altitudes; Bush Veld of the Transvaal.
There is no doubt, however, that the subdivision of climax associa-
tions can be carried still further, and this becomes particularlv

*The numbers refer to the list of references at the end of this paper.

9

:234 PLANT SUCCESSION.

■ clear when a smaller area is studied more intensively. Thus, in-
Natal alone, quite a number of distinct types of Tree Veld, as
well as local variations of each type, occur. Of these by far the
most extensive is the Thorn Veld, in which the succession has
alreadv been analysed in detail by Professor Bews (4). Other
types which have been briefly described by the same author are
the Protea Veld, the Rocky Scrub with Greyia Sutherland I
dominant, and the Leucosidea scrub of the Drakensberg (5); the
Rocky Hillside type of the Midlands (2) ; and the various types of
Tree Veld of the Coast- belt, e.g., Ilala-Palm Veld and hygro-
philous Tree Veld (6). Very often these types occur mixed with
the more xerophytic Thorn Veld, but usually they are quite dis-
tinct. A good example of this is the Ilala-Palm Veld, which
covers large areas of the Zululand coa«t-belt (7). Where it occurs
in proximity to- Thorn Veld the palms often extend for some dis-
tance into the latter, particularly if the thorn trees are very
scattered.

All these types of Tree Veld, though differing greatly from
one another in their composition, have one remarkable feature in
common, a feature which is quite unique — the invasion of grass-
land by treesi in the first stage of the succession. Tree Veld has
usually a very characteristic, park-like appeal ance, due to the
formation of scattered clumps of trees and bushes in the grass-
land. The actual pioneer in the formation of these clumps varies
according to the type of climax association, but is always a tree.
In some cases the succession proceeds no further than this first
invasion of the grass-veld, e.g., Ilala-Palm Veld, but as a rule
other species succeed the pioneer and grow up in its shade, forming
the mature clump. The only detailed account of the complete
process so far given is that of Professor Bews on the succession in
the Thorn Veld (4). Yet in view of the widespread occurrence
of Tree Veld in South Africa and of this unique feature in its
establishment, it is very desirable that as marry facts as possible
should be gathered with regard to the various types, and the suc-
cession in each.

The present paper is intended to give an account of the suc-
cession in a type of Tree Veld, which may be termed a Cussonia-
Combretum association. It shows some resemblances to the Rocky
Hillside type, already mentioned, from which, however, it appears
to be quite distinct. It occurs on the northern slopes of Signal
Hill, situated just outside Maritzburg proper and to the south-
west of the town. (PI. II, Fig. 1.) No details can as yet be given
as to the distribution of this type, but it is probably fairly common
on hillsides throughout the Midlands.

II. Topography and Climate.

A panoramic view of practically the whole area studied can
be very well obtained from any point near the summit of the hill.
From such a vantage point one looks down upon an undulating
stretch of grassland sloping gently upwards. Almost through the

PLANT SUCCESSION.

235

centre of this runs a shallow valley well filled with trees. (In
order to simplify the description this valley is termed the "central
valley" throughout the remainder of this paper.) A very notice-
able feature is the almost complete absence of trees to the west of
this valley. Numerous clumps of trees occur in the grassland to
the east, but with one or two exceptions there are none at all to
the west. The accompanying map of the "central valley" and the
adjacent hillsides shows this very clearly.

o t>

SIGNAL HILL, MARITZBURG.
Showing distribution of clumps on slopes adjacent to "central" valley

The numbered clumps are those described in detail in the
paper.

A is a small Acacia ata.racantha growing in the open.
C is a small clump in which Clerodendron glabrvm is the
pioneer.

2a

;236 PLANT SUCCESSION.

West of Signal Hill proper is a very deep valley with steep
sides; a smaller valley ("valley A"), rising near the head of the
"central valley," passes into this. Between the heads of "valley
A" and the "central valley" are found the only clumps which
occur to the west of the latter. Still further to the west is a line
of low hills cut into by deep valleys, but trees are almost entirely
absent from the steep sides of these. The slope immediately below
our point of vantage, and one further to the east, are the only
ones in the neighbourhood on which scattered clumps of trees can
be seen.

Turning now to the east, one notices another valley ("valley
B"), and beyond this the hillside just mentioned. Streams of
water flow through most, if not all, of these valleys, and in some
cases they have cut deeply into the bed of the valley, forming
rather deep and narrow dongas.

The slopes on which the tree veld occurs face almost due north,
and consequently receive very strong sunlight throughout the day.
The deep narrow valleys to the west receive a much shorter period
of illumination each day, and this may explain the absence of tree
veld from the adjacent slopes. Exact measurements of insolation
have not been made, but the writer has often noticed that at this
time of the year the slopes on which the trees occur are in full
sunlight until about five o'clock, whereas the western slopes of the
deep valleys pass into shade at about half-past three or four
o'clock.

Frosts are probably rare on the hillside, though they are
recorded at the Botanic Gardens just below. Even here there is
seldom more than 5 degrees of frost, the record of 11 degrees last.
year being the lowest known for twenty years. The Gardens are,
however, situated at the lowest level in the neighbourhood, and
the temperature will be appreciably higher on the slopes investi-
gated. The fact that bananas and pineapples are successfully
grown at about the same level on a neighbouring hillside indicates
the almost complete absence of frost.

III. Type of Grassland Invaded.

The dominant grass all over the hillside is Aristida junci-
formis, which has almost entirely replaced Themeda (Anthistiria)
triandra, probably on account of repeated grass burning. Other
grasses present are Andropogon hirtus (subdominant in places),
.4. schoenanthns var. versicolor, A. pertusus, A. intermedins var.
punctatus, A. eucomis, Eragrostis chalcantha, E. brizoides,
Panicum serratum, Sporobohis indicus, Tricholaena rosea. Scat-
tered throughout the veld are numerous associated plants, but they
were not in flower during the period of investigation, and conse-
quently lists of these have not been compiled. Mention must,
however, be made of the occurrence in isolated patches of Aloe
saponaria and of Vangneria sp., the patches covered by the latter
being as a rule the more extensive. Eugenia alhanensis is also
fairly common.

PLANT SUCCESSION. 237

IV. Bases of Colonisation.

The main base of colonisation for the greater part of the area
under study is the shallow "central valley." This is about 800
yards long from the head to the railway line which forms the lower
boundary of the area investigated. Near the head is a spring
from which a small stream of water flows through the valley. The
western side is somewhat steeper than the eastern, which is broken
by two1 or three depressions, tributary to the valley itself. The
valley is well stocked with trees, of which the following is an
almost complete list : —

Combretum kraussii, Ficus capensis, Cussonia spicata, Zizy-
phus mucronata, Moesa rufesceus, Clerodendron glabrum, Fagara
capensis, Gymnosporia buxifolia, Erythroxylon monogynum,
Royena pattens, Dombeya rotundifoUa, Halleria lucida.

The trees are named roughly in the order of their abundance
in the valley. They occur principally on the sides of the valley
and not close down to the stream, though Moesa rufescens is most
plentiful near the spring at the head of the valley. The trees
tend to grow in clumps, which become larger and denser as one
proceeds up the valley. In each clump one can usually find the
oldest tree in the centre, generally one of the first three in' the
above list, surrounded by a number of younger trees. Straggling
over the clumps are numerous climbers such as Asparagus sp.,
Rhoicissus cirrhiflora, Rubus pinnatus} Clematis brachiata,
Smodingium argutum, Mikania scandens (?). Plectronia spinosa
is common in all the clumps, growing in the spaces between the
trees.

As will be seen from the list given above, the two commonest
trees are Combretum kraussii and Ficus capensis. Of these the
latter is found principally towards the head of the valley, and
usually well up on the sides. The former is commoner lower down
and grows nearer the stream.

Numerous shrubs and herbs occur, growing either in the open
or round the edges of the clumps. The following is a list of those
in flower at the present time (July, 1921): —

Teucrium africanum, Phytolacca sp., Lantana camara,
Solanum nigrum, Berkheya sp., Buddleia salviaefolia, Leonotis

leonurus, Artemisia afra, and one or two Acanthaceae.

A second base of colonisation is the eastern valley (valley
"B"), which is rather deeper than the one just described. It is
also traversed by a stream of water, which has cut a deep, narrow
channel through the bed of the valley. The vegetation in this
valley resembles that in the one just described, except that the
trees grow much closer to the stream and do not form clumps
except higher up on the sides of the valley. This valley contains
in addition to the trees listed for the "central valley" Acacia
horrid a and a few others.

238 PLANT SUCCESSION.

V. Migration from the Valleys.

Migration from the bases of colonisation appears to have taken
place principally in an eastward direction. This is particularly
clear in regard to migration from the "central valley," since, as
previously mentioned, the veld west of this is practically devoid
of trees except for a few clumps near the head of the valley. With
regard to these it is quite feasible to assume that they have been
formed by eastward migration from "valley A" rather than from
the "central valley" itself. That migration from "valley B" has
also been in an eastward direction is shown by the facts that though
clumps of trees occur on both sides of the valley they are larger,
more numerous, and extend to a much greater distance on to the
hillside on the east.

The reason for this eastward migration is somewhat difficult
to determine. That it should be due to prevalent winds appears
improbable since most of the species which occur in the open, and
notably Ciissonia spicata, have their seeds distributed by birds.
The principal exception in this respect is Gombretum kraussii,
whose seeds are wind distributed. A closer study of the migration
from the "central valley" seems to throw some light on the
problem.

On the eastern side two fairly well-marked depressions pass-
into this valley, which itself branches into two just above the
spring, one branch passing towards the east, the other towards
the west. Surveying the whole area from a vantage point near
the hill top, it is clear that migration has proceeded along these
tributary depressions and through the branches at the head of the
vallev. Three avenues of clumps can be traced eastwards from
the valley, one along each of the depressions, and a third through
the eastern branch at the head. A short line of clumps has also
been formed along the western branch. These features of the
migration are illustrated by the accompanying map. A line of
clumps has also been formed through the head of "valley A," and
passes above those from the "central valley." The absence of any
other lines of migration from this "valley A," which contains the
same trees as the central valley though fewer of them, and the
absence of any tributary depressions passing into it is suggestive.

Migration from "valley B" has not proceeded along quite such
definite lines as from the "central valley," probably because there
are no clearly marked depressions on the eastern side. This side,
however, is not nearly so steep as, and is much moister than, the
other. In fact, the eastern side is quite swampy in parts and a
small stream flows down it into the main stream.

These observations suggest an explanation along the following
lines: — The particular type of Tree Veld under consideration is
much more mesophytic than the commoner Thorn Veld (as indeed
is shown by its composition), and is less able to withstand grass
fires. At the same time the trees composing it are strong light
demanders. Ordinarily they are confined to shallow valleys, where
they obtain plenty of moisture, and are sheltered from the full

PLANT SUCCESSION'.

239

•effects of grass fires. The eastern slopes of the valleys under con-
sideration in this paper are considerably moister than the western,
probably owing to the dip of the underlying rocks, and conse-
quently migration on to these slopes has been possible. In fhe
case of the "central valley" the lcng tributary depressions are not
only moister, but serve also to pi^vide «ome shelter against grass
fires.

Further evidence of this eastward migration is afforded by the
fact that the largest and thickest clumps occur nearest to the
valley, the smallest ones furthest east. This does not, of course,
hold absolutely, since each clump may act as a fresh base of
•colonisation, and one often finds small clumps starting close to
much older ones.

VI. The Formation of Clumps.

Outside the valleys the chief pioneer in the invasion of the
grassland is Gussonia spicata. Unfortunately owing to continual
grazing and repeated grass burning not many young clumps are
to be found, but in those which occur Cussonia is the most frequent
pioneer. There is some evidence, principally from one or two of
the older clumps to show that occasionally Clerodendron glabrum
and Combretum kraussii may act as pioneers. In most of the
mature clumps Cnnnonia sjjicata is found in the centre, and is
unmistakably the oldest tree present, though its place is sometimes
taken by one of the other two trees just mentioned.

The earliest stage of the succession, noticed by the present
writer, was a young Cussonia, probably not more than two years
old, growing right out in the open veld at a considerable distance
from the valley. Alongside it was a young Finis capensis, but,
since this does not occur in any of the mature clumps in the open,
it will probably be killed out eventually. There seems no reason
for supposing that the seeds of the pioneers only are successful in
germinating in the open veld, and many of the seedlings may even
survive for a year or two, though they are eventually killed,
probably owing to the intense illumination to which they are sub-
jected. The pioneers differ in their ability to withstand this and
to grow and thrive in their exposed situations in the open veld.

Once the pioneer is firmly established other species soon follow
and grow up in its shade. Amongst the earliest arrivals is Ehretia
hottentotica. Where Cussonia is the pioneer it is soon followed
by Combretum and Clerodendron. Later arrivals include Zizyphus
mucronata (always found at the edge of the clump), Fagara
capensis, Clausena inaequalis, Euclea sp. (probably ovata),
Dombeya rotundifolia, and a few others. Shrubs such as 7JIecfronia
spinosa appear quite early in the succession, and climbers very soon
grow up over the clump.

In most of the clumps at the lower levels the succession pro-
ceeds no further, and the result is the formation of a small group
of trees usually with a clear space in the centre. (See PI. Ill,
Fig. 3.) In some of the clumps higher up, however, a further

240 PLANT SUCCESSION.

stage in the succession is the arrival of Acacia ataxacantha, which
straggles over the whole clump, killing out many of the earlier
arrivals, and forming a dense, almost impenetrable thicket.

VII. The Mature Clumps — Detailed Analysis.
The fully formed clumps all closely resemble one another,
though showing slight variations in their composition. In the
centre of each there is usually a large Cussonia spicata, at the
base of which is a termites' nest. It would be interesting to know
whether this nest is formed before or after the arrival of the
Cussonia. In his account of the thorn veld (4) Professor Bew3
states that "seeds of all the species are apt to be distributed and
to germinate on or around white ants' nests." In the one case
already mentioned of the earliest observed stage of the succession
there was no termites' nest present, but the young Cussonia was
growing on an ordinary ants' nest. An isolated case like this,
however, does not afford sufficient evidence on which to base any
definite conclusions. The Cussonia in the centre of the clump is
frequently dead, and in many cases only the stump is left, the
tree itself having fallen. The cause of the death of this tree is
believed to be the attack of white ants, but this subject is reserved
for discussion in a later section of the paper.

Surrounding the central tree is a ring of younger trees, the
commonest of these being Conibretum kraussii and Glerodendron
glabrum. A bare space is usually left in the centre of the clump
round about the Cussonia. Between the trees forming the outer
ring there is usually a plentiful growth of Plectronia spinosa and
other Rubiaceae. Scrambling over the trees are various climbers
such as Rubus pinnatus, Smodingium argutum, Rhoicissus cirrhi-
flora, Helinus avatus, Mikania scandens (?), and Asparagus sp.
Numerous herbs occur round the edges of the clumps, e.g.,
Teucrhim africanum, Lantana camara, and various Acanthaceae.
Many others probably occur, but do not flower until later in the
year, and consequently were not noted.

The following detailed notes on several typical clumps will
illustrate the variations which occur. Since the climbers, shrubs
and herbs are practically identical in each case they have been
omitted from these notes. The position of the clumps analysed is
indicated on the accompanying map (p. 235).

Clump 1. — A large Cussonia spicata in the centre. The
bark has been almost completely stripped off the lower portion
of the trunk. A branch from near the base has fallen and
the broken end is covered with earth, indicating the presence
of white ants. These appear to be attacking the exposed
portions of the roots also. Surrounding the central Cussonia
are the following: — Schmidelia erosa, Conibretum kraussii
(several trees), Clerodendron glabrum (several trees), Clausena
inaequalis, Rhus sp., Cussonia sjjicata (dead and fallen tree).
Clump 2. — A smaller clump than No. 1. The oldest tree
is quite obviously a large Cussonia spicata. A large branch
has recently fallen, and in doing so has broken a young, but

PLANT SUCCESSION. 241

well-grown, Fagara eapensis. In this case there is little doubt
but that the branch was killed by white ants, as these had
eaten out a considerable portion of the wood of the branch.
A smaller branch has also been attacked, but has not yet
fallen and still bears a few leaves. The remainder of the
clump consists principally of Glerodendron glabrum. Other
trees present are: — Fagara eapensis, Zizyphus mucronata,
Ehretia hottentotica. (See Plate II, Fig. 2.)

Clump 3. — A very small clump, one of the youngest on
the hillside. A young Cussonia spicata in the centre, still
quite healthy, and bark not yet stripped off lower portion of
trunk. Surrounding this are:— Ehretia hottentotica (princi-
pally), Glerodendron glabrum, Zizyphus mucronata.

Clump 4. — A very open clump on somewhat broken
ground. A very old and large Cussonia spicata, still quite
healthy looking; a second quite dead, but not yet fallen (death
in this case could not possibly have been due to shading) ; a
third dead and fallen. Other trees present are: — Ehretia
hottentotica, Clerodendron glabrum, Gymnosporia buxifolia.
(See Plate III, Fig. 4.)

Clump 5. — A small clump. The oldest tree a large Com-
bretum kraussii. Other trees are: — Clerodendron glabrum
(two or three trees), Fagara eapensis, Royena pattens.

Clump 6. — A large clump composed principally of Acacia
ataxacantha. A large Cussonia spicata 1ms fallen and is com-
pletely overgrown by the Acacia. Another Cussonia has
probably been killed by white ants. Other trees present are: — ■
Comhretum kraussii, Clerodendron glabrum, Zizyphus
mucronata.

VIII. The Death of the Pioneer.

One of the most striking features of the foregoing notes is the

frequent mention of dead or injured trees of Cussonia spicata. In

three of the six clumps described there is a dead Cussonia, and in

another this tree has recently lost a large branch; with regard to

the other two clumps one is still quite young, the other does not

contain a Cussonia at all. Indeed no one visiting the hillside can

fail to notice the number of dead Cussonias; it is difficult to find

a clump in which one at least does not occur. At first the writer

was inclined to regard this as simply a further stage of the ordinary

succession within the clump, since it frequently happens that a

pioneer is killed out by subsequent arrivals. These, unable at first

to survive exposure to the full sunlight of the open veld, grow

successfully in the shade of the pioneer. Once established, they

grow more rapidly than the latter, and eventually overtop it. The

pioneer, always an intense light demander, cannot tolerate the

shade, and is consequently killed out. The succession in the thorn

veld illustrates this very clearly. To quote Professor Bews (4): —

"Very soon the species which hegan under the thorn tree

grow up through it. At a fairly early stage it is common to find

Celastriis or Ehretia towering ahove it. The lianes such as Vitis

spp. Asparagus spp, sometimes spread all over the top of it. and

the thorn tree may ultimately be killed."

242 PLANT SUCCESSION.

The death of Cussonia spicata in the clumps described in this
paper cannot, however, be ascribed to shading by the overgrowth
of surrounding trees and climbers. Normally it grows to a con-
siderable height, and in the majority of the clumps it is quite
as high as, if not higher than, the other trees. Again, dead trees
frequently occur in situations where it is impossible to ascribe
death to shading. Two, at least, occur right out in the open
veld, and dead branches are found on trees in clumps where the
Cussonia still towers above the younger trees, e.g., Clump 2 in the
above notes.

The writer is now quite convinced that the death of this tree
is caused by the attack of white ants. In nearly every clump a
termites' nest is found at the foot of the Cussonia. The earth
tunnels of the termites can often be seen passing up the bark of
living trees, and if the bark be removed from dead branches they
are found beneath it and often extend right into the wood itself.
Living trees are sometimes found with large portions of the trunk
completely eaten away by the white ants. Another noticeable
feature of Cussonia spicata in these clumps is that most of the trees
except the younger ones have almost completely lost the bark from
the lower portion of the trunk. This seems to be one of the first
results of the attack of the white ants, whose tunnels, as we have
seen, are frequently found below the bark. There is no indication
in any of the clumps examined of the white ants extending their
operations to other trees, none of which are stripped of their bark
as is the Cussonia, though why this should be so the writer is at
present unable to explain.

IX. Summary and Conclusions.

Examples of the more important types of Tree Veld in South
Africa are given, and the possibility of further subdivision is indi-
cated. Attention is drawn to a unique feature in the establish-
ment of Tree Veld — the invasion of grassland by trees — and the
consequent importance of a study of the succession in each type
is emphasised.

A detailed account is then given of a type of Tree Veld,
termed a Cussonia-Combretum association, occurring on a hill near
Pietermaritzburg. The topography and climate of the hillside is
described, and the distribution of Tree Veld in the immediate
neighbourhood indicated.

The dominant grass on the hillside is Aristida junciformis;
a list of others which occur is given.

The main bases of colonisation are a shallow "central vallev"
and another valley further east. The trees occurring in these are
enumerated.

Migration from these valleys has taken place principally
towards the east, probably because the eastern sides of the valleys
are moister than the western. Definite lines of migration from
the "central valley" have been formed along tributary depressions.
A map showing the distribution of the clumps on the slopes-
adjacent to the "central valley" has been prepared.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE II.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.
MIDLAND TREE VELD, NATAL.

PLANT SUCCESSION. 243

Cussonia spicata is the chief pioneer in the invasion of the
grassland, though its place is occasionally taken by Comb re tain
kr&rissii or Glerodendron glabrum. A detailed analysis of several
■clumps is given to show the principal variations in their com-
position.

Comment is made on the large number of dead Cussonias on
the hillside, and evidence is adduced to show that death is due to
the attack of white ants.

In conclusion I must acknowledge the encouragement and
assistance which I have received from Professor Bews, who has
taken a keen interest in the present investigation. I must also
express my thanks to Dr. T. R. Sim for assistance in the deter-
mination of many species, and to Mr. R. U. Sayce for help in
the preparation of the accompanying map.

References.

<1) Bews, J. W. : "The Vegetation of Natal." Ann. Natal 31 us.,

vol. ii (1912), p. 253.
•(2) — "An Ecological Survey of the Midlands of

Natal." etc. Ann. Natal Mus., vol. ii

(1913), p. 485.

(3) "An Account of the Chief Types of Vegeta-

tion in South Africa, with Notes on the
Plant Succession." Journ. Ecoloc/t/,
vol. iv (1916), p. 129.

(4) "The Plant Succession in the Thorn Veld."

S. A. Journ. of Science, xiv (1917), p 153.

(5) "The Plant Ecology of the Drakensberg

Range." Ann. Natal Mus., vol. iii
(1917), p. 511.

(6) "The Plant Ecology of the Coast Belt of

Natal." A nn. Natal Mux., vol. iv (1920),
p. 367.

(7) Aitken, R. D., and Gale, G. W. : "Botanical Survey of Natal

and Zululand. A Reconnaissance Trip
tli rough North-eastern Zululand." Botani-
cal Surra/ of South Africa, Memoir 2 (in
the press).

Explanation of Plates II and III.

Plate II, Fig. 1: Signal Hill. The "central valley" is on the

right and scattered clumps are to the east
of this.
Fig. 2: Clump 2. For description see text.
Pl\te III, Fig. 3: A fully formed clump. Note the open space
in the centre.
Fig. 4: For description see text. Note the dead
Cussonia in the foreground.

244

PROTONEMAL DEVELOPMENTS OF MOSSES.

BY

H. Wager, A.R.C.S.,
Professor of Botany, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

With 2 Text Fir/ares

Read J ul v 15, 1921.

A new moss from Port St. Johns has just been named by
Mr. Dixon as Nanobryum Dummeri gen. and sp. nov. An inter-
esting feature of this moss, although not necessarily specific, lies
in its protonema. Instead of being entirely filamentous it shows
an advance in the direction of a flat prothallial structure, that is,
some cells bv lateral division form small flat cellular portions
(Fi°\ 1). The celis so formed apparently retain more especially
the power of filamentous division so that irregular and peculiar
shapes are sometimes produced. Also, no specialised growing points
are found. Buds are produced on the sides of these formations
as well as on the filamentous portions. This growth takes place
from anv part of the protonema and quite often from exposed
parts of rhizoids.

FIG. 1.

PROTONEMA OF MOSSES.

245'

Another moss, a species of Bryum, on the other hand, which
I have had under observation for some considerable time, shows
very different protonemal features. The piece of ground on which
it grows is shady, but dries up rather quickly. Up to the present
it has" apparently never been damp long enough to allow of the
proper growth of the moss plants, although tiny plants can be-
seen sparsely scattered over the ground. The fruiting stage has
certainly never been reached m the last three years. The ground,
however, always becomes green after rain. The green is due to
an enormous number of small rod-like filaments, each one having
usually four cells. The number of cells is, however, variable, but
usually never more than ten, and then small branches are often
present. This branching stage is the beginning of a tufted con-
dition. One cell develops many branches, each of which has about
four cells. These pieces now become easily detached, thus causing
dissemination of the proton ema. Moss buds may arise from any
cells of these short filaments (Fig. 2). Gametophyte proliferations

FIG. 2.

are fairly common amongst mosses, notably in many species which
give rise to filamentous proliferations from the leaves, several
species which give rise to gemmae from the moss plants themselves,
the formation of bulbils, and the power the rhizoids possess of
changing into protonema. A portion of the ground has lately been
kept under more suitable conditions of moisture, and so far the
results appear to show that the rod-like filaments become more
protonema-like in character with the production of many more
buds. It would thus appear that the method here described is a
response to xerophytic conditions, by means of which the plant
extends its existence until more permanent conditions of growth
arise.

246

A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE
POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

BY

Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,
Professor of Mycology, University of Stellenb&sch.

Read July 17, 1920.

Contents.

Page.

Introduction ^46

General Account 247

Economic Importance 250

Key to the Genera 250

Key to the Species and Descriptions —

Polyporus 251

Fomes ... 272

Trametes 279

Daedalia 286

Lenzites 287

Hexagona 289

Favolus 291

Laschia 292

Introduction.

For some time the writer has been giving special attention
to the Polyporeae or Pore-fungi occurring in the Union of South
Africa. This group of fungi is of especial economic importance to
foresters since a number of them are known to cause serious timber
rots. Unfortunately the earlier collections by Wahlenberg, Baur,
Tyson, Wood," Macowan and others are not preserved in any insti-
tution in South Africa. Some of them have probably been entirely
lost, whereas others are preserved in foreign institutions. The
Polyporeae are generally recognised as the most difficult of the
fungi to name and identify satisfactorily, and even with descrip-
tions the comparison with type specimens is essential. There being
at the time no comprehensive collection of correctly named speci-
mens in any of the South African institutions, the writer soon
realised the necessity of co-operation with someone who has had
an opportunity of studying these fungi from collections preserved
in other countries. In this he was fortunate in obtaining the co-
operation of Mr. C. G. Lloyd, and it is mainly through his kind
and willing assistance in identifying specimens that the work was
made possible. I am also much inde'bted to Mr. C. G. Lloyd for
criticisms contained both in his mycological publications and in
personal letters to me.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 247

The descriptions of these fungi are very scattered, and to
many quite inaccessible ; hence it appeared desirable to issue them
in a form which would make their study and identification more
accessible to South African students.

To the gentlemen who have favoured me with specimens and
whose names are appended in the text I am most grateful, and
especially to Mr. J. D. Keet, whose large and excellently preserved
collections of these fungi from the Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy
have been the foundation for this study.

Unfortunately we cannot claim that all the South African
Polypores have as yet been collected, but rather than delay publi-
cation the writer considered that a better purpose would be served
by publishing on the species known to him at present and at a later
date to issue an addendum.

Specimens of the fungi herein recorded and not represented in
the Herbarium of the Division of Botany of the Department of
Agriculture, Pretoria, have been deposited there, and this institu-
tion is thanked for the loan of books and access to a few specimens
not in my collection.

General Account.

The members of the family Polyporaceae are easily recognised
by the fact that they have their spores borne on the interior sur-
faces of tubes or pores (hence the name). In a comprehensive sense
this family embraces the subfamilies Boleteae, Merutieae and Poli/-
poreae. Without entering into details we can briefly separate these
subfamilies as follows: —

1. Hymenophore (i.e., pore layer) separable from the context
or flesh of the fructification. Boleteae.

1. Hymenophore not separable as above.

2. Pores reduced to shallow pits separated by narrow

ridges or reticulations. Merulieae.

2. Pores well developed and varying in size and form.

Polj/poreac.

We are here concerned only with the latter sub-family.

The sporophores, as the fructifications of the Polyporeae are
called, are well-known objects to most people, forming, as many of
them do, the familiar "brackets" or "shelves" on living trees or
old stumps. Though the majority occur on wood, a few (e.g.,
Polyporus nigro-luridus) are terrestrial.

Form of the sporophores. The fruiting body of the pore-
fungi either show a distinct cap or shelf when they are said to be
pileate or are more or less spread out flat on the substratum and
are said to be resupinate. Pileate forms may either be sessile or
elevated by a stipe. In some species the form is fixed and little
variation is seen, whereas in others it varies.

Thus Polyporus lucidus may be either sessile or stipitate and
many pileate species (such as P. gilvus) show sub-resupinate or
even entirely resupinate forms. In stipitate forms the stipe may

248 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

be either central, excentric or lateral, and this, too, is a character
fixed in some and variable in others. In a very few species the
stipe arises from a tuber or sclerotium.

The sporophores are either annual or perennial. In some of
the annual species the sporophores may survive a second season
(e.g., P. gilvus; J', fruticurri).

In consistency the sporophores of the different species show
considerable variation. They vary from spongy forms like
P. fruticum, through soft fleshy forms such as P. sulphureus, to
fibrous and flexible forms like P. versicolor, and extremely hard
and woody forms such as the majority of Forties spp.

In shape, considerable variation is found. Some are circular,
others semi-circular, fan-shaped, hoof-shaped or flat, funnel-shaped,
ear-shaped, etc. In distinguishing the different shapes various
terms are used such as ungulate (hoof-shaped), dimidiate (semi-
circular), infundibuliform (funnel-shaped).

Surface of the sporophores. The sporophores show striking
differences in surface modifications. Thus, we find species like
Forties applanatus and others with a hard, horny, encrusted sur-
face, and in some of these the crust has the appearance of being
covered with varnish (e.g., P. hind us, ]' . nigro-lucidus, and
others). In others the surface hyphae end loosely and form hairs
of various types and descriptions. The surface may be smooth,
furrowed, zoned, wrinkled, dotted with tubercles, and in some,
rough, with appressed fibrils.

The sporopiiore can for our purpose be considered as composed
of two main regions (a) the layer or layers of tubes termed the
hymenophore and (b) the region above this pore layer known as
the flesh or context, of the sporophore.

The Context or flesh. The colour of the context varies for
different species, and this character is used for separating the
species. In consistency the context also varies considerably, but is
fairly constant for each species. In many the context is hard and
woody (e.g., majority of species of Fomes) ; in others, again, it
may be corky, cheesy, fleshy, tough or fibrous. In a few it is
spongy (e.g., V . fructicum) and in some it is floccose (e.g.,
P. colossus and others). In some the context becomes very fragile
when the fungus is dry (e.g., P. immaculatus) .

The Hymenophore. The term hymenophore is used to denote
that part of the fructification on which the spore-bearing region
or hymenium arises. Used in this sense it would include the
interior tissue of the pores and the tissue at the base of the tubes.
Since the poroid character of the hymenophore separates the
Polyporeae from related families and subfamilies, it is taxonomi-
cally an important region, the nature of the pores or tubes also
being used in distinguishing different genera of the sub-family.
Thus the genus Hexagona has subrotund or hexagonal and usually
large pores; the genus Parol us large, angular pores which are
elongated radially; the genus Baedalia typically labyrinthiform
pores. In the genus Lenzites the pores become changed so that
their poroid character is not always readily discernable. The

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 249

hymenophore is here lamellate and thus connects the Polyporaceae
with the Agaricaceae. Some of the Lenzites spp., however, show
the poroid character at least in the early stages. The edges of the
pore-months are either thick or thin and may be entire, lacerate,
or toothed (P. biformis, Trametes afbotexta). Extremely toothed
species, such as Polyporus flavus, Jungh connect the Polyporaceae
with the Hydnaceae.

The hymenium. The lining inside the tubes on which the
spores are borne is known as the hymenium or hymenial layer.
Essentially this layer is composed of the spore mother cells or
basidia from which the spores (basidiospores) are abstricted.
Modified outgrowths from the pore tissue cells, which grow into
the hymenial layer, occur between the basidia in many species.
These outgrowths are of two kinds (1) colourless and either pointed
or inflated outgrowths known as cystidia (as in Lenzites betulina) ;
(2) coloured outgrowths of the nature of spines. These latter are
known as setae. Setae are of common occurrence in some species,
and this character is used for separating the species. In the
majority the setae are simple and sharp-pointed, rarely are they
bifid. In Favolus megaloporus the setae are themselves again beset
with spine -like outgrowths.

These setae are generally found in the hymenium, although
they sometimes occur buried in the tissue of the pore-walls (e.g.,
P. patouillardii, J', ochroporus) and even in the context tissue
(/''. pachyph locus) .

The spores. The spores show the usual variations found in
a large group of fungi. In shape they vary from round to oblong
or elliptical, and may be either smooth or rough with minute pro-
jections. They are colourless, lightly coloured, yellowish, or some
shade of brown. It is unfortunate that so frequently in collections
of these fungi the spores are not found. Species with white or
light coloured context have hyaline spores, whereas in those with
dark coloured context the spores are either hyaline or coloured.
When coloured they are usually present in the specimens. One
type of spore found in a limited number of species herein described
— namely, the so-called truncate spore — requires mention. In
these the spores have a hyaline membrane which projects beyond
the base and forms an apiculum. The empty apiculum collapses,
and the spores at this end then have the appearance of being
abruptly cut off and are said to be truncate. P. ochroleucus and
Fomes ohiensis have hyaline truncate spores, whereas Pomes
applanatus, Polyporus lurid us, ]'. nigro-lucidus, and others have
coloured truncate spores.

The Genera Hekein Dealt With.

We have included in this paper the following genera: —
Polyporus (including Polystictus), Pomes, Trametes, Hexagona,
Favolus, Laschia, Lenzites, Daedal ia.

The genus Hexagona with its usually large, subrotund or
hexagonal pores connects through the small pored Hexagona tenuis
with the genus Polyporus. The Pomes include the perennial

250 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

species with the pore layers in successive strata. Trametes include
annual and perennial forms. It is distinguished from Polyporus
and Fomes by its usually pinky context and by having the pores
not in a definite layer but sunk to different depths in the context
tissue. The genus Favolus includes laterally stalked forms with
large angular pores radially elongated. Laschia spp. are small,
gelatinous, sessile, or stipitate polypores. In Lenzites, as mentioned,
the pores are replaced by plates, but, through forms which first
show a poroid character, this grades into the more typical pore
fungi and they are classed here rather than with the Agarics or
"Gill-fungi." In Daedalia the hy menial surface is labyrinthiform
and forms connect this genus with Polyporus and Trametes on the
one side and with Lenzites on the other.

We include the genus Polystictus in Polyporus. No distinct
line can be drawn between these genera and in working over a
restricted area it is considered best to fuse them. The names
Polyporus and Polystictus have been applied almost interchange-
ably to the thin leathery polypores which are often separated under
the latter name.

Very little is known about the South African resupinate forms
included in the genus Poria, and this genus is for the present
omitted .

Economic Importance of the Group.

From the utility point of view the object in preserving and
demarcating large tracts of forest areas is for the wood or timber
such areas can be expected to produce. Anything, therefore, which
may tend to reduce the annual rate of wood production or destroy
the wood already formed should receive careful attention.

The "pore-fungi" are amongst the most serious of the fungi
responsible for rots in trees and timber. Some, for example,
Fomes rimosus, attack onlv the heartwood and cause what is
popularly called "heart-rot." Others, such as Fame* applanatus,
Polyporus lucidus, attack the sap-wood causing "sap-rot."
According to the nature of the parasitism we can distinguish forms
which only live on living trees and whose growth ceare with the
death of the host, for example, Fames rimosus and those which
usually grow on dead logs and wood, but may at times become
parasitic, for example, Fames applanatus, Pah/poru* lucidus, Poly-
porus sulphureus, Trametes obstinatus, Polyporus sanguineus,
Polyporus versicolor, and others. Those responsible for the decay
of trees all gain entrance through wounds.

It is hoped that this paper may assist foresters in identifying
the fungus forms they meet in their different areas, and may in a
small measure contribute towards a better knowledge and under-
standing of those responsible for the decay of our South African
timber trees.

Key to the Genera.

1. Sporophores entirely resupinate and never developing pileate
forms. Poria (vide general account).

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 253

1. Sporophores typically pileate, though several are also more or

less resupinate at times.

2. Hymenophore gelatinous and separable from context as an

elastic membrane when moist. (Vide P. conehoides, p. 258
and J', dichrous, p. 257.)

Glceoporits. Here included in Polyporus.

2. Hymenophore not gelatinous and not separable from context in

a distinct layer as above.

3. Sporophores small, moie or less gelatinous throughout, laterally

stipitate, epixylous. Laschia, p. 292.

3. Sporophores leathery, corky or woody, never gelatinous.

4. Hymenophore poroid, in some tending to labyrinthiform or

daedaloid.

5. Pores medium size, round or angular, and if angular, irregular.
8. Tubes forming a well marked stratum all sunk to equal depths

in the context.

6. Pileus annual, with a single porelayer, sessile or stipitate, epixy-

lous or terrestrial. Polyporus, p. 251.

6. Pileus perennial, producing a new layer of tubes each season,

sessile, epixylous. Pomes, p. 272.

8. Tubes not forming a well-marked stratum, sunk to different
depths in context; pileus epixvlous, sessile, annual or
perennial. Trametes, p. 279.

5. Pores large, angular.

7. Pileus epixylous, laterally stipitate, pores angular, radially

elongated. Favohts, p. 291.

7. Pileus epixylous, sessile, pores large, round to hexagonal (the
small-pored Hex. tenuis and its allies are distinguished
from Polyporus by the pores being angular and regular.

Hexagona, p. 289.

4. Hymenophore typically labyrinthiform (daedaloid) in part at
least, in some poroid at first; pileus sessile, epixylous.

Daedal ia, p. 286.

4. Hymenophore typically lamellate, in part at least( in L. trabea
usually poroid) pileus epixylous, sessile (in L. repanda
substipitate) . Lenzites, p. 287.

Keys to and Descriptions of the Species.
Poeyporus (Mich) Fries.

Plants annual or sometimes persisting a few seasons, epixylous
or terrestrial; pileus sessile or stipitate, small or of large size,
some brightly coloured, a few possessing a laccate surface; context
white, red, yellow or brown ; tubes in a single layer and sunk into
context tissue to equal depths so that their bases form a continuous
straight line; mouths circular or angular, varying in size, rarely
showing a daedaloid or favoloid tendency; spores hyaline or
coloured, in a few truncate; setae absent or present, usually con-
fined to hymenium and very rarely occurring in the pore-walls or
context tissue ; stipe when present varying from central to excentric
or lateral, in P. sacer it arises from a sclerotium and in P. arenoso-
basus from a false sclerotium.

252 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The basic idea of the genus Polyporus is that its members have
only a single layer of pores (distinguish from Font ex) which are
sunk in the context to equal depths (distinguish from Trametes).
Fomes spp. showing only the first year's pores may be mistaken
for a Polyporus. Some of the species of Polyporus (e.g., P. gilvus,
P. fructicum) may survive a few seasons, but they are never
typically perennial. Some species grade into Trametes, and it
may not always be easy to decide whether a specimen is a Polyporus
or a Trametes (cf. P occidcntalis, Tr. protea, and others). In
P. arcularius we find large favoloid pores suggesting the genus
Favolus, from which however it differs in having its stipe central.
In P. occidentalis and others a daedaloid tendency of the hymeuo-
phore may be at times met with.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Context white or light coloured. Series I.

Context red or yellow. Series II.

Context some shade of brown. Series III.
an elastic membrane.

Series I.
Context white or light coloured.
1. Pileus stipitate.

2. Stipe arising from a true or "false" sclerotium.

3. A true sclerotium present. P. sacer 1

3. Sclerotium "false" composed of agglutinated soil

particles. P. arenosobasus 32

2. Stipe not arising from a sclerotium.

4. Stipe lateral.

5. Spores truncate, coloured.

6. Plant epixylous, surface laccate, reddish brown.

P. lucid us 37

6. Plant terrestrial, deeply rooted, surface laccate and

black in mature specimens. P. nir/rolucidus 35

5. Spores hyaline, not truncate.

7. Surface of pileus black. P. dictyopus 2
7. Surface of pileus brown, azonate. P. varius 3
7. Surface of pileus yellow, or brown, zoned, pores

minute. P. luteus 24

7. Surface of pileus yellow, orange or white; plants

densely imbricate, large, flesh v ; context of a cheesy
consistency and friable when dry. /'. sulphureus 33

4. Stipe central or more or less excentric.

8. Spores hyaline, not truncate.

9. Pores large, radially elongated, stipe central, margin of

pileus ciliate. P. arcularis 4

9. Pores minute, round, stipe central or excentric, surface

of pileus with multicoloured zones. P. xanthopus 5

8. Spores coloured, truncate.

POLYPOKEAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 253

10. Plants terrestrial, deeply rooted, surface laccate, black

in mature plant. P. nigrolucidus 35

10. Plants epixylous, surface redbrown, laccate. P. lucidus 37

1. Pileus sessile.

11. Ilymenophore when moist separable from context as

an elastic membrane.

12. Mouths reddish-purple. P. dichrous 6

12. Mouths white or flesh coloured. P. conchoides 7
11. Hymenophore not separable from context as above.

13. Spores truncate.

14. Spores hyaline. P. ochroleucus 8

14. Spores coloured. P. lucid it* 37
13. Spores not truncate, hyaline.

15. Edges of pore mouths soon breaking up into teeth.

P. bi for mis 9

15. Edges of pore mouths not breaking up into teeth as in

preceding.

16. Plants largely resupinate and witli small reflexed pilei.

17. Pileus white, changing to reddish, mouths 6 or 7 to the

millimetre. P. undatus 10

17. Pileus not changing as above, soft and spongy, largely
resupinate, mouths large, 1 to 3 to the mm., shallow,
irregular; spores large. P. versiporus 11

17. Pileus not changing, coriaceous, mouths 2 to 3 to

the mm. P. pin si tit* 19

16. Pileate portion usually more or less well developed.

18. Surface with multicoloured zones.

19. Context 1 mm. or less thick.

2C. Surface velvety, tubes exceeding 1 mm. in length.

P. versicolor 12

20. Surface more strigose, less conspicuously zoned, tubes

not exceeding 1 mm. in length. P. kirsutidus 13

19. Context more than 1 mm. thick P. zonatus 14

18. Surface sometimes zoned, but not marked with multi-
coloured zones.

21. Surface with a conspicuous hairy covering.

22. Context exceeding 1 mm. in thickness.

23. Tubes less than 1 mm. long. P. velutinus 15

23. Tubes more than 1 mm. long.

24. Surface hirsute, pore mouths entire, persistently thick-

walled, 3 to 4 to mm. P. hirsutus 16

24. Surface hirtose-villose, pore mouths becoming thin

walled, often dentate, 2 to 3 to mm. P. pubesceus 17
22. Context I mm. or less in thickness.

25. Tubes more than 1 mm. long.

26. Surface with a soft cottonv pubescence, pore mouths

2 to 3 to the mm. P. hirtelhis 18

25. Tubes less than 1 mm. long.

27. Pileus thin, flexible, mouths irregular angular, shallow,

2 to 3 to mm. P. pinsitiis 19

254 TOLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

27. Pileus more firm and rigid, surface hirtose to villose

tomentose or subglabrous, mouths 4 to 6 to mm.

P. velutinus 15
21. Surface minutely tomentose to glabrous.

28. Entire plant grey, surface finely tomentose, pruinose,

pore mouths 4 to 5 to mm. P. durbanensis 20

28. Plants not grey.

29. Context friable in dry plants.

30. Plants growing densely imbricate and forming large

masses; pileus fleshy when fresh, yellow to orange or
white, context of a cheesy consistency and friable
when dry, tubes develop easily on any part of pileus.

P. sulphureus 33

30. Plants not growing densely imbricate; pileus fleshy

when fresh, white; context fragile and crumbly when
dry; tubes not forming readily as above.

P. immaculatus 22
29. Context not friable as above.

31. Plants growing densely imbricate; pileus thin (less

than 1 cm.), surface finely tomentose, creamy white
to yellow; pore mouths 5 to 6 to mm.

]'. trichiliae 21
31. Plants rarely imbricate; pileus large, exceeding 1 cm.
in thickness; surface white to discoloured; spores
large, globose. P. robiniophila 23

Series II.
Context yellow or red.

1. Pileus sessile.

2. Pileus and hymenium deep cinnabar red.

3. Pileus less than 5 mm. thick. P. sanguineus. 25

3. Pileus more than 5 mm. thick. P. cinnabarinus 26
2. Pileus and hymenium not deep cinnabar red.

4. Surface densely tomentose or hispid. P. occidentalis 27
4. Surface covered with a thick pad of coarse, branched

fibrils. P. leoninus 28

4. Surface of pileus not as above.

5. Context cheesy and friable, crumbly when dry; pileus

fleshy. P. sulphureus 33

5. Context floccose, soft-spongy.

6. Pileus circular, tubes as much as 3 mm. long.

P. mollicamosus 29

6. Pileus pulvinate ; tubes not exceeding 1 cm. in length.

P. colossus 30
5. Context not as above.

7. Plants largely resupinate; pileus small, buff coloured;

context pinkish buff; spores hyaline ellipsoid.

P. conchatus 31
7. Pilei well developed; context yellow or yellow brown;

spores hyaline, globose. P. anebus 34

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 255

Pileus stipitate or sub-stipitate.
8. Stipe central, arising from a false sclerotium composed

of agglutinated soil particles. P. arenosobasii* 32

8. Stipe not arising from a sclerotium.

9. Pileus and hymenium deep cinnabar red.

P. sanguineus 25
9. Pileus and hymenium not as above; yellow or orange;
plants densely imbricate; fleshy; context soft, of a
cheesv consistency and friable when dry.

P. sulphureus 33
9. Context floccose. P. colossus 30

Series III.

Context some shade of brown.

Pileus stipitate.

Surface laccate ; spores coloured, truncate.
2. Surface of pileus and stipe black, laccate.

P. nigro-lucidus 35

2. Surface of pileus and stipe a red or chestnut, laccate.

3. Mouths reddish-purple. JJ. mastoporus 36

3. Mouths white or yellowish. P. lucidus 37

Pileus sessile.

4. Surface laccate, spores coloured, truncate.

5. Mouths reddish-purple. /'. mastoporus 36

5. Mouths white or yellowish. P. lucidus 37
4. Surface not laccate; spores not truncate, hyaline or

coloured; setae absent or present.

6. Context wholly or in part brittle; setae in walls of

tubes.

7. Context of same consistency throughout and brittle;

spores coloured; setae present. P. patouillardii 39

7. Context soft above, hard and brittle below; spores

coloured, setae present. P. ochroporus 40

6. Context not brittle.

8. Setae present.

9. Surface with a dense velvety pad of reddish brown

hairs. P. tabacinus 38

9. Surface not with such a pad, minutely pubescent,

smooth to very rough. P. (jilrus 41

8. Setae absent.
10. Pileus spongy; context duplex, upper region soft and

contrasting with firm tubes ; plants most frequently

encircling twigs. P. fruticum 42

10. Pileus not as above.

11. Context purple and whole plant concolorous.

P. vinosus 43

11. Context olive brown.

12. Surface glabrous, fawn coloured to olive. P. aratus 44
12. Surface variously pubescent. Vide Trametes protect

256 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

11. Context yellowish brown or brown but not olive or
purple.

13. Surface of pileus distinctly pubescent.

14. Pileus 1 mm. or less thick; surface velvety tomentose,

umber-brown, zoned. P. phocinus 45

14. Surface azonate, with a reddish brown velvety to villous

or hirsuty pubescence. P- flexilis 46

13 Surface of pileus glabrous or minutely pubescent.

15. Pileus thin, flexible, surface with raised concentric

zones; margin thin, crenate. P. subpictilis 47

15. Pileus firm, surface not with raised concentric zones

as above.

16. Spores hyaline, globose, 3-7li diameter. P. anebus 34
16. Spores hyaline, elliptical, 5/x to 7/x by 3/x to 4/x.

P. subradiatus 48
13. Surface of pileus very rugulose and scrupose.

P. rusticus 49

1. Polyporus sacer, Fries.

Pileus orbicular 7-5 cm. to 10 cm. diain. borne on a stalk
centrally attached, 4 cm. to 10 cm. high by 7 mm. to 12 mm. diam.,
which arises from a sclerotium 6-5 cm. by 3-5 cm. ; surface of
pileus zoned, horny-encrusted, hard, rugulose, furrowed, gieyish
to dark-brown, velatinate to glabrous; context 0-75 mm. to
1-5 mm., soft, fibrous to membranous, white to yellowish; tubes
2-5 mm. long, white, changing yellowish; mouths angular, 2 to the
mm., edges firm, entire white to yellowish; spores hyaline 9/x to
13jx by 6-5/x to 7-5/x ; hyphae 4/x to 5-5/x.

Distribution. — W. Thorncroft at Barberton, Transvaal; J. M.
Wood at Durban, Natal; Col. Friend Addison at New Guelder-
land, Natal.

Recognised by the stalked, velutinate and zoned pileus arising
from a sclerotium.

2. Polyporus dictyopus, Mont.

Pileus stipitate, thin, coriaceous, orbiculate to flabelliform,
depressed, 3 cm. to 4 cm. diam. by 1 mm. thick; surface black,
glabrous, zonate, radiallv striate; margin thin, undulate to lobed ;
context white to yellowish, 0-3 mm. thick; tubes 0-7 mm. long,
white when fresh, changing to brownish, decurrent on stipe;
mouths angular 4 to 6 to the mm., edges thin becoming lacerate,
white changing to brownish; stipe excentric, black, glabrous, about
7 mm. long by 5 mm. diam., spores (teste Bresadola) hyaline,
oblong, 7fx to 8/x by 3li to 3-5/x ; hyphae 2ji to 4/x.

Distribution. — From collection in Natal, by J. M. Wood.

3. Polyporus varius, Fries.

Pileus stalked, varying in form from sub-orbicular to reniform,
flabelliform or spathulate, often lobed ; tough and leathery when
fresh, firm, hard and woody when dried, 2-4 cm. to 10-5 cm. by
2 cm. to 8 cm. by 3-7 cm. ; surface glabrous, radially striate and

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 257

smooth or rough with radial ridges, red-ochre to dark; context
white to yellowish 1-5 mm. to 5 mm., corky; tubes 0-5 mm. to
2 mm., white changing to cinnamon, decurrent on stalks; mouths
subrotund to angular, 4 to 5 to the mm., edges entire, white at
first but changing to cinnamon brown; stalk lateral or excentric
04 cm. to 4 cm. by 0-6 cm. to 2 cm., same colour as pileus and
glabrous, hyphae 2/x to 3-7 )i diam.

Distribution. — Eastern Cape Conservancy on dry Gurtisea
faginea.

In younger specimens the context appears homogenous but in
an old specimen I observed it divided into a lower dark brown
very hard and horny part and an upper lighter part.

4. Polyporus arcularius (Batsch), Fries.

Plants annual, stalked, pileus circular 0-3 cm. to 1 cm. diam.
by 1 mm. to 2 mm. thick, umbiliacate, rigid when dry, coriaceous
when fresh; surface concentrically rugose when dry, more or less
squamulose, brown, margin involute on drying, ciliated; context,
scanty white, tubes 1 mm. long, decurrent on stipe; mouths white,
discoloured in dried specimens, angular, radially elongated, averag-
ing 2 to 3 to mm. in radial direction and 1 to the mm. in axial
direction; stalk central 1-5 cm. to 2 cm. long by 0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm.
diam., hispid tomentose, brown.

Distribution. — At Durban, Natal, on decaying wood, found
by the writer.

The specimens seen by the writer were small and would have
been referred to P. arcxdariformis, Murr., which, however, appears
to be little more than a small form of P. arcularius and not speci-
fically distinct from it.

5. Poli/j)orus xanthopus, Fries.

Pileus thin, leathery, orbicular, infundibulifcrm, 4-5 cm. to
16 cm. diam. and 0-3 mm. to 1 mm. thick, borne on a short
glabrous stipe 3 mm. to 5 mm. long, which is usually centrally
attached, though at times more or less excentric, expanded at the
base into a disc ; surface zoned, multicoloured, light ochre, chestnut
red, purple brown to dark sepia-brown, glabrous; margin thin,
undulate to lobed, sterile; context 0-2 mm. to 0-8 mm. white,
fibrous; tubes exceedingly short; mouths circular 7 to the mm.;,
edges entire, white.

Distribution. — Ngoye Forest, Zululand, on wood, by W.
Haygarth and E. Ballenden ; A. Roberts at Nelspruit, Transvaal.

In specimens growing close together the pilei of separate plants
fuse.

6. Polyporus dichrous, Fries.

Pileus sessile or effused reflexed, dimidiate to conchate, imbri-
cate, coriaceous becoming firm and brittle on drying, 1 cm. to
12 cm. by 1-2 cm. to 5 cm. by 015 cm. to 0-6 cm. ; surface white
to yellowish, glabrous to velvety-villous ; context white, thin, 1 mm.
to 4 mm., soft-fibrous; tubes less than 1 mm. long, fleshy coloured

2o8 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

to reddish-purple, separable from context as a thin elastic layer
when moistened ; mouths subrotund, 6 to 7 to the mm. ; edges
■entire, reddish purple to blackish ; spores (teste Lloyd) hyaline,
.allantoic!, 4/i to 5/x by 1-5/ul ; hyphae 4/x.

Distribution. — On dry Podocarpus sp. and Rhus Icevigata in
Eastern Cape Conservancy; W. Haygarth, Ngoye forest, Zululand;
Nottingham Road, Natal, by the writer.

Recognisable by dark coloured gelatinous tubes separable from
the context.

7. Polyporus conchoides, Mont.

Pileus thin, sessile, imbricate, laterally connate, coriaceous, 6
cm. to 10 cm. by 5 cm. to 7 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 0-7 cm. ; surface
glabrous to hirsute, rough, pure white when fresh, becoming yellow-
ish; context thin. 0-5 mm. to 0-6 mm. soft-fibrous ; tubes short, 0-5
mm. or less, white, drying flesh colour, gelatinous when fresh or
moistened and separable from context as an elastic layer ; mouths
■sub-rotund to angular, 4 to 5 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire, white
become flesh colour; spores hyaline, allantoid, 4-5/x to 5/a by l/i to
1-8/x ; hyphae 3-6/x to 5 /a.

Distribution. — W. Haygarth at the Ngoye Forest, Zululand,
•on logs.

Distinguished from P. dichrous by different colour of pores.

8. Poly/porus ochroleucus, Berk.

Pileus sessile, applanate to ungulate, small, 1-4 cm. to 2 cm.
by 0-7 cm. to 1 cm. in a few specimens attached by a reduced base,
^urface yellowish-ochre, dark coloured in old specimens, rough with
appressed fibres, or smooth, indistinctly zoned; context 3 mm.,
hard, fibrous, pale yellowish, tubes 1 mm. to 4 mm. long, white
becoming yellowish; mouths circular 4 to the mm., edges entire,
thick, white, spores oblong, hyaline, truncate, 13/x to 15/x by 7-4/a :
hvphae 4/i. to 6/a diam.

Distribution. — Found saprophytic on Trie hod ad us sp. and on
■Curtisea faginea in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy by J. D.
Keet and the writer.

The hyaline, truncate, spores combined with the small size and
•colour of the pileus would serve to recognise this fungus. On the
under surface the pileus is often convex.

D. Polyporus biformis, Klotz.

Pileus sessile, effused reflexed, coriaceous, soft and pliable when
fresh, the reflexed portion dimidiate, applanate, imbricate, laterally
•confluent, 3-5 cm. to 6 cm. by 1-3 cm. to 3 cm. by 0-6 cm. to 1-3 cm. ;
surface white to yellowish-buff, rough with appressed fibrils or
rarely smooth; context soft corky, fibrous, white to yellowish,
,1 mm. to 5 mm. thick; tubes 2 mm. to 5 mm. long, white when
fresh becoming discoloured; mouths irregular, circular to angular,
1 to 2 to the mm. ; edges thin, soon breaking up into teeth; spores
hyaline, oblong, curved, 6-4/x to 7/t by 2-7/x ; hyphae 3/x to 4/x diam.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

259

Distribution. — On old logs in Eastern Cape Forest Conserv-
ancy, found by J. D. Keet and the writer; also recorded from
Natal by J. M. Wood.

The fungus can usually be recognised by its effused reflexed
pileus with rough white to tan coloured surface and relatively long
tubes the edges of which become lacerate dentate at an early age.

10. Polyporus undatus, Pers.

Plants largely resupinate with small reflexed pilei; surface-
tomentose, velvety, white becoming discoloured to a reddish-brown;
context white becoming light yellowish, fibrous corky, hard in dried
material; tubes 1 mm. to 2 mm. long, white to yellowish within;
mouths small, subrotund to irregularly angular, 6 to 7 to the mm. ;
edges white to yellowish, thin, often lacerate ; spores (according to
Lloyd) hyaline, globose, 3/x to 4ju, diam. ; hyphae 3/a to 4/x diam.

Distribution. — Saprophytic on logs at Pietermaritzburg, Natal,,
recorded by the writer.

11. Polyporus versiporus, Pers.

Plants largely resupinate, widely effused with reflexed soft
and spongy pilei 2 mm. or less thick; surface tomentose, velvety,
creamy white; context thin, white, soft-fibrous; tubes 0-3 mm. to-
2 mm., elongated on decurrent portion; mouths large, unequal,
irregularly angular, 1 to 3 to the mm.; edges thin, creamy white,
becoming lacerate, spores large, hyaline, guttulate; hvphae 4/<.
diam.

Distribution. — Pound on dead pieces of wood around Durban
by the writer. Common.

The pilei are not always developed, and in their absence the
plant would be referred to the genus Poria. The plant is recog-
nised by the short tubes with large irregularly angular months.

12. Polyporus versicolor (Linn), Fries.

Pileus thin, sessile, or effused reflexed, coriaceous, imbricate-
to single, applanate, dimidiate to orbiculate, often attenuated at
point of attachment (spuriously stipitate), 1-5 cm. to 8 cm. by
1-5 cm. by 0-1 cm. to 0-2 cm. ; surface smooth, shining, velvety to-
villous, and marked with conspicuous zones of varying colours,
from whitish to yellow, brown or black ; context thin, less than
1 mm. thick, fibrous; tubes 0-5 mm. to 2 mm. long, white to yel-
lowish; mouths circular to angular 4 to 5 to the mm. ; edges white-
to yellowish, glistening, edges thin, becoming somewhat lacerate ;
spores hyaline, smooth, oblong or allantoid, 4-6/x to 6-34/x by l-2/i;
hyphae 4/x to 9j^.

Distribution. — Common on dead logs and observed by the
writer as a wound parasite on peach trees in the Paarl and Stellen-
bosch districts, Cape Province. Rarely it is almost entirely
resupinate with a small reflexed margin.

Polystictus azureus Fr. is a form of P. versicolor with a pre-
ponderance of blue.

?6( POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

13. Polyporus hirsutulus, Schw.

Pileus thin, sessile, coriaceous, imbricate 3 cm. to 5 cm. by
2 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-2 cm.; surface greyish to ashy, zoned with a
few coloured zones, hirsute to hispid, context white, thin, tubes
less than 1 mm. long, white within; mouths subrotund to angular,
4 to 5 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire, white to yellowish, glistening.
Distribution . — Recorded by T. R. Sim at Pietermaritzburg.
Natal (in National Herb. Division Botany, Pretoria).

Close to P. versicolor from which it differs in being paler and
with more hirsute or hispid pubescence and less distinct zones.

14. Polyporus zonatus, Pries.

Pileus sessile or effused reflexed, coriaceous, applanate,
dimidiate to orbiculate, often attenuated at attachment (spuriously
stipitate) ; 1-5 cm. to 5-5 cm. by 2 cm. to 8 cm. by 01 to 0-4 cm. ;
surface marked with coloured zones as in P. versicolor, velvety to
sub-villous, context white, azonate, fibrous, 1 mm. to 2 mm. thick;
tubes white to yellowish 1-5 mm. to 2 mm.; edges long; mouths
circular to angular 2 to 4 to the mm., edges white to yellowish,
thin, becoming somewhat lacerate; hyphae 4-6/x to 8/x.

Distribution. — Very common on dead logs throughout the
Union.

This fungus is very similar to P. versicolor, and only differs
from it in thicker context, larger pore-mouths, and surface usually
not as villous as the first-named.

15. Polyporus ve/utinus, Pries.

Plants annual, sessile or reduced at attachment; pileus
dimidiate, coriaceous-corky to firm, 0-5 cm. to 3 cm. by 015 cm. to
4 cm. by 05 cm. to 0-2 cm. ; surface radially zoned to furrowed,
villous-hirtose tomentose to finely tomentose and subglabrous,
white to yellowish; context 1 mm. to 1-5 mm. thick, white to pallid,
fibrous; margin thin and at times incurved in drying; tubes less
than 1 mm. long, white to discoloured within; mouths subrotund
to angular 3 to 6 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire to lacerate, white
to umber; hyphae hyaline, 3-6/a to 8/j,.

Polyporus velutinus is close to P. pubescens from which it
differs in being thinner and having shorter tubes.

16. Polyporus hirsutus (Wulf), Pries.

Pileus dimidiate, imbricate, sessile, somewhat decurrent at
point of attachment or effused reflexed and sub-resupinate# flexible
when fresh, leathery and corky in dried material, 2 cm. to 10 cm.
by 2-5 cm. by 0-3 cm. to 1-3 cm. ; surface conspicuously hirsute,
usually concentrically sulcate and zoned, greyish, yellowish or
brownish; context white, 2 mm. to 6 mm., fibrous, soft corky;
tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long, white to yellowish; mouths 3 to 4 to
the mm.; circular to somewhat angular; edges thick, entire, white
to yellowish; hyphae 0-4/x to 7-4/x diam.

Distribution. — On dead wood, not uncommon. Geo. Thorn-
croft, Barberton, Transvaal; J. W. Bews, Pietermaritzburg,
Natal; W. J. van der Merwe, Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 261

Collections with the pores "trametoid" have also been found.
It is distinguished from P. versicolor by the hirsute surface and
the absence of multicoloured zones. Specimens of P. ochraceus
(Pers), Fr., and P. polyzonus, Ft., are referred here.

17. Poly poms pubescens (Schuni), Fries.

Plants annual, sessile; pileus applanate, dimidiate, leathery,
to corky, more firm when dry, 1-5 cm. to 6 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 4-5
cm. by 0.65 cm. to 0-9 cm., thickest behind, and slightly decurrent;
surface zoned, creamy white to greyish brown, villous-hirtose
tomentose; context 1 mm. to 6 mm. thick, white to yellowish,
zoned, fibrous, tough; tubes 1 mm. to 2 mm. long; mouths sub-
rotund, 2 to 3 to the mm. ; edges thick becoming thin and often
somewhat lacerate and denticulate; spores hyaline; hyphae 4/a to

8/A.

Distinguished from P. hirsutus by less hirsute surface and the
pore mouths becoming dentate.

18. Polyporus hirtellus, Fries.

Pileus sessile, or slightly decurrent at attachment, coriaceous,
laterally connate, 4 cm. to 5 cm. by 4 cm. to 6 cm. by 01 cm. to
0-4 cm.; surface at times sulcate, azonate or zoned, covered with a
soft cottony pubescence, white to greyish; margin thin, undulate;
context white, 0-5 mm to 1 mm. thick; tubes 1 mm. to 2 mm.
long; mouths subrotund when young becoming irregularly angular,
unequal, 1 to 3 to the mm.; edges thin, entire to denticulate, white
changing to yellow or dark brown.

Distribution. — Found by T. R. Sim at Pietermaritzburg, Natal
Province (Herb. Div. Bot., 9141); G. Hobbs, at Howick, Natal.
The fungus is recognisable by the soft- cottony pubescence.

19. Polyporus pinsitus, Fries.

Pileus thin, flexible, largely resupinate, effused-reflexed later-
ally connate, 2 cm. to 4 cm. by 05 cm. to 1-5 cm. by 003 cm. to
0-2 cm. ; surface indistinctly zoned, white to creamy or ashy, velvety
villous; context white to yellowish, 1 mm. or less thick; tubes
short, less than 1 mm. long; white changing to yellow; mouths
irregularly angular to hexagonal, 2 to 3 to the mm. ; edges thin,
white when fresh, becoming discoloured yellow; spores hyaline,
smooth, oblong 5/x by 2/a to 3/m, ; hyphae 3/a to 6/i.

Distribution . — Found on dead wood around Durban by the
writer.

This fungus is recognised by its thin flexible pileus and shallow
angular pores. The margin of the pileus is usually thin, undulate,
and incurved on drying.

20. Polyporus durbanensis, sp. n.

Plants annual, sessile or effused reflexed ; pileus dimidiate,
imbricate, applanate to conchate, laterally connate, 1 cm. to 3 cm.
by 0-5 cm. to 2-5 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-3 cm., coriaceous, tough, becom-

262 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

ing firm and rigid in drying; surface pearl to lead or ash grey,
finely tomentose pruinose, undulating, smooth becoming scabrid
and fuliginous in places; context 0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm. white to dis-
coloured, firm, corky; tubes 0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm. long; mouths
irregular, angular, 4 to 5 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire, grey
changing to yellowish; spores hyaline, globose to oblong, 4/x diam. ;
hyphae 4/x to 5-5/x.

Distribution. — Known only from around Durban where it was
collected on dead logs by the writer. (Type in Natal Herb.
P. v. d. B., No. 896.)

21. Polyporus trichiliae, sp. n.

Plants annual, sessile, or effused reflexed ; pileus dimidiate,
conchate, densely imbricate, laterally connate, 0-5 cm. to 3 cm. by
1 cm. to 2 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-9 cm. ; rigid and brittle when dry;
surface creamy white to ochraceous, finely tomentose, rugulose ;
context 1 mm. to 4 mm. thick, creamy white, firm, corky ; tubes
1 mm. to 3mm. long; mouths minute, subrotund to irregular, 5
to 6 to the mm. ; edges thick becoming thin, chamois coloured to
cinnamon; spores hyaline, smooth, ellipsoid, 5-5/x to 7/x by 3-7/x;
hyphae hyaline, simple 3-6/x to 4/x.

Distribution. — Known from a single collection on Trichilia
emetica at Durban by the writer. (Type in Natal Herbarium.
P. v. d. B., No. 897.)

22. Polyporus immaculatus, Fries.

Pileus sessile, soft, fleshy when fresh, drying fragile, dimidiate,
10 cm. bv 6 cm. by 0-8 cm., somewhat decurrent at attachment:
surface white becoming greyi.vh m old specimens, smooth, not
encrusted; context 2 to 4 mm., white becoming discoloured, soft,
fragile and crumbling when dry; tubes pure white 1 mm. to 3 mm.
long; pores subrotund to irregular, 5 to 6 to the mm. ; edges entire,
white; spores (teste Lloyd) allantoid, cylindrical, curved, 1/x by
5/x ; the under surface in some specimens is irregularly cracked.

Distribution. — Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy on Podo-
carpus log.

The crumbly context combined with the entire plant being
white when fresh will assist in recognising this fungus.

23. Polyporus robindophila (Murr), Lloyd.

Pileus sessile, dimidiate, often decurrent behind; 5 cm. to 17
cm. by 4 cm. to 7 cm. by 0-9 cm. to 4 cm. ; surface milky white, dis-
coloured with age, azonate, finely pubescent; margin thick; context
white 0-5 mm. to 3-7 mm. soft corky; tubes 1 mm. to 5 mm. long,
white, becoming yellowish; mouths circular to angular, 4 to 6 to
the mm.; edges thick, entire, white; spores globose to pyriform,
hyaline, smooth, guttulate 5-5/x to 8/x diam. ; hyphae 4/x to 8/x diam.

Distribution. — Found saprophytic on dead logs around Durban
by the writer. Mr. G. C. Lloyd remarks that the context is more
firm in my specimens than it is in the American form.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 263

24. Polyporus luteus, Nees.

Pileus stipitate, spathulate to flabelliform 1-8 cm. to 8-5 cm.
by 2 cm. to 5 cm. by 0-3 cm. to 0-7 cm., firm to more or less flexible;
surface glabrous, zoned, yellow to dark-brown; context 1 mm. to
3 mm. thick, white, fibrous, corky, firm; tubes 1 mm. to 2 mm.
long, white to yellowish within; mouths minute, circular, 5 to 6
to the mm. ; edges entire, white to yellowish, shining; stipe lateral
1 cm. long by 0-5 cm. to 1 cm. diam., disciform.

Distribution. — Recorded by W. Haygarth from the Ngoye
Forest, Zululand.

25. Polyporus sanguineus (Linn), Fries.

Pileus coriaceous, sessile, or attached by a reduced base and
substipitate, varying dimidiate, flabelliform, reniform, conchate or
circular and depressed in the centre, often imbricate and laterally
connate, 2-5 cm. to 7 cm. by 6 cm to 10 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-8 cm. ;
surface bright red, fading in old specimens to pure white, tomen-
tose to glabrous, zoned or azonate ; context 0-9 mm. to 3 mm.
thick, soft and floccose, red to yellowish-red, zoned or azonate;
tubes 0-3 mm. to 1 mm. long, concolorous; mouths angular or cir-
cular 4 to 6 to the mm. ; edges entire, bright red, fading like sur-
face; spores hyaline, globose; hyphae 3-7/x to 6ja diam.

Distribution. — A common saprophyte on dead logs and stumps
and observed growing on live Aloe sp. Distributed throughout
the Union.

The plant is recognised by its red colour throughout. Another
species with similar colour is ]'. cinnabarinus Jacq. ex Fr., which
appears to differ from P. sanguineus primarily in being thicker
and never substipitate.

The stipe varies from a mere attenuation to 2 cm. long.

26. Polyporus cinnabarinus (Jacq.) Fr.

Pileus annual, at times reviving, sessile to somewhat reflexed,
dimidiate to laterally extended, leathery, tough, becoming firm
and rigid, 3 cm. to 7-5 cm. by 2-5 cm. to 5 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 1-5
cm. ; surface azonate to indistinctly zoned, orange to cinnabar-red,
paling in old specimens like P. sanguineus, velvety, tomentose to
glabrous; context zoned, soft corky, fibrous, red to yellowish red,
0-4 cm. to 1-3 cm.; tubes 0-5 mm. to 1 mm. long, concolorous;
mouths 3 to 5 to the mm. subrotund to angular; edges entire,
cinnabar red.

Distribution. — Found around Durban and in Eastern Cape
Forest Conservancy, by the writer.

This fungus is similar to Polyporus sanguineus and differs only
in being thicker and having its context more strongly zoned.
Several collections of P. sanguineus had specimens intergrading
into this.

27. Polyporus occidentalism Klotzsch.

Pileus sessile, or effused reflexed, coriaceous to firm and rigid,
dimidiate, applanate, frequently imbricate, 6 cm. to 13 cm. by

264 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

2 cm. to 8 cm. by 01 cm. to 1 cm.; surface concentrically sulcate,
zoned, densely velvety tomentose or hirsute, varying fawn to buff,
becoming grey with age, at times tuberculate; context 0-5 mm. to

3 mm., shining, yellow, fibrous, corky, to sub-woody; tubes 1 mm.
to 4 mm. long, yellow within; mouths subrotund to irregular,
unequal, 1 to 3 to the mm.; edges thick becoming thin and some-
what lacerate, pure white when young becoming yellow as the plant
matures; spores hyaline, allantoid, 2/t by 7/a; hyphae 3/x to 7/a
diam.

Distribution . — An exceedingly common fungus on dead stumps
and logs. Recorded from Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy by
J. D. Keet ; common around Durban, by the writer; from Eshowe
by Ridgeway ; midlands of Natal, by the writer; G. Hobbs, at
Howick, Natal.

P. lanaius Fr. is hardly specifically distinct from P. occiden-
talis, and probably but a form of it ; /'. helvolus, Fr. differs from
P. occidentalis in somewhat larger pores, but this is not sufficient
to make a species; Trametts devexa, Berk., is but a thick (1 cm.
or more) trametoid form of P. occidentalis, and may occur in the
same collection

Forms with more daedaloid pores have also been observed.

28. Polyporus leoninus, Klotz.

Pileus sessile or effused reflexed, dimidiate, imbricate, laterally
connate 3-7 cm. to 13-5 cm. by 3 cm. to 7 cm. by 1-5 cm. ; surface
covered with a dense mat of coarse branched interwoven fibrils,
light to fawn coloured; context 1 mm. to 2 mm., a thin, fibrous layer
above tubes, merging in the mat of fibrils; yellowish buff; tubes
3 mm. to 4 mm. long, yellowish buff; mouths 1 to 2 to the mm. ;
angular; edges thin, irpiciform.

Distribution. — Found by H. J. Poss at Illovo, Natal; by the
writer at Durban, Natal, and Umfolosi, Zululand.

The plant is recognised by the thick dense mat of coarse fibrUs
covering the upper surface of the pilei and by the irpicoid edges
of the tubes.

29. Polyporus mollic.arnosus, Lloyd.

Pileus annual or persisting a second season, circular, 38 cm.
in diam., concave above; surface soft, pale buff to bluish green,
smooth, undulating; context soft, spongy, floccose, buff to yellowish-
buff 1 cm. to 5 cm. thick; tubes long, 0-5 cm. to 3 cm., buff
coloured; mouths reseda green, irregular, angular to elongated;
spores (teste Lloyd) smooth, very pale colour, truncate, 8/a by 12ja
to 14/a ; hyphae 4/a to 11/a.

Distribution . — A single specimen collected at Durban, Natal.

In its soft spongy context the fungus resembles P. colossus,
but differs from it in its habit, surface, long pores, spore characters,
and colour of context.

It is evidently normally an annual, though in part a second
pore layer had formed over the first.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 265

30. Polyporus colossus, Fries.

Plants large, light, annual, sessile, or substipitate; pileus
pulvinate, 32 cm. by 23 cm. by 4 cm. to 8 cm.; surface azonate,
covered with a thin cuticle which becomes fissured, yellow fading
to lighter, soft to firm corky; margin thick, rounded; context
1 cm. to 6 cm., floccose, soft spongy to corky, yellow; tubes 0-3 cm.
to 1 cm. long, soft, becomes discoloured yellow within; mouths
subrotund to angular, 2 to 3 to the mm.; edges entire, yellow in
herbarium specimens; spores (teste Lloyd) coloured, ovate, apicu-
late, truncate, rough, 12jtx by 20/a; hyphae 4/4; stipe 3 cm. long.

Distribution. — Recorded from Pretoria district, Transvaal, by
the Rev. N. Roberts (Herb. Div. Botany, 2043).

This plant is described as sessile, but the specimen above
mentioned from which the description is taken and which was sub-
stipitate is surely the same. Recognisable by large, light pileus.

31. Polyporus conduit us, Lloyd.

Plants effused reflexed to entirely resupinate; pileus conchate,
1 cm. to 6 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 1-5 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-5 cm. ; surface
pale buff, becoming darker, uneven; context firm, hard, buff with
pinkish spots, or pinky tint throughout, 1 mm. to 4 mm.; tubes,
0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm., concolorous; mouths subrotund to irregularly
angular, unequal, 2 to 3 to mm. elongated on effused portion;
spores hyaline 3-7/x to 5-5/1, by 7-4/4 to 9-3/4; hyphae 4/x to 5/4 diam. ;
setae none.

Distribution. — Found by the writer at Klapmuts, Cape Pro-
vince, on stump of Populus and known only from this collection.
The pinkish buff colour of context is peculiar. The plant would
also be looked for under Trametes. (Cotype in Natal Herbarium,
P. v. d. B., No. 358.)

32. Polyporus arenosobasus, Lloyd.

Plants annual, stipitate ; pileus circular, 8 cm. diam.; surface
with a thin pellicle, fawn coloured changing to sepia, rugulose;
context 0-1 cm. to 1 cm., fibrous, corky, firm, light yellowish; tubes
1 mm. to 3 mm. long, decurrent on stalk; mouths subrotund to
irregular, 3 to 4 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire; spores not f ound ;
hyphae 6/4 to 7-5//, diam. ; stalk arising from a false sclerotium con-
sisting of agglutinated sand; true stalk short, about 1-8 cm. diam. ;
false sclerotium 5 cm. long by 3 cm. to 4 cm. diam.

Distribution. — A single collection at Durban, Natal, by J. B.
Leslie. (Type in Nataf Herb., No. 710.)

The plant differs from others recorded in South Africa in its
false sclerotium. Polyporus tuberaster, Pers., a native of Europe,
has a similar false sclerotium. Here, as in P. arenosobasus, the false
sclerotium is composed of sand particles cemented together into a
hard body by the mycelial threads of the fungus.

33. Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.), Fries.

Pileus sessile or substipitate by a reduced base, dimidiate to
flabelliform, densely and closely imbricate, connate, fleshy and soft

3 y^

Iuj( LIBRARY

266 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

when fresh becoming more firm and rigid on drying, 7 cm. to
20 cm. by 4 cm. to 16 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 3 cm.; surface finely
tomentose to glabrous, fleshy white to lemon or orange yellow ;
margin undulate to lobed; context white to yellow, of a cheesy
consistency and friable when dry, 0-3 cm. to 2-7 cm. thick; tubes

1 mm. to 4 mm. long, readily produced on any part of the fungus
according to situation and position; mouths angular to somewhat
irregular, 2 to 4 to the mm.; edges entire, yellow or white; spores
hyaline, subglobose to oval; hyphae 7/x to 19/x, diam.

Distribution. — Observed not uncommonly as a wound parasite
on trunks of Quercus in the Stellenbosch district and around Cape
Town by the writer and in the same localities on Eucalyptus stumps
and in fire wounds on live Eucalyptus trees; collected at Knysna
by J. D. Keet.

The plant is recognisable by the densely imbricated pilei ;
fleshy nature when fresh, soft cheesy and friable consistency of
context and the ease with which pores develop on almost any part.
The writer has frequently seen the plant growing without showing
any trace of yellow, but the other characters are sufficiently dis-
tinct to aid in recognition. Fetch records from Ceylon this fungus
to be brick-red in colour, and this has also been observed in some
South African specimens, though it appears to be uncommon here.

34. Polyporus anebus, Berk.

Pileus sessile, imbricate, dimidiate, decurrent behind, at times
somewhat attenuated at attachment, 2 cm. to 5-5 cm. by

2 cm. to 3-5 cm. by 0-2 cm. by 0-5 cm., firm and rigid; surface
hard, dark fawn, indistinctly zoned, minutely pubescent, undulat-
ing and smooth to rugulose; context fibrous and corky, pale yellow
to yellow brown; 1 mm. to 2 mm.; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm.; mouths
cinnamon coloured, subrotund 5 to 6 to the mm. ; edges entire,
cinnamon coloured; spores globose, hyaline, smooth, 3-7/x diam.;
hyphae 4/j, to 7j± ; setae none.

Distribution. — Found by W. Haygarth in the Ngoye Forest,
Zululand.

35. Polyporus nigrolucidus, Lloyd.

Plants terrestrial annual, stalked; pileus circular, depressed
in centre, rarely reniform, 4 cm. to 9 cm. diam. by 5 cm., surface
black, laccate, rugulose; context whitish to brown, 1 mm. to 3 mm.
thick, soft; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long, white within; mouths
subrotund to angular 5 to 6 to the mm.; edges thin, entire, white,
becoming discoloured; spores coloured, apiculate, truncate, 4fA to
5-5/x by 6/tx to 7-5ju, ; hyphae 5-5/x to 7-5/a; stalk central, rarely some-
what excentric or lateral, or deeply rooted, 12 cm. to 20 cm. long
by 5 mm. to 7 mm. diam., interior soft.

Distribution. — Found at Durban, Natal, by J. M. Wood, and
collected here also by the writer.

Distinguished bv black laccate surface of pileus and stalk.
(Type in Natal Herbarium, No. 412.) In young specimens the

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 267

surface of the pileus is frequently dark chestnut brown in part and
in a few specimens the main stalk branched below the soil.

36. Polyporus mastoporus, Lev.

Pileus sessile or effused reflexed to laterally stipitate; surface
horny encrusted, hard and laccate with a dark chestnut brown
varnish, concentrically sulcate; context fibrous, corky, dark brown,
1 mm. to 5 mm., often separated into an upper softer and lighter
region and a lower, dark coloured and harder region just above
tubes; tubes 0-5 cm. to 2 cm. brown, hard and compact, becoming
stuffed with white; mouths circular, 4 to 5 to the mm. edges
entire, purplish brown; spores not found, according to Lloyd
truncate, smooth, coloured 5/m, by 8/j, ; hyphae 3-5/i to 5/a.

Distribution. — Recorded by W. Haygarth from the Ngoye
Forest, Zululand.

This fungus is distinguished by its hard, compact, purple
brown tubes and pore mouths, in which characters it differs from
P. lucidus; it is also more woody than P. lucid us with a thicker
and harder crust.

37. Poll/ par us lucidus (Leys), Fries.

Plants varying, substipitate, stipitate or sessile; pileus cir-
cular, dimidiate or reniform, applanate, imbricate and connate,
corky when fresh, becoming woody on drying, 10 cm. to 25 cm. by
8 cm. to 30 cm. by 1 cm. to 4 cm.; surface covered with a thin
crust, yellowish to dark chestnut brown, or red, laccate, concen-
trically sulcate, at times tuberculate, conidial bearing; margin
entire to undulate, acute; context whitish to brown, 0-5 cm. to
3 cm. thick, duplex and usually separated into an upper light
coloured and softer region and a lower darker and firmer region
above the tubes, but frequently of the same colour and texture
throughout, often hard, concentrically banded; tubes 0-3 cm. to
1-5 cm. long, brown within; mouths circular to angular, 3 to 4 to
the mm., white becoming yellowish or brown, darker on being
bruised; spores ovoid, yellowish brown, smooth to punctate and
decidedly rough, apiculate, truncate, 9/x to 11/a by 5/x to 7-4/ut ;
hyphae 4ju, to 8ju, diam. ; stipe absent or present, central to lateral,
up to 8 cm. long, laccate like tho crust.

Distribution. — A common fungus on live Salix sp. around
Pretoria, by H. F. Cuff; on live Acacia sp. in the. same locality;
on live Poinciana regia around Durban, Natal, by the writer; by
J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy on live 01 ea
verrucosa, dead Pta&royxlon utile and dead Zizyphus mucronata;
T. R. Sim on live Acacia- mollissima in midlands of Natal; on
Albizzia amara at Durban by the writer; at Howick, Natal, bv
Geo. Hobbs.

P. fulvellus, Bres. and P. sessilis, Murr. Llovd are considered
synonymous and to be sessile forms of it. Lloyd described the
South African substipitate form under the name P. capense, Lloyd.
Polyporus curtisii, Berk, is very similar to P. lucidus, but con-
sidered specifically distinct by most mycologists. The difference is

3a

268 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

recorded as being in the truncate margin of this species and that
the varnish on the surface is not persistent but disappears and
mature plants are ochre yellow.

In some young specimens of P. lucidus from a willow stem
the margin of the pileus was practically white and the surface of
the same colour, the red varnish evidently not yet having formed.

The fungus is often merely saprophytic but frequently becomes
•semi-parasitic and causes a rot in the trunks of attacked trees.
In the "South African Journal of Science," Vol. XIII, 1916, pp.
506-515, the writer described the rot of Salix trees caused by this
fungus. It is doubtful if Polyporus resinaceus, Boudier, can
always be distinguished from P. lucidus. The pileus in the
specimen seen by me was broadly attached, pulvinate and thicker
than P. lucidus, but in main characters it agrees with this fungus.

38. Polyporus tabacinus, Mont.

Pilei sessile, conchate, thin, flexible when fresh, often imbri-
cate, decurrent behind, 1-9 cm. to 7 cm. by 2 cm. to 4 cm. by
0-2 cm. to 0-5 cm.; surface concentrically zoned with raised zones,
velvety with thick coat of fine hairs, dark chestnut brown ; context
scanty, about 0-3 mm., fibrous, chestnut brown; tubes 1 mm. to
1-5 mm. long, lighter than context; mouths angular 4 to 6 to the
mm.; edges thin, dark coloured, brownish drab; setae present,
dark brown, 21jn to 28/x long, tapering to a point.

Distribution. — Found by W. Haygarth in Ngoye Forest,
Zululand.

Differs from other fungi described in this paper in the colour
and thick velvety pad on the surface. P. iodinus, Mont, is close
to P. tabacinus, and differs in the pore mouths being somewhat
larger. Polystictus spadiceus, Jungh. differs from P. tabacinus
only in being firmer and is considered synonymous.

39. Polyporus patouiUardii , Rick.

Pileus sessile, applanate, 5 cm. by 5 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 3 cm. ;
surface with a thin reddish black crust, rugulose, hard; context
dark brown, brittle, 1 mm. to 2mm. thick, shining; tubes 3 mm.
to 7mm. long, yellowish brown, with rigid, coloured hyphae in the
walls, simple to bipid; mouths minute, subrotund 3 to 4 to the
mm.; edges thick, entire, creamy white to yellowish; spores hyaline
in this specimen which is immature (teste Lloyd), elliptical, pale
coloured, 4ia to 6ju,; setae brown, scattered, projecting 18jj, to 24ia,
10/a diam. in thickest part; hyphae 4/x to 8ia.

Distribution. — Found on live Scolopia mundii, in Eastern Cape
Forest Conservancy, by J. D. Keet.

The dark brown brittle context combined with the presence of
rigid coloured hyphae in the pore walls would aid in the recog-
nition of this fungus. In the South African collection the rigid
brown hyphae in the pore walls and the setae are both present,
but this is evidently a varying character, for Mr. C. G. Lloyd
records specimens from Australia where both the setae and the
"igid coloured hyphae were absent.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 269

40. Polyporus ochro-porus, sp. n.

Pileus sessile, convex above, thickest behind, 5-5 cm. by

4 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 2-5 cm.; surface brown, soft, minutely pube-
scent; context 0-5 cm. to 2-3 cm., soft, tough, yellowish-brown above,
dark-brown and brittle below, zonate, shining; tubes 1mm. to 7 mm.
long, ochre yellow, brittle, rigid brown hyphae in the walls;
mouths angular, averaging 2 to the mm., edges thin, entire to
dentate, concolorous with tubes, changing to brown; spores lightly
coloured, subglobose to elliptical, 4/x to 5/x by 5/x to 7-5/x ; setae
scanty 15/x to 21/x.long by 4/x to 7/x diam. ; hyphae 4/x to 8/x.

Distribution. — A single collection from a stump in Eastern
Cape Forest Conservancy was made by the writer. (Type in Natal
Herbarium, P. v. d. B., No. 115.)

The plant is evidently related to P. patouillardii, but with
different surface, different colour of mouths, duplex context, larger
pore mouths and thinner setae. The rigid hyphae in the walls of
the tubes are less abundant than in the specimens of /'. patouil-
lardii.

41. Polyporus gilvus (Schw.), Fries.

Pileus sessile, effused reflexed to entirely resupinate, often
imbricate, dimidiate, 3 cm. to 11 cm. by 2 cm. to 4 cm. by 0-2 cm.
to 2 cm., coriaceous to firm and rigid, annual or reviving; surface
yellowish-brown or reddish-brown, often more or less zoned, pube-
scent when young, soon becoming glabrous and usually rough
with stiff projections; context yellowish brown, corky or woody, at
times distinctly zoned, 0-1 cm. to 1-5 cm. thick; tubes 1 mm. to

5 mm. long, reddish brown ; mouths circular to angular, 6 to 7 to
the mm., edges entire, reddish brown or darker; setae present,
dark brown, 19-8/x to 26-4/x long, tapering to a point; spores
hyaline, smooth, ellipsoid, 3/x to 4/x by 5/x to 6/x.

Distribution. — A common saprophyte on dead branches,
stumps and logs. Found at Fountains, Pretoria, Transvaal, by
the writer; on dead Quercus branch in Eastern Cape Forest Con-
servancy by J. D. Keet; on Acacia melanoxylon in the Willowdale
plantation, Transkei by Kunn; common around Durban, Natal,
by the writer; at Howick, Natal, by G. Hobbs.

The surface of the plants varies from almost smooth to exceed-
ingly rough. The rough forms may be classified as P. scrupostis,
Fr., but this is not specifically distinct from P. gilvus, the surface
varying in one and the same collection from almost smooth to
rough. Trametes isidioides, Berk, reported from Natal and the
Cape is synonymous with the "scrupose" form of P. gilvus.

42. Polyporus fniticum, Berk, and Curt.

Pileus sessile, generally encircling twigs, 3-7 cm. diam. by
2 cm. thick, or larger, soft spongy, annual or reviving; surface
azonate, tomentose, yellowish buff to brown; context rusty-brown,
soft spongy, 0 3 cm. to 1-4 cm., with region next to tubes firmer;
tubes 1 mm. to 2-5 mm., rusty-brown, firm; mouths angular to

270 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

irregular, 3 to 4 to the mm.; edges thin rusty-brown; spores sub-
globose, smooth, pale coloured 3-7/i diam. ; hyphae 2-8/x to 7-4/i,
diam. ; in upper more loose region richly septate and branched, in
firmer region more compact and on the average thinner.

Distribution. — Recorded by W- Haygarth, from Krantzkloof,
Natal, on a Rubiaceous plant.

Recognisable by spongy pileus, its usual habit of encircling
branches and the contrast between the soft spongy upper context
tissue and the firm tubes.

43. Polyporus vinosus, Berk.

Pileus thin, sessile, dimidiate, often imbricate, laterally
connate and decurrent, 1 cm. to 2-5 cm. by 0-7 cm. to 1-7 cm. by
0-5 cm to 0-7 cm.; surface velvety to glabrous, vinous purple; con-
text vinous purple, 5 mm. or less thick, corky, firm; tubes short,
1 mm. or less; mouths angular, 5 to 7 to the mm.; edges thin,
entire, vinous purple; spores hyaline, allantoid, 4p to 4-5/x by
1-5/x; hyphae 3-5jm.

Distribution. — Found in Natal on old stumps at Schroeders
and around Pietermaritzburg by the writer.

The plant is recognisable by its vinous purple colour and short
tubes.

44. Polyporus aratus, Berk.

Pileus sessile, coriaceous to firm and rigid, dimidiate, decurrent
behind, less frequently imbricate, 3-5 cm. to 20 cm. by 2 cm. to
9 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 2 cm. ; surface fawn coloured to olive, glabrous,
smooth or dotted with tubercles and rough, often concentrically
zoned or sulcate with raised ridges; context, 0-5 cm. to 1-5 cm.,
dark olive brown, zoned, corky, firm; tubes short, 0-2 mm. to
0-4 mm. ; mouths circular to angular, 3 to 4 to the mm. ; edges
thick or thin, darker fawn than surface, changing to a dark olive
brown; spores hyaline, 5-5/a to 7 4/x by 3-7/x; hyphae 3-4/a; setae
none.

Distribution. — A common fungus on dead logs or stumps.
Recorded b}' J. D. Keet and the writer in the Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy; W. Haygarth, in the Ngoye Forest, Zululand; the
writer around Durban and at Schroeders, Natal; G. Hobbs, at
Howick, Natal.

A variable fungus. Stalked forms have been recorded though
none have thus far come to the writer's notice. The fungus perhaps
is better known under the name P. luteo-olivaceous, Berk., which
is regarded as synonymous.

45. Polyporus phocinus, Br. and Berk.
Polystictus phocinus, Br. and Berk.

Plants thin, largely or entirely resupinate, effused, with thin,
coriaceous, reflexed pilei, about 0-5 mm. thick; surface zoned,
velvety tomentose, slightly furrowed, umber brown; tubes about

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 271

0-3 mm. long; mouths subrotund to angular, 2 to 3 to the mm.;
edges thick, entire, stone colour (greyish fawn); spores hyaline,
smooth, 3/x to 4jj, by 4ju. to 7/a.

Distribution. — Common on logs around Durban, collected by
the writer.

Recognised by its extreme thinness and umber brown, zoned,
velvety surface.

The plant is described as "subflabelliform" but all the speci-
mens seen by the writer have been largely resupinate, but in spite
of this different habit they ere referred here. Even in the
resupinate region the fungus is frequently not attached to the
substratum by its entire under surface, but by "nodular" swellings
which arise at irregular intervals.

P. caperatus, Berk., is close to the above but thicker, and this
appears to be the main and only distinction between the two.

46. Polyporus flexilis, sp. n.

Plants eff used-reflexed ; pileus coriaceous, imbricate, tough, at
times conchate, laterally extended, connate, 1 cm. to 7 cm. by
1 cm. to 1-5 cm. bv 0-1 cm. to 0-5 cm.; surface with a brown
velvety to hirsute pubescence, azonate ; margin thin, acute, often
turned upwards; context soft and spongy to corky, 1 mm. to 4 mm.,
umber brown, shining, fibrous; tubes 0-3 mm. to 1 mm. long, con-
colorous with context, elongated on effused portion; mouths sub-
rotund to elongated or angular, 2 to 3 to the mm. ; edges entire,
thin, brown; hyphae simple 4/x to 5ju,.

Distribution. — Found at Pietermaritzburg, Natal, on log, by
the writer.

The plant is related to Polystictus zelanicus, and differs from
Trametes protea, Berk., in colour of context. (Type in Natal
Herbarium, P v. d. B., No. 810.)

47. Polyporus snbpictilis, P. Henn.
Polystictus subj/icti/is, P. Heim.

Pileus sessile, thin, coriaceous, attenuated at back, applanate,
flabelliform, 2 cm. to 4 cm. by 3 cm. by 0-03 cm. to 0-2 cm. ; surface
hard, brown, with raised concentric zones; margin thin, undulate
crenate; context yellowish brown 0-25 mm. to 0-5 mm., fibrous,
tough; tubes 0-25 mm. to 15 mm. long; mouths 3 to 4 to the mm.
angular; edges thin, entire, dark brown; spores not found; hyphae
4/z, to 5/x diam. ; setae none.

Distribution. — Found in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy by
J. D. Keet,

From P. anebus it differs in beins: thinner, flexible, and having
raised concentric zones.

48. Polyporus snbradiatus, Lloyd.

Pileus sessile, dimidiate, firm, decurrent behind, 1-3 cm. to
3 cm. by 1 cm. to 2 cm. by 0-3 cm.; surface inconspicuously zoned,
yellowish brown, smooth, velvety tomentose becoming glabrous, at
times dark brown and more or less regulose; context yellowish

272 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

brown, 1 mm. to 2 mm., fibrous, corky; tubes 1 mm. or less;
mouths subrotund, 5 to 6 to the mm. ; edges entire, yellowish
brown or dark brown; spores hyaline, elliptical, 5/x to 7ju. by 3/x to
3-7/x; hyphae 4/x diam. ; setae absent.

Distribution. — Found by A. Roberts, on Eucalyptus log at
Steynsdorp, Transvaal.

Distinguished from P. aratus by different context colour and
from P. subpictilis by being thicker, velvety tomentose, and having
on the average smaller and subrotund pore-mouths. The fungus
was originally named by Mr. C. G. Lloyd from specimens forwarded
him by Prof. A. Yasudu from Japan.

49. Polyporus rusticus, Lloyd.

Plants annual, sessile; pileus corky, firm, rigid, circular to
dimidiate 1-5 cm. to 4 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 2 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 0-6 cm. ;
surface grey, rugulose, scrupose; context 3 mm. to 4 mm. fibrous,
tough, corky, dark brown; margin acute, thick; tubes 1 mm. to
2 mm. lone:, lighter than context; mouths irregular, angular to
elongated, approximating 2 to 3 to the mm. elongated as much
as 2 mm.; edges thick, firm; spores (teste Lloyd) hyaline, cylin-
drical, obliquely apiculate, 3-5/x by 8/j,; setae absent; hyphae 4jm,
diam.

Distribution. — Single collection from Pine stump at Klapmuts,
C.P. made by the writer. (Cotype in Natal Herbarium, P. v. d. B.
No. 387.)

The rough scrupose surface is peculiar. The pore mouths are
frequently much elongated, and would suggest that the fungus
may possibly occur in the lenzitoid form.

Fomes (Fr.) Gill.

Plants epixylous, typically perennial ; pileus sessile, usually
woody, rarely corky, effused reflexed to applanate or ungulate,
rarely entirely resupinate; surface with or without a crust, often
rimose; context white, purple or some shade of brown, most fre-
quently woody, in some (Fames connatus) corky; tubes in a
definite layer, a new layer forming for each successive year of
growth, the successive layers at times separated by context tissue;
mouths circular or angular (never daedaloid, irpiciform, or lenzi-
toid), white, red, or brown; spores hyaline, or coloured, in a
limited number truncate; setae absent or present.

The genus is characterised by the successive pore strata corre-
sponding to the years of growth of the pileus; some perennial poly-
pores are included in Trametes which see.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

1. Context white, though darkening in old specimens, spores
hyaline; setae absent.

2. Tubes more or less concolorous with context.

3. Pileus corky; successive layers of tubes separated by

context tissue, mouths subrotund and glistening.

F. connatus 1

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 273

3. Pileus Avoody; surface horny encrusted, hard, succes-

sive pore-layers not separated by context tissue.

F. hornodermus ■ 2
2. Tubes dull brick-red contrasting with white context.

F. geotropus 3

1. Context coloured; spores hyaline or coloured; setae absent
or present

4. Context purple-brown, setae absent, spores hyaline.

F. melamoporus 4

4. Context yellow-brown or dark brown but not purple.

5. Spores hyaline, setae present.

6. Pileus thin, less than 2 cm., setae abundant, spores

4/x to 6/x cliam. F. conchatus 5

6. Pileus more than 2 cm. thick.

7. Spores large, 7/x to 7-5/a diam.; setae scanty.

F. robust us 6

7. Spores 3/x to 4/x diam., setae scanty. F. robinsoniae 7
5. Spores coloured. Not truncate.

8. Setae absent.

9. Pileus thin, applanate, surface with raised concentric

ridges, mouths 7 to 9 to the mm. F. pectinatus 8

9. Pileus large, ungulate or applanate, surface more or
less rough and rimose; mouths 5 to 6 to the mm.,
spores subglobose 4/x to 5tt diam. F. rimosus 9

9. Pileus subresupinate, spores globose to elliptical, 3-7/x,

to 5/x or 3-7/j, diam. F. McGregori 10

8. Setae present.
10. Pileus applanate, surface closely sulcate with raised
ridges, velvety tomentose, pore mouths 8 to 9 to the
mm. F. senex 11

10. Pileus applanate or ungulate; surface rimose and

rough; pore mouths 5 to 7 to mm. F. yucatanensis 12
5. Spores coloured, truncate; setae absent.

11. Mouths bright yellow. F. oroflavus 13
11. Mouths white. F. applanatus 14

1. Forties connatus (Weinm) Gill.

Pileus corky to woody, perennial, sessile, largely resupinate,
effused-reflexed or imbricate, 4 cm. to 8 cm. by 8 cm. to 16 cm.
by 1-5 cm. to 10 cm.; surface velvety tomentose to glabrous, not
encrusted, white becoming jrellowish or darker with age; context
soft corky, white; tubes in distinct strata, 1 to 3 mm. long each
season, and the successive strata separated from each other by a
layer of context tissue; mouths angular, 4 to 5 to the mm.; edges
entire white or yellowish, glistening, spores not found; hyphae
2-5/a to 4/i,.

Distribution. — Found on live Curtisia faginea by J. D. Keet
in the Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy.

274 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The fungus can be recognised by the context tissue between
the pore strata and the glistening of the mouths of the tubes.
Often the tubes are more yellowish than the context tissue and the
strata then show up especially well.

2. Fames hornodermus (Mont) Cke.

Pileus hard, woody, pereunial, sessile, dimidiate, plane above
and convex below or ungulate 4 cm. by 7 cm. by 11 cm.; surface
smooth, sulcate, dark-brown to black, horny encrusted and becom-
ing rimose with age; context white becoming pale-umber, woody,
1 mm. to 4 mm. thick but often exceedingly scanty; tubes 4 mm.
to 9 mm. long each season, white; mouths minute, subrotund,
3 to 4 to the mm. ; edges entire, white to yellowish; spores hyaline,
ovoid, 3-7/a to 6-4/a by 7/a to 9-2ju,; hyphae 4jm to 5-5/x.

Distribution. — On undetermined host from Eshowe, Zululand,
by G. W. Hyslop; on Ocotea bullata in Lusikisiki Forest, Pondo-
land (Herb. Div. Bot. , Pretoria, No. 6936); from Rhodesia by C.
Swynnerton.

The hard, horny encrusted surface combined with the hard
white tubes and woody context serves to distinguish this fungus
from others which may resemble it externally.

3. Fomes geotropus, Cke.

Pileus, large, hard and woody, up to 10 cm. thick, conchate;
surface rough, concentrically sulcate, white to cream coloured;
context corky to wood)'', white in fresh material changing to yel-
lowish in herbarium specimens, 4 cm. thick; tubes 0-2 cm. to
1-5 cm. long each season, stratified (in one South African specimen
the strata of successive years were separated from each other by
context tissue), dull brick-red fading in older layers; mouths
minute, subrotund 4 to 5 to the mm. : edges entire, bright coloured
when fresh; spores hyaline, globose, thick walled, 7/x diam; hyphae
3-7^.

Distribution. — Recorded from Umtata, Pondoland, on live
Podocarpus sp. ; and by J. D. Keet from Knysna, on live Ocotea
bullata; from Rhodesia by C. Swynnerton.

Recognised by the contrast in colour of context and tubes.
The existence of layers of context tissue separating the pore-strata
of successive years is not reported from elsewhere for this fungus
and is probably merely a growth condition.

4. Fomes melanoporus (Mont) Cke.

The specimens of this plant found in Africa by the writer
have all been resupinate and formed masses 9 cm. to 12 cm. or
more across and 01 cm. to 1 cm. thick, with thin rounded or acute
velvety margins; context purple to brown to dark reddish violet,
shiny, fibrous, becoming very hard and horny, 2 mm. or more
thick; tubes distinctly stratified, 2 mm. to 3 mm. long each season,
purple-brown fading to lighter; mouths subrotund to angular 5
to 6 to the mm.; edges entire, reddish violet to smoky black,

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 275

fading out in old specimens to an almost grey ; spores not found ;
according to Lloyd hyaline, smooth and about 3/a by 4/i; hyphae
3-7/a to 5-5/a diam.

Distribution. — Found by the writer at Schroeders and
Crammond, Natal Province, on undetermined logs.

The plant is recognisable by its purplish brown, hard, context?
tissue and in fresh young specimens by the whole plant being
smoky black, a colour unusual amongst Fomes. In regions of one
collection there was context tissue between the successive pore
strata.

The context colour in South African collections is somewhat
lighter than type material. Fomes comu-bovis described by Cooke
from India is the same plant- and he records it as forming large
masses, such as the writer has observed.

5. Fomes conchatus (Pers), Gill.

Pileus perennial, woody, thin, effused reflexed, dimidiate to
conchate, and at times entirely resupinate, 3-5 cm. to 10 cm. by
3 cm. to 8 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 1-3 cm.; surface yellowish to greyish
brown becoming almost black with age, zoned or concentrically
sulcate and when young tomentose, becoming glabrous with age;
context yellowish-brown to dark-brown, 1 mm. to 5 mm. thick,
woody; tubes indistinctly stratified, 1 mm. to 3 mm. long each
season, concolorous; mouths subrotund 5 to 7 to the mm.; edges
entire, yellowish-brown to dark brown; setae abundant, dark
brown, 14/x to 28/x by 7ju, ; spores hyaline, globose, 4/x to 6/x; hyphae
2/x to 3-5jul diam.

Distribution. — Recorded by T. R. Sim on Melia azedarach at
Pietermaritzburg, Natal; at Howick, Natal, by Geo. Hobbs ; bv
J. B. Leslie and the writer around Durban; mostly on dead
trunks and logs.

6. Fomes robustus, Karsten.

Pileus woody, perennial, sessile, ungulate (in maldeveloped
forms, resupinate) ; surface hard, brown becoming black and
rimose ; context woody 1 mm. to 3 mm. thick, bright yellowish-
brown; tubes 1 mm. to 2-5 mm. long each season, concolorous with
context, becoming stuffed in older layers; mouths subrotund 5 to
6 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire, yellowish-brown ; spores globose,
hyaline, 7/x to 7-5/x diam.; setae few, dark brown, 21/x to 28/x long,
tapering to the point; hyphae 4/u,.

Distribution. — Recorded by J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy on Olea laurifolia and Xymalos monospora (dead) ;
K. A. Lansdell at Bulwer, Natal.

7. Fomes robinsoniae (Murrill), Lloyd.

Pileus perennial, woody, dimidiate, applanate, slightly decur-
rent behind, 10 cm. by 7 cm. by 1 cm. to 3 cm.; surface hard,
yellowish-brown, sulcate, becoming dark coloured, often tuber-
culate and rough; context yellowish brown 1 mm. to 5 mm. thick,
woody; tubes indistinctly stratified, 1 mm. to 3 mm. long each

276 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

season, concolorous with context, mouths subrotund approximating
4 to the mm.; edges entire, thick, brown; spores hyaline, globose,
3/x to 4/a diam.; setae scanty, straight to curved at apex; hyphae
4/a diam.

Distribution. — Found by J. B. Keet, Knysna, Cape Province,
on Gymnosporia jteduncularis.

Differs from Fomes rimosus in presence of setae and hyaline
spores and from Fomes robustus in smaller spores; from Fomes
yucatanensis it differs in its hyaline spores. None of the specimens
seen by me were rimose. In the original description setae are said
to be absent, and I believe Mr. C. G. Lloyd was the first who
recorded them in this species.

8. Fomes pectinatus (Klotz) Cke.

Pilei thin, woody, perennial, sessile, imbricate, triquetrous,
flabelliform or dimidiate, applanate, somewhat decurrent behind,
2 cm. to 12 cm. by 1-7 cm. to 9 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-4 cm.; surface
repeatedly slightly sulcate with close concentric raised ridges, yel-
lowish brown to brown, often somewhat tuberculate, velvety,
becoming glabrous and black with age, not rimose; context thin,
woody, 01 mm. or less thick, yellowish-brown to dark brown; tubes
indistinctly stratified, 0-9 mm. to 1-2 mm. long each season, con-
colorous with context; mouths circular, 7 to 9 to the mm.; edges
thin, entire, yellowish-brown to dark-brown; spores not found;
setae none; hyphae 2-8jx to 3-7/x diam.

Distribution. — Recorded from Eastern Cape Forest Con-
servancy and Nottingham Road, Natal, by the writer.

Recognised by the thin pilei, with the closely concentric ridges
on the surface.

9. Fomes rimosus (Berk.) Cke.

Pileus hard and woody, perennial, sessile, dimidiate, applanate
to ungulate, frequently very large 3 cm. to 73 cm. by 3 cm. to
36 cm. by 1-5 cm. to 28 cm.; surface velvety and yellowish brown,
concentrically sulcate, soon becoming glabrous, black and very
much rimose and ragged; margin yellowish brown, velvety; con-
text yellowish brown to rusty brown, woody, 0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm.
thick; tubes in indistinct strata, 2 to 6 mm. long each season;
mouths minute, circular, 3 to 6 to the mm.; edges entire, thick,
vellowish brown to dark brown, velvety to rough; spores globose
to slightly oval, 4-35/x to 5/x diam., rusty brown; setae none;
hyphae 3/a to 4/j, diam.

Distribution. — This is one of the commonest South African
Polyporeae and has been found on a large number of different hosts.
It is recorded by J. D. Keet from Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy
on Ptaeroxylon utile, Scholia latifolia, Rhus laevigata, Fleurostyla
sp., Curtisea faginea, Scolojna m/undii, Kiggelaria africana,
Xi/malos monospora, Olea la uri folia ; A. Legat on Eloeodendron
croceum at Knysna; from the Transvaal on Acacia sp. ; undeter-

POLY.POREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 277

mined host by A. Hall (Herb. Div Bot., Pretoria, No. 9751); from
Karkloof, Natal, by E. Piatt; also from Pondoland ; Howick,
Natal, by G. Hobbs.

Forties badius, Berk, is considered as a smooth form of
F. rimosus with lighter surface and larger pores than is typical for
the latter, but it is not sufficiently distinct from it.

The fungus differs from Forties robustus in its coloured spores
and absence of setae and from Fames yucatanensis, which it
resembles externally, in the absence of setae.

It is one of the most serious forest fungi in South Africa,
causing a "heart-rot" in the trees attacked. In the "Transactions
Royal Society of South Africa," Vol. VI, p. 215, the "heart-rot^'
of "Sneeze-wood" (Ptaeroxylon utile) caused by this fungus is
described.

10. Fames McGregori, Bres.

Pileus subresupinate, woody, 2 cm. to 4 cm. thick; surface
closely concentrically sulcate, brown and velvety becoming black
and rough with age, context woody, dark-brown; tubes in distinct
strata 1 mm. to 4 mm. long each season, deep-brown becoming
filled with hyphae and lighter in colour; mouths subrotund to
somewhat angular, 4 to 6 to the mm.; edges entire, dark-brown;
spores subglobose to ellipetical, lighter brown, 3-7/x diam. to 3-7/x.
to 5-5/ui ; setae none.

Distribution.— Recorded by J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Con-
servancy, on Rhus laevigata, Scolopia mundii, and Trichocladus sp.

In colour of context this is close to F. pecfinatus from which
it differs in its subresupinate habit; from E. rimosus it differs in
its habit, darker context colour and colour of spores which are
smaller and elliptical. The tubes are also shorter and the whole
sporophore more closely grained. I doubt if Forties caryophylli,
Rac. is really different from above. The spores in the latter are
•given as globose and in the former as elliptical, but in specimens
examined by me they varied from globose to elliptical, and for this
reason they are referred as above.

11. Forties senex. (Nees & Mont) Cke.

Pileus large, woody, perennial, sessile, applanate, broadly
attached and decurrent behind; 5 cm. to 35 cm. by 3 cm. to 20 cm.
by 0-3 cm. to 3 cm. surface closely concentrically sulcate with small
raised ridges, at times tuberculate and rough, brown, hard, velvety
tomentose, becoming glabrous and lighter with age; context scanty,
2 mm. thick, dai'k-brown, woody, tubes indistinctly stratified,
1 mm. to 1-5 mm. long each season, concolorous with or lighter
than context; mouths minute, circular, 8 to 9 to the mm., edges
entire, darker than tubes, velvety to touch; spores not found,
according to Lloyd globose, 5/x diam. deeply coloured, hyaline when
young; setae brown, 21 /a to 28/a long tapering to a point; hyphae
3/a to 4fi.

Distribution. — Recorded by G. Thorncroft, Barberton, Trans-
vaal; E. M. Doidge, on Sizygium sp. in the Woodbush, Trans-

278 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

vaal (Herb. Div. Bot., Pretoria, No. 1724); W. Haygarth, in the
Ngoye Forest, Zululand ; Mrs. Reynolds, at Pietermaritzburg,
Natal; J. B. Leslie and the writer, around Durban, Natal.

This is quite a common plant in South Africa. It is a larger,
thicker, and heavier plant than F. conchatus, and the surface
closely sulcate with small raised ridges.

12. Forties yucatanensis (Murr.) Sacc.

Pileus large, woody, perennial, sessile, dimidiate, applanate
or ungulate, 6 cm. to 40 cm. by 4 cm. to 14cm. by 5 cm. to 13 cm.;
surface at first velvety, yellowish-brown but later glabrous, dark-
brown to black and soon becoming very rimose ; context hard and
woody, 0-4 cm. to 0-8 cm., yellowish-brown; tubes stratified 1-5 mm.
to 3 mm. long each season, concolorous ; mouths circular 5 to 7 to
the mm.; edges entire yellowish-brown or darker, velvety to touch;
spores subglobose to globose, yellowish-brown, 3/x to 5/x; setae
present, dark-brown 17ju, to 28/x long, tapering to a point.

Distribution. — Recorded in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy
on live Olea sp. by .T. D. Keet; around Pretoria, Transvaal, by
A. Roberts on dead branch; on live Trema bracteolafa around
Durban, Natal, by the writer.

Externally this plant is very similar to F. rimosus, from which
it is, however, distinguished by the presence of setae. From
F. rob ust us it differs in its smaller and coloured spores.

13. Fomes oroflavus, Lloyd.

Pileus perennial, sessile, applanate, 16 cm. by 10 cm. by 8 cm. ;
surface horny, encrusted, reddish, sulcate, conidial bearing; con-
text dark-brown, corky to somewhat hard, 4 mm. or more thick;
tubes 0-5 to 1 cm. long each season, brown, older becoming blocked
up with hyaline hyphae; mouths circular, 4 to the mm., edges
entire, bright yellow; spores yellowish-brown, truncate, obovate,
echinulate, 7-4ju, to 11/x by 7-4/a to 9ju, ; hyphae 3/x, to 5-3/u, diam. ;'
setae none.

Distribution. — Recorded by P. J. Pienaar on Podocarpus
thunbergii at Knysna, Cape. (Herb. Div. Bot., Pretoria, No. 2338.)

Except for the yellow pore mouths this plant is like Fomes
applanatus. So far I have only seen the above recorded specimen
and it is evidently not common. If it is merely a variation of
F. applanatus it would appear strange that it should not be more
common.

14. Fomes applanatus (Pers) Wallr.

Pileus frequently large, woody, perennial, applanate to ungu-
late, 10-5 cm. to 42 cm. by 10 cm. to 22 cm. by 2 cm. to 10 cm. ;
surface horny encrusted, greyish, reddish to drab-brown, sulcate,
at time tuberculate, opaque to subshining, conidial bearing; con-
text rusty to dark bay-brown, floccose, soft corky to hard, 0-5 cm.
to 3 cm. thick ; tubes in strata (the layers of successive years at
times separated by context tissue), 0-5 cm. to 2 cm. long each
season, dark-umber-brown, becoming stuffed with hyaline hyphae;

P0LYP0REAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 279

mouths minute, circular, 3 to 4 to the mm. ; edges entire, white
when fresh, dark-umber in old or bruised collections; spores
obovate, truncate with thick walls, smooth to punctate or echinu-
late 6-6/ul to 8/i< by 8-3/i. to 10/x; hyphae 3jx to 6^.

Fames vegetus (Fr.) Cke. is a form of F. applanatus with
context tissue between the annual pore layers, but hardly a distinct
species. It is a growth condition. Fomes leucophaeus (Mont) Cke.
is a form with lighter surface colour. Fomes austral is (Fr.) Cke.,
the name by which this fungus is perhaps better known in South
Africa, is held to have a harder crust, scantier context, and longer
pores than typical F. applanatus. These characters, however,
intergrade and varv so much that it is difficult to know where and
how to draw the line. I do not think it can be considered a dis-
tinct species. When growing at the base of trees and partly
covered up with debris, a stipitate form of this fungus has often
been met with. In form and shape they agree with Polyporus
gibbosus, Nees, but only an examination of the type material of
Nees can decide the identity of his fungus.

Fomes annularis, Lloyd, differs from typical F. applanatus in
its ungulate, pendent pileus with concentric raised annular rings.
It is a common form in South Africa. The form is peculiar
amongst the Fomes and it is probably best considered as merely a
growth variety of F. applanatus.

Distribution. — Fomes applanatus is the commonest species of
the genus in South Africa, and occurs throughout the country. In
the Eastern Cape Conservancy J. D. Keet collected it on Olea lauri-
folia, Rhus laevigata, Curtisea faginea, Acacia mollissima, Celtis
hraussiana ; W. Haygarth has it from the Ngoye Forest, Zululand.
In the Lusikisiki Forest, Pondolond. it has been found on Olea
laurifolia (Herb. Div. Bot., Pretoria, No. 6940); in the Transvaal
on live Pyrus com munis, bv the writer; in Natal it has been found
on Podocarpus sp. in the Hlatikulu Forest, and also on stumps of
Acacia mollissima and on live Albizzia fastigiata at Durban.

Typical specimens of var. "annularis" are from Olea laurifolia
at the Kologa Forest, Stutterheim, Cape, and on the same host in
Pondoland. W. Haygarth collected it also in the Ngov,e Forest,
Zululand, and I. B. Pole-Evans obtained it on Ciinonia. caqiends
at the National Botanic Gardens, Cape Town.

The fungus is a facultative parasite and causes considerable
damage to Olea laurifolia and other trees.

In the "South African Journal of Science," Vol. XIV, p. 485,
the writer dealt with the effect of this fungus on Olea laurifolia.

Trametes, Fries.

Plants epixylous, annual or perennial, sessile; pileus corky to
woody, flexible to firm ; context white, yellow, lilac, olive or some
shade of brown, corky, tough to woody, descending into and form-
ing the walls of the tubes; tubes typically appear sunken to
unequal depths in context tissue so that their bases are not in a

280 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

continuous line; mouths circular to angular, rarely becoming
daedaloid (e.g., Trametes obstinatus), edges entire, rarely toothed;
spores hyaline; in Tr. albotexta lightly coloured.

The main characteristics of the genus are the unequal depths
of the tubes and the homogeneous texture of context and tube
tissue. These characters combined give the tube an appearance of
being sunk in the context tissue. Some difficulty may at time be
experienced in deciding between Trametes and Polyporus, and
some species of the latter (cf. P. occidentalis) at times show thick
trametoid forms.

KEY TO TEE SPECIES.

1. Context white.

2. Pileus one cm. or less thick.

3. Surface black, discoloured with age but black spots

usually remaining. Tr. cingtdata 1

3. Surface white or whitish, minutely pubescent.

Pileus applanate. Tr. glabrescens 2

Pileus effused-reflexed or largely resupinate.

Tr. varians 3
2. Pileus more than 1 cm. thick.

4. Pileus rarely imbricate; spores large, guttulate.

Vide P. robintiophila, p. 262.

4. Pilei imbricate, spores subglobose, 5-5^ to 8(x diam.

5. Surface hard. Tr. sycomori 4

5. Surface soft, densely tomentose when young.

Tr. lactinea 5

1. Context olive brown. Tr. protect 6

1. Context purple. Tr. violacea 7

1. Context lilac-mauve. Tr. griseo-lilacina 8

1. Context brown but not olive or purple.

6. Setae present. Tr. Jceetii 9

6. Setae absent.

Context reddish brown.

7. Tissue of tubes white, hymenium red. Tr. albotexta 10

7. No contrast in colour of context, hymenium and pore

walls as above.

8. Surface with a dense hirsute or hispid reddish brown

pubescence. Tr. hispida 11

8. Surface creamy white to fuliginous minutely pubescent.

Tr. moesta 12

1. Context yellow.

9. Pileus ungulate. Tr. subflava 13
9. Pileus not ungulate.

10. Surface velvety tomentose; pores becoming daedaloid;

pileus frequently large and woody. Tr. obstinatus 14

10. Pores not becoming daedaloid.

11. Surfaces of pileus with a conspicuous hairy covering.

12. Tomentum villose, soft, cinnamon brown.

Tr. tomentosa. 15

POLYFOKEAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 281

13. Tomentum hirsute to hispid, reddish brown to grey.

14. Pileus inseparably attached to substratum; context in

part at least very hard and woody. Tr. ochrolignea 16
14. Pileus not as above, context usually corky.

Vide P. occidental is, p. 263.

11. Surface of pileus minutely pubescent or glabrous.

12. Pileus large, woody. Tr. zimmcrmannii 17
12. Pileus small, effused-reflexed to entirely resupinate.

Vide P. conchatus, p. 265.
12. Pileus irregularly developed; white patches in context

and hymenophore. Tr. incondita 18

1. Trametes cingidata, Berk.

Pileus thin, annual, coriaceous, rarely reviving, applanate,
broadly attached, or somewhat reduced at base, separate pilei at
times connate at margin, 3-5 cm. to 9 cm. by 1-6 cm. to 5 cm. by
0-3 cm. to 0-7 cm.; surface black, becoming grey in old specimens,
zoned, rough with tubercles or smooth; margin thick and rounded
or thin and acute, yellowish brown, velvety to touch; context
1 mm. to 4 mm., soft, corky, fibrous, white to light yellowish,
zoned; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long; mouths subrotund, 4 to the
mm. ; edges entire, white or yellowish to yellowish brown in old
specimens, glistening, spores hyaline, globose, 3-7/x to 4/x diam. ;
hyphae 3/x to 5/a.

Distribution. — A common saprophytic fungus. Recorded by
J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy on Acacia sp. ;
W. Haygarth, from the Ngoye Forest, Zululand; J. B. Leslie and
G. Hobbs, from Howick, Natal; common on stumps and logs of
Acacia mollissima by the writer.

Easily recognisable by black surface and presence of black
spots in old bleached specimens.

2. Trametes glabrescens (Berk.), Fr.

Pileus thin, annual, sessile, dimidiate, applanate, 7 cm. to
9 cm. by 4-5 cm. to 5 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 0-6 cm.; surface white
becoming discoloured, minutely pubescent, zoned, smooth or rough
with tubercles; context white, soft-corky to hard, fibrous, 1 mm.
to 4 mm. thick; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long, white within; mouths
subrotund to angular, 5 to 6 to the mm. ; edges thin, entire,
glistening, white changing to yellowish ; spores hyaline, globose to
elliptical 3-6/n, by 5//,; setae none; hyphae 5ju, to T^x diam.

Distribution. — Recorded by J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy.

3. Trametes varians, n. sp.

Plants effused-refkxed to largely resupinate; pileus corky,
rigid, dimidiate, imbricate, at times conchate, 2 cm. to 4 cm. by
0-7 cm. to 2 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 1 cm.; surface azonate, minutely
pubescent, frequently somewhat tuberculate, at times rugulose and
scabrid, creamy white becoming ochraceous to somewhat fuliginous;

282 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

margin acute, cream coloured or fuliginous; context 1 mm. to
2 mm. thick, corky, creamy white: tubes 1-5 mm. long, discoloured
within; mouths angular to elongated, irregular, approximating 4
to the mm. ; edges entire, creamy white to greyish and greenish
drab; hyphae 7-24ju,. diam.

Distribution. — Recorded from Eastern Cape Forest Conserv-
ancy. (Type in Natal Herbarium, No 151.)

Differs from Tr. glabresce?is in habit, surface and pore-
characters.

4. Trametcs sycomori, Henn.

Plants annual, sessile or effused-reflexed ; pilei corky, imbri-
cate, connate, 4 cm. to 8 cm. by 3 cm. to 4 cm. by 1 cm. to 2-5 cm. ;
surface hard, white to creamy, azonate, minutely tomentose and
velvety, rugulose; context 07 cm. to 2 cm., white, zoned, soft,
fibrous, tough; tubes 2 mm. to 6 mm. long, elongated on decurrent
portion, white within; mouths subrotund, 2 to 3 to the mm.; edges
thick, entire, white to creamy; spores hyaline, smooth, subglobose,
3ju, to 4/a; hyphae 4/x to 6/ul.

Distribution. — Obtained from the Tugela, Natal, by Indian
collector Moonsammy.

5. Trametes lactinea, Berk.

Plants annual, sessile or effused reffexed ; pileus corky, dimi-
diate, imbricate, 6 cm. to 7 cm. by 1-5 cm. to 3-5 cm. by 0-5 cm.
to 1-7 cm.; surface azonate to indistinctly zoned, decidedly velvety
tomentose when young, more minutely pubescent with age, white
or ochraceous, rugulose; margin acute or rounded; context white,
zoned, 0-5 cm. to 1-6 cm., fibrous, soft, tough; tubes 0-5 mm. to
2 mm. long, white within; mouths subrotund 3 to 4 to the mm.,
edges entire, thin, white becoming creamy to yellow; spores hyaline,
hyphae simple, 4/x to 6/a.

Distribution . — Recorded by E. M. Doidge at Pietermaritz-
burg, Natal (Herb. Div. Botany, No. 9803); J. D. Keet, in
Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy on dry, rotted Schotia latifolia.

This plant is close to Tr. sycomori, with softer surface, smaller
pores, thinner pore wall, and when young more tomentose surface.

6. Trametes protect, Berk.

Pileus annual or persisting a second season, coriaceous to
corky, dimidiate, decurrent behind or effused reflex ed, applanate,
conchate, rarely convex below, often laterally extended, frequently
very thin and flexible, 1 cm. to 10 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 5-5 cm. by
0-2 cm. to 1-5 cm. ; surface smooth, velvety, hispid to villous with
soft brown hairs, in old specimens greyish and rough, at times
setose, azonate, in thick specimens becoming sulcate; context 1 mm.
to 5 mm. corky, fibrous, olive brown; tubes 01 mm. to 2 mm. long,
paler than context; mouths subrotund to angular or elongated,
2 to 3 to the mm. ; edges entire, thin, greyish to fawn or umber
spores hyaline, hyphae 37/x to 7ju.

P0LYP0REAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 283

Distribution. — A common plant on dead logs and stumps.
Found at Pretoria, Transvaal, on fence posts by the writer; at
Umfolosi, Zululand, by the writer; at Klapmuts, Cape Province,
on stumps of Popuhrs sp. and Finn? sp. by the writer; in the
Ngoye Forest, Zululand, by W. Haygarth.

7. Trametes violacea, Lloyd.

Plants annual, sessile, pileus dimidiate, applanate, imbricate,
connate, firm and brittle when dry, decurrent, 2-5 cm. to 5-5 cm.
by 1-5 cm. to 5-5 cm. by 0-2 cm. to 0-5 cm. ; surface corky, firm,
purple, zoned, 2 mm. to 3 mm. thick; margin entire; tubes
0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm. long, firm, concolorous with context; mouths
circular to angular, 5 to 6 to the mm., edges entire, thin, purple;
hyphae 3jx to 6/x.

Distribution. — Saprophytic on logs. Mr. C. G. Lloyd named
the plant from specimens collected in Natal by A. T. Janse, and
the plant has also been observed around Pietermaritzburg, Natal,
by the writer. The plant is close to Polyporus vinosus, Berk., but
lighter in colour and more brittle.

8. Trametes griseo-lilacina, n. sp.

Plants annual, sessile; pileus coriaceous to corky, applanate,
imbricate, dimidiate to laterally extended, 3 cm. to 10 cm. by
2-5 cm. to 4 cm. by 4 cm. to 0-8 cm. ; surface concentrically sulcate,
tomentose to glabrous, fasciculate setose, rugulose, scrupose, grey
to greyish fawn, margin acute, tomentose on upper surface; con-
text corky, firm, fibrous, lilac-mauve to mouse coloured, 3 mm.
to 4 mm.; tubes 0-5 mm. to 2-5 mm. longf, lighter than context;
mouths unequal, irregular, round to elongated and angular, 2 to 3
to the mm.; edges thick, entire, concolorous, lilac-mauve; spores
hyaline, smooth, oblong, 3-7/x by 7-5/x ; hyphae simple, 3-5/a to 6/a.

Distribution. — Single collection by Geo. Hobbs on railway
sleeper at Illovo River, Natal. (Tvpe in Natal Herbarium,
No. 921.)

The context colour and colour of pore mouths is peculiar and
should aid in the identification of the fungus. The fungus is
evidently related to the Australian Trametes lilacino-gilva (Berk),
Lloyd, but with rougher surface and irregular pore mouths.

9. Trametes keetii, n. sp.

Plants sessile; pileus dimidiate, applanate, woody, firm and
rigid, slightly decurrent, 3 cm. to 6 cm. by 2 cm. to 3-5 cm. by
0-4 cm. to 1-5 cm. ; surface grey to purplish black, finely tomentose,
smooth to scrupose; margin acute to rounded, grey; context 0-2 cm.
to 1 cm., hard, rusty brown; tubes firm, 0-2 mm. to 4 mm. con-
colorous with context; mouths minute, subrotund, 6 to 9 to the
mm.; edges entire, thick, firm, concolorous; spores not found, taken
to be hyaline, setae present, slender, subulate 21p, to 28/a long;
hyphae 4/a to 6/a diam.

284 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

Distribution. — A single collection by J. D. Keet in Eastern
Cape Forest Conservancy on Rhus laevigata. (Type in Natal
Herbarium, No. 87.)

10. Trametes albotexta, Lloyd.

Pileus sessile, dimidiate, 8 cm. to 10 cm. by 5 cm. by 14 cm.
to 4 cm. ; surface reddish brown, soft to hard, rugulose, tomentose
to subglabrous, smooth or scabrid to touch; context 0-4 cm. to
0-7 cm., firm, tough, corky, reddish brown; tubes 0-5 mm. to
1-5 mm. long, tissue white with reddish-brown hymenium; mouths
subrotund to angular, 2 to 3 to mm., edges entire or produced
into teeth, Avhite changing to yellowish and dark brown; spores
pale brown in mass, subglobose 3-7/i by 5ja; hyphae, 4ju, to 5/x.

Distribution. — On dead Podocarpus sp. in Hlatikulu Forest
(Type in Natal Herbarium, No. 181). Collected also by Miss
A. V. Duthie.

The surface and context colour are peculiar and would aid
in the recognition.

11. Trametes hispida, Bagl.

Plants annual, sessile or eff used -reflex ed ; pileus 4 cm. to
10 cm. by 1 cm. to 2 cm. by 0-9 cm. firm, rigid when dry; surface
rustv brown, densely hirsute or hispid, azonate, old specimens
almost glabrous, soft becoming hard; context reddish brown, soft,
spongy above to corky below, becoming firm and woody, 0-5 cm.
to 0-7 cm. thick; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long; mouths angular, 2
to the mm. ; edges thin, entire, rusty red to greyish brown, spores
hyaline; hyphae 4/x to 8ju, diam.

Distribution. — Found by J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy, saprophytic on Schotia I at i folia.

12. Trametes moesta, Kalcb.

Plants sessile, perennial; pileus corky, dimidiate, thickest
behind, triangular in section, 3 cm. to 4 cm. by 1-5 cm. to 2 cm. by
0-3 cm. to 1-5 cm. ; surface azonate, creamy white to fuliginous,
finely tomentose to sub-glabrous, smooth to rugulose; context 2
to 3 mm. thick, fibrous, tough, umber-brown; tubes 1 to 3 mm.
long, older filled with hyphae growth, interior white to glaucous;
mouths subrotund to elongated and daedaloid, 1 to 2 to the mm.
measured transversely; edges entire; spores hyaline; hyphae simple,
2/i to 4/i, diam.

Collector. — A. Roberts, locality unknown to the writer.

13. Trametes sub f lava, Lloyd.

Pileus sessile, ungulate, sub-triquetrous, 10 cm. by 14 cm. by
8 cm.; surface soft, velvety-tomentose, light yellow; context 0-5 cm.
to 2 cm. thick, yellow, soft, lough, towlike; tubes 1 mm. or less
long; mouths subrotund 4 to 6 to the mm.; edges thin, entire,
darker yellow than context, shining; spores hyaline, globose,
4/* diam.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 285

Distribution . — Found on live Celtic kraussiana by J. D. Keet
in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy. (Cotype in Natal Herbarium,
No. 388.)

The entile plant is concolorous except that the pores are a
darker yellow. The surface and context are a light maize yellow.

14. Trametes obstinatus, Cke.

Plants woody, perennial, sessile, to effused-reflexed or decur
rent behind; pileus large, dimidiate, imbricate, 7 cm. to 30 cm. by
4 cm. tot 12cm. by 4 cm. to 4-5 cm. applanate, at times concave
above; surface yellowish buff, grey or brown, velvety tomentose
becoming subglabrous when old, often tuberculate, azonate or
zoned, at times concentrically sulcate, frequently somewhat rimose
with age; context creamy white to yellowish buff, 2 cm. to 3-5 cm.,
zoned or azonate, fibrous, hard and woody, shining; tubes 0-5 mm.
to 2 mm. long, white to yellowish, older layers indistinct and
blocked up; mouths 1 to 4 to the mm., subrotund to elongated
becoming sinous and daedaloid, white to yellow; spores not found,
hyphae, 5/x to 7-5/x, simple.

Distribution. — A common fungus. Found by the writer on
live Acacia molUssima and on live Citrus trees, around Pretoria;
around Durban, Natal, on undetermined hosts; in the Ngoye
Forest, Zululand, by W. Haygarth; in Eastern Cape Forest Con-
servancy on Celt is kraussiana by J. D. Keet.

15. Trametes tomentosa, n. sp.

Plants effused-reflexed, annual; pileus applanate, coriaceous
9 cm. by 7 cm. by 01 cm. to 0-4 cm. ; surface with a few faint
furrows, rugulose, covered with a soft cinnamon brown tomentum;
margin thin, undulate; context 0-5 mm. to 2 mm. thick,
azonate, corky, shining, straw yellow; tubes 0-5 mm. to 1-5 mm.
long, elongated on decurrent part, concolorous with context;
mouths subrotund to irregular, 2 to 3 to the mm.; edges thick
towards margin, thin in older parts, entire to somewhat lacerate,
yellow-buff; hyphae 4/x to 5/x diam.

Distribution. — Found on dead logs at Durban, Natal, by the
writer.

The plant is in its context colour and colour of pore mouths
close to P. occidentalis, Kl., from which it differs in the finer
tomentum. The hairs are longer and finer and the surface has a
feeling of plush. (Type in Natal Herbarium, P. v. d. B., No. 836.)

16. Trametes ochroUgnea, Lloyd.

Plant forms a hard flat, woody and unseparable mass, 2 mm.
thick, on the wood on which it grows, the periphery of this mass
is continued into the pilei or the pilei develop separately from it ;
pilei subcircular 6 cm. to 10 cm. diam. by 0-7 cm. to 2 cm. thick:
surface uneven, tuberculate, reddish brown, more yellow towards
margin, tomentose, with a few concentric furrows; context 3 mm.
to 9 mm. thick, corky to hard and woody, yellow, shining; tubes

286 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

about 1 mm. long; mouths round to elongated, irregular, 2 to 3 to
the mm.; edges thick or thin, somewhat lacerate, yellow; spores
hyaline, smooth, 3-7/x by 7/lx ; hyphae 3/x to 7/a diam.

Distribution'. — Found at Durban, Natal, on rotten log. Dis-
tinguished from P. occidentalis by its habit of growth, more tuber-
culate surface and context in older part and part above substratum
being extremely hard and woody. (Cotype in Natal Herbarium,
No. 226.)

17. Trametes zimmermannii, Bres.

Plants perennial, sessile; pileus dimidiate, convex, woody,
8 cm. by 4-5 cm. by 1 cm. to 3 cm., decurrent behind; surface
hard, ashy grey, azonate, minutely tomentose to glabrous, some-
what fissured but not rimose ; context straw yellow, hard and
woody, zoned, shining; tubes 1 mm. or less long, elongated on
reflexed portion, stuffed in older strata; mouths subrotund to
irregular, approximately 2 to 3 to the mm.; edges entire, firm.

Distribution. — Found at Pietermaritzbui'g, Natal, by the
writer. According to Mr. C. G. Lloyd this fungus was named as
above by Bresadola in MSS.

18. Trametes incondita, Fries.

Plants sessile or resupinate, pilei perennial, corky or woody,
irregularly developed, at times imbricate, 3-7 cm. to 75 cm. by
2 cm. to 3-5 cm. by 0-3 cm. to 2 cm.; surface closely concentrically
sulcate, dark; context thin, corky, yellow, with white corky patches
and this white tissue appears to practically replace the true con-
text; tubes 04 mm. long, yellow within, becoming stuffed in older
layers, areas of white patches also in hymenophore in section ;
mouths subrotund, 4 to the mm., edges thin, entire, yellow; spores
irregular globose to elliptic, 7ju, to 8/x diam. to 5/x by 7{x to 8/x ;
hyphae 2/x to 4/x.

Distribution. — Recorded by J. D. Keet in Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy on Ptaeroxylon utile.

Recognisable by the irregular development of the pilei, the
short tubes and the white patches in the attacked wood, in the
context and between the tubes in section.

A study on the development of this fungus should prove
interesting. On attacked wood there are small, pale, corky nodules,
white within, which are evidently the beginning of the develop-
ment of pilei. In the irregular pilei these noduies are evident at
the back and the pilei are by them evidently attached to the sub-
stratum. These nodules also develop from the back of the pilei.

Daedalia (Pers.), Fr.

Plants sessile or effused reflexed, epixylous, annual, rarely
reviving; pileus coriaceous to tough, corky or somewhat woody;
context white to light coloured, tough, firm, corky or subwoody;
hymenophore typically daedaloid, but sometimes poroid or lamel-
late; spores hyaline.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 287

This genus differs from Trametes only in the hymenial surface.
The pore walls is some of the Daedalia spp. are often as strongly
lamellate as in Lenzites.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Context brown. Vide Tr. moesta, p. 284.

Context white or light coloured.

Pileus corky to wood}-, surface velvety with a grey or

brown tomentum. Vide Tr. obstinatus, p. 285.

Pileus white, coriaceous to corky, finely tomentose, context

shining and shade of colour varying with angle of

light. D. Hobbsii 1

1. Daedalia Hobbsii, n. sp.

Plants annual, sessile; pileus dimidiate, coriaceous to corkv,
imbricate, laterally connate, decurrent at attachment, 5 cm. to
12 cm. by 4 cm. to 5 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 2 cm.; surface white, finely
tomentose to subglabrous, azonate, usually tuberculate, rarely
smooth; context 0-4 cm. to 1-4 cm. fibrous, tough, soft when fresh,
drying firm and corky, zoned, wood-coloured, shining, shade vary-
ing with angle of light; tubes 2 to 5 mm. long, elongated on
decurrent portion, white within; mouths poroid and subrotund to
elongated and daedaloid, 2 to 3 to the mm. measured transversely;
edges thick, entire white; spores hyaline, smooth, globose, 3/a to 4/a
diam.; hyphae simple 3/x to 5ja diam.

Distribution. — Found at Howick, Natal, by G. Hobbs. (Type
in Natal Herbarium, No. 922.)

The context has a satiny lustre when smoothly cut and the
shade of colour appears different according to the angle of the
light.

Lenzites, Fries.

Plants epixylous, annual, sessile (in L. repanda usually sub-
stipitate) or effused reflexed; pileus coriaceous to corky and firm
and rigid; context white or brown, coriaceous, corky, tough;
hymenophore typically lamellate, more rarely (e.g., L. trabea)
daedaloid or poroid; spores hyaline; crystida absent or present.

KEY TO TEE SPECIES.
1. Context brown. L. trabea 1

1. Context white.

2. Surface and entire plant white, not tomentose.

L. repanda 2

2. Surface tomentose, greyish to brown or reddish brown.

3. Surface velvety tomentose, closely zoned, usually grey-

ish; edges of lamellae entire; margin thin.

L. betulina 3
3. Surface velvety tomentose to rough, greyish brown to
reddish brown, edges of lamellae becoming much
dentate; margin thick. L. aspera 4

288 POLYPOEEAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

1. Lenzites trahea, Otth.

Plants annual, sessile, pileus dimidiate to laterally expanded,
at times imbricate, 1 cm. to 10 cm. by 1 cm. to 3-5 cm. by 01 cm.
to 0-6 cm., coriaceous to corky; surface cinnamon brown to greyish-
brown, corky, glabrous, to subtomeutose, smooth to rugulose, zoned
or azonate, context cinnamon-brown to snuff-brown, fibrous, corky,
1 mm. to 4 mm. thick; hymenophore poroid to labyrinthiform,
rarely entirely lamellate; pores or lamellae 1 mm. to 4 mm. deep,
in poroid forms the pores are irregularly angular and in lamellate
the lamellae freely anastomose; mouths 2 to 3 to the mm., con-
colorous with surface, edges thin, entire; spores smooth hyaline,
ellipsoid, l\x to 8ju, by 4jll to 7/x diam.

Distribution . — Common on stumps and logs of Pinus and
Populus in Western Cape Province by the writer.

2. Lenzites repanda (Pers), Fries.

Pileus substipitate, circular to flabelliform or reniform, fre-
quently large, 2 cm. to 32 cm. diam. by 01 cm. to 1 cm. thick,
tough, coriaceous to somewhat firm and rigid; surface azonate to
zoned, pure white when fresh, glabrous, smooth or tuberculate,
margin entire to undulate and rarely lobed ; context 1 mm. to
3 mm., white to cream coloured, floccose, fibrous, corky, zoned;
hymenophore poroid to daedaloid and lamellate, lamellae 0-5 mm.
apart, 1 mm. to 4 mm. deep, coriaceous firm, branched and anasto-
mosing, edges white to discoloured; spores hyaline, oblong or sub-
allantoid, 5/x to 8-5/x by 2/a to 3ja; hyphae hyaline, branched, 4ju,
to 5-6/x diam.

Distribution. — Common on dead logs and stumps. Recorded
by W. Haygarth from the Ngoye Forest, Zululand; Miss A. V.
Duthie, from Knysna, Cape; J. D. Keet, Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy; common on Acacia mollissima stumps and logs in
midlands of Natal by the writer; Howick, Natal, by Geo. Hobbs.

Daedalia elegans, Spreng., Trametes elegans, Fr., are really
the same fungus and the older name, Lenzites applanata (Klotz)
ex Fries is also held to be synonymous; Lenzites Palisoti, Fr., is
usually also held to be synonymous, but I have not seen specimens
so referred. There are other synonyms for this common fungus.

3. Lenzites betulina (Linn), Fr.

Plants annual, sessile; pileus, dimidiate to flabelliform, imbri-
cate, coriaceous, to corky, 1-5 cm. to 9 cm. by 1 cm. to 6 cm. by
0-3 cm. to 1 cm. ; surface tomentose marked with concentric zones,
prevailing colour greyish, and in one collection a red zone was
present; faintly furrowed to plicate; context 0-4 mm. to 2 mm.,
white, coriaceous, azonate; hymenophore lamellate, rarely poroid,
lamellae coriaceous, white to cream; edges entire, undulating;
spores hyaline, oblong, 4/x to 6/m by 2/x to 2-5/x; cystidia hyaline,
sharp-pointed.

Distribution. — A widespread and common saprophyte on dead
logs and stumps. Recorded by J. D. Keet on dead Olea laurifolia

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 289

and Acacia mollissima in Eastern Cape Forest Conservancy; T. J.
van de Merwe, on live Celtis kraussiana in Eastern Cape Forest
Conservancy; J. D. Keet, on Pinus sp. and dead logs at Knysna,
Cape; the writer at Nottingham Road, Natal Province; frequent
on Acacia mollissima logs in plantations in Natal.

Lenzites flaccida, Fries., is taken to be synonymous with the
above, and the same is the case with Lenzites quineensis, Fr.
According to type idea, L. betulina is thick and suberose and
L. flaccida thin and flaccid, but both are, I think, really one and
the same fungus. L. quineensis has firmer and more rigid lamellae
than L. betulina, and this appears to be the only difference.

4. Lenzites aspera, Klotzsch.

Plants annual, sessile, pileus dimidiate, applanate, conchate,
imbricate, coriaceous-corky, 7 cm. to 10 cm. by 3 cm. to 7 cm. by
0-2 cm. to 1 cm.; surface concentrically sulcate, covered with a
greyish brown to reddish-brown tomentum which varies from
velvety to rough; margin thick, rounded, buff -coloured, velvety;
context 1 mm. to 7 mm. thick, fibrous, corky, white, zoned,
hymenophore daedaloid to lamellate, lamellae 2 mm. to 6 mm.
creep, coriaceous, edges becoming much dentate; hyphae hyaline,
simple, 4/x to 7 /a diam.

Distribution. — On Eucalyptus globulus at Elgin, Cape Pro-
vince. (Herb. Div. Bot., No. 7075.) Recognised by the greyish
to reddish-brown tomentum and dentate lamellae. The colour of
the surface is darker than in L. betulina and the pileus as a whole
thicker and firmer than in that species, from which it is also dis-
tinguished by the thick round margin and the dentate lamellae.

Hexagona, Fries.

Plants epixylous, sessile; pileus coriaceous to corky or hard
and woody; ungulate or applanate, in some very thin (e.g.,
H. tenuis); surface azonate, zonate or sulcate, glabrous to veluti-
nate or setose; context corky to woody, rarely fleshy, usually
coloured, in a few white or pale, for example II. alb'ida; pores
usually large, subrotund to hexagonal. In //. tenuis and allied
species the pores are smaller than usual and shallow, in these small-
pored Hexagonas the pores are regular.* In some of the species
with white or pale context, daedaloid and lenzitoid forms occur
together with the normal hexagonal forms; setae absent or present,
coloured; spores hyaline.

KEY TO THE SPECIES
1. Tubes shallow, mouths small, 0-5 mm. to 1 mm. diam.

2. Context reddish-brown. II. tenuis 1

2. Context light to fawn. H . rigida 2
1. Tubes deep, mouths large, 2 to 4 to the cm.

3. Context reddish brown.

4. Setae absent. H . speciosa 3
4. Setae present. II. pobeguini 4

* The regular pores would distinguish these species from Polyporus
spp. (for example e.g. P. pinsitus) with shallow and as large pores, but
differing in that they are irregular.

290 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

1. Hexagona tenuis (Hk.) Fries.

Pileus thin, sessile or effused reflexed, coriaceous, flexible,
dimidiate to conchate, or flabelliform, applanate 3-5 cm. to 7 cm.
by 2 cm. to 4-5 cm. by 005 cm. to 0-2 cm., often narrowly attached
and laterally connate; surface glabrous, concentrically zoned,
umber brown, smooth to rugulose, margin thin, entire to undulate
and rarely lobed; context rusty brown, tubes 0-5 mm. to 1 mm.
long, pale greyish green within; mouths hexagonal 0-5 mm. to
1 mm. in diam. ; edges thick, firm, entire, dark brown; spores not
found; hyphae 4/a diam.

Distribution. — A widely distributed and common saprophyte.
Recorded by W. ITaygarth from Ngoye Forest, Zululand; on dead
branches of Hibiscus tiliaceus, Xanthoxylon capense, and Albizzia
fast if/iota around Durban, by the writer; Barberton, Transvaal,
by Geo. Thorncroft.

Hexagona poly gramma, Mont ex. Fr., is too close to above to
be regarded as a distinct species. The pores according to the type
idea are somewhat larger but no larger than is found in one and
the same collection of II . tenuis. It is not even good as a variety.

In specimens around Durban there was frequently noticed a
reddish-black stain at the base of the pileus or even extending
some distance over the pileus. These specimens were referred to
Hexagona tricolor, Fries, (or II exagona discopoda, Pat. and
H. umbrinella, Fr.). This stain was absent and present on speci-
mens of one and the same collection and would under the circum-
stances not be considered as constituting a specific difference. The
specific names may be used to convey conditions of //. tenuis, but
no more.

2. Hexagona rigida, Berk.

Pileus sessile or effused reflexed, thin and coriaceous to thicker
and more firm, applanate, dimidiate to conchate or flabelliform,
often laterally extended and connate, 3-2 cm. to 7 cm. by 1-8 cm.
to 4 cm. by 0-1 cm. to 1 cm.; surface concentrically zoned to
slightly furrowed, pale-wood coloured to fawn, smooth or rugulose;
margin thick or thin, entire to undulate; context 005 mm. to
9 mm., fibrous, corky, white to lightly coloured; tubes 2 mm. or
less long, white to fawn within, mouths circular to hexagonal,
0-5 mm. to 1 mm. in diam.; edges thick, white to yellow or fawn;
hyphae 4/x to 5-5/x.

Distribution. — Not uncommon around Durban, by the writer,
and varying considerably in thickness. Some collections also had
the reddish-brown stain mentioned under //. tenuis.

The plant differs from H. tenuis by lighter colour of context.

A specimen collected at Victoria Falls by Miss A. V. Duthie,
of the University of Stellenbosch, and referred to Hexagona
phaephora, Pat., differs from above in somewhat darker pores, but
no more than one finds in collections of II . rigida, and is referred
here.

POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 291

3. Hexagona speciosa, Fr.

Pileus sessile, woody, firm and rigid, dimidiate, applanate,
concliate or cupshaped, at times somewhat decurrent behind, 8 cm.
to 18 cm. by 5 cm. to 12 cm. by 0-6 cm. to 4 cm., thickest behind,
narrowly attached; surface with a thin crust zoned to slightly fur-
rowed, fawn coloured, smooth to tuberculate, margin thick or thin,
undulate; context 0-2 cm. to 1-5 cm. thick, reddish-brown, firm,
corky, to subligneous; tubes 4 mm. to 12 mm. long, concolorous
with context or glaucous within, mouths subcircular to hexagonal,
3 mm. to 4 mm. diam. ; edges thick or thin, at times lacerate; fawn
to reddish-brown; setae absent; hyphae 3-7jx to 7-4/a diam.

Distribution. — Found around Durban, Natal, by the writer,
and in the Ngoye Forest, Zululand, by W. Hay garth ; from
Rhodesia by C. Swynnerton. The zones are at times coloured
reddish-brown.

4. Hexagona pobeguini, Hariot.

Pileus dimidiate, applanate, woody, 12 cm. to 20 cm. by 7 cm.
to 13 cm. by 0-5 cm. to 2-5 cm., surface grey to brown, minutely
pubescent, becoming glabrous or scabrid with age and frequently
somewhat cracked, concentrically zoned and sulcate, the zones at
times different shades of brown; margin thick or thin, undulate;
context 2 mm. to 4 mm. thick, reddish-brown, corky, firm; tubes
0-3 cm. to 2 cm. long, concolorous with context; mouths 2 to 3 to
the cm., subrotund to hexagonal, irregular; edges firm, reddish -
brown, velutinate; setae present and very prominent.

Distribution- — In the Woodbush, Zoutpansberg (Herb.
Division Botany, 1317 and 1319).

Distinguishable from II. speciosa by the presence of setae.

Favolus, Fries.

Plants epixylous, annual; pileus more or less laterally stipitate,
fleshy-tough when fresh; context white, pores angular or hexagonal,
radially elongated; stipe lateral; spores white; setae absent or
present (F. megaloporus).

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

1. Setae present.

Setae in hymenium aculeate and with aculeate spines.

F. megaloporus 1
1. Setae absent.

Tubes up to 3 mm. long; mouths 3 mm. to 5 mm. by
0-8 mm. to 1 mm. F. brasiliensis 2

1. Favolus megaloporus (Mont), Bres.

Plants annual, laterally stipitate; pileus coriaceous, applanate,
spathulate or flabelliform, 1-5 mm. to 5 mm. by 1-5 mm. to 3-5 mm.
by 0-4 mm.; surface white to reddish brown, glabrous, striate;
margin thin, incurved in drying; context 0-8 mm. to 2 mm. white

292 POLYPOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA.

to discoloured, soft, tough; tubes 2 mm. to 3 mm. long, decurrent
on stipe; mouths angular, radially elongated, 1 mm. to 2 mm. by
0-5 mm. ; edges thin, ultimately becoming split into irregular
teeth; spores (teste Bresadola) hyaline, oblong, 9/a to 12^ by 4/x to
5/a; setae present, coloured, aculeate and with aculeate spines.

Distribution. — Found at Durban on log, by the writer. Easily
recognised by the coloured, spiny setae in the hymenium.

In addition to the species named, Favolus dermoporus (Pers),
Lloyd, Favolus euro'paeus, Fr., and Favolus spathulatus (Jungh),
Bres., have been collected by the writer, but the material of these
has been very scanty. Medley Wood has further recorded Favolus
rhipidium, Berk., from Natal.

2. Favolus brasiliensis, Fries.

Pileus stalked, thin, applanate, coriaceous, spathulate, flabelli-
form or reniform, 2 cm. to 7 cm. by 1-5 cm. to 5 cm. by 01 cm.
to 0-4 cm. ; surface white, radially striate, minutely pubescent to
glabrous; margin thin, undulate to lobed and fissured with age;
context thin, up to 1 mm. white, soft; tubes 1 mm. to 3 mm. long,
decurrent on stalk, mouths 4 to 6-angled, elongated radially, 2 mm.
to 5 mm. by 0-8 mm. to 1 mm.; edges white changing to yellowish,
thin, splitting into irregular teeth ; spores hyaline, smooth; setae
absent; hyphae 2/x to 4jx; stalk lateral 0-5 cm. to 2-5 cm. long by
3 mm. to 5 mm. diam; somewhat dilated at attachment, finely
tomentose.

Distribution. — Found around Durban by the writer, common
on dead logs.

Favolus jacobaeus, Sacc. (Polyporus favoloides, Henn) is close
to above and differs in somewhat smaller pores. It is probably
best held as a small-pored form of it. In some collections of this
small pored form the surface was somewhat tessellate, and these
tended to connect this species with Favolus tessel/atus, Mont.
Favolus freisii, Berk and Curt., is a thin white species, but specimen?
so far seen of it have been very scanty. It, however, appears to
be too close to above. Specimens preserved by J. Medley Wood
(No. 99) under the name F. vibecinus, Fr., are evidently also
referable to the small pored form.

Laschia, Mont.

Small annual gelatinous pore-fungi, centrally or laterally
stipitate or sessile. Surface most frequently tessellate. Majority
coloured (a few white). Colour contained either in ordinary cuti-
cular cells, in stalked gland-like bodies, or in long cylindrical colour
cells.* In addition, some have hyaline cristated cells which may be
either oval and crowned with spiny processes or of the nature of
long cylindrical cells covered with spiny processes. Pores angular,
honeycombed, usually shallow. Spores hyaline.

* This appears to have been first investigated by Mr. C. G. Lloyd.

POLYFOREAE OF SOUTH AFRICA. 293

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Colour gland and cristated cells both absent.

Plant laterally stipitate, orange red, exceeding 2 mm. in diam.

L. Thwaitesii 1

1. Laschia Thwaitesii, B. and Br.

Pileus laterally stipitate, reniform, 3 mm. to 5 mm. in diam.,
0-5 mm. thick, orange red, surface strongly tessellate; colour glands
and cristated cells absent, cuticular cells with coloured contents;
pores hexagonal 3 to 4 to the mm., row adjoining stalk radially
elongated; stipe 1 mm. to 2 mm. long, 0-3 mm. to 0-5 mm. diam,
concolorous with pileus.

Distribution. — Not uncommon in bush around Durban on
dead branches lying on the gromtd, found by the writer. Usually
it grows caespitose. The specimens collected were all rather small.
Other Laschia spp. have been recorded, but so far have not come
to the writer's notice.

Addendum: Note on an Intbresting Abnormal Form of
polyporus lucidus, leyss.

Read Jul > 12, 1921.

In a previous publication of this Journal* we have dealt with
the fungus Polyporus lucidus, and illustrated the fructifications very
fully. An abnormal form of the fungus {P. lucidus) was collected
by Mr. A. L. Forbes on a log of wood in a mine at Johannesburg
between 4,000 to 5,000 feet below the surface. Two specimens were
found. Other fungi, and notably Lentinus hpideus, are known
often to take on very peculiar and almost unrecognisable forms
when growing in mines, and this abnormality in Polyporus lucidus
is of great interest.

The tall specimen of P. lucidus measured 2 feet 7 inches in
height and was entirely sterile, whereas the other specimen had the
two larger branches fertile at the top for a length of about 5|
inches.

* South African Journal of Science, Vol. XIII, pp. 506-515.

294

BRYOPHYTA OF SOUTHERN RHODESIA.

BY

T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S., and H. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S.

Bead July 15, 1921.

The present paper dealing with the Brycphyta, mainly of
Southern Rhodesia, consists of three portions. The introductory
section has been prepared by the first-named author, who also deals
with the second section on the Hepaticae, while the third section,
relating to the Mosses, has been the work of the second-named
author.

Contexts. P&ge

1. Conditions affecting distribution 294

2. Hepaticae 296

3. Mosses

From Southern Rhodesia 298

From Portuguese Gaza Land 331

I.— CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE DISTRIBUTION OF
BRYOPHYTA IN RHODESIA.

BY

T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S.

Such a huge area as Rhodesia would naturally be expected
to have a very considerable moss flora, but so far very few species
have been recorded. This is partly through its being as yet
bryologically unexplored, bat much more completely through its
natural conditions.

The greater part of Rhodesia is in a general way a flat
plateau, 3,000 to 5,000 feet altitude, with a few higher granite
ridges scattered in. These conditions favour mist-laden clouds pass-
ing overhead, without depositing rain or dew, and consequently
the general atmospheric condition is one of aridity, which becomes
more and more pronounced westward, where Rhodesia meets the
still drier Kalahari desert in Bechuanaland, and where the aridity
may have increased considerably during recent decades through
the drying up of the lake district whence its clouds mostly come.

It is the presence of that dry region, and of the flat arid
surface, which leads to rains being few but torrential; mists
usually absent, vegetation a scattered and xerophytic scrub inter-
mixed with grass, while Bryophyta are almost absent from all
western localities, and of comparatively few species even in the
east, though what species there are become much more abundant
eastward, especially on the escarpment and on the hills and valleys
overlooking the sea slope and the Limpopo and Zambesi valleys,
where mists are frequent and conditions much more congenial.

During my recent tour I found mosses almost, absent west of
32° East, except at the Falls of the Zambesi, but from there

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 295

eastwards as at Mazoe, Umtali, Melsetter, Zimbabwe, etc.,
conditions approach much more nearly to those of the Drakens-
berg further south, and in a few localities regular forest conditions
occur, bringing with them mosses in abundance.

Even at Zimbabwe, which is quite in the mist-belt and bush-
veld, though not in the forest range, mosses are in great abun-
dance, though belonging to few species. One naturally enquires
why few species, and it would appear that the dry winter, the
granite formation and the strong sunshine, combine to make the
conditions sufficiently arid during the winter to kill out such
species as are not extremely tenacious of life.

The Zimbabwe rocks and ruins are wonderfully moss-clad,
as also are the rocky kopjes in that region, but it is noticed there
that such species that can endure on bare rock, or on soil in rocky
crevices, are those which flourish, and that these exhibit very
marked pioneer qualities, particularly notable in Ao?igstroemia
gymnomitrioid.es Dixon, and in Campylopus.

In regard to the Zambesi Falls, where the rain forest and the
spray-steeped cliffs would lead one to expect mosses in abundance,
it is the case that a few species are there in profusion in certain
places; a hundred yards away from the gorge in any direction one
is again in the arid plateau, mostly sandy, and devoid of all moss
vegetation.

Trees are frequent, mostly of a xerophyllous nature, but no
epiphytic mosses occur on them outside the rain forest. The
Zambesi has travelled through hundreds of miles of arid country
since it left its mid-African forest sources, and the same aridity
exists in all directions. Consequently what species occur at the
falls are rather a survival of the most enduring, than a full
representation of tropical forest moss-flora. The perpendicular
and inaccessible cliffs overlooking the falls just beyond the spray
limit are thinly clad with succulents but not with mosses, while
away from the falls, down the river and where spray is absent,
the Zambesi gorge is a deep chasm, where succulents and
xerophytes exist and flourish rather than a suitable locality for
any other than the most hardy mosses. Up the river, above the
falls, the variations of water level render rocks and banks sub-
merged for months and then dried out for other months, and so
are almost without mosses.

One hundred and twenty-nine species of mosses, and twenty-
four of Hepaticae are now recorded from Southern Rhodesia, of
which over eighty mosses and all the Hepaticae were collected
during fhe visit of the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science last year — mostly at the Victoria Falls or at
Zimbabwe.

Twenty-three of these mosses are new to science and are
described hereunder by Mr. Dixon, seven others were previously
described by Mr. Dixon from Rhodesia as new to science, so
altogether Rhodesia has provided recently thirty new species of
Musci out of its small total.

The Hepaticae are all previously known from elsewhere.

296 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

The relationship of the Zimbabwe and eastern mosses is
almost entirely with species found further south; the relationship
of those found at the Victoria Falls is only to a very small extent
with the mid-African flora, probably accounted for by the long
distance of arid country by which that site is separated from other
suitable localities northward. Even trees seem to have travelled
along the Zambesi from mid and western Africa more easily than
Bryophyta.

The endemic species are mostly from the Victoria Falls.

Aongstroemia gyvinovdtrioid.es Dixon is a most interesting
pioneer on bare flat rocks, abundant at Zimbabwe, present else-
where, and closely related to a Natal Drakensberg alpine species,
both being closely related to a far South American mountain
species, and very distinct as a group from all other mosses.

The western part of Rhodesia will probably not yield many
more mosses until more closely settled, but the eastern part,
particularly Umtali and Melsetter, is furnished with forest areas
where forest mosses may be expected to exist in abundance, but
which bryological collectors have still hardly touched. These
parts of the escarpment, together with its eastern face in Portu-
guese East Africa, for a bryological terra incognita from which
a rich harvest may be expected when their close investigation is
undertaken. Below these the Portuguese flats are arid and almost
without mosses; even where trees abound along the river banks
the subsoil is moist, but the atmosphere is very arid.

II.— HEPATIC AE.

T. R. Sim, D.Sc, F.L.S.

fficcia fluitans, Linn. "Spec. Plant." p. 1606.

This belongs to section Ricciella, sometimes treated as a
distinct genus.

Zimbabwe, 3,000 feet, Sim 9065; Khami Stream, Sim,
9067; Victoria Falls Rain Forest, Sim, 9066; Matopos, Miss
Gibbs, 318. Usually found floating in water or set in mud.

General distribution: Frequent in all sub-tropical countries.

Riccia albomarginata , Bisch. "Syn. Hep." 604.

Matopos, 5,000 feet; Sim, 9068; Stream at Bulawayo, 5,000
feet, Sim, 9069; Zimbabwe, 3,000 feet, Sim, 9070, 9071, 9072;
Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, 5,000 feet, Sim, 9073.

General distribution : Tropical and sub-trcpical South Africa.

Targionia hyophylla, Linn. "Spec. Plant," p. 1,604.

Matopos, near Hotel: 5,000 feet, Sim, 9080.

General distribution: Africa, Southern Europe, South
America and Australia.

Pleigiochasma rupestre, St. "Spec. Plant." p. 783.

Matopos, Eyles, 937 and 1181; Zimbabwe, Sim, 9081.
General distribution: Mediterranean and Africa.

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 297

Grimaldia capensis, St. "Spec. Hepat." p. 793.

Rhodes' Grave, Sim, 9077 ; Zimbabwe acropolis, Sim, 9074
and 9079; Matopos, 5,000 feet, Sim, 9075 and 9078; Mazoe, Eyles,
606; Victoria Falls, Sim, 9076.

General distribution: South Africa.

Fimbriaria marginata, Nees in "Hor. Phys. Berol.," 1820, p. 44.
Matopos, 5,000 feet, Eyles, 932 and 933.
General distribution: South Africa — common.

Fimbriaria wilmsii, St. Hedwigia, 1892, p. 122.
Makoni, 4,700 feet, Eyles, 786.
General distribution: South Africa.

Marchantia wilmsii, St. Hedwigia, 1892, p. 126.

Mazoe, Tatagura River, 4,300 feet, Eyles, 708; Victoria
Falls, 3,000 feet, Sim, 9082.

General distribution: South Africa.

Aneura pituiatifida, Dum.

Victoria Falls, 1910, Miss Farquhar, 23; Sim, 9083.
General distribution: Each continent.

Metzgeria fureata, (L.) Lindb. "Monog. Metzg." p. 35.
Zimbabwe, Sim, 9083.
General distribution : Africa, Australia, South America.

Fossombronia pusilla (Linn.) Dum.

Matopos, 4,600 feet, Mch. 1916, Eyles, 936.

General distribution : Europe, North America, Africa.

Frullania diptera, Nees.

Mazoe, 4,300 feet, 1917, Eyles, 715; many localities (Sim).
General distribution : South Africa.

Frullania squarrosa, L. and G.

Zimbabwe, 3,000 feet, Sim, 9084, 9085; Victoria Falls, 3,000
feet, Sim, 9086; Matopos, 5,000 feet, Sim, 9087.

General distribution : Europe, Africa.

Frullania trinervis, L. and G.

Umtali, 5,000 feet, Eyles, 1724.

General distribution : Europe and Africa.

Lejeunea eavifoUa (Ehrh.), Lind.

Inyanga, 6,000 feet, Eyles, 1363; Mazoe, Eyles, 713a and 714;
Zimbabwe acropolis, Sim, 9093; Victoria Falls, Sim, 9092.

General distribution: Very wide in sub-tropical climes.

Lejeunea, (Mastigolejeuna) sp.

Palm Grove/ Victoria Falls, 2,500 feet, Sim, 9094.
Olive green, loosely tufted on stones, but material eollected
was insufficient for identification or description.
4

298 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Ptycholejeunea striata, L. and L.

Umtali, Eyles, 1733; Victoria Falls, Sim, 9095.

General distribution : Tropical and snb-tropical Africa and
Asia.

Madotheca capensis, Gottsche.

Umtali, 4,200 feet, 1919, Eyles, 1733; Chirinda, 3,800 feet,
Swynnerton, 812.

General distribution: South Africa.

Radula capensis St.

Victoria Falls, Sim, 9089; Palm Grove, Sim, 9088; Zim-
babwe, Sim, 9090; Matopos, 5,000 feet, Sim, 9091.

General distribution: South Africa.

Cephalozia divaricata Spr.

Zimbabwe rocks, mixed in Campylopus, Sim, 9096.
General distribution : Very wide.

Plagiochila crispulo — caudata, Gottche.

Zimbabwe, 3,000 feet, Sim, 8577 and 9098; Khami Ruins,
5,000 feet, Sim, 9097; Umtali, 5,000 feet, Eyles, 1721; Matopos,
5,000 feet, Sim, 9099.

General distribution : Africa and African Islands.

Galypogeia bidentula, Nees.

Scraps of this were found among mosses sent by Miss Duthie
from island in the Zambesi, above the Victoria Falls, September,
1916.

Anthoceros punctatus Linn.

lender running water — Makoni, 4,700 feet, Eyles, 785 and

790; Rain Forest, Victoria Falls, Sim, 9100; Zimbabwe, Sim,
9101.

Anthoceros crispnlus Douin.

Rain Forest, Victoria Falls, Sim, 9102, and Miss Duthie,
September, 1916.

III.— A CONTRIBUTION TO THE MOSS FLORA OF
SOUTHERN RHODESIA AND PORTUGUESE GAZA-LAND.

BY

H. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S.

The following list of mosses from Southern Rhodesia breaks
almost entirely new ground. So far as I am aware the only pub-
lished references to the bryological flora of the district are con-
tained— apart from one or two scattered records of individual
species — in a paper by Mr. F. Eyles, "Records of Plants collected
in Southern Rhodesia" (Trans. Roy. Soc. of South Africa, Vol. V,
Pt. 4, May, 1916), where he mentions eight species of Mosses

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 299

and five of Hepaticae. A few localities are given by Brotherus
in a report of mosses collected by Brunnthaler in various parts of
South Africa in 1909 (2).

The present list is principally drawn up from collections
made by Dr. Sim at various times, but especially in the course
of an extensive tour through the district in 1920, during which
the Zimbabwe Ruins, Khami Ruins, Matopos and Victoria Falls
were visited, and good collections made throughout. About the
same time Prof. Wager visited the district, covering the same
ground to a great extent, and his collections were sent to me for
determination. Mr. Eyles has collected mosses from time to
time, a good many of which have passed through my hands from
the British Museum, and from Dr. Sim, who has also sent me
a few collected by Mr. Teague around Umtali. A few of Mr.
Eyles' plants were collected by Dr. Nobhs and Mr. J. H. Henkel.

The number of species listed below — about 125 — is not large,
and is without doubt capable of extension. At the same time, I
think it probable that the present list furnishes a much higher
percentage of the actual moss flora than would be expected in the
case of most areas of so large extent, and at the same time so
very slightly explored. This conclusion is based partly on the
general phytogeographical conditions of Southern Rhodesia, for
data as to which I am indebted to Dr. Sim. From these data —
detailed by Dr. Sim in the introduction to this paper — it is clear
that the district generally speaking is a xerophytic one, extremely
so in the western parts, less so, but still decidedly of that character
in the eastern. In these parts where Dr. Sim's collections were
mostly made, the percentage of species is obviously low as com-
pared with the number of individuals; mosses appear in fail-
quantity but of comparatively few species, and definitely xerophy-
tic in character.

The one part of the district where one would expect a possibly
rich moss flora is that of the Zambesi Valley round the Victoria
Falls. The conditions of humidity and of temperature would
predispose one to expect something of the bryophytic flora of the
tropical rain-forest. The moss flora is, indeed, much richer there
in individuals, and their character is widely different from those
of the arid veld; but the number of species is somewhat disap-
pointing, and the relationship to the tropical moss flora is very
slightly marked. This, however, as Dr. Sim points out, is quite
explicable when one considers the isolated position of the area
in question. The actual part of the gorge which is kept moist
by the spray of the Falls is very limited, and a hundred yards
away from it, in any direction, takes us into the arid plateau.
That xerophytic conditions prevail even so close to the river is
clear from the fact that epiphytic mosses occur on the trees growing
here. Below the Falls the gorge is a deep, rocky chasm where the
vegetation is of a succulent xerophytic type, and Bryophyta
almost disappear ; while before reaching the Falls the river has
travelled through hundreds of miles of arid country, so that this
part of its course is entirely isolated from the tropical rain-forest
4a

300 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

in which it takes its rise. These considerations quite explain the
comparative poverty of the bryophytic vegetation of what might
have been expected to be a specially rich locality.

The other consideration on which I base my expectation that
no large additions must be expected to the number of species
contained in the following list is that derived from a comparison
of the collections made by Dr. Sim and Prof. Wager in traversing
practically the same ground in 1920.

The number of determinable gatherings made by Dr. Sim in
this area amounted to about 220, comprising 80 species. Prof.
Wager's gatherings (from Matopos and Victoria Falls) numbered
25, comprising 20 species, of which only five are additional to
Dr. Sim's species, the remaining 15 being common to both lists.

Now, if the moss flora of the district were a comparatively rich
one, and Dr. Sim's 80 species represented only a small percentage
of the actual flora of these localities, it is extremely unlikely that
only 25 per cent, of Prof. Wager's would be different, and 75
per cent, common to both; and it appears to me highly probable
that these 80 species represent a quite high percentage of the
whole moss flora. Of the 13 species collected by Prof. Wager
about the Victoria Falls, only two were different from those col-
lected there by Dr. Sim.

There is always a possibility, in a district under these climatic
conditions, of a number of short-lived, minute annual species
occurring, and only to be found for a short period after a rainy
season, and therefore easily overlooked, or quite absent during a
great part of the year. During the last few years Prof. Wager's
collections have revealed several such in different parts of South
Africa, representing three or four at present undescribed genera,
mostly of the Funariaceae, and mostly showing an adaptation to
distinctly xerophytic conditions. These, however, should they,
or other similar species, occur in Rhodesia, are not likely to enrich
the moss flora to any great extent numerically, however great their
interest from a biological and taxonomic viewpoint.

I have added to the list of Rhodesian mosses a short account
of some mosses from Portuguese Gaza-Land, containing a few
species of exceptional interest.

Types of new species, unless otherwise described, are in my
herbarium.

The mosses collected may now be systematically described.
The following abbreviations are used: St. = sterile, otherwise
the specimens are to be taken as fruiting; alt. = altitude.
References thus — (3) — are to the bibliography at the end of the
paper.

DlCRANACEAE.

Trematodon intermedins Welw. and Duby. — On moist sandy
river bank, alt, 5,000 feet, Salisbury (Eyles, 2286) ; Zimbabwe,
alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8826, 8835, 8836); 8826 was corticolous, a
curious condition for a Trematodon.

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 301

Var. nanus Welw. and Duby. Syn. Trematodon pechuelii
CM. in "Flora," 1886, p. 508.

On damp earth bank, alt. 4,800 feet, Salisbury (Eyles, 2169).

I have not been able to see a specimen of T. jiechuelli, but
there can be no doubt that it is the same thing as this variety.
C Mueller does not. compare it with T. intermedins; the descrip-
tion suggests no difference. Roth ("Die Aussereuropaisch.
Laubm.," I, pp. 255, sqq.) does not mention the var.' nanus; he
does not compare T. pechuelii and T. intermedins specially, but
he gives as the one character separating the former from this and
other species the excurrent nerve (in T. intermedins almost or
quite precurrent). I have examined original specimens of
Welwitsch's (Nos. 9 and 20). In the former the nerve usually
ceases below the apex, but is occasionally quite distinctly excur-
rent. In the latter (var. nanus) it is generally, perhaps normally
excurrent. This disposes of the character as giving any value to
T. pechuelii. In no other way but the shorter seta does the var.
nanus differ from the type, and intermediate forms occur fre-
quently. Some plants of Sim, 8836, might be placed here.

T. intermedins may be quite gymnostomous, or it may have
a very rudimentary peristome consisting of fragmentary bases
of teeth. This latter condition occurs in the specimen of Eyles,
2169. No. 2286 does not show any trace of peristome.

General distribution : Angola, Belgian Congo, Uganda, Trans-
vaal.

Trematodon mauottensis Besch. — Rua R., near Salisbury, alt.
5,000 feet (Eyles, 1343); Matopos, alt, 4,600 feet, on wet sandy
bank (Eyles, 935); Acropolis, Zimbabwe (Sim, 8819). New to the
African continent. A very distinct species in the very widely
pointed, obtuse leaves. No. 935 has the peristome in good con-
dition; the teeth are long, undivided , densely vertically striolate;
spores 22/i to 25/x.

General distribution : Mayotte.

Trematodon flexifolius CM. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8936, 8940).

Agrees quite well with the description of T. flexifolius.
Notable for the extremely long collum, and closely allied to the
northern T. longicoltis. New to continental Africa.

General distribution : Island of St. Thome.

Trematodon africanus Wager, in " Trans. Roy. Soc. South
Africa," IV, 4. — On wet ground under short grass, Rua R., near
Salisbury, alt. 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1341, 1342).

General distribution : Transvaal, Natal.

Aongstroemia gymnomitrioides sp. nov. Dixon.

Rupestris. E speciebus generis africanis A . julaceae Hook,
proxima, longe tamen aliena ; robustior, caespites densos, siccitate
pallide olivaceos madore laete virides, facile dilabiles, efficiens ;
habitu omnino specierum nonnullarum Gymnomitrii, e.g., G.

302 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

obtusum (Lindb.). Caulis circa Icm. altus, inferne fastigiate
divisus, tenellus, filiformis, siccus madidusquemaxime julaceus,
teres, apice obtuso; folia densissime julaceo-imbricata, e basi
latissima amplexicauli circularia, perconcava, integerrima; costa
tenella, ubique aequalis, longe infra apicem terminata, Cellulae
ubique, nisi marginales, subaequales, quadratae, magnae. 15/j, ad
20/a latae, perchlorophyllosae, parietibus tenuibus, firm is ; margin-
alibus seriebus I-" saepe angustiores, rectangulares, saepius
echlorophyllosae, hyalinae.

Dioica. o* planta sola visa. Flos cf apicalis (cito tamen
propter innovationemsingulam lateralis visus), conspicuus, brac-
teiis perigonialibus pallidis, ovatis, longe acuminatis aristatisque
subfalcatis, antheridia pauca, parva includentibus. Cetera
ignota.

Habitat: On flat rocks, Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8747); on granite, Matopos, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8772, 8850);
Khami, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8838).

A remarkable moss, closely related to the equally peculiar
A. julacea Hook., but that has crenulate-denticulate leaves, a
much wider nerve, and very different upper cells. The cf flowers
are very conspicuous, the bracts being much larger and longer
than the stem-leaves,

The resemblance to some species of the genus Gymnomitrium
of Hepaticae is very striking.

Dicranella subsubidata Hampe. — Inyanga, on wet earth,
with Polytrichum commune, alt, 6,000 feet, (Dr. Nobbs, 1361,
in herb. Eyles).

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

Leucoloma chrysobasilare (CM.) Jaeg. Syn. Leucoloma
woodii Rehm. and MacLea in sched. (Rehm. "M. Austr.-Afr.,"
No. 444).

In wet forest, Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet (Henkel. 2624, 2635b
in herb. Eyles). Further records are: Woodbush, Transvaal,
Rehmann (original of L. u-oodii (st.); and from the same locality,
J. Hewitt, 1910. No. 2, herb. Dixon, c.fr. Usagara Mts.
Hannington, and Usagara Mts. Last both ex herb. Mitten; these
latter sterile.

General distribution: Comores, Mascarenes, Madagascar,
East tropical Africa, South Africa.

The two specimens from Mitten's herbarium were determined
by him as /. chrysobasilare, and I quite concur with his identi-
fication of them with the Anjouan moss. L. woodii is precisely
the same thing.

The fruit (first described by Wager in "Trans. Roy. Soc. S.
Afr." IV, 2) is turgidly elliptical, on a very short seta rather
less than its own length, so that the capsule is hardly exserted;
it is in fact very similar to that of L. bifid urn Brid.

Leucoloma rehmanii (CM.) Rehm. — Invanga, alt, 6,000 feet,
in wet forest (Henkel, 2623b, 2635 in herb. Eyles), the latter cum
setis.

bRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 303

General distribution: Cape Province, Transvaal.

Campylopus nano-tanax CM.- — Acropolis, Zimbabwe, alt.
3,250 feet' (Sim, 8820) St.

General distribution : Zululand, Transvaal.

Campylopus angustinerris sp. nov. Dixon.

Humilis, caespites densissimos, olivaceos, vix 1 cm. altos
imtruens. Folia parva, 2.5 mm. ad 3.5 mm. longa, stricta, sicca
plerumque parum mutata, raro subflexuosa per totam longitu-
dinem valde con valuta, tubulosa; lineari-lanceolata, superne
convoluta, dorso scabernla, apice cito brevissime raro longiuscule
hyalino-cuspidata. Costa angusta, ] ad J? folii latitudinem inferne
occupans; sectione tenuis, duces parvos, cellulas ventrales subae-
quales vel minores, dorsales substereideas tantuw exhibens.
Cellulae basilares rectangulares, hyalinae, parietibus tenuibus,
marginum versus angustissimae, limbum latum hyalinum instruen-
tes, alares nullae, superiores august e rhomboid ear , parietibus
tenuibus, sinuosis.

Theca (a cl. Mitten delineata) seta perbrevi cygnicolli ellip-
tica, symmetrica, operculo conico-rostellato, calyptra basi longe
fimbriata, peristomio (ut videtur) dicranaceo.

Habitat: In deep green tufts, The Downs, Pietersburg, alt.
4,000 feet, Transvaal, November, 1918 (Rev. IT. A. Junod, 4001
in herb. Sim); Belfast, 1919 (Wager, 884); Rhodes' Grave,
Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8862); Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8789, 8806); "On earth at Camp," Central Africa (Han-
nington, in herb. Mitten, unnamed; three different gatherings,
one, fide Mitten, c.fr.). All the above plants with this exception
sterile.

A very distinct species in the habit, the position and con-
volute form of the leaves when dry, the narrow nerve, and the
cell structure of the latter and the lamina. The nerve shows, as
far as I have examined it, only three layers of cells, all subequal,
but varying in relative size to some considerable extent either in
different leaves or at different positions in the leaf. The guide-
cells and those of the ventral layer are sometimes subequal, at
other times the latter are much smaller, and the row of guide-
cells is then very much nearer the front of the nerve. The dorsal
cells are substereid and obscure, forming a rather thicker layer,
Out I have not found actual stereid cells, and am inclined to
place the plant in the Subgenus Pseudo-campylopus.

C. cailleae Ren. and Card, from Nossi Comba is the most
closely allied species, but that has auricles moderately developed.

It is rather curious that the above eight gatherings of this
undescribed species by four different collectors, from such different
parts of Africa, all came into my hands within the space of about
a month.

Campylopus lepidophyllus (CM.) Jaeg. — Zimbabwe, alt.
3,000 feet^ (Sim, 8785) St.'

304 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

This agrees well with an original specimen in Hampe's her-
barium. The guide-cells of the nerve are very small compared
with the cells of the ventral face.

General distribution : Cape Province.

Campulopus trichodes Lor.- — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8749, 8829); Matopos, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8950). All sterile.
A highly variable species in colour, size and development of hair-
point.

General distribution : South Africa generally.

Var. nov. Perlamellosus. Dixon

Elatus. Costae lamellae superioris altissimae.

Habitat: Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim,
8858), St. ; Bed of Tugela River, Natal, alt. 6,000 feet (Dr.
Bews, 8374 in herb. Sim) St.

The dorsal lamellae are pronounced in C . trichodes, and vary
considerably, but they are so highly developed here that the plant
seems worthy of varietal rank. A section of the nerve near the base-
scarcely shows them, but in mid-leaf their height is sometimes
actually equal to the thickness of the whole of the rest of the
nerve-section. Both the plants referred to the var. are unusually
robust, but this may not be more than a coincidence.

C ampul o-]iu$ inandae (Rehm.) Par. — Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000
feet (Sim, 8739, 8740, 8784, 8827) St, ; Rhodes' Grave, Matopos,
alt. 5,000 feet, (Sim, 8874)" St, ; Wet Forest, Inyanga, alt. 6,000
feet (Henkel, 2635c in herb. Eyles) St.

This is one of the most striking of the South African species
of Campylopus, generally growing in tall, loose tufts with a bronze
sheen. It varies greatly in habit, and a single tuft may exhibit
several distinct forms. The hair-point appears to be usually only
slightly developed, but it may be long and conspicuous. Henkel's
plant is shorter, bright green, with falcate leaves, probably a shade
form .

The anatomical structure is distinct, the nerve in section
being thin, with the guide-cells very near the front, the ventral
layer extremely thin, of very small stereid or substereid cells.
The auricles are large and conspicuous, the supra-alar cells all
shortly rectangular, not or little narrowed at margin.

General distribution : Natal.

Sim's collections contained one or two other species of sterile
Campylopus, one quite probably an undescribed one, but their
condition scarcely allowed of accurate determination.

Leucobryaceae.

Octoblepharum albidum (L.) Hedw. — I have received five
gatherings from Southern Rhodesia of this moss, almost cosmo-
politan in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It
reaches as far south as Natal. Recorded also from the Victoria
Falls by Brotherus (2).

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 305

FlSSIDENTACEAE.

Bryoidium.

Fissidens androgynus Bruch. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet

(Sim, 8881, 8903, '9826, 8929, 8946); Victoria Falls (Wager,
890 p.p., 901); Cataract I., Victoria Falls (J. Burtt-Davy,

17,829). All c.fr. This distinct, synoicous species is evidently

abundant about the Falls. The stout, often reddish border, recalls
F. rufulus.

General distribution : Cape Province.

Fissidens cuspiddtus CM. — Bulawayo (Wager, 895 p.p.) St.

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

I am moreover quite unable to distinguish from this species
a plant from the Himalayas, and I am inclined to think it may
prove to' be a widely distributed species under several names.

Fissidens latifolius sp. nov. Dixon.
Caespitosus vel dense aggregatus sat robustus plerumque
corticola, atro-viridis. Caulis saepius simplex, usque ad I cm.
longus, plus minusve procumbens, strictiusculus. Folia madida
complanata, sicca crispo-falcata, haud conferta, late oblongo-
lanceolata , breriter late acuta saepe ohtusiuscula apiculataque .
Lamina vaginans paullo dimidiam partem folii superans, summo
apice acute ad mediam. partem laminae ferminata, lamina dorsalis
folii basin attingens ibique saepe perl at a vix auriculata, angustis-
sime decurrens

Folii margines omnes limbo hyalino perangusto, dorso saepe
angustissimo, nonnumquam carenfe, circumdati. Costa sat valida,
superne subflexuosa, concolor, percurrens vel infra summam apice.n
evanescens. Cellulae parvae circa 7/x, laeves, chlorophyllosae,
perdistinctae, subrotundatae hexagonaeve, saepe pulchre seriatae,
parietibus firmis, tenuibus. Seta longiuscula, 6 mm. ad 8 mm.
alta, purpurea; theca inclinata, gibbosa, perbrevis minuta. Peris-
tomium normale.

Habitat: Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8766) c.f . ; 8807
c.fr.; 8753, 8761 and 8768, St.); Khami Ruins, alt. 5,000 feet
(Sim, 8841, St.); Matopos, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8856 c.fr.); on
ground in shade, Salisbury, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 1574).

The nearest species is probably F. sitbremotifolius CM.,
which I have not seen, but the description of that does not agree
in several points, especially "pedunculo et perostomio brevissimo"
and "nervo ferrugineo." The wide, not tapering, leaves are char-
acteristic. The vaginant lamina terminates neither on the nerve
nor at the margin, but in the middle of the lamina, an unusual
position.

From its distribution and characters it seems to be as dis-
tinctly xerophytic as F. androgynus is hygrophytic.

Fissidens dubiosus sp. nov. Dixon.

Robustus, atovurens; caules elongati, ad 2 cm. lonsfi, sim-
plices, pulcherrime plumosi, latitudine ubique fere aequali, circa

306 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

3 mm. Folia multijuga, 1.5 mm. ad 1.75 mm. longa, confertius-
cula, late elliptico-oblonga, obtusa vel apiculata; lamina vaginalis
vix dimidiam partem superans, lamina dorsalis ad basin folii
attingens ibique cito aiigustata. Costa validiuscula, infra sub-
ferruginea, infra apicem soluta. Lamina vaginalis limbo saepe
rufescente sat valido, 2 ad 4 seriato circumdata ; lamina dorsalis
et apicalis nunc angustissime limbata, nunc omnino iinmarginatn .
Cellulae majusculae, 12/x ad 16/x latae, subquadratae, percldoro-
ph yllosae , laeves, parietibus tenuibus. Fructus ignotus.

Habitat: Palm Grove, Victoria Falls, alt. 2,500 feet (Sim,
8819).

A very beautiful and distinct species, with prettily plumose
foliage, almost elliptical, often obtuse leaves, nerve ceasing dis-
tinctly below apex, and large, highly chlorophyllose cells. The
border (except on the vaginant lamina) is very narrow, often in-
distinct, sometimes altogether wanting, sometimes indicated only
by occasional elongate 1-2-seriate, but not cartilaginous cells
The species might, therefore, be considered to belong to the
Semilimbidium ; but the occasional full development of the border,
together with the character of the aerolation, leave little doubt
that its true place is in Bryoidium.

Semilimbidium.

Fissidens micro-androgynus sp. nov. Dixon.

/'. androgyno Bruch structura, inflorescentia synoica, etc.,
similis, midto tamen pusillior, vix 0.5 cm. altus ; folia 5 ad 7 juga,
remotiuscula, omnino nisi apud laminam vaginant em immarginata,
ibique angustissime limbata. Seta perbrevis, 3 mm. alta; theca
perminufa, brevis, erecta vel inclinata, sicca urceolata, operculo
conico, acuto.

Habitat: Bulawayo (Wager, 895).

Almost a miniature of F. androgynus Bruch, but totally dis-
tinct in the size and the characters italicised. The synoicous
inflorescence and the pale, chlorophyllose, clear, smooth cells, will
distinguish it from others of the South African Semilimbidia.
The very narrow border is frequently to be found only on the
upper, or the perichaetial leaves, the lower leaves being entirely
unbordered.

Fissidens submarginatus Bruch. — On ant-hill in granite
country, Umtali, alt. 3,700 feet (Eyles, 1742).

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal.

Aloma.

Fissidens calochlorus sp. nov. Dixon.

Pusillus; dense caespitosus intense laete viridis. Caulis fer-
tilis circa 2 mm. longus, paucijuga ; sterilis paullo longior, pluri-
juga. Folia caulis fertilis ligulato-lanceolata, acuta, raro breviter
acuminata; lamina vaginalis dimidiam partem folii superans,
lamina dorsalis ad folii basin attingens, ibique saepe rotundata;
omnes immarginatae, integrae ; costa valida, concolor, flexuosa,

BllYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 307

infra apicem soluta. Cellulae perpellucidae , chlorophyllosae, 9ft
ad 1 I/a latae hexagonae, parietibus tenuibus, pellucidis. Folia
caulis sterilis remotiuscula, latiora, oblongo-elliptica, acuta. Folia
siccitate leniter fleruosa, parum mutata.

Rhizautoica; planta cf gemmacea, polyphylla.

Seta brevissima 2 mm. ad 3 mm.; flava ; theca erecta vel
inclinata, minuta, plus minusve 0.5 mm. longa, operculo conico-
rostellato.

Habitat: Below the Victoria Falls, alt. 2,500 feet (Sim,
8891) c.fr. paucis; Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8882) St.

Although one of the smaller species this is by no means an
inconspicuous plant, forming fair-sized tufts of a vivid green
colour. Dr. Sim remarks that it is a first pioneer on moist bare
rocks.

F. cryptarum CM. Is perhaps the nearest species, but is a
much larger plant, with reddish nerve, etc. F. holstii Bioih.
has narrower, strongly apieulate leaves.

Crenularia.

Fissidens erosulus (CM.) Par. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8883); Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8887; Wager,
912); Matopos, alt, 5000 feet (Sim, 8846).

This agrees very well with C Mueller's original plant; these
three specimens, as in that, show some slight variation in the
width of the leaf and the degree of acuteness of the point; they
are always, however, wider above and less acuminate than in F.
sa/rcophyllus CM., frequently almost obtuse, and sometimes quite
so. The leaves are laterally very asymmetric, the nerve being
generally much nearer one side than the other. The cells are
obscure and very opaque, very densely and minutely, almost
invisibly papillose. Traces of an evanescent border are sometimes
visible on the vaginant lamina of the uppermost or perichaetial
leaves.

General distribution : Niam-Niam, Uganda, Portuguese East
Africa.

Crtspidium.

Fissidens rotundatus sp. nov. Dixon (V. infra, p. 332). —
Tatagura Valley, Mazce, alt. 4,300 feet fEyles, 653) c.fr.

Ambeyothallia

Fissidens prnrrrior Broth, and Bryhn. — Victoria Falls.
Recorded by Brotherus (2). The only known locality, except the
original one in Zululand (3).

Serrtdium.

Fissidens corrugatulus sp. nov. Dixon.

Eobustt/s, caespites latos, rigidos, atrovirides, aetate fusces-
centes instruens. Caulis simplex vel hie illic innovans ; ad 2 cm.
.altus, circa 3 mm. latus. Folia conferta complanata, sicca fortiter

308 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

rigide falcata vel hamata, 2 mm. ad 2.5 mm. longa, e basi latiore
/(iff oblonga apice abrupte obtuse acutata, apiculata, nee acu-
minata; lamina vaginalis circa 2/3 folii longitudinem attingens;
lamina dorsalis ad basin folii accedens ibique auriculata margines
omnes tenerrime crenulati. Costa valida, concolor, superne plus
minusve sinuosa, percurrens. Lamina folii superne madida •plus
minusve for titer transverse rugosa. Cellulae perchlorophyllosae.
pellucidae, laeves, 9/i to 12/i, latae, subrotundatae, marginales hand
distinctae.

Cetera ignota.

Habitat: Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8885, 8904,
8924 p.p. 8928); Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8878).

This species appears best placed in this section rather than
in Amblyothallia. It has no near allies among the African
species; the nearest perhaps is F. procerior Broth, and Bryhn ;
but there, as in F. cymatophyllus CM. and F. amblyophyllus
CM., the texture is quite different, the leaves much longer and
narrower, ligulate, and with a different nerve. They are also
without a transverse corrugation which is very constant here, and
a marked feature when moist.

I must confess to a little suspicion as to the origin of No.
8878. Dr. Sim tells me that he thinks there is no doubt that the
data are correctly given. The species is, however, in all the other
gatherings definitely hygrophytic in its habit and associates, and
it seems a little remarkable that a single gathering should come
from the Matopos, while betraying no difference whatever in
character. The collecting number, moreover, is the last of those
belonging to the Matopos, the following and succeeding numbers
being from the Victoria Falls.

OCTODICERAS.

Fissidens julianus (Savi) Schimp. — Mazoe, alt. 4,600 feet,
submerged (Eyles, 401) ; Palm Grove, Victoria Falls, alt. 2,500
feet (Sim, 8917) ; Victoria Falls (Wager, 911) ; Umtali, in running
stream, alt, 3,800 feet (Eyles, 1663). All sterile.

General distribution. — Aquatic. Very widely spread in north
and south temperate latitudes.

Calymperaceae.

Galymperes victoriae, sp. nov. Dixon.

Climacina. C. tenello CM. affine; multo brevius; pusillum,
circa 0.5 cm. altum, viride. Folia sicca convoluta. Hamato-
incurva, madida explanata, concava, 2 mm. ad 3 mm. longa,
supra basin brevem angustiorem paullo1 constricta, inde oblongo-
ovata, apice paullo angustata, obtusa, marginibus ad medium
folium feriebus duabus cellularum bistratosis, crenulatis vel hie
illic minute denticulatis ; costa validiuscula, 45/x ad 50/a lata;
per totam longitudinem subaequalis, seu sensim superne paullo
angustata, dorso papillata. Cellulae basilares endohyalinae

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 309

magnae, brevissime rectangulares, subqudratae, seriebus superne
perdistincte, nee alte scalaribus. Cellulae marginales basilares
inter teniolam marginemque 4 ad 7 seriatae, quadratae, chlorophyl-
losae, limbuni infra sensim attenuatam instruentes, ad basin 1
ad 2 seriatutn, e cellulis breviter rectangularibus hyalinis instruc-
tum ; margine basilari ubique teneriter denticulato. Teniola
bene notata, ubique fere biseriata (aliquando tri-seriata) supra
basin evanescens, raro ad medium folium attingens. Cellulae
superiores rotundae vel hexagonae, minutae, 3/a ad 5/x latae,
chlorophyllosae, distinct ae, dorso papillosae. Fructus ignotus.

Habitat: Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8879).

A rather commonplace little plant, but apparently distinct
from anything yet described, C. tentellum CM. and C. brachy-
pelma CM. are taller, with longer and narrower, involute leaves,
indistinct teniole, and cells mamillose at back but not papillose.
C. orthophyllaceum CM. is more robust, with more coarselv
serrate leaves and involute margins.

It marks the southern limit of the distribution of Calymperes
in continental Africa.

POTTIACEAE.

Hymenostomum- ffocotranum Mitt. — Odzani R. Valley,,
Manica, Umtali Prov. (A. J. Teague, 167); Lomagundi, Darwin-
dale, in picrite formation, alt. 4,500 feet (Eyles., 697); Matopos,
alt, 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1049, 1051). All c.fr.

Agrees quite well with Mitten's plant, which, however, is
extremely close to //. tortile.

General distribution : Socotra.

Hymenostomum hurnicola (CM. Par. — Rua R., near Salis-
bury, alt, 5,000 feet, on stem of Vellozia (Eyles, 1345) ; on earth
between rock and tree, Salisbury, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 684b,
Herb. Mus. Brit.); Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8813);
Matopos (Wager, 892, 915); Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt, 5,000
feet (Sim, 8863; Wager, 890). All c.fr. The rather large, clear
cells separate this species markedly from most of its congeners.

General distribution: Cape Province.

Hymenostomum eurybasis sp. nov. Dixon. (For description
v. infra). — On earth, Matopos, Mchelele Valley, alt, 4,700 feet
(Eyles, 940, 941).

General distribution: Portuguese Gaza Land (V. infra).

Gyroiveisia latifolia sp. nov. Dixon.

Humilis, dense caespitosa, sordide viridis, infra pallescens.
Caulis circa 5 mm. altus, filiformis. Folia laxiuscula, erecto-
patentia, sicca vix mutata, minima, 0.3 mm. ad 0.4 mm. longa,
latissime oblongo-liugulata, vel suborbicularia, apice valde obtuse,
rotundato, concava, utroque latere prope marginem leniter sulcata,,
marginibus ipsis recurvatis-, integris. Costa valida, lata supra
parum angustata, sub summo apicem evanescens, dorso plus
minusve, saepe alte, scaberulo.

310 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Cellulae basilares quadrato-rectangulares, pellucidae, superi-
ores parvae, 5/a ad 8/x, irregularis, subrotundae, obscurae, mamil-
losae, parietibus tenuibus, pellucidis, subcollenchymaticis.

Seta 5 mm. ad 7 mm. longa, rubra; theca pctrva, elliptica.
1 mm. longa, pachydermia, castanea, gymnostoma (?), operculum
hand visum.

Habitat: Dry area, Victoria Falls (Sim, 8931).

A very pretty and distinct little moss in the broad, rounded
leaves scarcely or not at all altered when dry, as well as in other
characters. (,'. tnosis (Lor.) somewhat resembles it, but has
markedly longer and narrower leaves.

Hymenostylium crassinervium Broth, and Dixon in Smithson.
Miscell. Colls., 69, No. 2, p. 13.— Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8899, 8902) St.

The basal cells are a little laxer than in the type, but other-
wise it agrees quite well.

Trichostomum cyatJiiforme sp. nov. Dixon.

Sat robustum, atro-viride, inferne atratum. Caules circa
1 cm. alt i , caespitem densum, rigidiusculum efficientes. Folia
superne dense comata, sicca fortiter circinato-incurva, valde con-
voluta, dorso pallida, brevia, 2 mm. ad 3 mm. longa, o basi brev:
plerumque latiore, mepe suborbiculari, usque ad 1 mm. lata,
in laminam duplo longiorem, late oblong o-ovatam vel subspatJiu-
latum, eoncavam, c gat Ji if or men continuata, obtusa, rotundata, vel
ob margines superne fortiter late involutas eueullata. Costa
pervalida fusca, haud pellucida, dorso promineus, laevis.

Cellulae laminae 8jtx ad 10/x latae, hexagonae, perchlorophyl-
losae, opaoae, ob parietes firmas vix incrassatas pallidas dictinctae,
supra plerumque sublaeves vel dorso irregulariter prominentes,
inferne (supra basin) saepius, praecipue paginae ventralis, valde
papillosae, saepe papilla singula alt a apice bifida coronatae. Cellu-
lae basilares omnes tenerae, pcrln/aliiuie, elongatae, lineares vel rect-
angulares, juxtacostales saepius breviores latioresque, omnes in eas
laminae abrupt e transeuntes nisi marginales, seriebus 2 ad 3
hyalinae elongatae ultius aseendentes, ibidemque margine saepa
leniter denticulato. Cetera ignota.

Habitat: Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8934).

The generic position of this plant cannot be certainly ascer-
tained without fruit; it might conceivably be a Hyophila, or, of
course, a Totella. It is recognisable at once by the leaf characters,
the deeply concave, boat-shaped lamina with the clearly differen-
tiated base of elongate, hyaline or pellucid, thin-walled cells, pass-
ing abruptly into the small, opaque upper ones, except at the
margin, where a row or two of the basal cells ascend for some
little distance upwards. The lamina occasionally on pressure
flattetis out entirely, and in that case the leaf base may be little
or not wider, but as a rule the base is much broader, short and
suborbicular, rapidly narrowed into the concave, cyathiform upper
part.

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 311

Trichostomum rhodesiae Broth, in " Denkschr. der Math-
Naturwissensch. K.K. Akad.," Bd. 88, p. 735 (Musci). — Victoria
Falls, on trunks of trees; Brunnthaler, Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8901). Both sterile.

I have not seen Brotherus' species, but the description fits
Sim's plant accurately. The leaves are described as "fragilia"; in
Sim's plant they are very markedly fragile, and the lamina of
the leaf appears to be often elongated into a narrow, ligulate,
highly fragile prolongation for reproductive purposes.

Tortella caespitosa (Schwaegr) Limpricht.

Syn Barbula afro-caespitosa CM. in "Hedwig.," 38, p. 109
(1899). Tortella afro-caespitosa Broth, in Engler and Prantl
"Pflanzenfam.," Musci," 1,397 (1902). — Mazoe, on Fatagura
Kiver, alt. 4,300 feet (Eyles, 712) c.fr.

Barbula afro-caespitosa is certainly not to be separated from
the northern species; C. Mueller gives no distinctions between
them except for saying that the African plant is much more robust
in all its parts; but a glance through any herbarium containing a
good series of the northern species will show at once that this is
of no weight whatever. In fact the type of C. Mueller's species
is by no means specially robust. In all probability one or two
other "hyphenated species" described by C. Mueller in the same
place must equally go under this name; but I have not had time
to examine them critically.

Tortella opara sp. nov. Dixon.

Dense caespitosa, atro-viridis vel sordid e viridis, humilis.
Folia madida e basi erecta valde patentia vel subsquarrosa, sicca
circinato-mcurva, 3 mm. longa, e basi breviore hyalina paullo
latiore linealia, supra sensim paullo angustata, apice obtuso apicti-
lato, cucullato, fragilia, marginibus supra basin fortiter late
involutes, wide folia valde canaliculata subtubulosa ; costa ad basin
fusca, valida (60/a ad 75/x lata), supra concolor, vel pellucida, in
a pic ul a in lii/al/iiu in excurrens. Cellulae basilares hyalinae, sed
breviter rectangulares parietibus firmis ; nonnunquam, praecipue
juxtacostales longiores, lineares, parietibus tenuibus ; marginales
supra basi hand asceiidentibus ; superiores opacae, minutae, circa
5jLt ad 7fi, subrctundae, vel subquadratae, parietibus tenuibus, sub-
laeves.

Propagula foliacea minitta elliptica ad caulis apicem rosulata,
hie illic vidi.

Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8884, 8890).

In absence of fruit this might be placed equally in Trichosto-
mum. It is distinct in the channelled leaves with widely involute
margins, as in species Weisia and Hymenostomum, but the size
and differentiated leaf base separates it from these. The terminal
rosettes of elliptical brood-leaves may not be constantly present,
but so far as they go they are characteristic.

Tortella obtusifolia sp. nov. Dixon.

Pusilla, caules circa 5 mm. alti. gregaria vel laxe caespitosi ;

312 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

superne sordide viridis, inferne pallide rufescens. Folia parva,
1 mm. ad 1.5 mm. longa, supra sensim majora, patentia, recurva,
sicca crispata, e basi pcrbreri, hand latiore, lingulata, obtusa vel
minute apiculata, marginibus planis, integris ; costa validiuscula,
superne angustata, vix pellucida, carinata, dorso laevis vel sub-
laevis, infra apicem soluta vel subpercurrens. Cellula© superiores
perobscurae, liniitibus hand, nisi foliis senioribus, decernendis,
plus minusve 7jm lata©, seriebus longitudinalibus dispositae ; basil-
ares hand multi rectangulares, vel lineares, hyalinae. Perichaetium
longe exsertum, conspicuum, bracteis interioribus convolutis, tubtt-
losis obtusis. Seta 6 mm. ad 8 mm. longa, tenuissima, flava; tbeca
parva, cyiindrica, late annulata, operculo breviore, cellulis
spiraliter contortis ; peristomium bene evolutum, sed fragile,
torquatum, basi brevi tubulari aurantiaca.

Habitat: Clay bank, Umtali, alt. 4,200 feet (Eyles, 1741).

This appears a very distinct species in the small, Ungulate,
widely rounded and obtuse or bluntly apiculate leaves with very
obscure upper cells and tubular, exserted peTichaetium. The
capsules are all immature, but sufficiently advanced to show that
the peristome is quite barbuloid. Some African species of the same
affinity have been placed under Barbula (Streblotrichum) on
account of the long tubular perichaetium; but the plane^margined
leaf and dense obscure upper cells appear to me to indicate Tor-
tella ; otherwise I do not see on what grounds the two genera can
be kept apart.

Hyophila atrovirens (CM.) Jaeg.— Victoria Falls, alt. 2,500
feet^5,000 feet. (Sim, 8885b, 8886, 8894, 8916, 8924, 2925). All
sterile. Evidently one of the abundant species of the neighbour-
hood, and found both above and below the Falls. No. 8924 is a
narrow-leaved form, with narrower, much less rounded apex than
usual, and indeed sometimes somewhat acute; the margin is very
variably dentate, often quite entire. There is nothing definite,
however, to separate it from the present species.

General distribution-: Natal, Transvaal, Portuguese East
Africa.

Hyophila baginsensis (CM.). — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet.
(Sim, 8831) c.fr.'; Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim,
8868) St.; Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8880, 8883) St,

This plant differs from the preceding in the habit and colour,
©ntire leaves. It agrees (e descr.) quite well with C Mueller's
species from Niam-Niam, and is not very closely allied to any of
the other African species of the genus. //. potieri has strongly
mucronat© and narrower, oblong leaves.

General distribution : Niam-Niam.

Hyophila perrobusta Broth (2). — Victoria Falls, on tree
trunks, coll. Brunnthaler.

ORYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 313

Hyophila zei/heri (Hampe) Jaeg. — Zimbabwe Ruins, alt.
3,000 feet (Sim, 8751, 8764, 8799); Khami Ruins, alt. 5,000 feet
(Sim, 8864); Matopos, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8852); 8799 is in
fruit, the rest sterile.

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal, Por-
tuguese East Africa.

Weisiopsis plicata (Mitt.) Broth, in "Oefv. af Finsk. Vet.-
Soc. Foerh.," LXII, No. 9 (1920).— On stone, mouth of cave,
mostly in shade, Salisbury, alt, 5,200 feet (Eyles, 2282).

This little species, Hyophila plicata of Mitten, is placed by
Brotherus in the new genus Weisiopsis, distinguished from
Hyophila by the thin-walled, more or less plicate, peristomate
capsule; and comprising five known species, the remaining four
being confined to Eastern Asia.

General distribution : Usagara, Madagascar.

Didi/modon afer (CM.) Broth.— Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8952). '

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal.
Wager (9) states of this species, "common"; but I rather
doubt the accuracy of this comment.

Barbula indica Brid. syn. Barbula natalensis CM. — Bulawayo
(Sadler, 982 in herb. G. Webster) St. Earth bank, banks of the
Zambesi, near Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Eyles, 1309) c.fr.

This belongs to a perplexing series of species of very similar
habit and leaf form and structure, the difficulty of determination
being greatly increased by their being frequently sterile, and by
the fact of their belonging to two groups, differing from one another
materially in the peristome, while perhaps not exhibiting any
marked vegetative differences; some having the peristome long,
twisted and fully Barbuloid ; while in others the teeth are short,
scarcely twisted, as in Didymodon and Triehostomum. They are
similar in the ligulate or lingulate outline of the leaf, obtuse or
very shortly pointed, often cucullate apex, the small obscure upper
cells, and especially the back of the very prominent nerve strongly
papillose, often verrucose, above. The best known of these is the
present species, known also as Triehostomum orientale Willd.,
occurring also in Madagascar, the Comores and Seychelles. The
South African species is quite inseparable from it. Four or five
African species of the group have been described, of which the
following B. stuhl Hiau nii is one; it is probable that some reduc-
tion may be made when the plants have been more closely studied,
as the species are mostly based on slight vegetative characters
which may be inconstant or varietal merely.

General distribution : India, Malay Peninsula, East Indies,
Borneo, Tonkin, Formosa, New Guinea, Madagascar, Comores,
Seychelles, Natal, ( ?) Portuguese East Africa.

314 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Barbula stuhlmannii Broth. — Vertical sides of trench on soft
travertine (70 to 90% earbonate of lime), Mazoe, 4,300 feet
(Eyles, 711).

The long peristome shows that this is distinct from B. natalen-
sis and that group; it agrees very well with B. stuhlmannii from
Zanzibar, the only difference that I can detect being that the cells
are very slightly more distinct than in the specimens I have seen
of that species. The leaves are much narrower than in B. natalen-
sis, the apex more acute, slightly cucullate, and the cells less
opaque.

General distribution : Zanzibar.

Barbula salisburiensis sp. nov. Dixon.

B. xanthocarpae CM. affinis, differt foliis angustioribus , ab
insertione usque ad apicem sensim angustatis, nee acuminatis, sub-
obtusis vel obtusis, costa dorso valde prominente, subpercurrente,
margine a basi usque fere ad apicem fortiter revoluto, cellulis
omnibus pellucidis, inferioribus breviter rectangularibus, parieti-
bus firmis, sensim in superiores subquadratas atgue breviter
rectangulares transeuntibus. Folia perichaetialia foliis caulinis
similia. Seta 1 cm. alta, pallide rubra. Theca elliptica, 1.5 mm.
longa, leptodermica, exotheeii cellulis perlaxis, irregularibus,
parietibus tenuibus. Peristomium praelongum, thecae longitu-
dinem subaequans, dentibus torquatis, pulchre rubris.

Habitat: On bank of stream, schist formation, Salisbury,
alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 596). In small quantity, but apparently
quite a good species. B. xanthocarpa CM. has wider, more
opaque leaves and very different capsule. I do not know why
it is placed under Streblotrichum by Brotherus, as the perichaetial
leaves are in no way differentiated from the ordinary ones.

The form of the leaves, narrowed almost from the point of
insertion, and with no differentiated basal part, the strong, promi-
nent nerve, pellucid cells, and the structure of the capsule, are
marked features in the present plant. Most of the allied African
species, of at all similar habit, moreover, have the upper cells
obscure and opaque and the nerve scabrous at back above.

Barbula elongata sp. nov. Dixon.

Perrobusta, 3 cm. ad 5 cm. alta caespites rigidos olivaceo-virides.
laxe cohaerentes formans. Folia patentia, sicca rigide incurvo-
flexuosa, 1.5 mm. ad 2 mm. longa, aequalia nee comosa,
laxiuscule disposita, e basi latiore sensim ligulato-lanceolata, late
acuta, nee acuminata, perconcava, carinata ad margines longitu-
dinaliter anguste plicata, marginibus ipsis nunc revolutis nunc
erectis. Costa valida, subpercurrens, dorso swperne scabriusrula.
Cellulae superiores sat distinctae, chlgrophyllosae 7/ul ad 9/x latae,
basilares brevissime rectangulares (vix 1.5 x 1), parietibus firmis,
parvae, pellucidae. Cetera ignota.

Habitat: Danger Point, Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8895); Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8897, 8898).

In the stout canaliculate nerve, scabrous above, the form and
submarginal plicae of the leaves, this seems to be allied to B. indica

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 315

(Schwaegr.) and the allied species of that group (B. natalensis) ;
but the tall, robust, very rigid stems, the rigidity of the leaves,
etc., give it a totally different character; the back of the nerve,
too, is less highly scabrous. Fleischer's f. steri/is of B. indica
shows some approach to it, and perhaps indicates a real affinity.

Barbvla torquatifolia Geheeb. — Matopos (Wager, 898) St.

A distinct species, hitherto only known from South- West
Africa, the leaves strongly twisted when dry, with broadly
recurved margins, rather large cells, and stout nerve excurrent in
a long cuspidate point. B. acutata CM. is described as having
the nerve only shortly mucronate, and the leaves lanceolate-acu-
minate; here they are oblong-lanceolate, and very little narrowed
above.

General distribution : South- West Africa.

Phascum leptoph ylhifn CM. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3.000 feet (Sim,
8711); Matopos, alt. '5,000 feet (Sim, 8857). Both sterile.
General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal.

Tortula brachyaechme (CM.) Broth. — Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000
feet (Sim, 8732, 8752); Khami Buins, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8837).
Mostly in poor fruit.

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal.

I am increasingly doubtful whether this is separable from T.
erubescens.

Tortula erubesrens (CM.) Broth. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8773) St.; Bhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim,
8872a, 8873) St.

General distribution : Eastern Africa from Cape Province to
Abyssinia and Somaliland ; cf. (4).

Tortula eu-bryxim (CM.) Dixon. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8736, 8780); Bhodes' Grave, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8859,
8869). All sterile. The Zimbabwe plants in fine large tufts, with
stems an inch high.

General distribution : Tropical East. Africa, Transvaal.

Grimmiaceae.

Ptycliomitrium crispatum (Hook, and Grev.) Schimp. — Zim-
babwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8754, 8798, 8813); Khami Buins,
alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8865); Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1048).

General distribution: Cape Province, Transvaal.

Ptychomitrium marginatum (Wager and Dixon), Dixon
Comb. Nov. (Syn. Glyphomitrium marginatum, Wager and Dixon
in "Trans. Boy. Soc. South Africa," VIII, 196 (1920).— On rock
with south aspect, in kloof, Forest Hill Kop, Makoni (Eyles, 838).

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal.

Ptychomitrium eurybasis sp. nov. Dixon.

E robustioribus generis. Ab omnibus speciebus africanis

316 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

differt foliis e basi brevi dilatata, obo'vata, cito in laminam anguste
lingulatam, obtuser acutam contraetis, cellulisque distinctis, per-
chlorophyllosis, majusculis, 10/u, ad 12/x latis, basilaribus sensim
elongatis, rectangularibus, infimis juxtacostalibus elongatis, lineari-
bus, teneris, pellucidis. Costa valida, ad basin 70/x ad 90/x lata,
subpercurrens. Folii margines erecti, integri vel apice obsolete
sinuosi, nullo modo incrassati. Seta perbrevis, 3 mm. longa, theca
parva, turgide elliptica, collo sat distincta, operculo plus minusve
breviter rostrato.

Habitat: Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8851); Zimbabwe,
alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8808); on granite rocks, Macheke, alt. 5,000
feet (Eyles, 1994).

Quite distinct in the rather large, not obscure, chlorophyllose
cells, the dilated base of the leaves, wider above and obovate or
suborbicular, the very short seta.

It may be of help to give here a tentative key to the South
African species of Ptvchomitrium.*
1

Leaf margin at least in some parts bistratose 2

Margin unistratose 3

2

Setae 3 mm. to 5 mm., frequently in pairs; deoperculate

capsule about 1 mm. long

subcrispatum Ther and P. de la Varde.

Seta 5 mm. to 10 mm., single, capsule about 2 mm

marginatum (Wager and Dixon).

3

Leaves distinctly cucullate at apex, seta very short

cucullatifolium (CM.).

Leaves not or not markedly cucullate 4

4

Upper cells minute, opaque, leaves not markedly widened

at base 6

Upper cells larger, distinct 5

5

Base not markedly widened crassinervium (Schimp.)

Base markedly widened eerybasis (Dixon).

6

Basal margin widely recurved depressum (CM.)

Margin erect or nearly so 7

7

Leaves strongly crispo-circinate when dry

crispatum (Hook and Grev.).
Leaves scarcely crisped when dryf obtusatum (CM.).

* P. mucronatum Schimp. e C. M. in "Hedwig," 38. 122, does not belong
to this genus. Original specimens in herb. Schimper at Kew show
it to be a Trichostomum or allied genus.

t 1 take this from C. Mueller's description ; T have seen no specimens.
It appears e clescr. to differ little from P. crispatum.

bryophyta of s. rhodesia. 317

Orthotrichaceae.

. Orthotricium sp. Eyles (8). — Matopos, No. 1052.
[Ulota crispa B. and S. Matopos (Eyles, 1048). — Recorded by
Eyles (8). Dr. Sim has sent me part of this gathering, which
belongs to Ptychomitrium crispatum (Hook, and Grev.) Schimp.]

Macromitrium confusum Mitt. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8777, 8802, 8822).

The South African species of the subgenus Macrocoma are
very perplexing, and I cannot claim to understand them. The
peristome here is quite absent, and the plants agree quite well with
Mitten's specimens of M. confusum at Kew. I therefore place it
here, but with some doubt whether the name may not have to
give way to some earlier one.

Macromitrium mannii Jaeg. "Adumbr.," I., 421.

Syn. M. menziesii Mitt, in "Journ. Linn. Soc," Bot. , VII,
152 (1863). M. undatifolium CM. in "Flora," 1886, p. 278.
M. rugifolium CM. e Broth., in "Engl. Bot. Jahrb.," 24, p. 241
(1897).

Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet. (Henkel, A.)

I have compared this with Mitten's type, with which it agrees
quite well, as it also does with a specimen of M. undatifolium
(Ambosita, Madagascar, Rev. Soula, 1890) sent me by Cardot. I
have also compared M. rugifolium CM. (Dus., M. Camer., 263)
with Mitten's plant, and I am unable to find any valid specific
difference between the two. Brotherus in his description of
M. rugifolium separates it from 31. annii and 31. undatifolium
"rigiditate, foliis brevioribus, horride patulis, valde rugosis, apice
angustius serrulatis." I find, however, no difference whatever
in the Madagascar plant from 31 . rugifolium in the position or the
rugosity of the leaves; while they are more sharply toothed rather
than less so. They are perhaps a little longer, about 3 mm. as
compared with 2.5 mm. in 31 . rugifolium, but on the present plant
both can be matched by leaves from the same stem ; and the leaves
of Mitten's type of 31 . annii are often at least no longer than those
of M. rugifolium.

Mitten's species is well represented at Kew, and is in good
fruit. Some of the ripe capsules are quite smooth, and others are
deeply plicate, the difference being due, probably, to some differ-
ence in their age at the time of drying. This makes one suspicious
as to the real distinctness of 31. per undid 'at u m Broth., which is
separated from 31. undatifolium and 31. rugifolium only by the
plicate capsule.

General distribution: S. Thome, Cameroons, Madagascar.

Rhachithecium transvaaliense (CM.) Broth. — Mazoe, Iron-
mask on tree trunks, alt, 5,000 feet (Eyles, 616b); Salisbury,
on tree trunk, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 1573). The former c.fr.,
the latter, a few sterile stems only; in both cases mixed with
Fabronia.

318 URYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

General Distribution. — This rare and interesting little plant
which has figured variously under the genera Hypnodon, Zygodon,
and Decodon, has hitherto been recorded only so far as I know,
from the original station in the Transvaal.

R. demissum (CM.) is erroneously recorded by Wager in the
Check List of the Mosses of South Africa; it is an Argentine
species.

Schlotheimia percusjndata CM. — Tree trunk, Inyanga, alt.
6,000 feet, Dr. Nobbs (1358 in herb Eyles). A rather marked
species, being more loosely tufted and with longer branches than
in most; the leaves are very little contorted when dry; the
calyptra is smooth. Rehmann's specimen of "S. cusp:4ata" agree
very well. It is not obvious why C Mueller changed Rehmann's
name; or rather his own MS. name.

General distribution: Cape Province.

FUNARIACEAE.

Physcomitrium spathulatum CM. — Salisbury, in flower pots,
cool house (Eyles, 1446, 1590, 1746). Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8941.)

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Portuguese Gaza
Land.

Funaria marginata (CM.) Broth. — In wet forest, Inyanga,
alt. 6,000 feet, (Henkel, 2622 in herb. Eyles.)

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal.

Funaria longicollis. sp. nov. Dixon.

Stirps distincta, folns late obovatis, subobtusis, inunarginatis,
marginibus superioribus ubique conferte, breviter obtuse sed
distincte serrulatis, nervo in cuspide brevi stricta vel leflexa
excurrente. Cellulae superiores hexagonae chlorophyllosae, mar-
ginales nullo modo angustibres, conformes nisi saepius hyalinae,
valde prominentes. Seta erecta, crassiuscula, rubra, circa Icm.
alta vel paullo brevior ; theca erecta vel suberecta, breviter
cylindrica, cum collo ^equilongo deHuente 2.5 mm. ad 3 mm. longa,
badia, opereulo minuto plano-convexo, peristomio nullo, sporis
20/x ad 28/a, laevibas, pellucidis.

Habitat: Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000 feet, (Sim, 8735, 8796, 8797).
Khami Ruins alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8842).

A distinct species in the erect and almost symmetrical, narrow,
long-necked, gymnostomous capsule; and the quite immarginate
leaves, which are densely and regularly, obtusely serrate with the
prominent usually hyaline marginal cells, one or two here and
there still more prominent, An allied South African species,
F. gymnostoma Dixon, is much more delicate, with smaller,
shorter capsule, nerve ceasing below apex. F . rottleri is of similar
habit, but has capsule mostly slightly curved, and leaves acuminate
to a long, slender point.

Funaria hygrometrica r\i.) Sibth. — Numerous localities.

bryophyta of s. rhodesia. 319

Bryaceae..

Brachymenium borgenianum Hampe. — Ou earth in shade,
alt. 4,800 feet, and on clay bank, alt. 4,200 feet, Umtali (Eyles,
2765, 1737); Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8845; Eyles, 936).

General distribution: South-West Africa, Transvaal, Usam-
bara, Mauritius, Madagascar.

Brachymenium pulchrum (Hook). — Odzani R. Valley, Manica,
Umtali (Teague, 164, comm. Sim); Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8733, 8734, 8781), mostly c.fr. Matopos (Sim, 8853; Eyles,
1114); Makoni, Timaru, on granite hill, alt. 6,500 feet (Dr. Nobbs,
1316, in herb. Eyles).

General distribution : Cape Province to East tropical Africa,
Rodriguez.

B. campulotrichum (CM.) Broth. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8814) St.

General distribution : Transvaal.

Brachymenium variabile Dixon, in Smitbson. Misc. Colls. 69:
8:p.2 (1918).— Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8800, st., 8823,
c.fr); Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8870, 8876,
887?;, St.

No. 8823, the fruiting plant, agrees with the type from
Uganda, in the vegetative characters, and in the pendulous or
subpendulous capsules, but these are much more turgid than in
the Uganda specimens. I can only look upon it, however, as a
further aberration of this very variable species.

General distribution : Uganda.

Brachymenium rhodesiae sp. nov. Dixon.

Orthocarpus. Autoicum ; flos rj1 discoideus, ramulo termin-
alis. Habitu B. flexifolii Schimp., B. speirocladi CM., etc., sed
foliis multo flaccidioribus, sirds parum spiraliter torquatis, late
oblongo-ovatis, nee spathulatis, perobtusis, perconcavis, margini-
bus perlate recurvis, subinteyris, anyustissinu limbatis. Seta
2 cm. alta vel paullo ultra, theca erecta, crassiuscule fusiformis,
microstoma, operculo breviter conico, obtuso. Peristomii dentes
anguste lanceolati, in feme saturate rubri, dorso transverse striolati,
lamellis hand prominentibus; endostomii membrana adhaerens,
processubus nulli ? Spori 18p, ad 22/x.

Habitat : On granite hill, alt. 6,500 feet, Makoni (Eyles,
1317a); on dead wood in bush, Umtali, 4,000 feet (Eyles, 1730).

Differs from nearly all the allied autoicous species in the
leaves soft and flaccid, scarcely spirally twisted when dry, not
narrowed below nor spathulate, very concave and obtuse, with
the margins widely recurved, the border very narrow and not
cartilaginous, entire or nearly so. There seems some doubt as to
the characters of B. capitulatum Mitt., but the leaves are
described as of different texture and structure, and do not at all
agree with those of the present plant, B. revolutum Broth, has
very long seta and horizontal or pendulous capsules.

320 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Anomobryum promontorii (CM.) Dixon. — Victoria Falls,
alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8937).

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

Bryum argenteum L. — I have this in more than a dozen
gatherings from several localities. Some of them would be refer-
able to B. argyrotrichum CM., and B. squarripilum CM., but
these appear to me to intergrade too much with one another and
with the type to be distinguished even as varieties.

I refer to var australe Rehm. — a well-marked and often
very beautiful form— the following: Matopos, alt. 4,600 feet
(Eyles, 935); Rhodes' Grave, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8875); Zim-
babwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8787); and perhaps Sim, 8748 from
Zimbabwe. Sim, 8741 (Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet) is a form with
julaceous, usually very obtuse leaves, sometimes chlorophyllose to
the tip, similar to one I have described from Mt. Elgon (5).

General distribution : Cosmopolitan.

Bryum (Doliolidium) condensation Hampe. — Victoria Falls
(Wager, 909); Matopos, on ground, alt, 4,600 feet (Eyles, 938).

This species appears to be little known (it is omitted by
Brothems in the "Musci"), but rather distinct. I have it also
from Stellenbosch (Wager, 626). It forms dense tufts, the stems
and leaves usually reddish below, pale-green or reddish-green above;
the leaves closely imbricate, and when dry erect and appressed,
often enrolled, not very flexuose ; the capsule when ripe turgid
and barrel-shaped, corrugated at base as in B. coronatum, and
like that with no tapering neck. Without the operculum it may
be scarcely longer than wide.

General distribution : Cape Province.

Bryum rigidicuspis sp. nov. Dixon.

Doliolidium. Caespites densi, extensi, subfaciliter dilabiles,
lutescenteS, 1 cm. ad 2 cm. alti. Folia conferta, apicem versus
paullo comata, parva, circa 1 mm. longa, late ovata, breviter
acuminata, acuta, con cava, marginibus plerumque revolutis,
integris vel subdenticulatis ; costa valida, flava, per totam longi-
tudinem subaequalis, foliis caulinis longe, foliis innovationum
brevius excurrens; apice. parum acuto, integro vel dentibus paucis
praedito. Areolatio breviuscula, e cellulis rhomboideis subpellu-
cidis, lO^t ad 15ji latis, parietibus tenuibus, composita, marginem
versus angustioribus linearibus, limbum male notatum instruen-
tibus.

Dioicum videtur. Seta 1.5 cm. ad 2 cm. alta ; theca subpen-
dula, elliptico-piriformis, rubra 1.5 cm. longa, collo distincto,
brevissimo, in setam abrupte desinente. Operculum conicum.
Peristomium pallide rufescens, dentes densiuscule lamellosi, linea
media valde angulata, Annulus latus, a cellulis perangusfis
compositas.

Habitat : Van Reenen Pass, Natal (Wager, 74) ; Zimbabwe,
alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8790); Khami Ruins, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim,
8839, 8867). The Rhodesian plants are sterile and rather more
robust than the Van Reenen fruiting plant, but the foliation quite

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 321

agrees and is characteristic. The nerve runs out into a stout yel-
lowish cuspidate point or even arista, little narrower even at the
extreme tip, and there usually ends with a few sharp teeth. The
leaves are acute but not narrowly acuminate. The fruit is mostly
immature, and it is not quite easy to determine the position in
the genus ; the only peristome in at all good condition has the
endostome imperfect, and I have not been able to see well-developed
cilia; the form of the capsule, however, and its bright red colour
in the one or two nearly mature examples, seem to indicate that
its position is in Doliolidium, with which the foliage quite agrees.
The neck is scarcely narrower than the sporangium, somewhat
corrugated, and passing quite abruptly into the seta in immature
capsules, but the mature ones seem to show a tendency to taper
very slightly and very shortly.

Bryum mundii CM. — On rock ledge, Salisbury, alt. 5,000
feet (Eyles, 2426).

General distribution: Cape Province.

Bryum truncorum Borv. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8933).

General distribution : East African Islands, Cape Province,
Transvaal, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand.

I surmise that this species will be found to have a still wider
distribution than the above (? B. andicola Hook., Syn. B. lechleri
CM., in South America); the Australian plant (B. leptothecium
Tayl.) is certainly identical with Bory's plant.

Bryum truncorum Bory, nov. var. pycnophylhnn Dixon.

Folia hand rosulata, ubique aequaliter disposita, dense con-
ferta, parum patentia; habitu formarum minorum B. wightii
Mitt, indici, sed foliis argute denticulatis. Caespites intus pallidi;
folia plerumque breviora quam ea formae typicae.

Habitat: Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8737); Umtali,
on rock in shade, alt, 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1725). Sterile.

Bryum syntriehioides CM. in sched. Rehm. M.A.A. Nos.
228 and 557, belong to this species; 228, 228b, 557, 557b, 557c, to
the type, 228c to this variety. The variety is very different in
habit and leaf arrangement from the type; it exhibits little or
none of the interruptedly comose leaf arrangement, and therefore
forms a rather undesirable transition between the groups into
which Brotherus divides the species of the section Rosulata.

The plant is in no way a Rhodobryum, under which genus
Paris has placed B. syntriehioides CM.

Rhodobryum commersonii (Schwaegr.) Par. — In mountain
bush, Umtali, alt. 4,500 feet (Eyles, 1736) St,

There appears to be some confusion between this and R.
umbraculum (Burch.) Par.; but, as I understand them, R. um-
braculum has a more strongly bordered margin, often reddish,

322 BHYOPIIYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

with shorter, scarcely spinose teeth, while R. commersonii has the
border less marked ( 1 rarely or not reddish) and the teeth densely
spinose, almost ciliate.

Rhizogoniaceae.

Rhizoyonium spiniforme (L.) Bruch. — In wet forest, Inyanga,
alt. 6,000 'feet (Henkel, 2632, in herb. Eyles).

General distribution : Tropical and snb-tropical zones, gener-

ally.

Bartramiaceae.

Bartramidula globosa (CM.) Broth. — Matopos, alt. 5,0C0
feet (Eyles, 1050).

The specimen I have seen of this, sent me by Dr. Sim, was
without fruit, but a single inflorescence was present, which, on
dissection, proved to be synoicous. Apart from the dioicous
inflorescence (fide Brotherus) and the warted capsule in B. comosa
(Hpe. and CM.) T find nothing to separate that species from the
present; vegetatively the two appear to me to be identical.

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal.

Philonotis androgyna (Hampe) Jaeg. — Victoria Falls, alt.
3,000 feet (Sim, 8944).

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

Philonotis imbricatula (Mitt.) — In various forms and under
several gatherings from Zimbabwe, Khami, the Matopos and
Victoria Falls. All sterile.

I have not attempted to give the distribution (which is a
very wide one) as the limits of the species are not well defined and
it is doubtful whether it be distinct from several other described
species that are at least closely allied. It was first described from
the East Indies. I have a plant from Fiji which I cannot separate
from it, and I doubt if /'. etessei Broth, and Par. from New
Caledonia can be kept distinct.

Philonotis laxissirha (CM.) Bry. jaw — Floating on lime-
impregnated water of Sinoia Cave, Lomagundi, alt. 3,900 feet (Dr.
Nobbs, 2547, in herb. Eyles) St. Dr. Nobbs wrote that it grew
in round clusters, and free, with an accretion of lime below. It
strongly repelled the water when submerged. It is a curious and
very delicate growth, much encrusted with ( ?) sulphate of lime.
It agrees very well with other specimens of P. laxissima which
I have from Africa and elsewhere, and though under the abnormal
circumstances of growth its specific characters may well have
become masked, I think it may safely be referred here.

General distribution : Assam, East Indies, New Hebrides,
Madagascar, Natal, Egypt.

Philonotis laeviuscida sp. now Dixon.

Philonotula. Sat. robusta, circa 5 cm. alta, flavo-viridis.

BRYOl'HYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 323

Folia, saepius striata falcato-secunda, lanceolata, baud plicata,
sicca leniter flexuosa, marginibus, plants vel subplanis, conferte
denticulatis; costa validiuscula, in aristam sat validam denticula-
tam hand longe excurrens. Cellulae omnes sat laxae, pellucidae,
leniter papillosae, basin versus laxiores, longiores.

Autoica. Flos o* gemmiformis, propr perichaetium situs,
turgidifs, antheridiis atque paraphysibus clavatis mulfcis. Florem
(f aliquando in cauli proprio terminalem, inde ob innomationem
singulam lateralem factum vidi. Bracteae perigoniales internae e
basi lata concava abrupte rigicle subulatae. Seta 1 cm. ad 1.5 cm.
alta, tenuis. Theca subglobosa, microstoma, nutans, leptodermica,
sicca laevis vel leniter tantum plicata, exothecii cellulae laxae,
hexagonae vel subquadratae, parietibus firmis nee tamen incras-
satis. Peristomium imperfect urn, nunc rudimentarium, nunc e
dentibus brevibus, pallide rubris, irregularibus ; endostomium
male evolutum, e processubus rudiment ariis instructum.

Habitat: Odzani Valley, Manica district, Umtali, Eastern
l^hodesia (A. J. Teague, 253).

A very distinct species, closely allied in the foliation and
inflorescence to the widely spread Asiatic species P. falcata (Hook) ;
but differing in the thin-walled capsule, smooth, or lightly plicate
only when dry at times, and the peristome rudimentary, or at
least ill developed.

POLYTRICHACEAE.

Catharinea androgyna CM. — Mt. Pene, alt. 7,000 feet,
Swynnerton (Eyles, 6021); Eyles (8).

(reiieral distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal, Zulu-
land.

Pogonatum capense CM. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8932). '

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal, Natal.

Polytrichum commune L. var. trichodes (Rehm.) Dixon
comb. nov. Syn. Polytrichum trichodes Rehm. e CM. in Hedwig.,
38, p. 63 (1899); Victoria Falls, Jas. Sim (Sim, 7393) St.;
Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1039) St,

The principal point about this plant is the long arista of the
leaf, formed by the excurrence of the nerve, in a terete, spinulo?e
hair, usually of 1 mm. to 2 mm. in length. It it quite clearly
only a derivative of P. commune , and it is probably distributed
throughout some considerable part of the area of that species,
and the above name may be found to be antedated by some earlier
specific one.

The type of P. commune also occurs in Rhodesia, probably
not very rarely; but I have it only in one gathering, viz., Inyanga,
alt. 6,000 feet, Dr. Nobbs (Eyles, 1360).

Polutrichum commune var. minus Weis. — Zimbabwe, alt,
3,000 feet (Sim, 8792); Khami Ruins, alt, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8844).

324 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

General distribution (of variety) : Europe generally, Atlantic
Islands, South Africa generally, Madagascar, north temperate
North America, New Zealand.

Erpodiaceae.

Aulacopilum trichophyllum Aongstr. — Acropolis, Zimbabwe,
alt. 3,250 feet (Sim, 8816).

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal, Zululand.

This specimen was growing on stones ; a very unusual habitat
for such a characteristically corticolous plant.

Erpodium hanningtonii Mitt. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8801); on rock, Matopos (Wager, 899); Victoria Falls
(Wager, 907) ; rarely found elsewhere than on trees.

General distribution : Transvaal, East tropical Africa.

Erpodium distichum Dixon and Wager. — On tree trunk in
partial shade, Lomagundi, alt. 3,500 feet (Eyles, 2702).

General distribution : Transvaal, Natal, Portuguese East
Africa.

Braunia secunda (Hook.) B. and S. — In numerous localities.
Frequent about the Zimbabwe Ruins; a distinctly xerophytic type.
Granite boulders, Bulawayo (Sadler, 383, in herb. G. Webster);
Makoni (Eyles, 835); Rhodes' Grave, Matopos, alt, 5,000 feet
(Sim, 8871), etc.; Salisbury, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 1572).

Several of the gatherings are referable to the forma longipila,
one from Macheke, on granite rock, alt, 5,000 feet (Eyles, 1993)
being a very extreme condition ; some of the branches having the
leaf acumen hyaline quite as in ILedwigia albicans. Many of the
gatherings were in fruit. "Tlypnum sp." Eyles [8] is this species
(Eyles, 1026).

General distribution : South and Central Africa, India,
Central America.

Braunia peristomata sp. nov. Dixon.

Habitu ei B. secundae et B. elliotii sat similis, sed ramis
longioribus, siccis teretibus subnitidis, Jenifer curvatis, foliis arete
imbricatis apicibus erectis hand patulis. Seta vix 1 cm. longa;
perichaetium circa dimidiam partem longitudinis setae aeqvans,
arete conrolutum, theca breviter elliptica, microstoma, operculo
breviuscule curvirostrato. Peristomium bene evolutum, simplex
e dentibus 16 instructum, pallidis, lanceolatis, superne parum
angustatis, subobtusis, saepius per paria cohaerentibus, lamellis
remotiusculis, intus vix prominentibus; dentes ubique nisi articu-
lationes 2 ad 3 infimae (ibique laeves vel parce papillosae) dense
papillosi.

Habitat: Great Zimbabwe Temple Ruins, on tree, alt, 3,000
feet (Sim, 8750, 8778, 8793, 8809); Fort Victoria, alt. 4,000 feet
(Sim, 8843).

ERYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 325

The long, curved, terete branches, having the leaves very
regularly and closely imbricate, not spreading, when dry, gives
them a characteristic appearance, but the main character is the well
developed peristome, unique in the sub-family, and — with the
single exception of Cleistostoma ambiguum — in the family of Hed-
wigiaceae. The widely elliptic capsule and the perichaetium
reaching half-way up the seta, are also marked characters.

• Neckeraceae.

Papillaria africana (CM.) Jaeg. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8791, 8795) St.; Umtali, in trees in mountain bush, alt.
5,000 feet (Eyles, 1721) St,

General distribution : South Africa generally, East tropical
Africa, Madagascar.

Trachupodopsis serrulata (P. Beauv.) Fleischer. — In web
forest, Inyanga, alt, 6,000 feet (Henkel. 2630, in herb Eyles) St,

General distribution: Fernando Po, East tropical Africa,
Comores, Madagascar, Bourbon. The present record is a rather
interesting extension of its range.

Calyptothecium brotheri (Par.) Dixon comb. nov.

Syn. Neclcera brotheri Par. Ind. Ed. I, Suppl. p. 254 (1900).
Calyptothecium subacutifolium Broth, in Engl. Bot. Jahrb., 24
(1897), p. 254; (nee C. subacutifolium (Geh. and Hampe) Broth.;
Neckera subacutifoli Geh. and Hampe in "Flora," 1881, p. 379) );
Caluptothecium beyrichii Broth, in Engl, and Prantl. Pflanzen-
fam., Musci, II, 839 (1906).

Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8910, 8922; Wager, 914);
Victoria Falls, Palm Grove, alt. 2,500 feet (Sim, 8913); Victoria
Falls, Palm Kloof, on Phoenix (Brunnthaler), Brotherus (2).

The synonymy above appears rather confusing, but is really
simple. Brotherus in 1897 described a plant collected by Beyrich
in Pondoland as Calyptothecium subacutifolium sp. nov., having
overlooked the Brazilian species Neckera subacutifolia Geh. and
Hampe, which belongs to Calyptothecium. Later, in the "Musci"
and elsewhere, he has replaced this name by C. beyrichii Broth.
But in the meantime Paris in the Sppl. to Index, ed. I, had given
the African plant the name Neckera brotheri; and this name ante-
dates C . Beyrichii by some years. The plant must therefore stand
as I have given it above, so long as its specific rank is maintained.
The specimens, however, that I have seen from the localities cited,
and one or two other allied plants from South Africa, vary con-
siderably, and I am strongly of opinion that the plant of conti-
nental Africa will have to be united with the Bourbon C. acuti-
folium (Brid). Neckera pseud o-crispa C.M. from Van Reenen is
certainly identical with C. acuti folium, and this greatly reduces the
probability of the present plant being anything more than a race-
form .

General distribution : Pondoland.

326 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Porotrichum comorense Hampe. — In wet forest, Inyanga, alt.
6,000 feet (Henkel, 2629, 2636, in herb. Eyles). Cum setis.

General distribution : East African Islands generally, Usam-
bara, Belgian Congo, Fernando Po.

Thamnium pennaeforme (Hornsch.) Kindb. — Wet forest,
Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet (Henkel, 2628, in herb. Eyles) St.

General distribution : South Africa generally, and in addition
that of Porotrichum comorense. I am greatly of the opinion that
the latter is only a form of this highly variable species.

Entodontaceae.

Entodon dregeanus (Hornsch.) CM. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8758); Umtali, rock in bush, alt. 4,200 feet (Eyles,
1731), and tree-trunk, alt. 4,000 feet (Eyles, 1734).

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal, Natal, Zulu-
land, East tropical Africa, Bourbon, Belgian Congo.

Entodon cymbifolius Wager and Dixon. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8786).

General distribution : Transvaal.

Erythrodontium sp. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8776).
A very small quantity of a sterile species which appears certainly
different from E. subjulaceum (CM.) Par., the common species
of Central Africa; it is more slender, glossy, closely pinnately
branched with short branches under 1 cm. in length; the leaves
when dry closely applied and julaceous, with the points scarcely
spreading; chlorophyllose, much softer in texture than in that
species, with the upper cells very narrow and small, the alar filling
most of the base, very numerous, thin, hyaline or pellucid. E.
engleri Broth, has similar leaf structure, but is far more robust.

Track i/phyllum qastrodes (Welw. and Duby) Gepp. — Zim-
babwe, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8756b, 8760); Khami Ruins, alt.
5,000 feet (Sim, 8840); Rhodes' Grave, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8872b,
8873, 8876 p.p.). All sterile.

General distribution : Angola, Transvaal.

Trachyphylhim maximum Dixon sp. nov.

Stirps pro genere robust us; caules 4 cm. ad 5 cm. longi,
haud, ut videtur, intricati, superne virides, inferne ochracei ;
sat regulariter confertiuscule jnnnati, ramis circa 0.5 cm. longis,
turgidiusculis siccitate gracilibus, teretibus. Folia caulina 0.8 mm.
ad 1 mm. longa subdeltoidea, anguste acuminata; folia ramea
paullo minora, suborbicularia, brevius acuminata; omnia concava,
marginibus planis, integris, costa brevissima, basi latiuscula,
saepius gemella, male notata, Cellulae superiores elongate rhom-
boideae, sigmoideae, dorso spiculosae, medium folium versus
angustiores longiores, basilares (nisi juxtacostales) sensim breviores
latiores, alaribus multis, pellucidis dimidiam partem fere basis
occvpantibus, maryinalibus saepe transverse ellipticis.

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 327

Fructus ignotus.

Habitat: Makoni (Dr. Nobbs, 1317b, in herb Eyles).

This is, I think, the most robust species of the genus hitherto
described. T. bo'rgenii (CM.) from Madagascar comes near it
(and if, as Cardot suggests, that should prove to be a robust form
of T. fabronioides, it is probable that this may also have to be
reduced), but is more slender, with laxer branch leaves, and hence
less turgid branches. T. dilatatum Ren. has the stem leaves very
broad, wider in fact than long, which is not the case here.

Stereophi/ll urn odontoealyx (CM.) Jaeg. — Tree Trunk,
Mazoe, Tatagura Valley, alt. 4,300 feet (Eyles, 652, 713);
Umtali, alt. 4,000 feet (Eyles, 1743); Great Zimbabwe Temple
Ruins, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim', 8755); Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8888, 8889, 8908, 8912, 8918, 8921, 8923; Wager, 913;
Eyles, 1304). All fruiting.

Several of the Victoria Falls gatherings show a dark green,
robust, luxuriant form with long stems and large leaves, long
seta (to 2 cm.), and usually with fewer capsules — probably a
hygromorph.

General distribution : Cape Province, Transvaal, Natal,
German East Africa, Uganda.

Fabroniaceae.

Fabronia abi/ssinica CM. — On earth between rock and tree,
Salisbury, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 684a); Bulawayo, alt. 4,500 feet
(Eyles, 1053); Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8762, 8769, 8803,
8804); Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8855); Victoria Falls, alt.
3,000 feet (Wager, 905). All, or nearly all, fruiting.

No. 8804 is a lax, dark green form, with short hair-points,
which might be a distinct species, but it does not seem to agree
quite with any of the other described species, and is probably a
shade form of this.

General distribution: South and East Africa generally.

Fabronia perciliata CM. — Rua R., near Salisbury, alt. 5,000
feet (Eyles, 1323); Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8907b).

I have received, by the kindness of the authorities of the
Berlin Museum, an original specimen of C. Mueller's species, which
shows that it is by no means one of the species with highly ciliate
leaves, as the name and to some extent the description would
imply. It differs little indeed from the common Torms of F.
abyssinica, so little indeed that I doubt much if it be really dis-
tinct; but I retain it temporarily. The South African species of
this genus need carefully revising.

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

Fabronia angolensis Welw. and Duby. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000
feet (Sim, 8815); Salisbury, alt. 4,900 feet, on tree trunk; and
on vertical granite in shade (Eyles, 1573, 1575). The latter has
short points, and may be referred to var. acuminata Gepp.

328 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

General distribution: Angola, Uganda, Cape Province. (The
distribution may probably have to be revised on a better under-
standing of the South African plants.)

Fabronia pilifera Hornsch. — On "Beefwood" tree, Salisbury,
alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 1447).

General distribution: Cape Province, Transvaal.

Fabronia leikipiae CM. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim,
8767, 8783, 1 8821).

The quite entire leaves, abruptly hair-pointed, are very dis-
tinct. No. 8821 is somewhat doubtful. The leaves are usually
entire, but may have a few teeth at base of acumen and elsewhere.

General distribution: East tropical Africa (Aberdare Mts.);
German East Africa, Cape Province.

Fabronia victoriae sp. nov. Dixon.

E tenerioribus generis; caulibus dense intertextis, brevibus,
viridibus; folia caulina anguste ovata, sensim acuminata, vix
pilifera marginibus fortiter oliolatis; ramea late ovata, acuminata
baud longe pilifera, irregulariter, nunc breviter nunc longe cilio-
lata, omnia subecostata ; cellulae pellucidae, latiusculae, chloro-
phyllosae, alares paucae, subquadratae.

Theca minuta, ovata, sicca suburceolata, brevicollis.

Habitat: Victoria Falls, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8943).

Very distinct in the highly ciliate teeth of the leaf margin, as
in no other African species, F. perciliata CM. has the teeth
occasionally, but not often ciliate, and in addition has denser much
more acuminate leaves with long hair-points.

Hypopterygiaceae.

Hypopterygium laricinum (Hook.) Brid. — Wet forest,
Iriyanga, alt, 6,000 feet (Henkel, 2634, in herb Eyles) St.

General distribution : Fernando Po, East and West tropical
Africa, Natal, Cape Province, Madagascar.

Rhacopilaceae.

F/iacopiliun capense CM. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet,
(Brunnthaler; Sim, 8892, 8911; Eyles, 112;* Wager, 906).
Mostly sterile. Zimbabwe Ruins, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8757) c.fr. ;
Umtali, rock in bush, alt, 4,200 feet (Eyles, 1732).

General distribution : Southern and Central Africa generally.

Leskeaceae.

Lindbergia pseudoleskeoides Dixon. — Bulawayo (Sadler, 317,
in herb. G. Webster); Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000 feet (Sim, 8744,

This is the "Rhacopilum s p." of Eyles [8].

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 329

7846, 8752 p.p., 8824); Matopos, alt. 5,000 feet (Sim, 8848).
Nos. 8824, 8848 have the areolation a little more distinct, and the
nerve a little narrower than in the type.
General distribution: Transvaal.

Lindbergia patentifolia Dixon. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8774) c.fr. The fruit has not been observed. It does not
appear to differ materially from that of the other South African
species.

General distribution: Uganda.

Pseudoleskea claviramea (CM.) CM. — Zimbabwe, alt, 3,000
feet (Sim, 8759, 8794).

General distribution: Cape Province, Transvaal, Orange River
Colony, Zululand, East tropical Africa', Madagascar.

Pseudoleskea lesheoides Schimp. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8756, 8775). I find it increasingly difficult to separate
this from P. claviramea.

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

llauia abbreriata (Broth.) Broth. — Zimbabwe, alt. 3,000 feet
(Sim, 8774b); Khami Ruins, 5,000 feet (Sim, 8863).

General distribution: Shire Highlands, German East Africa.

Thuidium versicolor (Hornsch.) Schimp. — Victoria Falls, on
stems of trees (Brunnthaler) (2).

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal, Zululand, East
tropical Africa.

Thuidium borbonicum Besch. — Victoria Falls, alt. 3,000 feet.
(Cheeseman, September, 1905, comm. M. B. Slater; Sim, 8893;
Miss Farquhar, 23 ; Wager, 908) St.

General distribution : Natal, Uganda, Bourbon.

Hypnaceae.

Drepanocladus sparsus CM. — Victoria Falls (Wager, 902) St. ;
Makoni, alt. 4,700 feet, on earth by running water (Eyles, 787)
St.

General distribution: Cape Province, Orange River Colony.
" Amblystegiinn variuni Lindb. — On stones by stream,
Mazoe, alt, 4,600 feet (Eyles, 402.)" (8) This proves, from an
original specimen sent me by Dr. Sim, to be Isopterygium aquati-
cum sp. nov. ; v. infra.]

Microthamninm pseudo-reptans (CM.) Par.

Syn. Tlypnum glabrifolium CM. in "Flora," 1890, p. 496.
Microthamnium glabrifolium "Par. Ind.," p. 809.

M . glabrifolium is entirely indistinguishable from M . pseudo-
reptans. C Mueller suggests no differences in his description,
while he acknowledges the resemblance when he asks whether the
planE referred by Mitten to M. pseudo-reptans may not be his
M . glabrifolium.
5

330 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

Inyanga (Henkel, 2625, in herb. Eyles).

General distribution ■■ : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal.

Ectropothecium regulare (Brid.) Jaeg. — XJmtali, alt. 4,300
feet (Eyles, 1740) St.

General distribution : East African Islands, Cameroons.

Ectropothecium perrotii Hen. and Card. — Wet forest,
Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet (Henkel, 2623, in herb. Eyles); Victoria
Falls, alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8900; Wager, 903). All sterile. Very
near E. regulare, and perhaps only a form or variety of that
species.

General distribution : Madagascar.

A canthocladium trichocolea (CM.) Broth. — Wet forest,
Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet (Henkel, 2623c, 2625 p.p., 2637, in herb.
Eyles) St,

General distribution : East tropical Africa.

Isopteryginm aquaticum sp. nov. Dixon.

Submersnm, caespites extensos, molles, flaccidos, superne
olivaceos, infeme nigrescentes, formans. Caulis distanter irregu-
lariter snbpinnatus, jiercomplanatus, tener, sed robustiusculus.
Folia remotiuscula, percomplanata, late patentia sicca vix mutata,
ovata, hand acuminata, obtusa vel subacuta, concava, subecostata,
marginibus planis, integerrimis. Cellulae superiores peranguste
lineares, parietibus tenuibus basin versus vix mutatae, infimae 1
ad 2 seriebus multo laxiores, ovatae, pellucidae. Alares, nisi
saepe cellula singula inflata ad angulum decurrente, vix distinctae.

Autoicum. Seta plus minusve 1 cm. ad 1.25 cm. alta cras-
siuscula. Perichaetii bracteae suberecti, e basi latiore cito in
acumen subulatum strictiuseidum, integrum angustati, saepe tamen
dente singulo grossiusculo hie illic incisi. Theca parva, 1 mm.
longa pendula, turgide elliptica, collo brevi distincto paullo
curvato ; exothecii cellulae laxiusculae, latae.

Under running water, Makoni, alt. 4,700 feet (Eyles, 780).

Quite marked in the aquatic habit, soft texture, leaves
spreading widely distichously, scarcely altered when dry, not
acuminate, subacute only and often quite obtuse, and entire. The
capsule is pendulous and almost Ectropothecioid in character, but
(in the only two seen) is usually slightly curved and asymmetric.

Plagiothecium rhynchostegioides CM.. — Wet soil by stream,
Matopos, alt. 4,600 feet (Eyles, 2538, 2542).

General distribution : Cape Province.

Rhaphidostegium JcrakaJcammae (CM.) Jaeg. — Tree trunk
Inyanga, alt. 6,000 feet (Dr. Nobbs, 1359, in herb. Eyles).

General distribution : Probably distributed throughout South
Africa.

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 331

Rhaphidostegium caespitosum (Sw.) Jaeg. — Tree trunk, Salis-
bury, alt. 4,900 feet (Eyles, 683). This is the remarkable form
with wide, obtuse, secund leaves, and the branches almost circin-
ately incurved when dry, described by Brotherus as Pterogoniella
stuhlmannii. It is, however, connected with ordinary forms of
R. caespitosum by intermediate stages.

General distribution : Southern subtropical and temperate
zones generally.

Rhaphidostegium br achy car pUm (Hampe) Jaeg. — Zimbabwe,
alt. 3,000 feet (Sim, 8825).

General distribution: Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal, Zulu-
land, Portuguese Gaza Land.

Brachytheciacfae.

Brachythecium implicatum (Hornsch.) Jaeg. — Matopos, alt.
5,000 feet' (Sim, 8854); Umtali, on rock in shade, alt, 5,000 feet
(Eyles, 1722) St,

General distribution: Cape Province, Transvaal, Natal, Zulu-
land, East tropical Africa.

Rhynchostegium brachypterum (Hornsch.) Jaeg. — Matopos
(Wager', 891).

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal.

MOSSES FROM PORTUGUESE GAZA LAND.

The small collection of mosses made by the Rev. H. A. Junod,
described below, supplemented by a further small collection made
by Dr. Sim in almost the same localities, are from a small .district
in the southern portion of Portuguese Gaza Land, about 25° .2'
S. Lat., and 32° .5' E. Long., and approximately thirty miles
from the Transvaal border, equidistant from that on the west
and the sea coast on the east; principally from the valley of the
Incomati River. For the most part the district is a sandy veld,
and mosses do not occur except by the river side or on trees and
rocks in shaded trea-clad creeks, etc. These spots are very
isolated, and even there the mosses are very few; but the two
collections, consisting in all of about seventeen gatherings, con-
tained some quite interesting things.

The ecological conditions in the district are governed greatly
by the Incomati River, a large river rising in the Transvaal,
skirting Swaziland, and after a long detour northwards, returning
south-eastwards to join the sea near Lourenc^ Marques. At the
time of Dr. Sim's visit to the district, it was about 150 yards wide
where he crossed it; but frequently, owing to rains in the moun-
tainous country which it traverses in passing from the Transvaal,
these low-lying tracts are flooded to a wide extent even when the
weather is locally dry. Though south of the tropic, the climate
is usually hot, and the vegetation corresponds much more closely
with the xerophilous tropical flora further north than with the

332 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

adjoining Natal and Zululand floras. The subsoil varies; the rock
at Magude is all lava, while farther up, at Hellet's Concession,
where Dr. Sim collected, it is limestone, and this variation no doubt
accounts for the disproportionally large number of species com-
pared with the number of gatherings made.

DlCRANACEAE.

Trematodon aequicollis Ren. and Card. — Antioka (Junod,
322), Chicumbane (Junod, 333).

These agree exactly with the description and figures of T.
aequicollis, as given by Roth, differing from T. divaricatus B. and
S. in the narrower nerve and denticulate subula of the leaves; from
the other peristomate African species in the peristome teeth mostly
split through their whole length, not united above.

General distribution : Belgian Congo.

Campylopus clavatus (R. Br.) Jaeg. — Magude (Junod, 334)
St.

General distribution: Australasia, St. Paul Island, Cape Pro-
vince, Transvaal.

FlSSIDEXTACEAE.

Fissidens erosu'lus (CM.) Par. — Magude (Sim, 8995).
General distribution : Niam-Niam, Uganda, Southern
Rhodesia.

Fissidens rotundatus sp. nov. Dixon.

Crispidium. E gracillimis generis; caules 2 mm. ad 3 mm.
tantum longi, pulcherrime frondosi, plurijugi, complanati, oblongi,
obtusi, pervirides; foliis siccis fortiter faloato-decurvatis, caespitea
parvos densos instruentes. Folia conferta, patentia, percomplanata,
0.5 mm. longa, breviter oblonga, supeme nullo modo angustata,
rotundato-obtusa vel obtusissime apiculata ; marginibus ubique
minute sed distinote crenulatis; lamina vaginalis paullo ultra
medium folii producta, apud costam terminata, ibidemque rotun-
data, nee acuta ; lamina dorsalis ad folii basin attingens, ibiclemoue
abrupte desinens. Costa tenuis, ubique, praecipue supeme, pellu-
cida, perlongt sub apice dissoluta. Cellulae superiores obscurae,
opacae, minutae, 4ju, ad 7/x latae, minute densissime papillosae,
parietibus tenuibus pellucidis.

Habitat: Shirindjen (Junod, 329a).

A very pretty and quite distinct little species, with gracefully
frondose stems, short oblong leaves generally very widely rotundate
above and very obtuse, the vaginant lamina ending in a pointed
apex and close to the nerve, and the highly pellucid nerve ceasing
far below the apex, sometimes reaching only about 3/4ths or 4/5ths
of the length of the leaf.

Since the above was drawn up I have received the same species
from Mazoe, Southern Rhodesia, coll. Eyles (v. supra, p. 307),
in fruit. The seta is very short, scarcely more than 1 mm.; cap-

BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA. 333

sule very small, erect, elliptic, rather wide-mouthed when dry,
thin-walled, having the exothecium cells wide and isodiametric,
with very thin walls. Peristome teeth very highly lamellate, or
cristate, within.

POTTIACEAE.

Hymenostomum eurybasis sp. now Dixon.

A speciebus africanis affinibus (H . socotranum, Weisia
viridula, etc.) differt foliis siccis /are incurvo-flexuosis, nee
fortiter incurvis, costa tenuiore, siccitate dorso Itaud nitida, apice
plerumque obtuso vel brevissime apiculato, marginibus late involu-
tes basi folii plus minusve distinct e, aliquando abrwpte dilatata,
hyalina. Seta circa 4 mm. alta, tenuis, flava, theca aurantiaca,
sicca sub ore leniter constricta; peristomium nullum, orificium
principio hymenio clausum.

Habitat: On earth, Matopos, Mchelele Valley, alt. 4,700 feet
(Eyles, 940, 941); (v. supra). Hellet's Concession, Magude, alt.
500 feet (Sim, 8989).

Stems rather taller than in most of the allied species, from
which it is not widely distinct, but the characters italicized above
make it difficult to unite it with any of those described. The apex
of the leaf is generally quite obtuse and subcucullate, with the
margins strongly incurved ; and the leaves not shining at back
and not strongly crisped when dry seem marked features, though
these characters are to some extent shared by //. socotranum
Mitt.

Hyophila atrovirens (CM.) Jaeg. — On lime, Hellet's Con-
cession, Magude (Sim, 8991, 8992, 8994).

Hyophila Zeyheri (Hampe) Jaeg. — Hellet's Concession,
Magude, on lime, alt, 500 feet (Sim, 8993).

FUNARIACEAE.

Micropoma niloticum (Del.) Lindb. — On soil, Antioka (Junod,
323).

A most interesting discovery; the plant has, so far as I know,
not been recorded elsewhere than from its original gathering in
Lower Egypt early in the nineteenth century. The present plant
agrees exactly with the Egyptian specimens at Kew, except in
being a slightly smaller form.

A second species, M. hukobense, has been described by
Brotherus from Central Africa, differing from J/, viloticum — -
apparently very slightly — in the form of the leaves.

PJn/scomitrium spathulatum CM. — Shirindjen, at low alti-
tudes (junod, 332).

General distribution : Cape Province, Natal, Transvaal,
Southern Rhodesia.

I was at first inclined to separate this plant as P. poculiforme
Mitt. MS. in herb. Mitten's specimen from Port Natal agrees

334 BRYOPHYTA OF S. RHODESIA.

with P. spath ulatum in all respects except that the lid is furnished
with a short erect blunt beak, or apiculus, while that of P. spathu-
latum is described as hemispherical; and some of the South African
plants certainly have a lid without any apiculus. However among
my gatherings I find so much variety in the lid, from being hemis-
pherical when moist and slightly apiculate when dry, through
many degrees of rostellation to that of Mitten's specimen that I
think the distinction cannot be maintained. Mitten, I should
add, does not describe his P. poculiforme, and I have no reason
to suppose that he intended to separate it on the ground of its
lid, indeed the name distinctly implies that it was not so; it is
more probable that he was not acquainted with C. Mueller's
species.

Erpodiaceae.

Erpodium distichum Wager and Dixon. — Hellet's Concession,,
Magude, alt, 500 feet (Sim, 8988).

Hypnacae.

Ectropothecium brevisetum sp. nov. Dixon.

E minutissimis generis. Coticola; caules densissime inter-
texti, perbreves, irregulariter subpinnatim ramosi, ramis brevis-
simis; laete virides; folia percomplanata, late patentia, sicca vix
mutata, parva, vix 1 mm. longa, ovatc-lanceolata, breviter anguste
acuminata, integerrinia, ecostata ; cellulae angustissime lineares,
laevissimae, basin versus parum latiores, ad angulos paucae sub-
quadratae, laxiuscidae, chloi-ophyUosae.

Autoicum. Folia perichaetialia caulinis similia sed longius,
angustius acuminata, erect a, integia, vel subdenticulata. Seta
perhreris, 4 mm. ad 6 mm. alta, tenuissima', pallida; theca
pendula vel subpendula, minutissima, 0.75 mm. longa, pallide
fusca, turgide elliptica, basi in setam abrupte contracta, operculo
pallido, conico-rostellato. Peristomii dentes flavidi, inferne pulchre
transverse striolati, superne papillosi. Spori circa 14/x.

Habitat: Shirindjen, at low altitude (Junod, 331).

A pretty little species, very near my E. dummeri from
Uganda (5), but of a bright green, with more narrowly acuminate
leaves, narrower cells, and a shorter seta. The very flat, smooth
tufts are marked.

Rhaphidostegium brachycarpum (Hampe) Jaeg. — Shirindjen
(Junod, 328, 328b, 330).

References.

(1) Brotherus, V. F. — "Musci," Wissensch; Ergebn. der
Deutschen Zentral-A frika-Exped. , 1907-1908, unter Fuehrung
Adolf Friedrichs, Herzogs zu Mecklenburg, Bd. II, Botanik.

BRV0P1IVTA OF S. RHODESIA. 335

(2) Brotherus, V. F. — "Ergebn, einer Botanisch. Forschungs-
reise nach Deutsch-Ostafrika und Sudafrika (Kapland, Natal
und Rhodesia); Musci," Denkschr. der Math. -Nat. K. K.
Akad., Wien, Bd. 88 (1913).

(3) Bryhn, N. — "Bryophyta nonnulla in Zululand collecta."
Videnskapsselskapets Fork., 1911, No. 4. Kristiania (1911).

(4) Dixon, H. N. — "The Mosses collected by the Smithsonian.
African Exped., 1909-1910." Smithson. Miscell. Colls.,
69:2: (1918).

(5) Dixon, H. N. — "Uganda Mosses collected by R. Dummer
and others." Smithson. Miscell. Colls., 69:8: (1918).

(6) Dixon, H. N. — "Reports upon two collections of Mosses from
Brit. East Africa." Smithson. Miscell. Colls., 72:3: (1920).

(7) Dixon, H. N. — "New and interesting South African Mosses."
Trans. Ro>/. Soc. S. A jr., VIII, pp. 179-224 (1920).

(8) Eyles, F. — "Records of plants collected in Southern Rho-
desia; Mosses." Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr., V, p. 278 (1916).

(9) Wager, II . A.— "A Check List of the Mosses of South
Africa." Pretoria (1917).

336

THE POTENCY OF PEPPER TREE POLLEN AS A CAUSE
OF HAY FEVER.

BY

George Potts, B.Sc, Ph.D.

Professor of Botany, Grey University College, Bloemfontein.

Read July 15, 1921.

Bloemfontein and certain other towns of the drier inland
region of South Africa suffer annually in the early summer from
a very virulent form of hay fever, which occurs on such a scale
as to justify being termed epidemic. A preliminary account (1919)
of an investigation into the cause of these epidemics appeared iri
Vol. XV of The South African Journal of Science, page 525.
It was there stated that the disorder is commonly attributed to
the pepper tree (Schinus moUe), a member of the family Anacar-
diaceae, and indigenous to South America. This plant is grown
as a street tree in nearly all South African towns, but in especially
large numbers in many of the towns and villages of the Karroo
itself and neighbouring karroid regions. It was shown that this
tree has very sticky pollen, that its flowers produce nectar freely
and are visited by insects, and that it has in every respect typical
insect-pollinated flowers. According to all past experience such
a plant therefore should not cause hay fever in nature.

Since the preliminarv report was written, the investigation
has been continued along several lines, including a determination
of the pollens floating in the air. The present report is confined
to some experiments, designed to test the power of pepper tree
pollen to cause the disorder ; but it is hoped to publish the complete
results of the investigation at an early date.

The method adopted in the experiments was what is known
as the cutaneous reaction, and consists in scarifying the skin (as
in ordinary vaccination) and applying to it the pollen or pollen
extract to be tested. In the case of a patient susceptible to the
particular pollen used, the result is a local reddening and swelling,
the extent of which is proportional to the patient's degree of
susceptibility; and if the patient is not susceptible to that par-
ticular kind of pollen there is no reaction. The test, which causes
little or no inconvenience to the patient, depends upon the fact
that the scratching of the outer layers of the skin enables the
pollen to come in contact with the sensitive underlying tissue
where it causes irritation, just as it does in nature when carried
by wind into contact with the delicate membranes of the nose,
throat and eyes.

Particulars of the tests, which were performed at Bloemfon-
tein on March 9, 1921, are given in the following table: —

PEPPER TREE POLLEN AND HAY FEVER.

33 i

S

o^1 ° ^

5 a a g
« ° « **

c .-

■+» -g- -c8 '

-? a

z a ^

* a

0> o
(^ PL,

3 —•

"3 a>

'ce *r ^E be

a £ a a

p o ° P

be bc£ b£ biiH ££ :t .

a a co a a 35 do oq a rr
op o o p £

CO CO J OQ GO

Oj Sj O

• /.

ii ^

£ tt3 i a
a o * -3

x

• • r- a Q •

GO CO CO OQ GG .03 . » . . . _ .

338 PEPPER TREE POLLEN AND HAY FEVER.

In considering the conclusions to be drawn from the reactions
of the patients to the tests, the case of patient No. 15 will be
omitted, as although described as a non-sufferer, this patient
turned out on subsequent enquiry to have been resident in Bloem-
fontein only one month. He had previously lived in Johannes-
burg where, it is true, he had not suffered from hay fever, but
the epidemic under investigation does not occur there; and, as
he had not resided in Bloemfontein during the epidemic season
his susceptibility had not been put to the test. In view of the
fact that he reacted strongly to the pepper tree pollen his condition
during the next epidemic season, if he is still in Bloemfontein,
will be watched with interest ; but, for the reasons already given,
he is an unsuitable patient for this particular experiment.

All the patients recorded as susceptible have been resident in
Bloemfontein several years and suffer severely every season from
the disorder. With most of them I have been in regular commu-
nication during the last two seasons, and the group includes some
of the worst sufferers in Bloemfontein; indeed, the majority
might perhaps be more correctly described as highly susceptible.
The patients recorded as not susceptible, the controls, had also
been resident in Bloemfontein diiring several epidemic seasons
and without having suffered. All the patients, therefore, with
the exception of No. 15, were eminently suitable for the purpose
of the experiments.

The scarifications were made on the outer side of the upper
arm, four on each patient, about one and a half inches apart,
and the materials tested were laid on the skin and gently mixed
with the exuding serum ; in the case of the solutions as much liquid
was used as would conveniently stay on the scarified region without
running off.

Neat Pollen.

Very great difficulty was experienced in obtaining the pollen
in sufficient quantity. The weather at the time was dull and
moist, and when a flowering male shoot was shaken the open male
flowers fell off, but very little pollen fell out of the anthers. Even
when the flowers were dried, crushed, and passed through a fine
sieve, examination proved that it was the half empty anthers that
were obtained, most of the pollen having stuck to the sieve and
other utensils with which it had been brought into contact.
Attempts to pick the pollen out of the anthers were also unsuccess-
ful, partly again because of the stickiness of the pollen, but mainly,
in this case, on account of the minute size of the anthers. Finally,
a method was devised by which the very stickiness of the pollen,
the character which had caused most of the difficulty, was used to
separate it from the flower. The open fresh flowers were shaken
from a male shoot and were then rolled or rubbed between two
circular sheets of plate gflass of a size such as to be easily held in
the open hand. The pollen stuck to the glass and was then easily
removed with a razor and transferred to a bottle. The material
obtained in this way was found to be almost pure pollen, with

PEPPER TREE POLLEN AND HAY FEVER. 339

only a slight admixture of small fragments of the flower. It is
noteworthy that the pollen popularly regarded as causing these
epidemics should be so sticky, as according to all the canons of
hay fever this character should effectively prevent it from being
dispersed through the air. The comparative purity of the pollen
prepared in the manner described was probably because no other
part of the flower could adhere to the smooth surface of the glass.

When the neat pollen was applied to the scarified skin it was
noticed that the pollen become invisible almost immediately. This
is probably to be explained by the dissolution in the blood serum
of the oil which occurs on the outside of the pollen grains and bears
the pigments which give the pollen its colour.

It will be noticed on reference to the table that all the patients
susceptible to the epidemic reacted either strongly or very strongly
to the pollen, whereas no non-susceptible persons gave any reaction
whatever, either to the pollen itself or to the other materials
employed. The non-susceptible patients were therefore satisfactory
as controls, and the conclusion is justified that pepper tree pollen
can cause hay fever.

Saline Extract.

For the saline extract of pepper tree pollen I am indebted
to the South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannes-
burg, where the method followed in preparing it was that described
by Dr. Scheppegrell, in the U.S. Public Health Reports, Vol. 32,
No. 29, July 20, 1917. Considerable difficulty was experienced in
obtaining and manipulating the pollen owing to its stickiness, and
Dr. Harvey Pirie, of the Institute, writing in regard to the extract
states that "when preparing the extract .... I found it very
difficult to get the pollen off, the grains appear to be very sticky,"
and that though "the extract aimed at being a 1 in 10,000 extract
of pollen, it was impossible to get the pollen in any quantity
separate froiri the flowers," and it "may have been much under
1 in 10,000 as regards the pollen." These statements confirm my
experience at Bloemfontein with regard to the stickiness of the
pollen, and also no doubt partly explain the weak reactions to
the extract.

On reference to the table it will be seen that of the nine
susceptible patients who, as has been stated, reacted strongly, or
very strongly, to the neat pollen, only four reacted to the extract,
and in all cases only very mildly, whilst two of these patients
reacted, in the one case as strongly, and in the other case more
so, with saline only. It should here be explained that the reactions
of patient No. 3 to the reagents other than neat pollen are prob-
ably unreliable, as the swelling and reddening resulting from the
application of the neat pollen spread so as quickly to envelop the
centres at which the other three reagents were applied. Inci-
dentally, this experience shows that where more than one centre
is being inoculated these should be at some considerable distance
apart.

340 PEPPER TREE POLLEN AND HAY FEVER.

As this was only a preliminary attempt at preparing the
extract in which there was no evidence as to the strength required
and in which the peculiar difficulties of this particular pollen has
not been entirely overcome, it is perhaps not surprising that the
extract did not react better. But even apart from this, a con-
sideration of the biochemistry of the pollen grain leaves doubt
ay to whether the method of preparation (which is a standard one)
can always achieve what is aimed at. According to the prevailing
opinion hay fever is due to toxic proteids contained in the pollen
grain, and these the extract aims at bringing into solution; but,
as Mr. Philip Smith (1920) has pointed out, these proteids being
colloids, are unable to pass through the cell walls of the pollen
grain and would only escape if the pollen grains burst. This
being so, it seems essential that the solvent used in preparing the
extract should be one in which the pollen concerned burst freely.
I have tested the behaviour of pepper tree pollen in this con-
nection and find that whilst the grains burst freely in water their
behaviour in salt solution is variable, but, speaking generally,
whilst a small proportion burst in normal saline (0.9 per cent,
strength), only very few do so in 5 per cent., which is the strength
used in Dr. Scheppegrell's method to extract the pollen.

Oil Emulsion.

Observations at Bloemfontein extending over two hay fever
seasons had convinced me that pepper tree pollen could cause the
disorder. The question, then, naturallv arose as to whether part,
at least, of the virulence of this epidemic type of hay fever is not
due to the irritating oily and resinous substances which are well
known to occur in the pepper tree, and some of which may also
occur in the oil found on the outside of the pollen. Indeed, severe
skin poisoning is well known to be caused by several species of
Rhus (a genus belonging to the same family as, and nearly related
to the pepper tree), especially by 11. toxicodendron, the poison
ivy, and B. venenata, the poison elder. According to Philip
Smith (1920), Pfaff (1897) has succeeded in isolating the poisonous
principle — a very sticky, non-volatile oil, which in these plants
occurs not only on the stem, leaves and fruit, but also on the
pollen. Such an oil would not be extracted by soaking the pollen
in 5 per cent, saline.

The solution of this oil and its presentation to the patient
in a non-irritating medium was attempted by my colleague, Dr.
M. Rindl, Professor of Chemistry, who, after soaking the pollen
in ether until the yellow oil was dissolved off the grains (a few
i-econds only), filtered the extract and dropped it slowly into a
hot solution of sodium carbonate (0.5 per cent, strength), the
object being to form an emulsion of the oil and at the same time
drive off the ether, which is a skin irritant. As will be seen from
the table, the results were virtually negative. One negative result,
however, proves nothing : the question could only be settled by
repeated experiments with extracts prepared in several different
ways and of various strengths, and preferably from which proteids

PEPPER TREE POLLEN AND HAY FEVER. 341

had been eliminated. This extract, like that in saline, may have
failed entirely to extract the active toxic principle or may have'
done so in insufficient quantity, yet experience has shown that
in the case of many, or perhaps all toxic pollen tried, it has been
possible, after a few preliminary trials, to prepare the saline
extract in such a strength as to give a reliable reaction.

To the fourth scarified area normal saline, or 0.5 per cent,
sodium carbonate was applied. This was done as a sort of control
to ensure that any reactions obtained were not due to the scari-
fication itself or to the solvents in which the pollen extracts were
dissolved. As, with the exception of patient No. 3, whose response
has been accounted for, only one of the fifteen patients gave any
reaction at all, and that a very mild one to this control inocu-
lation, the reactions obtained from the pollen itself and the extract
may be justly referred to the toxic principles in these materials.

These simple experiments demonstrate conclusively the toxicity
of pepper tree pollen ; the question of its dispersal and the probable
part it plays in causing the epidemics under investigation will
be discussed in a subsequent article.

Thanks for aiding in the investigation are due in the first
place to the patients who allowed themselves to be inoculated,
to Dr. S. M. de Kock, himself a sufferer, who performed the
inoculations, and who throughout the investigation has always been
most willing to render whatever assistance his time allows; to Dr.
W. Watkins-Pitchford, Director of the S.A. Institute for Medical
Research; and Dr. J. H. Harvey Pirie, for much friendly and
valuable advice; and to Miss Helen Bergstedt, B.Sc, Demonstrator
in Botany, for general assistance, especially in preparing the
pollen.

R EFERENCES .

1. Pfaff, Fr. (1897). Active Principles of Rhus toxicodendron and

Rhus venenata. Jour. Fxper. Med. Vol. ii. p. 181.

2. Potts, G. (1919). The Pepper Tree (Schinus molle) in its Relation

to Epidemic Hay-Fever. Interim Report. S.A. Journal of
Science, Vol XV, p. 525-530.

3. Smith, F. Philip (1920). Plant Dermatitis. Journal of Botany,

May, 1920.

342

NATAL SPECIES OF THE GENUS CASSIA

BY

Helena Forbes,
Natal Herbarium, Durban.

Read July 12, 1921.

The genus Cassia belongs to the sub-order Caesalpiuiae of
the order Leguminoseae. It is essentially a tropical and sub-
tropical genus, and is best represented in tropical America.

The senna leaves of medicine are the leaves of different
species which occur principally in Upper Egypt, Syria, India,
Arabia and Senegal. The seeds of a few species are edible. In
Natal, Cassia occidentalis is used as an ingredient in native
antidotes for snake bite, but, apart from this, the Cassias in
South Africa are not used medicinally.

The Cassias flower during the late summer or early autumn,
and their masses of golden-yellow blooms, make bright conspicuous
patches in the bush and along the roadside. Cassia mimusoides
flowers earlier in the year — October to March usually — and is a
small, diffuse plant.

The plants vary from tall woody shrubs to small diffuse herbs.
The flowers ai-e perfect, with five slightly perigynous sepals; five
yellow, unequal petals; ten stamens, of which seven are fertile,
unequal and open by apical pores, and three abortive. The ovary
is superior, many seeded and stipulated. The fruit is a linear,
terete or compressed, many-seeded legume.

Key to Species of Cassia.

Leaves densely tomentose (1) tomentosa.

Leaves finely tomentose (2) Delagoensis.

Leaves glabrous.

Leaflets large, varying from 4 cm. to 10 cm. long.

Leaflets 3 to 4 pairs, ovate, acuminate (3) laevigata.

Leaflets 4 to 6 pairs, ovate to lanceolate, reddish tinge
on petioles, mid-ribs, etc. (4) occidentalis.

Leaflets small, not exceeding 4 cms.

Leaflets 12 to 45 pairs, lanceolate (5) mimosoides.

Leaflets 4 to 5 pairs, ovate, brown, margin round edge

of leaflets (6) bicapsularis.

(1) Cassia tomentosa, Lam.

A tall shrub with densely pubescent branches and leaves.
Leaflets 4 to 6 pairs, oval-oblong, obtuse, tomentose, 2.5 cm. to
8 cm. long, 1 cm. to 4 cm. broad; petiole grooved, tomentose,
with a gland at the base; stipules about 0.5 cm. long, narrow,
pubescent, deciduous; peduncles short, 4 to 6 flowered; sepals
unequal, five, two outer light green, hairy, three inner larger,
yellowish-green, two glabrous, one slightly hairy; petals unequal,

NATAL SPECIES OF CASSIA. 343

five, yellow; stamens 10, 7 fertile, two long, one medium, four
short; 3 staminoids; ovary woolly, legume linear, acute, com-
pressed, villosa-tomentose, 10 cm. to 12 cm. long, many-seeded.

Introduced from tropical America. Not such a handsome
shrub as C . laevigata or C. bicapsularis, as the clusters of flowers
are not so large. Flowers during the autumn months.

(2) Cassia Delagoensis, Harv.

An erect shrub, thinly pubescent. Leaflets 6 to 5 pairs,
petioles short, a slender filiform gland, 0.3 cm. to 0.4 cm. long
between each pair of leaflets; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, under
surface paler than upper surface, 2 cm. to 6 cm. long, 0.8 cm.
to 2.2 cm. wide, stipules reniform, with one lobe tailed, decidu-
ous; racemes axillary, pedunculate, many flowered and forming
a terminal corymbose panicle; sepals two, small, softly hairy;
petals five, unequal, veined, orange yellow; stamens 10, three
long, incurved, 0.7 cm. to 0.9 cm. long, four 0.4 cm. to 0.5 cm.
long, three short and broad staminoids; anthers opening by apical
pores; ovary 1.3 cm. to 1.5 cm. long, slightly incurved, soft
silky pubescence slender, multi-ovulate.

A native of tropical Africa and Australia.

(3) Cassia laevigata, Willd.

An erect glabrous shrub, 4 feet to 6 feet high. Leaflets 3
to 4 pairs, ovate to lanceolate, usually acuminate, 3.5 cm. to
7.5 cm. long, with an oblong or slender gland between each pair;
racemes axillary, pedunculate, short and almost corymbose, the
upper ones forming a short terminal panicle, sepals unequal, the
inner ones 0.6 cm. to 0.8 cm. long; petals broad, very obtuse,
varying from 0.7 cm. to 1.9 cm.; perfect anthers 4, almost
sessile, one on a short, and two on much longer filaments; legume
5 cm. to 7.5 cm. long, membranous or slightly coriaceous, cylin-
drical or more or less inflated when ripe, opening at length into
two valves; seeds crowded and horizontal, or upper ones less
crowded and almost vertical.

A cosmopolitan tropical plant. A very handsome shrub when
in full bloom.

(4) Cassia occidentalis, Linn.

A nearly glabrous shrub, 3 feet to 4 feet high, with a reddish-
brown tinge on stems, petioles and legumes. Leaflets 3 to 4
pairs, ovate-lanceolate, 2.5 cm. to 7.5 cm. long, 1.5 cm. to 2.5
cm. wide, glabrous, petiole with a short obtuse gland at base,
gland deep red; stipules deciduous, membranous, lanceolate or
ovate-lanceolate ; inflorescence few flowered ; sepals glabrous, with
a reddish tinge, unequal; petals unequal, yellow; stamens, 7
fertile, unequal, 3 staminoids; ovary softly pubescent, not woolly;
legume 10 cm. to 15 cm. long, linear, elongate, reddish-brown
with thick green margins, glabrescent, piano-compressed.

A cosmopolitan tropical plant. It is usually an annual, but
it is stated by Dr. Welwitsch to be also of two to three years
duration. The whole plant has a rather disagreeable smell.

344 NATAL SPECIES OF CASSIA.

(5) Cassia mimosoides, Linn.

Erect, slender, branching, 1 foot to 2 feet high, or a suffruci-
cose herb, glabrescent; leaflets 30 to 50 pairs, with a reddish
gland between the lowest pair; leaflets minute, mucronulate, rigid,
linear-falcate; 0.2 cm. to 0.3 cm. long; stipules striate, subulate
from a semi-cordate base; peduncles axillary, 1 to 3 together,
1 flowered, sepals five, brownish-green, ovate, acute, hairy; petals
five, yellow, slightly irregular, obtuse; stamens 10, 7 fertile,
unequal, 3 staminoids; anthers opening by apical pores; ovary
sessile or stipitate, very hairy, multiovulate; style filiform; stigma
simple; legume linear, 3 cm to 4 cm. long, compressed, margins
thickened, hairy, 10 to 25 seeds in each legume ; seeds brown,
about 0.2 cm. long and 0.1 cm. broad.

var. cajiensis. diffuse; leaflets 10 to 35 pairs, with gland

at base of petiole,
var. stricta. erect, virgate ; leaflets 30 to 40 pairs with

a large ellipsoid gland at base of petiole,
var. comoHa. erect, glabrous; leaflets 8 to 30 pairs, with

large gland at base of petiole.

A cosmopolitan tropical plant. It is sensitive to rain and
darkness, and also to touch. When plucked the leaves close
together and do not reopen. The plant appears to flower the
whole year round, but best between October and March, when
it is a blaze of golden-yellow.

Cassia bieapsularis, Linn.

An erect glabrous shrub attaining a height of over 5 feet.
Leaflets 4 to 5 pairs, base of petiole short and swollen, small
yellowish gland between lowest pair of leaflets, in groove of com-
mon petiole; leaflets obtuse, upper surface dark green, lower surface
slightly greyish tinge, light brown margin round each leaflet, 1.5
cm. to 4 cm. long, 0.6 cm. to 1.5 cm. broad; racemes axillary,
pedunculate, short and almost corymbose, the upper ones forming
a short terminal panicle; sepals unequal, greenish-yellow, glabrous;
petals irregular, broad, obtuse, bright yellow; 7 fertile stamens,
3 staminoids, flat and sessile, four perfect anthers slightly sessile,
one on a short filament and two on much longer filaments, all
opening by apical pores; ovary 2.5 cm. long, glabrous, light green,
multiovulate; legume 8 cm. to 10 cm. long, membranous or slightly
coriaceous, cylindrical or more or less inflated when ripe, opening
at length into two valves.

A native of tropical America. The leaves of this species are
sensitive to rain and also to darkness, and fold up in a rather
peculiar manner. The lower pairs of leaves fold up along the
stem towards the apex, and the top pair — which are the largest-
fold over the others.

345

NOTES ON SOME INTERESTING OR LITTLE-KNOWN
SOUTH AFRICAN FUNGI.

BY

Paul A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,
Professor of Mycology, University of Stellenbosch.

Rend July 15, 1921.

The following notes on certain South African fungi may be of
interest : —

1. The genus Campanella, P. Henn.

The genus Campanella belongs to the family A r/nricnceae, or
"mushroom family." It differs from the majority of this family
by having the hymenophore composed of anastomosing veins and
not of distinct gills or plates. On this character the genus is with
others placed in the tribe Cantharelleae of the Af/aricaceae.

I once collected Campanella Buttneri, P. Henn, fairly fre-
quently on rotting branches in the bush around Durban. The
plants are gelatinous, white to yellowish in colour, and stalked;
the cap is reniform and measures 1 mm. to 5 mm. across; the
hymenophore is borne on the underside of the cap and is composed
of anastomosing veins; the stalk is 0.5 mm. to 1 mm. long and
curves close to the insertion of the cap, so that the hymenophore
comes to face upwards ; the basidia are club shaped and the spores
hyaline, 3^ to 4/x x 7/x to 8/x in diameter.

This fungus was originally described from Togoland and the
Cameroons, and, as far as I am aware, has not previously been
collected in the Union. In Engler and Prantl the cap is said to
be "hautig," which is surely an error.

2. Some Geasters.

The Geasters or "earth star" fungi are familiar to most people
and are usually met with on rich humus soil in bush. Two are
now described which have very little resemblance to each other,
namely, Geaster coronatus and G'easter saccatus.

Gedster coronatus (Schaff) Scbroter.

The outer peridium is split into four to six subequal, acute,
deeply cut segments and arches over the mycelial layer, wbich forms
a more or less imperfect cup at the base; inner peridium is ash
coloured, covered with fine granules, subglobose, 10 mm. to 12 mm.
diameter, shortly pedicillate ; stalk 2 mm. to 3 mm. long, 1 mm.
to 2 mm. diameter; mouth protruding acute, seated on a definite
circular area different in colour from the rest of the endoperidium;
spores in mass dark brown, globose, finely warted, 3/j, to 7/a
diameter. Capillitium of long unbranched threads, approximately
3.7/x in diameter

346 SOME SOUTH AFRICAN FUNGI.

The warts on the spores are very fine and most evident under
an oil immersion lens. This fungus is common in the bush around
Durban, though previous collectors do not record it. It is included
in the "fornicate" section of the genus which has as its charac-
teristic the segments of the outer peridium arching over the
mycelial layer, which persists more or less as a cup at the base.

The plant originally is buried in the rich leaf mould in which
it is commonly found, the cup formed mycelial investment remains
in the substratum and the turned back segments of the outer peri-
dium rest on the edges of this cup-shaped mycelial investment.

Geasier saccatiis, Fries.

Exoperidium cut into six to ten segments for about half its
length, base deeply saccate; endoperidium sessile, globose, 0.7 cm.
to 1 cm. in diameter, ashy grey; mouth as in preceding species
seated on a definite circular area differing in colour from the rest
of the surface; spores,, dark brown in mass, globose, rough with
minute projections to practically smooth, 3/x diameter; capillitium
of unbranched tubes as in previous species.

This species is common around Pretoria and occurs also in
the midlands of Natal. With other species it is placed in the
section Saccatus owing to the base of the exoperidium remaining
as a cup in which is the endoperidium. In the majority of
Geasters the exoperidium is turned back away from the endoperi-
dium and the saccate species number only four.

3. The genus Catastoma.

The genus Catastoma belongs to the Lycoperdaceae, or "puff-
ball" family, and is, with other genera, placed in the tribe Bovistae.
This tribe embraces those puff-balls which at maturity become
loosened from their place of growth and may thus be moved along
the ground by the wind. They are for this reason also known as
the "tumbler puff-balls." There are about three species of Catas-
toma in South Africa, and the one described differs from all the
others in that the inner peridium opens by a protruding mouth.

Catastoma anomala.

Plants terrestrial, becoming loosened from attachment at
maturity, globose; outer peridium breaking away irregularly, more
or less persistent at base; endoperidium ash coloured, globose,
1 cm. to 1.5 cm. diameter, opening by a strongly protruding
mouth; spores in mass amber brown, globose, 4^ diameter, smooth:
capillitium of light coloured, undulating, short unbranched
threads with blunt ends, of same diameter as the sports. The
capillitium threads as above recorded are characteristic of the
genus Catastoma. I find that the spores are smaller than those
usually recorded for this species (6jx to 7/x). The spores are said
to be slightly rough but are smooth in my specimen. The specimen
was collected at about 115 feet above sea level. The species occurs
in other countries.

SOME SOUTH AFRICAN FUNGI. 347

4. The genus Lanopila, Fr.

This genus also belongs to the Bovistae or "tumbler puff-
balls,'' and was founded by Fries in 1848 for a fungus collected
in South Africa by Wahlberg and named Lanopila wahlbergii,
Fries. The genus is close to Bovista; in fact, so close that it is
doubtful if it is really distinct from it. In Bovista the capillitium
is composed of short, separate, much branched threads with slender
pointed branches, whereas in Lanopila the threads are long and
interwined and it is believed that they cannot be separated. This
appears to be the only difference between the two* genera. Since
described by Fries this fungus has been lost sight of, and our
collection is the first from South Africa from that date. The
genus is monotypio, all other described species being now referred
to Lanopila wahlbergii.

Lanopila wahlbergii, Fr.

Plants terrestrial becoming loosened from attachment at
maturity, without sterile base, subglobose, 5 cm. to 1.5 cm.
diameter; endoperidium, papery, potato colour, peeling off and
exposing the amber brown gleba composed of capillitium threads
and spores; capillitium of thin, branched and interwoven threads,
1.6/j, to 3/x diameter, forming a homogeneous elastic mass. Spores
globose, dark strongly echinulate, 5/x to 7/t diameter.

The genus Lanopila is evidently close to the monotypic Indian
genus Lasiosphaera. The gleba and spores are the same in both.

5. Hyrnenochaete lenuissima, Berk.

Pileus sessile, imbricate, 3 mm. to 4 mm. long by 1 mm to
3 mm. broad, laterally connate, extremely thin and flexible, surface
zoned, furrowed, reddish-brown, villous; hymenium snuff brown;
setae projecting 20/x to 30/x, 4/x across at base, tapering to the
apex; spores (teste Massae) ellipsoid 5.6/x by 3/u,.

This fungus appears to be rare in South Africa, and was
collected for the first time by W. Haygarth in the Forest of Zulu-
land in 1916. Its extreme thinness and flexibility are remarkable
and should assist in recognising it.

6. Lji/coperdon djurense, P. Henn.

Peridium globose to flattened, 1.5 cm. to 2.5 cm. diameter;
cortex closely warted, falling away in places or with age; sterile
base of large cells; gleba purple; capillitium hyaline, 5/x to 8/j,
diameter; spores globose, smooth, 3.8/x diameter.

The specimens were collected by the writer at Schroeders,
Natal. The purple gleba is the distinguishing characteristic of
this Lycoperdon.

7. 01adode?-ris sponr/iosa, Fries.

This fungus was first described in 1848 bv Fries in his "Fungi
Natalensis." It appears not uncommon in the forests of Zulu-
land. The plant is recognised by the stipitate infundibuliform

348 FLORA OF ISIPINGO.

to flabelliform pileus, covered on the upper surface with a dense,
spongy t omentum. The hymenial folds on the under surface of
the pileus are broad and warted.

8. Pleurotus applicatus, Batsch.

A small sessile agaric is at times not uncommonly met with
in the bush around Durban growing on wood lying on the ground
and is referred to Pleurotus applicatus, Batsch. It has not pre-
viously been recorded from South Africa, and the following brief
description is given to aid in its recognition.

Cap sessile, imbricate, shell shaped, 0.4 cm. to 1.2 cm. across,
gray to bluish-gray or blackish, glabrous to pruinose or finely
hairy; gills gray, radiating, distant, broad in proportion to size
of plant. The upper layer of the pileus is gelatinous, and dried
plants readily revive if placed in water.

THE FLORA OF ISIPINGO.

BY

Helena Forees,
Botanical Assistant, Natal Herbarium, Durban.

Read Juhj 12, 1921.

Isipingo is a well-known seaside resort about one hour's
journey from Durban. Isipingo Beach is over a mile distant from
the village at the station.

The greater part of the shore, especially on the right-hand
side of the Lagoon, is very rocky. Large and small pools abound
among the rocks, and their sides are covered with brightly coloured
sea-weeds and sea-anemones. The rocks, which are only partially
exposed during very low tides, are completely covered with bril-
liantly coloured sea-weeds. Delicately hued sea-anemones in
crevices, pools and on ledges, and large and small sea-urchins,
whose shells are covered with long stiff black bristles, are to be
found all over the rocks.

The sea-weeds noted have been identified as far as possible
by the aid of Miss Frank's collection in the Natal Herbarium.
Over seventy different kinds were collected, and less than half
have been identified : these latter are given in the following list.
Amphiroa anceps, Apjohnia rugulosa, Brack i/claria marginata,
Bryopsis flanagani, B. setacea, Caulerpa ligulata, Chaetomorpha
clavata, Chondrococcus horneman var. tripinata, Codium ad-
haereus, C. tomentosum, Corralopsis aculeata, Dasya sp., Dictyota
liturata, Dictyota sp., Epymenia stenoloba, Galaxaura obtusata,
Gelidium cartilagineum, Gelidium sp., Griffithsia corallina,
Gymnogongrus polycladus, Tlalymedia cuneata, Hypnea eckloni,
Laurencia sp., Leathesia sp., Martensia elegans, Mastophora
lamourouxii, Mychodea sp., Nitophyllum sp., Padina commersonii,

FLORA OF ISIPINGO. 349

Plocanium corallorhiza, Polysiphonia sp., Polyzonia elegans,
Sargassum vulgare, Sprydia horridula, Ulva fasciata, Valonia sp.,
and Vanoorstia spectabilis.

The phanerogamic seaplant, Zostera marina (Sea grass),
is also found washed up on the beach.

The beach is approached by a road leading alongside the
Lagoon. On the Lagoon side Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera
gymnorhiza and Hibiscus tUiaceiis form a barrier between land
and water. Triglochin bulbosum and T. striatum grow in the
mud; Panicum laticomum, P. laevigata, Emex australis, Sporo-
bolus indicus, Gomphrena globosa, Boerhaavia ascendens, Amaran-
tus s})inosa, Chenopodium ambrosoides and Dactyloctenium
aegyptiacum grow on the bank and at the roadside. Further along
the road on the same side, creeping among the stones and grass,
is Ipomea biloba.

On the other side of the road the growth is fairly dense, and
consists of Schmidelia erosa, Sideroxylon inerne, Trema bracteo-
lata, Cordia caffra, Osteospermum moniliferum, Cestrum laevigata
(an escape from cultivation), Fiats natalensis, F. burt-davyi,
while Senecio tamoides, Ipomea ficifolia, Cynanchum natalitium,
C. obtusifolium and Rhynchosia spp. twine themselves among the
branches.

Towards the sea-front Osteospermum moniliferum becomes the
dominant plant, and other plants, such as Othonna carnosa, Pas-
serina rigid ala, Brachylaena discolor, Barleria obtusa, Carissa
grandiflora, II elicit rysum teretifolitt nt , Mesem bryanthem tint
acinaciforme, An-thospermum littoreum and clumps of Strelitzm
augusta, become more common.

Where the hillside is exposed to the sea winds, the plants are
more or less of a rambling nature or low lying. Some parts are
carpeted only with Cynodon dactylon and Dactyloctenium
aegyptiacum, but the growth is principally a dense mass of Heli-
chrysum teretifolium, Gazania uniflora, Dimorphotlieca fruticosa,
Carissa grandiflora (resembling a low rambling shrub), Ilelichry-
sum krattsii, Asparagus sarmentosus, Turreae obtusifolia, Cynan-
chum spp., Mesembryanthemum acinaciforme and Ceteospermum
moniliferum. Higher up Aloe thraskii stands out prominently.

In some places the hillside is very sandy, especially in two
little bays where the waves dash up, their force unbroken by rocks.
The sand is loose and is continually falling, as it is not held
together by grass, or densely clothed with plants. Those plants
which exist are Passerina rigidula, which is dominant, Selenium
subfruticosum, Othonna carnosa, Kalanchoe rotundifolia, Lauzea
bellidefolia, Tephrosia canescens, Celastrus procumbens, Salacia
kraussii, three species of Crassula and Mesembryanthemum spp.
Creeping along the sands are Ipomea biloba and Canavalia obtusi-
folia.

Growing in crevices of the rocks where it appears practically
impossible for anything to exist, are Euphorbia livida, Chenolea
diffusa, Gazania uniflora, Aizoon canariense, Mesembryanthemum
cordifolium, Sonchus olearcus and S. echlonianus.

350 FLORA OF ISIPIXGO.

Behind the bathing booths the bank is a dense mass of Bai -
leria obtusa, II ypoestes verticillaris, Cissus cirrhosa, Droguetia
urticoides, Asystasia coromandeliana, 0 steospermum moniliferum,
I point a purpurea, Plectranthus sp., M esembryanthemum cordifo-
liuin, Crassula spp., while further up it changes and Mimusops
cuff rti and other shrubs take the place of flowering herbaceous
plants.

The vegetation along the beach to the Umbogintwini Lagoon
is very similar. Beyond the Tiger Bocks Aloe thraskii is domin-
ant, but otherwise the bush consists of Mimusops caffra, M . obo-
vata, Eugenia capensis, Gelastrus procumbens, Carissa grandiflora,
C. arduinia, Salacia kraussii, Rhus natalensis, Passerina rigidula,
Gazania uniflora, Strelitzia augusta, Cynanchum spp., Finis natal-
ensis, Sideroxj/lon inerne, Gelastrus buxifolius, and others which
have been mentioned above.

To leave the beach we climb up steep or slanting sandy paths.
The beach flora continues for the greater part, but other varieties
also begin to appear. Small shrubs of Ficus polita, F . natalensis
and F. burtt-davyi are common, and also Trema bracteolata,
Tricalysia senderiana, Voacanga dregei, Sapindus oblongifolius
and Euclea natalensis. There are also a great many twining
plants which creep over the shrubs and along the ground, namely,
Ipomea spp., Tragia durbanensis, Secamone gerrardii, Desmonema
caffrum, Heliophila scandens, Goccinea palmata, Droguetia urti-
coides, Plectranthus sp., Senecio maeroglossus, and S. quinquelo-
bus. Growing among the shrubs are Chenopodium ambrosoides,
Celosia trigyne, Pupalia atropurpurea, Chironia baccifera, Saino-
lus p?'osus, Sanseviera quineensis, Gloriosa verescens, Oldenlandia
macrophylla, Spermqcoce natalensis, Solatium dupli-sinatum and
Phylopsis par ri flora.

Most of the ground along the front of the ridge has been
cleared for building purposes, but the inland side of the hill is
practically untouched, and the vegetation is, in most parts, very
dense. The trees which are met with are Euclea natalensis, Baphia
r.acemosa, Sapium reticulatum, Albizzia fastigiata, Brachylaena
discolor, Erythrina caffra, Fagara capensis, Apodytes dimidiata,
Trimeria alnifolia, Ghaetacme aristata, Royena cordata, Royena
sp., Melia azedarach, Acokanthera spectabilis, Sapindus oblongi-
folius, Sclerocarya caffra, Turreae floribunda, Pteroxylon utile,
Protorhus longifolia, Oncoba sjnnosa, 0. kraussiand'; Eugenia cor-
data, Cassinopsis capense, Ilex capensis, Zizyphus mncronata,
Trema bracteolata, Antidesma venosum, Gordia caffra, Eugenia
capense, Ficus spp., (,'reiria cana, G. occidentalis, (J. caffra, Strych-
nos gerrardii, .S. henningsii, Groton sylvaticum, II oinalium sp.,
Toddalia natalensis, Ochna arhorea, Jfi/nusops caffra and 3/.
obo rata.

There are also a great many shrubs, many of which have
beautiful masses of bloom. Among these Bauhinia tomentosa is
dominant, while others are Uhdea bipinnatifida, Tit lion ia tageti-
folia (introduced plants which are spreading all along the coast),
(telodendron ghibrum, BurcheUia capensis, Gardenia globosa,

FLOEA OF ISIPINGO. 351

C rotatoria capense, Tricalysia sonderiana, Mitriostigma axiUare,
Randia rudis, Kraussia floribunda, Dalbergia obovata, D. armata,
Entada natalensis, Plecironia ciliata, P. obovatum, P. ciliata var.
glabrata, Vangueria latifolia, V, lasiantha, Pavetta natalensis,
P. obovata, Acalypha glabrata, Pavetta lanceolata, Maerua
nervosa, Niebuhria triphylla, Vangueria infausta, Dichrostachys
nutans, Yoacanga dregei, Psychotria capensis, Euclea lanceolata,
Gelastrus luxifolius, C . verrucosus, G . procumbens, C . nemorosus,
C. acmninatus, Rauwolfia natalensis, Hippobromus alata, Ricinus
communis, Cassia occidentalis, Plectronia ventosa, Solanum gigan-
teum and Turreae obtusifolia.

The creepers and 1 ambling shrubs are many, and as most of
them have fine masses of flowers, they enhance the beauty of the
bush considerably. There are four very fine ones which flower
during May and June, Senccio tamoides, S. deltoides, S. angulatus,
and Veronia angulifolia. Other two Senecio creepers are S. mac-
roglossus and .$'. quinquelobus. Besides these there are Smilax
kraassiana, Abrus precatorius, Phiocissus rhomboidea, Dioscorea
malifolia, D. rxipicola, Scutia commersonii, Bhiocissvs capensis,
R. digitata, Rhus natalensis, Rumex saggitatus, Pyrenacantha
scandens, Sphaerosicyos sphaericus, Ophiocaulon gummifera,
Ipomea purpurea, I. ficifolia, Coccinea palmata, Capparis
zepheria, Mormordica involucrata, C'ephalandra palmata, Cissam-
pelos pariera, G. tornlosa. Glycine javanica, Rhynchosia *p.,
Vigna luteola, Ipomea palmata, Zelineria sp., Rubia cordi folia,
Tragia durbanensis, Teramnus labial es, Vigna rexillata, Dale-
champia capense, Mikania natalensis, Asparagus africanits var.
wrightii, A. plumosus, A. falcatus and Asparagus sp.

There is, naturally, a dense undergrowth in parts, and here a
very great variety of plants is to be found. Pavonia dregei and
Barleria obtusa are two very common and pretty shrubs. Barter ia
obtusa often resembles a climber or a wild rambling shrub, and
its sprays of blue flowers look extremely handsome and effective
against the green foliage of the trees or neighbouring shrubs. Two
other handsome flowering undershrubs are Tlypoestes antennifera ,
whose purple blooms are very pretty and conspicuous, and Leonotis
leonurus, a shrubby plant with bright orange coloured flowers,
blooming during the early winter months. Other undershrubs
and herbaceous plants are: Priva leptostachya, Plectranth us laxi-
folius, Sida rhonibifolia, S. rhombifolia var. S. cordifolia, Sutera
floribunda, Triumfetta rhomboidea, T. effitsa, Wahlenbergia
undulata, Ageratum conyzoides, Asystasia coromandeliana, Achy-
ropsis leptostachya, Berkheya maritima, B. debilis, B. seminivea,
Lantana sal viaefolia, Abutilon indicum, Justicia sp., Gnaphalium
undulatum, G. purpureum, Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Ghlorophy-
tum modestum, Anthericum pulchellu?n, Thunbergia dregeana, T.
atriplicifolia, Crotolaria grantiana, Kalanchoe retundi folia, Cassia
mimosoides, Dracaena hookeriana, Dicliptera heterostegia, Felicia
erigeroides, Aster asper, Nicandra phj/saloides, Withania somni-
fera, Physalis peruviana, Helichrysum anriculatnm, H. decorum,
H. cooperi, Fleurya capensis, Fleurya sp., Datura stramonium,
Drimiopsis maculata, Chenopodium album, C. ambrosoides, Cyano-

352 FLORA OF ISIPINGO.

tis nodiflora, Crocosmia aurea, Lochnera rosea (both pink and
white species), Indigofera spp., Hibiscus natalensis, H. surratensis,
H. gossypinus, II. physaloides, Haemanthus natalensis, H ypoestes
verticillaris, If. tri flora, Stachys aethiopica, Hypoestes phaylop-
soides, Helichrysum pannosum, Indigofera endecaphyalla, Iso-
glossa cooperi, Oldenlandia natalensis, Phaylopsis parviflora,
A chyranihes robusta, Anthericum hirsutum, A marantus spinosvs,
Pupalia atropurpurea, Hermbstoedtia caffra, Cyathula cylindrica,
Psiloirichum africanum and Pentanisia variabilis.

Besides the above mentioned there are several small plants
which are found in cleared spaces among the grass or in the shade
of trees. These are Hydrocotyle asiatira, Lobelia natalensis,
Diascia cordata, Aerva lanata, Aneilema aquinoctiale , Coleotrype
natalensis, Commelina africana, Alternanthera achyrantha, Olden-
landia decumbens and Desmodium hirtum.

Noxious weeds are to be found everywhere, growing at the
roadside, in the bush and near the swamps. Under this list may
be included Bidens pilosa, Siegesbeckia orientalis, Xanthium stru-
marium, Acantliospermum hispidum, Emex austrahs, Triumfetta
spp., Gomphrena globosa, Richardsonia pilosa ard Alternanthera
achyrantha.

The wild banana, Strelitzia dugus'ta, is very common all over
the hill, and there are also- several fine specimens of Euphorbia
in gens. C est r inn laevigata, although an introduced plant, is quite
naturalized here, and it is continually occurring in the bush.

The Lagoon separates the golf course and the fine sandy beach
in front from the residential part of Isipingo Beach. To reach
the golf course it is necessary to cross the island which is con-
nected to both mainlands by bridges. An account of the island
flora is now given.

The island is practically encompassed by mangrove trees,
Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Avicennia officinalis and a few trees of
Rhizophora mucrOnata, intermingled with Hibiscus tiliaceus and
clumps of Phragmites communis. On one side of the island Sporo-
bolus pungens grows in dense masses in front of the mangroves.
Triglochin striatum, T. bulbosum, Salicornia natalensis, Juncus
oxycarpa, J. comatophylla and Chenolea diffusa- grow in the mud
and are partially submerged at high tide. On the sandy shore
where the mangroves are not, as yet, very dense, Canaralia obtusi-
folia and Ipomea biloba creep along.

Further back around the margin of a pool grows Juncus oxy-
carpa, and in the swampy ground near by, intermingled with J.
oxycarpa and J. lomatophylla, are Nidorella anomala, N . auricu-
lata, Ageratvm coriyzoides, Sesbania aegyptica, Etlrulia conyzoides,
while further back are Senecio ruderalis, Erigeron canadense,
Digitaria liorizontalis, D. eriantha, Crotalaria distans, C. granti-
ana, Cassia mimosoides and Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum. Near
the pool stands a large tree of Acacia clavigera, and a little further
back are several trees of Hibiscus tiliaceus.

Following a path about ten feet from the water's edge we find
Lobelia natalensis and another species of Lobelia growing luxuri-
antly among the two species of Juncus mentioned above, Pycreus

FLORA OF ISIPINGO. 353

poly&tachya and Sporobohts pungens. Mangrove trees and Hibis-
cus tiliaceus form a dense hedge between land and water.

The path leads to a part of the island where the vegetation is
very dense. The plants found are similar to those found on the
mainland, and are Schimdelia erosa, Melia azedarach, Sideroxylon
inerne and the rambling shrub Scutia commersonii festooned with
Cynanchum spp. and Capparis zeyheria, while in the undergrowth
are the prickly Eubus rigid us, Asparagus fdlcatus, Asparagus sar-
mentosus, Abrus preeatorius and the stinging Tragia durbanensis.
In more open but sheltered spots Hypoestes antennifera, Phayl op-
sis parviflora, Asgstasia coramandeliana, Endostemon obtusifolius,
Crassula sarmentosa, Coleotrype natalensis, Commelina africana,
Dicliptera heterostegia and Stachys aethiopica all grow profusely.
Iboza riparia, Cannabis satira, Dalechampia capensis, Sapindus
oblongifolius, Acacia spp., Albizzia fastigiata, Grewia caffra, Dal-
bergia obovata, D. armata, and several clumps of Strelitzia
augusta are also growing there. The undergrowth consists of
various grasses, Setaria aurea, Panicum laticomum, P. laevigata,
Digitaria eriantha, D. horizontalis, Sporobohts indicus, Tricho-
laena rosea, Anthistiria imberbis, and a few clumps of Andropogon
nardus, and also of Bidens pilosa, Senecio ruderalis, Sida thorribi-
folia, Nidorella anomala, Senecio pterophorus, Ceratotheca
triloba, Cassia mimosoides, Siegesbeckia orientalis, Hibiscus sur-
ratensis, II. natalensis, II. cannabinus, Sonchvs olearcus, S. eck-
lonianus, Asparagus sp., Triu/nfetfa rliomboidea, T. effusa, and
one fern, Pelleae has tat a.

In one part of the island the soil is almost destitute of all
plant life, but almost in the middle of this unfertile place there
is a patch of Aizoon eanariense sheltered by Nidorella anomala
and Senecio serratuloides. Just at the edge of this bare place are
several plants of M esembryanthemum acinaciforme.

Leaving the island by the bridge the golf course is reached,
and from thence the path to the beach lies through the beach bush.
The beach itself is quite a contrast to the beach on the other side
of the Lagoon, as there are no rocks at all until the Reunion rocks
are reached.

Growing in the sand in front of the bush are Scaevolia lobelia,
Hydrophylax carnosa, Launea bellidifolia, Gazania unijlora,
Dt im or phot lie ca fruticosa, Solarium gemculat u in , Canavalia obtusi-
floia and I pome a biloba.

The bush behind is typical of the vegetation found all along
the coast. Passerina rigidula is very common, while other plants
which are also plentiful are Putterlichia, verrucosa, Gelastrvs
buxifolius, C. verrucosus, C. procumbens, Rhus natalensis, Carissa
arduinia, Mimusops obovata, Mimusops caffra, Carissa grandi-
flora, Fagara capense, Euclea natalensis, Salacia kraussii, Aloe
ihrashii, Scolopia zeyheria, Scutia commersonii, Rhiocissus rliom-
boidea, Rhiocissus digitata, Rhus villosa, Rhus natalensis, Eugenia
capensis, Elaeodendron lauri folium and Strelitzia augusta. In th©
undergrowth Moreae iridiodes, Ilaemanthus albomaculatus, Chlo-
ropln/tum modestum, Pohjpodium pln/matodes, Chironia baccifera
and Medicago denticulata are to be found.

351 FLORA OF ISIPINGO.

The golf course has been planted chiefly with Cynodon dacty-
lon and very few other plants occur, Hydrocotyle asiatica and
Alternanthera achyrantha being practically the only ones. Two
or three plants of Bulbine asphodeloides occur near the ftdge of
the course. On one side of the golf course there is a de^se bush
consisting mainly of the trees just mentioned, and as it extends
inland, Sclerocarya caffra, Sideroxylori inerne, Euclea lanceo/ata,
Finis spp., Gelasttus acuminatus, C. nemorosus, Brachylaena
discolor and others, previously mentioned, occur.

On the other side there is a narrow belt of trees and shrubs
and then a stretch of sand and sand-dunes. This belt of shrubs
and plants consists of Tricalysia sonderidna, Peddiae africana,
Pavetta oho rata, Cordia caffra, Sell mid elia erosa, Ficus burtt-
davyii, Sapium reticidatum . Sideroxylori inerne, Scutia commer-
sonii, Ficus natalensis, Voacanga dregei, Trema bracteolata, C'elas-
trus buxifolius. Creeping over the shrubs and along the ground
are Dioscorea malifolia, Abrus precatorius, Smilax kraussiana,
Cissus hypoleuca, C. cirrhosa and Rhiocissus rliomboidea. Among
the shrubs grow Dracaena hookeriana, Sanseviera quineensis,
Ciloriom verescens, Haemanthus natalensis, Kalanchoe rotund t-
folia, A sparagns spp., Withania somnifera, Tlypoestes antennifera
and many others which have previously been mentioned.

In moist places on the sands, and near the river, Phragmites
communis, Juneus oxycarpa, Scirpi/s littoralis, Kyllingia melanos-
perma, Bidbostylis huitiilis, Ranunculus pinuatus and Lepidum
capense were found.

Ricinus communis, Carissa grandiflora, Hibiscus tiliaceus and
Psidum spp. (the edible guava) are the principal shrubs on the
sand dunes. Ipomea spp. and Cynanchum spp. have twined them-
selves about the branches of these shrubs.

Other creeping plants collected were Lippia nodiflora, an
introduced A canthospermum sp. (not hispidum) of which only
one patch occurred, Stenofraphrum glabrum and Dactyloctenium
aegi/ptiacum . Growing on the sand dunes were also Equisetum
ramossimtnn, Salicornia natalensis, Chenolea diffusa, Cryptostem-
ma nirium, Canavalia obtusi folia and Ipomea biloba.

Quite close to, or on the river banks, were growing Ft India
conyzoides, Senecio serratuloides, Richardsonia pilosa, Laggera
alata, Fclipta erecta, Gnaphalium undulatum, Parthenium
hi/sterophorus, Jussieae suffruticosum, J. repens (growing sub-
merged in the water), Cyperus albostriatus, Pulicaria capensis,
Siegesbeclcia orienfalis, Bidens pilosa, Polygonum serrulatum,
H ypochoeris glahrata, Nidorella auriculata, Ambrosia artemesia-
folia, Apium graveolens, Senecio speciosus, S. panicnlatis and
Xanthimn strumarium.

This type of vegetation continues until the sand-dunes are
gradually replaced by inland bush. The ground stretching beyond
this has been cleared of all bush and is now used for sugar cane
plantations. The bush consists of the plants mentioned just
before the sand-dune formation, the two main plants being
Schmidelia erosa and Carissa grandiflora. Polypodiinn phyma-
todes. Kalanchoe rotundifolia and Tricalysia sonderiana are also

FLORA OF ISIPINGO. 353

very common. The grasses found are Tricholaena rosea, T. seti-
folia, Imperata arundinaceae, Anthistiria imberbis, Sporobohis
rehmanni, Aristida junci form-is , Cynodon dactylon, Dactyloc-
tenium aegyptiacum and a few clumps of Andropogon nardus.

Xanthium strumarium is fast spreading over the sands; in
fact, already in some parts it is impossible to walk along without
gathering innumerable burrs.

Before describing the Flats, a short account of the river flora
will be given. The Umlaas River, which runs into the Isipingo
Lagoon, is almost unnavigable unless at high tide. The plants
occurring on its banks have just been described. The water from
this river divides and one portion flows into the Lagoon while the
other takes a bend and runs down on the left-hand side of the
island and almost parallel to its former course. It turns again
and flows through a channel on the upper side of the island, and
so into a fine stretch of water. The bay is surrounded by man-
groves, of which Bruguiera gymnorhiza is dominant. On the
channel side of the island there are about a dozen or so trees of
Rhizophora mucronata.

The Isipingo River joins the Umlaas River at the channel,
and it is navigable for about three miles. Going up the river
towards its source there is, on the left-hand side, a dense growth
of mangroves, intercepted at intervals by Hibiscus tiliaceus, while
creeping over the trees are Scutia commersonii and Rhiocissus
rhomboidea. Here and there in front of the mangroves are small
banks of Sporobohis pungens.

On the right-hand side, immediately opposite the channel,
there is a stretch of Phragmites communis with several clumps of
Scirpus littoralis. Below and above are mangroves, but for a
short distance they are not nearly so dense as on the opposite side
and at intervals Phragmites communis, Scirpus littoralis, Dichro-
stachys nutans and Acacia clavigera occur.

The mangroves are very dense on either side in most places:,
though they are more continuous on the left-hand side. The other
side is more often an intermingled belt of Phragmites communis,
Scirpus littoralis, Dichrostachys nutans, Dalbergia armata, D.
obovata, Acacia clavigera, Scutia commersonii, Hibiscus tiliaceus,
Rhus natalensis and Phoenix reclinata. In many places the sugar
cane grows right down to the water's edge.

Floating on the surface of the water is Pistia stratiotes. In
sheltered corners it forms green patches on the surface of the water.

Loranth us dregei is very common on its host Hibiscus tiliaceus,
and it also grows freely on Melia azedarach .

There are very few small plants growing close to the water's
edge, but of these Nidorella anomala and Aizoon canariense are
the commonest. Creeping over the trees are Ipomea purpurea,
Ipomea pahnata and Ipomea sp. The species of Ipomea also twine
themselves round the steins of Phragmites communis.

The ground on either side of the river is, for the most part,
utilised for the cultivation of sugar cane.

356 FLORA OF ISIPIXGO.

The Flats, which stretch from the foot of the Isipingo Beach
Bluff to the railway station, are used as grazing fields for cattle
and consequently the vegetation is stunted in growth.

Between the Beach Hill and the river, marshes occur every
here and there, where Juncus spp. is dominant, the trees being
Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Hibiscus tiliaceut.
All over the Flats the edible guava (Psidum sp.) is very common.
Acacia spp. are also common, and growing in the shade among
the species of Juncus are Lobelia natalensis and Rhamphicarva
tubulosa. Parts of the Flats near the river and above the Lagoon
are covered with a dense mangrove association and Scirpus-Jun^.-is
formation.

The plants found on the Flats may be divided into two
classes, those found near pools, and those found in the drier parts.
Those found near the pools are Lobelia spp., Physalis minima,
Aeschynomene uniflora, Alternanthera sessilis, Polygonum serru-
latum, Typha natalensis, Pharnaceum dislichum, Jussieae suffru-
ticosum, 01 tic nl an dia macrophylla, Hydrocotyle bonariense, Sptt-
anthes africana, Ranunculus pinnatus, Solatium nigrum, Sesbania
aegyptica, Aerva lanata, Ambrosia artemesiae folia, Anesorhiza
caffra, Corchorus trilocularis, Floscopa glomerata and Eriosper-
mum natalense.

The plants collected in the drier parts were Geratotheca
triloba, Chenopodium ambrosoides, G. alburn, Crotalaria lanceo-
lata, G. distans, Erigeron canadense, Senecio serratuloides, Erio-
sema sp., Cephalaria ustulata, Eriosema parviflorum, Endostemori
obtusifoliunis, Eclipta erecta, Indigofera eriocarpa, I. micrantJia,
I polycarpa, I. endecaphylla , Indigofera spp., IlgpocJioeris glab-
rata, Galactia t en ui flora, Galopina oxi/sperminn, Gelonium afri-
canum, Nemesia cynanchi folia, Polt/gala cappillaris, P. rarifolia,
Pulicaria capensis, PJiyllanth us t melius, P. meyerianus, Senecio
pterophorus, Sutera corymbosa, Aloe saponaria, Gassia mitnosoides,
G. occidentalis, Desmodium incanum, Diantlms prostrata, Senecio
paniculat us, S. sjieciosus, Snlanum incanum, Tephrosia macropoda,
T. elongata, Hypoxia filiformis and Hypoxia woodii.

There are few trees or shrubs other than the mangroves,
Psidium sp., Acacia sjip. and Hibiscus tiliaceus, but scattered
shrubs of Brachylaena discolor, Ficits cordata, Melia azedarach,
Eugenia cordata, Rhus laevigata, Dichrostachys nutans, I'lec-
tronia obovatum, P. spinosa and Randia rudis occur. Along the
road side rows of Eucalyptus sp., the common blue gum, have
been planted, and now in many places young trees are springing
up.

There are four formations on the Flats. The first consists of
an Andropogon association with Andropogon hard us as the
dominant plant, next a large patch with Rubus rigid us predom-
inating. Then follows the largest portion with Senecio serratu-
loides growing very densely. Among these formations the follow-
ing plants were collected: Asclepias physocarpa, S cilia rigidifolia,
Dolichos axilaris, Cephalaria ustulata, Agrylobium adscendens, A.
marginatum, Tephrosia spp., and others which are mentioned
above.

FLORA OF ISIPINGO. 357

The fourth part is a swamp with Scirpus littoralis dominant,
the plants reaching to a height of from eight to nine feet. Typha
natalensis is also common, and other plants found are Jussieae
repens, Ranunculus jrinnatus, Kniphofia rooperi and Jussieae
suffruticosa.

Following a path that leads alongside a sugar plantation there
is, on one side, the swamp formation with Phragmites communis
dominant. The stems of the cane and reeds are entwined with
Ipomea purpurea, I. palmata, Cardiospermum halicacabum,
Ipomea ficifolia, Cissus fragilis and C. flaviflora. Oralis semiloba
grows in dense masses on the moist banks sheltered by the cane,
while other plants growing along the sides of the path are Dich-
ondra repens, Fumaria officinalis, Hydrocoiyle asiatica, Poly-
gonum serrulatum, P. lapathi folium, Oralis corniculata, Fleurya
capensis, Plantago major, Emex australis, Achyropsis leptostachya,
Achyranthes robusta, Polygala hottentotta, Vigna luteola, Sida
rhombi folia, Stachys aethiopica, Ethuliu conyzoides, Hyptis
pectinata, Endostemon obtusifolius, Indigofera endecaphylla,
Tephrosia aemula, Ambrosia artemesiaefolia, Spilanthus africana,
Trifolium africanum , Ornithogalum virens, one large clump of
Lotus discolor, and many of the noxious weeds previously men-
tioned. Several Hibiscus */>/'■ , PL. cannabinus, If. surratensis
and Hibiscus sp. were found, and also some fine specimens of Poly-
gala virgata and Vigna heliopus.

A portion of a field that was being prepared for cultivation
was almost covered with Fumaria officinalis, Hibiscus natalensis,
Bidens pilosa and II ydrocotyle bonariense, while in a ditch separ-
ating the fields Plantago major, Polygonum, lapathifolium, P.
serrulatum, Ranunculus cooperi, Polygonum tomentosum, Ranun-
culus pinnatus, Richardia africana, Eriospermum natalense and
Jussieae suffruticosa were found, and on the banks Fleurya capen-
sis, Fleurya s/?., Asclepias physocarpa, Celosia trigune, Eclipta
erecta, Oralis semiloba, 0. corniculata, Nidorella auriculata,
Physalis peruviana, Lobelia natalensis, Lobelia sp., and the com-
mon noxious weeds were growing. The banks are shaded by blue
gum trees and JLelia azedarach.

Near the station Mirabilis jalapa and Carina sp. grow freely,
and in swampy parts along the line there are Kniphofia rooperi,
Richardia africana, Nympheae stellata, Ranunculus spp., Pycno-
stachys reticulata, Jussieae suffruticosa, Dissotis incana, Polygala
virgata and Nephrodium unitum growing abundantly.

Other plants which are common towards the inland side are
Leonotis leotiurus, Erythrina caffra, Melia azedarach, Eugenia
cordata, Antidesma venosum, Phoenix reclinata (near streams),
Homalium sp., Clerodendron glabrum, Hy poesies antennifera,
Ficus natalensis, Aloe saponaria, Andropogon nardus, Vernonia
angulifolia, Senecio deltoid es, S. tamoides, Uhdea bipinnatifida,
Lantana camara, Tithonia tagetifolia, Helichrysum spp. and many
others.

Grasses, which form such an important portion of the flora
of any district, cannot really be classified as being found in any

353 FLORA OF ISIPIXGO.

one particular district. The same species occur again and again
in different parts, both near the beach and towards the interior.
Sporobohis pungens usually occurs near the mouths of rivers, but
the others are more widely distributed. The grasses collected are
as follows: Tricholaena rosea, T. setifolia, Sporobohis indicus,
Eleusine indica, Anthistiria imberbis, Aristida junciformis, And-
ropogon hirtus, A. halpense, A. filipendulis, A. ceresiaeformis,
A. appendiculatus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Andropogon nardus,
Imperata arundinaceae, Panicum laticomum, P. leavifolium, Digi-
taria horizontalis, D. erianiha, Urelytrum squarrosum, Digitaria
ternata, Setaria aurea, S. sulcata, S. verticiUata, Pennisetum
natalense, Hiburus alopecuroides, Chloris gayana, C. pycnothrix,
Cynodon dactylon, Eragrostis chloromelas, Diplachne fusca,
Sporobohis rehmanni, S. centrifugens, Eragrostis brizoides, Oplis-
meniis africanus, Paspalum distichum, Digitaria diversinervis,
Stenotraphruvi glabrum, Dactylectenium aegyptiacum, Agrostis
verticiUata, Panicum maximum and P. interruptum.

In moist places and near pools many genera and species
belonging to the orders Cyperaceae and Juncaceae, are found, and
following have been collected : Bulbostylis humilis, Cyperus albos-
triatus, C. texilis, C. isocladus, C. compressus, C. distans, C.
natalensis, Kyllinga melanosperma, K. alba, Xyris natalensis,
Ficinia lacinata, Fuirena glabra, Scleria meyeriana, Pycreus
flavesceiis, V . ferriigineus, V. polystachya, Fimbristylis comphinn-
tus, Scirpus macer, S. prolifer, B. zeyheria, Maricus sieberianus,
Bulbostylis hirkii, J uncus oxycarpa, J. lomatophylla and J uncus
sp.

Only one orchid was collected, Eulophia speciosa, which was
growing quite plentifully on the top of the sandy hill at the
beach.

As this survey was done during the months of March, April
and May, it is quite possible that many plants occurring in this
district have been omitted, especially those which appear only for
a short time when flowering. All the plants mentioned were
observed by me personally, and every endeavour was made to
make the list as complete as possible.

Most of the hills and valleys surrounding Isipingo are planted
with sugar cane, so that the natural flora has been almost com-
pletely destroyed. Noxious weeds are found everywhere, especially
near cultivated soil.

There is very little good soil at the beach as it is of a very
sandy nature. The soil on the inland side of the Bluff is better
than that of the top or seaward side in this respect, as it is not
exposed so much to the salt winds.

Later on, if possible, a list will be added of those plants which
have been omitted.

359

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF AN INTERSPECIFIC
HYBRID AND BACKCROSSES OF DIGIT A J.I S.

BY

Ernest Warren, D.Sc,
Director of the Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg.

With Plates IV, V.

Read July 12, 1921.

For a number of years I have made a study of the inheritance
of certain characters in the ordinary garden foxglove {Digitalis
gloxiniceflora) , and some of the results have been published in
"Biometrika"1 and in the "Journal of Science."2

I have also made certain observations on the hybrid between
Digitalis gloxiniaflora and Digitalis hi tea and on the backcrosses
of the hybrid with the parent species; and it is proposed to give
a brief summary of the investigation.

It is presumed that D. gloxiniajlora is simply a cultivated
variety of D. purpurea. In any case it is quite fertile and breeds
perfectly true on «elf -fertilisation, and from a genetic standpoint
it acts as a pure species.

1. Gloxiniceflora (Q) x lutea (d*)-

Twenty-five plants of gloxinia flora with varying characters
as to shape of flower, colour, etc., were pollinated from six plants
of lutea. Five flowers in each plant were fertilised. Out of these
125 ovaries, 45 shrivelled very early without result; the remaining
80 grew to a varying size and ripened slowly. Of the ripe ovaries
12 were small and contained nothing, the rest (68) bore some seed.
The seeds were very markedly dimorphic, a few were large and
broad, while the great majority were very small and relatively
narrow (PI. IV, fig. 1). On the average each of these capsules
bore only 4 large seeds and some 2-300 minute seeds. Even the
large seeds differed conspicuously from the seeds obtained by the
self-fertilisation of the gloxinias flora parent.

The hybrid large seeds were of about the same breadth as that
of the ordinary seeds of the female parent but they were very con-
stantly shorter, and consequently appeared squat or squarish. This
was not due to the seed accommodating itself to an embryo inter-
mediate in shape between that of gloxi nice flora and hi tea, since
although the seed of lutea is larger than that of gloxiniceflora, yet
the average ratio of length and breadth is practically the same

1 Warren, E. " Breeding Experiments with Foxgloves," Biometrika, Vol.

XI, 1917.

2 Warren, E. "The Pure Line Hypothesis etc.," S.A. Journal of Science,

Vol. XV, 1918-9.

360 HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

i ■ /Breadth inr\r\

in the two species; the ratio I ^ -7— x 10001 being 684 m

gloxiniazflora, 685 in lutea, and 786 in hybrid large seeds and 510
in hybrid small seeds. Both the large and small seeds were com-
monly capable of germination; but in the case of the small, narrow
seeds the cotyledons had the greatest difficulty in freeing them-
selves from the testa. All the hybrid plants which were subse-
quently raised were almost certainly derived from the large seeds.

In the development of a normal foxglove seed the nucellus
forms a very regular tapetal layer of columnar cells around the
embryo-sac (Plate V, fig. 1). As the sac grows, this layer, with
the disappearance of the remainder of the nucellus, becomes pushed
against the testa, and in the ripe seed the cell-contents disappear
entirely, and the cell-walls cease to exhibit cellulose reactions, as
shown by being insoluble in strong acids, staining intensely with
Sudan III, and by a number of other tests. In ripe, normal seeds
the tapetal layer is one cell thick, and this is also generally the
case in the large, hybrid seeds (fig. 6); but in the small seeds the
layer may be 4 or 5 or more cells thick (fig. 5, t. I. e. c), the con-
dition arising by the more or less regular tangential division of the
original layer of cells enveloping the embryo-sac. The hypertrophy
of this layer is probably to be regarded as a teratological condition
arising through the weak development of the embryo and
endosperm. In sections through hybrid seeds, which were found
to be incapable of germination, it was seen that sometimes both
embryo and endosperm were greatly reduced (figs. 3, 4), or com-
pletely absent, and nearly the whole bulk of the original nucellus
area was occupied by a thick mass of empty, small, thin-walled cells
arranged in radial rows and derived from the excessive tangential
division of the single layer of tapetal cells.

2. LUTEA (Q) X GLOXINICEFLORA ((f).

The reciprocal cross was tried, with lutea as the seed-plant.
Ten flowers in each of four lutea plants were fertilised with the
pollen of gloxinia flora, 25 plants being used. Out of the 40
ovaries some 29 showed signs of development and were harvested.
On examination it was found that 18 contained nothing but dried
ovules, 5 contained only shrivelled seed, and 6 bore one or more
seeds of normal appearance and many shrivelled seeds. The
average number of such normal seeds in the 6 capsules was only
two. Of these 12 seeds only one germinated with any vigour, and
the very young seedling subsequently ceased to grow and died. It
is thusi quite clear that with lutea as the seed-plant the cross is
much less easily effected than when gloxiniceflora is the seed-plant.
The hybrid seeds did not exhibit a similar dimorphic condition as
seen when gloxiniceflora was the seed-plant; they were either more
or less normal in appearance, or were shrivelled and totally incap-
able of germination.

hybrid of digitalis.
3. Nature of the Hybrid Plants.

361

The contents of 14 capsules {gloxiniceflora (Q) x / it tea (rj1)
were sown in as many separate pans, and 35 hybrid plants were
raised. The mortality among the seedlings derived from the large
seeds (about 70 in number) did not seem to exceed the normal
mortality which occurs in raising foxgloves from seed, but the
numerous seedlings which sprang from the minute seeds (many
hundreds) were very weak, and I doubt whether any survived.

In general appearance the hybrid plants were not intermediate
between the two species ; they were much closer to gloxiniceflora
than to Intra.

Leaves. — The ratio of the breadth to the length

(t 7i — x 1000 1 was determined bv measuring 15 leaves in each
Length /

plant. In 15 female parents (glox.) the mean ratio =272, in 3

male parents (lutea) =168, and in 27 hybrid offspring =257; thus

in the relative width of the leaf the hybrid was much nearer to

gloxiniceflora than to Intra (PI. IV, fig. 2).

The hybrid plants exhibited a greater vigour than that of the
parent species. The leaves tended to be smoother and much more
shiny than in gloxiniceflora, and the margin was much more
obviously indentated than in either species. The leaves were often
considerably thinner dorso-ventrally than in either gloxiniceflora or
in Intra, and in plucked leaves the rate of the transpiration of
water-vapour was much greater than in gloxinia-flora . The rate
was much nearer the normal lutea rate than the gloxinia-flora rate.

Flowers.— In general aspect the flowers of the hybrids were
closer to those of gloxiniceflora than to those of Intra. In each
plant the four lowest flowers were measured, and the mean was
taken as representative of that plant. The following characters
were determined : intensity of purple colouration, percentage spot-
ting of lower lip, length of flower, breadth, and the ratio of these
two dimensions. The means are given in the following table:- —

Generation.

No. of
Plants.

Means.

Colour
Intensity.

Spotting.

la

Length.

Breadth.

If

D. qloxinifptfora

Hybrid

D. lutea

16
31
17

77

34

0

20
0

51*0 nun.

46-o

35-7

284 mm

277

239

55n

596
672

With reference to colour, in the case of one cross the
gloxiniceflora parent had white flowers, there being no general
purple colouration on the corolla, but the hybrid offspring was
nevertheless distinctly purple, the intensity of colouration being
determined as 16. Now, at a casual glance the flowers of the

.362 HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

ilutea parent were without a purple tinge; but careful examination
showed that at the base of the filaments, where attached to the
corolla, theie was a small, faint purple area. The yellow plant
obviously brought come influence or factor into the hybrid render-
ing a purple colouration possible, since if the white gloxiniceflora
had been crossed with another white plant of the same species all
the offspring would have been white.

The general yellow colouration of In tea was transmitted con-
siderably to the hybrid, but the purple colour masked it greatly.

In the intensity (34) of the purple colouration the hybrid was
nearly midway between the two parents with mean intensities of
77 and 0 respectively. In spotting percentage the hybrid was only
•5, and consequently in this character it was nearer to lutea with
spotting 0 than to gloxiniceflora with mean spotting of 20. In the
absolute length and breadth of the flower, and also in the ratio
of these two dimensions the hybrid was closer to gloxiniceflora than
to lutea (PI. IV, fig. 2).

In lutea the lower lip exhibits no spotting, but it bears a
■characteristic marbled pattern in gamboge or brown. In the
hybrid, faint traces of these brown marblings could generally be
found, especially on the lateral, internal surfaces. In addition to
this, the marbled pattern was frequently to some extent marked
out in purple.

4. Hybrid (O) x glox. (cj1) and Hybrid (Q) x lutea (cf) —

Backcrosses.

The hybrids were very sterile, and a microscopic examination
showed that the pollen was very defective. Numerous flowers of
different plants were pollinated with their own pollen, with pollen
from other hybrids, and with pollen from gloxiniceflora and lutea
plants. Several hundred pollinations were made. With self-fer-
tilisation, or with pollen from other hybrids, the flower did not
fall until faded, and the ovary grew but very little. Nevertheless
even with such pollination the ovaries became somewhat more
swollen than when no pollination had been attempted. With
gloxiniceflora pollen, in the case of some of the hybrids, the flowers
dropped quickly and the ovaries became greatly swollen. Lutea
pollen acted still more energetically, and exceptionally large
capsules were produced. In the case of all the hybrid plants,
except in one, these capsules on ripening contained nothing but a
few shrivelled seeds which seemed incapable of germination.!
In one hybrid plant the pollen was found to be better in quality,
judging from microscopical appearance, and in this plant only, out
of the 32 plants, the majority of the capsules resulting from pol-
lination with lutea and with gloxiniceflora pollen contained some
seeds of fairly normal appearance. The seeds showed some varia-

f Note. — Subsequent investigation has shown that some of these seeds
possessed the power of germinating and producing healthy seedlings.
April, 1922.

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS. 363

bility in size, but there was no sharp dimorphism into large and
small seeds, as seen in capsules resulting from the cross of
gloxinimflora (Q) with lutea (d*).

On this hybrid plant, 20 flowers were pollinated from lutea,
and capsules developed ; 3 of these capsules contained no good seed,
while each of the remaining 17 bore on the average 14 good seed?
of small size. On the same hybrid plant, 30 flowers were crossed
with the pollen from several (/lux ink? flora plants. Of the resulting
capsules 9 contained no good seeds, while each of the remaining 21
bore on the average only 4 good seeds. Thus the cross, hybrid
x lutea, was considerably more fertile than the cross, hybrid x
gloxinia; flora. Bv "good" seed is meant unshrivelled seeds having
a proper shape and stoutness, it does not necessarily mean that thev
were all capable of germination.

5. The Seeds of the Hybrid, obtained with glox, and lutea

Pollen.

In identically the same hybrid plant the seeds obtained bv
using gloxi nice flora pollen differed distinctly in external appear-
ance from those formed when lutea pollen was employed.

a. The testa was of a dark chestnut brown in seeds-

obtained with gloxiniasflora pollen, and of a yellow
colour with lutea pollen. The distinction was not
due to any difference in the character of the
endosperm, for this was white in both.

b. The mean ratio, -= r— x 1000, of 81 seeds (from

Length

10 capsules in all) with gloxiniasflora pollen was 628,
and of 75 seeds (from 9 capsules in all) with lutea
pollen was 578. This constitutes a well-marked dif-
ference readily detected by the eye (PI. IV, fig. 1).

c. The cells of the testa were somewhat larger and had

thicker walls with gloxinia; flora pollen than with
lutea pollen, the difference in tangential diameter
being about 9:8. The outer tangential wall of the
testa cells usually disappeared entirely in seeds from
the gloxinia 'flora pollen, but a thin glistening lamina
generally persisted in the seeds from lutea pollen
(PI. V, fig. 6, p. o. «?.).

d. The hilum region of the seed projected on the average

about 4 times more prominently beyond the general
contour in seeds from lutea pollen than in those from
gloxinia; flora pollen (PI. IV, fig. 1).

In both kinds of seeds the dead tapetal layer immediately
within the testa was of variable thickness, but was always more
conspicuously developed than in the larger of the two sizes of seeds
derived from the cross, gloxiniceflora and lutea. The general con-
dition resembled that shown in PI. V, fig. 5.

6a

364 HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

The question arises as to what interpretation is to be placed
on the differences in the seed produced by the same plant under
the action of the two kinds of pollen.

The mere act of pollination and the growth of the pollen
tubes in the style obviously exeit a stimulus on the mother-plant,
and induce the fall of the flower and growth of the ovary.

After fertilisation, and when the development of the embryo
and endosperm commences, a continued influence is exerted on the
mother-tissue (cf. plant and animal galls), and it is of interest to
enquire as to how far such an influence is specific and depends on
the nature of the fertilisation. With lutea pollen the resulting
mature seedc tended to have smaller integument cells, persistent
outer cell-walls and lighter coloured cell-walls than when
gloxiniceflora pollen was used. In these characters the backcross
seeds tended to resemble ordinary hi tea seeds or gloxiniceflora
seeds according as to whether lutea pollen or gloxiniceflora pollen
was used for fertilisation. The results obtained indicate a more
specific influence being exerted by the growing embryo and
endosperm on the mother-tissue than might have been expected.
Such an influence is, of course, not heredity in any ordinary sense.

It might have been anticipated that the general size and shape
of the backcross seeds would depend on the size and shape of the
embryo and endosperm mass ; but the shape of the seed produced
by the cross, gloxiniceflora (Q) x lutea (cf) was not intermediate
between the shapes of the seeds of the two species, and in fact it
resembled neither. This was also the case in the seeds obtained by
the backcross fertilisations. The differences in size and shape were
perhaps mainly due to the fact that there was an arrest in the
general growth of the seed owing to a cessation in the growth of
the embryo and endosperm, resulting through uncongenial fertili-
sation. When such an arrest took place the growth of the integu-
ment tended always to exceed the requirements, and the formation
of an internal space was prevented by the hypertrophy of the
tapetal layer producing the peculiar compact tissue which occurred
in all of the undersized seeds.

6. Gloxiniceflora (Q) x Hybrid (cf) and lutea (Q) x
Hybrid (cf)-

The pollen of the hybrid was tried on a considerable number
of gloxiniceflora plants, but there was little response. In one case
some 6 or 7 seeds were obtained in a capsule, and from these only
one plant was raised. The cross between the fertile hybrid and
lutea was tried, but no seeds were obtained.

It is clear that the cross between the hybrid as male and either
original species as female was less easy to obtain than the cross
with the hybrid as female and either species as male.

7. The Gametic Constitution of Hybrid and Backcrosses.

The hybrids were sterile with each other, and with their own
pollen,* but with reference to the factorial hypothesis and the

— In the subsequent season more success has been attained in self in g
hybrids. April, 1922.

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS. 365

segregation of factors, backcrosses with plants which are the
immediate descendants of the parents which produced the hybrid
itself should afford evidence as valuable as offspring obtained by
self-fertilisalion of the hybrid. The problem is, do the factors
governing like characters in the two species really mingle and
become alike in the hybrid, or do they remain different, so that
either the gloxinia flora (P) or the lutea (Y) type is transmitted 1

The gametic nature of the hybrid, according to Mendelian
theory, may be represented as PY, of gloxinia flora as PP, and of
lutea as YY. The question is, when the backcross, say, hybrid x
gloxiniozflora, is made, do the factors P and Y in the hybrid
remain distinct, or have they influenced each other, so that we
have actually to do with a new factor resulting from their mutual
influence ? In the case of all the measurable characters dealt with
it will be seen that the inheritance appears to have the nature of
a blend.

On the crossing of the purple foxglove (Q) gloxiniozflora
(PP), with the vellow species (cf) lutea (YY), the characters in
the hybrid are often not intermediate in nature.

Leaves. — Ln the hybrid the ratio of breadth to length of the
leaf is nearer to that of gloxiniozflora than to that of lutea: number
of stomates nearer to lutea; hairiness nearer to lutea: rate of
desiccation of plucked leaves nearer to lutea; size of epidermal
cells, intermediate; length of stomates, intermediate; indenta-
tions, distinct from either (PI. IV, fig. 2).

Flowers. — Absolute length and breadth of flower and ratio,
nearer to gloxiniozflora; degree of spotting, nearer to lutea
(PI. IV, fig. 2); intensity of purple colouration, intermediate.

Thus out of 12 characters the hybrids were approximately
intermediate in 3, nearer one parent or the other in 8, and dif-
ferent from either parent in 1.

Resembling one parent more strongly than the other in any
given character is a common feature of interspecific hybrids, and
it would be referred to as dominance by the Mendelians, and to
prepotency by those who favour the view that a blend of homo-
logous factors has occurred.

8. Comparison of Backcrosses with Hybrids and Parent

Species.

Since only one hybrid plant was appreciably fertile, we are
practically confined to the offspring arising from crossing this
hybrid plant with both parent species. The only other backcross
secured consisted of a single plant resulting from the pollination
of a gloxiniozflora plant with the pollen of a second hybrid plant.
This particular backcross has not yet flowered. It has the
peculiarity of the leaves being very strongly coloured with purple.
The colouration is due to the epidermal cells containing a bright
purple sap. The edges of the leaves of normal gloxiniai flora are
occasionally tinged with purple, but nothing approaching the con-
dition of this backcross has ever been seen in either parent species.

366

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

By backcrossing a hybrid plant with both of the parent species r
and examining a series of widely different characters in the off-
spring, it is considered that some evidence is obtainable as to the
condition of the factors in the hybrid parent; that is to say,
whether the two factors of an homologous pair have retained their
differences unimpaired, so that on segregation occurring the
characters would reappear in their original purity, or whether
they have mutually influenced each other, or blended, to form a
pair of similar factors which may or may not be intermediate iiL
nature between the two original factors.

In order to see the bearing of the experiment on the problem,
it is insufficient to deal simply with means ; it is necessary to give
the frequency distribution of variation in the form of tables which
will show at a glance the range of variability in the different
generations. In this place we will deal with a few of the charac-
ters which have been investigated.

Flower: Length of Corolla.— The length of the flower of
lutea is very much less than in gloxinia 'flora •. In the hybrid the
length tends to be nearer to that of gloximceflora (PI. IV, fig. 2).
The result of backcrossing the hybrid with the two parent species
is shown in the accompanying table. The mean of the gloxinia flora
backcross (500) is much nearer to the gloxinia flora mean (505)
than to the hybrid mean (421), and the mean of lutea backcross
(356) is nearer to the lutea mean (318) than to the hybrid mean
(421).

Absolute Length of Corolla.

Grades of length

e

c

sr

X
,0+,^,

X

X

in tenths
of millimetre.

■1

o

Backer
hybrid
glox. (

Hybrid
glox. f
lutea

Bockcn
hybrid
lutea |

pp

PY x PP

PY

PY x YY

YY

230—269

1

1

270—309

—

—

1

—

4

310—349

—

—

0

3

12

350—389

—

—

3

6

1

390—429

—

—

10

—

—

430—469

2

1

13

.._

—

470—509

8

2

3

—

—

510—549

5

0

—

—

550—589

0

1

—

—

—

590—629

1

—

—

—

Means

505

500

421

356

318

Supposing that corolla-length is controlled by one factor, or
a group of connected factors, the gametic constitution, according
to Mendelian theory, is given at the head of the columns.

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

367

Now, if the two homologous factors (P and Y) had remained
unaltered in the hybrid, half of the offspring of the lutea backcross
{5th column) should cluster about the hybrid mean (grade 390-429)
and half about the lutea mean (grade 310-349), but there
is no tendency for this condition. In the case of the backcross
with gloxinia 'flora (3rd column) the number of the plants is few,
but there is no indication of a dimorphic series.

If it is supposed that corolla-length depends on two or more
independent factors, results would be less simple, but in such case
the backcrosses should, at least, exhibit very considerable varia-
bility, and reference to the table shows that the variation is
remarkably small.

Flower: Intensity of Purple Colouration.- — The scale of
colour intensity, which was employed, is the same as that previously
described.1

In all the lutea plants used in the experiment the purple
colouration was exceedingly slight, and was confined to a very
inconspicuous patch at the base of the filaments of the stamens;
but among some other hi tea plants growing elsewhere, the inside
of the base of the corolla was found to be distinctly purple, and
the filaments were coloured along their whole length. The gloxinice-
flora plants varied from quite pale purple to an intense purple.
In the hybrids the mean intensity of colouration (34) was nearly
intermediate between the means of the two parent species. The
mean of the gloxinia' flora backcross (39) is very much nearer to the
hybrid mean (34) than to the gloxiniceflora mean (82), but the
mean of the lutea backcross (7) is much nearer to the lutea mean
(5) than to the hybrid mean (34).

Intensity of Purple Colouration.

X

£

ot-^

^

~M^j

©

1

*w*0

— . /"*s

.CH-W

Grades of colour-

1 ^

o 8

scale for

_s

5~ TJ ®

s

Purple Colouration.

©

3

Back
hybr

x gl

Hybr
glox.
lutea

Back
hybr
x lu

pp

PY x PP

PT

PY x YY

YY

0—9

2

7

17

10—19

—

1

2

20—29

i

5

30—39

0

2

17

—

40—49

0

2

3

—

oO— 59

2

4

60 -69

0

70—79

3

60—89

4

90—99

3

100—109

0

110—119

0

120—129

1

—

—

—

—

Means

82

39

34

7

5

(1) Loc. cit. " Biometrika," 1917.

368

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

Here there is not the least tendency for any dimorphism in
the purple colouration of the two backcrosses (3rd and 5th
columns), and the variability is remarkably small.

Such a simple character as the greater or lesser intensity of
the same colour is likely to depend on some one factor, and, if
(he purity of the two homologous factors is to be supposed to
remain unaffected by their contact in the hybrid, the backcrosses
should exhibit a strongly marked dimorphic condition, but the-
experimental results show that the offspring are strikingly uniform.

If, on the other hand, colour intensity depends on several
independent factors, the uniformity of the backcrosses militates
against the supposition that the factors remain pure in the hybrid.

Leaf: Pilosity. — The number of hairs that could be counted
projecting over the edge of the leaf along a definite length (2 mm.)
was taken as a general measure of the pilosity.

The leaves of lutea are markedly smooth, and bear but few
hairs, while gloxiniceflora leaves are usually richly pilose. The
mean of the pilosity (20) of the hybrids was slightly closer to the
lutea mean (6) than to the gloxiniceflora mean (37). The mean
of the gloxiniceflora backcross (19) is much nearer to the hybrid
mean (20) than to the glox. mean (37), and the mean of the lutea
backcross (12) is slightly nearer to the lutea mean (6) than to the-
hybrid mean (20).

Pilosity of Leaf.

8

^

X

— ?

o

rCH-*0

'"N

^0+^— '

Grades of number

eg.

eg

©

o §

of hairs along 2 mm.

.1

^3 ._/

Backer
hybrid
x lute

c

of leaf-edge.

8

o

3

Back
hybr
x gl

Hybi
glox.
lutea

"5

pp

PY x PP

PY

PY x PP

YY

0—4

3

9

5—9

— .

—

3

8

12

10—14

—

2

4

6

4

15—19

i

3

10

3

1

20—24

3

3

5

1

—

25—29

3

1

3

1

—

30—34

3

—

1

1

—

35—39

5

—

2

—

—

40—44

2

— ■

0

—

—

45—49 . . .

2

—

0

—

50—54

4

—

0

—

55—59

1

—

1

—

Means ...

37

19

20

12

6

It will be seen that in the backcross (3rd column) of the hybrid
with gloxiniceflora none of the offspring approach the mean (grade
35-39) of gloxiniceflora. In the backcross (5th column) with lutea
the condition cannot be so clearly observed on account of the fact

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

369

that the means of the hybrid and of luted happen to be rather
-close together, but nevertheless even here the distribution of the
baekcross offspring indicates a homogeneous series.

Leaf: Length of Guard-cells of Stomates. — The stomates
of lutea are much larger than those of gloxiniceflora. The length
of the guard-cells in the hybrids is very variable, and the mean
(72) is intermediate between that of hi tea (84) and that of
gloxiniozflora (60). The variability exceeds that of either of the
parent species. The mean of the gloxiniceflora baekcross (71) is
very much nearer to the hybrid mean (72) than to the glox. mean
(60), and the mean of the lutea baekcross (80) is much nearer to
the lutea mean (84) than to the hybrid mean (72).

Length of Guard-Cells of Stomates of Lower Surface of Leaf.

Grades of lengths

in divisions

(0041 nun.) of oculai-

micrometer x 10

PP

o-t- *X)

=q^'

PY x PP

m en- <X>

FY

y*o

PY x YY

YY

50 53

54—57
58—61
62—65
66—69

70—73
74-77
78—81
82—85
86—89
90—93
94—97
98—101

Means

5
13

6
2

60

—

1

—

3

2

7

1

3

4

2

9

1

7

1

1

3

0

—

1

80

81

Reference to the 3rd column shows that there is no tendency
for the offspring of the gloxiniceflora baekcross to cluster around
the mean of gloxiniceflora (grade 58-61). With the lutea back-
cross the condition is not clear on account of the fact that the
hybrid baekcross and lutea means are too close together.

Leaf : Ratio of Breadth to Length. — Relative to the
length, the leaves of lutea tend to be very much narrower than
those of gloxiniceflora (PI. IV, fig. 2). In the hybrid the mean (244)
of the ratios is closer to that of gloxiniceflora (285) than to that of
lutea (160). The mean of the glox. baekcross (297) is much nearer
to the glox. mean (285) than to the hybrid mean (244), and the
mean of the lutea baekcross (181) is much nearer to the Infect,
mean (160) than to the hybrid mean (244),

370

hybrid of digitalis
Breadth

Leaf-ratio

Length

x 1000.

e

X

X

<~>*o

Ratio Grades.

.1

5

w .r

© — '*o

<-> ^ §

.CM-
to — -

Backcross,
hybrid ( Q
x lutea (

Lutea.

pp

PY x PP

PY

PY x YY

YY

100—129

_

3

4

130—159

—

—

1

4

9

160—189

—

1

I

5

11

190—219

/

1

11

1

2

220—249

17

0

8

3

1

350—279

17

2

5

1

—

280—309

13

2

1

1

—

310—339

22

3

5

—

—

340- 369

5

2

1

—

—

370—399

3

1

—

—

—

400—429

1

—

—

—

—

Means

285

297

244

181

160

If the leaf-ratio depends on a single factor, or a group of con-
nected factors, and these factors remain unchanged in the hybrid,
then in both backcrosses (3rd and 5th columns) a dimorphic con-
dition of the offspring should be observable, but such is not the-
case. If the leaf-ratio depends on two or more independent
factors which remain unchanged in the hybrid then much varia-
bility in the backcrosses would be expected, and the two series
would have a heterogeneous aspect. An inspection of the table
shows that the variability is not very large, and there is no
evidence of heterogeneity.

In all the other characters studied (namely, in the leaf; size
of lower epidermal cells, number of stomates, rate of desiccation
of plucked leaves, and depth of indentations : and in the flower ;
breadth of corolla, ratio of breadth to length, and degree of spot-
ting), there is likewise no indication of the offspring of the back-
crosses being divisible into two sets, one resembling the hybrid
parent, and the other, one of the parent species.

On the view that all these characters depend on a number
of independent factors which remain pure in the hybrid, there
should be, at least, a clearly marked exceptional variability of the
backcrosses, but there is no suggestion of such in any of the
characters dealt with.

9. Conclusions.

It is evident that the potentialities of an organism must
depend on some qualities or powers of the fertilised egg. These

HYBRID OF DIGITALIS. 371

•qualities or powers may be called factors, and the factorial
hypothesis attempts to give some explanation of the nature and
transmission of factors in sexual and asexual reproduction.
Mendelism is merely a certain aspect of the factorial hypothesis,
and one of the main points of dispute is, whether factors are to be
o-enerally regarded as essentially fixed and unchangeable, so that,
when segregation occurs, the pure factor emerges uninfluenced by
its former association with other factors or by the external environ-
ment. It is important to note that evidence has been recently
brought forward by Professor Bateson indicating that segregation
•can occur in other cells than in germinal cells.

In a previous paper already cited the behaviour of crosses of
varieties of a species was discussed, and it was shown that in all
those characters capable of measurement which were examined the
degree of development was inherited in self -fertilised generations,
and, on crossing, a blend occurred in the offspring. The factors
controlling these characters were also blended, since in subsequent
generations raised by self-fertilisation there was no tendency for a
reappearance of the grandparental characters in an unchanged
condition.

A point of some interest may be mentioned. The peloric
character of foxgloves, like the purple colouration, is inherited in
a perfectly typical Mendelian fashion. But there are all degrees
of pelorism, just as there are of colour intensity, and the inherit-
ance of the degree of pelorism and of the intensity of colour is of
the blended type. With blended inheritance, selection is effective
in producing a gradual modification; but on account of the lack
of sufficient variation combined with the drag of regression it may
not always be possible to carry the modification to any great
•extreme.

By regression is meant the influence whereby exceptional
parents tend to produce offspring which are more normal (that is
•closer to the mean of the race) than themselves. The existence of
regression, in the sense in which Galton used the term, as the drag
of the back ancestry, has been denied by some. It is stated by
Babcock and Clausen1 "this regression is not due to the pull of
.a back ancestry ; it is due to the fact that individuals whose somatic
appearance places them in diverse classes in the frequency distribu-
tion are themselves gametically different and will breed differ-
ently."

The statement in italics is doubtless true, and the breeding
differently is due to the factors being different, arising from
the fact that the powers of any individual factor in producing a
somatic character must depend on the constitution of that factor,
and the particular nature of any individual factor is the result
of its past history which involves the back ancestry.

Such a view is not compatible with the assumption of discrete
and relatively unchangeable factors, and hence is rejected by the

'Babock, E. B., and Clausen, E. E. " Genetics in relation to Agriculture,"
1918, p. 55.

372 HYBRID OF DIGITALIS.

strict Mendelian ; but it follows naturally on the conception of
factors capable of being gradually modified by the influence of other
factors and perhaps also by the external environment.

In the case of the peloric condition of foxgloves, starting with
homozygous plants in which this character was quite definitely
present, it has been possible by selection of self-fertilised genera-
tions to eliminate the character altogether. A similar result was
reached, but with much greater difficulty, in obtaining a white
foxglove by the selection of self -fertilised generations of homozy-
gous, pale mauve plants. Quantity of a character being inherited
by the blending type, and selection being effective, it is sometimes-
possible to eliminate a character altogether, and the point of
contact between Mendelian and blending inheritance is reached.

These results indicate a gradual change in the nature of the
factor or factors governing a blending character, and the change
can arise through crossing, the homologous factors mutually
influencing each other.

In the present paper distinct species are dealt with having
very marked specific differences. The character in the interspecific
hybrid may be intermediate or considerably nearer to one species
or the other, and thus dominance or prepotency may be exhibited.
Similarly in the backcrosses the character may be intermediate,
or much nearer either to the hybrid parent or to the pure species
parent.

On account of sterility, raising offspring by self-fertilisation
of the hybrid was not possible ; but for testing the theory of
segregation and the persistence of the purity of factors, backcrosses
are equally useful. In all the measurable characters examined
there was no clear reappearance in the backcrosses of the grand -
parental characters in an uncontaminated condition. The view
that these results are due in every case to the existence of multiple,
independent, unchangeable factors would be only justified if the
backcross offspring exhibited exceptional variability, but such is
not the case. Thus the results obtained with interspecific hybrids
resemble those found with intervarietal hybrids.

The conception of the segregation of factors in the division
of cells is useful, provided it is not demanded by the Mendelians
that these factors shall necessarily have any fixed or invariable
nature. In most ordinary, measurable characters the factors on
crossing would seem to blend, and although the blend may not
necessarily entail an intermediate condition of the character, yet
the factors, or connected group of factors, are changed by the
crossing, and a reappearance of the pure character is not to be
expected, and would only result by the production of a new factor,
and not by the persistence of the original, unchanged one.

Explanation of Plates.

Plate IV.

Fig. 1. — GIox. pollinated with In ten yielded dimorphic seeds
(large to small about 1:75 in number) both capable of germina-

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XV1I1.

PLATE IV.

X LUTEA(d)

FIG. 1.

w

Jk

I

A A fk \

w^STC?

"~-4

"v,

-t.OX. BMKCROSS HVBSIO BACKCB05S LUTEA

}

I1!

id

m IB

f-7

1/

J V ;V' M ■

tv-l

W

FIG. 2.
HYBRID DIGITALIS.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE V.

GLOX.<9> X LUTtA«)

5. SMAIL MATURE. SE1D.

HYBRID DIGITALIS.

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 37-S-

tion. The seed produced by glox. pollen on a hybrid plant differed
markedly in shape (see bottom two figures) from the seed formed
with luted pollen on the same, identical hybrid plant. Drawn to
scale.

Fig. 2. — Typical leaves of the various generations; taken of
the same length, and showing the differences in the mean widths,
indentations and general veining.

Typical flowers of the same generations, showing the differences
in the shape of the calyx, and in the length, breadth, spotting and
marbling of the corolla. Drawn to scale.

Plate V.

Longitudinal sections of ovules and seeds; glox. fertilised with
lutea pollen. In all the figures, except in fig. 1, the power of
further growth had ceased.

e. Embryo, end. Endosperm, i.e. Empty cells of nucellus.
e.s. Embryo-sac. f.t.l. Formation of tapetal layer. //. Nucellus.
p.o.ie. Persistent outer wall of testa cell. t .1 . Tapetal layer.
t.l.l. Tapetal layer still living, t.l.e.c. Hypertrophied tapetal layer
of empty cells.

SOME PROTOZOA FOUND IN CERTAIN SOUTH AFRICAN

SOILS.— 1.

BY

II. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc , and Esther Taylor, M.Sc,

Department of Z<>oh><j//, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg.

Head July 15, 1921.

Introduction.

The Protozoa are a large and important group of organisms,
which are widely distributed. Many inhabit fresh water, occurring
in ponds and ditches and in infusions exposed to the air. Some
Protozoa are marine. The parasitic Protozoa have been widely
studied in connection with various diseases in man and other
animals. Free-living Protozca inhabiting the soil have recently
received attention, and it is their relation to soil bacteria and the
possible bearing on soil fertility which has been chiefly investigated
by the few workers who have given direct attention to the subject.

Russell and Hutchinson (1909, 1913), working at Rothamsted
Experimental Station, England, were among the first to consider
the relation of Protozoa to bacteria and to fertility, using the
method of partial sterilisation of the soil. Such partial sterilisa-
tion may be attained by heat, and by the addition of toluene or
carbon bisulphide to the soil. Partially sterilised soil was found
to be more productive than untreated soil, but the effects produced

374 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

by partial sterilisation are complex, as several factors are operating
simultaneously. The existing bacterial equilibrium of the soil
seems to be disturbed by such treatment. Russell and Hutchinson
considered that untreated soil contained a factor, not bacterial,
limiting the development of bacteria, which factor was inhibited
by antiseptics or heat. This limiting factor was then presumed
to be the Protozoa in the soil, and so arose the "protozoan theory
of soil fertility." However, the original contention of Russell
that Protozoa limit the number of bacteria in the soil cannot yet
be considered as proved, as a crucial test is still wanting. Russell
and Hutchinson also thought that excessive numbers of Protozoa
in soil may be the cause of "soil sickness."

Regarding work actually done already on soil Protozoa, it
seems almost impossible to make definite general statements.
Martin and Lewin worked on the subject in England especially
about the time of the beginning of the Great War, to be precise,
during the period 1912 to 1915. Goodey (1911-1916) published
some results obtained from work done at Rothamsted. Cutler
is a still more recent worker there. In the "United
States, Kopeloff and Coleman (1917) published an interest-
ing review on soil Protozoa and soil sterilisation, while Fellers and
Allison (1920) recorded results from studies on New Jersey soils.
Again, Cunningham (1915), working at Leipzig, published some
results on the relations between soil Protozoa and bacteria in labora-
tory cultures. From the observations of these authors it seems
that the majority of Protozoa ordinarily occur in the soil in the
encysted state. They would need to be often active to destroy
bacteria. As to culture solutions, the conditions therein are dif-
ferent from those found in the soil, as was suggested by Martin.
Koch (1915) states that "it is probable that the results produced
by adding the soil to tap water more nearly represent the con-
ditions as they are found in the soil." Koch also states that "the
development of soil Protozoa in artificial culture solutions varies
with the kind of media employed."

From the foregoing it will be seen that many views are
prevalent in respect to the relation of soil Protozoa to their
environment, and that much more work is necessary before final
conclusions can be obtained. Also, it is highly probable that it will
not be possible to generalise regarding soil Protozoa for the whole
world, there being too many varying factors concerned.

Material ane Methods.

An endeavour has been made by the present writers to
ascertain and briefly describe the Protozoa found associated with
various types of South African soils. Observations at the present
stage of the investigation have been of necessity largely confined
to living material. The present is the first attempt to investigate
soil Protozoa in South Africa, and so must, of necessity, be pre-
liminary in character.

Representative soils were collected from sugar and banana
plantations, vineyards, orchards, gardens, agricultural plots, moun-

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 375'

tains, and various other sites. Cultivated, uncultivated and virgin
soils were examined and compared, and their acidity tested in each
case by the litmus compression method.

Samples of soil were taken from three inches to twelve inches
deep and the soil collected in some cases from the bottom of the
hole, in other cases from the sides, the latter case yielding "mixed"
samples containing all the layers down to the required depth.
Metallic diggers and sterilised containers were used, thus avoiding
contamination from outside. The season and prevailing weather
conditions were noted. A few samples of waterlogged soils have
also been examined by direct observation. Some of these water-
logged soils formed the basins of shallow pools or vleis, while others
were taken from the banks of running streams.

Various culture media for soil Protozoa have been tried else-
where, but none has been found perfectly satisfactory. In South
Africa various media have also been tried, but the best results were
obtained by using boiled, neutral tap water to ensure sterility, add-
ing it to soils in definite proportions (for example, in some cases 1
gram of soil to 12 cc. of water, in other cases 1 gram of soil to 5 c.c.
of water), and allowing it to stand for some time in test-tubes
plugged with cotton wool, using ordinary bacteriological precau-
tions to prevent contamination both at the time of incubation and
during the periodical examinations. Samples of the water cultures
were examined fresh by means of cover-slip or hanging drop pre-
parations. The cultures were kept at room temperature in most
cases. Some, however, were placed in incubators kept at 37°C. and
45°C. Some cultures were kept in the light, while others were
placed in the dark. All the results accruing were compared. We
know that water cultures may not give an accurate impression of
the constitution of the active fauna of the soil, as excystation is
brought about. However, this may be partly corrected by the
comparative examination of specimens of naturally water-logged
soil.

Determination of the approximate number of protozoan cysts
in soils was attempted in some cases, and the intimate attachment
of the cysts to the soil particles was demonstrated by successive
triturations of the same sample of soil in boiled water and
counting the number of cysts recognisable under the microscope
after each trituration.

In every case the soil was examined previous to culture for
Protozoa by microscopic examination of a small portion of soil in
a drop of cold boiled water. Trophic Protozoa were rarely found,
but encysted forms were fairly often recognised.

The use of fixatives and stains has been found difficult by most
workers as distortion is easily caused in the Protozoa. Picric
alcohol was a useful fixative. Methyl green proved a good stain
for observing the nuclei of ciliates. Acid carmine and haematoxy-
lin were useful general stains. As before stated, examination has
so far been chiefly limited to fresh material.

Daily observations on the culture tubes were essential, as each
organism appears to increase in numbers to a maximum, then

376 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

gradually to decrease and disappear as motile forms, often to re-
appear later. Periodicity is thereby indicated.

The determination of some of the Protozoa has been difficult,
especially with the somewhat restricted literature at our disposal
in South Africa.

The Protozoa Found in Certain South African Soils.

The results of our observations of the Protozoa found in water
cultures of different South African soils may now be given. Soil
samples from the Western and Eastern Cape Province, the Trans-
vaal and Natal, have provided the bulk of the material hitherto.
It will be convenient to deal with the soils under two groups : (a)
Ordinary (non-waterlogged) soils under degrees of cultivation
ranging from virgin soil to heavily cultivated sugar and vine
land; and (h) soils that were waterlogged at the time of examina-
tion.

(A) Results of Examination of Various Ordinary
(Non- waterlogged) Soils.

The soils here considered may be grouped as Cape Province,
Transvaal and Natal soils.

I. Cape Province Soils.

Western Province soils were collected at St. James, Somerset
Strand, Stellenbosch, Heathfield, High Constantia, Simonstown,
Bellville and Eosebank Experimental Station, near Capetown;
while soil from Kimberley was examined as representing Griqua-
land. With regard to Eastern Province soils, specimens from Port
Elizabeth, Graharmtown and Grootfontein School of Agriculture
have been studied.

St. James. The soil was collected from the foot of the moun-
tain on 23rd January, 1921, during fine weather. The sample was
taken from a depth of about six inches. It was a dark-greyish soil
containing some sea-sand, and gave a feebly alkaline reaction to
litmus compression tests. On culture the following Protozoa were
obtained : —

Rhizopoda. — A moeha proteus, A . Umax, A . radiosa,
A. verrucosa, A. guttula, Difflugia piriformis, T) .
globulosa.
Mastigophora. — Mastigamoeoa sp., Oikomonas (Monas)

termo, Pleuromonas jaculans.
Heliozoa. — A ctinophrys sol.

Infusoria. — Holophrya ovum, Pleuronema chrysalis,
Cyclidium glaucoma, Oxytricha pellionella, Vorticella
campanula, Lacrymaria olor, Colpoda cuciillus, I'ara-
moecium aurelia.

Somerset Strand. — The soil was sandy and was collected on
8th December, 1920, during hot weather, from a flower garden at
a depth of six inches. Its reaction to litmus was feebly alkaline.
In water culture it yielded: —

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 377

Rhizopoda. — .4 moebd proteus.

Mastigophora. — Peranema trichophorum, Euglena viridis.

Infusoria. — Pleuronjema chrysalis, Gyclidium glaucoma,

Oxytricha pellionella, Euplotes liar pa, Paramoecium

aurelia.

Rosebank Experimental Station. — The soil was cultivated
black, sandy, Liesbeek alluvial loam, collected on 21st June, 1921,
in fine cold weather, and was a mixed sample of all the layers
from the surface to one foot deep. It gave a feebly acid reaction.
In water culture the Protozoa obtained were: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba, proteus, A. radiosa.
Heliozoa. — A ctinophrys sol.
Mastigophora. — Cercomonas crassicauda.
No Ciliata were obtained in this culture.

Bellville. — The sample was virgin sandy soil collected on 11th
January, 1921, at a depth of five to six inches, during slight rain.
It gave an acid reaction to litmus. The following Protozoa were
obtained from it in water cuiture : —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba radiosa, Amoeba spp., Difflugia

piriformis.
Mastigophora.- — Peranema trichophorum, Euglena viridis,

Cercomonas crassicauda.
Infusoria. — Gyclidium glaucoma, Paramoecium aurelia,
Oxytricha pellionella, Euplotes harpa.

Heathfield. — The sample was taken six inches from the sur-
face of uncultivated (but apparently fertile) soil, about thirty
feet from the banks of a shallow ditch. The soil was collected on
11th October, in fine weather. It was blackish, with a slight
mixture of grass roots. Arum lilies were growing in profusion in
the vicinity. The reaction of the soil to litmus was alkaline. The
following Protozoa were obtained in water culture: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus, A. Umax, A. guttula, A.
radiosa, J . verrucosa, Difflugia globxdosa, D. pyri-
formis, E ughjpha sp*
Heliozoa. — A ctinophrys sol, Acanthocystis aculeata, Nu-
clear ia simplex^ (a small form).
Mastigophora. — Peranema trichophorum , Euglena viridis,
OUcomonas (M'onas) termo, Jiodo (Prowazekia) parva
or terricola,\ Pleuromowis jacidans.
Infusoria. — C yclidiu in glaucoma, Stylonychia mytilus.

High Constantia. — The sample was taken at a depth of nine
inches fiom the surface, and was a light-brown, readily crumbling
soft soil, under cultivation with the best Hermitage grapes, used

* This species of Euglypha lias not quite the same shell patterning as
E alveolata, and somewhat resemhles the form described by Martin
and Lewin.

f This genns is som* times placed with the Proteomyxa.

X The determination of this S23ec:es is difficult, with the restricted litera-
ture at our disposal. It appears to be either B. parva or B. terricola.

378 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

for the production of Vlakkenberg wines. The waters in the neigh-
bourhood are radio-active. The sample was collected on 14th
October, in fine weather. Its reaction to litmus was acid. The
water culture showed: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus, Binucleate amoeba cyst.

Mastigophora. — Oikomonas termo, Bodo (Prowazekia)
parva, Euglena viridis, Pleuromonas jaculans.

Infusoria. — Cyclidium glaucoma, Lacrymaria olor..

The organisms in this culture were always very few in number.
It is possible that the known radio-active character of the water of
the locality has some action inimical to Protozoa.

Simonstown. — The specimen was collected from uncultivated
soil at Seaforth. Simonstown, during fine, hot weather, on 8th
January. The soil was brownish and sandy, about fifty feet
above sea level. The sample was taken from a depth of about six
inches. Its reaction to litmus was acid. Ericas were growing
near by. Water cultures yielded the following Protozoa: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba Umax, A. radiosa, A. guttula, Dif-
flugia globulosa, Hyalosphenia elegans, Euglypha
sp.

Heliozoa. — Actinophrys sol, Aca/nthocystis aculeata.

Mastigophora. — Mastigamoeba sp., Perdnema tricho-
phorum, Oikomonas (Monas) termo, Bodo (Prowa-
zekia) parva, Euglena viridis, Pleuromonas jaculans.

Infusoria. — Cyclidium glaucoma, Lacrymaria olor.
A few Vibrios were found in this culture, and Mastigamoebae
containing ingested bacteria were also observed.

Stellenbosch. — The specimen of soil was collected from a fur-
row in a newly-ploughed and planted vineyard, about six inches
from the surface. It was a sandy, greyish-red soil, with a few
shreds of plant roots, and was obtained on 12th October in fine
warm weather. It gave an acid reaction to litmus. The following
Protozoa were obtained in water culture: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus. A. Umax, A. guttula, A.
verrucosa, Pelomyxa. palustris, Difflugia globulosa,
D. pyriformis, Hyalosphenia elegans, Euglypha
alveolata. Euglypha sp.
Heliozoa. — .4 ctinophrys sol.

Mastigophora. — Mastigamoeba sp., Peranema tricho-
phorum, Oikomonas (Monas) termo, Bodo (Prowa-
zekia) parva, Euglena viridis, Pleuromonas jaculans.
Infusoria. — Cyclidium glaucoma, Colpoda cucullus, Lacry-
maria olor, Paramoecium aurelia, Stylonychia mitylus.

Cultures of this soil also contained a few bacteria, mostly
vibrios, and specimens of Colpoda cucullus and of Pelomyxa were
found containing ingested vibrios

Kimberley. — This specimen was a reddish-brown sandy loam
and was collected from an orange grove on 31st July, in fairly

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 379

warm weather. It contained soil from the surface to nine inches
deep. Its reaction was feebly alkaline. The following Protozoa
were obtained in water culture: —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus.

Infusoria. — Cyclidium glaucoma

Port Elizabeth. — Samples of soil were obtained from two
sites, namely, the Museum Gardens and St. George's Park, during
bright, warm weather. Their reactions were feebly acid.

(i) The Museum Gardens specimen was collected on 5th May,
1921, at a depth of six inches from the surface. On culture it
yielded : —

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus, A. radiosa, Amoeba sp.
Heliozoa. — Actinophrys sol.

Infusoria. — Paramoecmm aurelia, Cyclidium glaucoma,
(ii) The St. George's Park specimen was collected on 5th May,
1921, at a depth of three inches from the surface. It was relatively
uncultivated soil. On water culture it yielded: —
Rhizopoda. — Amoeba proteus, A. radiosa.
Iufusoria. — Oxytricha pellionella.
The two specimens of soil from Port Elizabeth are of interest
as showing difference of protozoal fauna in areas relatively near
to one another.

Grahamstown. — The sample of soil was uncultivated Witberg
sand, under rough grass, and was taken at about a depth of one
foot from the surface. It was collected near the Albany Museum
on 21st September, in the afternoon, during slight rain. Its
reaction was feebly acid. In water culture the Protozoa were: —
Mastigophora. — Euglena oxyuris.
Infusoria. — Coleps hirtus, Paramoecium putrinum.
Grootfontein School of Agriculture, Middelburg-, C.P. — Two
samples of Red Karroo soil were obtained on 29th September,
namely, virgin Red Karroo and cultivated Red Karroo. Both
samples were taken at a depth of six inches, and were feebly
alkaline in reaction. The following Protozoa were obtained in
water culture: —

(i) Virgin Red Karroo.

Rhizopoda. — Amoeba Umax, Difflugia globulosa.
Mastigophora. — Oikomonas termo, Jiodo (Prova-

zekia), terricola or parva, Euglena viridis.
Infusoria. — Lacrymaria olor.
(ii) Cultivated Red Karroo.

Heliozoa. — ^4 ctinophrys sol.

Mastigophora. — Oikomonas (Jforias) termo, Euglena

viridis, Bodo (Prowazekia) parva.
Infusoria. — Lacrymaria olor, Golpoda steinii or
saprophila* Spirostomum ambiguum.
The difference in protozoal fauna between virgin and cultivated
Hed Karroo sandstone soils is noticeable. Variations in the genera

"" The species could not be determined with certainty from our available
literature.

38C SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

of Sarcodina are observed, amoebae and thecamoebae being
present in virgin Red Karroo soil and absent from similar but
cultivated soil. Mastigophora are constant. Cultivation appears
to have caused an increase in the number of genera of Ciliata
observed. Further observations are needed on these points.

II. Transvaal Soils.
Examination of normal (non-waterlogged) soils of the Trans-
vaal has been confined to samples of cultivated ground from
Johannesburg (Houghton Estate), to soils from the Veterinary
Research Laboratory; Onderstepoort, near Pretoria, and to samples
from Potchefstroom Agricultural College.

Johannesburg, Houghton Estate. The soil examined was red

loam under cultivation as a flower and vegetable garden. It was
collected on 15th April, 1921, and was a mixed sample of all the
layers to nine inches deep. It gave an acid reaction to litmus.
On culture the following Protozoa were obtained: —

Rhizopoda. — A mocha prof ens, A. Umax.

Mastigophora. — liodo gracilis, Bodo (Prowazektci) parva.

Onderstepoort. - Two samples of soil from the neighbourhood
of the Veterinary Research Laboratory were obtained on different
occasions.

(/) Black surface soil from near Laboratory Siding was col
lected during rain on 22nd March, 1921. It was fallow at the
time. Its reaction to litmus was feebly acid. The water culture
yielded : —

Mastigophora. — I'eranenui trichophorum, Euglena viridis,

Oikomonos (Monas) termo, Cercomonas crassicauda.

Infusoria. — Holophrya ovum., Colpidnim colpoda, G.

striatum, Colpoda cncullus, ('. steinii or saprophila,

Paramoecvum aurelia, Cyclidium glaucoma.

(ii) Black soil from near the hostels, Onderstepoort, a

dripping tap being in the neighbourhood, was collected on 19th

April, 1921. The sample was taken from near the surface and

contained some grass roots. It was feebly acid in reaction. The

following Protozoa were obtained in water culture: —

Rhizopoda. — A mocha gruheri (also called Ndgleria

gruberi).
Mastigophora. — Euglena oxyurjs, Oikomonas (jMonas)

termo, Cercomonas crassicauda.
Infusoria. — Colpoda cucullus, Cyclidium glaucoma, 1'ara-
moecium aurelia, I', caudat u m .

Potchefstroom. -- Samples of soil were obtained from the Agri-
cultural College, Potchefstroom, on 26th September, during fine
weather. All the samples consisted of layers of soil to six inches
deep, and were acid in reaction to litmus. Three of the samples
were examined by water culture for Protozoa.

(/) Cultivated fallow, field sample. The organisms found
were : —

Rhizopoda. — A moeha Umax.

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 381

Mastigophora. — Oikom.on.as termo, Bodo {Prowazekidi

parv a.
Infusoria. — Lacrymaria olor, Golpoda cucullus.
(ii) Cultivated fallow, sample kept in a pot in a field. On
culture it yielded: —

Mastigophora. — Euglena viridis, Bodo {Prowazekidj

parv/
Infusoria. — Golpoda cucullus.
(Hi) Uncultivated fallow, kept in a pot in a field. On water
culture the following Protozoa were observed: —

Mastigophora. — Euglena viridis, Bodo (Prowazekiay

parva.
Infusoria. — Golpoda cucullus.

Ill Natal Soils.

Samples of soil from sugar and banana growing districts near
Durban, from Cedara Agricultural College and from Durban
Botanic Gardens were examined.

Umgeni. — This sample was described as "good sugar soil" and
was bearing a heavy crop of young sugar cane when the specimen
was collected, on 22nd April, 1921, slight rain falling at the time
The specimen was a rather heavy, dark loam, and was taken at
about twelve inches from the surface. Its reaction to litmus was
acid. In water culture the following organisms were obtained: —

Heliozoa. — Actinophrys sol.

Mastigophora. — Masbigamoeba, Bodo (Prowazekia) parva,

Euglenoids , Gercomonas crassicauda.
Infusoria. — Paramoecium aurelia, Gyclidiu m glaucoma,

Pleuroneuia chrysalis, Spirostomum ambiguum,

Euplotes patella, Euplotes harpa, Vorticella cam-

parmla .

Sydenham. — This soil was a somewhat tenacious loam bearing
a good crop of sugar cane, the sugar being described as of a "good
medium grain." The sample was collected as a mixed sample of
all the layers to about twelve inches deep, on 24th April, 1921,
the day being very hot. The sod was slightly damper than that
obtained from Umgeni. Its reaction to litmus was acid. In water
culture it yielded: —

Mastigophora. — Mastigamoeba, Bodo (Prowazekia) parva,

Oikor&pnas (Monas) termo, Gercomonas crassicauda,

Euglenoids.

Infusoria. — Golpoda cucullus, Golpidium striatum, Cych-

dium glaucoma, Oxytricha pellionella, Euplotes liar pa.

Mayville. — This sample was of reddish loam mixed with a
small amount of sand, and was obtained from a well-irrigated
banana plantation on 24th April, 1921, on a very hot. day. Its
reaction to litmus was feebly acid. Tbe Protozoa obtained in
culture were : —

382 son- protozoa in south africa.

Mastigophora. — Bodo (Prowazekia) parva, Oikomonas
(Monas) termo, Euglena oxyuris, Euglenoids.

Infusoria. — Paramoecium aurelia, Paramoecium piitri-
iiiDii, Cyclidium glaucoma.

Cedara. — Three samples of soil from Cedara Agricultural
College were examined in water culture.

(i) Black vlei soil, obtained near Cedara Station, the sample
■comprising all the layers to a depth of nine inches below the sur-
face. It was collected during rain on 3rd October. Its reaction
to litmus was acid. In water culture the following Protozoa were
■obtained : —

Mastigophora. — Oikomonas (Monas) termo.
Infusoria. — Paramoecium aurelia, Stylonychia mytilus,
Euplotes harpa, Euplotes patella.
(ii) Dolerite soil under cultivation, from the experimental
plot at the School of Agriculture. This was a mixed sample of all
the layers to nine inches from the surface and was collected on
3rd October, during rain. Its reaction to litmus was acid. The
following Protozoa were found in water culture: —
Rhizopoda. — A moeba Umax.
Mastigophora. — Oikomonas termo, Bodo (Prowazekia)

parva, Euglena viridis.

Infusoria. — Holophrya ovum, Colpoda cucullus, Cyclidium

glaucoma.

(Hi) Dolerite soil, uncultivated, obtained near the tennis

•court of the School of Agriculture, about nine inches from the

surface, on 3rd October, during rain. It gave an acid reaction to

litmus. The following Protozoa were found in water cultures: —

Rhizopoda. — A moeba Umax, A moeba sp. with tetranu-

cleate cyst.
Mastigophora. — Oikomonas (Monas) termo, Bodo (Pro-
wazekia) parva.
Infusoria. — Colpoda cucullus, Cyclidium glaucoma .
It may be noted that a greater variety of Protozoa occurred
in water cultures of cultivated as compared with uncultivated
•dolerite soil, more especially among Infusoria. Black vlei soil here
yielded Protozoa not found in the dolerite soils.

Durban Botanic Gardens. — This was a mixed sample of soil
•containing some sand collected under a mango tree, and consisted
of all the layers of soil from the surface to twelve inches deep.
It was collected on 21st September, on a hot day. Its reaction to
litmus was acid.

In water culture, one organism only was obtained, the Helio-
■zoon, Actinophrys sol, which was fairly numerous for a few days.

Geographical Distribution.

The geographical distribution of the different species of Pro-
tozoa found up to the present may be summarised thus: —

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 383

Rhizopoda.

Amoeba proteus, found at St. James, Somerset Strand,
Heathfield, Stellenbosch, Rosebank, Bellville,
Port Elizabeth (Museum Gardens and St.
George's Park), Kimberley, Grootfontein (virgin
Red Karroo), Johannesburg, Umgeni.

Amoeba Umax, found at St. James, Heathfield, Simons-
town, Stellenbosch, Grootfontein, Johannesburg,
Potchefstroom, Cedara (cultivated dolerite soil).

Amoeba radiosa, found at Bellville, Rosebank, Heathfield,
Simonstown, Port Elizabeth (Museum Gardens,
St. George's Park).

Amoeba guttida, found at St. James, Heathfield, Simons-
town. Stellenbosch.

Amoeba (Nagleria) gruberi, found at Ouderstepoort near
the hostels.

Amoeba sp., with tetranucleate cyst, found at Cedara
(uncultivated dolerite soil).

Difflugia piriformis, found at St- James, Bellville, Stel-
lenbosch .

Difflugia globulosa, found at St. James, Simonstown,
Grootfontein (virgin Red Karroo).

Hyalosphenia elegans, found at Simonstown, Stellenbosch.

Euglypha alveolata, found at Heathfield; Euglypha sp.,
at Heathfield, Simonstown, Stellenbosch.

Heliozoa.

Actinophrys sol, found at St. James, Rosebank, Heath-
field, Simonstown, Stellenbosch, Port Elizabeth
(Museum Gardens), Grootfontein, Durban
Botanic Gardens, Umgeni.

Aca?ithocystis aculeata, found at Heathfield, Simonstown.

Nuclearia simplex, found at Heathfield.

Mastigophora.

Mastigamoeba, found at St. James, Simonstown, Umgeni,
Sydenham.

Peranema trichophorum , found at Somerset Strand,
Bellville, Heathfield, Simonstown, Stellenbosch,
Ouderstepoort.

Euglena oxyuris, found at Grahamstown, Onderstepoort
(near hostels), Mayville.

Euglena viridis, found at Somerset Strand, Bellville,
Heathfield, Steilenbo ch, Simonstown, High Con-
stantia, Grootfontein (virgin and cultivated
Karroo), Ouderstepoort (Laboratory Siding),
Potchefstroom.

Euglenoids, found at Umgeni, Mayville, Sydenham.

Oikomonas (Manas) termo, found at St. James, Heath-
field, Simonstown, Stellenbosch, High Constan-
tia, Grootfontein, Onderstepoort (near hostels),
Potchefstroom, Cedara (dolerite), Sydenham.

384 SOIL PROTOZOA Us SOUTH AFRICA.

Cercomonas crassicauda, found at Bellville, Rosebank,
Onderstepoort (near Siding and hostels),
Umgeni, Sydenham.

lUxht (Prowazekid) yarva, found at Grootfontein (virgin
Red Karroo), Pot chef st room, Umgeni, Syden-
ham, Mayville, Cedara.

Bodo gracilis, found at Johannesburg (Houghton Estate).

Pleuromonas jaculans, found at St. James, Heathfield,
Simonstown, Stellenbosch, Higli Constantia.
Infusoria.

Holophrya orm/i, found at St. James, Onderstepoort
(near Laboratory Siding), Cedara (cultivated
dolerite).

Lacrymaria olor, found at St. James, Simonstown, Stel-
lenbosch, High Constantia, Grootfontein ('virgin
and cultivated Red Karroo), Potchefstroom.

Coleps hirtus. found at Grahamstown (Witberg sand).

Golpidium colpoda, found at Cedara (uncultivated doler-
ite).

Colpidnim striatum, found at Potchefstroom, Onderste-
poort (Laboratory Siding), Sydenham.

Colpoda cucullus, found at St. James, Stellenbosch,
Potchefstroom, Onderstepoort (near hostels and
Laboratory Siding), Cedara (cultivated dolerite),
Sydenham.

Colpoda saprophila or steinii, fouud at Onderstepoort
(Laboratory Siding), Grootfontein.

Paramoechim aurelia, found at St. James, Bellville,
Somerset Strand. Stellenbosch, Port Elizabeth
(Museum Gardens), Onderstepoort (near Labora-
tory Siding and hostels), Umgeni, Mayville,
Cedara (black vlei).

Paramoecium caudatum, found at Onderstepoort (near
hostels) .

Paramoecium putrinum, found at Grahamstown, Mayville.

Pleuronema chrysalis, found at St. James, Somerset
Strand, Onderstepooit, Sydenham, Umgeni.

Cyclidium glaucoma, found at Bellville, Somerset Strand,
Kimberley, Port Elizabeth (Museum Gardens),
Onderstepooit (near Laboratory Siding and
hostels), Cedara (uncultivated dolerite), Umgeni,
Sydenham, Mayville.

Spirostomiim ambiguum, found at Grootfontein (culti-
vated Red Kairoo), Umgeni.

Oxytricha pellionella , found at St. James, Somerset
Strand, Bellville, Port Elizabeth (St. George's
Park), Potchefstroom, Svdenham.

Stylonychia mytilus, found at Heathfield, Stellenbosch,
Cedara (black vlei)-

Euplotes harpa, found at Somerset Strand, Umgeni,
Sydenham, Mayville.

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 385

Euplotes patella, found at Umgeni, Cedara (black vlei).
Vorticella campanula, found at St. James, Umgeni, May-
ville.

(B) Results of Examinations of Waterlogged Soils.

Examinations of waterlogged soils were not possible until the
onset of the rainy season (November) in the Transvaal, and hence
the samples are few, but these have been added to the paper for
the sake of completeness. All the waterlogged soils were feeblv
acid in reaction.

Five samples of waterlogged soil were investigated by direct
examination in order to ascertain whether trophic Protozoa
occurred therein. In each case the sample of soil was placed in
a beaker and allowed to stand for about an hour under a bell jar.
The liquid that oozed from the soil was withdrawn in a sterile
pipette and examined.

Specimen 1. — Johannesburg garden soil was taken from a
shallow ditch that cairied off storm water and waste water from
two dripping taps. It was said to be always waterlogged. A
specimen was collected on 1st December, 1921, when about an inch
of storm water was above its surface.

The following trophic Protozoa were counted in one-tenth c.c.
of ooze : —

Rhizopoda. — 2 A moeba radiosa-

Mastigophora. — 14 Euglena viridis, 20 Oihomonas termo,

15 Bodo (Broirazekia) parra, some of which contained

ingested bacteria.

Infusoria. — 1 Colpidium striatum, 3 Holophrya orum.
Specimen 2. — This soil was collected in Johannesburg from
the side of a land drain similar to the preceding one, but though
the soil was very damp, there was no standing water. The speci-
men was obtained on 12th December, and one-tenth c.c. of the ooze
contained the following organisms: —

Rhizopoda. — 1 .1 mocha radiosa.

Mastigophora. — 13 Euglena viridis, 22 Oihomonas termo,

15 Bodo (Prowazekid) parra.
Infusoria — 3 Holophrya orum.

Specimen 3. — This specimen was collected on 13th December,
from the waterlogged bank of a shallow ditch draining the veget-
able garden of the Fort, Johannesburg. Heavy rain had fallen
two days previously. The following Protozoa were obtained in
one-fifth c.c. of ooze: —

Rhizopoda. — 1 A mocha proteus, 1 A moeha radiosa.
Mastigophora. — 5 Euglena viridis, 2 Bodo parva.
Infusoria. — 2 Holophrya ovum, 12 Coleps hirtiis, S
Cyclidium glaucoma, 2 Vorticella campanula.

Specimen 4 was a sample of waterlogged soil from the banks-
of the Sans Souci Dam, between three and four miles from Johan-

386 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

nesburg. It was was collected on 14th December. The following
protozoal organisms were found in one-fifth c.c. of ooze: —

Rhizopoda. — 2 A moeba radiosa.

Mastigophora. — 14 Bodo parva.

Infusoria. — 1 Cole pa hirtus, 3 Cyelidium glaucoma, 5
Vorticella campanula.

Specimen 5. — This was collected from flooded mealie land near
Johannesburg on 2nd December. On direct examination of ooze
•only motile Euglena viridis were found, but Bodo parva,
•Oikomonas termo and Paramoecium aurelia, as well as Euglena
viridis, were subsequently obtained in cultures, which also con-
tained some active Vibrios.

Water cultures of each of the five waterlogged soils usually
yielded the same organisms observed on direct examination, and in
addition Oikomonas termo and Bodo parva appeared when pre-
viously not present in the trophic form.

From the foregoing it appears that trophic Protozoa are present
normally in waterlogged soils, where cysts have also been observed,
while in soils with the ordinary water content (frequently only
hygroscopic moisture) the Protozoa seem to exist chiefly in the
■encysted condition, trophic forms only being detected in water
cultures.

Appearance and Periodicity of the Protozoal Organisms
Observed in South African Soils.

From the examinations mentioned before it is seen that all the
soils examined so far in South Africa have contained Protozoa,
the majority often occurring naturally in the encysted condition.
Some organisms, such as Paramoecium, Cyelidium, were common
to several of the soils, while other soils showed quite different
genera, but the relative abundance of any one organism in the
•different soils showed considerable variation.

Occasionally, sudden crops of Protozoa appear, which disappear
as suddenly. For example, a culture of soil collected at St. James
was made on 31st March, 1921. Actinophrys sol appeared 43 days
after the culture was made (that is, on 13th May). They were
•abundant for fourteen days, during which time apparent conjuga-
tion was observed. After this they continued to flourish for six
days, and then began decreasing in number. They disappeared
(possibly encysted) on 16th June, that is, 34 days after their first
appearance, to reappear in very small numbers one week later.
Since then they have not been observed in the culture.

Mastigophora were usually the earliest Protozoa to appear in
-any number in cultures. Sometimes trophic Oikomonas termo and
Euglena viridis have been observed in as short a period as three
hours after culture, though none could be detected except as cysts in
•direct examinations prior to culture. Usually motile Flagellates have
appeared in soil cultures, other than as isolated units, after about
two days. Certain Mastigophora have developed in cultures long
before others. Thus, Oikomonas (Monas) termo was observed
.after three bours' culture, Euglena viridis was detected after

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA. 38/

twenty-four hours, Pleuromonas jaculans was seen once only in
a six hours' culture, while in water cultures of five other soils it
did not appear until after twenty-seven days had elapsed.

Ciliate Infusoria appeared in cultures either concurrently with
or usually rather later than Mastigophora. The shortest period of
culture before motile Ciliates were detected was nineteen hours,
the Ciliates being Spirostomum ambiguum and Col pidium steinii.
As in the case of Mastigophora, the period for excystation showed
much variation. Thus Lacrymaria olor appeared in a series of
cultures of different soils in thirty-one hours, forty-seven hours,
eight days, nine days and thirteen days respectively. In
the latter cases several generations may have occurred before they
were noticed.

Occasionally one specimen of a Ciliate would be observed after
a short period of culture, and then no further specimen would be
seen for several days. Thus Goleps hirti/s first appeared in a
certain culture after three days, as did Lacrymaria olor in another.
Both organisms were not seen again for over a fortnight. Again,
Cyclidium glaucoma was observed in one culture twenty-four
hours after it was made. The organism disappeared from the cul-
ture and was not seen again for thirty-one days, when it reappeared
in fair numbers.

In connection with the Sarcodina, it has been unusual in the
cultures of soils hitherto examined to find trophic forms early in
the cultures, though occasionally this has occurred. Usually
Amoebae and Thecamoebae were the last groups of organisms to
appear, though much variation was shown in this respect in dif-
ferent soil cultures. Thus, iu soils from Potchefstroom and Cedara
Amoeba Umax was found in a two days' old culture, it occurred
in a three days' old culture of Cedara cultivated soil, but was not
observed until nine days in a culture of Heathfield soil, twenty-four
days in Stellenbosch soil, and twenty-six days in soils from St.
James and Sinionstown. In some cultures as long as three months
have elapsed before an amoeba was detected.

It is clear that dogmatic statements cannot be made, as soils
vary much among themselves. We are glad to note that similar
ideas regarding variability of factors have already been put forward
by Martin and Lewin.

When first we attempted a determination of the number of
species of Protozoa found, which was done after twenty-three soils-
had been examined, we considered that the Ciliates were the most
numerous, Flagellates next and Sarcodina least, which observation
corroborates that of Fellers and Allison. After examining a few
more soils, making twenty-seven in all, it was found that eighteen
species of Ciliates, ten of Flagellates, and twelve of Sarcodina had
been found and identified. The relative positions of Flagellates
and Sarcodina as regards number of species thus were interchanged.

The relative numbers of individuals of each of these groups
varies, and from the point of view of actual total numbers, Flagel-
lates are preponderant.

388 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

With regard to viability, Ciliates last longer in a culture than
any other class of Protozoa. For example, Paramoecium aurelia
appeared in a culture and was still present in abundance 190 days
after, other Protozoa having disappeared.

We know from direct observations that daily variation in
numbers of any one organism occurs in a given quantity of soil
culture. Counts were made of t lie numbers of Actinophrys sol
and Paramoecium aurelia found in 1 c.c. of certain cultures of
soil. The daily counts for Actinophrys sol over a short period
were I, 15, 19, 40, 4, 13, 12, 7, 20. In the case of Paramoecium
aurelia the daily counts were 48, 34, 31, 32, 38, 29, 15, 7, 10, 13.
Cutler and Crump (1920) have shown daily variation in the num-
ber of active Flagellates in soil cultures from Broadbalk, Rotharn-
sted, England-

Environmental Effects.

Some observations were made to endeavour to determine the
■effects of variation in environment on the Protozoa in the soil.

Influence oj Temperature.

Cultures of soil maintained at 37°C. and 45°C. compared with
those kept at room temperature (about 15°C. to 20°C.) showed
that room temperature enabled Protozoa to flourish better.

f/i flue nee of Light.

A series of observations were made to determine whether
•darkness had a retarding or accelerating effect on the development
•of Protozoa in soil cultures. It was found that there was little
difference in the results obtained with cultures of soil kept in the
•dark and those kept in the light, but in the case of a culture of
Mayville soil Protozoa appeared rather earlier as motile forms
when the culture was kept in the dark (six days as contrasted with
nine days)-

Influence of Types of Soil.

In regard to numbers of Protozoa associated with different
types of soil, dark relatively heavy loam, such as is found at
Sydenham, Cedara (black vlei soil), and Onderstepoort showed
good results, while sandy soils such as those collected at Kimberley,
Rosebank (Cape), and Johannesburg (Houghton Estate) were the
least productive in respect to Protozoa. This appears to corrobor-
ate the results obtained by Waksman, that the amount of orgjnic
matter is a limiting factor to Protozoa.

As a rule, the number of Protozoa obtained in cultures w as
greater when the sample was taken near the surface cf the soil,
and the number of Protozoa decreased with the depth at which the
sample was taken. We are investigating the matter further.

Influence of the Season of the Year.

The season of the year appears to have some influence, at any
rate, in some cases. Thus, as far as the present observations

SOIL PROTOZOA IX SOUTH AFRICA.

389

permit, soils from the Transvaal and Natal collected towards the
end of the summer (for example, at the end of March, in April,
ar>d early May) yielded more kinds of Protozoa than did soils col-
lected in the drier winter months, such as July.

Influence of Pulverisation of Sod.

Some experiments were undertaken to determine the method
of attachment of protozoal cysts to the soil and the effect of soil
pulverisation. Tn direct examination of soil, detection of cysts was
not easv. The effect of fine pulverisation or trituration of soil in
water was to increase the number of cysts discernible by separating
them from the soil partices to which they were firmly adherent.
Two examples may be cited: —

(i) A definite quantity, 01 gram, of Grahamstown soil was
Aveighed and put in a watchglass with 2 c.c. of water on top of it.
The fluid and top layer of soil were examined after ten minutes.
The total number of protozoal cysts detected was 7.

The fluid and soil were then rubbed together with a small
glass pestle for two and a half minutes, allowed to stand for ten
minutes, and then the fluid and surface layer of soil were again
examined. The number of cysts was 11. The material was again
returned to the watchglass and the fluid and soil were rubbed
together for a further two and a half minutes, allowed to stand
for ten minutes, and then re-examined. The number of cysts
detected was 17.

(ii) In another experiment, 01 gram of cultivated dolerite
soil from Cedara was put in a small glass tube, 2 c.c. of water was
poured on the top, and it was allowed to stand for thirty minutes.
The cysts in the liquid and surface layer of soil were counted, the
number being 7.

The soil and liquid were returned to the tube, the soil was
well rubbed up for two and a half minutes, a turbid brownish
fluid being obtained after standing for fifteen minutes. This fluid
and the surface layer of soil were examined, and 16 cysts found.
The procedure was repeated as before, and a further examination
resulted in 18 cysts being detected.

Thus, the more finely the soil was pulverised the more readily
the cysts became detached from the soil particles and the larger
was the number of cysts detected.

Two cultures were made of equal quantities of the cultivated
dolerite soil from Cedara. In one culture soil as dug was used,
in the second finely pulverised soil. It was found that trophic
Protozoa (such as Ciliates and Flagellates) appeared more quickly
in the culture of the finely pulverised soil than in the soil as
dug, the periods being one day and three days respectively.

It is probable that the colloidal complex of organic and inor-
ganic compounds more or less saturated with water that surrounds
the particles of soil, together with the surface tension of the
films, is the cause of the very close adhesion of the
Protozoa, either trophic or encysted, to the soil particles. It also
affords an explanation of the difficulty of detecting trophic Pro-

390 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

tozoa in soil by direct examination. In the case of soils in South
Africa, it seems from the above-mentioned experiments that the
use of finely-divided soils will reveal more Protozoa than when the
soil is examined without previous pulverisation.

Finely tilled soils are stated generally to yield heavier crops
than those less well cultivated- It is possible that the finer pul-
verisation of the soil may release more protozoal cysts, which, in
the presence of the moisture necessary for their development as
trophic forms, will produce Protozoa that may react on organisms
inimical either directly or indirectly to plant growth. There may
thus be a protozoal factor in the production of heavier crops after
fine tillage.

A minimum moisture content in the soil seems necessary for
the growth of Protozoa therein.

It was found that when a genus of Protozoa such as Amoeba
Actinophrys, Pararnoecium, Euglena or Cyclidium appeared irs
one culture in the trophic condition, several other cultures from)
different localities contained the same organisms simultaneously.
This seems to indicate that these Protozoa in water culture react to
some external stimulus, as yet not fully determined, and assume the
trophic condition.

General Remarks.

The following general remarks may, for convenience, be col-
lected and set forth here.

On the whole, relatively few bacteria have yet been en-
countered, though in some cases bacteria were seen ingested by
Amoebae, Mastigamoeba, Bodo and Colpoda. This may be
due to the fact that the nitrogen content of most South African
soils is relatively somewhat high, so that the environment for bac-
teria may not be quite so favourable as in other parts. Dryness
may also be a factor.

The nitrogen content of South African soils is a difficult sub-
ject to a protozoologist. According to Mr. A. Stead (1920) of the
Grootfontein School of Agriculture, "the nitrogen factor would
not appear to be deficient in our average soil ; on the other hand
it is doubtless often excessive." Again, "the average soil of the
Union would seem to be more deficient in phosphatic food than in
any other." The relatively large amount of sunshine causes partial
sterilisation of the soil and prevents denitrifying bacteria from
thriving. The relative lack of rains implies that the nitrates are
not much lost by washing away (leaching). An important factor
of the soil in South Africa for plant food is the balance between
nitrogen and phosphates.

According to Waksman (working in the United States of
America) soil Protozoa do not have any appreciable influence upon
ammonification by bacteria. As far as the present evidence goes,
Waksman's (1916) remark also seems to apply to South Africa.

The natural medium for moistening soil is water, more especi-
ally rain water, and so water cultures of soil should reveal a content

SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFEICA. 391

of Protozoa and Bacteria approximating to the normal or natural.
Certain other workers appear to have laid too much stress on
artificial culture-media, which unduly favour bacteria, and prob-
ably produce an artificial pabulum for Protozoa on which they
have to subsist or else die out. In artificial media it is probable
that the numerical proportions of Protozoa and Bacteria are altered,
as also are their biological activities. Hence some of the inferences
made by certain workers in other parts of the world, using bacterio-
logical media, may need emendation for South African conditions.

From the few observations made up to the present it seems
that relatively tenacious loam soils contain the greatest numbers
of Protozoa and that sandy soils contain fewest organisms. Cul-
tures of acid soils have in some cases contained more genera than
alkaline or neutral soils, the acidity or otherwise of the samples of
soil being determined by litmus compression tests. It seems prob-
able that the colloids of the soil may play an important part in
the regulation of the activities of the protozoal fauna. Partial
sterilisation of the soil in South Africa by solar radiat-'on is also
a limiting factor, and any form of partial sterilisation limits Pro-
tozoa according to Waksman.

In addition to Protozoa, certain Metazoa have been observed
by us in cultures of South African soils. Rotifers, Chaetonotus
maxim us (belonging to the Gastrotricha), Nematodes and Oligo-
chaetes have been found. This is in contrast to the finding in New
Jersey soils, where Nematodes were the only Metazoa observed.

In water cultures of almost all the South African soils
-examined diatoms were found, and these may serve as food for
some of the Protozoa present. It is known that in some cases the
soil samples were obtained from areas known to be flooded at
•certain times of the year, or to be subjected to irrigation.

It will be noted that many of the Protozoa found in cultures
of soil are of similar genera and species to those found in natural
fresh waters, but the relative numbers and proportions of the dif-
ferent organisms observed in soil cultures are different from those
•of normal aquatic protozoal faunas-

Summary.

A summary of a paper such as the present one is difficult,
tooth on account of the nature of the subject, with its many and
varying factors, and the stage of the work. Some of the principal
results are as follows : —

(1) Examination by direct observation and by water culture
of a number of South African soils from the Cape Province, the
Transvaal and Natal, under conditions of cultivation varying from
virgin soil to heavily cultivated sugar land, has shown the presence
of genera of Protozoa belonging to the Sarcodina, Mastigophora
and Ciliata. The genera and species vary considerably, both
with the locality and with the degree of cultivation of the soil.

(2) Few trophic Protozoa were detected in fresh non-water-
logged soils, the organisms occurring mostly in the encysted or
resistant condition.

392 SOIL PROTOZOA IN SOUTH AFRICA.

(3) Up to the present the largest number of species of Pro-
tozoa from any one soil was twenty-two, obtained from good vine-
yard soil under cultivation at Stellenbosch; the smallest number
was one, obtained in cultures of soil from under a mango tree in
the Durban Botanic Gardens. The geographical distribution of
the Protozoa found in South African soils is given.

(4) Examination of waterlogged soils has shown the presence
of trophic Protozoa. The fauna was relatively abundant compared
with that of non-waterlogged soils and contained some different
genera. Excess of moisture probably causes excystation.

(5) The relative abundance of any one kind of Protozoon in
different soils shows considerable variation. The sequence of
appearance of the different groups of Protozoa in water culture is
usually Mastigophora, Ciliata and Sarcodina. Ciliata were the
most numerous as regards species, Mastigophora and Sarcodina
being about the same in number of species. From the point of
view of actual numbers of organisms Flagellates are the most
numerous. In regard to viability, Ciliates persist longer in a
culture than any other class of Protozoa.

(6) Environmental effects were noted. Room temperature
(15°C to 20°C) produced better gr.owths of Protozoa in cultures
than did higher temperatures. Darkness seemed to make little differ-
ence in the rate of development in cultures. Dark, heavy soils con-
taining much humus yielded more kinds of Protozoa than sandy
ones, the amount of organic matter apparently being a limiting
factor to Protozoa. Samples of soil taken near the surface usually
yielded more Protozoa than deep ones. Transvaal and Natal soils
collected towards the end of the summer (rainy season) yielded
more kinds of Protozoa than those collected in winter. Cultivated
soils tended to yield more species of Protozoa than uncultivated
soils.

(7) Cysts of Protozoa are very closely attached to the soil
particles. It was experimentally determined that the more finely
the soil was pulverised the more protozoal cysts could be detected.
As finely tilled soils usually yield heavier crops than less well
cultivated ones, it is possible that the finer tillage detaches pro-
tozoal cysts, which, if sufficient moisture is present, will develop
into trophic forms that may exert either a direct or indirect action
on organisms inimical to plant growth.

(8) So far as our investigations go, relativelv few Bacteria
appear to occur in the soils of South Africa, probably due to the
dryness and large amount of sunshine causing partial sterilisation.
Up to the present the ingestion of Bacteria by Amoebae, Flagel-
lates and Ciliates has only been observed on a few occasions.

Acknowledgments .

Our thanks are due to manv kind friends for samples of soil
for examination, especially to Mr. A. Stead, of Grootfontein School
of Agriculture, to Messrs Parish and Williams, of Cedara, and
to Mr. T. Hall, of Potchefstroom.

We also wish to thank the Research Grant Board, for a grant
towards the expenses incurred in these investigations.

birds and bilharziasis. 393

References to Literature.

Biitschli, O- (1880-89). "Protozoa," Bd. I., Abt. 1-3, in Bronn's

"Tier-reichs."
Cutler, D. W. (1919). "Observations on Soil Protozoa." Journ.

Af/ric. Sci., IX, pp. 430-444. See also Annals Applied

Biology, VII, pp. 11-24.
Fellers, C. R., and Allison, F. E. (1920). "The Protozoan Fauna

of the Soils of New Jersey," Soil Science, IX, pp. 1-26.
Goodey, T. (1916). "Further Observations on Protozoa in Relation

to Soil Bacteria." Proc. Roy. Soc, B, LXXXIX, pp. 297-314.
Kent, W. Saville. (1880-82). "A Manual of the Infusoria." 3 vols.
Kopeloff, N., and Coleman, D. A ('1917). "A Review of Investi-
gations in Soil Protozoa and Soil Sterilization," Soil Science,

III, pp. 197-269. (Useful Bibliography.)
Martin, C. H. and Lewin, K. R. (1915). "Notes on Some Methods

for the Examination of Soil Protozoa," Journ. Agric. Sci.,

VII, pp. 106-119.
Russell, E. J. (1921). "Soil Conditions and Plant Growth,"

London. 406 pages. (See especially pp. 288-294 and Biblio-
graphy.')
Stead, A. (1920). "The Agriculture and Soils of the Cape Province

(Witkop-Burghersdorp)." Union of South Africa, Dept. of

Agric. Reprint, No. 40, Pretoria, 48 pages.
Waksman, S. A. (1916). "Studies on Soil Protozoa," Soil Science,

I, pp. 135-152. See also Ibid., II, pp. 363-376.

WILD BIRDS AND BILHARZIASIS.

BY
P. W. FlTzSlMONS,

Director, Port Elizabeth Museum.

Read July 11, 1921.

In the past much has been written in reference to water-
frequenting birds being responsible for carrying the ova of fishes
in mud adhering to their feet. This was accepted as the solution
of the incidence of certain species of fish being found in pools and
ponds where the water dried up in times of drought. It is now
known that these fishes have evolved special powers of survival by
burying themselves, in mud, and lying dormant. It has been
shown, also, that the eel can travel overland from pool to pool.

The hypothesis which has now been advanced, that birds
carry young snails on mud adhering to their toes, is a plausible
one; but like many hypotheses, when thoroughly investigated, it
has been found to be erroneous. For twenty-five years I have
made a careful study of South African ornithology, especially its
economic side, both in the field and in the laboratory. At various
7

394 BIRDS AND BILHARZIASIS.

times, especially during the summer season, I made examinations
of the feet of water-frequenting birds, and in the majority of
instances there was no mud on their feet; whilst others had only
a film of mud. In a small number of cases the feet had small
quantities of mud adhering to them. The ducks and various
wading birds are invariably in the water, and when rising the
mud is washed from the feet. The birds were shot on the wing
immediately after leaving the water. Following this up, I made
the most careful examinations of mud scraped from the feet of
water-frequenting birds, and uever succeeded in discovering young
snails or the ova of snails in this mud.

I have further evidence to offer of the innocence of birds in
the spreading of fresh-water snails. In the vicinity of Port Eliza-
beth we have a stream known as Baakens River, which has been
infested with bilharziasis for at least half a century. This stream
swarms with fresh-water snails. Twenty-five miles from Port
Elizabeth by road there is a perennial stream known as Van
Staadeus River. A distance of about ten miles separates the
upper reaches of this river from the former, while a bird flying
in a straight line from the lower reaches of Baakens River would
only cover a distance of fifteen miles at most. During three suc-
cessive years I visited Van Staadens River during the middle of
summer when snails were active and easily procurable. On each
occasion I spent three weeks observing the bird life and searching
for snails. I failed to discover a single snail in a stretch of river
covering two miles. During the same time of year Baakens River
was swarming with snails. It is obvious that the water-frequent-
ing birds would constantly migrate from the one river to the other.
Why then is Baakens River swarming with snails, when accord-
ing to the new hypothesis birds are carriers of the eggs and young
of snails from river to river ?

To further strengthen my case in favour of the protection of
all water-frequentiug birds, I made a systematic examination of
Baakens River for ten miles along its course. The river runs
through the city half a mile before discharging its water into the
sea. Indians living near the stream keep ducks and geese. I
dredged with nets along the portion frequented by these birds, at
intervals covering several years, and after two hours' strenuous
work some half-dozen snails would be the result. On the con-
trary, from beyond this locality for a mile up the river the water
is swarming with snails during the summer season. There are no
ducks in this portion of the river. Proceeding up stream beyond
the city's boundaries, the snails were not nearly so abundant. In
some of the upper reaches of the stream in secluded places where
human bird slayers seldom penetrate, it was with difficulty I found
snails. The conclusions to be drawn from this work are: —

(1) The ducks and geese devour the snails in the portion of
the river frequented by them.

(2) In the stretch of river near the city which is swarming
with snails, wild birds are rarely seen, owing to the proximity of
men and the persecution to which the birds are subjected.

BIRDS AND BILHARZIAS1S. 395

(3) The comparative scarcity of snails in the secluded portion
of the river is owing to the greater prevalence of wild birds in
those portions of the river.

Granted for the sake of argument that wild birds occasionally
carry a few snail ova from pool to pool on their feet, this is nothing
in comparison to the vast numbers of snails they devour. It must
not be forgotten that every snail devoured by birds is the
potential parent of a small colony of snails.

After twenty-five years' close observation, research and experi-
ment, I most emphatically assert that birds are not responsible for
the spreading of fresh-water snails; that, on the contrary, they are
Nature's chief euemies of snails; and in the degree that they are
persecuted, just in that degree will snails increase in numbers and
infest the rivers of South Africa.

Apart from the evidence I have advanced in favour of birds
checking the multiplication of the snail, it has been demonstrated
in Baakens River by me, and elsewhere by Dr. Cawston and by
Dr. Porter, that tame ducks eliminate the snail. I claim that my
investigations prove that wild water birds do not spread the snail
pest by carrying the ova and young on their feet. This being so,
it is obvious that if tame ducks clear a pond of snails, wild ducks
and other snail-eating birds will do likewise if allowed to multiply.
Floods are, without question, the chief cause of the spread of
fresh-water snails, and wild water birds, fish, crabs and frogs are
Nature's checks.

The small fresh-water fish common in the Baakens River and
known locally as the "Kurper," and to science as Spirobranchus
capensis, feeds voraciously on young snails. This fish is infinilelv
superior to "Millions" owing to its hardiness and capacity for
thriving under conditions fatal to Ihe great majority of other fish,
including "Millions."

Having suffered for several years with bilharziasis in Natal
when a boy, I naturally have taken a lively interest in all that
bears on the disease, and in consequence of this special interest
my investigations were of as thorough a nature as I was capable
of making them.

List of Birds which Prey on Fresh- Water Snails.

White Stork ; Springhaans vogel ; Great Locust Bird
(Giconia alba).

Black Stork {Giconia nigra).

Marabou (Leptoptilus crumeniferus).

Wood Ibis (Pseudotantalus ibis).

Hammerkop; Paddevanger ; Mudlark {Scopus umbrella).

Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus rose its).

Lesser Flamingo (/' minor).

All species of Geese and Ducks.

All species of Rails, Crakes, Moorhens and Reed H'ms.

Red-knobbed Coot (Fulica cristata).

Peter's Fin-foot (Podica petersi).

All species of Red Shanks, Green Shanks and Sandpipers.

All species of Ruffs, Knots, Stints and Snipe.
7a

396 INFESTATION OF FRESH-WATER SNAILS.

None cf these birds does any harm to the agriculturalist, stock
farmer, or fruit farmer, consequently it is nothing less than a
crime to take the lives of such valuable feathered allies, which
wage incessant war on snails and a host of other pests.

THE EXPERIMENTAL INFESTATION OF FRESH-WATER

SNAILS, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE

BILHARZIA PARASITE.

BY

F. G. Cawston, M.D. Cantab.

Read July 11, 1921.

One of the most interesting parts of the study of the life-
history of the Bilharzia and allied parasites is that which deals
with the survival of the parasites in their various stages.

There is no doubt that those Bilharzia worms which have
reached maturity in the liver can live in the blood-system of a
human being for from ten to twenty years, and are sometimes
found alive after the death of their host; Fasciola parasites
more often cause wasting and death of the infested oxen and
sheep.

The eggs which escape from the system of a bilharzia patient
may remain unhatched for several clays, but die as soon as they
become dry. I have kept them alive in urine for several days,
but they hatch as soon as they reach fresh water on a warm day.

The miraciclia which escape from these eggs are just visible
to the naked eye, and can be seen swimming about for several
hours but will not survive more than twenty-four hours and are
harmless to human beings, as they cannot prolong their existence
outside a suitable fresh water snail.

In 1915 and 1916 I carried out some experiments at Maritz-
burg with the object of experimentally infecting P/n/.sopsis africana
and Limnaca natalensis, using snails I had collected from the
Umsindusi.

In December, 1917, I repeated these experiments at Potchef-
stroom, using Isidora schackoi Jickeli from the golf links. This
snail sometimes harbours a schistosome, C. gladii. Thirty-eight
young Isidora were selected and placed in water swarming with
miracidia. None were examined for sixteen days, by which time
bilharzia infestation should have been clearly marked, but all
were dissected before the twenty-eighth day. Thirty-one were free
from cercariae, while the remaining seven showed signs of early
infestation with Cercaria f random, an amphistome which infested
practically all the mature Isidorae in the pool from which these
snails were collected.

On May 14th some water containing numerous schistosomes
from PJn/sopsis africana from Mrs. Oldham's pool in Sydenham

INFESTATION OF F/'ESH-WATER SNAILS. 397

were placed by themselves in a test-tube of water. Twenty-six
hours later many were seen still actively swimming about in the
water. The prongs of this cercaria, which is probably C . gladii,
are equal in length to that of the tail. The snails were obtained
from a pool frequented by cattle and birds. However, if stored
for two days apart from fresh-water snails, water becomes free
from bilharzia infection.

Though drying kills this kind of fresh-water snail, others,
such as Tiara tuberculata, which is heavily infested with cercariae
at the Natal Coast, can resist drought for several weeks at a time
and, when the rainy season returns, continue to emit numerous
cercariae without being exposed to fresh infection.

As I was desirous of obtaining some adult bilharzia worms
from parasites which I had obtained from fresh-water snails
which I had myself experimentally infected, 1 repeated these
experiments in February, 1921, using some Physopsis africana
and Limnaea natalensis which I had grown from eggs in water
kept free from other sources of infection. These snails were
placed in a jar of water containing miracidia which I obtained
from the urine of a patient who had contracted bilharzia disease
through bathing in the pools at Sarnia, and thirty-three days
later, on March 21st, mature bilharzia cercariae were found in
one Physoppis. One Limnaea which was dead showed no cercariae.
The Physopsis was only 10 mm. in length.

On March 23rd, thirty-five days after these snails were
exposed to the miracidia, a free-swimming cercaria was clearly
visible to the naked eye and readily identified by a hand-lens,
swimming about in the water. No cercariae or other signs of
infection were seen in four Limnaeae, one of which was dead
before dissection, but numerous mature bilharzia cercariae were
found in the onlv remaining Physopsis, which was only 9 mm. in
length and was the smallest infested specimen I had seen. The
cercaria varied in size according to its movements, but both head
and tail were about 0.175 mm. in length, and the prongs of the
divided tail were about a quarter the length of the tail. The
cercariae were injected into five guinea pigs in order to secure
their adult forms, but the results were negative at the end of
three months.

Seven Limnaea natalensis were placed in a jar of water con-
taining numerous miracidia on March 9th and kept until May
17th, when dissection failed to reveal the presence of cercariae,
and the liver substance appeared to be normal. This jar of water
also contained a few Physopses which were dead when the Limnaeae
were examined.

On March 31st four Limnaea natalensis from 11 mm. to
14 mm. in length, which had been kept in water with the ova of
Pasciola since February 14th and 18th, showed no evidence of
sporocyst or redia-formation.

The pools at Sydenham and Mayville contain several cer-
cariae which closely resemble S. haematobium, but are not identi-
cal with it. Some of these have developed into S. bovis in my
experimental animals, and although I do not think that S. bovis

398 INFESTATION OF FRESH-WATER SNAILS.

has been recorded in man, I have seen in a patient ova 0.236 mm.
in length and 0.06 mm. in breadth, which is much longer and
relatively narrower than the ova of »$'. haematobium. These ova
closely resemble those I obtained from the adult female S. bovis.
The cercariae are possibly C. gladii, which is redia-produced.
Other cercariae in these pools are S. mansoni, and I have obtained
its lateral-spined ova from a patient who contracted the infection
from the Mayville pools last year. It is possible that the survival-
time of these schistosomes during their free aquatic existence
varies with the different species

The mivival time of the free-swimming bilharzia cercaria in
South Africa is a short one, partly because it cannot encyst and
partly because its snail-host is not provided with an operculum to
resist drought. Whilst active in fresh water, and said to become
more active in water containing minute traces of salt, I have
observed that the bilharzia cercariae are readily destroyed by
strong solutions of salt. This point is of great importance because
the intermediary hosts of various trematode worms, particularly
the liver-fluke parasite, are continually being washed down-stream
into the lagoons along the Natal Coast, and I have recent lv
obtained several varieties of them at the mouth of the Umbogin-
twini and have found Limnaea natalensis attached to floating
wood where the river breaks through the sand-bank to empty into
the sea. When the water in these lagoons is fresh, as it commonly
is at low tide and during the floods, the cercariae which escape
into the lagoon water are likely to prove a danger to swimmers;
but, when itie tide is coming in and the water in the lagoon is
mixed with sea water, the free-swimming cercariae are rapidly
killed and the lagoon is rendered fit for bathing. Fortunately from
a public health point of view the current is often too strong when
the tide is receding, and visitors to these popular seaside resorts are
advised to bathe in the lagoons only when the tide is coming in.
The risk from disease from cercariae when carried up the river is
considered to be of less importance than the risk of death from
sharks when carried out into the open sea.

The survival time of the miracidium which escapes from the
bilharzia egg is only a few hours, but should it reach Physopsis
africana, mature cercariae will escape in thirty-five days. These
cercariae last as free-swimming organisms only a few hours; but,
if they effect an entry into a suitable host, in three months they
develop into mature parasitic worms capable of laying eggs. The
complete cycle is therefore about four months. This is of import-
ance, as it indicates how the disease is introduced into new
countries.

If a pool infested with Physopsis africana. but free from bil-
harzia infection becomes contaminated with the excreta of a
bilharzia patient, the water will swarm with bilharzia cercariae
capable of attacking man within five weeks, and three to four
months later one may expect an outbreak of the symptoms of
bilharzia infection amongst those who have bathed or drunk this
water.

HETERODERA RAD1CICOLA. 399

Whilst on active service I warned the Defence Department of
the existence of suitable hosts for the Egyptian form of bilharzia
disease in the Durban suburbs, where troops from Egypt were
continually arriving. In 1919-1920 I posted to Dr. E. C. Faust
Physopsis africana from these pools infested with the Egyptian
parasite, Schistosoma mansoni. Dr. Annie Porter found both
Physopsis and Planorbis pfeifferi in these pools infested with it.
In June of this year I came across the first case of Egyptian
schistosomiasis in a boy of twelve who had contracted this intract-
able disease along with infection with Schistosoma haematobium
through bathing in the pools at Mayville and Sydenham in 1920.

The disease is therefore endemic in South Africa, and has
probably been introduced b/ troops returning from Egypt. Fortu-
nately I have been able to show that the parasite in Natal can
be destroyed by ipecacuanha as readily as it has been proved to
be in Egypt.

A STUDY OF THE LIFE-HISTORY AND METHODS

OF CONTROL OF THE ROOT GALL NEMATODE,

HETERODERA RADICICOLA (GREEF MULLER), IN

SOUTH AFRICA.

BY

J. Sandground, M.Sc.

Lecturer in Zoology, University of the, Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg .

With Plates TV, VII, VIII.

Head Jul,, 13, 1921.

Introduction.

The nematode, II ' ete roil era radicicola, described in this paper,
is a parasite of many plants of economic importance. While much
work has been done in other countries, more especially in connec-
tion with control measures, a number of interesting points in
connection with the life-history of the worm needed elucidation.
The present paper is an attempt to describe H et erode ra radicicola
as it occurs in South Africa, and to make the account as complete
as possible so that the parasite may be compared and contrasted
with H. schachtii, the sugar beet nematode of Europe, and U.
radicicola, as described by workers in Europe and elsewhere.
//. radicicola causes swellings or galls on roots which are some-
times termed "eelworm" disease.

Material and Methods.

The material for my first observations on the parasite con-
sisted of tomato plants growing in the experiment grounds of the
Division of Entomology at Rosebank, Cape Peninsula. Infected

400 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

potatoes proved to be the most convenient material for studying
the life-history of the nematode, since they can be easily scraped
or cut and harbour the worm for a considerable time in all
stages of its development. To a great extent the present obser-
vations were based on material consisting of infected potatoes
from parts of Natal, the Transvaal and Basutoland.

Seedlings of tomatoes, potatoes, peas and beans have been
used for most of the experiments with the nematode.

A large number of cultivated and wild plants have been
examined, and a list of plants found to be infected in Nature
has been made (see page 412). It is probable that such wild plants
serve as reservoirs for the nematode, whence it spreads to new
cultivated hosts.

Cultures of the larvae of Heterodera radicicola were made in
wet sand and in water, but it was found that the development of
the larvae was arrested and that no further development occurred
unless the worms were able to enter the roots of a new host
plant .

The adult females of Heterodera are usually visible as small,
pearly white, glistening bodies, about the size of a pin's head.
They are chiefly situated in small cavities in the peripheral
portion of the infested root, and are most conveniently removed
by teasing the surrounding root tissues under water and lifting
the worms with a pipette. For isolating the smaller intermediate
stages of the worm the use of a binocular microscope is advan-
vageous.

Owing to the transparent nature of the cuticle it was found
possible to determine most of the detailed anatomy of the
Heterodera without staining. Much time was given to the study
of living material. Permanent preparations were not very satis-
factory owing to the impermeability of the cuticle to most fixatives
and stains. The fixatives found most useful were hot 70 per cent,
alcohol, Carnoy's fluid and Bouin-Duboscq fixative. For staining
it was found that a fairly weak solution of acetic-acid-carmine
acting overnight gave better results than haematoxylin, methylene
blue and other stains. For mounting specimens permanently, a
five per cent, solution of carbolic acid in alcohol was found very
convenient. This mounting medium also helped to clear specimens
and could be easily ringed with enamel.

It may be mentioned that the size of root galls cannot always
be regarded as a reliable indication of the extent of infestation
by the parasite, as this may vary with different hosts.

The Life-History of Heterodera radicicola.

The life-history of Heterodera radicicola as found in South
African plants may now be considered in some detail.

The Eggs (Plate VI, Figs. 1-11).— The eggs are mostly easily
obtained in numbers by opening the gravid female worm. They
are usually found still within the oviduct in the unsegmented
condition, but occasionally the segmentation is quite far advanced.

HETERODERA RADICICOLA. 401

Sometimes the slow-moving larva, having emerged from the egg
covering, is found to have penetrated the wall of the oviduct, and
is moving about freely in the general body cavity.

The eggs are ellipsoidal bodies, usually symmetrical, but when
viewed from the side may appear slightly kidney-shaped. Their
size varies considerably even when taken from the same parent.
The average length of a batch of over one hundred eggs taken
from infested potatoes from Natal was found to be 92.4/x, and the
breadth 34.6/x. The length varied between the extremes of

82.5/x and 115/x, and the breadth between 33^, and 36/j,.

Eggs taken from potatoes from Potchefstroom : The average
size was 79/x long by 30/a bread, with a variation of length between
70/j, and 85/x, and of breadth between 24/x and 35jx.

On one occasion exceptionally large eggs were taken from
a female worm in the roots of the Snapdragon (Antirrhinum),
one individual measuring 1 19/x in length and 43/x in breadth.
This great variation in size bears no relation to the stage of
segmentation attained by the egg at the time of measurement,
as might at first be imagined. Abnormally shaped eggs are occa-
sionally found; these, as a rule, being malformed in the uterus.

The eggs are enclosed in a chitinous transparent covering.
Their contents are granular but small globules, apparently fatty
in nature, predominate. The nucleus can, as a rule, be easily
recognised as a relatively clear spot, centrally situated. Segmen-
tation proceeds regularly and almost equally. Polar bodies, two
in number, were observed. The morula stage is formed by about
thirty blastomeres, after which the gastrula stage is produced
by invagination or embole. After gastrulation, further multipli-
cation and segregation of the blastomeres occurs, until eventually
a vermiform embryo coiled into two or three loops within the
egg covering is formed. (Fig- 2.) A slow movement scon
commences within the egg, the embryo exerting much pressure
upon the egg covering. Although the "spear" in the buccal
cavity is already fully developed, the embryo does not utilise it
to pierce its way out, but an escape is eventually effected by the
egg "shell" rupturing at one end, and so liberating the larva.

The eggs are usually found to the number of about sixty in
the gravid female. As a general rule they hatch while still located
in the dilated uteri, and the final escape does not occur until
after the parent's death. The worm consequently cannot be
regarded as oviparous, and at no time have I seen evidence of
egg laying; indeed this does not appear possible, because
the vaginal orifice of the female ceases to become prominent soon
after egg formation commences. With normal weather conditions
in Johannesburg five or six days was the period necessary for
the complete development of eggs isolated from the parent in a
glass container.

The Free Living Larva.

The larva (Fig. 12) on escaping from the egg measures from
345/j, to 370ja long, the average length being 358jx. The maximum

402 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

breadth is 15/n. No evidence was seen of the larva having under-
gone an ecdysis before emerging from the egg, although special
attention was paid to this point.

The movement of the larva of Heterodera is slow and languid,
a feature to be contrasted with the rapid motions made by other
free-living and saprophytic nematodes such as certain Tylenchidae.
The movement of the larva, even when kept in water, is scarcely
such as to indicate any appreciable progress in a definite direction.
The structure of the larva (Fig. 12) is that of a typical
specimen of the genus Tylenchus, and it is only a consideration
of size and mode of movement that might allow one to differen-
tiate it from larvae of Tylenchidae.

The cuticle is relatively thin and transparent, and even
under the highest magnification, indications of delicate transverse
striae are only occasionally visible. Dermal muscle fields could
not be detected under the cuticle, as described by Bessey.

The anterior end of the larva is conical in shape, and the
body, which is almost uniform in thickness throughout the greater
part of its length, gradually tapers to a subacute tail.

The lip region at the anterior end is marked by a small pro-
tuberance which is constricted from the rest of t lie body by a
shallow groove, and is pierced by the spear.

The spear is a slender-pointed organ, piobably of a chitinous
nature. In the larva it measures from 14/m to 16/a in length. Its
breadth is approximately 1.5/x, and it tapers to a point. At its
base are three small swellings, symmetrically disposed, to which
the oesophagus is directly attached. The spear can be protruded
for some short distance through the buccal aperture, and is used
as a battering organ when the larva enters the root. It is prob-
ably pierced by a very fine canal through which liquid food may
be absorbed into the oesophagus.

The oesophagus is a narrow, slightly coiled, tube, 40/x to 45/j,
in length. The lumen is lined with cuticle, and is continuous
with the spear. At the posterior end of the oesophagus the lumen
is dilated to form a spherical bulb with thick walls, and functions
as a suction organ.

The intestine is the widened pait of the alimentary tract
behind the oesophageal bulb. It occupies practically the entire
body cavity, and is filled with food globules and irregular granules
of varying sizes. The intestine terminates in a very short rectum
opening to the exterior by an anus on the ventral surface of the
body about 50/x from its extremity.

The excretory and nervous systems aie difficult to see. The
excretory canal can occasionally be observed with an oil-immersion
objective as a delicate sinuous duct running in the middle of the
body and opening by a pore just posterior to the oesophageal
bulb.

The nervous system is even more difficult to detect. Indica-
tions of a few nerve fibres encircling the oesophagus behind the
bulb have been observed. Attempts to bring out further details

HETERODERA RADICICOLA. 403

of the nervous system by intra-vitam staining with methylene
blue and methyl green have not been successful.

Not even traces of the gonads are to be seen in the larva at
this stage.

The larva may in some cases remain and continue to develop
in the original root in which it was produced, but under unfavour-
able circumstances, such as result from the decay of the root,
it makes its way into the soil. The larva in the soil is able
to withstand many adverse physical conditions, such as extremes
of moisture, and, to a less extent, of dryness, and of heat. It
gradually utilises the food granules stored up in the intestine
until that organ at length becomes quite transparent and almost
devoid of granules.

When observed soon after emerging from the egg, the tail of
the larva always tapers to an acute extremity. However, larvae
isolated from soil, first sterilised by heating and then infected
with infested roots, nearly always have an obtusely rounded tail.
This indicates the probability of the larva undergoing an ecdysis
in the earth. Other evidence of discarded cuticles found in the
soil and of larvae with loose fragments of cuticle attached to
them confirms this view.

On reaching a growing plant the larva seeks a, tender portion
of the young root, such as the growing point, and making use of
the buccal spear, forces an entrance. It eventually makes its
way into the vascular tissues of the root and commences to
absorb the plant juices and to grow. The largest larvae found
in infected roots measured from 500/x to 520/x in length, and
23 tx in thickness.

After attaining this size the larva still continues to absorb
food, with the result that the body becomes much broader and
decreases correspondingly in length. The spear, oesophagus and
other organs in the anterior portion of the body remain un-
changed, the thickening being confined to the posterior two-thirds
of the body. The larva has now reached the stage represented in
Fig. 13. Its length is usually about 400/x, but variations from
360/j, to 450/j- not infrequently occur. The width of the body in
the region of the oesophageal bulb is approximately 28/x, and the
maximum thickness is about 50/x.

Up to this stage the gonad rudiments are not yet visible.
The metamorphosis, which now commences and marks the further
development of the parasite accompanying sexual differentiation,
is complicated, and is characteristic of the genus Heterodera. Tins
metamorphosis, about to be described, has been compared with
the development of the Lepidopteran imago inside the chrysalis
or cocoon.

The Development of the Male.

The larva having already commenced to feed and to set up
a large reserve food supply, is by this time more or less perma-
nently fixed in position in the root. Feeding gradually ceases

404 IIETERODERA RADICICOLA.

and a new cuticle is formed close under the old one. The separa-
tion of the cuticle soon begins, and finally the organism becomes
an amorphous mass of protoplasmic granules enclosed in the
original skin, with its pointed spine-like tail. The spear of the
original larva is not retained and eventually disappears, a new
spear being produced later. A period of apparent inactivity
now ensues, the duration of which may be extended and is not
easy to estimate. At any rate, it seems probable that, should con-
ditions make it necessary, the further development of the animal
can be suspended for a considerable period.

Indications of the differentiation of the sex of the parasite
are occasionally manifested at this stage by the appearance of
a mass of dense cells in the posterior part of the body. These
cells may be interpreted as the incipient gonads, but as their fate
cannot be followed in the later development, their significance
cannot be emphasised. At this stage a period of cellular re-
arrangement occurs, and after a time the internal mass assumes
a vermiform shape. Lengthening then commences, with the
result that the worm becomes folded up inside its sac-like larval
skin until there are as many as four complete coils. Movement on
the part of the worm inside the old skin becomes evident some
time before the metamorphosis is complete. Two or three days
before the male worm emerges the movement increases in vigour.
By this time all the organs of the mature worm are already formed
and the spear is seen to be making rapid motions inside the buccal
cavity in order to effect an exit. A way of escape is finally found
by the rupture of the enveloping sac as a result of the pressure
exerted by the worm inside. (Plate VIIT, Fig. 18.)

This is the second ecdysis that has been observed so far
in the evolution of the male. No evidence of further moults by
the male worm whilst still enclosed in its old cuticle, such as have
been stated by Stone and Smith (1898) to occur, has been obtained.

On escaping from the larval skin the length of the adult
male worm may vary from 590ja to 1,200/a, with an average thick-
ness of about 30/t. Further growth is rapid, the worm already
commencing to make use of the plant juices in the root. The
maximum size of an adult worm that I have met with during
these investigations was attained by an individual isolated for
nearly three weeks in watch glass with potato cuttings. The size
of this individual was approximately twice that of an ordinary
large individual, the length being 2,590jh, and the greatest thick-
ness 55/a. The sluggish movements of the worm seems to make
it improbable that it could come out of the root and travel any
appreciable distance through the soil in search of another root,
and up to the present time I have not found a single mature
male worm of the genus 11 ' eterodera in the numerous water cul-
tures of heavily infested soils that I have examined. Nevertheless
the male worm possesses considerable powers of resistance towards
desiccation and excessive moisture. Yet it does not seem possible
that the female parasite could be fertilised by a male other than
one which has developed in the same infected root.

heterodera radicicola. 405

Structure of the Male Worm.

The mature worm (Fig. 19) is thread-like in appearance and
barely visible to the unaided eye, the length varying from 690(x
to 2,590/x, with an average of 1,640/x (1.64 mm.). The thickness
of the worm is fairly uniform, the average breadth being about.
30/x. The extreme breadth of the largest specimen met with was
55/x. The anterior end is bluntly rounded, and the posterior
end tapers slightly. There is no marked bursa copulatrix or
genital wings. The cuticle is quite transparent and is traversed
by transverse striations about 3/j, apart. These striae are very
prominent in the worm while still encased in the larval cuticle
and can also be plainly seen when the worm is viewed en profile.

Anteriorly there is a definite lip region, consisting of what
look to be six radiating papillae marked off from the main body
by a slight but distinct constriction. The spear is about 23/a
to 26/x in length, the anterior half tapering to a fine point. The
three terminal knobs on the spear are very distinct. The spear
occupies the entire buccal cavity, and is directly continuous with
the lumen of the oesophagus.

The oesophagus is a fine, relatively straight tube, about lOOp,
in length. Its walls are overlain by protoplasmic granules, and
the cellular structure of the muscle is not discernible. At the
termination of the oesophagus is a thick walled oesophageal (car-
diac) bulb with a spherical lumen that, by alternately expanding
and contracting, acts as a suction organ in connection with the
spear.

The intestine occupies the posterior two-thirds of the body
and has inconspicuous walls. The lumen of the intestine is
relatively wide, and is more or less densely packed with proto-
plasmic food graules. The intestine opens to the exterior together
with the aperture of the vas deferens in a common cloaca situated
on the ventral surface about 20fi from the posterior extremity
of the body.

The reproductive organs consist of two testes which extend
through the body for a distance of 350/x. Usually the testes lie
so close together and are so much obscured by the intestine that
they are indistinguishable, but their double character, which is
the subject of so much difference of opinion, can be more satis-
factorily established when, as in the case of the specimen drawn
in Fig. 19, the two testes are asymmetricallv twisted so that their
extremities become individually visible. As far as can be observed
the testes appear to become contiguous and to coalesce posteriorly
so as to produce a single vas deferens. Anteriorly the testes are
composed of undifferentiated sex cells, but the posterior vas
deferens contains full matured sperm.

The spermatozoa are irregular amoeboid masses of protoplasm,
not provided with a flagellum.

Connected with the vas deferens are two slightly curved
copulatory spicules. They can be protruded to some extent
through the cloaca and are chitinous in nature. They measure
34/x to 39/x and have boss-like thickenings at their extremity for
attachment.

406 HETEROOERA RADICICOLA.

The excretoi'p system is best observed from the side. It con-
sists of a single excretory vessel coming from the intestinal region
and opening by a pore some AOfx behind the oesophageal bulb.

The nervous system is difficult to distinguish, the only indi-
cations of its presence being a few fibres, presumably representing
the nerve commissure, a short distance behind the oesophageal
bulb and just anterior to the excretory pore.

The full period of development of the male from the egg
was found to be nearly four weeks, and the duration of adult
life seems to be a little more than three weeks. In ordinary
nniall galls, such as aie found on the loots of fruit trees and
shrubs, adult males are rarely to be found at the same time as
the swollen gravid females. They probablv perish soon after
fertilising the young mature female.

Development of the Female.

The development of the female parasite closely resembles that
of the male up to a certain stage, after which the metamorphosis
becomes so peculiar that the final product of the striking changes
that occur can scarcely be recognised as a nematode. The evolu-
tion of the females involves a retrogressive metamorphosis that
is probably a direct result of the parasitic life adopted by the
organism .

The larva destined to develop into a female undergoes the
same process of general thickening that marks the early develop-
ment of the male from which it cannot be distinguished until
a relatively late stage.

Having assumed the form represented in Fig. 14, the contents
of the body are seen to slowly shrink away from the larval skin
and eventually a new cuticle is formed under the old one. Gonads,
indications of which were occasionally visible as two small groups
of cells with distinct nuclei, now commenced to become more
prominent. They ultimately come to consist of two ovaries
situated at the ends of two caecal tubes, the uteri, which con-
verge and unite to form a short vagina, that opens to the exterior
by a vulva in close proximity to the anus. While the gonads are
developing, the separation of the new organism, replete with
spear, alimentary canal, etc., inside the former larval skin is com-
pleted. The appearance of the mature female, as the animal
now virtually is, still in its larval cuticle, is shown in Fig. 1 r>
on Plate VII. The female now undergoes an ecdysis. The spear
is employed to pierce the skin and the ecdysis that follows
corresponds to the final one undergone by the male.

In both sexes the individual discards the old larval cuticle
that is distinguished bv having the posterior spine-like tail. Only
two moults in the evolution of both male and female have thus
far been observed, and I am unable to confirm the statement of
Stone and Smith (1898) to the effect that four or five ecdvses
occur.

The further development of the female consists of a gradual
distension of the intestine in the posterior regions of the body

HETERODERA RADICICOLA. 407

until the individual has assumed the shape of a club (Fig. 16).
The anus and vulva become situated on a prominent protuberance
at the extremity of the body. The anus, which opens to the
exterior at the terminus of the short, narrow rectum, is quite
terminal, while the vulva which is continuous with the vagina,
though in close proximity to the anus, is slightly lateral in
position. Both anus and vulva have tumid lips, and it can only
be at this stage of the life history that fertilisation by the male
is possible, for in later development the vulva disappears from
view and the protuberance on which it was situated is absorbed
into the general contour of the body.

The spear, which is 20/i in length, is in constant motion,
and since the swollen shape of the body makes progression im-
possible the function of this structure can only be that of rupturing
the walls of the neighbouring cells and absorbing the liquid
contents. The young female (Fig. 16) at the time of fertilisation
measures 460/t to 600/x in total length, the maximum thickness
being approximately 230/a.

Structure of the Adult Gravid Female.

After the fertilisation of the young female, another period,
again characterised by an increase in thickness, commences until
finally the body attains the pyriform shape of the gravid indi-
vidual as illustrated in Fig. 17. This thickening is now primarily
due to the formation of eggs inside the uteri. The size of these
swollen females ranges from 660/i, to 750/x in length (average
700/x), while the maximum breadth varies from 400/x to 495/x.
The "neck" region is relatively shorter than that of the female
before fertilisation. In the parasite in the potato, which formed
the main material for the present investigations, no traces of
transverse striations were visible on the anterior "neck" region
of the females, even when observed under the highest magnifica-
tion, although these were always evident in the parasites of
other roots, such as the snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus.
Striations were also frequently visible in other parasites taken
from infested potatoes grown in other localities. This point will
be again referred to in the discussion of the identity of the
parasite.

The spear is about 25/x in length and can be easily seen
when moving. The oesophagus is sinuous and its bulb is relatively
large, its diameter occupying a large part of the width of the
neck." Further details of the anatomy are obscured as a
result of the body becoming overladen with food. The excretory
duct and its pore have been recognised only in one or two
instances. Its position is normal.

The uteri have undergone considerable tcrsion, and their
coils are usually undistinguishable owing to the body of the
organism being tendered opaque by its protoplasmic contents.
The vulva has disappeared from view, and the anus can only be
occasionally distinguished, surrounded by a less opaque area at
the posterior spherical region of the body.

408 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

Gravid females taken from potatoes have been found to con-
tain not more than sixty to seventy eggs in all stages of segmen-
tation. Not infrequently a number of free larvae are to be found
in the body cavity of the now deceased parent. Presumably the
majority of the eggs develop and hatch in the uteri and the
larvae migrate into the general body cavity whence they escape
on the disintegration of the parental body. In the writer's opinion
the female cannot be described as oviparous, since evidence of
her depositing eggs is lacking. (Of. Bessey, 1911.)

Identity of the Parasite.

Qenvs.— Heterodera (A. Schmidt, 1871) is defined by
Eailliet in his "Traite de Zoologie medicale et agricole," page
554, as a plant parasite nematode, the oesophagus having two
bulbs, the anterior cylindrical, posterior spherical. No teeth;
buccal cavity ovoid and contains a spear. Sexual dimorphism well
marked. Male cylindrical and without bursa. Female globular,
with symmetrical uterus. Metamorphosis complex.

Cobb (1902) states that Heterodera is similar to the genus
Tylenehus in many respects, but differs mainly in the complicated
metamorphosis which takes place in Heterodera. It also differs
in that Heterodera possesses two testes in the male, species of
Tylenehus possessing only one.

Two species of the genus Heterodera have so far been estab-
lished, viz., //. schachtii parasitic more especially in the sugar
beet, and //. radicicola (Greef Muller), which has a much more
widespread distribution and a greater range of host plants. From
the development of the parasite described in this paper the
organism undoubtedly belongs to the Heterodera. The table
presented below is a modification of one given by Bessey that
has been slightly extended to include features not given in the
original, and at the same time gives a comparison with the
organisms under investigation. It will be seen that there are
certain substantial points of difference which, in my opinion,
cannot be ignored. Some of these appear to be intermediate
between the distinguishing features of II. schachtii and II.
radicicola and the question arises whether the organism in the
potato can be regarded as a new species or whether, knowing that
Heterodera is a plastic organism exhibiting numerous small
variations, we are to look upon our organism as an extreme
variety resulting from environmental difference and consequently
not of specific rank. Up to the present time I have not been
able to procure //. schachtii for comparison, as this species has
not been obtained in South Africa, and so I am disinclined to
pronounce any definite views. We must regard the parasite as
//. radicicola, and take the view that differences such as the
number of eggs, their size, and whether they are deposited by
the female or not, can be reconciled with normal variation.

The table of comparison is as follows: —

HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

409

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410 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

The Powers of Resistance of II et erode ra radicicola.

The ova and larvae are the most hardy stages in the life history
of Heterodera radicicola.

In a moist ambient the ova and larvae are able to exist for
a prolonged period, providing temperature conditions are not
extreme. On the other hand comparatively small variations from
the natural conditions which obtain in the roots are fatal to
the parasitic stages such as the developing and mature females.
When immersed in water they often burst after an hour or so
owing to osmotic pressure within the body, while they shrink
beyond recognition when allowed to dry in a watch-glass. The
mature males appear to be equally susceptible to desiccation but
can remain alive in water for nearly two weeks. They would
seem capable of living in moist sandy soil for a longer period, but
I have not been able to ascertain this period as yet.

The isolated eggs hatch within a few days in water. The
free living larvae have been kept alive for thirty-two days, the
temperature during that period varying between 16°C. and
27°C. Drying was fatal in a very short time to isolated ova and
young larvae. In the gall worm of the potato, where the ova
are devoid of that protective covering or " eirsack " described
by Bespey for //. radicicola, the ova shrivel up soon after desicca-
tion in the open air and their protoplasmic contents become
amorphous. These eggs cannot be revived by moistening and
are incapable of further development. The free-living larvae,
although more resistant as a result of the tolerably thick cuticle,
are not invulnerable. After being exposed in a watch-glass for
but a day, large vacuoles appear in the intestine. Larvae dried
in this way for only about forty-eight hours could not be revived
by immersion in water for a week.

Duration of the Life History of the Parasite.
The period necessary for the full development of the egg
and the liberation of the larva therefrom is from five to six days
in average mild spring weather in Johannesburg. Eggs removed
from a gravid female were placed in a glass vessel with water
and observed from day to day. By the fifth day many larvae
were found free in the water, while on the sixth day no eggs
remain unhatched. From observation made in the field it ;S
evident that the larvae are able to survive for a considerable
time, probably two years or more, if conditions in the soil are
not adverse. However, should the larvae be able to gain access
to the roots of a suitable host plant galls will usually appear
within four or five weeks, showing that this period is sufficient
for sexual differentiation, the fertilisation and subsequent swelling
of the female. Experiments demonstrating this were carried out
in seed-testing boxes, one side of which was of glass. Healthy
tomato seedlings, beans and peas were planted in these boxes,
which had previously been heavilv infected with Heterodera egsrs
and larvae. After a few days the roots of the plants began to
be attracted by heliotropism towards the glass side of the box

HETERODERA RADICICOLA. 411

and were thus able to be constantly observed. Galls containing
the gravid females commenced to appear on the roots, and wilting
set in thirty days after planting the seedlings.

Mode of Infection by the Parasite and its Effect on
the Host Plant.

The free living larva inhabiting the soil is the infective
agent. It penetrates the young roots of the host, especially :n
the region of the tender-growing points, and aided by its spear,
pierces its way into the vascular bundles and the surroundi?ig
tissues. The further development of the larva now takes place,
leading, as has been shown to the fertilisation and swelling of
the females until they attain the cyst-like form. The gravid
females are usually found in groups and seldom occur sol'tavily.
In the potato tubers they generally occupy an area about half
a centimetre from the edge ; in badly infested tomato and fruit
trees roots they are found in large numbers even nearer the
periphery.

The presence of the parasites in the roots acts as an irritant
on the plant and leads to a rapid multiplication of the cells of
the parenchymatous tissue. When the tissues of the vascular
bundles are affected, the vessels grow around the parasites and
consequently contortions of the course of the vessels are pro-
duced. The abnormal multiplication of the cells result in the
formation of "galls" or "knots" which may be up to an inch
in diameter and give the roots a much disfigured appearance and
interfere with the circulation of the sap.

An attempt is sometimes made by the host plants to resist
the future ravages of the parasite. The walls of the cavities in
which the females are situated become brown, and, to a cei'tam
extent, bonified, thus tending: to cut the parasites off from the
adjacent tissues and to hinder any further migration on their
part.

The interruption of the flow of sap due to the ravages of
the parasite results in most cases, where the infection is heavy,
in the stunting of the growth of the plant, the leaves often become
wrinkled, gradually commencing to wilt and finally dropping
off. It seems that it is not so much the actual diversion of the
sap and plant juices which act as food for the parasites — for that is
comparatively small — that is so fatal to the plant, as the physical
irritation resulting from its presence which leads to the derange-
ment of the vital functions of the roots. Further, the entrance
of the larvae into the roots often allows the ingress of pathogenic
bacteria, such as Bacterium solanacearum into tobacco and
tomato roots, and the organisms causing the cotton disease known
as "Blackroot" in Georgia, U.S.A., which do much to accelerate
the fate of the host plant. Badly infested roots are cften soft
and pulpy at the site of infection. This may be due to the
secretion of a toxic substance by the parasite which affects the
tissues and facilitates the escape of the larvae into the soil.
On the other hand, the decay of the root may also be caused by
bacteria and fungi that are usually present.

412 heterodera radicicola.

Susceptible Host Plants.

The list of plants affected by root "knot" given bv ilessey
(1911) is a formidable one, containing over five hundred plants;
the list has been added to by other workers, and a large propor-
tion of the plants catalogued are of great economic importance.
Indeed, very few of our cultivated plants are altogether immune
from attack.

Many plant roots on inspection are occasionally seen to be
somewhat disfigured by galls, which experience has shown can
not always be regarded as due to gall worm (Heterodera) until
the parasite has actually been isolated by microscopic investi-
gation.

The presence of other nematodes, often species of the genus
Tylenchus, is sometimes manifested in cultures made of root
material infested by Heterodera. These worms often cannot easily
be differentiated from the larvae of Heterodera as (heir gross
morphology is identical with this genus. Their sizes and possibly
also the rapidity of their movement, would appear to be the
only means of distinguishing them. Thus, larvae of this nature
were found in the pith cavity of the stem and in the roots of a
snapdragon plant {Antirrhinum) which larvae were as long as
970/j,, and 21/x, broad. Others of similar structure, found in
roots and soil cultures were only 200/x in length and 20/x in
breadth, while the larvae of Heterodera vary in length between
345ja and 500/i, the average being about 360/a.

The following is a list of plants that the writer has person-
ally examined and found parasitised more or less severely by
Heterodera in South Africa.

It will be seen that most of the plants listed are cultivated
either for food or for ornament.

Among tha few monocotyledonous hosts the presence of the
mealie, Zea mat's, is most important, for, as a rule, it has
been thought by most authorities to be one of the few immune
crops. In this case the mealie plants were found in an orchard
where conditions were optimum for the thriving of the parasite,
and, all hough the orchard was a new one, having been established
for only three years on ground that was covered with bush and
had never previously been under cultivation, most of the fruit
trees were severely infested. It would appear that the parasite,
under suitable conditions, is able to accommodate itself in most
plants, and that strains or varieties of supposedly immune plants
may occur which are not totally immune.

List of Host Plants.

A butilon indicum.

A Hi u m porr u in — leek

A maranthus paniculata.

A ntirrhinum ma jus — snapdragon.

Beta vulgaris — beetroot.

Brassica campestris—tuxnxp.

HETERODERA RAD1CICOLA. 413

Cajanus indicus — dal, or pigeon pea.

( 'alendula officinalis — marigold.

Cannabis indica — "dagga."

( 'apsicum annuum — chillies.

( 'arica papaya — pawpaw.

Chenopodium sp.

( ' in a mis satirus — cucumber.

( 'ucurbita pepo — pumpkin.

Dahlia variabilis — dahlia.

Datura stramonium — "stinkblaar."

Dane us carota — carrot.

Diantli us caryophyllus — carnation.

Fagopyrum esculent um — buckwheat.

Ficus raric us— edible fig.

Helianth us annuum —sunflower.

Ipomoea batatas — sweet potato.

Lactuca sativa — lettuce.

Lagenaria vulgaris — calabash.

Lupin us sp. — lupin.

Lycopersicon esculentium — tomato

Lygustrum vulgarum — priveF.

Medicago sa t iva — lucerne .

Nicotiana tabacum — tobacco.

Pastinacea sativa — parsnip.

Phase ol us vulgaris — bean.

Petunia hybrida — petunia.

1'ii I or sp. — perennial phlox.

Physalis peruviana — Cape Gooseberry.

Pentstemon wrightii — Pentstemon.

Pi sum sativum — pea.

Prun us armeniaca — apricot.

I'm n us domestica — plum.

/'run us persica — peach.

Iiiiiuus communis — castor-oil tree.

Rosa setigera — rose.

Solan u m a uric ula t u m .

Solatium nigrum — nightshade.

Solan um tuberosum — potato.

Vitis vini f era — grape vine.

Zea mais — mealie cr maize.

Conditions Favouring Heterodera radicicola.

It has been noted that heavily infested plants, containing
numerous Heterodera, often occur on loose, sandy soil, well supplied
with water, so that the subsoil is constantly moist. A heavy
loamy-clay soil does not appear to be favourable to the parasite,
and plants growing on such a soil would, consequently, be free
from the pest to a large extent.

Geographical Distribution of Heterodera.

Heterodera radicicola has a world-wide distribution. The
fact of its not having been reported from Rhodesia and other

414 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

parts of Atrica is most probably clue to lack of observation or
of the publication of its presence in those countries. I have
personally found the parasite in many farming districts in each
of the four provinces of the Union.

As regards its origin, Neal is of opinion that it is indigenous
to a large portion of the southern United States, and as evidence,
states that he has found it "in many places in Georgia and
Alabama where neither trees nor plants have been introduced
from other sections."

The writer is also able to state that it is harboured by
indigenous vegetation in several places in Natal that have never
been under cultivation as far as knowledge goes. This might,
lead one to the opinion that the pest is also of ancient origin
in South Africa were it not for the fact that it is easily possible
in sandy soils for the eggs and larvae to be borne by wind and
water streams from infested land. Thus, once introduced into a
district, the parasite may be disseminated by natural means and
indigenous vegetation in virgin soil be attacked.

Some Suggestions for the Control of Root " Knot " in
South Africa.

The problem oi the control of Heterodera, as well as of other
nematode plant parasites, has engaged the attention of many able
agricultural biologists for the past thirty years, but unfortunately
their endeavours have not met with any marked measure of success.
Attempts to mitigate the ravages often consequent upon infesta-
tion on a basis compatible with economy have been especially
unsuccessful, and the writer has seen numerous large young
orchards situated upon infected but otherwise ideal land, rendered
almost valueless.

As has been previously indicated, the young which constitute
the only stage in the life-historv which is passed in the soil,
unprotected bv the roots, is capable of withstanding only a limited
range of variability of conditions and will readily succumb if
these limits be exceeded. Attempts to eradicate the pest must,
be aimed at the larva.

In America and elsewhere numerous experiments have been
carried out to destroy the parasites. It is exceptional that
nematode root parasites pass their free life at any great depth
in the soil. They may be especially abundant in the first ten
inches of soil, but they are seldom found at depths greater than
about sixteen inches below the surface. Consequently, to deal
adequately with the pest, it would only be necessary- to destroy
the parasite by treating the surface soil, but even this is a difficult
task. To effect this, it has been proposed to subject the larvae
to treatment by chemicals, steam, etc. These methods, even if
thev achieve their purpose with a substantial degree of success,
could scarcely be adopted on as extensive a scale as is often
required owing to prohibitive costs. Speaking generally, the
chemical and other artificial fertilisers employed in practice in
agriculture do not appear to have any direct effect. Lime, both

HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

415

slaked and unslaked, calcium carbide, and other moderately
inexpensive chemicals are of little avail. But it has been observed
that trees and plants with a good ramifying root system do not,
as a rule, show any obvious signs of disorder and consequently
where valuable orchards are at stake, the use of phosphates and
other fertilisers employed so as to stimulate an extensive root
system and to induce deep-root growth, would be most beneficial.
For deciduous orchards the heavy application of foimaldehyde (one
part commercial formalin to one hundred parts water) poured
into a small trench round the tree when it is in a dormant state, is
said to be advantageous. Other chemicals, such as carbon bisul-
phide, magnesium sulphate, sodium cyanide, sodium chloride, have
been tried, but must be used in such concentrations that uhey
become fatal to the young roots and often kill the tiee. According
to Professor Kuhn their use is not to be counselled.

Inundating the land for some time has been advocated by
some authorities, but in view of the fact that the larvae are
capable of surviving for over a month in a water medium little
hope of success can be attached to the mode of treatment, even
if it were practicable in South Africa. Steaming the soil by
means of a system of underground pipes under a pressure of 401bs.
per square inch is said to have beneficial results, but here again
practical economy will restrict this procedure to the hothouses
and to small valuable plots.

The "trap-crop" method of controlling the sugar-beet parasite
//. schachtii as devised by Kuhn at Halle is well worthy of con-
sideration. Essentially this method was based on the researches
of Strubell on the life-history of II. schachtii. A highly sus-
ceptible "catch-crop," in this case a species of mustard, is thickly
sown in an infested field in early spring. The development of the
worm within the roots is constantly followed by microscopic
examination, and the infected crop is uprooted before the new
generation of larvae have had time to escape from the female
(three to four weeks). This procedure perceptibly diminishes the
number of parasites in the soil, and after two or three trap crops
have been grown and destroyed the land can again be profitably
employed for the growing of sugar beet. A considerable measure
of success was obtained by the employment of this method in
Europe, but when tested by Bessey for //. radicicola in America
it does not seem to have yielded such favourable results. As yet
our knowledge here 'in South Africa of susceptible and resistant
crops is not sufficiently complete to allow of experimenting to the
best advantage, but nevertheless this method is worthy of trial.

The principle of starving cut the parasite in the soil also
suggests itself, and conditions in South Africa in many cases
would render it fairly simple. The infested land should be cleared
of all crops and weeds that might act as hosts for the organism
and either be allowed to lie fallow, or where possible, sown with
a crop, such as the "iron" variety of cowpea, winter oats, or pea-
nuts, that is immune to the parasite. Wheat (Triticum
aestivum), according to Sorauer, is somewhat susceptible, and I

416 HETERODERA RADICICOLA.

have found maize to be susceptible to some degree, but in practice
both of these crops might be regarded as resistant and can often
be grown profitably. The growing of either of these cereals for
two or three years on infected ground might be a very practical
way of dealing with the problem.

Desiccation is also very fatal to the parasite in all its stages.
In South Africa, where the sun's rays are very powerful and the
dry seasons are usually regular and sometimes prolonged, desicca-
tion often occurs as a matter of course. Where this can be
assisted by frequent ploughing and the use of unslaked lime
in fairly heavy quantities, the result should be beneficial.

The presence of varieties or biological strains of Heterodera
is sometimes suggested by the fact that in heavily infested plots
the parasites often confine their activities to one particular kind
of host plant in preference to others that have been shown to be
equally susceptible to attack. This seems to indicate the possi-
bility of the creation of slight strains of the parasite which, once
having accustomed themselves to a special type of host, tend to
prefer it to other plant hosts. In the same way resistant varieties
of plants, such as the "iron" cowpea, may be simultaneously
evolved. Further and prolonged investigation will be required
before this hypothesis can be confirmed.

Other curious phenomena occur connected with the habits of
Heterodera which make the study of the problem even more
interesting. On several occasions it has been observed that plots
which have shown themselves to be heavily infested with the
parasite have quite suddenly become free of the pest without their
having been specially treated in any way. Further, they have
not reappeared when very susceptible crops were subsequently
grown. It is difficult to explain these occurrences on any climatic
basis, but it is possible that the mystery may be cleared up by a
thorough investigation of the fauna and bacterial flora of the
soil.

In conclusion, it may be a platitude to remark that, in view
of the difficulty entailed in the control of the pest the old adage
of prevention and cure should be the guiding principle of all
gardeners and horticulturists. Great precautions should be
observed in the introduction of new nursery stock that cannot be
guaranteed free from Heterodera, and seed potatoes, whereby in
agriculture the organisms are often spread, should be carefully
examined before planting.

Acknowledgments.

I wish to acknowledge the general assistance that many friends
have given during the course of these investigations. Primarily
am I indebted to Professor H. B. Fantham, of the Department
of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, and
to Dr. Annie Porter, of the South African Institute for Medical
Research, Johannesburg, for their kindly interest and encourage-
ment. I desire also to acknowledge gratefully the numerous facili-
ties given me by many officers of the Divisions of Entomology and

HETERODERA RADICICOLA. 417

Botany. My hearty thanks are also due to the Research Grant
Board, for their grant-in-aid, which facilitated the collecting of
material and conducting the investigation.

Summary.

(/) The structure and development of Heteroilera radicicola is
described and figured for the first time in South Africa. The
occurrence of only two ecdyses in the course of development is
established : one taking place when the larva is living free in the
soil, and the second during the differentiation of the two sexes
within the root of the host. For the most part the material used
in these investigations was obtained from parasitised potatoes,
and this organism was seen to differ substantially in some characters
from //. radicicola found in tomato plants and others. These
differences are detailed, but it is thought that they may be varia-
tions due to environment and may not be of true specific value.

(ii) The species Heterodera schachtii and //. radicicola are
discussed and their differences tabulated, and they are compared
with the parasite found in potato tubers.

(Hi) The pathogenicity of the parasite and the mode of
infection is discussed. Some susceptible host plants found in South
Africa are listed. The geographical distribution of the parasite
is set forth.

(iv) The methods of controlling the pest are briefly reviewed
and an attempt is made to estimate their relative values in South
Africa.

References.

All the references to literature contained below have been
seen by the author. For a more extensive bibliography the work
of Bessey (1911) should be consulted.

Atkinson, G. F. : "A preliminary report upon the life history
and metamorphoses of a root gall nematode, Heterodera
radicicola (Greef Muller) and the injuries caused by it upon
the roots of various plants." Agric. Expt. Stn., Alabama
Polytechnic Inst., Auburn, Ala. Vol. I., No. 1, December,
1889. Bull, of Agric. Expt. Stn. n.s., No. 9, 1889; 54 pp.,
6 pi.

Bessey, Ernest A.: "Root Knot and its Control." Bull. 217,
Bureau of Plant Industries, U.S. Dept. Agric, 1911. 81 pp.,
3 pi.

Cobb, N. A.: "Root Gall." Agric. Gaz. of New South Wales,
Vol. 13. Sydney, 1901.

" Fungus Maladies of the Sugar Cane." Bull. 6 of the
Expt. Stn. of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Assn. (1909),
pp. 51-62.

Lounsbury, C. P.: "Gall Worms in tlie Roots of Plants. An
important potato pest." Circular 25. Cape of Good Hope
Agric. Dept., 1904.

418 HETERODERA RADIO I COLA.

Orton, W. A. : "The Wilt Disease of the Cowpea and its Control."

Bull, 17; pt. 1. Bureau of Plant Industries, U.S. Dept. Agric.

1902.
Rolfs, P. H.: "Diseases of the Tomato." Bull. 47. Florida

Agric. Expt. Stn. September, 1898.
Stone, G. E. and Smith, R. E. : "Nematode Worms." Bull. 55,

Hatch Expt. Stn. of Mass. Agric. Coll. November, 1898.
Scofield, C. S. : "The Nematode Gall Worm on Potatoes and

other Crop Plants in Nevada." Circ. 91, Bureau of Plant.
[ndustr., U.S. Dept. Agric. Issued February, 1912.

Explanation' of Plates VI-VIII.

All figures were drawn by the author with a camera lucida
and Zeiss drawing table.

Explanation of Letters used in Figures.
An. — Anus.
Ct. — Cuticular stria;.
Exc. Pr. — Excretory Pore.
Int. — Intestine.

Oes. comm. — Oesophageal nerve commissure.
Oes. — Oesophagus.
Oes. bib. — Oesophageal bulb.
Ov. rud. — Rudiments of Ovary.
Rect . — Rectum .

Cap. spic. — Copulatorv spicules.
Testis. — Testis.
VI v. —Vulva.

Plate VI.

Figs. 1 — 10: Eggs of Heterodera from potato in different stages

of development, x 250.
Fig. 11 : Embryo just prior to hatching, x 250.
Fig. 12: The free-living larva, x 250.
Fig. 13: The parasitic larva just commencing to swell, x 250.

Plate VII.

Fig. 14 : Parasitic larva at commencement of sexual differen-
tiation, x 250

Fig. 15 : Immature female still within larval skin, x 250.

Fig. 16: Mature female after casting larval skin. Ovary showing
and external orifices of vulva and anus visible, x 200.

Fig. 17: Mature gravid female containing eggs, x 95.

Plate VIII.

Fig. 18: Fully formed male still encased in larval skin, x 150.
Fig. 19: Free mature male. (This specimen shows the double
nature of the testis), x 150.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE VI.

fill

HETEEODERA RADICICOLA.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE VII.

IIKTKKOIH'.IJA HADK'U'OLA.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE VIII.

HETERODEKA RADICICOLA.

419

THE NATIVES AND AGRICULTURE.

BY

W. Hammond Tooke.

Read July 13, 1921

"Les pays du paturage sont peu peuples parce que peu de gens

v trouvent de l'occupation ; les terres a ble n'occupent plus
d'hommes." — Montesquieu: "De l'Esprit des Lois." liv : XXIII,
Chap. 13.

The Bantu tribes situated South of the Zambezi and the
Cunene rivers are divided by scientists into five groups. The fifth
comprises the Ova Herero and Ova Mpo ; of which the former have
recently been practically extirpated by a civilised soldiery more
savage than the most bloodthirsty African warrior. The popula-
tion of the other four groups may be estimated and distributed as
follows : —

Union. Non-Union. Total.

A. Zulu Kaffir: —

Union 2,658,000'

Swaziland 1,000,000-

Portuguese East Africa 780, 0002 4,438,000

B. Tekeza or Thonga : —

Portuguese East Africa 1,000,000s 1,000,000

C. Kalanza : —

Southern Rhodesia ... 750, 0003 750,000

D. Bechuana : —

Union 1,282,000'

Basutoland 400, 0001

Bechuanaland Protectorate 120,000- 1,802,000

3,940,000 4,050,000 7,990,000

When the Fecani wars, originated by the Mtetwa tribe, had
gradually subsided, most of the tribes north of the Orange River
were recent arrivals, driven here and there, fugitive and vagrant,
or placed by the emigrant Boers on the locations assigned to them.
It is not necessarily to be inferred that the latter were thus estab-
lished either lawfully or by due authority, or by any other right
than the arbitrary will of the strongest.

The Bechwana (including the Basuto), who cover the largest
extent of territory with which we have to deal, occupy the eastern
part of what is called by botanists the "Kalahari region," a wide
outland basin drained by the Orange River and its northern tribu-
taries. It embraces that portion of the Cape Province north of the
Orange, which used to be called "Griqualand West" and British

1 In round numbers based on the Union Census of 1911.
- Estimated.

3 Including a number of Matabele which belong to Class A.

4 Lagden's ''The Basutos."

420 THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

Bechuanaland, as well as the Waterberg and that part of the
Transvaal lying South and West of the Magaliesberg Watershed.
It is for the most part devoid of trees, interrupted at great dis-
tances by a few isolated flat-topped mountains. On these hills
grow a few stunted bushes such as the "buchu" (Barosma) and
"bitter-boschje" (Chrysocoma) ; the vleis and shallow valleys are
tussocks of "rooi-gras" (Themeda triandra) and "twa gras"
(Aristida).

A portion traversed by the richer valleys of the Vaal, Modder,
Hartz, Molapo and Moletsane, northern tributaries of the Orange,
is supplied with water during a rainy season which produces a
rainfall averaging 18 inches to 22 inches per annum. More to the
west the Kuruman and Okavango are only flooded by tropical
thunderstorms coming from the north, and long periods of drought
prevail.

The eastern or mountainous part of the "Kalahari region"
unites with the western half of the sub-tropical or east coast region
in a rugged and rock-riven complex of buttresses and bastions
culminating in the Mont aux Sources on the Natal-Basutoland
border and the Spelonken of the Transvaal. Here for half a
century was the theatre of war between Sutu and Zulu in which
the wielder of the battle-axe soon fled before the javelin of his
shield-protected foe. Some of the mountain clans were reduced
to cannibalism ; others sought refuge in the caves and krantzes of
the Drakensberg. In more peaceful times an ample and timely
rainfall enables these fragments and remnants of tribes to grow
small patches of mealies in the narrow but fertile valleys irrigated
by streams of running water. But generally the ground is too
poor and rugged for cereal culture on a large scale. In the
Springbok Vlakte, it is true, there are enormous flats, but the soil
is peaty and tillage as difficult in the rains as in the drought.

In the so-called Kalahari "desert" (Bechuanaland Protec-
torate) extend vast level grassy prairies or savannahs interspersed
with patches and stretches of dense low forest, formerly abound-
ing in and still frequented by hartebeeste, wildebeeste, gemsbok,
giraffe, zebra and ostrich.

The Ngami lake and Makharikhari saltpans, fringed by reed
and willow and supporting a prolific bird life, pelicans, flamingoes
and other water-fowl, are but breaks in the rolling series of downs
carpeted with a sweet nutritious herbage or cluster of bushy com-
posite shrubs and interspersed with vaal bosch1 and the kameel
doom mimosa2, which lends to the open country a gracious park-
like appearance.

The existence of underground "sand rivers" like the Mashow-
ing and Setlagoli indicates a period when the rainfall was more
abundant and streams, now mere wadys or flumaras, once were
rolling rivers. In the vicinity of these old river-beds may be found
good grazing grounds. So elsewhere the "sand-veld" thickly
covered with acacia has a deep rich soil and yields good pasturage.

1 Atriplex.

2 Acacia horrida.

THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE. 421

This region is healthy and suitable for cattle, and the "high veld"
and Gordona are eminently suitable not only for horned stock but
for sheep and goats.

The Bechuana seem to have obtained their sheep from the
Korana. The domestic sheep found by the Dutch settlers among
the flocks of the nomadic Hottentots were most likely an indigenous
breed, for with their lop-ears and long fat tail they differed much
from the fat-rumped, black-headed Persian or Hejaz breed found
in North Africa and the Sudan. A good slaughter animal, it has
been crossed with the merino for the sake of the wool, and this
strain proves itself a valuable animal well suited to its habitat,
equally welcome to the shearing house or the butcher's pen.

The Bechuana or Briqna, as the Hottentots used to call them*,
were essentially a nation of goat-herds, but the goat they domesti-
cated was introduced from the East if philological evidence may
be trusted.

The Bechuana probably brought with them from their cradle
in Northern Africa the indigenous African ox of which the Mima
or Callal is the type; a large, long-legged, slab-sided beast with
light hind-quarters and enormous horns, but lacking a hump — a
good forager, a good trekker, but a poor milker. This animal
closely akin to the Hottentot breed (also probably of Northern
origin) is found in Abyssinia, Uganda, the high plateaux between
the Nyanzas and Tanganyika and in Damaraland. It is the
dominant type from the Zambezi to Table Bay. The Afrikander
ox of the Boers is of the same breed, crossed two centuries ago
with the Spanish or Portuguese ox, and in more recent times with
the Friesland of Germany and Holland. The small hump borne
by the bull might point to a cross with the East Coast humped
breed or zebu. It is not, however, a true hump or flesh protuber-
ance, but "merely a muscular enlargement of the wither."1 "For
a general breed it would be difficult to surpass this hardy, long-
horned breed which has successfully adapted itself to its environ-
ment."2 If it is true that "the production of oxen for transport
work is practically dead,"3 still this ox in its own country fur-
nishes better beef than many imported beasts, and crossed with the
Friesland yields a very fair supply of milk.

Some of the Bechuana tribes, such as the Bakolong and
Bakwena, have displayed moderate skill, though much inferior to
the Oriental races, in such industries as wood carving, smithy

* The Kora-Hottentot word Briqua, Biri-na applied to the Batlapin
means "goat people." The word 7)'///, Sech. puri, Makua, puri Yao.
Swahili, and mbvzi in nearly all Eastern Bantu dialects is traceable
to a Persian or Arab origin, buz. The Zulu-Kaffir has two terms for
p;oat, mhuzi and impongo (he goat); the latter found also in Thonga.
Tonga. Rozwe dialects may have denoted an indigenous breed. In
Zulu-Kaffir the term is confined to "he-goat."

1 R. W. AVallace, "Farming Industries of Cape Colony," p. 254.

2 Owen Thomas, "Agricultural and Pastoral Prospects of South
Africa." pp. 201-3.

:i C. G. Lee, address, May 15, 1907, as President of Agricultural
Union.

422 THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

work, basket ware and pottery, while others carried their rude
manufactures round from tribe to tribe as traders and pedlers; but
in this respect they showed less of commercial spirit than the Bantu
living on the banks of the great Congo and its river system. In
the former days of plenteous rainfall grain-growing was one of
the chief means of subsistence among the Bechuana, only checked
by the extensive ravages into the rich fields of millet and sorghum
of the hippopotami who then lurked in the zeekoe gats of the
Kuruman and Marikwa. The frequent or prolonged droughts now
restrict the Natives to such grain crops as Kaffir-corn and mealies
(maize), the former a crop requiring repeated weeding and
thinning.1 The latter is a comparatively recent introduction wel-
comed as immune to a great extent from the voracity of finches
and other graminivorous birds. In localities favourable to agri-
culture the Natives flock together, building their kgatlas and
kraals into large "Stads" (Shoshong, Koloberg, Palapye), con-
taining a population of many thousands. Here some tribes
(e.g., the BaNguaketse) store their grain in enormous earthen
jars, differing in this respect from the Kaffirs, who bury the season's
grain in underground silos beneath the cattle-kraal. Failure of
crops has, however, often compelled the unlucky grain-grower to
rely for subsistence on his cattle depastured on the sunburnt veld,
"arida nutrix leonum."2

On the whole, although the Bechuana doubtless employ much
of their time in supervising their Bushmen cattle-herds, and in
visiting their cattle-posts, they may fairly be described as an
agricultural people. According to the schedule to the Native
Lands Act of 1913, the total extent of land in the Union on which
they are now located as agriculturists and pastoralists is about
2 J millions Cape morgen, of which the Bechuana occupy about
1J95,316 and the Basuto about 1,315,889 morgen.3

In Zululand the Government holds some two million morgen4
reserved for the use of the Natives. Of this, however, they cul-
tivate little more than two-thirds by growing maize, Kaffir-corn,
and pumpkins. A large extent of the country is uninhabitable,
being marshy and covered with rank herbage ; that on the hill-
sides is of poor quality for agriculture."' The Province of Natal,
together with that portion of the Cape Province known as the
Transkeian Territories, forms a succession of grass-covered terraces
ranging from the sea to the foothills of the Drakensberg; and the
country is well adapted for stock-raising. The Zulu are almost
entirely pastoral; their ideas, language and occupation exclusivelv
bucolic. According to Mr. Owen Thomas the Natal Kaffir "is a

1 Arbousset, "Narrative and Explanatory Tour," p. 64.

2 In former days lions were not only as fierce and cunning as the
"Man-eaters of Tsavo," but so numerous as to compel powerful
Bechuana trihes like the BaHlakoane to build stone kraals and huts;
the latter with pavements in front to prevent these hungry carnivora
from orrowing under the door. — Ellenberger, op. cit.. p. 71.

•! See footnote 1 on p. 424.

4 3,887.000 acres.— J. Stuart, "Hist, of Zulu Rebellion," 1806.
p. 16.

'■ .1. <;. Gibson, " Hist, of Zulus," p. 243.

THE .NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE. 423

lazy and immoral class, much under-taxed and pampered," the
consequence, probably, of its having been protected by Farewell's
party and the English colony from the tyranny of the Zulu
despots. The Fingo refugees show some aptitude for a sort of
peddling trade.

Generallv speaking, the tribal system involving collective
responsibility and collective possession1 has inculcated habits of
combination or mutual assistance which, as Mr. Dudley Kidd puts
it, constitute "socialism."- Unlike, therefore, the isolated and
individualistic Boer farmer, who either avoided or quarrelled with
his neighbour, the Kaffir recognises the necessity of co-operation
in such matters as the dipping of his sheep, the inoculation of his
cattle and the destruction of locust swarms. Hence, when unity
of action is demanded, the flocks and herds are better kept immune,
or the contagious disease or noxious insect eradicated more quickly
and effectively by the Native than by the European. Moreover,
the simple Kaffir has his own method of curing disease and pro-
moting vegetative growth gained through many generations from
an inherited experience and application of the system of "trial
and error," which, though not based on the science of the schools,
should not be too readily despised by the agriculturist.

The Zulu breed of oxen forms a marked contrast to that of
the Bechuana and Hottentot. They are diminutive, graceful
animals with small humps, indicating that they were formerly
introduced into the East Coast from India or Persia, being
descendants of the zebu. Among the Xosa Kaffirs they seem to
have interbred with the Hottentot variety, and with excellent
results, for the writer does not remember having seen more
beautiful and symmetrical oxen than those belonging to the
Gcaleka chieftains depasturing the hill-slopes of the Transkei at
the outbreak of the 1877-8 War. The Kaffir really breeds, not
for slaughter, for he lives on milk and mealies and only slays an
ox when avarice allows or ceremonial enjoins; nor did he use oxen
as beasts of draught though he employed them once as beasts of
burden (pack-oxen). The plough, before the arrival of the white
man was unknown. In its place he used the hoe. Cattle were,
in fact, the form in which he liked to realise his wealth, to be
parted with only in exchange for wives.

The Xosa-Kaffir also kept a few sheep, but he acquired them
with his Hottentot wives, together with his name for them, igusha
(Hott. gusa)s a term now applied to merino sheep to distinguish
them from Cape sheep

1 "Land Tenure and Criminal Law of the Kaffirs and Anglo-
Saxons," Revue Coloniale et Internationale, Vol. II., pp. 81, 86.

2 "An organisation of society in which the means of life, whether
production, distribution or protection are held in collective ownership."
— "Kaffir Socialism," by Dudley Kidd, p. 3, note.

3 (J.f. KiHiau. ngoza. The word for sheep varies in almost every
Bantu dialect. The following: Zulu umvu, Sechuana nku, Otyi-
Hereo Ntu, Hambunda origue, are akin.

424 THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

The area in the Union occupied by the Zulu-Xosa tribes
according to the schedule to Act 27 of 1913 amounts to about
eleven million Cape morgen, as follows: —

Kaffirs in Transkei and Eastern Province ... 3,282,367 morgen

Fingos in Transkei and Eastern Province ... 585,747 morgen

Abambo in Transkei 723,669 morgen

Abambo and Zulu, Natal and Zululand 6,350,403 morgen

Zulu in Transvaal 155,726 morgen

1 1, 097, 9121 morgen

Our acquaintance with the Kalanga groups dates back to the
commencement of the occupation by the Portuguese of Sofala
(1505) and their conquests in the "empire" of the "Monomo-
tapa."2 The Makalanga are, or were, a race of exceptional intel-
ligence and oriental blood, to whose skill is owing, probably, the
extensive irrigation canals on Inyanga. The climate they enjoy
is sub-tropical, enabling the natives to cultivate orange and lemon
trees which are now found growing wild, but which had ceased to
be cultivated at the time of Livingstone's visit; and it is doubtful
if they were planted by Bantu.3 There is no doubt, however, that
up to the beginning of the last century they grew sugar-cane,
beans, ground-nuts, pumpkins, melons, a kind of millet called
onunga, which had the advantage of being untouched by locusts,
and the recently introduced maize. The Matabele mostly grow
Kaffir-corn (mabele) nowadays; poko, a kind of millet, is the
favourite grain of the Mashona. The ravages of the Zulu hordes
caused this unwarlike folk to flee to the granite kopjes for refuge,
among which they grew small patches of maize and pumpkins
scarcely sufficient for their subsistence.4

Matabeleland and Mashonaland as grass countries are superior
to most parts cf South Africa. Matabeleland pasture is close and
sweet. Mashonaland grass is longer and coarser. Mashonaland is
more suitable for agriculture; Matabeleland stands unrivalled for
stock-raising.

In the past the Makalanga seem to have kept but few cattle,
on account probably of the tsetse-fly, which haunts the low-lands
and river-banks; but higher up in the Zambezi valley the Batonga
(Batoka) kept a small but shapely breed resembling our shorthorn.5
The Barotse again evidently got their stock from a Bechuana

1 These figures are only approximately correct, as it is not possible
to ascertain with any degree of precision the exact area allocated
respectively to Zulu, Kaffir, Alambo, Basuto or Bechuana. The num-
ber of morgen per head reserved for Natives approximately, in British
Bechuanaland is 15.5; Transkei, 4.4; Cape Proper, 1.1; Natal, 3.1;
Transvaal, 1.7; Orange Free State, 0.2. — H. Mentz, vide Hansard,
1913, col. 24/33.

2 "Di Benomotapa e grande imperio," Camoens Lasiad x qb.

3 R. H. Hall, "Prehistoric Rhodesia," pp. 395, 417, 418.

4 Owen Thomas op. cit. pp. 260, 275, 229.

5 In old debris heaps and under cement floors of the Zimbabwe
ruins are found horns of a dwarfed short-horned ox smaller than the
Guernsey. {Bos longifrons?) Hall tfc Neill, "Ancient Ruins of Rho-
desia," p. 153.

THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

425

source, probably through the Batwana of Lake Ngami. The
indigenous Mashona breed on the other hand resembles the Angoni
or G alia ; it is a small and hardy animal more suitable for the
granite soils of Mashonaland than the larger breeds.1

The Bathonga coast race dwell generally in forest count ry—
ill adapted for stock-raising. The Bilene and Khosine, indeed, in
davs gone by, were grazed by many herds before the advent of
Glossina mdrsitans, and the introduction of numerous stock
diseases (redwater, rinderpest, East Coast fever), which have
swept over the land and contributed to the abandonment of pas-
toral pursuits, save the keeping of a few goats.2 Wives were
formerly exchanged for oxen, but nowadays the lobola is paid in
hoes as' a medium of exchange; and it is presumed that the legal
problems arising from "natural increase" no longer perplex the
Thonga mind. But most of all the ravages of Swazi, Vatwah,
Gaza, Shangaan, Matabele, and Zulu, who allowed none but them-
selves to possess any cattle, have caused the poverty in horned
stock of the Kalanga and Thonga tribes.

The BaThonga grow sorghum, millet, maize, sweet potato,
melons, peas, beans, ground nuts, and tobacco in little garden
patches on the borders of the forest ; and their aptitudes are clearly
towards horticulture and market -gardening.

"The bulk of the two races, the European and the Native,
"should live in the main in separate areas. . . . Social contact
"should be reduced to a minimum." — Hon. J. W. Sauer, Hansard,
1913, cols. 2270, 2288.

Senator H. G. Stuart, in giving evidence before the Native
Land Commission" recommends that in carrying out segregation
"a careful note be taken of tribal conditions (misprinted connec-
tions)." Similarly Sir William H. Beaumont in his Minute to
Government says, "due allowance has to be made for the great
differences which exist not only in the nature of the land in dif-
ferent parts of the Union, but also in the language, the national
spirit, the traditions and customs, the social status and the environ-
ment of the various native races."'1

We cannot recognise too fully the importance of this injunc-
tion. It is not too much to say that it has in the past been prac-
tically ignored by the higher governing authorities, although
obvious to local officials"1 : and a desire for uniformity has led to
bureaucratic methods being applied to native administration,
without consideration for the character, milieu, or tribe of the
social unit. The same measure has been dealt out indiscriminately

1 Owen Thomas op. cit. pp. 260, 275, 229.

2 "The .Natives knew of no stock disease until foreign cattle came."
O. Thomas, Ibid. p. 33.

3 Union Government, 19-16, Vol. I., p. 78.

4 I'nion Government, 25-16, par. 127: for "races'' read "tribes."

5 let "how little the officials in one district know about the natives
of the adjoining tribes; they seem to think that their very local
experience of one set of natives entitled them to argue from the
particular to the universal," Dudlev Kidd, "Kaffir Socialism," p. 136.

8

-426 THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

to Gaika and Fingo, to Mopeni and Mollapin. When there have
been differences of treatment they have been made (as in the case
of the franchise) to suit the varying conditions of the white man
rather than the black.

This would not have happened if the tribal system had been
recognised and maintained — if the native had been ruled through
his hereditary chief, and if we had realised the sacred character
of lineal descent from the semi-divine tribe founder in the mind
of the native, and the religious authority conferred by it upon
the ruling chief and imposed on his subjects. It is much to be
regretted, therefore, that the British Government did not (as it
•did in India after the days of the Marquis of Dalhousie) from
the very first regard the Kaffir or Bechuana chief as responsible
for the enforcement of a righteous, enlightened and effective rule
under pain of deposition from office and substitution of a better
qualified scion of the hereditary line.1 There was excellent material
available — men like Tao, Makaabe, Setyeli, Tulare, Motlume,
Sekwati, Molitsane, Moroko, Rarabe, Sarili, and preeminently
Khama and the house of Moshesh.2 To such could have been
entrusted, as is now done in the Protectorates, the task of distri-
buting the pastures and sowing lands among the tribesmen; carry-
ing out measures against animal diseases and insect pests, settling
the date of seed-time and harvest as the Hurutse chiefs were wont
to do for all the Bechuana tribes, adjudicating on questions of
native marriage inheritance, and generally administering law and
order as their fathers did in their day and in the old time before
them. But of course we except the ceremonies of witch finding
and rain making which are happily now obsolete or obsolescent.
Nowadays the witch doctor and rain doctor may be replaced by
scientific experts on agricultural matters who convey advice,
instruction, and injunction through the British resident.

Unfortunately the ruling idea in the past was not to improve
the native but to convert him — -not to help him as a black man
but to change him into a white one — to make him like ourselves —
as near as possible. The Ethiopian had to change his skin. By
"breaking down the power of the chiefs," however, a very salutary
control was lost, adapted to the customs and prejudices of the
tribe, which were often, as we have seen, originally the dictates
of observation and experiment based on the inductive method.
Had this course been pursued the prospect visioned by Mr. B. K.
Long of "two harmonious and contented races in territorially
separate area" might have been realised.'1

1 The fatal policy of destroying the power of the native chiefs
instituted by Lord Charles Somerset, and for so many decades so
greatly in vogue, was not long approved by Sir B. Durban. "I very
much altered this opinion afterwards," he notes in a letter to Sir H.
Smith. I., 1835.

2 To say nothing of Sebituane, Moseiekatse, Dinigiswayo and Cety-
wayo. Tshaka and Dingaan were merely butchers — Gaika, "cruel and
treacherous"; Hintsa. the same; Saril (Kreli) "a gentleman." teste
the late Archdeacon Woodrutt'e — a good judge.

3 B. K. Long, Hansard, 1913, col. 2403. "It was a great mistake
when they broke down the tribal system," J. Searle, Hansard, 1913,
col. 2490.'

THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE. 427

Climate and terrain are of course fundamental. Human
effort cannot alter them except perhaps by tree planting on an
extensive scale; but irrigation may here and there ameliorate local
conditions to a restricted extent. Without it, wheat grown on
dry land in any part of South Africa is liable to rust and mildew.
Oats is a better crop, but maize and Kaffir-corn can be grown in
any soil; but a deep cultivation does not answer and the native
who scrapes up three or four inches succeeds better than the
European with his deep-soil plough.1 The rhenoster bosch is said
to be a good indication of wheat-growing soil,2 just as mimosa
grows when there is the nutritious sweet veld. Broadly speaking,
the plateaux of the northern parts of the Union form excellent
cattle ranches.

A stock-raising country can, however, only support a sparse
population. That of Griqualand West and British Bechuanaland
average 25 morgen a unit. The best form of tenure, therefore,
for the Bechuana reserves is the tribal or communal tenure, which
is certainly not to be condemned, because, as Sir W. Beaumont
says, "it leads to the preservation of the tribal system and the
power of the chiefs." This is rather an argument in its favour
as showing that it was fitted to the native mind and native life.
Dr. Theal calls it an admirable svstem of land tenure for people
in their condition,3 and Mr. Dudley Kidd shows that "on the
tribal system of land tenure, poverty is virtually impossible. All
land is the property of the tribe for whom the chief acts merely
as trustee: he cannot alienate without the consent of his council.
. . . The grazing land is common to the whole clan ; the arable land is
distributed bv the leading headman among the tribe; the allotments
are inalienable" — that is so long as they are beneficially occupied.4
There is really nothing to justify tribal or communal tenure being
termed a "tenure of barbarism," as Mr. John X. Merriman
declares it is.5 Intrinsically it is no more "barbaric" or "bar-
barous" than the "common pasture" of manorial demesne land
known to the old Saxon and Norman tenures,6 or the land of the
Teutonic "mark" held in absolute ownership by the village com-
munity as common forest or pasture ; a tenure which the Bantu
tribal law greatly resembles.7

On the South-east coast garden vegetables, sub-tropical fruits,
sugar-cane, tea, coffee, and lucerne can allow of close settlement.
In Natal and in the Transkei, where the Glen Grey system is

1 O. Thomas, op. cit. p. 17.

2 Wheat grown in the Malmesbury District. Conquered Territory
and Basutoland.

3 Sir W. .Beaumont, Union Government, 25-16, par. 36, p. 5.
Theal, "Hist. Ethnog." S.A.I., 151. Kidd, "Kaffir Socialism," p. 37.

4 Evidence of Captain Blyth, Major Elliot, Hon. C. Brownlee,
App. C, Report of Commission on Native Laws and Customs, G. 4-83,
pp. C 47, 54, 65.

3 Right Hon. J. X. Merriman. Hansard, 1913. col. 2444.

6 Stephen's Commentaries, Part I., chap. 22.

7 "Certain Resemblances of Land Tenure." Rev. : Coloniale and
Internationale, II. (1887). pp. 70-87.

8a

428 THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE.

largely introduced, the soil is adapted to intensive culture and
dairy-farming. The system of small holdings on individual
tenure, giving greater security than the mere right of usufruct
of native law, has been found practicable, and, says Mr. Saner,
"long experience has demonstrated its advantages."1 On the
other hand, to quote again from Sir W. Beaumont, "experience
has (also) shown that it is not desirable to force individual tenure
•on natives who are not sufficiently advanced to appreciate it, and
who are not willing to accept it."2 Here a study of tribal
character and proclivities is requisite and a careful distinction
made between Kaffir, Fingo, and Zulu.

The fostering of closer settlement of grantees holding indi-
vidual title is a course very suitable to the circumstances of the
Transkei and Natal, especially if the minor chief or headman of
the village is carefully appointed and controlled — "of the blood-
royal," if possible. As Mr. Thomas says, "the archaic Kaffir is
the best all-round cultivator of South Africa,"3 and has a future
before him as "peasant proprietor." But the wisdom of extending
the system to the Bechuana of the plains, and the Basuto of the
mountains seems questionable. Let them adhere to their tribal
•communal tenure.

Whatever system our anxious rulers intend to adopt with
regard to the native they must accept the fact that his aptitudes
are mainly pastoral or cultural. A few Bechuana or Thonga clans
may effect a trade with their rude manufactures; a few Fingos
may as usurers and achieve the financial ruin of their hereditary
foes, the Gcalekas; but the large majority of the Bantu race cling
to the soil, adscripti glebae.

In industries and manufactures the native cannot compete
with the European except by receiving a wage lowered to the
detriment of the white man, whose superior skill has to satisfy a
higher standard of comfort. Where competition exists it may be
suspected that "Gilbart's Law" with regard to currency obtains
here with regard to labour. The inferior article drives out the
superior. We see this when the Bantu press into the cities and
mines, just as in the case of the Chinese or Indian : only with the
Oriental the disparity in intelligence is not so great. "You must
counteract," said Mr. W. P. Schreiner, "this most dangerous
tendency on the part of the native to get away from agricultural
life. He becomes spoilt by high wages in mines and towns, and
often dissipates the money and gets away from his environment of
life and becomes a waster."4

The Government is probably acting wisely in extending
gradually the system of local self-government instituted by the

1 Hon. J. W. Sauer, Hansard, 1913, col. 2542.

2 Sir W. Beaumont, "Minute to Minister of Native Affairs,"
Union Government, 25-16, par. 48 (p. 7.).

3 O. Thomas, "Agricultural and Pastoral Prospects of South
Africa," pp. 15-17. On the other hand Dudley Kidd says. "The
native is merely the worst cultivator of soil in the world."

4 W. P. Schreiner, Evidence before Native Land Commission,
Union Government, 19-16, Vol. II.

THE NATIVE AND AGRICULTURE. 429

•Glen Grey Act of 1894. But the "bunga" is too advanced in its
aims and constitution for its "rude and redeless" members, who
are not even representative, but the nominees of nominees. It
might conceivably prove more useful, and develop more naturally
under the presidency of a hereditary chief holding his power as
the executive ruler or regent on good behaviour under European
control. This system is in vogue in Java.

The native artisan, trader, and "physician" mentioned by
General Botha in his speech introducing the Native Land Act
Amendment Bill in March, 1917, will not hold their own against
Europeans, and could only be employed in the lower walks of
journeyman, shopman and herbalist. They would be better
engaged in the native locations and villages than endeavouring to
earn an independent living among white men in the towns.

As for the educated native whose ambitions and abilities have
enabled him to qualify in the higher branches of employment, such
as the church, the law, the Senate, let him preach to native con-
gregations, practise in the native law-courts, and "raise the level
of debate" in the general council — "talk" being recognised univer-
sally as the unfailing panacea.1 Better still, let them aspire to
the position of induna or councillor who in olden days were
selected from old men of tried sagacity or strong character and
influence gained by wealth or wisdom. "Go to the native areas,"
advises Mr. Saner, "and become leaders of the natives." "Stay
with your own people," says the American negro of Tuskage, "to
lead them along the paths of progress which are most natural for
them."2

1 Report of Chief Magistrate A. H. Stanford. Blue Book Native
Affairs, 1908. G. 19-1909.

2 T. Schreiner, Hansard. 1913, col. 2466.

430

THE HEAVENLY BODIES IN SOUTH AFRICAN
MYTHOLOGY.

BY

Rev. S. S. Dornan, M.A.

Read July 13, 1921.

The present paper deals with the sun, moon, and stars in
native folklore. Apparently there is no very clear distinction
drawn between the sun and moon, at any rate in Bushman folk
tales. Each is as important as the other. They are generally
regarded as living things, that can influence the destinies of the
people, and even imprint their shapes upon them.

The Astronomical Lore of the Bushmen.

It is an open question whether the Bushmen actually worship
the heavenly bodies. Dr. Bleek says that "the Bushmen are
clearly to be included amongst the nations who have attained to-
sidereal worship."* He says the sun and moon are prayed to,
and quotes two prayers to each in support of his statement. While
I am disposed, on the whole, to agree with Dr. Bleek, it is difficult
to say how far the Bushmen of to-day really worship the sun and
moon. I have little acquaintance with the southern Bushmen,
and that almost wholly derived from books, but from what I know
of the Tati and Ngami Bushmen I should hesitate to apply the
term worship to them. That they reverence the heavenly bodies,
more especially the sun and moon, is true, but they seem to have
more fear of them than anything else. They think that they must
keep on good terms with them if they are to be successful in hunt-
ing and love making. Several of them, whom I questioned, denied
that they worshipped the sun and moon in the sense that the
Bechuanas worshipped God. I did not attach much importance-
to their denials, however.

Amongst the Bushmen the sun is regarded as a man from
whose armpit brightness proceeded. He lived formerly upon earth,
but his light only extended round his own house. As this was not
satisfactory some children were sent to throw him into the sky
while he slept, since when he shines over the earth. When the
children took him up he felt hot, and they threw him very gently
into the sky without wakening him. In the same story the moon
is made by the sun in the following manner: — A man incurs the
wrath of the sun, who pierces him with his knife, and goes on
cutting him away until very little is left, and the moon implores
the sun to spare even his backbone for his children. From this
cutting process the moon grows until it becomes full, when the
work begins all over again. This is to explain the waxing and
waning of the moon. I once asked some Tati Bushmen why the

* Bleek, "A Brief Account of Bushman Folklore." p. 9.

HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY. 431

sun did not wax and wane like the moon, and the answer was that
the moon was the child of the sun, who could do with it whatever
he liked. In another tale a different origin for the moon is given.
The mantis is overtaken with darkness on its way home, and
throws its shoe into the sky, ordering it to become the moon. The
bhape of the gibbous moon may lave suggested this explanation.

The moon also figures prominently in the stories relating to
the origin of death. The Bushman story is somewhat different
from both Hottentot and Bantu. The latter are very much alike,
the Bantu story being manifestly borrowed from the Hottentot.
In the Bushman tale the hare is lying dead, and the moon strikes
the young hare with its fist in the mouth, telling it to cry loudly
as its mother is quite dead and will never return to life again, as
the moon herself does. Hence owing to the moon's blow, the hare
has a cleft lip. There are several variations of this story. In
some of them the moon ig angry if people laugh at it, and thus
hides itself, or disappears for a time, but it always revives.

The Bushmen seem to have paid more attention to the moon
than to the sun. Their dances always took place at full moon,
and were generally kept up all night, or until the performers could
no longer continue through sheer exhaustion. Sometimes they
began their dances with the new moon, and continued them till
the full moon. The appearance of the new moon was an occasion
•of rejoicing, and much reverence was undoubtedly paid to her.
Prayers were often sung to the new moon, of which Dr. Bleek*
gives examples, but they all refer to hunting or making provision
for bodily sustenance, of which the Bushmen often had experience
when drought or a spell of bad weather prevailed and game was
wild and scarce.

The origin of the stars is thus, explained by the Bushmen.
A girl who wanted some light for the people to return home when
it was dark threw a handful of wood ashes into the sky, and they
became the Milky Way, but having had a quarrel with her mother
who had given her too much food she threw portions of it into the
sky, and they became the stars. There are some other variant
accounts of the origin of the stars. Most of the more conspicuous
stars and planets had names. These were usually animals, but
some of them had been men in a former state of existence, such
as the two pointers of the Southern Cross. These afterwards
became lions, and certain other stars of the same constellation
became lionesses, and long and elaborate myths explain how this
came about. Amongst the Tati Bushmen the Southern Cross is
the giraffe star, the two pointers being the head and neck of the
animal standing in a certain position. Other stars such as
Aldebaran, Procyon, and Orion's Sword are called the male harte-
beeste, the male eland, and the male tortoises, while Orion's Belt
is called the female tortoises. Amongst the Tati Bushmen similar
designations are applied to them, and many of the same tales are
current also.

* Bleek and Lloyd, "Bushman Folklore," p. 415.

432 HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY.

The rising and setting of particular stars was noted by the
Bushmen, especially at certain seasons of the year, such as the
beginning of summer, or the rainy season. On the whole it would
appear that the heavenly bodies figured largely in Bushman
mythology and religious custom, but whether they actually wor-
shipped these in the sense that Dr. Bleek implies is doubtful. We
want to know more definitely what meaning to attach to the term
worship. That they looked upon the sun and moon as mysterious
beings with some influence over their lives is true, but is this
worship ? The Bushmen were not highly enough organised to have
a regular system of worship and priests to attend to it. The
beginning of sidereal worship may be traced amongst them, but
it had not gone so far as to become a regular cult.

The Astronomical Lore of the Hottentots.

Whatever may be said regarding the Bushmen, amongst the
Hottentots moon worship was a recognised cult, a regular part of
their religious life. Kolben, who was at the Cape from 1704 to
1713, and who gives the earliest and most exhaustive account of
the Hottentots, leaves no room for doubt on this point. Quoting
Boeving, he says: —

" 'Tis well known there is a common opinion received among
travellers living among and in the neighbourhood of the Hottentots
that these people adore the moon, and that they celebrate her
worship with acclamations, invocation,1- and dancings whole nights
in the open fields."

"And so they are, let the Hottentot say what they may.
These dances are religions honours, and invocations to the moon.
They call her Gounja. The Supreme Being they call Gounja
Gounja, or Gounja Ticquoa, the God of Gods, and place him far
above the moon. The moon with them is an inferior visible God,
the subject and representative of the high and invisible. They
judge the moon to have the disposal of the weather, and invoke
her for such as they want. They assemble for the celebration of
her worship at full and change constantly. No inclemency of the
weather prevents 'em."* He goes on to say that "their behaviour
at such times is very astonishing, throwing ther bodies into dif-
ferent distortions, shouting, stamping, screaming and uttering
strange and unintelligible expressions."

He gives some specimens of their addresses to the moon, such
as "Mutschiatze," i.e., "I salute you"; "Chera qua ka ha chori
Ounqua," i.e., "Grant us fodder for our cattle and milk in abund-
ance." These words are repeated over and over again, and in
these and other similar expressions with accompaniments of shout-
ing, screaming, singing, and stamping, lie all their formalities in-
the worship of the moon.

"The fervours of their devotion are unequall'd, and when they
have done they retire to their homes with as much cheerfulness
and satisfaction as do any other people in the world from the
performance of their religious duties."

It is fairly obvious from this that they reverenced the moon in a
very high degree. Hahn in his "Tsuni//Goam, the Supreme Being

* Kolben: "The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope."
Vol. I. pp. 95, 96. 98.

HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY. 433

of the Khoi-Khoi," quotes corroborative testimony from other old
travellers, from which it would appear that //Khab, the Moon,
and !Khub the Lord are not clearly distinguished in Hottentot
mythology.*

The following tale, common also among other nations than
the Hottentots, in various forms explains how death came into
the world. The moon on one occasion sent the chameleon with
this message to men: "Oh men, as I die and am renewed again,
so you will die, and be renewed again." Now the chameleon was
a slow fellow, and as he went he forgot the message, so he turned
back again to get it correctly. The moon was angry and called
the hare and said to her, "You are a quick runner. Take this
message to men: "Oh, men, as I die and am renewed again, so you
will die and be renewed." Away ran the hare, and on the journey
forgot the message, and delivered it in this form: "Oh, men, as I
die and am not renewed so you will die for ever." When the hare
returned the moon questioned her as to the form of the message
she had delivered, and when she heard the manner in which it had
been delivered, seized a stick and struck the hare in the mouth,
splitting her lip, and so every hare has a cleft lip to this day, and
that is how death came into the world. In some variants of the
story it is one of the men, to whom the message is delivered, who
lifts a stone and strikes the hare in the mouth, splitting her lip.
There are many different forms of this story, but the central idea
in all of them is the same. Here the moon is evidently some kind
of Lord of Creation or minor divinity. There are other tales in
which the moon figures prominently also. The sun does not appear
to have such power over the lives and fortunes of men as the moon.
He seems rather malevolent in some conceptions of his relation
to man and the animals. The origin of the jackal's stripe is
explained thus. Some men on a journey saw the sun sitting by
the wayside, but took no notice of him. A jackal who was follow-
ing up the men saw him sitting, and going up to him said, "What
a nice little boy the men have left behind." He then took the
sun up and put him on his back, but by and bye the sun began
to burn him, and he ordered him to get down. The sun stuck
faster, with the result that he burnt the jackal's back black to this
day. The sun sometimes uses other animals such as the horse and
the ox. The former when he catches him to ride on cannot bear
his weight, so he curses the horse, who had previously been immortal,
with death. The ox does much better, and bears the sun's
weight quite easily besides being good tempered. As the Hotten-
tots used ridiug oxen it was quite natural for them to exalt the
ox above the horse or quaggfa. They never succeeded in domesti-
cating the zebra or quagga that abounded in their country, though
from this tale it would appear as if the attempt had been made.
According to Sparrman and other travellers the quagga was com-
paratively good tempered. The quagga and zebra were probably
no wilder or more intractable than the herds of wild horses that

Th. Hahn. " Tsuni // Goam," p. 39. 1X/ 0©s V^-<^

LIBRARY

434 HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY.

primitive man domesticated. It thus appears that the moon in
Hottentot mythology was a beneficent being, and had the gift of
the good things of life in her hand. Thus worship was paid to her.
There is not much in Hottentot mythology or folklore regard-
ing the stars. Certain of them had distinctive names, but beyond
this practically no tales connect them with man, except such as
are derived from the Bushmen. The rising and setting of par-
ticular stars that heralded the advent of the seasons was noted, but
no special honours were paid to them.

Astronomical Lore of the Bantu.

Amongst the Bantu sidereal worship is practically non-
existent, ancestor worship takes its place. As these people are
still more civilised than either Bushmen or Hottentots it might
have been expected that the worship of the heavenly bodies would
have been further developed. This may be explained by the fact
that their origin has been different from the former. There is a
Bechuana tribe practically extinct now, or at least absorbed in
that tribe, who are called the Ba-letsatsi, or men of the sun. The
siboko or tribal emblem is the sun. Stow gives some curious infor-
mation regarding them which I have not been able to check in all
particulars. He says: —

"The Ba-letsatsi, or men of the sun, when the hrilliant star
of day rises in a cloudy heaven, do not work, saying that it afflicts
their heart. The food prepared the night before is all given to'
the matrons, or aged women, who alone may touch it, and. who
give part to the children under their care. On such mornings
these people go down in a crowd to the river, there to wash their
whole body. Everyone casts to the bottom of the water a stone
which they have carried from their hut, and which is replaced by
another taken from the bed of the river. On their return to
the town after their ablution, the chief kindles a fire at his house,
and all his subjects go to get fire from it. This, therefore, repre-
sented a consecrated or sacred fire, that is the sun from which
all receive their warmth. After this ceremony, begins a general
dance in a public place. He who has lost his father raises his
left hand towards heaven ; on the contrary, he who has lost his
mother raises his right; while the orphan, who has lost both,
raises neither, but crosses both his hands upon his breast.

''This dance is accompanied by a monotonous song, when
everyone says : —

' Pina ea Morimo, u ee gae

Ki lema Ka lefe

X' ee gae! U ee gae.' "*

which the author translates as follows: —

Song of the Shades of the Departed (Morimo) go home !

Which is it that I raise (i.e., which hand)?
Go home ! Go home !
The translation is not very apt. Morimo is not the Shades of the
Departed, but the usual word for God. Moreover, the dance here
referred to, with its accompanying song, is not peculiar to the
Baletsatsi, but is performed by other clans of the Bechuana tribe
with slight modifications, and the same remark applies to the song.

Si > . "The Native Races of South Africa," pp. 414-5.

HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY. 435

Rev. John H. Weeks, in describing the Congo peoples, states
that the view is held among the primitive Bakango peoples that the
sun is a place of punishment for bad spirits, and that the moon is
supposed to be the place where the good spirits converse with one
another. After death they say there is a branching of the roads,
one leading to the sun and the other to the moon. The spirits
of bad folk always take the former, and that those of the good
take the latter road. When there is a halo lound the sun, they
point to it as a proof that a "judgment court" is being held there,
and the punishment allotted to the bad is being confirmed by the
Supreme Being, and should this halo appear about the time of a
death the relatives of the deceased will wail long and loudly
hecause their departed one has gone to be punished. The shooting
stars are believed to be spirits travelling or playing about in the
sky, and anyone seeing them will rush into his house from fear of
one of them falling on and entering him. Mothers will not allow
their children to remain out of the house when there are shooting
stars about, lest one of them should enter her child.*

There is nothing closely corresponding to this in Bantu
mythology that I can discover. There is no notion of heaven and
hell of this sort amongst the Bantu peoples. Certain dances of a
religious character take place at full moon that may be connected
with her worship. Any of the tribes from which I endeavoured
to obtain information said there was no particular connection, and
resented the suggestion of moon worship. At the changes of the
moon certain particular dances were held, but what part they had
u moon worship 1 cannot say. The moon must have played some
part in primitive Bantu religion, or a most peculiar tale, current
amongst the Basuto, would not have come down to us. The tale
is called "The Child with the Moon on his Breast," and bears a
most extraordinary resemblance to one given by Day in his "Folk
Tales of Bengal," with much the same title. The Basuto tale may
be found in Jacottet's "Treasury of Basuto Lore," Part I., p. 190.
When I first heard this story amongst the Basuto I paid little
attention to it, beyond thinking it was very curious. My astonish-
ment and interest were great when I found an almost exact
parallel to it in Day's collection. The following is an outline of
the story: — There was once a chief called Bulane who had a moon
en his breast. He had two wives. One had children, the other
had none, and was spitefully used by the one who had children.
After a time the childless woman gave birth to a boy with the
moon on his breast. The other woman, who was acting as mid-
wife, took the child and threw him away among the pots in the
oack of the hut, and then she went out and got a little dog and
placed it beside the mother. She had fainted in the interval, and
when she came round the other woman said to her, "Look, you
have given birth to a dog." The sick woman was very sorry.
Bulane was then told that his wife had given birth to a dog, and
he was very angry, and ordered it to be destroyed. Some time
after the other wife went into that hut and found a mouse playing

* J. H. Weeks, "Among the Primitive Bakongo," pp. 279-2S] .

436 HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY.

with a child with a moon on its breast. She was terribly
frightened as she thought the child was dead. The mouse had,
however, taken him into its hole and nursed him. Immediately
she persuaded her husband to burn down the hut, as to go into it
always made her ill. He wondered at the request, but consented,
and the hut was burnt. The mouse heard the conversation, and
determined to save the child, so he took him to the wall of the
cattle kraal before the hut was burnt down. A long time after-
wards the same wife went to the cattle kraal, and found the child
with the moon on his breast sitting under a cow. She was again
very frightened and alarmed, and immediately informed her hus-
band that she had been very ill in the kraal, and that he must pull
it down at once. Again the mouse removed the child, and took
him to some traders for safety. By this time the boy was nearly
grown up, so the mouse left him and returned to its hole. Some
time afterwards a man came from the chief's village to the traders
and saw the young man. He went back and told the chief what
he had seen. Bulane was very interested and went himself. He
asked the youth how he came to be there. The young man told
him the story of his birth, of the substitution of the dog, and how
the mouse had saved him, and had brought him up. Bulane was
convinced when he saw the moon on the youth's breast that he was
his own son, so he took him home and hid him in his hut. He
called a meeting of his people, killed many oxen, and brewed much
beer. During the feast he brought out the youth, and explained
to the people the story of his birth and the treachery of his other
wife. The mother of the young man was beside herself with
delight, and received beautiful clothes from her husband, but as
for the other wife and her children she was sent away to her own
people, as they said she was a wicked person.

The Bengali tale has much more mythological drapery about
it, but in all essentials it is the same. What is the explanation of
the extraordinary resemblance 1 It cannot be conscious borrow-
ing, as the Basuto have had no intercourse with any natives from
India to such a degree as to account for this. Is it part of the
deposit of primitive lore, which was common to the ancestors of
Basuto and Bengali. This is a very great assumption to make,
and is not warranted by our present knowledge. The parallelism
of the two tales, though interesting of itself, does not prove the
descent of Basuto from Bengali, as has been attempted in a recent
book on negro religion.

The South African Bantu pay little attention to the stars.
They have names for certain prominent stars, but they do not pay
them divine honours. It h?i been remarked how little notice they
take of the constellations. The Bantu have never troubled them-
selves about astronomical calculations in the past, so far as we can
discover, any more than they do now.

Amongst the Bushmen we find sidereal worship in its incep-
tion, amongst the Hottentot much more developed, and amongst
the Bantu hardly at all, far less so than one would have expected,
taking their superior culture into account. Has the supposed

HEAVENLY BODIES IN S.A. MYTHOLOGY. 437

origin of the Hottentots anything to do with their worship of the-
moon ? It has been held that the Hottentots are of mixed Hamitic
and Bushman descent, and originated in the following manner: —
Some Egyptian or Sudanese Hamites fled up the Nile to Abyssinia
or Somaiiland, and took Bushman wives. In this manner the
racial and linguistic affinities of the Hottentots are explained. It
is presumed that amongst these fugitives there would be some
priests familiar with moon worship, for we must remember that
in the earliest periods of Egyptian culture the heavens had been
mapped out and names given to the various celestial bodies, and
even maps made of the stars. It must be admitted, however, that
star worship is rarely alluded to on the monuments, although the
Dog Star was the soul of Isis, and Orion the soul of Horus.* I
doubt very much if there is any connection between the Hotten-
tots and the Hamites or Egyptians in the manner thus suggested.
In the April issue of the "Geographical Journal" for 1921
there is a review of a German publication on East Africa by Sir
H. H. Johnston, in which he says: — "The Iraku, Fiomi, Wasi,
and perhaps the Mbulunge tribes, who are distantly allied to the'
Hamites in speech and partly so in physique (that is to say related
to the Galla and Somali); and lastly, the Sandawi and Kindiga,.
whose languages abound in clicks and offer a slight resemblance in
word-roots to Hottentot, and in phonology to Bushman. "| I do
not know his authority for this statement, but in any case it is
most interesting. It confirms what my own researches amongst
the Bushman tongues have led me to, that the Bushmen and Hot-
tentots are ethnologicallv and linguistically one people, but the
separation took place so long ago that thev are now at any rate
in language quite distinct. I look upon the Hottentots as more
civilised Bushmen, and their language further advanced in
development, due to their greater civilisation. Johnston in the
same article further says: — "Here seemingly we have the birth-
place of the Hottentot race, and perhaps a former home of the
Bushmen and Strandloopers. There are traces of the Congo
Pygmy embedded in such tribes as the Kindiga, who are living
under the most primitive conditions, without agriculture or
domestic animals, and, until recently, without clothing." This
throws much light on the origin and migrations of both Bushmen
and Hottentots. The star worship of both peoples would simplv
be part of their original religious beliefs, which thev brought with
them when they were driven out of their ancestral home, probably
by invasions of Bantu or Hamites. It would seem to prove that
their worship of the heavenly bodies was indigenous and not
borrowed .

* Erman, "Life in Ancient Egypt," p. 349.

t Johnston, " The Geographical Journal," April, 1921. p. 286.

438

THE BANTU IDIOMATIST IN THE FIELD OF
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

Rev. Prof. W. A. Norton, M.A., B.Litt.,
University of Capetown.

Read Jul,/ 13, 1921.

The study of Bantu philology is still so much in its infancy
that very few realise its immensely wide scope, its various divisions,
its manifold difficulties, its large tracts of uncertainty, and yet
its enormous importance to a galaxy of sciences and great prac-
tical value in our ever pressing problem.

A man who attempts to cover the whole field of the family,
as Sir Harry Johnston, with undaunted courage, has done in his
vocabulary of some 300 Bantu languages, is often little spared by
the critic who has, or thinks he has, a good knowledge of one
dialect. But, on the other hand, the authority on a single
language is apt to get very bad falls when he ventures himself into
the wider sphere of comparative philology.

A rather startling instance of this is seen in a distinguished
Zulu scholar (Rev. A. T. Bryant), who gives lists for comparison
of Zulu with Sanskrit, Arabic, Malay, and Papuan respectively.
It is true that in the last case he "would not like to aver, at the
present moment, that (the resemblance) is anything more than
chance," and here we will therefore omit to comment.

Of the Malay words he suggests for comparison: —

djabat with tabata, lapar with lamba,

dankan ,, tenga, ikan ,, intlanzi,

these might be (conceivably) worth the trouble of such comparison,
and ma-bap tends to appear for mother and father all the world
over, but imvula and hudjan, tshala and lam an puzzle one as to
why they are recorded.

Now to take the Zulu-Arabic list ("not of course definitely
related," says our author, "but which may provide the compara-
tive philologist with a little concentrated matter for study" — as
therefore conceivably related) : one of the Zulu words given, imali,
is recognised by so reliable a scholar as Meinhof as being not
cognate with, but actually borrowed from, not the English money
as some Zuluists supposed, but the Arabic mal, property, which
appears also in Swahili.

Kohlela, Kahh and our "cough" may be imitative, and
bomvu (red) may be conceivably related to the Arabic bamba;
ntsundu to sudd (black), kuhima to kellim, and inhomo to gamus
and gamed — I say conceivably, meaning no adhesion to the view.
In other cases, the Zuluist gives two Arabic forms, sufficiently
distinct to show at once the more than problematic nature of any
possible connection, e.g.: —

BANTU IDIOMATIST.

439'

ingubo with gukh and huditm,

urahlabati ,, ard and tin,

ambata ,, ghata and bayad,

hamba „ hadjdja and ghab.

But what shall we say of inyama and lahm, isikati and waqt,.

remembering the vagueness of the usually unwritten vowel in
Semitic,

utshani

and hashish,

ulwandhle

and bahr.

umhlobo

,, hahib,

indhlovu

„ fiU

uirtombo

,, bir,

idwala

,, hagar?

bala

,, manah,

Was it worth the printing to record these pairs, which often have
but one consonant, and sometimes but one letter in common ?

Note. — It is true that Suto lentsoe (word) is connected
with Zulu ilizwi, and both with Suto utloa, to hear, Peli kwd;
but here Meinhof's (iju)ngwa and its noun explains the varia-
tion. No such explanations are suggested by our Zuluist.
That our authority thought it worth while, labour and expense,,
is shown by this, that he often spends many lines of his page in
the dictionary in inserting this philologically useless material.

Remember, please, that I am sneering at no one, least of all
at real idiomatic authorities, who have the courage to undertake
and the vigour to complete that heroic drudgery of lexicography
in any language. I am merely pointing out that true Bantu study
is so serious a matter that no one could expect the idiomatist to be
authoritative on comparative philology, any more than we could
expect the philologist to profess all, or (necessarily) any of the
Bantu tongues, for neither do we expect the Aryan philologist to
be a special authority on Welsh or Armenian.

But to come to the comparison of Zulu with Aryan suggested
by our Zuluist, T will abstract a few of his pairs ''Zulu-
Sanskrit), placing the original Bantu, where known, to the left of
the Zulu and the original Aryan to the right of the Sanskrit.
Where the means would suggest to the normal philologist any
possible connection I place a query, otherwise a comparison of the
extremes will at once explode any hope that connection may be
established, any slight resemblance in the means usually disappear-
ing in the original forms.

(N.B. — I use ij for the Hollander g, after the Anthropos
system. This symbol should appear as y with two dots.)

Bantu.

Zulu.

Sanskrit .

A ryan.

inkuku

inkuku ?

kukhuta

(this may be a case
of borrowing via
Persia and Egypt)

haha

ghas (eat)

ghesa

hamba

gam

gweme (come)

kulu

kulu

uru

ewereu (broad)

pa

pa

da

da (give)

kia

sa (dawn)

ushas

awese (lighten)

sha (burn)

dah

dheghwe

440

BANTU IDIOMATIST.

ijik'o

iso (eye)

akshe

ok we

tanda

tanda (love)

van

wena (wish)

ijia

ya (go)

ya

ei

ijungwa

zwa (hear)

shra

swar (sound)

and jiva (live)

gwejew

bamba

bamba (hold)

bopa

bandh (bind)

blienedh

banda (split)

bha(n)

bhage

idhlozi (spirit of

dyaus (sky)

dejewo

dead)

do'ntsa (draw)

duh

dheughe

funga (swear)

yu (yoke)

jenge

imbwa

inja (dog)

svan

swena (sounds

ink'oni

intloni (shame)

hri

ghreja

amaijnji

amanzi (water)

udan

ewod

I feel inclined to claim that intloni (shame) is related to the
French word, and to cry (in the Garter Motto) "Honi soit qui
mal y pense" ! It would look much more likely than the real
derivation and certainly than the connection with ghreja, which our
Zuluist suggests.

I think I have said enough to show that comparative philology
is one thing, as applied to the Bantu sphere, and expert know-
ledge of an individual language quite another. When the pos-
sessor of the latter — Bull of the kraal in his own land — attempts
the former, he is apt to become the Bull in the china shop.

Do I then say that he should avoid any interests in compara-
tive philology? The gods forbid. Let him make himself as cog-
nisant of the comparative side as lie may, for without such know-
ledge his special work in his own idiom will be far less expert and
valuable. I blame not him at all, but blame the widespread
ignorance which allows not only the public, but even academic
authorities, to expect that Bantu philologists shall be expert in
300 idioms or the deep lifelong student of Zulu or Sesuto to be a
comparative philologist.

To each, his own work according to his gift : Ne ultra crejridam.
May I ask that our Zuluist will apply to my erring incursions into
Zulu (infrequent enough) his own precious balms in like merry
spirit? Would that I had his experience and learning in the Zulu
and matters Zulu.

Addendum. — Miss Werner passes waqt (Arabic) as the origin of
the Zulu isikati (and Swahili ivakati). Is lahm after all connected
with the Zulu p But surely not the others.

441

SESUTO PRAISES OF THE CHIEFS.

BV

Rev. Prof. W. A. Norton, M.A., B.Litt.
University of Cape Town.

Read Jul// 13, 1921.

Like the bards of Homeric times, or, if you prefer to come
nearer home, of Ossian's times, or to go further afield, of the
South Sea Islands, the Samoa of Robert Louis Stevenson — for the
afflatus knows no limits of time and place — the praisers of the
Native Chiefs have been very busy pouring forth enconiums of
greater or lesser length and value. These, but for the neglect,
of the younger generation, might have blossomed into sagas of
Native make and, with the arrival of the constructive poet, into
epic.

As it is, the old men — who are repositories of the lore — are
dying day by day, but the " Leselinyana Magazine " and other
publications of Morija have done good work in preserving much.
On coming to Natal, I always read the native novelist, Mofolo's
charming odyssey, "Moeti oa Bochabela" (The Pilgrim to the
East) which, with a little more bloodshed, might have been saga
or, in verse, an embryo' epic. But most of the work of preserva-
tion is done by Europeans. "Golden Glory" and Mr. Haigh's
"Ethiopian Saga" follow Sir Rider Haggard with a more native
viewpoint. We are glad to know, however, that at Lovedale
prizes are being offered for native collections. I have been using
the schools I visit for some time in this way, and have made
efforts to get some endowment for the purpose — so far in vain.

But the old men are dying, and the younger generation, if
it starts with zeal to-day, will have to put forth some effort to
overtake their death-rate ; and the work is by no means easy, even
for a native. The dialect is very special, and most extended
explanation is required. Every line is crammed with associations
like those of a Greek chorus, associations often lost in the mist
of antiquity, and the informant is often in the last stage of
decrepitude, blind and deaf. At the point of wildest excitement,
or most trying intricacy, he will hobble off tired, and adjourn
till to-morrow. You go on the morrow, and, in spite of his
decrepitude, he is away on the lands: you cannot stay, and the
opportunity is lost, perhaps for ever.

Some of the Sesuto praises of the Chiefs may now be cited,
together with their English translations.

442 SESUTO PRAISES.

I.

TSA MOSHOESHOE.

[KeJ Mahahanyana oa Ratikoane,

litelu mmele oa R. :

lijo li yeoa ka ho mela litelu.

Ke phiri ea habo Makheme,
ke Mahlo-mahahanyana oa Ratikoane :
ke ntho ea hae ; ha a okeloe hae,

o okeloa lithabeng.

Ke ratilitili oa meropa Mangesimane,

ke liphaka tse maroba.

mohla ntoa ea morena Lerotholi le Maama.

Praises of Moshesh and His House.

1 am M. (the eruption) of Ratikoane,

Of Ratikoane's hairy body :

Food is eaten by growing a beard.

I am the hyena of Makheme's men,

The protruding eyes of Ratikoane.

I am a thing of home; he is not nursed at home,

But on the mountain.

I am the throbbing of the English drums,

I am the wound scars

In the time of Lerothodi's and Maama 's war.

II.
TSA TSEKO NTSANE.

Petha lebotha la Maphiri :

[Sechichachichane] ke thaka Ramonella ( ?)

Ntsane, O' se ke oa feta Moshoeshoe:

Moshoeshoe ke khomo, re any a lebese.

Seripanye sa 'Ma-Leshoboro

a bona motho, ka tholo a mo putla.

Pele ho lioli ha tuka khabo,

ha tuka le lelakabe le kopane le loto.

Thak'a Masenkane, o an' o romela,

o romele ho Setho le ho Sofonia :

o re, Khoanyana leo le le bonang moo,.

le ee le le ts'oare

ke be ke fihle, una thal'a-maliboho

oa bo Ntsane le Sekhonyana.

Le pota thaba, le bosiu,

Lekhikha la haboNtbakhi le Malefane

le tsoile ka la haTaoaua lekbalo

le tens: le ts'aba morena Letsie.

SESUTO PRAISES.

443

Of Tseko Ntsane, Moshesh's Grandson.

Complete the Regiment of the Hyenas :

The tiny hornless ox is the mate of Ramonehela.

Ntsane, do not go beyond Moshesh :

Moshesh is a cow : we get the milk.

The defender of Leshoboro's* mother (Matete)

Saw a man with a club (? gunstock), he hit him;

Before the owl regiment there blazed a flame,

A blaze mingled with lead. (War of Sequiti, 1865-7).

Mate of Masenkane, you must send —

Send to Setho and Sofonia (Ntsane's brothers) :

Say: "That little white man who you see there —

You must go and hold him till I come, —

I, the old man (Umdala, Xosa) of the drifts

Of Ntsane's and Sek bony ana's folk."

Hef goes about the mountain, even at night,

The runner of Nthakhi's and Malefane's people:

He has gone out by Taoana's pass —

Even there he fears the chief Letsie.

* Leshoboro was the son of Mayara and Matete: Mayara and Ntsane
(father of Tseko) were two of .Moshesh's sons. Ramaneela or
Lesuoana was son of Moshesh's brother, Makhabane.

i Probably Ntsane: Sekhonyana is Nehemiah, son of Moshesh.

III.
TSA MOTHEBESOANE.

U Thebe, Lenls'a, u thebe :
U tyeke, u thebe-nalana
ea ho hlomella mokhele.

Of Mothebesoane, Uncle of Moshesh.

You are a shield, Lents' a, a shield :

Dance: you are a white and red shield (of cowskin),

Supporting the chief's banner.

(Really a tufa, like S. Edwin's, in Bede.)

IV.
TSA JONATHANE.

Sekoakoabela-sa-linare-talla

oa boMaria, mor 'a Mamosa-kharapana,

molalla-Mokapana le Mahetlana,

444 SESUTO FRAISES.

tsoeu-talla ea haboMphaphathi.*

Ha a e'tla metsi h'a salla liesola

ho setse bollatane le Kolojane.

Ngoan'a MaMosa, ha u sa le talla, u hlohlometse.

Ts'oeuyane sekubutu ha Neheng,

koena mots'esi oa Tholoana-leqhaoe,

mor'a MaMosa, maTimapane, MohatlaRapolo,

ha u sa le talla, u hlohlometse,

Ngoan'a ntloana a robetse a lore,
a lore a khaola nare hloho,
Mopota-nare ke Lepota-leZulu
Sekoakoabela sa linare-talla,
ha o sa le talla, o hlohlometse.

Of Chief Jonathan, Grandson of Moshesh.

Swaying goer of the wild oxen (regiment) ambushed,

Of Maria's* men, son of 'Mamosa of the stony hill,

(See note at end)

Lier-in-wait for Mokapana and Mahetlana (the Cucumber and
Hunchback),

The light-hued ambusher of the men of Mphaphathi.*

When he comes, the waters do not wait for the weak;

There wait the men of Hatane and Kolojane.

Son of 'Mamosa, if you are still in ambush, you are alert.

A fair-skinned overwhelmer at Neheng's,

The crocodile, the swimmer of Tholoana-leqhaoe (chief wife),

Son of 'Mamosa, Matimapane, the tail of Bapolo,

(circumcision name)

If you are still in ambush, you are alert.

While the child of the little house f sleeps and dreams,

Dreams that he cuts off the wild ox's head,

He who gets round the wild ox can get round the Zulu (or the sky),

Swaying goer of the wild oxen (regiment) ambushed,

Though you are still in ambush, you are alert.

* Jonathan's sister.

t His brother and riv.il Joel, son of an inferior wife.

V.

TSELE.

Apara kobo ka lesoba, Mosia,
ikaparele sekhetjana sa lipoli ;
hoja ke sa khomo,
Se ka be s'o ts'anna (ts'oanela ?).

sesuto praises. 445

Of Tsele.

Put on your tattered cloak, Mosia,

Clothe yourself with your scraps of goatskin;

Were it of a cowskin,

It would become you.

VI.
MOFOKENG, MAKOA.

Tlemelele, MaMakoa a Matsitsi !
o hlaba ka koebe, o bone[h]o mang ?
Le bone[h]o Letsela le Ntsenki.
Linalanyane tsa mor' a Mokotsoana
tse reng o ts'oara khomo, li e ngaparele,
Mong a khomo ebe h'a[e] sa e bone [tau

Praises of a Mofokeng, Makoa.

Ha! Mamakoa of the Matsitsi (? regiment),
You strike with a barbed spear ; with whom did you see it ?
You saw it with Letsela and Ntsenki.
The little nails of Mokotsoana 's son (i.e, Makoa),
Which say, when you catch an ox, let them grip it,
That he, perchance, the ox's master, does no longer see it Cth<
ox, or the lion).

VII.
TSA MOLISE.

Ke bohale, ba Ra-ka-litelu,
phatola chicha baRamosinyei,
mohl'a qala mo hapa,
a hapa e phatsoa ea baTbepu :
na u fela u re U morena?
Morena ke oa Mokhachane,
haholo ke baNketu oa matlama.

Of Modise, also Mcfokeng.

I am the wrath of Rakaditedu,

Cleave the hornless one, men of Ramosinyei (his daughter).
When he begins to reave,

He reaves the dappled one of the Tembus (1835) :
Do' you verily call yourself a chief ?
The chief is Mokhachane's son (i.e., Mosliesh),
Yea, the chiefs are the men of Nketu (again Moshesh),
Who is of the Binders (regiment).

446 SESUTO PRAISES.

VIII.

Of Peter Makhobotloaxe, Also.

Ke mosehlanyane oa Motsoakhunoane :
ts'ehla, apola, r'o bone mahlong.

I am the little light-skinned son of Motsoakhunoane :
Tawny one (ie., lion), uncover that we may look in your eyes

IX.
TSA NYAPHISI.

Mor' a Phakoe h'a boleloa ke batho :

Tintinyane Ramesi a thunya,

mosi O' thunya koana litlhomoleng,

moritele oa Pali a ret[h]ela koana haRamakhula.

Manqotya le Mantoseng,

ha le hana ho fepa Tliipa-ea-setala e ote,

e tie e'n'e tsebo ho poma makhotla a batho,

Potyo-lerumo-le-hlabile-mokhosi,

hlabela u etse mokhosi

a utloe a le joaleng.

Maphuthixg Praises of Nyaphisi.

Nyaphisi, son of Phakoe, boast not thyself:

A man is fine when so called by others.

Grass warbler, father of gunsmoke :

Smoke there among the guns (Tlhobolo).

Blusher ( ?Morutheli) of Padi's line, he blushes there at Pama-

khula's.
Manqotya and Mantoseng (wives of Nyaphisi),
If you fail to feed Knife-of-the-Stall (a horse), he gets thin,
[So feed him] that he may still know how to cut through the ranks

of men.
'Scape-spear (phochoha) — which-raises-the-alarm,
Raise thou the alarm, while they are at the beer.

X.
TSA PITA.

Marumo a ja li-nonne, Pita oa Nyaphisi,
li nonne li le mafura :
letlaka ntlohele, ke ee hae,
ke e'o bona liotloana hae,
liotloana mots'egare li ba ntle.
Thak'a ngoan'a Ntloi a kalla ts'oene,

SESUTO PRAISES.

h'a re "Ka sa ka kalla ts'oene" :
bakoenehi koenehang, e sa le kajeno,
tsela li e-so mele mefero.
Rona ba boMosa, re sa le re loana,
ngoana o tsoile ka phofu-ea-lehlaka.
Pita, o se ke oa leka oa feta Seoehla.
Seoehla ke 'mao le ntat'ao,
S. ke khomo, h'a ka a fetoa.

Of Pita, His Son.

441

The darts eat up the fat one, Pita, son of Nyaphisi,

Even the cattle that are fed fat:

Vulture, leave me, that I may go home,

May go to see the scherms at home,

The scherms which are fair at noontide.

The mate of the child of Ntloi beat a baboon,

When he said, I have just fought a monkey:

Ye rebels, rebel, while it is called to-day,

Ere the way be grass-grown (i.e., barred by enemies).

We, the servants of Mosa (Molapo's daughter), while we still

fight,
The child hath gone forth with the Eland of the Reed.* (P.'s son,

Hlokoa.)
Pita, try not to pass Seoehla (the chief at the back of the host) :
Seoehla is thy mother and thy father,
He is an ox not to be passed.

* The svmbol of childbirth.

XI.

TSA LECHESA.

Morena, joale ke ea joang,

ke sa le a its'oara le thebe holimo,

lithebe a li jara, a li isa Matebeleng.

Lechesa, h'a a (e) ja, ba mo lebala,

ba mo hopola ha ho ts'oeroe lithebe,

Pholo (ha li ea likhomo), mor'a khosi,

ha e'so ho sole, e sa otile ;

morena Rampetetsi a makhotla,

makhotla a petetsane sebohong,

Moja-moja-mojang-mosueu,

mohats'a Sebili sa baTauno-.

448 sesuto praises.

Praises of Batlokwa and of Lechesa.

■Chief, liow do I go ?

I am still one who holds himself with the shield above.

Shields — he bare them, he took them to the Matabele,

Lechesa, when he ate them up, men forgat him :

They remember him when the shields are seized (when they need

him) ,
The ox (when the cattle go), son of a chief,
Has not yet lost its old hair, it is lean :
Chief Rampefetsi (presser) of the hosts,
The hosts are jammed together at the drift,

Eater up of the white men (or man of the snow-white kilt, Musha),
Spouse of Sebedi of the Bataung (Lechesa's wife).

XII.

TSA KHANYE.

K. a maroala a bots'abelo,
nka, bana, u ba ise likhaeng,
a ee lule le bona likhaeng.

Of Khanye, His Father.

Khanye of the Crowned (regiment) of the Refuge,
Take the children and carry theni to where they build,
Go and stay with them where they build.

XIII.
LEBAKA.

Lebaka, child (bellv) of Musa, dance at Ramotsehare-o-Moholo'^
mor'a maMohlahloe,

ke Sekholomi isaisane ea mofuta oa batho,
o ea ba isa a ba balehele.

Of Lebaka.

Lebaka, child (belly) of Musa, dance at Ramotsehare-o-Moholo's-

(Father of Midday), son of Mohlahloe (sister of Lebaka).

I am the Speaker, the Bringer (regimental name) of the sort of

men,
He will bring them and run away from them.

SESUTO PRAISES. 449'

XIV.

TSOETETS1.

Tsoetetsi ea ma.pha.tsoe, mor'a. Lebaka,

sechicha se mahlomaholo,

naleli ea Molatoli ke tsa mang ?

li hlapanyetsa Tebele, bahabo ha ba mo hlapanye,

ha ba mo hlapanye,

ha ba ka ba re'Tsoetetsi a maphatso(e),

ha le utloa (a) lumela Mahlatse,

le re, H'a se lumele, a etse joang,

ha e le bafo ba boNtatisi, e le bafo, ba qhats(any)etsoa mofehlo

Sekonyela ke motho oa Molingoane,

o latotsoe ke Molingoane.

Of Tsoetetsi, His Grandfather.

Tsoetetsi of the Maphatsoa (regiment), son of Lebaka,
Sknll with the great eyes,
Whose are the stars of Molatodi ?
They swear to the Matebele,

His people swear not by him, they swear not by him.
They did not say, "Tsoetetsi of the Maphatsoa."
When you bear tliey roar applause.

You say, Why should he not agree? WThat else can he do?
If it is the servants of Ntatisi's folk, servants for whom butter-
milk is poured,
Sekonyela is Modingoane's man,
But he is denied of nim.

XV.

MOTHO ANE.

Mothoane : Ke sekolebeta sa RaJosefa,
Sa beta motho ts'imong ea Lebusa.

Of Mothoane.

I am the champion of Josef a 's father (Molapo) :
He wrestled with a man in the garden of Lebusa (a cousin of
Lechesa).

450 SESUTO PRAISES.

XVI.
MOKOATHI.

Mokoathi oa makhoatha-holimo,

kh(o)atha tlala e ba bolaee ba haLetijane.

Of Mokoathi, Lechesa's Son.

Mokoathi of the "flickers-up" (regiment?),

Flick some hunger, that he may slay Let i jane's men.

XVII.
MOTINATINA.

Motinatina: Khomo ea lihloela tsa Rainabaleha,
khomo ea Bokone ea Matebeleng,
ea runoa lint a le mapokaetsi.
Khomo ea lihloela e sesa moholi,
khomo ea Bokone ea Matebeleng.
Mohaha-hlabana oa bammuso,
mohale a hlabana thunya li boee,
Mohale-oa-liKatrise-tinane,
O ile a hlabana Mathebe, bosiu bo sele,
mohla ho bolaoaug Posholi,

RaMathibila litlhomola Letina Ramatsabisa mafora
bohaong.

Of Motinatina, a Grandson.

The ox of the spies of Ramabaleha (i.e., Posholi, brother of

Moshesh),
Ox of Bokone, of Matebeleiand,

Was searched for lice and horse-flies (i.e., raw kaffirs).
The ox of the spies clears the mist,
The ox of Bokone of Matebeleiand.
The builder of the battle heap of Government men,
The warrior fought to bring guns home.
Hero of the cartridges in little tins,
He fought at Mathebe,
When the night had cleared,
The night Poshodi was slain.

Information about the Family of Foregoing, Received at
tsikoane, opposite flcksburg.

His son, Letina, said : Nkhahle quarrelled with Leohesa and
the brother of Lebaka, i.e., Tlaedi. Then the children of the
Dikonyela (regiment) fought against our men, those of Lebaka,
and our brethren slew them. Now chief Lechesa refused, saying,
"Let them go"; they were his people, but they had already killed
(some). Those of the Dikonyela departed, and they sent two mes-

SESUTO PRAISES. 451

sengers ; they sent them to Bokone, to seek a doctor from thence.
The doctor came, when my grandfather, Lebaka,* was a boy
herding cattle — yet a chief, although he was still herding among
the Dikonyela (regiment). They anointed a stick with medicine,
then they threw it into the veld. When he (L.) came and jumped
over the stick — he went mad. They were scattered when the chief
was mad ; some came through when they came hither to Moshesh,
other remained in Bokone, others at Dikonyeleng.

These Batlokoa had special regiment names : Maphatsoe (No.
14), Maroala (No. 12), Masiu, Matsoetetsi (Lebaka's brother, was
called after his grandfather, as often, and as in Greece) ; Maisaisane
(v. No. 13), Mats'oara (Nkhahle's), Machesa (No. 11) about 1768,
Matlatsa circumcised about 1805 probably; Likonyela of
Sekonyela, 1821; and Mahana about the same time; and Matina
before 1863, probably.

FURTHER BAKOENA PRAISES.
XVIII.

Of Sello.

The "cry" of the Mathiba regiment of Ma-ratenku and Tsotele-
(or Ma-linku, or linko, and Tsotelo).
N.B. — Sello means a cry, and Tsotelo was his father's name.

XIX.

Of Malane, His Son.

Khongoana e tsholohali ea mathaha
Khongoana e ka mpuru Malane.

The big brown cow of the Canary regiment
Is like the conqueror Malane.

XX.

Of Namanyane (Son of Malane, and Elder Brother
of Ngaka).

Sehoyanana sa MaMohatseli,

mohla se hapang letlole,

se hapa ts'oana e fine kharatsa(na) holimolimo,

thabeng Hlohloloane bo hloile batho, ho fina kharatsa(na).

* Actually his grandfather's maternal grandfather.

452 SESUTO PRAISES.

The feeble cripple of Mamohatsedi,
When he seizes on the prey (fat, smear),
lie seizes the black cow adorned with a crest above,
Upon Mount Clocolan have men swarmed up to fasten on that
crest.

Recollections of a Centenarian.

Motinatina said : When they left Ntsoananatsatsi, the Bat-
lokoa came and fought Moshesh at Buthabuthe (1824). When
they had scattered Moshesh, he went to Thaba Bosiu, and then
Sekonyela came here to Tsikoane and went up into that mountain:
the Bakoena of Marabeng and Mokhitle went and swarmed up
Joalaboholo, so Sekonyela, went and scattered Mokhitle there.
The latter went to Moshesh and took refuge there. Sekonyela
remained and built and settled at Joalaboholo. Molapo quarrelled
with Letsie at Makhoarane, both claiming a leopard; one refused
to leave it, saying it was his. Then Moshesh takes Molapo and
gives him to Sekonyela. The latter 's son, father of Ledingoana,
burnt the house of Kadi : Moshesh and Seyonyela quarrelled and
fought for ten years, and then in the twelfth year (1853) Moshesh
scattered Sekonyela, and this land went back into Moshesh fs power.
He brought Molapo hither, as it already belonged to him.

Moshesh quarrelled with the Boers in the days of Senekal
(1858). Afterwards Brandt came with the coloured folk and
Constable,* who were to come and fight Moshesh in the war of
Seqiti('66ff). Moshesh fought with the Boers eight years, and then
came peace: there came Wodehouse, Currie and Bowker,* who
were to come and fight in alliance with the Boers ; they separated,
and there came peace.

It is then the English came and made boundaries at the
Caledon, cutting themselves off from the Boers. They made boun-
daries at Caledon. This whole land of the Orange Free State ia
the land of Moshesh: Moshesh's boundary was the Vaal ; it is
no longer so, it is the Boer's now.

The English quarrelled with the Boers ; then the English
called many sorts of black and white men, and so they scattered
Paul (Kruger) who* went to the Portuguese. I know that to-day
the Queen has also quarrelled with the Germans on the sea!

From the Days of Childhood, j

When Moshesh went to Kobo's place, Khosij was wounded
there. Then the Batlokoa remained and attacked, seizing Mamo-

* The Suto pronunciation of these names is quaint: Kos-tabole, Kuta-

usi, Kori, Bokoro.
t This informant with his son Letina, both got their names from the

Tina River, near the Tsitsa in Pondonisiland. The son was born

just after his father's return from his campaign in those parts

under Poshodi, Moshesh's younger brother (1861).
X Khosi when he praises himself says : —

I am the hero of Kobetsane of the Makhila regiment.

(He also speared the Xosas yonder, i.e., in Cape Colony.)

He said : I have pierced you, not seeing you.

SESUTO PRAISES.

453

hato (wife of Moshesh). Then they ran and stopped Mamohato
and slew the Batlokoa : Mamohato returned home, and Moshesh
praised (them) greatly, he found his children (they had been
stopped by Tyakane's men — there were some heroes among them
at Mphutlana's place' — the mighty men of Nyakane slew the
Batlokoa, Mokakailane the Motlokoa : so they stopped Mamohato.
(1829: See Almanaka ea Basotho for the dating.)

Note on 'Mamosa, the Mother of Jonathan (vide IV.).
(Contributed by A. Sekese.)

Kamokotyo, the father of 'Mamosa, was a man of Makhabane,
the brother of Moshesh. When Makhabane was proclaimed at
Ntlokholo, he was out with Ramokotyo, and at that time Japje,
a prophet of the war with the Koranas, which was still to come
(1835), prophesied of the horses which they rode and an ox, which
was ridden by Raleotoana, and also of his death, and of the guns.
(At the time of that war 'Mamosa was circumcised at Ramakha
with Masenate, Moshesh's queen.) He also prophesied of the
coming of the missionaries.

'Mamosa then went back to Ntlokholo. At that time
'Mamosa was a little girl. She was frightening birds there, and
was seen by the shepherds of Mokhachane and Moshesh. Tsieane
Mokhachane wanted to marry her, but she refused him flatly, and
Lesaoane also (he was engaged to Mamaneela). Molapo also saw
her looking after his father's cattle.

Moshesh hastened to send Khoho, and ordered him to take a
royal sheep in Mokotyo's charge and to ask him for 'Mamosa.
Then they went out to Makhoarane (near Morija). Moshesh and
his father sent Tsieane to follow him and Nkhase, Qusha and
Makhoma, son of Let oka (a Mosia), in addition to his father's
wives, including Manena Moshesh. At that time the missionaries
had come, and when they were there Moorosi said he had been
to look for the cattle at Kobe's (in Cape Colony) ; at that time
Isaac praised himself and said: —

"Mphurane a phura thata, Baphiri."

(M. gnashed his teeth well, O men of the Hyenas regiment.)
Mosa Molomo was born ; when they left Makhoarane they
went to Peka, when Jonathan was born. They returned to
Makhoarane, where Jonathan was baptised. Then they came to
Cana; shortly after they left there because of trouble caused by
Sekhonyela, and went to Tsoanamakhulo ; when they left there
they went to Leribe, where Japje prophesied the madness of
Josepha.

454

ON SEVERAL IMPLEMENTS AND ORNAMENTS FROM
STRANDLOOPER SITES IN THE EASTERN PROVINCE.

BY

John Hewitt, B.A.
Director, Albany Museum, Grahamstown .

With Plates IX-XII.

Bead July 15, 1921.

Pygmy crescents closely resembling those which have long been
known from Europe were figured and described by the late J. P.
Johnson', from Riverton Island, from Bulawayo, and from
the junction of the Vaal with its tributary, the Hart River. They
are not common in South Africa, being apparently absent from
the well-known Strandlooper sites of the Western Province. In
his monumental work,2 Dr. L. Peringuey figures only one
example, from the Orange Free State, giving no other record of
this very characteristic type, although pygmy implements of
various other kinds are figured and described from the sand-dune
middens of the Cape Peninsula : nor does he mention the larger
crescents, such as I now record from different sites on the coast
of the Eastern Province. Nevertheless, the occurrence of pygmy
crescents of this type has been reported to me by Mr. H. Harger
from the dunes at Still Bay, near Heidelberg, C.P. In the Eastern
Province pygmy crescents (Plate XI, Fig. 10) were discovered quite
recently in a large rock shelter on the farm Wilton, near Alicedale,
by Mr. C. Windsor Wilmot, postmaster of Qumbu. On that site,
ornamented with numerous rock paintings, Mr. Wilmot found in
the ash and debris of the floor a great quantity of small scrapers
(Fig. 9) and ostrich shell beads, and together with them about a
dozen or more crescents, all small yet beautifully finished, the length
ranging from half to five-sixths of an inch, with a maximum thick-
ness along the curved back of one-seventh of an inch. Some of
them still bear traces of red paint on the edges, and in one-
instance the paint forms a more or less distinct line on the under
surface, as if the maker of the implement had first outlined the
curve in paint on the original flake. A single pygmy crescent
was also found a few months ago in a rock shelter on the farm
Berg Plaats, near Grahamstown.

A series of six larger specimens, rather coarsely made, but
differing chiefly in size from the Wilton crescents, was found in
a shell-mound near the mouth of the Nahoon River, by Mr. Jas.
Swan : these (Fig. 10) are about one and a half inches long and
four-sevenths of an inch wide. A still larger example, but broken,
measuring originally about two inches by two-thirds of an inch,

1 "The Pre-Historic Period in South^AfrTcaT" 1912.

2 "The Stone Ages of South Africa." Annals of South African;
Museum, Vol. VIII.

STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 455

was found at Port Alfred by the Rev. P. Stapleton, S.J. Another,
which seems to be the major half of a crescent, came from Port
Elizabeth (June, 1896, Mr. Irniger). Lastly, an example with
its cutting edge serrated was figured and referred to by Dr.
Schonland as "a saw from Bushman land" in "Records of the
Albany Museum, " II., p. 18. The locality of this specimen is
probably incorrect, and I have good reason for believing that it
came from Port Alfred.

All these implements are made of surface quartzite, which,
however, varies considerably in appearance and composition, the
Wilton crescents being of fine-grained homogeneous rock, and the
Nahoon specimens of much more heterogeneous material, showing
patches of translucent quartz. Except as regards the material
used, these specimens seem to be identical with crescents described
from far distant regions of the old world. Specimens quite like
those from Wilton, but made of pure quartz, have been obtained
in very great numbers on the hills in Ceylon by Mr. C. Hartley,1
and others made of obsidian are recorded by the same writer from
Uganda. Specimens from India are made of jasper and chalce-
dony, and those from England and various countries in Europe
of flint. In Dechlelette's "Manuel d'Archeologie," pyguiy crescents
are also recorded from Syria, Egypt, Tunis and Algiers.

These and other pygmy implements occur both on cave and
surface sites in Europe ; but in France, at least, are specially
characteristic of coastal and river-side middens, and were evidently
made by people akin to our coastal Strandloopers in their mode
of life. At most of these sites there is, however, a somewhat
greater variety of form than obtains here. The typical crescents
of Europe pass by various grades of intermediates into well-marked
triangles: the same occur also in Ceylon and in Algeria, whence
indeed rhombic and rectangidar specimens are recorded.

This pygmy implement culture, known in France as Tardenoi-
sian, was formerly regarded as referable to an early stage in the
European Neolithic period. There was little direct evidence con-
necting them with typical Neolithic cultures, yet occasionally they
have been found along with polished neoliths. A more modern
view, expressed by Sir Arthur Evans in his presidential address
to the British Association in 1916, connects this Tardenoisian
with the Azilian period, which is a decadent offshoot of the
Magdalenian, and as such, terminates the age of Palaeolithic man.
Between the Azilian and the commencement of the true Neolithic
period, as represented in the Danish kitchen middens, there was
in Denmark at least a considerable interval of time. Thus, accord-
ing to either view, the pygmy culture in Europe belongs to some
portion of that interval separating the men of the polished stone
age from the cavemen of the reindeer age, who, like our Bushmen,
decorated the walls of their dwelling places with paintings or
engravings of animals.

In Ceylon, also, the stratigraphical evidence given by Mr. C.
Hartley seems to favour a greater antiquity for pygmy implements,

- Spolia Zeylanica," Vol. X, 1914.

456 STRAXDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

compared with the so-called Neolithic types of that country.

But in South Africa, so far as I know, there is no strati-
graphical evidence indicating their antiquity, for they are recorded
only from surface sites. Nevertheless, the pygmy culture differs
in technique as well as in size from that so frequently found on
surface sites in the Eastern Karroo. I have seen hundreds of
end-scrapers scattered over the slopes of a stony hillside on the
farm Cossackpost, near Rosmead, and many others from central
districts of the Cape, but none of them like the small rounded
scrapers from Wilton, many of which are bevelled at both ends,
and broader than long. The Cossackpost specimens, being made
of lydianite, and often showing no signs of weathering, are pre-
sumably fairly recent, and may reasonably be referred to the
"Bushmen" who frequented that region a little more than a
century ago.

If the pygmy crescents and scrapers also belong to the Bushman
race, as now seems equally probable, the two techniques may
belong to distinct branches thereof, contemporaneous or otherwise.
That such differentiation within the race did exist seems to me
a valid deduction from the distribution data, even after making
considerable allowance for local variations and developments of
technique, for Dr. Peringuey tells us that bevelled scrapers are
seldom found in the Western part of the Colony, yet they abound
in the Karroo and are met with in the Orange Free State, Griqua-
land West, and southern parts of the Transvaal. Such bevelled
scrapers are the characteristic elements of the implement assembly
at Cossackpost, and the same are figured by Johnson from Modder
River.

Or, again, differences in actual size of implements may
possibly betoken the sex of the maker. According to Dr.
Kannemeyer, who claims to have learned the fact from more than
one person intimately acquainted with Bushmen, it was 1'sually
the women who made the stone implements, but the arrow
straighteners, and doubtless all the weapons, were made by men.
The large implements used for what may be called domestic pur-
poses, such as grinding, weights for digging sticks, etc., are often
found in the springs; they were too heavy to carry about, and
the Bushmen consequently hid them in the springs or in stores.
It was a Bushman custom to fill up and cover over the springs
to conceal them from white men.1

Thus, it should not be assumed that the implements found
in a well-filled rock-shelter, or any other aboriginal site, actually
affords a complete representation of the tribal workmanship.

On the aboriginal sites of the Free State and the Transvaal
there have also been found two groups of scrapers, contrasting in
size, in reference to which P. P. Johnson wrote: "Mons. Rutot
judging from my figures, suggests that the Riet and Modder group
of solutric implements are Aurignacian, and that the Taaibosch
group corresponds to a late phase of the solutric stage of West
Europe, which he terms pre-Tardenoisian, and which is charac-

i "Man.," 1907, No. 35, p. 50.

STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 457

terised by the smallness of the implements." But Johnson himself
rejected any such explanation of the disparity in size. He laid
stress on the fact that the large scrapers are all made of lydian
stone and the small ones from small pebbles of jasper or agate,
etc. ; and, in his opinion, the character of the scrapers on any
particular site was determined chiefly by the nature of the avail-
able material. The two types seemed to him of the same class and
contemporary.

My own opinion, based on the Wilton data, favours the sug-
gestion of Mons. Rutot, no assumption of age being involved.
The workers of this site certainly had no opportunity of using
lydianite, yet they nevertheless succeeded in making numerous
comparatively large flakes from a local fine-grained surface
quartzite. Most of these flakes, which are very thin, measure in
length from one and a half to two inches, and, no doubt, scrapers
of corresponding size might easily have been made, if desired ;
but such large scrapers are almost entirely absent from the Wilton
collections.

However this may be, a Bushman origin for the Wilton
crescents may be inferred from the cultural associations. The
ostrich-shell beads and rock paintings suggest that conclusion, but
additional weight is given from the fact that an adult skull (Plate
XII, Fig. 14) clearly referable to some branch of the Bushman race,
was unearthed from the same rock-shelter. This skull is now in
the Albany Museum, having been presented thereto by Mr. W. W.
Wilmotj the owner of the farm. It agrees with the type differen-
tiated as Strandlooper by Dr. Shrubsall, being just brachycephalic
(Index 80), as also is another much younger specimen from the
same place.

Remains of four burials, all probably of the same race, were
found at the rock-shelter, and in each case the corpse had been
covered by large flat stones painted with red on their under sur-
faces. Despite the fact of definite burial, we may assuredly
connect the skeletons with the other objects above mentioned.
Many of the beads were taken directly from the skeletons: others
were found in the debris of the floor, along with pygmy imple-
ments, some of which were made, in all probability, for use in
the bead industry. The same association of beads with pygmy
implements is recorded from up-country sites by Johnson, and
may be accepted as original.

The use of red pigment also affords a probable connecting
link between the crescents and the skeletons, yet considering its
prevalence from the cave period of Europe up to recent times,
it is not alone sufficient to prove the genuineness of the association.
It is nevertheless interesting to note that red haematite has been
found on Tardenoisian sites in the region of the Meuse. However,
as long ago as the first division of the reindeer age, the
Aurignacian period, it was customary to bury lumps of red ochre
with the dead so that they might make a fitting show in the
under world. I may add that on various sites in Europe, in both
Palaeolithic and Neolithic times, human skeletons extensively
stained with red on the skulls and bones have been found. Some

9

458 STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

authorities have even suggested that the practice of colouring the
dead was performed after decay of the flesh, a view which is not
•generally accepted. I mention this by way of recording the fact
that such reddened skulls are also known to me from another cave
.near Alicedale, on the farm Spitzkop, the associated objects being
apparently almost modern. The meaning of this ancient custom
is well explained in some lines by Schiller in Nadowessier's
"Todtenlied," as quoted by Sir Arthur Evans: —
"Colours, too, to paint his body,
Place within his hand,
That he glisten, bright and ruddy
In the Spirit-land !"

No direct evidence connecting the rock-paintings with skele-
tons and associated objects was obtained at this site. Yet the
occurrence of minute scrapers and pygmy implements near to rock-
paintings is not likely to be a mere coincidence, for similar asso-
ciations have been recorded by Johnson from various up-country
•sites. This authority definitely associates painting with minute
scrapers of the kind he obtained at Taaibosch. According to the
published illustrations, the latter implements present very con-
siderable resemblance in size and technique to some of the Wilton
specimens, but the prevalence of rounded scrapers and of short
broad specimens bevelled at both ends, as found in the Wilton
series, aoes not seem to occur at the sites mentioned by Johnson,
although he records the same small circular scrapers made from
the half of a pebble in great quantity at Riverton. Actually, most
of the tiny scrapers were end-scrapers which, he thought, had
been either bound or cemented to a handle. On the other hand,
Johnson found no specimens of his larger Modder River type of
scraper at the rock-painting sites.

In attempting to determine the unity or otherwise of the
association found on such a site considerable importance would
generally be attached to the presence or absence of cultural strata.
Now, the floor of the rock-shelter at Wilton is covered very
largely by ashes, which in places have a vertical depth of four
feet, but no layers are traceable therein. This is the unanimous
■conclusion of three investigators (Revs. P. Stapleton and Kilroe,
and the writer) who devoted five days to its exploration.1 More-
over, with few exceptions, the Wilton implements seem to con-
stitute a homogeneous assembly, despite considerable range in size
amongst the scrapers. Yet, on the morphological characters, I
think it probable that two or more cultures are intermingled : the
predominating culture is that of the pygmy implements and small
rounded scrapers mostly made from fine-grained surface quartzite
and generally trimmed with great delicacy : there is a small
minority of larger implements much more coarsely flaked, and with
these, perhaps, may be associated several typical end-scrapers
comparable to those frequently found in the Eastern Karroo. The
thin flakes previously mentioned may belong to either group or

1 Mr. W. W. Wilmot, the owner of Wilton, rendered us much
assistance during these operations, and all material collected on the
two sites was generously presented by him to the Albany Museum.

STRAXDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 459

to both. Lastly, a single perforated digging-stone (Kwe) and
several oval palettes, made of shale, probably do not belong to
the dominant culture, for the latter at least are not known from
the Tardenoisian sites mentioned by Johnson; whilst, on the other
hand, both these neoliths occur in a cave devoid of tiny scrapers
at a locality not far from Wilton. The palettes were, neverthe-
less, found in the lowest layer of the ashen floor, but may have
been deliberately buried.

Amongst the numerous paintings on the inner wall of the
rock-shelter are some spirited representations of antelopes in pro-
file. The technique is quite superior, and a number of the ante-
lopes are in two colours, red and creamy white, but there are no
group scenes. A very distinctive feature is the treatment of the
human figure, the limbs and body being tremendously elongated.
These, which are wholly red, may not belong to the same period as
the antelope pictures. There are also at the same site a few
paintings that are most obviously referable to comparatively recent
intruders, possibly even refugee Hottentots. They include very
crude illustrations of fat-tailed sheep (Fig. 11), painted apparently
in a whitish clay, overlying the red pictures of earlier artists.
This evidence, added to that of a few scraps of coarse pottery,
picked up only on the surface or just below, seems to favour the
conclusion derived from the implement data, that a superimposed
culture occurs there. Considered separately, not one of these
facts is conclusive : the inferior paintings and the end-scrapers
may be individual variations, whilst the scanty pottery may have
been introduced accidentally. But, connecting the three together
on the strength of the modernity of these paintings and the
pottery, we seem to approximate to the cultures of Strandlooper
site- in the Eastern Karroo. Such hypothesis scarcely affects the
strength of the argument connecting the skeletons with the domi-
nant culture of this site.

Thus we arrive at a conclusion which has long been anticipated,
but not hitherto so well supported by actual data as now detailed,
that the short-headed Bushman made tlie delicate ostrich-shell
beads, the pygmy crescents, and the tiny scrapers, and was also
the an tli or of rock-paintings of superior and characteristic
technique .

Further, if the end-scrapers are correctly referred to the same
culture as the pottery, we are entitled to regard the pygmy culture
as an earlier one, not contemporaneous therewith, as Johnson
supposed was the case in the Transvaal and Free State. At Wilton
the evidence is certainly unfavourable to correlating pottery with
pgymy implements, and is thus in agreement with the view that
the primitive Bushmen did not make pottery. Yet, in the up-
country sites, pottery and pygmy implements have often been
taken together. It may be noted that the Azilian culture of
Europe is also devoid of pottery and of polished stone implements.

The difficulty of interpretating the evidence of burials is-
illustrated by the case of a certain small cave two miles away
from the rock-shelter, on the same farm, Wilton. In this cave —

9a

460 STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

which contains a number of red paintings, mostly very inferior
and all very indistinct — were found pygmy crescents and small
rounded scrapers as before, but, in addition, a considerable num-
ber of coarse flakes and large end-scrapers, more or less like
those from Cossackpost or Modder River : and pieces of coarse
pottery were relatively much more plentiful than at the rock-
shelter. The floor of the cave was covered with ash and debris
forming a layer nowhere more than two feet deep, usually less,
and in it were the shallow burial places of four people, the skele-
tons, as before, being covered over by flat stones painted red on
the under surfaces. In several cases a few bone beads and great
numbers of ostrich-shell beads, were found with the skeletons,
which beads, like those at the shelter, were small and delicate,
much smaller indeed than those made now by the Kalahari Bush-
men.

Now, the skulls from this cave are not of the orthodox Bush-
man type. One is markedly long and narrow, being distinguish-
able at a glance from skulls ordinarily attributed to Bushmen :
two others are also distinctly too narrow and too high for such
identification. They may, however, contain a Bushman element,
if the characters of the mandible and the shape of the eye-sockets
have any racial importance. These burials, in any case, cannot
be very ancient, the skeletons being penetrated and largely
absorbed by the roots of shrubs growing at the entrance of the
cave. A relatively modern age for the skulls is also in agreement
with Dr. Shrubsall's conclusions that the oldest type of Strand-
looper aboriginal was more short-headed and orthognathous than
recent types.

In the light of knowledge obtained at the rock-shelter, my
interpretations of the data are as follows. The skulls belong to
a comparatively recent branch of aborigines. Some of the bone
and ostrich-shell beads are certainly associated therewith, and
probably also the pottery and the end-scrapers. The pygmy
crescents and small round scrapers may possibly belong to the same
association, but are more probably relics of earlier occupants
who made temporary use of the cave, the same people who lived in
the large rock-shelter. The ostrich-shell beads may, on this view,
belong to both cultures, for we know that they have persisted as
the characteristic ornament of Bushmen up to the present day,
long after the use of stone implements was abandoned : but the
bone beads belong mainly, if not entirely, to the later occupants.
I had provisionally arrived at these conclusions some months
before they received support from data obtained at another small
cave on the farm Spitzkop, some six miles away from Wilton. On
this site a number of skeletons were unearthed recently by Mr.
W. W. Austin. These agree well with two found in the Wilton
cave, being relatively long and high, not flattened on the vault,
and very noticeably prognathous. A great number of bone beads
was found with them, also shell beads, a few pieces of pottery,
a stone borer suitable for grinding the perforation of digging
stones, and several elliptical stone palettes with ground edges,

STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 461

but not a single crescent nor any small or rounded scrapers. The
Spitzkop implements are nearly all flakes, many of them of the
kind popularly spoken of as arrowheads. They are the predomin-
ating implements of the caves around Grahamstown (Plate X,
Fig 6), and presumably Dr. Peringuey referred to this type when
he wrote "with our paintings are associated simple small flakes
of a type and size which are met with nearly everywhere." Such
implements are apparently the productions of the most recent
aborigines of the Albany district, and no doubt the Spitzkop
skeletons (Fig. 15) belong to that now extinct race. Culturally,
these people belonged to the Neolithic period, as indicated by the
pottery and the polished stone implements — palettes and digging
stones. There is another very characteristic implement which I
■do not hesitate to refer to these same people; an axe, or adze, with
a carefully-ground cutting edge (Fig. 7). This has quite a
striking general resemblance to the European Neolithic axes, but
is made of local rock. It was found on the farm Vaal Krantz,
which is but a few miles away from Spitzkop. It was not taken
in situ, being picked up amongst other stones which had pre-
viously been excavated in making a water furrow. The specimen
has been described and illustrated both by Schonland and
Peringuey, but hitherto its connection with recent aborigines was
not even suspected.

Regarding the relative ages of the two cultures here dis-
tinguished, in the absence of stratigraphical data we have at
present no evidence more important than that of the paintings.
There are no paintings on the walls of the Spitzkop cave, the
surfaces being much broken up, but a coloured funeral slab of
stone found in the bottom layers of the cave, overlying a skeleton,
bears crude paintings which somewhat resemble the very inferior
later paintings — the fat-tailed sheep group — found at the Wilton
rock-shelter. This certainly adds weight to the argument for
two or more cultures at Wilton, and helps to justify our segregating
those inferior later paintings with the larger implements : but
there are no means of estimating what period separated the two
•cultures.

The larger crescents from Nahoon seem to me very like one
•or two specimens recorded by Prof. W. J. Sollas from Paviland
Cave, in Wales.1 He refers the Welsh material to the Upper
Aurignacian period, the characteristic implements of that sub-
divison being the "Gravette point," "a long, straight parallel-
sided flake, generally triangular in section, one edge of which
has been completely removed by minute and thorough retouching."
In the Gravette point, the retouch on the worked edge is almost
constantly directed from below upwards, which is certainly the
case in most of the South African specimens, but not all. How-
ever, many Paviland specimens differ from ours in that they
are pointed only at the apex, whilst the base of the flake remains
untouched. The undoubted resemblance in technique becomes
more remarkable inasmuch as the Gravette point passes into

1 "Journ.il Royal Anthropological Institute," Vol. XLIII, 1913.

462 STRAXDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

minute forms in Europe, one of which, figured by Sollas from the
same cave, agrees very well with several of the pygmy crescents
from Wilton : it differs from the majority of our crescents only
in presenting no trace of the small facet that commonly occurs
on the supper surface of a Wilton specimen at its widest part.
TfV may, therefore, 'provisionally regard the large crescents, from
coastal shell-mounds, and the pygmys from inland cares, as com-
plementary, and referable to the same people: it must be under-
stood, however that the shell-mounds may include the cultures
of various races, these mounds being largely unexplored.

The actual process of manufacture was evidently the same
for all sizes of crescent. Owing to the supposed difficulty of
trimming into shape the parent flakes, it has been suggested to'
me that many of the pygmy crescents are merely chips deliberately
knocked off from the cutting ends of scrapers by way of renewing
the edge. The specimens themselves bear no marks that would
necessarily follow such procedure, nor have we found scrapers from
which such chips were removed, although the Rev. P. Stapleton
has examined some hundreds of scrapers to test this view. There
can be no doubt that all these crescents were made from parallel -
sided flakes. Larger flakes were sometimes converted into crescents
by working one edge into a curve at each end, the middle portion
of that edge remaining untouched. More often, however, the
whole of that edge was worked, and it follows that, at the widest
part, about the middle of the implement, the worked edge is
narrower than at points in a line with the dorsal ridge. In one
example from Port Alfred the curved edge has been carefidly
flaked throughout its length by percussion from above, and there
results a sharp cutting edge which would make the implement
quite useful as a two-edged knife. But in most specimens the
crescentic edge is a blunt one, quite unsuitable for use as a knife,
any acute edge that may once have been present being destroyed
by vertical pressure or blows from below.

There is a very interesting note on " Pygmy Implements from
the sand-dunes of Fish Hoek, Cape Colony," bv Mr. W. J. Lewis
Abbott, in "Man," September, 1913. Some of these are described
as crescents, although they are quite different from those I have
just described, having both edges conversely curved and bevelled :
in size and delicacy of flaking they recall the Tardenoisian cul-
tures at Wilton and Taaibosch, but the shapes are different. A
great number, taken close to the sea or in the neighbourhood of
vleis in the south-western part of Cape Colony, are figured in
Dr. Peringuey's book, PI. 18, Fig. 143. Mr. Lewis Abbott was
much impressed by the fact that the methods employed in making
such implements were apparently much the same in South Africa
as in Europe. He refers the pygmy implements of the French
caves to two main groups according to the mode of manufacture.
In some cases the characteristic edge-working was in all proba-
bility effected by a strip of bone with a sawsetter slot. In others
they were made by the removal of old edges of scrapers and burins
by a blow administered at the point or butt when it was desired
to put on a new edge. Both types he claims to have identified

STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 463

in the Fish Hoek material. In the former group, made with a
slot-work apparatus, some of the Fish Hoek specimens indicate
that "in running the flaker up the edge, the backward and forward
movement took off the tiny flakes from both faces, giving rise to
an almost rectangular edge," but in others such is not the case.1
In the Wilton material, however, I can find no specimens showing
a rectangular edge thus formed, nor any which are merely the
old edges of scrapers and burins. In the Paviland Cave, on the
other hand, "numerous small flakes occur which could never have
been retouched in their present state : they are no doubt the worn
ends of burins and scrapers which have been struck off to renew
the edge."— (Prof. Sollas.)

Various suggestions have been made on the former use of such
crescents. The most acceptable view, in my opinion, relegates
them to the category of hooks or throttles for catching fish or
other prey. This is based on the fact that in many cases the only
serviceable part of the implement is the sharply-pointed ends :
these are certainly the only constant features of crescents.

Further, these implements are chiefly, if not invariably, found
in the middens of ichthyophagous peoples.

An aboriginal site on the banks of the Great Fish River, near
Cradock, has long been known. According to Mr. Hubert James,
there are extensive middens about 50 to 100 yards from the banks
of the river, which are covered by three to five feet of alluvial
soil, except where this has been removed by erosion. These
middens are very abundant along the Fish River, both above and
below Cradock, and are also found on the Tarka River. Imple-
ments therefrom have been described both by Dr. Peringuey
and J. P. Johnson, and the site is noteworthy as being the only
one in the Cape whence well-shaped arrow-heads have been taken,
although inferior examples are recorded by Peringuey from
Queenstown. I have lately had the opportunity of examining two
such arrowheads found by Mr. Hubert James, on a Fish River
site at Halesowen, on which specimen the following notes and
illustrations are based.

The larger example (Plate IX, Fig. 2) is of black lydianite,
quite unweathered. The tang is sharply defined from the body
of the implement, and has been very carefully worked all round,
the bulb of percussion being removed. Otherwise the general sur-
face above and below remains as in the original flake, except that
in the apical half of the implement both edges have been trimmed
on the upper side, and one edge towards the tip on the lower
side. The length is 2.9 inches, breadth 0.7 inch, and greatest

1 I take this opportunity of drawing attention to a remarkable
record given in the same paper by Mr. Lewis Abbott. He saw a
collection of crescents similar to the above in all respects, in technique
and material, labelled as from Australia (Miss Nina Layard) in the
Ipswich Museum. This would be important, if correct; but in view
of the fact that such implements have not otherwise been recorded
from Australia, so far as I can ascertain, and that Mr. E. L. Layard
was for many years the Curator of the South African Museum, Cape-
town, there seems room for suspicion of error in the locality.

464 STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

thickness 0.15 inch. The carefully-made tang and the well-shaped
pointed end are the special features of this specimen.

The other example (Fig. 1), measuring 2.7 inches by 0.7 inch
by 0.25 inch, is similar, except that the tang passes gradually
into the body of the implement. The bulb of percussion has been
removed, but there is no other retouching on the faces of the
implement: the edges are delicately trimmed throughout, above
and below. The material has weathered grey. This specimen has
a general resemblance to several of the arrowheads recorded from
Egypt by Flinders Petrie in his paper "The Stone Age in Egypt";
but other arrowheads, figured on the same page and likewise
referred to the Solutrean technique, are much superior to the
Cradock specimen.

Dr. Peringuey also figures several small arrowheads from the
Free State, representing a technique decidedly superior to that
of the Cradock specimens. One of them, from the Caledon dis-
trict, was found "among South African-type pygmy scrapers, '
but these pygmy scrapers are evidently quite different from those
found at Wilton, if the specimen figured by Peringuey is a fair
sample.

Associated with the arrowheads at ilalesowen were typical
end scrapers. Those lent to me by Mr. James are of superior
type, being delicately trimmed, like the arrowheads. They are
all rather flat, some long and some short. In addition, there were
numerous flakes, several broken kwes, a grooved stone (presumably
used for making bodkins), many fragments of pottery, a bone
bead, and a pendant of unusual shape, made of ostrich shell.
Pendants made from marine shells are not uncommon in the
Strandlooper caves of the southern coast, but, unlike this specimen,
are usually regularly oval and much longer than broad. The
shape of the Halesowen specimen can be seen from the illustration
(Fig. 13). The disc measures about 1 3-5th in. by 1 3-7th in.,
and on the concave inner side is a simple incised decoration
throughout the margin. This apparently commenced as a series
of short more or less radial lines which were afterwards connected
up into a zigzag by lines more obliquely disposed. The upper por-
tion of the pendant is missing, the line of fracture passing through
a hole that had been pierced therein, and we may surmise that
there was originally a pair of holes.

The immediate interest of this specimen lies in the fact that
we have one of similar shape from the Spitzkop rock-shelter (Fig.
12). The latter was, however, cut out from some large marine
shell, and is quite flat. It has a decoration of incised short lines
obliquely cutting the margin of the inner surface, but these
lines are not crossed. The specimen measures 33 mm. by 29 mm.
A still smaller one, from the same shelter, measuring 21 mm. by
18 mm., has a notched decoration around the margin, but is
cut out from the shell of some gastropod, and is longer than
broad.

This indication of affinity between the cultures of the
aboriginal sites at Cradock and at the Spitzkop cave is supple-
mented by one of, perhaps, even greater importance in the

STRANDL00PER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 465

pottery. At both sites we find red pottery of trie type designated
Strandlocper by Dr. Peringuey : it is ornamented with parallel
incised lines around the rim externally, as is often the case in
pottery from Port Alfred and other coastal sites. The distribu-
tion of such decorated pottery has not yet been worked out in
detail, but its importance in discriminating between the cultures
of the various aboriginal types may be assumed.

Thus we may reasonably suppose that the cultures of the
Cradock middens and of the Spitzkop cave are referable to the
same people. It is neolithic, and not strictly comparable to that
of the European cave period, as is sometimes stated on the evidence
of the end-scrapers. Here I may add that in a review of Johnson's
book, published in "L'Homme prehistorique," for June, 1909,
exception is taken to the author's identification of his South
African material with the Solutric group of Europe. The reviewer
states that our material has only a vague analogy with the Soiu-
trean, and can be more justly compared with the Tardenoisieu,
"dont elle se rapproche par ses petite nucleus, ses petits grattoirs,
ses fines lames taillees en pointe, et ses minuscules instruments de
formes geometriques en silex, jasper, etc."

This view can be reconciled with that now put forward when
it is remembered that Johnson's Modder River group of imple-
ments, composed chiefly of large end-scrapers, included no such
typical neoliths as those now recorded from Spitzkop and Vaal-
krantz. It seems clear that end-scrapers are of little value in
differentiating: allied cultures

Some Coastal Neolithic Implements.

The coastal middens of the Eastern Province have not been
systematically explored, and we know nothing of the sequence
of cultures they may contain, beyond the fact that the shell-
mound implements are of very varied technique. The Neolithic
culture is represented by kwe stones, some in the process of
making, and by pottery of the type hitherto mentioned. The
following superior speciments I am also inclined to refer to this
culture. Three flake implements from Kleinemonde, Bathurst
coast, collected many years ago by Dr. W. G. Atherstone. They
(Figs. 3 and 4) are in the form of small, but fairly thick, lance-
heads, one long and narrow (63mm. by 22mm.), the others much
broader and a little shorter (59mm. by 35mm., and 56mm. by
30 mm.) In each case, the upper surface of the flake has been
worked all over, the dorsal ridge being thereby obliterated : the
butt has been rounded, and the bulb of percussion has been
completely removed by surface flaking ; otherwise, the lower sur-
face of the original flake remains untouched. The dorsal flaking
is rather delicate in two of the specimens, but in no case has any
attempt been made to seriously reduce the thickness of the
specimen.

Such implements are not known to me from local caves, nor
from shell-mounds on the Great Fish River, but a single specimen

466 STRANDLOOPER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS.

collected by Miss Mary Bowker on a surface site near a tributary
of that river, on the farm Cossackpost, near Rosmead, greatly
resembles the narrow implement from Kleinemonde, but is larger,
being four inches long, and seems to have had no bulb of per-
cussion. The Cossackpost specimen (Fig. 8), is of black lydianite,
not weathered, and the same site has yielded numerous large
end-scrapers and flakes.

Lastly, there is in the Transvaal Museum a fine large
spear-head, which, according to the authorities of that institution,
was probably collected near Port Alfred. The surface quartzite
from which it was made is not quite like that of any Port Alfred
specimen in our collection, and there is no pitting nor gloss such
as exposed implements acquire at the coast. I believe neverthe-
less that it must have come from some part of the southern coast,
which view is also maintained by one of our most experienced
geologists, Professor E. H. L. Schwarz. The specimen (Fig. 5),
is noteworthy for its characteristic shape, but the surface flaking
is comparatively coarse. It is worked from a flake on both fac>s
almost throughout, except that the mesial portion of the original
lower surfaoe remains untouched over a considerable area; the
original surface is also present at the truncated butt end, which
is triangular. There is no trace left of the dorsal ridge, excepo
possibly just at the base, and the bulb of percussion is quite
obliterated. The edge all round is rather sharp and slightly
sinuous, as in "bouchers," owing to the alternative flaking. The
edge working is nowhere very fine, but moderately fine trimming
occurs towards the tip of the implement. The length is 4.8 inches,
breadth 1.9 inches, thickness 0.62 inches. This specimen has
some likeness to the best type of Palaeolithic "boucher," but
differs from any such specimen in our collection, not only in shape,
but also in its thickness: in this latter respect again, it differs
from the typical leaf-shaped implements of the Solutrean period,
which are markedly thin.

Conclusion.

On their morphological characters, the stone implements found
on several cave sites in the Albany district seem to belong to at
least two distinct cultures. The rock paintings occurring at such
sites are also of several techniques, including superior bichrome
representations of antelopes and very inferior figures of fat-tailed
sheep, the latter being of more recent age. Two types of human
skulls have been found in the same caves, one short-headed and
prognathous and other mesaticephalic and very prognathous.

Although the evidence is somewhat incomplete, there is
sufficient to make the following correlations highly probable: —

(1) Shortheaded orthognathoits "Bushmen" (alias Straud-
loopers of Dr. Shrubsall), makers of crescents and pygmy
implements of all kinds, also of very small ostrich-shell beads,
painters of the best animal figures, date uncertain, but probably
earlier than ('2), lived in caves and also at the coast.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE IX.

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM STRANDLOOPER SITES, EASTERN FROVINCE.

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII.

PLATE XI.

^

SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. XVIII. PLATE XII.

STRANDL00PER INSTRUMENTS AND ORNAMENTS. 467

(2) Prognathous "Bushmen" (they probably belong to some
historic tribe* Damasonqua or Gonaqua Hottentots), makers of
•end-scrapers and of occasional lance and arrowheads of superior
type, also of Neolithic implements such as kwes, palettes, stone-
axe, makers of characteristic pottery (designated Strandlooper by
Dr. Peringuey), workers in bone and ivory, bone beads to a
considerable extent supplanting those of ostrich shell, although
ornaments cut from shells of molluscs and of ostrich egg were
abundant. Date fairly recent. Lived in caves, also on the banks
of the Great Fish River, near Cradock, and at various places on
the coast.

It may be noted that this is in agreement with the sequence
of cultures in Europe, in so far as the stone implements are con-
cerned, the pygmies of the European Tardenoisian being prior to
the ground and polished implements of the Neolithic age.

Explanation of Plates IX-XII.

Plate IX — Arrow-heads from river -side midden at Halesownen
(Figs. 1 and 2) : lance-heads from shell-mound at Kleinemonde
(Figs. 3 and 4) : spear-head from unknown locality, probably
southern Cape coast (Fig. 5), noteworthy amongst the flake
implements here figured in being worked throughout on both
surfaces.

Plate X — Flakes from rock-shelter containing paintings at Glen-
craig, Grahamstown (Fig. 6) : Axe with ground edge from
Vaalkrantz (Fig. 7) : Lance-head from surface site at Cossack-
post, near Rosmead (Fig. 8).

Plate XI — Small scrapers from Wilton rock-shelter (Fig. 9) : Four
small crescents from Wilton rock-shelter and three large
ones from Nahoon shell-mound (Fig. 10) : Inferior paintings
at Wilton, including two fat-tailed sheep on the left (Fig.
11.): Pendants of sea shells from Spitzkop cave (Fig. 12):
of ostrich shell from river -side midden at Halesowen (Fig. 13).

Plate XII — Skull of short-headed "Bushman," male, from Wilton
rock-shelter (Fig. 14): Of prognathous "Hottentot" female,
from Spitzkop cave (Fig. 15) : Three views of the latter are
shown.

* A summary of the historical data relating to the Aborigines
of the Eastern Province may be found in a paper by the present
writer, published in "S.A. Journal of Science," July, 1921.

468

THE FUNCTION OF A SCHOOL OF ART IN THE LIFE OF
THE COMMUNITY.

BY

O. J. P. Oxley, A.R.C.A. (London),
Art Matter, The Technical College, Durban.

Read July 13, 1921

This paper is in the nature of a plea for a more universal and
a fuller recognition of art education in a practical sense, and to
show the relationship which ought to exist between a school of art
and the life of the town in which it is situated. Where art is
concerned, educationalists have always viewed the subject from the
narrow and the least profitable standpoint. Draughtsmanship and
painting have almost excluded other forms of instruction, and it
is owing to this limited outlook that art in educational systems.
has received little or no consideration. Until this view is altered
there is little hope, or reason, for us to expect any improvement.
To-day in England, France and America a wider and more liberal
type of instruction is finding favour in all departments connected
with education. It is necessary for authorities to make up their
minds as to the kind of education they intend to work for ; and
if thev really mean to regard the school as the place where a
beginning is to be made for the pursuit of truth, a clear and sincere
outlook is essential, for education is just sincerity, and one must
know a great deal to be sincere.

The Head of a school of art should be possessed of a good
knowledge of the educational nature of, and forms of instruction
in art. By virtue of his training and position, the head should
be consulted on all matters of art training, and he should have
control of all art instruction in the town. By proper organisation
there should be an unbroken chain of instruction from the kinder-
garten to the end of the secondary school period, which should, if
necessary, be continued in the school of art or training college.
By the linking up of the primary and secondary schools with the
school of art, the whole of the instruction would receive a wider
outlook, and the prevailing idea that the drawing-board, paper and
pencil aie the only essentials for this subject, may be gradually
changed. The development of appreciation is of more value ulti-
mately than skill in drawing, and our future education should aim
at inculcating the appreciation of beauty, of art and craftsman-
ship. It is the eye, and not the brain, that first awakes the
passion for the beautiful. It is the business of the school of art
to open up all avenues of beauty, and this fact should never be
lost sight of.

In what direction other than the drawing up of the various
syllabuses connected with the curricula of the primary and
secondary schools can the school of art help the schools of the
town ? The art master is rarelv consulted about the painting and

A SCHOOL OF ART AND THE COMMUNITY. 469'

decoration of the schools, the pictures, the printing of stationery,
notices, and books used by educational authorities. The authori-
ties consult their engineer, treasurer or surveyor on matters;
peculiar to their departments, but they rarely think of using the
art master — who is also a public servant — on matters relating to
his profession. It is no more costly to have matter printed in
legible types and set up in an orderly manner, or the class room
decorated in a harmonious way. In far too many instances there
is no evidence of any thought or brain work displayed on the part
of those who set up the type, or any consideration given to the-
selection of school pictures and their arrangement on the walls of
the school.

Short talks may be given to the pupils in the upper standards
of the primary and secondary schools, dealing with the various
crafts, and the history of art generally. These should be corre
lated with history, geography or literature lessons. Get our boys
and girls to realise that the fertility of the Nile Valley made civi-
lisation possible, and so produced the ancient art of Egypt ; and'
that the rude construction of, say, Stonehenge, is but the building
principle of the Parthenon without its refinements. A Greek
temple of radiant marble, with its sculptured gods and goddesses,
its ordered plan and simple and expressive lines, is a reflection of
the mental development of the Greek race. Their whole art is the
counterpart of the investigations of Socrates concerning a defini-
tion. The imperial instinct of the Romans, and their mission to
conquer and rule, finds outward expression in Roman architecture,
not in Rome alone, but to the very outskirts of the empire. Tho
decline of this empire is written clearly in the language of art.
In the decoration of Santa Sophia, with its absence of the use of
the human figure, we still hear the echoes of the theological dis-
putes and arguments of the iconoclasts. The wonders of the
European cathedrals recall the height of the church power. The
Renaissance may be given its proper meaning, instead of remain-
ing a high-sounding word. The period which sent men forth to
explore the unknown seas and make navigation a scientific calling
gives us scientific architecture and sculpture. The advent of
machinery may be seen in the hopeless artistic state of the 19th
century, with its Gothic and Renaissance revivals.

I believe that art viewed from this standpoint could be
advantageously introduced into our schools with the result that
the future generation will learn to regard the past with interest.
and to feel that expressing itself through any form of art would
be only carrying on a great tradition. This co-ordination with
the elementary schools is, to my mind, an essential, to assure the
community receiving full benefit from its art school. The fore-
going instruction naturally takes place outside the school of art,
and for its accomplishment the staff are the only ones affected.

When considering the actual work within the school one of the
most important aspects to be regarded is the relation between
industry and the school curriculum. It is to be taken for granted
that the school is in close touch with the employers and employees

470 A SCHOOL OF ART AND THE COMMUNITY.

of trades which it can serve. Local societies should be encouraged
to hold their meetings in the school, and every possible endeavour
made to strengthen the tie between the school and industry. It
is advisable to have representatives from the various trades on the
advisory committee of the school. One great advantage resulting
from such co-operation is the preparing of a list of apprentices
in the various trades and professions. If these lists were prepared
systematically it is possible to know how many new boys will be
wanted each year to fill vacancies, also to prevent the preparatory
training of too many boys. Attendance at the school should be
a condition of apprenticeship. Co-operation also brings the local
requirements to the notice of the head teacher; the work of the
school should be based to a great extent upon the needs of the
•community.

In order to further the relationship of the school to industry
it is necessary that the staff should be carefully selected and
adequately paid. Instructors should be both teachers and crafts-
men, well trained, and with as wide an experience as possible in
their various crafts. Such instructors are not easily found; many
good craftsmen refuse to accept teaching posts owing to the lack
of sympathy in, and red tape methods of, educational authorities.
Mere paper qualifications, which are so much prized by some
•educational bodies, as absolute essentials, are by no means "the
last word" for an art instructor. I do not believe drawing to be
of much value unless taught by somebody who believes whole-
heartedly in the subject of art. What is needed is a precise, scien-
tific and practical foundation on which the imagination and
activities of the young can be built. We need not so much schools
of art, as schools of practical knowledge, not so much art training,
as training in workmanship, with all that the word implies. Men
who can retain and teach the old traditions of craftsmanship are
difficult to find. If a good staff is to maintain its efficiency the
authorities must allow adequate free time to the instructors, in
order to enable them to continue working in their particular craft.
The best of instructors will deteriorate and become a mere walking
text book if all practice ceases, and in consequence the teaching
loses all vitality and freshness — two qualities most essential to art
instruction. It is advisable for instructors to be engaged as "full
time" instructors, and then arrange that half their time be devoted
to teaching. In many instances it is only necessary to give instruc-
tion in the principles underlying a trade, leaving the practical
work to the factory, but this is hardly the case in dealing with
crafts covered by the curriculum of an art school. In the prac-
tical operation the skilled craftsman learns his art.

Naturally it is with the view to raising the standard of indus-
trial art that the school is chiefly concerned, but it is of little avail
if we succeed in our endeavour, only to find that there is no demand
for the better production. The purchasers must be able to
appreciate the better article, and in order to do this the school of
art must give the general public a chance of being able to form
appreciative instincts. Between the manufacturer and craftsman

A SCHOOL OF ART AND THE COMMUNITY. 47 f

on the one hand, and the general public on the other, we have a
class who can either make or mar our work — the distributor. So
far educational authorities have not given this powerful class any
consideration or provided any means for its advancement of good
taste. How many of the salesmen or women have any knowledge
of the history or essential values of the things they sell? "All
types of business men should be the better for knowing an outline
of the history of trade or craft — the link with the past is always
ennobling." The distributor acts as a strainer between his sources
of supply and his customers, and he must be careful that his mesh
does not strain out all the good and so lead to a low standard of
production. I am aware that it is a difficult matter to successfully
get hold of and arrange for this class of people. The problem is
worth attacking, and the school of art authorities are the proper
people to direct the attack. The young salespeople and others
cannot gain a systematic and complete education in the shop or
warehouse ; too frequently they pick up their knowledge as best
they can. It is probable that only a very small percentage of
assistants have real knowledge regarding such essentials as origin,
raw materials, make, texture, adulteration, dyeing, design, and
quality of goods handled hourly, and discussed with the customer.
In the curriculum of such courses actual drawing lessons, as usuallv
understood, need not be included. Goethe in bis day wrote: —
"I do not know whose ideas should be broader than those of the
true merchant." Commerce is full of romance, and it should be
the duty of art — the handmaiden to romance — to help in crystal-
lising the romantic. To me it seems obvious that any business
would be improved in which its buyers, salesmen and travellers
had had some training in the direction I have so briefly indicated.
Some of the large firms in England and America have recognised
the value of further education among their assistants, and have
arranged for classes in their own buildings and in the employers'
time. I hope you will agree with me and recognise the importance
of the distributor in industrial affairs, and the need for some form
of education.

We have also a large body of people who have no desire to
draw or become producers, but who are to be the consumers of our
productions. The school of art ought not to neglect these people,
and courses should be arranged to meet their requirements. A
series of lectures, illustrated by lantern slides, might be given,
dealing with everyday matters, such as interior decoration, the
treatment of walls, windows and fireplaces, good and bad fabrics
for hangings, table glass, pottery, and metal work, showing the
essential qualities which go towards making them good. The com-
parison between good and bad articles is always of interest. Co-
operation between the school and the local museum is of great
importance in connection with the course. The museum should be
the living centre of the intellectual life of the town — a living,
moving, ever-changing pageant, illustrating and illuminating
every expression of art, a place of reference for the students, a
guide for their practice and aims, also enabling the public to obtain

472 A SCHOOL OF ART AND THE COMMUNITY.

the finest possible grasp of the essential facts of life which art
translates into abstract expression. Generally our museums remain
the same from year to year, and the average citizen, having once
visited the building, never darkens its doors again, feeling that
he has nothing to lose by staying away. It may be possible for
the school to have a small exhibition, or loans from other towns,
always available to the public.

Too much stress should not be laid upon the fineness of old
work when endeavouring to gain the interest of employers. It
is difficult to interest the average employer in the best work of the
past, but the present-day standard against which he is in com-
petition will always be of value and interest. The school must
prove that better work can be executed under existing conditions.
With patience and tact it is possible gradually to gain the
students' interest in the finest traditions of the past, but if this
is attempted too early it has in many cases the effect of "putting
the student off." One cannot expect any sudden rise in artistic
appreciation, as with music and literature the appreciation of fine
things is of gradual growth.

It is a comparatively easy matter to build up an institution
on paper. Air castles too often fall, but can always be rebuilt
if one so wishes, giving one a chance to change the design. In
education, business methods are often ignored. On matters of this
nature our frame of mind should be similar to that of a business
man developing a business, and practical aims should always be
kept in mind.

Three important questions arise in connection with the
development of an art school, namely: — (1) How is the student
to be brought to the school ? (2) How is he to be kept there
during the necessary period 1 (3) What is to become of him in
the future? Firstly, a demand must be created. Many may be
surprised, perhaps, at this remark, since art and beauty are usually
thought of together, but there is little or no genuine desiie for
beauty in the world to-day. The cry that has been uttered
throughout the ages, "The times are unfavourable to art," is still
heard to-day. Existing in an atmosphere which is generallv
opposed to art, it is necessary for us to employ every method pos-
sible for the advancement of our cause.

Amongst whom can this demand for art be created 1 I sug-
gest (1) Our boys and girls at school. (2) Artizans and employers
whose work is connected with the school. (3) The general public.

With regard to the boys and girls a proper art course, especi-
ally in secondary schools, should help to create a demand from a
few for a further art school training. Owing to the scant atten-
tion paid to art instruction in our secondary schools we miss an
impressionable age. This is to be regretted, because from such
schools come those who are most likely to be employers, and will
direct the markets from within, and as purchasers form its control.
A good art teacher will be able to pass on many keen students,
while an indifferent one will probably kill all interest for further
work. In order to further our aims it is essential to have the

A SCHOOL OF ART AND THE COMMUNITY. 473

support of the head teacher and assistant masters of the town
schools. Every opportunity must be taken to bring the work of
the school before the teachers, and demonstrations and lectures
concerning the exhibits in the school museum and art gallery
might be arranged. Loans to teachers of books, photographs, and
models help to make a common interest, and circulating loans of
good drawings, craftwork, lettering and paintings not only help to
raise the standard of work in the schools, but suggest a further
course of work at the art school.

Having created an interest, and, I hope, a desire on the part
of some to take up some occupation which would involve an art
training, how are we to encourage pupils to attend the school ?
In the first place we must offer a curriculum which shall be
acknowledged by authorities and employers; secondly, by establish-
ing small bursaries, a number of students may be enabled to
attend full time. This may appear to be a very costly business,
but one must consider that the larger the classes the more th;
Government grant is likely to be.

In dealing with our second class, the artizans, the best method
of approach is through the various societies and unions of their
particular trades or crafts. It is most important that the interest
and support of the societies be gained, and when once the membeis
feel that they have a definite interest in the school's welfare it is
not a difficult matter to get hold of students.

The general public is a much more difficult section to get into
touch with. I have already mentioned the matter of lectures.
The press may be utilised in this direction ; not only should the
matter affect the school and its aims be written up, but general
subjects which affect the town directly and indirectly, for example
the historic review of memorials, designs for tombstones, town-
plantiing, public parks, laying out of gardens, street hoardings;
advertisements, street signs, and art movements in our own and
other countries. It must be remembered that —

"Art is not a matter of picture exhibitions, or a few statues

dumped down in our towns, but Art is all worthy work — gardening,

boot-making, building, and sometimes, perhaps, picture painting.

too."

It is not merely a question of poetry and painting, but of shops,
factories, house-keeping, town-building, etc. The delight in
beauty comes as a reward of right work. It is the craftsman who
"maintains the fabric of the world," so it is to the benefit and
welfare of any community to help and maintain such a class in
every possible form.

"So is every artificer and workmaster that passeth his time
by night as by day: they that cut gravings of signets, and his
diligence is to make great variety, he will set his heart to pre-
serve likeness in his portraiture, and will be wakeful to finish
his work. So is the smith sitting by the anvil and considering
the unwrought iron: the vapour of the fire will waste his flesh,
and in the heat of the furnace will he wrestle with his work :
the noise of the hammer will be ever in his ear, and his eyes are
upon the pattern of the vessel ; he will set his heart upon per-
fecting his works, and he will be wakeful to adorn them perfectly.

474 MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

So is the potter sitting at his work, and turning his wheel about
his feet, who is always set anxiously at his work, and all his
handiwork is by number; he will fashion the clay with his arm,
and will bend its strength in front of his feet ; he will apply his
heart to finish the glazing, and he will be wakeful to make clean
the furnace. All these put their trust in their hands ; and each
becometh wise in his own work. Without these shall no city be
inhabited, and men shall not sojourn nor walk up and down
therein. They shall not be sought for in council of the people
and in the assembly they shall not mount on high; they shall not
sit in the seat of the judge, and they shall not understand the
covenant of judgment : neither shall they declare instruction and
judgment, and Avhere parables are they shall not be found. But
they will maintain the fabric of the world and in the handiwork
of their craft is their prayer." — Ecclesiasticus xxxviii, 27-34.

A CURIOSITY OF MEDIAEVAL FRENCH LITERATURE.

BY

R. D. Nauta,
Professor of French, University of Cape Town.

Read July 15, 1921.

Charlemagne, an Anglo-Norman poem of the 12th Century, etc.
London and Paris. Editio princeps Francisque Michel, 1836.

Le Pelerinage de Charlemagne, Dr. E. Koschwitz, Leipzig, 1895.

The most remarkable and at the same time the most original
production of the early popular French literature is the epic. In
the classical form of Chansons de geste, i.e., songs of deeds of
derring do (gesta), it accomplished more for the glory of mediaeval
France than any other form of literary composition. Primarily
the chansons de geste were composed for recitation by the jongleurs
or minstrels, who also sang them to a very simple melody, accom-
panied by the vielle. The trouvere or poet rarely sang his own
compositions, but, as a rule, sold them to the professional jongleur.
Originally these epic songs were sung by the jongleur as the
warriors marched to battle ; but later on they became a pastime
for the lords at their meals and festivals. Taking their tone from
the audiences, before whom they were sung in the castle halls of
the feudal nobility, the chansons de geste dealt almost invariably
with incidents of war and battle. Their central hero is
Charlemagne, in whose majestic figure their spirit finds its nobled
embodiment. He stands for the whole of the Carolingian race
welded into one dominant character of epic literature, as the type
of the imperial ruler. He is the conqueror of the Saracens and
the Saxons, the revered protector of the church and the clergy,
the supporter of justice, the terror of the great, the comfort of
the poor. The noblest portrait of Charlemagne is set foith in the
first and greatest of the chansons de geste: the "Chanson de
Roland," which, after a long course of development, elates in it?

MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE. 475

final form from the second half of the 11th Century. The curious
and amusing epic, which forms the present subject, belongs to the
same period. Its hero is also Charlemagne, but quantum mututus
,ab Mo Carolo that moves before us in the Chanson de Roland !

It was in those very days, which saw the birth, in France,
of the "Chanson de Roland," that a certain jongleur appeared
before an audience of villagers and citizens, who, between St. Denis
and Paris, were celebrating the annual feast of the sacred relics,
the famous so-called Lendit, which, according to the clergy, had
been instituted by Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, but which
Charles the Bold, his grandson, had transferred to the latter
locality, along with the relics (Gaston Paris). The monks of the
ancient abbey, burning with holy zeal, have just been exhibiting
their marvellous treasures before the pious pilgrims : one of the
nails of the holy cross, the crown of thorns of our Saviour, and
many more. A goodly sum has been collected for the treasury of
the Sanctuary. But Christian worship and devotion have now had
their day with the pilgrims, and a craving for merriment makes
itself felt. The mellow tones of the instruments of minstrels and
jongleurs are heard, the hour of wine and wassail has arrived,
•and cheerfully the crowd disperses to participate in the various
amusements which are lavishly held out to them on all sides. The
jongleur, dressed in a long, dark raiment, his vielle hitched to his
belt, climbs on to a bench, ready to recite and sing. It appears
that, unlike his colleagues, the clergy do not consider him to be
a worker of iniquity and an outcast. The monks of St. Denis may
rather look upon him as a collaborator in their holy task. For,
in the poem that he is going to recite, the self -same relics, which
just now they exhibited before the crowd, will be glorified and
sung; holy relics, which according to the universally believed
legend, Charlemagne brought home from the Holy Land. It is
the poem which, on its publication, was given by its editor the
title of Pelerinage de Charlemagne. After a prelude on the vielle,
which gives the audience an opportunity to quiet down and rise
to the occasion, the jongleur starts off: — Once upon a day King
Charles had gone to church at St. Denis. He had dressed in full
royal array : from his shoulders floated down the purple velvet,
his crown was on his head, his sword of state was hanging from
his belt. When, after reverently making the sign of the cross, he
had been for a while strutting to and fro in front of his courtiers,
immensely pleased with himself and with his trappings, he stepped
outside, took his queen by the hand, led her to a spreading olive
tree, and towering before her in all his glory, he said: "Tell me,
mylady, whether you did ever see in your life a more handsome
and perfect king than me, and whether you can imagine any
prince, whom sceptre, crown, and sword suit so passing well?"
"Surely, mylord, I can," answers the queen, with a quizzical glance
at her vainglorious spouse, "I know one who leaves you far behind
in gracefulness of form and princelv splendour." "His name!"
■shouts the king, who has got pallid with amazement and fury.
"His name! I want to see this paragon, and if you lie I swear it

476 MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

will be your death !" The poor queen now feels unspeakably sorry
for her thoughtless sally. Bathed in tears, she flings herself down
at the emperor's feet. Truly, it was but a harmless joke! God
Almighty may be her judge ! She is prepared to hurl herself down
from the highest steeple in the city to prove her innocence. It is
all in vain. The emperor tramples the earth for sheer fury. "His
name! His name, I say," thus he bellows, "or I shall kill you!"
Maddened with fear, the poor queen casts about for a name, seizes
the first that she can think of, and replies in agony: "Hugo, the
Emperor of Constantinopel." That is enough. He accepts the
challenge. Charles will pit himself against that much vaunted
Hugo ! His intention had been, for some time, to go on a pil-
grimage to the Holy Land and to worship on the tomb of the Lord.
So much the greater the urgency not to tarry any longer. From
Jerusalem to Paris the road lies via Constantinopel !

Thirteen strong mules are saddled and harnessed forthwith.
Unarmed, with only a pilgrim's mantle, scrip and staff, Charle-
magne and his twelve paladins start on their journey, and the
queen, who is weeping bitterly, remains alone in the empty, vacant
church.

The party arrive at Jerusalem and visit the glorious marble
church, where Christ himself has sung at mass and eaten the last
supper with his disciples. The twelve stalls of the apostles are still
there; and next to these stands the thirteenth, closed up and sealed.
Without hesitation and fearless, fully conscious of his dignity, the
Frankish emperor breaks lock and seals and sits down on the sacred
throne, beckoning to the peers to follow his example. A Jew, who
happens to enter the church when all of them are seated, stands
dumbfounded at the sight, and is overcome to such an extent that,
shivering with awe, he has himself baptised on the spot. The grey-
haired patriarch now arrives and kneels down in front of the
impressive stranger "You would like to know who I am," says
the king to the priest. "My name is Charles; my cradle stood in
France ; twelve kings I conquered and now I am on my way to
visit the thirteenth, whom I want to crush in the same manner."
The worthy patriarch ovei-whelms his guests with honours, and at
Charles' request distributes among them as many holy relics as he
can gather together : the arm on which Simeon carried the infant
Jesus, body clothes of the Holy Virgin, a nail from the true cross,
a few hairs from St. Peter's beard, Lazarus' head, and many
others. The prelate requires no thanks ; if only the emperor
promises him to make war on the infidels in Spain he will hold
himself amply rewarded. Four months the pilgrims spend in the
Holy City. Then they depart for Jericho, there to gather palm
branches. From Jericho they start for Constantinopel ; the magic
power of the holy relics which they are carrying enables them to
cross dryshod all rivers, creeks, and lakes. The pearl of the east
erelong looms in the distance ; they arrive while it is shining in
its utmost glory. The Frankish knights are all but dazzled by
the splendour and magnificence that now beams upon them. At
the very precincts they cross the most lovely forests of pine and

MEDIAEVAL LITEKATURE. 477

laurel trees, in whose shade well-night twenty thousand knights
are partly absorbed in the noble game of chess, and partly occu-
pied at disporting themselves in the neighbouring copses, with
three thousand graceful maidens. However, Charles does not
forget the aim of his journey. He enquires after King Hugo the
Strong. They point out to him a certain neighbouring field, and
wending his way thither he finds the oriental prince enthroned
on a palankeen between two fine mules. In propria persona he
is driving a sterling gold ploughshare through the furrows.
William of Orange, one of Charles's companions, who knows but
too well how scarce money is in France, can barely refrain from
shivering to pieces this golden plough in order to sell the frag-
ments. The king, fully aware of the numberless rapscallions who
infest the highroads of his domains at home, is amazed to see that
this oriental potentate dare leave such a priceless gem behind
unguarded ; and he secretly envies a prince, who asserts that he is
reigning over a country, where there are no thieves.

In the meantime Hugo bids his guests be welcome, and takes
them to his palace. Here everything is shining with gold and
silver. The big hall especially is a consummate masterpiece of
architectural art. In the centre there is a huge silver-coated
column; and along the walls all round there are a hundred pillars.
Each of these pillars shows on either of its sides the bronze statue
of a youth, holding an ivory horn to his mouth. As soon as the
wind rises the hall starts turning round, the central column being
its pivot; the bronze youths look at each other and wind their
horns, discoursing clear, sweet music like the angels' song in
Paradise. Charles is stunned with amazement and admiration,
and comes to the conclusion that his French castles are not worth
a rap. But suddenly a terrible thunderstorm bursts over the city,
the wind rises, and soon a hurricane is blowing. A marvellous
scene now follows. The hall is spinning round, spinning more
and more quickly. The king and his paladins lose their foothold
and are hurled against the walls, and full of anxiety, maddened
and giddy, they clamour that this awkward miracle may be
stopped. Luckily the wind soon abates, and they are invited to
the banqueting hall, where they sit down at tables bending under
the weight of the most delightful food : wild boars' heads, cranes,
and devilled peacocks.

After the meal Hugo takes his guests to another hall, in whose
centre a huge carbuncle flashes and ghtters with almost more than
solar lustre, and where thirteen luxuiious couches and a number
of wine tankards are ready for them. After their host's departure
Charles believes that he is alone with his vassals; but behind a
marble staircase the artful and designing Oriental has stationed
an eavesdropper, a spy, whose duty it will be to overhear the con-
versations of the strangers. And, forsooth, this listener is going
to overhear marvellous things ! Charlemagne proposes to follow
the time-honoured French custom of telling tales of stunning brag
and wondrous derring do, the posset going round freely all the
time. Tliev called this pastime gaber. Of course the proposal

478 MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

meets with loud applause, and the biagging is started. The king
takes the lead and states that he will undertake to cleave from
head to foot King Hugo's most gallant knight, mounted in full
and shining armour on his steel-caparisoned charger. He will not
only cut in two the rider but the horse as well; and give such
momentum to his sword that after the blow has been struck it will
still sink three feet into the ground below. Roland, the hero of
the "Chanson de Roland," now takes the floor and says that he
will take his stand at three miles from the city and wind his
oliphant, his ivory horn, with such an irresistible blast that the
gates of the town will be blown open and King Hugo set spinning
with such velocity that the friction of the air will set his moustache
on fire. Olivier, Roland's bosom friend, who while at dinner had
got over head and ears under the spell of the beauty of King Hugo's
charming daughter, now rises to his feet and tells them, right
wantonly, that with this Oriental belle he intends consummating
such incredible feats of love that even Hercules would have recoiled
at the mere thought and mention of them. Bishop Turpin now
speaks, and promises to undertake the bold equestrian feat of leap-
ing successively on the back of three racehorses while in full career;
in the meantime he will be juggling with four balls. William of
Orange is certainly not behindhand when now he says that he will
Taurl, single-handed, against the palace wall a stone ball too heavy
to be carried by thirty ordinary men. The impact will cause forty
fathoms of the wall to crumble into rubble. Then Berenger stands
up and says that he intends jumping down from the highest
minaret, on the point of a thousand swords: the swords will bend
like reeds and do him no harm. Aimer now follows and says that
he will don a hat that shall render him invisible (this reminds us
of the "Jarnkappe" which plays such a part in the German
mediaeval epic), and make it easy for him, when the Emperor
Hugo is sitting at table, to eat all the fish on his plate and drain
all the wine from his goblet. Bernard de Bresban will make the
river overflow its banks and flood the country, so that King Hugo
shall have to look for refuge on the top of the highest steeple in
the city. Genin will put two small coins on the top of a spire;
he will take up his stand one mile from its foot, and throw a knife
at the coins; the uppermost coin shall not budge, the other one
will fall down and he will run so fast that he catches it before it
strikes the earth !

And thus one "gab" follows the other till the braggarts get
tired and go to bed. The poor eavesdropper, who after the
king's "gab" at the beginning had already come to the conclusion:
"Que fols fist li reis Hugue, quant vos prestat ostel" was in an
agony of fear all the time he had been squatting in his hiding
place. When the frightful heroes are snoring he hurriedly sneaks
away to tell his master about the appalling crowd to whom he has
given hospitality.

Hugo the Strong waxes wild with anger. He understands
that all this boasting is sheer contempt and impudent derision.
When the next morning the Emperor Charles leaves church Hugo

MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

479)

walks up to him in high dudgeon, upbraids him for his vile con-
duct, and threatens to kill all his guests if the "gabs" are not
carried into execution without delay. The Frankish prince stands
aghast. The occurrence should not be taken so seriously at all.
But Kiug Hugo seems not to be possessed of any sense of humour.
"My Lord," says Charles to their host, "be your Majesty pleased
not take it amiss in us, but it is the custom in Paris and at Chartrea
to emulate and outvie one another in bravado and heroics, when-
ever one is comfortably stretched on one's couch after generous
libations. Indeed, your claret was too good not to keep up this
tradition over here !" But the kind words of his guest were unable
to soften the heart of the dignified and solemn Oriental. The
"gabs" were to be carried into execution forthwith; if not the fate
of the pilgrims was sealed.

Great are the embarrassment and the consternation among
Charlemagne and his companions. They do not carry arms, for
the heroes have travelled to these remote parts as pilgrims and not
as warriors. Nothing remains for them but to implore help from
Heaven. Luckily their fervent prayers are heard : an angel
descends on earth with a message of comfort : the heroes will be
enabled to make their marvellous feat.^ of strength materialise.
But with warning finger uplifted the messenger from Heaven says
that this must be the last of their careless bragging at other
people's cost. Even Frenchmen ought not to dare indulge in too
much folly.

Full of good cheer and courage, the knights return to their
angry host and inform him that they are prepared to accede to his
request. Out of the thirteen "gabs" he is allowed a free choice,
and the wonderful display will start at once. The Emperor Hugo
shows little delicacy in his choice, when he appears to be prepared
to give up his lovely daughter to Olivier's brutal caresses. The
latter, however, remains true to the character and traditions of
his nation, in never losing sight of gentle courtesy. After Olivier,
William of Orange enters the lists with his granite ball, and, in
fact, forty fathoms of wall are knocked down without apparent
difficulty. Then Bernard floods the city, and the Emperor Hugo,
who has taken shelter in the highest tower, beseeches his mighty
guest to stem the ever-rising waters. Charles, quietly perched
with his twelve peers in the top of a tall pine tree, offers up a
prayer, which causes the flood to subside almost at once.

"Would you like to have more of it?" Charles asks the
trembling monarch in bantering tones.

"Not this week, thanks," replies Hugo the Strong, "for if all
your 'gabs' come off like these there would be nothing but weep-
ing for me and gnashing of teeth. Rather allow me graciously to
do homage to you, and henceforward to receive my empire from you
as my liegelord." Charles cannot but accept so generous an offer;
and in order to give additional lustre to the event he proposes that
the two princes shall array themselves in their full Court dress and
regalia, and parade together in the gardens. And lo ! when the
two kings appear in their golden crowns all the paladins lock with

480 MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

wonder and admiration at their western lord; for if it be true that
■either of them does ample credit and honour to his crown it is clear
now that Charles is fully one foot and three inches taller than his
Oriental host. The French knights are delighted, and each of
them savs to himself: "How foolish it was of the queen to speak
as she did ! Experience teaches again and again : we Frenchmen
•cannot visit a country but we carry either a victory or a prize."

After this happy issue they all enter the church, and Bishop
Turpin officiates at mass. A glorious banquet follows this cere-
mony; the most delightful wines are poured out into the silver
goblets, a profusion of the most delicious game and of peacocks is
piled upon the dishes. When all the guests are satisfied the saddles
are placed on the backs of the sturdy mules and the French knights
get themselves in readiness for the journey back. The leave-taking
is as cordial as it is cheerful; only one incident partly spoils it.
Hugo's poor daughter, desperately in love with Olivier, comes
running along, seizes the stalwart knight by his mustachios, and
beseeches him to take her with him to France. But the handsome
swain only bids the poor girl to keep green the memory of their
love, and laughing merrily proceeds alongside of his lord.

After a happy journey they arrive in the good city of Paris.
Without delay Charles proceeds to St. Denis, and after reverently
depositing the most valuable of his holy relics on the altar of the
■church he unexpectedly finds the queen all of a tremble and lying
on her knees at his feet in the chancel. She implores his forgive-
ness for her thoughtless behaviour and her foolish doubts.
■Graciously the king holds out to her the hand of forgiveness, and
bids her rise to her feet for the sake of the Holy Sepulchre, where
it has been his privilege to worship, and soon after the old offence
was forgotten and condoned. Here the poem ends.

It may be taken for granted that after reciting the nine
hundred alexandrines, the contents of which we have but very
roughly outlined in the summary above, the jongleur was rewarded
with a thundering applause. Maybe he was himself the author
of the poem; the comic flavour with which it is redolent throughout
is indeed much more suggestive of the droll buffoonery of a
jongleur, whose field of action is chiefly the city and country fairs
than of the severe solemnity of the trouvere, who only sang in
■castle halls before the nobilitv, and who would surely have scorned
so fast and loose a . treatment of epic matter. The dignified
trouvere, fond as he was of long-winded poetry, full of repetitions
and parallelisms and digressions, would moreover not have con-
tented himself with the production of an epic of no more than
a paltry 900 verses; and it is doubtful also whether he would have
stooped to abandon the usual rhythm of decasyllabic verse and to
adopt the alexandrine instead. Whosoever the maker may have
been, he must have been a poet of the people, a poet fully con-
versant with the popular taste and inclinations. At a time when
the stately, serious epic celebrated its greatest triumphs, the poet
of Charlemagne's Pilgrimage knew how to sound a note which,
while stirring the people's religious sense, tickled at the same time

MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE. 481'

their love of genial laughter. We may rest secure that it was by
no means his intention to compose a parody of the Carolingian
epic. His reverence for the emperor-king, the favourite of heaven,
is equal in its intensity to that of the most fervent and solemn
worshipper of Charlemagne. The scene, for instance, in which he-
introduces Charles and his twelve paladins sitting down in the
sacred stalls of the church at Jerusalem must, in all fairness, be
reckoned among the most arresting fragments in the entire range
of French epic poetry. His veneration for the holy relics is second
to none, and on a par with that of the most pious visitors of the
abbey of St. Denis. The great king strutting up and down, like
a prinking peacock, in front of his courtiers, was probably not so*
ridiculous a perfonnance in those days as it would appear to'
us at present. Even in the dignified "Chanson de Roland" it is
one of Charlemagne's fads to dress in full array, his "barbe
fleurie" flowing majestically over his shining coat of mail, and,
mounted on his charger, to trot to and fro before his admiring
court. No, the author does not want to scoff; he wants to make
his audience laugh, and with complacency he expatiates on the
funny episodes of his tale. He wishes to blend the serious and
the jocose, the respectful and the laughable, and in doing so he
stands decidedly apart from his colleagues. He has entwined and
wrought into one two kinds of epic subject matter of different
extraction. As a matter of fact there was a legend abroad about
a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which Charlemagne was believed
to have undertaken at some time or another, a legend indeed which
had no other foundation than the really keen interest which the
historical Charles had always taken in the Christians of Jerusalem,
and which he had shown by building for them a hospital and a
church both sacred to the Holy Virgin. On the other hand there
was a kind of fairy tale rife in those days, which later on was dis-
covered to be also incorporated in Arabian Nights, in the Breton
romances of King Arthur, and even in Norse mythology ; and
according to which a king, or a god, whose superiority over all the
other mortals some unlucky earthling ventures to doubt and gain-
say, undertakes a long journey in order to bid defiance and fling
the gauntlet down to this hypothetical rival.

Possibly the episode of the "gabs" was partly borrowed rrom
some similar source and partly of the poet's own invention. In
fact, to collect data for these "gabs" he had only to rook about
in his own surroundings, where he was sure to find plenty of
models. For, does not he make Charles say to King Hugo: "Sire,
it is a time-honoured custom in Paris and at Chartres to brag and
bluster in this way over one's cups?" We shall not be far wrong
in taking it for granted that the poem was a huge success in its
time. We feel so in spite of the fact that what has been preserved
of it is not its original form. Of all the copies which were
undoubtedly made of it in Paris from time to time not one is left.
Luckily, however, there was an Englishman among the pilgrims
to the famous Lendit, who was wealthy enough to buy a copy for
himself. He took it home and had it copied there. His Paris

482 MEDIAEVAL LITERATURE.

manuscript is no longer in existence; but the copy, as he had it
made in England, is in the collections of the British Museum.
(16 E. viii.)

Unfortuately his scribe had a very imperfect knowledge of
French, and so he fitted the poem out in the garment of his own
Anglo-Norman tongue. Moreover, this copy is defaced by
numerous gaps, mistakes, and inaccuracies, which have given con-
siderable trouble to the editors whom these blemishes compelled to
all sorts of guesses and conjectures, which, though ingenious, here
and there, will have to remain guesses and conjectures. However,
as not a single specimen of the original French pcem is extant this
manuscript, faulty and imperfect as it is, is nevertheless of the
greatest value.

The poem of Charles' pilgrimage is a genuine product of
French national soil and exactly the kind of tale to be recited
before an animated and merry popular crowd. The antithesis
between the dazzling luxury and wealth of the East and the
nimble-witted, sparkling chaff of the Western visitors, hallmark
the poem as being purely French. The mixture of respect and
familiarity with which the author treats his hero is equally
national. He pictures him as if he were a god, enthroned on the
sacred seat of the lord, and makes him stand awkward and per-
plexed like a naughty urchin, before the Emperor Hugo. He
hails him as the worthy bearer of miracle-working relics, and glori-
fies him as the boon companion of a company of merry topers. He
allows him the honour of an angel's visit, and makes the envoy of
heaven begin his message with a scolding. In short, he is abso-
lutely infatuated with his hero and at the same time pokes fun at
him and laughs at him. Such infatuation, knit up with irrever-
ence, such familiar intercourse, which does not do the slightest
harm to true regard, although it sometimes may impair its gravity,
is another characteristic of French mentality. In France itself
this popular theme has undergone all kinds of refacimenti. When,
later on, the exploits of Galien, the son of King Hugo's unfor-
tunate daughter Jacqueline and her faithless lover, Olivier, were
recorded in more recent epics, the tale of Charles' pilgrimage to
Jerusalem and Constantinopel was recast and connected with them.
As a matter of course, the "gabs" remained the favourite episode
of the poem, but the golden plough was not forgotten either. It
lasted long, indeed, before the popularity of Charles' pilgrimage
and Olivier 's love became exhausted. Even in the last quarter of
the Eighteenth Century we find an echo of these two old beloved
themes. First La Chaussee devoted his efforts to a poetical version
of the ancient but not yet worn-out subject ; and soon after, Marie
Joseph Chenier, the famous Andre's brother, attempted the same.
La Chaussee's verses are ncne of the best, and Olivier's adventure
with Jacqueline constitutes the bulk of the work (L,e Roy Huyon,
Conte). Chenier's decasyllabic lines treat with much gracefulness
and delicacy the scene of the "gabs." He represents King Hugo as
a Mohamedan, and makes Jacqueline's conversion to Christianity
the price of Olivier's exploit. (Les Miracles, Conte.)

ARCHIVAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 48$

Thus the ancient epic lived on and on, altering and renovat-
ing its form, and modifying its contents according to the ambient
taste. It left untouched what constituted its pristine originality,
and kept the efficiency by which it permanently fascinated and
amused such audiences as were not too exacting unimpaired. The
student of literature bent on collecting and classifying among the
productions of human genius those which have not suffered too
badly from the caprices and vagaries of fashion, and which could
naturally not suffer much from these, because they did not wish to
please any other taste but the simple, conservative, and stable taste
of the people, will be quite prepared to award if not a first prize,
then certainly a second, to the "Pelerinage de Charlemagne."

ARCHIVAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRIC

BY

C. Graham Botha,
Keeper of the Archives, ('ape Town.

Bend July 13, 1921.

In recent years the matter of aichives, their preservation
and accessibility, has received some attention. But this is only
the beginning of the interest which should be taken in our national
records. They form the chief monuments of our history, and
reflect with remarkable fidelity conditions throughout the country
at various periods. In South Africa the pre-Union records are
centralised in the capitals of the four Provinces — that is, those
of the Central Government of the former colonies are still to be
found in Cape Town, Pretoria, Pietermaritzburg and Bloemfon-
tein respectively. In course of time some of these will have an
historical value, and it will be necessary to preserve them for the
historical scholar.

Those who have worked in the big archives in Europe will
know how much the science of archives has developed. There
archivism is a profession, and the man who desires to become a
member of the archive staff must, show proof of his qualification.
In some countries he must undergo several years of training of
a high standard ; for instance, in France he must produce a
diploma from the Ecole de Chartes, and in Holland from the
recently established School of Archives. In Germany and Belgium
there is also a regular course to be gone through.

In South Africa we are at the beginning of our archival
problems, and we have the great advantage to begin, as it were,
with a clean sheet, and take our model, not from any particular
country, but the best from each country, and adapt it, as far
as practicable, to our own needs.

One of the many matters which requires our early attention
is that of having some legislation which will provide for the trans-

484 ARCHIVAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

ference to the archives of the public records which are no more
of administrative value. The more important duties which fall
upon those entrusted with the management of records is that of
their safe custody, better preservation and convenient use. The
great growth of Government business, the expansion of the
depaitments, and the creation of new cue.' since Union, has
lead to a rapid accumulation of records. Many of these will,
in due course, have an historical value, and as they become non-
current, should be transferred periodically to an archive reposi-
tory. Machinery should therefore be provided for the systematic
and regular transmission of such papers to recognised archive
offices.

The next point that should receive attention is the safe
custody of such papers. They should be placed in a building
■set apart exclusively for the preservation of the national records.
Too often the "dead" papers of a department are scattered through
the department's building. They are to be found in the basement,
in the corridors and in the rooms occupied by the clerical staff.
In order to save them from irreparable loss through fire, damp
and dust they should be kept in properly constructed buildings
■with plenty of light, air and ventilation. The great enemies of
documents are fire, damp, dust, dirt, and it may seem strange
to some, the autograph and stamp collector. The archive building
should not be attached to any other building, and should allow
tor future enlargement, a matter which is bound to occur at some
time or other. For a model building to house the national and
provincial records we can take some of those found in the
European centres, as at The Hague, Rotterdam, Vienna,
Dresden.

When our records have been properly housed we must next
look to the problem of making them accessible for the scholar who
•desires to use them for historical, economic and scientific purposes.
The right of the student to make use of them is now recognised
by all countries. After the archives have been arranged and
classified, it is necessary to have lists, inventories and catalogues
prepared, so that the enquirer may know what the collections
contain. This is a very important matter in the system of archive
keeping and, unless it is done systematically and scientifically,
will only lead to confusion. This work has two objects in view:
one as a precaution against loss, and the other as a source of
information to the archivist and student. At a later stage the
work is expanded and particular series are dealt with in more
detail; for example, calendars are prepared.

To carry out the very important work of classifying and
cataloguing will require not only an adequate staff, but also
an efficient one. To perforin the higher class of work it will be
necessary to have men with some special qualification. As I
remarked above, in Europe only men who have undergone a certain
training can look to admission to the higher posts in an archive
office. It must be borne in mind that an archive office is not
merely an administrative department, nor are the members of the

ARCHIVAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 485

staff merely clerical assistants. To a great extent it is a scientific
institution. It is the preparation ground of the material for
the historical scholar. Conditions in South Africa are somewhat
different from what they are in Europe, where archivism is a
profession, and the preparation of a number of students every
year to fill posts in the various archives is justifiable. But that
does not lessen the important necessity of having some system
by which the future archivist in South Africa should have some
knowledge of the work that lies before him.

When an archive collection has been properly housed and
inventoried by a competent staff, then the student claims our
attention. What are his rights? What facilities should he have,
All civilised countries have recognised the right of their citizens
to use the archives under certain restrictions. After the Govern-
ment's interests have been safeguarded and proper regulations
drawn up for the use of the records, every facility should be granted
to the bona-fide research worker. Up to what date should
public records be open for inspection, and should any restrictions
be placed on those that are available? These are important
questions. All countries have a limitation upon the accessibility
of their records, and rightly so. Some countries allow greater
latitude than others in this respect. I am of opinion that as
great latitude as possible should be allowed to historical students.
It would serve no useful purpose to suppress records of historical
value, or to conceal documentary evidence. It would be well
that, when a document has reached a certain age from the date
of its making, it should be open for inspection. In France,
•except in particular instances, where special reservations have
been made, documents may be communicated to any French
citizen after fifty years have elapsed.

While the use of the records may be accorded to the bona-
fide student, there yet remains the serious problem of the actual
handling of the papers, for which definite and strict regu-
lations must be drawn up. Experience of the European archives
has shown the necessity of this, and every country has some rules
to which the student has to adhere or forfeit the privilege given
him of searching the papers. Rules are laid down relating to
the number of documents allowed to a worker at one time, to
the making of tracings or photographs, to the removal of any
papers from the Search Room, to the removal of any volumes
from the shelves, and the entering of the repository in which
the archives are kept by any of the public except when accom-
panied by one of the archive's staff, and to the actual handling
of the papers. All these and other restrictions as to what
the reader can and must do are matters of the utmost importance.

But with these few facts before us I trust that you will
perceive that the subject of the development of our archives in
South Africa is one that will require our very serious attention.
If we in this country fully realise and appreciate the great valuo
and wealth of our authentic records, then we must acknowledge
that it is our bounden duty to endeavour as far as our resources

486 ARCHIVAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA.

permit to develop them on a proper and sound basis. The subject
of archives, their preservation, use and administration in this
country has been neglected too long. Why should we not awaken
from our slumber and push forward in this important matter an!
rise to the occasion, so that we may come into line with other
nations? There is no obvious reason why we should not do so.

487

INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Aitken, R. D. ...
Alexander, D. B. W .
Bews, J. W, ...
Botha, C. G. ...
€awston, F. G.
Dixon, H.N. ...
Dornan, S. S.
Duertleu, J. E. ...
Du Toit, A. L. ...
Fantham, H. B.
FitzSimons, F. W.
Forbes, Helena
Gale, G. W. ...
Harris, R. H. T. P.
Hewitt, J.
Hunter, D. A. ...
Hyman, L.
Keigwin, H. S. ...
Kloot, A. A. ...
Lorain, C. T. ...
Lunt, J.

Macfadyen, W. A.
Marchand, B. de C.
Moir, J.
Morris, R. J.
Nauta, R. D. ...
Norton, W. A. ...
Oxley, O. J. P. ...
Palmer, Mabel ...
Parish, E
Petchell, W. ...
Porter, Annie ...
Potts, G.
Sandground, J.
Sim, T. R.
Taylor, Esther ...
Thoday, D.
Tooke, W. H. ...
Van der Bijl, P. A.
Wager, H.
Warren, E.
Williams, C. ...

PAGE

233

201

63

195, 483

396

294

430

1

120

81

, 164, 373

393

342, 348

153

170

454

183

227

172

227

99

32

110

223

47

215

471.

438, 441

468

197

155

143

156

336

399

294

373

230

419

231

!, 246, 345

244

359

147

The complete list of papers read at the Durban meeting will be found on
pp. 140-142. A few of the papers listed there are not printed in this Journal.

488

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Activated sludge process
Advances, recent, in Zoology

„ „ ,, „ , relation to present-day problems

Africa, re-union with Madagascar
Agriculture and Natives

Agricultural experiment, design and interpretation of
Alcohol fuels ...
America, South, re-uuion with Australia ...

„ „ , severance from Africa

Amphibian endocrine organs
Animal parasitology

physiology
Annual g-eneral meeting, Durban, proceedings
Annual meetings, past, presidents, etc.

,, „ , „ , sectional presidents and secretaries

,. „ , „ , evening discourses

Anthropology, social, in South Africa
Archival problems in South Africa
Aristocracy, benevolent, of ability
Arsenic, estimation, effect of organic matter on
Asphalt, in relation to road construction ...

„ , ingredients

„ , lake ...

„ , macadam

„ ,oil ...

„ , rock ...
Association, constitution
Association Library
Astronomical lore, of Bantu

„ „ , of Hottentots...

Atlantic basin, development of ...
Atlantis

Atomic Theory in 1921 ...
Australia, re-union with South America ...
Aversion between black and white
Balance sheets . .
Balantidium coli

Bantu, assimilative not originative
Bantu idiomatist, in compai'ative philology

„ industries
Bilharzia, experimental infestation of snails by
Bilharziasis and wild birds
Birds, list of, feeding on snails ...

„ , wild, and bilharziasis
Black and white, aversion between
Blepharocodon appendiculatus
Blepharocorys jubata
Blepharoprosthium pireum
Blepharosphaera intestinalis ...

Bodies, heavenly, in South African mythology
Bodo ruminantium, n. sp.
Botanical regions, main, of Natal
Botany, development of, in South Africa ... ... ... j

,. , in Natal ... ... ... ... ...

„ , some aspects, in South Africa
Bryophy ta, of Southern Rhodesia

„ , „ „ „ , conditions affecting distribution

Cassia, Natal Species of
Catastoma, interesting South African

PAGE.

215
81
81, 94
137
419
155
143
139
138

84
83

84
xxii

x

xii

xv

1

483

28
148
201
209
203
213
207
203
i
xxxiii
434
432
134
139

47
139

10

xxv iii

168

13
438
183
396
393
395
393

10
169
169
169
169
430
165

70

64

65

63
294
294
342
316

INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 489

PAGE.

Cattle dipping tanks, chemical control of... ... ... ... 147

Chemical aspects of condensed milk ... ... ... ... 227

Chemical control of cattle dipping tanks ... ... ... ... 147

Chromosomes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 87

Committees at Durban meeting ... ... ... ... ... xix

Communities, plant, in Natal ... ... ... ... ... 70

Connections, former land ... ... ... ... ... 121

,, , „ „ , opinions on ... ... ... ... 122

Constitution of the Association ... ... ... ... ... i

Council, report of, at Durban ... ... ... ... ... xxiv

Crustal movements ... ... ... .... ... ... 131

Cycloposthium bipalmatum ... ... ... ... ... 167

Cytology and sex ... ... ... ... ... ... 86

Daedalia, key to species and descriptions ... ... ... ... 286

Dependence, economic ... ... ... ... ... ... 111,118

Desert conditions during the Triassic ... ... ... ... 130

Didesmis ovalis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

Digitalis, comparison of parent and hybrid ... ... ... 365

„ , hybrid, gametic constitution ... ... ... ... 364

„ , interspecific hybrid and backcrosses of ... ... ... 359

„ , nature of hybrid plants ... ... ... ... 361

„ , seeds of hybrid ... ... ... ... ... 363

Dipping tanks, chemical control of ... ... ... ... 147

Disconformity, economic ... ... ... ... ... Ill, 115

Distances, star ... ... ... ... ... ... 36

Drakensberg, vegetation of ... ... ... ... ... 75

DrosophUa ampelophila, chromosomes in ... ... ... ... 87

Durban meeting, award of South Africa medal at ... ... ... xxxii

„ „ , committees at ... ... ... ... ... xix

„ „ , diary of ... ... ... ... ... xvii

„ „ , list of papers read at ... ... .... ... 140

„ „ , proceedings of 19th annual general meeting ... xxii

„ „ , report of Council at ... ... ... ... xxiv

„ „ , Treasurer's report at ... ... ... ... xxvii

Echinostomumfulicae, n. sp., life-history of ... ... ... 161

,, xenopi ... ... ... ... ... ... 162

Ecology, plant, of Natal ... ... ... ... ... 67

Educational experiment, an ... ... ... ... ... 172

Effort, scientific, in South Africa ... ... ... ... 1

Endocrine organs, Amphibian ... ... ... ... ... 84

Engines, internal combustion, alcohol fuels for ... ... ... 143

Entamoeba bovis ... ... ... ... ... ... 165

,, equi, n. sp. ... ... ... ... ... ... 165

„ iutestinalis ... ... ... ... ... ... 164

„ legeri ... ... «... ... ... ... 165

Entodinium caudatum ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

Environmental effects on Protozoa in soil ... ... ... 388

Estimation of Arsenic, effect of organic matter on ... ... 148

Excretory matter, effect on dip fluids ... ... ... .. 149

Experiment, agricultural, design and interpretation of ... ... 155

„ , educational ... ... ... ... ... 172

Evening discourses, list of titles of ... ... ... ... xv

Evolution, processes of ... ... ... ... ... 89

Fasciola gigantica ... ... ... ... ... ... 160

„ hepatica, life-history ... ... ... ... ... 159

Faunal survivals ... ... ... ... ... ... 122

Pa volus, key to species and descriptions ... ... ... ... 291

Fisheries Work ... ... ... ... ... ... 85

Flora, Carboniferous, northern and southern ... ... ... 123

„ , Glossopteris, rise and spread of ... ... ... ... 127

„ , Natal, affinities of ... ... ... ... ... 76

„ , of Isipingo ... ... ... ... ... ... 348

10

490

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Fold ranges, encircling Gondwana Land ...
Fomes, key to species and descriptions
Forest and scrub vegetation
French, curiosity of mediaeval literature
Fuels, alcohol, for internal combustion engines
Fungi, economic importance in sugar industry
„ , from air of sugar mills
„ , interesting South African
„ , little known
Geasters, interesting South African
Giardia bovis, n. sp.
„ equi, n. sp.
Glossopteris flora, rise and spread of
Gondwanaland, breaking up of . . .
„ , deposits of

„ , earth foldings affecting ...

„ , glaciation of

„ , ice fields of

Gi-assveld

Heavenly bodies in South African mythology
Hepaticae of Southern Rhodesia ...
Herpetomonas and Leishmania ...
Heterodera radicicola as it occurs in South Africa .
„ „ , causing root galls ...

„ „ , development of female

„ „ , development of male

,, „ , duration of life

„ „ , free-living larva

„ „ , geographical distribution

„ „ , identity of parasite

„ „ , life-history

„ „ , list of host plants of

„ „ , mode of infection ...

„ „ , powers of resistance of

„ „ , structure of gravid female .

„ „ . structure of male ...

„ ,, , suggestions for control of .

Hexagona, key to species and descriptions
Hottentots, astronomical lore of
Ice, movement of, in South Africa
Implements, coastal Neolithic

„ , Strandlooper, from Eastern Province

Industries, Bantu
Infusoria

Iodine solutions, keeping powers of
Isipingo, flora of
Lake asphalt ...
Land and sea, changes of
Land connections, former

„ „ , „ , of South Africa

Lanopila, interesting South African species
Laschia, key to species and descriptions ...
Leaf-sera tion in Natal plants
Legal relationship of black and white
Leishmania and Herpetomonas ...
Lenzites, key to species and descriptions ...
Leucocytozoon cenlropi, n. sp.
Library of the Association
Life, origin of ...
List of Members

List of papers read at Durban meeting ...
Literature, mediaeval French, curiosity of

PAGE.
135
272

74
474
143
232
232
345
345
345
166
166
127
134
126
132
124
125

72
430
296

83
399
399
406
403
410
401
413
408
400
412
411
410
407
405
414
289
432
124
465
454
183
167
151
348
203
120
121
120
347
292
153
101

83

287

167

xxxiii

96

i

140

474

INDEX OP SGBJECTS. 491

PAGE.

Loyalty, national, and racial solidarity ... ... ... ... 19

Madagascar, re-union with Africa ... ... ... ... 137

Magnitudes, star ... ... ... ... ... ... 35

Mastigophora ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 165

Medal, South Africa, Fourteenth Award ... ... ... ... xxxii

Methods, spectrographs ... ... ... ... ... 32

Midland tree veld, formation of clumps ... ... ... ... 239

„ „ „ , in Natal ... ... ... ... ... 233

„ „ „ , type of grassland invaded ... ... ... 236

Migration of plants ... ... ... ... ... ... 76

„ „ vertebrates ... ... ... ... -• ... 129

Milk, condensed, chemical aspects of ... ... ... ... 227

Minerals, heavy, mechanical analysis of soils containing ... ... 223

Monas communis ... ... ... ... ... ... 165

Money value, Irving Fisher's proposals on ... ... ... 197

„ values, proposals for stabilising ... ... ... ... 110

Monostomes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 163

Monuments, preservation of national ... ... ... ... 195

Mosses, from Southern Rhodesia ... ... ... 298

„ , „ Portuguese Gaza Land ... ... ... ... 331

„ , protonemal developments of ... ... ... ... 244

Movements, crustal ... ... ... ... ... ... 131

Mythology, South African, heavenly bodies in ... ... ... 430

Natal, flora, affinities of ... ... ... ... 76

„ , main botanical regions of ... ... ... ... ■■■ 70

„ , midland tree veld, plant succession in ... ... ... 233

„ , plant communities in ... ... ... 70

„ , plant ecology in . . ... ... ... ... ... 63, 67

„ , plant migration in ... ... ... ... ... 76

„ , plants, leaf-aeration in ... ... ... .-.". ... 153

„ , species of Cassia... ... ... ... ... .. 342

National bankriiptcy ... ... ... ... ... ...Ill, 112

Nationalism, a new South African ... ... 27

Native, change of attitude towards ... ... ... ... 8

Native question, claim on scientists ... ... ... ... 99

Natives and agriculture ... ... ... ... ... 419

„ , economic relationships of ... ... ... 103

„ , psychological considerations ... ... ... 104

„ , sociological relationship of ... ... ... ... 107

Neolithic implements, coastal ... ... ... ... ... 465

Officers and Council, 1921-22 ... ... ... ... ... xxxviii

Officers of Sect ons ... ... ... ... ... ... xii

Oil asphalt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 207

Ornaments, strandlooper, from Eastern Province ... ... ... 454

Ortalia pallens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 170

Papers read at Durban meeting, list of ... ... ... ... 140

Paraisotricha colpoidea ... ... ... ... ... ... 168

Paramphistomum calicophorum ... ... ... ... ... 160

Parasitic Protozoa of South Africa ... ... ... ... 164

Parasitology, animal ... ... ... ... ... ... 83

Passerina, distribution in South Africa ... ... ... ... 230

Pepper tree pollen in hay fever ... ... ... ... ... 336

Permian vertebrate life... ... ... ... ... 128

Philology, Bantu idiomatist in field of ... ... ... ... 438

Physiology, animal ... ... ... ... ... 84

Plant communities in Natal ... ... ... ... ... 70

„ migration ... ... ... ... ... 76

„ succession ... ... ... ... . ... 77

Plants, leaf -aeration in ... ... ... ... ... ... 153

Political situation, native ... ... ... ... ... 100

Pollen of pepper tree, in hay fever ... ... ... ... 336

492

INDEX OF SUBfECTS.

Polyjjoreae of South Africa

„ , South African, economic importance ...
„ ,, „ , general account

„ „ „ , key to genera

„ „ ,, , key to species and descriptions

Polyporus, key to and desci-iptions of species
Portuguese Gazaland, Mosses from
Praises, Sesuto, of the chiefs

Presidential Address : Social Anthropology in South Africa
„ „ , Section A

„ , „ B
„ „ C

„ „ D

„ „ E

„ „ F

Presidents and chief officers of past meetings
Problems, archival, in South Africa

„ , present-day, relation of zoology to
Proceedings of 19th annual general meeting
Protonemal developments in mosses
Protozoa, appearance in cultures of South African soils
„ , environmental effects ...
„ , from Cape Province soils
„ , „ certain South African soils
„ , ,, Natal soils
„ , „ Transvaal soils ...

,, , in South African soils, geographical distribution
„ , in waterlogged soils
„ , parasitic, of South Africa
„ , periodicity in soil cultures
Public lecture, former land connections of South Africa
Racial solidarity

„ „ and national loyalty

Regions, main botanical, of "Natal
Relationships, economic, of natives

„ , legal, of black and white ...

Report of Council, 1921...
„ Treasurer, 1921
Re-union, of Africa and Madagascar

„ , of South America and Australia
Rhodesia, Southern, Bryophyta of
,, „ , Hepaticae of

„ „ , Mosses of

Road construction, relation of asphalt to ...

„ foundation
Rock asphalt ...

Salamanders, environmental effects on
Salts, effect of addition to arsenic compounds
Sarcocystis bertrami
„ blanchardi

,, vioulei

„ tenella, seasonal periodicity of

Sarcocystis, in reedbuck
Sarcodina
Schistosomes ...

,, , preventive measures against

Schistosoma haematobium, life history of ...

„ mansoni, ,, ,, „

School of Art, function in community
Scientific effort in South Africa ...
Scrub, and forest
Sea, and land, changes of

PAGE.

240

250

247

250

251

251

331

441

a

1

32

47

63

81

99

110

X

483

.. 81, 94

xxii

244

386

388

376

373

381

380

382

385

164

386

120

16

19

70

103

101

xxiv

xxvii

136

139

294

296

298

201

213

203

93

151

167

167

167

167

167

164

156

15S

156

158

468

1

74

120

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

493

PAGE.

Selenomastix ruminantium ... ... ... ... •■• 166

Sesuto, praises of the chiefs ... ... ... ... ••• 441

Sewage, purification by activated sludge process ... ... ... 215

Sex, and cytology ... ... ... • • • • ■ • • • • 86

Sex chromosomes in man ... ... ... ••• ... 88

Snails, experimental infestation by bilharzia parasites ... . . 396

Social anthropology in South Africa ... ... ... • ■ 1

Soil, mechanical analysis of ... ... ... ... ••• 223

Soils, Cape Province, Protozoa occurring in ... ... ... 376

„ , Natal, „ „ „ ... ••• ••• 381

„ , South African, „ „ „ ... ... ••■ 373

„ , Transvaal, ,, „ „ ... ••• 380

„ , waterlogged „ „ „ ■•■ ••• ••• 385

Solidarity, white ... ... ... ... ■•• ••• 20

South Africa, archival problems in ... ... ... ... 483

„ „ , aspects of botany in ... ... ... ... 63

„ „ , social anthropology in ... ... ... ... 1

South African Association, evening discourses ... ... ... xv

n „ „ , past Annual Meetings ... ... x

M „ „ , past Sectional Presidents ... ... xii

„ „ nationalism, a new ... ... ... ... 27

„ „ Polyporess ... ... ... ... ••■ 246

„ „ Trematodes, life-histories of some ... ... ... 156

Spectrographs methods ... ... ... • • • • • • 32

Sphseromonas communis ... ... ... • • • • • • • • • 165

Spirochaetae ... ... ... ... ••■ ■•■ ••• 169

Spirochetes, from Limnsea natalensis ... ... ... ■•• 169

„ , „ Physopsis africa.na ... ... ... ... 169

„ , „ sheep ... ... ... ••■ 169

Sporozoa ... ... ... ... ■•• •■• ••• 166

Star, distances ... ... ... ... ... ... ••• 36

„ , magnitudes ... ... ... ... ... ••■ 35

Stellar distances, magnitudes and movements ... ... ... 32

Strandlooper sites, Eastern Province, implements from ... ... 454

„ „ „ ,, , ornaments from ... ... 454

Theory, atomic, in 1921 ... ... ... ... ... ... 47

Trametes, key to species and descriptions ... ... ... 279

Trematodes, life-histories of some South African ... ... ... 156

Triadinium caudatum ... ... ... ... ... ... 169

Triassic, desert conditions during ... ... ... ... 130

„ , vertebrate life .. . ... ... ... ■•■ ••■ 128

„ , volcani city at close of ... ... ... ... ••• 130

Trichomonas equi, n. sp. ... ... ••• ••• ■•■ 165

Values, money, proposals for stabilising ... ... ... ■•■ HO

Vegetation, Alpine, of Drakensberg ... ... ... ••• 75

„ , lagoon ... ... ... ... ••• ■•• 71

,, , lake, vlei and streambank ... ... ... ... 71

, Macchia ... ... ... ... ... ••• 75

,, , ruderal ... ... ... ... ••. 71

„ , strand ... ... ... ... ... ••• 70

Veld, Midland tree, of Natal ... ... ... ... ... 233

Vertebrate life, Permian and Triassic ... ... ... •- 128

Vertebrates, migration of ... ... ... ... ... 129

White and black, aversion between ... ... ... ... 10

Zoology, modern, in relation to religion ... ... ... ... 96

„ , „ , sociological applications ... ... ... 98

„ , recent advances in ... ... ... ... ... 81

„ , relation to present-day problems ... ... ... 81, 94

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

1st JULY, 1922.

Members are requested to notify the Assistant General Secretary

{r.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg), of any change in address or

title, as soon as possible.

Year of

Election.

1902. a-Ababrelton, Robert, F.R.G.S., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., Royal
Colonial Institute, Northumberland Avenue, London, W.C.

1918. Aberdeen, James, 5, White's Road,Bloemfontein.

191b. Abrahams, Abraham Mark, Jewish Government School, End
Street, Johannesburg.

1902. Aburrow, Charles, M.I.C.E., M.S. A., P.O. Box 534, Johannes-
burg.

1905. Adamson, John E., M.A., D.Lit., Education Department,
Pretoria.

1918. Aders, Walter Manslield, Ph.D., Zanzibar Government,
Zanzibar.

1917. Affleck, Arthur, A.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1032, Johannesburg.

1904. Aiken, Alexander, P.O. Box 2636, Johannesburg.

1921. Aitken, R.D., M.Sc, Natal University College, Maritzburg.

1915. Akerman, Conrad, M.A., M.B., B.C., Conethmoar, Alexandra

Road, Maritzburg.

1905. Albu, Sir George, P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

1921. Alexander, D. B. AY, Borough Engineer's Office, Durban.
1921. Amm, Ross, P.O. Box 2166, Johannesburg.

1916. Anderson, Peter M., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1156, Johannesburg.
1910. Anderson, Dr. A. Jasper, M.A., M.B., D.P.H., Dorp Street,

Capetown.
1921. Anderson, L. R. D., P.O. Box 909, Durban, Natal.

1920. Andrew, J. L., B.A., King Edward VII. School, Johannes-

burg.

1921. Andrews, Professor W. H., D.Sc, Transvaal University College,

Pretoria.

1918. Anderssen, Mark, P.O. Box 4066, Johannesburg.

1902. Andrews, G. S. Burt, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.S. A., P.O.
Box 1049, Johannesburg.

1917. Andrews, George J., P.O. Box 27, Jeppes, Johannesburg.
1921. Appleton, T. W., Box 909, Durban.

1921. Archibald, Alexander, 51, Van der Merwe Street, Johannes-
burg.
1920. Ardley, W. G., P.O. Box 2303, Johannesburg.

1919. Arndt, Professor W. F. C, Ph.D., 3, Goddard Street, Bloem-

fontein.

1920. Armstrong. Miss E. H., 12, Walter Mansions, Eloff Street,

Johannesburg.

1920. Arnold, G., D.Sc, Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo.

1921. Ash, Arthur S., Cullinan Buildings, Johannesburg.

1916. Ashkanazy, A. W., Castle Mansions, Eloff Street, Johannes-
burg.

IV

1919. Aslaksen, Adolf Anton Bernhard, M.I.C.E., c/o W. Brooker,
Zwartkops, Port Elizabeth, Cape Province.

1904. Auret, A. A., P.O. Box 838, Johannesburg.

1916. Austin, Kenneth, M.Am.I.M.E., P.O. Box 4305, Johannesburg.

1921. Backenstoe, W. A., M.D., Izingolweni, Natal.
1906. Bailey, Sir Abe, Bart., P.O. Box 50, Johannesburg.

1922. Bailey, Miss E. J., P.O. Box 1248, Johannesburg.

1918. Baker, Norman Thomas, P.O. Box 3958, Johannesburg.

1919. Baker, Rev. C. Buckingham, 19, Glenshiel Road, Eltham,

London, S.E.

1920. Balfour, J. A., M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 442, Lourenco Marques.
1920. Ball, Miss D., 737, Musgrave Road, Durban.

1916. Ball, Mrs. Olivia Wolfenden, Monte Cristo, Town Hill, Maritz-

burg.
1919. Ballantine, Major Robert, Keiskama Hoek, Kingwilliamstown,

Cape Province.
1903. Balmforth, Rev. Ramsden, "Shirley," 6, Stephen Street,

Capetown.

1914. Bancroft, Alfred Ernest, M.A., M.Sc, South African College

High School, Capetown.

1919. Barnes, Frederic Crouch, P.O. Box 29, Kingwilliamstown, Cape

Province.

1922. Barnett, Arthur, Steytler's Buildings, Loveday Street, Johan-
nesburg.

1922. Barradas, Or. A., Liceu, Lourenco Marques.

1911. Barratt, Gaston Frederick Sharpe, Bembezaan, Queque,
Southern Rhodesia.

1911. Barratt, Rowland Lorraine, Bembazaan, Queque, Southern
Rhodesia.

1905. Basto, H.E. Alberto Celestine Ferreira Pinto, 95, Rua Luiz-

de-Camoez, Lisbon, Portugal.
1922. Battaerd, Professor P. J. T. A., M.D., University of Stellen-

bosch, C.P.
1903. Baxter, William, M.A., South African College High School,

Capetown.
1902. Beattie, Sir John Carruthers, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Principal of

University of Capetown.
1922. Beattie, W. A., 24, Jager Street, Hillbrow, Johannesburg.

1915. Bedford, Gerald Augustus Harold, F.E.S., Veterinary Research

Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.
1913. Beerstecher, Leonard, P.O. Box 2888, Johannesburg.
1922. Berry, Or. A. W., P.O. Box 288, Johannesburg.

1916. Bertram, T., 134, Market Street, Benoni, Transvaal.
1922. Beveridge, G. O., P.O. Box 2827, Johannesburg.

1916. Bertram, Reginald Hermanus, P.O. Box 3518, Johannesburg.

1916. Bews, John William, M.A., D.Sc, Professor of Botany, Natal

University College, P.O. Box 375, Maritzburg.

1920. Beyer, Rev. G., P.O. Mapela, via Potgietersrust.

1918. Bigalke, Rudolph, M.A., Experimental Farm, Glen, O.F.S.
1922. Bird, M. C, P.O. Box 3811, Johannesburg.

1920. Bishop, Rev. H. L., P.O. Box 724, Lourenco Marques.

1919. Bissaker, John, P.O. Box 118, East London.

1905. Blackshaw, George N., O.B.E., B.Sc, F.I.C., Department of

Agriculture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.
1915. Blundell, Frederick Moss, 308, Orient Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.
1922. Bodkin, H. A., Bloemfontein.

1906. Bohle, Hermann, M.I.E.E., Corporation Professor of Electro-

technics, Universitv of Capetown.
1905. Bolus, Arthur Charles, 20, Steytler's Buildings, P.O. Box 232,

Johannesburg.
1905. Bolus, Mrs. F., B.A., Sunning Hill, Eyton Road, Claremont,

Capetown.

1917. Bosman, Andrew Murray, B.Sc.Agr., B.S., Professor of Agri-

culture, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1913. Botelho, Captain Joao Baotista, Chief Veterinary Officer,
Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 225, Lourenco Marques.

1919. Botha, Colin Graham, Box 6. Capetown.

1921. Boustred. W. F.. P.O. Box 1525. Johannesburg.

1920. Botting, F., 21, Goldreich Street, Hillbrow, Johannesburg.

1916. Bottomley, Miss Averil Maud, B.A., P.O. Box 1294, Pretoria.

1921. Bowles, E., Magistrate's Office, Johannesburg.

1913. Bracht, Oscar, P.O. Box 134. Port Elizabeth. C.P.

1915. Breijer, Hermann Gottfried, Ph.D., Director of the Transvaal

Museum. P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1920. Briggs, Miss E. F., "Friedura," Victoria Park, Parktown,

Johannesburg.
1910. Brill, J., Litt.D., L.H.D., Ph.Th.M., Lorothwana, 65, Park
Road. Bloemfontein.

1914. Brixton, Arthur Green. F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., F.R.S.M., P.O.

Box 4397, Johannesburg.
191U. Britten, Gilbert Frederick, B.A., Government Chemical
Laboratory, Capetown.

1918. Britten. Miss Lilian Louise. B.A., Rhodes' University College,

Grahamstown, Cape Province.
1903. Brown, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Applied

Mathematics. University of Capetown.
1914. Brown, Rev. Holman, Selukwe, Rhodesia.

1907. Brown, William Bridgman, M.A., Penryn, Cyphergat, C.P.
1909. Brownlee, John Innes, M.B., CM., Tembani. Alexander Road,

Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.
1912. Brummer, Rev. Professor N. J.3 M.A., B.D., University of
Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1919. Bryson, James Watson, P.O. Box 134, Kingwilliamstown, C.P.

1902. Buchan, James, Assistant Resident Engineer, Rhodes' Building,

Bulawavo, Rhodesia.

1921. Buchanan, W. J., P.O. Box 3633, Johannesburg.

1917. Buller Arthur Cheverton, Dwarsriviers Hoek, Stellenbosch,

Cape Province.

1920. Burton, D. M., African Realty Trust, Simmond's Street,

Johannesburg.

1903. Burtt-Davy, Joseph, F.L.S., F.R.G.S., "Inglesby," Storey's

Way, Cambridge, England.

1916. Burtt-Davy, Mrs. J., "Inglesby," Storey's Way, Cambridge,

England.

1919. Caink. Thomas George, M. Inst. M. & CLE., M.R.San. I.,
Borough Engineer, Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.

1903. Caldecott, W. A., B.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., P.O. Box 67, Johan-
nesburg.

1919. Caldwell, W., 108, Louis Botha Avenue, Parktown, Johan-
nesburg.

1922. Cameron, A. S., 10, Rissik Street, Johannesburg.

1917. Campbell, Colin M., Mount Edgecombe, Durban, Natal.
1916. Campbell, Edmund, P.O. Box 688, Durban, Natal.

1921. Campbell, James Donald, P.O. Box 1814, Johannesburg.

1916. Campbell, Samuel George. M.D., M.Ch., F.R.C.S.E., M.R.C.S..

DP H., 28, Musgrave Road, Durban, Natal.
1919. Canard, Nathan, P.O. Box 313, Capetown.

1908. Carlson, K.A., Forestry Division, Department of Agriculture,

P.O. Box 535, Pretoria.
1919. Carrington, John, P.O. Box 48, East London, Cape Province.

1916. Carruthers, Somerville Craig, M.I. A. A., P.O. Box 266,

Johannesburg.
1919. Cartwright. John Dean, M.P.C, c/o Cartwright's, Ltd.,
Adderley Street, Capetown.

1922. Carvalho, Commander A. de, Portuguese Navy, Lourenco

Marques.
1919. Carveth, Frederick Charles, 26, Carrington Road. Kimberley.

1917. Cassell, Myer, B.Com., P.O. Box 5992, Johannesburg.

191(5. Cawston. Frederic Gordon, B.A.. M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

16, Britannia Buildings, Durban.
1903. Cazalkt. Percy, M.I.M.M., White River, via Nel's Spruit,

Transvaal.
1920. Chapman, G. W., Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1920. Chapman, Mrs. G. W., fetellenbosch, Cape Province.
1918. Chapman, Thomas Henry, P.O. Box 5291, Johannesburg.
1920. Chapman, H. L., Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape Province.

1917. Chappell, Sir Ernest, P.O. Box 1124, Johannesburg.

1913. Charters. Robert Hearne, M.I.C.E., Professor of Ci>'l
Engineering, The University, Johannesburg.

1920. Chilton, James, P.O. Box 14, Springs.

1921. Chubb, E. C, Curator, The Museum, Durban.

1918. Clark, Ceorge Muirhead, M.A., M.I.C.E., 15, Meisch'ce s

Buildings, Johannesburg.
191(5. Clark, Gowan Cresvvell Strange, C.M.G., c/o Railway Offices,

Johannesburg.
1916. Clark, Hugh. B.Sc, A.M.I.E.E., Technical College, Durban,

IS atal

1916. Clayden, Harold William, A.M.I.E.E., A.M.I.M.E., P.O. Box

1^42, Johannesburg.

1917. Cleghohne, William Shaw Hamilton, B.Sc, A.M.I.Mech E.,

Box 181, Potchefstroom, Transvaal.
1916. Clephan, Miss Ethel Hunter, Girls' High School, Park Street,

Pretoria.
1920. Cluver, Professor E. H., B.A., M.B., Ch.B., The University,

Johannesburg.
1920. Cohen, Miss N., B.A., Commercial High School, Johannesburg.

1922. Colby, Mrs. Beatrice G., 51, Fortescue Road, Yeoville,

Johannesburg.

1918. Coleman, Percv, M.A., 208, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1916. Collapd, J. Aldred, P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.
1908. Collie, J., 274, Eastwood Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.

1904. Collins, Ernest A. E., 66, Pritchard Street, P.O. Box 723,

Johannesburg.
1920. Collins, S. JN. C. P., P.O. Box 723, Johannesburg.
1906. Collins, j*. R., Irrigation Department, P.O. Box 399, Pretoria.
1920. Colly, Abe, P.O. Box 3583, Pretoria.

1917. Colquhoun, Ludovic, Dynamite Factory, Modderfontein,

Transvaal.

1920. Compton, Professor R. H., M.A., Kirstenbosch, Newlands,

Capetown.
1920. Constantine, Rev. A., B.A., The Manse, Paarl, Cape Province.
1904. Cooper, Fred W., Public Library, Port Elizabeth, Cape Province.

1918. Cooper, Messrs. William & Nephews, P.O. Box 4557, Johan-

nesburg.

1919. Cordeaux, Herbert John Charles, F.R.I.B.A., 45, Oxford Street,

East London.

1920. Cornavall, W. D., City Hall, East London.

1914. Cory, Sir George Edward, M.A., Professor of Chemistry and
Metallurgy, Rhodes' University College, Grahamstown.

1921. Cowan, C. C, The Burlington* Press, Yon Weilligh Street,

Johannesburg.

1922. Cox, Dr. Alice, Maitland Street, Bloemfontein.

1916. Cox, George Walter, F.R.Met.S., P.O. Box 399, Pretoria.

1902. Cox, Walter Hubert, Royal Observatory, Capetown.

1909. Crawford, David Chalmers, M.A., B.Sc.Agr., Elsenburg,
Mulder's Vlei, Cape Province.

1902. Crawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Depart-
ment of Pure Mathematics, University of Capetown.

1918. Crawford, William Heron, P.O. Box 15, Langlaagte, Transvaal.

1921. Creswell, F. H. P., D.S.O., M.L.A., Rand Club, Johannesburg.
1918. Crinsoz dh Cottens, Francois E., M.D., Ph.D., M.R.C S.,

P.O. Box 5975, Johannesburg.

1918. Crinsoz be Cottens, Mrs. Marguerite, M.D., P.O. Box 5975,

Johannesburg.
1916. Croghan, Dr., 23, High Road, Fordsburg, Johannesburg.
1916. Chookes, George Joseph, The Cedars, Renishaw, per Private

Bag, Durban. Natal.

1919. Crosby, William, Editor, '"Daily Dispatch," P.O. Box 111,

.East London.
1916. Cruden, Frank. Alieedale. Cape Province.

1903. Cullen, William, M.I.M.M., The Crossways, Avenue Elmers,

Surbiton. Surrey, England.

1919. Cullinan, Sir Thomas, P.O. Box 286, Johannesburg.

1920. Curling, Major H. W., M.C., 2, Waterkant Street, Capetown.
1916. Currie, Richard, 112, Commissioner Street, Johannesburg.
1916. Curry, M. O., P.O. Box 2303. Johannesburg.

1920. Curson, H. H., M.R.C.V.S., Nagana Research Laboratory, P.O.
Empangeni, Zululand.

1904. Dale, Hubert, P.O. Box 632, Johannesburg.
1903. Dalrymple, Sir W., P.O. Box 2927, Johannesburg.
1913. Damant, E. L., B.Sc, The University, Johannesburg.
1916. Danckwerts, Ernst, P.O. Box 486, Johannesburg.

1913. Daniel, John, Armlev House, 30, Plein Street, Johannesburg.

1916. Davidson, D. M., P.O. Box 455, Germiston.

1917. Davidson, John, P.O. Box 1146, Johannesburg.

192U. Davie, T. B., B.A., 123, Juta Street, Wanderers' View, Johan-
nesburg.

1920. Davie, Mrs. Vera, B.A., 123, Juta Street, Wanderers' View,
Johannesburg.

1922. Da vies, Evan, P.O. Box 40S7, Johannesburg.

1918. Davies, David Ernest Lloyd, M.I.C.E., F.R.San. I., City Hall,

Capetown.

1916. Davis, Carl Raymond, E.M., M.A.I.M.E., Consolidated Mines
Selection Co., P.O. Box 1048. Johannesburg.

1903. Davis, Frederick H., B.Sc, M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 1934, Johan-
nesburg.

1916. Deakin, James Alfred, Dunswart Iron and Steel Works, P.O.

Box 290, Benoni, Transvaal.

1914. De Kock, Dr. Servaas Meyer, P.O. Box 321, Bloemfontein.

1915. De Kock, Professor G., M.R.C.V.S., Veterinarv Research

Laboratory, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1917. De Route, William Edmond, M.B., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Lloyd's

Buildings, Burg Street, Capetown.
1920. Delegation of the Chilean Nitrate of Soda Propaganda, Mait-
land Street, Bloemfontein.

1920. Delf, Miss E. Marion, D.Sc, AVestfield College, London, N.W.

1915. Delfos, Cornelis Frederik, P.O. Box 24, Pretoria.

1921. Denhardt, Joseph Edward, 15-16. Hatfield House, Johannesburg.

1919. Denison, Professor R, B., D.Sc, Ph.D., Natal University

College, Maritzburg.

1922. Department of Native Air'aii'8, Pretoria.

1916. Des Clayes, Raymond, P.O. Box 155, Johannesburg.

1915. De Villiers, C.*G. S., M.A., Ph.D., Stanford, Caledon, C.P.
1922. De Villiers, M., L.D.S., 36, Maitland Street, Bloemfontein.
1922. De Villiers, Mrs. M., 36, Maitland Street, Bloemfontein.

1916. De Villiers, Right Hon. Charles Percy, Baron, Rustenburg,

Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1921. Devitt, H. N., Magistrate's Court, Johannesburg.

1918. De Wet, Miss Frances Cole, M.A., Huguenot University

College, Wellington, Cape Province.

1915. Dick, Colonel James, S*. Thomas Road, Durban.

1916. Diethelm, Carl Robert, P.O. Box 3228, Johannesburg.

1920. Dix, F., B.Com., The University, Johannesburg.

1917. Dobson, Lieut. -Colonel Joseph 'Henry, D.S.O.. M.Sc, M.Eng.,

M.l.Mech.E., M.I.E.E., A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 699, Johan-
nesburg.

1921. Dockrall, B. AV. B., P.O. Box 4755, Johannesburg.

J919. Dodd, Benjamin Herbert, M.A., "Daily Dispatch " Office, East

London.
1915. Doidge, Miss Ethel Mary, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Division of

Botany, P.O. Box 994, Pretoria.

1922. Dormehl, P. L., Conservator of Forests, Bloemfontein.

1911. Dornan, Kev. Samuel S., M.A., F.G.S., Phoenix Hotel,
Beaconsheld, Cape Province.

1922. Douglas, T.; Afton Lodge, Parktown, Johannesburg.

1918. Dowling, Walford Robert, M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 1167, Johan-
nesburg.

1920. Dowling, Mrs. F., P.O. Box 1167, Johannesburg.
192U. Doyle, R. D., P.O. Box 937, Pretoria,

1908. Drege, Isaac Louis, P.O. Box 148, Port Elizabeth.

1917. Drennan, Charles Maxwell, M.A., Professor of English,
The University, Johannesburg.

1914. Dreyer, P., Resident Magistrate's Office, Capetown.

1915. Dreyer, Thomas F., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, Grey

University College, Bloemfontein.
1917. Dreyfus, Paul, P.O. Box 5836, Johannesburg.
1906. Druce, P. M., M.A., Parktown High School, Johannesburg.
1902. Drury, Edward Guy Dru, M.D., B.S., D.P.H., Grahamstown,

Cape Province.
1906. Duerden, James E., M.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of

Zoology, Rhodes' University College, Grahamstown, C.P.
191o. Dumat, Henry Aylmer, M.D.', F.R.C.P.E., 49, Gardiner Street,

Durban, Natal.

1910. Duncan, A., P.O. Box 1214, Johannesburg.

1904. Duncan, Hon. Patrick, C.M.G., M.L.A., Department of
Interior, Union Buildings, Pretoria,

1909. Dunkerton, Edward B., c/o Messrs. Lennon, Ltd., West

Street, P.O. Box 266, Durban, Natal.
1922. Dunstan, Dr. J. T., Mental Hospital, Pretoria.
1917. Uu Plessis, Rev. Professor Johannes, B.A., B.D., Theological

Seminary, Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1921. Du Plessis, I. P. J., School of Agriculture, Glen, O.F.S.
1917. Du Toit, Alexander Logie, B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Irrigation

Department, Union Buildings, Pretoria,
1913. Du Toit, A. E., M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Transvaal

University College, Pretoria.
1917. Du Toit, Hendrik Lodewijk, Michville, via Honey Nest Kloof,

Cape Province.
1920. Du Toit, Professor P. J., B.A., Ph.D., Dr. Med. Vet.,
Veterinary Research Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593,
Pretoria.
1917. Du Toit, Pieter Jacobus, B.A., Hilton College, Hilton Road,
near Maritzburg.

1915. Du Toit, Pieter Johannes, Secretary for Agriculture, Pretoria.

1911. Duthie, George, M.A., F.R.S.E., Concession Siding, Private

Bag, Salisbury, Rhodesia.
1917. Duthie, Miss Augusta Vera, M.A., University of Stellenbosch.

1912. Dwyer, Edward Burroughs, B.A., Forest Department, King-

williamstown, Cape Province.

1916. Eadie, Duncan Mclntyre, 699, Currie Street, Durban, Natal.

1922. Earl. Miss J., B.Sc, Girls' High School, Barnato Park,

Johannesburg.

1917. East London Public Library," East London. Cape Province.
1904. Eaton, William Arthur, 74, St. George's Street, Capetown.
1920. Eckbo N. B., Forest Department, Pretoria.

1920. Edmonds Miss M., Galloway House, Musgrave Road, Durban,

Natal.

1911. Edwards, C. J., P.O. Box 242, Capetown.

1922. Edwards, Dr. Constance M., P.O. Box 288, Bloemfontein.

1920. Ellis, Leonard Erasmus, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., "West-
lands," Junction Avenue, Parktown, Johannesburg.

1914. Elsdon-Dew, William, M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 4563, Johannes-
burg.

1920. Engels, K., L.D.S., Tudor Chambers, Pretoria.

1910. Engelenburg, Dr. F. V., Editor "De Volkstem," Pretoria.

1920. English, E. F., M.Sc, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
1918. Entomolouist, Cape Province, Department of Agriculture,

Parliament Street, Capetown.
1910. Erskine, J. K., F.C.S., P.O. Willowdene, near Johannesburg.
1922. Espinasse, James, B.A., 26, Kellner Street, Bloemfontein.
1918. Evans, Rev. Gregory, The Priory, Rosettenville, Johannesburg.
1918. Evans, Herbert, Cor. Von Brandis Square and Pritchard

Street, Johannesburg.
1905. Evans, lltyd Builer Pole, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Chief

of the Division of Botany and Plant Pathology, P.O. Box 994,

Pretoria.

1905. Evans, Samuel, 153, Nugget Street, Johannesburg.

1916. Evans, S., Modder B.G.M. Co., Ltd., Benoni, Transvaal.

1921. Evans, H. D., P.O. Box 1231, Johannesburg.

1918. Evans, Rev. William Frederick. Verulam, Natal.

1914. Eveleigh, Rev. William, P.O. Box 708, Capetown.

1919. Everitt, Alfred Page, P.O. Box 20, Kingwilliamstown, Cape

Province.

1904. Ewing, Sydney Edward Thacker, M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 2269,

Johannesburg.

1906. Eyles, Frederick, F.L.S., M.L.C., c/o Department of Agricul-

ture, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1917. Fantham, Professor Harold B., M.A., D.Sc, F.Z.S., Depart-

ment of Zoology, The University, Johannesburg.

1905. Farrar, Edward, Bleak Cottage, Park Street, Belgravia,

Johannesburg.
1905. Feetham, Richard, M.L.A., Sauer's Buildings, Cor. Loveday
and Market Streets, Johannesburg.

1918. Fernbank. Charles J.', P.O. Box 3220. Johannesburg.

1921. Fergus, B. W. H., 33, Berg Street, Belgravia, Johannesburg.

1921. Fern, W. G., P.O. Box 900, Johannesburg.

1921. Fernhead, AV., P.O. Box 3324, Johannesburg.

1922. Ferreira, J. F., Portuguese Consulate, Clonmel Chambers,

Eloii Street, Johannesburg.
1903. Ffennell, R. AV., c/o Central Mining and Investment Corpora-
tion, Ltd., 1, London Wall Buildings, London, E.G., England.

1921. Fielden, H., P.O. Box 7386, Johannesburg.

1915. Findlay, George Schriener, 151, Esselen Street, Pretoria.

1916. Findlay, Professor James, The University, Johannesburg.

1922. Fischer, P. U., B.A., LL.B., Southern Life Buildings, Bloem-

fontein.
1912. FitzSimons, F. W., F.Z.S., F.R.M.S., Director, Port Elizabeth

Museum, Port Elizabeth, Cape Province.
1902. Flack, Archdeacon Francis Walter, M.A., The Rectory, Uiten-

hage, Cape Province.

1919. Fletcher, R. A., A.M. ICE., P.O. Box 71, Bulawayo.

1920. Fletcher, H.C., P.O. Box 224, Bulawayo.

1916. Fletcher, Richard Evelyn, King Edward VII. School, Johan-
nesburg.
1902. Flint, Rev. William, D.D., Wolmunster Park, Rosebank, C.P.

1921. Floyd, G. E., Muir Cottage, Uitenhage, Cape Province.

Capetown.
1918 Foote, H. J-, M.B., Ch.B., L.D.S., 28, Estcourt Buildings,
Johannesburg.

1907. Foote, J. A., F.G.S., F.E.I.S., Principal, Commercial High

School, Johannesburg.
1921. Forbes, Miss H. M. L., Natal Herbarium, Durban, Natal.

Vlll

1919. Ford, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., Bayville, Oaklands Road,

Grahamstown, Cape Province.

1917. Forest Department, Union Buildings, Pretoria.

1918. Forrest, Bryce Charles, A.I.M.M., P.O. Box 6973, Johannes-

burg.

1920. Forsyth, J) F., B.A., P.O. Box 18. Maritzburg.

1920. Forsyth, Miss M. N., P.O. Box 18. Maritzburg.

1914. Forsyth, Thomas M., M.A., D.Phil., Professor of Philosophy,
Grey University College, Bloemfontein.

1921. Forsyth, G. A., P.O. Box 29, Johannesburg.

1922. Fox, P. H., Delagoa Bay Development Corporation, Loureneo

Marques.
1905. Frames, P. Ross. C.M.G., P.O. Box 148. Johannesburg.
190b. Frankenstein, Miss Adelia, B.A., 9, Knight Street, Kimberley,

Cape Province.
1916. Eraser, John, J. P., P.O. Box 149. Maritzburg.

1921. Fraser, Donald Alexander, P.O. Box 421, Johannesburg.
1916. Freeland, Hubert, P.O. Box 2863, Johannesburg.

1902. Fremantle, Henry Fardley Stephen, M.A., F.S.S., Upper

Avenue, Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
192i. Frielinghaus, F. W., P.O. Box 26, Maraisburg, Transvaal.

1916. Frood, George Edward Bell, M.A., M.I.M.M., Mines Depart-

ment, Windhoek, S.W. Protectorate.

1914. Frood, Dr. T. M., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1902. Fuhr, Harry A., A.M.I.C.E., Public "Works Department, Bloem-

fontein.
1918. Fulton, James Renwick, South African Railways Offices, Johan-
nesburg

1907. Gairdner, Dr. J. Francis R., 754, Church Street, Arcadia,
Pretoria.

1903. Galpin, Ernest Edward, F.L.S., Mosdene, Naboomspruit,

Transvaal.

1922. Gardner, M. B., P.O. Box 1014, Johannesburg.

1915. Garlick, Miss Winifred Marguerite, Thornibrae, Green Point.

Capetown.
1902. Gasson, William, F.C.S., Dutoitspan Road, Kimberley. C.P.

1904. Gellatly. John T. B.. M.I.C.E.. P.O. Box 37. Bethuli'e, O.F.S.
1918. George, Ernest, B.A., M.Sc, F.C.S., The University, Johan-
nesburg.

1917. Gericke, Oney Mortimer, M.B., Ch.B., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.,

Forest Hill. Tapper Buitekant Street, Capetown.
1920. Gibbs, T. J., B.Sc, Natal University College, Maritzburg.

1916. Gibson, James Young, 380, Longmarket Street, Maritzburg.
1902. Gilchrist, John Dow Fisher, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.L.S.,

C.M.Z.S., Professor of Zoologv. University of Capetown.

1905. Gilchrist, W., M.S. A., P.O. Box 127, Capetown.

1910. Ginsberg, Franz., P.O. Box 3, Kingwilliamstown, Cape
Province.

1910. Glyn, Charles, M.E., P.O. Box 193, Roodepoort, Transvaal.

1912. Goddard, Ernest James, B.A., D.Sc, Professor of Zoology.
University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1902. Godfrey, Rev. Robert, M.A., Blythswood Institution, Butter-
worth, Cape Province.

1920. Goetz, Rev. Father E., S.J., M.A., The Observatory, P.O. Box
172, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1922. Goldring, Clive, Jeppe High School, Johannesburg.

1922. Gomes, Madame D. V. B. de S. R., Auditoria, Loureneo
Marques.

1916. Goodall, Frederick. P.O. Box 909. Durban, Natal.

1920. Gordon, Dr. Mary S., Blinman's Buildings. Johannesburg.

1904. Gorges, Sir Edward Howard Lacam, K.C.M.G., M.V.O.,
Pretoria Club, Pretoria.

1915. Gould, Robert Howe, P.O. Box 4941, Johannesburg.

1918. Grahamstown Public Library, P.O. Box 30, Grahamstown,

Cape Province.

1921. Graham, C. E., P.O. Box 1463, Johannesburg.

1922. Grainger, Joachim J., P.O. Box 118, Lourenco Marques.
1908. Grant, Charles, M.A., P.O. Box 392, Pretoria.

1919. Grant, George, General Manager's Office, African Banking

Corporation, Capetown.

1914. Grant, William Frank, B.Sc, P.O. Box 1013, Johannesburg.
190*. Gray, Charles Joseph, P.O. Box 1072, Johannesburg.

1907. Gray, James, F.I.C., P.O. Box 52o4, Johannesburg.

1915. Green, Professor Henry Hamilton, D.Sc, F.C.S., Veterinary

Laboratory, Onderstepoort, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.
1921. Green, F. V., P.O. Box 7017, Johannesburg.
191(5. Greenacre, Walter, "Waveney," Musgrave Road, Durban,

.Natal.

1921. Gregor, VV. T.. 59, Luipaard Street, Krugersdorp.

1920. Grice, L. C, Municipal Buildings, Durban.

1919. Griffin, Rev. A. Fben, The Parsonage, Kingwilliamstown.
1910. Griffin, Joseph D., P.O. Box 2155, Johannesburg.

1922. Griffin, Thomas Fidler, P.O. Box 1465, Johannesburg.

1921. Grills, E. R., P.O. Box 1020, Johannesburg.

1906. Grimmer, Irvine Rowell, Assistant General Manager, De Beers

Consolidated Mines, Ltd., Kimberley, Cape Province.

1916. Grindley-Ferris, Yyvyan, B.Sc, Consolidated Goldfields of

South Africa, Ltd., Johannesburg.

1917. Grobbelaar, Coert Smit, M.A., Heemstede, Van Riebeek Street.

Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1912. Gubbins, John Gaspard, B.A., Ottoshoop, Transvaal.

1913. Gundry, Philip G., B.Sc, Ph.D., A.R.C.S., Professor of Physics,

Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1915. Gunn, David P., P.O. Box 597, Port Elizabeth, Cape Province.
1905. Gutsche, Phillip, M.D., Villa Torrita, Kingwilliamstown, Cape

Province.

1903. Gyde, Charles J.. A.M.I.C.E., Public Works Department, Union

Buildings, Pretoria.

1904. Haagner, Ahvyn K.. Hon. D.Sc, F.Z.S.. Zoological Gardens.

P.O. Box 754. Pretoria.

1916. Haig, W., c/o Messrs. Fraser & Chalmers, Ltd., Corner House.

Johannesburg.

1907. Hall., Carl, A.M.I.C.E., F.G.S., 28, Club Arcade, Durban

Natal.
1910. Halm, Jacob K. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Royal Observatory, Cape
Province.

1921. Halm, E. A., Technical College, Durban, Natal.

1922. Hamlin, Dr. E. J., Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1907. Hammar, August, 441, Burger Street, Maritzburg, Natal.

1902. Hancock, H., A.M.I.C.E., 5, Castle Street, Liskeard, Cornwall,

England.

1903. Hancock, Strangman, M.Am.I.M.E., Kennel Holt, Cranbrook,

Kent, England.

1920. Harries, C. L. R., P.O. Hainan's Kraal, District Pretoria
190*. Harries, W. M., P.O. Box 2189, Johannesburg.

1905. Harris, Lionel, M.E., B.Sc, 113, Sivewright Avenue, Doorn-

fontein, P.O. Box 1311, Johannesburg.

1921. Harris, R. H. T. P., Farm 273, Empangeni, Zululand.

1918. Harrison, Thoma,s Hendry, P.O. Box 74, Kingwilliamstown,
Cape Province.

1916. Hastings, Miss Isabel, Oaklands School, Harrismith O F S

1917. Hawkins, John Charles, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box

54, Vereeniging, Transvaal.
1916. Hay, AVilliam, J. P., P.O. Box 521, Capetown.

1921. Hay, R. G., P.O. Box 6814. Johannesburg.

1922. Hayhoe, D. G., P.O. Box 1540, Johannesburg.

1920. Hayter, C. S., Private Post Bag, Maritzburg, Natal.

1916. Heather, Hendry James Shedlock, B.A., M.I.C.E., M.I.K £.,

F.Am.l.E.E., Professor of Electrotechnics, The University,

Johannesburg.
19r6. Healey, John Edward, P.O. Box 2, Maraisburg, Trans/aal.
1921. Heanan, Miss M., Government School, Roberts Heights,

Pretoria.

1920. Heboitch, Miss G. E., Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape

Province.

1914. Henderson, Miss Janetta, c/o Dr. J. B. H. Ruthven, P.O. Box

6253, Johannesburg.
1902. He'nkel, John Spurgeon, Department of Agriculture, Salisbury,
Rhodesia.

1918. Hepburn, Rev. Ivan Dawson, B.A., c/o Sudan United Mission,

Muri Province, Northern Nigeria.

1904. Herdman, G. W., M.A., M.I.C.E., Assistant Director of Irriga-

tion, union Buildings, Pretoria.

1919. Hessenauer, Herman Charles, L.D.S., 108 Oxford Street, East

London.

1911. Hewetson, W. M., M.B., D.P.H., J. P., Sinoia, Southern Rho-

desia.
1909. Hewitt, John, B.A., Director of the Albany Museum,
Grahamstown, Cape Province.

1915. Hewitt, Strafford Smith, P.O. Box 192, Bloemfontein.

1909. Heymans, Dr. G., M.A., 702, Church Street, Arcadia, Pretoria.

1917. Hilhorst, Henri, P.O. Box 484, Pretoria.

1918. Hirschhorn, Friedrich, P.O. Box 40, Kimberby.

1916. Hodges, Miss Ruth Mary, B.Sc, Wykeham School, Marit/burg.

1917. Hofmeyr, Jan Hendrik, M.A., Principal, University of the

Witwatersrand, J ohannesburg.

1919. Hofmeyr, Rev. Hendrik Moleps, Private Bag, Pietersburg,

Transvaal.
19zl. Hoffman, G. F., Muir College, Bloemiiiinn.

1921. Hoffman, W. S., M.A., Edwaleni High School, Izingolweni,

Natal.

1921. Honey, C. H., P.O. Box 1011, Johannesburg.

1919. Holloway, Professor John Edward, B.V., l\lic. Transvaal

University College, Pretoria.
1902. Honnold, W. L., Hyde Park Hotel, 66, Knightso'idge, Loud, n,

S.W.. England
1902. Horne, William James, A.M.I.C.E., A.M.l.E.E , c'o Tr?<?es

School, Smit Street, Johannesburg.

1918. HoRTOR, William Edward, " Trevadlock," Campbell Road,

Parktown. West, Johannesburg.

1922. Horwich, Dr. D., P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg.
1921. Hosken, H., P.O. Box 667, Johannesburg.

1921. Hoskings, E. O., 115, Hunter Street, Bellvue, Johannesburg.
1902. Hough, Sydney Samuel, M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, Royal
Observatory, near Capetown.

1920. Howman, E. G., Sinoia, Southern Rhodesia.

1905. Humphrey, William Alvara, B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Vryheid,

Natal.

1912. Hunt, Donald Rolfe, Sub-Native Commissioner, Secocoeniland,

Lydenburg, Transvaal.

1921. Hutcheson, John, P.O. Box 4854, Johannesburg.
1916. Hutton, C. E., P.O. Box 164, Germiston, Transvaal.

19l8. Hutton, Herbert Beavor, P.O. Box 44, Kingwilliamstown,

Cape Province.
1920. Hyman, L. H., 411, Smith Street, Durban, Natal.

1916. Imroth, G., Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Buildings,
Johannesburg.

1913. Ingham, William, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., Chief Engineer's Office,

Rand Water Board, P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.

1922. Ingham, F. E., P.O. Box 1703, Johannesburg.

.1*1

i92±. Ingle, A. E., Palmhurst, Silver Oak Avenue, Overpoort,

Durban, Matal.
1907. Innes, Hon. Sir James Rose-, K.C.M.G., B.A., L.L.B., Chief

Justice of the Union of South Africa, Capetown.
1902. Innes, Robert Thorburn Ayton, F.R.A.S.. F.R.S.E., Union

Observatory, Johannesburg.
190S. Institute of Government Land Surveyors, Cape of Good Hop©

Savings Rank Buildings, Capetown.

1921. Iowa State College Library, Ames, Iowa, JT.S.A.

1915. Jackson, Harry Percival, M.Sc, Jeppe High School, Johan-
nesburg.

1922. Jackson, W. R., P.O. Box 4570, Johannesburg.

1904. J agger, Hon. J. W., F.S.S., M.L.A., P.O. Rox 258, Capetown.
1920. Jamieson, Mrs. E., P.O. Box 357, Johannesburg

1920. Jamieson, E. C, Brown's Buildings, Loveday Street, Johan-

nesburg.

1915. Janse, Antonius Johannes Theodorus, F.E.S., Lecturer in

Biology, Normal College, Pretoria, First Street, Gezina,
Pretoria.

1919. Jaedine, Major W., "Craigdhu," Tamboer's Kloof, Capetown.
19x1. Jarvis, E. M., F.R.C.V.S., Pelf's Estate, P.O. Box 14, Umtali,

Rhodesia.

1910. Jeffrey, John, P.O. Rox 40, Capetown.

1922. Jeffreys. Mrs. L., P.O. Box 1183, Johannesburg.

1921. Jenkins, B., P.O. Box 399, Johannesburg.

1920. Jennings, A. C, A.M.I.C.E., P.O. Box 387. Salisbury,

Rhodesia.
1913. Jensen, Alex. Emil, R.Sc. Eng., 73, Kitchener Avenue,
Bezuidenhout Valley, Johannesburg.

1916. Jensen, Ragnvald, C.E., P.O. Box 1361, Johannesburg.

1916. Joel, Solomon Barnato, P.O. Box 433, Johannesburg.

1912. Johnson, Miss Alta, Ph.B., New Street, "Wellington, Cape Prov.
1912. Johnson, George Lindsay, M.A., M.D., Britannia Buildings,

West Street, Durban, Natal.
1909. Johnson, W., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S., 3, Link Road, Rloemfontein.
11)11. Johnson, W.o., M.A., Professor of English, Grey University
College, Bloemfontein.

1917. Jones, Daniel Johnes, 83a, Ferreira Street, Turffontein.

1920. Jones, J. D. R., Witwatersrand Council of Education, P.O.
Rox 854, Johannesburg.

19^0. Jones, Mrs. J. D. R., Jeppe High School for Girls, Johannes-
burg.

1920. Jones, G. C, P.O. Box 987, Johannesburg.

1916. Jones, J. E., P.O. Box 2354, Johannesburg.

1917. Jones, Levi David, B.Sc, Commercial High School, Johannes-

burg.

1921. Jones, H. E., B.A., Technical College, Durban, Natal.

1920. Jordan, Miss G. W., B.A., Junior Student Centre, Doornfon-
tein, Johannesburg.

1911. Joubert, M. J., B.Sc.Agr., Department of Agriculture, Bloem-

fontein.
1920. Jourd, W. T., P.O. Box 226, Roksburg, Transvaal.
1920. Judson, D., M.I.E.E., Rulawayo, Rhodesia.
1905. Junod, Rev. Henri A., c/o Mission Suisse Romande, Chemin

des Cedres, Lausanne, Switzerland.

1922. Junod, H. P., B.A., B.D., P.O. Box 21. Lourenco Marques.
1920. Jurgens, Miss K., c/o Rev. Stander, Barberton, Transvaal.
1903. Juritz, Charles Frederick, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Chief of

Division of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, Capetown.

1907. Kanthack, Francis Edgar, C.M.G., M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., 5,
Winchester House, Johannesburg.

1918. Karnovsky, Herman Louis, P.O. Box 5933, Johannesburg.

xil

1921. Kayser, C. F.. Park Drive. Port Elizabeth, Cape Province.

1912. Kehoe, Professor D., M.R.C.V.S., Royal Veterinary College of

Ireland, Ballsbridge, Dublin, Ireland.

1920. Keigwin, H. S., M.A., Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1921. Kennedy, W. P., B.Sc, Maritzburg College, Maritzburg, Natal.
1903. Kent, Professor Thomas Parkes, M.A., University of Capetown.

1919. Kerr, Alexander, M.A., Principal, South African Native

College, Fort Hare, Alice, Cape Province.
1921. Key, A. Cooper. P.O. Box 3621, Johannesburg.

1920. Kilroe, Professor Miss F. C. B.Sc, Huguenot College,

Wellington, Cape Province.
1905. King. Austin, Director of Mines. Macequese, Portuguese East
Africa.

1915. King, Francis Edward, P.O. Box 802, Pretoria.

191*. Kingon, Rev. John Robert Lewis, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S., The Manse, Lower Main Road, Observatory, Capo
Province.

1919. Kingwilliamstown Public Library, Kingwilliamstown, Cape

Province.
190o. Kingwilliamstown Museum, Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.

1921. Kirby, Professor P. R., M.A., A. R. CM. .The University,

Johannesburg.

1913. Kirkland, John Wilkinson. M.Am.I.E.E., P.O. Box 1905,

Johannesburg.

1909. Kirkman, John, J. P., M.P.C.. 331, Musgrave Road. Durban.

1910. Kleudgen, Caesar, P.O. Box 1164. Johannesburg.

1916. Kloot, Alfred Aaron, B.Sc. A.I.C.. West Street, Durban.
1902. Knapp, Arthur D., Chikondi Estate, Neno Post Office, British

Central Africa.

1920. Kok, Mathy Johannes, Commercial High School. Krugersdorp.

1902. Kolbe, Rev. Frederick Charles. B.A., D.D., St. Mary's Pres-

bytery, Capetown.

1921. Kope, O. S., Cor. Sixth and Third Avenues, Rosebank. Johan

nesburg.

1903. Kotze, Sir Robert W. N., Kt., B.A.. P.O. Box 1132, Johan-

nesburg.

1918. Krause, Frederick Edward Trangott. B.A.. LL.D.. P.O. Box

2345, Johannesburg.

1916. Krause, Herbert Louis, A.S.M., P.O. Box 193. Germiston.

Transvaal.

1922. Krige, A. V., M.Sc. Victoria Street. Stellenbosch, Cape Prow
1920. Krige, E. W., Ceres, Cape Province.

1920. Krige, Mrs. E. W., Ceres, Cape Province.

1917. Krige, Professor Jacob Daniel Alphonse. Ph.D.. The Univer-

sity, Johannesburg.
1922. Kriel, Mrs. L. M., The Parsonage, Utrecht. Natal.
192±. Kroonstad Public Library, Kroonstad, O.F.S.
1920. Kupferrurger, W., M.Sc. The University. Johannesburg.

1922. Ladler. Miss E. JN.. B.Sc. Huguenot College. Wellington. C.P.

1917. Laidler. Percy Ward, L.D.S., L.R.C.P.. L.R.C.S.. F.S.A..

" Seaford." Main Road. Sea Point, Capetown.

1919. Lambe, John Mordy, City Electrical Engineer. Town Hall. East

London, Cape Province.
1916. Lamont, William John, Grootfontein School of Agriculture.
Middelburg, Cape Province.

1918. Landau, Arthur. P.O. Box 3378, Johannesburg.

1913. Landau, Nathan, Survey Office, Oogies Colliery, P.O. Oogies,

Transvaal.

1914. Lange, Hon. Justice Sir Johannes H., Kt., LL.B., Judge's

Chambers, Kimberley, Cape Province.
1903. Laschinger. E. J., B.A.Sc. M.E., M.I.M.M.. P.O. Box 4563.
Johannesburg.

1920. Lawrie, John E.C., P.O. Box 3927. Johannesburg.

1921. Lazab, O., c/o H. Comerimer, 29, Potsdamer Strasse, Berlin.

Germany.
1921. Le May, H., M.A., B.Sc., The University, Johannesburg.

1903. Legat, C. E., B.Sc., Chief Conservator of Forests, Pretoria.

1904. Leeds, R. Q., P.O. Box 928, Johannesburg.

1907. Lehfeldt. Robert A., B.A., D.Sc. Professor of Economics,

The University, Johannesburg.

1908. Leighton, James, F.R.H.S., P.O. Box 86, Kingwilliamstown.
iy02. Lenz, O., P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

1919. Leonard, Charles Henry Branold, Mount Nelson Hotel,

Capetown.

1921. Leon, Claude, P.O. Box 1988, Johannesburg.

1922. Leon, Aubrey Lester, P.O. Box 1998, Johannesburg.
1921. Leon, P. A., P.O. Box 1101, Johannesburg.

1916. Leslie, Robert, M.A., F.S.S.. Jagger Professor of Economics,

University of Capetown.
1916. Leslie. T. JNL, F.G.S., F.R.Met S., P.O. Box 23. Vereeniging.

Transvaal.

1921. Lestarde, G. P., Harvard University, Harvard, U.S.A.
1908. Leviseur, M., Bloemfontein.

1918. Levy, Joseph Langley, P.O. Box 1138, Johannesburg.
1903. Lewis, Leon, /even Rivieren. Ban Houek, Stellenbosch.

1920. Liebson, J., P.O. Box 5996, Johannesburg.

1918. Lister, Sir Frederick Spencer, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., "Cran-
brook," Jan Smuts Avenue, Westeliff, Johannesburg.

1922. Livie-JNoble. F. S.. St. Paul's Hostel, Grahamstown, C.P.
1916. Loeser, Dr. F. H.. Crown Mines, Ltd., Johannesburg.

191o. Logan, James Patterson, F.S.A.A., Town Hall, Bloemfontein.
1903. Logeman, William H., M.A., Professor of Physics, Grey

University College, Bloemfontein.
1922. Long, A. G., 21, Berea Road, Bertrams, Johannesburg.

1916. Loram, Charles Templeman. M.A., LL.B.. Ph.D.. Education

Department. Maritzburg.
1903. Lorentz, Henri, P.O. Box 55, Johannesburg.
1902. Lounsbury, Charles Pugsley, B.Sc, F.E.S., Chief of the

Division of Entomologv, P.O. Box 513, Pretoria.
1920. Louw, J. P. de V., Zand Drift, Stellenbosch. Cape Province.
1920. Louw, Mrs. J. P., Zand Drift, Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1920. Lowenstein, Dr. Lilian. M.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P.. 24, Patlansky'a

Buildings, Johannesburg.
192z. Lowe, George Osborn, P.O. Box 2483, Johannesburg.
1922. Loze. 'Rev. P.. P.O. Box 21. Lourenco Marques.
1902. Lunt, Joseph, D.Sc, F.I.C., Royal Observatory, Capetown

1921. Lucas, F. A. W., 42, Sauer's Buildings, Johannesburg.

1922. Luckie, W. B., P.O. Hox 126. Lourenco Marques.

1902. Lynch, Major F. S., J. P., Kimberley Waterworks Co., Ltd..
P.O. Box 650. Kimberley, Cape Province.

1917. Lyons, Joseph, A.R.C.S., c/o Joseph Baynes, Ltd., Nel's Rust.

Natal.

1920. Mace, Miss E., Girls' Collegiate School, Maritzburg.

1908. Macfadyen, William Allison, M.A., LL.D., Professor oi
Philosophy, Transvaal University College, Pretoria.

1921. Macfie, T. G., Barsdorf Buildings, Johannesburg.
1921. Macintyre, Major W.. P.O. Box 7095, Johannesburg.

1917. MacColl, Rev. John A., M.A.. c/o J. J. Simpson, P.O. Box

64, Johannesburg.

1918. MacIntyre. Alexander Stewart, Government Industrial School.

Maseru, Basutoland.

1921. MacKay, D. W., P.O. Box 251. Johannesburg.

1922. Mackenzie, J. N., P.O. Box 545, Johannesburg.

1914. Macmillan, Professor \Y. M., M.A., The University, Johannes

burg.
1920. Mackenzie, J., 107, S.A. Railways, Johannesburg,

XIV

1917.
1918.

1905. McArthur, Duncan Campbell. M.R.C.S., L.B.C.P.. Muizen-

burg, Cape Province.

1917. McCrae, John, Ph.D.. F.I.C,. P.O. Box 1080, Johannesburg.
1920. McCormack, M., Rand Water Board, Johannesburg.

1918. McCowat. Dr. W. M., P.O. Box 318, Johannesburg.

1919. McCurdy, Joseph Campbell, P.O. Box 6, Kingwilliamstown,

Cape Province.

1908. .McCrae, H. J., P.O. Box 817, Johannesburg.

1916. McDonald, David Paterson. M.A., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1170, Johan-
nesburg.

1909. McDonald. G., M.A., Normal Training College, Bloemfontein.
1902. McEwen, T. S., A.M.I.C.E., "The Links," Rondebosch, Cape

Province.
1922. McEwen, 'J'. W. H.. P.O. Box 2827, Johannesburg.
1909. McFeggans, Alexander. P.O. Box 26. Lmtata, Cape Province.

1920. McGregor, A. M., B.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 366, Salisbury,

Rhodesia.

1914. McGregor. Rev. Andrew Murray, M.A., B.D., Blommestein.

Three Anchor Bay, Capetown.

1921. McIntosh, P. R., "Tyrie," Ninth Avenue, Mayfair, Johannes-

burg.

1916. McKay, Mrs. Helen Millar, Malvern West Government School,

Johannesburg.
1904. McKenzie, Archibald, Ml).. CM., M.R.C.S., Glen Lyon.
Musgrave Road, Durban. Natal.

1920. McKenzie, Dr. A. J., Gatooma. Rhodesia.
McLaren, James. M.A.. Carshead Farm, Crieff, Scotland.
McLaren, Mrs. Florence V.. 36, St. George's Street, Yeoville,

Johannesburg.

1915. McLoughlin, Captain Alfred George, Assistant Resident Magis-

trate, Qumbu. Cape Province.
1919. McMillan, David, J. P., 47, St. Peter's Road, P.O. Box 169.

East London, Cape Province.
1919. Main, John. P.O. Box 38, Capetown.

1921. Maingard. Professor L. F., D.Lit., The University. Johannes-

burg.

1919. Maisels. Israel, M.B.. Ch.B.. L.M.. 74. Kruis Street, Johan-

nesburg.

1920. Malan, Hon. Francois Stephanus. B.A.. LL.D., M.L.A., P.O.

Box 450, Pretoria.
1912. Malherbe, D. F. du Toit, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry,

Transvaal Lniversitv College, Pretoria.
1904. Malherre, H. L., P.O. Box 208, Pretoria.

1917. Malleson. Percy Rodburd, F.R.H.S., Ida's Valley, Stellen-

bosch, Cape Province.
1902. Mally, Charles William. M.Sc, F.E.S., F.L.S., Division of
Entomology, Department ot Agriculture. Capetown.

1921. Manduell, M. D., M.A., Jeppe High School, Johannesburg.

1922. Manners, Philip Henry, 51, Fortescue Road, Yeoville, Johan-

nesburg.

1915. Manning. Charles Nicholson, P.O. Box 98. Pictersburg,

Transvaal.
1919. Marchand, Mrs. Annabel W., Parsonage, Yredenburg, Cape

Province.

1915. Marchand. Bernard de Coligny, B.A., D.Sc, Chemical Labora-

tory, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
1902. Marloth. Professor Rudolph, M.A., Ph.D., P.O. Box 359,
Capetown.

1919. Marsh, A. C, New Law Courts, Johannesburg.

1916. Marshall, William Benjamin. P.O. Box 159. Maritzburg.

1920. Mause, W., P.O. Box 2762, Johannesburg.

1911. Maufe, Herbert Brentwood, B.A., F.G.S., P.O. Box 366.
Salisbury, Rhodesia.

XV

1920. Mavrogordato, A., M.A., M.R.C.S., South African Institute
for Medical Research, P.O. Box 1038, Johannesburg.

1902. Melle, G. J. McCarthy, M.B., c/o Zaaiplaats Tin Mining Co.,

Ltd., Potgietersrust, Transvaal.
1920. Mellish, A. D., Victoria Club, Maritzburg.

1903. Mbllok, Edward T., D.Sc, M.I.M.M., F.G.S., P.O. Box 1056,

Johannesburg.
1902. Menmuir, R. W., A.M.I.C.E., National Mutual Buildings,
Church Square, Capetown.

1920. Mennell, F. P., F.G.S., M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 490, Bulawayo.
1917. Mercier, David Pyne, B.A.. Kearsney College, Kearsney,

JNatal.

1921. Merkin, J. C, 33. Aegis Buildings, Johannesburg.

1920. Mettam, Professor R. W. M., M.R.C.V.S., The University,
Johannesburg.

1914. Mesham, Professor Paul. M.A., M.Sc. Natal University College.

Maritzburg.

1902. Metcalf, Sir Charles, Bart., M.I.C.E., 21, Pall Mall, London,

S.W., England.

1916. Meyer, Edward C. J., B.Sc, P.O. Box 57, East Rand.

Transvaal.

1917. Miller, Thomas Maskew, M.B.E., P.O. Box 396, Capetown.

1922. Millin, Advocate P., 47, Sauer's Buildings, Johannesburg.
1917. Mills, Frederick William, M.I.E.E., Headquarters, South

African Railways, Johannesburg.
1920. Miolee, W. F., P.O. Box 362, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1915. Mitchell, David Thomas, M.R.C.V.S.. Veterinary Research

Laboratory, Armoedsvlakte, Viyburg, Cape Province.

1916. Mitchell, Hugh, P.O. Box 98, Langlaagte, Transvaal.

1916. Mitchell, John Jeppes, Central Government School, Johan-

nesburg.

1915. Mogg, Albert Oliver Dean, B.A., Veterinary Research

Laboratory, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1917. Moir, James, M. A., D.Sc, F.I.C., P.O. Box 1080, Johannesburg.
1912. Moll, Dr. A. M., P.O. Box 4708, Johannesburg.

1922. Moll, Dr. Jan Marius, 5, Anstey's Buildings, Johannesburg.

1918. Montgomery, Robert Eustace. M.R.C.V.S., Director of Veterin-

ary Research, Nairobi, British East Africa.
1922. Montgomery. Thomas, P.O. Box 552, Bloemfontein.
1922. Moon, R. H.. P.O. Box 6341, Johannesburg.

1916. Moore, Miss Mary Elizabeth Constance, Wykeham School,

Maritzburg.

1919. Moore, Willie Paton, "Somerset, " Gorleston Road, Sea Point,

Capetown.

1920. Moore, G. F., P.O. Box 453, Johannesburg.

1903. Morice, Advocate George T., B.A., K.C., 28, Sauer's Buildings,

Johannesburg.

1921. Morice, Andrew, 1, Alliance Buildings, Fox Street, Johannes-

burg.
1920. Morris, J. F., Chief Lab. Officer, Vereeniging, Transvaal.
1919. Morris, Reginald James, Borough Engineer's Office, King-

williamstown, Cape Province.

1919. Morris Frank, B.Sc, University College, Maritzburg.

1916. Morrison, John Todd, M.A., "B.Sc, F.R.S.E., A.M.I.E.E.
Professor of Applied Mathematics, University of Stellenbosch.
Cape Province.

1916. Morton, David Thomas, West Rand Consolidated Mines,

Transvaal

1920. Morton, J. S., High School, Turffontein, Johannesburg.

1917. Moss, Professor Charles Edward, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.R.G.S.,

Department of Botany, The University, Johannesburg.
1920. Moss, Mrs. C. E., M.A., The University, Johannesburg.

1918. Moss-Morrison, Bernard, P.O. Box 4800, Johannesburg.
1920. Mossop, George Edward, Vrede, O.F.S.

1921
1902

1917
1904

Mulder, Willem, M.D., P.O. Box 393. Durban.
Muir, Sir Thomas, Kt.. C.M.G., M.A.. LL.D.. F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Elmsote, Sandown Road. Rondeboseh, Capetown.

1915. Munro, H. K.. 15. Sc. Government Entomologist, East London.

1916. Mcxho, John. P.O. Box 133, Johannesburg.
Murray, Charles, M.A., Hcrold Street. Stellenbosch, Cape Prov.
Murray. George Alfred Everett, MJX, F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.,

RO. box 105, Johannesburg.

1918. Murray. John, M.I.Mech.E., e/o The African Agricultural

Estates, Ltd., Movene Estates, Bohane, Lourenco Marques.
1922. Murray, W. F., 15, Milner Road, Bloemfontein.

1919. Myers, Benjamin, 68, Oxford Street, East London, Cape Prov.

1916. Narbeth, Benjamin Mason, B.Sc, F.C.S., Principal, Technical

College, Durban, Natal.
1910. JNauta, Professor Renicus Dowe, University of Capetown.

1917. JNay, Arthur Mac. M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 951, Durban, Natal.

1916. Neame, Hugh Austin, P.O. Box 3921, Johannesburg.

1905. Neilson, A. M.. Manager, Safco Fertilizers Co., Umbilo, Natal.
1922. Nel, Professor G. O, B.A., Ph.D.. University of Stellenbosch.

Cape Province.

1918. Nelson, George William, P.O. Box 841, Johannesburg.

1919. Nettletox, George Augustus, Keiskama Hoek. Kingwilliams-

town, Cape Province.

1915. New York Public Library, Forty-second Street and Fifth

Avenue, New York City, U.S.A.

1920. New Transvaal Chemical Co., Delmore, Transvaal.

1917. Newberry, H., P.O. Box 225, Benoni, Transvaal.

1920. Newbery, Professor E.. D.Sc, The University, Capetown.

1922. Newell, Dr. Annie G., Huguenot College, Wellington. C.P.

1914. Newhall, Percy Melrose, B.Sc, P.O. Box 1169, Johannesburg.

1916. Newhouse, Hans, P.O. Box 1156. Johannesburg.

1920. Newmax, 11. W.j Lake Mentz, via AYolvefontein.

1921. Nichols, L. H., P.O. Box 3662, Johannesburg.

1917. Nicholson, Alfred, Schoongezicht, Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1902. Nicholson, George Taylor, M.I.C.E., Resident Engineer, Docks.

Capetown.

1904. Nixon, Edward John, M.R.C.S.. L.R.C.P., P.O. Box 57.
Heidelberg, Transvaal.

1902. Nobbs, Eric Arthur, Ph.D.. B.Sc. F.R.H.S., Director of Agri-
culture. Salisbury, Rhodesia.

1922. Norman, H. E:, 54, Magistrate's Court, Johannesburg.

1915. Norton, Rev. Professor William Alfred. M.A., B.Litt.,

Burnham Road, Seapoint, Capetown.

1921. Norris, G. Chad, 4, South Street, Grahamstown. Cape Prov.

1920. Oakshott, H. C. G., P.O. Box 52, Boksburg, Transvaal.
1917. Odgers, W., Rand Club, Johannesburg.

1922. Oettle, Geo. S., S.A. Railwavs and Harbours. Johannesburg.
1907. Ogg, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc," Ph.D., Professor of Physics, The

University, Capetown.
1922. Ogilvie, P. A.. 6. Harley Street, Yeoville, Johannesburg.

1921. Orenstein, Mrs. K., P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.

1915. Orenstein, Alexander Jeremiah, C.M.G., M.D.. M.R.C.S..

L.R.C.P., P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.

1906. Orpen, Joseph Millerd, Hon Asile, 43. St. Mark's Road. East

London.
1902. Orr, John, 0.11. E., B.Sc, M.I.C.E., M.I.Mech.E., Professor of

Mechanical Engineering. The University, Johannesburg.
1920. Otten, F. J., B.A., Public School, Belfast.' Transvaal.

1916. Otto, Cyril Saxon Douglas, Otto's Bluff. Natal.

1919. Owen, William Alfred, P.O. Box 111, Kingwilliamstown. Cape

Province.
1919. Page, R. A., M.A., Rhodes' University College, Grahamstown,

192U. Paine. Professor H. H., M.A., B.Sc, The University, -Johan-
nesburg.

1905. Paisley, William, M.B.. B.Ch., P.O. Box 127, Queenstown,
Cape Province.

1920. Palmer, J. C, Diocesan Training College, Pietersburg, Trans-
vaal.

1920. Palmer, Mrs. Mabel. M.A., Technical College. Durban, Natal.

1908. Palmer, W. Jarvis, B.Sc.Ag., P.O. Box 4557, Johannesburg.

1905. Papenfus, H. B., K.C.. M.L.A., P.O. Box 5155, Johannesburg.

1920. Parkes, Edward B. H., B.A., P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.

1914. Parry, John, c/o De Beers Mines, Ltd.. 17, Hull Street,
Kimberley.

1921. Parish, E., B.Sc, Department of Agriculture. Pretoria.
1920. Paterson, Professor A. C, M.A., Transvaal University College.

Pretoria.

1920. Paterson, A., c/o Wells & Co.. Bathurst Street. Grahams-

town. Cape Province.

1902. Pattrick, C. Beaufoy, A.M.I.C.E., Froneithysi, Aberdovey,

JNorth Wales.

1903. Payne, Albert E., A.K.S.M., P.O. Box 15, Langlaagte, Trans-

vaal.
1919. Peacock. Henry Christopher, East London. Cape Province.

1916. Pearce, William, Lower Illovo, Natal.

1921. Pearse, Professor G. E.. A.R.I.B.A.. The University, Johan-

nesburg.
I91b\ Pellissier, Rev. George Murray. B.A., B.D., Dundee, Natal.
L913. Peres, Dr. Manoel A.. Jr.. Director, Observatorio Campos

Rodrigues. P.O. Box 256, Lourenco Marques.
1907. Peringuey, Louis Albert. D.Sc. F.E.S.. F.Z.S., Director. South

African Museum. Capetown.
1910. Perold, Abraham Izak, B.A., Ph.D.. Professor of Viticulture

and Oenoiogy, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1905. Petersen, Carl Olief, P.O.' Box 4938. Johannesburg.

1917. Petersen. Henry Alfred. P.O. Box 3696. Johannesburg.

1917. Petrie, Alexander, M.A., Professor of Classics, Natal Univer-

sity College, Maritzburg.
1915. Pettey, Franklin William. B.A.. Ph.D.. Entomologist. Govern-
ment School of Agriculture. Elsenburg. Mulder's Vlei. Cape
Province.

1904. Pettman, Rev. Charles. 45, Prince Albert Street. Queenstown.

Cape Province.

1918. Philip, David R. C. P.O. Box 143. Johannesburg.

1915. Phillips. Edwin Percv, M.A.. D.Sc. F.L.S.. Division of Botany.
P.O. Box 1294. Pretoria.

1912. Pickstone. Harry Ernest Victor. Lekkerwyn. Groot Draken-
stein. Cape Province.

1903. Pim, Howard. C.B.E.. B.A.. F.C.A.. P.O. Box 1331, Johan-
nesburg.

1922. Plein, B.. P.O. Box 2297. Johannesburg.

1915. Plowman. George Thomas. C.M.G.. Administrator. Natal Pro-

vince, Maritzburg.

1918. Porter, Dr. Annie, D.Sc. F.L.S.. South African Institute for

Medical Research, P.O. Box 1038. Johannesburg.
1922. Porteous. A. N.. P.O. Box 6962. Johannesburg.
192i. Potgieter. T. D.. School of Agriculture, Glen, O.F.S.

1905. Potts, George. M.Sc. Ph.D., Professor of Botany. Grey Uni-

versity College. Bloemfontein.

1919. Powell,' John. M.Inst.M. & C.E.. City Engineer. Town Hall.

East London. Cape Province.

1916. Powell. Owen Price, P.O. Box ]92, Germiston. Transvaal.
1922. Prates, Dr. M. M., Hospital. Lourenco Marques.

1921. Prescott, G. P., B.A., 35, Mons Road. Bellevue. Johannesburg.
1916. Price, Bernard. O.B.E.. M.I.E.E.. A. MICE.. A.M.Am.I.E.E.,
P.O. Box 2671, Johannesburg.

.rvili

1913. Provay Giuseppe, Chief Electrical Engineer of Harbours and

Railways, P.O. Box 1479, Lourenco Marques.
1921. Pr/LLINGER, Dr. Beatrice D., South African Institute for Medical

Research, P.O. Box 1038, Johannesburg.
1921. Pullinger, Miss I. E., B.Sc, P.O. Box 1176. Johannesburg.

1917. Purchas, Thomas Alfred Rufus, P.O. Box 272, Johannesburg.

1918. Putterill, Victor A., M.A.. Division of Botany, Department of

Agriculture, Capetown.

1919. Pyper, Adrianus, M.D., L.S.A., 57, Celliers Street, Pretoria.
1917. Pyper, Cornelius, M.D., 69-70, Chudleighs Buildings, Johannes-
burg.

1902. Quinan, Kenneth B.. C.H.. Chemical Engineer, Cape Explosive

Works, Somerset West, Cape Province.
1921. Quinton, H., P.O. Box 2755, Johannesburg.
1921. Quirke, F. O.j Highfield Terrace, Doornfontein, Johannesburg.

1921. Raphael, R., P.O. Box 356, Johannesburg.

1919. Rattray, George, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.G.S., Principal, Selborne
College, East London, Cape Province.

1919. Rayner, Charles Tainton, P.O. Box 113, Goold Street. West

Bank, Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.
1916. Head, Herbert Alfred, F.S.A.A., P.O. Box 1056, Johannesburg.
1916. Reeve, Herbert C, M.A., High School, Krugersdorp, Transvaal.
1902. Reid, Arthur Henry. F.RI.B.A.. F.B.San. I., P.O. Box 120,

Capetown.

1914. Reid, Walter, F.R.I.B.A.. P.O. Box 746, Johannesburg.

1916. Reunert, Jack, c/o Messrs. Beunert & Lenz, Consolidated
Buildings, Johannesburg.

1902. Reunert, Theodore, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., P.O. Box 92, Johan-

nesburg.
1907. Reuter, Bev. Fritz L., Medingen, P.O. Duivtlskloof, Transvaal.

1903. Reyersbach, Louis J., 29 & 30, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C.
1913. Reyneke, Rev. Jacobus Cornelius, De Pastorie, Cradock, Cape

Province.
1921. Beynolds, Sir F., Uhhlali, Esperanza, Natal.
1916. Reynolds, H., M.I.Mech.E., P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.
1916. Reynolds-Tait, Joseph St. Guido, P.O. Box 502, Durban, Natal.

1920. Reynolds, Mrs. E., Kloofside, Houghton Estate, Johannesburg.
1916. Bice, Frank Peabody, P.O. Box 930, Johannesburg.

1920. Rishworth, Mrs. V., Grace Dien, Pietersburg, Transvaal.
1903. Ritchie, William, M.A., Professor of Latin, University of Cape-
town .

1916. Robb, Andrew D., Trades School, Smit Street, Johannesburg.

1921. Robb, A. M., M.A., P.O. Box 4439, Johannesburg.

1902. Boberts, Senator Alexander William, D.Sc, F.B.A.S.,
F.R.S.K., Lovedale, Cape Province.

1921. Boberts, Austin, P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1921. Boberts, David P., P.O. Box 1003, Johannesburg.

1919. Roberts, Hamilton Mills Goldfinch, P.O. Box 95. Downing
Street, Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.

1913. Roberts, Bev. Noel, M.C., The Vicarage, Orchards, Johannes-
burg.

1919. Robertson, Colin C. M.F., c/o Forest Department, Pretoria.
1906. Robertson, John, P.O. Box 13, Bloemfontein.

1920. Bobertson, Miss I. H.. P.O. Sinksa. Sidine, George, Cape Prov.
1920. Bobertson, J. B., M.A., B.Sc, The University, Johannesburg.
1920. Bobinson, Miss A. A., Natal Training College, Maritzburg.
1915. Robinson, Eric Maxwell, Dr. Med. Vet., M.R.C.V.S., P.O. Box

593, Pretoria.
1920. Bobinson, Miss L. D., B.A., 18, Bellevue Road, Durban, Natal.
1920. Robson, Miss G. M.. B.A., Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape

Province.

1902. Rogebs, Arthur William, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Director,

Geological Survey. P.O. Box 401, Pretoria.
1915. Bomyn. Mrs. Elizabeth, "Zonuehoek." 157, Trove Street,

Pretoria.
1921. Korke, H. V., Union Corporation,. Ltd.. P.O. Box 1156,

Johannesburg.
1902. Pose, .James Wilmot Andreas, M.I.C.E., Municipal Offices.

Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1905. Pose. Lieut.-Colonel John George, D.S.O., F.C.S.. Government

Chemical Laboratory, Capetown.
1921. Rosenstein, V.. M.Sc., The University, Johannesburg.

1912. Roseveare, W. N., M.A.. Professor of Mathematics, Natal

University College. Maritzburg.

1914. Boss John,' P.O. Box 636, Kimberlev. Cape Province.

1917. Boss, Professor John Carl, B.A., M.S., Ph.D.. Transvaal

University College, Pretoria.
1920. Bousseau, Professor I. J., B.A.. Rhodes' University College.

Grahamstown, Cape Province.
1920. Boux, Miss M.. 256, Scheiding Street. Pretoria.
1902. Bunciman, William, M.L.A.. Simonstown. Cape Province.
1!>22. Bussell, Dv. Win., Cental Hospital. Bloemfonteiu.

1915. Ruthven, Ur. Jane Buchanan Henderson, M.D.. L.R.C.P.,

L.B.C.S., F.B.S.A,, P.O. Box 6253. Johannesburg.

1920. Saner, J. G.. F.B.C.S., M.Ch., L.R.C.P.. 9. Anstey's Buildings.

Johannesburg.
192(1. Sankey. Bernard. M.I.F.E.. P.O. Box 699. Johannesburg.
192U. Sandground, J.. M.Sc, The University. Johannesburg.

1915. Schlupp, William Francis, B.Sc. , Lecturer in Zoology and

Entomology. Government School of Agriculture, P.O. Box 181,
Potchefstroom.

1917. Schoch, Edward Bengers, M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 2927. Johan-

nesburg.
19U2. Schoxlaxd. Srlmar. M.A.. Ph.D.. F.L.S.. C.M.Z.S., Professor
of Botany. Rhodes' University College, Grahamstown, C.P.

1913. School ok Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

1913. School of Agriculture, Elsenburg, Mulder's Vlei. Cape Prov.
1913. School or Agriculture and Experimental Farm, (den, O.F.S.
1913. School of Agrk olture and Experimental Station. Grootfon-
tein, Middelburg, Cape Province.

1913. School of Agriculture and Experimental Farm. Potchefstroom,

Transvaal.

1916. Schreiber, Oscar Albert Kgmont. P.O. Box 396. Maritzburg.

1915. Schultz. Mark. C.E., P.O. Box 19. Brcyton. Transvaal.

1920. Schurman, .Miss H. E., M.A., Huguenot College. Wellington,
Cape Province.

1914. Searle, Mrs. Amy H., B.A., Great Brak Biver. Cape Province.
1919. Selke, Advocate E. A., M.A., 4, Court Gardens. Maritzburg.
1912. Shaxd, Samuel James, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S.. Professor of

Geology. University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province.

1916. Sheridax. .Norman. M.D.. B.S., Chudleigh's Buildings, Johan-

nesburg.

1916. Shep.well, Percy W., City Deep Gold Mining Co., Johannes-
burg.

1916. Shore, John. P.O. Box 2997, Johannesburg.

1902. Shores. J. W.. C.M.G., M.I.C.E., Rutland, Scottsville,
Maritzburg.

1918. Sibbett, Cecil James, P.O. Box 914, Capetown.
1916. Siedle. Otto. P.O. Box 931, Durban, Natal.

1916. Sim, Thomas Robertson, D.Sc, 168, Burger Street, Maritzburg.
1916. Simon, Frank. M.I.M.E., P.O. Minaar, Transvaal.
1916. Simpson, Archibald James Grant, A.M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 239,
Capetown.
12

1!H7. Skaife, Sydney Harold, M.A., M.Sc, Department of Education,

Capetown.
1920 Skibbk A., ii. A., B.Sc, School of Agriculture. Potchef stroom .

1902. Smartt, Hon. Sir Thomas William, K.C.M.G.. L.R.C.S.I.,

L.Q.C.P.I., M.L.A., Glen Ban, Stellenboseh. Cape Province.

1920. Smit, B. J., B.A., 840, Arcadia Street, Pretoria.
1910. Smith, Arthur Herbert, P.O. Box 141, Durban, Natal.

1921. Smith. Arthur Vuart. P.O. Box 4854, Johannesburg.

1921. Smith. Arnold. P.O. Box 1207, Johannesburg.

1910. Smith, Prank dimming, Grootfontein School of Agriculture,

iUiddelburg, Cape Province
1920. Smith, G. H., B.Sc, M.I.M.M., P.O. Box 1024. Johannesburg.

1912. Smith, George William. A.M.I.C.E., 11, Constitution Hill, Port

Elizabeth, Cape Province.
1910. Smith. Hon. C. G.. P.O. Box 43. Durban.

1903. Smith. James, M.A., Strathspey, Tokai Road, Retreat, Cape

Province.
1920. Smith, William, .M.B.. Ch.B., 381, Commissioner Street, Johan-
nesburg.

1917. Smith, .Johannes Jacobus, B.A., ^Professor of French and

German, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
1905. Smuts Lieut. -General Bight Hon. Jan Christiaan, K.C., C.H.,

B.A., LL.D., Prime .Minister, P.O. Box 1081, Pretoria.
1914. Smyth, Bight Rev. Bishop William Edmund, M.A., M.B., The

Rectory, Woodstock, Cape Province.

1922. Smyth, T. C, S.A. Railways and Harbours, Johannesburg.
1919. Snape, Alfred Ernest. M.Sc.. M.I.C.E., F.R.San. I., Professor

of Civil Engineering, University, Capetown.

1903. Solly. Mrs. Julia F., Knor Hoek, Sir Lowry's Pass, Cape Prov.

1903. Solomon, Hon. Justice Sir W. H., High Court of Appeal, Cape-
town.

1908. Somerville, Alfred James, M.A.. P.O. Box 126, Salisbury,
Rhodesia.

1!)22. Soromf.xho. Dr. L. J. P., Chemical Laboratory. Hospital.
Lourenco Marques.

1910. Soutter, John Lyall, P.O. Box 403, Pretoria.

1910. Sowter Godfrey Dennis, P.O. Box 1020, Johannesburg.

190b. Spencer, Dr. Henry Alexander, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Middel-
burg, Transvaal.

1903. Spilhaus, William, e/o Messrs. W. Spilhaus cv Co., Strand

Street, Capetown.

1919. Squire-Smith, Henry, P.O. Box 21, Kingwilliamstown, Cape

Province.

1913. Stafford. Miss Susan. M.A.. Huguenot College, Wellington,

Cape Province.
1905. Stallaro, C. F.. K.C., P.O. Box 5156. Johannesburg.
1922. Stammers, A. Dighton, 15. A., The University, Johannesburg.
1921 Standing H. F., D.Sc. Thornhill, Hillary. Natal.
1905. Stanley, ' George Hardy, A.R.S.M., MIME. M.I.M.M.,

F.l.C Professor of Metallurgy and Assaying, The University,

Johannesburg.

1918. Stanley, Mrs. A. M., P.O. Box 1176, Johannesburg.

1904. Stead, Arthur, 15. Sc, F.C.S.. School of Agriculture, Groot-

fontein. Middelburg, Cape Province.

1908. Stekdman. Miss K. C. M.A.. c/o Mrs. Summers, Herefordshire

Farm. Gwelo, Southern Rhodesia.
1917. Stephens, Miss Edith Layard, B.A., F.L.S.. University of
Capetown.

1920. Stephenson, Frank (>., P.O. Box 1034. Johannesburg.
1920. Stevenson, F. O.. P.O. Box 1034. Johannesburg.
1903. Stevens. J. I).. P.O. Box 1782. Johannesburg.

1909. Stewart, G. A., P.O. Box 435, Johannesburg.

1920. Stibbe, Professor E. P., M.B.C.S., L.R.C.P.. The University,
Johannesburg.

191S Stirling Matthew Miller, P.O. Box 246, Germiston, Transvaal.

1920. Stokes, P. S. G.. D.S.O., M.C., O.B.E., Hotel Belgrave.

Kimberley. Cape Province.

1905. Stoneman. Miss Bertha, D.Sc, Huguenot College, "Wellington,

Cape Province.

1921. Stokes. F. A., P.O. Box 2343, .Tohanneshurg.

1917. Storry, Francis AYylie. B.Sc, St. Andrew's School, Bloemfon-

tein.

1921. Store, Percy van tier Byl, P.O. Box 303, Johannesburg.

1902. Stott, Clement H.. F.G.S., M.S. A.. P.O. Box 7, Maritzburg.

1920. Stott. .N . A., C.A.. P.O. Box 1152, Johannesburg.

1916. Strait Walter Russell, M.D., 248. Loop Street. Maritzhurg

1904. Strubex. A. M. A., A.M.I.C.K.. P.O. Box 317. Pretoria.

1906. Stucke. W. H.. P.O. Box 2271. Johannesburg

1918. »uttir. David P.. Logo^a, Private Bag, Ginginhlovu, Zuhiland.

1922. SwANEl'OEL, J., Stellenhosch. Cape Province.

1915. Swierstra, Cornelius Jacobus. F.F.S., P.O. Box 413, Pretoria.

1922. Taafe, F. G. L.. P.O. Box 1515. Johannesburg.

1918. Tabeb'eR, Henry Melville, B.A., P.O. Box 1251, Johannesburg.

1921. Tait, James John, P.O. Box 1057, Johannesburg.

1905. Tannahill, Thomas Find-lay, M.D., CM., D.P.H., Queenstown,

Cape Province.
1918. Tannock, John Porter. MB.. CM., D.P.H., P.O. Box 5315,
Johannesburg.

1918. Tapscott. Sidney. B.Sc.. "Tipperary," Riverton Road, Cape

Province.
1921. Taylor, Miss Esther, M.Sc. The University, Johannesburg.
1920. Taylor, H. J.. P.O. Box 393, Salisbury.

1920. Taylor, Miss L. M. I,., Gilds' Collegiate School, Maritzburg.

1909. Teasdale, Miss Emma L., Government School, Maraisburg,

Transvaal.

1921. Tennant, F. B. H.. P.O. Box 4755. Johannesburg.

1904. Theiler, Sir Arnold. K.C.M.G., D.Sc., Director, Veterinary

Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 593, Pretoria.
1920. Thoday, Mrs. M. G., 35, Posmead Avenue, Gardens, Capetown.
1920. Thoday, Professor D., M.A.. [Tniversity of Capetown.

1903. Thomas, Walwyn, B.C.. M.B.. B.A.3 2, Greenham Villas.

Annandale Street, Capetown.
1914. Thompson, Frederick Handel, B.A.. Inspector, of Schools. P.O.
Box 4439, Johannesburg.

1916. Thompson, James, 6. Rissik Street, Johannesburg.
19i9. Thomson, A. P.. Wankie, Rhodesia.

1913. Thomson, Samuel, C. A., P.O. Box 228, Johannesburg.

1920. Thomson, Miss M. R. H.. B.A., M.Sc., P.O. Box 994, Pretoria.

1902. Thomson. Sir William. M.A.. B.Sc. LL.D., F.R.S.F.,

University ot South Africa, P.O. Box 392, Pretoria.

1910. Thornton, Bussel William, Principal, Government School of

Agriculture, Crootfontein. Middelburg, Cape Province.

1903. Tietz, Professor Heinrich C. J., M.A., Ph.D., Buona Vista,

Burliam Road, Observatory Road, Capetown.

1922. Torrance, W., School of Agriculture, Grootfontein, Middelburg,

Cape Province.
1902. Towxskxd. Stephen Frank, C.F., Suevic, Southfield Road,
Plumstead, Cape Province.

1921. Treasurer (Commissioner of Mines), Nairobi, Kenya Colony.

1919. Trill. George William Charles, c/o Findlay and Co.. Ltd.,

Parliament Street. Capetown.
1910. Trollip, VV. J,.. Office of the Hon. Administrator of the Cape
Province. Capetown.

1906. Troup, James Macdonald, M.B., Ch.B., L.S.A., 230. Esselen

Street, Sunnyside, Pretoria.

1916. Trurshaw, Henry Arthur. "Dunrobin," Empire Road, Park-
town, Johannesburg.

1922. Tucker, B. W. K.. M A., Entomological Experimental Station,
Roseba 1 1 k . ( ';>. petown .

L903. Ttjcker, William Kidger, C.M.G., P.O. Box 9, Johannesburg.

1922. Tucker, G. K.. P.O. Box 957. Johannesburg.

1916. Turner, F. K . P.O. Box 407. Johannesburg.

I !>()(). Tyers, F. G., M.A.. Boys' High School. Potchefstroom.

1916. Udwin, M., Rand Water Board. Johannesburg.
I!)17. Union Department of Education, Pretoria.

1917. Union Observatory, c/o X'nion Astronomer. Johannesburg.
I!>2(). I rquhart, Rev. Father. Kerk Street. Johannesburg.

L915. Van der Byl, Professor Paul Andries, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.,.

University of Stellenbosch. Cape Province.
1920. Van der Koppel, Miss L. H.. Huguenot University College,
Wellington. Cape Province.

1909. Van der Merwe, C.P.. Government Entomologist, Currie Road,

Durban, Natal.
L920. Van der Merwe, H.. Smithfield, Potchefstroom.
L917. Van der But. W J.. Government School, Bramley. Johannes-

burg.

1910. Van der Riet, Berthauit de St. Jean. M.A,, Ph.D.. Professor

of Chemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Cape Province.
L904. Van der Stf.kr. W. C. P.O. Box 27. Capetown.
1922. Van Hoopen, Dr. E. C. JN., National Museum, Bloemf ontein .
L922. Van Niekeuk, I). ■!.. Paarl, Cape Province.

L917. Van Niekerk, John. M.B., CM., P.O. Box 473, Johannesburg.
MUX. Van Niekerk, Sebastian Valentyn. M.D., B.S., P.O. Box 1564,

Johannesburg.

1918. Van Wyk. Daniel Jacobus Roselt, B.A., Division of Chemistry,

Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.
L918. Varder, Richard William, M.A., Professor of Physics, Rhodes'

University College, Grahamstown. Cape Province.
L922. Vellacott, P. N.. M.B., F.R.C.S.. 9. de Villiers Street, Bloem-

fontcin.
L920. Viljoen, Dr. W. J.. Superintendent of Education. Queen

Victoria Street. Capetown.

1919. Yogts, Ferdinand Carl Louis, P.O. Box 6, Kingwilliamstown,

Cape Province.
1903. Von Oppel. Otto Karl Adolf, Department of Lands, Pretoria.

1916. Wade, Walter B.. P.O. Box 932. Durban. Natal.

1912. Wager, Horace Athelstan, A.R.C.S., Professor of Botany,

Transvaal University College, Pretoria.
L916. Wagner. Percy Albert'. Ing.D., B.Sc, P.O. Box 846, Pretoria.

1919. Wakefield, Samuel Thomas. B.A.. 62a. Union Street. East

London, Cape Province.
1912. Walker, James. M.R.C.V.S.. P.O. Box 323. Nairobi, British
-East Africa.

1920. Wallace, Richard C. A.M.I.C.E., Chief Civil Engineer's Office,

S.A. Railways, Johannesburg.

li)02. Walsh, Albert. P.O. Box 39, Capetown.

1916. Walton, Arthur John. P.O. Box 102. Crown Mines, Johannes-
burg.

1921. Wanger, Rev. W.. Gaimersheim, Oberbayern. Germany.

L920. Ward, H. St. John. Brebner School. 'Exton Street, Bloem-

f ontein .

L922. Ware, Rev. G. Hibbert. St. Aidan's Mission, Cross Street,

Durban. Natal.

1922. Ware, xYlrs. Hibbert. St. Aidan's Mission. Cross Street, Durban,

Natal.

1914. Wark, Rev. David, iM.A., D.D.. The Manse, Woodley Street,

Kimberley, Cape Province.
1907. Warren, Ernest, D.Sc, Professor of Zoology, Natal University

College, Maritzburg, and Director of Natal Museum.
1916. Waterhouse, Osborn. M.A., Professor of English and Philosophy,

iNatal University College, Maritzburg

1920. Watermeyer, Professor G. A., B.A., A.R.S.M., The University,

Johannesburg.

1902. Watkins, Arnold Hirst, M.D., M.R.C.S.. M.L.A., Ingke Nook,

Kimberley, Cape Province.
1906. W atkins-Pitchford, Wilfred. M.D., F.R.C.S., D.P.H., Director,

South African Institute for Medical Research, P.O. Box 1038.

Johannesburg.
1914. Watson, Thomas Hunter, P.O. Box 1400, Capetown.

1921. Watson, R. W., Borough Engineer's Office, Durban, Natal.
1906. Watt. Dugald Campbell, M.D., 131, Pietermaritz Street,

Maritzburg.

1922. Watts, J. N., Jeppe High School, Johannesburg.

1912. Way, William Archer, M.A., Grey Institute, Port Elizabeth,
Cape Province.

1918. Weatherby, Ellis Wynne, P.O. Box 40, Kimberley, Cape Prov.
1914. Webb, George Arthur, ALEE., M.S. A., P.O. Box 692, Port

Elizabeth, Cape Province.
1916. Webber, Walter Solomon, B.A., P.O. Box 1088, Johannesburg.
1921. Webster, D. T., P.O. Box 7034, Johannesburg.

1920. Weeks, George, Joubert Park, Johannesburg.

1919. Weidner, Chas., Goodhouse Farm, P.O. Steinkopp, Cape Prov.

1911. Welch, Rev. Sidney Read, B.A., D.D., Ph.D., St. Mary's,

Cathedral, Bouquet Street, Capetown.

1921. Wellington, J. H., B.A., The University, Johannesburg.

1919. Wessels, D. H., M.B., P.O. Box 1319. Capetown.

1903. Wessels, Hon. Justice Sir J. W., Kb., B.A., LL.B., Pretoria.
1916. Wessels, Johannes Jacobus, M.E., Afrikander Mine, Klerks-
dorp, Transvaal.

1910. Wertheim, Louis, c/o New Club, Johannesburg

1902. White, Miss Frances Margaret, "Arkleside," Eden Road,

Claremont, Cape Province.
1902. White, Miss Henrietta Mary, B.A., "Arkleside," Eden Road,

Claremont, Cape Province.

1920. White, Senator, LA., P.O. Box 188, Germiston, Transvaal.

1919. Whitkhouse, J., P.O. Box 1064. Johannesburg.

1902. White-Cooper, W., M.A., F.R.I.B.A., P.O. Box 11, Cradock,

Cape Province.
1909. Whitwort:, Walter S., Kofl'yfontein Diamond Mines, O.F.S.

1904. Wilhelm, A. R, A., M.B., CM., Barkly East, Cape Province.
1904. Wilkinson, Professor J. A., M.A., F.C.S., Department of

Chemistry, The University, Johannesburg.
1902. Williams. Alpheus Fuller, B.Sc, Mining Engineer, De Beers

Consolidated Mines, Ltd., P.O. Box 616, Kimberley, C.P.
1916. Williams, Charles Herbert, P.O. Box 2155, Johannesburg.

1912. Williams, Cornelius O., B.Sc, A.R.C.S., Government School of

Agriculture, Cedara, Natal.

1920. Wienand, C. F., Commercial Exchange Buildings, Main Street,

Johannesburg.
1920. Williams, H. J., Main Street, Plumstead, Cape Province.
1920. Williams, Mrs. A. M., Main Street, Plumstead, Cape Province.
1902. Williams, Professor D., B.Sc, Rhodes' University College,

Grahamstown. Cape Province.
1902. Williams, Gardner F., M.A., LL.D., 2201 R. Street, N.W.,

Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1922. Williamson, Mrs. E. G.,- c/o The University, Johannesburg.
1920. Williamson, Miss M., 350, Mare Street, Pretoria.

1922. Williamson, Professor O. K., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., The
University, Johannesburg.

£SIV

1918. Williamson Sidney, Ph.D., F.I.C., F.C.S., Cooper Technical

Bureau, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.2.
1903. Wilman, Miss M., McGregor Memorial Museum, Kimberley,

Cape Province.
1903. Wilson, Arthur Marius, M.D., B.S., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.,

Jesmond House, Hof Street, Capetown.

1916. Wilson, Charles Edmund, A.M.I.E.E., P.O. Box 930, Johan-

nesburg.

1917. Wilson, James Hugh Elwes, P.O. Box 4303, Johannesburg.
1920. Wilson, JN. H., Native Department, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

1903. Winterton, Albert Wyle. F.C.S., Lemoenfontein, near Beaufort

West, Cape Province.

1906. Wood, H. E., M.Sc, F.R.Met.S.. Union Observatory, Johan-
nesburg.

1905. Wood, James, M.A., P.O. Box 2, Kingwilliamstown, Cape Prov.

1920. Wood, W. S., Country Club, Auckland Park, Johannesburg.

1919. Woodrow, Edwin James Carr, J. P., Town Clerk and Treasurer,

Kingwilliamstown, Cape Province.
1916. Woods, Mrs. Sarah. Ladies' Club. Y.M.C.A. Buildings. Maritz-
burg.

1919. Wormald, William Henry, F.R.H.S., Town Office, East London.

1921. \>orsfold, Sidney F., P.O. Box 6556, Johannesburg.

1916. Wright, Miss Kathleen Margaret, B.Sc, Normal College,
Pretoria.

1915. Wyatt, Stanley, M.Sc, M.Ed., Normal College, P.O. Box 855,

Pretoria.

1916. Wylie, James Scott. K.C., Scotswood, Ridge Road, Durban,

Natal.

1921. Young, James, 68, Yeo Street, Yeoville.

1920. Young, J. J., M.A., 107, Persimmon Street, Malvern, Johan-

nesburg.

1904. Young, Professor R. B., M.A., D.Sc, The University. Johan-

nesburg.
1920. Young, W. H. W., Lieut. -Colonel, Maritzburg, Natal.

1922. Zweerts, Francois, Grey University College, Bloemfontein

DOUBLE NUMBER.

THE

South African Journal
of science:

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

192 1.

DURBAN.

OFFICERS, 1921-1922 :

PRESIDENT.
A. W. Rogers, Sc.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Prof. A. Bbown, M.A., B.So.

Prof. R. B. Denison, D.Sc, Ph.D. E. Fabbab.

Prof. T. M. Fobstth, M.A., D.Phil.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S., Union Observatory, Johannesburg.
C. F. Jtjritz, M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C., Division of Chemistry, Dept. of Agriculture, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
Jas. Gbat, P.I.C., Johannesburg.

HON. LIBRARIAN.

Annie Pobteb, D.Sc, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

H. A. G. Jeffbeys, O.B.E., Box 6894, Johannesburg. Telegraphic Address : " Science."

HON. EDITOR OF JOURNAL.

Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, The University, Johannesburg.

VOL XVIII. DECEMBER, 1921. Nos. 1 and 2.

JOHANNESBURG.
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

1921.

[Price 15«.

The price of this Journal to the general public is as marked on the front
page. Every member of the Association is supplied with one copy free, and
may obtain extra 'copies at half-price. Applications for copies should be
addressed to the ^Assistant General Secretary, P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg.

CORRESPONDENCE. — All communications other than those relating to
the Journal jshould be addressed to the Assistant Secretary, P.O. Box 6864,

Johannesburg, (Telegraphic address: "Science* Johannesburg.")

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

MANUSCRIPTS for publication should be typewritten.

ILLUSTRATIONS, (other than photographs) accompanying papers in-
tended for publication in the Journal must be supplied by. the authors, care-
fully drawn about twice the size of the finished block, on smooth white
Bristol board, in Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks; being prepared
directly from the drawings. Any lettering on these drawings should be Of
such a size that it will be clearly legible when reduced.

REPRINTS. — Authors desiring to have reprints of their papers, read at
the Annual Meeting of the Association, are requested to notify the Editor
as soon as possible 'as to the number required, or, at latest, when returning
their proofs.

LOOSE COVER CASES. — Cases uniform with the covers of previous
volumes may be obtained for binding on application to the Assistant General
Secretary, at a cost of 4s. per case post free.

BINDING VOLUME XVII The publication of Vol. xvii of the Journal,

comprising the papers read at the Bulawayo (1920) meeting, is now com-
pleted. Members desiring to have their separate numbers of this ivolume
bound should forward them to the Assistant General Secretary, and inform
him of their wishes, when the orders will be given to the binders. The cost
of the cover and binding will be 12s. 6d. post free.

SUBSCRIPTIONS.— Subscriptions of £1 10s. for the year ending
30th June, 1922, are now due. Members are requested to be so kind as to
remit the amount as i,soon as possible to the Assistant General Secretary,
P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg. Unless members pay the amount due at an
early date, great inconvenience and unnecessary expense may be caused, as
it is very difficult to determine what number of copies of the Journal will be
required. The Council therefore appeals to every member for support and
co-operation, and asks that outstanding subscriptions be paid without delay.
The Journal will be sent only to those whose arrear subscriptions are paid.

Cheques, etc., should be crossed and made payable to the Association,
not to the Secretaries or Treasurer individually. Sixpence should be added
to country cheques for exchange,

HEADQUARTERS. — Attention is called to the change of Headquarters
decided on at the Kiugwilliamstown (1919) session. The office address of
the Association now is "P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg"; the telegraphic
address is " Science, Johannesburg," and the telephone number "1404,
Johannesburg. "-

Johannesburg, 31st December, 1921.

PUBLICATION'S OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Copies of the following bound volumes (royal 8vo) of the Association's
Reports may be (obtained from thej Assistant General Secretary (P.O. Box
6894, Johannesburg) at the prices indicated : —

Vol. I.— Cape Town, 1903. 556 pp.' Price 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. II. — Johannesburg, 1904. 598 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol! HI.— Kimberley, 1906. 696 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IV.— Natal, 1907. 230 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. V.— Grahamstown, 1908. 436 pp. (Out of print).
Vol. VI.— Bloemfontein, 1909. 542 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VTI.— Cape Town, 1910. 488 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. VTLI.— Bulawayo, 1911. 472 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IX.— Port Elizabeth, .1912. 460 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. X. — Lourenco Marques, 1913. 533 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XI.— Kimberley, 1914. 484 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XII.— Pretoria, 1915. 806 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIII.— Maritzburg, 1916. 714 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIV.— Stellenbosch, 1917. 646 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XV. — Johannesburg, 1918. 874 pp. Price, 35s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XVI.— Kingwilliamstown, 1919. 536 pp. Price, 32s. net; to Members, 16s.
Vol. XVII.— Bulawayo, 1920. 400 pp. Price, 32s. net; to Members, 16s.

One shilling should be added to the cost of each of the above volumes
1or postage, '

The Association has also on hand a few bound copies of the Report of
the Meeting of the British Association in South Africa in 1905 ; price; 24s. ;
to Members, 10s. 6d. »

"Science in South Africa." — A few copies of this valuable handbook,
which was specially prepared for the Members of the British Asociation
visiting South Africa in 1905, are for sale; price, 21s. (or 22s. post free).

INFORMATION REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION.

Objects. — The objects of the Association are : To give a stronger impulse
and a more systematic, direction to scientific inquiry; to promote the inter-
course of Societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of
South Africa; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and
applied Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which may impede its progress.

Ordinary. Members. — Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices
of the Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications
issued by the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay without intermission their Annual
Subscription. The Annual Subscription for Ordinary Members is One Pound
Ten Shillings, payable, first, at election, and thereafter on the 1st of July
of each year.

Life Members.— Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
the Association. Every Life Member shall pay, on admission as such, the
sum of Fifteen Pounds. An Ordinary Member may at any time become a
Life Member by one payment of Fifteen Pounds in lieu of future annual
subscriptions, or, after ten years' continuous membership, by one payment
of Seven Pounds Ten Shillings.

Associates.— Associates are eligible to serve on the Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of the Association; The subscription
for Associates for a session is One Pound.

Ladies. — Ladies may become Members or Associates of the Association.

CONTENTS.

Page.
Constitution of the Association i

Tables : Past Annual Meetings : —

Places and Dates, Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Local

Secretaries ... ... x

Sectional Presidents and Secretaries xii

Evening Discourses XT-
DURBAN MEETING, 1921 : —

Meetings xvii

Officers of Local and Sectional Committees xix.

Proceedings of Nineteenth Annual General Meeting xxii

Report of Council, 1920-21 xxiy

Hon. Treasurer's Report and Accounts xxvii

Fourteenth Award of South Africa Medal and Grant xxx\l

Association Library . , xxxiii

Officers and Council, 1921-22 xxxviit

President's Address : "Social Anthropology in South Africa:
Problems of Race and Nationality," by J. E. Duerden,
M.Sc, Ph. D. t

Addresses bt Presidents of Sections :

Section A : "Stellar Distances, Magnitudes and Move-
ments," by Joseph Lunt, D.Sc 32"

Section B: "The Atomic Theory in 1921," by James Moir,

M.A., D.Sc 47

Section C : ' 'Some Aspects of Botany in South Africa and
Plant Ecology in Natal," by J. W. Bews,
M.A., D.Sc 63-

Section D: "Some Recent Advances in Zoology and their
Relation to Present-Day Problems," by
H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc 81

Section E: "The Claims of the Native Question upon
Scientists." bv C. T. Loram, M.A.,
LL.B., Ph.D. ... ,, ... ... 99

Section F: "Observation and Proposals for the Stabilisa-
tion of Money Values," by W. A. Mac-
fadyen, M.A., LL.D 4. ... ...... 110

Public Lecture : "Land Connections between the other Con-
tinents and South Africa in the Past," by
A. L. du Toit, D.Sc , 120-

List of Papers Read at Sectional Meetings 140

Papers Read : —

"Alcohol Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines," by

W. Petchell ... 143

"Notes on the Chemical Control of Cattle Dipping Tanks,"

by C. Williams, B.Sc. ... ... 147"

"A Preliminary Account of Some Investigations on Leaf-
Aeration in certain Natal -Plants " by G. W. Gale,
B.Sc ... 153

"Agricultural Experiment : Its Design and Interpreta-
tion," by E. Parish, B.Sc. ... 155

"The Life-Histories of some Trematodes occurring in South

Africa," by Annie Porter, D.Sc. ... ... 156

"Some Parasitic Protozoa found in South Africa. IV," by

H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc .\ 164

"A Note on Ortalia pollens Muls.," by R. H. T. P. Harris 170

"An Educational Experiment," by H. S. Keigwin, M.A. .. 172

"Bantu Industries," by D. A. Hunter 183'

•'The Preservation of our National Monuments," by

C. G. Botha ... ... 195.

"Irving Fisher's Proposals for Stabilising the Value of

Money," by Mabel Palmer, M.A 197

Natal Witness, Ltd., Printers, Maritzburg

DOUBLE NUMBER.

THE

South African Journal
of science:

COMPRISING THE REPORT OF THE

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

192 1.

DURBAN.

OFFICERS, 1921-1922:

PRESIDENT.

A. W. Rogers, Sc.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Prof. A. Brown, M.A., B.So.

Prof. R. B. Denison, D.Sc, Ph.D.- E. Fabhah.

Prof. T. M. Forsyth, M.A., D.Phil.

HON. GENERAL SECRETARIES.

H. E. Wood, M.Sc, F.R.A.S.,. Union Observatory, Johannesburg.
C. F. Juritz, M.A., D.Sc,, F.I.C., Division of Chemistry, Dept. of Agriculture, Capetown.

HON. GENERAL TREASURER.
Jas. Gray, F.I.C., Johannesburg.

HON. LIBRARIAN.

Annie Porter, D.Sc, South African Institute for Medical Research, Johannesburg.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.

H. A. G. Jeffreys, O.B.E., Box 6894, Johannesburg. Telegraphio Address : " Science."

HON. EDITOR OP JOURNAL.

Prof. H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc, The University, Johannesburg.

~VOL. XVIII. JUNE, 1922. Nos. 3 and 4.

JOHANNESBURG.
PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.

1922,

Price 17«.

The price of this ."Journal to the general public is as marked on the front
page. Every member of the Association is supplied with one copy free, and
may obtain extra copies at Half-price. Applications for copies should be
addressed to the Assistant Goneral Secretary, P.O. Box 6391, Johannesburg.

CORRESPONDENCE. — All communications other than those relating to
the Journal should be addressed to the Assistant Secretary, P.O. Box 6394,
Johannesburg. (Telegraphic address: "Science, Johannesburg.")

Communications for the Editor should be addressed to P.O. Box 1176,
Johannesburg.

PAPERS for publication should be typewritten.

ILLUSTRATIONS (other than photographs) accompanying papers in-
tended for publication in the Journal must be supplied by the authors, care-
fully drawn about twice the size of the finished block, on smooth white
Bristol board, in Indian ink, so as to admit of the blocks being prepared
directly from the drawings. Any lettering on these drawings should be of
such a size that it will be clearly legible when reduced.

REPRINTS. — Authors desiring to have reprints of their papers, read at
the Annual Meeting of the Association, are requested to notify the Editor
as soon' as possible as to the number required, or, at latest, when returning
their' proofs.

LOOSE COVER CASES.- — Cases uniform with the covers of previous
volumes may be obtained for binding recent Reports on application to the Assistant
General Secretary, at a cost of 4s. per case post free.

BINDING VOLUME XVII The publication of Vol. xvii of the Journal,

comprising the papers read at the Bulawayo (1920) meeting, is com-
pleted. Members desiring to have their separate numbers of this volume
bound should forward them to the Assistant General Secretary, and inform
him of their wishes,, when the orders will be given to the binders. The cost
of the cover and binding will be 12s. 6d. post free.

VOLUME XVIII., comprising the papers read at the Durban (1921) meet-
ing, is completed in this double number. The volume can be bound for 9s.
post free. Arrangements should be made with the Assistant General
Secretary, as above.

SUBSCRIPTIONS.— Subscriptions of £1 108. for the year ending
30th June, 1922, are now due. Members are requested to be so kind as to
remit the amount as soon as possible to the Assistant General Secretary,
P.O. Box 6894, Johannesburg. Unless members pay the amount due at an
early date, great inconvenience and unnecessary expense may be caused, at
it is very difficult to determine what number of copies of the Journal will b#>
/equired. The Council therefore appeals to every memoer for support and
<o-operation, and asks that cutstanding subscriptions oe paid without delay.
The Journal will be sent only to those whose arrear suoscriptions are paid.

Cheques, etc., should be crossed and made payable to the Association,
not to the Secretaries or Treasurer individually. Sixpence should be added
to country cheques for exchange.

HEADQUARTERS,— The office address of the Association now is "P.O.
Box 6994, Johannesburg" • the telegraphic address is "Science, Johannes-
burg," and the telephone number "1404, Johannesburg."

Johannesburg, 80th June, 1922.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Copies of the following bound volumes (royal 8vo) of the Association's
"Reports may be obtained from the Assistant General Secretary (P.O. Box
4J894, Johannesburg) at the prices indicated: —

Vol. I. — Cape Town, 1903. 556 pp. Price 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. II.— Johannesburg, 1904. 59b pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5a,
Vol. SI. — Kimberley, 1906.. 696 pp. Price, 20s. net ; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IV. — Natal, 1907. 2.30 pp. Price, 10s. net; to Members, 5s.
Vol. V. — Grahamstown, 1908. 436 pp. (Out of print).
Vol. VI.— Bloemiontein, 1909. 542 pp. (Out of print.)
Vol. VII.— Cape Town, 1910. 488 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. VIII. — Bmawavo, 1911. 472 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. IX.— Port Elizabeth, 1912. 460 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. X.— Lourenco Marques, 1913. 533 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s.
Vol. XI.— Kimberley, 19J4. 484 pp. Price, 20s. net; to Members, 10s."
Vol. XII. — Pretoria, 1915. 806 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIII. — Marify.burg, 1910. 714 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vol. XIV. — Stellenbosch, 1917. 646 pp. Price, 30s. net; to Members, 15*.
Vol. XV.-
V

v«

Vol. XVUJ.— Durban. 1.921; 559 pp. Price 32s. net; to Members, 16s.

> ol. AJ V . — oteiienooscn, kVlt* Mo pp. 1'rice, .JUs. net; to Members, loa.
Vol. XV. — Johannesburg, 1918 874 pp. Price, 35s. net; to Members, 15s.
Vrol. XVI. — Kingwilliamstown, 1919. 536 pp. Price, 32s. net; to Members, lbs.
Vol. XVII.— Bnlawavo, 1920. 400 pp. Price, 32s. net: to Members, 16s.

One shilling should be added to the cost of each of the above volumes
tor postage.

The Association lias also on hand a few bound copies of the Beport of
the Meeting of the British Association in South Africa in 1905; price, 24a.;
to Members, 10s. Cd.

"Science in South Africa."— A few copies of this valuable handbook,
which was specially prepared for the Members of the British Asociation
risiting South Africa in 1905, are for sale; price, 21s. (or 22s. post free).

INFORMATION REGARDING THE ASSOCIATION.

Objects. — The objects of Ihe Association are-: To give a stronger impulse
and- a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry; to promote the inter-
course of Societies and individuals interested in Science in different parts of
"South Africa; to obtain a more general attention to the objects of pure and
applied Science, and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind
which may impede its progress.

Ordinary Members.— Ordinary Members shall be eligible for all offices
•of the Association; and eball receive uratuUontfy nil ordinary publications
issued by the Association during the year of their admission, and during the
years in which they continue to pay without inte.rmi»*i»n their Annual
Subscription. The Annual Subscription for Ordinary Members is One Pound
Ten Shillings, payable, first, at election, and thereafter on the 1st of Jul v
of each year.

Life Members — Life Members shall be eligible for all offices of the.
Association, and shall receive gratuitously all ordinary publications issued by
•the Association. Every Life Member shall pav, ©ri admission as such the
«um of Fifteen Pounds An Ordinary Member may at anv time become a
Life Member by one payment of Fifteen Pounds in lieu of future annual
subscriptions, or, after ten years' continuous membership, by one navment
of Seven Pounds Ten Shillings.

Associates.— Associates are eligible to. serve on the Reception Committee,
but are not eligible to hold any other office, and they are not entitled to
receive gratuitously the publications of the Association. The subscription
tor Associates for a session is One Pound.

Ladies— Ladies may become Members or Associates of the Association.

CONTENTS.

Tapers 11 cad — continued : —

Page
"Asphalt in relation to Road Construction," by D. Basil

W. Alexander '. 201

"Purification of Sewage by the Activated Sludge Process,"

by R. J. Morris ... ...' 215-

"On the Mechanical Analysis of Soil containing Heavv

Minerals," hy B. de V. Marchand, B.A., D.Sc. ... _,.*. 223

"Condensed Milk in -South Africa from the Chemist's point

of view," hy A. AC Kloot, B.Sc, and I;. Hymau ... 227

"The genus Passerina and its Distribution in South

Africa," by D. Thoday, M.A 230

"On some Fungi from the Air of Sugar Mills and their
Economic Importance to the Sugar Industry," by
P. A. van der Bid, M.A., D.Sc 232

"The Plant Succession in a Tvpe of Midland Tree Veld in

Natal," by R. D. Aitken, M.Sc 233-

"Protonemal Developments of Mosses," by H. Wager,

A.R.C.S ; ' 214

"A Contribution to o:i-c Knowledge of tlie Polvporeae of

South Africa," by P. A. van der Bijl, M.A?, D.Sc. ... 246

"Bryophvta of Souther:; Rhodesia," bv T. R. Sim, D.Sc,

and H. N. Dixon, M.A '.. '.:.] 294

"The Potency of Pepper Tree Pollen as a Cause of Hav

Fever," by Geo. Putts. B.Sc. Ph.D ... ..*. 336-

"Natal Species of the genus Cassia," hy Helena Forbes... 342"

"Notes on some inter estrbg or little-known South African

Fungi," by P. A. van der Bijl, M.A., D.Sc 345-

"The Flora of Mpfago," by Helena Forbes 349

"A preliminary a: an Interspecific Hybrid and

Backcrosses of Digitalis.," by E. Warren, D.Sc 359

"Some Protozoa found h> certain South African Soils: I,"
by H. B. Fantham, M.A., D.Sc.; and Esther Tavlor,
M.Sc ;. ... 373

"Wdd Birds and Biliiafzias.b/' by F. W. FitzSimons 393:

"The Experimental Indentation of Fresh-water Snails, with
special reference to the Bilbarzia Parasite," by
F. G. Cawston, %l.l) ; .'. 396

"A Study of the Life History and Methods of Control of
the Root Gall Nematode Heterodera rodicicola (Greef
Muller), in South Africa," by J. Sandground, M.Sc ... 399

"The Natives and Agriculture." by W. Hammond Tooke... 419

"The Heavenly Bodies in South African Mvthology," by

Rev. S. S. Doriian, M.A J ..' 430

"The Bantu Tdior afcisc in the field of Comparative

Philology," by Per. W. A. Norton, B.Litt 438

"Sesuto Praises of the Chiefs," by Rev. W. A. Norton,

B.Litt *. ... 441

"On several Implements and Ornaments from Strandlooper

Sites in the Eastern Province," by J. Hewitt, B.A. ... v 454

"The Function of a School of Art in the Life of the Com-
munity," by 0. J. P. Oxley, A.R.C.A. ... ., 468

"A Curiosity of Mediaeval French Literature," by R. D.

Nanta * 474

"Archival Problems in South Africa," by C. Graham Botha 483.

Index ; 487

List of Members i

NATAL WITSES3, LTD., MABITZBUUd.

MBL WHOI Library - Serials

iliiiiiiiiiiilMllf

5 WHSE 00064